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Photo by Henry Ning, Sydney. Photo by Ottomar Anschutz, Berlin.

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Photo by W" Saville Kent, ZS.
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Birds of Other Lands

Reptiles» Fishes -fomted Animals

and Lower Forms

Epirors AND SpectIAL CONTRIBUTORS

Charles J. Cornish Sir Herbert Maxwell
Ernest Ingersoll Sir Harry Johnston
F. C. Selous H.N. Hutchinson

R. Lydekker J. W. Gregory

and many others

Tue University Society Ine.

New York \, va

Copyright, 1917, by

The University Society Inc.

i
Company nen orn

alo

CONTENTS

BIRDS OF OTHER LANDS

PAGES
THE OstricH anp Irs KINDRED. : p E ; : : P ‘ 1
THe Game-Birps aNp Rats... . : : : : . F ; , ; : 13
PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE : : : : : p 5 : : : : 28
Auxks, GULLS, AND PLovERS 2 ; : . ; , : ‘ ; ; ; - ; ; 31
BustTarDs AND CRANES , , : : ; : : : : ‘ : : , , : 38
GreBES AND Divers, PeNcuins, Etc. P : ; ? : : P ; : P : 41
StrorKs, HERONS, AND PELICAN TRIBE. ; : : : ; ; : : : : : 49
ScrEAMERS, Ducks, GEESE, AND SWANS . : é ; : : A , ; ; : ' 66
Birps oF PREY AND OWLS . : : : ; : 4 é , : : : ; : AA
NicHtT-Jars, Swirts, AND HuMMING-Birps_ . ‘ ; ; ; ; ; 3 ‘ . . 87
Parrots, CucKoos, AND PLANTAIN-EATERS . ; : : ; : : : : : , 91
ROLLERS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND HOOPOES . , ; ; i : ; ; ; > 102
BeeE-Eaters, Trocons, Etc. : : : : : : : : : : ; ; , . 110
Toucans, WoopPECKERS, Etc. . : : , : ; 2 : ; : : : : « IZ
THe PERCHING Birps . : ' ; : . : : : ; : : : ; ; x Ae
Larxks, Tirmice, Honey-Eaters, Etc. . . ’ : : : : : : : : . 128
SHRIKES, THRUSHES, AND THEIR ALLIES e : : é : . ; : : ; . 135

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS. ; : we , : : ; ‘ : : : 147
ToRTOISES AND TURTLES . . : ? : ‘ Z : i ‘ ; : : : 3 M53
LIzaARDs . : : ; : : : : ‘ : : ; : : ; : : : 165
CHAMAELEONS AND THE TUATERA . 4 F : : 3 . ‘ ‘ : ‘ : « £83
SNAKES . ; ' ; : ; : : ‘ ; : j : : : P : . 187
Frocs AND Toapbs : ’ ; ; : : : : ‘ 5 ; : ; : , . 200

NeEwtTs AND SALAMANDERS . : : : : ‘ ; ¢ . ‘ : : : . 207

vi CONTENTS

FISHES

LuNG-FISHES AND CHIM-ERAS

THe Percw Famity .

ScaALy-Fins, Sworp-Fisues, Etc.
Harr-Taits, Gurnarps, Ete.
Lump-Suckers, FLiyinc-FisHes, Etc.

THe Wrasse-Like FISHES

Prire-Fisues, SUN-FisHes, aND THEIR ALLIES
THe Cop FAMiILy

Cave-FisHes, SAND-EELS, AND FLAT-FISHES
EELS AND CaT-FISHES .

THe Carp Famity

Pikes, ArApatMas, BEAKED SALMON, AND SCOPELIDS
THE SALMON ee

Tue Herrinc anp Its KInpReED
Bony-Pike, STURGEON, Etc.

SHARKS AND Rays

JOINTED ANIMALS

THE Crap AND ScCoRPION Groups .

INSECTS .

LOWER FORMS
SHELL-FIsH, or MoLtiuscs
LaMp-SHELLS
STAR-FisHes, Sea-Urcuins, Ere.
Moss-ANIMALS
Worms
Coras, SEA-ANEMONES, AND JELLY-FISHES

SPONGES AND ANIMALCULES

212
283

birds of
Other Lands

BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S., F.Z.S.

CHAPTER 1

THE OSTRICH AND ITS
KINDRED

HE Ostriches are a very an-

cient group of birds, and, judg-

ing from what we know of their
anatomy, they must be regarded as
representing the most primitive of liv-
ing birds. With the exception of a
single group, to be discussed presently,
all have lost the power of flight. In
some, in consequence, the wing has be-
come reduced to a mere vestige.

Pheto ty WH’, P. Dando, F.Z.8,
RUFOUS TINAMOU, BRAZIL

The tail-feathers of these birds are so small as to appear to be wanting

It is a rule in Nature, we may remark, that whenever an

organ, such as a wing or a leg or a tail, ceases to be useful, it undergoes forthwith a slow process

Photo by H. Noble, Esq.

RHEA AND YOUNG

Although the wings of the rhea are large, they fit so
closely to the body as to be invisible when closed

of reduction or degeneration, growing smaller and
smaller in each successive generation, till at last it
may even disappear altogether. The loss of flight
has been accompanied by a degeneration in the
quality of the feathers — that is to say, their service-
ability as aids to flight has been entirely lost.

The size of the members of this group varies
much. The largest of all is the African Ostrich;
the smallest, of the flightless forms, the New Zealand
Apteryx. The ostrich-like birds which have retained
the power of flight are known as Tinamous, and are
natives of South America. <All these are smaller
than the flightless Apteryx.

TINAMOUS

The TINAMOUS should perhaps be regarded as
standing at the head of the Ostrich Tribe, since they
have reached a higher degree of development than
any other of its members. They have also preserved
the power of flight. In their general appearance
they bear a singular resemblance to partridges,
though a little careful observation will reveal many
points wherein they differ therefrom. They are very
confiding and unsuspicious birds — some persons call

I

iW)

THE LIVING ANIMALS OF “Poke WORLD

ice

Photo by H. Noble, Esq.

RHEA AND YOUNG ONES

Although frequently bred in captivity, the young do

not seem to be eastly reared

them stupid on this account — and in the early morn-
ing the species inhabiting the Argentine pampas will,
observers tell us, come right up to the isolated houses
of the settlers, so that the boys knock them down with
stones. The delicate quality of the flesh has caused
these birds to be highly esteemed as food, and their
trustful nature renders them an easy prey, so much
so that in some districts they have been almost exter-
minated. Large numbers are caught by riding round
them in a circle and securing them with a noose.
Mr. Hudson, who lived many years in the pampas,
assures us that the GREAT TINAMOU is one of the
sweetest-voiced of the native birds. The song is
composed of ‘five modulated notes, flute-like in
character, and very expressive, and is uttered by
many individuals answering each other as they sit far
apart, concealed in the grass.”

The eggs of the tinamous are to be reckoned
among the wonders of bird life, being so highly bur-
nished as to look like beautifully glazed porcelain.
The colour varies according to the species, ranging
from wine-red, blue-green, and brown to black. The
young are almost as remarkable as the eggs, being
clothed with a peculiar down, of great complexity
of structure, and resembling in some respects the
nestling down of the true ostrich.

THE RHEA

The RHEA is a native of South America. It is frequently referred to as the SouUTH
AMERICAN OSTRICH, and also as the NANDU. The resemblance which it bears to the true
ostrich is striking, but it may at once be distinguished therefrom by the fact that it has three
toes and a feathered head and neck; furthermore, it is smaller in size, and lacks the conspicuous

white wing- and tail-plumes. The
tail, indeed, as may be seen from
the photographs reproduced is
wanting. The rhea must be re-
garded as standing at the head
of the flightless members of the
Ostrich Tribe. Its wings, though
not large enough to raise its
heavy body from the ground, are
yet of considerable size.

In Buenos Ayres rheas are
hunted with dogs. If a breeze
is blowing, the birds raise one
wing, which acts as a sail. This
done, they can acquire a speed
which makes it absolutely im-
possible for either dog or horse
to come up with them. The
only chance of ultimately captur-
ing them is by wearing them out

Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co-]

RHEA LYING DOWN

The breast of the larger members of the Ostrich Tribe is provided with a large horny

plate, on which they support the body qhen resting

THE OSTRICH AND ITS KINDRED 2

by ceaseless pursuit. A chase of this kind may last an hour anda half. Needless to say, for
sport of this kind both horses and dogs must be the best of their kind and in “ good
form.” The natives and Indians hunt them on horseback with the “bolas.” The bolas, or
balls, used for this purpose consist of two round stones covered with leather, and united by
a thong of about 8 feet long. One of these is held in the hand and the other whirled round
the head and suddenly released, when both go whirling madly round till they strike the rhea’s
legs, around which they instantly twist, and the victim is a fast prisoner.

The rhea is in danger of disappearing altogether as a wild bird, owing to the ruthless
slaughter which is made upon it for the sake of its feathers. For some years back,
Mr. Harting tells us, ‘the number of birds killed has averaged 400,000 per annum, and, as
a consequence, the species has already disappeared from nearly half the territory of the River
Plate.” On some estates in Argentina the wild birds are driven in and plucked.

Like most of the Ostrich Tribe, the male alone performs the duties of incubation, hatching

Photo by F. T. Newman] (Berkhamsted
RHEAS IN A PUBLIC PARK

In spite of its large size, the rhea is not a conspicuous bird in a wild state, the grey plumage harmonising perfectly with the surrounding pampas

some twenty eggs at a time, the produce of several different females. There are three different
kinds of rhea, but they do not differ much one from another. The young are curiously
striped. The egg is very large, of a cream colour, and deeply pitted.

Darwin, in his ‘ Voyage of the Beagle,” tells us that when he was “at Bahia Blanca, in
the months of September and October, the eggs, in extraordinary numbers, were found all over
the country. They lie either scattered and single, in which case they are never hatched, and
are called by the Spaniards huachos; or they are collected together into a shallow excavation
which forms the nest. Out of the four nests which I saw, three contained twenty-two eggs
each, and the fourth twenty-seven. In one day’s hunting on horseback sixty-four eggs were
found: forty-four of these were in two nests, and the remaining twenty scattered huachos.
The Gauchos unanimously affirm —and there is no reason to doubt their statement — that the
male bird alone hatches the eggs, and for some time afterwards accompanies the young. The
cock, when on the nest, lies very close: I have myself almost ridden over one. It is asserted
that at such times they are occasionally fierce and even dangerous, and that they have been

4 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

known to attack a man on horseback, trying to kick and leap on him. My informer pointed out
to me an old man whom he had seen much terrified by one chasing him. I understand that
the male emu in the Zoological Gardens takes charge of the nest: this habit, therefore, is
common to the family.

“The Gauchos unanimously affirm that several females lay in one nest.
positively told that four or five hen birds have been watched to go, in the middle of the day,
one after another, to the same nest... . Although this habit at first appears very strange, I
think the cause may be explained in a simple manner. The number of eggs in the nest
varies from twenty to forty, and even fifty; and according to Azara even seventy or eighty.
Now, although it is most probable, from the number of the eggs found in one district being
so extraordinarily great in proportion to the parent birds, and likewise from the state of the
ovarium of the hen, that she may, in the course of the season, lay a large number, yet the
time required must be very long. . If the hen was obliged to hatch her own eggs before
the last was laid, the first probably would be addled; but if each laid a few eggs at successive
periods in different nests, and several hens . . . combined together, then the eggs in one
collection would be nearly of the same age. If the number of eggs in one of these nests is,
as I believe, not greater on an average than the number laid by one female in the season,
then there must be as many nests as females, and each cock bird will have its fair share of
the labour of incubation: and that during a period when the females probably could not sit,
from not having finished laying. I have before mentioned the great number of huachos, or
deserted eggs; and that in one day’s hunting twenty were found in this state. It appears
odd that so many should be wasted. Does it not arise from the difficulty of several females

I have been

Photo by the Duchess of Bedford

WHITE RHEAS

These are only varieties of the common form, not a distinct breed

THE OSTRICH AND I's KINDRED 5

associating together, and find-
ing a male ready to under-
take the office of incubation?
It is obvious that there must
at first be some degree of
association between at least
two females, otherwise the
eggs would remain scattered
over the wide plains, at dis-
tances far too great to allow
of the male collecting them
into one nest: some... have
believed that the scattered
eggs were deposited for the
young birds to feed on. This
can hardly be the case .

because huachos, although
often found addled = and
putrid, are generally whole.”

THE OSTRICH

The OSTRICH is the
giant amongst living birds,
the full-grown male standing
some 8 feet high, and weighing
about 300 lbs. It is flight-
less, the wings being smaller,
in proportion to the size of the body, than in the rhea. But the energy which in other birds is
employed in sustaining flight in the ostrich is expended in running, so that it has reached
a high degree of speed —no less, in fact, than twenty-six miles an hour. When at full speed,
it is generally believed the ostrich derives no small help from the wings, which are used _ail-wse.
Nor is this belief by any means a modern one, for all of us must be familiar with Job's
observations on this subject: ‘‘ What time she lifteth up her wings on high, she scorneth
the horse and his rider.” The wings are never used in running at full speed, but re of
much service in turning, ‘enabling the bird to double abruptly, even when going at top
speed.” In justice to the older observers, however, it must be remarked that ostriche do run
with raised wings, but only at the commencement of the run, or in covering a short distance,
when the pace may be considerable; but if circumstances demand “ full speed ahead,” they are
held close to the body, where they offer the least resistance to speed.

With the gradual perfection of its running powers, there has followed a gradual change in
the form of the leg. This change has taken place by reduction in the number of the toes.
Of the original five with which its ancestors began life only two now remain —the third
and fourth. The third is of great size, having apparently waxed great at the expense of the
other toes, a growth which seems to be still in progress, inasmuch as the fourth toe is
undoubtedly dwindling. It is very small, and gives unmistakable signs of growing smaller,
since it has now become nailless. When it has quite disappeared, the ostrich, like the horse,
will have but a single toe on each foot — the third. The dainty, mincing step of the ostrich is a
delight to watch, and, thanks to the Zoological Gardens, this can be done.

Th- ostrich, like its cousin of South America, the rhea, commonly associates with herds
of the larger mammalia. On the South African veldt the companions of the ostrich are the
zebra, wildebeest, and hartebeest, just as on the pampas of South America the rheas are
found associated with herds of deer and guanaco.

Photo by I.
OSTRICH STANDING BESIDE HER EGGS

In a wild state both cock and hen take part in the preparation of the nest

6 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORDED

The egg of the ostrich weighs about 3 Ibs., and is of delicious flavour. The empty shell,
it has been found by experiment, is large enough to hold the contents of cighteen eggs of
the common domesticated fowl. It takes about forty minutes to boil an ostrich egg hara. About
fifteen eggs represent the clutch. The nest is a mere depression in the sanc. The hen sits
by day, and her mate by night; but the eggs are zever left, as is sometimes stated, to the
heat of the sun, so as to lessen the duties of the parent. Such a course would infallibly destroy
the eggs, for the sun's rays, especially at noon, are very powerful.

The male and female ostrich differ much in coloration. In the former the trunk is clothed
in a vestment of richest black, whilst the quills of the wings and tail-feathers are of pure white:
they form the much-prized ostrich plumes. The female is much less splendid, being clothed in
sober grey. But these colours are not merely ornamental; they render the male by night and
the female by day invisible, owing to the perfect harmony they make with their surroundings,
thus affording an interesting illustration of protective coloration.

“ All ostriches,” says Mr. Cronwright Schreiner, “adults as well as chicks, have a strange
habit known as ‘waltzing.’ When chicks are let out from a kraal in the early morning, they
will often start away at a great pace. After running for a few hundred yards they will all stop,
and, with wings raised, spin round
rapidly for some time, often till quite
giddy, when a broken leg occasionally
occurs. Adult birds, when running
in large camps, will often, if the
veldt is good, do the same, especially
if startled in the fresh of the early
morning. A troop of biras waltzing,
in full plumage, is a remarkably
pretty sight. Vicious cocks ‘roll’
when challenging to fight, also when
wooing the hen. The cock will
suddenly bump down on to his ‘knees’
... open his wings, making a straight

y

"aie Reid] aaa 7 rr line across his breast, and then swing
OSTRICHES TEN DAYS OLD them alternately backwards and
forwards . .. as if on a pivot, each

The down-feathers of young ostriches are quite different from those of other birds,

the tips of each being produced into a horny ribbon wing, as it comes forward, being

raised, while that going backward is
depressed. The neck is lowered until the head is on a level with the back, and the head and
neck swing from side to side with the wings, the back of the head striking with a loud
click against the ribs, first on the one side and then on the other. The click is produced
by the skin of the neck, which then bulges loosely just under the beak and for some distance
downwards. While ‘rolling,’ every feather over the whole body is on end, and the plumes are
open, like a large white fan. At such a time the bird sees very imperfectly, if at all; in fact,
he seems so preoccupied that, if pursued, one may often approach unnoticed. I have walked up
to a ‘rolling’ cock and seized him by the neck, much to his surprise. Just before rolling, a
cock, especially if courting the hen, will often run slowly and daintily on the points of his
toes, with neck slightly inflated, upright and rigid, the tail half drooped, and all his body-
feathers fluffed up; the wings raised and expanded, the inside edges touching the sides of the
neck for nearly the whole of its length, and the plumes showing separately, like an open fan
. on each side of his head. In no other attitude is the splendid beauty of his plumage
displayed to such advantage.”
The males are very fierce while guarding their eggs or fighting for mates, and kick with
extraordinary violence with their powerful legs. As an example of their fierceness when aroused,
Mr. Cronwright Schreiner, who knows much of these birds, relates a story, told him by a

Photo by Mr. Glenday} as (Cape Town
AN OSTRICH FAMILY

The cock bird is an unusually fine specimen, measuring exactly 8 feet from head to foot

4
7

8 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

railway-guard, of an old male who charged a goods-train coming at full speed down a steep
gradient. The bird, as soon as he caught sight of the train, at once got on the line, ‘‘and
advanced fearlessly to fight the monster. As the screeching engine approached, he rushed
at it from straight in front, hissing angrily, and kicked. He was cut to pieces the next
moment.”

The Bedouin tribes hunt the ostrich on dromedaries, so also do the natives of Somaliland,
and when near enough shoot it with poisoned arrows. In the Sahara, Canon Tristram tells us
it is ridden down on horseback, a method of capture which the Sahara sportsman regards as
the greatest feat of hunting.

“The Bushmen,” says Mr. Harting, “like the Somalis, kill the ostrich with poisoned
arrows, or catch it very cleverly in pit-falls or with the lasso, and the Sukurieh and
Hadendawah tribes likewise use the lasso, with which the bird, when once fairly caught, is
strangled. . . . A favourite plan is to wait for the birds ina place of concealment, as near as

REC = = =

|

Photo by Schroeder] [Zurich

A GROUP OF COCK OSTRICHES

Note the conspicuous tail in these birds 5 it is wanting in other members of the Ostrich Tribe

possible to the pools to which they come for water, and then, with a gun loaded with swan-
shot, to fire at their necks as they stoop to drink, when perhaps half a dozen are laid low
at once. ... Another plan to which the Bushman often resorts is simpler still. Having
found an ostrich’s nest, he removes all the eggs, and, ensconcing himself in the nest, quietly
awaits the return of the bird, which he shoots with a poisoned arrow before it has time to
recover from its surprise at finding him there instead of the eggs... . In Senaar the Abfti-Rdof
bring it down by throwing a curved flat stick from 2} to 3 feet long, not unlike the Australian
boomerang, and made of tough acacia-wood or hard zizyphus.”

Mr. Arthur Glynn, of Leydenburg, gives a graphic description of an ostrich hunt, his quarry
being a troop of twenty birds —* on sighting which,” he tells us, “we immediately gave chase,
discovering directly afterwards that a single bull wildebeeste was among them. After a stiff
gallop,” he says, “ of half a mile, we got within seventy yards of the troop; so reining in, we
both dismounted and fired, bringing down one ostrich and the wildebeeste bull. . . . We quickly
mounted and continued the pursuit, the ostriches never running for any distance in a direct

THE OSTRICH AND ITS KINDRED 9

course, but always turning and ~~ z i,
twisting, which made it difficult for 4
us to keep them in sight... . We

went sailing on, neck and_ neck,
regardless of holes or anything else,
only thinking of the grandly
plumaged birds in front of us, our
horses straining every nerve to over-
take them, as only old stagers know
how to run when in pursuit of game.
We had now approached within fifty
yards, and, jumping down, we fired
at two cock birds running separately
from the troop, bringing them both
down. Hastily mounting, we con-
tinued on after the retreating
troop; but at this juncture my
friend’s horse trod ina hole, sending
his rider over his head, thereby
completely putting him out of the
run. I now continued the chase by
myself. For a mile the ostriches
gained on me, as they continued to
run in a straight line, thereby not
enabling me to cut off any point,
but obliging me to keep in their
rear all the time....I got off
twice, and fired several fruitless
shots, and then continued the chase
for certainly two miles without dis-

SCLATER’S CASSOWARY

This bird is not yet full grown, the horny casque on the top of the head

mounting once. . . . I now got being much larger in the adult

within a hundred yards, and jumped

down. ... The first shot I fired brought down a fine cock bird, but the second struck the
ground over the others, turning them to the right along a low ridge. They appeared
very much exhausted, and ran with their wings spread out. . . . I saw that they were coming
direct for me, and waited until they were close... . When the ostriches approached within

fifteen yards, I selected the best-looking bird, and put a bullet through him. He ran on for
about twenty yards and fell dead.”

CASSOWARIES AND EMEUS

With the Cassowaries and Emeus we have come as near as we can get at the present day
to the representatives of the ancient type from which the Ostrich Tribe have sprung. But
both these forms are to be regarded as having passed the prime of their development, for,
like their allies which we have already considered, they have lost the power of flight. Both
emeu and cassowary possess, when adult, one character shared by no other living adult bird;
they have what may be called double feathers, each feather possessing two shafts of equal
length. They appear to follow a custom of their own in the matter of the coloration of their
eggs, since these are never white, like those of the rhea or ostrich, but green, with a very rough
surface. The young, like those of the rhea, are striped with alternate black and white stripes.
The emeu is found only on the continent of Australia; the cassowary occurs both in Australia
and on the neighbouring islands of New Guinea, Ceram, and Aru.

The lot of the Cassowary appears to have been cast in pleasant places, making it possible

10 THE. LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORDED

to indulge in the luxury of personal decoration —
a decoration, moreover, shared cqually by the
males and femalcs, both sexes having the head
and neck most brilliantly coloured. In some
species all the hues of the rainbow are vividly
reflected. To show these colours, the feathery
covering, still worn by their relatives on the
distant continents of Africa and America, has been
cast off and the skin left bare. To these gorgeous
hues they have added yet other features, for the
head is surmounted in many species by a huge
casque, or helmet; whilst from the neck depend
SSS IE curious fleshy lobes, or wattles, coloured in accord-

Hho De Le Suef Lei deunne ance with the rest of the bare, coloured skin of

NEST AND Ee Gs Pe be this region. Then, too, they have effected quite

Bie fee eae bala Patio Ress standing near, can be een 4 novel transformation in the quills of the wing,

al for these project on either side of the body in a
series of shining black spines. Nor is this all, for over and above the energy which they
have to spare for personal decoration is a very large reserve to be expended in fighting.
The males are very pugnacious, and to give point to this pugnacity they wear a very
formidable weapon on the inner toe in the shape of a huge nail, which can inflict a really
dangerous wound. It is used in kicking, the foot being brought forwards and downwards with
incredible speed and great force. When wounded, these powerful birds are very dangerous.
to approach. ‘On more than one occasion a wounded bird has caused a naturalist to take
to a tree. The sharp nail of the inner toe is a most dangerous weapon, quite equal to the
claw of a large kangaroo, and capable of doing quite as much execution.”

Although forest-haunting birds — wherein they differ from their allies, which are plain-
dwellers — the cassowaries are adepts at swimming. There is a danger that these beautiful and.
interesting birds will slowly be exterminated by greedy and thoughtless settlers. The Australian
cassowary is already decreasing sadly, being persecuted for the sake of its skin, which is used
for rugs and doormats.

The EMEU, though a sort of cousin of the cassowary, boasts none of its splendour; on.
the contrary, it is a dull, dowdy-looking bird. In size, however, it is much larger than the
cassowary. The wings, which are exceedingly small, have numerous tiny quill-feathers — not long,
hard spines, as in the cassowary. When in captivity, it exhibits great curiosity; furthermore,.
it is swift to realise symptoms of fear
in the faces of any visitor whom it
may have under inspection. Occasion-
ally fear turns into flight, and then,
thoroughly entering into the joke, the
emeu pursues at top speed. Needless
to say, hunting of this kind can only be
done in fairly large paddocks or parks ;
but emcus are frequently so kept.

A very remarkable and quite
unique structure in the emeu is a
curious bag or pouch, formed by a
sort of out-pocketing of the inner
lining of the windpipe. Emerging lessee Brust}

through a long slit caused by the YOUNG EMEUS FIVE DAYS OLD

incompleteness of some of the rings “ lush ail of te Wall hate xbe bae beauie
: : oung emeus just out of the shell have the legs beauti ted, b
near the middle of the windpipe, the are rapidly a ues PN ee

[Melbourne

CASSOWARY.

The female Cas

owary is larger than her mate, and her colouring is of equal brilliancy

THE OSTRICH AND ITS KINDRED II

pouch comes te lie between this tube
and the skin. Strangely enough, it
is found only in the female, and is
used by her chiefly during the
breeding-season, when she utters a
peculiarly loud booming note, which,
it is supposed, is caused by the
manipulation of the air in the pouch.
When moved by any gentle excite-
ment or pleasure, especially on damp
evenings or in the dead of night, she
also becomes musical, giving forth a
note which has been likened to a
gong or muffled drum. The male,
which is smaller, fleeter of foot, and
more docile and inquisitive, is mute,
or at most gives forth a suppressed
hiss when angry, or a kind of grunt
when distressed.

Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co} [Parson's Groen

ees

YOUNG EMEUS

After a few weeks the black and white stripes become much less conspicuous

At one time the emeu roamed over the whole of the mainland of Australia; but now, alas!
it is almost exterminated, being found only far inland and in steadily diminishing numbers.
Swift of foot and of great powers of endurance, the emeu has afforded in the past much “ sport”
to the hunting-man, who followed the dogs, doubtless making comparisons the while between

zai Saas =a

|

ge m2 bass % E27
Photo by #. T. Newman] [Berthamsted
EMEU

The feathers of the neck of the emeu are much longer than in the rhea; hence the
neck seems shorter

his two-legged prey and his four-footed
friend Reynard. The hunt does not end
till the bird is thoroughly exhausted,
when it must be seized at once by the
neck, in order to prevent it kicking, for
the legs are so powerful that a blow
from the foot is dangerous.
Incubation is apparently performed
by the male, which sits from fifty-four
to sixty-four days. Practically no nest
is made, only a shallow hollow being
scraped in the sand. The eggs, from
seven to thirteen in number, are of
a dark bottle-green colour, sometimes
lighter, and have the surfaces curiously
roughened. The male is smaller than
the female, a fact which has led to
some confusion, the larger female having
at one time been regarded as the male.
It will be noted that the emeus not
only lack the brilliant colour of the casso-
waries, but also the helmet, or casque.
The late Mr. Gould’s remarks on
the edibility of the emeu are inter-
esting. He says: ‘‘Its flesh has been
compared to coarse beef, which it resem-
bles, according to Mr. Cunningham,
both in appearance and taste, and is

goodandsweeteating; nothing,indeed,

Ie THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

SIT can be more delicate than the flesh
nv of the young ones. There is little
v2 fit for culinary use upon any part
of the emu, except the hind-
quarters, which are of such dimen-
sions that the shouldering of the
two hind legs homeward for a mile
distance once proved to me as tire-
some a task as [ ever recollect to

N67 sitet hts sli

bd aint

have encountered in the colony. I
may remark that its flesh proved
of the greatest service to Dr. Leich-
ardt and his intrepid companions
during their overland route from
Moreton Bay to Port Essington, in
the course of which, but more par-
ticularly between the head of the
Gulf of Carpentaria and Port Essing-
ton, the sight and capture of the
emu was almost a daily occurrence;

LF:

VE

Photo by ‘Rebeet oD: Carson, Esq.)
MANTELL’S KIWI, NEW ZEALAND, NORTH ISLAND

When feeding, the kiwi makes a sniffing sound, distinctly audible at some distance so abundant, in fact, was it, that

he states that he saw in the short
space of eight miles at least a hundred, in flocks of three, five, ten, and even more at
a time. On the continent of Australia the emu was formerly abundant about Botany Bay
and Port Jackson Harbour, but is now only to be seen in the plains of the interior, over
whose solitudes it roams in great numbers, and where it breeds, depending on the strength
and swiftness of its legs to avoid the pursuit of the stockmen and their dogs. Farther and
farther back, however, will it be driven, until it be extirpated, unless some law be instituted to
check its wanton destruction.”

In a wild state emeus take readily to the water, and have on more than one occasion
been seen swimming across a wide river. The South American rhea is also known to be a
good swimmer. :

The CoMMON EMEUu is restricted to Eastern Australia. The opposite side of this great
continent is inhabited by another and very distinct species, known as the SPOTTED EMEU.

THE APTERYX

To see the APTERYX at home, we should
have to travel to far New Zealand, and to
hunt with infinite patience when we got there.
Apteryx-hunting, it has been found, to be
successful, must be done by the help of dogs.
Sir Walter Buller has written some very spirited
accounts of such hunts. Europeans, indeed,
have been singularly successful in this hunting,
whereby they have done much to enhance the
value of this bird by hastening its fast ap-
proaching and inevitable extermination.

The natives call this bird the K1w1, from
its call-note, ‘‘ki-i-wi.” These cries are uttered a Fe ea =a
during the early hours of the night, ceasing OWEN’S KIWI, NEW Te es SOUTE
after midnight. They appear to have great ISLAND :
penetrating power. This is the smallest of the kiwis

—

CHAPTER I
THE GAME-BIRDS AND RAILS

T is not easy in a few words exactly to define a “ game-bird.” Anatomical details aside,
the most characteristic features are the small head and moderately long neck, and a
compact body, in which the wings, when folded, are almost entirely concealed. The hind

toe is always present, and the claws are adapted for scratching purposes —that is to say, for
scratching up the surface of the ground in the search for seeds as food. The wings are
hollowed so as to fit close to the body, and the flight, which is noisy and never long-
sustained, is nevertheless often exceedingly rapid.

The young are hatched covered with down,
and able to run in a few hours after birth.

(Wishaw, N.B.

RED GROUSE

This is one of the species in which the toes are feathered

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN

The birds of this group are distinguished by the feathery covering which clothes the feet.
In some grouse, however, the toes are bare. This causes them to resemble the Pheasant group,
from which they may be distinguished by the fact that the toes are fringed with horny processes
forming a sort of comb.

2 3

14 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

af ENG 3
Photo by HW’, F. Piggott]

PTARMIGAN

Leighton Buxxoro

In winter these birds don a snow-white livery

with the red grouse, which is sufficiently protected by

its ordinary dress.

The largest and perhaps the most interesting of
all the European game-birds are the CAPERCALLIES,

;

Photo ly UW. F, Piggott) [Levghron Buscssard
COMMON PARTRIDGE

This is the commoner and more esteemed of the twa species
of British partridges

The RED GROUSE is the only game-bird which
is not found outside the British Islands. It is the
bird which perhaps heads the list in the estimation
of British sportsmen, who travel north in hundreds
every year for the pleasure of the sport it affords.
{t is furthermore remarkable for the wonderful variety
of the seasonal plumages. Both sexes change their
dress twice during the year — the female in spring and
summer, and the male in autumn and winter. Its
Continental relative, the RYPER, has no less than
three changes — spring, summer, and winter. For the
last season a white dress is adopted, to correspond with
its snowy surroundings. The winters in the British
Islands
are neither
lo@s ae ae
enough
nor severe

enough
to render
Sa ttt. 7e> bch
change
necessary

or CAPER-
CAILZIES.
T che se
British
Ss pPecres

1S) adlise fn gg ag es
known as Photo by HW. F. Piggort] [ Leighten Buxscard
the Cock— CAPERCALLIE

O F-TH E- This cvas once a common British bird. The present breed

was introduced some years ago, the native birds
having been exterminated

Woop. He
is a hand-
some black bird, nearly as big as a turkey, weighing
from 9 to 17 lbs.

In the spring the capercallie, like the blackcock,
indulges in a remarkable “ love-song,” or “play,”
as it is called. With outstretched neck, tail expanded
like a fan, drooping wings, and ruffled feathers, he
commences his call, “ peller, peller, peller,” increasing
in rapidity every moment, till he works himself up
into a perfect frenzy. At this time he is perfectly
unconscious of all around him, and poachers, knowing
this, sometimes take advantage to creep up and
shoot him. On hearing the cock, the hens assemble
from all parts of the forest. The male then descends
from the tree to the ground, when “he and _ his

THE GAME-BIRDS AND RAILS 15

female friends join company” and march away. The caper-
callie is jealous of trespassers on his domain, and instances
are on record where people have been attacked when so
infringing.

Like the capercallie, the BLackcock must be sought in
the woods, whence he sallies forth to the moors and stubble-
fields to feed. The Grey-Hen, as the female of this species
is called, lays from six to ten eggs, of a buff colour, spotted
with rich brown: both in number and colour they resemble
those of the capercallie.

PaRTRIDGES, QuaILs, AND PHEASANTS.

The birds which come under this head are so many
in number they may be reckoned by the hundred, and
include several forms of exquisite beauty. The legs of
many are armed with formidable spurs, with which the
males, who are exceedingly pugnacious, fight furiously with
their rivals for the possession of some coveted female.

Of the more conspicuous forms we may mention the
RED-LEGGED and Common Parrripces. In England the
former is known more generally as the FRENcH PARTRIDGE
—why, it is hard to say. It is a native of South-eastern
Europe, whence it was introduced towards the end of the
eighteenth century. It is a handsome bird, but not in high
favour with sportsmen, since it prefers to escape by run-
ning rather than by flight.

TE:

Photo by W/. P. Dando, F.Z.S.

GOLDEN PHEASANT

This bird is moulting. In full dress the cape seen
in the upper figure is golden with blue-black bars

GOLDEN PHEASANT

This bird is often kept in aviaries, on account of its magnificent livery

Photo by WH’. P. Dando, F.Z.S.
SILVER PHEASANT

A silver pheasant is embroidered as a badge on mandarins’ dresses

=,

Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.J : TParionts Green
REEVES’S PHEASANT

This is a native of North and West China, and has been intro-
duced into Britain

eo
by WW, P, Dando, F.Z.S.
AMHERST’S PHEASANT

This bird is moulting : in full dress the cape is white and the crest
blood-red

Photo by C. Reid] [Wishaw, N.B.
ENGLISH PHEASANTS
These birds are of the ring-necked variety

Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.] earns Ghana
GOLDEN PHEASANT

The female is soberly clad, and has no crest or cape

a aN Sun
oy F.ZS

PEACOCK-PHEASANT
These pheasants take their name from the

‘ eye-like spots on the
Wings

[ony

THE GAME-BIRDS AND RAILS 17

The COMMON PARTRIDGE is the more [
abundant of the two species. Though more
sober in coloration, it is still a beautiful bird.
The “ horse-shoe”’ mark, borne on the breast,
so characteristic of this bird, is sot con-
fined to the males, as is generally believed.
“Yielding,” says Professor Newton, “ perhaps
im economic importance to the red grouse,
what may be called the social influence of
the partridge is greater than that excited by
any other wild bird.”

This bird displays great courage and
affection in defence of its eggs or young.
A story illustrating this is told of a gentle-
man, who, ‘“ whilst superintending his plough-
men, saw a partridge glide off her nest, so
near the foot of one of his plough-horses
that he thought the eggs must be crushed;

this, however, was not the case. ... He ¥¢, es “6
saw the old bird return to her nest the SMG j yee (ey re a ey
instant he left the spot. It was evident te han z 2 sae ct Pat : |

Photo by WH’. P. Dando, F.Z.S.

that the next round of the plough must Hie RAR Sede.

bury the eggs and nest in the furrow. His
surprise was great when, returning with the
plough, he came to the spot and saw the
nest indeed, but the eggs and bird were gone. An idea struck him that she had removed her
eggs; and he found her, before he left the field, sit-
ting under the hedge upon twenty-one eggs... .
The round of ploughing had occupied about twenty
minutes, in which time she, probably aided by the
cock bird, had removed the twenty-one eggs to a
distance of about forty yards.”

The RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGES, their allies the
FRANCOLINS, and the GREY PARTRIDGES areall ground-
birds; the TREE-PARTRIDGES, as the name implies, are
not, or at least less completely so — hence their
mention here. They are natives of the Indo-Chinese
countries, and the islands of Java, Borneo, and Formosa.

The QUAIL isa little-known British bird, very like
a small partridge inappearance. Enormous numbers,
Professor Newton tells us, “are netted on the Conti-
nent, especially in the spring migration. The captives
are exposed in the poulterers’ shops, confined in long,
cloth-covered cages, with a feeding-trough in front.”
The bulk ‘‘ of these are males, which are the first to
arrive, and advantage is taken of this circumstance by
the bird-catchers, who decoy hundreds into their nets
by imitating the call-note of the female. It has been
stated that in the small island of Capri, in the Bay
of Naples, 160,000 have been netted in a single

HIMALAYAN MONAL season, and even larger numbers are on record.” An
The female of the monal is quite soberly clad idea of the vast numbers which travel together in

In some parts of India this bird has been exterminated, owing to the
demands of the plume-market

18 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

migration may be gathered from Canon Tris-
tram’s statement that in Algeria, in April, he
found the ground covered with quails for an
extent of many acres at daybreak, where on the
preceding afternoon not one was to be seen.
These are the birds which were so eagerly seized
by the Israelites as a welcome change in the diet
which had become so monotonous in the days
of their early wanderings. The story, so vividly
told in the Book of Exodus, is, of course,
familiar to all.

The quail lays from nine to fifteen eggs
in a feeble apology for a nest. It is said that
the curious metallic note ‘‘clic-lic-lic” gave
origin to the Spanish castanet, for these birds
are much esteemed in Spain, being kept in
cages for the pleasure their notes afford.

There are five or six other species of quail
closely related to the above. The British bird

The wings in the typical Cochins are so short as to be useless enjoys an enormous range, being found almost

everywhere in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The

so-called AMERICAN QUAILS — some forty species in number— are generally regarded as
belonging to a distinct group.

That ornament to all rural scenery, the PHEASANT, is said to have been introduced from
the banks of the river Phasis, in Colchis, Transcaucasia, by the Romans — at least, the original
form of pheasant was. Late during the eighteenth century a Japanese and a Chinese form
were introduced, and these have freely interbred with the original form, so that pure bred
specimens of any of the three are rare.

The speed of a pheasant on the wing in full flight has been estimated at thirty-eight
miles an hour. Occasionally pheasants will take to the water, and are said to swim well.

The number of pheasants reared by hand at the present day is prodigious. In 1883,
Professor Newton tells us, 134,000 pheasants’
eggs were sold from one estate in Norfolk, while
9,700 fully grown birds were killed upon it. In
olden times pheasants were taken in snares or
nets, by hawking, and by the cross-bow; but on
the introduction of guns these methods were
superseded.

Yet another form of pheasant has been in-
troduced here of late years. This is REEVES’S
PHEASANT, a truly magnificent bird, with a tail
fully 5 feet long in adult males. These birds
also interbreed with the more common forms,
but not freely.

Beautiful as these pheasants undoubtedly
are, they are eclipsed by many of their relatives.
Among the most noteworthy of these we may
notice the magnificent TRAGOPANS. Rich in
coloration of the feathers, these birds have Photo by C. Reid] at ae - CWishaw, NB.
added an additional feature in brilliantly coloured BROWN LEGHORN COCK
areas of bare skin on the head and neck, which ts '

¥o om : : This breed has been derived by crossing White Leghorns with
are furthermore rendered conspicuous by being Game-fow!

2h

Photo by C. Reid] [Wishaw, N.B.

RED COCHINS

Phato by C. Reid] ; j [Wishaw, N.B.
SILVER-SPANGLED HAMBURGS

This bird apparently originated in England

Photo by U, Reid} LWishaw, N.b.
DARK BRAMAS

The Brama is an Asiatic breed

19

20 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

developed with “horns” and wattles. These ‘ horns” can be erected at will, a process which
causes them at the same time to be greatly increased in size. The bird, with a proud con-
sciousness of his beauty, displays his charms to the full when wooing. Mr. Bartlett tells us
that, “after walking about rather excitedly, he places himself in front of the female, with
the body slightly crouching upon the legs, and the tail bent downwards; the head is then
violently jerked downwards, and the horns and wattle become conspicuous. The wings have
a flapping motion, and the bright red patch on them is fully displayed. The whole of the
neck appears to be larger than usual during this action, so do the horns, which, moreover,
vibrate with every motion. This scene is concluded by the bird suddenly drawing himself up
to his full height, with his wings expanded and quivering, the horns erect, and the wattles
fully displayed.”

Equally splendid, some think more so, are the four species of pheasant known as MONALS
or IMPEYAN PHEASANTS. The plumage in this case looks like burnished metal rather than

Photo by C. Reid] (Wishaw, N.B.
SILVER WYANDOTTE HEN WITH PHEASANT CHICKS

This is an American breed, derived by crossing with the Brama

feathers. The head is adorned with a crest either of long or beautifully curled feathers. Monals
are found in the same haunts as the tragopans — the highest forest regions of the Himalaya.

But the most gorgeous of all the Pheasant Tribe are perhaps the GOLDEN PHEASANTS.
The crimson body and exquisitely beautiful collar of gold barred with black constitute a
perfectly royal livery. Since, however, these are amongst the commonest occupants of the
aviary, we need not describe them further here. They are natives of China and Tibet.

JUNGLE-FOWL AND THEIR DOMESTICATED DESCENDANTS

These birds, of which there are four distinct species, are close allies of the domesticated
fowls: the descent of these latter, indeed, is traced from the red jungle-fowl of the Himalaya
and Central India. The characteristic features of the group are the naked head, bearing the

sade . } 5S
familiar wattles and fleshy comb, and the formidable spurs on the legs.

The varieties of the domesticated jungie-fowl are numerous. The pugnacity of the

i’)
il

THE GAME-BIRDS AND RAILS

Photo by C. Reid] ae a cane [Wishew, W.B.

Note the perfectly symmetrical distribution of the ** eyes’? in the ‘¢ train”*

members known as the GAME-BREED is well known, and in the days of cock-fighting large
sums of money changed hands over the fierce battles waged by rival game-cocks pitted one
against the other — the game-cock, it should be remarked, being the little-modified descendant
of the red jungle-cock.

The modern game-cock is purely a show-bird, breeders having changed the type by
selecting characters which would render the bird quite unable to hold its own if matched in
battle with one of the original breed.

Very different from the wild ancestor is the huge, much-feathered COCHIN, This was
introduced into England, not from Cochin-China, as is popularly supposed, but from Shanghai,
some fifty years ago. At that time this bird enjoyed the reputation of being wonderfully
prolific. This is, alas! no longer a feature of the breed. The show-pen is apparently respon-
sible for this, attention having been paid rather to
external appearance than to useful qualities.

The PLyMouTH RocK and DORKING are both
well-known breeds. The former is of American
origin, made by crossing Cochins with a native breed
—the Dominique.

The BLack SPANISH, Minorcas, LEGHORNS,
ANDALUSIANS, etc., constitute what are known as
the Mediterranean breeds. They are noted for their
great prolificacy. This has been gained by carefully
breeding from the most productive birds, but with
the result that the instinct to sit has been lost
entirely. This is a matter of no consequence, how-
ever, as when chicks are required there are plenty of
“broody” hens of other breeds which can be made BACK VIEW OF PEACOCK
to undertake the duties of foster-mother. Note the true tail, like a stout fan, supporting the train

“sll etal : 4 maki 7%
Photo by L. Medland, F.Z.8.] [North Finchley

22 THE LIVING ANIMALS

OF THE WORLD

A

Photo by H”. P. Dando, F.Z.S.
BLACK-CHESTED CRESTED GUINEA-FOWL
This ts a black bird, with light blue spots

is the JAPANESE BANTAM.
very quaint effect.

of the breeder’s power of localising colour by selection.
Yet another interesting Japanese fowl is the remarkable long-tailed breed in which

white.

The HAMBURGS are of two kinds —the
SPANGLED, which is of English, and the
PENCILLED, of Continental origin.

A very old breed is the POLISH. It figures
often in the pictures of the old Dutch
masters. One of its chief characteristics is
the huge crest of feathers rising from the
crown of the head. The development of this
crest has had a very extraordinary effect upon
the conformation of the bones of the skull,
entirely altering the shape of the brain-case.

Perhaps the most artificial of all breeds of
fowl are the SEBRIGHT BANTAMS. These are
diminutive birds, the result of a cross between
the Polish with “laced” feathers and a bantam.
The feathers of this cross are beautifully
‘laced’ —that is, they are white, edged with
black. Another interesting diminutive breed

The cock carries its tail, which is long, remarkably high, giving a
This breed is further interesting, since it furnishes us with an instance

The tail is black and the body

the tail-coverts grow continuously, attaining a length of from 9 feet to, it is said, 18 feet.
reater part of their lives is passed tethered

iS

The birds are kept for show purposes.
on high perches. Once a day they are taken
down for exercise, when the long feathers are
carefully rolled up and securely fastened out
of harm’s way.

THE ARGUS-PHEASANT AND PEACOCK AND
THEIR ALLIES

The ARGUS-PHEASANT most certainly
demands notice, on account of the extra-
ordinary development of the wing-quills,
which are nearly a yard long, and the
wondrous beanty of the pattern thereon.
This pattern takes the form of a number of
eyes, so shaded as to give the appearance,
when fully displayed, of a number of balls
lying in a socket. These enormous quills
are borne only by the male, and used, like
the ornamental feathers of its allies, in cap-
tivating the female. When fully displayed,
the two wings are spread out to form one
huge fan, producing an effect which words
cannot adequately describe. The argus-
pheasants are found in the forests of Siam,
the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra, and are
excessively wary birds. ;

The PEACOCK is too well known to need
a very long description. But a word as to
the so-called “ tail.” This magnificent wealth

The g

ey, ped," ia

as YR Yes oe tem
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co. J

[Parson's Green

BLACK-CHESTED CRESTED GUINEA-FOWL

At Durban these birds are often hawked by Kaffir hunters, the flesh

being very delicate and much esteemed

THE GAME-BIRDS AND RAILS 23

of plumes docs not represent the tail, as is popularly
supposed, but is made up of the feathers of the
lower part of the back and the upper tail-coverts.
These gradually increase in length from before-back-
wards, culminating in the long and exquisite feathers
which form the circumference of the huge, outspread
shield. This shield is properly called the “train”;
the true tail lies behind it and acts as a support.
When the bird is about to display, the “ train”
feathers are slowly and gently raised till the well-
known fan-shaped glory of green and gold and blue
is exposed to the fullest possible extent.

“Watch the bird trying to do his best to
persuade his chosen what a handsome fellow he is.
He first places himself more or less in front of her,
but at some little distance off; and then, watching
his opportunity, walks rapidly backwards, going faster
and faster and faster, till, arrived within a foot, he
suddenly, like a flash, turns round and displays to
the full his truly gorgeous vestments. This turning
movement is accompanied by a violent shaking of NEST OF BRUSH-TURKEY
the train, the quills of which rattle like the pattering This is made by several birds, of decaying vegetable matter,
of rain upon leaves. Often this movement is followed in which the eggs are laid and left to hatch
by a loud scream.

“When the train is fully erect, it will be noticed that it lies so far forward that the
bird’s head and neck appear as if rising from its base. In a side view the whole body, from
the front of the wings backwards, appears to lie behind the train.”

This bird is a native of India, where it is held in great reverence by the Hindus, and

As f ‘
Photo by the Duchess of Bedford

a

Photo by C. Reid)

TURKEY COCK AND HEN

The curious * tassel’? depending from the breast ts found in no other bird

24 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

alia hr ae ane anes = in the Hindu States it is not allowed
to be killed under any circumstances.
There are two, some say three, distinct
species of peacock, but they all closely
resemble one another.

Brief mention will serve for the
GUINEA-FOWLS and TURKEYS, since
they are well known to us all. GUINEA-
FOWLS are African birds. The farm-
yard form, popularly known as ‘“‘ Come-
backs,” from their peculiar cry
“ come-back, come-back, come-back,”

is a descendant of the common
helmeted form, of which type there
are eight distinct species. Besides.

Se a Co] i ae Tian these are four crested species; one
very beautiful species known as the
VULTURE LIKE GUINEA-FOWL; and
one, the rarest of all, known as the
BLACK GUINEA-FOWL. Even in the
British Museum, writes Mr. Ogilvie Grant, “there are only two examples of it, and neither of
these are perfect specimens.” It was discovered by M. Du Chaillu. ‘One day,” he says, “I
went out hunting by myself, and, to my great joy, shot another new bird, a black wild-fowl, one
of the most singular birds I have seen in Africa. . . . The head, where it is bare, is in the
female of a pink hue, and in the male of a bright scarlet... . Wild they are, and most
difficult to approach, and rare, even in the forests where they are at home.” They do not
travel in huge flocks, like other guinea-fowls, but a male and two females at most.

The familiar form of the TURKEY scarcely needs description; but most people are probably
puzzled by its name. Why Turkey? The bird is a native of America, so it certainly cannot
have anything to do with its place of origin. Professor Newton has it that it is on account
of its call-note, “to be syllabled ‘turk, turk, turk,’ whereby it may almost be said to have
named itself.”

The domesticated turkey is descended from the MEXICAN TURKEY, and was probably
introduced into Europe during the sixteenth century. This, according to Captain Bendire, is
a mountain-living species, and still abundant in the wilder portions of Western Texas and
New Mexico. It appears to attain greater bulk than its domesticated descendant, Captain
Bendire having recorded a specimen shot by himself which weighed 28 Ibs. after having been
drawn, and heavier birds are said to occur occasionally.

The Mexicans say that the coyotes catch turkeys by running in circles under the tree
in which they are roosting, till the birds get dizzy with watching them, and fall down into
the open mouths below!

There are three distinct kinds of turkey —the MENICAN, AMERICAN, and HONDURAS
TURKEY. The last is a very fine bird, with a bright blue head and neck, instead of
red. The top of the head is adorned with numerous scarlet, berry-like warts, looking like
holly-berries.

WALLACE’S PAINTED MEGAPODE

This bird buries its eggs in the sand, burrowing for each a slanting hole from ? to
BE ’ (a ‘S J Pe

f feet deep

THE GAME-BIRDS AND RAILS 25

The MEGAPODES and BRUSH-TURKEYS, though dull and uninteresting-looking birds, are, on
account of the facts connected with the propagation of their species, quite remarkable. They
do not brood over their eggs, as do other birds, but instead bury them, either in sand in
the neighbourhood of warm springs or in heaps of decaying vegetable matter. In the latter
case the material is often collected by several birds working together. Mounds of 8 feet high
and 60 feet in circumference have been found, the work of the NICOBAR MEGAPODE. Such
have been many years in use, material being added each season. Into this mass the female
digs down and deposits an egg every second day, covering it up as soon as laid. There
it remains till hatched, when the young, probably aided by its mother, forces its way up to
the surface, and emerges, vot a downy nestling as one would expect, but clothed with feathers
differing but slightly in texture from those worn in the adult state. Owing to the precocious
development, young megapodes are able to fly within an hour after birth.

There are many different kinds of megapodes occurring in Australia, Samoa, and the
Nicobar and Philippine Islands.

panos

Aa Ses Aas + ef af ee eae .
SE dale et Sea Ue eee
Photo by S.halastic Photo, Co.)

RAZOR-BILLED CURASSOW CRESTED CURASSOW

So called from the sharp ridge along the top of the beak So called from its crest of curled feathers

The CurAssows and GUANS are very handsome birds, but probably quite unknown to most
of our readers, yet they may always be seen in Zoological Gardens. They are closely re-
lated to the megapodes, which we have just been discussing; but their nesting habits are
quite different. They lay their eggs in nests, either on the ground or in trees, and brood
over them like other birds. Many have brilliantly coloured bare skin on the head and
handsome crests. They are natives of Central and South America, where they are often
kept by the settlers, as they tame easily. It is said that one of the guans, when crossed with
the domesticated fowl, becomes intensely pugnacious, and superior to the game-cock for
fighting purposes

BUSTARD-QUAIL AND PLAIN-WANDERERS

These are small and quail-like in appearance, though they are probably only distant
relatives of the Game-birds. But they are, nevertheless, remarkable birds. <A great authority,
Mr. A. O. Hume, writing of the INDIAN BUSTARD-QUAIL, says of them: ‘‘ The most remarkable
point in the life-history of these bustard-quails is the extraordinary fashion in which, amongst
them, the position of the sexes is reversed. The females are the larger and handsomer birds.
The females only call, the females only fight — natives say that they fight for the males, and

probably this is true. The males... only... sit upon the eggs, the females meanwhile
larking about, calling, and fighting, without any care for their obedient mates; and, lastly, the

males tend . . . the young brood.”

