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LABORATORY
OF ORNITHOLOGY
LIBRARY

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7

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fiukud/ Peasgh

CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

Laboratory of Ornithology
459 Sapsucker Woeds Road
Cornell University

Ithaca, New York 1485 !

Cornell University

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022557361

THE BOOK OF BIRDS

COMMON BIRDS OF TOWN AND COUNTRY

AND

AMERICAN GAME BIRDS

BY

HENRY W. HENSHAW

FORMERLY CHIEF UNITED STATES BIOLOGICAL SURVEY

ILLUSTRATED IN NATuRAL Cotors witH 250 Painrincs

BY

LOUIS AGASSIZ FUERTES

Wirn Cuapters on “ENCOURAGING Birps AROUND THE
Home,” sy F. H. Kennarp; “THE Mysteries oF BIRD
MicratTion,” py WELLS W. Cooke, aNnp “How Birps Can
TAKE THEIR Own Portraits,” BY GEORGE SHIRAS, 3RD, AND
45 ILLUSTRATIONS AND 13 CHartTs IN BLacK AND WHITE.

PUBLISHED BY THE
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
WASHINGTON, D. C.

U.S.A.

Copyright by the |
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY

1914, 1915, 1916, 1918, and 1921

Washington
Press of Judd & Detweiler, Inc.
1921

OUR FEATHERED FRIENDS

N THIS VOLUME are presented the principal articles and the most

beautiful color illustrations of man’s feathered friends which have

been published in the National Geographic Magazine during the
last six years. The text and pictures comprise one of the most valua-
ble and fascinatingly interesting contributions to popular science the
National Geographic Society has devised, and the most comprehen-
sive and charming handbook of avian lore that has ever been offered
at a moderate price.

The 250 illustrations in color of the Common Birds of Town
and Country, of our Warblers and American Game Birds, are repro-
ductions of the matchless pictures from the brush of the distin-
guished artist-naturalist, Louis Agassiz Fuertes, while the descriptive
text by Henry W. Henshaw, formerly Chief of the U. S. Biological
Survey, sets forth concisely, entertainingly, yet with scientific accu-
racy, the distinguishing characteristics of each species of bird, its
peculiar habits, and its favorite habitat.

Dr. Henshaw has pointed out the need for the preservation of
bird life, and how the farmer without his feathered insect-destroyers
would face constant disaster to his crops.

Few wonders of the natural world are as compelling in interest
as is the display of that mysterious impulse which is followed season
after season by the birds which migrate from their winter homes to
their nesting places in the spring, and then make the return journey
in the fall, guided no one knows how—an absorbing study for both
layman and scientist. The article by the late Wells W. Cooke, “Our
Greatest Travelers: Birds that Fly from Pole to Pole, etc.,” gives a
most comprehensive and engaging digest of these mysterious migra-
tions, and the text is elucidated by a series of illumimating maps and
charts.

Frederick H. Kennard’s article, “Encouraging Birds Around
the Home,” accompanied by numerous illustrations in black and

white, tells with the bird-lover’s enthusiasm how every reader. be he
III

IV OUR FEATHERED FRIENDS

proprietor of a great estate or the owner of a window-sill, can make
the acquaintance and win the confidence of birds, adding them to his
circle of appreciative friends and charming visitors.

George Shiras, 3rd, the inventor of flashlight photography of
wild animals and of methods of making animals and birds take their
own portraits, gives some useful hints on the latter subject.

Utility, beauty, and art are served alike when man befriends the

birds.

GILBERT GROSVENOR,
Director and Editor.

a * fe <

ae Y ¢ ... % \ ¥
Photograph by Howard H. Cleaves

THE EXCITEMENT OF TOUCHING THE ECCENTRIC WOODCOCK ON THE BACK

CONTENTS

Page
Common Birds of Town and Country. Hrnry W. HENSHAW........... Sok oe eee 7
Friends of Our Forests—The Warblers. HENRY W. HENSHAW............00000005 74
World Record for Feathered Friends. GILBERT GROSVENOR.......... 0.0 e eee eee ee 98
How Birds Can Take Their Own Portraits. GEORGE SHIRAS, 3RD.........-. ee ee eee 101
American Game Birds. Henry W. HENSHAW....... ivtle asboesa mass ae. oe weap 105
Index to American Game Birds.............0e.e ee eee tush Siti alsea bide ee eae Rata aod rear 158
Encouraging Birds Around the Home. Freperick H. KENNARD................2645 160
Our Greatest Travelers—Bird Migrations. WerLtis W. CooKE....... ss Bassferee araeeasein ss 181

INDEX TO COMMON BIRDS OF TOWN AND COUNTRY

For For For For
picture description picture description
see page see page see page see page

Blackbird, Brewer’s...........- 25 24 Flicker, Red-shafted........... 56 57
Blackbird, Crow............0055 17 16 Flycatcher, Black; Phainopepla. 35 B34

Blackbird, Red-winged......... 60 61 :
Blackbird, Yellow-headed....... 46 47 Game Birds Index............. =: 158
Bluebitd: seesscaesaeesseeee sou 9 g Goldfinch, American........... 37 36
BLUE ay sscssosi oceaes euans ae 25 24 Goldfinch, Arkansas............ 37 36
Seba aeS acer jacsqnanomnans 58 59 Grosbeak, Black-headed........ 15 14
Bobybiiter «asin paca ueeeteny als 54 55 Grosbeak, Blue...............- 23 22
Buntise WaiG).¢1<icrucen- oe 33 32 Grosbeak, Rose-breasted........ 15 14
Bunting, Lavuli..........0.005 33 32 Grouse, Ruffed................ 54 55
ESSER ELE i oes ohn eb aead ere oT og Gull, Franklin’s............... 70 71
Buzzard, Turkey............... 68 69 Gull, Herring...............4. 48 49
‘ Hawk, Cooper’s.............55 52 53

POET: aig eisete i sannd a venie dea Meaneee So 23 22) 7
ee fee ee ae 13 12 Hawk, Fish or Osprey......... 66 67
Chat, Yellow-breasted.......... 81 a a ae Nees 68 69
Chewink, or Towhee........... 29 og Hawk, Red-tailed.............. 50 51
Chickadee: ce See seca oantiows 11 fo Hawk, Sparrow... 0. ener nte 50 51
rats Ay ar ene Une Ee tae 44 45 Heron, Black-crowned Night.... 48 49
BaP acc ui cemmceh acuasieeaes 46 47 Heron, Great Blue............. 48 49
Cicter, BROwisiscsa: acess 11 io Hummingbird, Ruby-throated... 39 38
orien! Conteh abo, nacames cn: 58 59 Hummingbird, Rufous.......... 39 38
Cuckoo, Yellow-billed,.......... 62 63 Jay, ‘Bietronted..<.<ces.s4es: 21 29
‘ Jay, Caulernlae. sos cnmerscues 25 24
M Sco aeeg eww es 52 53
at aed. Pee nee 44 45 Junco, Slate-colored............ 33 32
WGA GER so ocicc 5S cuceaves oe guentorr ab oa ae 70 71
HOSTAL ARMAS DS 66 67

ic cae Kingbird ........ 000 ccc eee 19 18
Finch, Heustecrss.i0cctenws nt 37 36 Kingbird, Arkansas. ccaauciseus 19 18
Finch, Purple............ceeee 37 36 VRAD BTSHER 2 ase wee dhantisennss ahdeg aided 56 57
BGR gc accsven eo FSS 84 BORE IES 64 65 Kinglet, Ruby-crowned......... 9 8

Vv

VI INDEX TO COMMON BIRDS OF TOWN AND COUNTRY

For Tor For For
picture description picture description
see page see page see page see page

Lak, Hlown eds 2-5 5.4 santana da eas 19 18 ‘Thrush, Northern Water-......- 93 95
Lark, Meadow: «204.024 dn ness 60 61 Thrush, Russet-backed......--- 9 8
Thrush, Varied 27 26
MASE. vce and nee eae ad oe al 20 Thrush, Wood...........++00+5 27, 26
Magpie, Black-billed..........- 2. 20 Towhee, California Brown...... 29 28
Magpie, Yellow-billed.......... 21 20 Towhee, or Chewink..........- 29 2s
Martin, PUEDE .s..o. 5: creudangn eaten 15 14
Mocking: Binds: cnensnuascaca saad 42 43 Ni@CLY “ysau eel PH ae eR ee meses Bet 26
Vireo, Red-eyed.........+-++-- 35 34
NIShthawh. 2 ccso gieees eee eee 19 18 Vireo, Yellow-throated......... 35 34
Nuthatch, White-breasted....... 11 10
Warblers :
Oriole, Baltimore: cccnseweses 29 28 Audubon’s warbler........- 85 83
Oviele, BuUllO Gls'S oe. sexe a4 55 5 5 25 24 Bay-breasted warbler...... 92 94
Oriole, Orchard............... 29 28 Black and white warbler... 85 83

Osprey, or Fish Hawk......... 66 67 Blackburnian warbler...... 89 91
Oven Wii Aa is ok aes ees Seaser S1 80 Black-poll warbler......... 89 91
Owl: ‘Balti < s 6 acecvase0 8 aad 72 73 Black-throated blue warbler 88 87
Owl, Great Horned............ a 45 Black-throated gray warbler 92 94
On, “Serecehisncenacns, eh ciagw ecdes 72 TS Black-throated green warbler, 92 94
Blue-winged warbler....... “84 87
PeWeG;, WO0G i. csescrcesde ie ane de 211, 20 Canada warbler........... 96 90
Phainopepla, or Black Flycatcher 35 34 Cape May warbler......... 88 86
PREDO™ seine evar aid cha ircteuttnn Raoeeeae 21 20 Chestnut-sided warbler..... 89 90
Plover, Uplands. ceacessssesees 70 rain Connecticut warbler....... g OT
Golden-winged warbler..... 84 82
Quail, Californias: . ccccaneeas « 23 22 Hooded warbler........... 96 97
Kentucky warbler......... 93 90
Redstart ac<c4.5 ences sae ss 85 83 Louisiana water-thrush..... 93 95
Road. RUDE iis cbaeae gece 39 38 Macgillivray warbler....... 96 97
5015) bc a ee ee ee 9 8 Magnolia warbler.......... 89 91
Maryland yellow-throat.... S81 sO
Sandpiper, Spotted............ 44 45 Mourning warbler......... 96 97
Sapsucker, Yellow-bellied....... 64 65 Myrtle warbler............ 13 We
Shrike, Loggerhead............ 13 12 Nashville warbler.......... 8s 87
Sparrow, Chipping............. 17 16 Northern Parula warbler... 88 86
Sparrow, English.............. 17 16 Northern water-thrush..... 93 95
Sparrow, Lark................ 35 34 Orange-crowned warbler.... S84 82
Sparrow, Sopg..s.secceseciuss 15 14 Palm Warblef.c sc. ces eunsa 93 95
Sparrow, Vespers. scsscacaecavs 23 32 Pine warbler.............. 92 94
Sparrow, White-crowned.......: 17 16 Prairie warbler........... 93 95
Sparrow, White-throated....... 33 32 Red-faced warbler......... 81 80
PING end ya awakens es sears 46 47 Tennessee warbler......... 88 86
Swallow, Barn................ 13 13 Wilson warbler............ 96 90
Swallow, Cliff or Eaves........ 31 30 Worm-eating warbler....... 84 82
Swallow, Tree................. 31 30 Yellow palm warbler....... 93
Swift, Chimney.wi0. 000.000.0056 46 47 Yellow-rump warbler (see
Myrtle warbler)......... 13 12
Tanager, Scarlet.............. 31 30 Yellow warbler............ 85 83
Tanager, Western............. 31 30 Whip=poor-will ..2ccases neces 39 38
Mern;. Blackss anmanascost 1h Acchewes 70 71 Woodpecker, California......... » 56 57
Pern, Commetiveaccysachas cows 48 49 Woodpecker, Downy........... 62 63
Thrasher, Brown.............. 42 43 Woodpecker, Red-headed........ 56 57
Thrush, Louisiana Water-...... 93 95 Wren, House.................. 11 10

For Index of American Game Birds, see page 158

Photographs by George Shiras, 3rd
ONE OF NATURE’S HYDROPLANES

Two striking pictures showing the rising flight of a pelican. In the upper illustration the
wings are seen at different angles; the lower picture shows the wings outspread, and the
resemblance to a Canada goose is marked.

VIT

‘ACP YJUdAIIa ay} UO sau dy} Ifa] PIG ey,
(azIs aa17) ONNOA JO HIMOYD SAV HAILAOUSNOD NAAKS GNV AdDWHd V AO 99 aHL
pre ‘seirys 981095) Aq ydesZ0}04g

COMMON BIRDS OF TOWN AND COUNTRY

By HENRY W. HENSHAW
ForMERLY CHIEF oF THE U. S. BrotoctcaL SURVEY

With Illustrations from Paintings by Louis Agassiz Fuertes

ROM very ancient times birds have
KF appealed to the interest and imagi-

nation of mankind. They have
furnished themes for innumerable poets,
have appeared in many guises in primi-
tive religions, and by their flight inspired
the predictions of the soothsayers of old.
Even in these modern and prosaic times
birds still continue to interest mankind,
and the last decade has witnessed a
marked strengthening of the sentiment
toward them.

The present interest is direct and per-
sonal, and today hundreds of thousands
of men and women in various parts of
the country, old as well as young, are em-
ploying much of their leisure in famil-
iarizing themselves with the birds of
their respective localities. In following
birds afield, in studying their habits, and
listening to their songs, they bring them-
selves into close touch and sympathy
with Nature and add new zest to life—a
zest, be it noted, which enriches without
harm to any creature.

Would that the same could be said of
the sportsman who almost invariably is
at heart a nature lover, though the primi-
tive instinct to kill is uppermost. Many
sportsmen, however, who formerly fol-
lowed wild creatures only to kill, have
abandoned the use of rifle and shotgun,
and today are finding greater pleasure in
studying and photographing their former
quarry than they did in pursuing it with
murderous intent. A real interest in wild
life leads naturally to a love of Nature
in all her varied manifestations, and this,
in all lands and under all circumstances,
remains a source of lasting pleasure.

A love of birds from the esthetic side,
however, is of comparatively recent de-
velopment and had little place among
primitive peoples, who utilized birds
chiefly in two ways—for food and for
ornament. Feathers, especially, appealed
to them for purposes of adornment, and

this barbaric taste has not only survived
among civilized races, but in recent years
has developed to an extent which threat-
ens the very existence of many of the
most beautiful and notable species of
birds in various parts of the world. No
region is too remote, no forests too deep,
no mountains too high to stay the plume-
hunter, stimulated by the golden bribe
offered by the tyrant Fashion.

Happily, America has taken the lead
in an attempt to restrict this craze for
feather adornment, which means nothing
less than the death of millions of beauti-
ful and useful creatures. Nor are evi-
dences wanting that other countries as
well have recognized the gravity of the
situation and are preparing to pass pro-
tective laws similar to those recently
enacted in this country.

BIRDS ARE THE FARMERS’ MOST EFFICIENT
ALLIES

While birds appeal to the regard and
interest of man from the esthetic side as
no other creatures do, there is another
and even more important point of view,
and it is no doubt true that of late years
interest in birds has been greatly stimu-
lated by the discovery that they possess
an economic value.

The study of the economic side of
bird life and of the relations of birds to
the farmer and horticulturist has been
greatly stimulated in the United States
by Federal aid and supervision, and in no
other country in the world have the ac-
tivities of birds been so carefully investi-
gated with reference to their practical
bearing.

Under the Biological Survey of the
Department of Agriculture, for instance,
is a corps of trained men, who study the
food of birds by careful examination of
the stomachs of specimens killed for sci-
entific purposes. The information thus
gained is supplemented by observations

2 COMMON BIRDS OF TOWN AND COUNTRY

in the field, and the result is a large
amount of invaluable data illustrative of
the economic relations of many kinds of
birds. This storehouse of information
has been largely drawn upon in the fol-
lowing pages.

OUR COUNTRY IS PARTICULARLY FORTU-
NATE IN THE NUMBER AND
VARIETY OF ITS BIRDS

It would be strange indeed if our land,
with its vast extent of territory, its diver-
sified landscape, its extensive forests, its
numerous lakes and streams, with its
mountains, prairies, and plains, had not
been provided by Nature with an abun-
dant and diversified bird life. As a mat-
ter of fact, America has been favored
with a great variety of birds famed both
for beauty and for song. America also
possesses certain families, as the hum-
mingbirds and wood-warblers, the like
of which exist nowhere else in the world.

In considering the many kinds of
birds in the United States from the prac-
tical side, they may not inaptly be com-
pared to a police force, the chief duty of
which is to restrain within bounds the
hordes of insects that, if unchecked,
would devour every green thing. To
accomplish this task successfully, the
members of the force must be variously
equipped, as we find they are. Indeed,
while the 1,200 kinds of birds that inhabit
the United States can be grouped in fam-
ilies which resemble each other in a gen-
eral way, yet among the members of the
several families are marked variations of
form and plumage and still greater vari-
ation of habits, which fit them for their
diversified duties.

As the bulk of insects spend more or
less time on the ground, so we find that
more birds are fitted for terrestrial serv-
ice than for any other. Our largest bird
family, the sparrows, is chiefly terres-
trial, and although its members depend
much upon seeds for subsistence they
spend no little share of their time search-
ing for insects. They are ably aided in the
good work by the thrushes, wrens, certain
of the warblers, and many other birds.

Another group is of arboreal habits,
and plays an important part in the con-
servation of our forests, the true value
of which we have only recently learned

to appreciate. So many insects burrow
into trees that a highly specialized class
of birds —the woodpeckers — has been
developed to dig them out. The bills,

tongues, feet, and even the tails of these

birds have been cunningly adapted to this
one end, and the manner in which this has
been done shows how fertile Nature is in
equipping her servants to do her bidding.

The bark of trees also forms a favorite
shelter for numerous insects, and behold
the wrens, nuthatches, warblers, and
creepers, with sharpest of eyes and slen-
derest of bills, to detect our foes and to
dislodge them from crack and cranny.

The air is full of flying insects, and to
take care of these there are the swallows,
swifts, and nighthawks, whose wings and
bodies are so shaped as to endow them
with the speed and agility necessary to
follow all the turns and windings of their
nimble insect prey.

The whip-poor-wills, swift of wing and
with capacious mouths beset with bris-
tles, attend to the night-flying insects
when most birds are asleep, while the
hawks by day and the owls by night sup-
plement the work of other birds and have
a special function of their own, the de-
struction of noxious rodents.

Thus every family of birds plays its
own part in the warfare against insects
and other foes to man’s industry, and
contributes its share to man’s welfare.

Birds would fall far short of what they
accomplish for man were they not the
most active of living things. It is curious
that the group of vertebrates which live
the fastest—that is, have a higher tem-
perature and a more rapid circulation
than any other—should be related by de-
scent to a family of such cold-blooded
creatures as the reptiles and_ lizards,
which often go without food and hiber-
nate for considerable periods. Very dif-
ferent is it with birds. Few realize the
enormous quantity of food required to
sustain the energy of these creatures,
most of whose waking hours are spent
in a never-ending search for food.

BIRDS CHECK RAVAGES OF DISEASE-
CARRYING INSECTS

In satisfying their own hunger birds
perform an important service to man, for
notwithstanding the fact that the acreage

COMMON BIRDS OF TOWN AND COUNTRY °

under cultivation in the United States is
larger than ever before, and that the
crops are greater, the cost of foodstuffs
continually mounts upward. Meanwhile
the destruction of farm and_ orchard
crops by insects and by rodents amounts
to many millions each year, and if any
part of this loss can be prevented it will
be so much clear gain.

The protection of insectivorous and
rodent-destroying birds is one of the
most effective means of preventing much
of this unnecessary loss, and the public
is rapidly awakening to the importance
of this form of conservation. From the
farmers’ standpoint, such birds as the
bobwhite, prairie - chicken, the upland
plover, and the other shore birds are
worth very much more as insect eaters
than as food or as objects of pursuit by
the sportsman. This statement applies
with especial force to such species as the
prairie-chicken, which everywhere in its
old haunts is threatened with extinction.

The value of birds to the farmer is
plain enough, but we do not usually think
of birds as having any direct relation to
the public health. To prove that they do,
however, it is only necessary to state that
500 mosquitoes have been found in the
stomach of a single nighthawk; that in
a killdeer’s stomach hundreds of the
larve of the salt-marsh mosquito have
been found, and that many shore birds
greedily devour mosquito larve.

“As mosquitoes are known to carry the
germs of such serious diseases as dengue
fever and malaria, it is evident that by
destroying them birds are conferring an
important benefit on man. It may be
added that not infrequently ticks are
eaten by birds, and that the tick responsi-
ble for the spread of Texas fever among
cattle has been found in the stomach of
the bobwhite.

Since birds perform such invaluable
service, every effort should be made to
protect the birds we now have and to in-
crease their numbers. This can be done
in several ways: (a) by furnishing nest-
ing boxes for certain species, as swal-
lows, martins, wrens, woodpeckers, great-
crested flycatchers, and others; (b) by
planting berry-bearing shrubs about the
farm or orchard as food for the birds
in winter; (c) by the establishment of

bird sanctuaries, where birds may be rea-
sonably safe from their natural enemies
and be permitted to live and breed in ab-
solute security as far as man is concerned.

Here, again, the National Government,
taking the lead, has set apart no less than
64 bird refuges in various parts of the
United States. These for the most part
are rocky, barren islands of little or no
agricultural value, but of very great use-
fulness in the cause of bird protection.
The example thus set is now being fol-
lowed by certain States, as Oregon and
Wisconsin. Several private citizens also
have acquired islands for the purpose of
making bird preserves of them; others
not only prevent the destruction of wild
life on their forested estates, but go much
farther, and endeavor in various ways to
increase the number of their bird tenants.

Efforts to protect birds on a smaller
scale and to attract them about dwellings,
with a view to their close companionship,
are worthy of all praise, and such efforts
should be far more common in this coun-
try than they are at present, particularly
as the means involve little trouble or ex-
pense. The presence of trees and shrub-
bery near the house is of itself an open
invitation to birds which they are eager
to accept, particularly if the shrubbery is
not too closely pruned. Birds like thick
vines and tangles, in the recesses of which
they feel safe from their many enemies.
Suet, nuts, and other bird foods, if ex-
posed in conspicuous places, can usually
be depended on to attract birds in winter,
and often avail to save many lives, espe-
cially when snow covers the ground.

Species which are not berry eaters, like
the woodpeckers, nuthatches, creepers,
and chickadees, can be made winter resi-
dents of many farms, even in the North,
by putting out at convenient places a sup-
ply of suet, of which they and many other
birds are very fond, even in summer.
Hedges and thickets about the farm are
important to furnish nesting sites and
shelter both from the elements and from
the numerous enemies of birds.

Few are aware of the difficulty often
experienced by birds in obtaining water
for drinking and bathing, and a constant
supply of water near the farmhouse will
materially aid in attracting birds to the
neighborhood and in keeping them there,

4 COMMON BIRDS OF TOWN AND COUNTRY

at least till the time of migration. Shal-
low trays of wood or metal admirably
serve the purpose, especially as birds de-
light to bathe in them.

BIRDS SHOULD EVERYWHERE BE PROTECTED

By supplying artificial nest-boxes the
number of birds may be increased around
farms and orchards where their services
are most needed. The average farmer’s
boy, if provided with a few tools, is quite
equal to the task of making acceptable
boxes for martins, swallows, bluebirds,
wrens, woodpeckers, and other species,
which are far from fastidious as to the
appearance of the box intended for their
occupancy.

Entomologists have estimated that in-
sects yearly cause a loss of upward of
$700,000,000 to the agricultural interests
of the United States. Were it not for our
birds the loss would be very much greater,
and, indeed, it is believed that without the
aid of our feathered friends successful
agriculture would be impossible.

A knowledge of the birds that protect
his crops is, therefore, as important to
the farmer as a knowledge of the insect
pests that destroy them. Such informa-
tion is the more needful because the rela-
tion of birds to man’s interests is ex-
tremely complex.

Thus, while it may be said that most of
our birds are useful, there are only a few
of them that are always and everywhere
useful and that never do harm. Insec-
tivorous birds, for instance, destroy,
along with a vast number of harmful in-
sects, some parasitic and predatory kinds.
These latter are among Nature’s most
effective agents for keeping destructive
insects in check. To the extent, then,
that birds destroy useful parasitic insects,
they are harmful; but, taking the year
round, the good they do by the destruc-
tion of insects injurious to man’s interests
far outweighs the little harm they do.

It may be said, too, that of the birds
usually classed as noxious there are very
few that do not possess redeeming traits.
Thus the crow is mischievous in spring
and sorely taxes the farmer’s patience
and ingenuity to prevent him from pull-
ing up the newly planted corn. More-
over, the crow destroys the eggs and

young of useful insectivorous and game
birds; but, on the other hand, he eats
many insects, especially white grubs and
cut-worms, and destroys many meadow
mice; so that in much (although not all)
of the region he inhabits the crow must
be considered to be more useful than
harmful.

THEIR WINGS ENABLE BIRDS TO ACT
EFFICIENTLY AS POLICEMEN

Most of the hawks and owls even—
birds that have received so bad a name
that the farmer’s boy and the sportsman
are ever on the alert to kill them—are
very useful because they destroy vast
numbers of insects and harmful rodents.

Birds occupy a unique position among
the enemies of insects, since their powers
of flight enable them at short notice to
gather at points where there are abnormal
insect outbreaks. An unusual abundance
of grasshoppers, for instance, in a given
locality soon attracts the birds from a
wide area, and as a rule their visits cease
only when there are no grasshoppers left.
So also a marked increase in the number
of small rodents in a given neighborhood
speedily attracts the attention of hawks
and owls, which, by reason of their vora-
cious appetites, soon produce a marked
diminution of the swarming foe.

One of the most useful groups of na-
tive birds is the sparrow family. While
some of the tribe wear gay suits of many
hues, most of the sparrows are clad in
modest brown tints, and as they spend
much of the time in grass and weeds are
commonly overlooked. Unobtrusive as
they are, they lay the farmer under a
heavy debt of gratitude by their food
habits, since their chosen fare consists
largely of the seeds of weeds. Selecting
a typical member of the group, the tree
sparrow, for instance, one-fourth ounce
of weed seed per day is a conservative
estimate of the food of an adult.

On this basis, in a large agricultural
State like Iowa tree sparrows annually
eat approximately 875 tons of weed
seeds. Only the farmer, upon whose
shoulders falls the heavy burden of free-
ing his land of noxious weeds, can realize
what this vast consumption of weed seeds
means in the saving and cost of labor.

COMMON BIRDS OF TOWN AND COUNTRY 5

Some idea of the money value of this
group of birds to the country may be
gained from the statement that the total
value of the farm products in the United
States in 1915 reached the amazing sum
of $9,108,000,000. If we estimate that
the total consumption of weed seed by
the combined members of the sparrow
family resulted in a saving of only I per
cent of the crops—not a violent assump-
tion—the sum saved to farmers by these
birds in 1915 was $91,080,000.

MOST HAWKS AND OWLS BENEFICIAL

The current idea in relation to hawks
and owls is erroneous. These birds are
generally classed as thieves and robbers,
whereas a large majority of them are the
farmers’ friends and spend the greater
part. of their long lives in pursuit of in-
jurious insects and rodents. The hawks
work by day, the owls chiefly by night;
so that the useful activities of the two
classes are continued practically through-
out the 24 hours.

As many as 100 grasshoppers have
been found in the stomach of a Swain-
son’s hawk, representing a single meal;
and in the retreat of a pair of barn owls
have been found more than 3,000 skulls,
97 per cent of which were of mammals,
the bulk consisting of field mice, house
mice, and common rats. Nearly half a
bushel of the remains of pocket gophers—
animals which are very destructive in
certain parts of the United States—was
found near a nest of this species. The
notable increase of noxious rodents dur-
ing the last few years in certain parts of
the United States and the consequent
damage to crops are due in no small part
to the diminished number of birds of
prey, which formerly destroyed them and
materially aided in keeping down their
numbers.

A few hawks are injurious, and the
bulk of the depredations on birds and
chickens chargeable against hawks is
committed by three species—the Cooper’s
bawk, the sharp-shinned hawk, and the
goshawk. The farmer’s boy should learn
to know these daring robbers by sight, so
as to kill them whenever possible.

From the foregoing it will at once ap-
pear that the practice of offering bounties
indiscriminately for the heads of hawks

and owls, as has been done by some
States, is a serious mistake, the result
being not only a waste of public funds,
but the destruction of valuable servants
which can be replaced, if at all, only after
the lapse of years.

As a rule, birds do not live very long,
but, as previously stated, they live fast.
They breathe rapidly and have a higher
temperature and a more rapid circulation
than other vertebrates. This is a fortu-
nate circumstance, since to generate the
requisite force to sustain their active
bodies a large quantity of food is neces-
sary, and as a matter of fact birds have
to devote most of their waking hours to
obtaining insects, seeds, berries, and
other kinds of food.

The activity of birds in the pursuit of
insects is still further stimulated by the
fact that the young of most species, even
those which are by no means strictly in-
sectivorous, require great quantities of
animal food in the early weeks of ex-
istence, so that during the summer
months—the flood time of insect life—
birds are compelled to redouble their at-
tacks on our insect foes to satisfy the
wants of their clamorous young.

Field observations of the food habits
of birds serve a useful purpose, but they
are rarely accurate enough to be fully re-
liable. The presence of certain birds in
a corn or wheat field or in an orchard is
by no means proof, as is too often as-
sumed, that they are devastating the grain
or fruit. They may have been attracted
by insects which, unknown to the farmer
or orchardist, are fast ruining his crop.
Hence it has been found necessary to ex-
amine the stomachs and crops of birds to
ascertain definitely what and how much
they eat.

ASTONISHING CAPACITY OF BIRDS’ STOM-
ACHS REVEALED BY 50,000 TESTS

The Biological Survey has in this way
examined upward of 50,000 birds, most
of which have been obtained during the
last 25 years from scientific collectors, for
our birds are too useful to be sacrificed
when it can possibly be avoided, even for
the sake of obtaining data upon which to
base legislation for their protection.

It is interesting to observe that hungry
birds—and birds are hungry most of the

el
so gay
nN ees

35

30

Arctic zone
Boreal /Hudsonian ee MASS
e610 |canadian y ‘ iN SS
2 iy MI
Transition <
erie Unperaustell (OC Wr \
fern LowerAustralf x

Tropical\-y, 4: r
Region \tr opical YH

ZONE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA
After U.S. Biological Survey
fo}

500 1000 SK a
“a

Statute Miles oy
The dotted parts of the Austral Zones east of the Great Plains indicate the

A
Sb
extent of the humid divisions of these Zones, knawn respectively as the Alleghanian, A
Carolinian and Austroriparian Faunas. The undotted parts of the same zones 9 APE Se
85 0

are known as the Transition, Upper Sonoran and Lower Sonoran.
10S

hs
120 us No 100 9s 90 75 70 A 4 BUNSTLAD

MAP SHOWING THE BIRD ZONES

With their unparalleled facilities for locomotion over both land and water, birds are more
widely distributed than any other vertebrates, yet their comparatively delicate organizations
are highly sensitive to many conditions of life. The most important factor in determining
the breeding range of birds is, of course, the one of climate, expressed mainly through tem-
perature and to a lesser degree through rainfall.

The zone map shows that North America is divided into three great regions—the Boreal,
Austral, and Tropical—and the first two in turn are subdivided into three zones each. The
boundaries of the zones follow in a general way certain isotherms, or lines of temperature,
with subdivisions determined by the annual rainfall. The numerous “lakes” and “islands”
noted on the zone map are brought about in most cases by the altitude of these areas.

In connection with this map it is well to keep in mind C. Hart Merriam’s Laws of Tem-
perature Control: First, “Animals and plants are restricted in northward distribution by the
total quantity of heat during the season of growth and reproduction.” Second, “Animals and
plants are restricted southward in distribution by the mean temperature of a brief period
covering the hottest part of the year.” With respect tn hirds the reference in hath inctanene
is to the breeding range. Z

COMMON BIRDS OF TOWN AND COUNTRY 7

time—are not content to fill their stom-
achs with insects or seeds, but after the
stomach is stuffed until it will hold no
more continue to eat till the crop or gullet
also is crammed. It is often the case that
when the stomach is opened and the con-
tents piled up the pile is two or three
times as large as the stomach was when
filled. Birds may truly be said to have
healthy appetites. To show the astonish-
ing capacity of birds’ stomachs and to re-
veal the extent to which man is indebted
to birds for the destruction of noxious
insects, the following facts are ‘given as
learned by stomach examinations made
by assistants of the Biological Survey:

A tree swallow’s stomach was found
to contain 40 entire chinch-bugs and frag-
ments of many others, besides 10 other
species of insects. A bank swallow in
Texas devoured 68 cotton-boll weevils,
one of the worst insect pests that ever
invaded the United States; and 35 cliff
swallows had taken an average of 18 boll
weevils each. Two stomachs of pine
siskins from Haywards, Cal., contained
1,900 black olive scales and 300 plant lice.
A killdeer’s stomach taken in November
in Texas contained over 300 mosquito
larvee.

A flicker’s stomach held 28 white
grubs. A nighthawk’s stomach collected
in Kentucky contained 34 May beetles,
the adult form of white grubs. Another
nighthawk, from New York, had eaten
24 clover-leaf weevils and 375 ants. Still
another nighthawk had eaten 340 grass-
hoppers, 52 bugs, 3 beetles, 2 wasps, and
a spider. A boat-tailed grackle from
Texas had eaten at one meal about 100
cotton bollworms, besides a few other
insects. A ring-necked pheasant’s crop
from Washington contained 8,000 seeds
of chickweed and a dandelion head.
More than 72,000 seeds have been found
in a single duck stomach taken in Lou-
isiana in February.

A knowledge of his bird friends and
enemies, therefore, is doubly important
to the farmer and orchardist in order
that he may protect the kinds that earn
protection by their services and may
drive away or destroy the others. At the
present time many kinds of useful birds
need direct intervention in their behalf
as never before. The encroachments of

civilization on timbered tracts and. the
methods of modern intensive cultivation
by destroying or restricting breeding
grounds of birds tend to diminish their
ranks. The number of insect pests, on
the other hand, is all the time increasing
by leaps and bounds through importations
from abroad and by migration from ad-
joining territories. Every effort, there-
fore, should be made to augment the
numbers of our useful birds by protect-
ing them from their enemies, by provid-
ing nesting facilities, and by furnishing
them food in times of stress.

One of the worst foes of our native
birds is the house cat, and probably none
of our native wild animals destroys as
many birds on the farm, particularly
fledglings, as cats. The household pet is
by no means blameless in this respect, for
the bird-hunting instinct is strong, even
in the well-fed tabby; but much of the
loss of our feathered life is attributable
to the half-starved stray, which in sum-
mer is as much at home in the groves and
fields as the birds themselves. Forced to
forage for their own livelihood, these
animals, which are almost as wild as the
ancestral wildcat, inflict an appalling loss
on our feathered allies, and even on the
smaller game birds, like the woodcock
and bobwhite. If cats are to find place
in the farmer’s household, every effort
should be made by carefully feeding and
watching them to insure the safety of the
birds. The cat without a home should be
mercifully put out of the way.

In the following pages our commoner
birds are discussed, including some that
are destructive. They inhabit various
parts of the country, and it is to the in-
terest of the farmers of the respective
localities to be familiar with them.

A colored illustration of each species
by the well-known artist, Louis Agassiz
Fuertes, is given, so as to enable the
reader to identify the bird at a glance and
to permit the descriptive text, at best an
unsatisfactory method of identification,
to be cut down or altogether dispensed
with. The accounts of the birds’ habits
are necessarily brief, but they are believed
to be sufficient to acquaint the reader with
the most prominent characteristic of the
several species, at least from the stand-
point of their relation to man.

BLUEBIRD (Sialia sialis)

Length,* about 6% inches.

Range: Breeds in the United States (west to
Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana),
southern Canada, Mexico, and Guatemala;
winters in the southern half of the eastern
United States and south to Guatemala.

Habits and economic status: The bluebird is
one of the most familiar tenants of the farm
and dooryard. Everywhere it is hailed as the
harbinger of spring, and wherever it chooses
to reside it is sure of a warm welcome. This
bird, like the robin, phcebe, house wren, and
some swallows, is very domestic in its habits.
Its favorite nesting sites are crannies in the
farm buildings or boxes made for its use or
natural cavities in old apple trees. For rent
the bird pays amply by destroying insects, and
it takes no toll from the farm crop. The blue-
bird’s diet consists of 68 per cent of insects to
32 per cent of vegetable matter. The largest
items of insect food are grasshoppers first and
beetles next, while caterpillars stand third.
All of these are harmful except a few of the
beetles. The vegetable food consists chiefly of
fruit pulp, only an insignificant portion of
which is of cultivated varieties. Among wild
fruits elderberries are the favorite. From the
above it will be seen that the bluebird does no
essential harm, but on the contrary eats many
harmful and annoying insects. (See Farmers’
Bul. 54, pp. 46-48.)

* Measured from tip of bill to tip of tail.

RUSSET-BACKED THRUSH (Hylocichla
ustulata)

Length, 7% inches. Among thrushes having
the top of head and tail nearly the same color
as the back, this one is distinguished by its
tawny eye-ring and cheeks. The Pacific coast
subspecies is russet brown above, while the
other subspecies is the olive-backed thrush.
The remarks below apply to the species: as a
whole.

Range: Breeds in the forested parts of
Alaska and Canada and south to California,
Colorado, Michigan, New York, West Virginia
(mountains), and Maine; winters from Mex-
ico to South America.

Habits and economic status: This is one of
a small group of thrushes the members of
which are by many ranked first among Ameri-
can song birds. The several members resemble
one another in size, plumage, and_ habits.
While this thrush is very fond of fruit, its
partiality for the neighborhood of streams
keeps it from frequenting orchards far from
water. It is most troublesome during the
cherry season, when the young are in the nest.
From this it might be inferred that the young
are fed on fruit, but such is not the case. The
adults eat fruit, but the nestlings, as usual, are
fed mostly upon insects. Beetles constitute the
largest item of animal food, and ants come
next. Many caterpillars also are eaten. The
great bulk of vegetable food consists of fruit,
of which two-fifths are of cultivated varieties,
(See Biol. Surv. Bul. 30, pp. 86-92.)

ROBIN (Planesticus migratorius)

Length, 10 inches.

Range: Breeds in the United States (except
the Gulf States), Canada, Alaska, and Mexico;
winters in most of the United States and south
to Guatemala.

Habits and economic status: In the North
and some parts of the West the robin is among
the most cherished of our native birds. Should
it ever become rare where now common, its
joyous summer song and familiar presence will
be sadly missed in many a homestead. The
robin is an omnivorous feeder, and its food
includes many orders of insects, with no very
pronounced preference for any. It is very
fond of earthworms, but its real economic
status is determined by the vegetable food,
which amounts to about 58 per cent of all.
The principal item is fruit, which forms more
than 51 per cent of the total food. The fact
that in the examination of over 1,200 stomachs
the percentage of wild fruit was found to be
five times that of the cultivated varieties sug-
gests that berry-bearing shrubs, if planted near
the orchard, will serve to protect more valuable
fruits. In California in certain years it has
been possible to save the olive crop from hun-
gry robins only by the most strenuous exer-
tions and considerable expense. ‘The bird’s
general usefulness is such, however, that all
reasonable means of protecting orchard fruit
should be tried before killing the birds. (See
Farmers’ Bul. 54, pp. 44-46.)

RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET (Regulus
calendula)

Length, about 414 inches. Olive green above,
soiled whitish below, concealed feathers on
head (crest) bright red.

Range: Breeds in southern Canada, southern
Alaska, and the higher mountains of the west-
ern United States; winters in much of the
United States and south to Guatemala.

Habits and economic status: In habits and
haunts this tiny sprite resembles a chickadee.
It is an active, nervous little creature, flitting
hither and yon in search of food, and in spring
stopping only long enough to utter its beauti-
ful song, surprisingly loud for the size of the
musician. Three-fourths of its food consists
of wasps, bugs, and flies. Beetles are the only
other item of importance (12 per cent). The
bugs eaten by the kinglet are mostly small,
but, happily, they are the most harmful kinds.
Tree-hoppers, leaf-hoppers, and jumping plant
lice are pests and often do great harm to trees
and smaller plants, while plant lice and scale
insects are the worst scourges of the fruit
grower; in fact, the prevalence of the latter
has almost risen to the magnitude of a national
peril, It is these small and seemingly insig-
nificant birds that most successfully attack and
hold in check these insidious foes of horticul-
ture. The vegetable food consists of seeds of
poison ivy, or poison oak, a few weed seeds,
and a few small fruits, mostly elderberries,
(See Biol. Surv. Bul. 30, pp. 81-84.)

BLueEBIRD ROBIN
RussET-BACKED THRUSH RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET

CHICKADEE (Penthestes atricapillus)

Length, about 514 inches.

Range: Resident in the United States (ex-
cept the southern half east of the plains),
Canada, and Alaska.

Habits and economic status: Because of its
delightful notes, its confiding ways, and _ its
fearlessness, the chickadee is one of our best-
known birds. It responds to encouragement,
and by hanging within its reach a constant
supply of suet the chickadee can be made a
regular visitor to the garden and orchard.
Though insignificant in size, titmice are far
from “being so from the economic standpoint,
owing to their numbers and activity. While
one locality is being scrutinized for food by
a larger bird, 10 are being searched by the
smaller species. The chickadees food is made
up of insects and vegetable matter in the pro-
portion of 7 of the former to 3 of the latter.
Moths and caterpillars are favorites and form
about one-third of the whole. Beetles, ants,
wasps, bugs, flies, grasshoppers, and spiders
make up the rest. The vegetable food is com-
posed of seeds, largely those of pines, with a
few of the poison ivy and some weeds. There
are few more useful birds than the chickadees.

BROWN. CREEPER (Certhia familiaris
americana and other subspecies)

Length, 5% inches.

Range: Breeds from Nebraska, Indiana,
North Carolina (mountains), and Massachu-
setts north to southern Canada, also in the
mountains of the western United States, north
to Alaska, south to Nicaragua; winters over
most of its range.

Habits and economic status: Rarely indeed
is the creeper seen at rest. It appears to spend
its life in an incessant scramble over the trunks
and branches of trees, from which it gets all
its food. It is protectively colored so as to be
practically invisible to its enemies and, though
delicately built, possesses amazingly strong
claws and feet. Its tiny eyes are sharp enough
to detect insects so small that most other spe-
cies pass them by, and altogether the creeper
fills a unique place in the ranks of our insect
destroyers. The food consists of minute in-
sects and insects’ eggs, also cocoons of tineid
moths, small wasps, ants, and bugs, especially
scales and plant lice, with some small cater-
pillars. As the creeper remains in the United
States throughout the year, it naturally secures
hibernating insects and insects’ eggs, as well as
spiders and spiders’ eggs, that are missed by
the summer birds, On its bill of fare we find
no product of husbandry nor any useful insects.

10

WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH
(Sitta carolinensis)

Length, 6 inches.
with a black head.

Range: Resident in the United States, south-
ern Canada, and Mexico.

Habits and economic status: This bird might
readily be mistaken by a careless observer for
a small woodpecker, but its note, an oft-re-
peated yank, is very unwoodpecker-like, and,
unlike either woodpeckers or creepers, it climbs
downward as easily as upward and seems to
set the laws of gravity at defiance, The name
was suggested by the habit of wedging nuts,
especially beechnuts, in the crevices of bark so
as to break them open by blows from the sharp,
strong bill. The nuthatch gets its living from
the trunks and branches of trees, over which
it creeps from daylight to dark. Insects and
spiders constitute a little more than 50 per cent
of its food. The largest items of these are
beetles, moths, and caterpillars, with ants and
wasps. The animal food is all in the bird's
favor except a few ladybird» beetles. More
than half of the vegetable food consists of
mast—that is, acorns and other nuts or large
seeds, One-tenth of the food is grain, mostly
waste corn. The nuthatch does no injury, so
far as known, and much good.

White below, above gray,

HOUSE WREN (Troglodytes aédon)

Length, 434 inches. The only one of our
wrens with wholly whitish underparts that
lacks a light line over the eye.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States
(except the South Atlantic and Gulf States)
and southern Canada; winters in the southern
United States and Mexico.

Habits and economic status: The rich, bub-
bling song of the familiar little house wren is
one of the sweetest associations connected
with country and suburban life. Its tiny body,
long bill, sharp eyes, and strong feet peculiarly
adapt it for creeping into all sorts of nooks
and crannies where lurk the insects it feeds on.
A cavity in a fence post, a hole in a tree, or a
box will be welcomed alike by this busybody
as a nesting site; but since the advent of the
quarrelsome English sparrows such domiciles
are at a premium and the wren’s eggs and
family are safe only in cavities having en-
trances too small to admit the sparrow. Hence
it behooves the farmer’s boy to provide boxes
the entrances to which are about an inch in
diameter, nailing these under gables of barns
and outhouses or in orchard trees. In this way
the numbers of this useful bird can be in-
creased, greatly to the advantage of the farmer.
Grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, bugs, and
spiders are the principal elements of its food.
Cutworms, weevils, ticks, and plant lice are
among the injurious forms eaten. The nest-
lings of house wrens consume great quantities
of insects.

WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH

House WREN

CHICKADEE
Brown CREEPER

11

CATBIRD (Dumetella carolinensis)

Length, about 9 inches. The slaty gray
plumage and black cap and tail are distinctive.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States
west to New Mexico, Utah, Oregon, and Wash-
ington, and in southern Canada; winters from
the Gulf States to Panama.

Habits and economic status: In many locali-
ties the catbird is one of the commonest birds.
Tangled growths are its favorite nesting places
and retreats, but berry patches and ornamental
shrubbery are not disdained. Hence the bird
is a familiar dooryard visitor. The bird has a
fine song, unfortunately marred by occasional
cat calls. With habits similar to those of the
mocking bird and a song almost as varied, the
catbird has never secured a similar place in
popular favor. Half of its food consists of
fruit, and the cultivated crops most often in-
jured are cherries, strawberries, raspberries,
and blackberries. Beetles, ants, crickets, and
grasshoppers are the most important element
of its animal food. The bird is known to
attack a few pests, as cutworms, leaf beetles,
clover-root curculio, and the periodical cicada;
but the good it does in this way probably does
not pay for the fruit it steals. The extent to
which it should be protected may perhaps be
left to the individual cultivator—that is, it
should be made lawful to destroy catbirds that
are doing manifest damage to crops.

LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE (Lanius
ludovicianus)

Length, about 9 inches. A gray, black, and
white bird, distinguished from the somewhat
similarly colored mocking bird by the black
stripe on side of head.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States,
Mexico, and southern ‘Canada; winters in the
southern half of the United States and in
Mexico.

Habits and economic status: The loggerhead
shrike, or southern butcher bird, is common
throughout its range and is sometimes called
“French mocking bird” from a superficial re-
semblance and not from its notes, which are
harsh and unmusical. The shrike is naturally
an insectivorous bird which has extended its
bill of fare to include small mammals, birds,
and reptiles. Its hooked beak is well adapted
to tearing its prey, while to make amends for
the lack ‘of talons it has hit upon the plan of
forcing its victim, if too large to swallow, into
the fork of a bush or tree, where it can tear
it asunder. Insects, especially grasshoppers,
constitute the larger part of its food, though
beetles, moths, caterpillars, ants, wasps, and a
few spiders also are taken. While the butcher
bird occasionally catches small birds, its prin-
cipal vertebrate food is small mammals, as
field mice, shrews, and moles, and when possi-
ble it obtains lizards. It habitually impales its
surplus prey on a thorn, sharp twig, or barb
of a wire fence.

12

MYRTLE WARBLER (Dendroica
coronata)

Length, 514 inches. The similarly colored
Audubon’s warbler has a yellow throat instead
of a white one. (See page 85.)

Range: Breeds throughout most of the for-
ested area of Canada and south to Minnesota,
Michigan, New York, and Massachusetts; win-
ters in the southern two-thirds of the United
States and south to Panama.

Habits and economic status: This member
of our beautiful wood-warbler family—a fam-
ily peculiar to America—has the characteristic
voice, coloration, and habits of its kind. Trim
of form and graceful of motion, when seeking
food it combines the methods of the wrens,
creepers, and flycatchers. It breeds only in
the northern parts of the eastern United States,
but in migration it occurs in every patch of
woodland and is so numerous that it is fa-
miliar to every observer. Its place is taken in
the West by Audubon’s warbler. More than
three-fourths of the food of the myrtle warbler
consists of insects, practically all of them
harmful. It is made up of small beetles, in-
cluding some weevils, with many ants and
wasps. This bird is so small and nimble that
it successfully attacks insects too minute to be
prey for larger birds. Scales and plant lice
form a very considerable part of its diet. Flies
are the largest item of food; in fact, only a
few flycatchers and swallows eat as many flies
as this bird. The vegetable food (22 per cent)
is made up of fruit and the seeds of poison
oak or ivy; also the seeds of pine and of the
bayberry.

BARN SWALLOW (Hirundo
erythrogastra)

Length, about 7 inches. Distinguished among
our swallows by deeply forked tail.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States
(except the South Atlantic and Gulf States)
and most of Canada; winters in South Amer-

a.

Habits and economic status: This is one of
the most familiar birds of the farm and one
of the greatest insect destroyers. From day-
light to dark on tireless wings it seeks its prey,
and the insects destroyed are countless. Its
favorite nesting site is a barn rafter, upon
which it sticks its mud basket. Most modern
barns are so tightly constructed that swallows
cannot gain entrance, and in New England and
some other parts of the country barn swallows
are much tess numerous than formerly. Farm-
ers can easily provide for the entrance and exit
of the birds and so add materially to their
numbers. It may be well to add that the para-
sites that sometimes infest the nests of swal-
lows are not the ones the careful housewife
dreads, and no fear need be felt of the infesta-
tion spreading to the houses, Insects taken on
the wing constitute the almost exclusive diet
of the barn swallow. More than one-third of
the whole consists of flies. Beetles stand next
in order and consist of many of the small dung
beetles of the May-beetle family that swarm
over the pastures in the late afternoon.

CATBIRD MyrtTLe WARBLER
LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE Barn SwaLLow

13

PURPLE MARTIN (Progne subis)

Length, about 8 inches.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States
and southern Canada, south to central Mexico;
winters in South America.

Habits and economic status: This is the
largest, as it is one of the most beautiful, of
the swallow tribe. It formerly built its nests
in cavities of trees, as it still does in wild dis-
tricts, but learning that man was a friend it
soon adopted domestic habits. Its presence
about the farm can often be secured by erect-
ing houses suitable for nesting sites and pro-
tecting them from usurpation by the English
sparrow, and every effort should be made to
increase the number of colonies of this very
useful bird. The boxes should be at a reason-
able height, say 15 feet from the ground, and
made inaccessible to cats. A colony of these
birds on a farm makes great inroads upon the
insect population, as the birds not only them-
selves feed upon insects, but rear their young
upon the same diet, Fifty years ago in New
England it was not uncommon to see colonies
of 50 pairs of martins; but most of them have
now vanished for no apparent reason except
that the martin houses have decayed and have
not been renewed. More than three-fourths of
this bird’s food consists of wasps, bugs, and
beetles, their importance being in the order
given. The beetles include several species of
harmful weevils, as the clover-leaf weevils and
the nut weevils. Besides these are many crane
flies, moths, May flies, and dragonflies.

ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK
(Zamelodia ludoviciana)

Length, 8 inches.

Range: Breeds from Kansas, Ohio, Georgia
(mountains), and New Jersey, north to south-
ern Canada; winters from Mexico to South
America.

Habits and economic status: This beautiful
grosbeak is noted for its clear, melodious
notes, which are poured forth in generous
measure. ‘The rosebreast sings even at mid-
day during summer, when the intense heat has
silenced almost every other songster. Its beau-
tiful plumage and sweet song are not its sole
claim on our favor, for few birds are more
beneficial to agriculture. The rosebreast eats
some green peas and does some damage to
fruit. But this mischief is much more than
balanced by the destruction of insect pests.
The bird is so fond of the Colorado potato
beetle that it has earned the name of “potato-
bug bird,” and no less than a tenth of the total
food of the rosebreasts examined consists of
potato beetles—evidence that the bird is one
of the most important enemies of the pest. It
vigorously attacks cucumber beetles and many
of the scale insects. It proved an active enemy
of the Rocky Mountain locust during that in-
sect’s ruinous invasions, and among the other
pests it consumes are the spring and fall can-
kerworms, orchard and forest tent caterpillars,
tussock, gipsy, and brown-tail moths, plum
curculio, army worm, and chinch bug. In fact,
not one of our birds has a better record.

14

BLACK-HEADED GROSBEAK
(Zamelodia melanocephala)

Length, about 8% inches.

Range: Breeds from the Pacific coast to Ne-
braska and the Dakotas, and from southern
Canada to southern Mexico; winters in Mexico.

Habits and economic status: The black-
headed grosbeak takes the place in the West
of the rosebreast in the East, and, like it, is a
fine songster. Like it, also, the blackhead
readily resorts to orchards and gardens and is
common in agricultural districts. The bird has
a very powerful bill and easily crushes or cuts
into the firmest fruit. It feeds upon cherries,
apricots, and other fruits, and also does some
damage to green peas and beans; but it is so
active a foe of certain horticultural pests that
we can afford to overlook its faults, Several
kinds of scale insects are freely eaten, and one,
the black olive scale, constitutes a fifth of the
total food. In May many cankerworms and
codling moths are consumed, and almost a sixth
of the bird’s seasonal food consists of flower
beetles, which do incalculable damage to culti-
vated flowers and to ripe fruit. For each
quart of fruit consumed by the black-headed
grosbeak it destroys in actual bulk more than
1% quarts of black olive scales and one quart
of flower beetles besides a generous quantity
of codling-moth pupe and cankerworms. It is
obvious that such work as this pays many
times over for the fruit destroyed.

SONG SPARROW (Melospiza melodia)

Length, about 614 inches. The heavily spot-
ted breast with heavy central blotch is charac-
teristic.

Range: Breeds in the United States (except
the South Atlantic and Gulf States), southern
Canada, southern Alaska, and Mexico; winters
in Alaska and most of the United States south-
ward.

Habits and economic status: Like the famil-
iar little “chippy,” the song sparrow is one of
our most domestic species, and builds its nest
in hedges or in garden shrubbery close to
houses, whenever it is reasonably safe from the
house cat, which, however, takes heavy toll of
the nestlings. It is a true harbinger of spring,
and its delightful little song is trilled forth from
the top of some green shrub in early March
and April, before most of our other songsters
have thought of leaving the sunny South, Song
sparrows vary much in habits, as well as in
size and coloration. Some forms live along
streams bordered by deserts, others in swamps
among bulrushes and tules, others in timbered
regions, others on rocky barren hillsides, and
still others in rich, fertile valleys. With such
a variety of habitat, the food of the species
naturally varies considerably. About three-
fourths of its diet consists of the seeds of
noxious weeds and one-fourth of insects. Of
these, beetles, especially weevils, constitute the
major portion. Ants, wasps, bugs (including
the black olive scale), and caterpillars are also
eaten. Grasshoppers are taken by the eastern
birds, but not by the western ones.

PurpLe Marrin BLaCK-HEADED GROSBEAK
Dace vpracren Mracrrak SonG SPARROW
15

CHIPPING SPARROW (Spizella
passerina)

Length, about 5% inches. Distinguished by
the chestnut crown, black line through eye, and
black bill.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States,
south to Nicaragua, and north to southern
Canada; winters in the southern United States
and southward.

Habits and economic status: The chipping
sparrow is very friendly and domestic, and
often builds its nest in gardens and orchards
or in the shrubbery close to dwellings. Its
gentle and confiding ways endear it to all bird
lovers. It is one of the most insectivorous of
all the sparrows. Its diet consists of about 42
per cent of insects and spiders and 58 per cent
of vegetable matter. The animal food consists
largely of caterpillars, of which it feeds a
great many to its young. Besides these, it eats
beetles, including many weevils, of which one
stomach contained 30. It also eats ants, wasps,
and bugs. Among the latter are plant lice and
black olive scales. The vegetable food is prac-
tically all weed seed. A nest with 4 young of
this species was watched at different hours on
4 days. In the 7 hours of observation 119
feedings were noted, or an average of 17 feed-
ings per hour, or 4% feedings per hour to each
nestling. This would give for a day of 14
hours at least 238 insects eaten by the brood.

WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW
(Zonotrichia leucophrys)

Length, 7 inches. The only similar sparrow,
the white throat, has a yellow spot in front of
eye.

Range: Breeds in Canada, the mountains of
New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, and Mon-
tana, and thence to the Pacific coast; winters
in the southern half of the United States and
in northern Mexico.

Habits and economic status: This beautiful
sparrow is much more numerous in the western
than in the eastern States, where, indeed, it is
rather rare. In the East it is shy and retiring,
but it is much bolder and more conspicuous
in the far West, and there often frequents
gardens and parks. Like most of its family,
it is a seed eater by preference, and insects
comprise very little more than 7 per cent of its
diet. Caterpillars are the largest item, with
some beetles, a few ants and wasps, and some
bugs, among which are black olive scales. The
great bulk of the food, however, consists of
weed seeds, which amount to 74 per cent of the
whole. In California this bird is accused of
eating the buds and blossoms of fruit trees,
but buds or blossoms were found in only 30
out of 516 stomachs, and probably it is only
under exceptional circumstances that it does
any damage in this way. Evidently neither the
farmer nor the fruit grower has much to fear
from the white-crowned sparrow. The little
fruit it eats is mostly wild, and the grain eaten
is waste or volunteer.

16

ENGLISH SPARROW (Passer
domesticus)

Length, about 64% inches. Its incessant chat-
tering, quarrelsome disposition, and abundance
and familiarity about human habitations dis-
tinguish it from our native sparrows.

Range: Resident throughout the United
States and southern Canada.

Habits and economic status: Almost univer-
sally condemned since its introduction into the
United States, the English sparrow has not
only held its own, but has ever increased in
numbers and extended its range in spite of all
opposition. Its habit of driving out or even
killing more beneficial species and the defiling
of buildings by its droppings and by its own
unsightly structures are serious objections to
this sparrow. Moreover, in rural districts, it is
destructive to grain, fruit, peas, beans, and
other vegetables. On the other hand, the bird
feeds to some extent on a large number of
insect pests, and this fact points to the need of
a new investigation of the present economic
status of the species, especially as it promises
to be of service in holding in check the newly
introduced alfalfa weevil, which threatens the
alfalfa industry in Utah and _ neighboring
States. In cities most of the food of the Eng-
lish sparrow is waste material secured from
the streets.

CROW BLACKBIRD (Quiscalus
quiscula)

Length, 12 inches. Shorter by at least 3
inches than the other grackles with trough-
shaped tails. Black, with purplish, bluish, and
bronze reflections.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States
west to Texas, Colorado, and Montana, and in
southern Canada; winters in the southern half
of the breeding range.

Habits and economic status: This blackbird
is a beautiful species, and is well known from
its habit of congregating in city parks and nest-
ing there year after year. Like other species
which habitually assemble in great flocks, it is
capable of inflicting much damage on any crop
it attacks, and where it is harmful a judicious
reduction of numbers is probably sound policy.

It shares with the crow and blue jay the evil
habit of pillaging the nests of small birds of
eggs and young. Nevertheless it does much
good by destroying insect pests, especially
white grubs, weevils, grasshoppers, and cater-
pillars. Among the caterpillars are army
worms and other cutworms. When blackbirds
gather in large flocks, as in the Mississippi
Valley, they may greatly damage grain, either
when first sown or when in the milk. In win-
ter they subsist mostly on weed seed and waste
grain.

CHIPPING SPARROW ENGLISH SPARROW
WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW Crow BLackBIRD

HORNED LARK (Otocoris alpestris)

Length, about 734 inches. The black mark
across the breast and the small, pointed tufts
of dark feathers above and behind the eyes
distinguish the bird.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States
(except the South Atlantic and Gulf States)
and Canada; winters in all the United States
except Florida.

Habits and economic status: Horned larks
frequent the open country, especially the plains
and deserts. They associate in large flocks,
are hardy, apparently delighting in exposed
situations in winter, and often nest before snow
disappears. The flight is irregular and _ hesi-
tating, but in the breeding season the males
ascend high in air, singing’ as they go, and
pitch to the ground in one thrilling dive. The
preference of horned larks is for vegetable
food, and about one-sixth of this is grain,
chiefly waste. Some sprouting grain is pulled,
but drilled grain is safe from injury. Cali-
fornia horned larks take much more grain than
the eastern birds, specializing on oats, but this
is accounted for by the fact that oats grow
wild over much of the State. Weed seeds are
the largest single element of food. The insect
food, about 20 per cent of the whole, includes
such pests as May beetles and their larve
(white grubs), leaf beetles, clover-leaf and
clover-root weevils, the potato-stalk borer, nut
weevils, bill-bugs, and the chinch-bug. Grass-
hoppers are a favorite food and cutworms are
freely eaten. The horned larks, on the whole,
may be considered useful birds.

KINGBIRD (Tyrannus tyrannus)

Length, about 8% inches. The white lower
surface and white-tipped tail distinguish this
flycatcher.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States
(except the southwestern part) and southern
Canada; winters from Mexico to South Amer-
ica.

Habits and economic status: The kingbird
is a pronounced enemy of hawks and crows,
which it vigorously attacks at every oppor-
tunity, thereby affording efficient protection to
near-by poultry yards and young chickens at
large. It loves the open country and is espe-
cially fond of orchards and trees about farm
buildings. No less than 85 per cent of its food
consists of insects, mostly of a harmful nature.
It eats the common rose chafer or rose bug,
and, more remarkable still, it devours blister
beetles freely. The bird has been accused of
eating honeybees to an injurious extent, but
there is little ground for the accusation, as
appears from the fact that examination of 634
stomachs showed only 61 bees in 22 stomachs.
Of these 51 were useless drones. On the other
hand, it devours robber flies, which catch and
destroy honeybees. Grasshoppers and crickets,
with a few bugs and some cutworms, and a
few other insects, make up the rest of the
animal food. The vegetable food consists of
fruit and a few seeds. The kingbird deserves
full protection.

ARKANSAS KINGBIRD (Tyrannus
verticalis)

Length, 9 inches. The white edge of the
feather on each side of the tail distinguishes
this from all other flycatchers except the gray
and salmon-colored scissortail of Texas.

Range: Breeds from Minnesota, Kansas, and
Texas to the Pacific Ocean and from northern
Mexico to southern Canada; winters from
Mexico to Guatemala.

Habits and economic status: The Arkansas
kingbird is not so domestic as its eastern rela-
tive and seems to prefer the hill country with
scattered oaks rather than the orchard or the
vicinity of ranch buildings, but it sometimes
places its rude and conspicuous nest in trees
on village streets. The bird’s yearly food is
composed of 87 per cent animal matter and 13
per cent vegetable. The animal food is com-
posed almost entirely of insects. Like the
eastern species, it has been accused of destroy-
ing honeybees to a harmful extent, and remains
of honeybees were found to constitute 5 per
cent of the food of the individuals examined;
but nearly all those eaten were drones. Bees
and wasps, in general, are the biggest item of
food (38 per cent) ; grasshoppers and crickets
stand next (20 per cent); and beetles, mostly
of noxious species, constitute I4 per cent of
the food. The vegetable food consists mostly
of fruit, such as the elder and other berries,
with a few seeds. This bird should be strictly
preserved.

NIGHTHAWK (Chordeiles virgianus)

Length, 10 inches. Not to be confused with
the whippoorwill. The latter lives in woodland
and is chiefly nocturnal. The nighthawk often
flies by day, when the white bar across the
wing and its nasal cry are distinguishing.

Range: Breeds throughout most of the
United States and Canada; winters in South
America.

Habits and economic status: The skillful
evolutions of a company of nighthawks as the
birds gracefully cleave the air in intersecting
circles is a sight to be remembered. So expert
are they on the wing that no insect is safe
from them, even the swift dragonfly being cap-
tured with ease. Unfortunately their erratic
flight tempts men to use them for targets, and
this inexcusable practice is seriously diminish-
ing their numbers, which is deplorable, since
no birds are more useful. This species makes
no nest, but lays its two spotted eggs on the

‘bare ground, sometimes on the gravel roof of

18

the city house. The nighthawk is a voracious
feeder and is almost exclusively insectivorous.
Some stomachs contained from 30 to 50 dif-
ferent kinds of insects, and more than 600
kinds have been identified from the stomachs
thus far examined. From 500 to 1,000 ants are
often found in a stomach. Several species of
mosquitoes, including Anopheles, the transmit-
ter of malaria, are eaten. Other well-known
pests destroyed by the nighthawk are the Colo-
rado potato beetle, cucumber beetles, chestnut,
rice, clover-leaf, and cotton-boll weevils, bill.
bugs, bark beetles, and squash bugs.

Hornep Lark ARKANSAS KINGBIRD
KINGBIRD NIGHTHAWK
19

MAGPIE (Pica pica hudsonia)

Length, from about 18 to 21 inches. The
black head and body and the white belly, white
wing patches, and long tail are distinguishing

features. The yellow-billed magpie is smaller,
with a yellow bill.
Range: A characteristic western species.

Breeds from Aleutian Islands and Alaska, cen-
tral Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, and Win-
nipeg Lake south to northern Arizona and New
Mexico, and from the Cascades and Sierra to
western North Dakota and western Texas;
resident.

There are two species of magpies, the yellow-
billed being confined to California, where it is
very local. In general the habits of the two
are similar. “Maggie,” as this bird is famil-
iarly known in the West, possesses dual traits.
He is beautiful of plumage and adds much to
the interest of the landscape as he flies from
field to field, his long tail extending behind like
a rudder.

Of eminently sociable disposition, this bird
is rarely seen alone. He prefers flocks of fam-
ily size to 50 and upwards. In more ways than
one the magpie is like the crow and his sagacity
has developed along much the same lines. In
most localities he is suspicious and wary, as he
has good cause to be, for he is not a favorite
with either farmer or ranchman. He is emi-
nently carnivorous, a carrion feeder by prefer-
ence, an insect eater by necessity, and he per-
forms good service in the latter role. He eats
also many wild fruits and berries, but he is an
incorrigible thief and well he knows his way
to the poultry yard.

PHBE (Sayornis phceebe)

Length, about 7 inches. Distinguishing marks
are the dusky brown color, dark brown cap,
and white margined outer tail feathers.

Range: Lives mainly in the east. Breeds
from about middle Canada south to northeast-
ern New Mexico, central Texas, northern Mis-
sissippi, and mountains of Georgia; winters
from latitude 37 degrees to southern Mexico.

Few of our birds have won a more secure
place in our hearts than plain little phoebe, who
has no pretentions to beauty of plumage or
excellence of song. For this its confiding dis-
position and trusting ways are responsible, and
many a farmer listens for its familiar voice in
early spring and welcomes it back to its accus-
tomed haunts under the old barn. Originally
building its nest on the face of cliffs, the phcebe
soon forsook the wilds for man’s neighbor-
hood, and year after year apparently the same
pair returns to the identical rafter in the barn,
the shelter of the porch, or the same nook
under the foot bridge, which they have claimed
for their own for many seasons. The insistent
call of “phcebe, phcebe” is as familiar as the
pipe of the robin.

The pheebe is one of the most useful of birds,
living almost wholly on insects, among which
are many noxious kinds, as May beetles. Many
pheebes remain with us till late fall, and indi-
viduals may be seen lingering in sheltered
places in the woods long after other flycatchers
have started for the tropics.

20

BLUE-FRONTED JAY (Cyanocitta stelleri
and subspecies)

Length, 1134 to 13 inches. Easily distin-
guished from its fellows by its high crest.
brownish slaty foreparts, dark blue wings and
tail, and blue or whitish streaks on forehead.

Range: Resident in western North America
from southern Alaska and Montana to Mexico.

The blue-fronted jays, of which the Steller
jay may be taken as the type, are common in-
habitants of the piny woods of both the Rocky
Mountain and the Sierra Nevada States. They
are among the handsomest of the family, the
beauty of their plumage, their long erectile
crests, and their insistent voices compelling the
attention of any who invade their retreats.
Not being residents of cultivated districts, al-
though they eat grain and small fruits, they do
comparatively little damage. On the other
hand, they do not do much good; for, although
they are insect eaters, insects do not constitute
a large part of their food, nor are the kinds
they eat very important economically. Prob-
ably their most serious fault is a fondness for
the eggs and young of small insectivorous
birds, of which they destroy many in the course
of the year. They share this failing with all
other members of the family, and bird lovers
must deem it a pity that such bold, dashing,
handsome birds as the jays should be so de-
structive to small but useful birds. This habit
is all the more to be deplored inasmuch as
when unmolested jays readily respond to invi-
tations to be neighborly, and willingly take up
their abode near houses, where they never fail
to excite admiration and interest.

WOOD PEWEE (Myiochanes virens)

Length, about 6% inches. Not readily dis-
tinguished by color, though darker than most
other small flycatchers, and with wing longer
than tail.

Range: Breeds from Manitoba and south-
eastern Canada to southern Texas and central
Florida; winters in Central and South Amer-
ica.

The wood pewee is clad in such modest garb
and is of such retiring disposition that, were it
not for its voice, it would often be passed un-
noticed even by the most observant, especially
as its home is in shaded glens or deep woods.
Here the wood pewee pursues its vocation with
a vigor worthy of all praise, and the snap of
its mandibles as they close over some luckless
flying insect is often the only sound heard in
the depths of the quiet forest. There is little
about the habits and make-up of this, or indeed
of any of the flycatchers, to suggest great con-
structive skill, but the nest of the wood pewee
is a marvel of taste and ingenuity and, though
much larger, suggests the dainty architecture
of our hummingbirds. Like their fairy crea-
tions, the wood pewees’ nest is covered with
lichens and saddled neatly across a limb.

The food of this flycatcher consists almost
exclusively of insects and includes, among oth-
ers, crane flies, beetles, dragonflies, ants, grass-
hoppers, caterpillars, and moths of many kinds.
It also devours such pests as the weevils and
many flies, including the house fly.

BLaAcCK-BILLED MaGPIE BLUE-FRONTED JAY
YELLOW-BILLED MAGPIE Woop PEwEE
PHOEBE

21

VESPER SPARROW (Pooecetes
gramineus and subspecies)

Length, about 6 inches. Its white-tipped
outer tail feathers distinguish this individual
from its brown liveried fellows.

Range: Breeds from southern Canada south
to Oregon, Arizona, Texas, Kentucky, Vir-
ginia, and North Carolina; winters from south-
ern California, Texas, Missouri, and North
Carolina south to the Gulf coast and southern
Mexico.

There is little about this brown-streaked
sparrow to attract attention and, until it flies
and displays the white-tipped tail feathers, you
might mistake the bird for any one of a half
dozen of the sparrow family. Indeed, if one
catches merely a glimpse of a vesper sparrow
crouched low and running swiftly through the
grass one may be forgiven for mistaking the
bird for a mouse. It frequents open pastures
and when singing likes to mount a rocky
boulder so common in New England and other
parts of the east. We are perhaps justified in
calling its song its most notable characteristic.
Though not a pretentious effort, the voice of
the vesper sparrow is sweet and plaintive be-
yond expression, and harmonizes with the dy-
ing day as does the song of no other bird.

Prof. Beal records the fact that in winter
the food of this sparrow consists wholly of
vegetable matter, while in summer it consists
of little else than insects. The vesper sparrow
cares less for grass seed than any other of its
fellows, but consumes great quantities of weed
seeds. It eats also large numbers of grasshop-
pers, caterpillars, and weevils. A number of
these sparrows taken in Utah, where the newly
imported alfalfa weevil is doing much damage,
were found to have eaten these weevils to the
average extent of more than half their food.
Thus the value of this bird to the farmer can-
not be questioned.

BLUE GROSBEAK (Guiraca cerulea and
subspecies)

Length, about 7 inches. Distinguished by its
larger size from the indigo bird which alone
resembles it.

Range: Breeds in the southern United States
north to northern California, Colorado, Ne-
braska, southern Illinois, and Maryland, and
south to southern Mexico; winters in Mexico
and Central America.

One seldom sees the blue grosbeak at short
range or under circumstances which make
identification easy, as the bird is rather shy and
frequents brushy thickets and viny tangles
much as does the indigo bird. .The low warb-
ling song of this grosbeak may be compared
with that of the purple finch, but it is neither
so loud nor so well sustained. Under the name
of “blue pap,” the grosbeak used to be a fa-
vorite cage bird in Louisiana and other South-
ern States, and no doubt is so today, despite
protective laws. In the matter of diet it shows
a marked preference for insect food over vege-
table, the proportion being about 67 to 33 per
cent. The vegetable matter includes many
weed seeds, as foxtail and bindweed.

22

CARDINAL (Cardinalis cardinalis and sub-
species)

Length, about 8% inches. Its size, crest, and
bright red color serve for instant identifica-
tion.

Range: Southern United States generally,
west to Texas and southern Arizona, north to
lower Hudson, northern Ohio, northern Indi-
ana, southern Iowa, and southeastern South
Dakota; resident.

The cardinal is a notable bird and any local-
ity he chooses for his residence must be con-
sidered highly favored. His bright colors,
trim form, and erectile crest, his clear whis-
tling call, and his fine song are all to his credit.
He is a resident of thickets and tangled un-
dergrowth with hanging vines, and, when these
are provided and he feels safe from the prowl-
ing cat and marauding hawk, he will take up
his abode in your garden or back yard as read-
ily as anywhere else. Favor him further by
supplying him food and water in winter and
you make him your friend indeed. Practically
he is a resident wherever found, and the sight
of his flashing red suit amidst snow-covered
bushes is a memorable picture. The cardinal
used to be a favorite cage bird in the Southern
States, and the business of trapping him for
market, especially about the large southern
cities, was common. The bird is now pro-
tected by law as it should be, and the sight of
a cardinal behind prison bars has become rare
indeed. How many thousands were sacrificed
for hat gear we shall never know, but happily
this practice too is fast disappearing.

By preference the cardinal is a vegetarian,
and about seven-tenths of its food consists of
vegetable matter in the form of seeds, berries,
etc. But it also eats many insects, potato bee-
tles, cotton worms, boll worms, cotton-boll
weevils, codling moths, and many other scarcely
less noteworthy. Mr. McAtee, in attempting
to sum up all the economic facts, declares that
the bird does at least fifteen times as much
good as harm, which is a record to be proud of.

CALIFORNIA QUAIL (Lophortyx
californica and varieties)

Length, about 9% inches. Distinguished
from Gambels’ quail by the reddish instead of
black belly. :

Range: Resident in the Pacific Coast region
from southwestern Oregon and western Ne-
vada through California and Lower California.

The California quail is one of our most beau-
tiful game birds, and the sight of a large covey
running daintily along, with crests nodding and
fine plumage gleaming in the sun is a sight to
remember. Before quail were so much perse-
cuted covies were common in the gardens of
Oakland and other California towns, seemingly
as much at home among calla lilies and rose
bushes as in the stubble field. The numerous.
families in the fall associate in bands of three
or four hundred, or even more. The Califor-
nia quail has learned one lesson never acquired
by our bobwhite—to roost in trees and bushes
instead of on the ground—and no doubt the:
safety thus obtained during the hours of dark-
ness is one reason for its great abundance.

VESPER SPARROW CARDINAL
BLue GROSBEAK Male, upper; female, lower
Male, upper; female, lower CALIFORNIA QUAIL

23

BREWER’S BLACKBIRD (Euphagus
cyanocephalus)

Length, 10 inches. Its glossy purplish head
distinguishes it from other blackbirds that do
not show in flight a trough-shaped tail.

Range: Breeds in the West, east to Texas,
Kansas, and Minnesota, and north to southern
Canada; winters over most of the United
States breeding range, south to Guatemala.

Habits and economic status: Very numerous
in the West and in fall gathers in immense
flocks, especially about barnyards and corrals.
During the cherry season in California Brew-
er’s blackbird is much in the orchards. In one
case they were seen to eat freely of cherries;
but when a neighboring fruit raiser began to
plow his orchard almost every blackbird in the
vicinity was upon the newly opened ground
and close at the plowman’s heels in its eager-
ness to get the insects exposed by the plow.
Caterpillars and pupe form the largest item of
animal food (about 12 per cent). Many of
these are cutworms, and cotton bollworms or
corn earworms were found in 10 stomachs and
codling-moth pupz in 11. Beetles constitute
over II per cent of the food. The vegetable
food is practically contained in three items—
grain, fruit, and weed seeds. Grain, mostly
oats, amounts to 54 per cent; fruit, largely
cherries, 4 per cent, and weed seeds, not quite
9 per cent. The grain is probably mostly wild,
volunteer, or waste, so that the bird does most
damage by eating fruit.

CALIFORNIA JAY (Aphelocoma
californica)

Length, 12 inches. Distinguished from other
jays within its range by its decidedly whitish
underparts and brown patch on the back.

Range: Resident in California, north to
southern Washington, and south to southern
Lower California.

Habits and economic status: This jay has the
same general traits of character as the eastern
blue jay. He is the same noisy, rollicking fel-
low and occupies a corresponding position in
bird society. Robbing the nests of smaller
birds is a favorite pastime, and he is a persist-
ent spy upon domestic fowls and well knows
the meaning of the cackle of a hen, Not only
does he steal eggs, but he kills young chicks.
The insect food of this jay constitutes about
one-tenth of its annual sustenance. The inclu-
sion of grasshoppers and caterpillars makes
this part of the bird’s food in its favor. But
the remainder of its animal diet includes alto-
gether too large a proportion of beneficial
birds and their eggs, and in this respect it ap-
pears to be worse than its eastern relative, the
blue jay. While its vegetable food is composed
largely of mast, at times its liking for culti-
vated fruit and grain makes it a most unwel-
come visitor to the orchard and farm. In con-
clusion, it may be said that over much of its
range this jay is too abundant for the best in-
terests of agriculture and horticulture.

24

BULLOCK’S ORIOLE (lIcterus bullocki)

Length, about 8 inches. Our only oriole with
top of head and throat black and cheeks
orange.

Range: Breeds from South Dakota, Ne-
braska, and Kansas to the Pacific Ocean and
from southern Canada to northern Mexico;
winters in Mexico.

Habits and economic status: In the West
this bird takes the place occupied in the Fast
by the Baltimore oriole. In food, nesting
habits, and song the birds are similar. Both
are migratory and remain on their summer
range only some five or six months. They
take kindly to orchards, gardens, and the vi-
cinity of farm buildings and often live in vil-
lages and city parks, Their diet is largely made
up of insects that infest orchards and gardens.
When fruit trees are in bloom they are con-
stantly busy among the blossoms and save
many of them from destruction. In the food
of Bullock’s oriole beetles amount to 35 per
cent and nearly all are harmful. Many of
these are weevils, some of which live upon
acorns and other nuts. Ants and wasps amount
to 15 per cent of the diet. The black olive
scale was found in 45 of the 162 stomachs ex-
amined. Caterpillars, with a few moths and
pupe, are the largest item of food and amount
to over 41 per cent. Among these were cod-
ling-moth larve. The vegetable food is prac-
tically all fruit (19 per cent) and in cherry
season consists largely of that fruit. Eating
small fruits is the bird’s worst trait, but it will
do this harm only when very numerous.

BLUE JAY (Cyanocitta cristata)

Length, 1144 inches. The brilliant blue of
the wings and tail combined with the black
crescent of the upper breast and the crested
head distinguish this species.

Range: Resident in the eastern United States
and southern Canada, west to the Dakotas,
Colorado, and Texas.

Habits and economic status: The blue jay is
of a dual nature. Cautious and silent in the
vicinity of its nest, away from it it is bold and
noisy. Sly in the commission of mischief, it is
ever ready to scream “thief” at the slightest
disturbance. As usual in such cases, its re-
marks are applicable to none more than itself,
a fact neighboring nest holders know to their
sorrow, for during the breeding season the jay
lays heavy toll upon the eggs and young of
other birds, and in doing so deprives us of the
services of species more beneficial than itself.
Approximately three-fourths of the annual
food of the blue jay is vegetable matter, the
greater part of which is composed of mast—
that is, acorns, chestnuts, beechnuts, and the
like. Corn is the principal cultivated crop upon
which this bird feeds, but stomach analysis in-
dicates that most of the corn taken is waste
grain. Such noxious insects as wood-boring
beetles, grasshoppers, eggs of various caterpil-
lars, and scale insects constitute about one-
fifth of its food.

Brewer's BuackBirD BuLLock’s ORIOLE
CALIFORNIA JAY BLueE Jay

25

VARIED THRUSH (lIxoreus nevius)

Length, about Io inches. Its large size and
dark slate-colored upper parts, black breast col-
lar, orange brown stripe over eye, and orange
brown under parts mark this thrush apart from
all others.

Range: Breeds on the Pacific coast from
Yakutat Bay, Alaska, south to Humboldt
County, California; winters from southern
Alaska to northern California.

This, one of our largest and finest thrushes,
is limited to the west coast, where it finds a
congenial summer home in the depths of the
coniferous forests, the mystery and loneliness
of which seem reflected inits nature. Although
the varied thrush somewhat suggests our robin,
it is much shyer, and its habits and notes are
very different, making it more nearly akin to
the small olive thrushes. It nests in the coni-
fers, and its eggs, unlike those of the robin,
are heavily blotched with brown. Its song, a
single long-drawn note, has been greatly
praised and seems entirely in harmony with
the bird's surroundings, being weird and inspir-
ing. In winter the varied thrush abandons the
forest, and with it many of the habits of the
recluse, and visits more open districts, includ-
ing ravines and even gardens, where it becomes
quite familiar.

This thrush, like its smaller brethren, feeds
chiefly on the ground, and its food is largely
of vegetable nature, but includes a fair propor-
tion of insects, with millepeds and snails. Un-
less its habits are greatly modified by the en-
croachment of civilization on its domain, it is
not likely to be much of a factor in agricultural
affairs, but it will continue to make itself use-
ful by destroying the insect enemies of forest
trees.

VEERY (Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens)

Length, about 7% inches. To be known from
the other small thrushes hy its uniform cinna-
mon brown upper parts and its faint brown
breast markings.

Range: Breeds from northern Michigan, cen-
tral Ontario, and Newfoundland south to
northern Illinois, northern Indiana, northern
Ohio, and New Jersey, and in the Alleghenies
south to North Carolina and northern Georgia;
winters in South America.

Far more retiring than either the wood
thrush or the hermit, the veery must be sought
in the seclusion of the swamp or swampy
woodland, far from the recesses of which he
rarely ventures. Much of his time he spends
on the ground, for on or near it he finds his
chosen fare. Though trim in form and clad in
a garb of modest color as hefits his nature, the
veery appeals less to the bird lover’s eye than
to his ear. Though some of his relatives are
classed among the most famous of American
songsters, the veery may fairly claim place in
the front rank, and his wild, mysterious, and
all-pervading notes touch certain chords in the
human breast which respond to the song of no
other of our birds.

The food of the veery does not differ essen-
tially from that of the other thrushes and in-
cludes a great variety of wild fruits and in-
sects.

26

WOOD THRUSH (Hylocichla mustelina)

Length, about 8% inches. To be distin-
guished among its fellows by its more bulky
form, by the golden brown head, bright cinna-
mon upper parts, and the large round black
spots beneath, sharply contrasting with the pure
white.

Range: Breeds from southern South Dakota,
central Mimnesota, central Wisconsin, southern
Ontario, and southern New Hampshire south
to eastern Texas, Louisiana, and northern
Florida; winters from southern Mexico to
Central America.

The wood thrush finds its way to our hearts
and sympathies more through its voice than its
presence, and whoever has failed to hear its
clear flute-like tones rising from the woodland
depths as the mists of evening gather has
missed a rich treat. It is no doubt true that
the hermit thrush is a more finished performer,
but that chorister reserves his music chiefly for
the northern wilds, while our wood thrush
favors more southern lands. Moreover, the
hermit is a true recluse and must be sought in
the deeper forest, its chosen home, while its
more southern cousin lives in comparatively
open woodland and does not disdain to take up
its summer residence in parks and gardens.
The music of the one is for the favored few,
while the song of the other is almost as well
known as that of the brown thrasher.

Like most of the tribe, the wood thrush ob-
tains its food chiefly from the ground, where
it spends much of its time searching among
the leaves. Insects with a small percentage of
fruit, chiefly wild varieties, compose its fare.
Among the insects are cutworms and other
caterpillars, ants, grasshoppers, and beetles, in-
cluding the Colorado potato beetle. Thus the
hird deserves a high place in our esteem for
both esthetic and economic reasons.

BUSH-TIT (Psaltriparus minimus and
subspecies)

Length, from 4 to 4% inches.

Range: Pacific coast from southern British
Columbia to the Cape Region of Lower Cali-
fornia, and eastward to the interior of Oregon
and California; nests generally throughout its
range.

This pigmy among birds has many of the
characteristic habits of the chickadee family,
of which it is the smallest member. Extremely
sociable, bush-tits move about in large flocks,
occasionally in company with other birds, gen-
erally without. One moment you are alone, the
next moment the trees and bushes are full of
these diminutive little busybodies that scan you
with their curious bead-like eyes as they hurry
on in quest of food, keeping up the while a
constant calling and twittering. Their pendant
nests, often attached to oak trees, suggest the
well-known structure of our hang-bird or Bal-
timore oriole and are excellent specimens of
bird architecture. ;

The few Western States favored by the pres-
ence of this bird are to be congratulated, as
more than half its animal food consists of in-
sects and spiders, nearly all of which are harm-
ful.

Woop Turus
BusH-T1T

SH

VarieD THRU:

VEERY

27

TOWHEE (Pipilo erythrophthalmus)

Length, about 81% inches.
belly white. Female brown.
ers white tipped.

Range: Breeds in the United States from
Saskatchewan and southeastern Canada south
to central Kansas and northern Georgia; win-
ters from southeastern Nebraska and the Ohio
and Potomac southward.

The towhee is a frequenter of second-growth
and of scrub, and when the visitor enters such
precincts he is pretty sure to hear the chal-
lenging cry, “chewink,” and to catch sight of
the bird as it hurriedly dashes into some
brushy thicket as if in mortal terror. The
flight is hurried, jerky, and heavy, as though
the bird was accustomed to use its wings only
in emergencies. This is not far from being
the case, as the towhee sticks close to mother
earth and uses its great strength and long
claws to advantage in making the leaves and
rubbish fly in its vigorous efforts to uncover
the seeds and insects upon which it relies for
food. The towhee thus literally scratches for
a living as no other of our birds does, except
possibly the brown thrush, and the lazy man
may well pass by the industrious ant and go
to the towhee for inspiration. No one waxes
enthusiastic over its musical ability, but the
song is given with such right good will that it
is sure to satisfy the hearer as, no doubt, it
does the bird himself. The towhee includes in
its bill of fare beetles and their larve, ants,
moths, caterpillars, grasshoppers, and flies, and
also in Texas the boll weevil. Wild fruit and
berries complete the list.

Male mostly black,
Outer tail feath-

ORCHARD ORIOLE (lIcterus spurius)

Length, about 714 inches.
with black and chestnut markings.
grayish olive green.

Our only oriole
Female

Range: Confined to eastern North America.
Breeds from North Dakota, Minnesota, Wis-
consin, Michigan, southern Ontario, central

New York, and Massachusetts south to north-
ern Florida, the Gulf coast and southern Mex-
ico, west to central Nebraska and western
Kansas; winters from southern Mexico to
northern Colombia.

Though clad in modest garb (for an oriole)
and in no respect a rival of the Baltimore, the
orchard oriole has merits of his own. As his
name implies, he is a lover of orchards, and |
have always associated him with the glory of
apple orchards in full bloom and with the de-
licious perfume with which the air is heavy.
Amidst such surroundings, the black and chest-
nut livery of the orchard oriole marks him as
one of the princes of our bird world. Gar-
dens and parks also know him well, and he is
not averse to swinging his nest from the trees
that shade the farmer’s house. His nest be-
trays his connection with the family of weav-
ers, but his skill does not equal that of the

Baltimore and he is content with a smaller
pensile basket made chiefly of grasses. His
song, like his dress, is modest, but it is exceed-
ingly sweet, and one who hears it is sure to
pause in his walk and wish that it were longer
and given more frequently.

28

CALIFORNIA BROWN TOWHEE
(Pipilo crissalis and varieties)

Length, about 9 inches. The long tail and
brown plumage with white belly distinguish
these ground- and thicket-loving birds.

Range: Southwestern Oregon, through Cali-
fornia. to northern Lower California.

The brown towhees, of which the California
form is a good type, are characteristic of the
brushy canyons of the far west, where they
skulk and hide among the shrubbery and cac-
tus much as do the common eastern towhees.
Their powers of wing are not great and their
long tails and heavy bodies render their flight
awkward in the extreme. On the ground,
however, they run with great ease and speed.
In California brown towhees are common in
the parks and gardens, and in every way are
very much more familiar than the related tow-
hee of the east. Like its eastern cousin, it is
much addicted to scratching among leaves and
rubbish, for which work its stout legs and
claws are particularly adapted. The thin
“tchip,” which is the call note, seems out of all
proportion coming from such a stout, vigorous
body. The birds of this group are not fine
songsters, but their simple ditties are pleasant
to hear in the waste places where they are gen-
erally found.