6 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

tu

The group has a wide geographical range, occurring in Europe, Africa, Madagascar, South
Asia, the Indian Archipelago, and Australia.

THE HOATZIN

This bird is one of the puzzles of the ornithologist. Its pedigree is still a mystery,
but it is generally believed to have some relation to the Game-birds. Its whole life
is passed in trees overhanging water, and its flight restricted to short journeys from tree
to tree. In South America, its home, it is known by a variety of names, one of which means
STINKING-PHEASANT. This is in allusion to the peculiar odour of its flesh, which smells,
according to some, like musk, and to others like raw hides. Another remarkable feature of
this bird is the fact that it has turned its crop into a sort of gizzard, whilst the true gizzard,
having been relieved of its functions, has diminished to the size of a hazel-nut. The unusuai
purpose to which the crop has been put has brought about considerable modification in the
form of the breast-bone, which is quite
different to that of any other bird.

The young of these birds are quite as
remarkable as the parents, for almost as soon
as they are hatched they crawl out of the
nest, along the boughs of the tree in which
it rests, to meet the parents coming with
food. In these crawling excursions they are
aided by the wings, which for a time serve
as fore feet. The thumb and first finger are
armed with strong claws, with which a firm
hold is gained on the bark of the tree.
To render these claws effective so long as
they are necessary, the quill-feathers of the
tip of the wing have their development
checked till the others have grown long
enough to serve the purposes of flight.

THE RAILS

The RAILs are all water-loving birds,
dwelling in swamps or on the borders of
lakes and streams. Although all swim
easily, none have webbed feet. The flight
is weak; several species, indeed, have lost
This is a native of the Amazons Valley, and lives entirely in the trees this power altogether. The body is much

compressed, enabling them to pass readily
through the narrow interspaces of dense aquatic foliage. The Rails appear to be related on
the one hand to the Game-birds, and on the other to the Cranes. In size they vary from
a bird as large as a fowl to one as small as a lark.

One of the commonest of the Rails is the CORN-CRAKE, more commonly, perhaps,
known as the LAND-RATL. Its curious grating cry is one of the commonest sounds which the
summer brings with it, and one possessing a charm of its own. But rarely seen, it builds
its nest in hay-fields, and, when the grass is being cut, sits so closely on its treasures that it
is sometimes beheaded by the swinging scythe. In the autumn it falls not infrequently to
the sportsmen when partridge-shooting. The corn-crake leaves in the winter for the more
congenial climate of Africa, a feat that seems wonderful when its feeble powers of flight are
considered. Its near relative the WATER-RAIL is rather a handsome bird, but of say and
retiring habits.

it

Photo by F. W, McLellan] [Highbury

HOATZIN

The WEKA-RAIL, a native of New Zealand, is one of the flightless forms to which we

THE GAME-BIRDS AND RAILS 27

have referred. It is about as
large as a pheasant, but lacks
its splendour, being soberly
clad in brown and black. Un-
like its relative, it breeds in
a burrow, which it digs for
itself by the aid of its bill.
The name ‘ weka” was given
it by the Maoris.

The COMMON WATER-
HEN, or MOOR-HEN, is one of
the most familiar birds of the
London parks. Although fre-
quent enough to be seen
upon streams and_ broads,
it is, nevertheless, shy and
wary; but in the sanctuary of
the public parks all reserve is
thrown off. The water-hen,

like its allies, is an expert

Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co.} [Parson’s Green
swimmer, in spite of the fact WEKA-RAIL

that the toes are not webbed;
on the contrary, they are very
long and slender. When alarmed, these birds will often submerge the body till only the
beak projects above water.

The wings, though fairly large, are useless for flight

All the members of this group are easily recognised by the bare patch of skin extending
from the beak on to the top of the head. In the Coors this is white; in the WATER-HENS
and GALLINULES it is red. The coots and water-hens are clad in sober colours, grey or black;
but the gallinules are gorgeously clad in purple, shaded with dark green, olive-brown, and black.
MANTELL’S GALLINULE of
New Zealand is probably now
extinct, the last bird having
been killed in 1898.

THE FIN-FEET

These are little-known
birds, found in Africa, South
America, South-east Asia, and
Sumatra. They are closely
related to the coots, but differ
therefrom in many important
particulars. Like the coots,
they are river-haunting birds,
and have broad flaps of
| skin fringing the toes, which
serve the purpose of a
aye web; but they have much

ee Ab : b NEE longer necks and tails than
PTE DT es Res ieee LE Dte reine ee ere the coots and water-hens.
WATER-RAIL Not much is known about

This is a common British bird, seldom seen, on account of its retiring habits them.

GHAPTER I11
PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE

IGEONS, as a rule, are birds of wonderful powers of flight. The young, which never

exceed two in number, are hatched perfectly blind and helpless, and but sparsely clothed.

They are nourished by a peculiar milky secretion of the parents’ crop known as “ pigeons’

milk.” The operation of feeding is performed by the parent thrusting its beak into the

mouth of its offspring and ejecting therein the secretion just referred to. The nest is a very

simple structure, being composed of twigs, generally placed in a tree, but sometimes in a
cave or hole ina bank. The eggs, which never exceed two in number, are pure white.

Perhaps the most beautiful species occur among the large group known as FRUIT-PIGEONS,
Many of these are invested in raiment of vivid green and yellow, forming a little coterie
by themselves —the GREEN
PIGEONS. Others, on account
of their brilliancy, have been
designated PAINTED PIGEONS,
of which, perhaps, the most
beautiful of all is EUGENE’S
PIGEON. Try to imagine
it! The head is pure white,
the upper part of the breast
a purple-red surrounded by
a dull purple band: the
under parts are greyish green,
shading into white; the flanks
green; whilst the upper parts
are also green, but of a rich
bronze tint. Another group
The hair-like down of the young pigeon is quite different to any other nestling dowun from the Fiji Islands includes

fs

Photo by #. T. Newman] [Berkhamsted

A PAIR OF YOUNG PIGEONS IN NEST

a magnificent species, the
male of which is clothed in a glorious orange, save the head and throat, which are olive-
yellow. His mate is scarcely less beautiful, her plumage being rich green. Another member
of the group — the WHITE NUTMEG-PIGEON — is clad in creamy white, with black quills, and
a black tip to the tail. Itis a native of Borneo. The fruit-pigeons, it should be mentioned,
include some of the largest of living pigeons.

Whilst many of the Pigeon Tribe seem to have succeeded in dyeing their feathers with all
the hues of the rainbow, others have secured equal glory by a covering which at first sight
would rather appear to be of burnished metal than of feathers. The most striking instance cf
this is found in the magnificent NICOBAR PIGEONS. There are two species of these birds, which
occur not only in the Nicobar Islands, from which they take their name, but also in the Malay
Archipelago and the Solomon and Pelew Islands. The general tone of the one species is black,
but the upper parts are superbly glossed with bronze and copper reflections. The other, from
the Pelew Islands, is indigo-blue in general tone. In one of the Nicobar Islands these birds
occur in thousands. Furthermore, these two pigeons stand alone, in that the neck-feathers
are greatly elongated, forming ‘“ hackles” like those of the common fowl.

The largest of living pigeons are the GOURAS, or CROWNED PIGEONS. There are six species,

28

Photo by L. Medland, F.Z.S] [North Finchley Photo by L. Medland, F.Z.S.] [North Finchley
SOUTHERN FRUIT-PIGEON NICOBAR IMPERIAL FRUIT-PIGEONS
The flesh of the fruit-pigeon surpasses that of all other birds in These birds lay but a single egg, which ts large
lelicacy

Photo by HW’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.

Photo by H’, P, Dando, F.Z.S.
NEW GUINEA CROWNED PIGEON WONGA-WONGA PIGEON
This is the largest of living pigeons This bird is found in the brush country of Eastern Australia

3 29

30 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

all of which are confined to Australasia. They are characterised by a huge and very beautiful
fan-shaped crest of feathers which springs from the crown of the head.

At the other extreme stand the NAMAQUA and SCALY Doves. The former is regarded by
Professor Newton as one of the most graceful in form of all the Pigeon Tribe: the latter are
scarcely, if at all, larger than the sparrows.

The power of flight of some forms is, however, extremely limited; they bid fair in course
of time to become flightless, like the dodo and the solitaire. The most interesting of these
is the GREY-NAPED GROUND-PIGEON. Pigeons for the most part display a marked preference
for a life among the trees rather than on the ground; but there are some which are essentially
ground-dwellers. The species in which this changed habit is most deeply rooted, and probably
of longest standing, exhibit one very interesting point of difference from their neighbours of
the woods. This difference consists in the very considerably longer legs which mark the
ground-haunting bird. The GREY-NAPED GROUND-PIGEON of South-east New Guinea forms an
excellent example, inasmuch as the legs are much longer than in any other pigeon. These
birds (for there are three species in all) resemble the Megapodes in habit, and frequent hills
or dense thickets. They lay one egg, which is deposited at the foot of a tree.

Among domesticated breeds is the ENGLISH POUTER, a bird characterised by its enormous
gullet, which can be distended with air
whenever the owner wills. The carriage of
the body is vertical, not, as in pigeons
generally, horizontal. The CARRIER isa breed
illustrating the result of long-sustained selec-
tion to increase, amongst other characters,
the development of the bare skin surrounding
the eye and beak of all pigeons, wild or tame.
Inthe SHORT-FACED TUMBLER we have abreed
wherein those birds with the shortest beaks
have been steadily bred from. To-day so
little beak is left that some individuals are
hatched which, when grown up, are unable to
feed themselves. An example of a radical
change in the feathers is the INDIAN FRILL-
BACK. In this case the feathers all over
the body are reversed, or turned forwards,
giving the bird a quite extraordinary appearance. In the JACOBIN we have a breed —and we
could cite others —wherein the feathers of the neck are much elongated, and turn upwards
and forwards over the head to form a hood.

In general appearance SAND-GROUSE are small, very short-legged birds, with small heads
and pointed wings and tail. Their general tone of coloration may be described as sand-
coloured, and this has been adopted to render them in harmony with the barren sand-wastes
in which they dwell. But some may be described as quite highly coloured, being banded and
splashed with chestnut, black, pearly grey, white, and yellow, according to the species.

PALLAS'S SAND-GROUSE is a native of the Kirghiz Steppes, extending through Central Asia to
Mongolia and Northern China, and northwards to Lake Baikal, and southwards to Turkestan.
Here they may be met with in enormous numbers. In North China large numbers are often
caught after a snow-storm. The snow is cleared away, and a small green bean is scattered about.
Young sand-grouse differ remarkably in one particular from young pigeons, inasmuch as the
former are hatched covered with a thick down, and are able to run about soon after leaving
the egg, whilst the pigeon comes into the world very helpless and much in need of clothing.
Three eggs are laid by the sand-grouse, and these are double-spotted; whilst the pigeon lays
but two, which are white. The eggs of the sand-grouse are laid ina depression in the ground,
without any nest.

“Photo by L. Medland, F.Z. I [North Finchley
MALE BLACK-.-BELLIED SAND-GROUSE
Young sand-grouse run directly they are hatched, thus differing from
Joung pigeons

CHAPTER IV

AUKS, GULLS, AND PLOVERS

THE AUK TRIBE

HE GUILLEMOT is found all around Britain, and breeds wherever the sea is fringed by
cliffs affording ledges for the reception of the eggs. It breeds in colonies often num-
bering many thousands, and lays but one egg, which is large and pear-shaped. Since

the guillemot builds no nest, but lays its egg on the bare rock, this peculiar shape is advanta-
geous, since it revolves on itself, when disturbed, instead of rolling off the ledge into the sea. At

the same time thousands of eggs fall into the sea every year owing to the bird’s leaving the egg,

whilst incubating, in too great a hurry. At Lundy
Island one of the sources of amusement for the gap-
ing tourist was that of firing a shot to frighten the
birds, with the result that, at each shot, showers of
eggs were knocked off the ledges on to the rocks
below. The colour of the egg varies infinitely, no two
being quite alike. This, it has been suggested, is
useful, as the mother is thereby enabled to identify
her own egg, even when surrounded by hundreds of
others. The young are covered with long down,
and when big enough, but still unable to fly, are
taken down by the mother to the sea, being carried,
some say, on her back: others say the chick is
seized by the wing and carried down.

The RAZOR-BILL is nearly, if not quite, as com-
mon on the coasts of Britain as the guillemot, from
which it may be readily distinguished by its beak,
which is much compressed from side to side — hence ;
its name of Razor-bill—and deeply grooved. In wari ee
habits it very closely resembles the guillemot, but in
one respect at least it is a more interesting bird,
inasmuch as it is related to and closely resembles the now extinct GREAT AUK, the giant
of the tribe. The smallest British representative, it should be mentioned, is the LITTLE
AUK, a species more nearly allied to the guillemot. It is only a winter visitant to Britain,
breeding in huge colonies on the inhospitable shores of Greenland and Iceland.

So quaint a bird as the PUFFIN most certainly finds a place here. One of its most
characteristic features is its enormous bill, which is rendered more conspicuous on account of
its bright colour. It is bluish at the base, yellow at the tip, and striped with orange. A very
remarkable feature of this bill is the fact that it is larger in summer than winter, portions
of the sheath being shed in autumn.

Enormous numbers of puffins breed in Ireland; myriads breed on Lundy Island. The
Farne Islands, the cliffs of Flamborough, and Scotland are also tenanted by thousands. Puffins
breed in holes, which they dig for themselves when occasion requires, but when rabbit-burrows
are to be had they prefer these, dispossessing the owners without the slightest compunction.
Might, with the puffin, is right, as well as with many other animals.

31

There are two species of white tern, almost restricted to the
Southern Hemisphere

s2 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORKLD

Young puffins, like young auks and guillemots, are hatched covered with long down. The
parents feed them on fish, which they deposit at the mouth of the burrow twenty at a time,
and give them to the young bird one by one. When the female is sitting, her mate feeds
her in a similar way.

Puffins lay only a single egg, which differs from that of its relatives the Auks and Guille-
mots in being white. The white colour enables the sitting-bird to see it in the dark burrow.

THE GULL TRIBE

To get at the real inwardness of the Gull Tribe, so to speak, we must examine their

anatomy very closely; then we shall be convinced that they are modified Plovers, and have
_..., nothing to do with the Petrels, to
t) i ’ |

* which they bear an undoubted re-
i | semblance.
TERNS
ee Terns are gulls in miniature, on
| which account it is probable that
many a visitor to the seashore
passes them unwittingly. But let him
watch next time for what look like
flocks of tiny, long-winged, and un-
usually active gulls, now hovering
7 gracefully in the air, and now sud-
| denly plunging headlong like an arrow
to the sea, with a force and dash that
will surprise him, now that attention
is drawn to them. These are terns.
From their vivacity and forked tails,
they have been aptly named Sea-
swallows.

There are several species of tern.
Like the Gulls, they have a dis-
tinctive dress for summer and winter,
but the sexes are both dressed alike.
The general livery, as with the Gulls,
is pearly grey above and pure white
below —in summer, in some species,
relieved by a black head. One species,
the ROSEATE TERN, has the breast
suffused with a most exquisite rose-
pink, which fades rapidly after death,
however. Young terns, in their first
plumage, differ conspicuously from their parents, having much brown intermixed with grey.

Terns Jay about three eggs, which are deposited among the shingle on the beach; and
so closely do the eggs, and later on the young, resemble the surrounding stones that it is
almost impossible to find them. As a rule terns breed in colonies, often numbering many
thousand birds.

There are exceptions to the rule just laid down as to nest-building. One species of the
Noppy TERNS, for example, builds a nest of turf and dry grass, placed in bushes or in low
trees. It seems to return to the same nest year after year, adding on each return new
materials, till they form masses nearly 2 feet in height. Occasionally it appears to make a
mud-nest, placed in the fork of a tree; whilst the superb little WHITE Noppy often deposits

d

Photo by G, Watmough Webster & 5 [Chester

TERNS ON A SHINGLE BANK

Terns lay their eggs among the shingle; from their coloration, these are difficult to
detect among the surrounding stones

AUKS, GULLS, AND PLOVERS ae

its egg on the leaf of a cocoanut-palm — truly a wonderful site, and still more wonderful when
we reflect that it is chosen by one of the Gull Tribe.

About six species of tern commonly occur in the British Islands, and some five or Six
other species occasionally visit them.

SKIMMERS

The SKIMMERS are tern-like birds,
with a very wide geographical distri-
bution, occurring in India, Africa, and
North and South America, and re-
markable for the very extraordinary
form of the beak. The upper jaw is
much shorter than the lower, and both
are compressed to the thinness of a
knife-blade. This beak is associated
with, and is probably an adaptation
to, an equally remarkable method of be : Me
feeding, which has been admirably HORUS USNC RIO CE) Par
described by Darwin, who watched HERRING-GULL
them feedinginalake near Maldonado.
“They kept their bills,’ he says,
‘““wide open, and the lower mandible half buried in the water. Thus skimming the surface,

So called from its habit of following the shoals of herrings

they ploughed it in their course; . . . and it formed a most curious spectacle to behold a flock,
each bird leaving its narrow wake on the mirror-like surface. In their flight... they

dexterously manage with their projecting lower mandible to plough up small fish, which are
secured by the upper and shorter half of their scissor-like bills.”

THE GULLS

Gulls are larger and
heavier birds than terns, with-
longer legs, and shorter,
thicker beaks. Furthermore,
with one exception, the tail is
never forked. Like the terns,
gulls generally breed in
colonies, and these are often
of large size. Young gulls,
when newly hatched, are quite
active. Later, when _ their
feathers have grown, they are
found to wear a dress quite
different from that of the
ies parents. Sometimes theadult

Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.] [Parson's Green plumage is gained at the end
YOUNG HERRING--GULLS IN THE GREY PHASE OF PLUMAGE Of the first year of existence,
sometimes not until after the
third year. Gulls feed on
everything that comes in their way, from fish caught swimming at the surface of the sea to
worms picked up at the plough-tail.

One of the commonest and best known of all the gulls is perhaps the species known
as the BLACK-HEADED GULL, which has become so common in the heart of busy London,
where hundreds may be seen, during the winter months, flying up and down the river, or

In their dull grey plumage the young of all guils are very unlike the adules

4 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Nn

wheeling about over the lakes
in the parks. The black-
headed cullreceivesits popular
name on account of the fact
that, like some terns and
some other gulls, in the spring,
the feathers of the head sud-
denly acquire a sooty-black
colour: all trace of this is
lost in the winter, save for
two patches, one behind each
ear.

The eggs of this bird are
collected in thousands each
spring, and sold in London
and other markets as plovers’
STONE-CURLEW, OR THICK-KNEE coe? ES any SS Pane

have been taken in a season
from the extensive gullery at
Scoulton Mere, in Norfolk.
Three or four eggs are laid in a nest of rushes, which is always placed on the ground in
marshy and often inaccessible spots.

The largest of the Gull Tribe is the GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL, which is, furthermore, a
common British bird ; indeed, it is frequently seen flying, together with the last-mentioned species,
on the Thames, doing its best to get a full share of the tit-bits thrown by interested spectators
from the various London bridges. Unlike the black-headed gull, it has no seasonal change
of plumage, but is clad all the year round in the purest white, set off by a mantle of bluish
black. The young of this bird has a quite distinct plumage of greyish brown, and hence has been
described as a distinct species —the GREY GULL.
This dress is gradually changed for the adult
plumage, but the process takes about three years.

The KITTIWAKE is another of the common
British gulls, breeding in thousands in favourable — ¥
localities on the coasts. Its eggs are deposited | :
on the narrowest and most inaccessible ledges
of precipitous cliffs. This species sometimes
falls a victim to the fashion of wearing feathers.
“ At Clovelly,” writes Mr. Howard Saunders,
“there was a regular staff for preparing plumes;
and fishing-smacks, with extra boats and crews,
used to commence their work of destruction at
Lundy Island by daybreak on the Ist of
August. ... In many cases the wings were
torn off the wounded birds before they were
dead, the mangled victims being tossed back
into the water.’ And he has seen, he con-
tinues, “hundreds of young birds dead or
dying of starvation in the nests, through the
want of their parents’ care.... It is well § mE
within the mark to say that at least 9,000 of — Photo by WF. Piggott] (Leighton Buxccard
these inoffensive birds were destroyed during CURLEW
the fortnight.” So called on account of its note

e.

[Leighton Buxccsard

The plumage so closely resembles the sandy soil on which the bird lives that concealment is easily
effected by crouching close to the ground

AUKS, GULLS; AND PLOVERS 35

Of the SKUA GULLS there are several species. Their coloration differs from that of the
gulls just described in being confined to shades of brown. One of their most remarkable
traits is that of piracy. They await their cousins the Gulls coming shoreward from the sea
with newly swallowed fish, and then, giving chase, compel the gull, in order to lighten itself
and escape, to disgorge its hard-won meal. So swift of flight is the skua that the ejected morsel
is caught before it reaches the water.

THE PLOVER TRIBE

BIRDS of very various size, *
shape, andcolorationareincluded
in this group — that is to say,
birds which vary much super-
ficially, but, it must be under-
stood, all undoubtedly closely
related. In England they are
to be met with almost every-
where. The seashore, the lonely
moorland, the desolate marshes,
the river’s brink, or the woods —
all these shelter some one or
other of the Plover Tribe. Like
the Gulls, many adopt a dis-

tinctive dress for the courting- [Smyrna
season, which, however, is some- WOODCOCK
times worn by the males only, The female is larger than the male

and not by both sexes alike, 4
as in the Gulls. One of the
most striking and familiar
instances of this change is seen
inthe GREY PLOVER. In winter
the plumage of the upper-parts
of this bird is dusky grey, that of
the under-parts pure white; but
in the spring the former is ex-
changed for a beautifully varie-
gated mantle of black and white,
and the latter becomes uniformly
jet-black, save the under tail-
coverts, which remain white. j- Be te 2 “= :

In the DUNLIN, again, we Photo by dl. H. P. Cru [Wellington

have a_ similar change, the OYSTER-CATCHER ON ITS NEST
upper-parts being in winter grey,

5 5 Three eggs are laid in a slight hollow in the ground, The oyster-catcher is one of the most
the under-parts white: in the wary of the Plover Tribe, and very difficult to approach

spring the former become black,
with an admixture of rust-colour, and the latter black in so far as the breast is concerned,
but the abdomen remains white.

In many of that section of the Plover Tribe distinguished as “ Wading-birds,” the changes
which take place in the spring in the plumage of the upper-parts resemble those already
instanced, but the under-parts turn to a rich chestnut instead of black. This occurs in the
forms known as the GODWITS, KNOTS, and SANDERLINGS, for example.

In all the instances so far quoted, both male and female are coloured alike, but, as already
hinted, occasionally the change of plumage affects the male only. This is the case with the

36 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Rurr. The importance of this ex-
ception is still further increased by
the fact that the change in coloration
is accompanied by the development
of a large frill around the neck,
surmounted by two large tufts called
“ears,” and fleshy, brightly coloured
warts around the beak. The coloured
picture of the male in its spring dress,
which will be found on another page,
gives an admirable idea of the typical
ruff, but it must necessarily fail to give
any indication of one very remark-
able fact concerning this frill and
the two ‘‘ ears,” and for this reason —
no two individuals ever have these
peculiar feathers of the same colora-
tionand pattern. The range of colour
is certainly not great —the changes
being rung, so to speak, on black,
white, chestnut, bay, and ash-colour.
Diversification is gained bycontrasting
the ‘ears’ with the frill, and adding
bars or streaks to the light coloration,
and purple, green, and violet reflec-
tions to the dark. These ornaments
are donned in a surprisingly short
space of time, and are discarded as quickly, for they are scarcely completed by the month
of May, and are thrown off again at the end of June. During the time that this resplendent

k Z Lok
rhoto by HW’. P. Dando, F.Z.S.} [Regent's Park

DENHAM’S BUSTARD

This species, when * showing off,” fills the gullet with air, having no special air-
sac like the great bustard

livery is worn the males engage in mimic battles— which may occasionally develop into real

ones — arranged apparently for the edification of the females, which, it seems, select as partners,
at least for that season, those which please or excite most. This power of pleasing must
certainly be considerable, for

the ruff is a polygamous

species. .
Formerly the ruff was 4
a common bird in England, /
but the drainage of the
fens and persecution have
practically brought about its
extermination.

At least two groups of
plovers have succeeded in
reversing the usual order of
things in the matter of sexual
plumage. These are the
PHALAROPES — which — are
British birds—and_ the
PAINTED SNIPE, in both of
which the female is more

Photo by A
brightly coloured and some- GREAT BUSTARDS

what larger in size than the The cock on the right is‘ showing off?

[Leighton Bussxard

Photo by Otlomar Anschiits. Berlin.

CROWNED CRANE.

L The feathers of the Crest of this bird look not unlike stiff hairs.

AUBKS, GULLS, AND PLOVERS 37

male. As is the case where this reversal occurs, the duties of incubation fall mainly or
entirely upon the smaller and duller male. It is interesting to note, furthermore, that only
in the phalaropes is there a seasonal change of plumage: in the painted snipe the same livery
is worn all the year round.

Many of the plovers have no seasonal change of plumage, but both male and female wear
all the year round, some a more or less markedly bright-coloured livery, as the DOTTEREL and
TURNSTONES, others a more sober vestment, as the CURLEWS and SNIPE, for example.

The SNIPE and Woopcock may be cited as especially instructive forms in this connection,
showing, in regard to the beak, for instance, undoubted proof of this structural modification,
the result of adaptation to the peculiar method of seeking their food. This beak constitutes
an organ of touch of great sensitiveness, and is used as a probe, to thrust down into the soft
soil in the search for hidden worms.

INDIAN BUSTARDS

Bustards have very short toes, like many other birds which walk much on sandy soil

Of the three species of snipe which occur in Britain, probably the one known as the COMMON
SNIPE is most familiar; but it will, perhaps, be new to some to learn that this bird ranks
as a musical performer, on account of a very extraordinary ‘ bleating” or “ drumming ” noise
which it gives forth, especially during the spring of the year —the season of courtship. We
cannot describe this noise better, perhaps, than as an unusually high-pitched “ hum,” produced,
it is generally held, by wind driven between the outer tail-feathers by the rapid vibration of
the wings as the bird descends, or rather pitches, at a fearful pace, earthwards. These feathers
have the shafts peculiarly thickened; and it is interesting to note that the characteristic sound
may be artificially produced if they be fastened to a stick and rapidly whirled through the air.

” The snipe and woodcock are not the only members of the Plover Tribe whose beaks have
undergone marked structural modifications; indeed, many instances could be cited, but two or
three must suffice. In the Avocer the beak turns upwards like an awl, and the bird is in
consequence known in some places as the COBBLER’S-AWL Duck. In one particular, however,
the beak differs from an awl, tapering as it does to an exceedingly fine point. When the

38 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

bird feeds, it walks along in shallow
water with the curved tip of the
beak resting on the surface and the
head moving swiftly from side to
side, the jaws meanwhile being
opened and closed with exceeding
rapidity, and seizing instantly upon
such small crustacea and other
organisms as come in their way.
Although all the Plovers might
be described as long-legged birds,
the STILTS are quite exceptionally
so, and afford evidence of modifica-
tion in another direction. Relatively
to the size of the body, the stilts
have the longest legs of all living
birds. They seek their prey by
wading in shallow water, like the
Avocets, to which they are closely
related. One species — the BLACK-
WINGED STILT—occasionally appears

in Britain.
Some other members of the

Plover Tribe — the JACANA of Brazil,
and the WATER-PHEASANT of India,
Ceylon, and China, for example —
have enormously long toes, as well

oat 7 RR ee a at as claws of great length.

Tae are LRegsr Part These birds are furthermore
STANLEY CRANE remarkable for the possession of for-
This is a South African species midable weapons of offence, borne on

the wrist-joint of the wing, in the
shape of long, sharp, and powerful spurs. Similar weapons are carried by certain plovers — the
EGYPTIAN SPUR-WINGED PLOVER, for instance,

es las Ue a
BUSTARDS AND CRANES

HE Plover Tribe, Bustards, Cranes, and Rails forma large group of diverse but probably
closely related forms.

Of the Bustards, the most interesting and important species is the GREAT BUSTARD.
About a hundred years ago this magnificent bird might have been seen any day in such
favoured localities as the Yorkshire and Lincolnshire wolds, the Norfolk and Suffolk “ brecks,”
the heaths of Newmarket, or the downs of Berkshire and Wiltshire. It owes its extermination
to several causes, foremost among which must be reckoned the reclaiming of waste land and
improved methods of agriculture. ‘The bull of its body,” says Professor Newton, “ renders it
a conspicuous and stately object; and when on the wing, to which it readily takes, its flight

. 3 2 s 5 By i . ne ‘ =)
is not inferior in majesty to that of the eagle.” The expanse of the outstretched wings ofa

great bustard is 8 feet, or even more; and the weight of the male may even exceed lbs.
The female is smaller,

eat

=
J

COMMON CRANE

40 THE (bIV LNG

ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

MANCHURIAN CRANE

Lhe piebald plumage of this species is distinctive

between the gullet and the skin
with air through a small hole
under the tongue. For manyyears
it was believed this bag was used
as a sort of water-bottle, to enable
the bird to live amid the arid

wastes which were its chosen
haunts.

th eZ, eo Y
olastic Photo. Co., Parson's Green

WATTLED CRANE
So called from the pendent lappets of the throat.

is a South African species

To see the great bustard in a wild state to-day, one
would have to travel to Spain. And if one could make
a pilgrimage for this purpose during the birds’ courting-
season, some very wonderful antics on the part of the
male would be witnessed. These antics make up what
is really a very elaborate love-display. In this perform-
ance the bird inflates his neck with wind, draws his
head closely down on to the back, throws up his tail,
so as to make the most of the pure white feathers
underneath, and sticks up certain of the quill-feathers
of the wing in a manner that only a great bustard can.
Certain long feathers projecting from each side of the
head now stand out like the quills of the porcupine,
forming a sort of cheval-de-frise on either side of the
head, and complete the picture, which, in our eyes,
savours of the ludicrous. The inflation of the neck is
brought about by filling a specially developed wind-bag

: Am, ; i je.
a x « "
* 4y u c 4,
sas wy -t BN

ware 4 4 e
Phuto by Scholastic Photo. Co.] (Parson's Green

COMMON CRANE
CRANES.

Cranes vary much in general appearance Some
species have much of the skin round the head bare and
brilliantly coloured, such as the Sarus Crane of India
and the CrowNnep Crane.

The Wire and Wnoortnc Cranes are birds of
wondrous beauty. The first-named species has been not
inaptly called the “lily of birds.” The whole plumage,
with the exception of the black quills, is white. The legs
are red, as is also the face. Dr. Coues once mistook one
of these birds—the Wroortnc-cranr—for an antelope.
He and a companion saw what they “took to be an an-
telope standing quietly feeding, with his broad white
stern toward us, and only about 500 yards off. We
attempted for at least fifteen minutes to ‘flag’ the crea-
ture This proving unavailing, my friend proceeded
to stalk the game, for about half the distance before

GREBES AND DIVERS, PENGUINS, TUBE-NOSED BIRDS 41

| ’ the ‘antelope’ unfolded his broad black-tipped
wings and flapped off, revealed at length as a
whooping (white) crane.”

Another very remarkable species is the
CROWNED CRANE. This is an African species, and
takes its name from the tuft of curiously modified
feathers on the top of the head. The coloured
plate gives a good idea of its general appearance.

THE SERIEMA

This is a very hawklike-looking bird; indeed,
by some ornithologists it has been regarded as
closely allied to the Hawks and Eagles, and
more especially to the Secretary-bird. Really,

/ “| however, it is a very ancient kind of crane.
t The TRUMPETERS, the COURLANS, the Kacu,

\
Photo by HW. F. Piggott] [Leighton Buscxzard and the SUN-BITTERN are other ornithological

GREAT CRESTED GREBE puzzles. Concerning the precise affinities of these
birds much is yet to be learnt; they are, how-
ever, undoubtedly related to the Cranes. The
last mentioned is a small bird, with wonderfully beautiful wings, which it displays with great
effect to its mate during the courting-season.

Young grebes in down are beautifully striped

CHAPTER Vi
GREBES AND DIVERS, PENGUINS, AND TUBE-NOSED BIRDS

THE GREBES AND DIVERS

HEGrebesandDivers
are representatives
of an exceedingly

ancient type, and are in many
ways besides very interesting.
Botharecommon British birds.
The greater part of their lives
is spent upon the water, and
to suit this aquatic existence
their bodies are specially
modified. One of the principal
features of this modification
is seen in the position of the
legs. These, by a shortening
of the thigh-bones in the
grebes, leave the body so far
back that when the bird walks
the body is held vertically.
With the divers walking has
become an impossibility, and
they can only move on land
on their bellies, pushing ,
themselves along with the BLACK-THROATED DIVERS

feet. Both grebes and divers These very handsome birds breed in Scotland

Piggott] [Leighton Buxxard

>
LW)

THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

are expert swimmers, and dive with the
greatest ease, remaining long under water.
The grebes haunt ponds, lakes, and broads;
the divers prefer the open sea. Both feed
on fish.

GREBES

Of the numerous species of grebe, the
most familiar are the GREAT CRESTED GREBE
and the little DABpcHICK. The former has.
suffered grievous persecution for the sake of
its beautiful breast-feathers, which Fashiom
decreed should be worn by the gentler sex
in the form of muffs or hats. Thus a price
was set upon the head of this beautiful and.
harmless bird, and its ranks were speedily
thinned. Some species wear during the
nesting-season beautiful chestnut or golden
“ears,” “horns,” or “ frills” on the head and
neck. The EARED GREBE is especially mag-
nificent at this time.

DIVERS

These, as already remarked, are sea-
loving birds, but they breed inland on the
shores of lakes. There are not many species.
of divers, but, like the grebes, they assume
a special dress during the nesting-season, more
beautiful than the winter dress.

THE PENGUINS

THE PENGUINS may justly be called won-
derful birds, and they are undoubtedly of very
ancient descent. For countless generations the
sea has been their home and refuge, and, in
consequence, flight has been abandoned in ex-
change for increased swimming-powers, which
have been gained by transforming the wing
intoa paddle. Thistransformation hasresulted'
in flattening the wing-bones — and so increas-
ing the surface of the hand and arm whilst reducing its thickness — and the suppression of the
quill-feathers. The result is a blade-like paddle closely resembling the paddle of the whale,
the turtle, or the extinct fish-lizards. With this organ they cleave their way through the water,.
often far below the surface, in pursuit of food, just as of old their ancestors did through the
air. In other diving-birds the wings are kept closely pressed to the side of the body when
under water, whilst the locomotion is effected by the feet. The penguin’s legs, in consequence
of diminished use, have shortened considerably. But besides the wings and legs, the feathery
covering has also undergone a certain amount of change. This has been effected by increasing
the size of the shaft of the feather and diminishing the vane; as a result, on the front part
of the wings these feathers look more like scales than feathers.

Professor Moseley has vividly described the appearance of a flock of penguins at sea. He
writes from Tristan d’Acunha: ‘As we approached the shore, I was astonished at seeing a

Photo by Hl’. P. Dando, F.Z.S.] egent’s Park

BLACK-FOOTED PENGUIN

This bird, also known as the Cape or Fackass-penguin, breeds in
burrows or under ledges of rock

GREBES AND DIVERS, PENGUINS, TUBE-NOSED BIRDS 43

shoal of what looked like extremely active, very small porpoises or dolphins. . . . They showed
black above and white beneath, and came along in a shoal of fifty or more . . . towards the
shore at a rapid pace, by a series of successive leaps out of the water and leaps into it
again. . . . Splash, splash, went this marvellous shoal of animals, till they went splash through
the surf on to the black, stony beach, and then struggled and jumped up amongst the boulders
and revealed themselves as wet and dripping penguins.”

Like their relatives in other parts of the world, penguins breed in huge communities known
as ‘‘rookeries,” a rookery being peopled by tens of thousands. Their nests, made of small
stones, are placed among the tall grass and reached by beaten pathways, exceedingly difficult
to walk through. Professor Moseley thus describes a ‘‘rookery’: ‘‘ At first you try to avoid the
nests, but soon find that impossible; then, maddened almost by the pain [for they bite furiously
at the legs], stench, and noise, you have recourse to brutality. Thump, thump, goes your stick,
and at each blow down goes a bird. Thud, thud, you hear from the men behind you as they
kick the birds right and left off the nests; and so you go for a bit—thump, smash, whack,
thud, ‘caa, caa, urr, urr,’ and the path behind you is strewn with the dead and dying and
bleeding. Of course, it is horribly cruel thus to kill whole families of innocent birds, but it
is absolutely necessary. One must cross the rookeries in order to explore the island at all,
and collect the plants, or survey the coasts from the heights.”

Penguins feed principally on crustacea, molluscs (‘' shell-fish”’), and small fish, varied with
a little vegetable matter. Although the legs are very short, penguins yet walk with ease, and
can, on occasion, run with considerable speed. It would appear, however, as if the largest of
the tribe, the EMPEROR-PENGUIN, had become somewhat too bulky to run; for when speed is
necessary it lies down upon the snow and propels itself with its feet, traveling, it is said, in
this manner with incredible speed.

Penguins, though confined to the Southern Hemisphere, enjoy a wide range and every
variety of climate. They are found on the Antarctic ice, on the shores of South Africa,
South America, Australia, New Zealand, and inhabit many islands of the southern seas,

w =e 5 = =
|

Photo by Percy As soe = eee aera eee aie j [Cape Town
BLACK-FOOTED PENGUINS BATHING

The name Fackass is bestowed because the noise made by these birds closely resembles the bray of a donkey

44 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

notably the Falklands, Ker-
guelen, and Tristan d’Acunha.
In size penguins vary greatly.
The largest is the EMPEROR-
PENGUIN of the Antarctic seas ;
scarcely smaller is the KING-
PENGUIN of Kerguelen Island.
The emperor-penguin stands
some 34 feet high, and may
weigh as muchas 78 lbs. The
GENTLE PENGUIN, or“ Johnny”
of the sailors, is next in size,
being but little smaller than
the king-penguin; this species
inhabits Kerguelen Island and
the Falklands. The CRESTED
PENGUINS, or ROCK-HOPPERS,
of which there are several
species, are muchsmaller; they
wpe tard occur in the Falkland Islands,
KING_-PENGUIN New Zealand, and the Antarc-
tic. The South African form
is known as the BLACK-FOOTED
PENGUIN. Its nearest allies are HUMBOLDT’S PENGUIN of Western South America, and the
JACKASS-PENGUIN of the Falklands. The smallest of all is the little BLUE PENGUIN of South
Australia and New Zealand, standing only 17 inches high.

This is one of the largest of the Penguins

THE TUBE-NOSED BIRDS

UNTIL recently these birds were believed to be closely related to the Gulls, but it is
now generally agreed that they are really distant relatives of the Divers and Penguins. The
association with the Gulls was pardonable, for they certainly bear a superficial resemblance
to them. The birds now under discussion may be readily distinguished from the Gulls by the
fact that the nostrils open into a tube on the top of the beak, or a pair of tubes, one on
either side—hence the name of the group. Like the Gulls, they are sea-birds and web-footed.
Their young are downy and for a time helpless. One egg is laid, which is white, and in some
cases spotted with red at the large end. As a rule no nest is made, but the egg laid on the
bare ground, in a hole or burrow or in crevices of rocks. The Albatrosses build a nest of
earth, tufts of grass, and moss, the whole structure raising the sitting-bird well above the
ground. The Giant and Fulmar Petrels also build nests. The albatross is said by Professor
Moseley to hold the egg in a pouch while sitting, as in the case of the king-penguin. The
nature of this pouch has never been described.

Although occurring in the seas of all parts of the world, the Southern Hemisphere must
be regarded as their headquarters, since here the greatest number of species are found. All are
carnivorous, and — with the exception of one small group, the Diving-petrels of the Strait of
Magellan — are birds of powerful flight. A large number of species belong to this group, but
an enumeration of all would be wearisome. <A few of the more striking have, therefore, been
selected for description.

THE ALBATROSSES

It was an albatross which brought such woe upon the ancient mariner whose pitiful story
is so feelingly told by Coleridge. But the tables are occasionally turned, for men falling
overboard in southern seas are liable to be attacked by these powerful giants. The albatross
is mostly renowned for its majestic flight. Mr. Froude has given us a wonderful description

GREBES AND DIVERS, PENGUINS, TUBE-NOSED BIRDS 45

of this flight, which is quoted with approval by Professor Newton. It runs as follows: ‘The
albatross wheels in circles round and round, and for ever round the ship — now far behind, now
sweeping past in a long, rapid curve, like a perfect skater on an untouched field of ice.
There is no effort; watch as closely as you will, you rarely or never see a stroke of the
mighty pinion. The flight is generally near the water, often close to it. You lose sight of
the bird as he disappears in the hollow between the waves, and catch him again as he rises
over the crest; but how he rises and whence comes the propelling force is to the eye
inexplicable: he alters merely the angle at which the wings are inclined; usually they are
parallel to the water and horizontal; but when he turns to ascend or makes a change in his
direction, the wings then point at an angle, one to the sky, the other to the water.”

Professor Hutton, speaking with similar enthusiasm of the wonderful flight, gives us,
however, another side to the picture. ‘ Suddenly,” he says, ‘“ he sees something floating on the
water, and prepares to alight; but how changed he now is from the noble bird but a moment
before, all grace and symmetry! He raises his wings, his head goes back, and his back goes
in; down drop two enormous webbed feet, straddled out to their full extent; and with a hoarse
croak, between the cry of a raven and that of a sheep, he falls ‘souse’ into the water. Here
he is at home again, breasting the waves like a cork. Presently he stretches out his neck, and
with great exertion of his wings runs along the top of the water for seventy or eighty yards,
until, at last, having got sufficient impetus, he tucks up his legs, and is once more fairly
launched in the air.”

For the wonderful photographs of the albatross at home we are indebted to the Hon. Walter

= r ecouauaaal seas " = > }

hefinge

By permission of the Hon, Walter Rothschild]
NESTING ALBATROSSES ON LAYSAN ISLAND
This colony was of enormous size, and included thousands of birds

46 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

| Rothschild. They are from his book on the avifauna
of Laysan Island, in the North Pacific. Unfortu-
nately for the albatrosses and other birds, traders
have been attracted to Laysan for the sake of the
guano deposits. The birds were strictly protected
during the occupation of Mr. Preece, but when he
left they had no friend to shield them, and their
eggs were taken in cart-loads, as the accompanying
photograph shows.

When an albatross makes love, Professor Moseley
tells us, he stands ‘‘by the female on the nest,
raises his wings, spreads his tail and elevates it,
throws up his head with the bill in the air, or
stretches it straight out forwards as far as he can,
and then utters a curious cry... . Whilst uttering
the cry the bird sways his neck up and down. The
female responds with a similar note, and they bring
the tips of their bills lovingly together. This sort
of thing goes on for half an hour or so at a time.”

There are several different kinds of albatross.
The largest measures over It feet across the out-
stretched wings. Theyare inhabitants of the southern
seas,

After the Albatrosses, the largest bird of the
group is the GIANT PETREL. The sailors call
it ‘* Break-bones,” ‘‘ Nelly,” or ‘“Stinker.” In habits
it differs much from its aristocratic relative the

Thoto by D. Le Souef] : [Melbourne
WHITE-CAPPED ALBATROSS ON EGG

Professor Moseley describes the egg of the albatross as being
held in a sort of pouch

albatross, haunting the coasts in search of dead seals and whales, and the bodies of other
birds. Professor Moseley aptly
likens it to the vulture: “ It
soars all day along the coast
on the look-out for food. No
sooner is an animal killed
than numbers appear as if
by magic, and the birds are
evidently well acquainted with
the usual proceedings of
sealers, who kill the sea-
elephant, take off the skin
and blubber, and leave the
carcase. The birds gorge
themselves with food, just like
the vultures, and are then
unable to fly. I came across
half a dozen at Christmas
Harbour in this condition.
We landed just opposite
them; they began to run to
get out of the way. The

men chased them; they ran
off, spreading their wings, but CARTING ALBATROSS EGGS ON THE ISLAND OF LAYSAN

unable to rise. Some struggled alt one time these birds were protected; as this photograph testifies, this is no longer the case

Photo by G. HW’, Wilson & Co., Ltd.

alee
ROCK-HOPPER PENGUIN
The name Rock-hopper is given in allusion to the habit of hopping over boulders of rock

47

WHITE STORKS

The right-hand figure shows the bird making the curious clappering ~vich its beak

Photo by Ottomar Anschits]

[Berlin

WHITE STORK

A parent bird returning with a frog for tts young

48

GREBES AND DIVERS, PENGUINS, TUBE-NOSED BIRDS 49

into the water and swam away, but two went running on, gradually disgorging their food,
in the utmost hurry, until they were able to rise, when they made off to sea.”

The FULMAR PETREL is a British bird. On St. Kilda, Professor Newton tells us, from
18,000 to 20,000 young are killed in one week in August, the only time when, by the custom
of the community, they are allowed to be taken. These, after the oil is extracted, serve the
islanders for winter food.

The STORM-PETREL is a small bird which breeds abundantly in St. Kilda and the Orkneys,
and so fearless that it will allow itself to be taken from the nest by hand. Immediately
this is done, the bird vomits a quantity of pure oil from its mouth. The wild fowlers
make use of this habit, capturing the bird, collecting the oil, and setting the prisoner free
again. A story is related of a storm-petrel which was kept in a cage for three weeks. It
was fed by smearing its breast with oil, which the bird swallowed by drawing the feathers
separately through its beak. These birds are popularly supposed to be seen only before
stormy weather, and therefore are not welcomed by sailors, who call them “ Devil's Birds’ and
“Witches.” This bird seems to commend itself to some palates; thus the late Mr. Seebohm says:
“Cooked on toast, like snipe, we found them delicious eating, very rich, but not at all fishy.”

We cannot refrain from a brief mention of the remarkable little DivING-PETREL — remarkable
because of its unlikeness to all the other Petrels and its strong resemblance to the Auks.
But its tubular nostrils and certain anatomical characters proclaim its true affinities. ‘ This
is a petrel,” says Professor Moseley, “ that has given up the active aerial habits of its allies,
and has taken to diving, and has become specially modified by natural selection to suit it
for this changed habit, though still a petrel in essential structure.” On two occasions Professor
Moseley met with them in the Strait of Magellan, and describes the water as being covered
with these birds in flocks extending over acres, which were made black with them.

CHAPTER Vil
STORKS, HERONS, AND PELICAN TRIBE

HE Storks, Herons, and Pelican Tribe form a group of closely allied but externally very
unlike birds, distantly related to the Petrels on the one hand, and the Cranes and
Hawk Tribe on the other.

THE STORKS

There are few birds which have figured ~ Z |
more prominently in the realms of fairy- ,
tale and fable than the WHITE STorkK. To-

day it is almost universally held in affectionate
regard, and in Holland, Denmark, and Germany
is afforded the strictest protection, every
effort being made, in localities where it is
plentiful, to induce it to build its nest
upon the house-roof. Sometimes, to effect
this, its fondness for a stage of some sort
being known, a cart-wheel is set up, and
this generally proves successful, the grateful
bird erecting thereon its nest. Once
occupied, it may be held by several genera-
tions of tenants; and year by year additions
are made to the nest, so that the original ALMA PRETO ED

shallow structure at last attains a height |. ¥,, ee ety eee eee
of several feet. The material used in its for a time, to fly :

Photo by L. Medland, F.Z S.

50 TEE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

construction consists of sticks and other substances. He considers himself a fortunate man
indeed who can boast a stork’s nest on his house.

To show how widespread is the regard in which this bird is held, we may mention that
in Morocco, according to Colonel Irby, “ almost every Moorish hovel has its stork’s nest on the
top, a pile of sticks lined with grass and palmetto-fibre,” and he goes on to relate that in
‘Morocco and Fez, and some other large towns in the Moorish Empire, there is a regular
storks’ hospital, and that, should one be in any way injured or fall from the nest, it is sent
to this institution, or rather enclosure, which is kept up by subscriptions from wealthy Moors,
who regard the stork as a sacred bird.”

Though the nest appears to be generally placed upon buildings, it is, when these fail,
built in trees, and the selection of such sites must be regarded as representing the original
practice of the species.

The stork is one of the very few birds which appear to be quite dumb. It supplies the
want of a voice by a very remarkable clapping noise made by the long, horny beak. But even
this noise is rarely made, and appears to be prompted by unusual excitement. ‘ During
the breeding-season,” Mr. Howard Saunders tells us, ‘storks keep up a clappering with their
bills, and this sound may frequently be heard proceeding from a number of birds circling in
the air at such a height as to be almost invisible.”

The affection displayed by storks for their young is proverbial. They feed them by
thrusting their beaks down into the gaping little mouths, and injecting the half-digested
remains of their last meal, which may represent reptile, frog, or fish, varied by a small
mammal, young bird, worms, or insects.

The white stork is a really beautiful bird. Except the quill- and some of the smaller
wing-feathers, which are black, the plumage is snow-white, whilst the bill and the legs are
bright red. Like the swallow, it performs extensive migrations, traveling in flocks, number-
ing many thousands, at an immense height.

Scarcely less beautiful is the BLACK STORK,
and, like its white-plumaged ally, it is also
an occasional visitant to Britain. It is a
handsome bird, having the plumage of the upper-
parts black, richly glossed with purple, copper,
and green; the under-parts pure white; and the
legs and beak red. But it is far less sociable,
and consequently less known, than the white
stork, shunning the haunts of men, and seeking
seclusion for its nest in the lofty trees of large
forests.

The largest members of the Stork Tribe
are the ADJUTANT-STORKS and Japirus. The
adjutants are also, to our eyes at least, singu-
larly ugly birds. In spite of this very natural
disadvantage, they have won a very high place
in the regard of the people among whom they
dwell, on account of the fact that, both in
Africa and India, they perform, with the
vultures, the work of scavengers. Yet there
is something of quaintness about these birds,
if they are watched from a distance too great
to reveal the character which imparts the ugli-
ness to which we have referred, and their actions
not seldom border on the grotesque. The name
A rare species, remarkable for the huge sixe of the beak Adjutant has been bestowed upon them on

By permission of the Hon. Walter Rothschild, Tring

WHALE-HEADED STORK

STORKS, HERONS

); AND PELICAN TRIBE 51

account of the peculiar gait, which bears a fanciful resem-
blance to the measured pacing of an officer on parade. Like
all the Storks, they have large bodies and very long legs, but
they have outstripped all their relatives in the enormous size
of the beak. The features which have earned this unenviable
reputation for ugliness are the peculiarly unkempt and
unwashed appearance of the head and neck. These are but
scantily clothed in very shabby, brown-looking down-feathers ;
and the neck is made still more, we might almost say,
repulsive by the presence of a
large bare pouch, which can
be distended with air to an
enormous size at will. The
Arabs, onaccountof this pouch,
call the species resident with
them “The Father of the
Leather Bottle.” Some, how-
ever, say that the correct trans-
lation of the native name

a VA :
Photo by L’. P. Dando, F.Z.S.

ADJUTANT-STORK

The curious wind bag ts well shown

would be ‘ The Father of the
Beak.” But it is not only on
account of their scavenging
propensities that the adjutants
are esteemed, for it is from
the under tail-coverts of these
birds that the much-prized
‘“ marabou” or ‘ comercolly ”
feathers are obtained —atleast 1” “7"** parte Be Peres
the finest kinds; for some
appear to be furnished by that chief of scavengers, the vulture.
More precious still ‘is the celebrated stone called Zahir
mora, or poison-killer, of great virtue and repute as an anti-
dote to all kinds of poison,” to be procured only by splitting
open the head of the bird before death. Needless to say,
the existence of this stone lives only in popular superstition, Sec 2 504)
though how many poor birds have fallen victims thereto is Photo by Scholatiie: Photo. Co,
not pleasant to contemplate. JABIRU STORK
Adjutants choose almost inaccessible pinnacles of rock on This bird stands between g and 5 feet high

Photo by H’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.

ADJUTANT-STORK

52 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

which to build their nests, though they sometimes nest in trees. From two to four white
eggs are laid, from which, if all goes well, as many young, covered with fluffy white down,
are hatched.

The JABIRUS are distant relatives of, and scarcely inferior in size to, the Adjutants. There
are three species, one occurring in the Indian Peninsula, New Guinea, and Australia, one
in Africa, and one in South America. It is to this last species that the name Jabiru
correctly applies. Furthermore, there can be no doubt that it is one of the handsomest
of its tribe. The whole plumage is pure white, and the upper-parts are made additionally
resplendent by an indescribable satin-like gloss. The beautiful whiteness of its plumage is
enhanced by the fact that the head and neck, bill and feet, are jet-black. Some would give
the palm of beauty to the AFRICAN SADDLE-BILLED STORK. Black and white, as in the
American form, are the contrasting “colours” ; but the plumage of the body, instead of being
pure white, is plentifully enriched with black, with beautiful purple reflections.