The brown towhee is much more of a vege-
tarian than an insect eater, and in California
Professor Beal found that 85 per cent of its
yearly food consists of fruit, grain, and weed
seeds.

BALTIMORE ORIOLE (Icterus galbula)

Length, about 7% inches. The combination
of black and orange marks this bird from its
fellows.

Range: Breeds from central Saskatchewan
and the southeastern provinces of Canada
south to northern Texas, Louisiana, and north-
ern Georgia, west to Montana, Wyoming, and
eastern Colorado; winters from southern Mex-
ico to Colombia.

Lord Baltimore was signally honored when
one of our finest birds was christened with his
name because it chanced to carry the family
colors—black and yellow. Orioles are a trop-
ical group and the luxuriant tropical forests
are bright with the gleaming colors of many
species “of these beautiful birds. Only a few
have found their way into the temperate zone,
but not one of the tropical species is garbed
in more tasteful dress than this exotic “which
has adopted the elms and sycamores of the
temperate zone for its summer home. When
chill November winds have stripped our shade
trees of their foliage then are revealed the
long, pendant nests, wrought with so much
skill and patience by Madame Oriole, and we
begin to realize how many of these birds sum-
mer with us. Suitable material for the oriole
nest is none too easily found, and the weaver
is not so fastidious that she will not accept
strings and yarn of any color which are hung
out for her convenience; so that at the end of
the oriole season the bird lover who is willing
to cooperate with a pair of Nature’s weavers
may fall heir to a nest made to order.

TOWHEE OR CHEWINK Catirornia Brown TowHEe
Male, upper; female, lower BALTIMORE ORIOLE

ORCHARD ORIOLE Male, upper; female, lower
Male, upper; female, lower

29

TREE SWALLOW (Iridoprocne bicolor)

Length, about 6 inches. The steel blue upper
parts and pure white under parts are distin-
guishing characteristics.

Range: Breeds from northwestern Alaska
and northern Canada south to southern Cali-
fornia, Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, and Vir-
ginia; winters in central California, southern
Texas and Gulf States, and south to Guate-
mala.

In its primitive state the tree swallow used
to nest in hollow trees, and in some parts of
the country it still continues to do so. Early
in the settlement of the country it saw the ad-
vantage of putting itself under man’s protec-
tion, and now no bird is quicker to respond to
an invitation to nest in a box dedicated to its
use. The bird lover within the range of the
species may secure an interesting tenant or two
by the expenditure of a little trouble and labor,
since the bird is not a bit fastidious as to its
domicile, providing it is weather tight. Tree
swallows arrive from the South early in April
and soon begin to nest. In the fall they gather
in great flocks preparatory to their departure,
and may then be seen by hundreds perched on
telegraph wires. As is the habit with swallows
generally, tree swallows migrate by day, feed-
ing as they go, and a flock passing swiftly
south presents to the casual observer an every-
day appearance well calculated to deceive.
Watch the flock as it crosses the road and
passes from field to field and you will notice
that while the line of flight has many a twist
and turn it trends steadily to the south, and
that no individual takes the back track.

The tree swallow consumes vast numbers of
gnats, flying ants, beetles, mosquitoes, and other
flying insects. It exhibits a rather curious de-
parture from the traditions of its kind in that
it appears to be very fond of the berries of
the bayberry or wax myrtle. It also often
chooses these bushes for a roosting place at
night.

SCARLET TANAGER (Piranga
erythromelas)

Length, about 7% inches. The scarlet coat
and black wings and tail mark this bird out
from all others.

Range: Breeds from southern Canada south
to southern Kansas, northern Arkansas, Ten-
nessee, northern Georgia, and mountains of
Virginia and South Carolina; winters from
Colombia to Bolivia and Peru.

The tanagers are strictly an American fam-
ily, and, as their bright colors might seem to
suggest, they originated in the Tropics to which
most of the numerous species are confined. In
fact, the gleam of scarlet from the coat of this
tanager in our somber woods always seems a
little out of place, as though the bird were an
alien. But it is wholly at home with us, and,
indeed, does not hesitate to make its summer
residence still farther north in Canada. Curi-
ously enough, the nearest relatives of the bril-
liant tanagers in the bird world are the plainly
colored sparrows. The chirp-churr of the tan-
ager is a familiar call note in our northern
woods, while its song is one of the sweetest.

30

CLIFF SWALLOW (Petrochelidon
lunifrons and subspecies)

Length, about 6 inches. The rufous upper
tail coverts serve to distinguish this swallow
from other species.

Range: Breeds from central Alaska and
northern Canada south over the United States
(except Florida) and to Guatemala; winters in
South America.

The cliff and the barn swallow are members
in good standing of the original guild of ma-
sons, and their clever constructive work in nest
building with mud pellets will bear the severest
professional inspection. Through much of the
West the cliff swallow still attaches its mud
house to the faces of cliffs as from time imme-
morial, and it was not until the farmers’ house
and barn offered a satisfactory substitute for
granite and sandstone bluffs that the bird be-
came really numerous in our Eastern States.
In some localities this swallow is not a wel-
come guest about the homestead, as its nest is
apt to contain parasites which the good house-
keeper fears. Such parasites, however, are not
to be dreaded, as they will live only on birds.
The cliff swallow performs invaluable service
to man, since its food consists wholly of in-
sects, and among them are many pestiferous
kinds, such as leaf bugs, leaf-hoppers, and the
boll weevil. Whoever, then, protects this and
other species of swallows and encourages their
presence on their premises does good and pa-
triotic service and can, moreover, be sure of
adequate reward.

WESTERN TANAGER (Piranga
ludoviciana)

Length, about 7 inches. The combination of
orange-red head, black back, and yellow under
parts is distinctive.

Range: Breeds from northeastern British
Columbia, southwestern Mackenzie, and south-
western South Dakota to the mountains of
southern California and New Mexico; winters
from central Mexico to Guatemala.

Discovered in Idaho by Lewis and Clark in

1806, this tanager has thus been known more
than a hundred years, in which time it has be-
come one of the most familiar of western
birds. It is a common inhabitant of both the
western Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Ne-
vada, and is very much at home among the
pine woods of which it is the brightest orna-
ment. In general its habits are like those of
its scarlet cousin, and it also has a sweet song
very similar in general effect. In California
this tanager has acquired an evil reputation by
attacks on the cherry crop, and there is no
doubt that when it assembles in large numbers
in the fruit districts it is the cause of heavy
loss to small fruit growers. Under ordinary
circumstances, however, the greater part of its
food consists of insects, many of them harm-
ful. Two very harmful families of beetles,
whose larve are wood horers and do much
damage, to trees and other plants, are repre-
sented in the food. The planting of berry-
bearing trees near the orchard would no doubt
prevent much of the loss occasioned by this
bird, which by no means occurs every year.

CLirF oR Eaves SWALLOW

TREE SWALLOW

ScaRLET TANAGER
Male, upper; female, lower

WESTERN TANAGER
Male, upper; female, lower

31

INDIGO BUNTING (Passerina cyanea)

Length, about 5% inches. The male is easily
identified by the rich blue color, with black
wings and tail. The female is warm brown.

Range: Breeds from eastern North Dakota,
central Minnesota, northwestern Michigan,
southern Ontario, and southern New Bruns-
wick to central Texas, southern Louisiana,
central Alabama, and central Georgia; winters
from southern Mexico to Panama.

The indigo bird is the brightest colored spar-
row that visits the north, but one can hardly
believe that the sprightly dandy, clad in his
rich blue suit, is the mate of the inconspicuous
brown bird that seeks assiduously to conceal
herself in the leafy cover, as though a bit
ashamed of the contrast between her working
suit and the holiday garb of her spouse. The
indigo is a frequenter of sprout land, of
brushy thickets, and of open woodland, and the
male is fond of singing his cheerful lay from
the topmost twig of a tall shrub or tree, as
though challenging the world to produce his
equal. For such a dainty bird, the nest is a
singularly inartistic structure and very care-
lessly built. It is placed in the crotch of some
low leafy bush and is not at all difficult to find.

The fine feathers of the male are not the
enly claim of the indigo bird to our interest.
Its food consists largely of weed seed, but it
eats many insects, including a goodly propor-
tion of grasshoppers and caterpillars.

WHITE-THROATED SPARROW
(Zonotrichia albicollis)

Length, about 634 inches, The white throat
and yellow before the eye are its distinguish-
ing colors.

Range: Over most of eastern North Amer-
ica. Breeds in much of Canada south to south-
ern Montana, central Minnesota, central Wis-
consin, and in the mountains of northern Penn-
sylvania, New York, and Massachusetts; win-
ters south of the Ohio.

This is one of the bird lovers’ favorites, as
well it may be. Its beautifully variegated plu-

mage, its jaunty ways, its familiarity, and its
sweet and plaintive whistle all combine to
commend the bird to our interest. In the fall

it comes to us in large flocks associated with
other species, especially juncos and various
other sparrows. The ‘peabody bird” is singu-
larly prodigal of its sweet song, and the young
white-throats begin to try their voices in the
fall as if practicing for the more exacting de-
mands of spring. When a number join in the
fall chorus the result is singularly sweet and
inspiring. Many a camper in the north woods,
as he lies in his blanket under the stars, pays
tribute to the sweet voice of this songster, as
it is borne on the midnight air to his ears from
some leafy retreat.

The food habits of this sparrow give it a
place among the farmers’ friends. It is a great
destroyer of weed seed and is especially fond
of those of ragweed and bindweed. In the
cotton belt, where many white-throats winter,
it includes among its insect food the boll
weevil.

LAZULI BUNTING (Passerina amcena)

Male blue

Length, from 5% to 5% inches. u
jes

above, breast brownish; wing bars white.
male brownish.

Range: Breeds from southern British Co-
lumbia, southern Alberta, southeastern Sas-
katchewan, and western North Dakota to
southern California and southwestern Texas;
winters in Mexico.

The lazuli finch is a near relative of the in-
digo bunting and the nonpareil, and its habits
are in a general way very similar. There is
the same disparity between the dress of the
sexes, the color of the female being compara-
tively dull and homely. The male, however, is
a gay plumaged dandy in his suit of turquoise
blue, and is likely to surprise the stranger who
meets him for the first time, since his colors
suggest a tropical setting and are somewhat
out of keeping with his surroundings. Not-
withstanding his fine feathers, he is not so
fond of displaying himself as is his cousin, the
indigo bird, but seems to think that the cover
of brush and chaparral is essential to his
safety. This song is vivacious and pleasing and
the Easterner who hears it for the first time
will have no difficulty in guessing at the iden-
tity of the chorister, from the resemblance ot
his lay to the ditty of the indigo bird.

SLATE-COLORED JUNCO (Junco
hyemalis)

Length, about 614 inches. Prevailing color
grayish slate, belly white; outer tail feathers
tipped with white.

Range: Breeds in much of Alaska and Can-
ada and in the mountains of New York, Penn-
sylvania, and Massachusetts, while a nearly re-
lated form (the Carolina junco) breeds in the
southern Alleghenies; winters throughout the
Eastern States to the Gulf.

Only one junco inhabits the eastern United
States, but several species live in the west. All
of the members of the group resemble each
other in a general way and all have similar
habits. Most of us know the junco only in the
fall and when, after having summered in the
mountains of the more northern districts, the
birds gather in large flocks and forsake high
altitudes for more congenial surroundings.
The junco associates with other sparrows,
usually far outnumbering them, but its slate-
colored plumage and white tail feathers reveal
its presence unmistakably. Its familiar ‘‘tsip”
may be easily recognized among the medley of
notes, but its low sweet song is to be heard at
its best only in its alpine home. When snow
is on the ground, the juncos are often hard
pushed for food, and on such occasions a flock
will readily respond to an invitation to visit
the dooryard and dine on table crumbs or
small seeds of any kind.

The junco is one of our most persistent
grass and weed seed eaters and in winter and
spring seeds constitute much the greater part
of its fare.

Inpico BuNTING Lazu BuNnTING
Male, upper; female, lower Male, upper; female, lower

WHITE-THROATED SPARROW SLATE-COLORED JUNCO

33

BLACK FLYCATCHER; PHAINO-
PEPLA (Phainopepla: nitens)

Length, about 7% inches. The glossy black
color and marked crest of the male and the
brownish gray of the female, also crested, dis-
tinguish this species.

Range: Breeds from central California, Ne-
vada, Utah, and southwestern Texas south-
ward; winters from southern California south-
ward.

Though a distant relative ‘of the cedar bird,
the phainopepla differs markedly from that
species both in appearance and habits. It is
known to few, for it lives chiefly in the desert
country of the Southwest, though it is not
wholly a stranger in the parks and gardens of
that region. When flying the white wing-patch
becomes conspicuous and distinguishes the bird
from all others. In the fall it is not unusual
to find it in loose flocks the members of which
are drawn temporarily together, perhaps by the
abundance of some favorite food. Like the
cedar bird, it is essentially a berry eater, and
in California sometimes makes free of the
cherry crop. Its chief dependence, however, is
the mistletoe, the mucilaginous berries of which
delight it, as also do those of the juniper and
pepper. Its partiality for mistletoe is probably
the bird's worst trait, as it distributes the seeds
of this pernicious parasite to the detriment of
many fine oaks and sycamores. It eats many
insects, principally ants, and has the habit of
perching on a tall shrub, from which it sallies
forth after flying insects, thus simulating a
flycatcher. The phainopepla has a variety of
call notes and a very pleasant song.

YELLOW-THROATED VIREO
(Lanivireo flavifrons)

Length, about 6 inches. Its green upper
parts and bright yellow throat and upper breast
are its identification marks.

Range: Breeds from southern Canada south
to central Texas, central Louisiana, and central
Florida; winters from southern Mexico through
Central America.

By no means so common as the red-eye. the
yellow-throat inhabits the same kind of wood-
land tracts and, like it, may often be seen, and
still oftener heard, in the trees that shade the
village or even the city streets. It is, however,
much less common in such places since the ad-
vent of the English sparrow, having been
driven away by that little pest. Its song is
much like that of the red-eye, yet it has a rich
throaty quality quite foreign to the notes of
that tireless songster and far superior to them,
Neither this nor indeed any of the vireos ever
seem to be in a hurry. They move quietly
through the leafy covert, scanning the most
likely lurking places for insects, pausing now
and then to sing in a meditative manner, then
renewing their quest. All of which is as dif-
ferent as possible from the busy, nervous move-
ments of the wood warblers, that seem ever in
haste as though time were much too precious
to waste.

The food of the yellow-throat consists of a
large variety of insects. including caterpillars,
moths, and beetles, and flies and mosquitoes.

34

RED-EYED VIREO (Vireosylva olivacea)

Length, about 6% inches. The slaty gray
crown inclosed by narrow black lines serves to
identify this vireo.

Range: Breeds from central Canada south to
southeastern Washington, southern Montana,
eastern Wyoming, eastern Colorado, western
Texas, and central Florida; winters in South
America.

The red-eye is one of the commonest not
only of our vireos, but also of all our small
birds, and inhabits every suitable piece of
woodland throughout its territory. Its notes
may be frequently heard coming from the vil-
lage shade trees; city parks and streets also
know it. Its most notable trait is its habit of
singing almost continuously as it moves slowly
through the branches, pausing now and then to
pick up a caterpillar or other insect. In woods
where these vireos are common its voice may
be heard all the livelong day, even during the
noon hours, when most birds are silently rest-
ing. The nest, suspended in a V-shaped fork,
is a beautiful specimen of avian architecture,
and so indifferent is the bird to its location
that the nest of no other bird is so frequently
seen by the chance passer-by.

Though fond of mulberries and sassafras
berries, the red-eye eats insects by preference,
and spends most of its time gleaning the
branches for plant lice, scales and caterpillars
of various kinds. It eats such harmful beetles
as the long-horned borers and weevils. I once
saw a red-eye with a full-grown luna moth in
its bill. After vigorously beating the helpless
moth on a limb to’ get rid of the wings, the
bird succeeded in reducing the enormous body
to a formless mass which it eventually swal-
lowed.

LARK SPARROW: (Chondestes
grammacus and subspecies)

Length, about 6% inches. The variegated
head markings and white outer tail feathers
distinguish this species.

Range: From western Pennsylvania and
western Maryland and the Mississippi Valley
westward, and from southern British Columbia
and southern Saskatchewan to central Ala-
bama, northern Louisiana, Texas, and south
into Mexico; winters from northern California,
southern Texas, and southern Mississippi to
Guatemala.

With some of the habits of the grass finch
and, like that species, having the tail feathers
tipped with white, the lark sparrow yet pos-
sesses distinctive traits of its own, and after
a little scrutiny can be mistaken for no other
species. Its peculiar head markings have sug-
gested the local western name of “snake bird,”
although the reason is not quite obvious. The
lark finch is usually very abundant where
found at all, and inhabits the open country,
prairie, plain, and desert. It is a really fine
songster and the possession of a musical voice
has led to its capture and sale as a cage bird.

It has peculiar claims on the interest of the
western farmer since it is to be classed in the
front rank of sparrows as a destroyer of grass-
hoppers.

Biack FLYCATCHER OR PHAINOPEPLA RED-EYED VIREO
Female, upper; male, lower Lark SPARROW
YELLOW-THROATED VIREO

w
Wn

HOUSE FINCH (Carpodacus mexicanus
frontalis)

Length, about 6 inches. Grayish brown
above, many feathers tinged with red. Below
dull white, crown, rump, and throat crimson.

Range: Resident in Oregon, Idaho, and
southeastern Wyoming south to Lower Cali-
fornia and Mexico.

The pretty little house finch of the far west
is among the most domestic of American birds,
and exhibits a predilection for the neighbor-
hood of houses almost as strong as that of the
English sparrow. It carols its sprightly lay
from the tops of buildings in villages and even
cities, and from the shrubbery of lawn and
park. So confiding has the bird become that it
places its nest in any crack or cranny of house
or outbuilding that is large enough for its
housekeeping operations, When such conve-
nient and safe retreats are not to be had it
builds a bulky nest in a tree or bush.

It is fond of fruit, including pears, cherries,
and small fruit, which its strong conical bill
enables it to break open with ease. Locally,
therefore, it is a good deal of a pest and does
much damage to fruit crops, especially where
it is numerous. Much, however, can be said
in mitigation of its offenses. The seeds of
plants, a large proportion of those of noxious
weeds, constitute seven-eighths of its food for
the year. Plant lice, which are notoriously
harmful to many trees and plants, also are a
favorite diet. So, too, are caterpillars and
beetles; therefore, the balance is decidedly in
the bird’s favor.

This attractive songster was carried to the
Hawaiian Islands years ago and now is nu-
merous in Honolulu and also in the forest on
the island of Hawati, where amid brighter and
more tropical neighbors it seems curiously out
of place, though it sings as often and as joy-
ously as it ever did in its old haunts across the
Pacific.

ARKANSAS GOLDFINCH (Astragalinus
psaltria and subspecies)

Length, about 4% inches. Upper parts olive
green, more or less mixed with black in the
subspecies; under parts yellow.

Range: Breeds from southern Oregon, Utah,
and northern Colorado to southern Lower
California and into Mexico.

In the far west this goldfinch takes the place
of the eastern goldfinch which in a general
way it much resembles in habits. Like that
bird it is rarely seen, save in the breeding sea-
son, except in small parties, the members of
which seem to be on terms of the utmost fa-
miliarity and accord. The flight of this spe-
cies, as of its kindred, is exceedingly charac-
teristic. It disdains to cleave the air in straight
lines, but progresses in a series of graceful,
sinuous curves, which, however, take the little
aéronaut rapidly from point to point. This
flight is a sure mark of identification, The
bird has a sweet warbling song and even its
call notes are plaintive and pleasing. It
abounds in orchards and gardens and is often
to be seen by the roadside gleaning its food
from the tall stems of thistle or sunflowers.

36

PURPLE FINCH (Carpodacus purpureus)

Length, about 6 to 6% inches. Unlike any
other eastern finch, the crimson head of the
male sufficiently distinguishes it.

Range: Breeds in southern Canada and
southward to North Dakota, Minnesota, IIli-
nois, Pennsylvania mountains, and northern
New Jersey; winters from somewhat north of
the southern boundary of its breeding range
to the Gulf States.

Considering that it is common and widely
distributed, the purple finch is not so well
known as it should be. For one thing it has a
marked liking for the tops of trees, particu-
larly elms, and when in a tree-top and more or
less screened by foliage it requires the aid of
a good glass to make its identity.sure. Its
warbling song is sweet and melodious, but is
all too brief for perfect enjoyment, though in
spring the bird is prodigal enough of its carols,
and not infrequently a dozen males may be
heard singing at once in the same or in con-
tiguous. trees. It frequently nests around
houses and for a site is very partial to the
Virginia juniper.

The purple finch lives almost entirely on the
seeds of various plants, including those of
false buckwheat and ragweed, with some wild
berries. It is accused, not without reason, of
being a confirmed budder of fruit and other
trees, but the damage it inflicts on eastern or-
chards appears to be very slight, if indeed the
modest budding it does is an injury at all.

AMERICAN GOLDFINCH (Astragalinus
tristis and subspecies)

Length, about 5 inches. Easily distinguished
by its rich yellow plumage and black crown
and tail.

Range: Breeds from southern Canada south
to southern California, southern Colorado,
Arkansas, and northern Georgia.

The thistle bird is one of our best-known
finches, being not only common but very so-
ciable. It usually goes in small flocks, or fam-
ily parties, and sometimes the tall thistles on
which it likes to feed bend with the united
weight of several of the gay plumaged little
goldfinches. It is a law unto itself as regards
its nesting period, and begins to think seriously
about housekeeping when other birds are feed-
ing full-grown youngsters or are debating the
propriety of a second brood. The goldfinch
has a pretty and plaintive call note, and its full
song is well worth listening to. It is much
like that of the canary, so much alike, in fact,
that the bird is often called the wild canary.

Throughout the year the goldfinch is a seed
eater, especially of weed seeds, and it eats also
many insects, including canker worms, plant
lice, and beetles. Our goldfinch sometimes an-
noys the farmer by attacking the lettuce seeds
which have been left to mature for next sea-
son’s planting, but the damage in this way is
slight, and Prof. Beal has been told that even
on the large seed farms of California it is
never serious enough to call for protective
measures.

RARER IDE ao

House Fincu PurPLe FINCH

Female, upper; male, lower Male, upper; female, lower
ARKANSAS GOLDFINCH AMERICAN GOLDFINCH

Male, upper; female, lower Male, upper; female, lower

37

SOR mies

RUBY-THROAT (Archilochus colubris)

Length, about 334 inches. Needs no descrip-
tion, as it is the only hummer living in the
Fastern States.

Range: Breeds from southeastern Saskatch-
ewan and central Quebec south to Gulf coast,
west to North Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and
central Texas; winters from middle Florida
and Louisiana through southern Mexico and
Central America to Panama.

Of the five hundred or more species of this
strictly American family, the eastern United
States is favored by the presence of only one,
the ruby-throat, nor is this species as common
as might be desired. Compared to the abun-
dance of its kind in the far west it is rare in-
deed. As if afraid of being too prodigal of
her gifts, Nature has denied the hummingbird
song, and the harsh squeaks of these tiny
sprites are far better adapted to making war
than love. Truth is, the hummer has a sharp
temper and not only engages in warfare with
its own kind, but attacks any bird, however
large, that ventures to dispute its territorial
rights. These are not small, for in its own
estimation it is literally “Lord of all it sur-
veys.” The male is an inconstant swain and
no sooner is the nest made—and in the making
he takes no part—and the eggs laid than he
departs, leaving the joys and cares of house-
keeping to his erstwhile mate. While the nec-
tar of flowers is eaten in large quantities, a
creature so vivacious as the hummer could
hardly sustain life on diet so thin, and the
bird adds to its bill of fare a liberal supply of
minute insects and spiders of various sorts.

WHIP-POOR-WILL (Antrostomus
vociferus)

Length, about 10 inches. Not to be con-
fused with the nighthawk, which flies by day
and has white wing bars, while the whip-poor-
will is crepuscular and nocturnal.

Range: Breeds from the Atlantic to the
plains, and from Manitoba and the eastern
Canadian provinces south to northern parts of
Louisiana, Mississippi and Georgia; winters
from South Carolina and the Gulf States to
Central America.

This bird of the night, whose day begins
with the going down of the sun when the
nighthawk’s stds: is common throughout the
east in open woodlands, on the edges of which
it likes to hunt. It dozes away the hours of
daylight squatting on the ground among the
leaves where its marvelous protective colora-
tion affords it safety. No sooner have the
shadows lengthened, however, than it becomes
active and its characteristic note resounds
through the forest glades. So plaintive is its
cry and so mysterious its comings and goings
that in the minds of many its notes are asso-
ciated with misfortune, as a death in the house
near which it persistently calls. Its two eggs
are laid among the leaves, needing no other
protection than the cover of the mother’s body.
The whip-poor-will may be accounted one of
our most efficient insect destroyers, as its im-
mensely capacious mouth beset with bristles, a
regular insect trap, would suggest.

38

RUFOUS HUMMINGBIRD (Selasphorus
rufus)

Length, from 3% to 334 inches. The red-
dish brown body color, red and green gorget,
and the notch in tail feathers serve to distin-
guish this species from our other hummers.

Range: Breeds from the Alaskan coast, east
central British Columbia, and southern Alberta
south to the mountains of central California
and southern Idaho.

One can but wonder at the hardihood of this
little wanderer from the tropics in including
in its summer itinerary a journey to distant
Alaska. It reaches a latitude of 61°, much far-
ther north than any other of its kind. In
favored elades of the forests in the Rocky
Mountains and the Sierras during the migra-
tion this and other species of hummers are to
be seen literally by hundreds. The rufous
hummer has temper and courage to match its
fiery hues, and spends, no small part of its
time doing battle with its fellows. The con-
testants after several fierce rounds fly away
not only fit, but eager for another fray on the
first occasion, In addition to the nectar of
flowers, its standard fare, this hummer in-
cludes in its diet “honey dew,” the sugary se-
cretion of plant lice which is deposited on
vegetation. Like all other hummers, it eats
large numbers of minute insects which it finds
inside the flowers, It is interesting to note
that hummingbirds discover the flowers they
frequent by sight alone, and any bit of bright
color in the distance is sure to attract their
notice, as a bright red handkerchief on a bush
or about the neck. More than once I have ob-
served them poising within a few inches of
my head, evidently endeavoring to ascertain
the nature of the red handkerchief I wore.

ROAD RUNNER (Geococcyx
californianus)

Length, 20 to 24 inches, mostly tail. Quite
unlike any other North American bird in form
and color.

Range: From the upper Sacramento Valley
south through California and the peninsula and
from Colorado, Kansas, middle and western
Texas, Arizona and New Mexico southward;
resident.

The name “road runner” when applied to a
cuckoo may seem an anomaly to those who
know only our eastern cuckoos, but in truth
the road runner is anomalous in many ways.
It is distinguished by curiously marked plu-

mage, the possession of a long bill and a dis-
proportionally long tail. As a result of its
strange appearance, and stranger antics, the
road runner is made the hero of many a fable.
Among other wonders, it is claimed that it can
outrun the swiftest horse and kill the biggest
rattlesnake. It is said to accomplish the latter
feat by surrounding the reptile while asleep
with a rampart of cactus spines on which the
enraged reptile accommodatingly impales itself.

The truth is that when in a hurry this ground
cuckoo can run with great speed, though as yet
no official record of its best time has been

made. Its food consists of a great variety of
harmful insects—mice, lizards, and small
snakes.

sh mt i

RuBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD Rurous HUMMINGBIRD
Male, upper; female, lower Male, upper; female, lower
WHIP-POOR-WILL ROADRUNNER

39

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40

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JTqenjea pue years sry} ‘Ajayeunyojug “spslq Jappewuss JO Jaquinu Jajesis Apsea e uey} oHo AMOYS d1OW & soyeU SPI Aeis Siq yo Aeiie ue yong

SNVOITAd GNVSNOHL GHYdNNH ANO
IdyoO “J aqoy Aq ydessojoyg

41

YAHSVUH T, NMOUG

aulg ONINOOJY

MOCKING BIRD (Mimus polyglottos)

Length, 1o inches. Most easily distinguished
from the similarly colored loggerhead shrike
(see p. 679) by the absence of a conspicuous
black stripe through the eye.

Range: Resident from southern Mexico
north to California, Wyoming, Iowa, Ohio, and
Maryland; casual farther north.

Habits and economic status: Because of its
incomparable medleys and imitative powers,
the mocking bird is the most renowned singer
of the Western Hemisphere. Even in confine-
ment it is a masterly performer, and formerly
thousands were trapped and sold for cage
birds; but this reprehensible practice has been
largely stopped by protective laws. It is not
surprising, therefore, that the mocking bird
should receive protection principally because
of its ability as a songster and its preference
for the vicinity of dwellings. Its place in the
affections of the South is similar to that occu-
pied by the robin in the North. It is well that
this is true, for the bird appears not to earn
protection from a strictly economic stand-
point. About half of its diet consists of fruit,
and many cultivated varieties are attacked,
such as oranges, grapes, figs, strawberries,
blackberries, and raspberries, Somewhat less
than a fourth of the food is animal matter,
and grasshoppers are the largest single ele-
ment. The bird is fond of cotton worms, and
is known to feed also on the chinch-bug, rice
weevil, and bollworm.

Rt

BROWN THRASHER (Toxostoma rufum)

Length, about 11 inches. Brownish red
above, heavily streaked with black below.

Range: Breeds from the Gulf States to
southern Canada and west to Colorado, Wyo-
ming, and Montana; winters in the southern
half of the eastern United States.

Habits and economic status: The brown
thrasher is more retiring than either the mock-
ing bird or catbird, but like them is a splendid
singer. Not infrequently indeed its song is
taken for that of its more famed cousin, the
mocking bird. It is partial to thickets and gets
much of its food from the ground. Its search
for this is usually accompanied by much
scratching and scattering of leaves; whence its
common name. Its call note is a sharp sound
like the smacking of lips, which is useful in
identifying this long-tailed, thicket-haunting
bird, which does not much relish close scrutiny,
The brown thrasher is not so fond of fruit as
the catbird and mocker, but devours a much
larger percentage of animal food. Beetles
form one-half of the animal food, grasshop-
pers and crickets one-fifth, caterpillars, includ-
ing cutworms, somewhat less than one-fifth,
and bugs, spiders, and millepeds comprise most
of the remainder. By its destruction of these

and other insects, which constitute more than
60 per cent of its food, the thrasher much
more than compensates for that portion (about
one-tenth) of its diet derived from cultivated
crops.

Photograph by L. W. Brownell

MOTHER IS TAKING NO CHANCES OF LETTING HER LITTLE ONE SPILL ON ITS CLEAN
DRESS: A BROWN THRASHER FEEDING ITS YOUNG

LG irate

Great Horned OWL Woop Duck
Coot Male, upper; female, lower

SPOTTED SANDPIPER

44

GREAT HORNED OWL (Bubo virgin-
jlanus and subspecies)

Length, about 22 inches. The great size and
long ear tufts sufficiently distinguish this owl.

Range: Resident over the greater part of
North and South America.

This, our largest owl, inhabits heavily for-
ested and unsettled regions and is becoming
more and more rare in thickly populated areas.
It is well known by its far-reaching call—
“hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo”—which is heard best in the
still small hours of the night, when it echoes
across the expanse of canyon and forest in the
far west.

This owl destroys many partridges and other
game birds, and unhoused poultry is never safe
from its nocturnal attacks. Its deeds are those
of darkness, since usually it hunts only at night,
though when disturbed in the daytime it can
see well enough to take good care of itself.
Its bill of fare is a long one and includes many
kinds of mammals and birds. It is one of the
few creatures which when hungry do not hesi-
tate to attack the skunk, and it appears to have
no great difficulty in killing this rather for-
midable little beast. That it does not always
do so with entire impunity is evident from the
odor frequently attaching to its feathers. Its
destruction of rodents entitles it to our grati-
tude, especially when it kills pocket gophers,
rats, mice, ground squirrels, and rabbits.

COOT (Fulica americana)

Length, about 15 inches. The slate-colored
plumage, with blackish head and neck, white
bill, and scalloped toes mark this bird apart
from all others.

Range: Breeds from southern Canada south
to Lower California, Texas, Tennessee, and
New Jersey; also in southern Mexico and
Guatemala; winters from southern British Co-
lumbia, Nevada, Utah, Ohio Valley, and Vir-
ginia south to Panama.

The coot, or mud-hen, is a sort of combina-
tion of duck, gallinule, and rail, and withal is
a very interesting bird. Fortunately for the
coot, its flesh is little esteemed, and by many,
indeed, is considered unfit for human consump-
tion. The coot is thus passed by in contempt
by most sportsmen, and in some regions it 1s
as tame as can well be imagined, swimming
within a few feet of the observer with entire
unconcern. Under other circumstances, how-
ever, as in Louisiana, where it is shot for food
under the name poule d’eau, it becomes as wild
as the most wary of ducks. It frequents both
salt and fresh water, preferably the latter.
The mud-hen is one of the few American birds
that occasionally visits the distant Hawaiian
Islands in fall and winter. Finding conditions
there to their liking, some of the immigrants,
probably centuries ago, elected to remain and
found a new colony, and there, in the fresh-
water ponds of the island archipelago, their
descendants still live and thrive.

The food of the coot consists almost entirely
of water plants of no use to man. There
would seem, therefore, to be no excuse for
killing or disturbing the bird in any way.

45

WOOD DUCK (Aix sponsa)

Length, about 19 inches. The elongated crest
of feathers and variegated plumage of white
and brown, spotted with chestnut, ochraceous,
and steel blue, are characteristic.

Range: Breeds from Washington to middle
California, and from Manitoba and southeast-
ern Canada to Texas and Florida; winters
chiefly in the United States.

It can be said of this duck, as of no other,
that it is our very own, since most of the
breeding area it occupies is within our terri-
tory, and by far the greater number of the
species winter within the United States. The
story of its former abundance on our ponds
and streams and of its present scarcity is a sad
commentary on our improvidence and a warn-
ing for the future. Happily, it is not yet too
late to save this most beautiful of our ducks,
and under proper regulations it may be ex-
pected not only to hold its own, but to increase
until it is once more a proper object for the
skill of sportsmen. Under present conditions
all true sportsmen should refrain from its fur-
ther pursuit.

As is well known, the wood duck is one of
the few wildfowi that builds its nest in hollow
trees, and the security thus provided for the
young is one of the factors to be relied upon
for the increase of the species. North, south,
east, and west, the States of every section are,
or should be, interested in the preservation of
this distinctively American duck, and should
make suitable regulations for its welfare and
see to their enforcement.

SPOTTED SANDPIPER (Actitis
macularia)

Length, about 6 inches. The “tip up,” with
its brownish gray upper parts and white under
parts and its teetering motion, is too well
known to need description.

Range: Breeds in northwestern Alaska and
in much of northern Canada south to southern
California, Arizona, southern Texas, southern
Louisiana, and northern South Carolina; win-
ters from California, Louisiana, and South
Carolina to southern Brazil and Peru.

The little “tip up,” as it is appropriately
named, from its quaint nodding motion, unduly
favors no one section or community, but elects
to dwell in every region suited to its needs
from Alaska to Florida. It is doubtless more
widely known than any other of our shore
birds, and as it takes wing when disturbed, its
“wit, wit” comes to us from beach, river side,
and mill pond, from one end of the land to the
other. It is the only shore bird that habitually
nests in cornfields and pastures, and its hand-
some buff eggs spotted with chocolate are well
known to the farmer’s boy everywhere. Much
is to be said in favor of the food habits of the
little tip up, as the bird includes in its diet
army worms, squash bugs, cabbage worms,
grasshoppers, green flies, and crayfishes. Hav-
ing thus earned a right to be numbered among
the farmers’ friends, the bird should be exempt
from persecution.

CowBIRD
Male, upper; female, lower

CHIMNEY SWIFT

YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD
Male, upper, female, lower

STARLING

46

YELLOWHEAD (Xanthocephalus
xanthocephalus)

Length, about 1o‘inches. Our only blackbird
with a yellow head.

Range: Confined to western North America.
Breeds from southern British Columbia, south-
ern Mackenzie, southwestern Keewatin, and
northern Minnesota to southern California and
Arizona, east to southern Wisconsin, Illinois,
and Indiana; winters from southwestern Cali-
fornia, southern Arizona, southeastern Texas,
and southwestern Louisiana south into Mexico.

Apparently Nature started out with the in-
tention of making an oriole, but decided to
make a blackbird instead—and behold the yel-
lowhead. He is a sociable chap and nests in
great companies in the tule swamps of the
west. The yellowhead's voice is harsh and
guttural and his vocal efforts have been well
characterized as a maximum of earnest effort
with a minimum of harmony. Late in mid-
summer when the young are on the wing, old
and young betake themselves to the uplands,
grain fields, pastures, and corrals, associating
as often as not with redwings and Brewer’s
blackbirds. The yellowhead feeds principally
upon insects, grain, and weed seed, and does
not attack fruit or garden produce; but it does
much good by eating noxious insects and
troublesome weeds; where too abundant it is
likely to be injurious to grain.

STARLING (Sturnus vulgaris)

Length, about 8% inches. Gencral color dark
purple or green with reflections; feathers above
tipped with creamy buff, In flight and general
appearance unlike any native species.

Range: At present most numerous near New
York City. Has spread to Massachusetts, Con-
necticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland,
Virginia, and recently to the District of Co-
lumbia; resident where found, though wander-
ing southward in winter in search of food.

The Old World has sent us two bird pests—
the English sparrow and the starling. Al-
though, up to the present time, we cannot con-
vict the starling of having done any great dam-
age he has proclivities which make him poten-
tially very dangerous. Introduced into New
York in 1890, the original sixty have multiplied
many fold and spread in all directions till now
they occupy territory hundreds of miles square,
and are multiplying and spreading faster than
ever. On the north they have entered Massa-
chusetts and Connecticut, and on the south
they have reached Richmond, though only in
migration. Even as I write the calls of a flock
of 200 or more can be heard coming from a
neighboring park, but as yet the bird has hot
elected to summer in the National Capital.
The starling is a hardy, prolific bird and is also
aggressive. Like the English sparrow it asso-
ciates in flocks, which is a great advantage in
bird disputes. There is little doubt that the
effect of its increase and spread over ovr coun-
try will prove disastrous to native species, such
as the bluebirds, crested flycatchers, swallows,
wrens, and flickers, all valuable economic spe-
cies, which nest in cavities as does the starling.

47

COWBIRD (Molothrus ater)

Length, about 8 inches. Male glossy black,
head, neck, and breast brown, Female brown-
ish gray.

Range: Breeds from southern British Co-
lumbia, southern Mackenzie, and southeastern
Canada south to northern California, Nevada,
northern New Mexico, Texas, Louisiana, and
North Carolina; winters from southeastern
California and the Ohio and Potomac valleys
to the Gulf and to central Mexico.

Chapman calls the cowbird a villain—but is
not the villain in the piece often the most in-
teresting character on the stage? Thus our
cowbird, short as he,is of manners and morals,
cannot fail to interest the bird lover. He is
full of idiosyncrasies that keep one guessing.
Why, for instance, his close association with
the peaceful cow? Why his ludicrous attempts
to sing, he who has not a thread of music in
his whole make-up? How did Madame Cow-
bird come to lapse from the paths of virtue
and, in place of building a nest of her own,
foist her eggs and the care of her offspring on
smaller and better principled birds to their det-
riment?

CHIMNEY SWIFT (Chetura pelagica)

Length, rather less than 5% inches. Too well
known by its peculiar flight and habits to need
describing.

Range: Known only in eastern North Amer-
ica. Breeds from southeastern Saskatchewan,
Manitoba, Quebec, and Newfoundland south to
Gulf coast; west to Plains from eastern Mon-
tana to eastern Texas; winters south of the
United States,

The popular name of this bird, chimney
swallow, embodies an error, since the bird not
only is not a swallow, but is not even distantly
related to the swallow family. Unlike the
hummingbirds as the chimney swift is in ap-
pearance and habits, it is structurally not far
removed from them, Like the swallows it is
an indefatigable skimmer of the air, and like
them it earns a debt of gratitude by destroy-
ing vast numbers of our winged enemies, which
its unsurpassed powers of flight enable it to
capture. Indeed, chimney swifts eat nothing
but insects, and no insect that flies is safe from
them, unless it be too large for them to swal-
low. In June swifts may be seen gathering
twigs for nest material. They disdain to pick
these up from the ground, but seize the cov-
eted twig with their strong feet and break it
off from the terminal branch when in full
flight. By means of a sticky saliva secreted
for the purpose the swift glues these twigs to
the sides of the chimney in the form of a shal-
low nest. Although not generally known,
swifts roost in chimneys and cling to the walls
by using the sharp-pointed tail as a prop, as
do many woodpeckers in ascending trees. Any
bird lover may secure distinction by solving
an ornithological riddle and telling us where
our chimney swifts spend the winter. They
come in spring, they go in fall, and at present
that is about all we know of the matter, save
that they do not hibernate in hollow trees, as
many have believed.

SS ra rE

BLACK-CROWNED Nicutr HERON
Male, upper; young bird, lower
HERRING GULL
Adult in winter, upper
Adult in summer, lower

48

GreaT Biue Heron
ComMMON TERN

BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON

(Nycticorax nzvius nzvius)

Length, about 24 inches. The black crown
distinguishes it from its relative, the yellow-
crowned night heron.

Range: Breeds from northern Oregon, south-
ern Wyoming, southern Manitoba, and central
Quebec south to Patagonia; winters from
northern California and Gulf States southward.

Given for a roosting place a suitable stand
of leafy trees, especially evergreens, conve-
niently near a stream or pond that harbors
fish, frogs, and tadpoles, and any locality may
have its colony of night herons. As its name
implies, this heron is a bird of the night, not
leaving its roost till dusk, when, with frequent
iteration of its hoarse quawk, it wings its way
in the gathering gloom straight to its feeding
place. So rarely is the bird about in daylight
that a large colony may exist for years near a
town or large city and not above a dozen indi-
viduals have an inkling of its existence. True
to its sociable instincts, the night heron by
preference nests in colonies, and several pairs
often place their rude nests of sticks in the
same tree; or, in the absence of trees, as in the
extensive tule swamps of the far west, where
other conditions are ideal for herons, they nest
on the ground or on the prostrate tules, hun-
dreds of pairs being associated together.

This heron sometimes feeds on field mice,
but it eats too many fish to please the fish-
culturist, and after it has once learned the way
to a hatchery strong measures are needed to
discourage its activities.

HERRING GULL (Larus argentatus)

Length, about 24 inches.
above; much of rest of plumage white.
readily distinguished in life from its allies.

Range: Breeds in Alaska and in Arctic re-
gions south to southern British Columbia,
southern Alberta, northern North Dakota, cen-
tral Wisconsin, southern Ontario, northern
New York, and Maine; winters from southern
British Columbia to Lower California and
western Mexico, and from Gulf of St. Law-
rence and Great Lakes south to Bahamas,
Yucatan, and coast of Texas.

All things considered, the herring gull is
probably the best known of the family by rea-
son of its abundance and wide distribution.
Moreover, this is the gull most frequently
noticed by passengers as it follows in the wake
of our ocean and trans-Atlantic steamers. It
breeds no farther south than the coast of
Maine, but in winter it is very numerous along
the Atlantic coast and in many of our inland
ponds. It does excellent service as a scavenger
in our harbors, venturing fearlessly among the
shipping to secure anything edible that may
find its way overboard. The services of this
and other gulls in such a capacity are so valu-
able that their destruction under any pretense
is to be deprecated. When the craze for feath-
ered hat gear was at its height thousands of
gulls, without regard to species, were killed for
millinery purposes; but now that the sale of
their feathers is illegal practically everywhere
in the United States, the gulls are rapidly in-
creasing.

Deep pearl gray
Not

49

GREAT BLUE HERON (Ardea herodias
and subspecies)

Length, from 42 to 50 inches.

Range: Breeds from the southern Canadian
provinces south to southern Lower California,
southern Mexico, and South Atlantic States;
winters from Oregon, the Ohio Valley, and
Middle States south to the West Indies, Pan-
ama, and Venezuela.

When one sees a large bluish bird, with long
neck and stilt-like legs, standing motionless by
river, pond, or lake, or slowly wading in the
shallows, he may be sure he has before him
the great blue heron, and a notable bird he is
in many ways. Wary as this heron is and keen
to scent danger, he offers so tempting a mark
as he wings his way slowly along, with head
and neck drawn in against the body and long
legs trailing behind, or as he stands motionless
watching for game, that he is frequently shot
“just for the fun-of it.” This wanton taking
of life is never justifiable, but when the life
cut short represents so much beauty and grace
as are embodied in this stately bird the crime
seems doubly heinous. Naturally this heron is
much less common than he used to be.

Small fish, frogs, tadpoles, and snakes form
the bulk of his food, and in some regions he is
a determined foe of mice and gophers, and the
sight of a heron in the midst of a dry pasture
or in a stubble field watching for a gopher to
emerge from his hole is very common.

COMMON TERN (Sterna hirundo)

Length, about 15 inches. The pearl-gray
breast and belly distinguish the adult of this
tern from its relatives. The outer web of the
outer tail feathers is darker than the inner
web; the reverse is true of Forster’s tern, its
nearest ally.

Range: Breeds from Great Slave Lake, cen-
tral Keewatin, and southern Quebec south to
southwestern Saskatchewan, northern North
Dakota, southern Wisconsin, northern Ohio,
and North Carolina; winters from Florida to
Brazil.

Our common tern is, alas, common no longer.
The Atlantic coast is peculiarly fitted to be the
home of the terns by reason of the extensive
shallows and the great number of sandy islands
on which terns and gulls used to breed in abso-
lute safety. At the bidding of fashior, how-
ever, thousands of these beautiful creatures
were slaughtered, till the sand was red with
their blood and island colonies that used to
number thousands were exterminated. No ex-
cuse serves to palliate the crime of the whole-
sale murder of these graceful sea swallows, as
they are aptly termed, which used to make our
shores so attractive by their presence. But the
tide seems to have turned, partly at least. The
government has set aside islands as breeding
resorts and places of refuge and, through the
activity of Audubon societies and of individual
workers, a certain measure of safety seems
now assured to these persecuted birds. It may
even prove possible, by the bird sanctuary plan,
to increase their numbers again and make them
a familiar sight along our deserted shores.

Sparrow Hawk
Rep-TaILeD Hawk

50

SPARROW HAWK (Falco sparverius)

Length, about 10 inches. This is one of the
best known and handsomest, as well as the
smallest, of North American hawks.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States,
Canada, and northern Mexico; winters in the
United States and south to Guatemala.

Habits and economic status: The sparrow
hawk, which is a true falcon, lives in the more
open country and builds its nest in hollow
trees. It is abundant in many parts of the
West, where telegraph poles afford it conve-
nient perching and feeding places. Its food
consists of insects, small mammals, birds, spi-
ders, and reptiles. Grasshoppers, crickets, and
terrestrial beetles and caterpillars make up
considerably more than half its subsistence,
while field mice, house mice, and shrews cover
fully 25 per cent of its annual supply. The
balance of the food includes birds, reptiles,
and spiders. Contrary to the usual habits of
the species, some individuals during the breed-
ing season capture nestling birds for food for
their young and create considerable havoc
among the songsters of the neighborhood.. In
agricultural districts when new ground is
broken by the plow, they sometimes become
very tame, even alighting for an instant under
the horses in their endeavor to seize a worm or
insect. Out of 410 stomachs examined, 314
were found to contain insects; 129, small mam-
mals, and 70, small birds. This little falcon
renders good service in destroying noxious in-
sects and rodents and should be encouraged
and protected.

RED-TAILED HAWK (Buteo borealis)

Length, about 2 feet. One of our largest
hawks; adults with tail reddish brown.

Range: Breeds in the United States, Mexico,
Costa Rica, Canada, and Alaska; winters gen-
erally in the United States and south to Guate-
mala.

Habits and economic status: The red-tailed
hawk, or “hen-hawk,” as it is commonly called,
is one of the best known of all our birds of
prey, and is a widely distributed species of
great economic importance. Its habit of sit-
ting on some prominent limb or pole in the
open, or flying with measured wing beat over
prairies and sparsely wooded areas on the look-
out for its favorite prey, causes it to be noticed
by the most indifferent observer, Although
not as omnivorous as the red-shouldered hawk,
it feeds on a variety of food, as small mam-
mals, snakes, frogs, insects, birds, crawfish,
centipedes, and even carrion. In regions
where rattlesnakes abound it destroys consid-
erable numbers of the reptiles. Although it
feeds to a certain extent on poultry and birds,
it is nevertheless entitled to general protection
on account of the insistent warfare it wages
against field mice and other small rodents and
insects that are so destructive to young or-
chards, nursery stock, and farm produce. Out

of 530 stomachs examined, 457, or 85 per cent,
contained the remains of mammal pests, such
as field mice, pine mice, rabbits, several spe-
cies of ground squirrels, pocket gophers, and
cotton rats, and only 62 contained the remains
of poultry or game birds.

Photograph by Howard H. Cleaves
RED-SHOULDERED HAWK DEMONSTRATING THE REACH OF ITS LEGS

For experimental purposes a stuffed owl was tied in an upright position and the investi-
gators secreted themselves to await developments. Almost immediately there was an uproar
in which every bird in the vicinity took part. A red-shouldered hawk swooped down upon
the bait and gave it a vicious jab, while the others were an interested audience perched in
adjoining trees around the arena. | The attack was repeated until the owl’s feathers were
almost all pulled out and the excelsior stuffing showed in several places.

51

Cooper's Hawk
MourninG Dove

COOPER’S HAWK (Accipiter cooperi)

Length, about 15 inches. Medium sized, with
long tail and short wings, and without the
white patch on rump which is characteristic of
the marsh hawk.

Range: Breeds throughout most of the
United States and southern Canada; winters
from the United States to Costa Rica.

Habits and economic status: The Cooper’s
hawk, or “blue darter,’ as it is familiarly
known throughout the South, is preéminently
a poultry and bird-eating species, and its de-
structiveness in this direction is surpassed only
by that of its larger congener, the goshawk,
which occasionally in autumn and winter enters
the United States from the North in great
numbers. The almost universal prejudice
against birds of prey is largely due to the ac-
tivities of these two birds, assisted by a third,
the sharp-shinned hawk, which in habits and
appearance might well pass for a small Coop-
er’s hawk. These birds usually approach under
cover and drop upon unsuspecting victims,
making great inroads upon poultry yards and
game coverts favorably situated for this style
of hunting. Out of 123 stomachs examined, 38
contained the remains of poultry and game
birds, 66 the remains of other birds, and 12 the
remains of mammals. Twenty-eight species of
wild birds were identified in the above-men-
tioned material, This destructive hawk, to-
gether with its two near relatives, should be
destroyed by every possible means.

MOURNING DOVE (Zenaidura macroura)

Length, 12 inches. The dark spot on the
side of the neck distinguishes this bird from
all other native doves and pigeons except the
white-winged dove. The latter has the upper
third of wing white.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States
and in Mexico, Guatemala, and southern Can-
ada; winters from the central United States
to Panama.

Habits and economic status: The food of
the mourning dove is practically all vegetable
matter (over 99 per cent), principally seeds of
plants, including grain. Whieat, oats, rye, corn,
barley, and buckwheat were found in 150 out
of 237 stomachs, and constituted 32 per cent
of the food. Three-fourths of this was waste
grain picked up after harvest. The principal
and almost constant diet is weed seeds, which
are eaten throughout the year and constitute
64 per cent of the entire food. In one stomach
were found 7,500 seeds of yellow wood sorrel,
in another 6,400 seeds of barn grass or fox-
tail, and in a third 2,600 seeds of slender pas-
palum, 4,820 of orange hawkweed, 950 of
hoary vervain, 120 of Carolina cranesbill, 50 of
yellow wood sorrel, 620 of panic grass, and 40
of various other weeds. None of these are
useful, and most of them are troublesome
weeds, The dove does not eat insects or other
animal food. It should be protected in every
possible way.

Photograph by Dr. C. William Beebe

THE DANDY AMONG BIRDS

The Mexican mot-mot is perhaps the only hird that mutilates its tail-feathers for pur-

poses of decoration after they are full-grown.

A portion of the shafts is denuded by the

bird, leaving the web at the tips to form a conspicuous racket.

53

RuFrepD GROUSE
BoBwHITE

RUFFED GROUSE (Bonasa umbellus)

Length, 17 inches. The broad black band
near tip of tail distinguishes this from other
grouse.

Range: Resident in the northern two-thirds
of the United States and in the forested parts
of Canada.

Habits and economic status: The ruffed
grouse, the famed drummer and finest game
bird of the northern woods, is usually wild and
wary and under reasonable protection well
withstands the attacks of hunters.
when reduced in numbers, it responds to pro-
tection in a gratifying manner and has proved
to be well adapted to propagation under arti-
ficial conditions, Wild fruit, mast, and browse
make up the bulk of the vegetable food of this
species. It is very fond of hazelnuts, beech-
nuts, chestnuts, and acorns, and it eats practi-
cally all kinds of wild berries and other fruits.
Nearly 60 kinds of fruits have been identified
from the stomach contents examined. Various
weed seeds also are consumed. Slightly more
than 10 per cent of the food consists of in-
sects, about half being beetles, The most im-
portant pests devoured are the potato beetle,
clover-root weevil, the pale-striped flea beetle,
grapevine leaf-bectle, May beetles, grasshop-
pers, cotton worms, army worms, cutworms,
the red-humped apple worm, and sawfly larve.

the most remarkable.

represented thus:
PoPHP PoP eV--1-P,

Moreover, |

BOBWHITE (Colinus virginianus)

Length, to inches. Known everywhere by
the clear whistle that suggests its name.

Range: Resident in the United States east
of the plains; introduced in many places in the
West.

Habits and economic status : The bobwhite
is loved by every dweller in the country and is
better known to more hunters in the United
States than any other game bird. It is no less
appreciated on the table than in the field, and
in many States has unquestionably been hunted
too closely. Fortunately it seems to be practi-
cable to propagate the bird in captivity, and
much is to be hoped for in this direction. Half
the food of this quail consists of weed seeds,
almost a fourth of grain, and about a tenth of
wild fruits. Although thus eating grain, the
bird gets most of it from stubble. Fifteen per
cent of the bobwhite’s food is composed of in-
sects, including several of the most serious
pests of agriculture. It feeds freely upon
Colorado potato beetles and chinch bugs; it
devours also cucumber beetles, wireworms,
billbugs, clover-leaf weevils, cotton-boll wee-
vils, army worms, bollworms, cutworms, and
Rocky Mountain locusts. Bobwhite is very
useful to the farmer, and while it may not be
necessary to remove it from the list of game
birds every farmer should see that his own
farm is not depleted by eager sportsmen.

Poe * see mS
Photograph by John Woodcock
A RUFFED GROUSE ABOUT TO DRUM

Of all the characteristics of this superb game bird, its habit of drumming is perhaps

This loud tattoo begins with the measured thump of the big drum,
then gradually changes and dies away in the rumble of the kettle-drum.

Thum p—thump—thum p—thanp, thump; thump, thump- rup rup rup rup
The sound is produced by the male bird beating the air with his wings as
he stands firmly braced on some favorite low perch;

It may be briefly

and it is now quite well known to be

the call of the male to the female—an announcement that he is at the old rendezvous.

5d

RED-SHAFTED FLICKER
CALIFORNIA WOODPECKER

KINGFISHER
RED-HEADED WoOopPECKER

56

KINGFISHER (Ceryle alcyon)

Length, about 13 inches. Not to be confused
with any other American bird.

Range: Breeds from northwestern Alaska
and central Canada south to the southern bor-
der of the United States; winters from British
Columbia, Nebraska, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio,
and Virginia south to the West Indies, Colom-
bia, and Guiana.

The cry of the kingfisher, which suggests a
watchman’s rattle in vigorous hands, can be
mistaken for the note of no other bird; nor,
for that matter, is the bird himself likely to be
confused with any other species. Whether fly-
ing, perched on a branch over a stream, or
diving for small fish, our kingfisher is always
himself, borrowing none of his peculiarities
from his neighbors. Many of his tropical
brothers catch insects for a living; but our
bird, early in the history of the development
of the kingfisher family, discovered that fish
were easier to catch and in the long run more
filling than insects, and hence renounced the
family habit and assumed the role of fisher-
man. Instead of using 2 hollow tree as a nest
site, the kingfisher has apparently learned a
lesson from the sandswallows and excavates a
burrow for himself in some sandbank, usually
not far from pond or stream; and you may be
sure that any pond chosen by him for a haunt
is well stocked with fish.

RED-HEAD (Melanerpes erythro-
cephalus)

Length, about 934 inches. Our only wood-
pecker with red head and broad white wing
patch.

Range: From southern Canada to the Gulf
Coast and from central Montana, central Colo-
rado, and central Texas to the Hudson and
Delaware. Generally resident, but more or less
migratory in the southern parts of its range.

This strikingly marked and readily identified
woodpecker is common in some localities and
entirely wanting in others, which apparently
are equally well adapted to the bird’s needs.
Its habits are a combination of woodpecker,
jay, and flycatcher, and catching insects on the
wing is a common habit. Though in general
migratory, the bird is apparently indifferent to
cold and other weather conditions, and winters
wherever food abounds, especially where beech-
nuts, of which it is very fond, are plentiful.
The red-head eats nearly twice as much vege-
table food as it does animal, but the latter in-
cludes many destructive insects. For instance,
it is greatly to its credit that it eats both
species of clover beetles, the corn weevil,
cherry scale, and 17-year cicada. On the other
hand, vigorous accusations are not wanting
from various parts of the country of damage
done by this species. It eats corn on the ear,
and attacks many kinds of small fruits, includ-
ing strawberries and apples. It is also guilty
of robbing the nests of wild birds of both eggs
and nestlings. It does some damage to tele-
graph poles by boring into them to make nests.
No doubt some of these charges are well
founded. ‘For the most part they represent the
occasional acts of individuals, or are local and
not characteristic of the species as a whole.

RED-SHAFTED FLICKER (Colaptes
cafer collaris)

Length, 12 to 14 inches. To be distinguished
from its eastern relative (C. auratus) by its
red mustache and nuchal band and the red
wing and tail shafts.

Range: Rocky Mountain region from British
Columbia south to Mexico, west to the coast
mountains in Oregon and Washington, and
through California; largely resident.

Few birds are more widely known than the
flicker, as appears from the fact, recorded by
Chapman, that in the various parts of the
country it appears under no fewer than 124
aliases. Though well known, the flicker is
more often heard than seen, its loud call often
proclaiming its presence when it is hidden
among the trees. As a rule the flicker is shy,
and in some sections of the country it has good
reason to be, since it is accounted a game bird
and, as such, pursued for the table.

Though a woodpecker, the red-shaft departs
widely from typical members of the tribe both
in structure and habits. Notwithstanding the
fact that its bill is not well adapted for boring
into wood for larve, the bird manages to do
considerable damage in the West by making
holes, in church steeples, school-houses, and
other buildings, to serve as roosting quarters.
As it is nowise particular as to its domicile, it
is possible materially to increase its numbers
by putting up nesting boxes for its accommo-
dation. The bird’s subsistence is obtained
largely from the ground, where it secures vast
quantities of ants, for taking which its tongue
is specially adapted; about one-half its food,
in fact, consists of these creatures.

CALIFORNIA WOODPECKER
(Melanerpes formicivorus and races)

Length, about 9% inches. Easily distin-
guished from its fellows by its general black
color, white forehead, throat patch, belly and
wing patch,

Range: Breeds from northwestern Oregon,
California, Arizona, and New Mexico south
through Lower California to Costa Rica.

The California woodpecker is a noisy, frolic-
some bird and by all odds the most interesting
of our woodpeckers. Its range seems to be de-
termined by that of the oaks upon which it
lives and from which it draws a large part of
its subsistence. In California the bird is known
to many by the Spanish name, carpintero, or
carpenter, and its shop is the oak, in the dead
limbs of which, as in the bark of pines, it
bores innumerable holes, each just large enough
to receive an acorn. That the birds do not re-
gard the filling of these storehouses as work,
but, on the contrary, take great pleasure in it,
is evident from their joyous outcries and from
the manner they chase each other in their trips
from tree to tree like boys at tag. In Cali-
fornia many of the country school-houses are
unoccupied during the summer and the wood-
peckers do serious damage by drilling holes in
the window casings and elsewhere with a view
to using them as storage places. As long as
the acorn crop lasts, so long does the storing
work go on. Meanwhile the jays and squirrels
slip in and rob the woodpecker’s larder.

MOUD NOWWOD

ANITOUOT

eg IDD

58

BOBOLINK (Dolichonyx oryzivorus)

Length, about 7 inches.

Range: Breeds from Ohio northeast to Nova
Scotia, north to Manitoba, and northwest to
British Columbia; winters in South America.

Habits and economic status: When Ameri-
can writers awoke to the beauty and attract-
iveness of our native birds, among the first to
be enshrined i in song and story was the bobo-
link. Few species show such striking contrasts
in the color of the sexes, and few have songs
more unique and whimsical. In its northern
home the bird is loved for its beauty and its
rich melody; in the South it earns deserved
hatred by its destructiveness. Bobolinks reach
the southeastern coast of the United States the
last half of April, just as rice is sprouting, and
at once begin to pull up and devour the sprout-
ing kernels, Soon they move on to their north-
erm breeding grounds, where they feed upon
insects, weed seeds, and a little grain. When
the young are well on the wing, they gather
in flocks with the parent birds and gradually
move southward, being then generally known
as reed birds. They ‘reach the rice fields of
the Carolinas about August 20, when the rice
is in the milk. Then until the birds depart for
South America planters and birds fight for the
crop, and in spite of constant watchfulness and
innumerable devices for scaring the birds a
loss of 10 per cent of the rice is the usual re-
sult.

COMMON CROW
(Corvus brachyrhynchos)

Length, 19 inches.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States
and most of Canada; winters generally in the
United States.

Habits and economic status: The general
habits of the crow are universally known. Its
ability to commit such misdeeds as pulling
corn and stealing eggs and fruit and to get
away unscathed is little short of marvelous.
Much of the crow’s success in life is due to
codperation, and the social instinct of the spe-
cies has its highest expression in the winter
roosts, which are sometimes frequented by
hundreds of thousands of crows. From these
roosts daily flights of many miles are made in
search of food. Injury to sprouting corn is
the most frequent complaint against this spe-
cies, but by coating the seed grain with coal
tar most of this damage may be prevented.
Losses of poultry and eggs may be averted by
proper housing and the judicious use of wire
netting, The insect food of the crow includes
wireworms, cutworms, white grubs, and grass-
hoppers, and during outbreaks of these insects
the crow renders good service. The bird is
also an efficient scavenger. But chiefly because

of its destruction of beneficial wild birds and
their eggs the crow must be classed as a crim-
inal, and a reduction in its numbers in locali-
ties is justifiable.

Photograph by W. C. Johnson

ALL ABOARD!

The first venture of these little swans upon the stormy seas of life is safely negotiated
upon their mother’s back, while she, with a true mother’s pride in her offspring, takes every

care that no harm shall come.

59

GuIgNOVIg GIONIM-day

wWAVTMOavVaJI

60

MEADOWLARKS (Sturnella magna and
Sturnella neglecta)

Length, about 1034 inches.

Range: Breed generally in the United States,
southern Canada, and Mexico to Costa Rica;
winter from the Ohio and Potomac valleys
and British Columbia southward.

Habits and economic status: Our two mead-
owlarks, though differing much in song, resem-
ble each other closely in plumage and habits.
Grassy plains and uplands covered with a thick
growth of grass or weeds, with near-by water,
furnish the conditions best suited to the mead-
owlark’s taste. The song of the western bird
is loud, clear, and melodious. That of its east-
ern relative is feebler and loses much by com-
parison. In many localities the meadowlark is
classed and shot as a game bird. From the
farmer’s standpoint this is a mistake, since its
value as an insect eater is far greater than as
an object of pursuit by the sportsman. Both
the boll weevil, the foe of the cotton grower,
and the alfalfa weevil are among the beetles it
habitually eats, Twenty-five per cent of the
diet of this bird is beetles, half of which are
predaceous ground beetles, accounted useful
insects, and one-fifth are destructive weevils.
Caterpillars form 11 per cent of the food and
are eaten in every month in the year. Among

these are many cutworms and the well-known
army worm. Grasshoppers are favorite food
and are eaten in every month and almost every
day. The vegetable food (24 per cent of the
whole) consists of grain and weed seeds.

RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD (Agelaius
pheeniceus)

Length, about 9% inches.

Range: Breeds in Mexico and North Amer-
ica south of the Barren Grounds; winters in
southern half of United States and south to
Costa Rica.

Habits and economic status: The prairies of
the upper Mississippi Valley, with their numer-
ous sloughs and ponds, furnish ideal nesting
places for redwings, and consequently this re-
gion has become the great breeding ground for
the species. These prairies pour forth the vast
flocks that play havoc with grain fields. East
of the Appalachian Range, marshes on the
shores of lakes, rivers, and estuaries are the
only available breeding sites and, as these are
comparatively few and small, the species is
much less abundant than in the West. Red-
wings are eminently gregarious, living in flocks
and breeding in communities. The food of the
redwing consists of 27 per cent animal matter
and 73 per cent vegetable. Insects constitute
practically one-fourth of the food. Beetles
(largely weevils, a most harmful group)
amount to 10 per cent. Grasshoppers are eaten
in every month and amount to about 5 per
cent. Caterpillars (among them the injurious
army worm) are eaten at all seasons and ag-
gregate 6 per cent. Ants, wasps, bugs, flies,
dragonflies, and spiders also are eaten. The
vegetable food consists of seeds, including
grain, of which oats is the favorite, and some
small fruits. When in large flocks this bird is

Photograph by Elton Perry

THE SLACKER OF BIRDDOM EXPOSED

This is a picture of the nest of Mr. and Mrs. Yellow-breasted Chat, and the majority of
the eggs belong to the lady of the house; but she has been imposed upon in her absence and
made the victim of the indolence of her neighbor, Mrs. Cowbird, who has laid an egg in the

Chat nest for Mrs. Chat to incubate with her own.

Mrs. Cowbird, relieved of the respon-

sibility of bringing up her offspring, is probably off indulging in some frivolity. This para-
sitic habit is a characteristic of the cowbird. The darker egg is the alien embryo.

61

OONINY GATTId-MOTTS A

WAWIAMAGOO AA ANMOCL

62

DOWNY WOODPECKER (Dryobates
pubescens)

Length, 6 inches. Our smallest woodpecker ;
spotted with black and white. Dark bars on
the outer tail feathers distinguish it from the
similarly colored but larger hairy woodpecker.

Range: Resident in the United States and
the forested parts of Canada and Alaska.

Habits and economic status: This wood-
pecker is commonly distributed, living in wood-
land tracts, orchards, and gardens. The bird
has several characteristic notes, and, like the
hairy woodpecker, is fond of beating on a dry
resonant tree branch a tattoo which to appreci-
ative ears has the quality of woodland music.
In a hole excavated in a dead branch the
downy woodpecker lays four to six eggs. This
and the hairy woodpecker are among our most
valuable allies, their food consisting of some
of the worst foes of orchard and woodland,
which the woodpeckers are especially equipped
to dig out of dead and living wood. In the
examination of 723 stomachs of this bird, ani-
mal food, mostly insects, was found to consti-
tute 76 per cent of the diet and vegetable mat-
ter 24 per cent. The animal food consists
largely of beetles that bore into timber or bur-
row under the bark. Caterpillars amount to
16 per cent of the food and include many espe-
cially harmful species.

y

A TWO-STORY BIRD NEST

The nests of giant tropical
orioles, or caciques, in Mexico
are pendant structures 3 and 4
feet in length. They are usu-
ally built out on the very tips
of slender branches, so that
they are protected from the
attacks of arboreal beasts of
prey. Often, as in the above
photograph, there is a little
subsidiary chamber at the sum-
mit, which is used by the male
bird as a roosting place when
his mate is sitting on the eggs
below.

63

YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO (Coccyzus
americanus)

Length, about 12 inches. The yellow lower
part of the bill distinguishes this bird from its
near relative, the black-billed cuckoo.

Range: Breeds generally in the United States
and southern Canada; winters in South Amer-
ica.

Habits and economic status: This bird lives
on the edges of woodland, in groves, orchards,
parks, and even in shaded village streets. It
is sometimes known as rain crow, because its
very characteristic notes are supposed to fore-
tell rain. The cuckoo has sly, furtive ways as
it moves among the bushes or flits from tree
to tree, and is much more often seen than
heard. Unlike its European relative, it does
not lay its eggs in other birds’ nests, but builds
a nest of its own. This is, however, a rather
crude and shabby affair—hardly more than a
platform of twigs sufficient to hold the greenish
eggs. The cuckoo is extremely useful because
of its insectivorous habits, especially as it
shows a marked preference for the hairy cater-
pillars, which few birds eat. One stomach that
was examined contained 250 American tent
caterpillars; another, 217 fall webworms. In
places where tent caterpillars are abundant
they seem to constitute a large portion of the
food of this and the black-billed cuckoo.

Photograph by Dr. C. William Beebe

64

YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER

FLICKER

FLICKER (Colaptes auratus)

Length, 13 inches. The yellow under surface
of the wing, yellow tail shafts, and white rump
are characteristic.

Range: Breeds in the eastern United States
west to the plains and in the forested parts of
Canada and Alaska; winters in most of the
eastern United States.

Habits and economic status: The flicker in-
habits the open country rather than the forest
and delights in park-like regions where trees
are numerous and scattered. It nests in any
large cavity in a tree and readily appropriates
an artificial box. It is possible, therefore, to
insure the presence of this useful bird about
the farm and to increase its numbers. It is the
most terrestrial of our woodpeckers and pro-
cures much of its food from the ground. The
largest item of animal food is ants, of which
the flicker eats more than any other common
bird. Ants were found in 524 of the 684 stom-
achs examined and 98 stomachs contained no
other food. One stomach contained over 5,000
and two others held over 3,000 each. While
bugs are not largely eaten by the flicker, one
stomach contained 17 chinch bugs. Wild fruits
are next to ants in importance in the flicker’s
dietary. Of these sour gum and wild black
cherry stand at the head. The food habits of
this bird are such as to recommend it to com-
plete protection.

YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER
(Sphyrapicus varius)

Length, about 8% inches. Only woodpecker
having top of head from base of bill red, com-
bined with a black patch on breast.

Range: Breeds in northern half of the
United States and southern half of Canada;
winters in most of the States and south to
Costa Rica.

Habits and economic status: The yellow-
bellied sapsucker is rather silent and suspicious
and generally manages to have a tree between
himself and the observer. Hence the bird is
much better known by its works than its ap-
pearance. The regular girdles of holes made
by this bird are common on a great variety of
trees; in all about 250 kinds are known to be
attacked. Occasionally young trees are killed
outright, but more loss is caused by stains and
other blemishes in the wood which result from
sapsucker punctures. These blemishes, which
are known as bird pecks, are especially nu-
merous in hickory, oak, cypress, and yellow
poplar. The two principal components of the
vegetable food are wild fruits of no impor-
tance and cambium (the layer just beneath the
bark of trees). In securing the cambium the

bird does the damage above described. The
yellow-bellied sapsucker, unlike other wood-
peckers, thus does comparatively little good
and much harm.

aa il Da

Photograph by George Shiras, 3rd -

SAP BASINS MADE IN BARK BY A SAPSUCKER

The regularity of the holes shows that this bird is methodical. The basins were made
in six weeks, probably by one bird, and served not only to collect sap, but also to catch flies

attracted by the sweet fluid.

Adds
JaeMO] faInjewut fieddn ‘ae “ATIOW| GIVg oO

66

OSPREY (Pandion haliztus carolinensis)

Length, about 23 inches. The great size,
brown upper parts and white under parts are
distinguishing features.

Range: Breeds from northwestern Alaska,
and central Canada south to the Gulf coast,
western Mexico and Lower California; win-
ters from the southern United States, Lower
California and Mexico to Central America.

A thin, high-pitched whistle, the alarm as
well as the call note of the osprey, frequently
directs the attention of the passer by to this
fine hawk as he circles high in air on the watch
for fish. The bird is common along our coast
and to some extent along our rivers, and his
bulky nest of twigs, often in low trees or
sometimes on the ground, frequently attests
his former presence when he is wintering else-
where. When unmolested, ospreys return to
their own strip of territory year after year,
and they and their descendants probably rear
their young in the same nest for generations,
repairing it from season to season as necessity
requires. The osprey lives solely on fish which
he catches himself—he disdains carrion—div-
ing from mid air upon his quarry and often
burying himself in the water momentarily by
the force of his descent. Usually he succeeds
in carrying his prey to his nest, though his
slow and labored wing-beats often prove how
heavy is his load. Visitors to the seashore,
and even old residents, never tire of watching
his superb flight and interesting habits, and his
plunge after his quarry, whether successful or
unsuccessful, is a sight to be remembered.

BALD EAGLE (Haliztus leucocephalus
and subspecies)

Length, about 33 inches. ‘The white head
(adult) and naked tarsus distinguish this spe-
cies from the golden eagle.

Range: A resident of Alaska, much of Can-
ada, and the whole of the United States in
suitable localities.

Though a fisherman by profession, the white
head is by no means the master of his craft
that the osprey is. In fact, he never fishes for
himself so long as he can rob the more skillful
and more industrious fish hawk. When neces-
sity compels, however, he fishes to some pur-
pose, and much after the manner of his erst-
while victim, the fish hawk. He is far less fas-
tidious in his food habits than that bird, how-
ever, and often gorges himself until he cannot
fly on dead fish gathered along shore, espe-
cially on the great salmon rivers of the north-
west. When fish are scarce and waterfowl are
plentiful, the white head has little difficulty in
living off them. Complaint is made in Alaska,
where the bald eagle is numerous, that he
sometimes interferes with blue fox farming by
killing the animals for food. Though the blue
fox is not a large animal he is by no means a
pigmy, and the bird who would make him his
quarry must needs possess both strength and
determination. As this eagle has been taken
for our national emblem, it would seem to be
the part of patriotism to condone his faults
and remember only his virtues, among which
are a magnificent presence, superb powers of
flight, and devoted care of his family.

e

,

wo!

Cin acc. |
leaves

?
Pins Rete 0 lh

© Howard H.C

OSPREY, OR FISH HAWK, RISING FROM A STRIKE

When a fish is sighted, this bird checks himself directly over the quarry on wings that
beat horizontally, then down he goes at reckless speed, with wings folded and talons wide
open. There is a great splash as the hawk strikes the water and seizes the fish by the back.
In the picture above the osprey had been deceived by an artificial gold fish anchored by an
18-ounce stone, and it shows him shooting upward after the decoy had slipped from his grasp.

67

‘TurkEY Buzzarp

MarsyH Hawk

MARSH HAWK (Circus hudsonius)

Length, about 19 inches. The ashy upper
parts, white rump, and long tail of the adult
male sufficiently distinguish this hawk; while
the fuscous upper parts and buff under parts
much streaked with brown distinguish the fe-
male and young.

Range: Breeds through much of Canada,
south to the middle United States; winters in
the United States, especially in the South.

Though not exclusively a marsh frequenter,
as its name might seem to imply, this hawk
prefers open country, and its favorite hunting
grounds are meadow and marsh, in which it
nests on the ground. It flies rather low, the
better to see and drop suddenly upon the luck-
less meadow mice—its favorite food. Unfor-
tunately small birds form part of its fare, and
there are localities, like Cape Cod and Marthas
Vineyard, in Massachusetts, where this hawk
has earned a bad reputation as a destroyer of
poultry and game. However, over much the
larger part of the vast territory it inhabits the
marsh hawk is a rodent eater, and the debt of
gratitude. it lays upon the farmer is large.
This debt should be fully discharged by pre-
serving the bird and encouraging its presence.
unless it is caught committing overt acts. In
other words, as this hawk is very beneficial
over most of its range, individual hawks should
be presumed to be innocent unless detected in
transgression.

TURKEY BUZZARD (Cathartes aura
septentrionalis)

Length, about 30 inches. The naked head
and neck and glossy black plumage are dis-
tinctive.

Range: Extends from southwestern Canada,
northern Minnesota, southern New York, and
south into northern Mexico and Lower Cali-
fornia.

This buzzard displays superb powers of flight
which even the eagle cannot surpass, and no
small part of its time is spent in the upper air,
describing great circles on motionless wings as
if for the mere pleasure of flight. Let another
buzzard, however, discover a carcass, and the
movements of our aéronaut as he hastens to
the feast are at once noted by his next neigh-
bor, and his by a third, till the carrion feeders
of a wide territory are assembled. Sight and
not smell, then, is depended on by the buzzard
to guide him to his food. Though of great
strength and provided with a formidable bill,
the buzzard rarely, if ever, attacks living ani-
mals, unless they are disabled, but depends
upon death to provide for his wants. No doubt
his ability to fast is as great as his capacity
for gorging himself when occasion offers, and
he must often go for days without food. As
a scavenger the buzzard does good service and
should continue to enjoy the protection which
is at present accorded it in nearly every State
of the Union.

Photograph by Arthur E. Mayer

HUSBAND AND WIFE

The magnificent plumage of the peacock belongs only to the male, and it may be noticed
that the female to the left of the picture is far less handsome than her husband, who pre-

sents us with a back view of his outstretched tail.

These birds were once highly esteemed

as food, and in the middle ages always figured at the most sumptuous banquets, roasted,

but in all the glory of their gaudy plumage.

69

NYA NOVIg
AICI,

TINO S,NITANVUT
UIAOTG ANVIdQ,

70

KILLDEER (Oxyechus vociferus)

Length, 10 inches. Distinguished by
piercing and oft-repeated cry—kildce.

Range: Breeds throughout the United States
and most of Canada; winters from central
United States to South America.

Habits and economic status: The kildeer is
one of the best known of the shorebird family.
It often visits the farmyard and commonly
nests in pastures or cornfields, It is rather
suspicious, however, and on being approached
takes flight with loud cries. It is noisy and
restless, but fortunately most of its activities
result in benefit to man. The food is of the
same general nature as that of the upland
plover, but is more varied. The kildeer feeds
upon beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, ants,
bugs, caddis flies, dragonflies, centipedes, spi-
ders, ticks, oyster worms, earthworms, snails,
crabs, and other crustacea. Among the beetles
consumed are such pests as the alfalfa weevil,
cotton-boll weevil, clover-root weevil, clover-
leaf weevil, pine weevil, billbugs, white grubs,
wireworms, and leaf beetles. The bird also de-
vours cotton worms, cotton cutworms, horse-
flies, mosquitoes, cattle ticks, and crawfish.
One stomach contained hundreds of larve of
the saltmarsh mosquito, one of the most trou-
blesome species. The kildeer preys extensively
upon insects that are annoying to man and in-
jurious to his stock and crops, and this should
be enough to remove it from the list of game
birds and insure its protection, i‘

its

BLACK TERN (Hydrochelidon nigra
surinamensis)

Length, 10 inches. In autumn occurs as a
migrant on the east coast of the United States,
and then is in white and gray plumage. Dur-
ing the breeding season it is confined to the
interior, is chiefly black, and is the only dark
tern occurring inland.

Range: Breeds from California, Colorado,
Missouri, and Ohio, north to central Canada;
winters from Mexico to South America; mi-
grant in the eastern United States.

Habits and economic status: This tern, un-
like most of its relatives, passes much of its
life on fresh-water lakes and marshes of the
interior. Its nests are placed among the tules
and weeds, on floating vegetation, or on musk-
rat houses. It lays from 2 to 4 eggs. Its food
is more varied than that of any other tern. So
far as known, it preys upon no food fishes,
but feeds extensively upon such enemies of fish
as dragonfly, nymphs, fish-eating beetles, and
crawfishes. Unlike most of its family, it de-
vours a great variety of insects, many of which
it catches as it flies. Dragonflies, May flies,
grasshoppers, predaceous diving beetles, scara-
beid beetles, leaf beetles, gnats, and other flies
are the principal kinds preyed upon. Fishes
of little economic value, chiefly minnows and
mummichogs, were found to compose only a
little more than 19 per cent of the contents of
145 stomachs. The great consumption of in-
sects by the black tern places it among the
beneficial species worthy of protection.

71

UPLAND PLOVER (Bartramia
longicauda)

Length, 12 inches. The only plainly colored
shorebird which occurs east of the plains and
inhabits exclusively dry fields and hillsides.

Range: Breeds from Oregon, Utah, Okla-
homa, Indiana, and Virginia, north to Alaska;
winters in South America.

Habits and economic status: This, the most
terrestrial of our waders, is shy and wary, but
it has the one weakness of not fearing men on
horseback or in a vehicle. One of these meth-
ods of approach, therefore, is nearly always
used by the sportsman, and, since the bird is
highly prized as a table delicacy, it has been
hunted to the verge of extermination. As the
upland plover is strictly beneficial, it should
no longer be classed as a game bird and al-
lowed to be shot. Ninety-seven per cent of
the food of this species consists of animal
forms, chiefly of injurious and neutral species.
The vegetable food is mainly weed seeds. Al-
most half of the total subsistence is made up
of grasshoppers, crickets, and weevils. Among
the weevils eaten are the cotton-boll weevil,
greater and lesser clover-leaf weevils, cowpea
weevils, and billbugs. This bird devours also
leaf beetles, wireworms, white grubs, army
worms, cotton worms, cotton cutworms, saw-
fly larve, horseflies, and cattle ticks. In brief,
it injures no crop, but consumes a host of the
worst enemies of agriculture,

FRANKLIN’S GULL (Larus franklini)

Length, 15 inches. During its residence in
the United States Franklin’s gull is practically
confined to the interior and is the only inland
gull with black head and red bill.

Range: Breeds in the Dakotas, Iowa, Minne-
sota, and the neighboring parts of southern
Canada; winters from the Gulf coast to South
America.

Habits and economic status: Nearly all of
our gulls are coast-loving species and spend
comparatively little of their time in fresh
water, but Franklin’s is a true inland gull. Ex-
tensive marshes bordering shallow lakes are
its chosen breeding grounds, and as many such
areas are being reclaimed for agricultural pur-
poses it behooves the tillers of the soil to pro-
tect this valuable species. When undisturbed
this gull becomes quite fearless and follows
the plowman to gather the grubs and worms
from the newly turned furrows. It lives al-
most exclusively upon insects, of which it con-
sumes great quantities. Its hearty appetite is
manifest from the contents of a few stomachs:
A, 327 nymphs of dragonflies; B, 340 grass-
hoppers, 52 bugs, 3 beetles, 2 wasps, and I spi-
der; C, 82 beetles, 87 bugs, 984 ants, and 1
cricket, 1 grasshopper, and 2 spiders. About
four-fifths of the total food is grasshoppers, a
strong point in favor of this bird. Other in-
jurious creatures eaten are billbugs, squash
bugs, leaf-hoppers, click beetles (adults of
wireworms), May beetles (adults of white
grubs), and weevils. Franklin’s gull is prob-
ably the most beneficial bird of its group.

SCREECH OWL
Barn OWL

SCREECH OWL (Otus asio)

Length, about 8 inches. Our smallest owl
with ear tufts. There are two distinct phases
of plumage—one grayish and the other bright
rufous.

Range: Resident throughout the United
States, southern Canada, and northern Mexico.

Habits and economic status: The little
screech owl inhabits orchards, groves, and
thickets, and hunts for its prey in such places
as well as along hedge-rows and in the open.
During warm spells in winter it forages quite
extensively and stores up in some hollow tree
considerable quantities of food for use during
inclement weather. Such larders frequently
contain enough mice or other prey to bridge
over a period of a week or more. With the
exception of the burrowing owl, it is probably
the most insectivorous of the nocturnal birds
of prey. It feeds also upon small mammals,
birds, reptiles, batrachians, fish, spiders, craw-
fish, scorpions, and earthworms. Grasshop-
pers, crickets, ground-dwelling beetles, and
caterpillars are its favorites among insects, as
are field mice among mammals and sparrows
among birds. Out of 324 stomachs examined,
169 were found to contain insects; 142, small
mammals; 56, birds, and 15, crawfish. The
screech owl should be encouraged to stay near
barns and outhouses, as it will keep in check
house mice and wood mice, which frequent
such places.

White Fish River, Michigan.
and camera in the other.
waded ashore.

The author was looking for deer. L
The owl fell 15 feet into the water, swore like a trooper, and

73

BARN OWL (Aluco pratincola)

Length, about 17 inches. Facial disk not cir-
cular as in our other owls; plumage above,
pale yellow; beneath, varying from silky white
to pale bright tawny.

Range: Resident in Mexico, in the southern
United States, and north to New York, Ohio,
Nebraska, and California.

Habits and economic status: The barn owl,
often called monkey-faced owl, is one of the
most beneficial of the birds of prey, since it
feeds almost exclusively on small mammals
that injure farm produce, nursery, and orchard
stock. It hunts principally in the open and
consequently secures such mammals as pocket
gophers, field mice, common rats, house mice,
harvest mice, kangaroo rats, and cotton rats.
It occasionally captures a few birds and insects.
At least a half bushel of the remains of pocket
gophers have been found in the nesting cavity
of a pair of these birds. Remembering that a
gopher has been known in a short time to
girdle seven apricot trees worth $100, it is hard
to overestimate the value of the service of a
pair of barn owls; 1,247 pellets of the barn
owl collected from the Smithsonian towers
contained 3,100 skulls, of which 3,004, or 97
per cent, were of mammals; 92, or 3 per cent, of
birds, and 4 were of frogs. The bulk consisted
of 1,987 field mice, 656 house mice, and 210
common rats. This valuable owl should be
rigidly protected everywhere.

Photograph by George Shiras, 3rd
A REMARKABLE FLASHLIGHT OF A SNOWY OWL

Flash held in one hand

FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS—THE WARBLERS
By HENRY W. HENSHAW

With Illustrations from Paintings by Louis Agassiz Fuertes

T EVERY stage of their growth,

A from the seed to the adult tree,

our forest, shade, and orchard

trees are subject to the attacks of hordes

of insect enemies, which, if unchecked,
would soon utterly destroy them.

What the loss of our forest and shade
trees would mean to us can better be
imagined than described. Wood enters
into so many products that it is difficult
to think of civilized man without it, while
the fruits of our orchards also are of the
greatest importance. Aside from the eco-
nomic loss, which can hardly be imagined,
much less estimated, how barren the
world would seem shorn of our forests
and beautiful shade trees!

Fortunately, the insect foes of trees are
not without their own persistent enemies,
and among them are many species of
birds whose equipment and habits spe-
cially fit them to deal with insects and
whose entire lives are spent in pursuit of
them. Many insects at one or another
stage of their existence burrow deeply
into the bark or even into the living
wood of trees, and so are quite safe from
ordinary bird enemies. Woodpeckers,
however, being among the most highly
specialized of birds, are wonderfully
equipped to dig into wood and to expose
and destroy these hidden foes.

Certain insects that largely confine their
attacks to the smaller branches and ter-
minal twigs are sought out and preyed
upon by nuthatches, creepers, titmice, and
warblers. Others, and their number is
legion, attack the blossoms and foliage,
and here the nimble and sharp-eyed war-
blers render supreme service, the number
of plant lice and lepidopterous larvz they
destroy in a single day almost challenging
belief.

Thus our woodland songsters are
among the most important of all our
birds, and in their own field render man
unequaled service. Moreover, very few
have any injurious habits, and the little
harm they do, if any, weighs as nothing
in the balance when compared with the

good. By reason of their numbers and
their activity in hunting insects, our
warblers take first place as preservers of
the forest, and the following account,
which treats of about half the total num-
ber, is devoted to the more conspicuous,
the more important, and the commoner
species.

THE WARBLER FAMILY

Our wood warblers are assembled in a
rather loosely defined family (the Mnio-
tiltidee), embracing in all about 140 spe-
cies, of which more than a third are
visitors to the United States. They are
fairly well distributed over the country
at large, although more species make
their summer homes in the eastern half
of the United States than in the western.

A number of notable species, however,
summer in the West, as they do also in
the Southern States. Our New World
warblers are quite unlike their Old World
relatives, the Sylviide, or true warblers,
whose family include some 75 genera
and between 500 and 600 species.

Not only do our American species dif-
fer structurally in many particulars from
their Old World representatives, espe-
cially in possessing nine instead of ten
primaries, but they differ markedly also
in appearance and habits. It may be said
in passing that while our warblers are
brilliantly colored and many of them
sexually dissimilar, those of the Old
World are not only small, but plainly
plumaged; moreover, the sexes are gen-
erally alike in coloration.

The larger number of our warblers, as
well as the most characteristic, are in-
cluded in the one genus Dendroica, which
is notable, since it includes more species
than any other genus of North American
birds.

Fortunately for the bird lover, our
wood warblers are not recluses. They
are creatures of light and sunshine. Some
of them, it is true, retire to the mountain
fastnesses or the depths of coniferous
forests during the nesting period; but

FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS 75

the number of these is small and their
withdrawal for only a comparatively
short time, while the majority at all times
of the year favor the edges of the forest,
open woods, or brushy clearings.

Their preference for such situations
brings many within the bounds of civil-
ization and renders it comparatively easy
for any one so inclined to make their ac-
quaintance. As during migration they
assemble in flocks, they are, on the whole,
pretty well known; and since, as a rule,
they are not shy, they have long been
favorite objects of observation and study.