Photo. by.Ds. Le Souef] Pea : eres ee
FLAMINGOES

In flight the long neck and legs are fully extended, giving the bird a very remarkable appearance

More or less nearly allied to the Storks are several species familiar enough to the
professional ornithologist, but not very well known generally. One of the rarest and most
interesting of these is the WHALE-HEADED or SHOE-BILLED STORK of the Nile, remarkable
for its enormous boat-shaped bill. More common but equally interesting are the beautiful
FLAMINGOES. Apart from the brilliancy of their colour, the most noticeable feature of these
birds is the curious beak, which is bent downwards at a sharp angle, and provided on its
inside with horny plates resembling those of the Ducks and Swans. The tongue of this bird,
unlike that of the Stork Tribe generally, is thick and fleshy, and also resembles that of
the duck.

The flamingo is the only member of the Stork Tribe which builds a mud-nest. — Its
foundation laid often in as much as 15 inches of water, and rising above the surface from
6 to 8 inches, with a diameter at the top of 15 inches, it forms a pile of no mean size.
Strangely enough, though these birds are never so happy as when wading “knee” deep in
water, yet after the construction of the nest the incubation of the eggs is delayed so long

SsrTORKS, HERONS, AND PELICAN TRIBE 53

that before they are hatched
the water has disappeared,
leaving a burning plain
of sun-baked mud. On
the top of this nest
the parent sits with its
long neck neatly curled
away among the back-
feathers, with its long legs
doubled up, and projecting
behind her for some dis-
tance beyond the - tail.
Until quite recently it was
believed that the bird incu-
bated its eggs by sitting
astride the nest, the length
of the legs forbidding any
other position: this has
now been proved beyond

Photo by Carles Knight cavil to be an entirely
FLAMINGOES eee isha es ;
On account of the swan-like neck and ‘* strainers ” along the edges of the beak, these birds have ee opinion. :
been regarded as long-legged members of the Duck Tribe, but they seem more nearly related to the The e ggs, two in
Storks number, are peculiar in that

they are encased in a thick outer chalky coat, which on removal reveals a greenish-blue shell.

The characteristic crooked beak of the adult is not at all apparent in the young bird,
and only appears as it approaches maturity.

The huge flocks in which these birds consort are graphically described by Mr. Abel
Chapman as follows: “In herds of 300 to 400, several of which are often in sight at once,
they stand feeding in the open water, all their heads under, ereedily tearing up the grasses
and water-plants from the bottom. On approaching them, which can only be done by extreme
caution, their silence is first
broken by the sentries, who Af, /
commence walking away with NY Ysa
low croaks; then hundreds of of
necks rise at once to full
extent, every bird gaggling
its loudest, as they walk
obliquely away, looking back
over their shoulders, as though
to take stock of the extent
of the danger. Pushing a
few yards forward, up they all
rise, and a more beautiful
sight cannot be imagined than
the simultaneous spreading of
the crimson wings, flashing
against the sky like a gleam
of rosy light. In many
respects these birds bear a
strong resemblance to geese.
Like them, flamingoes feed
by day; and great quantities These birds breed in the South of France and Spain

Phete by If’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.

EUROPEAN FLAMINGOES

54 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

of grass, etc., are always floating about the muddy water when a herd has been feeding. Their
cry is almost indistinguishable from the gaggling of geese, and they fly in the same catenarian
formations.”

The SPOONBILLS and IBISES also belong to the Stork Tribe. The former are remarkable
chiefly for the strange spoon-shaped bill: one species, a few hundred years ago, nested in
England. This remarkable beak is associated with a peculiar method of feeding, well described
by the late Mr. Wolley. During the operation, he says, ‘the beak was passed sideways
through the water, and kept open till something palatable came within its grasp; but the
action by which the bird effected this was most singular; for instead of turning only its
head and neck, it turned its whole body from left to right and from right to left, like
the balance-wheel of a watch; its neck stretched out and its beak immersed perpendicularly
to about half its depth: this semicircular action was kept up with great vigour and at
a tolerably quick march.”

Photo by HH’. P. Dund, F.Z.S. Photo by I’. P. Dando, F.Z 5.
SPOONBILL SACRED IBIS
So called on account of its spoon-shaped bill Sacred to the ancient Egyptians, it is known to the Abyssinians to-day

as © Father Fohn’?

A graphic description by Mr. Alfred Crowley of a visit to the breeding haunts of the
spoonbill, about fifteen miles from Amsterdam, in 1884, is well worth reproducing here: ‘* Taking
a small boat in tow, we were punted across the open water, over which were flying numbers
of sand-martins, swifts, common and black terns, and black-headed gulls, the reeds being full
of coots, moorhens, sedge- and reed-warblers, etc., and in the distance we saw, rising above
the reeds occasionally, a small spoonbill or purple heron. On nearing a large mass of reeds,
one of the boatmen struck the side of the punt with the pole, when up rose some fifty
spoonbills and eight or ten purple herons; and as we came closer to the reeds there were soon
hovering over our heads, within easy shot, some 209 of the former, and fifty or sixty of the
latter. Strange to say, not a note or sound escaped from the spoonbills, and only a_ few
croaks from the herons. On reaching the reeds, we moored our punt, and two of the men,
wading in the mud, took us in the small boat about fifty yards through the reeds, where
we found ourselves surrounded by spoonbills’ nests. They were placed on the mud among
the reeds, built about 1 foot or 18 inches high and 2 feet in diameter at the bottom,
tapering to 1 foot at the top, where there was a slight depression, in which |

ay four eggs,
or in most cases four young birds, many ready to leave

55
the nest, and several ran off as we

STORKS, HERONS, AND PELICAN TRIBE 55

approached. In the nests with young there was a
great difference in age and size, one being about
a day or so old, and the oldest nearly ready to
leave the nest—some two or three weeks old—so
that evidently the birds lay their four eges at con-
siderable intervals, and begin to sit on depositing
the first. After wandering about, a matter of
difheulty on account of the mud, we found a elutch
of only three eggs, and one of four, which I man-
aged to blow. We also obtained two clutches of
eggs of the purple heron, but some of the latter
had young.”

The Ipises, though much alike in form, are
strangely diverse in colour. One species was
sacred to the Ancient Egyptians. The reverence
and affection they showed to this bird, above all
others, is probably largely due to its migrating
habits, which obtained in that far past just as
they do to-day. The naturalist Brehm says on

Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co,

YOUNG COMMON HERONS
These birds have not yet acquired their full plumage

Photo by #’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.

COMMON NIGHYT-IERON

this subject: ‘When the Nile, after being at its
lowest ebb, rose again, and the water assumed
a red tinge, then the ibis appeared in the land
of the Pharaohs as a sure guarantee that the
stream—the giver and preserver of life, which
the people in their profound reverence raised to
the rank of a god—would once again empty the
well-spring of plenty over the thirsty land. The
servant and messenger of an all-bounteous Deity
commanded of a necessity a reverence of a poetic
and distinguished character, by reason of its im-
portance: he too must be a god.”

The glossy ibis has been found breeding in
colonies of thousands in Slavonia. The nests are
large structures formed of sticks and a few weeds,
never far from the water, and many even, in the
colony referred to, were so near the surface that
they appeared to be floating. The eggs, three or
four in number, are of a beautiful greenish blue.
The young, while still unable to fly, climb actively
among the branches of the trees in which the nest
is placed, clinging so firmly with the feet as to
be removed with difficulty,

Tue Herons anp Bitterns.

In the first mentioned of these two groups
the Common Heron is the best known. Indeed,

56 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

there must be few who have not encountered it in a wild state at some time or another. In
suitable spots it may occasionally be met with standing mid-leg in water on the look-out for
eels and other fish and frogs, a diet varied by an occasional young bird or small mammal.
Sometimes this prey is hunted, so to speak, the bird walking along with a slow, measured step,
striking with lightning rapidity and wonderful precision the moment its victim is sighted, whilst
at others it stands motionless, as when fishing, striking the instant the unsuspecting eel or
flounder comes within range.

Herons breed in more or less extensive colonies, the nests—somewhat bulky structures,
made of sticks and lined with twigs—being placed in the tops of high trees. From four to
six is the normal number of eggs, and these are of a beautiful sea-green colour. The young
are thinly clad in long, hairy-looking down, and for some considerable time are quite helpless.

Similar in appearance to the common heron is the American Great BLueE Heron, though
it is by no means the largest of the herons, as its name might seem to imply. This distinc-
tion belongs to the GottatH Heron. <A
native of Africa, it is remarkable not only
for its size, but for an extraordinary de-
velopment of long, loose feathers hanging
down from the lower part of the breast,
and bearing a strange resemblance to an
apron, concealing the upper part of the legs.

Passing over many species, we pause
to descant on the Ecrets. These are num-
bered amongst the most unfortunate of
birds, and this because of the gracefulness
and beauty of certain parts of the plumage
worn during the breeding-season, which are
coveted alike by Eastern magnates and
Western women. The feathers in question
are those known as “egrets,” or, more com-
monly, “ospreys”; and their collection, as
Professor Newton points out, causes some
of “the most abominable cruelty practised

in the animal world.” Phote by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S,
The CATTLE-EGRET, better known as BUFF-BACKED HERON
the BUFF-BACKED HERon, breeds in the This bird habitually picks insects from the backs of cattle

southern portion of the Spanish Peninsula,

where from March to autumn it is very common in the marshes of Andalusia, thousands con-
gregating there, herding with the cattle, from the backs of which they may be often seen pick-
ing off the ticks; hence the Spaniards give them a name meaning “‘cattle-cleaners.”

The Nicut-HERONs are comparatively small birds, and derive their name from their habit
of turning night into day, waking up only as the shades of evening fall to hunt for food:
only during the breeding-season is this habit broken through, when they are obliged to hunt
for food for their young during the daytime. They breed in colonies, in bushes or low trees
in the neighbourhood of swamps. In some places they are protected—as, for instance, round
the Great Honam Temple at Canton, where these birds are held sacred.

Colonel Swinhoe, says Mr. Howard Saunders, describes the nests “as placed thickly in

some venerable banyans, the granite slabs that form the pavement beneath the trees being
5

bedaubed with the droppings of old and young, while from the nests arose the chattering cry

of the callow broods, for which the parent birds were catering the whole day long, becoming
s . . 2 So)

more active at sunset. As darkness set in, the noise and hubbub from the trees rose to 2

fearful pitch.”

STORKS, HERONS, AND PELICAN TRIBE 57

In Hungary large numbers of herons and egrets breed together in the marshes, egrets

and night-herons breeding together with the common and purple herons. Landbeck, an
enthusiastic ornithologist, writes of such heronries: “The clamour in these breeding-places is
so tremendous and singular in its character as almost to defy description; it must be heard
before a person can form any idea of what it is like. At a distance these hideous noises

blend with a confused roar, so as in some way to resemble the hubbub caused by a party
of drunken Hungarian peas-

ants; and it is only on a
nearer approach the separate
notes of the two species, the
common and the night-heron,
can be distinguished—namely,
‘craik’ and ‘quack,’ to which
the notes of the young, “zek-
zek-zek, . . . in different
keys, serve as an accompani-
ment.”

The tops of the highest
trees are usually occupied by
the nests of the common
heron. A little lower down
we find the egret; and on the
lowest branches the heron.

ig De |

THE BITTERNS

These are birds of a re-
markable type of coloration,
adapted to aid their skulking
habits. Thecolorationpartakes
so completely of the nature of
the undergrowth among which
they dwell, that, aided by
certain peculiar habits de-
scribed below, they succeed in
harmonising so perfectly with
their surroundings as to render
themselves invisible to their
enemies.

The best-known species
in Britain is the COMMON BiT-
TERN, though this epithet no
longer applicable, for at the
present time it is but an occa-
sional visitant there. Once
it was plentiful enough, as the frequent references both in prose and poetry bear witness.
These references have been inspired mainly by its very peculiar note, made apparently only
during the breeding-season. This sound is variously described as “‘ booming,” “ bellowing,” and
“bumping,” and many are the theories which have been invented to account for its origin.
Thomson, in “ The Seasons,” says that it is made whilst the beak is thrust into the mud: —

Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.
INDIAN CATTLE-EGRET

This is a species of buff-backed heron, and earns its name from its habit of hovering round
cattle for the sake of picking off the ticks by which they are infested

The bittern knows his time, with bill inguif’d
To shake the sounding marsh.

Chaucer, that it is caused whilst it is immersed under water; and Dryden represents it as

58 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

made by thrusting the bill into a reed. Mr. J. E. Harting is one of the few who have
actually watched the bird during the production of the sound, and from him we gather
that it is made by expelling the air from the throat whilst the head is held vertically upwards.

The protective coloration and the peculiar habits associated therewith have only recently
been recognised. These birds, when threatened, do not take flight, but immediately bring the
body and the long neck and pointed head into one vertical line, and remain absolutely motion-
less so long as the cause of alarm persists. The peculiar coloration of the body harmonises
so perfectly with the surrounding undergrowth, that, as just remarked, detection is well-nigh
impossible. Although the pattern and tone of the coloration vary in the various species of
bittern — which occur all over the world —this principle of protection obtains in all.

The drainage of the fens is answerable for the extinction of the bittern in England.

We would draw special attention to the great length of the feathers on the neck, which, when
the bird is excited, are extended on either side to form an enormous feather shield. This is
admirably shown in the photograph below, which represents a bittern preparing to strike. It isa
curious fact that, when extended, the hind part of the neck is protected only by a thin coat of
down. When the excitement has passed, the elongated feathers fall again, and, curling round
the unprotected area, give the bird the appearance of having a perfectly normally clothed neck.

A wounded bittern will strike at either man or dog, and is extremely dangerous, owing to the
sharpness of its dagger-like bill. If a dog advances on one not entirely disabled, the bird imme-
diately turns itself upon its back, and fights with beak and claws, after the fashion of a wounded
hawk or owl. Owing to the way in which the neck can be tucked up, by throwing it into a
series of curves, and then suddenly extended, great danger attends the approach of the unwary.

The bittern is by no means particular in its choice of food, small mammals, birds, lizards,
frogs, fishes, and beetles being alike palatable. The writer remembers taking from the gullet
and stomach of one of these birds no less than four water-voles, three of which had apparently
been killed only just before it was shot, for the process of digestion had hardly begun.

On migration these birds appear to travel in flocks of considerable size, since Captain
Kelham reports having seen as many as fifty together high up in the air, when between
Alexandria and Cairo. Curiously enough, they flew like “(a gaggle” of geese — in the form of
a V; but every now and then he noticed they, for some reason or other, got into great confusion.

At one time the flesh of the bittern was much esteemed as food for the table, being
likened in taste and colour to the leveret, with some of the flavour of wild-fowl. Sir Thomas
Browne, who flourished during the middle of the seventeenth century, says that young bitterns
were considered better eating than
young herons.

In the fourteenth century it bred
in considerable numbers in the fens of
Cambridgeshire, and was so_ highly
esteemed as a bird for the table that
the taking of its eggs was forbidden.
At acourt-baron of the Bishop of Ely,
according to Mr. J. E. Harting, held
at Littleport in the eleventh year of
the reign of Edward II., several people
were fined for taking the eggs of
the bittern and carrying them out of
the fen, to the great destruction of the
birds. Decreasing steadily in numbers,
the bittern continued to breed in
Britain till the middle of the nine-
COMMON BITTERN teenth century, one of the last nests
Preparing to attack (side vier) being taken in Norfolk in 1868.

E

SE.

(Regent's Park

Sl Mes 3

Photo by WP. Dando, PZS.) concry Wa
EGYPTIAN PELICAN

In the Pelicans the two sexes are coloured alike

59

60 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

THE PELICAN TRIBE

The members of the Pelican
Tribe may be readily distinguished
from other living birds by the
fact that all their toes are united
in a common fold of skin or web.
In the Ducks and other web-footed
birds only the front toes are so
united.

The Pelican Tribe embraces
several apparently dissimilar forms,
whose only claim to be grouped
together, judged from a superficial
point of view, lies in the fact that
they possess the peculiar type of
foot above mentioned. With the
general appearance of the Pelican
itself probably every one is familiar,
but we had better mention here
that the other representatives of

ay ais2 the group with which we have
ae

OY a Baste SiO Ze el now to deal are the Cormorants

Photu by the Duchess of Bedford] [Woburn Abbey

and Gannets, common on the
British coasts. and the less-known
Darters, Frigate-birds, and Tropic-
birds; these, as we know from
their anatomy, are all closely allied forms, and with the Pelicans make up a somewhat isolated
group whose nearest allies appear to be the members of the Stork Tribe.

The PELICAN figures largely in ecclesiastical heraldry as the type of maternal tenderness.
Tradition has it that the bird, in admonishing its young, occasionally did so with such
violence as to slay them. Remorse immediately following, the distracted parent drew blood
from its own breast, and therewith sprinkled the victims of its wrath, which thereupon became
restored to life again. The exhaustion following on this loss of blood was so great that the
young had perforce to leave the nest to procure food for themselves and the sinking parent.
If any, through lack of filial affection, refused to aid in this good work, the mother, on
recovering strength, drove them from her presence, but the faithful children she permitted to
follow her wherever she went.

One of the most remarkable features of the pelican is the pouch which hangs suspended
from the under side of the beak. This is capable of great distension, and is used, when fishing,
as a sort of bag-net, of which the upper jaw serves as the lid. The young are fed by the
female, which, pressing her well-filled pouch against her breast, opens her mouth and allows
them to take their fill therefrom.

Pelicans display great sagacity when fishing, a flock often combining to form a_horse-
shoe, and, driving the fish into a mass, take their fill, This method, of course, is only possible
when fishing in the estuaries of rivers or lakes, where the fish can be “rounded up,” so to
speak. Clumsy as the pelican looks, it is yet capable of wonderful powers of flight; indeed,
it shares the honour with the vultures, storks, and adjutants as an expert in the peculiar
form of flight known as “soaring.”

A North American species of pelican is remarkable in that during the breeding-season
the beak is ornamented with a peculiar horny excrescence, which is shed as soon as that
period is over.

CRESTED PELICAN

This bird derives its name from the curiously cur:ed feathers on the top of the head und
nape of the neck

SLUR As, ELERONS, AND PELICAN TRIBE 61

Pelicans are natives of the tropical and
temperate regions of the Old and New Worlds,
and live in flocks often numbering many thou-
sands. The nest is placed on the ground, and
thercin are deposited two white eggs. The young
are helpless for some time after hatching.

In all some six-and-thirty species of
CORMORANTS are known to science, of which two
are commonly to be met with round the British
coasts, one of which also travels inland to establish
itself on such lakes and rivers as may afford it
support.

In various parts of the world cormorants are
taken when young and trained to catch fish:
sometimes for sport, or—as in China—to furnish
a livelihood for their owners. At one time the
Master of the Cormorants was one of the officers

in the Royal Household of England, the post Photo by D. Le Souf) [Melbourne
having been created in 1611 by James I. The Fe ees nace ia nee Ua ere
method of hunting is as follows :—After fastening Pelicans, like gannets and cormorants, are hatched perfectly naked

: : Z ie ft and quite blind
a ring around the neck, the bird is cast off into

the water, and, diving immediately, makes its way beneath the surface with incredible speed,
and, seizing one fish after another, rises in a short space of time with its mouth full and
throat distended by the fish, which it has been unable to swallow by reason of the restraining
ring. With these captures it dutifully returns to its keeper, who deftly removes the fish, and
either returns the bird to the water, or, giving it a share of the spoil, restores it to its perch

Cormorants nest either in trees or on the ground; they lay from four to six eggs, and
the young feed themselves by thrusting their heads far down the parents’ throats and helping
themselves to the half-digested fish which they find there.

The cormorant has a certain sinister appearance equalled by no other bird, so that its
introduction in Milton’s ‘ Paradise
Lost” (Book IV., 194) seems particu-
larly appropriate. Satan, it will be
remembered, is likened to a cor-
morant :—

So clomb this first grand Thief into God’s
fold :

Thence up he flew, and in the Tree of Life,
The middle tree and highest there that grew,
Sat like a cormorant.

The curious bottle-green plumage,
green eyes, long hooked beak, and
head surmounted by a crest of the
smaller sea-loving representative of
the two British species were doubt-
less familiar enough to Milton before
blindness overtook him.

Some of our readers may have
made the acquaintance of the cor-
morant’s nearest ally, the DARTER, or
Young pelicans never develop long down-feathers, like gannets and frigate-birds SNAKE-NECK, in the Fish-house at the

5

Photo by HW”, Saville-Kent, F. Z S.

YOUNG PELICANS

62 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Zoological Gardens of London. For the sake cf those who have not, we may say that the
darter may be described as a long-necked cormorant, with somewhat lighter plumage. The
head is small and flat, and armed with a pointed, dagger-like bill, whose edges are finely
toothed, with needle-like points projecting backwards. The neck is very long and slender;
hence its name of Snake-neck. Furthermore, it is remarkable for a very strange “ kink,”
formed by a peculiar arrangement of the neck-bones—an arrangement intimately associated
with its peculiar method of capturing its prey, which, as with the cormorant, is pursued
under water. How dexterously this is done may be seen any day in the Fish-house at the
Zoological Gardens, where, as we have already mentioned, these birds are kept. At feeding-
time they are turned loose into a large tank
into which a number of small fish have
been placed. The birds dive as soon as they
reach the water, and with surprising speed
chase their prey till within short range.
Then, by a sudden bayonet-like lunge, made
possible by the peculiar “kink” in the neck,
a victim is transfixed, brought to the surface,
released from the bill by a series of sudden
jerks, tossed into the air, and dexterously
caught and swallowed.

The darter is found in Africa, India,
the Malay region, Australia, and South
America, frequenting the banks of rivers,
lakes, and swamps, sometimes singly, some-
times in pairs or in immense flocks.

Very different from either of the fore-
going species, both in build and coloration,
is the GANNET. In its habits it is also
different. The adult bird is about the size
of a goose, white in colour, and armed with
a powerful pointed bill. The young have a
quite distinct plumage, being deep brown,
speckled with white, this livery being worn
for nearly three years.

The greater part of a gannet’s lifetime
scems to be spent upon the wing, a fact
which implies a very different method of
feeding from that followed by the cormorant

CORMGRANS and darter; and this is actually the case.

In the spring a slight crest is developed, and a white patch appears on Preyitig ue D shale Gt herring, macho
7 the thigh sprats, or pilchards, the birds, flying singly

or in flocks, as soon as the fish are discovered,

rise, soar in circles to such a height as experience shows best calculated to carry them
by a downward motion to the required depth, and then, partially closing the wings, plunge
upon their prey, and rarely without success, the time which elapses between the plunge
and the immersion being about fifteen seconds. A flock of gannets feeding is a really
wonderful sight, and can be witnessed in many places around the British coasts, for the
gannet is one of the very common British birds. The pilchard-fishermen off the Cornish
coast learn when the shoals are at hand, and the direction in which they are travelling,
by the actions of these birds. A very cruel experiment is sometimes practised upon the
gannet, based upon its well-known method of fishing. A herring is tied to a beam and
set adrift, and the bird, not noticing the trap, plunges with its usual velocity upon the

Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co,

ie

By permission of the Hon, Walter Rothschild] [Tring
FRIGATE-BIRDS AT HOME

The feathers of frigate-birds are used for head-dresses in the Pacific Islands
63

6 4 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE:.WORLD

fish, with the result that it is killed instantly
by the shock of the contact.

Gannets breed in colonies of thousands on
the islands off the east and west coasts of Scotland.
They lay but a single egg, in a nest composed
of seaweed deposited in inaccessible crags of pre-
cipitous cliffs. The young are at first naked;
later they become clothed with long white down.
“ Atone time,” says Mr. Howard Saunders, young
gannets were much esteemed as food, from 1,500
to 2,000 being taken in a season during the month
of August. They are hooked up, killed, and flung
into the sea, where a boat is waiting to pick
up the bodies. These are plucked, cleaned, and
half roasted, after which they are sold at from

Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.] [Parson's Green

YOUNG GANNETS, FIRST YEAR
The plumage at this stage is very dark brown, each feather

being tipped with white

eightpence to a shilling each. ... The fat is
boiled down into oil, and the feathers, after being
well baked, are used for stuffing beds, about a
hundred birds producing a stone of feathers.”
Gannets present one or two structural pecu-
liarities of sufficient interest to mention here.
In most birds, it will be remembered, the nostrils
open on each side of the beak; but in the gannet
no trace of true nostrils remains; and the same
may almost be said of the cormorant and darter,

oe

Pinto By Schelasihe Phen Cee rt [PursentsiGrart
GANNET, SECOND YEAR

The white plumage of the neck is just beginning to appear

In gannets, however, a slight indication of their
sometime existence remains, though the nostril
itself no longer serves as an air-passage; and
these birds are compelled to breathe through the
mouth. Again, the tongue, like the nostrils,
has also been reduced to a mere vestige.
Stranger still is the fact that immediately under
the skin there lies an extensive system of air-
cells of large size, which can be inflated or
emptied at will. Many of these cells dip down
between the muscles of the body, so that the
whole organism is pervaded with air-cells, all of

We a)

Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co.] anions Green which are in connection with the lungs.
GANNET, FULL PLUMAGE The FRIGATE- and TROPIC-BIRDS, which now
The fully adult plumage is not attained till the bird is three remain to be described, are probably much less

years old familiar to our readers than the foregoing species.

| Dundee

Photo by Valentine & Sons, Ltd.}

GANNETS ON THE BASS ROCK

The Bass Rock is the only breeding-station of the yannet on the eastern coast of the British Islands

65

66 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

FRIGATE-BIRDS are remarkable in more ways than one. To begin with, their general appear-
ance may be described as that of a small, long-winged, fork-tailed albatross, mounted upon
particularly diminutive legs, so short as to do little more than raise the body off the ground.
Their flight is wonderfully graceful, and capable of being sustained for considerable periods;
for, like the gannets, they pass most of their time on the wing. They feed upon surface-fish,
which they capture from the surface of the water without alighting, or upon fish which they
take from the gannets of the neighbourhood.

Frigate-birds build their nests in trees, on low bushes, or on the ground, and sometimes
upon ledges of precipitous cliffs. The nest is a loose structure composed of sticks, and its
construction is accompanied by much pilfering from one another. Only a single egg is laid.

About the beginning of January the male acquires a very remarkable pouch of brilliant
scarlet skin, which hangs beneath the beak. Frigate-birds are found all over the world within
the tropics.

The TROPIC-BIRDS, or BOATSWAIN-BIRDS, as they are sometimes called, are more like gulls
or the heavier species of terns in general appearance, and in no way resemble superficially
the forms with which they are associated, save in the fact that all the toes are enclosed in
the same web. A study of their anatomy, however, leaves little doubt that these birds are
really members of the Pelican Tribe.

Either pure white, relieved with black, or of a beautiful apricot-yellow, with similar black
markings, with a powerful bill and Jong tapering tail, the tropic-bird is one of the most
beautiful of sea-birds. There are altogether about six species of tropic-birds, distributed over
the Pacific and Indian Oceans. They nest in hollows of cliffs or holes in trees, and lay a
single egg, which bears some resemblance to that of a kestrel.

CHAPTER VIII
SCREAMERS, DUCKS, GEESE, AND SIV ANS

AMILIAR as are most of our readers
with all save the first mentioned of
these birds, yet few probably suspect

how great a wealth of forms this group
displays. All are more or less aquatic in
their habits, of heavy build, with long necks
and small heads, short legs, and short wings
and tails. The young are hatched covered
with a peculiar kind of down, which more
nearly resembles that of the Ostrich Tribe
than the down of other birds, and they run
about or accompany their parents to the
water either immediately or a few hours
after hatching. Several species have become
domesticated, and in some cases have given
rise to peculiar breeds, whilst many are much
in demand for the purpose of enlivening
ornamental waters.

The least-known members of the grour

F418 bre?
by WY. P. Dando, F.Z.S]

LAH i
[Regent 53 Park
CRESTED SCREAMER, OR CHAKA

The Crested and Horned Screamers are the only members of the family
without webbed feet

are the very remarkable and extremely interest
ing SCREAMERS of South America, of which
there are three species. These are large birds,
presenting some resemblances to the Game-
birds on the one hand and the Geese on the

SCREAMERS, DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS 67

other. Not only the beak, but the skull, in certain
characters, recalls that of the Game-birds. The body
may be described as goose-like, but in the longer
legs and enormous toes, which are not connected by
a web, these birds recall the Megapodes, or Mound-
builders

The screamers are generally regarded as primitive
members of the group with which they are now asso-
ciated; but in many respects they are quite peculiar.
Not the least interesting of their habits is the
great predilection they observe for soaring in the air
at immense altitudes, uttering the while the curious
cry to which they owe their name. Several birds
often do this at once. Yet stranger is the fact that
they not seldom gather together in vast flocks to
sing inconcert. Mr. Hudson, for instance, states that
the species known as the CRESTED SCREAMER on one
occasion surprised him by ‘an awful and overpowering
burst of ‘melody,’ which saluted him from half a
million of voices at an out-of-the-way spot in the
pampas one evening at nine o'clock; and, again,
once at noon he heard flock after flock take up their
song round the entire circuit of a certain lake, each . :
flock waiting its turn to sing, and only stopping di hesec per, tees Mewar Bee Mramttea
when the duty had been performed. AYLESBURY DUCK

Like the gannet, these birds are richly supplied

This is one of the most esteemed of all domesticated breeds

with air-cells between the body and the skin,
and between many of the muscles; so highly
are these cells developed, that it is said a crack-
ling sound is emitted when pressure is applied to
the skin.

The wings of these birds are armed each with
a pair of powerful and sharp spurs, recalling
those of certain of the Plover Tribe, though
in the latter only one spur is present on each
wing.

The division of the remainder of this group
into Ducks, Geese, and Swans is generally recog-
nised, but no hard-and-fast line can yet be drawn
between the several sections. We must regard
them as representing adaptations to peculiar
modes of life, which appear to be most marked
in the duck-like forms. These may be divided
into FRESH-WATER DUCKS, SALT-WATER DUCKS,
SPINY-TAILED DUCKS, and MERGANSERsS.

Of the FRESH-WATER Ducks, the most
familiar is the WILD-DUCK, or MALLARD. This
is a resident British bird, and also the parent
of the domesticated stock, which frequently

POCHARD closely resembles the wild form. In this species,
This is one of the diving-ducks as with the majority of the fresh-water ducks.

Photo by ¥. HW. McLellan] [Highbury

68 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

the males wear a distinctive livery; but the
males for a few weeks during the summer
assume more or less completely the livery of
the female, a process aptly described as going
into “eclipse.” The assumption of the female
dress at this season Is necessary, since it
harmonises completely with the surrounding
foliage, and so effectually conceals the bird at
a time when it is peculiarly helpless; for, as
with all birds, the quills or flight-feathers are
cast off by the process known as moulting
once a year, but instead of being replaced in
pairs, and the flight remaining unaffected, they
are shed all at once, so that escape from

Rhein Wok s Bigger) [Eelehten:Buscoand enemies must be sought by concealment.
EIDER-DUCK Usually among birds the male has the
Tt is the down of this bird which is so much in demand for quilts more powerful voice, but with the mallard

and its allies the reverse is the case, the
female giving forth the loud familiar ‘“ quack, quack,” whilst the note of the male sounds like
a feeble attempt to answer its mate, but smothered by a cold in the head. This peculiar and
characteristic subdued voice is associated with a remarkable bulb-shaped bony enlargement at
the bottom of the windpipe, just where it branches off to the right and left lungs, the
female being without this swelling.

The nest is composed of grass, and lined with down plucked by the female from her own
breast, with the sole object, it is generally believed, of keeping the eggs warm; but it is
possible that the down is removed as much for the sake of bringing the warm surface of the
body in closer contact with the eggs. The site chosen for the nest is exceedingly varied;
usually the nest is placed on the ground and near the water, but sometimes in a hedgerow
or in a wood, and occasionally in trees, and instances are on record where the deserted nests
of hawks and crows have been appropriated. At such times the young seem to be brought
to the ground by the parent, who carries them down in her bill. It is some time before
the wings of the young birds
are big enough to carry them ;
indeed, they are quite full
grown in so far as the body
is concerned. At this stage
they are known as * flappers.”
Advantage was at one time
taken of their helplessness in
the “sport” known as“ flapper-
shooting.” On other occasions
numbers of people assembled
and “beat” a vast tract of
country, driving these young
flappers before them to a
given spot where nets were
placed, in which as many as
150 dozen have been taken
atonetime. Fortunately this
practice has been abolished
by Act of Parliament. SHELDRAKE

Several very distinct The female bird is just entering her nest at the bottom of a long burrow

Photo by WH”, F, Piggott]

[Leighton Buxsxard

SCREAMERS, DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS 69

domesticated breeds of ducks have been derived from the mallard. The commonest breed
differs but little, save in its great size, from the wild parent form, but the most esteemed are
those known as the ROUEN and AYLESBURY. The PENGUIN-DUCK is the most aberrant and the
ugliest of these breeds, having a peculiarly upright, awkward carriage, and very small wings.

The SALT-WATER Ducks, or DIVING-DUCKS, are for the most part of a heavier build
than the foregoing species, and many are of a sombre coloration. All the species are
expert divers, and in consequence have the legs, which are short, placed far backwards, and
this causes them to assume a more upright carriage when on land. The curious bony bulb
at the base of the windpipe found in the fresh-water species becomes in the salt-water forms
greatly enlarged, and its walls incompletely ossified, leaving large spaces to be filled by
peculiarly delicate sheets of membrane. The majority of the species in this section frequent
the open sea, but some occur inland.

One of the most useful, and at the same time most ornamental, of this section is the
EIDER-DUCK, the male in full plumage being a truly magnificent bird: the female, as in the
majority of ducks, is clad in sober colours. In Iceland and Norway the eider-duck is strictly
protected, a fine being imposed for killing it during the breeding-season, or even for firing
a gun near its haunts. This
most unusual care is, however, © wr ag Sra EET. A
by no means of a disin- | ae % ‘ ]
terested kind, but isextended 4. ¥ Gs:
solely that certain privileged | ;
persons may rob the birds of
their eggs and the down on
which they rest, the latter
being the valuable eider-
down so much in demand for
bed-coverlets and other pur-
poses. “The eggs and down,”
says Professor Newton, ‘are
taken at intervals of a few
days by the owners of the :
‘eider-fold,’ and the birds are Pana Aner ca : ee
thus kept depositing both PARADISE_-DUCKS
during the whole season. ...
Every duck is ultimately
allowed to hatch an egg or
two to keep up the stock.” Mr. W. C. Sheppard gives an interesting account of a visit to
an eider-colony on an island off the coast of Iceland. ‘‘ On landing,” he says, ‘ the ducks
and their nests were everywhere. Great brown ducks sat upon their nests in masses, and
at every step started from under our feet. It was with difficulty we avoided treading on
some of the nests. On the coast of the opposite shore was a wall built of large stones .
about 3 feet high and of considerable thickness. At the bottom, on both sides of it,
alternate stones had been left out, so as to form a series of square apartments for the ducks
to nest in. Almost every apartment was occupied.... The house itself was amarvel. The
earthen walls that surrounded it, and the window embrasures, were occupied by ducks. On
the ground the house was fringed with ducks. On the turf slopes of its roof we could see
ducks, and a duck sat on the door-scraper. The grassy banks had been cut into square
patches, about 18 inches having been removed, and each hollow had been filled with ducks.
A windmill was infested, and so were all the outhouses, mounds, rocks, and crevices. The
ducks were everywhere. Many were so tame that we could stroke them on their nests, and
the good lady told us that there was scarcely a duck on the island that would not allow
her to take its eggs without flight or fear.”

This species is a native of New Zealand, where the photograph was taken. The bird on the
right with the white head is the female

70 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

The nest is composed externally of seaweed, and lined with down, which is plucked by
the female from her breast as incubation proceeds, till eventually it completely conceals the
eggs. Each nest yields about one-sixth of a pound, and is worth, on the spot, from twelve to
fifteen shillings a pound.

The PocHARDS, SCAUPS, GOLDEN-EYES, and SCOTERS are relatives of the eider-duck;
but since all resemble the latter in their general mode of life, we need not consider
them here. :

The MERGANSERS and SMEWs, to which reference has been made, differ markedly from all
the ducks so far considered in the peculiar formation of the bill, which is relatively long and
narrow, with its edges armed with sharp, tooth-like processes projecting backwards towards the
back of the mouth. These processes are really only horny spines, and have no relation to

‘

uta by the Duchess of Bedford] nae agi ras: [Woburn Abbey
CAPE BARREN GOOSE

This bird is a native of South-east Australia and Tasmania, and remarkable for its short beak

teeth, although they are used, as teeth would be, for holding slippery prey, such as fish, which
form the greater part of the diet of these birds.

So far, in all the ducks which we have considered, the male differs conspicuously from the
female in plumage; but in the forms we are now about to describe both sexes are coloured alike.

The first is the COMMON SHELDRAKE, which seems to lie somewhere on the borderland
between the Ducks and the Geese. It is a very beautiful bird, conspicuously marked with
broad bands of orange-chestnut, white, and black. The beak being coral red in colour, and
further ornamented by a peculiar fleshy knob at its base, serves to set off the glossy bottle-
green colour of the head and neck. As appears to be invariably the case where both sexes
are coloured alike, the female builds her nest in a hole, generally a rabbit-burrow, whilst
the young have a distinct livery, duller in tone than that of the parent. The female
sheldrake breeds in Britain, and may be frequently seen at sea flying in small parties, which
have been likened to a flock of butterflies.

SCREAMERS, DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS 71

The GEESE include birds of somewhat con- DLTE STE aE ETT a Ee
spicuous coloration, besides a considerable number
of more subdued aspect. The sexes are distin-
guished by different names, the female being
known as the Goose, the male as the Gander,
whilst the young is the Gosling. As we have
already mentioned, there is no hard-and-fast line
to be drawn between the three sections of this
group. The Ducks are connected by the Shel-
drakes with the Geese, through the Spur-winged
Goose, the Egyptian and Orinoco Geese, and
certain other species which cannot be alluded to
on this occasion.

The SPUR-WINGED GEESE, of which there are
two species, are African birds, and derive their
name from the long spur seated on the wing.

A still more remarkable form is the HALF-
WEBBED GOOSE, so called from the fact that its AUSTRALIAN PYGMY GOOSE
feet are only partially webbed. It has a black-
and-white plumage, a hooked beak, and a large
warty prominence on the front of the head. It spends most of its time perched on the branches
of the Australian tea-trees, and rarely enters the water. The windpipe is peculiar, being coiled
in several folds between the skin and the breast-muscles.

From these peculiar forms we pass to the true geese. The largest living species is the
CHINESE or GUINEA-GOOSE of Eastern Siberia, regarded as the stock from which the domesticated
geese of Eastern countries have been derived.

European domesticated geese have been derived from the GREY or GREY-LAG GOOSE, a
species at one time exceedingly common in England, breeding in considerable numbers in
the fen districts, where the young were frequently taken and reared with the large flock of
domesticated geese commonly kept at that time for the sake of their feathers. The grey-lag
goose, however, has long ceased to breed in England, though a few still nest in Scotland.
The most important breeds derived from
the grey-lag are the TOULOUSE and EMDEN.
Other British species are the BEAN-GOOSE,
PINK-FOOTED and WHITE-FRONTED GEESE,
and the “ BLACK” BRENT and BARNACLE-
GEESE, in all of which the sexes are precisely
similar in coloration and subdued in tone.

In the New World some very beautiful
white geese are found, which are still more
interesting in that the females have a different
coloration. These are the KELP- and UPLAND-
GEESE of Patagonia and the Falklands. The
female of the kelp-goose is brownish black
above and black barred with white below,
whilst the female of the upland-goose is
rufous and black in colour. The latter may
be seen in London parks.

Lastly, we have a few species known from
their small size as PYGMY GEESE of Australia,

BLACK-NECKED SWAN India, and Africa. Perhaps the best known
The fleshy knob at the base of the bill is of a bright red colour is the Indian species, called the COTTON-TEAL.

}
j
|
i
}
|
wf

Photo hy H”, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] (Milford-on-Sea

The pygmy geese are expert divers

Photo by W, P, Dando, F.Z.S.] [Regent's Park

72 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

pL IT awa
RNC ae et “otigah oh em Me

TRUMPETER- AND WHOOPER-SWANS

The trumpeter is the bird in the foreground : the whooper is remarkable for its musical note, resembling the word ** whoop y quickly repeated

They are tiny birds, resembling small ducks rather than geese, and dive admirably, a feat
which the larger species do not perform.

The SWANS are linked with the Geese through a very beautiful South American species,
known as the COSCOROBA SWAN. It is the smallest of all the swans, pure white in colour, save
the tips of the greater wing-quills, which are black, and the coral-red bill and feet.

Of all the swans, probably the best known is the MUTE SWAN, the semi-domesticated
descendants of which are so common on ornamental waters. For hundreds of years the
latter were jealously guarded, none but the larger freeholders being allowed to keep them, and
then not without a licence from the Crown; with this licence was coupled an obligation to
mark each swan with a particular mark, cut with a knife or other instrument through the skin
of the beak, whereby ownership might be established.

It would seem that these swans and their descendants were not derived from the native
wild stock, but were introduced into England, it is said, from Cyprus by Richard I. At the
present day large “swanneries” have almost ceased to exist. Perhaps the largest is that of
the Earl of Ilchester, at Abbotsbury, near Weymouth. In 1878 between 1,300 and 1,400
swans were to be seen there at one time, but latterly the number has been reduced to
about half.

Although swans do not perhaps stand so high in the general esteem as table delicacies
as with our forefathers, there are yet many who appreciate the flesh of this bird; but the
St. Helen’s Swan-pit at Norwich is the only place in England where they are systematically
fattened for the table. Here from 70 to 200 cygnets—as the young swans ‘are called—
caught in the neighbouring rivers, are placed early in August, and fed upon cut grass and
barley till Christmas, when they are fit for table, weighing, when “dressed,” about 15 lbs.,

SCREAMERS, DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS re.

and fetching, if purchased alive at the pit, about two guineas each. The pit is con-
structed of brickwork, and is about 74 feet long, 32 feet wide, and 6 feet deep—the water,
admitted from the river, being about 2 feet deep. The food is placed in floating troughs.
The birds, ‘when so disposed,” says Mr. Southwell, ‘leave the water by walking up a
sloping stage, and thus obtain access to a railed-in enclosure, where they may rest and preen
themselves.”

The beautiful swan-like carriage, so familiar in the floating bird, seems to belong only to
the mute swan, the other species of white swans carrying the neck more or less straight, and
keeping the wings closely folded to the body.

No greater anomaly could at one time have been imagined than a BLACK SWAN. For
centuries it was considered to be an impossibility. We owe the discovery of such a bird to
the Dutch navigator Willem de Vlaming, who, more than 200 years ago, captured the first
specimen at the mouth of what is now known, in consequence, as the Swan River. A year
after their capture accounts reached England through the burgomaster of Amsterdam, and
these were published by the Royal Society in 1698. The bird is now fairly common on
ornamental waters, where its sooty-black plumage, set off by pure white quill-feathers and
coral-red bill, contrasts strongly with the typical snow-white mute swan, generally kept
with it.

Equally interesting is the handsome BLACK-NECKED SWAN of South America. In this
species the plumage is pure white, save that of the neck, which is black. The distribution
of this species is practically the same as that of the Coscoroba swan. Breeding freely in
confinement, it has become a fairly common bird on ornamental waters. It shares with
the mute swan the reputation of gracefulness when afloat, swimming with the neck curved
and wings raised.

Photo by HW”, Reid) [A'tshaw, N.B.
AUSTRALIAN BLACK SWANS AND CYGNETS

The cygnets are light-coloured, like those of the white swans

CHAPTER IX

BIRDS OF PREY AND O/FLS

BIRDS OF PREY

T one time the boundaries of this group were much larger
than now, for within them were included at least one
form which has since proved to belong to the Crane
Tribe: we allude to the Seriema (page 428),
and also tothe Owls. This classification was
based on the very remarkable superficial
resemblance to the typical birds of prey
which those forms bear. Modern ornitho-
logists regard as birds of prey only the
forms known as the New World Vultures,
the Secretary-bird, and the Falcons, Eagles,
Vultures, Buzzards, and the numerous smaller
forms commonly classed as ‘t Hawks.”

Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.J [Parson's Green

CONDOR
The habit of standing with the wings expanded is a very

common one with these birds

THE NEW WORLD VULTURES

These may be distinguished from
their distant relatives of the Old World
by the fact that the nostrils are not
divided from one another by a partition,
and by their much weaker feet. The
head and neck in all, as in the true
vultures, is more or less bare, and,
furthermore, is often very brilliantly
coloured, in which last particular these
birds differ from the typical vultures.

One of the most important members
of the group is the CONDOR, one of the
largest of flying birds, and when on
the wing the most majestic. ‘* When the
condors,” says Darwin, “ are wheeling in
a flock round and round any spot, their
flight is beautiful. Except when rising
off the ground, I do not recollect ever
having seen one of these birds flap its

Photo by HW. P, Dando, F.Z.8.

wings. Near Lima I watched several for : honk alte
I half | tl ; ; The bare skin of the head and neck is of a dark purple colour, the ruff en-
nearly half an hour, without once taking circling the neck being of pure white down-feathers

74

BIRDS OF PREY AND OWLS 75

off my eyes; they moved in large curves, sweeping in circles, descending and ascending, with-
out giving a single flap.” One which he shot measured, from tip to tip of the fully expanded
wings, 8% feet.

The condor, like its smaller relatives, hunts by sight, and not, as was at one time believed,
by smell, feeding on the dead bodies of guanacos which have died a natural death or been
killed by pumas, and upon other dead animals. In the neighbourhood where sheep and goats
are kept, they are much dreaded, as they will attack the young kids and lambs. The flock-
owners on this account wage constant war against them, capturing them by enclosing a carcase
within a narrow space, and when the condors are gorged galloping up on horseback and killing
them, for when this bird has not space to run jt cannot rise from the ground. Sometimes the
trees on which they roost are marked, and when night falls a man climbs the tree and cap-
tures them with a noose, for they are very heavy sleepers.

The condor ranges from the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, and Chili southwards to the Rio
Negro on the east coast of Patagonia. It lays two large white eggs on a shelf of bare rock
projecting from precipitous cliffs, and the young are said to be unable to fly till after they are
a year old. As will be seen in the photographs, the head of the male is crowned by a bare,
fleshy caruncle, which, like the surrounding bare skin, is of a dull reddish colour: lower down
the neck is a frill of pure white down, which forms a conspicuous contrast with the glossy
black plumage of the rest of the body and wings.

Tue SECRETARY-BIRD.

The second of the three main divisions into which the Birds of Prey are divided is reserved
for the SECRETARY-BIRD. This bird derives its name from the crest of long feathers which bear
a fanciful resemblance to the quill-pens a clerk is supposed to stick above his ear. It differs
from all the other members of the Hawk Tribe in the exceedingly long legs, which in the young
are said to be so fragile as to fracture if the bird is suddenly alarmed. It feeds chiefly on
insects and reptiles, especially snakes, for which last it seems to have a special liking. It attacks
even the most venomous species, striking at them with its powerful wings and pounding them
with its feet, jumping upon them with great force, till rendered helpless, when they are at once
swallowed head-foremost. On account of its great value as a snake-eater it has been accorded
special protection, though unfortunately there is a tendency on the part of English settlers to
relax this, on account of the fact that it will occasionally eat animals coming within the scope of
“oame.” Valuable as the latter may be, there yet seems no justification for such a course.

The secretary-bird, which is a South African species, though extending northwards as far
as Abyssinia, builds a huge nest of sticks in low bushes, under which will often be found
numerous nests of the Cape sparrow, apparently the only available site on the veldt, where
bushes are scarce. Here the sparrows are efficiently protected from the icy winds which so
frequently sweep across this region, and apparently suffer no fear of personal violence from
the fierce owners of the domicile above them. When sitting, the female secretary is fed by
her mate. The young do not appear to leave the nest for five or six months. They are
frequently taken from the nest and brought up as household pets, becoming not only very
tame, but exceedingly useful.

Tue Eacte AND FaLcon TRIBE.

From the perplexing wealth of species displayed among the forms herein bracketed
together, we can only select a few examples, which embrace, however, all the more important
and interesting forms.

Beginning with the more lowly, we start with those members of small or medium size
known as Kites, and as an example of the group take the species known in the British
Islands as the Kite, or GLEAD. In former days this bird was extremely common in England,

76 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

being found in numbers not only in the rural districts, but in London itself, where, as old
records of the fifteenth century show, it occurred in such numbers near London Bridge as to
excite the wonder of foreigners visiting the city. These birds found an abundance of food in
the garbage of the streets, and also of the Thames itself —‘‘an observation,” remarks Mr. Finn,
“which throws a lurid light upon the city sanitation.”

In the days of falconry the kite was royal game, not, however, by legal enactment, but
by reason of the fact that none but specially trained falcons could secure a prey with such
wonderful powers of flight. Consequently the price of a falcon which had attained this degree
of skill was beyond the purse of any but a king.

Save on the wing, the kite is not a handsome bird, its general colour being of a pale
reddish brown; but those who have had the good fortune to watch its flight are one and all
impressed. Cowper admirably expresses the general admiration in the lines :-—

Kites that swim sublime
In still repeated circles, screaming loud.

The kites may be distinguished from other members of the tribe by their forked tails.
Somewhat of a scavenger, as we
have already hinted, the kite
feeds also upon such small game
as moles, frogs, young birds,
rabbits, snakes, and fish. Its
partiality for young birds caused
it to be much dreaded in the
farmyard in the days when it
was common; and when, with
the introduction of modern and
improved firearms, game-preserv-
ing became more strenuously
prosecuted, its doom was sealed,
for a ceaseless war was waged
against it, which ended only with
its extermination.

Nearly allied to the Kites,
the HONEY-BUZZARDS next claim
attention. The name Honey-
buzzard is a misnomer, for honey
forms no part of the bird’s food.
This species exhibits, however, a
quite remarkable partiality for
the immature stages of wasps
and bees, the nests of which it
tears in pieccs with its feet, so
as to lay bare the coveted
morsels, devouring them on the
spot, perfectly regardless of the
stings of the infuriated insects,
which seem unable to penetrate
its feathers. When its favourite
food is not to be had, it will
feed upon corn, earth-worms,
beetles, slugs, small birds’ eggs, SECRETARY-BIRD
and moles—a diet sufficiently In full plumage the tail of this bird is much longer

Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co.] [Parson's Green

AUSTRALIAN WHITE-BELLIED SEA EAGLE

This species of osprey is confined to Australia and the Austro-Malay Islands
6 77

Way di

78 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

strange for a bird of prey. Honey-buzzards appear to be exemplary parents, for they are said
to construct a bower of leafy boughs above the nest to screen the young from the sun, the
boughs being replaced as they wither by fresh ones.

The honey-buzzard occurs but rarely in England, and nowhere appears to be a very
common bird, though it is said to be more frequently met with in Arabia and Egypt than
elsewhere. On migration, however, it appears in unusually large numbers, the late Lord
Lilford recording an occasion when he observed many hundreds crossing the Straits of Gibraltar
from Spain to Africa. These were apparently on their autumnal migration to warmer winter
quarters.

The dash, energy, and courage which we are wont to associate with the Hawk Tribe
have certainly not been manifest in the members of the order which we have examined so
far; but these attributes will be evident enough in the majority of the species with which
we are now about to deal. One of the most interesting of these fiercer forms is the OSPREY,
or FISHING-HAWK. As its name implies, it feeds largely upon fish, which it captures with
great dexterity, seizing them either with its feet from the surface of the water, or by plunging
entirely beneath the surface, when it disappears amid a shower of spray, to emerge a moment
later with a fish writhing in its talons. To ensure a firm grip of its slippery prey, the soles
of its feet are armed with rough tubercles, whilst the foot is furthermore remarkable in that
the outer toe can be turned backwards, so as to lie parallel with the hind toe — an arrangement
rare in birds of the Hawk Tribe, but characteristic of the Owls and some other birds. At
times, it would seem, the osprey seizes a fish too large
to be raised from the water, when, owing to the firm
hold which the claws have taken, the bird is unable
to release itself, and is speedily dragged beneath the
surface and drowned. Some have suggested that the bird
falls a victim, not to inability to free itself, but rather
to its obstinacy.

The osprey is now rare in Great Britain, though it
breeds occasionally in the wilder parts of Scotland. It
enjoys an extensive range, however, being found all over
the world. In America it appears to be very common.
On an island “‘ off the eastern extremity of Long Island,
New York,” writes Professor Newton, ‘‘ 300 nests were
counted. The old birds were rearing their young close
together, living as peaceably as so many rooks, and
were equally harmless to other birds.” Colonies of this
kind are rare among birds of prey.

Whilst the fiercer raptorial birds, which hunt and
kill their prey, live only upon small or medium-sized
animals, a certain section, known as the VULTURES, feed
upon the carcases of the largest mammals which they
find either in the throes of death or already dead, and
even far advanced in decomposition. Gathering to the
feast in large crowds, even the largest bodies are soon
demolished; and on this account the vultures are to be

|

| i reckoned amongst the most useful of birds, speedily

| ise _ .¥| removing matter which in hot countries would rapidly
ze Gg wz | endanger the health of neighbouring communities.

Blate We Bo Dandi B: 2S Regents Bark Many years ago a great controversy was waged overt

EGYPTIAN KITE the question of the faculty which guides the vulture

Feeding on garbage of all kinds, kites are useful birds in the discovery of its food, since it was a matter of

WrDae conte common knowledge that the traveller might sweep the

laboratory of Urnithology

159 Sapsucker Woods Road

Cornell University

Ithaca, New York 14850
BIRDS OF PREY AND OWLS 79

horizon in vain for a sign of these birds, yet, should a camel from a caravan fall out and die,
or men fall in warfare, within an incredibly short space of time a crowd of vultures would be
squabbling over the dead. Some held that the vulture was guided by scent, others by sight,
and this latter view is now almost universally accepted. The bird’s natural habit of soaring
at an immense height enables it to survey not only immense tracts of country, but the
actions of its neighbours soaring at the same altitude, though perhaps miles away. So soon
as one descries food it betrays the fact by its actions, making off in the direction of the
prospective feast; it is then followed immediately by its yet more distant neighbour, and this
by a third, and so the first serves as a guide to all the other soaring birds for miles around.
This flight has been admirably expressed by Long-
fellow in ‘* Hiawatha.”

We need here mention only one or two of the
more important species of vulture, and among these
one of the most interesting is the LAMMERGEIR, or
BEARDED VULTURE. This species is one of the least
vulture-like of the tribe, not only in general appear-
ance, but also in habits, and is to be regarded as
near the ancestral stock, whose descendants have
become more and more addicted to feeding upon
dead bodies.

The lammergeir, or bearded vulture, is a bird
of large size and majestic flight, differing from all
other vultures in that the head and neck are clothed
in feathers, whilst the nostrils are covered by long
bristles. Beneath the bill hangs a tuft of bristles
like those covering the nostrils; hence its name of
Bearded Vulture ; and this, coupled with a remarkable
red rim to the eyes, gives the bird an almost diabolical
appearance. It lives partly upon living animals and
partly upon carrion, bones apparently being especially
relished; these it breaks by dropping them from a
height upon the rocks below, probably to get at the
marrow. Land-tortoises are treated in a similar
manner, and it was possibly this species which
caused the death of the poet A&schylus, on whose
bare head a tortoise is alleged to have been dropped.
It was at one time common in Europe, and is still
fairly numerous in West Africa, though rare in the
East and South. Many stories are told of its
strength and daring, some of which concern the
carrying off of young children; but these are prob-
ably mythical, modern observers generally agreeing that the bird is by nature far from
courageous.

The more typical vultures differ from the lammergeir in having the head and neck more
or less bare, and often conspicuously coloured, or covered with a short velvety down. The
CINEREOUS, GRIFFON, PONDICHERRY, and EGYPTIAN VULTURES may be cited as examples of these.

The CINEREOUS or BLACK VULTURE is a heavy and repulsive-looking bird, feeding entirely
on garbage. On the wing, however, this vulture shares with its relatives the admiration of all
who have been privileged to watch it; sailing in graceful circles in the blue sky of the tropics,
or hurrying from all quarters of the compass to some ghoulish feast, it forms a spectacle, once
seen, never to be forgotten. It is found on both sides of the Mediterranean, and extends
eastwards to India and China.

Photo by Charles Knight] [Aldershot
BEARDED VULTURE

It is called the Bearded Vulture on account of the tuft of
bristles hanging from the chin

S0 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

This species, like the GRIFFON-VULTURE,
has the head and neck down-covered, thus stand-
ing in strong contrast with the PONDICHERRY
and SACRED VULTURES of India and Africa,
which have bare heads and necks ornamented by
loose folds or lappets of skin ofa pinkish colour.
These vultures hunt in pairs, and are very
self-assertive, driving away all other birds from
their prey. They build enormous nests of sticks
in bushes and trees, thus differing from the
vultures previously described, which generally
nest on ledges of rock on precipitous cliffs.
These nests are made of sticks, lined with
straw and leaves. A single egg is laid, which
is white with red markings. The largest
species rivals the condor in size.

The EGYPTIAN VULTURE, sometimes
known as PHARAOH’S HEN, is the smallest of
the vultures. The plumage is white; the head,
throat, and fore part of the neck are naked
and of a lemon-yellow colour; whilst the feet
are pink and the eyes crimson. Not only is ita
carrion-feeder, but it will also follow the plough,
picking up worms and grubs. This species
occurs in Europe, breeding in Provence and
Savoy, the Madeiras, Cape Verde, the Canaries,
North and South Africa, and India. On three
occasions it has wandered to Great Britain.

We pass now to the EAGLES, a group
the exact limits of which it is impossible to
define, since the forms so designated merge
insensibly into Buzzards, Hawks, Harriers, and
so forth.

Eagles occur all over the world, save only
in New Zealand. An eagle, it is interesting
to note, is the bird of Jove, the emblem of
St. John and Rome, and at the present day
of the American Republic. It also plays an
emblematic part in Germany, Austria, and
Russia.

Of the true eagles, perhaps the best
known is the GOLDEN EAGLE, or MOUNTAIN-
EAGLE—a British bird, breeding still, though
in diminishing numbers, in Scotland. In
Ireland it is fast verging on extinction,
trap, gun, and poison having wrought its
destruction. In times past it bred in the
Lake District of England. It is found over
the greater part of Europe, Northern Asia,
India and China, and Northern Africa, and
America as far south as Mexico. It is a
very fierce and powerful bird, attacking such

fame

Wau

Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co.] [Parson's Green

GRIFFON-VULTURE
One of the largest of the vultures

Ree _ Mtn OSE

Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.) [Parson's Green

RUPPELL’S VULTURE
An African species, closely allied to the griffon

BIRDS OF PREY AND OWLS 81

large animals as antelopes, wolves, and foxes, as well as the more helpless fawns, lambs, hares
and rabbits, and ducks, geese, grouse, and so on.

Very different from the free-roving golden cagle and its allies is the South American
HARPY-EAGLE. This is a denizen of the forest, of great size and enormous strength, as the
powerful bill and feet testify. Whilst other
eagles are conspicuous for their powers of flight,
the present species is rarely secn on the wing,
being strictly a forest-dweller, with short wings
and tail, and of a somewhat owl-like plumage,
the feathers being very soft. At rest it is one
of the most striking of all the eagles. The
head is crested, the under parts of the body are
white, and the upper dark grey, banded with
black. It feeds upon sloths, peccaries, and spider-
monkeys.

So recently as 1897 another forest-dwelling
species was discovered in the Philippines, and this
also preys largely upon monkeys. Its nearest
ally is apparently the harpy-eagle, and, like this
species, it is a bird of large size and very

Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co.] [Parson's Green
ANGOLAN VULTURE
A common West African bird, living upon fish and carrion

powerful. It is further remarkable for the
enormous size of the beak, which differs from
that of all other members of this group in being
much compressed from side to side.

The sea, as well as the mountain and the
forest, is also, as it were, presided over by
members of this group, which are in consequence
called SEA-EAGLES. One species, the WHITE-
TAILED EAGLE, OR ERNE, is reckoned among
British birds, though it is fast verging on
extinction. In former days it bred on the sea-
cliffs of Scotland and Ireland, and in the Lake
District. The nest, or eyrie, as it is called, is
commonly placed on inaccessible cliffs, but some-
times on the ground or in a tree, and, as is TUN DICHEREY es ee -

: 3 3 a This Indian species is remarkable for the loose fans of skin which
usual with the group, is made of sticks, with Dine dao dis tao ade oP ie Bead
a lining of finer materials. This eagle feeds
principally upon fish, though hares, lambs, and rabbits and carrion are occasionally taken.

The Hawk Tribe, generally speaking, have the wings comparatively short, the legs long
and slender, and the edges of the beak with a sinuous outline and unnotched; but it is
impossible to sharply define the group. The best-known species are the SPARROW- and GOos-
HAWKS. The first named is still a common British bird, but the latter has now become very

Photo by HW’, P, Dando, F.Z.S.] [Regent’s Park

=

82 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

rare indeed. In both species
the male is a much smaller
bird than the female, and is
also more brightly coloured.
The GOS-HAWK was at one
time used in falconry; it is
a bird of extremely ferocious
disposition, and in the days
when hawks were used for
sporting purposes had to be
kept very safely tethered, as,
if it gained its liberty, it
would at once proceed to kill
every other hawk and falcon
in the ‘“ mews.”

The Falcon Tribe is
divisible into two sections —
the one containing the Ameri-
can CARRION-HAWKS, and
the other the FALCONS.

The CARRION-HAWKS, or
CARACARAS, are long-legged
birds which spend most of
their time on the ground and
run well. They are said to
hunt, not seldom in packs,
after the fashion of wild dogs.
One species at least affords an
admirable example of mim-
icry—so rare among birds.
This is the CURASSOW-HAWK,
so called from its resemblance
to the curassow, one of the

Photo by WP, Dando, F.Z.8.) [Regent's Park
EGYPTIAN VULTURE
This is one of the foulest feeders of the Vulture Tribe
ee? es y BE is ie, |

' Game-birds. The resemblance is
evidently advantageous, for there-
by the hawk is enabled to sit
quietly at rest till its prey comes
within easy reach, mistaking the
hawk for the inoffensive curassow.

The FALCONS form an ex-
ceedingly interesting group, if
only on account of the part
which they played in the sports of
medizvalEngland. Birdsoflarge

size and forms as small as sparrows
are included within the group; all

tae. y e Sei a ee, i are very powerful on the wing,
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.] [Parion's Green and all feed on living prey,
WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE though, in the case of the di-

This 1s an Australian species, feeding chiefly upon carrion minutive forms, this Inay consist

BIRDS OF PREY AND OWLS

mainly, if not entirely, of insects. The members of
the Falcon Tribe may be distinguished from the
majority of the larger hawks by the fact that the
eyes are dark hazel-brown instead of yellow, and
that the bare, yellow, waxy-looking band of skin at
the base of the beak, so characteristic of the Birds
of Prey, is not sharply defined, but scantily clothed
with fine bristles, passing insensibly into the feathers
of the crown of the head.

Some of the best-known members of this section
of the group are the PEREGRINE and JER-FALCONS,
and the KesrreL, Hossy, and Meruin. Only the
peregrine and the kestrel, however, can now be called
common.

The PEREGRINE is the falcon held so much in
esteem by falconers, by whom the female only was
called the “falcon,” the male, which is smaller, being
known as a “tiercel.” The female was used for the
capture of the larger game, such as herons and rooks ;
whilst the male was flown only at partridges, and
sometimes magpies.

In a wild state the peregrine falcon is regarded
by other birds with the greatest fear and terror.
Ducks feeding on the banks of streams or lakes, on
perceiving it, immediately take to the water; whilst
plovers and lapwings rise to an immense height in
the air,and
remain
there for
hours. Mr.
Ussher,

Photo by WH’. P, Dando, F.Z.S.] «(Regent's Park

ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD
Frequent in the British Islands

who has had many opportunities of studying this

we

bird

Photo by HW’. P. Dandi F.Z.S.
MARTIAL HAWK-EAGLE

The Hawk-eagles show a marked preference for
woody districts

in Ireland, where it is quite common, relates an in-
stance of the tenacity with which it follows its prey,
in this case a lapwing. “The falcon,” he says, “after
several stoops, cleverly avoided by the lapwing, was
so near clutching, that the poor bird, quite worn out,
dropped into the water, and the falcon, after rising
from her stoop, poised a moment on her wings, and
then quietly lowering herself with extended legs, lifted
the lapwing from the water and bore her off.”

The eyrie is generally found half-way up some
precipitous cliff: no nest is made, but the eggs are
laid on the earth or gravel covering the selected ledge.
When eggs are found in a nest, the latter has always
been taken from some other bird, even the eagle being
occasionally dispossessed. Three or four eggs are laid,
which are very beautiful and variable in their colora-
tion. The young are attended by their parents long
after they are able to fly.

The JER-FaLcons are birds of large size and great

84 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

beauty, and at one time were much in request by
falconers, probably largely on account of their
appearance, for they lack the power and spirit of
the peregrine. Grey and black and white and
black are distinctive colours of the various
species, which are inhabitants of northern
regions.

The KestreL, or WIND-HOVER, is one of
the commonest birds of prey, much and most
unjustly persecuted by gamekeepers. Like the
peregrine falcon, the kestrel does not build a
nest, but takes possession of the deserted nests
of crows and magpies, or deposits its eggs on the
bare earth of a recess in some cliff or quarry
which is overhung by a projecting shelf of rock.
Occasionally a hole in a tree is chosen, the eggs
then resting on the rotten wood at the bottom.
That the kestrel is of a more confiding disposi-
tion than the majority of its tribe seems to be
proved by the fact that it will often deposit its
eggs in nesting-boxes, if these are placed in suit-
able spots.

The food of the kestrel appears to consist

By permission of Percy Leigh Pemberton, Esg. a mainly of mice, but frogs, earthworms, grass-
PEREGRINE FALCON hoppers, cockchafers, and other beetles are also
A favourite in falconry taken. Kestrels will also eat dead animals, as

is proved by the fact that they
are not seldom found dead
from eating poisoned rats laid
out for magpies. One in-
stance is on record where a PA
kestrel was taken with its ror
claws entangled in the fur of
a stoat, which fiercely de-
fended itself.

Of the Pyemy Fatcons
there are several species,
ranging from the eastern
Himalaya, through Tenas-
serim and Burma, to the
Malay Islands and the Phil-
ippines. The smallest is the
RED-LEGGED FaALconetT of
Nepal, Sikhim, and Burma.
It feeds largely upon insects,
such as dragon-flies, beetles,
and butterflies, hawking them ant
with a swallow-like speed. Photo ty

tes ; ; :
Ottomar Anschiits | [Berlin
SPECTACLED OWL

Occasionally the members of ; é ,
e A South American bird with a somewhat remarkable coloration

this little group are said to

BIRDS OF PREY AND OWLS 85

hunt down and kill birds larger than themselves.

OWLS.

; Few birds have been more misrepresented in
literature than the Owrs. For centuries they have
been depicted as birds of ill omen, and accused of
all kinds of diabolical practices. Shakespeare, for
example, repeatedly makes the owl do duty for
some evil sign, or fulfil some dire purpose. Thus
in Macbeth, Act IT., Scene ii.,

It was the owl that shriek’d, the fatal bellman,

Which gives the stern’st good-night.
And later on, in Act IV., it is an owl’s wing which
he makes the witches add to their caldron of noi-
some things, when brewing their deadly potion.
In Spain the scops and tawny owls are believed to
be devil’s birds, and are accused of drinking the
oil from the lamps suspended before the shrines
of saints. The gamekeeper nails their bodies up
on the barn door as offenders of the worst type,
whilst the Malagasy believe owls to be the embodi-
ments of evil spirits.

Photo by C. N. Maviayeatl LSmyrna a
EAGLE-OWL

One of the largest owls

It is therefore a relief to find this unwarrantable
prejudice is not absolutely universal, since amongst
some people, at least, the owl has found some favour.
The best-known instance of this is the case of the
Greeks, who made the owl the symbol of wisdom, and
chose as an emblem, sinsularly enough, the species
known as the Little Owl, a bird which is notorious for
its ludicrous behaviour, so much so that it has earned
for itself the reputation of being the veritable buffoon
of birds. Its grotesque and ridiculous antics are
utilised by Continental bird-catchers, who use it as a
lure to attract small birds, tethering it for this pur-
pose near nets, snares, or twigs smeared with bird-lime.

Amongst other birds, strangely enough, the owl
appears to be as much disliked as the fiercer and more
dangerous members of the Hawk Tribe, and in con-
sequence, should one venture abroad during the day
or be discovered in its retreat, the alarm is given, and
every small bird within call is summoned to take part
in a general mobbing.

Although proverbially unpalatable, the Little Owl

i ae

Photo by HW’, P, Dando, F.Z.S.] [Regent's Park

TAWNY OWL

One of ihe commonest British owls

86 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

is said to be eaten in Italy, as are other species in the various countries in which they are
found.

Varying considerably in size, the owls, nevertheless, present a very general uniformity in
appearance. All are remarkable for the peculiar softness of their plumage, which imparts to the
wings the almost unique power of absolutely silent flight, the sound being deadened or muffled,
so that the prey can be approached suddenly, and seized before escape is possible. This is very
necessary when hunting in twilight hours. The owls are almost the only birds in which the
outer toe is reversible, or capable of being turned either forwards or backwards. Furthermore,
the members of this group are remarkable for the fact that the eyes look directly forward,
instead of outwards, as in other birds, and that the feathers of the face are arranged round
each eye in the form of a disk, and thus impart the familiar owl-like visage, seen elsewhere
only among certain of the Hawk Tribe known as “Harriers.”

We may regard as the typical owl the species known as the Tawny or Woop-owL. The
benefits it confers are great, but, unfortunately, unrecognized, for its chief food consists of rats
and mice. This is the bird which gives utterance to that weird ‘“hoo-hoo—hoo-hoo-hoo,”’ one
of the most charming of the many delightful sounds that break the stillness of the summer
nights.

Other common species are the Lonc- and Suort-rarrp Owrs, both remarkable for the
fact that the aperture of the ear, which is of enormous size, is of a different shape on the right
and left sides of the head. These owls, furthermore, are characterised by the possession of a
pair of feathery tufts, or “horns,” springing from the top of the head, which can be erected or
depressed at pleasure. These horns are found in many species of owl not necessarily closely
related. The species under consideration are of medium size, with large eyes of a most wonderful
golden-yellow colour, standing in strong contrast with those of the tawny owl, which are nearly
black. Like the tawny owl, these two species, and especially the short-eared, live largely on rats
and mice. The last-named bird also devours great numbers of dor beetles and cockchafers,

Amongst the largest of the tribe are the EacLe- and Snowy Owts. The eagle-owl may be
described as a largely magnified long-eared owl in general appearance, though, as a matter of
fact, the two are not very closely related. The snowy owl, as its name implies, is white in
colour, the white being relieved by more or less conspicuous black markings. This white livery,
assimilating with its snowy surroundings, allows the wearer to approach its prey unperceived
on the snow. Whilst the snowy owl is confined to northern regions, the eagle-owl enjoys a
wide distribution. The larger species of eagle-owl are the most ferocious members of the order,
and prey largely upon hares, rabbits, and the large gamebirds; whilst the snowy owl, though
selecting similar prey, does incalculable good by devouring those destructive little rodents known
as the lemmings.

The species known as PycMy Owts and Litrte Ow ts we mention here only on account
of their small size, one member of the former group being little bigger than a lark. Thus
they stand in strong contrast with the giant snowy and eagle-owls.

Chae TER x

NIGHT-FARS, SIVIFTS, AND HUMMING-BIRDS

NIGHT-JARS

T is probable that the NIGHT-JARS are the
nearest allies of the Owls. As pointed out
in the last chapter, although the latter

have acquired the habits of the Hawk and Eagle
Tribe, they are not really connected with that
group by descent.

Soberly clad, so as to be in complete harmony
with its surroundings, with large eyes, huge
mouth, and peculiarly short beak, beset with
long bristles, the night-jar may be distinguished
at once from all other British birds. By day it
hides, squatting close to the ground, or perched
on the thick branch of a tree; but when on the
latter, it sits along and not across the bough,
like other birds, the complete harmony between
its plumage and the bark rendering it as invisible
as when on the ground.

Not until the spring has far advanced does
this bird leave its winter resort in Africa for COMMON NIGHT-JAR
Europe, making its presence known by its con-
spicuous habit of hunting its food (which consists
of moths and beetles) after twilight has fallen. Later, its extraordinary churring note is heard --

Photo by A. S. Rudland & Sons

Known also as Fern-ow/ and Goat-sucker

Photo by A, S. Rudland & Sons —
PENNANT-WINGED NIGHT-JAR (FRONT VIEW)

The long and graceful plumes are much-leng thened quill-feathers, and by their resemblance to the waving grass in which the bird nests afford
protection

87

88 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

a note which has been likened to the noise made by a spinning-wheel, and so powerful as to
be audible half a mile off. This note is made while on the ground: on the wing, while toying
with its mate, another equally peculiar sound is made, which has been likened to the noise
made by swinging a whip-thong through the air.

No nest is made by this bird; but the eggs, two in number and_ beautifully marked,
are laid on the bare ground. The young are covered with down, and remain in the nest
for some time.

Another very remarkable feature is the fact that the claw of the middle toe has its inner
edge curiously serrated, forming a sort of comb, the function of which is unknown. This
comb-like claw occurs also in some few other birds — bitterns, for instance.

A very remarkable kind is the PENNANT-WINGED NIGHT-JAR, in which one of the quill-
feathers in cach wing is produced into a‘ pennant” of some 17 inches in length. The shaft
of the feather is bare for the greater part of its length, and terminates in a feathery blade.
It is an Abyssinian species about which not much is known.

Some of the night-jars, as the
New World NIGHT-HAWK and the
Old World EARED NIGHT-JARS, are
particularly owl-like,a resemblance
imparted by long “ ear-like”’ tufts
of feathers which rise from the
back of the head. Others, as
the MORE-PORK of the Tasmanian
colonists, or the FROG-MOUTH, as it
is called in Australia, are remark-
able for the huge size of the
mouth, bounded, as it appears to
be, by huge lips, represented by
the short, round-edged beak.

Very nearly related to the
night-jars is the OIL-BIRD of South
America, which lives in caves in
Trinidad, Ecuador, and Peru, where
it builds a nest which has been
likened in appearance to a huge

Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea cheese, and in which are laid from
MORE-PORKS two to four white eggs. Like the
So called from the note they utter night-jars, these birds feed by

night, emerging from their gloomy
retreats at twilight with much noise and in great numbers. Their food, however, is entirely
of a vegetable nature, consisting of oily nuts or fruits.
The young, soon after they are hatched, become perfect masses of fat, and on this account
are much in demand by the Indians, who make a special business of killing them and extracting
the oil.

SWIFTS

In genera! appearance SWIFTS beara strong superficial resemblance to Swallows; in reality
they are related, not to those harbingers of spring, but to the Night-jars on the one hand
and the Humming-birds on the other.

The COMMON SWIFT arrives in England during the early part of May, and stays till
the end of August, or sometimes till September has half run its course. Black in colour,
relieved only by a white throat, it has little in the sense of beauty to recommend it;
nevertheless, there are probably few who do not cherish tender feelings towards this bird.

NIGHT-JARS, SWIFTS, AND HUMMING-BIRDS 8g

"a

[ EEE lll

Photo by Hs Ts Newman] — [Berkhamsted :

SWIFT
Al common British bird during the summer months
The swift has great buoyancy of spirits, as is manifested by the wild, exuberant bursts of
screaming to which it gives voice as it rushes in small parties down the lanes or along the
less-frequented thoroughfares of towns as morning breaks or evening falls, and occasionally
throughout the day. The greater part of its life is spent upon the wing (indeed, it appears
to rest only when incubating or sleeping), and of all the smaller birds it is the most graceful
in flight, turning and twisting in fairy mazes high in the heavens for hours at a time.

The swift chooses for its nesting-place the eaves of houses and holes in church towers, and
occasionally a crevice in the face of a quarry. The nest is formed of bits of straw, dry grass,
and a few feathers, glued together by a secretion of the salivary glands into a compact crust;
in this the bird deposits from two to four white eggs. The young, which are hatched naked
and blind, never develop down-feathers, but soon become more or less imperfectly clothed in
a mass of tiny spines, representing the budding feathers; these give the bird somewhat the
appearance of a young hedgehog.

In adaptation to its remarkable powers of flight, the wing has undergone considerable
modification in form, so that it differs from that of all other birds. On the other hand,
the legs, being so little required, have diminished considerably, and are remarkable for their
smallness — a fact which hampers the bird considerably, should it happen to alight on level
ground, for, owing to the great length of the wings, it can arise only with considerable difficulty.

Nearly allied to the common swift is SALVIN’S SWIFT, remarkable on account of its nest,
which has been described by Dr. Sharpe as the most wonderful in the world. About 2 feet
long and 6 inches in diameter, it looks rather like the sleeve of an old coat than a_ nest.
It is made entirely of the downy seeds of plants, which, floating through the air after the
fashion of such seeds, are caught by the birds when on the wing, and, partly felted and
partly glued by the salivary secretion, are woven slowly into the characteristic woolly domicile.
The site and manner of fixation of the nest are scarcely less wonderful, for it is suspended
from the flat surface of some projecting piece of rock on the face of a cliff, and is thus
almost inaccessible; yet, as if to make assurance doubly sure, two entrances are made, one at

90 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

the bottom, which is really blind, and one at the top, near its foundation, if we may call it
so, which leads into the nursery.

Still more swallow-like in general appearance are the diminutive EDIBLE SWIFTS, so called,
not on account of the palatability of the birds themselves, but of their nests, which are in
great demand by the wealthy Chinese for conversion into birds’-nest soup. It has already
been remarked that the salivary glands are unusually active in the swifts, their secretion
bearing a very important part in the construction of the nest, and serving as a kind of
cement. It is, therefore, not surprising that in some members of the group we find this
secretion playing a still more prominent part, forming, at least in one species, the entire
material of the nest. ‘ With these nests,” writes Dr. Sharpe, “a large trade is done with China
from many of the Malavan Islands, over 3,500,000 nests having been known to be exported
in a single year from Borneo to the latter country.

. . In Borneo and other places the caves in which
the swiftlets build are leased to the collectors for a
considerable sum; but it is only the white nests, made
of the pure secretion, which are of any real value.
The nests of those species which mix into their nests
grass or feathers are not appreciated as an article of
commerce.”

Colonel Legge gives some extremely interesting
particulars concerning the nesting habits of these birds
in Ceylon. ‘It is noteworthy,” he writes, ‘that the
partially fledged young — which were procured on this
occasion for me, and which I kept for the night —
scrambled out on to the exterior of the nest, and slept
in an upright position, with the bill pointing straight
up. This is evidently the normal mode of roosting
resorted to by this species. The interior of this cave,
with its numbers of active tenants, presented a singular
appearance. The bottom was filled with a vast deposit
of liquid guano, reaching, I was informed, to a depth
of 30 feet, and composed of droppings, old nests, and
dead young fallen from above, the whole mingled
into a loathsome mass, with water lodged in the
crevices, and causing an awful stench, which would
have been intolerable for a moment even, had not
the hundreds of frightened little birds, as they
screamed and whirred in and out of the gloomy cave
with a hum like a storm in a ship’s rigging, power-
fully excited my interest, and produced a long
examination of the colony. This guano-deposit is a
source of considerable profit to the estate, the hospitable manager of which informed us that
he had manured 100 acres of coffee with it during that season.”

£ ak
Photo by A, S. Rudland & Sons

EDIBLE SWIFT

The nests of this bird are used for soup; firve are seen i
this photograph

HUMMING-BIRDS

It is generally admitted that HUMMING-BIRDS are nearly related to Swifts, with which,.
however, they stand in the strongest possible contrast in the matter of plumage — the latter
being always inconspicuously coloured, whilst the former are for the most part clad in vestments.
so gorgeous as to render it extremely difficult to describe them in sober language. Moreover,
so great is the wealth of species — some hundreds in number —and so varied are the form and
coloration, and so closely do the various types pass one into the other, that their classification
is a matter of extreme difficulty.

Ci PER: aed

PARROTS, CUCKOOS, AND PLANTAIN-EATERS

PARROTS

HE art of taming wild animals,” writes Mr. Jenks in his ‘* History of Politics,” “and
making them serve the purposes of man, is one of the greatest discoveries of the
world.” He holds—and there can be little question as to its reasonableness — ‘‘ that

the domestication of animals converted the savage pack into the patriarchal tribe,” and that
the earliest domesticated animals were pets. How great a share, then, PARROTS may have
had in this civilisation and advancement no man can tell, for it is impossible to say how long
these beautiful birds may have been esteemed as pets, or how early they were introduced
to the notice of the civilised peoples of past generations. Certain it is, however, that for
more than 2,000 years they have been held in the highest esteem.

Modern discovery has added enormously to the list of known parrots, so that to-day more
than 500 different species have been described, and these may be divided into NesToRS, LORIES,
COCKATOOS, COCKATEELS, MAcAWs, and KAKAPOS.

Photo by Ww. Reid]

| [Wishaw, N.B.

KEA
Also known as the Mountain-nestor

gI

Qa THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

"Photo by D. Le Souef] [Melbourne

NEW ZEALAND KEA

The kea frequents the slopes of lofty snow-covered mountains

Of the first named, the best known is the KEA, or MOUNTAIN-NESTOR. of the South
Island, New Zealand. Dull in coloration, and not striking in appearance, it has earned an
unenviable notoriety, which appears to rest as much upon fable as upon fact. It seems that,
since the introduction of sheep into this part of the world by the settlers, this bird has
found a diet of flesh more stimulating than one of fruit. [Exactly how this came to be is
not known. Two explanations have been advanced. The first has it that the birds settled
on the skins of the sheep slaughtered for their wool, and picked off pieces of fat therefrom,
as well as various tit-bits from the carcases of the same, and thus found out how toothsome —
or beaksome— mutton was. From this they went a step further, and did the slaughtering
for themselves. Parties of them now go a-hunting, worry a sheep till exhausted, then dig
down through the back, and so wound the intestines that death results. Another explanation
is that the birds in the original instance mistook the sheep's backs for the huge masses
of lichen common to this region, of which the birds are very fond. Not finding it to
their taste at the top, they dug deep, and soon came to the flesh, which, like the forbidden
fruit, proved more palatable than that which was provided for them by a bountiful Nature.
The result is, that they have become a menace to sheep-farmers, and are on this account in
danger of extermination. It has, however, been denied recently that the damage inflicted
is anything like so serious as was at one time reported, since on one run, where the
damage was unusually large, only 1 in 300 sheep was so attacked. This bird has also been
said to attack horses.

Very different, in general appearance and in esteem, are the LOrIEs. Like the Nestors,
the tip of the upper jaw, or beak, is smooth, or nearly so; and in this respect these two
groups are to be distinguished from all the other parrots; but in the gorgeousness of their
plumage they far eclipse their congeners. Absent in New Zealand, they are found elsewhere

PARROTS, CUCKOOS, AND PLANTAIN-EATERS 93

throughout the Australasian region,
inclusive of Polynesia, and are highly
esteemed as pets, combining great beauty
with a very docile disposition and con-
siderable talking powers.

The birds of this section are also
known as BRUSH-TONGUED PARROTS,
from the presence of a remarkable
“brush” borne on the end of the tongue.
This is a special adaptation, enabling the
birds to feed upon honey; some, indeed,
have this brush particularly well de-
veloped, and are almost entirely honey-
seekers, whilst others, wherein the brush
is less developed, live largely on fruits.
Professor Moseley tells us that honey
literally poured from the mouths of pire ie Sie.

BLUE MOUNTAIN-LORIES which he shot Photo by D. Le Souef}
at Cape York. NEW ZEALAND KAKA

The COCKATOOS are abundant in the The Maoris keep this bird as a lure
Australian region, but have their head-
quarters in the Malay Archipelago. Besides the familiar white-crested form so commonly kept
in England, the group includes an iron-grey coloured bird with a bright red head, and a huge
black species, which represents the giant of the order. It is a funereal-looking bird, the largest
specimens inhabiting New Guinea. One of its most striking features is the beak, which is
of enormous size. Its tongue differs from that of other parrots in that it is slender and
cylindrical in shape, and of a deep red colour, instead of thick, fleshy, and black. It frequents,
Mr. Wallace tells us, the lower parts of the forest, feeding upon various fruits and seeds, but
displaying a marked partiality for the kernel of the canary-nut, which grows on a lofty
forest-tree; ‘and the manner in which it gets at these seeds,” writes Mr. Wallace, ‘‘ shows a
correlation of structure and habits which would point to the canary as its special food. The
shell of this nut is so excessively hard that only a heavy hammer will crack it; it is some-
what triangular, and the outside is quite smooth. The manner in which the bird opens these
nuts is very curious. Taking one end-ways in its bill, and keeping it firm by a pressure of
the tongue, it cuts a transverse notch by a lateral sawing motion of the sharp-edged lower
mandible. This done, it takes hold of the nut with its foot, and, biting off a piece of leaf,
retains it in the deep notch by the upper mandible, and again seizing the nut, which is
prevented from slipping by the elastic tissue of the leaf, fixes the edge of the lower mandible
in the notch, and a powerful rip breaks off a piece of the shell. Again taking the nut in its
claws, it inserts the very long and sharp point of the bill, and picks out the kernel, which is
seized hold of, morsel by morsel, by the extensile tongue.”

Of the typical parrots, the best known is the common GREY AFRICAN PARROT, with a red
tail, so valued on account of its great talking powers. Other species of this section which
should be mentioned here are the PYGMy PARROTS, MAcAws, HAWK-BILLED PARROT, BUDGERI-
GARS, and OWL-PARROT.

The first named are the smallest of all the tribe, remarkable as well for the splendour of
the plumage as their size, which is less than that of the common sparrow.

The LONG-TAILED MACAWS, representing the most showy and gaudily coloured of all the
Parrot Tribe, inhabit the tropical forests of South America. Mr. Bates describes a flock of
scarlet-and-blue macaws, which he came across one day, as looking like a cluster of flaunting
banners among the crown of dark green leaves of a bacaba-palm.

The superb HYACINTHINE MACAW is one of the rarest of the Parrot Tribe, and was found

94 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

rs Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.
BLACK COCKATOO
Found in pairs in thick forests

The HANGING-PARROTS are about the
same size as the well-known ‘ love-birds,”
and remarkable for their habit of sleeping
suspended head-downwards by one foot from
the boughs of trees. They are all brilliantly
coloured birds, and have a fairly wide range,
extending from India and the Philippines
through the Malay region as far east as Duke
of York Island.

The Australian BUDGERIGARS, or GRASS-
PARRAKEETS, need no description here; but
it is interesting to note that nearly allied to
them is a small species known as the SWAMP-
or LONG-TAILED GROUND-PARRAKEET. As its

by Bates in the interior of Brazil. As its
name implies, it is of a deep hyacinthine
colour, relieved by a bare patch of pure
white skin round the eyes. It feeds on the
nuts of several palms, especially those of
the macuja. These nuts, which are so hard
as to be difficult to break without a heavy
hammer, are crushed to a pulp by the power-
ful beak of this macaw.

Crests among parrots are common enough,
but only one species wears a frill; this is
the HAWK-BILLED PARROT of the Amazon
Valley. It is closely related to the large
and well-known AMAZON PARROTS, and has
been aptly described as a most extraordinary
bird. Its coloration is striking—green above,
with a brown head; the frill or ruff around
the neck shows up in strong contrast, being
dark red, with blue edges, and barred with
blue. The feathers of the breast and abdo-
men, like the frill, are also red and blue,
whilst the under-surfaces of the tail and

wings are black. It is only when the bird is

excited or angry that the ruff is raised.

PEN

ib, Ba Se
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.)

COCKATOO

Cockatoos in a wild state often congregate in immense flocks

[Parson's Green

PARROTS, CUCKOOS, AND PLANTAIN-EATERS US

a CE Se
Photo by Ottomar Anschiitz]

LEADBEATER’S COCKATOO
Has a red crest, banded with yellow and tipped qwith white

name implies, it is a ground-dwelling species, and, in accordance with this habit, has considerably
longer legs than the tree-haunting species. This lengthening of the leg in arboreal species
is seen also among pigeons and many other birds.

The most interesting, perhaps, of all the parrots is the remarkable KAKAPO, or OWL-PARROT,
of New Zealand. Like the species just described, it is also a ground-dweller; furthermore,
it differs from all other members of the tribe in being flightless, and, like the flightless
members of the Ostrich Tribe, has completely lost the deep keel from the breast-bone,
which gives support to the muscles which move the wings. It is a large bird, green in
colour, mottled with yellow and black, and derives its name of Owl-parrot from the fact that
the feathers of the face radiate from the eye outwards to form a kind of disk. When
eating grass, it is said to graze, nibbling after the fashion of a rabbit. Occasionally it is
said to climb trees, descending with extended wings, so as to break the force of its career.
It has been described as a playful and affectionate pet in captivity, displaying also great
cleverness and intelligence. Unfortunately it is growing more and more rare, so that its final
extermination is only a question of time—the ravages of dogs, cats, and pigs, introduced by
the settlers, being mainly the agents of destruction.

Once common all over New Zealand, the range of the owl-parrot is now restricted to the
mountainous regions of North Island and the northern half of South Island. During the day
it remains concealed in the holes in rocks or under roots of trees, and if disturbed is difficult
to rouse. When taken from its retreat, it runs swiftly, and tries to hide, seeking shelter,
if possible, under a heap of soft, dry grass. At sunset, however, it becomes very animated,
and travels — at least when possible —in companies, making tracks a foot or more wide across
the herbage. It feeds greedily upon mosses, ferns, seeds, berries, and, it is said, even lizards,
giving vent, when devouring some favourite morsel, to a kind of grunting noise.

96 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

The kakapo nests in holes under
trees and rocks, laying two or three
eggs, which, like those of the Parrots,
are white.

The natives take advantage of
its feeble powers of flight, hunting it
on foot by torchlight, aided by dogs,
which, it is said, are not seldom
seriously wounded by the powerful
bill.

When the breeding-season is
over, these birds appear to live in
small communities, four or five
occupying the same hole. They are
apparently gifted with some fore-
sight, inasmuch as they lay up a store
of food, to be drawn upon during bad
weather.

CUCKOOS AND PLANTAIN-EATERS

The Cuckoo Tribe is somewhat
unfortunate in that the numerous
members of which it is composed
are completely overshadowed by the
prominence which has been given
to the COMMON CUCKOO. Few birds,
indeed, have managed to secure so
much attention, the poet in particular
having sung its praises without stint.
This enthusiasm undoubtedly is but
an echo of the general popular senti-
ment, for there are few birds to

MACAW which the British extend a more

The flight of these gorgeously clad birds is very powerful hearty welcome, its well-known cry

possessing a peculiar charm for lovers

of the country. Coming in April, and leaving again in July, its stay is of the

shortest; but during the greater part of this time its whereabouts may generally be known

by the familiar call “ cuckoo, cuckoo,” though undergoing certain characteristic changes as the
months glide by.

Apart from its song, one of the most interesting things concerning the cuckoo is the fact
that it goes about in disguise — the disguise of the ass in the lion’s skin with a vengeance;
for it is clothed in the garb of that terror of the countryside, the sparrow-hawk. Nay, more;
it has also most successfully imitated the flight of that bogy; and this to frighten little
birds — not, however, for the mere purpose of creating consternation amongst them, but for far

[Wishaw, N.B.

Phote by C, Reid]

more sinister ends.

Somehow or another, in cuckoo society, the rearing of a family is a responsibility which
is utterly repudiated. Great pains seem to have been taken to evade this duty, and yet to
ensure the continuity of their distinguished house. The Oviparous method of reproduction,
which obtains in the feathered world, has been turned to good account —in fact, everything
depends upon this. It seems to have suggested itself as far more convenient to drop an egg
here and there into a neighbour’s nursery, and leave the work of bringing it to life to
the owners thereof. But to carry out this system of distributing foundlings requires tact,

S|

Photo by Kerry & Co.)

BLUE MOUNTAIN-PARROTS
Ad honey-cating species

98 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

‘how by F. Peat Millar] 7 oe TBR

YOUNG CUCKOO EJECTING EGG
The egg is held in position by the head and wings

cunning, and the mutual co-operation of both the male and his—at least temporary—wife ;
hence the disguise. The plan of execution very frequently adopted is for the male to hover
over the treasure-house of the intended foster-parents hawk-wise. This is sure to call forth an
attack from the poor little wretches threatened, which ends in an apparently hasty retreat of
the marauder, followed by his fearless assailants. No sooner is the coast clear, however, than
the wily female, taking her egg in her beak, slips quietly up to the nest and deposits her burden.

Let us imagine that this home so lately threatened is that of the modest little hedge-
sparrow, and take a peep during the absence of the owners, after quiet has established itself
once again. Lying side by side with the tiny sky-blue eggs of the hedge-sparrow we should
find the relatively large, greyish-green or reddish-grey egg of the cuckoo. What a contrast!
If the hedge-sparrows notice this too, they evidently do not mind, for they invariably hatch it
with their own.

But some birds are not so accommodating as this, and would ruthlessly destroy or reject
any egg surreptitiously introduced into the nest. Consequently more deception has to be
practised. The hawk-like garb still serves its purpose to draw off the intended dupes from
the nest; but this is not enough, for to deposit an egg of the normal cuckoo type would be
worse than useless, since it would meet with instant destruction on the return of the owners
of the nest. But the cuckoo, strange to say, has proved equal to the occasion, and meets
the difficulty by laying an egg to match those in the nest. The Redstart, Wagtail, Sedge-
warbler, Red-backed Shrike, and Meadow-pipit may be cited as instances of—shall we say
exclusive ?—birds which must be circumvented by ‘ colourable imitations.” Perhaps the most
wonderful of the cuckoo successes in this direction is the imitation of the redstart’s egg,
which is blue.

Naturally these facts have given rise to much speculation, but even now we cannot regard
the discussion as finally settled. Some ornithologists held that the egg of every individual
cuckoo was subject to great variations, and that the place of deposit of each egg was determined

PARROTS, CUCKOOS, AND PLANTAIN-EATERS oo

only after the bird had ascertained its colour. If this were true, surely we should find blue
cuckoos’ eggs in hedge-sparrows’ as well as redstarts’ nests. But we don't! Others have sought
to explain the existence of mimicking eggs to the influence of the food peculiar to the foster-
parent upon the germ of the young female cuckoo, which, through this channel, became
transmitted to all its descendants. To support this hypothesis it was necessary to throw over-
board the old individual variability explanation, and to adopt one that is certainly nearer the
truth —to wit, that each cuckoo chooses the nest of that species in which itself was reared
as a depository, in turn, for its own egg, and only when such is not available will it select
some other species, and trust to luck for its adoption. This would certainly account for many
anomalies; but as it seems that there are more eggs unlike than like those of the selected
foster-parents, it cannot be a perfect explanation.

A third explanation takes that part of the second for granted which assumes that cuckoos
select nests of the species which served them as foster-parents, and explains the mimicry,
when this occurs, as due to the results of natural selection.

Our interest, however, in the domestic economy of the common cuckoo is not to be
allowed to drop with the incubation of the egg. The perfidy of the parents seems to have
cast a sombre shadow over the cradle of the offspring, an evil spell destined to bear fruit with
terrible suddenness; for the young, before it is many hours old, and while yet blind and
naked, perpetrates its first act of wrong-doing by committing murder! There is no case here
of wilful or ignorant misrepresentation and slander, such as many of our feathered friends are
made to suffer at our hands—no foolish prejudice such as has blasted the reputation of some
of our most guiltless and useful of bird-citizens. The witnesses of the crime of which we speak
are many and unimpeachable. The facts are as follows: —

The parent cuckoo deposits her egg in the nest of some other bird with those of the
owners thereof. All are hatched. In a few hours after the arrival of the young cuckoo the
foster-brothers and -sisters invariably disappear, and are not seldom found in the immediate
neighbourhood of the nest. That they must have been removed by force is certain; but
this force cannot be attributed to the natural parents. The evidence of the first witnesses,
therefore, was worthy of all consideration; and since their accounts have been frequently

PHEASANT-CUCKOO

The hind toe terminates in a spur-like claw ; hence these cuckoos are known as Lark-heeled Cuckoos

100 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

confirmed by most trustworthy observers, we must now admit the charge proved. One of
the best known of these accounts is that of Mrs. Hugh Blackburn. She has given us a vivid
picture of this most extraordinary of domestic tragedies. The victims in this instance were
meadow-pipits. Finding a pipit’s nest with a cuckoo’s egg therein, she kept it carefully
under observation. At one visit she found the pipits hatched, but not the cuckoo. Forty-
eight hours later the cuckoo had not only arrived, but ousted his foster-brothers and -sisters,
who were found lying outside the nest, but yet alive. They were replaced beside the cuckoo,
which at once reopened hostilities for the purpose of maintaining its absolute possession of
the nursery. This it did by burrowing under one of them, which, balanced upon its back,
it proceeded to eject by climbing up the nest tail-foremost, till, reaching the brim, it could
relieve itself of its burden by heaving it over the edge and down the bank. Pausing a
moment, it then felt backwards with its wings to make sure the pipit was really gone, and,
having satisfied itself on this point, subsided to the bottom of the nest. Next day, when
the nest was visited, the remaining pipit was found outside the nest cold and dead. “ But
what struck me most,” she writes, “was this: the cuckoo was perfectly naked, without a
vestige of a feather or even a hint of feathers, its eyes were not yet opened, and its neck
seemed too weak to support the weight of its head. The pipits had well-developed quills on
the wings and back, and had bright eyes partially opened, yet they seemed quite helpless
under the manipulations of the cuckoo, which looked a much less developed creature.”

The GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO of South Europe and North Africa is a species which, though
parasitic, does not seem to have sunk to such a depth as the common cuckoo. Its eggs
very closely resemble those of certain
magpies and crows within its breeding-
area, and it is in the nests of these that
they are deposited. We may assume
that mimicry has been resorted to, and
become perfected by the same means as
have accomplished this end in the case
of the common cuckoo. We notice here,
however, two points of difference there-
from. In the first place, from two to
four eggs are left in each nest instead
of one; and, secondly, the young cuckoos
seem to live in perfect amity with their
foster-brothers and -sisters — there is no
ejection of the rightful heirs.

Having pledged themselves to a
course of deception and treachery, there
is no telling the lengths to which such
conduct may lead. We have already
seen that the bird has succeeded in lay-
ing what we may call forged eggs, but
we come now to an instance where the
young has also to be disguised. This
is furnished by a species of cuckoo
known as the KOEL, inhabiting Palawan,
an island in the Philippines. This bird

shifts its parental duties upon the
Suaeao Gan pace Grae Hane Reber eo shoulders of a species of myna inhabit-
NEST ing the same island. Now, the mynas

The young bird has its mouth open, ready for all the food the foster-parents are black, and their young, as is often
can collect the case where both sexes are coloured

4% : YS
Phete by J. T. Newman]

PARROTS, CUCKOOS, AND PLANTAIN-EATERS To0z

alike, resemble the parents, and are black
likewise. With the cuckoo the case is
different. The male and female are
conspicuously different in coloration, the
former being black, the latter brown. In
such cases it is the rule for the young
to wear the livery of the female. If this
rule were adhered to in the case of the
cuckoo, destruction would be more than
probable, for the mynas would as likely
as not destroy so outrageous a departure
from myna custom as a brown youngster.
But the koel has proved equal to the occa-
sion, by the simple expedient of attiring
the young in the male instead of the
female livery. Later on in life the rule
for the exchange of plumage is reversed,
and the young female doffs the temporary
black dress of the male for the brown
one of the adult female, instead of wrce
versa.

All cuckoos, however, are not para-
sitic, the species known as LARK-HEELED
CuCcKO0os— from the presence ofa long,
spine-like claw on the hind toe — building
a nest and hatching their own eggs.
They have a wide range, being found in
Africa from Egypt to Cape Colony, Mada-
gascar, India, China, New Guinea, and
Australia. Teta Se Neereen

As a rule, the Cuckoos are not YOUNG CUCKOO
conspicuously coloured, but some species
are clad in a livery resplendent with
metallic colours. These are represented by the Indian and Australian BRONZE CUCKOOs and
the African GOLDEN CuCKOos. One of the most beautiful of all is the African EMERALD
Cuckoo, in which the upper-parts are of a vivid emerald-green, whilst the under-parts are
bright yellow.

Finally, we must mention the GROUND-CUCKOOS, which are comparatively long-legged,
terrestrial forms, with small wings. One of the best known is an inhabitant of the Southern
United States, from Texas to New Mexico, Southern Colorado, and California. “It has obtained
the name of ROOD-RUNNER,” writes Dr. Sharpe, “from the speed with which it flies over the
ground, some idea of which may be gained from a statement of Colonel Stevenson, that, when
in Southern California, he saw, on two occasions, the ranchmen of that part of the country
chase one of these birds on horseback for a distance of a mile or more at full speed, when
the cuckoo, though still in advance, would suddenly stop and fly up among the upper limbs
of some stunted tree or bush near the roadside, and the rider, having kept the bird in view
all the way, would dismount and easily take the exhausted bird from its perch alive.”

That the African PLANTAIN-EATERS, or TOURACOS, are related to the Cuckoos there can be
no doubt, although they do not bear any very close superficial resemblance to them. Striking
in appearance and of beautiful plumage, they owe as much of the interest which now centres
on them to the chemist as to the ornithologist. Long ago it was noticed that the rich
crimson colour of the wing-quills disappeared after exposure to a heavy rain, having been

A young cuckoo remains in the nest till fully fledged

roz2 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

apparently washed out —a supposition Justified
by the discovery still later that the water in
which captive species had been bathing was
strongly tinged with colour. A little more
than thirty years ago these facts came under
the notice of Professor Church, who, as a
result of a thorough examination of the
mystery, was enabled to announce the dis-
covery of a new animal pigment containing
copper, which he called “ turacin.”

There are twenty-five different species of
plantain-eaters, which are divided into two
groups — those which have red in the quills
and those without. All are forest-dwellers,
feeding upon various wild fruits, building a
nest of sticks resembling that of a pigeon,
and laying therein three white eggs. The
majority of the species are crested and
brilliantly coloured, but a few are quite
soberly clad. The largest of the tribe is
nearly 3 feet long, and a brief description of
its coloration will serve to convey a notion
of the beauty of the more gorgeously clad
members. In this species, then, the upper
surface of the body is blue, the tail yellow,
with a blue base and black bar across the
tip, the under surface of the body rufous
brown, the bill yellow, with a scarlet tip, and
the eye red.

Though the tops of the highest trees
seem to be their favourite resort, these birds are
found also among the dense tangled masses
of creepers near the ground, flitting, when
disturbed, in graceful curves, and alighting
with crest erected and the tail turned sharply
upwards. The powers of flight appear to vary
among the different species, some being described as decidedly clumsy on the wing, whilst others,
on the contrary, are light and graceful. Shy and very restless, they are very difficult to
procure, when wounded running with great speed, and taking shelter in holes in trees. Their
flesh is esteemed a great delicacy by the natives. Save during rain or the heat of midday,
they appear to be very noisy birds, having a harsh note, varied with cat-like mewings.

Photo hy F. T. Newman

YOUNG CUCKOO IN REED-WARBLER’S NEST

This photograph was taken in August, an unusually late date to find
these birds in the nest

CHAPTER X11
ROLLERS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND HOOPOES

ROW-LIKE birds of brilliant coloration, the ROLLERS have earned their name from the
habit of occasionally rolling or turning over in their flight, after the manner of
tumbler-pigeons. One species at least visits Britain occasionally, only to be shot down

at once by the insatiable pot-hunter and collector of rare birds. They are birds of wide
distribution, occurring over the greater part of the Old World, and, as we have already
remarked, of brilliant coloration, blue and green, varied with reddish, being the predominating
colours. As with all birds of beautiful plumage, they are subjected to much persecution,

we

ee

Ska
~OIES

>

Photo by W Sail kont: F,Z.S-] [Mi'ford-on-Sea
AUSTRALIAN LAUGHING-KINGFISHER
The Laughing-king fisher, or Laughing-jackass, derives its name from its extraordinary note, resembling a demoniacal laugh

103

104 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

thousands upon thousands being killed every
year in India alone, to supply the demands
made by milliners for the decoration of
ladies’ hats.

Rollers frequent forest country, and
travel in pairs or in small companies: some
species are entirely insectivorous; others eat
also reptiles, frogs, beetles, worms, and grain.
Four or five white eggs are laid in a nest
made of roots, grass, hair, and feathers, and
built in walls, under the eaves of buildings,
or in holes of trees or banks.

Equally beautiful as a whole, and far
more widely known, are the KINGFISHERS.
But just as the common cuckoo has come to
overshadow the rest of its tribe, so the Com-
MON KINGFISHER eclipses all its congeners.
lor centuries a wealth of fable, held together
by a modicum of fact, served to secure for
this bird a peculiar interest; whilst to-day,
though shorn of much of the importance
with which these fables had invested it,
this kingfisher is still esteemed one of the
most interesting and beautiful of its tribe. -

Green and blue are the predominating
colours of its upper- and bright chestnut-
red of its under-surface; but owing to
structural peculiarities of the feathers of the
upper-parts, the reflection of the green and
blue areas changes with the direction of the
light from which the bird is viewed, in the
same way that the peacock’s train-feathers
change according as the light falls upon them.

As is the rule where both sexes are brilliantly coloured, this bird breeds in a hole, which
in the present species is generally excavated in the bank of a stream, but sometimes in an old
gravel-pit or chalk-pit, a mile or even more from the water. Occasionally the crumbling soil
under the roots of an old tree affords sufficient shelter. No nest is made, although what is
equivalent to a nest is ultimately formed from the bird’s habit of ejecting the indigestible
parts of its food on to the floor of the space in which the eggs are laid. In course of time this
becomes a cup-shaped structure; but whether, as Professor Newton remarks, by the pleasure of
the bird or the moisture of the soil, or both, is unknown. With care the nest may be
removed entire, but the slightest jar reduces the whole to the collection of fish-bones and
crustacean skeletons of which it was originally composed. There is a tradition, not yet
extinct, to the effect that these “nests” are of great pecuniary value, and scarcely a year
passes without the authorities at the Rritish Museum being offered such a treasure, at
prices varying from a few pounds to a hundred. The nest-chamber is approached by a tunnel
sloping upwards, and varying from 8 inches to 3 feet in length, terminating in a chamber
some 6 inches in diameter, in which the eggs are laid. These, from six to eight in number,
have a pure white, shining shell, tinged with a most exquisite pink colour, which is lost when
the eggs are blown.