WARBLERS AS SONGSTERS

Despite their name, which would seem
to imply musical ability of no mean order,
our wood warblers, with few exceptions,
occupy no very high place in the musical
galaxy. All sing, however, after a fash-
ion, and the musical efforts of some are
pleasing, even according to human stand-
ards. While most warblers are prodigal
enough with their music and sing early
and often, especially prior to and during
the nesting season, their music is fre-
quently so faint as to be audible only to
the trained ear of the bird lover.

As if aware of their musical inferior-
ity, few display much enthusiasm in their
vocal efforts, but sing while they work,
or while pausing for a brief moment as
they move among the foliage hunting for
food. With them, singing appears to be
an audible expression of general content
and well being, and, no doubt, an effort
to please and attract their mates.

Certain members of the thrush and

~.. thrasher families, on the contrary, which

“contain in their ranks the prima donnas
of our bird world, as if conscious of their
supremacy, are wont to mount a com-
manding perch when about to sing, and to
pour out their melody for all the world
to hear. With them, singing is not merely
incidental to the day’s work. It is a con-
scious and supreme effort, and is much
too important to be slighted or shared
with any other function. Apparently
they appreciate to a great extent and en-
joy their own outpourings, and, if we
may interpret their feelings by human
standards, are conscious that their musi-
cal offerings entitle them to an audience.

Not only do their bright colors suggest
a tropical origin of our warblers, but
their whole make-up is in keeping with
tropical surroundings. Warblers are
thinly feathered and delicately organized
and most of them incapable of withstand-
ing any great degree of cold. They are
also almost exclusively insect eaters, only
a few of the family being at all vege-
tarian, and these only to a comparatively
small extent.

Hence, with them, migration is not a
matter of choice, but is imperative. They
come to us on a particular errand for a
few short months, and when family cares
are at an end, back they hie to the tropics,
the lands of warmth and sunshine, which
lend them to us for a brief season. Thus
the true home of our warblers is not
where they nest, but where they spend
three-fourths of their lives—not the
north, but the south—not in the temper-
ate, but in the tropical zones.

THE SPECTACULAR MIGRATION OF
WARBLERS

That wonderful phenomenon, bird mi-
gration, is illustrated by few birds so
clearly and convincingly as by our wood
warblers. Assuredly no other birds—
unless it be the geese—migrate in such a
spectacular manner. The stroller, in late
August or September, finds himself in the
woods, the silence being broken only by
the drumming of a distant partridge, the
chirping of insects, or other familiar
sounds which only emphasize the general
quiet that prevails (see pages 180-195).

Presto! The scene changes! The woods,
apparently almost tenantless but a mo-
ment before, are now filled with life of
the most animated and intense kind.
Every shrub, every tree, has its feathered
occupant. Our observer recognizes per-
haps a dozen or twenty species, represent-
ing several distinct families; but promi-
nent among them, by reason of numbers,
variegated plumage, graceful forms, and
active motions, are the wood warblers.

Every individual is alert and busy,
gliding from one twig to another near by,
or flying from one tree to the next, while
from all sides come the soft calls and
notes of individual members of the flock,
whose friendly converse has the effect, if

76 FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS

not the purpose of keeping the individ-
uals of the assemblage in touch with each
other and with the flock as a unit. Ina
few moments silence again reigns where
all was commotion and activity. The
birds have passed on their seemingly aim-
less course.

If the observer would learn the solu-
tion of the mystery of the birds’ evident
hurry, he has only to follow them for a
time, when he will find that, however er-
ratic may seem the course of individual
members of the flock, the flock as a whole
is steering a tolerably straight course
southward. In other words, he is in the
midst of a flock of birds en route to their
winter quarters and, in order to econo-
mize time, feeding as they go. This,
however, is not the only way warblers
migrate, nor is it the most important,
since the greater part of the long journey
of many is performed by night.

Any one with good ears has only to
listen on a clear, frosty night in fall to
hear hundreds of warblers and other
birds as they flit by, a few hundred yards
above the earth, the call notes coming in-
cessantly out of the darkness. The route
of these flying hosts often carries them
above cities, and one cannot be insensible
to the incongruity between his surround-
ings and the woodland scenes, so vividly
brought to mind by the lisping notes com-
ing from the darkness overhead. The
subject of migration has not inspired our
poets so often as might be expected, but
Longfellow, in his “Birds of Passage,”
gives us the following wonderfully sug-
gestive lines:

But the night is fair,

And everywhere

A warm, soft vapor fills the air,
And distant sounds seem near;

And above, in the light

Of the star-lit night,

Swift birds of passage wing their flight,
Through the dewy atmosphere.

I hear the beat

Of their pinions fleet,

As from the land of snow and sleet
They seek a southern lea.

I hear the cry

Of their voices high,

Falling dreamily through the sky,
But their forms I cannot see.

Probably because insects constitute such
an important part of their food, warblers,

as a rule, migrate early in fall and late in
spring. It is true that in fall many linger
till frosts nip the vegetation; but insects
are abroad even later than this, and it is
only necessary to watch these late mi-
grants for a short time to learn that their
search for insects is being well rewarded.

Only a few species come north early
in spring, the great bulk of the warblers
evidently having been taught by bitter ex-
perience that in spring, at least, it is not
the early bird that finds most worms or
finds them easiest.

FLOCKING OF SMALL BIRDS

Just why small birds, when migrating,
congregate in large flocks and troop
through the woodlands has often been the
subject of speculation. Juncos, several
species of sparrows, woodpeckers, nut-
hatches, chickadees, creepers, and, above
all, warblers, combine to swell the ranks
of these migrating companies. As many
as a dozen or more species of warblers
may often be seen in one flock, which, in
addition, may include 200 or 300 indi-
viduals, representing a number of fam-
ilies whose tastes and habits in every-day
life differ very widely.

Yet here are these incongruous ele-
ments mingling together on terms of the
utmost friendliness. Since birds are so-
ciable beings, except during the short
time when family cares prompt to jealous
vigilance, sociability alone may be the
bond of union; added, however, to the
kindly feeling of companionship prob-
ably is a feeling of increased security
which comes from numbers. Certainly
no enemy can approach one of these bird
assemblages without being spied by at
least one pair of vigilant eyes, when the
flock is immediately notified by a few
sharp chirps—warning for every indi-
vidual to seek safety in flight or to scurry
to cover.

WHAT MYSTERIOUS SENSE GUIDES THEM
IN THEIR LONG JOURNEYS?

In what manner warblers migrate—
that is, how they are guided on their long
journeys—is a moot question. Little
mystery attaches to their ability to find
their way north or south in daylight,
since the recognizable landmarks are

FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS tt

many and prominent. As most birds, es-
pecially the warblers, choose starlight and
moonlight nights for their trips, perhaps
they are similarly guided by night, and
natural landmarks, as mountains, rivers,
and the coastline may point out much, if
not all, of their way.

However plausible this explanation may
sound in the case of birds migrating over
land, it utterly fails when applied to mi-
grants whose journeys north and south
necessitate flight over long stretches of
ocean, in some instances at least 2,000
miles, quite out of sight of land and of
all landmarks (see pages 180-195).

In seeking an explanation of the mys-
tery of birds’ ability to find their way
under such circumstances, many are in-
clined to reject the one-time sufficient
answer, “instinct,” in favor of the more
recent theory, the possession by birds of
another faculty, the so-called “sense of
direction.” This added sense enables
birds to return to a known locality with
no other aid than an ever-present knowl-
edge of the right direction.

But, in the case of our wood warblers,
there is little need of appealing to another
sense to guide them in migration, or, in-
deed, to anything out of the ordinary save
excellent memory and good eyesight. The
five-hundred-mile flight toward the trop-
ics across the Gulf of Mexico is made by
preference, and however it originated as
a fly line, had it proved to be extra haz-
ardous, it might have been abandoned at
any time in favor of the apparently safer
West Indian route.

But, after all, the Gulf trip involves few

~\hazards other than those connected with

storms, since the flight across the water,
even at a slow rate, would necessitate a
journey of less than 24 hours, and this,
no doubt, is quite within the capacity of
even the smallest and weakest of the
family. Moreover, the South American
Continent is too big a mark to be easily
missed, and an error of a few hundred
miles north or south would make little
difference in the safety of the birds.

WHY WARBLERS MIGRATE

It may be set down as an axiom that
all birds which travel south in fall do so
because they must migrate or freeze or

starve. Why some of them leave early,
when food in their summer home is seem-
ingly so abundant, is indeed a puzzle.
Once the nestlings are on the wing and
ready for the journey, off they go, old
and young.

Nevertheless, by an apparently prema-
ture start they only anticipate by a few
weeks the time of scarcity when they
must go, and perhaps the lesson of bitter
experience in the history of the several
species has taught them to go when all
the conditions are favorable. It is true
that every winter a few birds, often a
few individuals of a given species, winter
far north of the customary winter home.
Some of these are evidently stragglers or
wanderers which, for some unexplained
reason, failed to accompany the rest of
their kind on the southward migration.
They in no wise affect the general state-
ment, being exceptional in every way.

A few of our warblers in Florida and
on other parts of our southern coast do
not migrate; but the almost universal rule
in the family is to abandon the summer
home when the care of the young ceases
and to go far southward ere they stop for
the winter. Indeed, the males of many
species do not trouble themselves much
with the care of the nestlings, but prepare
to migrate before the young are well on
the wing.

A still more flagrant case is that of the
hummingbirds. The male deserts the
female when she is still on her eggs,
shifting the responsibility of caring for
the family entirely on her devoted head,
while he disports himself among the
flowers, leaving for the south long before
his exemplary mate and the young are
ready.

Some of our species, however, while
migrating southward, are satisfied to re-
main all winter within our boundaries.
Thus the pine and palm warblers winter
in the Gulf States, while a greater or less
number of individuals, representing sev-
eral species, winter in southern Florida.
The great majority, however, winter
south of the United States, in Central
and South America.

Thus Professor Cooke tells us: “The
prairie, black-throated blue, Swainson’s,
Bachman’s, Cape May, and Kirtland’s

78 FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS

warblers go only to the West Indies. The
worm-eating, myrtle, magnolia, chestnut-
sided, black-throated green, hooded, blue-
winged, Nashville, orange-crowned, pa-
rula, palm, and Wilson’s warblers, and
the chat, go no farther than Central
America, while many species spend the
winter in South America, including some
or all the individuals of the black and
white, prothonotary, golden-winged, Ten-
nessee, yellow, cerulean, bay - breasted,
black-poll, Blackburnian, Kentucky, Con-
necticut, mourning, and Canada war-
blers, the redstart, oven-bird, and both the
water-thrushes. Nearly all the warblers
of the western United States spend the
winter in Mexico and the contiguous por-
tions of Central America.”

VAST NUMBERS SUCCUMB

The northward journey in spring, away
from the land of sunshine and plenty to
the land of uncertain spring weather, is
another matter. Probably if all birds
that habitually abandon the north and
winter in the south were to nest there,
their quota, added to the number resident
in the tropics, would be too great for the
means of subsistence.

Nevertheless, birds are not forced away
from their winter quarters by inclement
weather or impending famine, but by the
subtle physiological change which warns
them of the approach of the mating sea-
son and fills them with new desires,
among which is the compelling one of a
return to the spot where they first saw
the light, or where they reared last sea-
son’s brood.

Whatever the cause, the birds are not
discouraged by the many and great perils
that attend migration, and vast numbers
every year succumb to them. Storms,
especially off-shore storms, constitute the
gravest peril, and there is abundant evi-
dence that millions of birds are annually
blown out to sea to find watery graves.
Perhaps no family. suffers more in the
aggregate than the warblers. Thinly
feathered, delicately organized, highly in-
sectivorous, they are exposed to unusual
dangers while birds of passage to and
from their nesting grounds.

It is a matter of common observation
that every few years in some given lo-

cality, perhaps embracing a region of con-
siderable size, a particular species of
warbler or other bird suddenly becomes
rare where before common. After a
season or so, though sometimes not for
years, the equilibrium is reéstablished and
the numbers are as before. These changes
very probably are the visible signs of
migration catastrophes, the result of the
sweeping away of a migration wave, com-
posed of one or of many species, in the
path of some sudden storm.

Again, many of us have witnessed the
dire effects of a prolonged rain and sleet
storm in spring, when thousands of luck-
less migrants find only too late that they
have prematurely left the warmth and
plenty of their tropical winter refuges.
Under such circumstances thousands of
migrants perish from the combined effects
of cold and starvation, and among them
are sure to be great numbers of warblers.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF WARBLERS

From the esthetic point of view, our
warblers, as a group, occupy a high and
unique position. They also occupy no
uncertain place in the list of our useful
birds. Preéminently insectivorous, they
spend their lives in the active pursuit of
insects. They begin with the eggs, prey-
ing upon them whenever and wherever
found, and continue the good work when
the egg becomes the larva and when the
larva becomes the perfect insect.

They are especially valuable in this re-
spect because of the protection they lend
to forest trees, the trunk, bark, and folli-
age of which they search with tireless
energy. Their efficiency is vastly in-
creased because the many different spe-
cies pursue the quest for food in very
different ways. While some confine their
search chiefly to the trunks and large
branches and examine each crack and
crevice in the bark for eggs or larve,
others devote their energies to the twigs
and foliage, scanning each leaf and stem
with eager eyes. Still others descend to
the ground and examine the rubbish and
grass for hidden prey, while nearly all are
adept at catching insects on the wing.

Each species, however, has a method
of its own, more or less unlike that of its
fellows, and each excels in some specialty.
Not only does the group as a whole spe-

FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS 79

cialize on insects, but each individual
member of the group still further special-
izes, so as to leave no loophole for the
escape of the enemy.

The quantity of animal food required
to drive the avian engine at full speed is
so very great that it is no exaggeration
to say that practically all the waking
hours of our warblers, from daylight to
dark, are devoted to food-getting. What
this never-ceasing industry means when
translated into tons-weight of insects, it
is impossible even to guess, but the practi-
cal result of the work of our warblers and
other insectivorous birds is that we still
have our forests, and shall continue to
have them so long as we encourage and
protect the birds.

In the case of orchards and shade trees,
there are other means at our disposal of
controlling the insect enemy, notably the
use of sprays. Sprays are very impor-
tant, since birds are too few in number
immediately to control insect outbreaks,
especially nowadays, when the number of
destructive native insects has been so
greatly increased by importations from
all quarters of the globe. But for the
preservation of our forests we must rely
largely upon our birds, since the use of
sprays or of other agencies over our vast
woodland tracts would be too expensive,
even were it not quite impracticable for
many other reasons.

MEANS OF INCREASING THE NUMBER OF
WARBLERS

Insects are very numerous, and there is
‘reason to believe that much benefit would
result if we could multiply the present
number of their enemies—the birds. The
erection of bird boxes and shelters is an
easy way to increase the number of cer-
tain species of birds, like swallows and
chickadees. Unfortunately, with few ex-

ceptions, our warblers do not build their
nests in cavities, and hence cannot be in-
duced to occupy bird boxes.

Many of them, however, nest in bushes,
vines, and shrubbery, and by planting
clumps of these near houses something
can be done toward increasing the num-
bers of certain species, as the yellow
warbler and the redstart. Because our
warblers are chiefly insectivorous, their
food habits bar them from the usual bird
lunch-counter in times of hard storms.

During migration, warblers are pecu-
liarly exposed to the danger of prowling
cats. Many species feed close to or even
on the ground, and then they are so much
concerned with their own. business that
any tabby, however old and lazy, is equal
to catching one or more individuals daily.
The bird lover can do good service by
summarily disposing of vagrant cats,
which, during migration, work havoc in
the ranks of our small birds.

They can also restrain the pernicious
activities of their own pets, for these,
however well fed, are still subject to the
predatory instincts of their wild ancestry,
which impel them to stalk a live bird with
all the zeal and cunning of their fore-
bears.

PLUMAGES OF WARPLERS

Little difficulty is experienced, even by
the tyro, in distinguishing warblers from
other birds, but to recognize the several
species is not so easy, particularly as the
adult males and females of many species
are markedly dissimilar, while the young,
both in the first and second plumages,
often differ from the adults. So far as
possible the various plumages are shown
in the illustrations of Mr. Fuertes, which
are so admirable as to do away with the
need of descriptive text. All are ap-
proximately one-half life size.

Laborato

ry of Or it
29 Seto oe
iversity

Mn
lthoce, New York 1485 }

MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT
(Geothlypis trichas and variety)

Length, about 5% inches. Mostly green above,
yellow below. Distinguished from other war-
blers by broad black band across forehead, bor-
dered narrowly with white.

Range: Breeds from southern Canada to
southern California, Texas, and Florida; win-
ies from the southern United States to Costa

ica.

This little warbler is common throughout the
Eastern and Southern States, frequenting
thickets and low bushes on swampy ground.
He is not a tree lover, but spends most of his
time on or very near the ground, where he
hunts assiduously for caterpillars, beetles, and
various other small insects. Among the pests
that he devours are the western cucumber
beetle and the black olive scale. He has a
cheery song of which he is not a bit ashamed,
and when one happens to be near the particu-
lar thicket a pair of yellow-throats have chosen
for their own,-one has not long to wait for
vocal proof that the male, at least, is at home.
The yellow-throat has the bump of curiosity
well developed, and if you desire a close ac-
quaintance with a pair you have only to
“squeak” a few times, when you will have the
pleasure of seeing at least one of the couple
venture out from the retreat far enough to
make sure of the character of the visitor.

YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT (Icteria
virens and subspecies)

Length, about 7% inches. Its size, olive-
green upper parts, and bright yellow throat,
breast, and upper belly distinguish this bird at
a glance.

Range: Breeds from British Columbia, Mon-
tana, Wisconsin, Ontario, and southern New
England south to the Gulf States and Mexico;
winters from Mexico to Costa Rica.

The chat is one of our largest and most
notable warblers. It is a frequenter of brushy
thickets and swampy new growth, and, while
not averse to showing itself, relies more upon
its voice to announce its presence than upon
its green and yellow plumage. Not infre-
quently the chat sings during the night. The
song, for song we must call it, is an odd jumble
of chucks and whistles, which is likely to bring
to mind the quip current in the West, “Don’t
shoot the musician; he is doing his best.” In
this same charitable spirit we must accept the
song of the chat at the bird’s own valuation,
which, we may be sure, is not low. Its nest is
a rather bulky structure of grasses, leaves, and
strips of bark, and is often so conspicuously
placed in a low bush as to cause one to wonder
how it ever escapes the notice of marauders
fond of birds’ eggs and nestlings.

The chat does no harm to agricultural in-
terests, but, on the contrary, like most of the
warbler family, lives largely on insects, and
among them are many weevils, including the
alfalfa weevil and the boll weevil so destruc-
tive to cotton.

(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17, p. 18 et seq.; also
Circular 64, p. 5.)

80

OVEN-BIRD (Seiurus aurocapillus)

Length, a little over 6 inches. Above mostly
olive green; below white, breast and sides
streaked with black. ;

Range: Breeds from southern Mackenzie,
Ontario, southern Labrador, and Newfoundland
south to Wyoming, Kansas, southern Missouri,
Ohio Valley, and Virginia; also in mountains
of Georgia and South Carolina; winters in
southern Florida, southern Louisiana, Bahamas,
West Indies, and southern Mexico to Colombia.

The oven-bird is one of our best-known
birds and one the woodland stroller is sure to
get acquainted with, whether he will or no, so
common is it and so generally distributed. In
moments of ecstacy it has a flight song which
has been highly extolled, but this is only for
the initiated; its insistent repetition of “teacher,
teacher, teacher,” as Burroughs happily phrases
it, is all the bird vouchsafes for the ears of
ordinary mortals. Its curious domed-over
grass nest is placed on the ground and is not
hard to find. The food of the oven-bird does
not differ greatly from that of other warblers,
notwithstanding the fact that the bird is strictly
terrestrial in habits. It consists almost exclu-
sively of insects, including ants, beetles, moths,
span worms, and other caterpillars, with a few
spiders, millepods, and weevils.

(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17; also yearbook for
1900, p. 416.)

RED-FACED WARBLER (Cardellina
rubrifrons)

Range: Mainly in Transition Zone in moun-
tains of southern Arizona and southwestern
New Mexico and south through Mexico to the
highlands of Guatemala.

So differently colored from our own North
American warblers generally is the little red-
face that one might at once suspect it to be a
stranger from a strange land. So at least it
seemed to me when, in the mountains near
Apache, Arizona, in July, 1874, I saw the first
one ever detected within our borders. Later in
the same year I found others on Mount Graham.
It is a Mexican species which has obtained a
foothold along our southern borders in Arizona
and New Mexico. As I noted at the time, I
saw flocks of ten or fifteen among the pines
and spruces, the birds frequenting these trees
almost exclusively, only rarely being seen on
the bushes that fringed the stream. In habits
red-faced warblers are a rather strange com-
pound, now resembling the common warblers,
again recalling the redstart, but more often,
perhaps, bringing to mind the less graceful
motions of the familiar titmice. Their favorite
hunting places appear to be the extremities of
the limbs of spruces, over the branches of
which they quickly pass, with a peculiar and
constant sidewise jerk of the tail. Since 1874
other observers have had a better chance to
study the bird and a number of nests have been
taken. These were under tufts of grass, and
in the case of one found by Price was “such a
poor attempt at nest-building and made of
such loose material that it crumbled to frag-
ments on being removed.”

SAG erT es.

MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT OVEN-BIRD
Female and Male

YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT RED-FACED WARBLER

81

WORM-EATING WARBLER
(Helmitheros vermivorus)

Range: Breeds mainly in the Carolinian
Zone trom southern Iowa, northern Illinois,
eastern and western Pennsylvania, and the
Hudson and Connecticut River valleys south
to southern Missouri, Tennessee, Virginia, and
mountains of South Carolina; winters from
Chiapas to Panama, in Cuba and the Bahamas.

He who would make the acquaintance of
the worm-eating warbler must seek it in its
own chosen home, far from which it never
strays. It is a bird of shaded hillside and
dark thickets along watercourses. Though
nimble in its movements and an active insect
hunter, it is an unobtrusive little warbler,
garbed in very modest colors, and is likely
wholly to escape the notice of the unobservant.

There seems to be an unusual degree of
jealousy among the-males, and a pair, the
hunting and the hunted, are often seen pur-
suing a rapid, zigzag flight through trees and
bushes. I imagine that in such cases the pur-
suing male, whose angry notes show how much
in earnest he is, is asserting the right of do-
main over his own hunting grounds, and
driving from his preserves an intruder.

Like several of our terrestrial warblers, the
worm-eater has caught the trick of walking,
perhaps borrowing it from his thrush neigh-
bors, and he rarely or never hops. In his case
the term “terrestrial” must be modified by
the statement that to a certain extent he is
a connecting link between the arboreal mem-
bers of the family, as the black-throated green
and Tennessee, which descend to the ground
only casually, and such species as the Con-
necticut and the Swainson, which seek their
food chiefly on the ground. Of the musical
ability of the worm-eating warbler little is to
be said save that his song is so very feeble that
one must listen carefully to hear it at all, and
that it much resembles that of our familiar
“chippy” when heard a long distance off.
This warbler nests on the ground, often on a
hillside or in a shallow depression, and the
pairs seem so much attached to their old home
that they may confidently be looked for in
the same place year after year.

GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER
(Vermivora chrysoptera)

Range: Breeds in Alleghanian Zone from
central Minnesota, southern Ontario, and Mas-
sachusetts south to southern Iowa, northern
Illinois, northern Indiana, northern New Jer-
sey, and northern Georgia; winters from Gua-
temala to Colombia.

Though less gaudily colored than certain
others of our warblers, the golden-wing ranks
high in the family for beauty, and its trim
form and tastefully contrasted tints of gray,
black, and yellow may well excite admiration.
It is almost wholly limited to eastern States,
rarely indeed being found west of the Missis-
sippi, and its summer haunts are in the north-
ern parts of its range. Though common in
some localities, the golden-wing in most places

82

is sufficiently rare always to interest the bird
observer, and in Massachusetts if several are
heard or seen in a long tramp the day may well
be esteemed a red-letter day. The bird is to
be looked for in deciduous timber, and is espe-
cially fond of elms and birches as hunting
grounds. I have often seen it busy in elms so
high up that only with difficulty could it be dis-
tinguished from the Tennessee, Nashville, and
other strikingly different warblers in company
with it. Like the blue-wing, it has the habit of
clinging to the tip of a branch or cluster of
flowers, back downward, examining the spot
with the most exact scrutiny.

Once heard, its song is not to be forgotten
nor mistaken for that of any other warbler,
unless possibly the blue-wing. It possesses a
buzzing, insectlike quality and is well repre-
sented to my ears by the syllables ze-ze-ze-ze,
the latter notes in a higher pitch. It seems
strange that a bird so distinctly arboreal in
habits should choose to nest on the ground;
but numerous nests of the golden-wing have
been found, all of them practically on or a few
inches from the earth, though usually sup-
ported by weed stalks or grass stems.

ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER
(Vermivora celata celata)

Range: Breeds in lower Hudsonian and Can.
adian Zones from Kobuk River, Alaska, south-
east to central Keewatin and Manitoba, and
south locally in the Rocky Mountains to New
Mexico; winters in the Gulf and South Atlan-
tic States to South Carolina and south through
Mexico to Mount Orizaba.

The orange-crowned warbler is much better
known as a migrant, especially a fall migrant,
than as a summer resident. Its summer home,
in fact, is so far north that it is beyond the
ken of most observers, although the bird occa-
sionally summers, and no doubt nests, in
Maine and Wisconsin. Seton found it a com-
mon summer resident in Manitoba; Kennicott
discovered it nesting about the Great Slave
Lake among clumps of low bushes; while Nel-
son found it common in summer in the wooded
regions of northern Alaska. For some reason
or other of late years the orange-crown seems
to be a much commoner migrant in Massa-
chusetts, and perhaps generally in New Eng-
land, than formerly, and the sight of three or
four in a day occasions no great surprise. It
winters in Florida and in other of the South
Atlantic States, and the cause of its rarity in
the Eastern States in spring is due to the fact
that it migrates up the Mississippi Valley. The
orange-crown is one of the most plainly col-
ored of the warbler tribe, and there is little
about it to attract the notice of the casual
observer. The song is said to consist of a
few sweet trills, and, as is the case with the
ditties of so many of its kind, has been likened
to that of the familiar little “chippy.”

BLUE-WINGED WARBLER (Vermivora
pinus)

(For text, see page 87)

BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER
(Mniotilta varia)

Length, about 4% inches. Easily known by
its streaked black and white plumage.

Range: Eastern North America. Breeds
from central Mackenzie, southern Keewatin,
northern Ontario, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia,
and New Brunswick to eastern Texas, Louisi-
ana, central Alabama, and northern Georgia,
west to South Dakota; winters in Florida and
from Colima and Nuevo Leon to Colombia,
Ecuador, and Venezuela.

A warbler in form and general make-up, a
creeper by profession and practice, this readily
identihed species, in its striped suit of black
and white, may be observed in any bit of east-
ern woodland. Here it flits from tree to tree
or climbs over the trunks and branches, scan-
ning every crack and cranny for the insects
that constitute its chief food. Though not a
lover of open country, it frequently visits the
orchard, where it performs its part in the task
of keeping insect life within due bounds. It
nests on the ground and hides its domicile so
skillfully that it is not often found. None of
the warblers are noted as songsters, but the
black and white creeper, as I like best to call
it, emits a series of thin wiry notes which we
may call a song by courtesy only. In scramb-
ling over the trunks of trees it finds and de-
vours many long-horned beetles, the parents of
the destructive root-borers; it also finds weev-
ils, ants, and spiders.

YELLOW WARBLER (Dendroica estiva
and races)

Length, little more than 5 inches. Mostly
yellow, breast and belly streaked with reddish
brown.

Range: North America, breeding generally
throughout its range south to California, New
Mexico, Missouri, and northern South Caro-
lina ; winters in Central and South America.

The ‘ ‘yellow bird,” or wild canary, as it is
sometimes called; is one of the commonest of
the warbler tribe and ranges over a vast extent
of territory, being found here and there from
ocean to ocean. Unlike some of its relatives,
it prefers open thickets, especially of willows,
to thick woodland, and often builds its pretty
nest by the roadside or in garden shrubbery.
Though not an expert musician, the yellow
warbler sings early and often, and in zeal
makes up what it lacks in quality of voice.
Because its nest is easily found by the initiated,
this warbler is often victimized by the infa-
mous cowbird, and is forced to bring up one,
or even two, young cowbirds in place of its
own rightful progeny. It is pleasant to be able
to record the fact that sometimes the clever
warbler knows enough—how it knows it is an-
other matter—to evade the unwelcome respon-
sibilities thus thrust upon it, and builds a plat-
form over the alien egg, and then continues its
domestic affairs as originally planned. Indeed,
cases are on record when two cowbirds’ eggs
have been found in a nest, each covered up by
a separate layer of nest material.

(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17, p. 20 et seq.;
Bull. 20.)

also

83

AUDUBON’S WARBLER (Dendroica
auduboni)

Length, about 5 inches. Much like the yel-
low-rump, but with yellow crown and throat
patch.

Range: Breeds from central British Colum-
bia, Alberta, and southwestern Saskatchewan
to our southern border, east to South Dakota
and Nebraska; winters from California and
Texas south to Guatemala.

No member of the wood warbler family is
more characteristic of the group than this
beautiful bird. In voice, coloration, and habits
it is almost the counterpart of the yellow-rump
of the Eastern States, for which indeed it
might easily be mistaken were it not for its
yellow throat, the corresponding area in the
yellow-rump being white. It summers in the
mountains and shows off to advantage against
the dark foliage of the pines. It seems to have
little fear of man and in winter frequents
orchards, gardens, and dooryards. Wherever
it may be, it keeps up an incessant hunt for its
insect food, in the pursuit of which, like many
others of its family, it sometimes essays the
role of flycatcher, being very expert and nimble
on the wing. This warbler also devours large
numbers of ants, flies, scale and plant lice, and
noxious bugs.

(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 30, pp. 43-46.)

REDSTART (Setophaga ruticilla)

Length, nearly 5% inches. To be distin-
guished from other warblers by its coloration
and its motions. (See below.)

Range: Breeds from central British Colum-
bia and eastern Canada to Washington, Utah,
Colorado, Oklahoma, and North Carolina; win-
ters in the West Indies and from Mexico to
Ecuador.

Its beauty of form and plumage and its
graceful motions place this dainty bird at the
head of our list of wood warblers—a place of
distinction indeed. The bird appears to be the
incarnation of animated motion and _ fairly
dances its way through the forest. Spanish
imagination has coined a suggestive and fitting
name for the redstart, candelita, the little
“torch-bearer.” The full appropriateness of
the name appears as the graceful creature flits
through the greenery, displaying the salmon-
colored body and the bright wing and _ tail
patches. The redstart is not unknown in some
parts of the West, but it is essentially a bird
of the Eastern States, where it is a common
inhabitant of open woodland districts. While
it builds a rather neat and compact structure
of strips of bark, plant fibers, and the like,
placing it in a sapling not far from the ground,
the nest is not the thing of beauty one might
be led to expect from such a fairy-like crea-
ture. Ornamental as the redstart is, it pos-
sesses other claims on our gratitude, for it is
a most active and untiring hunter of insects,
such as epittle insects, tree-hoppers, and leaf-
hoppers, and both orchard and forest trees are
benefited by the unceasing warfare it wages.

(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17, p. 20 et seq.)

WORM-EATING WARBLER ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER

GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER BLUE-WINGED WARBLER
Male and Female

84

BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER AUDUBON WARBLER

YELLOW WARBLER REDSTART
Female and Male

85

TENNESSEE WARBLER (Vermivora
peregrina)

Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from up-
per Yukon Valley, southern Mackenzie, cen-
tral Keewatin, southern Ungava, and Anticosti
Island south to southern British Columbia,
southern Alberta, Manitoba, northern Minne-
sota, Ontario, New York (Adirondacks),
northern Maine, and New Hampshire; winters
from Oaxaca to Colombia and Venezuela.

The Tennessee warbler is by no means as
local as its name would imply, but is likely to
be found in migration almost anywhere in
eastern United States, although it is much
more numerous in the Mississippi Valley. Un-
pretentious both in dress and character, this
little bird seems to possess no very salient
characteristics. It ts, however, not likely to be
mistaken for any other species save the Nash-
ville, which it resembles rather closely. Dur-
ing spring migration the Tennessee is apt to be
overlooked, since it is prone to keep in the
tree-tops. In fall, however, it is found lower
down, usually in company with flocks of other
warblers, among which it becomes conspicuous
by reason of its very inconspicuousness and in
contrast with its more gaudy fellows.

Its song has been variously described and
may be said to be a simple trill not unlike the
chippy. It appears to be certain that the Ten-
nessee, like the Nashville, nests on the ground,
but apparently the nesting habits of the bird
are comparatively unknown, or at least have
not as yet been very fully recorded.

NORTHERN PARULA WARBLER
(Compsothlypis americana usnez)

Range: Breeds mainly in Transition and
Austral Zones, from eastern Nebraska, north-
ern Minnesota, central Ontario, and Anticosti
and Cape Breton Islands south to central south-
ern Texas, southern Louisiana, Alabama, Vir-
ginia, and Maryland; winters probably in the
Bahamas and West Indies to Barbados, and
from Vera Cruz and Oaxaca to Nicaragua.

The northern parula, smallest of our war-
blers, with prevailing colors blue and yellow,
is generally distributed during migration and
usually found in company with other war-
blers in leafy trees, which it explores from the
lower to the topmost branches. It is one of
the most active of the tribe, and is untiring
in its pursuit of the minute insects which form
its food. Its habit of hanging head down-
ward as it explores a cluster of blossoms sug-
gests a chickadee, and the little fellow is a
combination of warbler, kinglet, and chickadee.
It is very partial to nesting in usnea moss
and so is found in summer along streams or
in swampy localities where long streamers of
the usnea festoon the trees. The preference
of the parula for this moss as a site for its
nest is exemplified by a nest I once found in

86

Maryland on the bank of the Potomac, which
had been built in the frayed end of an old
rope hanging to a sapling and which a short
distance away looked to me—and no doubt
to the bird—exactly like a clump of usnea.
As no usnea occurred in this locality, the bird
accepted the frayed rope as a Satisfactory
substitute, and in so doing followed the spirit
if not the letter of family tradition. How-
ever, the parula is not strictly limited to usnea
for a nesting site and I once saw a pair
carrying shreds of bark into a juniper on an
island in the Potomac River, the nest being
already far advanced toward completion. The
parula has a short, buzzing song of which it
is prodigal enough, but it is weak and can be
heard at no great distance. :

CAPE MAY WARBLER (Dendroica
tigrina)

Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone.from south-
ern Mackenzie, northern Ontario, New Bruns-
wick, and Nova Scotia south to Manitoba,
northern Maine, and New Hampshire, and in
Jamaica; winters in the Bahamas and the West
Indies to Tobago.

Not only is the Cape May one of our most
beautiful warblers, but its rarity adds greatly
to the zest with which one hails the discovery
of even an individual. This species, however,
is far more numerous even in New England,
especially in fall, than it used to be, and in
time the bird may even be listed in many of
the Eastern States as among the more common
migrants.

Although the bulk of the species undoubtedly
migrates north through the Mississippi Valley,
rarely a spring passes that a few individuals
are not reported about Washington, D. C., and
I have seen several ina day. At this time of
year the Cape May often forsakes the wood-
lands and appears in orchards or even in city
parks, and probably not a season passes that
one or more do not visit the Smithsonian or
Agricultural Department grounds. Chapman
tells us that in Florida he has seen the species
“actually common feeding in weedy patches
among a rank growth of pokeberries.”

The bird is a rather sluggish, but persistent,

insect hunter, though it adds to its bill of fare
one item, grapes, which is bringing it into ill
repute in parts of Pennsylvania and Virginia.
The sharp-pointed bill of the Cape May enables
it readily to puncture the skin, its apparent
purpose being to satisfy its thirst with the
sweet juice.
_ The Cape May is a persistent songster, but
its song is weak and squeaky and by no means
worthy of so superb a creature. Comparatively
little is recorded of this bird’s nesting habits.
It is known to summer from northern Maine
northward. A nest found by Banks at St.
Johns, New Brunswick, was built in a cedar
less than three feet from the ground.

BLUE-WINGED WARBLER (Vermivora
pinus)

(For illustration, see page 84)

Range: Breeds from southeastern Minne-
sota, southern Michigan, western New York,
Massachusetts (rarely), and southern Con-
necticut south to northeastern Kansas, central
Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware;
winters from southern Mexico (Puebla) to
Guatemala.

Like the golden-wing, the blue-winged war-
bler is confined to the Eastern States, but it
tanges considerably farther west than that
species and occurs almost or quite to the
Plains. The blue-wing is in many ways an
inconspicuous member of the warbler group,
but, because of its perplexing relationship with
the golden-wing, Brewster’s warbler, and Law-
rence’s warbler, its ornithological] interest is ex-
celled by few. Like the golden-wing, it prefers
deciduous trees and second growths and shuns
the deeper parts of the forests. It has the
habit—shared by the golden-wing and chicka-
dee—of hanging from the under side of any
particular cluster it wishes to investigate, and
no doubt it makes sure of insects that defy
the less careful search of most other species.
The ordinary song of the blue-wing is com-
parable to the golden-wing’s, being in fact little
else than an apology for a song, with the same
insectlike quality. This warbler, though of
distinctly arboreal habits, prefers to nest on
the ground, or a few inches above it, in a tuft
of grass, a clump of goldenrods, or at the foot
of a sapling.

The nest is rather bulky, composed of leaves
and grasses, put together after the artless man-
ner of its kind; but it is usually well concealed
by the surrounding screen of grass.or weeds
from any but chance discovery.

BLACK-THROATED BLUE WARBLER
(Dendroica czrulescens czrulescens)

Range: Breeds in Canadian and Transition
Zones from northern Minnesota, central On-
tario, and northeastern Quebec south to cen-
tral Minnesota, southern Michigan, southern
Ontario, Pennsylvania (mountains), and north-
ern Connecticut; winters from Key West,
Florida, to the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and
Cozumel Island.

The male black-throated blue warbler is one
of the most conspicuous of the warblers, his
black throat and blue back serving to distin-
guish him at all times and all seasons. The
female, despite her inconspicuous coloration,
may always be identified by the white spot on
the primaries. The bird is‘common and ranges
widely through eastern North America, and
few flocks of migrating’-warblers are without
a greater or less number of this ‘species.
Though in the main a common resident of the
northern woods, in the mountains it breeds as
far south as Maryland, while a color variety
of the bird (Dendroica caerulescens cairnsi)
nests in the southern Alleghenies from Penn-
sylvania south to Georgia.

87

Thayer, as quoted by Chapman, says of the
song: “There is not a more regularly and
amply versatile singer among our eastern war-
blers than the black-throated blue. It has at
least four main songs, on which it is forever
playing notable variations.”

Whether in its northern or southern home,
the black-throated blue warbler builds its nest
of bark, roots, and other pliant material, loose
and rather bulky, in a variety of saplings,
bushes, and weeds, but always a few inches
or a few feet from the ground.

NASHVILLE WARBLER (Vermivora
rubricapilla rubricapilla)

Range: Breeds in Canadian and Transition
Zones from southern Saskatchewan, northern
Ontario, central Quebec, and Cape Breton Is-
land south to Nebraska, northern Illinois,
northern Pennsylvania, northern New Jersey,
and Connecticut; winters from Vera Cruz and
Chiapas to Guatemala.

As Wilson never saw but three individuals
of the Nashville warbler, all taken near Nash-
ville, Tennessee, he not unnaturally named his
new discovery for that city, apparently believ-
ing it.to be a local species. Far from being so,
however, it is now known to inhabit most of
the eastern United States. Without doubt the
bird is much more common than it was in Wil-
son’s time, perhaps due to the fact that second
growth and areas of low woods, its preferred
haunts, have largely replaced the denser forests
of the early part of the nineteenth century.
One cannot wander far afield in Massachusetts
in summer time without hearing its song or
songs, since it is not only a frequent and viva-
cious songster, but has a number of ditties in
its repertoire, including a flight song.

I never found but one nest, and this was on
a little pine-wooded knoll in a small depression
in the earth, only partially concealed by thin
grass. I should never have found it but for
the fact that the bird flushed from between my
feet. So far as known, the Nashville always
nests on the ground. Its preference for the
ground as a nesting site is the more remark-
able, since the bird rarely or never hunts there,
but prefers to seek its insect food among the
foliage, often of the tallest elms and chestnuts
and other giants of the forest.

The Calaveras warbler (Vermivora rubri-
capilla gutturalis) is a form closely allied to
the Nashville, but confined chiefly to the Pacific
coast, extending eastward to eastern Oregon
and northern Idaho. Fisher is quoted by Chap-
man as saying: “The Calaveras warbler is a
characteristic denizen of the chaparral and is
found on both slopes of the Sierra Nevadas
about as far south as Mount Whitney. It fre-
quents the belts of the yellow, sugar, and Jeffry
pines, and ranges up into the red-fir zone.
During the height of the nesting season, while
the female is assiduously hunting among the
dense cover of bushes, the male is often sing-
ing in a pine or fir, far above mundane house
hold cares.”

HD Piverbis

NASHVILLE WARBLER CAPE MAY WARBLER
TENNESSEE WARBLER Male and Female
PARULA WARBLER BLACK-THROATED BLUE WARBLER
Male and Female Female and Male

88

KG. Piccr ler,

MAGNOLIA WARBLER
Adult and Immature Male

CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER
Male, Immature Male and Female

89

BLACK-POLL WARBLER
Male and Female

BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER
Male and Female

CHESTNUT-SIDED: WARBLER
(Dendroica pensylvanica)

Range: Breeds mainly in the ‘Transition
Zone from central Saskatchewan, northwestern
Manitoba, central Ontario, and Newfoundland
south to eastern Nebraska, Illinois, Indiana,
northern Ohio, northern New Jersey, and
Rhode Island, and south in the Alleghenies to
Tennessee and South Carolina; winters from
Guatemala to Panama.

Since the days of Wilson, Audubon, and
Nuttall there is little doubt that the chestnut-
sided warbler has increased in numbers, and
within its range it is now one of the commoner
of the family. Itistrim of form and its colors,
though not gaudy, have a quiet elegance all
their own. During the fall migration it shows
little preference in its hunting grounds, but is
found with others of its kin in all sorts of
woodland haunts and in deciduous as well as
coniferous trees. It frequents open woodland
tracts in summer and loves to nest in low
thickets of hazel and barberry. In favorable
localities in Massachusetts I have frequently
found half a dozen nests in a morning’s search.
The nests are made of shreds of bark and
grasses and are put together so loosely and
carelessly that, in connection with their situa-
tion, they unmistakably betray their ownership.

KENTUCKY WARBLER (Oporornis
formosus)

(For illustration, see page 93)

Range: Breeds in Carolinian and Austrori-
parian Zones from southeastern Nebraska,
southern Wisconsin, southeastern and south-
western Pennsylvania, and the Hudson Valley
south to eastern Texas, Louisiana, Alabama,
and northern Georgia; winters from Tabasco,
Campeche, and Chiapas through Central Amer-
ica to Colombia.

The Kentucky warbler, with its rich colors
and symmetrical form, is to be classed among
the elect of the warbler tribe. Moreover, while
locally common it is never so abundant that it
does not excite a thrill of interest in the breast
of even the most blasé of bird observers. It
loves the deep, dark forest and shaded ravine,
where the foliage overhead casts heavy shad-
ows on the plentiful undergrowth beneath and
where even in midsummer it is moist and cool.

The bird is a persistent singer, and in its
own chosen haunts its loud, sweet song may be
heard all day long. There is a curious resem-
blance between its ditty and that of the Caro-
lina wren, and while no one can mistake the
two songs when heard close by, at a distance
even the expert may be puzzled. This warbler
finds most of its food on the ground, and the
thick undergrowth in which it hunts makes it
dificult to learn much of its habits by observa-
tion, since it is difficult to keep an individual
in sight many minutes at 2 time.

It builds a rather loose, bulky nest, largely
of leaves and grasses, which is placed either
on or just above the ground, and although it
may seem to have been rather artlessly located
it is in reality well protected by the surround-
ing vegetation with which it blends, and hence
generally escapes the observation of all but tke
most persistent and sharp-sighted of observers.

90

WILSON WARBLER (Wilsonia pusilla
pusilla)

(For illustration, see page 96)

Range: Breeds in Boreal Zones from tree
limit in northwestern and central Mackenzie,
central Keewatin, central Ungava, and New-
foundland south to southern Saskatchewan,
northern Minnesota, central Ontario, New
Hampshire, Maine, and.Nova Scotia; winters
in eastern Central America from Guatemala to
Costa Rica.

This tiny warbler ventures farther north than
many bigger and apparently hardier species,
and Nelson found it in Alaska “one of the
commonest of the bush-frequenting species,
‘ extending its breeding range to the
shores of the Arctic Ocean wherever it finds
shelter.” Cooke also found it in Colorado
breeding from 6,000 to 12,000 feet elevation.