The young seem to be reared under very unsanitary conditions, for the ejected fish-bones
and other hard parts are not reserved entirely for the nest, but gradually distributed along

Photo by I”. F, Piggstt} f " [Leighton Buscscard

KINGFISHERS AT HOME
The plumage of this bird is remarkable for the beauty of its iridescent

hues

ROLLERS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND HOOPOES 105

the tunnel approaching it; later, fish brought for the young, but dropped on the way, and
the fluid excreta of the parents are added, forming a dripping, fetid mass swarming with
maggots. The young, on leaving the nest, are at first tenderly fed and cared for by the
parents, but towards the end of the summer seem to be driven away to seek new fishing-
grounds for themselves.

Of the many legends that have grown up around this bird, some are well worth repeating.
Specially interesting is one related by Professor Newton on the authority of the French
naturalist Rolland. This has it that the kingfisher was originally a plain grey bird, and
acquired its present bright colours by flying towards the sun on its liberation from Noah’s
ark, when its upper-surface assumed the hue of the sky above it, and its lower plumage was
scorched by the heat of the setting sun to the tint itnow bears. Not a few virtues were
also attributed to this bird. Its dried body would, it was believed, avert thunder-bolts, or,
kept in a wardrobe, preserve from moths the woollen stuffs contained therein, whilst, hung
by a thread from the ceiling of a room, it would serve like the more conventional weather-
cock to point the direction of the prevailing wind.

Persecuted though it is, the kingfisher is by no means a rare bird in England, and
those who will may generally see it by the banks of some slowly flowing stream or lake,
or even shallow brook, sometimes even by the seashore. It feeds upon small aquatic insects
and crustacea and small fishes, sometimes even, it 1s said, upon leeches. Perched on some
bough overhanging the water, or stump or railing on the bank, it watches patiently, silent
and motionless. The moment its prey comes within striking distance it plunges down upon it,
disappearing for a moment beneath the surface, to appear the next with its capture in its
beak. If this be a fish, it is held crosswise, and borne upwards to the station from which
the plunge was made, there to be stunned by a few sharp blows, tossed into the air,
dexterously caught, and swallowed head-foremost. At times, however, perhaps when hunger
presses, more activity in the capture of food is displayed, the bird hovering suspended over
the water, after the custom of the kestrel-hawk.

\\though essentially fish-eating birds, a considerable number live far removed from water,
obtaining a livelihood by the capture of insects in forest regions, whilst some appear to feed
mainly on reptiles. These are known as Wood-kingfishers, to distinguish them from the Water-
kingfishers, the typical member of which group has been just described.

Of WOOD-KINGFISHERS,
or KINGHUNTERS, as they are [ Po 1
also called, the most beautiful 2
are the RACKET-TAILED KING-
FISHERS, so called from the
fact that the two middle tail-
feathers are produced into
two long rods, terminating in
a spoon-shaped enlargement.
Although represented by no
less than twenty distinct
species, they have a somewhat
limited range, being found
only in the Moluccas, New
Guinea, and Northern Aus-
tralia. One of the hand-
somest of all is the one wath
occurring in Amboina, an Be Ie, Gck~ Ge
island in the Malay Archipel- Eheiol by Stholastic Photos Co [Ransens sr een
ago, where it was discovered LAUGHING -KINGFISHERS

by Mr. A. R. Wallace. The This species has comparatively dull-coloured plumage

106 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

ae a J s bill, he tells us, is coral-red, the
| under-surface pure white, the back
and wings deep purple, while the
shoulders, head, and nape, and some
spots on the upper part of the back
and wings, are pure azure-blue. The
tail is white, narrowly edged with
blue. These birds live upon insects
and small Jand-mollusca, which they
dart down upon and pick up from the
ground just as the fish-eating species
pick up a fish.

Of the forest-haunting species,
however, the best known is probably
the large and, for a kingfisher, dull-
coloured LAUGHING-JACKASS, or
SETTLER’S CLOCK, of Australia. Its
food is of a very mixed character —
small mammals, reptiles, insects, and
crabs being devoured with equal relish.
Since it is not seldom to be seen
bearing off a snake in its bill, it may
be regarded as a useful bird — sup-

f
|
L

a < ‘ = |
Photo by C. N, Mavroyeni) (Smyrna

posing, of course, the snake to be of
KINGFISHER a poisonous variety. A good idea of
The photograph shows the nature of the favourite haunts of this species the bird in its native haunts is given

by the late Mr. Wheelwright. ‘ About
an hour before sunrise,” he writes, ‘the bushman is awakened by the most discordant sounds, as
if a troop of fiends were shouting, whooping, and laughing around him in one wild chorus.
This is the morning song of the ‘ laughing-jackass,’ warning his feathered mates that daybreak
is at hand. At noon the same wild laugh is heard, and as the sun sinks into the west it
again rings through the forest. I shall never forget the first night I slept in the open bush in
this country. It was in the Black Forest. I woke about daybreak after a confused sleep, and
for some minutes I could not remember where I was, such were the extraordinary sounds that
greeted my ears: the fiendish laugh of the jackass, the clear, flute-like notes of the magpie,
the hoarse cackle of the wattle-birds . . . and the screaming of thousands of parrots as they
dashed through the forest, all giving chorus, formed one of the most extraordinary concerts
I have ever heard, and seemed, at the moment, to have been got up for the purpose of
welcoming the stranger to this land of wonders on that eventful morning. I have heard it
hundreds of times since, but never with the same feelings that I listened to it then. The
laughing-jackass is the bushman's clock, and being by no means shy, of a companionable
nature, and a constant attendant on the bush-tent and a destroyer of snakes, is regarded, like
the robin at home, as a sacred bird in the Australian forests. It is an uncouth-looking bird
nearly the size of a crow, of a rich chestnut-brown and dirty white colour, the wings
slightly chequered with light blue, after the manner of the British jay. The tail-feathers are
long, rather pointed, and barred with brown. ... It is a common bird in all the forest
throughout the year, breeds in the hole of a tree, and the eggs are white.”

Whilst the Kingfishers are remarkable for the wondrous beauty of their coloration, the
HORNBILLS, their allies, attract our attention rather by the grotesqueness of their shape, due to
the enormous size of the bill, and the still more remarkable horny excrescences which surmount
it in not a few species, forming what is known as a “casque.” Absent in some of the
smaller and possibly more primitive forms, its gradual development may be traced, beginning

Photo by C. N. Aluvroyem, Simyria.

HOOPOE FLYING.

This photograph displays the crest fully elevated, and likewise shows the beautifully banded colouration

of the under surface of the wing, as well as the position of the wings in flight.

ROLLERS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND HOOPOES 107

with a series of corrugations along the ridge of the base of the bill, gradually increasing, to
form, in the most extreme cases, huge superstructures of quaint shapes, and apparently of
great solidity. Asa matter of fact, however, these casques are practically hollow, save in the
case of the HELMET-HORNBILL of the Malay countries, in which the horny sheath is backed by
solid supports of bone, whilst the front of the sheath itself is of great thickness and surprising
density, and is used by the natives for carving and making brooches and other ornaments.
The use of this powerful hammer — for such it may possibly be —is unknown.

Hornbills are forest-birds, feeding upon fruit and insects, the latter being captured on
the wing. With large bill and wings, a long tail, and a relatively small body and_ short
legs, they are rather unwieldy birds, and yet, for many reasons, unusually interesting. Their
nesting habits are unique, and quite worth recounting here at some length. Of the many
accounts, one of the most interesting, as well as one of the latest, is that of Mr. Charles Hose,
of Borneo.

“The nest,” he writes, ‘is always built in the hollow of a large tree —the hollow, be it
noted, being always due to disease of the tree or the ravages of termites, not to the personal
labours of the birds. The bottom of this cavity is often plugged by a termites’ nest and
accumulation of decayed wood, and on the upper surface of this is made the nest, a very
rough-and-ready structure, composed simply of the feathers of the female. The hollow of the
tree communicates with the exterior air by means of a long aperture, which, just before the
period of incubation, is closed up almost entirely by the male, simply leaving a long sht open,
up and down which the beak of the enclosed female can move. The substance used in thus
closing the aperture closely resembles some vegetable resin, and is probably composed of a
gastric secretion, combined with the woody fragments of fruit. It should be noticed that this
slit is always in close proximity to the nest, so that the female can easily protrude her beak

LAUGHING-JACKASS

Frequently known as the Settler’s Clock

160 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

for food without moving from her
sitting position, During incubation
the male bird supplies the female
with food in the form of pellets of
fruit, seeds, insects, portions of reptiles,
etc., the pellets being enclosed each
in a skin of rubber-like consistency.
While feeding the female, the male
clings to the bark of the tree, or sits
on a branchif conveniently near, and
jerks these pellets into the gaping
beak of the hen, two to four pellets
forming a meal. During mastication
(for it is a mistake to suppose that
the hornbills always bolt their food
entire) some fragments of the pellets
fall to the ground, and seeds which
these fragments may contain take
root, germinate, and sprout, and the
natives can judge approximately of
the date of incubation by the age of

es ee a the seedlings. When these are four-
seg . leaved, the eggs have been hatched
| out for two or three weeks. At this
ee stage, though not always so early,

the mother bird leaves the nest,
breaking down the gluey substance
with her beak to effect an exit;

E hota: by ‘Scholaete: Photey Coe] having left the nest, the aperture
CRESTED HORNBILL through which she left is carefully
The Hornbills derive their name from the great size of the bill closed up again, leaving the slit as

before, and now both male and female
devote their energies to feeding the young birds, which in course of time follow the example
of their mother and leave their place of imprisonment. It is more than probable that this
gluing up first of the mother bird and her eggs and afterwards of the nestlings alone is solely
a means of protection against predacious carnivora. .. .

“The nesting-season is during May and June, and it is noteworthy that the birds, if
undisturbed, return to the same nesting-place every year. The saplings at the foot of the
tree, sprung from seeds dropped in the first year of paring, afford signs to the natives of the
number of years during which the tree has been occupied. If during paring or incubation
the female or female and young are destroyed, the male takes to himself another mate, and
repairs to the same nesting-place; if, however, the male and female are destroyed, the nest is
never reoccupied by other pairs. An interesting incident was observed while on Mount Dulit.
Espying on a tree the external signs of a hornbill’s nest, and a male rhinoceros perched close
by, I shot the male, and while waiting for my Dyak collectors to make a ladder up the tree
to secure the female, I observed several young male birds fly to the nest and assiduously ply
the bereaved widow with food, a fact which seems to indicate a competition in the matrimonial
market of the bird-world as severe as that among human beings. It is no easy matter to
procure embryos or nestlings of hornbills, for the natives are inordinately fond of both as
articles of diet, and, further, are always anxious to secure the tail-feathers of the adults to
adorn their war-coats and hats.

“The native method of catching the female during incubation is ingenious, though

ROLLERS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND HOOPOES 109

decidedly brutal. The tree is scaled,
the resin-like substance is broken
away, and the frightened bird flies
from her nest up the hollow trunk
of the tree, but is ignominiously
brought down by means of a thorny
stick (the thorns point downward),
which is thrust after and twisted
about until a firm grip in her
plumage is obtained. The Dyaks,
never very faithful observers of
nature, believe that the female is
shut up by the male, so that after
hatching her eggs she may die,
the maggots in her putrefying body

affording food for the young. One Photo by H’. P. Dando, F.Z.S-) [Regent's Pard
very curious habit of the rhinoceros- CONCAVE-CASQUED HORNBILL, INDIA
hornbill which I have not hitherto The noise made by hornbills on the wing ts said to resemble that of a steam engine

seen noted is the rapid jumping
up and down on a branch with both feet together. This jumping motion is imitated by the
Kyans and Dyaks in their dances, the figure being known to the Kyans as ‘wan blingong.’”

That the Hoopors, unlike as they may be in general appearance, are nevertheless
intimately related to the Hornbills there can be no doubt. Graceful in contour and pleasing
in coloration, it is a pity that the species which so frequently visits Britain, and has on
more than one occasion nested there, should be so ruthlessly shot down immediately its
presence is discovered. Save the wings and tail, the body is of a light cinnamon colour, whilst
the head is surmounted by a magnificent crest of black-and-white-tipped feathers, which can
be raised or depressed at the pleasure of the bird: the excepted portions of the plumage — the
wings and tail—are buff, varied with bands of black and white. Thus it may be truthfully
said to be a conspicuously coloured bird; yet this same livery seems also to come under the
head of protective coloration, for we are assured that, when danger threatens, the bird throws
itself flat upon the ground, spreads out its wings, and at once becomes transformed into what
rather resembles a heap cf rags than a bird. Escape by flight, however, instead of subterfuge,
seems also at times to be resorted to,
since, when pursued by a falcon, it will
mount rapidly to a great height, and
not seldom effect its escape.

The domestic habits of the hoopoe
are, however, by no means so charming
as one would expect to find in so beauti-
fula bird. ‘ All observers agree,” writes
Professor Newton, “in stating that it
delights to find its food among filth of
the most abominable description, and
this especially in its winter quarters.
But where it breeds, its nest—usually in
the hole of a tree or of a wall—is not
only partly composed of the foulest
materials, but its condition becomes

Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.] [Parson's Green worse as incubation proceeds, for the
GROUND-HORNBILL hen scarcely ever leaves her eggs, being
The legs of the ground-hornbill are much longer than those of its allies assiduously fed by the cock as she sits

8

110 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

(a feature strongly recalling the custom of the
Hornbills), and when the young are hatched
their faeces are not removed by their parents, as
is the case with most birds, but are discharged
in the immediate neighbourhood of the nest, the
unsanitary condition of which can readily be
imagined. Worms, grubs, and insects generally,
form the hoopoes’ food, and upon it they get
so fat in autumn that they are esteemed a deli-
cate morsel in some of the countries of Southern
Europe, and especially by the Christian population
of Constantinople.”

Beside the EUROPEAN Hoopog, which also ex-
tends into Northern Africa, four other species are
known, three of which are African, whilst a fourth
ranges from India to Hainan.

Nearly related to the birds we have just
described are the Woop-HoopOES. They differ from their allies in being crestless, having a more
curved bill, and a plumage of metallic purple, with a white patch on the wings and white
markings on the tail. Their habits resemble those of their more highly coloured relatives.

Bhatt Co] [Parson's Green
HOOPOE
A relative of the Hornbill common in Europe

Photo by §

CHAPTER XII
BEE-EATERS, MOTMOTS, TODIES, COLIES, AND TROGONS

N the present chapter we deal with a number of birds Of singular beauty and gracefulness.

In their coloration green predominates, thus recalling the Rollers, Parrots, Plantain-eaters,

and Kingfishers, all of which groups, as we have seen, contain a large proportion of
green species.

The BEE-EATERS, like the Kingfishers, Hornbills, and Hoopoes, have a foot of quite peculiar
structure, the middle and outer toes being joined together throughout the greater part of
their length. They are an Old World group, ranging from the British Islands to Australia,
in the American Continent their place being taken by the Motmots and Jacamars, of which
we shall speak presently. They are especially plentiful in the African region, somewhat less
so in the Indian, the temperate regions of the Old World possessing but few species.

On rare occasions one species visits the British Islands. This is, furthermore, one of the
most beautiful of the group. It has the head, neck, upper back, and a broad wing-bar of
a ruddy-brown colour; the lower back buff colour; green wings and tail, with black tips to
the middle tail-feathers, which are longer than the rest. The forehead is pale green and white;
the ear-coverts are black; and the throat bright yellow, divided from the greenish-blue under-
parts by a black band. “The name Bee-eater,” writes Mr. Evans, ‘is well deserved, for in
Spain [it] is a perfect pest to the bee-keeper, catching the workers as they enter and leave
the hives.” Like the Kingfishers, the indigestible parts of the food are cast up and deposited
around the eggs, though bee-eaters do not appear to form a nest of them, as with the Kingfishers.

From four to six eggs of a beautiful glossy white colour are deposited in holes in banks,
or —and this is worthy of special notice — in tunnels bored vertically downwards in level ground
for a distance of from 3 to 10 feet. How this is done is a mystery, for the bird’s beak and
feet look by no means equal to such a task. No nest appears to be made, the eggs being
deposited at the extremity of the burrow without further preparation. Two species of the
group, however, are said to form an exception, constructing a nest of straw and_ feathers.

~ BEE-EATERS, MOTMOTS, TODIES, COLIES, TROGONS ITI

These two, as well as the
members of the genus to which
the British bird belongs, ap-
parently breed in colonics.

Unfortunately for the bee-
eater, its flesh is palatable,
whilst its plumage is in great |
demand for millinery purposes. }
Its persecution is of long stand-
ing, since more than 300 years
ago Belon witnessed a particu- w
larly cruelexperiment practised
by the boys in Crete. Transfix-
ing a beetle with a bent pin,
to the head of which a thread
was tied, and then holding its
other end with their hand, they
would let the insect fly. The
bee-eater, which catches most
of its prey on the wing, would
dart upon it, and, swallowing
the bait, be caught by the
hook.

Not unlike the Bee-eaters
in general appearance and
coloration, the MOTMOTS are
birds cf peculiar interest, and
this on account of a remarkable
habit of one of their tribe —a
habit which is perfectly unique,
and to which we shall return presently. Belonging, as we have already remarked, to the
New World, they range from Southern Mexico to Paraguay, inhabiting dense forests, and
being but rarely seen. The plumage is somewhat loose in character — green, blue, cinnamon,
and black in colour. The beak has the margins serrated, or saw-like; whilst the feet
resemble those of the Kingfishers and Bee-eaters. As with the Bee-eaters, no nest is made.
The eggs, three or four in number and creamy white in colour, are deposited in a hole bored
by the birds themselves in a tree or bank, both sexes sharing in the work of incubation.
Their food consists of insects caught in the air, small reptiles, and fruit.

The remarkable habit to which we have referred is displayed by the species known as
the RACKET-TAILED Mormot, from the fact that the two middle tail-feathers project beyond
the others, and have the greater part of the shaft bare, but terminating in a spoon-shaped
expansion. In this there is nothing unusual, for such racket-feathers are common amongst
birds. In this particular case, however, the feathers were originally entire, and acquired their
characteristic shape artificially, the bird nibbling away the vane on either side of the shaft
with its bill until the required shape is obtained. Such an act of conscious decoration on
the part of a bird is elsewhere unknown throughout the whole class.

The Topics are diminutive allies of the Motmots, frequenting hilly districts and woods.
They sit with the beak pointed upwards, the head drawn in close to the body, and the plumage
puffed out, apparently oblivious of all around them — at least it would seem so, since at such
times they may be caught with a butterfly-net. Like their larger allies, they are green in
coloration, but have a light red throat, and yellowish-white or pinkish under-parts, with green
or pink flank-feathers. They vary in length from 3 to 44 inches.

SSS

Photo by A. S. Rudland &* Sons
BEE-EATER

A native of the Malay countries. The long feathers on the throat are bright scarlet

li2 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

The COLIES, or MOUSE-BIRDS, of South Africa are
small, crested, long-tailed, loose-plumaged birds whose
exact relationships are somewhat puzzling. The name
Mouse-bird is given on account of the habit of creeping
along the boughs of trees with the whole foot applied
to the branch. The toes are peculiar in that all turn
forwards, and are commonly so retained. About ten
species are known, ranging from Abyssinia southwards.

Resplendent without doubt are the majority of the
forms which we have been lately considering, but prob-
ably the palm for gorgeous coloration should be given to
the TROGONS — at least they must be allowed to share
the honours with the Humming-birds.

The most splendid of all is the QUEZAL, the male
of which has a train of great length, resembling at first
sight a tail. But, as in the peacock, this is formed
by enormously elongated tail-coverts, concealing the true
tail. These tail-coverts differ, however, markedly from
those in the peacock in that they are not erectile,
but pendent. The head is ornamented with a large,
rounded crest; the ground-colour of the upper parts of
the plumage is of brilliant metallic green; the under
parts from the chest downwards are of a deep blood-red.
Certain of the covert-feathers of the wing form elegant
drooping plumes, hanging down on either side and giving
a wonderfully beautiful effect.

The late Mr. Salvin’s account of this bird in its
wild state is well worth quoting. Hunting with a
Photo by A. S. Rudland & Sons native for this bird in the forest, where alone it is to be
RACKET-TAILED MOTMOT met with, he writes: ‘A distant clattering note indicates
that the bird is on the wing. He settles —a splendid
male — on a bough of a tree, not seventy yards from
where we are hidden. Cipriano wants to creep up to within shot, but I keep him back,
wishing to risk the chance of losing a specimen rather than miss such an Opportunity of seeing
the bird in its living state, and of watching its movements. It sits almost motionless on its
perch, the body remaining in the same position, the head only moving from side to side. The
tail is occasionally jerked open and closed again, and now and then slightly raised, causing the
long tail-coverts to vibrate gracefully. I have not seen all. A ripe fruit catches the quezal’s
eye, and he darts from his perch, hovers for a moment, picks the berry, and returns to his
former position. This is done with a degree of elegance that defies description.”

Note the mutilated tail-feathers

CHA PIER Xi1Vv

TOUCANS, HONEY-GUIDES, FACAMARS, AND PUFF-BIRDS, BARBETS
AND IVOODPECKERS

AUDY in plumage, and somewhat ungainly in appearance, it must nevertheless be admitted
that the TOUCANS form an exceedingly interesting group of birds. On account of their
huge and gaily coloured beaks, they have been imagined to be related to the Hornbills:

but even judging by this character, the two groups may be readily distinguished; for whereas
the typical beak of the hornbill is surmounted by a large casque, the beak of the toucan is

TOUCANS AND HONEY-GUIDES T13

never so ornamented. The solid appearance of the beak in the toucan, by the way, is as much
a fiction as with the hornbill, since the horny sheath is supported, not on a core of solid bone,
but on a frame of delicate bony filigree-work, the spaces being filled by air. The coloration of
the plumage (which is somewhat loose in character ), as well as of the bare skin round the eye and
the beak-sheath, is most brilliant, and displays immense variation amongst the different species.

Shy and restless in their habits, toucans travel generally in small flocks amongst the forest-
trees and mangrove-swamps in search of food, which consists mainly of fruits and seeds,
varying this diet occasionally with ants and caterpillars. It is to this diet of fruit that the
great size of the bill and its peculiar saw-like edges are to be traced— at least this is the
opinion of the great traveller-naturalist Bates, who had so many opportunities of watching
these birds. ‘ Flowers and fruit,” he writes, ‘on the crowns of the large trees of South American
forests grow principally towards the end of slender twigs, which will not bear any considerable
weight. All animals, therefore, which feed principally upon fruit, or on insects contained in
flowers, must, of course, have some means of reaching the ends of the stalks from a distance.
Monkeys obtain their food by stretching forth their long arms, and in some instances their
tails, to bring the fruit near to their
mouths; humming-birds are endowed
with highly perfected organs of flight,
with corresponding muscular develop-
ment, by which they are enabled to sus-
tain themselves on the wing before
blossoms whilst rifling them of their con-
tents; [and the long bill of the toucan en-
ables it] to reach and devour fruit whilst
remaining seated, and thus to counter-
balance the disadvantage which its heavy
body and gluttonous appetite would
otherwise give it in the competition with
allied groups of birds.”

Toucans appear to be much esteemed
as articles of food — at least during the
months of June and July, when these

birds get very fat, the flesh being ex- Sipin bla cua aaa
ceedingly sweet and tender. They nest TROGON
in holes of trees at a great height from Trogons haunt the recesses of the thickest forests

the ground, and lay white eggs.

One of the most remarkable of the group is the CURL-CRESTED TOUCAN, from the fact
that the feathers on the crown of the head are peculiarly modified to form scroll-like, glossy
curls, which have been compared to shavings of steel or ebony. Mr. Bates writes: “I had an
amusing adventure one day with one of these birds. I had shot one froma rather high tree
in a dark glen in the forest, and entered the thicket where the bird had fallen to secure my booty.
It was only wounded, and on my attempting to seize it set up a loud scream. In an instant,
as if by magic, the shady nook seemed alive with these birds, although there was certainly
none visible when I entered the jungle. They descended towards me, hopping from bough to
bough, some of them swinging on the loops and cables of woody lianas, and all croaking and
fluttering their wings like so many furies. If I had had a long stick in my hand, I could
have knocked several of them over. After killing the wounded one, I began to prepare for
obtaining more specimens and punishing the viragos for their boldness. But the screaming of
their companion having ceased, they remounted the trees, and before I could reload every one
of them had disappeared.”

With neither charm of colour nor peculiar shape, the small African birds known as
HONEY-GUIDES are some of the most remarkable of birds, and this on account of a quite

1m4 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

unique habit of inducing other animals, not even excepting man, to hunt for them.
Sir John Kirk, writing of its habits in the Zambesi district, says: ‘‘The honey-guide is
found in forests and often far from water, even during the dry season. On observing a
man, it comes fluttering from branch to branch in the neighbouring trees, calling attention.
If this be responded to— as the natives do by whistling and starting to their feet — the bird
will go in a certain direction, and remain at a little distance, hopping from one tree to
another. On being followed, it goes further; and so it will guide the way to a nest of bees.
When this is reached, it flies about, but no longer guides; and then some knowledge is
required to discover the nest, even when pointed out to within a few trees. I have known
this bird, if the man, after taking up the direction for a little, then turns away, come back
and offer to point out another nest in a different part. But if it does not know of two nests,
it will remain behind. The difficulty is that the bird will point to tame bees in a bark hive
as readily as to those in the forest. This is natural, as the bee is the same, the bark
hive . . . being simply fastened up in a tree, and
left for the bees to come to.... The object the
bird has in view is clearly the young bees. It will
guide to nests having no honey, and seems equally
delighted if the comb containing the grubs is torn
out, when it is seen pecking at it.”

An old rumour had it that honey-guides occasion-
ally lured men on to spots where lions or other large
and dangerous beasts lay hid. No credence what-
ever is now given to such tales, it being readily
understood that the bird’s course may by accident
pass directly above perils of this kind, without the
slightest cognisance of this on the part of the bird.

The honey-guide, however, presses into its service
one of the lower mammals — the ratel. The fondness
of this animal for bees is well known, and by none
better than this little bird, which, by pointing out
nests to its more powerful companion, earns as a
reward the broken bits which remain after the feast.

Allies of the sombre-coloured Honey-guides are

Shakur acmeleenacen: the JACAMARS and PUFF-BIRDS. The former are rather

CURL_CRESTED TOUCAN handsome birds, though small, having the upper-parts

So called from the curtously curled feathers on the head, of a metallic coppery golden green, and more or less

resembling black and glistening shavings rufous below. Ranging from Mexico to South Brazil,

they may usually be found on the outskirts of forests,

near water, sitting perched on the bare boughs of lofty trees for hours at a time. They

feed on moths and other insects, caught on the wing, and brought back and crushed against
the bough before swallowing. They lay white eggs in the holes of trees.

The PUFF-BIRDS, though closely allied to the foregoing, are more soberly clad. Black, brown,
and rufous in hue, they lack the resplendent metallic markings of the Jacamars. Their
geographical range extends from Guatemala and Honduras to Argentina. Though numerous
species and genera are known, the nest and eggs appear to have been discovered in the case
of one species only: these were found in a hole in a bank, and contained two shining
white eggs.

The BARBETS are possibly more closely related to the Honey-guides than the Jacamars and
Puff-birds. Brilliantly coloured, and having a plumage exhibiting violent contrasts of red,
blue, purple, and yellow, on a green ground, sometimes with crests, bare skin round the
eye, and brightly coloured bills, the barbets are
exceedingly attractive birds.

in spite of a somewhat hairy appearance,

WOODPECKERS I15

Forest-dwellers, like their allies, they feed
upon fruit, seeds, insects, bark, and buds; but
so noiseless are they said to be when feeding
that their presence is betrayed only by the
falling of berries they have accidentally released.

It is interesting to note that the geographical
range of the barbet is much wider than that of
its immediate allies, extending through tropical
Asia, Africa, and America.

The Woodpecker Tribe constitutes a large
group, generally divided into two sections — the
WOODPECKERS and the WRYNECKs.

The former are characterised by their large
heads and very powerful bills and long and ex-
ceedingly stiff tails. The feet are also peculiar,
two toes pointing directly forwards and two
backwards. Beak, feet, and tail are all specially
adapted to the peculiar habits of these birds,
which pass their lives upon trees, climbing the
trunks, and searching the interstices of the bark

vi

Photo by A. S. Rudland & Sons

A FAMILY OF GREATER SPOTTED WOODPECKERS

This woodpecker 1s a British spectes

Photo by 4. 8. Rudland & Sons

HONEY-GUIDE

The name is bestowed on account of its remarkable habit of drawing

on to bees’ nests

for ants, or drilling holes into the un-
sound portions of the trunk itself for
the purpose of extracting the grubs
which feed upon decaying wood.

That ants and other small insects
form the staple diet of the woodpecker
is evident from theextraordinary length
of the tongue. This is a long, worm-
like structure, capable of being pro-
truded many inches from the beak,and
covered with asticky secretion, so that,
thrust into colonies of ants, it quickly
becomes covered with them,to be with-
drawn immediately into the mouth
and cleared again for further action.

Woodpeckers are all birds of
bright plumage, some particularly
so, and have a wide geographical
distribution, inhabiting all parts of
the world save Madagascar, the
Australasian region, and Egypt.

Three species occur in the British
Islands, though they are exceedingly
rare in Scotland and Ireland. The
GREEN WOODPECKER is a particularly
handsome bird. Grass-green is the
predominating colour of its livery,
relieved by a light scarlet cap, a
golden patch over the lower part of
the back, and chequered bars on the
wings and quills.

116 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Scarcely less beautiful, in their way, are
the GREATER and LESSER SPOTTED Woop-
PECKERS. The plumage of these birds has a
very rich effect, steely blue-black and white being
contrasted with scarlet.

The SPOTTED and BLACK WOODPECKERS
are remarkable for a curious drumming sound, so
powerful as to be distinctly audible even a mile
off. It appears to be caused by hammering
vigorously on the bark of some rotten branch,
the bird’s head moving with amazing rapidity
as it beats out this curious tattoo.

Three North American species, known as
SAP-SUCKERS, have the curious habit of piercing
the boles of trees for the purpose of procuring
the sap which flows copiously when the tree is
so “tapped.” Another species of the same region
seems to be possessed of a persistent dread of
famine, storing up immense quantities of nuts,
which it appears never afterwards to use. These
nuts are tightly fixed into holes in the bark
of trees, and in such numbers that “a large
pine 40 or 50 feet high will present the appear-

Fhoto by W. F. Piggott] (Leighton Buxccard ance of being closely studded with brass nails,
GREATER SPOTTED WOODPECKERS the heads only being visible.”
Ons of the members af the group i usiog test tail feathers ata The WRYNECKS differ from the Woodpeckers
support

mainly in that the tail-feathers are soft instead
of spiny. Although sombre, the plumage is yet very beautiful, having a velvety appearance,
variegated with pearl-grey, powdered or dusted over a general groundwork of nut-brown, buff,
and grey. Bars and fine lines add still more to the general effect, and render description
still more difficult. One species is common in England. It is known also as the CUCKOO’Ss
MATE and the SNAKE-BIRD, The former name is given in allusion to the fact that it arrives
with the cuckoo, the latter from its strange habit of writhing its head and neck, and also on
account of its curious hissing note, made when disturbed on its nest. It has the long, worm-
like tongue of the woodpecker, but without a barbed tip.

The habit of writhing the head and neck often serves the wryneck in good stead. Nesting
in a hole in a tree, escape is difficult so soon as the discoverer has come to close quarters.
The untried egg-collector, for instance, peering down into the nest, and seeing nothing distinctly,
but only a moving head, and hearing a hissing sound, imagines the hole to be tenanted bya
snake, and beats a hasty retreat, only to catch a glimpse, a moment later, of the bird hurrying
out of its perilous hiding-place. Should he, however, discovering the true state of affairs, put
down his hand and seize the bird, it will adopt yet other resources, Clinging tightly to its
captor’s finger, it will ruffle up its feathers, stretch out its neck, and at the same time move
it jerkily and stiffly about, and finally, closing its eyes, hang downwards, as if dead. Then,
before the puzzled captor has had time to realise what has happened, it loosens its hold and
takes instant flight.

The young are easily, though rarely, tamed, and form extremely interesting pets, feeding
readily from the hand, and affording endless amusement by their remarkable manner of
capturing flies and other insects; but they do not appear to live long in confinement.

The wryneck is one of the few birds which will persistently go on laying eggs, no matter
how many times they may be stolen from the nest. A case is on record where as many as
forty-two were laid in a single summer by one bird—an exceedingly cruel experiment.

CRA PT BR av

THE PERCHING-BIRDS

UCH an enormous host are included under this head — nearly 6,000 out of the total of
13,000 known birds— and so great are the difficulties connected with their systematic
arrangement, that it has been considered best to begin the present chapter with the

highest instead of the lowest types of the group.
The extensive group of Perching-birds is defined mainly from the characters afforded by
the structure of the voice-organ, and these are of much too technical a nature to be discussed

Photc by C, Reid] [Wishaw, N B.
JACKDAWS
Ti is believed that the jackdaw is the bird referred to by Shakespeare as the Russet-pated Chough (Midsummer-Night’s Dream, iii. 2)

here. Suffice it to say that, on account of these characters, the group is further divided into
two sections, and each section again divided into two.

THE CROWS, ORIOLES, FINCHES, AND THEIR ALLIES

At the head of the tribe stands, by general though by no means universal consent, the
Crow Family, of which the recognised chief is the RAVEN, a bird which has for thousands of
years commanded a more than passing interest amongst mankind. Renowned as the truant
from the Ark, or as the wonderful minister of the prophet Elijah, there are few even of the
youngest amongst us who do not know of its striking personality. The poet and the dramatist
have both made use of the raven, and it would seem that it has even found a place in the

117

118 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

mythology of the Red Indian. [ f ~ \

The smaller relatives of this
celebrated bird, the ROOK,
the CARRION-CROW, and the
JACKDAW, and more distantly
the JAY and the MAGPIE, are
doubtless as familiar to our
readers as the raven.

Although probably un-
known to many, the CHOUGH,
with its glossy black plumage
and brilliant red bill and feet,
is a British bird, and lives
still in certain parts of Eng-
land, though fast verging on
extinction.

Another very remarkable
member of the family is the
Huta, and this on account of
the fact that the male and
female differ markedly in
respect of the shape of the
bill, this being in the female
long and sickle-shaped, and
in the male short and cone-
shaped. This bird frequents
the wooded regions of North
Island, New Zealand, living
upon grubs found in decaying
wood, and on berries. The
female prccures the grubs by
probing the holes which they
have made in the sounder

wood, the male by breaking [Photo by Dr. R. W’. Shufelde} [Washington
away the decayed portions of BLUE JAY (NATURAL SIZE)
the tree ; but occasionally it The blue Jay is a most remarkable mimic

happens that, having cleared

away as much of the decayed material as possible, the latter is unable to reach his prey, in
which case he calls up the female, and yields his find to her, to extricate with her longer
bill, So great a difference in the form of the bill in the sexes of the same species is elsewhere
unknown among birds.

The Crows hold the important position of head of the Class birds, yet they are far outshone
in splendour by many of the groups already examined, though, with the exception perhaps of
the Humming-birds, these all pale before the BIRDS OF PARADISE.

Varying in size from a crow to a thrush, the best known of the latter is the GREAT Brrp OF
PARADISE, which was discovered towards the end of the sixteenth century, if not earlier. On their
first discovery it was popularly supposed that these birds lived in the air, turning always to the
sun, and never alighting on the earth till they died, for they had neither feet nor wings. Hence
the Malay traders called them “ God’s Birds,” the Portuguese “ Birds of the Sun,” and the Dutch
‘“Paradise-birds.” Seventeen or eighteen inches long, these birds have the body, wings, and tail
of a rich coffee-brown, which deepens on the breast to a blackish violet or purple-brown. The
top of the head and neck are of a delicate straw-yellow, the feathers being short and close-set,

THE PERCHING BIRDS Lig

resembling velvet. The throat-feathers have a scaly appearance, and are emerald-green in colour.
The flank-feathers on either side of the body form a dense mass of long, delicate, waving
plumes, sometimes 2 feet in length, of an intense orange colour, and shining with a wonderful
gloss. These feathers can be raised and spread out at pleasure, so as to almost conceal the
wearer in a fountain-like rain of feathers. This wonderful plumage is worn by the male only,
the female being quite plainly dressed. In May, when they are in full dress, the males

id by C, Reid] : [Wishaw, N. RB.
A PAIR OF MAGPIES

4 hen taken young, the magpte ts easily tamed, and can be taught to imitate human sounds

“

assemble early in the morning to exhibit themselves, forming what are known as “ dancing-
parties,” which take place on the topmost boughs of some giant tree. “ From a dozen to twenty
birds assemble together,” writes Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace, “ raise up their wings, stretch out
their necks, and elevate their exquisite plumes, keeping them in continual vibration. Between-
whiles they fly across from branch to branch in great excitement, so that the whole tree is
filled with waving plumes in every variety of attitude and motion.” The native hunter marks
these playing-places, builds a shelter of palm-leaves in a convenient situation among the branches,
and ensconces himself under it before daylight, armed with a bow and a number of arrows
terminating ina round knob. When the dance is in full swing, he shoots through the roof of
his shelter with the blunt arrows, stunning every bird he strikes, which, falling down at once,
are immediately picked up by a boy in waiting below. Often a considerable number will be
thus secured before the alarm is taken.

Without coloured figures, or very numerous photographs from living birds, which we
can hardly hope to get, it would be impossible, except at the risk of being wearisome, to
describe all the wonderful combinations of form and colour which the feathers of the birds of
paradise display. Breast-shields of metallic sheen, fans and crests in wonderful variety, feathers
of a texture like velvet, or gorgeous colours, confuse one in their variety and combination.

120 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Let it suffice to mention only the last dis- [7702
covered species-— the KING OF SAXONY’S
BIRD OF PARADISE. ‘Velvety black
above,” writes Dr. Sharpe, ‘“ and yellow-
ish below, there is nothing very striking
in the aspect of the bird itself, which is
smaller than our song-thrush. But the
‘streamers’ which it carries! Poised...
on either side of the head is a long,
shaft-like plume, from which depends, on
the lower side only, a series of little flags
of blue enamel, each quite separate from
the one which precedes it, and not of a
feathery structure in the least.”

Close allies of the Birds of Paradise
are the remarkable BOWER-BIRDS of

Australia. Conspicuously beautiful in Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.

coloration as are some members of this CORNISH CHOUGH

tribe, they are celebrated not so much Very nearly extinct as a British bird

on this account as for an extraordinary

habit of constructing “ bowers” or “ playing-grounds ”’ —a trait which appears absolutely unique
among birds. ‘ These constructions,” observes Mr. Gould, “consist in a collection of pieces of

stick or grass, formed into a bower; or one of them (that of the SPOTTED BOWER-BIRD)
might be called an avenue, being about 3 feet in length, and 7 or 8 inches broad inside; a
transverse section giving the figure of a horse-shoe, the round part downwards. They are
used by the birds as a playing-house, or ‘run,’
as it is termed, and are used by the males to at-
© y tract the females. The ‘run’ of the SATIN-BIRD
i 99 is much smaller, being less than 1 foot in length,
é and, moreover, differs from that just described
Ugg in being decorated with the highly coloured
feathersofthe ParrotTribe. TheSpOTTED BOWER-
BIRD, on the other hand, collects around its ‘ run’
a quantity of stones, shells, bleached bones, etc. ;
they are also strewed down the centre within.”
More wonderful still are the structures
reared by the GARDENER-BIRD of New Guinea,
presenting, as Professor Newton remarks, “not
only a modification of bower-building, but an
appreciation of beauty perhaps unparralleled in

the animal world. . . . This species . . . builds
at the foot of a small tree a kind of hut or
cabin . . . some 2 feet in height, roofed with

orchid-stems that slope to the ground, regularly
radiating from the central support, which is
covered with a conical mass of moss, and
| sheltering a gallery around it. One side of this
I 5 j hut is left open, and in front of it is arranged
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. 7 a bed of verdant moss, bedecked with blossoms
KING BIRD OF PARADISE and berries of the brightest colours. As these

A niin New Chey enna pieced ornaments wither they are removed to a heap
tail-feathers behind the hut, and replaced by others that are

THE PERCHING BIRDS rai

Photo by WH”, Saville-Kent, F.ZS.
QUEENSLAND RIFLE-BIRD

This unique Australian representative of the Birds of Paradise
fs about the size of a pigeon. Its plumage ts black with a purple
sheen 3 the throat is brilliant metallic emerald-green, like that of a
humming-bird

brown. Later black feathers, with large white
spots at the tips, make their appearance among
the brown. These spotted feathers eventually
replace the brown, and the bird enters upon a
second quite distinct phase — a black, spotted
with white. Gradually this gives place to a
plumage entirely unspotted, the feathers on the
breast being spear-shaped. In the adult dress
a wondrous variety of metallic reflections is
acquired — green, purple, and violet.
Associating in the autumn and winter in
iarge flocks, starlings move from place to place
in search of food. Sometimes the number of
birds in these combined flocks rises to an
enormous figure. One of the largest of these
gatherings recorded in England existed on the
property of the late Mr. Miles near Bristol.
“ This locality is an evergreen plantation
covering some acres, to which these birds repair

fresh. The hut is circular and some 3 feet
in diameter, and the mossy lawn in front of
it nearly twice that expanse. Each hut and
garden are, it is believed, though not known,
the work of a single pair of birds, or perhaps
of the male only; and it may be observed
that this species, as its trivial name implies,
is wholly inornate in plumage. Not less
remarkable is the more recently described
‘bower’ of the GOLDEN BOWER-BIRD. . . . This
structure to be piled up almost
horizontally around the base of a tree to the
height of from 4 to 6 feet, and around it are
a number of hut-like fabrics, having the look
of a dwarfed native camp.” Allied species,
though building no bowers, yet clear a space
of ground some 8 or 9 feet in diameter, on
which to display themselves, and ornament
this with little heaps of gaily tinted leaves,
them they fade with fresh

is said .

replacing as
specimens.

We pass next to the birds of the Starling
Family, of which the BRITISH STARLING is the
type. A bird so familiar needs no description
here; but we may draw attention to the many

interesting phases of plumage this species
undergoes.
The first plumage is a uniform greyish

yo owt
Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.

RED BIRD OF PARADISE

Found only on the small island of Waigiou, off the north-west roast
of New Guinea

122 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD
of an evening . . . by millions, from the low grounds about the Severn, where their noise and

stench are something altogether unusual. By packing in such myriads upon evergreens, they
have stripped them of their leaves, except just at the tops, and have driven the pheasants,
for whom the plantation was intended, quite away from the ground. In the daytime, when
the birds are not there, the stench is still excessive. Mr. Miles was about to cut the whole
plantation down, to get rid of them, two years ago, but I begged him not to do so, on account
of the curiosity of the scene, and he has since been well pleased that he abstained.”

A similar but still larger congregation has been described; in this, about the year 184s,
from: 150,000 to 200,000 starlings were computed to rest every night, between the end of
October and the end of March, in certain trees in the gardens of the Zoological Society in
Dublin. The roof of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, in the heart of Dublin, has from time to time
been resorted to, as many as
2,000 seeking shelter there.
‘Possessing very considerable
powers of wing,” observes
Yarrell, ‘these are turned to
account in an extraordinary
manner bythe birdscomposing
the flock. They wheel, close,
open out, rise and descend, as
if each were obeying a com-
mander, and all this is done
with the utmost marvellous
precision while the flock is
proceeding at a rapid pace
through the air. At times it
may extend in a long and
nearly straight thread;
suddenly an undulation is visi-
ble along the line, and in a
moment it takes the form of
a thin and smoke-like cloud;
another moment, and it is
a dense and almost perfect
globe; then possibly, having
preserved this appearance for
a perceptibly longer time, it sere Ran

becomes pear-shaped, and in vOUNG STARLINGS
another instant has assumed

a spiral figure; an instant after

it has spread out like a sheet, and its members are streaming softly along the ground,
perhaps to alight, or perhaps once more to mount aloft and circle as before.” There are
few more magnificent sights in the world than a flock of starlings when performing evolutions
of this kind.

Differing much, not only in general appearance, but also in coloration, from the common
starling is the ROSE-COLOURED STARLING, so called from the beautiful rose-pink colour of the
back and breast, set off by the rest of the plumage, which is black, glossed with violet, blue,
and green reflections. This handsome bird occasionally visits Britain. Feeding largely upon
locusts, these birds are much affected in their movements by the peregrinations of these
pests; and this accounts for the sporadic appearance of the rose-coloured starling in huge
flocks in places where it is generally seldom seen.

Dull in appearance, ungraceful in flight, and with a harsh, unmusical note, the starling

[Wishaw, N. B.

Starlings, if taken when young, are easily tamed and make excellent pets

THE PERCHING BIRDS 123

as ~ knownas the OX-PECKER would seem at first sight
to have little to recommend it; yet it is one of
the benefactors of the larger African mammals,
clearing them of flies and other insect-pests.
Buffaloes, rhinoceroses, elephants, are alike grateful
for its services, as it climbs about their huge
bodies, picking off the liliputian enemies by which
they are beset. But little appears to be known
of the breeding-habits of these birds.

In strong contrast to the dull-looking Ox-birds
arethebeautifulGLossy STARLINGS and GRACKLES.
The AFRICAN GLossy STARLINGS, indeed, repre-
sent the most beautiful of all the members of the
Starling Tribe. In one of the handsomest and
best-known species—-the LONG-TAILED GLossy
STARLING — metallic green and purple-violet are
the predominating tones in the plumage, glossed
with copper reflections, and relieved by black or
darker bars of green and purple. In another
species—the GREEN GLOSSY STARLING of East-
ern Africa—the shimmer of the plumage is so
wonderful that the exact shades of colour are diffi-

re eT Nunes ; : cary cult to describe, in that they change completely,
COMMON STARLING according to the light in which the bird is held.
Starlings appear to be on the increase in Scotland, whilst larks The GRACKLEs, or HILL-MyNAS, are Indian

are said to be on the decrease, owing to the destruction of their

does by ahd former birds, with glossy black plumage, relieved by

bare flaps of yellow skin projecting backwards
from the head immediately behind the eye. These birds make excellent pets, learning both to
whistle and talk.

We come now to the beautiful ORIOLES — birds belonging to the temperate and tropical
parts of the Old World. The males, as a rule, are clad in a vestment of brilliant yellow and
black, but in some species the under-parts are relieved by rich crimson. One species — the
GOLDEN ORIOLE — has on several occasions visited the British Islands, and even in one or two
instances has nested there. But, as with all brightly plumaged birds in England, no sooner
is their presence discovered than they are doomed to fall to the gun of some local collector.

We pass now to a group of exceedingly interesting birds, some of which are remarkable
on account of the beauty of their plumage, others from their wonderful nesting-habits. The
group includes many familiar as cage-birds, such as the Lonc-TalLeD Wipow-srrps, the Rep-
BEAKED WAxXBILLS, AMADAVATS, JAVA SPARROW, GRASS-FINCHES, Munias, and so on, all of
which are embraced under the general title of WEAvER-BIRDS, a name bestowed on account of
their peculiar nests.

Abundant in Africa, and well represented in South-eastern Asia and Australia, these birds
bear a strong family resemblance to the Finches, from which they differ in having ten primary
quills in the wings.

One of the most peculiar is the South African Lonc-TaIteD WuHyDAH- or Widpow-BIRD.
Strikingly coloured, this bird is rendered still more attractive by the extremely elongated tail-
feathers, which are many times longer than the body, so long, indeed, as to impede its flight,
which is so laboured that children commonly amuse themselves by running the bird down.
Kaffir children stretch lines coated with bird-lime near the ground across fields of millet and
Kaffir corn, and thereby capture many whose tails have become entangled among the threads.

In brilliancy of coloration the Whydah-birds—for there are several species—are pressed hard

124 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

by the BisHop-BIRDSs, the handsomest of which is the red species. Sociable in habits, this
bird throughout the year consorts in immense flocks, which in the summer consist chiefly
of males.

Of the more remarkable nest-builders, the most conspicuous are the BAYA SPARROWS, or
Toppy-Birbs, of India and Ceylon, and the SOCIABLE WEAVERS. The former suspend their nests
by a solidly wrought rope of fibre from the under side of a branch, the rope expanding into a
globular chamber, and then again contracting into a long, narrow, vertical tube, through which
the birds make their exit and entrance. The latter—the SOCIABLE WEAVER-BIRD of Africa—
builds a still more wonderful structure. As a thing apart it has no existence, a number of
birds, varying from 100 to 300, joining their nests together, so as to form a closely interwoven
structure, resembling, when finished, a gigantic mushroom, The structure is built among the
branches of large trees, so that the tree looks as though it had grown up through a native
hut, carrying the roof with it. Cartloads of grass are required to rear this structure, which
is nearly solid. Seen from below, it presents a flat surface riddled with holes ; these are the
entrances to the nests.

Closely resembling the typical
Finches in general appearance,
and often gorgeous in coloration, is
the group known asthe TANAGERS,
of which more than 400 distinct
species are known to science. Ex-
clusively American, the majority
of the species are found in Central
and South America, though a few
move northwards into the United
Statesin summer. The most
beautiful are the SCARLET,
CRIMSON-HEADED, and WHITE-
CAPPED TANAGERS. The last-
named is generally allowed to be
the loveliest of the group. The
entire plumage of both sexes is a

npn tea ine iie Saeed beautiful cornflower-blue, — sur-

HAWFINCH mounted by a cap of silvery-white

A resident in the eastern and midland counties of England feathers, a crimson spot on the

forehead looking like a drop of

blood. The identical coloration of the sexes is worth noting, as among the tanagers generally
the female is dull-coloured.

Among the Finches there is a considerable variety of coloration, though but little in
bodily form; they are all attractive birds, and have the additional advantage that many are
British. Distributed over both the northern and temperate regions of the Eastern and
Western Hemispheres, they are unknown in Australia. The group, which comprises a very
large number of species, may be divided into three sections—GROSBEAKS, TRUE FINCHES, and
BUNTINGS.

The GROSBEAKS, as their name implies, are characterised by the great stoutness of the
beak, and some, as the EVENING-GROSBEAKS of America, are remarkable for their beauty.

Among the well-known British members are the HAWFINCHES and GREENFINCHES.
Common in many parts of England, though rare in Scotland and Ireland, the HAWFINCH contrives
to make itself much disliked by the gardener, owing to its fondness for peas, though it
fully compensates for the damage done in this direction by the numbers of noxious insects
it destroys. The nest is a very beautiful structure; outside it is composed of twigs inter-
mixed with lichens, inside of dry grasses lined with fine roots and hair. The site chosen

Photo by C. Reid

YOUNG CHAFFINCHES
The chaffinch is one of the commonest of the Briti

Photo by C. Reid
HOUSE-SPARROWS

The sparrow is to be reckoned among the few really harmf

126 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

varies, a favourite place being an old apple- or pear-
tree in an orchard; but the woods and fir plantations
are not seldom resorted to. The GREENFINCH is an
equally common British bird. Of a more confiding
disposition than the hawfinch, it makes an excellent
cage-bird, becoming with judicious treatment exceed-
ingly tame. It is a useful bird, travelling during the
autumn and winter in large flocks, and feeding on
the seeds of wild mustard and other weeds. Its nest
differs conspicuously from that of the hawfinch, being
a somewhat untidy structure, composed of fibrous
roots, moss, and wool, lined with finer roots, horse-
hair, and feathers.

Among the TRUE FINCHES, distinguished from
the Grosbeaks by their less powerful bills, are several
other well-known British birds. Of these, none are
better known than the CHAFFINCH. Gay in appear-
ance and sprightly in habit, this is a general favourite
everywhere, and much in demand as a cage-bird.
Black varieties are occasionally taken in a wild state. Caged His short though delightful song possesses a peculiar

specimens fed on hemp-seed frequently turn black charm, coming as it does with the earliest signs of
returning spring. The fascination of this song has
never becn better expressed than in Browning’s lines :—
O to be in England
Now that April’s there ;
And whoever wakes in England
Sees, some morning, unaware,
That the lowest boughs of the brushwood sheaf
Round the elm-tree bole are in tiny leaf,
While the Chaffinch sings on the orchard bough
In England now !

BULLFINCH

The nest, which is an exceptionally beautiful structure, takes about a fortnight to build.
Closely woven, it appears to consist mainly of wool, into which moss and lichens of various
colours are deftly woven. The outside is cunningly decorated with bits of lichen and the
inner bark of trees, such as the birch, the whole being secured by a thin veil of spiders’ webs,
The lichen and bark serve to render the nest inconspicuous by blending it with the general
appearance of the bush or small tree in a forked bough of which it is placed. Inside the
wool is more closely felted even than on the outside, and this iscovered with fine hairs,
amongst which a few feathers are intermixed. The work of building seems to be done by the
female only, though the male helps by bringing the materials.