The black-cap is a nervous, energetic, little
fellow, now essaying the role of flycatcher, now
hunting for insects among the foliage, while
ever and anon it jerks its tail up and down as
though constant motion were the chief end of
existence. It has a short, bubbling, warbling
song which has been likened to the songs of
several other species, but which possesses a
tone and quality all the bird’s own. Its nest is
built on the ground, is composed chiefly of
grasses, and the eggs do not differ in essential
respects from those of other warblers.

It is noteworthy that the West Coast form
of the black-cap chryseola breeds as far south
as Los Angeles, and that its nest instead of
being built on the ground is placed in the
crotch of a limb or in a bunch of weeds or
nettles.

CANADA WARBLER (Wilsonia
canadensis)

(For ‘illustration, see page 96)

Range: Breeds in the Canadian Zone and
casually in the Transition from central Alberta,
southern Keewatin, northern Ontario, northern
Quebec, and Newfoundland south to central
Minnesota, central Michigan, southern Ontario,
central New York, and Massachusetts, and
along the Alleghenies to North Carolina and
Tennessee; winters in Ecuador and Peru.

The Canada warbler is always associated in
my mind with the black-cap, in company with
which it is frequently found during migration.
The association is purely accidental and results
from a common preference for the same hunt-
ing grounds. A path or road through swampy
ground, especially if bordered by old willow
trees, 1s sure to have its quota of this warbler
and the Wilson black-cap during migration.

Like the black-cap, the Canada warbler is
half flycatcher, half warbler, and the click of
the bird’s mandibles as they close on some
hapless insect caught in mid-air is often the
first indication of its presence. Unlike many
of the family, it sings much during its spring
migration. The song is loud for the size of
the warbler and is very characteristic. The
bird builds a rather bulky nest of leaves and
grasses, which it places in a mossy bank or
under a moss-grown log. It is an assiduous
and active insect hunter and gleans among the
leaves and twigs after the fashion of the

parula v

MAGNOLIA WARBLER (Dendroica
magnolia)

Range: Breeds in Canadian and upper Tran-
sition Zones from southwestern Mackenzie,
southern Keewatin, northern Quebec, and New-
foundland south to central Alberta, southern
Saskatchewan, Minnesota, northern Michigan,
anc northern Massachusetts, and in the moun-
tains of West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylva-
nia, and New York; winters from southern
Mexico (Puebla and Chiapas) to Panama.

The magnolia, or black and yellow warbler,
as I like best to call it, is one of our most
beautiful warblers, and fortunately, being one
of the commonest of the tribe, is easily met
with by any one willing to take a little pains.
When busy at its self-imposed task of hunting
insects—and when is it not busy—it is by no
means shy, and may be watched at close range
with or without the aid of a field glass. When-
ever or however met, the sight of a full-plu-
maged male resplendent in the gold and black
livery of spring is worth a long journey.

The bird ranges over much of eastern North
America as far west as the Plains, and toward
the north reaches the Mackenzie region. In
the mountains it breeds here and there as far
south as Maryland. In migration the magnolia
shows no preference for special localities, but
occurs in upland woods and lowland shrubbery
where is promised a good harvest of insects.
Like so many of its fellows, it finds rich hunt-
ing grounds in gray birches, and few large
comparies of warblers traverse gray birch
woods without their complement of these beau-
tiful and sprightly wood nymphs. The mag-
nolia warbler is a versatile, though scarcely an
accomplished, songster, and phrases its song in
a number of different ways. Many of its nests
have been found in the northern woods, some
of them in small firs or spruces only a few feet
from the ground.

BLACK-POLL WARBLER (Dendroica
striata)

Range: Breeds in Hudsonian and Canadian
Zones from limit of trees in northwestern
Alaska, northern Mackenzie, central Keewatin,
northern Ungava, and Newfoundland south to
central British Columbia, Manitoba, Michigan,
northern Maine, and mountains of Vermont
and New Hampshire; winters from Guiana
and Venezuela to Brazil.

The black-poll is one of our commonest
warblers, in both spring and fall, and probably
heads the warbler list in point of numbers. So
far as superficial observations go. the bird
would seem to be no spryer, no more indus-
trious, and no more adept in hunting food than
its compeers; but for some reason or other.
possibly greater adaptability, it seems to have
succeeded beyond most of its kind in extending
its breeding range and in multiplying. It is a
late migrant, both spring and fall, and when
the hordes of black-polls put in an appearance,

91

especially in the vernal season, one may know
that the end of the migrating season is at
hand. A laggard in spring, it is also a loiterer
in fall, and occasionally a flock of black-polls
will linger in some sheltered valley where food
is abundant till long after others of the family
have passed southward.

The bird nests chiefly in the far north,
though it summers as far south as the Adiron-
dacks. As it winters in South America, there
are thus at least 5,000 miles between its ex-
treme northern and southern habitats. Chap-
man notes that it is one of the very few war-
blers that migrate directly across the West In-
dies from South America to Florida. It makes
its appearance in the Gulf States about the
last of April. As pointed out by Professor
Cooke, the black-poll is “one of the greatest
travelers among the warblers. The shortest
journey that any black-poll performs is 3,500
miles, while those that nest in Alaska have
7,000 "miles to travel to their probable winter
home in Brazil.” One can only wonder that
so small a bird has the requisite courage and
strength to undertake twice a year such a vast
journey, every stage of which is compassed by
dangers of one sort or another.

BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER
(Dendroica fusca)

Range: Breeds in lower Canadian and upper
Transition Zones from Manitoba, southern
Keewatin, central Ontario, Quebec, and Cape
Breton Island to central Minnesota, Wiscon-
sin, northern Michigan, Massachusetts, and
Connecticut, and in the Alleghenies from Penn-
sylvania to Georgia and South Carolina; win-
ters “from Colombia to central Peru and less
commonly north to Yucatan.

The Blackburnian, one of the gems of the
warbler tribe, has a rather wide range in east-
ern North America, extending west as far as
the Plains and north to Manitoba. Apparently
it is nowhere, at least in migration, an abun-
dant warbler,’‘and there are few field observers
so seasoned to the sight of its beautiful colors
as not to be thrilled by sight of the bird. In
migration its habits offer nothing peculiar. In
the Atlantic States in September careful scru-
tiny of a migrating band of warblers and other
birds will often reveal the presence of one or
perhaps half a dozen Blackburnians. About
Mount Monadnock, Gerald Thayer finds it a
“very common summer resident. It is one of
the four deep-wood warblers of this region,
the other three being the black-throated blue,
the Northern parula, and the Canada.”

The Blackburnian favors very big trees, par-
ticularly hemlocks, and spends most of its life
high above the ground, As Thayer says, the
Blackburnian is the “preéminent forest warbler
of the group, the lover of deep mixed growth
and the upper branches of the biggest conifers.”
The bird has a thin, shrill voice and utters at
least two songs or variations which some think
resemble the black-throated green’s. Whatever
the tree selected. be it a hemlock or a deciduous
tree, the nest is placed well up among the
branches and well out toward the end, where
it is safe from all enemies that do not possess
wings.

LB Whig wip

BAY-BREASTED WARBLER BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER
Male and Female Male and Female
BLACK-THROATED GRAY WARBLER PINE WARBLER

92

PALM WARBLER NORTHERN WATER-THRUSH

YELLOW PALM WARBLER LOUISIANA WATER-THRUSH
PRAIRIE WARBLER KENTUCKY WARBLER
Male and Female Male and Female

93

BAY-BREASTED WARBLER (Dendroica

castanea)
Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from
northeastern Alberta, southern . Keewatin,

southern Ungava, and Newfoundland south
to southern Al f itoba, northern Maine, and
mountains of few Hampshire; winters in
Panama and Colombia.

The bay-breast appears to be increasing in
numbers. Forty years or so ago it was rare
in Massachusetts in fall, and search by the
most vigilant collector during the entire
autumn migration was rarely rewarded by
the sight of more than one or two. Today
it is far different, and not a season passes
that at the proper time and place careful
search will not reveal a dozen or more mingled
with others of the warbler family. In spring
the bird has always been uncommon or alto-
gether wanting in the Eastern States, as it
migrates up the Mississippi Valley, spreading
out to occupy northern Maine and other of
its northern summer haunts. In summer it
frequents coniferous forests, and often nests
in hemlocks.

BLACK-THROATED GRAY WARBLER
(Dendroica nigrescens)

Range: Breeds in Transition Zone from
southern British Columbia, Nevada, northern
Utah, and northwestern Colorado south to
northern Lower California, southern Arizona,
and northern New Mexico; winters in southern
Lower California and in Mexico from Du-
rango to Michoacan, Vera Cruz, and Oaxaca.

The handsome black-throated gray warbler
is exclusively western in distribution, from our
southern border to British Columbia. Though
I have seen it many times, I am unable to re-
call any especially salient characteristics pos-
sessed by the species. Like others of the fam-
ily, the black-throat is an active insect hunter,
both among the oaks and various kinds of
scrub growths of the valleys and the conifers
of higher altitudes. The bird seems naturally
to suggest the black-throated green warbler of
the Eastern States, but I am not aware that
in habits it is more nearly comparable to that
species than to others. In choice of nesting
sites it exhibits a wide range of taste, and
nests have been found in scrub oaks, pines, and
firs, and varying in height from the ground
from 3 or 4 feet up to 50 feet or more.

BLACK-THROATED GREEN WAR-
BLER (Dendroica virens)

Range: Breeds in lower Canadian and
Transition Zones from west, central, and
northeastern Alberta, southern Manitoba,
central Ontario, northeastern Quebec, and

Newfoundland south to southern Minnesota,
southern Wisconsin, northern Ohio, northern
New Jersey, Connecticut, and Long Island,
New York, and in the Alleghenies south to
South Carolina and Georgia; winters in
Mexico (Nuevo Leon to Chiapas and
Yucatan), Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Panama.

What true bird lover is there who does not

94

cherish fond memories of certain birds? The
very name of black-throated green warbler
carries me back to boyhood days and to a
certain pine-crested hill in Massachusetts,
from which was wafted on an early spring
morning the song of this warbler, heard by
me then for the first time. The many years
since elapsed have not effaced the sweet
strains, and I seem to hear them now as they
were borne that morning by the pine-scented
spring breeze. I can vividly recall the pleasure
the song occasioned and the satisfaction of
having added one more bird to my small list
of avian acquaintances. «Those were the days
of mystery, when the woods seemed filled with
unknown birds, and secrets lurked in every
thicket and met the seeker at every turn.
They were the times when bird books were
few, keys unknown, and the keen eyes of
youth far more satisfactory than the best field
glasses of the present day.

The black-throated green is one of the com-
moner of our eastern warblers and one of the
first to engage the attention of the bird stu-
dent. During migration it may be met with
in every kind of woodland, where it is at home,
both high and low, ever pursuing with tireless
energy its quest for insects. It has two songs,
or rather one song delivered in two different
ways, sprightly, sweet, and perfectly character-
istic. In summer it is partial to coniferous
woods, especially white pines and hemlocks,
and it frequently nests in these, though also in
birches and alders.

PINE WARBLER (Dendroica vigorsi)

Range: Breeds in Transition and Austral
Zones from northern Manitoba, northern Mich-
igan, southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and
New Brunswick south to east-central Texas,
the Gulf States, and Florida; winters from
southern Illinois and coast of Virginia to Flor-
ida, eastern Texas, and Tamaulipas.

Few of our birds are so aptly named as the
pine warbler, which first, last, and all the time,
except in migration, resorts to pine woods. It
summers in them in the north and it winters
in them in the south. Even its feathers often
bear conclusive evidence of its predilection for
pines, being often besmeared with their gum.
Among its bright-hued relatives the pine war-
bler cuts but a poor show with its somber green
and brown coat, which, at least in Florida, is
often dingy and smoke-begrimed from contact
with burnt timber.

Though distinctively a warbler and not a
creeper, the pine warbler is more deliberate in
its motions than most of its kind and, some-
what in the manner of the creeper, moves
among the branches or over the trunks in
search of its insect food. For a warbler it is
an early migrant and reaches the latitude of
Massachusetts soon after the middle of April.
Indeed, its nest contains eggs or young while
the late migrants are still passing north. Its
song has little variation, but while monotonous
is pleasing and sweet, far sweeter than the trill
of the chipping sparrow, which it recalls. Nat-
urally the pine warbler nests in pines, usually
rather high up, either on a horizontal limb or
among the twigs at the extremity of a limb.

PALM WARBLER (Dendroica palmarum
palmarum)

Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from south-
ern Mackenzie (Fort Simpson) and central
Keewatin south and southeast to northern Min-
nesota; winters from southern Florida and the
Bahamas to the Greater Antilles and Yucatan.

The palm warbler, including under this name
both the eastern and western, or yellow (Den-
droica palmarum hypochrysea), representatives
of the species, is for the most part an inhabit-
ant of the Mississippi Valley and the region
eastward, spending its nesting season chiefly
north of our northern frontier. It is, there-
fore, as a spring and fall migrant that it is best
known. Its somewhat subdued tints of olive
and yellow streaked with brown class it among
the less conspicuous members of the warbler
group, but its motions and habits unmistakably
distinguish it from its fellows. Though often
associating with other warblers as they flit
from tree to tree, the palm warbler keeps close
to Mother Earth and not infrequently visits
pastures and stubble far from cover of any
sort. Favorite hunting grounds are old fences
and even buildings.

Perhaps the most salient characteristic of
this little warbler is the almost incessant tip-up
motion of its tail, in which respect it recalls a
bird in no wise related to it—the spotted sand-
piper, or “tip-up,” of pond and stream. It nests
on the ground. Its song is a low, faint trill,
characteristically warblerlike, but in no way
remarkable. It winters in great numbers in
Florida, and in 1871 I found it wintering in
loose flocks of considerable size near Lakes
Borgne and Ponchartrain, Louisiana, where it
fed chiefly on the ground and among low
bushes.

PRAIRIE WARBLER (Dendroica discolor)

Range: Breeds chiefly in Carolinian and
Austroriparian Zones from southeastern Ne-
braska, eastern Kansas, southern Ohio, south-
western Pennsylvania, southern New Jersey,
and (along the coast) from Massachusetts
south to southwestern Missouri, northern Mis-
sissippi, northwestern Georgia, Florida, and
the Bahamas, and north locally to central Mich-
igan, southern Ontario, and New Hampshire;
winters from central Florida through the Ba-
hamas and the West Indies.

The prairie, a dainty little warbler in its
variegated black, yellow, and chestnut dress, is
common from Florida to the New England
States and from Nebraska and Kansas east to
the Atlantic. Its choice of habitat varies con-
siderably locally ; but wherever it may be found
there is nothing in the habits of the bird that
justifies its common name, which is entirely
misleading, since it has no predilection for
prairies or indeed for open country of any sort.
In Massachusetts it frequents rocky barberry
pastures on open hillsides dotted with cedars.
About Washington it fréquents sprout lands,
and when it first arrives from the south is
found almost exclusively in groves of the Jer-
sey scrub pine or in junipers. It is an active
insect hunter, moving rapidly among the foli-
age, now here, now there, ever and again send-
ing forth its claracteristic song. Its unusually
compact and pretty nest is often placed in the
crotch of a barberry bush in Massachusetts or
elsewhere in junipers or in low deciduous
bushes.

95

NORTHERN WATER-THRUSH (Seiurus

noveboracencis noveboracensis)

Range: Breeds chiefly in Canadian Zone from
northern Ontario, northern Ungava, and New-
foundland south to central Ontario, northwest-
ern New York, and northern New England,
and in mountains south to Pennsylvania and
West Virginia; winters from the Valley of
Mexico to Colombia and British Guiana, and
from the Bahamas throughout the West Indies.

So far as appearance, motions, and habits go,
the water-thrush is more thrush than warbler,
and one who sees him for the first time walk-
ing sedately along with teetering tail may well
be excused for declining to class him with the
warbler family. He is partial to swamps and
wet places, is a ground frequenter, and in no
real sense arboreal. Though an inhabitant of
the wilds and showing strong preference for
swampy ground, he not infrequently visits gar-
dens even in populous towns, and seems to be
quite at home there in the shade of the shrub-
bery. A sharp and characteristic alarm note
often calls the attention of the chance passer-
by, who would otherwise overlook the bird in
its shady recesses.

Few who are privileged to hear its notes will
dissent from the opinion that the water-thrush
is one of the foremost of the warbler choir
and a real musician. The bird is a ground
builder, placing its nest under the roots of an
upturned tree, in banks, or in cavities of vari-
ous sorts.

LOUISIANA WATER-THRUSH
(Seiurus motacilla)

Range: Breeds mainly in Carolinian Zone
from southeastern Nebraska, southeastern Min-
nesota, and the southern parts of Michigan,
Ontario, New York, and New England south
to northeastern Texas, northern Georgia, and
central South Carolina; winters from northern
Mexico to Colombia, the Greater Antilles, An-
tigua, and the Bahamas.

The Louisiana water-thrush, though not un-
like its northern relative in general appearance,
is very different in disposition and habits, and
I know of no bird more shy and difficult to
watch. It frequents the banks and neighbor-
hood of clear streams that run through wood-
lands and tangles of laurel. One hears the
sharp note of challenge or the wild ringing
song, but any attempt to see the singer, unless
made with the utmost caution, will end in dis-
appointment or in a casual glimpse of a small.
brown bird flitting like a shadow through the
brush.

The song of either water-thrush is of a
high order of excellence. I cannot but think,
however, that the song of the Louisiana water-
thrush gains over that of its tuneful rival by
partaking somewhat of the nature of its wild
surroundings, and that its song is enhanced by
its accompaniments—the murmur of the wood-
land brook and the whisper of the foliage—
among which it is heard. Quite a number of
our birds habitually teeter or wag their tails,
but few as persistently as the water-thrushes.

KENTUCKY WARBLER (Oporornis
formosus)

(For text, see page 90)

CONNECTICUT WARBLER WILSON WARBLER
MOURNING WARBLER Male and Female
MACGILLIVRAY WARBLER

HOODED WARBLER CANADA WARBLER
Male and Female

96

CONNECTICUT WARBLER (Oporornis
agilis)

Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from Mani-
toba to central Minnesota and northern Mich-
igan; winters in South America, probably in
Colombia and Brazil.

_ Discovered by Wilson in Connecticut early
in the last century, the Connecticut warbler re-
mained almost unknown for many years until,
September 7, 1870, I found it numerous in the
fresh pond swamps of Cambridge. The bird
thus rediscovered rapidly came into the lime-
light, and there are few eastern observers of
the present day who are not tolerably familiar
with the appearance and habits of this warbler.
In fall it is common throughout eastern United
States in low, swampy thickets. It habitually
feeds on the ground, and is so silent and shy
as easily to escape the notice even of one on
the lookout for it, especially as its single chirp
of alarm is infrequently uttered. In fact, the
only way to be sure that one or more Con-
necticut warblers are not concealed in the
shrubbery of a suspected locality is to beat
over it systematically, not once, but many times.

When startled, the warbler flies noiselessly to
the nearest shaded perch, and there sits mo-
tionless, watching the intruder, till it decides
either to renew its interrupted search for food
or to seek some distant place, far from the dan-
ger of intrusion. Under such circumstances its
motions are highly suggestive of the staid and
quiet thrushes, and in no respect similar to the
sprightly warblers. The Connecticut is one of
the few species that for some reason choose
distinct routes of migration, as in spring it
passes up the Mississippi Valley instead of
through the Atlantic Coast States, which form
its southern route in fall. The bird is known
to breed in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Manitoba, and elsewhere in the north. The
only nest so far found, however, appears to be
one discovered by Seton in Manitoba. As was
to be expected, it was on the ground.

MOURNING WARBLER (Oporornis
philadelphia)

Range: Breeds in lower Canadian Zone from
-seast central Alberta, southern Saskatchewan,
southwestern Keewatin, Nova Scotia, and Mag-
dalen Islands south to central Minnesota,
Michigan, central Ontario, and mountains of
New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and
West Virginia; winters from Nicaragua and
Costa Rica to Colombia and Ecuador.

The mourning warbler is a near cousin of
the Maryland yellow-throat and, like that bird,
sticks rather closely to Mother Earth, being no
lover of tree-tops. Unlike the yellow-throat,
however, it is one of the rarest of the family,
and few ornithologists have ever enjoyed op-
portunity to get on familiar terms with it and
to observe its habits adequately.

Most observers, like myself, have come across
a few in migration from time to time, chiefly
in spring, when the bird’s habits may be de-
scribed in general terms as a combination of
those of the Maryland yellow-throat and the
Connecticut warbler. During the spring mi-
gration it frequents brushy hillsides and damp
thickets, and in the nesting season seems par-

97

tial to briar patches, in which it places its
bulky nest of leaves and stalks.

The song is said to be rich and full and has
been compared with that of the Maryland yel-
low-throat and the water-thrush.

MACGILLIVRAY WARBLER
(Oporornis tolmiei)

Range: Breeds mainly in the lower Cana-
dian and Transition Zones from central
British Columbia, central Alberta, and south-
ern Saskatchewan south to southern Cali-
fornia, southern Arizona, and northern New
Mexico, and from the Pacific coast to the
eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains and
southwestern South Dakota; winters from
Lower California to Colombia.

Though closely resembling the mourning
warbler in appearance and representing that
bird in the west, the Macgillivray warbler
differs widely in habits. Thus it is far more
generally distributed, both in the mountains
and in the lowlands, and is much more numer-
ous. In my own experience I have found it
in summer chiefly in moist thickets of willows
or other brush along streams, and a suitable
locality is rarely without a pair or two. Other
observers, however, have found the bird on
dry brushy hillsides. This warbler nests from
a few inches to a few feet above the ground.
It has a short, though pleasing, song which is
repeated at brief intervals.

HOODED WARBLER (Wilsonia citrina)

Range: Breeds in Carolinian and Austrori-
parian Zones from southeastern Nebraska,
southern Iowa, southwestern Michigan, central
New York, and the lower Connecticut Valley
south to Louisiana, Alabama, and Georgia;
winters from Vera Cruz and Yucatan to Pan-
ama.

While the hooded warbler has a wide range
in eastern United States, its center of abun-
dance is the lower Mississippi Valley. It is
common only locally and wholly absent from
many sections except as a casual migrant. Of
the bird, one of our most beautiful warblers,
Chapman says:

“To my mind there is no warbler to which
that much misused word ‘lovely’ may be so
aptly applied as to the present species. Its
beauty of plumage, charm of voice, and gen-
tleness of demeanor make it indeed not only a
lovely, but a truly lovable bird. Doubtless,
also, the nature of the hooded warbler’s haunts
increases its attractiveness not merely because
these well-watered woodlands are in them-
selves inviting, but because they bring the bird
down to our level. This creates a sense of
companionship which we do not feel with the
bird ranging high above us, and at the same
time it permits us to see this exquisitely clad
creature under most favorable conditions.”

WILSON WARBLER (Wilsonia pusilla
pusilla)

(For text, see page 90)

CANADA WARBLER (Wilsonia
canadensis)

(For text, see page 90)

THE WORLD RECORD FOR FEATHERED FRIENDS

HE world’s record for density of

| bird population is held by a farm

within ten miles of the National

Capital, near Bethesda, Md. It is owned

by Mr. Gilbert Grosvenor, the Director

and Editor of the National Geographic
Society.

In 1913 Mr. Grosvenor bought a farm
of 100 acres, half in forest and half in
field, about four miles from the District
of Columbia, moving there early in the
spring.

Being interested in the work of the
Audubon societies, he determined to see
what he and his family could do to get
birds around the home. He had such
success that Dr. H. W. Henshaw, Chief
of the U. S. Biological Survey of the De-
partment of Agriculture, became inter-
ested and delegated Dr. Wells W. Cooke
to visit the Grosvenor farm.

Dr. Cooke found so many birds there
that he suggested a census of those living
on an acre or two adjacent to the house,
as he thought the count would establish a
world’s record. Up to that time the rec-
ord was held by a family at Chevy Chase,
Md., who had attracted thirteen pairs of
birds to half an acre.

The prospect of establishing a world’s
record was so inviting to the Grosvenor
family that they took a census of the
nesting birds on an acre adjoining their
house and barns, with the result that they
found 59 pairs of birds with young or
eggs in the nest on that acre, the highest
number of land birds inhabiting one acre
that has yet been reported to the Depart-
ment of Agriculture or to any Audubon
Society. A similar census was made of
a second acre, and it was found that this
acre had 33 pairs of nesting birds.

In an article contributed to Bird-Lore,
the bimonthly organ of the Audubon so-
cieties of the United States, Mr. Grosve-
nor tells a fascinating story of the birds
which have come to dwell with them at
“Wild Acres,” as his farm is named.

“Wild Acres” is a typical Maryland
farm, with an old-fashioned farm-house

98

surrounded by an apple and pear orchard,
with a vegetable garden, hedges, and open
fields. Surrounding the fields is a tract
of 50 acres in woods, with a beautiful
stream and several springs scattered
around in both the fields and the woods.

The bird census taken in the week of
June 15 to June 21 showed that on the
first acre they had one pair of flickers,
one pair of bluebirds, one of yellow
warblers, two of orchard orioles, two
of catbirds, one of song sparrows, two of
chipping sparrows, one of pheebes, 14 of
house wrens, seven of robins, one of
kingbirds, and 26 of martins.

On the second acre there were one pair
each of song sparrows, Carolina wrens,
flickers, Maryland yellow-throats, brown
thrashers, catbirds, chipping sparrows,
screech-owls, and towhees. There were
also 18 pairs of martins, four of house
wrens, and two of robins.

“T attribute our success primarily,”
writes Mr. Grosvenor, “to shooting the
English sparrows and driving the cats
away, to putting up many boxes, to keep-
ing fresh water handy at all times, etc.
We do everything we can for the comfort
of our birds. For instance, we put on
twigs little pieces of the oiled paper that
our butter was wrapped in, and we left
mud in convenient places for the martins.
The catbirds used the oiled paper for
their nests; in fact, they used all kinds of
scraps. Imagine the delight of the family
when, on examining one of the catbirds’
nests in the autumn, we found one of the
children’s hair-ribbons and also a piece
of an old dress of the baby!

“We had read a great deal about how
tame birds become when they are pro-
tected, but we were constantly amazed at
the quickness with which they perceived
the care taken of them. Perhaps the
most remarkable nest was that of a
pheebe, which was built under the cornice
of the piazza within reach of my hand.
We had a little school in the morning at
the house, and ten children were contin-
usually running up and down the piazza,

_

THE WORLD RECORD FOR FEATHERED FRIENDS 99

shouting at the top of their voices; but
the phoebe went on building her nest,
then hatched her eggs, and fed her young
without fear, though she could see every
one and every one could see her.

“T was also surprised to find how
friendly birds, even of the same species,
can become. For instance, we had 14
pairs of wrens on a single acre, some of
the nests being not more than 15 feet
apart. We also had robins’ nests only 12
yards apart. The bluebirds, on the other
hand, do not like each other, and would
not tolerate another pair of bluebirds
nearer than 100 yards.

“The first year we had no flickers, but
there was a pair nesting in an old apple
tree on our neighbors’ property. During
the winter the tree was blown down and
our oldest son obtained permission to get
it. He cut out the portion of the tree
which contained the nest, cleaned out the
hole, and then hung the nest in a dying
cherry tree. The nest was not more than
ten yards from the house. but was taken
possession of in 1914 and again in I9gI5.

“We had, in 1915, seventy-five pairs of
martins in an area approximating ten
acres, and expect to have a great many
more than this in 1916. We had one pair
of red-throated hawks nesting in our
apple orchard, and kept them for two
years; but they developed such a fond-
ness for poultry, having frequently been
caught thieving, that finally we had to
shoot them. We have in the woods a
splendid pair of barred owls. They come
around the barns at night, and I suspect
them also of attempts at chicken thieving,

but they are too handsome and rare a
bird in these parts to shoot. There is
nothing good to be said of the screech-
owl, which we suspect of having been the
cause of the mysterious disappearance of
many young birds from the nests.

“Tf any one wants excitement, I sug-
gest that he buy or borrow a stuffed owl
and put it out in the garden in the day-
time during the nesting season. All of
the birds in the neighborhood will soon
congregate, and the children will learn
them quicker than in any other way.”

A census of the species in the 100 acres
of fields and woods in Mr. Grosvenor’s
“Wild Acres” shows that last summer 60
species were nesting on the farm, and it
is expected that these will be added to
every year.

Commenting upon the story of the
birds at “Wild Acres,” Dr. Frank Chap-
man, the editor of Bird-Lore, says:

“The birds which Mr. Grosvenor has
brought about him are unquestionably
more his birds than if he had shot them
and placed their skins in a cabinet. With
their death his responsibility for their
welfare would cease. But a living bird,
to which we feel we owe protection, is
exposed to so many dangers that our
fears for its safety are correspondingly
aroused. These birds of our garden are
our guests. Through the erection of
bird-houses and by other means we have
invited them to live with us, and when
they accept as readily as they have with
Mr. Grosvenor they make us realize not
only our responsibility, but they awaken
the strongest sense of hospitality.”

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100

HOW BIRDS CAN TAKE THEIR OWN PORTRAITS

By GEORGE SHIRAS, 3rd

The inventor of flashlight photography of wild animals and birds and of the
methods of making animals and birds take their own photographs, and author of
numerous articles in the NATIONAL GEocRAPHIC MacazinE, as follows: “Photo-
graphing Wild Game with Flashlight and Camera,” with 72 illustrations; “One
Season's Game Bag with the Camera,” with 7o illustrations; “A Flashlight Story
of an Albino Porcupine and of a Cunning but Unfortunate Coon,” with 26 illustra-
tions; “The White Sheep, Giant Moose, and Smaller Game of Kenai Peninsula,
Alaska,” with 62 illustrations; “Wild Animals that Took Their Own Pictures by
Day and by Night,’ with 67 illustrations, and “Nature’s Transformation at Pan-
ama,” with 36 illustrations and 2 colored maps.

reptile, however large or small,

agile or cunning, may have its
picture faithfully recorded during day-
light or darkness, without the immediate
presence of a human assistant.

While most birds and daylight-feeding
animals, like the elk, caribou, mountain
sheep and goat, and small animals, such
as the squirrel and woodchuck, present
no insurmountable difficulties in photog-
raphy, getting a good picture of others
is often uncertain or irksome when the
game photographer must either await
their coming or attempt a near approach.

In many instances, owing to the noc-
turnal character of the animal, the keen-
ness of scent and vision, with the habit
of skulking in thick underbrush or oc-
cupying points of vantage where no ap-
proach can be made, I have usually found
it a waste of effort to try to get pictures
in the ordinary way; for, even if occa-
sionally successful, the loss of time can
be avoided by the use of the set camera.

To meet the difficulties of self-photog-
raphy by creatures of the forest, I have
developed methods suitable to the habits
of each animal and bird subject. In the
main I have used many of the devices of
the trapper rather than the hunter, sub-
stituting the automatic camera for the
trap and using the same baits and scents
in favorable localities during the season
of the year when success was likely.

The greatest immediate pleasure which
comes to the camera hunter when, on
foot, he can successfully stalk, or in a
canoe quietly paddle up to, a big-game

A: ANIMAL or bird and many a

Io!

animal, and at other times get pictures
from the recess.of a well-concealed blind,
can still be followed while, at the same
time, there are secreted in the forest or
along the waterways several cameras
capable of picturing the living form of
many an elusive animal, and that, too,
without the loss of time or patience.

In this branch of photography one
should have a fair knowledge of the
habits and range of the animal sought;
for while there are many—if they can
be located—that will seize almost any
kind of bait, regardless of human scent
or the appearance of a poorly concealed
camera, such as the raccoon, opossum,
skunk, muskrat, woodchuck, rabbit, or
squirrel; yet in the case of others, like
the beaver, bear, fox, wolf, and deer, one
should follow the cautious methods of
the trapper when he erects a dead-fall,
sets a steel trap, or puts out poisoned
bait.

Then, toward the close of the day,
when the fading light puts an end to the
use of the hand camera, one may ex-
pectantly visit the camera traps, and if
the string across the runway is broken
or the bait disturbed, the surroundings
should: be carefully examined for the
hoof-marks of a frightened deer or the
scratches made by the claws of some
carnivorous animal fleeing on the click of
the revolving shutter. If, however, no
visitor has come, the flashlight machine
may be adjusted and the shutter of the
camera reset at a much slower speed, so
that when some night prowler presses
against the string or eagerly pulls at the

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102

HOW BIRDS CAN TAKE THEIR OWN PORTRAITS 105

bait the flash will illuminate the sur-
roundings while the sensitive plate re-
cords the scene.

Then, when the blazing camp-fire ac-
centuates the darkness of the night, the
sportsman, lying within the narrow circle
of its warmth, may suddenly see a daz-
zling column of light ascend on a distant
hillside, or illuminating with a momen-
tary flutter the gloomy valley of some
water-course; and in a few seconds the
deep, dull boom of the exploding powder
suggests an animal fleeing in needless
terror from a spot where the weapon
contained no bullet and where its re-
corded visit will prove a source of pleas-
ure to one who meant it no bodily harm.
As I usually explode a compound of
magnesium powder in a_ hermetically
sealed box—to insure higher speed and
the exclusion of moisture—I have some-
times heard the report at a distance of
three miles and noticed the flash at a
much further distance.

Therefore one can imagine the sur-
prise and terror of some timid animal
when experiencing the first dazzling ex-
plosion. Yet, as will be shown later, the
pangs of hunger or the cravings for some
particularly choice food will lead many
of these animals to return to:the inter-
rupted feast, and in the course of time
the blinding light and roar seem to be
regarded as a harmless manifestation of
nature, like thunder or lightning. And
then one may, if he desires, get a series
of interesting night pictures, in every at-
titude and action. An example of this
was shown by an article in this magazine
several years ago, illustrating the nightly
visits of the same coon to bait placed at
the edge of a little lake.*

In taking a picture from a canoe by
flashlight one must be able to judge short
distances accurately in order to have the
animal in proper focus. In a different
way, but for the same reason, it is equally
important that automatically taken pic-
tures should come within the focus for
which the camera was set in advance.
With the bait placed at a given distance,

*See “A Flashlight Story of an Albino
Porcupine and of a Cunning but Unfortunate
Coon,” Nationa GeocRAPHIC Macazine, June,
IQII.

little trouble arises, but when the animal
sought is a deer or a moose coming to
the water or feeding grounds, the prob-
lem becomes more difficult, because the
intercepting string must be touched at
the point where the animal will be in
sharp focus.

Whenever animals are traveling on a
well-defined runway, a string running to
a stake on the opposite side will insure a
good picture, because the camera can be
previously focused on the runway; but
if such animals are to be photographed
when wandering along the shores of a
pond or traveling in a creek bottom, it
is important that natural conditions be
taken advantage of, so that the animal
will be forced to pass at a fixed distance
from the camera, as will be the case
where the shore is narrowed by drift-
wood, rocks, or mud-holes.

Quite often temporarily erected ob-
structions will accomplish the same pur-
pose, provided no scent is left and the
material used is in harmony with the
surroundings. Otherwise, in order to
avoid having the camera sprung at a
point where it is not in focus, the string
can be run along the ground and then
raised a foot or two high by forked sticks
at the spot where the animal is most
likely to pass.

Usually I have encamped near enough
to hear the report of the flashlight em-
ployed, but sometimes the camera may
be set many miles away, or perhaps I am
in town or on a side trip, in which case
it has not been unusual for the camera to
remain unvisited for a week or ten days.
But this is of little consequence; for,
with the shutter opening and closing
automatically, the exposed plate is safe
until called for.

The alphabet for the beginner in wild-
life photography usually comprises nest-
ing birds of the neighborhood, chip-
munks, the lazy and sun-loving wood-
chuck, or the stolid porcupine, and even
then many difficulties confront the novice,
the overcoming of which opens the door
for picturing rarer or more active sub-
jects.

Some who take up camera hunting be-
come discouraged by early failures and
are unable to see how such an instrument

ie

BUZZARD FIRING FLASHLIGHT IN DAYTIME

The left wing became involved in string tied
to bait and half of the pinion feathers were
pulled out. These birds became such a nui-
sance that when meat bait was used the flash
was not set until dusk.

can ever be a satisfactory substitute for
the sportsman’s gun. Others, with their
interest only intensified by defeat, con-
tinue on until won over by the attractive-
ness of a contest where success costs no
life or an awkwardly handled camera
leaves no wounded animal to die a linger-
ing death.

Most birds are photographed about
their nests, or in the great rookeries and
breeding resorts of the sea-coast and in-
land waters, when the domestic duties of
the parents or when the fearlessness
manifested by many birds under colo-
nization makes such photography pleas-
ant and generally successful.

But there are times of the year and
localities, as well as different birds, where
an approach is difficult. Often a good
method of getting birds singly or in flocks
is the set camera.

HOW BIRDS CAN TAKE THEIR OWN PORTRAITS

Some years ago I tried to get a group
picture of comparatively tame buzzards
and vultures which daily circled about
my southern cottage; but even when I
was in a well-concealed retreat these
keen-eyed birds knew of my presence and
would not alight in the vicinity of the
bait. After an hour’s wait I set out a
smaller camera, covered with palmetto
leaves, within ten feet of the meat, and
tying a piece of this to a string, 1 with-
drew. Returning in half an hour, the
bait was all gone and the pulling string
in a hopeless tangle. The group obtained
included both the black vulture and the
turkey buzzard (see page 179).

MOUSE-TRAP WILL SERVE AS A TRIGGER

Almost any bird of prey, like the hawk,
owl, eagle, or condor, will pull energet-
ically on the string; but in the case of
smaller or more timid birds it is advisable
to use an auxiliary spring trigger, or even
a common mouse-trap will do, since the
release of the wire collar to which the
string may be attached only requires the
slightest pressure.

Having for several seasons scattered
grain about an orange grove in Florida
to attract local birds more regularly, I
took a few of their pictures with the
automatic camera, the focal plane shutter
being set at 1/400 of a second. For the
quail and ground doves I used grains of
wheat and sunflower seed strung on a
thread (see page 102).

Pictures of birds nesting on sea beaches,
in open marshes, or the tundra, where the
use of a blind is difficult, may be obtained
by concealing the camera in rocks, sea-
weed, or marsh vegetation. By stretch-
ing a thread taut across the nest the
brooding bird on reéntering will release
the shutter. It is usually best to make
the screen for the camera a day in ad-
vance, so as not to imperil the fertility of
the eggs or the life of very young birds,
for strong sunlight and chilling wind are
equally fatal. In this way I secured a
series of snipe pictures on the eastern
shore of Virginia otherwise unobtainable.

AMERICAN GAME BIRDS

Avian Fleets Which Hover Over Our Forests and Fre-
quent the Shores of Our Streams, Lakes, and
Seaboard Constitute a Great National Asset,

But They Must Be Protected, Otherwise
Extermination Threatens Many

By HENRY W. HENSHAW

With Illustrations from Paintings by Louis Agassiz Fuertes

ROM the time of the earliest set-
Pens of the country the wild

game of America has proved a na-
tional asset of extraordinary value. No-
where in the world, except in Africa, was
there ever greater abundance and variety
of wild life.

The forests of America were filled with
game birds and animals, large and small;
its streams, lakes, and ponds were cov-
ered with waterfowl, and its rivers and
shores furnished highways for myriads
of shorebirds as they passed north and
south. Nature would appear to have
stocked the continent with lavish hand.
Indeed, but for the wild game our prede-
cessors, the Indians, would not have been
able to maintain existence, much less to
advance as far as they did in the arts
that lift peoples toward the plane of civil-
ization.

And at first our own forebears were
scarcely less dependent than the aborig-
ines upon game for food. Many vears of
toil and struggle had to pass before the
rude husbandry of the colonists sufficed
to free them measurably from depend-
ence on venison and wild fowl.

Nor will any student of American his-
tory doubt that, but for the services of
our pioneer hunters and trappers who
literally hunted and trapped their way

105

from the Atlantic to the Pacific, the
course of empire westward would have
been halted for decades. As a conse-
quence, the settlement of much of our
fair land would have been long delayed,
if, indeed, the land had not passed into
the possession of other peoples.
Moreover, it was in the pursuit of
game that the hardy fronticrsmen devel-
oped skill as marksmen and acquired
many of the rude border accomplish-
ments which later made them effective
soldiers in the war for independence.
Game existed everywhere, for the In-
dian, though wasteful of wild life and
knowing naught of game laws, took what
toll he would of the game about him, and
yet made no apparent impression on its
quantity ; so that it passed into the hands
of his successors, along with his lands,
practically in its original state.

AMERICAN WATERFOWL AND SHOREBIRDS

And what a rich heritage it was! In
addition to the upland game birds of the
forests'and open glades, great numbers
of ducks and shorebirds found on our
western prairies and in the innumerable
lakes and ponds the food, solitude, and
safety necessary during the nesting pe-
riod. More important still as a nursery
for wild fowl and shorebirds were, and

106

still are, the tundras of Alaska and the
barren grounds that, dotted with count-
less lakes and rivers, stretch to the Arctic.

Here, in these northern wilds, solitude
reigns supreme, and vast multitudes of
waterfowl breed, assured of both food
and safety. On these Arctic plains Na-
ture has provided in a remarkable way
for her winged servants by supplying an
inexhaustible crop of berries. As the
short summer season wanes the berries
ripen and furnish a nutritious food upon
which the waterfowl fatten and gain
strength for their long southern journey.

Then the Ice King takes the remainder
of the crop in charge, wraps it in a man-
tle of snow and ice, and keeps it safe in
Nature’s cold storage, ready for delivery
in spring to the hungry migrants. With-
out this storehouse of berries it is doubt-
ful if our waterfowl could sustain life in
the Arctic, and the so-called barrens, in-
stead of being a nursery for myriads of
fowl, would indeed be barren so far as
bird life is concerned.

When the short Arctic summer closes
and the young birds acquire strength for
the journey, multitudes of ducks, geese,
swans, and shorebirds, anticipating the
Arctic winter, wing their way to southern
lands. Including these winged hordes
from the Arctic that visit our territory
and the birds that nest within our own
limits, America possesses upward of 200
kinds of game birds, large and small,
many of which are in the front rank,
whether viewed merely from the eco-
nomic standpoint as food or through the
eyes of the sportsman.

FORMER ABUNDANCE OF GAME BIRDS

While the aggregate numbers of game
birds are very great, they sink into insig-
nificance when compared with their for-
mer abundance. The statements of the
early chroniclers regarding the multi-
tudes of ducks, plover, and wild pigeons
almost defy belief. When, in the records
of the first part of the last century, one
reads of clouds of pigeons that required
three days to pass a given point in a con-
tinuous moving stream, and again of
flocks estimated to contain more than
two billion birds, credulity is taxed to the
limit.

AMERICAN GAME BIRDS

Yet not only one such flock was ob-
served, but they were of periodic occur-
rence during many years of our early his-
tory, and the accounts of them are too
well attested to be doubted. As throwing
a curious sidelight on the abundance of
wild fowl and the hardships to which the
slaves of the period were subjected, I
quote a paragraph from Grinnell (Amer-
ican Game Bird Shooting), who states
that “in early days slave owners, who
hired out their slaves, stipulated in the
contract that canvasback ducks should
not be fed to them more than twice each
week”!

CAUSES OF DECREASE OF GAME BIRDS

What, then, has become of the teem-
ing millions that once possessed the land?
Before attempting to answer this ques-
tion it may be well briefly to review cer-
tain general causes that contribute to the
depletion of the ranks of game birds.
Among these may be mentioned natural
diseases; natural enemies, both winged
and four-footed; forest, brush, and prai-
rie fires; the drainage of swamps and the
general elimination of nesting grounds by
the advance of agriculture; and finally,
most potent of all the agencies of de-
struction—firearms.

From the nature of things, no data are
available to show exactly the relative im-
portance of the above causes of decrease
or of their separate or combined effect.
Nevertheless we can arrive at an approxi-
mate idea of their relative effect.

Natural diseases seem to play a com-
paratively unimportant part in causing
the death of birds, except perhaps indi-
rectly. In a state of undisturbed nature
there are few sick or old birds, for the
reason that the sick, the heedless, and the
old, as soon as their strength begins to
fail, are promptly eliminated by natural
enemies, who, while foes of individual
bird life, nevertheless do good service to
the species in keeping the vigor of the
stock at a high standard by promptly
weeding out the unfit.

While the annual loss of game birds by
attacks of predatory birds and mammals
is no doubt very great, it is to be noted
that it is relatively far less at the present
time than formerly, owing to the general

AMERICAN GAME BIRDS

destruction of birds of prey and of wild
four-footed animals of whatever name or
nature.

The contrary is true of that predatory
animal, the house cat. Never were house
cats more destructive of bird life than
now. While the annual loss of insectiv-
orous birds by them is far greater than
that of game birds, the loss of woodcock,
quail, grouse, and upland-breeding shore-
birds is by no means small. Taking into
account bird life in general, the cat is
undoubtedly the most destructive mam-
mal we have, and the aggregate number
of birds annually killed by them in the
United States is enormous.

Of late years serious losses have been
reported among the ducks of certain !o-
calities in the West. The causes are yet
obscure, but they are probably not due to
epidemics, as commonly believed. They
will probably prove to be very local and
of comparatively modern origin, and to
be dependent on drainage contaminations
or unnatural crowding into unfavorable
feeding grounds. It is hence highly prob-
able that such losses can be eliminated
either in whole or in part.

Before the coming of the whites, for-
est and prairie fires were due to lightning
or were purposely set by the Indians to
facilitate the pursuit of large game.
While they were no doubt common at
certain seasons and probably fatal to
many birds, they were too insignificant to
have played an important part in the re-
duction of numbers.

FIREARMS THE CHIEF CAUSE OF DECREASE

The destruction of former breeding
grounds through drainage and the gen-
eral advance of agriculture is a very im-
portant cause of the diminution of certain
species. But while agriculture usurps the
breeding grounds of many kinds, espe-
cially ducks and geese, its effect in this
direction is to some extent lessened, since
it prepares the way for other species, like
the upland game birds, and furnishes
food and breeding grounds for them.
While these and other causes that might
be enumerated have tended to diminish
the numbers of game birds, even taken
collectively they have played only a minor
part in the great reduction of these birds
as a whole.

107

It is the gun that has been the chief
cause of the destruction of our ‘game,
large and small. Whatever weight may
be attached to other causes, these fade
into insignificance when compared with
the effect of firearms.

It is nothing short of marvelous how
little time was required by the early pio-
neers, even with the crude firearms of the
time, to make an impression on the abun-
dance of American game. What the In-
dian with his bow and arrow and his rude
nets failed to do in thousands of years,
the handful of white men with powder
and shot accomplished in a few decades.

Writing within 4o years after the first
settlement in New England, Josselyn
states that already the wild pigeon had
diminished greatly, “the English taking
them with nets’; and he adds that the
English and Indians, who by this time
were supplied with guns, had “destroyed
the breed of wild turkeys, so that even at
that early day it was very rare to meet
one in the woods.”

Thus two of our most important game
birds, in less than half a century after the
first settlements, had already begun to
disappear from the neighborhood of the
New England colonies. Nor is there
reason to believe that it was different
in other parts of the country. Game
abounded, was needed for food, the sup-
ply seemed inexhaustible, and it was shot
regardless of consequences, and at first,
no doubt, without thought of them.

It is undoubtedly true that up to the
present time far more strenuous efforts
have been made in this country to destroy
game than to preserve it. Even today a
vastly greater number of individuals are
interested in game as something to kill
than as something which deserves pro-
tection. Clubs having for their chief ob-
ject the pursuit of game of all kinds have
existed since early days; but organiza-
tions having for their chief object the
preservation of game are relatively few
in number and of comparatively recent
origin.

AMERICA A SPORTSMAN’S PARADISE

America has always been a paradise for
sportsmen, but of late years the number

of those whose chief relaxation is the
pursuit of game has greatly increased,

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‘(981 eBed cog) (snyeyNond seyApoydoy) YASNVOUTMA ACAACOOH

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‘(snueooure snzieq_) YASNVOUAW NVOIMANV

108

MONd MOV1d AavTivW

REVS SE acy

UASNVOUAI GAGOOH YASNVOUEW GaLsSvaud- dau YASNVOUUN NVOTYSNY
O[RUI ST

109

“(981 eBed o0g) (Byeed4jo eInyeds) YATAAOHS
‘(981 eed 00g) (v1aydouedo vfnpenbiend) TyvaL NOWVNNIO

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‘(edojaued voore) NOPTOCIM NVAdOUNA

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[P4]U9. pur VizueyxpeP, Wot Jou ‘vysepY Usaseay ou wody spaeig :asuey °

‘(euvoeure voor) TLVdC IVa

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‘(sioosIp v[npenbienO) TvaL CAONIM-ANTa

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*‘(ssuauTpored U0lN}9N) TVAL GCHONIM-NAAAD

‘(gal aded veg) (sniedais snuisepaneyg) TIVMAVD

110

TVEL CHONIM-NUAYD

UATTAAOHS TIVaL NOWYNNIO TIVAL GHONIM-GNTE
O[BIAL gyeura aeulod ate arewoy aIvIN ayeura sy aval
~<a gy sede SM

NOWUOCIM NVadOUNA aLVddiva

TIVMGV)D

OBI

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“(LOL aZed 92g)
*(L@1 e8ed 99g)

(sueyjoo Be) MONG GCAAOAN-ONTA

(stage Bue) MONG dAvOS AaASSaT
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‘(sisussreurel vinjeUsUg) YOnd Adana

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*(1oyeutoong 1010) NVMS UALACWNUL

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‘(QFT e8ed veg) (sneioqiedsy sneioqsedAy wey) ASOOD MONS

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‘(susasatnizs Ueq)) ASOOD ANTA

120

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asoood WOUAdNA

LINVUd MOVIE

HSOOD ONTIMOVO

asSOOD VAVNVO

HSOOD MONS

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‘(euesIxoul SNIQ) ANVAD TTHANVS

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“(sueZayo snqey) TIVa ONIN

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“OOLXATY [PAPI OF $9zYVAG J[N4) ot} WioI] S197 UIA
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‘(euvoHeme SMIDN) ANVAD ONIGOOHM

122

TIVY WaddV1IO

TIVa

ONDI

ANVYUO VUAANYVS

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*(eUeoTIeuIe vOTNA) LOOD

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puL “VIUIOF][L) UsoyAOU OF VIGUINJO, YSHUg WoeyjNos wos spo.g :duryy

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‘vuleUR pure ‘sol[qUY JosseT ‘seueyeg
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VIZUSYV]AL “WOSIopuy JOY pur “eysepy ‘Ag[eA UoyNA woay spoorg sosuey

‘(SIT eded 90g) (stuge ee) MONG dNAVOS UASSAT

127

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astun[d Jai A pur Jowmuns

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- 3

128

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ara sFuq snowsoug “aey} payoossod ssop astvoeq OBlor ou} UO Josuoy 4SLT OF
sosttmoid satoads oy} ng ONURPY oy Suope sv ysvoo optovd oly uo JULpUN?E Os SPAL
qaaou adius uiqor oy} ‘APueeddy “Jans ot} Aq paseaooun ATUVpUSMLOUL Sysnp[ou
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SI pooy Sy pure ‘Yovaq vos oy} JO Palq ONStopwILT B SI qT “uRppeseyy Jo SUBS
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AULUL UO PUL PAUIZWOD AJoAd WO SINDV0 pu asuvs ut uRpTOdoutsOD st JOUY OUT,

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pur vnsurueg [APPL OF YNos puey exourso| [A UL Wou WOdy spoog, :o5uey

*(snynueo esunL) LOND

“(2#T aded 90S) (snasiZ snostiZ snydmeyioneyl) YHHOLIMOG

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uray LOU ‘eqoPUR, WloyyNOs “LOY YON udosvay}IOU WoIJ Spoolg, :eduryY

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‘(snueorxeur sndojueuty) LTLS CaXOaN-AOVTa

129

UAAOTd GNVITdN

ONTITUAANYS

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WAdIdGNVS TYHOLId

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‘(Bopay vsowly) LIMGOS GaTaqavN

133

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148

ae

Photo by Stanley Clisby Arthur. Courtesy of the Conservation Commission of Louisiana

A HAPPY FAMILY: MALLARDS ‘TIPPING UP” ON THI LOUISIANA STATE GAME
PRESERVE

The water bottoms of the lowlands grow duck food in abundance

149

150

and today there are probably not far
from five millions who are interested in
the pursuit of game!

The enormous number of men in a
single State who hunt appears from a
statement of the Secretary of the Game
Commission of Pennsylvania, who says
that “during the season of 1913 there
were 305,028 resident hunter’s licenses
issued in this State. During the season
of 1914, from reports at hand, there were
fully as many licenses issued.

“When we consider that the landowner
with his tenants and their families may
hunt under the provisions of law without
paying this license, and add to this those
who hunt in violation of law, we are led
to believe that fully 100,000 more men
hunted in this State during each of these
seasons than were licensed, making all
together an army of more than 400,000
men, who, for a certain period and for
good reason, are permitted to destroy
game that in the aggregate amounts to
millions of pieces and thousands of tons
in weight.”

Large as the figures seem, and they are
the largest for any State in the Union, it
should be remembered that they repre-
sent but 5 per cent of the total population
of Pennsylvania, while in the Northwest,
notably-in Idaho and Montana, more than
10 per cent of all the people are licensed
hunters.

What this army of five million hunters
means to the large and small game of
America can better be imagined than de-
scribed! Modern guns and ammunition
are of the very best, and they are sold at
prices so low as to be within the reach
of all. Added to these very efficient
weapons for killing small game, are in-
numerable devices for killing waterfowl,
as sneak-boats, punt-guns, swivel-guns,
sail-boats, steam-launches, night floating,
night lighting, and others.

While it is true that most of these de-
vices are illegal, they are nevertheless in
use at the present time, and in out-of-
the-way places offenders are difficult of
detection, especially as they are often
intrenched behind local sentiment, which
countenances and even encourages the
practice because “it brings money into
the county.”

To the above devices for-

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

the destruction of game must be added
the automobile, and it may be doubted if
any other modern invention is so potent
for harm. It is possible for a party of
three or four in a speedy machine to hunt
over territory in a single morning that
formerly would have required a week or
more.

MONEY VALUE OF GAME BIRDS

Passing by for the moment all esthetic
considerations, the money value of the
vast number of game birds that breed
within the several States or visit them in
migration is so great as alone to entitle
the birds to careful protection. This
point of view is being taken by several
States. Thus Oregon values her game
resources, which consist in no small part
of game birds, at five millions of dollars
annually, while Maine and California re-
spectively claim their game to be worth
twenty millions annually.

To permit the extermination of any
part of this valuable food asset, valuable
alike to State and Nation, by continuing
the wasteful methods of the past is an
economic crime against present and fu-
ture generations. And here it is impor-
tant to point out that while the majority
of our ducks, geese, and swans breed
outside our jurisdiction they winter
within our own borders. Failure ade-
quately to protect them, therefore, in
their winter quarters means their ulti-
mate extinction.

SALE OF GAME BIRDS

Intimately connected with the problem
of conserving our wild game is the kill-
ing of game for market. Many of those
who have studied the subject earnestly
do not hesitate to express the conviction
that under the conditions now prevailing
in the United States the conservation of
our ducks, geese, and shorebirds is im-
possible if their sale in open market con-
tinues.

In considering the present effect of the
sale of wild game, it must not be forgot-
ten that the demand for game in the
United States has enormously increased
in the last decade. Even with our pres-
ent population the market demand is in-
finitely greater than the supply, and all

AMERICAN GAME BIRDS

the ducks and geese that now breed
within our borders and that visit us from
the North would not suffice to supply the
inhabitants of New York and Chicago,
to say nothing of a dozen or twenty of
our other large cities, for more than a
few short weeks.

Indeed, were the market demand for
game to be fully satisfied, all the winged
game of America killed during the next
two or three seasons could be marketed
and eaten. Reaching the great markets
in the comparatively small quantity that
it now does, game of all kinds com-
mands prohibitive prices for any but the
wealthy. As Forbush justly remarks,
the present market price of quail is so
high as practically to amount to a bounty
on the birds’ heads and is a constant
temptation to the market hunter to kill
his quarry, despite State or Federal law,
in season and ont.

STATE PROTECTIVE LAWS

State or colonial ownership of game
was indeed early recognized, but only
grudgingly in so far as it was restrictive
of the right of the individual to hunt
wild game when and where he pleased.
Everywhere the feeling prevailed that all
wild game belonged to the people, to be
killed whenever necessity or inclination
prompted, and it may be said that no
little of this feeling remains to the pres-
ent day. The change from the old be-
lief that wild game belonged to him who
could take it, to the theory of State own-
ership of game, marked a long step for-
ward in game preservation. Today few
principles of American law are more
firmly established than this, though it
was not until 1896 that the principle was
formally enunciated by the Supreme
Court of the United States.

If the several States, under the prin-
ciple of State ownership, have failed ade-
quately to protect their game, it has not
been for lack of game legislation. Fiven
in the colonial period laws regulating the
manner of taking game were passed. As
early as 1708 heath hens, ruffed grouse,
quail, and wild turkeys were protected in
New York; but it was not till 1701 that
woodcock were given legal protection.
In 1710 a law was enacted in Massachu-

151

setts prohibiting the use of boats and
canoes with sails, or canoes disguised
with hay, sedge, or seaweed, for hunting
waterfowl.

Snipe were protected in Massachusetts
in 1818, and ducks in Rhode Island in
1846; Connecticut and New Jersey pro-
tected their doves and insectivorous birds
in 1850, and in 1851 Wisconsin passed
protective laws in favor of the prairie
chicken. It is worth noting in connec-
tion with game legislation that it was not
until 1878 that the first bag-limit law was
enacted. This limited the bag of game
birds in Iowa to 25 in one day—a limit
which has remained practically unchanged
for 37 years.

Since early times, and especially of late
years, game legislation has so flooded the
country that it is difficult to keep track
of it. Over 1,300 laws were enacted dur-
ing the first decade of the present century
(1tgoI-1910). Despite this great volume
of legislation, some birds, as geese, were
never given a close season in California,
Texas, Arkansas, and other States.

STATE GAME LAWS DIVERGENT

It needs only a glance to show that
State laws and regulations affecting game
differ widely, even in adjoining States;
thus a game bird may be adequately pro-
tected by law in one State and be only
partially protected in a neighboring State,
or not protected at all.

Moreover, the history of game preser-
vation since colonial times in many States
reveals no weil-defined policy, but a series
of regulations constantly changing ac-
cording to the ever-shifting points of
view of State and game officials and the
political exigencies of the moment. Even
the funds raised by the sale of hunting
licenses, in most States ample for effect-
ive enforcement of the laws, have not
always been devoted to the cause of pro-
tection, but often have been diverted to
very different uses.

So great is the divergence in the nature
and purpose of game legislation of the
several States that there would seem to
be little hope that the inconsistencies and
shortcomings will ever be reconciled.
Some who do not realize what has been

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152

AMERICAN GAME BIRDS

accomplished in recent years are inclined
to despair.

Meantime, after a century of experi-
ment by the States, the depletion of our
game birds continhes, and the end of sev-
eral species is in plain view. It must be
evident to all that, so far as the conser-
vation of wild life is concerned, State
control has proved a failure. Not a
single State has succeeded in adequately
protecting its own resident game, to say
nothing of the game that migrates
through it.

FEDERAL MIGRATORY BIRD LAW

It is the belief of many that what the
States have failed to do for the conser-
vation of our bird life can be accom-
plished by the Federal government, and
they further believe that the act approved
March 4, 1913, commonly known as the
Federal Migratory Bird Law, marks a
long step in advance in game protection.
By this act the migratory game and in-
sectivorous birds which do not remain
permanently within the borders of any
one State or Territory are declared to be
within the custody and under the protec-
tion of the Government of the United
States.

This act, be it noted, provides protec-
tion only for game and insectivorous
birds that migrate; hence many of our
finest game birds, like the bob-white, val-
ley quail, mountain quail, ruffed grouse,
prairie hen, sage hen, blue grouse, wild
turkey, and others, being non-migratory,
have been left in charge of the several
States in which they reside. Here we
may leave them, trusting that, notwith-
standing past failures, the measures
enacted for their benefit will stay the fate
with which most of them are threatened.

Migratory birds are on a very differ-
ent basis from others. Such of the
ducks, geese, and shorebirds as still breed
within our limits, including Alaska, mi-
grate early to more southerly localities,
where they winter. Some of them, in
fact, especially the shorebirds, pass be-
yond our borders and winter south of
the tropics. But by far the great ma-
jority breed in foreign territory far to
the northward of our possessions, and
we have no claim on them save as they

tarry on their journey for a time along
our coasts or on our lakes and rivers or
winter in the Southern States.

It seems eminently fitting that these
migrants, as they traverse our territory,

feeding in one State today, in another

State tomorrow, should be under Fed-
eral control, subject to such regulations
as seem likely to preserve the species.
The law giving Federal protection has,
after a year’s trial, met with general ap-
proval. Moreover, although its constitu-
tionality has been questioned, its main
purposes have been indorsed by the great
majority of sportsmen, though among
them are many who dissent from certain
regulations because they abridge the
privileges enjoyed under State law.

In this connection it may not be out of
place to direct the attention of sportsmen,
many of whom seem to have somewhat
misconstrued the purpose of the Federal
law, to the fact that the intent of the law
was not primarily to increase shooters’
privileges by lengthening the open season
and enabling them to kill larger bags of
game, but to preserve game birds in gen-
eral, more particularly the ones threat-
ened with extinction.

If the accomplishment of this laudable
end curtails to some extent the present
privileges of sportsmen, they should not
complain, since the ultimate result of the
law, if it be enforced, will be largely to
increase the number of our game birds.
Should it then somewhat curtail the privi-
leges of the present generation of sports-
men, it will at least insure to future gen-
erations the perpetuity of our game birds.

Here it may be pointed out that if the
present Migratory Bird Law, now before
the United States Supreme Court, should
fail to meet the test of legal requirements
and be pronounced invalid, bird conser-
vationists need not be discouraged, since
two courses are open: first, so to amend
the law that it will stand every legal test;
second, to obtain a constitutional amend-
ment which will effect the desired end.

Amendments to our Constitution are
proverbially difficult to secure, but who
can doubt that with the widespread in-
terest in bird life of the present genera-
tion of Americans such an amendment
can be obtained in due time.

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154

AMERICAN GAME BIRDS

SPORTSMEN AS CONSERVATORS OF GAME

There are many good citizens in the
United States who believe that hunting
is wrong and who consider all sportsmen
arch enemies of wild life. There are
sportsmen and sportsmen, and the genu-
ine lover of gun and dog will almost in-
variably be found to be a lover of nature
and at heart a conservationist of wild life.

Be the sportsman what he may, the
sportsmen of the United States, as a
body, constitute a very important factor
in the present struggle to keep wild crea-
tures from total extinction. Many of us
who love wild life and who long ago
abandoned the use of the gun, neverthe-
less believe that game exists for reasons
other than esthetic. Only extremists in-
sist that all animal life is sacred and must
on no account be taken. Birds, in addi-
tion to their esthetic value and their im-
portance as allies of the farmer in his
warfare on insects, are important as food.

They are also important because they
furnish a healthful and exhilarating pur-
suit to an army of men who at certain
seasons take to the woods and fields and
because of their outdoor life make better
men and better citizens.

BOTH FEDERAL AND STATE LAWS
NECESSARY

Since game birds have such strong
claims on our interests, it cannot be
doubted that both State and Federal laws
are necessary for their protection, and
the more cordial and complete the co-
operation between State and Federal
officers, the more effective will be the
administration of the laws. Even more
essential in the long run is the recognition
of the importance of our wild life by the
people at large and their hearty sympathy
and active cooperation as individuals with
efforts for its protection.

Nor should sportsmen and sportsmen’s
clubs be backward in cordial codperation,
since they are among the chief benefi-
ciaries of measures for the preservation
and increase of game birds. The need is
not for more laws, but rather for fewer,
simpler, and more comprehensive stat-
utes. It is the multiplicity of legal enact-
ments subject to constant change, coupled
with their non-enforcement, that has been

155

largely responsible in the past for the
general decline in the number of our
game birds. Fewer laws with better
enforcement should be the rule for the
future.

THE PRESERVATION AND INCREASE OF
GAME BIRDS IS FEASIBLE

A few words may be added on certain
practical means, other than restrictive
measures, for the preservation and in-
crease of our game birds. One of the
most effective is the establishment of
sanctuaries where birds may safely resort
to nest and feed during migration.

The Federal Government has already
demonstrated the utility of this method
and has established no fewer than 68 bird
reservations in different parts of the
United States, including Alaska. If the
national parks, large game preserves, and
national monuments are added to the list,
the eRe, Tow-tas—mrore than 100
sanctuaries, some of which include thou-
sands of acres, where birds of all kinds
are protected at all seasons.

The example thus set by the govern-
ment has stimulated both State authori-
ties and private individuals. Several of
the States now have extensive game pre-
serves or refuges of their own, and a
large number of private sanctuaries have
been set apart, aggregating many square
miles in extent.

Conspicuous examples of these are the
Ward-Mcllhenny preserve, dedicated to
wild-life conservation by Charles Willis
Ward and E. A. Mellhenny; Marsh
Island, acquired through the ‘generosity
of Mrs. Russell Sage; and the Rocke-
feller preserve. All these are in Louisi-
ana. That private means are being thus
devoted to the public welfare through
the protection of birds speaks well for
the future.

In furtherance of the sanctuary plan,
there would seem to be excellent reasons
why the several States, in the interests of
their citizens, should set apart tracts of
land, and specifically designate them as
bird sanctuaries, where all shooting
should be prohibited, as it is in the
greater part of the District of Columbia.
Such tracts, especially if public parks,
not only serve the important end of

Photo by Stanley Clisby Arthur. Courtesy of the Conservation Commission of Louisiana
ONE OF THE LAST OF ITIS RACE

_ The millinery trade has almost caused the trumpeter swan to join the passenger-pigeon
in oblivion. A male bird of this rare species visited the Louisiana State Game Preserve the
winter of 1914-1915 and it is hoped this sanctuary will attract others.

150

AMERICAN GAME BIRDS

conserving bird life, but possess added
value to the public as pleasure resorts.
They serve also the cause of education
by providing readily accessible places
where the habits of wild birds may be
studied by school children and others.

VALUE OF BERRY-BEARING SHRUBS

Another important way of caring for
both game and insectivorous birds is to
provide food for them, especially in win-
ter and during deep snows. This method
is particularly effective, since the expense
entailed is small and it can be practiced
everywhere by private individuals. Pitts-
burgh has a special superintendent whose
peculiar care is the birds in the public
parks. Several States, as Massachusetts,
Connecticut, Vermont, Delaware, and
Pennsylvania, have, or recently had, State
ornithologists, whose usefulness in prac-
tical ways is unquestioned. Their duties
include the study of the habits of birds
from the economic point of view, and the
preparation of reports thereon to aid in
the framing of protective legislation.

The planting of berry-bearing shrubs
and trees in public parks and along pub-
lic roadsides is another effective method
of caring for our bird life. Already
many women’s clubs, quick to recognize
their opportunity, have taken up this
work and are urging park commission-
ers to make special provisions for the
needs of our birds. Such methods bear
more directly on the welfare of our seed-
eating and insectivorous birds, but they
also have a beneficial effect on game
birds, especially bob-white and the ruffed
grouse.

PRIVATE AND STATE ORGANIZATIONS

Such organizations as the Meriden
Bird Club, of New Hampshire, are espe-
cially to be commended. This is a local
community club as distinguished from
the public or private preserve or sanc-
tuary. Its purposes, as stated in its con-
stitution, are as admirable as they are
direct and simple: “The objects of this
club shall be the increase and protection

*

157

of our local wild birds, the stimulation
of interest in bird life, and the gradual
establishment of a model bird sanctuary.”

Of wider scope and aims are such or-
ganizations as the National Association
of Audubon Societies, with its many
affiliated State societies; the American
Game Protective Association; the Wild
Life Protective Fund; and the State
Game Protective Associations. The work
of these various bodies, individually and
collectively, has proved a most impor-
tant factor in the nation-wide movement
to conserve our valuable bird life.

Of recent years instruction as to the
economic value of birds and the best
ways to conserve them has received much
attention in the public schools of many
States, and the results are likely to prove
fruitful, both now and in the years to
come.

MANY GAME BIRDS CAN BE REARED IN
CAPTIVITY

Finally, the artificial propagation of
our game birds has a direct and impor-
tant bearing on their present and future
welfare. It has already been demon-
strated that bob-white and other quail
can be reared in captivity and used to
stock depleted covers, while Canada
geese, mallards, black ducks, wood-
ducks, and others of the goose and duck
tribe can be reared under suitable condi-
tions almost as readily as domestic fowls
and be used to stock public lakes and
ponds. This is a work which may prop-
erly be undertaken by State game com-
missions and in fact has already been
begun.

If in consequence of the cessation of
spring shooting the numbers of our
waterfowl and shorebirds increase, as is
confidently expected they will, the sale
of hunting licenses in most of the States
will provide ample funds for all neces-
sary experiments in the artificial propa-
gation of game on a large scale, and thus
be an important factor not only in pre-
serving the species now in danger, but
in furnishing game for sport and food.

158 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

LIST AND INDEX OF AMERICAN GAME BIRDS

For For For For
Name of bird picture description Name of bird picture description
see page see page see page see page

AV OCC: cacaxiiumnerweees 64 128 147 Goose, Brant, Black........ 121 146

Bald Pate: asiveewssugnsae sank’ III 110 Cack ng cin ce cece es 121 147

Barrow’s Golden-eye....... 15 114 Canada jaasstraeds 121 120

Bob WIE: s., occ aca eae ceciese 140 I4I EMpPErors seecadeeas 121 Tay

IBGRATICY etowagemnie acest raeeaees 121 120 SNOW shveads eeacaes 121 146

Brant: Bilas oswitewes ave 121 120 White-fronted ..... 119 118

Buttlehead! sens saavus once 115 11g Grouse, Dusky............. 142 143

Canvasback. axxtusveee need 113 112 Franklin’s......... 140 IdI

Clapper Raibsccccececcecuus 123 122 Ruffed. teen eee 140 I41

Coats an auceruan ana aires 12 124 Sharp-tailed....... 142 143

Crane, Sandhill............ 123 122 SDLUCE nc emenanrion 140 I41

Whooping.......... 2 122 Heath=ett: «0. cacsdmense ss 142 143

Curlew, Eskimo............ 132 148 Walldéet sic aagunsageres vars 136 137

PWdsoniane noc. ae 132 148 Int: addeieaseecsseyarvens 128 129

Long-billed........ 132 133 Mallard............--..0.4. 109 108

Dove, Mourning........... 136 137 Merganser, American...... 109 108

Dowittchet a4 cs% sas ceerew eines 128 147 Hooded........ 109 126

Duck, Baldpate............ III TIO Red-breasted... 109 108

Barrow’s Golden-eye 115 114 Pheasant, Ring-necked..... 144 - 145

Blacks syaaiuis ioe 109 1o$ Pigeon, Band-tailed........ 136 137

Bufflehead.......... TIS TI4 .,, Passeigeteca¢icces 136 137

Eider, King......... 117 127 Pintail, ssa os ciee sidislanisare Sp 113 112

Eider, Pacific........ 117 116 Plover, Black-bellied....... 134 135

Eider, Steller’s...... 117 116 Golden............. 134 135

Eider, Spectacled.... 117 127 2 pe MUNA ss sicrasconitcesies 130 131

Fulvous Tree-duck.. 119 118 Prairie-chicken.. Sees 142 143

Gadwall ............ III 126 Ptarmigan, White-tailed.... 144 145

Golden-eye.......... 115 IT4 ; Willows: cesses I44 145

Golden-eye, Barrow’s 115 II4 Quail, Bob-White.. nny Bk 140 I4I

Greater Scaup....... 113 112 Chestnut-bellied

Harlequin........... 115 TI4 Scaled) sorccvascn’ 138 139

Labrador........... 117 116 _ Gambel!sioca6anctacsss 138 139

Lesser Scaup....... 13 127 Mearn’s. cig ge egw eeuas 140 141

Mallard............. 1cQ 108 Mountain........... 138 139

Merganser, American 109 108 sealed. see. jceananae 138 139
Merganser, Hooded. 109 126 Scaled Chestnut-bel-

Merganser, Red- Wei itasatatee-actas 138 139

breasted.......... 109 108 a MAN CY ae citascits Bark 138 130

Old Squaw.......... 115 114 Rail, Clapper.............. 123 122

Pintail, wisccataniwtes 113 112 FITS se vite ne wench aces 123 122

Red-head ........... 113 112 NT SANTA Se ee ey sty dou tbe 12 124

Ring-necked......... 113 127 Redhéad ce. ccsaawise weenie 113 II2

Ruddy...........0ee 119 118 Sage-hen Ghia slastlapse desig eeapeatalernaa 142 143

Scaup, Greater...... 113 112 Sanderling ysceies eugsces 130 131

Scaup, Lesser....... 113 127 Sandpiper, Pectoral........ 130 131

Scoter, American.... 117 146 Spotted nativnnasans 130 131

Scoter, Surf........ 117 146 Scoter, American.......... 117 146

Scoter, White-winged 117 116 MATE & 2 asescstvacnte aerate 117 146

Shoveller ........... III 126 White-winged...... 117 116

Teal, Blue-winged... 111 110 ShOVvellers vx kacvercaquvanse III 125

Teal, Cinnamon..... III 126 Snipe, Wilson’s............ 128 129

Teal, Green-winged.. 111 110 OR. fants. 35 cveadeucinyayebtyiitiens 125 124

Widgeon, European. III 110 Stilt, Black-necked......... 128 129

Wood....... ee 119 118 Swan, Trumpeter.......... 121 120

Hider, KANG sec ceed vasciees 117 12 Teal, Blue-winged......... III IIO

PaeiiG.. caicausaarnaes 117 116 Cinnamon........... III 126

Spectacled.......... 117 127 Green-winged........ III 110

Steller's.cescs.caaes 5s 117 116 Turkey, Wild.............. 144 145

Gadwalllisccacssudecsemitecd so III 126 Turnstone, Black........... 134 148

Gallinule, Florida.......... 125 I2 Ruddy.......... 134 135

Purple: se edutaiwias 125 124 Widgeon, European........ III 110

Godwit, Hudsonian......... 132 133 Wallétins Se acisc oman aaelaiane 132 133

Marbled........... 132 133 Woodcock: oc. inavvaayurn san 128 129

Goose, Blue..............6. 121 120 Yellow-Legs, Greater...... 134 135

BEANE, 22:04 Acep abate a 121 120 Lesser....... 134 148

Photographs by George Shiras, 3rd
A MALLARD DUCK AND HER EGG-FILLED NEST

In the upper picture the camera sportsman has “shot” this game bird in its northern
Michigan breeding ground. The lower picture indicates that the Mallard family will soon
be increased by one more than a baker’s dozen.

159

ENCOURAGING BIRDS AROUND THE HOME
By FREDERICK H. KENNARD

OW that our country has really
N awakened to the importance of

bird life to the citizens, and at
last enacted some very wise legislation,
forbidding the killing of migratory and
insectivorous birds, putting migratory
game birds under Federal control, and
forbidding the importation of plumage
from abroad, public interest in birds and
their great economic value seems to have
been stirred as never before.

Birds come north for the very special
purpose of finding a proper place for the
rearing of their young, and, this task ac-
complished, as autumn approaches, soon
depart in search of areas where there
will be throughout the winter plenty of
food and cover and a more congenial
climate.

If we want to make our homes at-
tractive to birds, we must always keep
the above facts in mind. If in summer
we want to attract the migrants from the
South, as well as the permanent resi-
dents, we must furnish them with proper
places for the rearing of their young,
which should include not only nesting
sites, but cover, food, and water; and if
in winter we want to keep some of the
permanent residents about our homes
and attract migrants from the North, we
must remember that they are again in
search of food and cover.

Once having attracted the birds, a
sharp lookout must be kept in order to
protect them from their enemies—cats,
bird-hunting dogs, red squirrels, skunks,
foxes, and other predatory animals (not
forgetting the small boy that used to be
ubiquitous), English sparrows, horned
owls, and sometimes crows and jays,
cooper and sharp-shinned hawks, and
last, but not least, the black snake.

HOW TO ATTRACT THE BIRDS

To sum up, if we are to attract birds in
summer, we must furnish them with
proper nesting sites, cover, food, and also

water; and if we want to keep them in
winter, we must again furnish them with
cover and food, and always protect them
from their enemies. :

The most important factor in attract-
ing birds is the supplying of cover suit-
able for their wants. With this properly
done, except in the case of birds that
nest about buildings or in holes, nature
will supply the nesting sites, as well as
take care of the food supply, except in
winter.

At “The Pines,” my place in Newton
Center, Mass., we have had for eight
years under close observation about 44
acres, comprising three acres of lawn
dotted with a few old apple trees, six
acres of wet meadow, which are allowed
to grow up with tussocks of grass, cedars,
alders, wild roses, and the like, and the
remaining 35 acres divided into two areas
of about equal size. The first of these
areas, that about the house, is covered
with a growth of pines, hemlocks, ce-
dars, birches, and various other deciduous
trees, among which we have taken pains
to cultivate suitable coppice and under-
growth, while the second area, covered
with deciduous woods, is, on account of
a fire that ran through it a number of
years ago, almost devoid of the smaller
evergreens or protecting coppice and un-
dergrowth (see pages 162 and 163).

In the first of these areas (page 162)
some thirty different species of birds
breed nearly every year, while in the sec-
ond area only from three to five different
species build their nests.

Almost every one who lives in the
country can do something in the way of
attractive planting about his house and
grounds, and even in the more closely
settled suburbs almost every place, no
matter how small, can by judicious plant-
ing be made attractive to birds. Even a
back yard may in its limited way, with
proper treatment, be made a regular ren-
dezvous for birds in the vicinity.

160

Photograph by George R. King

A SCREECH-OWL’S FAVORITE NEST-BOX

“Of bird-houses, to be supplied for those birds that nest about buildings or in holes of
trees, there seems to be an almost infinite variety; tree stumps, real or artificial. boxes, cot-
tages, houses, large and elaborate mansions, barrel-houses, gourds, flower-pots, tin cans,

shelves, and all kinds of contraptions” (see page 176).

The nest-boxes “on my place have

been occupied by screech-owls, bluebirds, chickadees, tree-swallows, flickers, white-breasted
nuthatches, and great-crested flycatchers” (see page 177).

On suburban places and in the country
the use of evergreens, large plantations
when possible, is of prime importance as
a protection from the elements, as a
source of natural food supply, and on
account also of the nesting sites they in-

variably offer. Nothing is finer than a
plantation of white pine or hemlock.
Spruce and balsam are beautiful and
offer tempting nesting sites, while the
native red cedar seems a favorite tree
for the nest-builders and also contributes

161

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164

Photograph by Thomas E. Marr and Son

A JUNCO VISITING AN AUDUBON FOOD-HOUSE

“The Audubon food-house has been much used on this side of the water and is most

satisfactory.

It consists of a square hip roof, with vertical glass sides suspended beneath

and open at the bottom, the whole supported on a central rustic cedar post, encircled with

food trays beneath the roof.

The glass sides protect the food trays from the weather and
at the same time admit light and allow of easy observation.

These, when placed among the

shrubbery about one’s house, prove most attractive” (see page 169).

its berries toward the winter supply of
food.

There is a huge hill at the edge of the
sand dunes at Ipswich, Mass., swept by
all the storms that come in from over the
ocean, which years ago was as bare as a
billiard ball, but upon one side of which
the enterprising owner set out a large
plantation of evergreens. Today that
hillside is a Mecca for the birds from
miles around, and noted among the bird
lovers of the region for its varying bird
life both winter and summer.

From an artistic standpoint, also, the
use of evergreens is to be recommended.
In these days, when there seems to be
such an exodus from city to country, why

shouldn’t our country homes be made to
look as attractive in winter as in sum-
mer? While we of the North may not in
winter be surrounded by the verdure of
summer, we need not content ourselves
with the bare poles of deciduous growth.
Evergreens protect us and delight our
eyes with their color and varying lights
and shadows, and what is more beautiful
than a pine wood or group of evergreens
after a snow-storm?

Those of us who possess farms, while
naturally jealous of every encroachment
on our fields, can always find some place
which may be planted. The immediate
surroundings of our farm buildings are
in many cases much too bare and bleak.

165

PAYING A MIDWINTER VISIT

Photograph by Wilbur F. Smith

This shows a bird visitor attracted by the lump of suet fastened to the old pear tree.
A lump of suet set in some convenient place is perhaps the surest way of securing bird
visitors in midwinter, for it is a food supply they greatly appreciate.

The average house when surrounded by
proper planting almost invariably looks
better than if left to stand out cold and
hard and with base-line unbroken. Wind-
breaks may almost always be planted
somewhere, with benefit to the farm as
well as to the birds, while lanes may be
bordered with trees and shrubbery and
walls covered with vines without any
possible encroachment on the fields. An
old pasture planted with savin and white
pine, hawthorns, elders, barberries, cor-
nels, viburnums, and the like, may easily
be metamorphosed into a bird reserva-
tion and still be useful as a pasture.

For deciduous growth to be used for
cover, choose those berry-bearing trees
and shrubs whose berries are most popu-
lar with the birds; and, when possible,
choose also those that may offer most
convenient sites for nest-building.

166

SOME USEFUL FOOD PLANTS

Care must also be taken in the choice
of species, so as to get, if possible, a con-
tinuous supply of food, using such plants
as the cherry, mulberry, raspberry, blue-
berry, huckleberry, etc., for the summer
supply; elder and the various kinds of
dogwood and viburnum, etc., for autumn;
while for winter choose those plants
which hold their fruit longest, such as
the hawthorn, buckthorn, mountain ash,
barberry, bayberry, sumach, wild rose,
and the like.

Hedges, particularly if they are ever-
green, are favorite resorts for birds, both
in winter and summer, and an arbor-vite
hedge is the best of them all. I remem-
ber such a hedge about one side of my
father’s old-fashioned garden that in
summer invariably held its quota of rob-
ins’, song sparrows’, and chipping spar-

Photograph by Ernest Harold Baynes

PINE SISKINS AND RED POLLS FEEDING ABOUT A HOUSE: NEW HAMPSHIRE

The pine siskin is a lover of evergreens and spends the winter wandering from copse

to copse in search of seeds and pine cones.

The red poll is a winter visitor from the far

North, and with its rich crimson head and breast makes a pretty picture in the snow.

rows’ nests, while in winter it was the
protected resort of such birds as stayed
with us.

In the Year Book of the Department
of Agriculture for 1909 there is a most
interesting article on “Plants Useful to
Attract Birds and Protect Fruit,” by
W.L. McAtee. In this there is a list, on
page 186, of the best trees and shrubs for
attracting birds, given in the order of
their attractiveness, as follows: Elders,
raspberries and blackberries, mulberries,
dogwood fruits, sumachs, wild cherries,
blueberries, wild grapes, pokeberries, Vir-
ginia creeper berries, bayberries, juniper
berries, service berries, holly berries,
strawberries, the fruits of viburnums,
hackberries, huckleberries, haws, spice-
bush berries, rose hips, sarsaparilla, sour
gum, gooseberries, currants, and snow-
berry.

To the above list is added the follow-
ing supplementary list of some other
plants known to be attractive to birds,

and to this the names of other species
doubtless might be added: Manzanita,
barberry, buffalo berry, silverberry, buck-
thorn, mountain ash, China berry, Cali-
fornia Christmas berry, pepper tree, mag-
nolia, nockaway, lote bush, and bluewood.

With the above very comprehensive
lists to choose from, it is not a difficult
matter to make out a list of trees and
shrubs for almost any place, no matter
how small, that will supply its quota of
birds’ food from early summer to the
following spring, while if the place is a
large one, or the problem at all difficult,
it may be the best policy, as well as in
the end the most economical, to consult
some competent landscape architect as to
the proper disposition of the proposed
plantations. What is worth doing at all
is always worth doing well.

Besides the trees and shrubs in the
above lists, there are many herbaceous
plants whose seeds are attractive to birds.
Sunflowers may be planted in groups

167

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168

Photograph by Ernest Harold Baynes =
A BLUEJAY FEEDING ON SUET

“Perhaps the simplest scheme of feeding, the least troublesome, and the most attractive to
numbers of birds, is the tying of a piece of suet to a convenient limb, or perhaps to the
balustrade of one’s piazza, preferably in a protected spot and one that can at the same time
be easily watched from some window” (see page 170).

about the flower garden or in lines among
the rows of vegetables; wild sarsaparilla
and pokeberry along the boundary walls;
while if you have a corner somewhere in
the fields that can be planted with buck-
wheat and Japanese millet, it will prove
a great attraction, particularly in winter.

FOOD-HOUSES AND SHELTERS

In bad weather, however, particularly
in the North, where we are so apt to be
covered up with snow, more artificial
means of feeding should be resorted to,
and food stations, food-houses, and food
shelters of various sorts should be estab-
lished in proper places. If quail or grouse
are to be fed, inconspicuous bough shel-
ters may be built in protected places
among the fields or woods most fre-
quented by them, while about the house
or among the neighboring plantations all
sorts of devices may be resorted to.

A European bird lover has invented a
food-house, an adaptation of which, called
the Audubon food-house, has been much
used on this side of the water, and is most
satisfactory (see page 165). It consists
of a square hip roof, with vertical glass
sides suspended beneath and open at the

169

bottom, the whole supported on a central
rustic cedar post, encircled with food
trays beneath the roof. The glass sides
protect the food trays from the weather
and at the same time admit light and al-
low of easy observation. These, when
placed among the shrubbery about one’s
house, prove most attractive.

The same bird lover has invented also
a food bell that supplies grain, etc., auto-
matically from a receptacle above, and
which may be suspended from a tree or
piazza roof, or any other convenient
place (see page 164).

Window boxes are a _ never-ceasing
source of enjoyment. Mr. Ernest Harold
Baynes built the first I ever saw, at his
home in Meriden, N. H., a particularly
attractive one, which has helped him to
become intimate with an astonishing va-
riety of birds (see page 173).

Food shelves may be put up in all
sorts of protected places—about houses,
against tree trunks, etc.; and a food car,
a sort of moving free-lunch counter,
which may be run conveniently on a wire
from window to neighboring tree, is actu-
ally manufactured by one enterprising
gentleman; and the same man builds also

Photograph by B. S. Bowdish

ON INTIMATE TERMS

This jolly little white-breasted nuthatch has just taken a dainty
morsel from the lips of its friend. These little birds are very clever
climbers and can run up and down tree trunks in the most agile

manner.

a sheltered food-house that turns with
the wind like a weather vane, so as to
present always a lee side for the better
protection of the birds.

An ingenious bird lover has originated
what.he calls a food tree, a freshly cut
evergreen, preferably spruce or fir, or
perhaps a discarded Christmas tree, set
up in some convenient place, over which
has been poured hot, and then allowed to
cool, a mixture of food that is attractive
to both insectivorous and graminivorous
birds, the receipt for which is given in
the little book, “How to Attract and Pro-
tect Wild Birds”:

“White bread (dried and ground), 4%
oz.; meat (dried and ground), 3 oz.:;
hemp, 6 oz.; crushed hemp, 3 0z.; maw,
3. 0z.; poppy flour, 1% oz.; millet
(white), 3 0z.; oats, 1% oz.; dried elder-
berries, 144 oz.; sunflower seeds, 1% 02.;
ants’ eggs, 114 02.”

A SIMPLE AND AT-
TRACTIVE FOOD
SUPPLY

Perhaps the simplest
scheme of feeding,
the least troublesome
and the most attrac-
tive to numbers of
birds, is the tying of
a piece of suet to a
convenient limb, or
perhaps to the balus-
trade of one’s piazza,
preferably in a pro-
tected spot and one
that can at the same
time be easily watched
from some window
(see page 169).

In all these food-
houses various kinds
of food should be sup-
plied — suet, crumbs,
millet, hemp, rape-
seed, canary-seed, and
the like. On my place
the birds have such a
wealth of natural food
that it is only during
the winter storms and
when the ground is
covered with snow
that they visit the
food-houses ; but on many other places—
as, for instance, in Meriden, N. H.,
where Mr. Baynes and the Meriden Bird
Club are doing such good work—there
have been food-houses erected on places
along the main street, entirely apart from
any protecting shrubbery or natural food
supply, and many of these food-houses
seem to be well patronized both winter
and summer.

Water, particularly during the sum-
mer months or times of drought, is, of
course, necessary for the birds. If they
can’t get it on your place, they will be
forced to look elsewhere. The proper
installment of a drinking fountain or
bird bath is a simple affair, and one that
is almost sure to prove a great attraction
to the birds, as well as a never-failing
source of entertainment to the owner.

Drinking fountains may be purchased
ready made or manufactured at home.

170

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Photograph by Louise Birt Baynes

A SANDWICH FOR TWO

Having accepted the invitation, the bird settles down to enjoy his meal.

The fact that

he must share a sandwich with his host does not disturb him, for, like all birds, he is quick
to recognize and trust a human friend (see picture, page 171).

Almost any shallow receptacle will do
when placed in some quiet spot not too
far from protecting shrubbery, but out
of reach of skulking cats. Where the
cats have not all been eliminated, it is
sometimes safer to place the bath on a
pedestal.