Of the GOLDFINCH, LINNETS, and BULLFINCH, by far the most popular and beautiful is the
GOLDFINCH, which is, and probably will long remain, one of the most prized of cage-birds.
Gifted “with the fatal gift of beauty,” this bird is much persecuted by bird-catchers; and
indeed, partly owing to the depredations of these men, and partly to improved methods of
agriculture, which have diminished its feeding-area, this handsome bird is growing more and
more rare every year.

Next to the goldfinch perhaps the LINNET is most sought after as a cage-bird. Large
numbers are taken during the autumn, when the birds congregate in large flocks before
departure on migration. Those captured in the spring are said to be very impatient of
confinement, and only a small percentage seem to survive.

The linnet is one of the most variable of birds in the matter of plumage, and for a long
while the opinion was generally held, especially by bird-catchers, that several distinct species—

THE PERCHING-BIRDS 127

the REp, BRown, and Grey LINNETS—existed. It is now known that these are all phases of
plumage common to one species. In the male in full summer dress the forehead and centre
of the crown are blood-red, whilst the breast is of a elossy rose-red; but these bright colours
do not seem to be acquired so universally as is the case with other birds which don a special
breeding-dress, nor are they ever developed in captivity. Occasionally what are called LEMON-
BREASTED varictics of the linnet occur in which the rose-colour of the breast is replaced by yellow.

The BULLFINCH, though one of the common British birds, is by no means so abundant as
the two foregoing species; for whilst the other two travel in small flocks, the bullfinch is a
solitary bird. Few birds perhaps have earned a more evil name than the bullfinch, which
is accused by the gardener of inflicting enormous damage on the flower-buds of fruit-trees in
winter and spring. ‘On the other hand,” writes Mr. Hudson, ‘‘he is greatly esteemed as a
cage-bird, and the bird-catchers are ever on the watch for it. But the effect in both cases
is pretty much the same, since the hatred that slays and the love that makes captive are
equally disastrous to the species.” That it
is diminishing in many districts there can be
no doubt, and perhaps its final extermination
is only a matter of time. Though by no
means a remarkable songster in a wild state,
in captivity itis capable of learning to whistle
strains and airs of human composition with
some skill, good performers fetching high
prices.

The SPARROW and the wild CANARY of
Madeira — from the latter of which our cage-
pets have been derived — are also members of
the Finch Tribe, but are too well known to
need fuller mention.

Closely allied to the finches are the
BUNTINGS, which are really only slightly
modified finches. Several species are British
birds, one of the commonest being the CORN-
BUNTING, a bird which bears a wonderful
resemblance to a skylark, from which, how-
ever, it may be distinguished by its large
beak and small claw on the hind toe.

The YELLOWAMMER, or YELLOWHAM- Bisel 5 Shean
MER, is another familiar roadside form in GREENFINCH
England, which scarcely needs description. Commonly known as the Green Linnet

The most celebrated of all the buntings
is the ORTOLAN, or GREEN-HEADED BUNTING, a bird resembling its congener the yellowhammer,
but lacking its bright coloration. It has acquired fame from the delicate flavour of its flesh,
and to supply the demand for this delicacy immense numbers are netted annually by the
bird-catchers of the Continent. Wintering in North Africa, these birds leave Europe in
September in large flocks, and it is during this migration and the return journey in the
spring that their ranks are so mercilessly thinned. Common over the greater part of Europe,
it is somewhat surprising that the ortolan does not occur more frequently in the British
Islands, where it is only an occasional spring and autumn visitor.

The SNOW-BUNTING, or SNOWFLAKE, is a regular winter visitant to the British Islands, some
pairs indeed remaining to breed in the Highlands of Scotland every year, whilst its presence
serves to enliven some of the dreariest spots of high northern latitudes. The male in
breeding-dress is a handsome bird, having the upper-parts black and the under white; its
mate is somewhat duller, the black parts being obscured by greyish white, fulvous, and blackish

MA

I

tu

8 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Photo by H’. F. Piggott

LINNET
One of the most popular cage-birds, The so-called Red-brawn and Grey Linnets are but phases of plumage of the same species. The bird

in the right-hand corner is a greenfinch

brown, whilst the white parts are less pure in tone. The full dress of the male is rarely
seen in the British Islands, save in specimens procured from Scotland; for in winter, when the
snow-bunting is chiefly captured, the plumage is altogether more rufous.

Unlike the buntings so far described, the REED-BUNTING is to be found only in marshy
places, but in suitable localities it may be found in the British Islands all the year round, being
as common a species as the corn-bunting, and therefore not calling for special description here.

The eggs of the buntings are remarkable for the curious scribble-like markings which
cover them, and serve readily to distinguish them from those of any other British bird.

CHAPTER XVI
LARKS, TITMICE, HONEY-EATERS, AND THEIR KINDRED

ONFINED almost entirely to the Old World, where they are represented by more than
one hundred species, many of which have undergone considerable specialisation in the
matter of plumage, so as to enable them to live in desert regions, the LARKS constitute

a well-marked group, into the characters of which we need not enter here.

The best-known member of the group is the SKYLARK. Common throughout the British
Islands, and of sober coloration, no bird is more universally beloved, and _ this largely on
account of the sweetness of its song, which is second only to that of the nightingale, Poets
and prose-writers alike have sounded its praises, many in passages that will be remembered as
long as our language lasts. The skylark is one of the few birds which sing while on the

wing; the peculiar nature of the flight at this time all must have watched, entranced the
while by the beauty of the song.

WAXBILLS.

Wanbills are relatives of the Weaver birds, and take ther name trom the waxenappearance of the beak which is coral red

Photo by C. Reid, Wishaw.

INDIGO FINCHES

The Indigo Finch or Indigo Bird is a well known member of a group of American Finches

of which the Nonpareil Finch is another representative.

LARKS, TIEMICE, HONEY-EATERS, THEIR KINDRED I

lo
‘Oo

Grahame, in his “ Birds of Scotland,” happily describes the nest as follows: —

The daisied lea he loves, where tufts of grass
Luxuriant crown the ridge ; there, with his mate,
He founds their lowly house, of withered bents,
And coarsest speargrass ; next, the inner work
With finer and still finer fibres lays,

Rounding it curious with its speckled breast.

This bird displays great affection for its young, removing them under the fear of impending
danger, or if the nest is meddled with. Occasionally, however, the bird sits close, instead of
seeking safety by flight.

Brighton enjoys the credit of consuming more larks than any other place in England, except
London. It has been estimated that the number of larks annually entering the metropolitan
markets alone reaches a total of 400,000 — 20,000 or 30,000 being often sent together; and the
aumbers eaten elsewhere in the country must be enormous, quite as large, indeed, as abroad.
Most are captured from the hosts which arrive on the east coast of Scotland and England
from the Continent on approach of severe weather, the birds making their appearance in
thousands, forming a constant and unbroken stream for two or three days in succession.

Close allies of the Larks, the WAGTAILS and Piprrs come next under consideration. The
former range over the Old World, but are unknown in Australia and Polynesia. The pipits
have a similar range, but one species is found in, and is peculiar to, Australia. Like wagtails,
pipits are unknown in Polynesia; only two species occur in America.

The WAGTAILS are generally black and white, grey and white, grey with yellow breasts,
or yellowish green with yellow breasts. In the last-mentioned case, as in some specimens of
the YELLOW WAGTAIL, the yellow predominates. These birds frequent streams and stagnant
waters, like the RED and GREY WAGTAILS; or corn-fields and meadows, as in the case of the
YELLOW WacTAIL. All these are commonly met with in the British Islands.

|

d we

Photo 6» C. Reid}

SKYLARKS

The numbers of skylarks seem to tncrease with the spread of agricultural improvement

130 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

The Pipits are duller-coloured than the Wagtails, have shorter tails, and evince less
fondness for the water. The MEADOW-, ROcK-, and TREE-PIPITS are the commonest British species,

Neither Wagtails nor Pipits are much given to perching, but the TREE-CREEPERS spend
their lives upon trees, some being specially modified for this mode of life, their tail-feathers
being stiff and terminating in sharp points. By pressing its tail closely against the tree-trunk
up which it is climbing, the bird obtains a wonderfully reliable support. Beginning at the
bottom of a trunk, creepers quickly work their way up in a spiral direction, or sometimes
in jerky zigzags, searching every crevice for tiny insects, their eggs and larve, and flitting
from the higher branches, when these are reached, to the base of another tree.

Creepers are mostly dull-coloured, but the WALL-CREEPER has crimson patches on the
wings. This bird, which has occurred in Britain, haunts mountain-cliffs. The TREE-CREEPER,
a resident in Britain, builds its nest behind pieces of loose bark, or under tiles, or in crevices
ef trees, walls, or hollow branches. In this nest are laid from six to nine eggs, pure white,
spotted with red, or with a creamy ground-colour, with the spots thicker round the large end.

Intermediate in position between the
Creepers and the Titmice are the NutT-
HATCHES. Chiefly inhabitants of the northern
parts of both hemispheres, they extend as
far south as Mexico, whilst in the Old
World they occur plentifully in the Himalaya.
The largest species is found in the moun-
tains of Burma. One species is frequently
met with in England, and occasionally in
Scotland, but is unknown in Ireland.

The ENGLISH NUTHATCH may serve us
as a type of the group. ‘Its habits,” writes
Dr. Sharpe, ‘‘ are a combination of those of
the tit and woodpecker. Like the former
bird, the nuthatch seeks diligently for its
insect-food on the trunks and branches of
trees, over which it runs like a woodpecker,
with this difference, that its tail is not pressed
into the service of climbing a tree, nor does

Photo by A. S, Rudland & Sons it generally ascend from the bottom to the
YOUNG SKYLARKS top, as a woodpecker so often does. On the
Several broods are reared by each pair of birds in a season contrary, a nuthatch will generally be found

in the higher branches, and will work its
way down from one of the branches towards the trunk, and is just as much at home on
the under side of a limb as the upper. Its movements are like those of a mouse rather
than of a bird, and it often runs head-downward, or hangs on the under side of a branch and
hammers away at the bark with its powerful little bill. The noise produced by one of these
birds, when tapping at a tree, is really astonishing for a bird of its size, and, if undisturbed
it can be approached pretty closely. Its general food consists of insects, and in the winter the
nuthatches join the wandering parties of tits and creepers which traverse the woods in search
of food. ... In the autumn it feeds on hazel-nuts and beech-mast, breaking them open by
constant hammering; and, like the tits, the nuthatcles can be tempted to the vicinity of
houses in winter, and become quite interesting by their tameness.”

The nuthatch nests in hollow trees, plastering up the entrance with mud, and leaving an
aperture only just sufficient to enable it to wriggle in and out. A remarkable nest may be
seen at the British Natural History Museum. It was built in the side of a haystack, to which
the industrious birds had carried as much as It Ibs. of clay, and had thus made for themselves
a solid nest in an apparently unfavourable position.

LARKS, TITMICE, HONEY-EATERS, THEIR KINDRED £31

The TITMICE occur in one form or another
all over Europe, Asia, and Africa, and in the
New World as far south as Southern Mexico.
The family may be divided into TRUE, CRESTED,
LONG-TAILED, and PENDULINE TITS and REED-
LINGS, all but the penduline tits being repre-
sented in England.

Of the true tits, the best known is the
BLUE TIT, which is no stranger even in London
parks. Traveling in small bands throughout
the autumn and winter, they may frequently
be met with during a country walk, their
presence being made known by a pretty tink-
ling little note. This method of traveling
is obviously advantageous, for the discovery
of food at this time is an arduous task, and,
if undertaken individually, many would surely
starve, as Professor Newton points out: “A
single titmouse searching alone might hunt
for a whole day without meeting with a
sufficiency, whilst, if a dozen are united by
the same motive, it is hardly possible for
the place in which the food is lodged to
escape their detection, and, when discovered,
a few call-notes from the lucky finder are
enough to assemble the whole company to
share the feast... . One tree after another NUTHATCH
is visited by the active little rovers, and its
branches examined : if nothing be forthcoming,
away goes the explorer to the next that presents itself, merely giving utterance to the usual
twitter that serves to keep the whole body together. But if the object of search be found,
another chirp is emitted, and the next moment several members of the band are flitting in
succession to the tree, and eagerly engaged with the spoil.”

These little birds display great affection for their old nesting-places. An instance is on
record where, so far back as 1785, a pair built their nest in a large earthenware bottle placed
in the branches of a tree in a garden at Oxbridge, near Stockton-on-Tees. With two exceptions
only, this bottle was tenanted by a pair of these birds every year till 1873. In 1892 Professor
Newton, who had this account from Canon Tristram, was informed that the occupancy had
ceased for four years.

The LONG-TAILED or BOTTLE-TIT is a British species, deriving its name from the long tail.
It is a pretty little bird, black and rose-colour above, with a rose-coloured abdomen, and the
head, throat, and breast white. It enjoys the distinction of being one of the smallest British
birds, and is found in woods and plantations all over England, though less common in
Scotland. These tits have a curious habit of roosting during the winter, six or seven huddling
together in a row, with three or four others perched on their backs, and two or three on
the top.

The nest, which is placed in a tree or bush, is a model of industry. Oval in shape,
and roofed, with a small aperture near the top, it is composed of moss, lichen, and hair,
closely felted and lined with an enormous collection of feathers, Macgillivray having counted
2,779 in a single nest.

Other species of titmice occurring in Britain are the GREAT, MARSH-, COAL-, and
CRESTED TITS.

132 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Whether the REEDLINGS, or
BEARDED TIT?s, as they are generally
called, are really true titmice or
peculiarly modified buntings is a
moot-point. There is but one species,
which is British, though found also
on the Continent; but it is un-
fortunately becoming more and more
rare every year. The general colour
of the upper-parts is cinnamon-
rufous, except the head, which is
pearly grey: between the bill and
the eyes hangs a tuft of long black
feathers; hence the name Bearded
Tit. The under-parts are white,
tinged with yellow and pink, whilst
the wings are variegated with white,
black, and red. This tit lives in beds
of reeds fringing the ‘ broads” of the
eastern counties of England, though
even there it is now exceedingly rare.

The same uncertainty that obtains
MARSH-TIT SEARCHING FOR INSECTS with regard to the position of the
Keedlings confronts the ornithologist
with regard to the affinities of the
liliputian GOLD-cRESTS. About six
species are known, from the northern and temperate parts of the Old and New Worlds, extending
as far south in the latter as Mexico. Two occur in Britain: one, known simply as the GOLD-
CREST, or GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN, is fairly common; the other, the FIRE-CREST, or FIRE-CRESTED
WREN, is much rarer, but differs very little from its relative in general appearance.

The GOLD-CREST is olive-green above, yellowish grey below, with a conspicuous crest of
bright yellow and orange, banded on each side by two black lines. It has the distinction
of being the smallest British bird; and it is partly on account of its smallness, and partly
owing to its shy, retiring habits, seeking concealment among the foliage, that it is so seldom
seen, save by those who know where to look for it; and these may find it all the year round

hoi by F. T, Newman

The marsh-tit may be distinguished from its ally, the coal-tit, by the absence of
white on the nape of the neck

in suitable places.

In the spring this bird may be observed suspended in the air for a considerable time over
a bush or flower, singing very melodiously, though few naturalists have ever witnessed this
display. Mr. W. H. Hudson, one of these few, writes: ‘I have observed the male, in the love-
season, hovering just above the bush, in the topmost foliage of which its mate was perched
and partly hidden from view. It is when engaged in this pretty aerial performance, or love-
dance, that the golden-crested wren is seen at his best. The restless, minute, sober-coloured
creature, so difficult to see properly at other times, then becomes a conspicuous and exceedingly
beautiful object; it hovers on rapidly vibrating wings, the body in an almost vertical position,
but the head bent sharply down, the eyes being fixed on the bird beneath, while the wide open
crest shines in the sun like a crown or shield of fiery yellow. When thus hovering, it does
not sing, but emits a series of sharp, excited chirping sounds.”

The nest is a singularly beautiful structure, made of fine, dry grass, leaves, moss, and
spiders’ webs, woven closely together, lined with feathers, and suspended like a hammock
beneath a branch of yew or fir. In this are laid from six to ten eggs of a pale yellowish
white, spotted and blotched with reddish brown.

The numbers of British gold-crests are vastly increased by the arrival on the eastern

by C. Reia) lw ishaw, N. B.

GREAT TIT
Known also as the Ox-eye; it is very pugnacious in captivity, killing birds even as large as itself

133

134 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

coast of gold-crests from the Continent. “In autumn,” writes Mr. Howard Saunders, ‘‘ immense
flocks sometimes arrive on our east coast, extending quite across England and the Irish
Channel, and into Ireland. In 1882 the migration wave of this description, commencing on
August 6 and lasting for ninety-two days, reached from the Channel to the Faroes; in 1883
the migration lasted eighty-two days; and again in 1884 for a period of eighty-seven days. . . .
On such occasions bushes in gardens on the coast are covered with birds as with a swarm of
bees; crowds flutter round the lanterns of lighthouses, and the rigging of fishing-smacks in
the North Sea is thronged with weary travellers. In April a return migration occurs.”

We pass now to the consideration of a few families of birds unknown in Britain, but
interesting on account of the fact that they afford us another set of instances of adaptation to
attain particular ends, so frequently to be met with in Nature. All the birds in question,
though probably not related, have peculiarly modified tongues, apparently specially designed
to aid in sucking up honey from flowers.

The first group for consideration are the HONEY-EATERS of New Zealand and Australia.
So great is the transformation which the tongue in
these birds has undergone, that it forms one of
the most elaborate organs of its kind, sur-
passing even that of the Humming-birds.
A description of this organ without
the aid of anatomical terms and
diagrams would be useless.
Suffice it to say it is long,
capable of being thrust
out of the mouth,
and brush-like.
It is used to
thrust up

the tubes
of honey-
bearing flowers,
as well for the sake
of the juice as for the
insects gathered in such
situations to feed on it.

The best known of the
Honey-eaters is the POE, or PARSON-

BIRD, of New Zealand. Glossy black in

colour, with vivid green and blue reflec-

tions, it is rendered still more attractive by a

COAL-TITS - _ pair of white tufts of feathers hanging from

Disie LRG alias the Bente Patek a whe Pape ey aint. TE ge Geant upper part of the neck, whilst on the

a common British bird, staying the whole year round ,

back of the neck in the same region the feathers

are of a loose structure, long, and curled forwards. Other honey-eaters are the WHITE-EYES,
SUN-BIRDS, and FLOWER-PECKERS.

The WHITE-EYES, so called from a ring of white feathers around the eye, have a wide
distribution, being found in Australia, India, Africa, Madagascar, and Japan. Besides honey
they are very partial to fruit, particularly figs and grapes, and also capture insects on the wing,
after the fashion of fly-catchers.

The SUN-BIRDS correspond in the Old World to the Humming-birds in the New, having,
like the latter, a metallic plumage, varied in its hues and wondrous in its beauty; but
they are not entirely dependent upon this lustre for their charm, for much of their
splendour is gained from the non-metallic portion of the plumage, which is often vividly

A ;
Photo by C, Reid)

(Wishaw, N, B.

LARKS, TITMICE, HONEY-EATERS, THEIR KINDRED 1

coloured. The females are dull- f
coloured, whilst the males lose their |
beauty in the winter season. These
birds are inhabitants of the tropical
regions of Africa, India, and Australia,
and seem to revel in the burning
rays of the noonday sun.

Nearly allied to the Sun-
birds are the FLOWER-PECKERS of
the Indian and Australian regions.
These are all small birds, remark-
able as much for the beauty of
their nests as for the splendour
of their plumage. The nests are
purse-like structures, made of white
cotton-like material, and suspended
from a branch instead of, as usual,
resting on it. One of the most
beautiful birds of the whole group,

which includes numerous species, 1s
the Australian DIAMOND-BIRD. Ofa
general ashy-grey colour, this species
is splashed all over with spots of
red, yellow, orange, and black, whilst
the tail-coverts are rich dark red.

hos Wy
Photo by W’. F. Piggott)

im 2

RED-BACKED SHRIKES

Also called Butcher-birds, from their habit of killing small birds and mammals
and hanging them up on thorns

CHAPTER XVII

SHRIKES, THRUSHES AND THEIR’ ALLIES,
SWALLOWS, LYRE-BIRDS, CHATTERERS,
BROAD-BILLS, ETC.

HE Shrike Family are an exceedingly interesting
group of birds, of world-wide distribution and of
great diversity of appearance, varying in size from

'a bird as small as a titmouse to one as large as a

thrush, and presenting a considerable range of coloration,

_ some being very brightly, others dull coloured. From

_ the hooked beak, and the presence of a notch in the
' tip of the upper jaw, they were considered by the older

- naturalists to be allies of the Birds of Prey, a decision

* still further supported by their hawk-like habit of capturing

living prey in the shape of small birds and mice; whilst

the remarkable custom of impaling their victims, still

living, on thorns has earned for them the popular name

of BUTCHER-BIRDS. The limits of the family, owing to

AUSTRALIAN MAGPIE the diversity of the forms involved, have not as yet been

4 ermine ? alists, som aving i od

Eee ee ee een meee finally determined by naturalists, some having include
Piping -crow species which others hold have no place there.

Photo by W’, Reid] (Wishaw, N.B.

I36 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Five species are commonly included in the list of British birds, although only two
occur with any frequency: of these, the GREAT GREY SHRIKE visits Great Britain every winter ;
whilst the smaller RED-BACKED SHRIKE is an annual summer visitor to those islands, breeding,
however, only in England, occurring but occasionally in Scotland, and being almost unknown in
Ireland, where only one specimen has ever been recorded.

The RED-BACKED SHRIKE, writes Dr. Sharpe, “ reminds us of a fly-catcher in the way in which
[it] captures its food, for it has undoubtedly favourite perches, on which it sits, and to which
it returns after the capture of an insect. It is frequently to be seen on telegraph-wires,
where it keeps a sharp look-out in every direction, and a favourite resort is a field of freshly
cut grass. It also captures a good many mice and small birds, not pursuing them in the open
like birds of prey, but dropping down on them suddenly. In the British Museum is a very
good specimen of the larder of a red-backed shrike, taken with the nest of the bird by Lord
Walsingham in Norfolk, and showing the way in which the shrike spits insects and birds

ere on thorns; and the species has been known
|

| to hang up birds even bigger than itself, such
as blackbirds and thrushes, as well as tits of
several kinds, robins, and hedge-sparrows, while it
will also occasionally seize young partridges and
pheasants.”

Though undeniably unmusical,the red-backed
shrike is nevertheless able to imitate with
considerable success the notes of other small
birds, decoying them by this means. within
striking distance—an accomplishment shared also
{/ by other members of the Shrike Family. The
present species is attractively clothed in a
plumage varied with black, grey, rufous, and
chestnut-brown, the last being the predomi-
| nating hue of the upper-parts; hence the name
'; Red-backed Shrike.

4 The habits of its congener, the GREAT GREY
SHRIKE, are precisely similar. A caged specimen
which had become very tame would take food
\ |} from its captor’s hands. When a _ bird was
Wh | given it, the skull was invariably broken at once,

\t
WANA

Photeby ie Es Bigg LE eigen Buscar after which, holding the body in its claws, the

REED-WARBLER shrike would proceed to tear it in pieces after the

A NE OGY. EET Pi and leaving again in fashion of a hawk. Sometimes,instead, the carcase
Ye

would be forced through the bars of the cage—
in lieu of thorns—-and then pulled in pieces.

Very different in appearance from the members of the Shrike Family are a group of
possibly allied forms known as WAX-WINGs. Of pleasing but sober coloration, they are
remarkable for certain curious appendages to the inner quill-feathers, of a bright sealing-wax
red colour, from which they derive their name: similar wax-like appendages occur also, some-
times, on the tail-feathers.

Breeding in the Arctic Circle, wax-wings occur in both the Old and New Worlds, though
some species peculiar to the latter region lack the wax-like appendages characteristic of the
majority of the species. These birds are erratic in their movements, and large bands occasionally
visit the British Islands during the autumn and winter, the eastern counties being usually the
most favoured spots; but on the occasion of one of these immigrations, in the winter of 1872,
many were seen in the neighbourhood of the North of London. During the summer they feed
on insects, but in autumn and winter on berries and fruit. At this time they become very fat

Photc by FT. Newman

SONG-THRUSH

A resident species, sometimes called the Mavis

at
o/

138 “THE LIVING

ANIMALS

OF THE WORLD

Photo by Scholastic Phe tC
YOUNG THRUSH

This photograph shows the mud-lined nest
puctegrap

the spring migrants, remaining to nest,
and leaving again in the autumn. Some,
as the BLACK-CAP, WHITE-THROAT, CHIFF-
CHAFF, GARDEN-, WILLOW-, and Woop-
WARBLERS, frequent woods, hedgerows,
and gardens; whilst others, as the SEDGE-
and REED-WARBLERS, are found only
near water affording sufficient shelter in
the shape of reed-banks or osier-planta-
tions.

The BLAck-CAP and GARDEN-WARB-
LER rank as songsters of no mean talent,
being held second only to the nightingale.

As if by common consent, the two former

never clash, so that where black-caps are
common there are few garden-warblers, and
vice versa.

Most of these birds build a typical

cup-shaped nest of dried grasses, lined '

with finer materials, and placed near the
ground; but that of the REED-WARBLER
is a most beautiful structure, the dried
grass of which it is made being woven
around some three or four reed-stems,
making it seem as if the latter had, in

growing up, pierced the sides of th> nest

and are then captured and sold in Jarge numbers
for food in the Russian markets, and occasionally
are sent over to London.

Passing over a small group of comparatively
uninteresting American birds known as “ Green-
lets,” we come to the WARBLERS, a group which
constitutes one of the largest families of birds of
the Old World. The species included in this
family vary greatly in their characters, so that
itis by no means easy to give diagnostic char-
acters, whereby they may be readily distinguished
from the Fly-catchers on the one hand or the
Thrushes on the other. The Thrushes, however,
as a group, may be distinguished from the
Warblers by the circumstance that in the former
the young have a distinctive spotted plumage,
differing from that of the adults, while the
young of the Warblers are not so marked,
their plumage differing but little from that of
their parents.

More than twenty species of warblers are
included amongst British birds. Although some
of them are but rare and accidental visitors to
Britain, others are amongst the commonest of

Photo by 7. T. Newman

BLACKBIRD

The male and female are quite different one from another, and in this respect
differ from the Thrushes, in which the sexes are alike

PTHRUSHES AND THEIR ALLIES 139

in their course. The cup-shaped hollow is very deep, so that
when the supporting reeds are bowed low in the breeze the
eggs rest perfectly safe.

We must pass now to a consideration of the Thrush Tribe,
which, as we have already hinted, are very closely allied to the
Warblers.

Birds like the COMMON THRUSH and the BLACKBIRD are so
common and so well known that they scarcely need comment
here. The same perhaps is true of many other members of
this group not popularly associated with the Thrush Tribe; such
are the RED-BREAST, or ROBIN RED-BREAST, as it is more generally
called, and the NIGHTINGALE. Few birds have inspired so many
writers as the nightingale; it even holds a place in classical
mythology. Professor Newton gives us one variant of a very
common but pretty story: ‘ Procne and Philomela were the
daughters of Pandion, King of Attica, who in return for warlike
aid rendered him by Tereus, King of Daulis in Thrace, gave
him the first-named in marriage. Tereus, however, being
enamoured of her sister, feigned that his wife was dead, and
induced Philomela to take her place. On her discovering the
truth, he cut out her tongue to hinder her from revealing his
deceit; but she depicted her sad story on a robe which she
sent to Procne, and the two sisters then contrived a horrible
revenge for the infidelity of Tereus by killing and serving to
him at table his son Itys. Thereupon the gods interposed,
changing Tereus into a hoopoe, Procne into a_ swallow, ROBIN
and Philomela into a nightingale, while Itys was restored to The ones aon inetd Una eaeng
life as a guite different from that of its parents
pheasant,
and Pandion (who had died of grief at
his daughters’ dishonour) as a bird of prey
[the osprey ].”

A not infrequent error with regard
to the red-breast may be pointed out
here. Many people seem to suppose that
the female is less brilliantly coloured than
her mate. Asa matter of fact this is not
so; what are generally regarded as females
of this species are the dull, spotted young,
which, as we have already pointed out,
assume this peculiar livery throughout the
tribe.

No less common in Britain, during
the summer months at least, are the WHEAT-
EARS, STONE-CHATS, WHIN-CHATS, and
RED-STARTS. Small and prettily coloured
species, these are all insect-eaters, and, with
the exception of the wheat-ears, lay blue
Di Tyee GER Tel aid Bx Gani eggs, deposited in somewhat coarsely con-
structed nests, placed on or near the
ground; or in holes in ruins, trees, or walls,
The scveerest and most renowned of all the songsters in the case of the red-starts ; or in bur-

Photo by HW’. F. Piggott

NIGHTINGALE

140 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD
rows or under ledges of rock, as among the
wheat-ears, which lay white eggs.

The bird commonly known as_ the
HEDGE-SPARROW isa close ally of the Thrush
Family, having nothing to do with the
sparrows proper — which are finches — as its
name would imply.

Another nearly related form is the
DIPPER, or WATER-OUZEL. By no means
brilliantly coloured, it is nevertheless an
exceedingly interesting bird, and one never
met with away from mountain streams. The
group has a wide distribution, occurring
in suitable localities in Europe, Asia,
and the Rocky Mountains of America, and
extending from Colombia to Peru and
Tucuman. Squat in form, with rounded
wings and short tail, the ouzel seeks the
greater part of its food on the bottom
of swiftly running streams. It is every-
where, writes Dr. Sharpe of the commoner of
the two British species, a shy and watchful
' A bird, and, except in the breeding-season,

Photo by G, Watmough ae es Son] res appears to be solitary. By patient watching
STONE_-CHAT near the dipper’s haunts, however, it is
A resident and generally distributed bird possible to observe the bird scudding over

the surface of the water with a rapid flight
and a vigorous beating of the wings, something like that of a kingfisher, untti it alights
on a rock or large stone in the middle of the stream. Its white breast then stands out
in bold relief, and, after pausing for a moment, the bird commences to edge to the side
of the rock, and either walks deliberately into the water, or disappears suddenly beneath the
surface, seeking its food at the bottom of the stream, in the shape of larve, caddis-worms,
water-beetles, and small snails.

The WRENS are probably near allies of the Dippers. The family includes a number of
species of small birds, most largely represented in the New World, but distributed widely over
the Old World also. Two occur in the British Islands: of these, one, the COMMON WREN, is
found throughout Europe, and occurs also in Northern Africa, Asia Minor, and North Palestine;
whilst the other, the St. KILDA WREN, is only found on the island from which it takes
its name.

Considerations of space compel us to pass over three or four families, of comparatively
little interest to any save the scientific ornithologist, in favour of the FLY-cATCHERS and
SWALLOWS.

The former, in that the young are spotted, appear to evince some affinity to the Thrush
Tribe, but they have broad and flatter bills than the latter, whilst the mouth is surrounded
by more or less conspicuous bristles. They are entirely Old World forms, having their
stronghold in Africa.

Three species of fly-catcher occur in England, though only one, the COMMON or SPOTTED
FLY-CATCHER, usually breeds in Great Britain, coming late in the spring from Africa. As its
name implies, it feeds upon small insects, capturing them on the wing by sudden sallies,
and returning immediatcly after to some perch, generally a garden-fence, or the bare bough of a
tree. Asarule the prey is caught with a sudden dart, but sometimes only after a prolonged
flight, when the bird will double and turn, as the necessity arises, with great skill. Its nest,

SWALLOWS AND MARTINS L441

made of dry grass and moss,
lined with horse-hair and covered
externally with spider-webs and *

lichens, is usually placed in
some sheltered position, such as
a crevice in the bark of a tree
or in the creepers covering the
trellis-work of a house; and
owing to the skilful way in which
it is covered externally, so as
to resemble its surroundings, is
difficult to find.

The SWALLOWS and
MARTINS constitute an exceed-
ingly well-defined group of birds,
and one which holds a_con-
spicuously high place in the
regard of mankind, finding a
welcome everywhere on account of the great benefits they confer by the removal of insect-
pests in the shape of the smaller gnats and flies. These, were they not kept in check
by the Swallow Tribe, would render most parts of the world uninhabitable. Rarely seen
upon the ground, save when procuring mud for the construction of their nests, the birds of

this group are all peculiarly strong fliers,

| turning and twisting with the greatest

speed and precision. All have very short

beaks and wide mouths, long wings and
tails, and small and weak feet.

A large number build their nests of
mud, collected in small pellets and held
together by the secretion of the salivary

Photo by Ff. To Newma
A PAIR OF WRENS

Known nearly everywhere as the ‘¢ Kitty? or ** Fenny” Wren

glands. These nests are commonly more
or less cup-shaped, and fastened under
the eaves of dwelling-houses or other
buildings, or placed on a _ convenient
beam or other ledge. The RED-RUMPED
SWALLOWS and Farry MARTINS—species
enjoying an enormous distribution,
being found in India, Africa, America,
and Australia — build very large flask-
shaped nests, having the entrance pro-
duced into a funnel often eight or
nine inches in length. Others, like the
SAND-MARTIN, excavate long tunnels, ter-
minating in larger chambers, in the faces
ofsand-banks—a performance which must
certainly be regarded as wonderful, when
one realises the feeble tools with which
2 the task of excavating has to be per-
iassaiby Scala selec d Mela NG formed. Some species utilise the holes
pereciginm Teepe ik Nae eer yer alas ey made by other birds, in one species this

; hole being itself bored within the burrow
In winter wrens have a custom of seeking some hole or other convenient :
shelter and huddling together in small parties for the sake of warmth of the viscacha.
Io

& wiles Te: is

142 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

All are more or less migratory in their habits, some covering enormous distances in
journeying to and fro between their winter retreats and their summer breeding-places. The
COMMON SWALLOW and HOUSE-MARTIN, for example, leave the shores of Africa early in the
spring, and distribute themselves over Europe, thousands visiting the British Islands. After
rearing in their respective breeding-places from two to three broods, they return with their
offspring before the rigours of winter set in to the African Continent. The routes and
destinations of the swallow
are now well known; but as
much cannot be said for the
house-martin, whose winter
quartersare as yet enshrouded
in mystery. That they must
be somewhere in Africa is all
that can at present be said.

Three species of the
Swallow Tribe visit England
regularly every year, and re-
main to breed. These are the

YOUNG SWALLOWS COMMON or CHIMNEY-SWAL-

For hundreds of years it has been regarded as most unlucky to kill a swallow Low, and the HOUSE-MARTIN

just referred to, and the little

SAND-MARTIN. In the two first mentioned the upper-parts are of a dark steel-blue colour
with a metallic gloss, but they are, nevertheless, easily distinguished one from another, — since
the swallow has a deeply forked tail, and a bright chestnut patch on the throat, with a
similarly coloured band across the forehead; whilst the martin lacks the chestnut markings, and is
pure white beneath, with a large white patch on the lower part of the back, and a less markedly
forked tail. Furthermore, the legs of the martin are feathered down to the claws, whilst
the feet of the swallow are bare. The sand-martin is a little greyish-brown bird, with white
under-parts. It is the earliest of the Swallow Tribe to arrive in Britain, and the first to depart.

Photo by ¥. T. Newman

LYRE-BIRDS AND SCRUB-BIRDS

At the beginning of the account of the Perching-birds it was stated that the group was
divided into two sections, and that each of these was further sub-divided into two. With the
Swallows the first sub-division of the first section ended; the second we are to consider now in
the very singular LYRE-BIRDS and SCRUB-BIRDS of Australia.

Rendered conspicuous on account of the remarkable lyrate tail, from which the name is
derived, the LYRE-BIRDS, on closer acquaintance, prove to be exceedingly interesting forms,
though materials for a really complete biography of the three known species are not yet
available. The males, it seems, are skilled mimics, reproducing the songs of other birds with
great fidelity, this being especially true of the species known as PRINCE ALBERYT’S LYRE-BIRD.
During the courting-season the males construct hillocks, to which they resort to display their
very beautiful and graceful tails, elevating them over the head, and drooping the wings after
the fashion of a peacock, accompanying this display with certain spasmodic pecking and
scratching actions. They are solitary birds, more than a pair never being seen together, and
even these are exceedingly difficult to approach, stratagem always being necessary. Buta
single egg is laid, which has the appearance of being smeared with ink; whilst the young
bird differs from that of all other perching-birds in the thickness of its downy covering and
the great length of time in which it remains in the nest. The nest, made of sticks, moss,
and fibres skilfully interwoven, and lined inside with the leaf of a tree-fern which resembles
horse-hair, is a large domed structure, with a single aperture serving as an entrance.

Lyre-birds are essentially ground-dwellers, feeding upon insects, especially beetles and
snails, and keeping to the wilder regions of the country.

CHAT TERERS 143

The SCRUB-BIRD is an extremely interesting form, scientifically. Only the males are known
at the present time, and these are dull-coloured birds of the size of a thrush. Of the female,
eggs, and nest, we as yet know absolutely nothing.

CHATTERERS, ANT-THRUSHES, BROAD-BILLS, ETC.

The second major division of the Perching-birds embraces a few forms of considcrable
interest.

The group of CHATTERERS includes several remarkable forms of very diverse coloration,
many representing the most gorgeous of all South American birds.

One of the most remarkable is the UMBRELLA-BIRD. This bird is funereal in appearance,
being clothed in a plumage of deep black, with the head surmounted by a large, drooping,
flat-topped crest, resembling in shape the familiar crest of certain varieties of the canary, whilst
from the throat hangs a long lappet of feathers reaching nearly down to the feet. The female
is duller than her mate, and lacks the peculiar plumes. The umbrella-bird is a forest-dwelling

Photo by UH’. F. Piggott

SAND-MARTINS
This photograph shows a portion of a sand bank, pierced with the tunnel-like nests made by these feeble builders

species, confined to the Upper Amazons, and dwelling in the tops of the highest trees, where
it finds ample sustenance in wild fruits. But few naturalists have ever seen it in a wild state.

Equally wonderful are the BELL-BIRDS, so called on account of their note, which bears an
extraordinary resemblance to the sound made by a blacksmith upon an anvil, though it has
often been likened to the tolling of a bell. Four species are known, in three of which the
males have a pure white plumage, with much naked, vividly coloured skin on the face. One
species has a curious pendulous process hanging from the forehead, thinly covered with feathers.
By some this is said to be capable of erection during periods of excitement. Like the umbrella-
bird, these are forest-dwelling species.

For brilliancy of plumage amongst the Chatterers, the palm must be given to the CocKs-
OF-THE-ROCK, in the males of which orange-red predominates, whilst the general effect is
heightened by crests and curiously curled and frayed feathers growing from the lower part
of the back. The males indulge in remarkable love-displays, the performances being held in
some open space, and in the presence of the females. One at a time each male appears to
go through a kind of dance, accompanying his peculiar steps and hops with much swaying of
the head and extending of the wings. When tired, the performer gives a signal which is under-
stood by his fellows, and retires from the ring, his place being immediately taken by another.

144. THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

The nesting habits of the Chatterers
vary greatly, —some building nests of mud
and twigs, which they fasten on projections
of rock in damp caves; others simply lining
holes in trees with dry grass. Some build
a cup-shaped nest of lichens, others a simple
platform of sticks, whilst some of the THICK-
BILLED CHATTERERS hang large nests of
leaves, plant-stalks, and wool from low
branches, the entrance to the nest being
from a hole in the side. The eggs vary
in number among the different species
from two to four, and in colour may be
white, chocolate, pale salmon-coloured, or
greenish blue, and are for the most part
spotted.

Closely allied to the Cocks-of-the-rock
are the MANAKINS, for the most part small
and thick-set birds, and in many instances
brilliantly coloured — at least in the case of
the males. Some seventy species are known,

Y ”

Phote by D. Le Souef } i (pittaaens
VICTORIAN LYRE-BIRD

Lyre-birds, which are also known to the colonists as ** Pheasants,’” are
great mimics

rs

ae
Nee

all of which are confined to South America. They
must be sought for, as a rule, in the forests or
thick undergrowth of marshy places.

The Manakin Family contains several species
of considerable interest, on account of the peculiar
modifications which certain of the quill-feathers
of the males have undergone. In some species
what are known as the secondary quill-feathers
are peculiarly twisted, and have the shafts much
thickened. With these modified feathers the
birds are enabled, probably by clapping the
wings and bringing the thickened feathers
violently together, to make a sharp sound, which
has been likened to the crack of a whip. Other
species have the quill-feathers of the hand — the
primaries, as they are called —similarly thickened,
and they probably are also used to produce

A
4
iy

es

Ss

sounds.
One species is known as the BAILADOR, or ;
DANCER, on account of a very remarkable habit Phote by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.

which the males have of dancing. Two males, TAIL OF AUSTRALIAN LYRE-BIRD
choosing some secluded spot, select a bare twig, This ornamental tail 1s worn only by the male

ANT-THRUSHES, PLANT-CUTTERS, WOOD-HEWERS 145

and, taking up a position about a foot and a half apart, alternately jump about two feet in the
air, and alight again on exactly the same spot from which they sprang. With the regularity
of clockwork one bird jumps up the instant the other alights, each bird performing a musical
accompaniment to the tune of * to-le-do — to-le-do — to-le-do,” uttering the syllable “to” as he

yy

crouches to spring, “le” while in the air, and “do” as he alights; and this performance appears
to be kept up till tne birds are exhausted.

Some of the manakins are very beautifully coloured. One species, for example, is black,
with a blue mantle and a crimson crest; another, black, with orange-coloured cheeks and breast
and similarly coloured band round the neck, green rump, and yellow abdomen. The females are
generally duller in coloration.

The ANT-THRUSHES, or PITTAS, are long-legged, short-tailed birds, of brilliant coloration,
having their headquarters in the Malay Archipelago; but the family is represented in India,
Australia, and West Africa.

These birds are very shy and ex-
ceedingly difficult to approach. One
species, the large GROUND-THRUSII, is de-
scribed by Wallace as one of the most /
beautiful birds of the East. Velvety
black above, relieved by pure white, the
shoulders are azure-blue and the belly
a vivid crimson. The nest recalls, in
the plan of its architecture, that of the
Oven-birds, being more or less globular
in form, and having a lateral entrance;
it is composed of twigs, roots, bark,
moss, leaves, and grass, and is frequently
cemented with earth. The eggs are
usually spotted, and have a creamy-white
ground-colour: the spots may be brown,
reddish grey, or purplish black.

The curious PLANT-CUTTERS of the
temperate regions of South America are
nearly related to the Chatterers, though
at one time it was believed they were
allied to the True Finches. Constituting
but a small family, the plant-cutters are

3 Photo by A, S. Rudland & Sons
remarkable for their strangely serrated BELL_BIRD

beaks, the cutting-edges of which are So called from its wonderfully clear, bell-like note

armed with a series of fine saw-like teeth.

This beak is used in cutting down plants; and as these birds appear to cut down a great number

in sheer wantonness, they are much disliked in the neighbourhood of gardens and plantations.
Plant-cutters are not conspicuous for the beauty of their plumage, and have a harsh and

grating voice.

The WooD-HEWERS constitute a group of over 200 species, all of which are South American.
They are for the most part small and dull-coloured birds, but nevertheless of consiaerable
interest on account of their nest-building habits. The most remarkable members of the family
in this respect are three species of OVEN-BIRDS. These construct a massive nest of mud,
bearing a more or less fanciful resemblance to a baker’s oven; hence the name Oven-bird.
Roughly globular in shape, its walls are of great thickness, and to prevent cracking hair and
grass-fibres are intermixed with the mud; the interior is gained through a small hole on
one side of the nest, which leads into a passage terminating in a chamber containing the
eggs, which are laid upon a bed of grass. Strangely enough, the bird seeks the most exposed

[46 THE LIVING ANIMALS. OF THE WORLD

situations, placing its nest on branches, in the forks of trees, on posts, rocks, or house-tops.
Another species, known to the Spaniards as the CASARITA, or LITTLE HouSE-BUILDER, builds its
nest at the bottom of a narrow cylindrical hole, which is said to extend horizontally under-
ground for nearly six feet. Other species build nests of sticks and twigs or of grass, which
are divided into chambers after the fashion of the mud nest of the oven-bird, the inner
chamber being lined with wool and feathers.

The variation in the form, habits, and coloration of these birds is very great, some
recalling the Woodpeckers and Tree-creepers, others the Titmice.

The family of the TyRANT FLY-CATCHERS, though numbering some 400 species, is less
interesting, or rather contains fewer peculiar forms, than the Manakin Family. The tyrant
fly-catchers are American birds, and represent the fly-catchers of the Old World. One of the
best known is the KING-BIRD, which is renowned rather for its pugnacious disposition than for
beauty of plumage.

The CRESTED TYRANT-BIRD has a curious habit of lining its nest with the cast-off skins of
snakes, a habit which has caused a great
deal of discomfort both to juvenile as well
as adult egg-collectors, who, recognising
the skin by the touch, have hurriedly with-
drawn the hand, lest the owner of the
cast-off coat should be in the vicinity.

All the tyrant-birds are active and
restless in their habits, and frequent marshy
districts, sitting alone, perched on the dead
branches of trees or bushes, whence they
dart forth like the Old World fly-catchers
on their prey. Some species, however,
frequent bare plains; others, also ground-
dwellers, associate occasionally in flocks.

Though the prey, which consists
chiefly of insects, is, as a rule. captured
on the wing, it is not invariably so. One
species, for example, pounces down on

Phite by A. §. Rudland & Suvi crawling beetles, grasps them in its claws,
COCK-OF-THE-ROCK and eats them on the ground. Some other
The cock-of-the-rock is a South American bird, of gorgeous coloration species eat mice, young birds, snakes, frogs,

fishes, spiders, and worms, the larger
victims being beaten on a branch to kill them. One or two species will eat seeds and berries.

The nest is often domed, and skilfully felted with moss, lichens, and spider-webs.

The BROAD-BILLS are the sole representatives of the final sub-division of the Perching-
birds. After the brilliant coloration, the next most striking feature is the great breadth of
the bill. Their range is very limited, extending from the lower spurs of the Himalaya,
through Burma and Siam, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. They seek the seclusion of forests
in the neighbourhood of water, exhibiting great partiality for the banks of rivers and lakes,
and feeding on worms and insects, many of the latter being captured on the wing.

The nest of the broad-bill is a large and not very neat structure, oval in shape, with an
entrance near the top, which is often protected with an overhanging roof. It is generally
suspended from a low branch or plants near the water, and made of twigs, roots, and leaves,
and lined with finer materials. [rom three to five eggs are laid.

With these birds, probably the most primitive of the Perching-birds, this section ends.
Many forms have inevitably been crowded out, whilst others have been but briefly noticed ;
nevertheless, all the really important groups have been more or less completely described, and
in the majority of cases well illustrated.

BOOK TI, REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

BY W. SAVILLE-KENT, F.L.S., F,Z.S.

REPTILES

CHAPTER I

CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS

HE Reptile Class. as defined by modern scientific limitations, includes among the living

animals of the world the several groups of the Crocodiles, the Tortoises and Turtles, the

Tuatera. the Lizards, and the Snakes. In the popular mind the Frogs and Toads, and

the Newts and Salamanders, are often held to belong to the same main section; but these,

as hereafter shown, claim, as Amphibians, an independent position of equivalent rank and value.

In bygone geological ages the Reptile Class embraced a considerably larger number of groups;

some of the members, such as the extinct Dinosaurs, comprised titanic monsters from 60 to 80

feet in length. The Crocodiles and Alligators of the present day are the snly living reptiles

which in any way approach the extinct Saurians in their dimensions, or assist us in some
small measure to realise their unwieldy forms and bulk.

The members of the Crocodile Order, which, in addition to the Alligators, includes also

the Caimans and so-called Gavials or Garials, agree with one another in the more or less

ponderous lizard-like

shape of their body, [4+ 47 =." ¥ Ti Yon, t thee, 4 F RW hy WL AO
le ggg * & og! Ye Ms % ae Z ‘ iG
° ies
supported on well- ~y* ‘ . . gl, &
¥ ‘ % * % oe iL A we 4
developed but short @ . : . "hd “be
: tm Ky ; % s' oe eee WHEN ye We
and comparatively ra bee Py Pn * 6,7 A
2 . | « Mo Ie A 4 0 as 2 j 4% %
weak legs, in their (iss te“¥r. a, *, Set, ae en, wt 4,
f i ae ig A a

special adaptation to
an amphibious ewist-
ence, carnivorous
habits, and restriction
to tropical and sub-
tropical climates.
Among the salient
characters of the
CROCODILE, as the
representative of its
tribe, which specially
adapt it for its aquatic
habits, the long, power-
ful tail is strongly

Nah

compressed and thus Phote by WH’. P. Dando, F.Z S.
fitted for use as an YOUNG NILE CROCODILE
organ of propulsion, This species was worshipped with divine honours and mummified after death by the ancient Egyptians

147

148 THE LIVING ANIMALS

OF THE WORLD

i ee

Photo by HW’. P. Dando, F.Z.S.

YOUNG BROAD-SNOUTED CROCODILE
Ai native of West Africa, remarkable for the extreme shortness and great breadth of its nozzle

by specially developed bones of the palate, that they have

and the feet are more or
less webbed. The most strik-
ing of its structural adapta-
tions is, however, associated
with the formation of the
creature’s skull. The manner
in which a crocodile or alli-
gator contrives to breathe orto
save itself from asphyxiation,
when opening and _ shutting
its mouth under water, as
it may often be observed to
do in the Regent's Park
Menagerie, is a common
source of wonderment to the
onlooker. This seemingly
difficult feat is compassed by
virtue of the posterior nos-
trils, or breathing-passages,
being set so far back in the
skull, and being so completely
cut off from the mouth-cavity
no intercommunication with

the mouth. It is this mechanism which enables a crocodile to seize and hold an animal
underneath the water between its open jaws until it is drowned. Special valves at the
back of the mouth prevent any water running down the creature’s throat, while it is able
itself to breathe unrestrainedly by allowing just the tip of its elongated snout, with the anterior

nostril-apertures, to remain above the water's surface.

In many species a conspicuous knob-

like bony excrescence is developed at the extremity of the snout, by which the nostril-openings

are raised turret-wise above the surface of the water.

above the level of the
creature’s head, the crocodile
is able to approach its floating
or bank-side prey practically
unperceived, its huge body,
limbs, and even the head,
with the exception of the
nose and eyes, being totally
submerged.

Although capable of
moving with great activity
in the water, crocodiles and
their allies are usually ac-
counted sluggish and slow
movers on the land. Seen
basking in the sun, as is
their wont, by the hour
together on some sand-bank,
or creeping lazily thereon
among their fellows, such a
conclusion is natural. The
celerity, however, with which

Norman B. Smit

A man-eating individual,

The eyes also being usually elevated

A DEAD CROCODILE

This particular animal has just been shot. The natives in the
background give a good idea of its size — little less than 20 feet long

VWilford-on-Sea

ICELLATED LIZARDS

AND ©

GREEN

\inicea

North

and

han

a6
7
r

the

as Well as on the continent:

nd,

sis fe

CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS 149

even a huge 25-footer, as witnessed by the writer in the Norman River, North Queensland,
will make tracks for and hurl itself into the water, if disturbed during its midday siesta by
the near impact of a rifle-bullet, is a revelation. Crocodiles, moreover, as might be inferred
from the slit-like contour of the eye-pupil, as shown by daylight, are to a large extent
nocturnal, displaying their greatest activity, and being in the habit of traveling long distances
along and away from the river-banks in search of food, or in connection with their migratory
or mating instincts, under the cover of darkness.

Of all living animals the crocodile and its allies are probably equipped most efficiently
for both defence and aggression. The thick, horny shields, quadrangular on the back, tail, and
under-surface, and adapted in shape and size to cover the head, limbs, and sides, constitute
an almost impenetrable cuirass. As weapons of offence the formidable array of trenchant teeth,
with which the powerful jaws are armed, have not alone to be reckoned with by the victim |
assailed. The crocodile’s limbs and claws are relatively weak, and incapable of aggressive

; j oe oi d p; a fi i
A ¥ ate L yy
%.. rth ‘E 4 o. NE i EDS ‘f

Photo by Mr. W’, Rau]

A CROCODILE

Note the massive character of the tail, a weapon wherewith the creature can disable a horse or an ox, or sweep smaller prey into the water

mischief; but in the long, compressed, muscular tail the reptile possesses a terribly effective
weapon, wherewith, with one swift, unexpected side-stroke, it will sweep a smaller animal into
the water, or deal a blow of sufficient power to fell or disable a man or bullock. Thus
well-nigh invulnerable, and cognisant of its marvellous power of jaw and tail, a full-grown
crocodile will not hesitate to try conclusions with even such puissant adversaries as the bear,
the tiger, and other large carnivora, when they appreach the river’s brink to drink. Not
infrequently, too, the crocodile comes off the victor in these contests; while, as sometimes
happens, both of the well-matched foes are found dead side by side at the water’s edge. The
dread in which crocodiles are held by the natives of tropical countries, and the heavy toll they
levy upon the riverside population, and more especially the women-folk in their accustomed
avocations of water-carrying or laundry work, are too familiar to need dissertation. Hence it
is that in every country, excepting those particular locations where the creature is a subject of
misguided veneration or fetish worship, it may be said that every man’s hand is against them,
and the enmity most cordially reciprocated.