A pool with foundation of concrete
sunken in the ground, partially filled with
earth and stones and planted with cat-
tails, Japanese iris, or other moisture-

loving plants, or perhaps with water-
lilies and inhabited by a few goldfish,
can be made a very interesting feature
of any garden, to say nothing of its at-
tractiveness to birds. It is essential, how-
ever, that the slope of the sides should
be gradual and the water at the edges
shallow (see page 174).

If one has a brook or natural pond on
the place, much can be done, particularly
if the bottom of the pond is suitable for

172

Photograph by Ernest Harold Baynes
THE HOSTESS ENTERTAINS

_ “Window boxes are a never-ceasing source of enjoyment. Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes
built the first I ever saw, at his home in Meriden, N. H., a particularly attractive one, which
has helped him to become intimate with an astonishing variety of birds” (see page 169).

TAKING THE CAKE Photograph by Louise Birt Baynes

This photograph shows how responsive birds are to a little attention and how tame they
may become. This wild chickadee will enter the house, perch upon his favorite delicacy, and
enjoy a meal, in no way affrighted by the presence of his human entertainers.

173

Photograph by Ernest Harold Baynes

SONG-SPARROWS TAKING A BATH

“A pool with foundation of concrete sunken in the ground
interesting feature of any garden, to say nothing of its attractiveness to birds.

can be made a very
It is essen-

tial, however, that the slope of the sides should be gradual and the water at the edges

“shallow” (see page 172).

the planting of food for ducks. If the
lay of the ground is such that a meadow
or woodland glade may be flooded and a
pond thereby installed, there is hardly
any limit to the enjoyment that may be
derived from a pond of this sort.

There is a little woodland glade, con-
taining an acre or so, on my place, an
opening in the woods surrounded by red
maples, birches, alders, poison sumach,
white azalea, high-bush blueberries, etc.,
which I flooded one winter merely as a
safe skating pond for the children in the
neighborhood.

ATTRACTING THE WILD DUCK

Imagine my surprise and delight when
one spring day, after the ice had gone,
I discovered there a whole flock of wild
wood-ducks, and later during the sum-
mer was able to watch a flock of little
“flappers,” the progeny of a pair of wild
black ducks that had bred there. Herons

came there, too, and red wings fre-
quented the edge of the pond. From an
uninteresting swamp the place had been
completely metamorphosed into a very
attractive and interesting spot, replete
with bird life.

If wild rice can be made to grow,
ducks will be sure to come in greater
numbers each year, while regular feeding
with corn at proper times may prove an
additional attraction to whole flocks of
ducks during the migration. Tame call-
ducks may be introduced, and if there are
near-by woods nest-boxes for the attrac-
tion of the wood-ducks should be put up.

One may even go into the raising of
ducks, though this is often both bother-
some and expensive, while the simple
flooding of a meadow and _ intelligent
planting of its shores is comparatively
little trouble.

Mr. Herbert K. Job, State Ornitholo-
gist of Connecticut, is having some very

174

2

Photograph by Dr. John C. Phillips

A FLOCK OF MALLARDS AS VISITORS

“Tf wild rice can be made to grow, ducks will be sure to come in greater numbers each
year, while regular feeding with corn at proper times may prove an additional attraction to
whole flocks of ducks during the migration. Tame call-ducks may be introduced, and if
there are near-by woods, nest-boxes for the attraction of the wood-ducks should be put up”
(see page 174).

Photograph by Herbert K. Job
WILD BLACK DUCKS ON A GAME PRESERVE

“Mr. Herbert K. Job, State Ornithologist of Connecticut, is having some very interesting
experiences on a game preserve in Connecticut, where low-lying areas have been flooded
and the wild ducks attracted in increasing numbers each year from miles around” (see

page 174).

175

Photograph by Ernest Harold Baynes
A BALTIMORE ORIOLE AFTER A BATH

The Baltimore oriole is remarkable for its bright colors, and to these it owes its name,
as the livery of the Lords Baltimore, who founded Maryland, was orange and black of just

those tones that the bird exhibits.

interesting experiences on a game pre-
serve in Connecticut, where low-lying
areas have been flooded and the wild
ducks attracted in increasing numbers
each year from miles around (see picture,
page 175). ;
know of one man in Canada who

several years ago fed a small flock of
wild geese that chanced to alight in a
pond close beside his house. The geese
appreciated the treatment so much that
they later returned with friends, and
have kept it up from year to year until
now I believe that he has had at one time
several hundred wild geese virtually in
his front yard, and in a very exposed
position at that. They seem absolutely
fearless, come and go at will, though only
a short distance away are gunners who
are waiting to take a crack at them.

Only a few of us have ponds to which
geese may be attracted, but the foregoing
experiment shows what can be and has
been done in the way of attracting and
taming locally the shy wild geese.

HOUSES FOR THE BIRDS

Of bird-houses, to be supplied for those
birds that nest about buildings or in

Cats have been eliminated on this place.

holes of trees, there seems to be an al-
most infinite variety—tree stumps, real
or artificial, boxes, cottages, houses, large
and elaborate mansions, barrel-houses,
gourds, flower-pots, tin cans, shelves,
and all kinds of contraptions.

Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton went so
far as to construct on his place in Con-
necticut a huge artificial stump, filled
with imitation woodpeckers’ holes, etc.
He attracted numbers of different kinds
of birds and animals, and he seems to
have had no end of fun with it. It is not
allowed to all of us, however, to be given
either the opportunity or the enthusiasm
possessed by Mr. Seton.

Of the various kinds of houses space
will allow but brief mention. On my
own place, which is covered largely with
woods, I have used one special type of
vertical boxes with considerable success.
These are simply sections of logs, hol-
lowed out by special machinery in a very
particular manner to represent wood-
pecker cavities, with entrance hole in
side, of desired diameter, and covered by
a wooden cap or roof that may be lifted
for purposes of investigation or in order
that the nests may be cleaned out from

176

time to time, the whole bolted to an
oaken batten, by which they may be fas-
tened to trees (see page 161).

These were formerly obtained in Eu-
rope, but are now manufactured by at
least two people in this country. Those on
my place have been occupied by screech-
owls, bluebirds, chickadees, tree-swal-
lows, flickers, white-breasted nuthatches,
and great-crested flycatchers. House-
wrens, which are very local in our part
of the country, have so far avoided them,
and I have failed ignominiously to at-
tract either the downy or the hairy wood-
peckers, both of which frequent my
woods.

One firm makes bird-houses out of
natural hollow logs or limbs, with a hole
bored in the side, and wooden cap and
bottom, while another makes an imita-
tion woodpecker’s nest of pottery. The
type previously described is, however, in
my opinion, far and away ahead of these
others.

BIRDS THAT WILL NEST IN PREPARED
HOUSES

About houses and buildings, particu-
larly those on our farms, the ordinary
type of bird-house rather than the hollow
log is perhaps more appropriate. Blue-
birds, tree-swallows, and house-wrens
take to them readily, and if you have a
large house on a high pole you may be
lucky enough to attract a colony of
martins. Chickadees, great-crested fly-
catchers, and screech-owls may use these
boxes, and the following is a list of birds

inhi

ur So

Photograph by Louise Birt Baynes

THE DAINTIEST GUEST

A picture of an inquisitive and very puzzled
hummingbird probing an artificial flower.

Photograph by Ernest Harold Baynes

Blas SB

MOTHER AND DAUGHTER

This is a photograph of a wild chickadee feeding her young in June. She does not fear in
summer the-hand that feeds her in winter.

177

LPT 4
Photograph by Erne

pie 2 2:

st Harold Baynes

THE BEST KIND OF A BIRD ON A HAT

recorded as having bred in nest-boxes of
one sort or another:

Wood-duck, sparrow-hawk, screech-
owl, flicker, red-headed woodpecker,
great - crested flycatcher, starling, Eng-
lish sparrow, house-finch, tree and violet
green swallow, purple martin, house
wren, Parkman’s wren, Bewick’s wren.
Vigor’s wren, and Texas Bewick’s wren,
white-breasted nuthatch, tufted titmouse,
black-capped chickadee, Oregon chicka-
dee, Carolina chickadee, robin, and three
varieties of bluebirds—eastern, western,
and mountain. ‘To this list the Carolina
wren ought probably to be added; for
while I do not know personally of any
record of its actually building in a bird-
box, it builds about houses and in the
most unheard of and crazy places.

Robins and phoebes may be encouraged

178

by shelves conveniently placed beneath
the roofs of porches, piazzas, and sheds,
while the insect-eating barn and eave
swallows may often be helped in their
choice of nesting sites by a supporting
shelf. Vines on trellises or about the
plazza posts are attractive nesting sites
for chipping sparrows, as well as robins,
and I once knew of a bluejay that built
in a wistaria vine overhanging a friend’s
front porch.

One can never tell just what birds are
going to do. Crows are reported to have
nested in one of the squares in the city
of Philadelphia and on Beacon Hill in
Boston, while a pair of sparrow-hawks
have bred beneath the eaves of the Law-
rence Scientific School in Cambridge,
Mass.

Chimney swifts should also be encour-

ENCOURAGING BIRDS AROUND THE HOME

aged, and when possible the chimneys
left open at the top, and so constructed
as to admit of their ready occupancy.

THE ENEMIES OF THE BIRDS

Of bird enemies, cats are undoubtedly
the worst, and maudlin sentiment should
not be wasted upon them, for they are
incorrigible. The plain, ordinary alley
cat should be eliminated when possible,
and they make fine fertilizers when
planted about the roots of one’s favorite
grape-vine. Cat - possessing neighbors
should be warned that if their cats are
caught trespassing they will be turned
into fertilizer.

Red squirrels are next on the list and
should be shot on sight, but I have never
found the depredations of the gray squir-
rel to warrant similar treatment. Bird-
chasing dogs are a nuisance and should
be restrained during the breeding season.

Skunks and foxes should both be dis-
couraged, and the wily raccoon and elu-
sive weasel also, 1f perchance they are
found to lurk about.

Of the hawks, the Cooper and sharp-
shinned hawks should both be shot at

179

sight, while of the owls, the great horned
is incapable of reform. The little screech-
owl is almost always beneficial on ac-
count of the numbers of mice it often de-
stroys, but individual screech-owls are
often destructive to bird life.

Crows and jays will bear watching.
There seem to be good crows and jays,
and then again individuals among them
of exceeding bad habits, as many a long-
suffering bird family knows to its sorrow.

In many places the English sparrows
are pests and should be shot and trapped
relentlessly. They are pretty canny
birds, and if once they learn you are af-
ter them with a gun they quickly desert
the premises. If, owing to surrounding
conditions, gunning for them seems un-
desirable, traps may be used with telling
effect. There are several kinds in use in
this country.

Last, but not least, the black snake
should be killed whenever found; its
large size, great activity, tree-climbing
propensities, and taste for eggs and small
birds have fairly won for it the reputa-
tion of being one of the bird’s deadliest
enemies.

Photograph by George Shiras, 3rd

BIRDS CAN TAKE THEIR OWN PICTURES (SEE PAGES IOI-I04)

After trying vainly for more than an hour to photograph comparatively tame buzzards
and vultures, Mr. George Shiras, 3rd (the inventor of flashlight photography of wild animals
and birds, and of a method by which animals and birds take their own photographs), aban-
doned the blind behind which he had been concealed and set out his automatic camera with
string and bait. On returning in about half an hour he found the bait gone, and the develop-
ment of the plate some hours later revealed the above picture of a black Florida vulture and

tame buzzards.
MAGAZINE.

Consult numerous articles by Mr. Shiras in the Nationa, GEocRAPHIC

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THE LONGEST SINGLE FLIGHT MADE BY ANY BIRD—2,500 MILES ACROSS THE OCEAN
FROM NOVA SCOTIA TO SOUTH AMERICA

This map shows the migration route of the golden plover, which uses a different course on
its return from its winter home (see pages 185 and 187).

180

OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS

Birds that Fly from Pole to Pole and Shun the
Darkness; Birds that Make 2,500
Miles in a Single Flight

By WELLS W. COOKE
OF THE BioLocicaL Survey, U. S. DEPARTMEN’T OF AGRICULTURE

HE migration of birds has long

[ been considered an unfathomable

mystery, but recent investigations
have furnished abundant data on the
when and where of migration and solved
many of its puzzles. The Bureau of Bio-
logical Survey of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture has collected
much information on the migration of
North American birds, and this article is
an attempt to put in popular form some
of the data that have already appeared
in the more technical bulletins and re-
ports. No correct understanding of bird
migration is possible until it is consid-
ered as a voluntary evolution. All mi-
gratory movements must have begun with
changes of location that were only very
slight.

From this short migration, benefit ac-
crued to individuals or to their posterity.
Migration became a fixed habit, and the
distance covered gradually—very gradu-
ally—increased as each succeeding exten-
sion proved advantageous. It is not to
be supposed that every attempted exten-
sion was a success; in fact, it is more
probable that only a small part of the
experimental pioneering routes were per-
manently adopted.

Moreover, it must be borne in mind
that the time occupied in the establish-
ment of present migration habits and
routes was measured in geologic ages,
and there is no reason to suppose that
changes took place during these ages any
faster than they do now.

It is about a hundred years since the
first reliable notes on migration in the
United States were recorded, and this
period has proven too short to show any

perceptible difference in its time, direc-
tion, or speed. It can be affirmed, then,
that the migration routes of today are
the results of innumerable experiments
as to the best way to travel from the
winter to the summer home and return.

It can also be said that food supplies
en route have been the determining fac-
tor in the choice of one course in prefer-
ence to another, and not the distance
from one food base to the next. The
location of plenty of suitable provender
having been ascertained, the birds pay no
attention to the length of the single flight
required to reach it.

PRINCIPAL MIGRATION ROUTES OF NORTH
AMERICA

The shape of the land areas in the
northern half of the Western Hemisphere
has tended to great variations in migra-
tory movements. If the whole area from
Brazil to Canada were a plain with the
general characteristics of the middle sec-
tion of the Mississippi Valley, the study
of bird migration would lose much of its
fascination. There would be a simple
rhythmical swinging of the migration
pendulum back and forth spring and fall.
But a large part of the space between
Brazil and Canada is occupied by the
Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and
parts of the Atlantic Ocean, all devoid
of sustenance for land birds. The two
areas of abundant food supplies are
North America and northern South
America, separated by the comparatively
small land areas of Mexico and Central
America, the islands of the West Indies,
and the great stretches of foodless
waters.

181

182

-

MAP SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL ROUTES
USED BY BIRDS IN THEIR MIGRATIONS
BETWEEN NORTH AND
SOUTH AMERICA

The different courses taken by the
birds to get around or over this inter-
vening inhospitable region are almost as
numerous as the bird families that trav-
erse them, and only some of the more
important ones are shown on the accom-
panying map. The routes are numbered
from the east westward.

The middle route, No. 4, is by far the
most important. In general it may be
said to extend from northwestern Flor-
ida and western Louisiana across the
Gulf of Mexico to the southern coast of
the Gulf (Yucatan to Vera Cruz), and
thence by land through Central America
to South America. Probably more indi-
viduals follow this route than all the
other routes combined.

The birds east of the Alleghany Moun-
tains move southwest in the fall approxi-
mately parallel with the seacoast, and
most keep this same direction across the
Gulf to eastern Mexico. The birds of
the central Mississippi Valley go south-
ward to and over the Gulf. The birds
between the Missouri River and the edge
of the plains, and those of Canada east
of the Rocky Mountains, move south-
eastward and south until they join the
others in their passage of the Gulf.

In other words, the great majority of
North American birds bound for a win-
ter’s sojourn in Central or South Amer-
ica elect a short cut across the Gulf of

OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS

Mexico in preference to a longer land
journey by way of Florida or Texas. In
fact, millions of them cross the Gulf at
its widest part, which necessitates a single
flight of 500 to 700 miles.

The peninsula of Florida extends far
to the south, and the great island of
Cuba forms a convenient stepping-stone
between its coast-line and Yucatan. A
bird taking this highway would avoid
any long single flight; yet, with the ex-
ception of a few day-migrating swallows,
no bird is known to follow this route.
A probable explanation is that southern
Florida has vastly less bird food per
square mile than the country to the
northward, and the birds prefer a single
long flight with abundant rations to a
series of shorter flights on scantier fare.

Migration route No. 3, which is by
way of Cuba and Jamaica, offers a much
shorter journey to South America, but it
is traversed by only a few species. It is
popular as far as Cuba with some 60 spe-
cies, of whom great numbers spend the
winter on the island; about 30 of these
species have a small contingent who pass
on to make Jamaica their winter resort;
but scarcely more than 10 species try the
final long flight across the Caribbean Sea
to South America. Among these are one
species each of six widely differing fam-
ilies—the bank swallow, gray kingbird,
Florida nighthawk, Alice thrush, black-
poll warbler, and bobolink. The other
members of those families employ en-
tirely different migration routes.

It is not possible to ascertain whether
these travelers on the so-called “bobolink
route” represent adventurous species that
are seeking to improve on the round-
about course through Mexico, or old
fogies who hold to the way of their fore-
fathers long after their brethren have
proven to their own satisfaction the su-
perior advantages of the more western
route.

The next route to the eastward, No. 2,
traverses the chain of islands that ex-
tends from Florida to South America.
This, too, is considerably shorter than
the Florida-Yucatan route, and land can
always be kept in sight; yet this line also
is discredited. A few individuals of
about 25 species follow it as far as Porto

OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS

Rico, and only 6 of these continue to the
South American coast, and these last in
such diminished numbers as to form an
insignificant fraction of the winter visit-
ants in that region.

‘The explanation, of course, lies in the
question of food. The combined area of
all the West India islands east of Porto
Rico is so small that it could not furnish
subsistence for even one per cent of the
myriads of birds which throng the main
migration route across the Gulf.

To the westward the short route, No.
5, stretches a few hundred miles from
the coast of Texas to northern Vera
Cruz. It is adopted by a few Kentucky
warblers, worm-eating warblers, golden-
wing warblers, and some others, who
seek in this way to avoid a slow journey
by land across a region scantily supplied
with moist woodlands.

Still farther west, routes 6 and 7 rep-
resent the land journeys of those birds
from the western United States who
winter in Mexico and Central America.
Their trips are comparatively short; most
of them are content to stop when they
have reached the middle districts of
Mexico, and only a few pass east of the
southern part of that country.

Route No. 1 remains to be noticed. It
extends in an approximately north-and-
south line from Nova Scotia to the
Lesser Antilles and the northern coast
of South America. Though more than
a thousand miles shorter than the main
migration route, it is not employed by
any land bird. But it is a favorite fall
route for thousands of water birds, and
as such will be referred to again more in
detail.

It must not be considered that these
routes as outlined on the map repre-
sent distinctly segregated pathways with
clearly defined borders. On the contrary,
they are merely convenient subdivisions
of the one great flightway which extends
from North to South America. There is
probably no single mile in the whole line
between northern Mexico and the Lesser
Antilles which is not crossed each fall by
migrating birds. What is meant is that
the great bulk of the birds, both as to
species and number of individuals, cross

MIGRATION ROUTE OF THE BLACK-POLL
WARBLERS THAT NEST IN ALASKA

This bird winters in South America along-
side the cliff swallows, but in summer seems to
try and get as far as possible from its winter
neighbor. Note how its northward route di-
verges from the northward flight of the cliff
swallow, shown on the map on page 185. It
travels at night, often flying several hundred
miles in the darkness (see pages 184 and 193).

the Gulf to eastern Mexico, while to the
eastward their numbers steadily diminish.

LIGHT-HOUSES LURE THOUSANDS OF BIRDS
TO DESTRUCTION

It is not to be supposed that these long
flights over the waters can occur without
many casualties, and not the smallest of
the perils arises from the beacons which
man has erected along the coast to insure
his own safety. ‘“‘Last night I could have
filled a mail-sack with the bodies of little
warblers which killed themselves strik-
ing against my light,” wrote the keeper
of Fowey Rocks light-house, in southern
Florida.

Nor was this an unusual tragedy.
Every spring the lights along the coast
lure to destruction myriads of birds that
are en route from their winter homes in
the South to their summer nesting places

184

in the North. Every fall a still greater
death-toll is exacted when the return
journey 1s made.

Light-houses are scattered every few
miles along the more than 3,000 miles
of our coast-line, but two light-houses—
Fowey Rocks and Sombrero Key—are
responsible for far more bird tragedies
than any others. The reason is twofold:
their geographic position and the char-
acter of their lights. Both are situated
at the southern end of Florida, where
countless thousands of birds pass each
year to and from Cuba. Both lights are
of the first magnitude, on towers 100-140
feet high, and Fowey Rocks has a fixed
white light, the deadliest of all.

A red light or a rapidly flashing one
repels the birds, but a steady white light
piercing the storm and fog proves irre-
sistible. From whatever direction they
approach they veer to windward, and
then, flying against the wind, seek the
object of their infatuation. The larger
part do not strike with sufficient force to
injure themselves, but, like great moths,
they flutter in and out of the light’s rays,
and finally settle on the platform or
framework to await the abatement of
the storm or the coming of sufficient day-
light to enable, them once more to orient
themselves.

NEIGHBORS IN WINTER AND REMOTE
STRANGERS IN SUMMER

The two maps on pages 183 and 185
show the extremes of direct and circui-
tous routes of migration. All black-poll
warblers winter in South America. Those
that are to nest in Alaska strike straight
across the Caribbean Sea to Florida
and go northwestward to the Mississippi
River. Then the direction changes and
a course is laid almost due north to
northern Minnesota, in order to avoid
the treeless plains of North Dakota. But
when the forests of the Saskatchewan
are reached, the northwestern course is
resumed and, with a slight verging to-
ward the west, is held until the nesting
site in the Alaska spruces is attained.

The cliff swallows are winter neigh-
bors in South America of the black-poll
warblers. But when in early spring na-
ture prompts the swallows that are to

OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS

nest in Nova Scotia to seek the far-off
land where they were hatched, they begin
their journey to that region—which is
situated exactly north of their winter
abode—by a westward flight of several
hundred miles to Panama. Thence they
move slowly along the western shore
of the Caribbean Sea to Mexico and,
still avoiding any long trip over water,
go completely around the western end of
the Gulf. Hence as they cross Louisiana
they are moving in the opposite direction
from that in which they started. A
northeasterly course from Louisiana to
Maine, and an easterly one to Nova
Scotia, completes their spring migration.
This circuitous route has added more
than 2,000 miles to the distance traveled.

THE WARBLER TRAVELS AT NIGHT, THE
SWALLOW BY DAY

Why should the swallow elect so much
more roundabout a route than that taken
by the warbler? The explanation is sim-
ple. The warbler is a night migrant.
Launching into the air soon after night-
fall, it wings its way through the dark-
ness toward some favorite lunch station,
usually several hundred miles distant,
where it rests and feeds for several days
before undertaking the next stage of its
journey. Its migration consists of a
series of long flights from one feeding
place to the next, and naturally it takes
the most direct course between stations,
not deviating for any body of water that
can be compassed at a single flight.

On the other hand, the swallow is a
day migrant. Little and often is its rule.
It begins its spring migration several
weeks earlier than the warbler and
catches each day’s rations of flying in-
sects during a few hours of slow evolu-
tions, which at the same time accomplish
the work of migration. It keeps along
the insect-teeming shores, and the 2,000
extra miles thereby added to the migra-
tion route are but a tithe of the distance
covered in pursuit of its daily food.

IDIOSYNCRASIES IN MIGRATION ROUTES

How migrating birds find their way
over the widespread regions lying be-
tween their winter and summer homes
has always been one of the tantalizing

OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS

problems of the migration student. A
favorite theory of the past, and one still
claiming many advocates, is that river
valleys and mountain chains form con-
venient highways along which the birds
travel in the spring, and which are easily
recognized on the return trip.

The incorrectness of this theory (at
least with reference to some species) is
proven by the migration routes of the
palm warblers. They winter in the Gulf
States from Louisiana eastward and
throughout the Greater Antilles to Porto
Rico. They nest in Canada from the
Mackenzie Valley to Newfoundland. To
carry out the above theory, the Louisiana
palm warblers should follow up the
broad, open highway of the Mississippi
River to its source and go thence to their
breeding grounds, while the warblers of
the Antilles should use the Alleghany
Mountains as a convenient guide.

As a matter of fact, as shown on the
map, page 186, the Louisiana birds nest
in Labrador, and those from the An-
tilles cut diagonally across the United
States to summer in central Canada.
The two routes cross each other in Geor-
gia at approximately right angles.

Another idiosyncrasy of bird migra-
tion is the adoption by the Connecticut
warbler of different routes for its south-
ward and northward journeys. All the
individuals of this species winter in
South America, and, as far as known, all
go and come by the same direct route
between Florida and South America,
across the West Indies; but north of
Florida the spring and fall routes. di-
verge. The spring route (page 186)
leads the birds up the Mississippi Valley
to their summer home in southern Can-
ada; but fall migration begins with a
1,000-mile trip almost due east to New
England, whence the coast is followed
southwest to Florida.

The Connecticut warbler is considered
rare, but the multitudes that have struck
the Long Island light-houses during Oc-
tober storms show how closely the birds
follow the coast-line during fall migra-
tion.

The map represents the spring-migra-
tion route as far as at present known.

MIGRATION ROUTE OF THE CLIFF SWAL-
LOWS THAT NEST IN NOVA SCOTIA
(SEE PAGES 184 AND 193)

The swallow, unlike the warbler, travels
by day.

The fact that the route is practically
north and south through Ohio and then
turns abruptly west indicates a large and
as yet undiscovered breeding area in On-
tario north of lakes Huron and Superior.
Indeed, so little is known about the nest-
ing of the Connecticut warbler that the
eggs obtained by Mr. Seton more than
25 years ago still remain unique.

Incidentally, this route of the Connec-
ticut warbler is a conclusive argument
against the theory that migration routes
indicate the original pioneer path by
which the birds invaded the region of
their present summer homes.

THE LONGEST CONTINUOUS FLIGHT IN
THE WORLD—2,500 MILES

Such elliptical migration routes as that
mentioned above are rare among land
birds, but are used and on a far larger
scale by many water birds, notable
among which is the golden plover. This
species nests along the Arctic coast of
North America, and as soon as the young
are old enough to care for themselves
fall migration is begun by a trip to the
Labrador coast, where the plover fat-
tens for several weeks on the abundant
native fruits. A short trip across the
Gulf of St. Lawrence brings it to Nova
Scotia, the starting point for its extra-
ordinary ocean flight, due south to the
coast of South America (page 180).

OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS

186

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OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS 1S7

The golden plover takes a_ straight
course across the ocean, and, if the
weather is propitious, makes the whole
2,400 miles without pause or rest. But
if tempests arise, it may be blown out
of its course to the New England coast
and start anew on the advent of fair
weather; or it may rest for a few days
at the Bermudas, one-third of the way
along its course, or at the nearest of the
Lesser Antilles, still 600 miles from the
mainland of South America. These,
however, are emergency stop-overs, to be
resorted to only in case of storms. Hav-
ing accomplished its ocean voyage, it
passes across eastern South America to
its winter home in Argentina.

After a six months’ vacation here, the
plover finds its way back to the Arctic
by an entirely different route. It travels
across northwestern South America and
the Gulf of Mexico, reaching the United
States along the coasts of Louisiana and
Texas. Thence it moves slowly up the
Mississippi Valley and by early June is
again at the nesting site on the Arctic
coast. Its round trip has taken the form
of an enormous ellipse, with a minor
axis of 2,000 miles and a major axis
stretching 8,000 miles from Arctic Amer-
ica to Argentina.

HOW DID THE GOLDEN PLOVER COME TO
USE SUCH A DIFFICULT ROUTE?

The evolution of the elliptical route of
the golden plover, wonderful though it
is in its present extended form, is easily
traced through its various stages. To-
ward the end of the glacial era, when
the ice began to recede, the peninsula of
Florida was submerged and a compara-
tively small area of land in the south-
eastern United States was free from ice.
Any golden plover that attempted to fol-
low up the retreating ice must have been
confined to an all-land route from Cen-
tral America through Mexico and Texas
to the western part of the Mississippi
Valley. As larger areas of the eastern
United States were uncovered and be-
came available for bird habitation, ex-
tension of the route would be to the
northeast, until in time the whole of the
Mississippi Valley to the Great Lakes
could be occupied.

As the migration route lengthened and
powers of flight developed, there would
arise a tendency to straighten the line
and shorten it by cutting off some of the
great curve (No. I, page 188) through
Texas and Mexico. A short flight across
the western end of the Gulf of Mexico
was finally essayed (No. 2), and this
gradually lengthened and its points of de-
parture and arrival moved eastward until
eventually the roundabout curve through
Texas was discarded and the flight was
made directly from southern Louisiana
across the Gulf (No. 3).

As the great areas of Canada were
added to the birds’ domain, other condi-
tions arose. Here appeared a vast new
stretch of coast and plain—the Labrador
peninsula—offering in the fall rich stores
of the most delectable berries and fruits;
but at migrating time, in the spring,
bound by frost and shrouded in fog.
Since Chinook winds made the climate
of the interior of the continent just east
of the Rocky Mountains especially favor-
able for spring migration, there arose
gradually a dividing of the spring and
fall routes, the fall route tending east-
ward (No. 4), while the spring route
remained unchanged. When the fall
route had worked eastward to the Gulf
of St. Lawrence (No. 5), a shortening
began to take out the great westward
curve of the New England coast. A
short ocean flight was attempted (No.
6); and, when this proved successful, it
was extended until the present direct
route (No. 7) across the Atlantic was
obtained.

HOW DOES THE PLOVER FIND ITS WAY
EVERY SEASON TO THE LITTLE HA-
WAIIAN ISLANDS, 2,400 MILES
ACROSS THE OCEAN?

The above gives a probable and fairly
satisfactory explanation of the origin of
the present migration route of the golden
plover over the Atlantic Ocean. But this
is a very simple problem compared with
that presented by the Pacific golden
plover. The Hawaiian Islands are in
the middle of the Pacific Ocean, distant
2,000 miles from California on the east,
2,400 miles from Alaska on the north,
and 3,700 miles from Japan to the west.

188

MAP SHOWING THE EVOLUTION OF THE
PRESENT MIGRATION ROUTE OF THE
GOLDEN PLOVER (SEE
PAGE 187)

Golden plovers in considerable numbers
fly each fall the 2,400 miles across an
islandless sea from Alaska to Hawaii,
spend the winter there, and fly back
again the next spring to nest in Alaska.
But how did they first find their way to
Hawaii?

It is not to be supposed that any birds
would deliberately strike out over un-
known seas hunting for a new winter
home. It is scarcely more probable that,
even if a large flock was caught in a
storm and carried far out of its course
to the Hawaiian shores, the birds would
change in a single season habits of count-
less generations and start at once a radi-
cally new migration route. It has already
been said that present migration routes
are evolutions—age-long modifications of
other routes. ‘The problem, then, is to
find some migration route from which
the golden plover’s present Hawaiian-
Alaskan route could have been easily
and naturally derived.

The bird breeds on the northern shores
of eastern Siberia, from the Liakof Is-
lands to Bering Strait, and on the Alaska
side of the strait south to the northern

OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS

base of the Alaska peninsula (page 189).
It winters on the mainland of southeast-
ern Asia, in the eastern half of Australia,
and throughout the islands of Oceanica,
from Formosa and the Liu Kiu Islands
on the northwest to the Low Archipelago
in the southeast.

The breeding range has an east-and-
west extension of about 1,700 miles,
while the winter home extends nearly
half around the globe—i10,000 miles—
from India to the Low Archipelago.
Undoubtedly the original migration route
was approximately north and south, be-
tween the nests in Siberia and the winter
resorts in southern Asia. In the course
of time the species spread eastward in
the winter to Australia, to the islands
along the eastern coast of Asia, and
throughout Oceanica, while at the same
time the breeding range was extended
eastward across Bering Strait to Alaska.

If all these extensions took place be-
fore there was any cutting off of corners
in the migration route, then at this stage
of development the Alaska-breeding birds
were journeying over 11,000 miles (page
189, No. 1) to reach the Low Archipel-
ago, distant only a little more than 5,000
miles in an air-line.

It is fair to suppose that early in the
course of the eastward extension among
the Pacific islands, the plover began to
shorten the roundabout journey by flights
from the northern islands to eastern
Asia, and finally to Japan (No. 2). The
most northern island is Palmyra, and the
flight from there westward to the nearest
of the Marshall Islands is about 2,000
miles; thence a 3,000-mile journey, with
several possible rests, brings the birds to
Japan.

It is easily possible that birds accus-
tomed to this 5,000-mile flight might be
driven by storms a thousand miles out of
their course and discover Hawaii. When
from Hawati they attempted to reach
Japan (No. 3) they would find a chain of
islands stretching for 1,700 miles in the
desired direction, and the final flight of
2,000 miles from the last of these—the
Midway Islands—to Japan would be no
longer than previous flights to which they
had become accustomed.

Having once learned the route from

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180° 160° 140° 120°
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180° 160° 140° 120°

MAP TO EXPLAIN HOW THE GOLDEN PLOVER IS ABLE TO NAVIGATE TO THE HAWAIIAN
ISLANDS IN THE MID-PACIFIC (SEE PAGES 187 AND 188)

The longest ocean trip without any possibility of resting is shown in this map. This is
the same distance as traversed by the Atlantic plover, but the latter can get to land when in
trouble. The dotted lines along the Arctic coast show the breeding range of the bird.

the Midway Islands to Japan, it would
be natural that the place of alighting on
the Asiatic coast should be gradually
carried north and east until the direct
flight was made from the Midway Is-
lands to the Aleutians (No. 4). A natu-
ral and easy carrying of this line east-
ward would result in the present route
(No. 5) between Hawaii and Alaska.

NEIGHBORS AND STRANGERS

Both the American and Pacific golden
plovers nest in Alaska near Bering Strait,

the former on the north and the latter
on the south side of the strait. The
American bird reached there by a west-
ward extension from Canada, and the
Pacific by an eastward extension from
Siberia. The birds themselves are so
nearly alike that only an expert can dis-
tinguish them; and, notwithstanding they
are such near neighbors during the sum-
mer—scarcely a hundred miles apart—
the beginning of migration makes them
utter strangers; for those north of the
strait travel 3,000 miles east and then

190

6,000 miles south to Argentina, while the
others make a 3,000-mile flight directly
south to their winter home in Hawai.

THE WORLD'S MOST EXTRAORDINARY
TRAVELER

The shore-birds, such as the golden
plover, present the longest migration
routes among land-feeding birds; but
even their surprising records are sur-
passed by some of the birds which glean
their living from the waters. The world’s
migration champion is the Arctic tern
(page t91). It deserves its title of Arc-
tic, for it nests as far north as land has
been discovered; that is, as far north as
the bird can find anything stable on which
to construct its nest.

Indeed, so Arctic are the conditions
under which it breeds that the first nest
found by man in this region, only 7%
degrees from the Pole, contained a downy
chick surrounded by a wall of newly
fallen snow that had been scooped out of
the nest by the parent.

When the young are full grown the
entire family leaves the Arctic, and sev-
eral months later they are found skirting
the edge of the Antarctic continent.

What their track is over that 11,000
miles of intervening space no one knows.
A few scattered individuals have been
noted along the United States coast south
to Long Island, but the great flocks of
thousands. and thousands of these terns
which alternate from one Pole to the
other have never been met by any trained
ornithologist competent to learn their
preferred path and their time schedule.

The Arctic terns arrive in the far north
about June 15 and leave about August
25, thus staying 14 weeks at the nesting
site. ‘They probably spend a few weeks
longer in the winter than in the sum-
mer home; and, if so, this leaves them
scarcely 20 weeks for the round trip of
22,000 miles. Not less than 150 miles in
a straight line must be their daily task,
and this is undoubtedly multiplied sev-
eral times by their zigzag twistings and
turnings in pursuit of food.

The Arctic terns have more hours of
daylight and sunlight than any other ani-
mals on the globe. At their most north-
ern nesting site, the midnight sun has

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already appeared before their arrival,
and it never sets during their entire stay
at the breeding grounds. During two
months of their sojourn in the Antarctic
they do not see a sunset, and for the
rest of the time the sun dips only a little
way below the horizon and broad day-
light continues all night. The birds
therefore have 24 hours of daylight for
at least eight months in the year, and
during the other four months have con-
siderably more daylight than darkness.

THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ROBIN

The number of miles traveled per day
by a migrating bird varies greatly in dif-
ferent parts of the migration journey.
These variations are intimately con-
nected with corresponding variations in
the speed of the northward march of
spring, and are based primarily on two
facts: First, that the interior of a conti-
nent warms up faster than the coasts;
second, that spring is hastened in western
North America by the Japan current,
while it is as decidedly retarded in the
east by the polar current.

The results of these two causes are
strikingly shown in the migration of the
robin (page 192). This bird differs from
most others in that throughout its entire
course northward it adopts spring’s time-
table for its own.

The robin’s average temperature of
migration is 35° F.; that is, it puts in
an appearance soon after the snow be-
gins to melt and streams to open, but
before vegetation has made any start.
These conditions occur in the central
Mississippi Valley about the middle of
February, and it is the first of March be-
fore spring and the robins cross northern
Missouri and arrive together in southern
Iowa. Thence a whole month is con-
sumed by the birds in their slow prog-
ress—13 miles a day—to central Minne-
sota. There their pace quickens, to keep
up with the northward rush of spring,
and another 10 days at doubled speed
brings them to southern Canada.

Here they must make an important
choice. To the north and northeast lies
a land that awakens slowly from its win-
ter’s sleep, and where the sun must wage
a protracted contest against the cold of

RS.SHAW

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Vinter, home

MAP SHOWING SUMMER AND WINTER HOMES OF THE BIRD THAT HATES DARKNESS

The summer home of the Arctic tern is along the Arctic coast of North America; its
winter home within the Antarctic Circle 11,000 miles away. During eight months of the year
the bird lives where the sun does not go below the horizon. The track of the tern in its
round journey of 22,000 miles is unknown (see page 190).

191

192 OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS

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THE ROBIN MOVES MUCH QUICKER ON THE PACIFIC THAN ON THE ATLANTIC

The dotted lines connect the places at which the robins arrive simultaneously, The heavy
solid line marks the division between the eastern and the western forms. The heavy dotted
line represents the migration route of the Alaska breeding birds (see pages 190 and 193).

OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS

the ice- masses in Lake Superior and
Hudson Bay. To the northwest stretches
a less forbidding region, already quick-
ening under the influence of the Chinook
winds.

THE EASTERN ROBINS MOVE SLOWLY, THE
PACIFIC MUCH FASTER

Most of the robins from Missouri that
pass through western Minnesota elect to
turn to the northwest, and now they
must not only keep pace with the rapidly
advancing season, but must do so while
traveling on a long-drawn-out diagonal.
Their daily average rises to 50 miles—
four times that in southern Iowa—and
later, when for the birds bound for west-
ern Alaska the course becomes nearly
due west, the rate increases to 70 miles a
day—more than six times the speed with
which the journey began.

The migration map of the robins shows
that these Alaska-breeding birds are the
only ones that develop high speed. The
robins bound for Newfoundland move
by easy stages along the Atlantic coast at
the proverbially slow rate of the oncom-
ing of spring in New England, and,
scarcely exceeding 17 miles a day, they
finally arrive at their destination May 6,
when their Alaska-bound relatives are
already 1,200 miles farther north.

One of the most interesting things in-
dicated on the map is the migration route
of the robins who nest in southern Al-
berta. They arrive too early to have
come from the south or the southeast;
hence they must have come from the
southwest, though this has necessitated
their’ crossing the main range of the
Rockies while the mountains were still
in the grasp of winter. Robins remain
all winter on the Pacific coast, north to
southwestern British Columbia, which
has about the same winter temperature
as St. Louis, 700 miles southward. Hence
the wintering robins of British Columbia
are already far north at the advent of
spring and do not need any hurried mi-
gration to reach Alberta on time. As a
fact, they average only 8 miles a day, the
slowest rate for the species.

It may be fairly asked, How do we
know that the Alaska robins have come
all this long distance from the central

193

Mississippi Valley, instead of the far
shorter distance from British Columbia?
It happens that the robins of the two
sides of the continent are slightly differ-
ent in color and in pattern of coloration.
Birds of the western style are not known
north of southwestern Saskatchewan,
central British Columbia, and southeast-
ern Alaska, while the whole country to
the northward is occupied by birds that
evidently have come from the southeast.
The heavy, solid line on the map shows
the approximate meeting-ground of the
two forms.

Most migrants except the robins,
ducks, and geese wait in their warm
winter quarters until springtime is far
advanced, and then, traveling swiftly,
occupy only a few days in their vernal
migration. The black-poll warbler is one
of the best examples.

THE WARBLERS AND CLIFF SWALLOWS

While the Alaska-breeding robins start
off in February and spend nearly 90
days in going from central Missouri to
western Alaska, the black-poll warbler
remains in his tropical home during Feb-
ruary and March, and is not seen in
southern Florida until about April 20.
By the first of May he arrives in central
Missouri, which the robins left 60 days
earlier, and yet he reaches northwestern
Alaska only 10 days later than the robins.
The latter’s 90-day schedule has been
shortened by the warbler to 30 days.

The black-poll warbler furnishes a
striking example of speed acceleration
during the latter part of migration. As
indicated on the map of his migration
route (page 183), between April 20 and
April 30 he goes from central Missouri
to central Iowa, a distance of 300 miles,
or an average of 30 miles a day. The
next ten days the rate rises to 100 miles
a day, while during the last few days of
migration a velocity of 300 miles a day
is attained.

In contrast, notice the dates, distances,
and speeds indicated for the cliff swal-
low on its migration-route map (page
185). The swallow must strike out for
the north very early, since by March 10
it is already 2,500 miles from the winter
home, and yet is averaging only 25 miles

OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS

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OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS

a day for the next 20 days, while it is
rounding the western end of the Gulf of
Mexico. It more than doubles this rate
while passing up the Mississippi and
Ohio rivers. The crossing of the Alle-
ghany Mountains comes next, and there
are only 200 miles of progress to show
for the 10 days of migration. By this
time spring has really come east of the
Alleghanies, and the swallow travels 60
miles a day to its summer home in Nova
Scotia.

It is to be noted that the swallow, like
the robin and the black-poll warbler,
works up to high rates of speed when it
is traveling on a diagonal, and that except
during the 10 days spent in crossing the
mountains, each 1o days’ travel covers
approximately five degrees of latitude.

SOME NARROW MIGRATION ROUTES

The accompanying illustration of the
range of the scarlet tanager (page 194)
is given to show the narrowness of the
migration route as compared with the
width of the summer and winter homes.
This tanager nests from New Brunswick
to Saskatchewan, a region extending over
1,900 miles of longitude. The Missis-
sippi. Valley birds go south and the New
England birds southeast, until they all
leave the United States along 800 miles
of Gulf coast from Texas to Florida.
The migration lines continue to converge
until in southern Central America they
are not more than a hundred miles apart.
Arrived in South America for the win-
ter, the birds scatter over a district about
one-half the area of the summer home,
with an extreme east-and-west range of
about 700 miles.

THE BOBOLINKS ARE SEEKING NEW
ROUTES

The migration route of the bobolink
(page 194) shows a similar though not
so decided a contraction at its narrowest
part. The summer home extends from
Cape Breton Island to Saskatchewan,
2,300 miles, and the migration lines con-
verge toward the rice fields of the South,

195

the objective point of all bobolinks, no
matter where they nest.

Having gorged themselves to repletion,
they press on toward their Brazilian win-
ter abode; but the South Carolina and
Georgia birds take a course almost at
right angles to that chosen by the scarlet
tanagers from those States, and strike
out directly across the West Indies for
South America. In this part of their
journey their migration path contracts
to an east-and-west breadth of about 800
miles, while a very large proportion of
the birds restrict themselves to the east-
ern 400 miles of this route. In South
America the region occupied during the
winter has about one-fifth the breadth
and one-third the area of the breeding
range.

The bobolinks of New England have
witnessed great numerical changes, or
evolutions. When the white man arrived
on the scene, nearly all of New England
was covered by primeval forest and bob-
olink meadows were scarce. As the for-
est gave place to hay-fields, the bobolinks
promptly took advantage of their chance
and their numbers increased steadily until
the maximum was reached some 4o years
ago. Then the newly invented mowing
machine and the horsepower hay-rake
began to destroy thousands of nests. and
caused a marked diminution in the bobo-
link census.

The case of the bobolink is a fitting
close to this article, because it is reveal-
ing to us at the present time the manner
of evolution of a new migration route.
By nature a lover of damp meadows, it
was formerly cut off from the western
United States by the intervening arid
region. But with the advent of irriga-
tion and the bringing of large areas
under cultivation, little colonies of nest-
ing bobolinks are beginning to appear
here and there almost to the Pacific.
Some of them are shown by dots on the
accompanying map, and the probability
is that the not distant future will see
a large increase in these trans-Rocky
Mountain bobolinks.