All the members of the Crocodile Family propagate by egg-production. The eggs are

150 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

relatively small in size, those of the largest species not exceeding that of a goose in
dimensions. In shape they are more or less symmetrically ovate, and encased with a hard,
white shell. In the case of the crocodile, the female selects a suitable dry sand-bank near
the river's edge, in which it excavates a hole of about 2 feet deep, and, having deposited
from twenty to sixty eggs therein, mounts guard over them, sleeping on top of the nest by
day, until the young are hatched. With the alligator, the site chosen for the nest is more
usually among bushes or reeds at some distance from the water, and the eggs, which may
be laid to the number of over 109, are covered over with leaves and vegetable débris, whose
decomposition engenders the heat required for their successful incubation. In both instances
the parent jealously guards the nest and repels all intruders until the eggs are hatched, and
ultimately conducts the young ones to the water, where they soon learn to shift for themselves.
Numbers of them, nevertheless, in their young and weak state, fall victims to vultures, hawks,
ichneumons, and all manner of birds and beasts of prey. From their birth the little saurians
are most vicious and irascible in disposition, hissing and snapping at or laying hold with bull-dog
tenacity of a finger or other seizable object that may be held towards them. From their
earliest days also they are eminently aggressive and carnivorous. Contenting themselves at
first with flies and other insects, they speedily extend their attentions to frogs, lizards, fish, or
any small animals which frequent
the marshes and river-banks; and
finally, with their concurrently in-
creased appetites and dimensions,
requisition such larger prey as
sheep, goats, deer, horses, and, as
before mentioned, even the human
species, if they can steal a march
on them unawares. Crocodiles
are provided with relatively small
gullets, and are necessarily in-
capable of swallowing any prey

whole which is of large dimensions.
Photo by W’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [Milford-on-Sea Accordingly any big quarry which
A QUEENSLAND CROCODILE is seized and dragged into the river

is disposed of piecemeal, the reptile
rending the carcase in fragments
with the aid of its terrible teeth and side-wrenches of its ponderous body.

Of crocodiles proper, as distinguished from alligators, there are some dozen known species.
From their last-named near allies they are distinguished by the entire absence of the
supplementary bony armature which in most alligators underlies the outer horny cuirass on
the under surface of the body. A more essential distinction is associated with the character
of the teeth. The upper and lower teeth of the crocodile interlock, and the fourth lower
canine-like tooth is received into a notch in the side of the upper jaw, and is consequently
more or less visible when the mouth is closed. In the alligators, on the other hand, this
bigger tusk-like tooth fits into a pit-like excavation in the upper jaw, and is invisible when
the mouth is shut.

The TRUE CROCODILES are found in the tropical regions of Africa, Asia, Australasia, and
Central America. The largest is undoubtedly the estuarine species, ranging from the eastern
shores of India, through the Malay region, to North and East Australia, New Guinea, and
the Fiji Islands. This wide range is a natural concomitant of their brackish- and salt-water
proclivities. Individuals of the species are, in fact, not infrequently met with floating on the
sea at some considerable distance from the land. An example of this estuarine species has
been recorded which measured no less than 33 feet, while a length of 20 feet and over is by
no means of uncommon occurrence.

The spectmen referred to in the anecdote on page 550

esse

Photo by 7. W, McLellan
CROCODILE, WELL ILLUSTRATING THE CHARACTER OF THE DENTITION

The lower tusk-like teeth fit into notches in the upper jaw, and are visible when the mouth is closed. In the alligator these teeth fit into pits
in the upper jaw, and are hidden from view under the like conditions ,

151

is@ THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

The method adopted in
Queensland and North
Australia for capturing these
destructive monsters is. that
of a running noose, so at-
tached to a suitably flexible
mangrove tree growing in the
vicinity of its nocturnal runs
as to constitute a gigantic
spring-trap. A dead carcase
or other suitable bait is added
to lure the animal to its
doom. The crocodiles thus
caught arealiveand uninjured,
and can be dispatched or
reserved for menagerie exhi-
bition. A somewhat amusing
incident attended the trans-

CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS, WITH YOUNG port of a“ reprieved” captive
Notwithstanding their proverbially irascible dispositions, these reptiles, of all ages and dimen- by steamship from Cairns to

sions, herd together on the most amiable terms Brisbane, Queensland, a few

years since. In the dead of

night, when all but the watch and engineer had retired to rest (they have to anchor and lay-to

at night in the Great Barrier Reef channels), the saurian managed to free himself from his

bonds, and started on a voyage of discovery around the decks. Arriving at the stoke-hold, he

either incontinently stumbled into it, or descended of madice prepense, sniffing the chance of

a supper or a good joke at the engineer's expense. Anyway, the engineer was aroused from his

peaceful dozings with the impression that the last day of reckoning had arrived, and, rushing
up the hatchway, awakened the whole ship’s strength with his frantic outcries.

The NILE CROCODILE, the most familiar form in European menageries, and once abundant
throughout Egypt to the Nile’s delta, has now retired to the upper reaches of that great
river. It never attains to the dimensions of the estuarine form. By the ancient Egyptians,
as is well known, this species

Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.

was pampered andworshipped
with divine honours’ while
living, and after death em-
balmed and preserved in the
catacombs.

Other noteworthy croco-
diles, of which space will allow
only of the mention of their
names, are the AMERICAN or
ORINOCO CROCODILE, and the
LONG-SNOUTED CROCODILE
of West Africa, which distantly
approach to the LONG-
SNOUTED GAVIAL or GARIAL
of India, in which the snout
is elongated in a_beak-like
manner, and armed with close A CROCODILE FROM SOUTHERN UNITED STATES
rows of long, recurved teeth,

Photo by Robert D. Carson, Esq.) [ Philadelphia

The teeth of crocodiles, as compared with those of alligators, are much less uniform in size

specially adapted for its ex- and character

CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS Las

clusively fish-eating propensities.
Full-grown examples of the gavial
may attain to a length of 20 feet.

The TyPIcaL or MISsSIssippl
ALLIGATOR is,as its name denotes,
a North American form, having |
the modified dental and other
structural details previously re-
ferred to, but otherwise in size and
its aggressively destructive habits
nearly corresponding with the
Oriental crocodile. A second
species of alligator is found in
China.

InthetropicalSouth American
rivers the place of the alligator
is occupied by the CAIMANS, some
of which attain to huge pro-
portions, and are distinguished
from the former by the greater
development of the bony armature
of both their back and under-
surface, and by certain essential,
but to the lay reader obscure,
modifications of the skull. An ex-
ample of the GREAT CAIMAN once
did duty as a riding-horse to the
naturalist Waterton, as all those

Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co,

familiar with his book of travels MISSISSIPPI AND CHINESE ALLIGATORS
will remember.

The habits of the caiman
differ somewhat locally. From the main stream of the Lower Amazon they are in the habit
of migrating in the dry season to the inland pools and flooded forests. In the middle districts
of the same river, where the drought is excessive and protracted, the caimans are addicted to
burying themselves in the mud till the rains return; while in the upper reaches of the
Amazon, where the droughts are not prolonged, the caimans are perennially present. The
eggs of these reptiles are much esteemed for food by the natives of Dutch Guiana.

The Chinese spectes, which is the smaller of the two, feeds mainly upon fish

CHAPTER, 11
TORTOISES AND TURTLES

HE order of the Chelonians, including the Tortoises, Turtles, and Terrapins, with their

allies, constitutes one of the most distinct and readily defined groups of the Reptile

Class. The more or lesscomplete bony shell, or carapace, which encases the body, and

into which both head and limbs can in many cases be completely retracted, separates these
reptiles very widely from the other orders. In some respects certain details of the skull-
structure assimilate them to the Crocodiles; but here again there is an entire absence of the
rows of formidable teeth, the upper and lower jaws being sharply pointed, covered with horn,
and thus converted into a trenchant beak. The two leading groups of the Tortoises and the
Turtles are distinctly separated, by the respective conformation of their limbs, for a terrestrial
or aquatic existence. The Tortoises have normal walking-legs, with toes and, in most instances,
claws, fitting them for walking on the land or burrowing into the earth. In the True Turtles

is4 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

these limbs take the form of flattened paddles, and in no
instance are more than two of the toes provided with claws.
The TORTOISES are sub-divided by zoologists into
some six or cight subordinate groups or families, for
the most part distinguished by the respective modifi-
cations of their protective shells. This shell in all
tortoises and turtles consists of two essential elements —
the upper or back casing, known as the “carapace,”
and the under one, or so-called ‘“ plastron,” which
covers the ventral surface. In some forms these two
elements are completely welded into one another, forming
a continuous box-like shell; in others they are more or
“| less separate; while in yet ancther series the lower
Gee shell is rudimentary. These distinctions have been

Ta ; _ found to constitute a convenient basis for classification.
: In the TRUE LAND-TORTOISES, which invite first
attention, the upper and lower shells are completely
, united in a box-like form, and the neck, bent in the
' form of the letter §, can be completely retracted within
it. The limbs are club-shaped, covered with horny
scales or tubercles, and adapted for walking, the toes
being unwebbed, and provided with strong claw-like nails.
; j Pre-eminent among this typical terrestrial series
Fei, i —. come the huge GIANT or ELEPHANT-TORTOISES, formerly
ee See fied abundant, as their fossil remains indicate, in Southern

ASIATIC TORTOISES Europe, India, and North and South America, and now
SF sil devia ail dba wut es eee represented only in the isolated oceanic islands of Aldabra,
represents one of the most helpless of living animals off Madagasear, the Seychelles, and the Galapagos groups.

Even within historic times they were very abundant in
the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues; but their huge size and lethargic habits, combined
with their esculent qualities, have brought about their extermination. Those remaining in
the islands mentioned are now so reduced in numbers that there is a possibility of their
becoming extinct at an early date, and this notwithstanding the strenuous endeavours that
are being made to save them. A large percentage of
the small residue of these giant Chelonians have been
transported from their island homes and presented to the
London Zoological Gardens, where they are now comfortably
housed.

An instructive idea of the aspect and relative dimen-
sions of these giant tortoises may be obtained by a refer-
ence to page vii of the First Volume, in which one of
these Chelonians is shown to be equal in size and strength
to carrying a human rider, It is recorded that these
reptiles were so abundant in the island of Rodrigues in
1691 that one might count as many as 3,000 of them in
a single flock, and walk for over 100 paces upon their
backs. All of these giant tortoises, as obtained from

separate island groups, or islets of the groups, exhibit Pye TiN: Nuun yan pagina
characteristic differences, indicating the length of time EUROPEAN TORTOISE
they have been separated from one another. The A tortoise’s shell, or carapace, constitutes a porte

age to which these giant tortoises attain is altogether able house, wherein the animal can entirely with
: = draw for shelter in inclement weather, or when

henomenal. One example at Port Louis, Mauritius, attacked by enemies
p ,

TORTOISES AND TURTLES iss

originally brought from the Seychelles, is definitely known to have lived for over 130 years
from the date of its transportation. It is stated to have been of large size when imported;
and as these animals are notoriously slow growers, another couple of centuries may be safely
added to its life-span. The Galapagos Islands down to recent times have produced the greater
number of species of these tortoises, the carapace of the largest of these not infrequently
measuring as much as 4 feet in direct length, and the weight of such an animal being
over 400 Ibs.

Highly interesting details concerning the Galapagos giant tortoises and their habits are
contained in Darwin's ‘‘ Voyage of the Beagle.” At the time of that illustrious naturalist’s
visit they were still very abundant in the islands. He remarked that they abounded in both
the higher and damper and the lower and arid districts, but gave preference to the former.

= he 7 iB alll 1 Sr s i
Photo by S. G. Payne & Son, Aylesbury, by permission of the Hon, Walter Roths:hild

ELEPHANT-TORTOISES FROM THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS

Several species are shown in this photograph

The old males were invariably the largest, growing to such a size that they required six or
eight men to lift them, and yielded as much as 200 Ibs. of good, highly nutritious meat. On
some of the islands there was no water; and in these cases, as also when they occurred in the
dry and arid lowlands, they were observed to feed chiefly on the succulent cactuses. When
water was plentiful, the tortoises exhibited a great fondness for it, drinking large quantities
and wallowing in the mud. In the larger islands, where wells and springs existed in the
higher and damper portions, regular well-beaten paths radiated in every direction, indicating
the routes, like sheep-tracks, regularly followed by the tortoises to and from the water-holes.
It was these tracks which betrayed their presence and led to their first discovery by the older
Spanish navigators. When travelling long distances to the watering-places, it is recorded that
they march night and day, pursuing the ‘even tenor of their way” at the rate of sixty yards
an hour —one yard per minute, or four miles per day! During the breeding-season the larger
males indulge in hoarse roarings or bellowings that can be heard for a considerable distance.
.The female deposits her eggs either in the sand, where this is plentiful, covering them up

156 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

again, or, where the ground is rocky, drops them indiscriminately in any crevice or depression
encountered. The eggs are white, spherical, and hard-shelled, as in all tortoises, and somewhat
exceed those of a hen in bulk.

The very antithesis of the giant land-tortoises of the Galapagos Islands is the small and
familiar GRECIAN TORTOISE, frequently exposed for sale on hand-barrows in the London streets,
and acquired by the unsophisticated suburban resident as a quaint but not altogether
estimable garden pet. Like the majority of tortoises, this is a vegetarian, and with epicurean
tastes that will guide it instinctively to select your choicest lettuces and the gems of your
horticultural triumphs for the delectation of its fastidious appetite. The Grecian tortoise rarely
exceeds 53 inches in length, and is abundant throughout South-eastern Europe, Sicily, Italy,
and the Grecian Archipelago, extending thence to Syria. In Algeria an almost identical
tortoise occurs which grows to the greater length of 9 inches; while Greece produces yet a
third form, the so-called MARGINED TORTOISE, which attains the greater length of 11 inches,
and is distinguished by the colour of the carapace usually being black, with a small spot of
yellow on each shield-like plate. All three of the foregoing species are collectively imported
by shiploads for sale in England, and it would be interesting to know what fate befalls
them. In Greece and Sicily they are
regularly placed on the market as an
article of food. When acclimatised in
England, and even in their warmer native
country, these Grecian tortoises bury
themselves in the earth and_ hibernate
during the cold winter months.

Next to the typical Land-tortoises
the so-called HINGED TORTOISES demand
brief notice. The several members of
this little group are denizens of tropical
Africa, and notable for the circumstance
that the hinder portion of their carapace
is united with the anterior one by a
movable ligamentous hinge. Asa result
of this peculiarity the animal, when

HisescbysSs Gb avve ee, Sty by peemitivn of thet Hons taralicr AUT
ELEPHANT_TORTOISE retracted within its shell, can entirely
close up the hinder aperture. None of
these forms exceed a length of 9 inches.
In another group, distinguished by the title of BOX-TORTOISES, a ligamentous hinge is
developed across the centre of the lower shell, or plastron, which, being freely movable with
relation to the upper shell, enables the animal, when retracted, to completely close up both
the anterior and posterior carapace apertures. The box-tortoises are natives of the South-
eastern United States and Mexico, and, in addition to the foregoing structural peculiarity,
are distinguished by the high or vaulted contour of their carapace. In some the toes are
slightly webbed, and their habits are mainly carnivorous, indicating affinity with the flesh-
eating and essentially aquatic Terrapins.
Between the two, however, have been intercalated a little group, known as the POND-
TORTOISES, one species of which is found in Southern Europe, and a nearly allied one in

Note the small stze of the head with relation to the huge carapace

North America. These pond-tortoises are distinguished by the smooth and depressed form
of the carapace; the toes are fully webbed, fitting them for an aquatic life; while a
ligamentous hinge, separating the anterior and posterior moieties of the plastron, enables
them to cover in and protect their retracted head and limbs, after the manner of the Box-
tortoises. The carapace of the European pond-tortoise does not exceed 7} inches in length,
and is usually dark brown or black, ornamented with yellow dots or radiating streaks. This
species inhabits both ponds and running water, and during the daytime creeps out on the banks,

3

L

: PCT asa ib cai:
ermission of the Hon, Walter Rothschild

i MT ae Las
Photos by $. G. Payne & Son, Aylesbury, by p

GIANT OR ELEPHANT-TORTOISES FROM THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS

The elephant-like character of their limbs, whence they derive their name, 1s well exemplified in these examples

11 157

158 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

like the Crocodiles, to bask in the sun. As with the Crocodiles, however, the daytime does
not represent the period of its greatest activity, this being during the night. The pond-
tortoises are highly esteemed for the table in the countries where they are indigenous.

The TRUE TERRAPINS are all tortoises of essentially aquatic habits, differing, however, from
the water-frequenting Pond-tortoises, last referred to, in that they have no ligamentous hinge
providing for the hermetical closure of the carapace apertures. The carapace and plastron,
moreover, are firmly united by bone, so that the two form conjointly a rigid, continuous shell,
as in that of the typical Land-
tortoises. The terrapins are widely
distributed, being found in North
America, Japan, China, the Persian
Gulf, Spain, and North-west Africa.
Terrapin ranks highly as a_ table
delicacy in the United States. The
real DIAMOND-BACKED species, how-
ever, is now becoming very scarce,
the supply not being equal to the
demand, and many inferior varieties
being substituted in its place. The
” for these terrapins is
mainly prosecuted during the autumn
months, when the reptiles become
dormant, and are easily discovered
and secured by probing the mud with
sticks. The female terrapin, or“ cow”
as it is designated, is considered the

ey a .
fishing

Photo by 8. G. Payne & Son, Aylesbury, by permission of the Hon, Walter Rothschild

GIANT TORTOISE greater delicacy, the eggs, to the
number of twenty or thirty, usually

The giant tortotses, like the relatively diminutive European varieties, are essen- a ie - :
tially herbivorous found inside its body, being the de

rigueur garnishing of the dainty
dish. The diamond-terrapin rarely exceeds a length of 7 inches; but some of the inferior
varieties, or “ Sliders,” as they are termed, are of much larger dimensions, and may weigh
as much as 4 lbs.

From an esthetic standpoint the PAINTED TERRAPIN undoubtedly bears the palm. Its
smooth, depressed carapace is not more than 6 inches long, and its ground-colour is usually
a dark olive-green, yellow lines bordering its component central shields; the small marginal
shields are sometimes almost crimson with black markings, and the “bridge” uniting the
carapace and plastron exhibits the same brilliant coloration. The soft skin of the head, neck,
and other exposed parts have yellow and red bands on a brown or blackish ground-colour.
This beautiful little terrapin, which is a special favourite for aquariums, is a native of Eastern
North America.

Passing the small and not peculiarly conspicuous group of the AMERICAN MUD-TERRAPINS,
we arrive at the very distinctly differentiated family of the SNAPPERS, SNAPPING-TURTLES, or
ALLIGATOR-TERRAPINS, as they are variously called. These likewise are exclusively confined
in their present-day distribution to the New World, though in former ages allied species
inhabited Europe. The alligator-terrapins are characterised by the relatively small size of
the carapace, within which the animal is unable to completely retract its head and limbs, as
in the preceding types. The head is relatively large, and armed with a formidable hooked
beak; while the tail greatly exceeds in relative length that of any of the ordinary tortoises
or terrapins, and is scaly and crested somewhat like that of a crocodile along its upper ridge,
and has horny plates on the under-surface. Their popular name, has, in fact, been conferred
upon these Chelonians on the strength of their presenting the aspect to no inconsiderable

TORTOISES AND TURTLES 159

extent of an alligator’s body, to which the carapace of an ordinary terrapin has been united.
The common alligator-terrapin, or snapping-turtle, is among aquatic Chelonians an animal of
considerable size. The carapace alone may be as much or more than 20 inches long, and to
this have to be added the thick head and neck and clongated tail, which, taken together, are
of almost similar dimensions.

A second closely related member of this family, known by the name of TEMMINCK’S SNAPPER,
attains to yet longer proportions, and is the largest known river-tortoise. The carapace in
this species may measure over 2 feet in length, and has three strongly marked longitudinal
ridges. The head is relatively larger and the tail somewhat shorter than in the preceding
species. It is a denizen of the southern districts of the United States, being met with in
Texas, Florida, and as far north as the Missouri.

The habits of the two species are stated to be identical. Both of them frequent the
rivers and swamps of the areas indicated, preferring the waters that have a muddy bottom,
and in some localities occurring in vast numbers. As a rule they prefer lying in deep water
near the centre of the river or swamp they inhabit, but they also occasionally ascend to
the surface and float in midstream with outstretched necks. Like other water-tortoises, they
come on land to find suitable locations for depositing their eggs. The name of Snappers,
commonly applied to these tortoises, bears reference to their inveterate habit of snapping
and biting viciously at everything placed within their reach. Even from the egg the young
of Temminck’s species is wont to display this trait. The animals are somewhat esteemed for
food, and are consequently caught for the market. They will take almost any bait, but
manifest a predilection for fish. Considerable caution has necessarily to be exercised in
dealing with them in the boats, and it isa common custom to decapitate them immediately
they are hauled on board, otherwise they are capable of inflicting the most terrible wounds
with their powerful cutting beaks on the persons of all or any who may remain within their
reach. Bathing in waters tenanted by the pugnacious and distinctly aggressive snappers is
a risky proceeding, and many cases of serious injuries that have happened to incautious
adventurers in this direction have been recorded.

The food of both the alligator and Temminck’s snapper consists mainly of fish, and where
common these tortoises must be ranked among the most potent agencies in denuding the rivers
and lakes of their finny denizens. Not content with fish, the larger examples have been known
to drag under water and
devour such large water-
fowl as ducks, and even
geese. It is stated that
the snappers exhibit a
surprising amount of
agility in the water, and
swim after and capture
the fish on which they
feed. Sucha feat seems
scarcely credible of a
bulky adult individual,
while, moreover, it is
provided with a remark-
able and effective adapta-
tion for taking its prey
by stratagem. A very
fine example of Tem-
minck’s snapper was for
many years confined in A GIANT TORTOISE WITH A COMMON TORTOISE ON ITS BACK
a tank in the Reptile- Illustrating their comparative dimensions

Photo iy Scholastic Photo. Co,

Too ~ THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

house in the Regent’s Park Zoological Gardens. It usually lay prone at the bottom of
its tank, giving little or no signs of life throughout the day, but was wont to display
more activity and to move about its tank at night. At times, when ready for a fresh
food-supply, it was observed that it would lie motionless as a stone, as usual, but with its
mouth open to its widest gape. This attitude it would maintain for several hours together.
The singularity of this action was that the gaping jaws displayed to view two elongate
worm-like structures, which sprang close to one another from the floor of the mouth just
within its entrance. These worm-like appendages were continually writhing to and fro, and
presented in both aspect and movements a most remarkable resemblance to actual living
worms. With this naturally provided decoy for fish there can be no need for the snapper to
exhaust its energies in the strenuous
pursuit of its quarry. To make the
delusion complete, the head, neck,
and chin of Temminck’s snapper are
decorated with small lobular or leaf-
like membranous appendages resem-
bling sponges or aquatic vegetation.
The solid grey-brown triangular head
of the animal itself might easily be
mistaken for a piece of rock, and
thus decorated with seemingly
natural growths the unwary fish come
browsing along it, rush upon the
wriggling worms at the entrance of
the cavernous chamber, and are lost.
A photograph of this interesting
Chelonian is reproduced on page 560,
which depicts it with its mouth open,
and indicates both the position and
the presence of the worm-like decoy-
appendages.

There are several water-tortoises
presenting a considerable external
resemblance to the forms already
j noticed which belong to distinct
j ; EG family groups. Thus the MATAMATA
Photo by 8. G. Payne & Son, Aylesbury, by permission of the Hon. Walter Rothschild TorRTOISE of Northern Brazil has at
first sight, except for its short tail
and nose-like proboscis, much in com-
mon with Temminck’s snapper. Fim-
briated and foliaceous membranous
outgrowths are developed on the head and neck to a much more luxuriant degree, and
it would be interesting to ascertain if it possesses similar decoy-appendages inside the mouth.

The so-called SNAKE-NECKED WATER-LORTOISES of South America, and the LONG-NECKED
aquatic ones of Australasia, possess modifications of skull-structure and other details that
indicate family distinctness. A broad external character that serves to separate this group
from the Terrapins and all preceding forms is that the neck, when drawn within the cavity
of the carapace, is not flexed in the form of the letter S, but simply bent sideways along
the anterior margin of the body. The species belonging to this group, which includes
the Matamata, Snake-necked, and Soft-shelled Water-tortoises, and also a few essentially
terrestrial species, are distinguished collectively by the appellation of the ‘“ SIDE-NECKED ™
TORTOISES.

ELEPHANT-TORTOISE

Illustrating the ample chamber-like space provided within the carapace for the
retraction of the head and limbs

TORTOISES AND TURTLES 161

TURTLES

Certain of the Terrapins, or Water-tortoises, belonging to the groups above described
frequent saline river-estuaries and salt marshes, but none are strictly marine. With the
Turtle Family, however, we arrive at an exclusively pelagic section, in which the animals
are specially adapted for life in the high seas, the walking-limbs of the terrestrial and
fresh-water species being replaced by long and powerful swimming-flippers. The shell in
these marine Chelonians is more or less heart-shaped and flattened, and the carapace and
plastron are always separate, and never united in a rigid box-like form, as with the Land-
tortoises. In common with those fresh-water tortoises which pass the greater portion of
their existence in lakes or rivers, the MARINE TURTLES resort to the land to deposit their
eggs. The locations chosen are the sand-beaches or isolated sandy islets in tropical oceans,
wherein, after excavating hollows to receive them, the eggs are covered up and left to

« a

By permission of the New York Zoological Society

SNAPPING-TURTLE

Also known as the Alligator-terrapin, with reference to its long, alligator-like tail

hatch with the heat of the sun. The eggs of turtles differ from those of the Land-tortoises
and Terrapins in that their external covering is soft or leathery. So soon as the young
turtles are hatched, they emerge from the sand, and instinctively make their way to the
water. Many, however, are the perils that beset their course, and few there be out of
perhaps 80 or 100 turtlets which gain the shore and get through into deep water, Fish-
hawks and sea-birds of every description are waiting ready to pounce down upon them
immediately they make their appearance, or to thin their ranks as they run the gauntiet of
perhaps 100 yards or so to reach the sea in safety. Even at the water’s edge the ordeal is
by no means passed. Shoals of the smaller sharks and other predatory fish are continually
cruising round in the shallow water, and have as high an appreciation of the toothsomeness
of tender turtle as the proverbial London alderman. The writer was fortunate on one
occasion, among the coral islands on the Australian coasts, to light upon a young turtle brood

162 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

just emerging from their sandy
nest. The majority were assisted
to the sea, and a few, reserved
in the interests of science, were
liberated in a bath of sea-water
to have their first swim. Snap-
shot photographs were taken, one
of which, reproduced on page 561,
serves toillustrate the great relative
length of the paddle-like limbs at
this early stage and the variety of
postures assumed during natation.
Of the typical Marine Turtles
‘ three distinctly characterised
Photo by York & Son] ; [Noting Hut SPeCiesare recognised by zoologists.
TEMMINCK’S SNAPPER These are the GREEN TURTLE,
indispensable for soup at alder-
manic banquets; the HAWKSBILL,
or tortoiseshell-producing turtle;
and the LOGGERHEAD. Of these three, the green turtle and the loggerhead more nearly
resemble one another, and are apt to be confounded by the uninitiated. Such an error is very
readily detected when the Chelonian comes to the table, the flesh of the loggerhead being
rank and utterly unfit for food. In order, however, to be wise before the event, and to avoid
a grievous misdirection of culinary energy — turtle being a standard dish in the coral seas —
it is only necessary to count the number of large shield-like plates that flank each side of the
central series in the creature’s carapace. In the true green or edible turtle there are only
four pairs of these large lateral shields, while in the loggerhead there are never less than five,
and sometimes more. The loggerhead-turtle also, as its name implies, has a conspicuously
larger and coarser head than the esculent species. The fact that while the green turtle is a
strict vegetarian, feeding entirely on seaweeds, the loggerhead is altogether carnivorous, readily
accounts for the diametrically diverse gastronomic properties of these two Chelonians. Both
species attain to a considerable size, over 3 feet in length (the loggerhead being the larger),
and are found inhabiting the same waters throughout the tropics.

The HAWKSBILL, or true tortoiseshell-producing turtle, never attains to quite as large
dimensions as the two preceding species, though its carapace may measure as much as 2 feet
6 or 8 inches long. The structural feature that at once distinguishes the hawksbill from
either the green or loggerhead species is the character of the horny shields developed on
the surface of the carapace. Instead of the edges meeting in juxtaposition, as in those two
forms, they overlap one another, like the scales of a fish, and are notable for their thickness
and their exceedingly beautiful but variably marbled patterns. It is these marbled horny plates
which constitute the tortoise-shell of commerce. In young individuals the substance is thin
and very transparent, but thickens with advancing age, until in old individuals the plates
may vary from } to } inch in thickness. Like the two preceding species, the hawksbill, within
tropical seas, enjoys a cosmopolitan distribution. Its habits, like the loggerhead’s, are essentially
carnivorous; but while the flesh is coarse and rank, the eggs are valued for the table.

A remaining member of the Marine Turtle series is the so-called LUTH or LEATHERY
TuRTLE. This Chelonian differs so materially in structure from the foregoing species as
to be referred to a distinct family. The horny plates, so conspicuous in all the other
types, are entirely absent, the bony carapace, which is distinctly seven-ridged longitudinally,
being covered with a homogeneous leather-like skin. Both jaws are formidably hooked and
cutting throughout their edges, and the paddles are destitute of the two rudimentary claws
found in the preceding species. The leathery turtle grows to an immense size; specimens

The two white points visible on the lower jaw represent the pair of worm-like appen-
dages which the creature uses as a bait to attract or capture fish

TORTOISES AND TURTLES 163

have been recorded measuring as much as 8 feet in total length and weighing over 1,600 Ibs.
Its flesh is not only unfit for food, but is reported to be of a poisonous character. The coasts
of Florida and Brazil are among the areas where the leathery turtle is met with in the
greatest abundance.

The more ordinary method of capturing turtle for the market or to supply the deficiencies
of the larder aboard ship in tropical climates is to land at night, preferably when the moon
is full, on the islands to which the females are in the habit of repairing to deposit their eggs.
This function is invariably discharged during the night hours, and unless the moon is up the
presence of the reptiles is not easily determined. Time is generally given for the turtle to
excavate its sand-burrow and lay its eggs, usually over a hundred in number, the proper

Photo by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.]

[Milford-on-Sea

NEWLY HATCHED TURTLES ENJOYING THEIR FIRST SWIM

The limbs at this early stage of their development are of an abnormal length

moment for the capture being that when, the task accomplished, it sets forth to recain its
more accustomed element. The creature is then seized and turned suddenly upon ifs back
where it is left to struggle and flounder helplessly, being perfectly incapable ‘of seh ting iiself
while other captures are made. On outlying coral islands, such as those of the Tbumeaeued af
the Western Australian coast, several dozen of the Chelonians may represent one good slehes
haul, the choice of the fittest examples being left until the return of daylight. ‘ —

In many places turtles are pursued in the water and speared ; ‘while in some locations
notably at Keeling Island, as recorded by Darwin, the animals are chased by the natives fa
sailing-craft. One man steers the boat, the other one standing in the bows ‘on the look-out
for turtle. A Chelonian being sighted, an exciting stern chase ensues, and on coming abreast

Do

with the quarry the look-out man plunges into the water straight upon the turtle’s back, and

164 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

————_

a jes. Kee 2 iis
Photo by H. V. Lockmann

CUBAN TERRAPINS

In common with many other water-tortoises, or terrapins, this species is essentially gregarious in its habits

clings pertinaciously with both hands to the shell of the neck until the creature is exhausted,
when it is dragged into the boat.

The most remarkable method of taking turtle, however, is that practised in Torres Straits,
as also at Mozambique and formerly in the West Indies. The sucking-fish, or remora, is in
this case impressed into the service of the human fishers. Taking advantage of the fish’s
natural propensity to swim towards and adhere pertinaciously to any larger floating object,
fishermen go out with specimens kept alive in a small well in the bottom of their boats.
When in pursuit of turtle, a long light line is attached to the fish’s tail; and coming within
sight of a Chelonian, the fish, with an abundance of slack or pay-out line, is thrown in the
direction of the turtle. The remora immediately swims towards and adheres firmly to the
under surface of the shell of the turtle, when it will suffer its body to be torn asunder
rather than let go its hold of its newly gained sanctuary. Should the turtle be a small
one, both fish and turtle are dragged with the line back to the boat. If, on the other hand,
it is of large size, one of the natives plunges into the water, and, following the line down,
secures the turtle.

In the island of Ascension the cultivation and breeding of turtles for exportation in
artificially constructed enclosures have for a considerable time been the subject of an important
industry. There are doubtless many other locations on both the Australian coast-line and in
the British West Indies where this highly profitable trade could be established. In addition
to the green turtle, attention might also be profitably directed at the same locations to the
culture of the tortoiseshell-bearing species. Tortoiseshell possesses the singular and useful
property of being susceptible of perfect amalgamation. Consequently a number of small-sized
pieces can be welded so indistinguishably with one another as to serve the same use as the
larger plates for commercial purposes. This amalgamation is effected by bevelling the edges
of the two pieces that it is desired to unite along the proposed line of junction, and then,
while they are held in juxtaposition in a metallic press, submitting them to the action of
boiling water.

CIDA PTE R
LIZARDS

HE Lizard Tribe or Sub-orderis notable as containing

a greater number of specific forms than any other

ofthe Reptilian groups, no less than 1,700 distinct

species being described in the most recently published
catalogues. While formerly regarded as constituting a
separate and independent order of the Reptile Class, later
investigations have demonstrated that lizards are so inti-
mately related through sundry intermediate types with the
Snakes that they cannot be recognised as constituting other
than a sub-section of the same order. The two groups of
the Lizards and Snakes are consequently, and with refer-
ence more particularly to their commonly
shared scaly armatures, technically distin-
guished by the appellation of Scaled Reptiles.
While the more typical members of the
Lizard Tribe are readily distinguished from
the Snakes by the possession of well-
developed limbs, a no inconsiderable number
of species are altogether devoid of these
appendages, or possess them only in a
partially developed or rudimentary condition.
The British BLIND-WORM, or SLOW-WORM,
constitutes an example of such a legless
lizard, although on account of its outward
snake-like appearance it is commonly
regarded as a snake by the un-
educated. In the South Euro-
pean so-called GLASS-SNAKE, or
SCHELTOPUSIK, here figured, the
snake-like aspect and creeping
habits are still more conspicuous,
but yet when examined more crit-
ically its lizard affinities become
apparent. One ofthe most readily
apprehended external characters
that serve to distinguish this
and the majority of the legless
lizards from snakes is the posses-
sion by the former of movable
eyelids and conspicuous external
ear-openings. Among © snakes
eyelids are invariably absent, the

Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z. 4
GLASS-SNAKE

165

III

Photo by H’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.
GLASS-SNAKE, OR SCHELTOPUSIK
The presence of movable eyelids distinguishes this legless lizard from

ae

Photo by E. C. Atkinson

BLIND-WORM

Notwithstanding its name, the blind-qworm pos-
sesses small, very bright little eyes

[Milford-on-Sea

the true snakes

Ha 8
[Milford-on-Sea

Snatls constitute the favourite food of the glass-snake

166 THE LIVING ANIMALS

OF THE WORLD

Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.

BURMESE GECKOS

One of the largest members of the tribe, measuring § or ro inches in length

eyes, by way of compensation, being
covered by transparent horny plates,
which impart to these creatures that
peculiar stony stare which un-
doubtedly constitutes one of the
most repulsive features of their tribe.
There are, however, a few exceptional
lizards devoid of eyelids, though these
species do not take a snake-like form.

Lizards, while distributed through-
out temperate and tropical regions,
attain to the zenith of their repre-
sentation in size, number, and variety
of form and colour in tropical and
sub-tropical countries. The majority
of species are essentially sun-wor-
shippers, and in temperate climates,
such as that of England, where they
are but sparsely represented, pass the
cheerless winter months in a state of
torpid hibernation.

The first position among the
Lizard Tribe is usually accorded to
the GECKO FAMILY —-a group number-
ing 280 species, which present several
somewhat anomalous features and
characteristics. In the first place, in
contradistinction to the majority of
lizard forms, they are for the most
part nocturnal in their habits, and
have their eyes specially modified to
meet them. Geckos, as the exception
to the ordinary lizards previously
referred to, possess no eyelids and

the pupil of the eye, as seen in broad daylight, is mostly represented by a narrow vertical slit,
like that of a cat, or a nocturnal dog-fish. As the night approaches, however, the membranous
diaphragm is retracted, displaying to view a symmetrically orbicular pupil of abnormal size

and luminosity. Another
prominent characteristic of
the geckos is the peculiar
modification of their feet,
which in most instances are
furnished with adhesive disks
or pads, which enable these
lizards to run with ease, after
the manner of flies, on the
smooth surface of a wall or
window-pane, or even along
the ceiling. it is further
noteworthy of the geckos that
they are the only lizards which

Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.
BURMESE GECKO

possess the power of emitting Under-surface showing minute hexagonal scales and peculsi siructure of the adhesive toe-pads

LIZARDS 167

Photo by H’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.

MADEIRAN GECKOS

Madeiran geckos photographed through a glass window-pane, showing the peculiar formation of their adhesive toe-pads. | One example is
regrowing its recently amputated tail. These geckos often travel from Madeira to Covent Garden Market among banana bunches

distinct vocal sounds. The name Gecko is, in point of fact, derived from the fancied resemblance
to the word that constitutes the shrill, somewhat bird-like note of one of the most familiar
species. ‘ Tok,” “toki,” “chick, chick,” ‘‘checko,” and ‘“tocktoo” are distinctive call-notes
that are respectively associated with other members of the Gecko Family.

The geckos are most numerously represented in the Indian and Australasian regions. None
of them attain to large dimensions. They rarely exceed 1 foot in total length, and most
frequently measure some 3 or 4 inches only.

Geckos, in common with many other lizards, are notable for the facility with which their
tail becomes detached and left in the hands of their would-be captor. In course of time a
new tail sprouts out from the truncated stump of the original member, and within a few more
months equals it in dimensions. It not infrequently happens that two or even three new
tail-sprouts take the place of the original appendage, imparting to the little creature a most
bizarre appearance. The above photograph includes an example of the Madeiran species in
which a new tail-bud of a normal character has just commenced to grow.

The nearest approach to the phenomenon of flight among lizards occurs in what are known
as the FLYING-DRAGONS, belonging to the family of the Agamas, which next invites attention.
These lizards are all of relatively small size, not exceeding a few inches in length, and inhabit
the Indo-Malayan region. In these singularly specialised forms six or seven of the posterior
ribs are abnormally produced on each side of the body, and so united together by thin, semi-
transparent membrane as to form a pair of wing-like expansions. When not in use, these
structures are folded, after the manner of a fan, closely against the animal's sides, while, when
extended, they constitute a most effective parachute, wherewith the little creatures accomplish
flying leaps from tree to tree, after the manner of the Flying-squirrels and Phalangers. The

168 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

colour of these wing-like structures
varies among the many different
specific forms, being in some instances
spotted or reticulated like those of a
butterfly.

This same family of the Agamoid
Lizards includes a number of species
' of very dissimilar aspect and habits,
which are almost exclusively confined
to the Old World or Oriental zolodégical
region. Australia in particular is
remarkably rich in representatives of
this group, many of them of con-
siderable size. Certain of these have
within recent years been found to
be endowed with the power of bipedal
locomotion. The FRILLED LIZARD
of Queensland and the northern
territories of Western Australia was
the first species in which this bipedal
habit was authentically demonstrated
in connection with examples observed
in Australia and also brought to
England by the writer, one of the
last-named examples furnishing the
photographs reproduced on page 567.
In other respects this lizard is one of
the most remarkable of its tribe.
The peculiar Elizabethan collar-like
frill, capable of erection or depression
at the creature’s will, imparts to it
a most singular appearance. When
at rest or undisturbed, this mem-
branous frill-like structure is folded
down in neat, symmetrical pleats
around the lizard’sneck. Should the
creature be approached by man or
dog or other aggressive animal, the mouth springs open to its widest, and simultaneously with
this action the frill is erected like the sudden opening of an umbrella, and stands out at right
angles around the neck, imparting to it a most formidable and threatening aspect. Dogs, in
fact, which will habitually chase and kill larger lizards, such as the Monitors, will frequently
halt and retire discomfited when confronted with a frilled lizard at bay with its frill erected.
The brilliant colour of this frill, more especially in the male, adds very considerably to the
formidable appearance of this lizard. While the body of this lizard is usually of a light
brown colour, with more or less distinct darker transverse bars and reticulations, the frill-like
membrane has a ground-colour in which orange and chrome-yellow chiefly predominate, and
upon which are superimposed splashings and speckles of brilliant scarlet. While the total
length of this averages 2 feet, the expanded frill in adult males is not infrequently as
much as 8 or g inches in diameter. The peculiar, grotesquely human aspect presented
by the frilled lizard when running on its hind legs only will be appreciated on reference
to the accompanying photographs. This erect attitude is only assumed when the frilled
lizard is traversing more or less considerable distances and moving on level ground. Under

Pho.o by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.
FLYING-DRAGON OF JAVA

A lizard with wing-like membranes supported by the abnormally developed ribs.
It takes long flights from tree to tree

Photo by BH’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. Phote by H’, SavilleeKent, F.Z.S.

FRILLED LIZARD AT BAY WITH FRILLED LIZARD WITH FRILL
EXPANDED FRILL FOLDED UP

am Se ee a

” -Phetaiby 7. Saville-Kent, feds “Photo by #’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.
FRILLED LIZARD RUNNING ON ITS HIND FRILLED LIZARD RUNNING ON ITS HIND
LEGS (VIEW FROM THE REAR) LEGS (BROADSIDE VIEW)

169

i7e@ THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

other circumstances it progresses on all-fours, after the manner of the ordinary members of
its class.

Several other lizards belonging to the family group of the Agamas have been demon-
strated by the writer to move in the same manner as the frilled species. LESEUR’S
WATER-LIZARD, also a Queensland form, which attains to a length of 3 or 4 feet, is a
notable example in this connection. As implied by its name, it is semi-aquatic in its
habits. It frequents scrubs in the neighbourhood of river-banks and backwaters, and passes a
considerable portion of its time in shallow water with only its nostrils elevated above the
surface. It is a most expert swimmer, sculling itself with grace and rapidity, aided only by
its long, laterally compressed tail. Examples brought to England and kept alive for some
years by the writer were observed, in hot weather more particularly, to sleep at nights in
their water-tanks.

The several instances of bipedal locomotion among living lizards, as here chronicled, are
of especial interest in correlation with the
circumstance that certain extinct Dinosaurs
habitually progressed on their hind limbs
only. They, in fact, have left ‘footprints on
the sands of time” which indubitably prove
this assumption. There is, however, no
relationship between the two groups, and
the resemblance is one of pure analogy,
just as both bats and birds fly, although
they have no kinship.

Among other interesting lizards included
in the Agama Family, mention may be
made of the singular JEW or BEARDED:
LIZARD of Australia — a flattened, broad-set
form, some 14 or 15 inches long, brown in
hue, and clothed with rough imbricated scales,
but whose chief peculiarity consists of the ex-
pansivebeard-like development of the cuticle
immediately underneath the animal's chin.
As in the frilled lizard, this cuticular ex-
crescence is only conspicuous when the

r 7

4
creature is excited, at other times being
AUSTRALIAN TREE-LIZARD contracted and indistinguishable from an
This species also runs on its hind legs ordinary skin-fold. When retiring to rest,

these lizards, in their adult state, almost
invariably climb up and cling to the rough bark of a convenient tree, and when young
and more. slender will also ascend saplings, on which they sleep, clinging by their inter-
locked claws.

Another member of the Agama Family which invites brief notice is the so-called YORK
DEVIL, or MOUNTAIN-DEVIL, of Western and Central Australia. This lizard is of comparatively
small size, rarely exceeding 6 or 7 inches in length. Its feeble form and stature, however,
are abundantly compensated for by the complex panoply of spines and prickles by which
its head and limbs and body are effectually protected. The natural food of this singular
lizard consists exclusively of ants, the small black, evil-smelling species which often proves
itself a pest by its invasion of the Australian colonists’ houses being its prime favourite,
These are picked up one by one by the rapid flash-like protrusion and retraction of the
littie creature’s adhesive tongue, and the number of ants which are thus assimilated by a
Moloch lizard at a single meal is somewhat astonishing. A number of examples of this
species were kept by the writer in Australia, and their gastronomic requirements fully satisfied

LIZARDS Le

every day by taking them into
the garden and placing them
in communication with a
swarming ant track. By care-
ful observation it was found
that no less than from 1,000
to 1,500 ants were devoured
by each lizard at a single
sitting. The ant-devouring |
proclivities of these prickly |
little lizards can no doubt be
turned to very useful and
effective account in clearing

ant-infested domiciles, and ~~ Phots by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.
were in fact thus utilised by AUSTRALIAN WATER-LIZARD
the writer on more than one

This lizard is of aquatic habits, and runs on its hind legs when traversing long distances
occasion.

The lizards included in the Agama Family are essentially inhabitants of the Eastern
Hemisphere, none occurring in America. In the western continent, however, we find an
equally extensive but structurally distinct group which presents many singularly corresponding
types. This family comprises the true IGUANAS, many of them of considerable size, and a
numerous assemblage of smaller forms. Among those species which present a striking parallel
in size and aspect to the peculiarly characteristic Old World Agamas, mention may be made
of the little so-called HORNED Toab, or SPINY LIZARD, of California. This species might
readily be taken by the uninitiated for a near relation of the Australian Moloch Lizard, or
Mountain-devil, last described, its flattened diminutive form and bristling spiny armature
seemingly justifying such a supposition. The crucial test afforded by the character of the
dentition, however, distinctly indicates its true position to be with the Iguanas. In the Agamas
the teeth are invariably developed from the apex, or summit, of the jaw. These tecth,
= ,, moreover, are varied in character.
| : ' In the Iguanas, on the other hand,
the teeth are all more or less uni-
| form in character, and are attached
to the outer sides of the jaw.

The larger iguanas are, for the
most part, exclusively fruit- and
vegetable-feeders, and arboreal in
their habits. The thick forest scrubs
in the vicinity of streams and rivers
are their favourite resort. After the
manner of the Australian water-
lizards, these Iguanas are expert
swimmers, and delight in lying along
the overhanging branches, whence
at the slightest alarm they can pre-
| cipitate themselves into the water
_ beneath. When swimming, the

“ 4 fore limbs are folded back against
Cosa the sides, the tail only being used
as a means of propulsion. Sev-
AUSTRALIAN WATER-LIZARD eral of the larger Iguanas, such

Showing attitude when running as the common or tuberculated

L

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S,

172 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF

THE. WORLD

Photo by Ww. SaviliesKent: FZ. Ss,
BEARDED LIZARD
With its beard-like throat-membrane fully expanded

[Milford-on-Sea

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.
AUSTRALIAN JEW OR BEARDED LIZARDS

The scales of the bearded lizard are exceedingly rough and sharp, sometimes cutting the skin
of those who handle them incautiously

found it in considerable numbers on the shores of the
islands which constitute the Galapagos group. The lizards
were observed to spend much of their time swimming in
the sea, but at novery great distance from the land. Experi-
ments proved that they could live for a very considerable
interval entirely submerged, examples sunk with weights for
as much as an hour emerging entirely unaffected from the
ordeal.

While the Iguanas may be described as essentially
American, one or two exceptional forms are found inhabiting
the relatively remote regions of the Fiji Islands and Mada-
gascar. The so-called F1jt BANDED IGUANA (photographs of
a pair of which, once in the writer’s possession, are reproduced
on page 575) is a very beautiful creature. The body is
shapely and well proportioned, and terminates in a tail of
abnormal length — equal to quite twice that of the body —
the entire dimensions measuring some 3 feet. The male is
much more bright in hue than the female; for while the
latter is usually of a uniform light green throughout, the
male is variegated, with broad, alternating bands of brightest

species, attain to a considerable
length, 5 or 6 feet; their bodies
are proportionably thick, and the
white flesh, this last-named
variety more particularly, is highly
esteemed as atable delicacy. The
common TUBERCULATED IGUANA
is an essentially handsome species,
skin being variegated with
bands and shadings of brown and
creen, lightest and

in

its
which are
brightest in the males and younger
individuals; the neck and
and jaws are decorated with pro-
jecting, rounded tubercles; alarge,
baggy, dewlap-like. membrane,
capable of inflation at the animal's
will, depends from the chin and
throat; andadeenly serrated crest
of elevated scales extends from
behind the head, down the centre
of the back, nearly to the extremity
of the tail.

The Iguana Family includes
a species with essentially marine
proclivities, this being the GALA-
PAGOS SEA-LIZARD. This animal
was first discovered to science by
the late Mr. Charles Darwin, who

snout

Lhoto by HW’, Saviiie-Nent, bon.s,

A YOUNG BEARDED LIZARD
Showing its habitual sleeping attitude

LIZARDS LTS

emerald-greenand paleFrenchgrey. Around [
the lips and eyes there are lines of brightest |
yellow, and the throat is almost pure white.

The small group of GIRDLE-TAILED
LIZARDS belongs exclusively to the African
and Madagascan regions, its typical repre-
sentative being the Cape and Orange River
Colony species, illustratedon page 575. The
symmetrical whorls of long, spinous scales
encircling the tail in this and the allied
forms constitute a prominent feature, and
have originated the popular name of Girdle-
tails.

The most aberrant representatives of
the Lizard Tribe, with regard to one very
important characteristic, are undoubtedly the
two species of HELODERM, or“‘ SILATICA,” as
they are called by the natives. These reptiles ae. Oe
(page 576) occupy the unenviable position of Fate by We Saville: K
being the only known lizards which possess AUSTRALIAN YORK OR MOUNTAIN-DEVIL
poisonous properties, their bite having been
demonstrated to be fatal to smaller mammals,
and to be attended by very serious symptoms in the case of human subjects being bitten,
The more common MEXICAN HELODERM has been in residence at the Zoo for many years; it
attains to a length of from 18 to 20 inches, and its stout, squat body, short limbs, warty skin,
and peculiar colouring are calculated at first sight to awaken a feeling of revulsion in the
beholder. Like the wasp, the salamander, and other animals whose conspicuous tints indicate
their poisonous or other baneful properties, the heloderm is distinguished by a lurid ground-
colour, varying in individuals from yellow-orange to flesh-pink, upon which are superimposed
bold, network-like markings of blue-black or dark brown tints. Along the tail these reticu-

lations usually take the form of more or less
| ee 1 irregular rings.

Although the heloderms possess such
deadly properties, those at the Zoo manifest
a by no means aggressive disposition, and
allow their keeper or even strangers to handle
them with impunity. In experiments pur-
posely made to substantiate or refute the
previously current rumours as to the poison-
ous nature of these animals, two guinea-pigs
succumbed to bites received in the course
of the day. The owner of the reptiles, who
was also bitten on one occasion through
incautiously handling, suffered very severe,
though happily not fatal, effects. In con-
nection with its poison-dealing properties it
is found that it possesses certain long and
fang-like teeth, which are set loosely in the
jaws, and which have grooves before and

@

nt, F.Z.S.

Ai spinous lizard which inhabits the arid plains of Central Australia

Phote by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. behind for the transmission of the poison,
SPINOUS LIZARD, OR MOUNTAIN-DEVIL which is secreted by special glands situated
This species feeds exclusively upon ants close to their base. The favourite habitat of

I2

174 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

P a 6 = the heloderm is the arid, sandy,
and stony region on the western
side of the Cordillera mountain-
range. It is at the same time
said to be rarely seen in those
parts except during the rainy
season, and also to be for the
most part nocturnal in its habits.

The family group of the
MONITORS includes the largest
of existing lizards, notably the
semi-aquatic form common to
North Australia and the Malay
Peninsula and adjacent islands,
which attains a length of 8 or
10 feet, and is not infrequently

He i aed ee RN NOR Sey METAL NUS ay
PESO Head SBUBi EINES ine Ss mistaken, as it rushes, on being
A GROUP OF MOUNTAIN-DEVILS OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA disturbed, through the reeds and
The spines of these lizards are so sharp that they will pierce a tender hand ; other rank herbage to the

water, for a young crocodile.
An exceedingly fine and well set-up example of these huge water-monitors, shot by Captain
Stanley Flower in the neighbourhood of Singapore, is placed in the Reptile Gallery of the
Natural History Museum.

Another species, indigenous to the Southern Australian States, and having essentially
arboreal habits, commonly attains to a length of 5 or 6 feet. The skin of one example of
this species, obtained for the writer from the eucalyptus forests in Gippsland, Victoria, measures
no less than 7 feet long. With reference to the elegant lace-like pattern of its skin-markings,
this species is frequently associated with the suggestive title of the LACE-LIZARD. Among the
more illiterate settlers it is generally known as a Gooana, the name being obviously a corruption
of Iguana, and being, as a matter of fact, applied promiscuously, and in all cases incorrectly,
to a number of the larger Australian lizards.

All the members of the Monitor Tribe are inveterate egg-eaters. An Egyptian species, the
NILE MONITOR, renders service to humanity through the gratification of this propensity in seek-
ing out and devouring the eggs of the crocodile. The larger water-monitor of the North Australian
and Malay regions has been reported to Se ie a a S See ee
the writer to be particularly partial to FE
the eggs of the turtle, digging them out |
of the sand in which the parent deposits
them, and destroying them wholesale. The
more strictly arboreal Southern Australian
species preys to a very large extent on
birds’ eggs, climbing to the holes in
the trunks and branches in which so
many Australian birds build their nests,
and not infrequently capturing and
devouring also the parent birds and |
young. In the ‘ bush” settlements
this monitor is notorious for its depre-
dations among the hen-roosts, both eggs |
and young chickens falling victims to Te We) W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.
its insatiable appetite. It is conse- HORNED TOAD
quently regarded with but scant favour A spiny lizard, somewhat resembling the Australian mountain-devil

LIZARDS 175

by poultry-farmers, who frequently organise a “ gooana” hunt for its special destruction. If
surprised out in the open, the quarry at once rushes for a tree, and manifests the most remark-
able agility in “swarming” up the smooth, massive trunk, and in dodging round to the side
opposite to that on which the sportsman approaches. Not infrequently, trees being remote,
the monitor will make for what appears to its apprehension the best substitute for one —
vis. the upright figure of the nearest sportsman. Shouid this happen to be a ‘‘new chum”
enjoying his maiden essay in “ gooana” hunting, he will undoubtedly experience a new
sensation as the animal, with its sharp cat-like claws, unceremoniously scrambles up to his
head and shoulders.

Brought to bay, a monitor pos-
sesses a more formidable weapon
than its teeth and claws wherewith
to repulse the onslaught of the
enemy. The long, tough, thong-
like tail — not brittle and replace-
able, as in many other lizards —
is converted, for the time being,
into a veritable stock-whip, where-
with it will most severely punish
incautious aggressors who venture
too near. The potency of this
offensive and defensive weapon is
fully recognised by the reptile-
keepers at the Zoo, who freely
admit their reluctance to enter
the cage of one of these large,
long-tailed, but conversely very
short-tempered monitors. All of
the monitors, in consonance with
their pre-eminently carnivorous
habits, are more or less savage and

intractable. The several species Photo by HW’. Saville Kent, F.Z.S.
which have fallen within the writer's HORNED TOAD
cognisance proved no exception to This species is highly prized for its insect-destroying proclivities

the rule. An Egyptian example,

injudiciously introduced to the select society of his extensive miscellaneous collection in
a heated greenhouse, proved to be a veritable wolf in the fold, killing several of the
choicest specimens before its vindictive propensities were detected and arrested. A com-
paratively small and rare spiny-tailed monitor, brought by the writer, in company with
the frilled lizards, to England from North-west Australia, would harass and bite any other
lizard placed with it, and resent every friendly overture on the part of its owner, even
after so much as a whole twelvemonth’s persistent attempts to tame it. Another, the
South Australian monitor, or lace-lizard, was no exception to the rule, and had to be
maintained in solitary confinement. This particular specimen, nevertheless, evinced, as the
following anecdote will show, a very pronounced affection for its provided quarters. One
day it effected its escape from the wire-enclosed cage with which it was accommodated in
the writer’s Brisbane garden, and after prolonged but unsuccessful searchings it was given
up for lost. Considerable astonishment was naturally experienced some ten days later,
when the animal was discovered in the garden making frantic attempts to regain access
to its former prison-house. During its ten days’ absence it had evidently fallen upon evil
times, for not only was it in a very emaciated condition, but also bereft of its long and
handsome tail. Apparently, after the manner of its tribe, it had been manifesting a too warm

176 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Noy. WP. Dandé, F.Z.S.
TUBERCULATED IGUANA

This spectes is esteemed for food by Amertcan Indians

interest in some neighbour’s hen-
roost, and received across its tail a
stroke with a spade or other cutting
instrument that was intended for a
more vital region. Disgusted by such
unfriendly treatment, it evidently
determined that free board and lodg-
ing at the hands of its former owner,
albeit with the sacrifice of freedom,
was a pleasanter line of life than
liberty and a precarious commissariat,
with added bodily risks. An almost
identical episode of the voluntary
return to captivity of an escaped
monitor has been reported to the
writer of a species from Borneo by
Dr. G. D. Haviland.

The monitors, as a rule, are not

distinguished for brilliancy of colouring, shades and mottlings of brown or black being usually

dominant. The male of the Australian lace-lizard, after
newly changing its coat, is, however, an exception. In
addition to the highly ornate lace-like reticulated pattern
of its skin-markings, previously referred to, the throat of the
animal is resplendent with mingled tints of sky-blue and
lemon-yellow. It is necessary, however, to observe that its
natural surroundings and the ardent rays of a sub-tropical
sun are requisite to bring these brighter tints to their full
development. Examples kept in close confinement in the
London Zoological Gardens yield little or no indication of
their colour potentialities.

While the Monitor Family is not represented on the
American Continent, we find there another group of lizards
whose members are of considerable size, and agree in their

Mihi,
Photo by E. C, Atkinson

SMALL VIVIPAROUS LIZARD

Occurs on heaths and commons in the South of

England

carnivorous propensities and general habits in a marked manner with the Monitors. These
are the “GREAVED” LIZARDS, named with reference to the peculiar skin-folding on their
legs. One of the largest and most familiarly known representatives of this group is the
TEGUEXIN, or DIAMOND-LIZARD, indigenous to the greater portion of tropical South America,
and also to the West Indies. This lizard attains to a total length of a yard or more,

gins by H. G, F, Spurrell, Esq.)
WALL-LIZARD

This spectes 1s particularly abundant tn Italy

[ Eastbourne

and is of a robust and
thick-set build, with the
hind limbs much longer and
stouter than the front ones.
The colour of the teguexin is
also notable, the ground-tint
being olive or tawny yellow,
upon which are superimposed
black bands and markings
which for the most part take
a transverse direction. Like
the Monitors, the tuguexin
in captivity exhibits a sulky
and aggressive disposition,

LIZARDS a a

7 cbs ates 1 S
Photo by WH’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.

BANDED IGUANAS

A rare species from the Fiji Islands. Male to the right; female without bands to the
left. The example crouching between them is a bearded lizard

and cannot be safely kept in company with other less

powerful species.

The attribute of bipedal locomotion is possessed by the
teguexin. That this singular method of progression was an

accomplishment possessed by one of the larger tropical
American lizards was first reported to the writer from
Trinidad. Some species of iguana was, in the first instance,
anticipated to be the acrobatic performer. Several ex-
amples of this family group were accordingly put through
their paces at the Zoo, to ascertain if they could lay claim
to the distinction. None of the iguanas available, however,
rose (on their hind legs) to the occasion, and it was only
on experimenting, as a deruiére ressource, with the teguexin

that a successful demonstration was accomplished. This

lizard was found, in fact, to run bipedally more freely and persistently, when sufficient space
was allotted it, than the Agamas. It seems singular that this bipedal power of locomotion
should have so long remained undiscovered, and yet is possessed by lizards which have for a

Photo by WH’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S8.

SOUTH AFRICAN GIRDLED LIZARD

Remarkable for the spiny armature, which is arranged in concentric

girdles

number of years been the denizens of many
zoological gardens and other menageries.
The fact that a comparatively large level area
is a sive gua non for the exhibition of this
phenomenon affords no doubt the explanation
of this anomaly; but the anomaly itself at the
same time serves to accentuate the desirability,
in the interests of both science and the animals’
comfort, that exists for providing them in cap-
tivity with a more liberal and reasonably sufficient
space for their indulgence in those methods of
locomotion that are natural to them in their
native land.

The Greaved Lizard Family includes some-
what over one hundred species. While the
majority agree with the teguexin in the pos-
session of well-developed limbs, there are a few

178 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

retrograde forms in which the hinder
limbs are entirely absent or the front
ones reduced to mere stumps. These
exceptional instances pave the way to
the family of the Amphisbzenas, in
which such or a still lower phase
of limb development represents the
normal condition. The Amphisbzenas
are remarkable for their worm-like re-
semblance, and for the circumstances
that they live like earth-worms in bur-
rows, that their eyes are functionless
(being concealed beneath the skin),
and that they are without ears. Other
details of structure indicate a most
rudimentary condition of develop-
ment, and they consequently rank as
the lowest group in the Lizard series.
Another peculiarity of the Amphisbaenas is that, in place of scales, the skin of the body is
divided into square segments, which form symmetrical rings like those of worms. In addition
to this, these retrograde lizards possess the worm-like faculty of being able to move backwards
and forwards in their burrows with equal facility. It is from this peculiar property that their
title of Amphisbzna, signifying ‘‘ moving both ways,” is derived. The representatives of this
family, including between sixty and seventy species, are widely distributed, being found in
America, the West Indies, Africa, and also European countries that border the Mediterranean
While the Teguexins present resemblances in one direction with the Amphisbenas, or
Worm-like Lizards, the higher or Monitor-like forms have much in common with the Typical
or True Lizards, of which two small but well-known species —the SAND- and VIVIPAROUS
LizARD — are indigenous to the British Isles. All the members of the True Lizards, num-
bering some hundred species, are inhabitants of the Old World, becoming scarce, however,
towards the far east of the Asiatic Continent. All possess shapely bodies and well-developed
limbs with five-toed feet, and are remarkable for the extreme activity of their movements,
and in many cases brilliant colouring.
The varying individual shades of
the GREEN Lizarp’s brilliant emerald
body are almost infinite, no two being
quite precisely alike in this respect.
In some a yellower, in others a bluer
green predominates, while the females
and young are more or less mottled
or striped with brown. The under
surface of the body is usually a more
or less bright yellow, and the throat,
in the males more particularly, at the
breeding-season is frequently brilliant
blue. The more conspicuous colour
differences exhibited by this lizard
are, however, intimately associated ui
with the local habitat of the particular Pion. by Gelatin BRL tR
race. Those indigenous to Spain and
Portugal, for example, are more or
less ornamented with ocellated spots This and other allied species appear to be dead as they lie basking in the sun

Photo by W. Dundas FZ. s.
ARIZONA HELODERM (POISONOUS LIZARD)

In the warted texture of its skin-surface the heloderm differs conspicuously from other
lizards

WHITE MONITOR

LIZARDS

along the sides of the head and body,
while those peculiar to Eastern Europe
and Asia Minor are, in the young con-
dition more particularly, marked with
longitudinal streaks, but their throat is
never blue,

The green lizard is one of the
most beautiful of its tribe, and, although
not indigenous to Great Britain, is com-
mon in the Channel Islands. In Jersey,
more especially during the summer
months, it is one of the most familiar
of the ‘common objects of the country,”
as it darts in and out of the hedge-
rows after flies and other insects, or
basks in the bright sunshine on some
stone wall, with its emerald-green body
flattened out in order to absorb the
greatest possible amount of heat. As

Photo by H. G. F. Spurrell, Esy.J

: J
( Eastbourne

GREEN LIZARD

The tail of the green lizard is brittle, and breaks off in the hand if the

animal is held up by it. A new tail grows from the fractured joint in course

of time.

the colder autumn days advance this lizard is rarely visible, and it finally retires into some
rocky cleft or burrow in the hedge-bank, and is no more seen until the return of spring.
Geen lizards, liberated in suitably mild spots in the South of England, have been known to
thrive for brief periods, but succumb to the cold of an extra-severe winter.

The largest representatives of the green lizard are these inhabiting Eastern Europe
and Asia Minor, where in size and colour they almost imperceptibly merge into the
PEARLY or OCELLATED LIZARD. This very handsome species, which, in company with
examples of the green lizard, is frequently imported by London dealers, ranges from
16 inches to close upon 2 feet in length.

it is stouter and more robust than

atypical green lizard, the head in the old males more particularly being exceptionally
massive. Whatever may be lacking in grace

i)

Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.]

OCELLATED LIZARDS AT HOME
The most brilliantly coloured of living lizards. The body is bright emerald-green, decorated

on the sides with azure-blue spots

[Milford-on-Sea

of form is, however, fully compensated

for by brilliancy of colouring,
no other lizard, in fact, out-
rivalling it in this respect. To
the brilliant shagreen-
patterned emerald-green hues
of the Jersey species it has
superadded along its sides
eye-like spots of brilliant tur-
quoise or ultra-marine, with
dark brown or black encir-
cling lines. In the males the
green ground-colour has a
more distinctly golden hue,
while in the young indi-
viduals the body is more
usually olive-colour, dotted
throughout with whitish or
pearly-blue, black-edged
spots. This beautiful lizard
is unfortunately somewhat
irascible in temper, and will
not as a rule allow itself to

180 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

be handled as freely as the majority of the members of its tribe; when biting, moreover,
it has a tendency to fasten itself upon the object seized with bulldog-like tenacity, a grip
from a powerful-jawed old male being a somewhat unpleasant experience. In addition to
insects the ocellated lizard will prey upon any other small animals it can overpower, including
the members of its own species; it is consequently not safe to entrust it in the company of
other lizards of less size and strength. »

The Skink Family, which next invites attention, contains no less than 400 known species,
and, climatic conditions being favourable, enjoys an almost cosmopolitan distribution. The
majority of its members have stoutish cylindrical bodies, with relatively short limbs and tail ;
the legs are sometimes reduced to two only, or altogether aborted, giving the animal a snake-
like form.

The ComMMON or “ MEDICINAL” SKINK — 50 called since it was regarded in the Middle Ages
as an infallible medicinal nostrum—is an inhabitant of North Africa, and notable for its
adaptation to a sand-burrowing existence. The body is short, cylindrical, exceedingly smooth
through the close apposition of the minute surface-scales, and sharply conical at each extremity.
The well-developed toes of all four feet are flattened and serrated at their edges in such
a manner that they constitute most effective burrowing-tools in the loose sand these lizards
frequent. The length of this skink rarely exceeds 3 or 4 inches. Its colour is rather

EAE cia ea EAE =, exceptional for a lizard, but at the same time in keep-

; ing with its predominating subterranean habits. The
ground-tint in the living examples in the writer's posses-
sion, one of which is photographed on page 579, was a
light yellowish-white, like that of old polished ivory,
with here and there a pale flesh-pink tinge. On the
under-surface this light tint was persistent, while the
back was traversed by some twelve broadish bands of
pale slate-grey. The skink does not, like the mole and
the Amphisbenas, obtain its food from subterranean
~~ sources. It comes out to bask on the surface
of the sand when the sun is at its height,
and keeps a brisk look-out for flies or
other insects, which, if they approach suffi-
ciently near, are pounced upon with remark-
able agility. Should the sky become overcast

or any cause for alarm manifest itself, the
skink disappears beneath the sand as though

by magic, not infrequently burrowing down to

a depth of several feet. Even at the present

day the skink is esteemed by the Arabs both

for medicine and food, and in the latter associa-
tion, well broiled, has won the commendation
of European palates.

One of the most bizarre members of the

Skink Family hails from Australia, where it

is known as the STUMP-TAILED LIZARD. The

most remarkable feature in this form is the
shortness and roundness of the caudal appen-

Ee dage, the contour and proportions of which,
Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F. 2.5. in fact, so nearly correspond with those of the

RONTGEN RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF head that it was originally described by its
OCELLATED LIZARD a Canin Will} D RAN a pee
The remarkable length and slenderness of the bones of the hind feet are ISCOVERED oe ea at alton piel »just Ovet

well illustrated by this photograph three centuries ago,as a double-headed animal.

LIZARDS 181

scription: “The land animals we
a sort of guanos of the same
but differing from them in three
had a larger and uglier head,

To quote his own quaint de-
saw here [Sharks’ Bay ] included
shape and size withother guanos,
remarkable particulars, for these
and had no tail, and at the
they had a stump of a tail which
not really, such being without

rump, instead of a tail there,
appeared like another head, but
mouth or eyes; yet this creature
a head at each end.”

tailed lizard is usually on view
and will afford visitors an oppor-
flesh with Dampier's description.
tail will measure as much as

seemed by this means to have

A specimen of the stump-—
at the Kegent’s Park Gardens,
tunity for its comparison in the
Fine specimens of the stump-
10 inches in length, and are Photo by U?, Saville-Kent, F.ZS., thick in proportion, the legs,

Milford-on-Sea
weak. The surface of the back

however, being very small and ine
is covered with large, over- NO el lapping scales, that, in conjunc-
Lives and burrows in the sand, coming

tion with its customarily dark pur abhen theism shines brown or blackish hue, convey
to it a marked resemblance to a long, imbricated fir-cone. On
the under-surface the scales are in comparison very small; the colouring in this region is also
usually light grey or yellow, variegated with darker reticulations.

Stump-tails make most good-natured and grotesque household pets. Of two examples
which were for some years in the writer's possession a characteristic photograph is reproduced
below. When basking in the sun, the tail often becomes distended to enormous proportions.
The internal substance of this abnormally dilated organ consists chiefly of fatty tissue, and it
seems probable that it fulfils the rdéle of a reservoir for the storage of nutrient and heating
materials, to be drawn upon during hibernation. The winter months in the southern districts
of Western Australia are cold, and this lizard, in common with other local species, retires
during that season into the sheltering recess of a hollow tree-stump or rock-crevice until the
sun is again in the ascendant. The stump-tail is practically omnivorous in its habits. In
captivity fruit, and more especially bananas, constitute a favourite diet, but it will also greedily
devour worms, beetles, and garden-snails, and may consequently be turned to good account as

a destroyer of garden-pests.

Of other Australian members of the Skink Family, the GREAT CYCLobuS, or BLUE-TONGUED
LIZARD, may be mentioned. This species, which is about 18 inches long, presents no abnormal
development of head or tail, asin the form last described. The body is smooth and sub-cylindrical,
and with its closely set scales resembles that of a snake. The dominant colour is a soft
steel or silvery grey, variegated with darker or lighter cross-bands and reticulations that are
most strongly marked on the sides; the under-surface, by way of contrast, is most usually pale

Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F Z. 8.] indemded
AUSTRALIAN STUMP-TAILED LIZARDS
Two of the author’s household pets

182 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

’ salmon-pink. The tongue of

this lizard, which gives to it
| its popular title, is somewhat
| remarkable. It is large and
flat, and of a bright blue tint,
resembling nothing so much
as a piece of blue flannel.
The animal, as it moves about,
is in the habit of constantly
protruding and retracting its
tongue, which consequently
constitutes a very conspicuous
, object. In common with the
' majority of its allies, the blue-
tongued lizard is viviparous;
‘| but while the stump-tail only
produces one at a time, which

LB SS th a lg az

Photo by H”, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.}

BLUE_TONGUED LIZARDS is nearly half as large as the
parent, the present form gives

birth to as many as ten or
twelve. An example in the writer's possession on one occasion presented him with a litter
embracing the larger number, and afforded the material for the photograph here reproduced.

As a contrast to the two preceding forms, the SPINE-TAILED LIZARDS, with their short, flat,
spiky tails, may be cited as a conclusion to this notice of the Skink Family. There are
nine known members of the same genus, all inhabitants of Australia. The lower of the two
forms here figured is especially abundant on one island of the Abrolhos group, off the
Western Australian coast. This example is represented at about two-thirds of its natural
size. It is an interesting fact that an allied but considerably larger species monopolises
a neighbouring island of the same group, the two species not intermingling: probably
the larger one would prey on the smaller. The largest member of the genus, known
as CUNNINGHAM’S SPINE-TAIL, of a uniform black hue, peppered white, is not infrequently
brought to Europe, and two examples which were for some years in the writer’s possession bred
regularly, producing eight P 7 ; ;
or ten young at a time be m4
for several consecutive years.
The fact that these lizards |...
enjoyed full liberty in a
heated greenhouse, with a
temperature and surrounding
conditions closely identical
with those to which they
were naturally accustomed, no
doubt contributed extensively
to their fertility.

With this group we are
compelled by lack of space
to close our account of the
true lizards, but the reader
must understand that only a

[ Milford-on-Sea

A female with her family of twelve

very few out of an enormous Phate by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] : couiie e z
: 7.4.5 ord-on-Sea
number have been mentioned SPINE-TAILED LIZARDS, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

at all. These lizards are essentially vegetarian in thetr habits

CHAPTER LY

CHAMELEONS

CHAM.ELEONS

HE CHAM-ELEONS differ in so many

important structural points from the

ordinary lizards that they are usually
regarded now by scientists as a distinct reptilian
sub-order. The essential characters, externally
recognisable, that serve to distinguish the chame-
leons are: — Firstly, the extraordinary develop-
ment of their worm-like extensile tongue, the tip
of it club-shaped and highly viscous, and the
shaft cylindrical and as elastic in texture as india-
rubber. Adapted for the special object of catch-
ing flies, this organ can be projected from the
mouth to a distance of 6 or 8 inches or more
with lightning-like rapidity, and rarely misses its
quarry. Comparing small things with great,

the chameleon’s tongue and its action might be '

likened to a schoolboy’s popgun, having its pellet
secured to the barrel by a long elastic ligament.
Presuming further that the pellet is covered
with a viscid secretion such as bird-lime, and
that the object shot at is hit and brought back
to the shooter’s pocket by virtue of the liga-
ment’s intrinsic elasticity, we have an almost
veritable replica of the chameleon’s fly-catching
apparatus. The second remarkable structural
peculiarity of the chameleon is the independent
relationship of the two eyes. The eyes them-
selves are unlike those of any other lizards; they
are large, prominent,skin-covered cones, perforated
only at their extreme apex for the minute pupil-
opening: while one eye may be fixed on an
object in front of it, the other may be rolling
around in search of a second quarry. This
independent capacity of vision, while peculiar
among reptiles to the chameleon, is common to
many fishes, such as blennies and flat-fishes. A
third anomaly in the chameleon’s structure is
the character of the feet; these resemble those
of a parrot, the toes being bound together in
two opposable bundles. In the fore foot the
inner bundle contains three and the outer one
two toes only, while in the hind foot the order

183

TUATERA

Photo by HW’. Saville-Kent, F,Z.S.]

([ Milford-on-Sea
CHAMAELEONS ASLEEP

The tatl of the sleeping chamaleon ts fr equently cotled spirally lthe
the proboscis of a butterfly

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [Milford-on-Sea

A CHAMELEON IN A RAGE
Puffing and hissing at an approaching intruder

184 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

of their amalgamation is precisely reversed. In either case these feet subserve, as in parrots
and other perching-birds, as most effective organs for maintaining a close grip upon the tree-
branches among which they habitually live. The tail of the chameleon is, finally, highly
prehensile, and, as with the New World monkeys, constitutes a veritable fifth hand, wherewith
to ensure it against falling off its perch.

The colour-changing properties of the chameleon have been the subject of enthusiastic
but in many instances exaggerated descriptions from the earliest times. As a matter of fact
there are other lizard species which share this kaleidoscopic property to an equal or even
greater degree. The Indian tree-geckos, referred to on a previous page, as also the calotes
from the same region, are cases in point. Chameleons are undoubtedly possessed of marvellous
colour-changing faculties, and it would appear to be scarcely in all instances, as is more
usually represented, a case of adapting themselves to the tints of their environment. The
assumption of leaf-green, grey, brown, reddish, or yellowish tints, in accordance with their
surroundings, is the ordinary record. Some examples which formed the subjects of the writer's
experiments exhibited, however, interesting deviations from the beaten track. Male individuals,
in particular, were observed to assume tints and decorative patterns that rendered them
remarkably conspicuous objects, in spite of their leafy environment. The normal ground-
colour of these specimens in
full daylight was so dark a
green that it might be almost
characterised as black. Upon
this were superimposed lines
and spottings of strongly con-
trasting tints The more
dominant of these was a bril-
liant orange, that was distri-
buted in bold lines along
the head and cheeks, and
formed a radiating pattern on
the skin-covered eye-cones.
The same colour formed some-

Photo hy UW’, Savi'le-Kent, F.Z.8. what broken-up bars across.
COMMON CHAMELEON OF SOUTH EUROPE AND ; - sis
all limbs, a -

Moira erie four limbs, and was dis

Al minute or more 1s often occupied by the chama@.eon 1n making a single forward step

persed in bold spots over the
entire remaining body-sur-
face: along the tail these spots were concentrated in threes, giving it a semi-barred appearance.
All among these orange limb- and body-spottings were distributed a secondary series of
somewhat smaller spots, the tint of which was a pale but very brilliant emerald-green. This
chameleon asleep at night was a very different animal. The ground-colour was transformed.
from almost black to a bright grass-green. The orange lines became lighter in colour and
broken up into patches; many of the orange spots on the body disappeared, but those remaining
were of larger size and concentrated in threes in two lines along each side, these triple spots
enclosing centrally a larger elongated spot or patch of bright pink or puce. The bright
emerald green secondary spots, as seen in daylight, were almost white. If handled during the
daytime, the chameleon was wont to assume a colour nearly identical with his night garb;
the two lines of pink patches, previously invisible, would appear, and, while the orange spotting
remained constant, the emerald-green changed to lemon-yellow.

A chameleon in a rage is a decidedly grotesque object. The back is arched, the body
and more especially the throat-pouch are inflated to their fullest extent, the mouth is opened,
the eyes roll, and the creature rocks itself to and fro and hisses in a most threatening manner,
When, as often happens, it also simultaneously sits up on its haunches, the effect is doubtiess.
as terrifying as it is intended to be to a rival chameleon or any small animal which may

Rie". we

Photo by WH’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] ([Milford-on-Se
A CHAMELEON SHOOTING OUT ITS TONGUE TO CAPTURE A FLY

The tongue is capable of extension to a length of no less than 7 or 8 inches

Photo by C. M. Martin] [Beckenham
A PHOTOGRAPH OF A CHAMELEON IN THE ACT OF CATCHING A BUTTERFLY
The inflated extremity of the tongue is highly glutinous

185

186 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

venture to approach it. A number of other lizards, including tree-climbing varieties, were
introduced to the company of the examples under observation, and until friendly acquaintance-
ship had been established their advances towards the chameleons were always repelled.

The majority of the chameleons lay eggs,
but asmaller number produce living young, as
with skinks and other lizards. Examples of
the common European and North African
species kept by the writer excavated holes
in the earth, in which they laid their eggs,
and then carefully covered them up again.
Unfortunately these eggs were not fertilised.
One South African species has been reported
to the writer as being in the habit of placing
and separately wrapping and fastening up
each egg as deposited in the leaves of the
tree in which it resided. While Africa and
Madagascar represent the head centres of
distribution of the fifty odd known species

Pree is Re SAU eR cnet: S)) [Milford-on-Sea of chameleons, they enter Europe through
THE TUATERA OF NEW ZEALAND the Spanish Peninsula, and extend east-
ward to Arabia, India, and Ceylon. The

Belongs to an ancient reptile race of which it is the only living i - 3
survivor largest known variety, which inhabits Mada-

gascar, attains a length of 15 inches; the
smallest pygmy chameleon of the Cape scarcely measures 2} inches.

THE TUATERA

That singular reptile found on certain small islands lying to the north-east of New Zealand,
and known as the TUATERA, differs in so many structural characters from all other lizards
that it is assigned to a separate order. Externally the tuatera does not differ materially in
form from an ordinary lizard. The skin, however, is peculiar for its leathery, granulated, and
wrinkled texture; there is no trace of external ears; the eyes, adapted for nocturnal vision,
have in daylight vertical pupils; and the bases of the toes are united by connecting webs.
The deeper internal characteristics include the possession of supplementary so-called abdominal
ribs, the presence of which are readily ap-
prehended on handling the living animal.
These structures, while absent in ordinary
lizards, find their near equivalent in the
breastplate of tortoises and turtles. The
teeth are not implanted in distinct sockets,
but attached to the summits of the jaws,
which are developed in a beak-like manner,
and in older individuals fulfil, after the
manner of a beak, the functions of the worn-

out incisor teeth. Photo by H’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea
ras have ae cee chia wascan
Tuateras have been exceedingly scarce A TAME TUATERA
of recent years, and in view of their scientific

i ‘ é é Is a great acqutsttion for a greenhouse, feeding on slugs, beetles, and
interest, and the risk of their possible ex- all noxtous insects

tinction, are now protected by the New Zealand

Government. Among the multitudinous gifts of which their Royal Highnesses the Prince and
Princess of Wales were recipients during their recently accomplished world-embracing tour, a
pair of living tuatera lizards formed one of the most singular and highly prized contributions
accepted from the loyal New Zeaiancers.

Photo by H. G. F, Spurrell, Esq.] [ Eastbourne
DARK GREEN SNAKE

Al native of Italy and other countries bordering the Mediterranean. Accredited with a particularly fierce disposition

CHAPTER. ¥-
SNAKES

HE characteristic contour of a snake’s body is too familiar to need elaborate description ;
its leading features are, in fact, so nearly approximated by certain of the legless lizards,
previously described, that the distinctions between the two can with difficulty be defined.

Many of the snake-like lizards, including the Common Blind-worm, are altogether devoid of
external limbs. In some snakes, on the other hand, and notably the large terrestrial Pythons,
a spur-like development on each side of the base of the tail represents rudimentary hind legs.
The Snakes agree essentially with the Lizards in the character of their scaly covering, the
scales, however, being larger on their under-surface and specially adapted, as in the legless
lizards, for creeping locomotion. The essential distinctions between the two groups have to
be sought in the structure of the head. The most notable of these, as it obtains in the
Snakes, is the very loose manner in which all the bones connected with the jaws are held
together, thus providing for the greatest possible distension in the act of their swallowing
their prey whole, as is the custom of all ordinary snakes. To achieve this end, the two halves
of the lower jaw are not united together at their extremity or chin, as in lizards, but are
merely connected with one another by an elastic ligament. In most snakes the bones of
the upper jaw and palate are also attached to one another in a similar way.

The eyes of a snake differ in a very marked manner from those of ordinary lizards.
No snake possesses movable eyelids. The eye, in compensation, is protected by a transparent
horny disk, continuous with the general epidermis, and is shed with it when the snake casts
its skin. This feature imparts to snakes that fixed, stony expression of the eyes which
undoubtedly contributes very materially towards increasing the feeling of repulsion with which
snakes are commonly regarded. <A few exceptional lizards, such as the Geckos, have a similar
eye-construction, but it is not met with in any of the limbless or snake-like forms. No
snakes, again, show any trace of external ear-openings, such structures, on the other hand,
being distinctly developed in almost all lizards. The head itself of the snake is never
compressed or elevated, as in most lizards, but flattened down and usually wider than the
body, to which, however, it is united without a distinct neck. The tongue of the snake is
slender, and terminates in two long, thread-like points; basally it is inserted into a hollow
sheath, into or out of which the entire organ can be retracted or exserted at will. The
somewhat uncanny, flickering action with which a snake, while moving, displays and as it
were feels its way with its long, forked tongue represents another element which adds to the

187

188 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

disfavour with which these reptiles are commonly regarded. Among the uneducated even at
the present day it is not unusual to hear the tongue, with reference to its peculiar shape
and vibrating action, pronounced to be the seat and instrument of the animal’s poisonous
properties. The swift, silent, stealthy, gliding motions with which, apart from any visible
organs of locomotion, a snake slides, as it were, along the ground and over all obstacles fill
to the brink the measure for its condemnation in the estimation of all but the snake-devotee
or the naturalist.

The locomotion of the snake is, as a matter of fact, one of the most remarkable
and beautifully contrived phenomena in animal mechanics. The peculiarly jointed and
abnormally mobiie ribs constitute the mystic dews ev machind by which the reptile accom-
plishes its migration. These ribs articulate in pairs by a single mobile head with their
respective segment of the vertebral column. At their opposite extremity they impinge
on and are in muscular connection with the broad, slightly overlapping, shield-like scales
which clothe the under surface of the body. The rib-muscles, contracting in rhythmical
succession, raise the free overlapping edges of the shield-like scales, which, striking against the
ground in the same regular order, push the body forward. Adopting an easily comprehensible

simile, the snake’s body is

| carried along the ground on

| the same principle as a pad-

dle-wheel steamer is pushed

along the surface of the water,

the paddle-boards in the case

of the snake being affixed to

a long, narrow plane instead
of a circular wheel.

The poison-fangs of
snakes are highly specialised
structures, and their presence
or otherwise was formerly

| considered sufficiently dis-
| tinctive for the separation

4

Fhoto by H. G. F. Spurrell, Esq.) (Wasteeurne of these reptiles into two

DARK GREEN SNAKE sharply cefinednatural series.
More recent investigations
have, however, shown that
such a system of classification is entirely artificial, both venomous and harmless species
occurring among groups which are related to one another by essential structural characters.
The teeth in the ordinary or harmless snakes are usually represented by two rows of slender,
recurved, sharply pointed teeth in the upper jaw, and a single row of a similar character in
the lower one. This recurved character of the dentition effectively assists the snake in gorging
its quarry whole, nothing once seized by the hook-like teeth having a chance of retreating,
the snake itself being unable to eject the prey upon which the teeth have fastened. In the
most poisonous series, such as a rattle-snake, there is but a single row of recurved teeth in
the upper jaw, and these are the equivalents of the inner set of the harmless species. Among
the most venomous snakes the poison-fangs are tubular in character, the poison being received
from the venom-glands at their open base, and discharged at the apex. In other forms the fangs
have grooved channels only for the passage of the virus, while in the other species there may be
an intermediate condition. In all cases the poison-secreting glands are modifications of the
ordinary salivary glands of other vertebrate animals. They are situated, one on each side,
immediately below and behind the eyes, and are in some instances so abnormally developed
as to extend backwards along the sides of the body. Special muscles envelop these glands,
and force the poison into the hollow base of the fangs when the mouth is opened to strike.

Closely allied to the rat-snake of India, and preys tn a similar manner on rats, mice, and birds

ee vy BS

Ke

(Watford

Photos by Fredt, Downer & Sons]

A 8MALL BOA-CONSTRICTOR SEIZING AND DEVOURING A RAT

Illustrating the consecutive phases of seizing, s rangling, and subsequently gorging the Prey, as practised by the largest and
the class

13 189

smallest members of

190 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Snakes, like lizards, are most abundant in tropical countries, the Indian and Malay regions
in particular being richest in numbers and varieties. The British Islands support but three
representatives of the class — the ADDER, the COMMON RINGED and the SMOOTH SNAKES — this
number, by a coincidence, being identical with that of the Lizard Tribe indigenous to the
same islands. Many of the smaller species are little over 1 foot long, while the huge Pythons
and the Anaconda may attain to or exceed 30 feet. Regarding their habits, some are purely
terrestrial, frequenting the rocks or sandy deserts, or even burrowing beneath the earth's
surface. Others are essentially arboreal, many amphibious, and some, like the Turtles among
the Chelonians, entirely marine. As with the Lizards, the majority of snakes lay eggs enclosed
within a white leathery shell, while with a considerable number the young are brought forth
alive. The eggs, deposited in the earth, sand, or among vegetable débris, are usually left to
be hatched by the heat of the sun. In the case of the Pythons, however, they are incubated
by the parent.

A small group of snakes which is usually placed at the head of the series in systematic
classifications share the sub-
terranean habits of the
Amphisbenas among the
Lizards; and the eyes being
rudimentary and functionless,
they are commonly known as
BLIND-SNAKES. A structural
peculiarity which separates
these singular reptiles from
all other members of the
Snake Tribe is the entire
absence of teeth from either
the upper or lower jaw. The
food of the blind-snakes
consists largely of ants and
the larve of beetles and
other insects which lead a
subterranean life. Although
: , spending the greater portion
Photo by W’. P. Dando, F.Z.S.] [Regent’s Park of their existence under-
ground, they occasionally
come out upon the surface,
such migrations more gener-
ally taking place during
showery weather. About 100 species of blind-snakes are known, and are mostly confined to
tropical countries. One small worm-like form occurs in Greece and the adjacent islands, its
range extending through a considerable area of South-western Asia.

The steps from the small worm-like Blind-snakes, with their functionless eyes and under-
ground habits, to the Boas and Pythons, the largest and most highly organised members of
the Serpent Tribe, would seem at first sight to be altogether unwarranted. In one essential
character, however, they agree very remarkably. In both groups the bony skeleton exhibits
a far more generalised structural plan than in any of the succeeding ones, so that they may be
regarded as more nearly resembling the primitive stock from which the other more specialised
kinds — such as the Vipers, with their death-dealing poison-fangs — have been evolved.

The PYTHONS and Boas, or BOA-CONSTRICTORS, as they are popularly known, belong entirely
to the non-venomous section of the Snake series. The teeth, forming two rows in the upper
jaws, gradually decrease in size from before backwards, and none of them are grooved or
modified in the form of poison-fangs. The body is usually more or less compressed, and the

BOA-CONSTRICTOR READY TO STRIKE

The neck, thrown back in one or more loops, can be projected, with immense force and lig htning-
, ; jected, i ig
like rapidity, to strike or seize an intended victim.

SNAKES I9gt

tailprehensile. The TypicaL
PYTHONS, or ROCK-SNAKES,
as they are called, with refer-
ence to their rock-frequent-
ing habits, are distributed
throughout South-eastern
Asia, Australia, and Central
and South Africa.

The INDIAN PyTHON,
which is the largest Old
World representative of its

race, is known authentically Bi Ian aps Sah

to attain to a length of CARPET_SNAKE
30 feet, and in the largest
specimens the spinal column
may include over 400 vertebra. In common with other members of its family, this huge

[Melbourne

So called with reference to the variegated carpet-like pattern of its skin ornamentation

snake kills its quarry by compression or strangulation, throwing around it successive coils of
its body, which, with their contraction, crush out the life of the victim. The dispatched
prey is then swallowed whole, commencing with the head. The previous crushing of the
bony framework greatly assists the swallowing process, which is further aided by the snake
pouring over the body of its victim a copious discharge of saliva.

The extent to which the jaws and the integument of the body generally can be distended
for the passage and reception of the food is remarkable. After partaking of a solid meal
in this fashion, pythons remain sluggish and in a state of semi-torpor for several days, not
reawakening to active life, in fact, until the digestion of the food has been accomplished. As
is well known, these and other snakes can exist for periods of many months’ duration between
their meals. One of the largest Indian pythons by no means contents itself with such small
quarry as hares and rabbits — sheep, young calves, and some of the smaller deer representing its
more accustomed food. The human species unarmed is as weak or weaker than the proverbial
kitten, pitted against the hydraulic-press-like embrace of these monster serpents; and many
an Indian native, and more rarely the white man, has fallen a victim to their attacks.

The RETICULATED PYTHON, so called on account of the bold reticulated pattern of the skin-
ornamentation, may equal, if not exceed, the Indian species in dimensions. It is a native
of Burma, Siam, and the Malay region generally, and is recorded as occasionally exceeding
30 feet in length. Examples of this species, including one over 20 feet long, have constituted
leading attractions at the Reptile-house in the Zoological Society’s Gardens for many years
past. The gorgeous prismatic tints that play upon the surface markings of the coils of these

, huge snakes, as the
_ sun strikes upon them
, about midday in their
ci, cages, form one of the
most wonderful sights
that the Gardens
afford.

The African Con-
tinent also produces
its large species of
pythons. One of
these, attaining to a

Photo by H. G. F. Spurrell, Esq.J [Bartheatne length of 20 feet or
JESCULAPIAN SNAKE more, reaches its maxi-
A South European species with tree climbing habits mum onthe westcoast,

THE LIVING ANIMALS

OF THE WORLD

[Philadelphia
A GROUP OF GARTER-SNAKES

Al common spectes which collects together in great numbers

a sit cecil bE 5 aide
Photo by Mr. W’, Rau]

and occurs with local modifications as far east
and south as Natal. In the latter country
it is most familiarly known as the NATAL
ROCK-SNAKE.

Some rather singular incidents have been
recorded illustrating the tenacity with which
pythons retain hold of the quarry once seized,
or, more correctly, their inability to release
it. At the Adelaide Zoological Gardens a
specimen, when absorbing a rabbit, managed
to entangle its teeth in a corner of its
blanket. That blanket had to follow the
rodent through the 12-foot-long python. On
another occasion two pythons, a Queenslander
and Afrikander, happened at the same instant
to commandeer respectively the head and
hindquarters of an identical rabbit. Inch by
inch the portion between the two grew smaller
until the two noses met. There was no
retreating from this zpasse, and the mo-
mentous question, “ Shall I slay my brother
boa?” had to be settled affirmatively by one
or other of the interested parties without
further parley. The somewhat smaller and
weaker individual was gradually telescoped,
and in due time assimilated. The absorber
was decidedly poorly and “off colour” for a
considerable period after accomplishing this
cannibalistic feat; it ultimately recovered both
its appetite and its prismatic tints.

The TRUE Boas, as distinguished from
the Pythons, are more essentially arboreal in
their habits, and, with the exception of one or
two species found in Madagascar, belong to
the tropical American zoological region. The
COMMON Boa, or BOA-CONSTRICTOR, which
attains to a length of 12 or 14 feet or more,
is limited in its distribution to South America.
The colours of this snake, which consist
mainly of a light brown, with a number of
dark brown cross-bars on the back, and light
brown spots on the sides,
tint of the

centred, dark

so nearly agree with the

tree-branches with their interlacing shadows, among which it usually lies concealed, that,
notwithstanding its large size, it readily evades detection, and is unconsciously approached by

the animals on which it preys.

These, in adult individuals, may be represented by such

large-sized quarry as dogs, and even deer; while smaller examples prey largely on birds and

their eggs, and the numerous rodents with which the tropical American forests teem.

From

observations made upon this species in captivity, it would appear that the eggs are usually
hatched within the parent's body, though an instance has been recorded in which both eggs

and young were produced simultaneously.

A close ally of the typical boas, which shares with them a tropical South Ameiican

Zoological Soctety.

THE WEST AFRICAN PYTHON.

This splendid snake is said to grow to a length of over twenty feet, although such giants are only occasionally met with

SNAKES 193

t

habitat, is the huge ANACONDA, or
WATER-BOA, of Brazil and the adja-
cent countries. This animal, which is
undoubtedly the largest living repre-
sentative of the Serpent Tribe, attains
a length little, if any, short of 4o
feet. One such monster was specially
referred to by Dr. Gardiner, the
botanist, in his * Travels in Brazil”;
it had devoured a horse, and was

found dead, entangled in the branches
of a tree overhanging a river, into
which it had been carried by a flood.
Full-grown cattle, and occasionally é
human beings, as well as horses, are

alleged to fall victims to the destruc- Bhetsey He Ga Be: Spucrel yeaa [Ea bourtte
tive prowess of this gigantic snake. LEOPARD-SNAKE
The anaconda isessentiallyamphibious A harmless and beautifully marked species inhabiting Italy and Stetly

in its habits, the greater part of its

life being spent in the water, lying in wait, in the quiet lagoons and backwaters, with only
its head above the surface, and prepared to seize any unfortunate animal which may come to
the brink to drink. At other times it will coil itself upon the trunks and larger branches of
the adjacent trees, and from that point of vantage will dart down its head, with sure aim and
lightning rapidity, to seize any suitable quarry which may pass beneath. In some parts of
South America where the rivers dry up at certain seasons of the year, the anaconda is recorded
to be in the habit of burying itself in the mud and lying torpid, after the manner of
crocodiles, until the return of the rains. The ground-colour of the anaconda is usually greyish
brown or olive above, the back being ornamented with one or two transversely disposed rows
of large, rounded, dark brown or blackish spots, while the sides are decorated with more
irregularly scattered, smaller, eye-like spots, having whitish centres and dark margins.

An interesting little group, connecting the Boas and Pythons with the Common Snakes,
is that of the so-called SHIELD-TAILS, or EARTH-SNAKES, of India and Ceylon. These reptiles
are earth-burrowers, like the Blind-
snakes, previously referred to, but
have well-developed eyes, and are
further distinguished by the abruptly
truncated contour of their posterior
extremity, which may be either a
naked disk or covered with keeled
scales. Their bodies are cylindrical,
with the scaly covering very smooth

- and polished, the scales of the under-
surface being but little larger than
theupperones; the jaws, inconformity
with the peculiar modification of their
skull, are not capable of wide dis-
tension. Seven genera and a large

De ais a number of speciesare recognised,some
[Eastbourne being brilliantly coloured with tints

* Photo by H. G. F. Spurrell, Esq.)
TESSELATED SNAKE of red or yellow. Their main diet is

A European species, similar in size and habits to the British ringed snake, but earth-worms.
more handsomely marked The family ofthe COMMON SNAKES

194 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

includes the greater number of species, the majority of the most venomous as well as harmless
varieties being comprised within its limits. The characters that are made the basis for
separating these snakes from the Boas are associated with the structure of the skull, and are
not therefore readily recognised without having recourse to dissection. It will suffice to mention
that, in this and the remaining groups, there is an entire absence from the lower jaw of the
slender supplementary bone known as the ‘“ coronoid,” which is present in the Boas and
Pythons. From succeeding groups, such as the Viperine series, they are distinguished by the
circumstance that the upper jaw is firmly fixed in a horizontal position, and is not capable of
erection in a vertical plane, or like the lid of a box, as obtains with the Vipers.

These snakes are separated into secondary groups with relation to the structure of their
teeth. In one series these teeth are solid throughout, neither grooved nor tubular; and all

ees

& a bal

we Z ‘
By permission of the New York Zoological Society

PINE-SNAKE

A tree-haunting American species with very bold markings

the snakes thus characterised are harmless. In the second series one or more pairs of the
hinder upper teeth are longitudinally grooved, and act as poison-fangs; they are consequently
distinguished as the “‘back-fanged” group. In the third series the front teeth of the upper
jaw-bone are grooved, and constitute the poison-fangs, and they are known as the “ front-
fanged”” group.

To the first-mentioned solid-toothed and harmless division of the family belongs the
British RINGED SNAKE and some forty other allied species which are collectively known as
WATER-SNAKES, with reference to their more or less pronounced aquatic habits. The ringed
snake has a stoutish cylindrical body, keeled scales, flat head covered with regular shields,
wide mouth-cleft, and numerous teeth, the strongest of which are at the hinder end of
the jaw-bone. The colour varies somewhat, being usually grey, brown, or olive above, with
darker spots or narrow transverse bands; the under-surface is mottled black and white or
grey. The lip-shields are white or yellowish, with black dividing-lines. The neck in the
ordinary variety is usually ornamented with a yellow, white, or orange collar-like patch,

SNAKES 195

behind which is a somewhat broader black collar,
which is produced forwards and sub-divides the
yellow one in the centre of the upper-surface.
In the variety of the ringed snake indigenous
to the South of Europe the collar-like markings
may be altogether absent, or reduced to a small
black patch on each side of the nape of the
neck. The maximum lengthof the ringed snake
is some 6} feet. It is a most expert swimmer,
moving swiftly through the water with lateral
undulations of its body, and carrying its head
and neck well above the surface. Frogs con-
stitute its favourite diet, but it will also capture
and devour fish, mice, and young birds.

The VIPERINE and TESSELATED SNAKES,
both European forms, as also the GARTER- and
MOCASSIN-SNAKES of North America, are all
closely allied in structure and habits to the familiar
ringed species. The second Britishspecies, known
as the SMOOTH SNAKE, belongs to the same
group, but is more terrestrial in its habits; while

comparatively rare in England, and limited to Photo by Henry Dixon & Son] [Albany Street, N. W.
the southern counties, it is plentiful on the COBRA (BACK VIEW)
Continent. The INDIAN RAT-SNAKE, which is

: z : : Showing the remarkable pattern on the back of the neck, which has
almost as useful as the domestic cat in ridding given rise to the name of Spectacled Snake

dwellings of rats and mice, is another repre-

sentative of the solid-toothed group. This group also includes the so-called PIGMY SNAKES,
inhabiting the Malay region, whose habits are mainly arboreal. They are the most diminutive
members of their order, some of the thirty known species not exceeding 1 foot in length.

The typical TREE-SNAKES of the Indian and Australian region, with large eyes, somewhat
compressed bodies, and
colours of green or olive,
in harmonious accord with
their arboreal surround-
ings, also belong to the
solid-toothed and harmless
section. An_ especially
interesting representative
of this group is the so-
called EGG-EATING SNAKE
of South Africa. It does
net exceed 2 “feet in
length, and is for the most
part arboreal in its habits,
and, as its name implies,
would appear to feed ex-
clusively on eggs. As a
structural adaptation for
this peculiar habit, the
spinous processes of a
number of the vertebra
Sea-snakes have compressed tails, which they use for steering project into the throat

za

Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] (Milford-on-Sea

QUEENSLAND SEA-SNAKE

196 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

and are tipped with enamel, thus constituting supplementary throat-teeth. Normally this snake
subsists on the eggs of the smaller birds, but when short of this supply has been known to
leave the trees and rob hen-roosts, being able, notwithstanding its comparatively small size, to
dilate its movth and threat for the reception of a hen’s egg. The egg is split longitudinally
by the action of the throat-teeth, the contents swallowed, and the shell ejected.

The second or ‘‘ back-fanged ” group includes many exceedingly poisonous species. Among
these may be mentioned the INDIAN WHIP-SNAKES and their allies, comprising many tree-
frequenting species, closely resembling in habits and colours the harmless solid-toothed tree-
snakes of the preceding section.

It is among the third or “ front-fanged”” group, however, that the most venomous species
occur. To this section belongs the death-dealing COBRA, the yet more formidable HAMADRYAD,
the INDIAN CRAITs, the EGypTiaNn Asp, and the AUSTRALIAN BLACK SNAKES and DEATH-ADDERS.
The COBRA-DE-CAPELLO, HOODED, or SPECTACLED SNAKE, as it is variously known, is perhaps the
most notoriously familiar example of its section, being responsible for the greater moiety of
the many thousands of fatalities that annually occur among the natives of India from the
bites of venomous serpents. The craits, which resemble the cobras, but do not possess an
erectile hood, are accredited a second position in death-dealing. The peculiar feature of the
erectile hood that characterises the cobras is due to the circumstance that a certain number
of the ribs in this region are
independently movable, and
can be elevated and depressed
at will, the skin-fold that
overlies them being loose and
elastic. The back of the hood
in the ordinary Indian cobra
is usually ornamented with
two eye-like spots, connected
with a loop-like band, which
communicate to the complete
pattern the fancied resem-
blance to a pair of spectacles,

t

Photo by HG. F. Spurrelly Es9.] [Eastbourne

ENGLISH VIPER whence it has derived its ap-
pellation of Spectacled Snake.
Individuals vary, however,
very considerably in this matter of colour-markings; in some instances a single eye-like spot is
alone developed, while in others it may be entirely absent. The COMMON COBRA grows to a
length of 6 or 7 feet, dimensions greatly exceeded by the GIANT COBRA, or HAMADRYAD, a
fortunately rarer form more exclusively confined to jungle and forest districts. This species
may attain to a length of 13 feet or more, and on account of its deadly bite and fiercely
aggressive disposition is much feared by the natives of the countries it inhabits, which include
not only India, but Burma, Siam, and the Malay region. This giant cobra preys almost
exclusively on smaller snakes, frequently including the common cobra.

A third species of cobra, known as the HaJE, or SPITTING-SNAKE, inhabits Africa, from
Egypt as far south as Natal. It is perhaps the fiercest member of the group, turning
readily upon its pursuers, or even commencing the attack. It also possesses the somewhat
remarkable and disconcerting habit of ejecting poison from its mouth to a distance of several
feet, usually aiming with considerable accuracy at the eyes of its assailant. Although
unattended by permanently serious effects, the pain caused by the virus striking the eyes is.
for the time being excruciatingly painful, placing the recipient of the unwelcome discharge
entirely Hors de combat. The first record of the poison-spitting propensities of this snake,
made by Mr. Gordon Cumming, was received with considerable incredulity, but the statement
has been confirmed. A relative of the writer’s, stationed in Natal, was recently the victim of

The only British venomous reptile

AFRICAN PUFF-ADDER

Hurses die within a few hours of being bitten by this serpent

Cea al atl ca z Li." See a a ee

By permission of the New Zork Zoological Society

DIAMOND-BACK RATTLE-SNAKE

One or more joints are added to the ‘‘ rattle’? each successive year
J i,

197

198 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

such an incident, receiving the poison-discharge in his eyes from one of these snakes, which,
in his eagerness to dispatch it, he had imprudently cornered, armed only with a sword. It
was some days before the pain entirely abated and the sight regained its normal clearness.

Australia, with its BLACK and TIGER-SNAKES and the DEATH-ADDER, possesses snakes as
venomous as the cobra, which the first-named species approach in their capacity to inflate
their necks, though to a less degree. The TASMANIAN BLACK SNAKE, as it glides swiftly, as
though sailing, across open grass-land, with the midday sun scintillating on its 7-foot stretch
of jet-black, highly polished scales, its head and expanded neck threateningly elevated some
18 inches above the ground, is certainly a most impressive sight.

One very distinct group of the front-fanged section which demands brief notice is that
of the SEA-SNAKES. These are readily distinguished by their especial adaptation to a marine
existence, their much-compressed, oar-like tails constituting powerful propelling organs. In
contradistinction to the terrestrial snakes of the same group, the inferior scales, not being
required for terrestrial locomotion, are little if any larger than the upper ones. All the species
are highly venomous; they feed chiefly upon fish, and are distributed throughout the tropical
seas. The larger species rarely exceed § or 6 feet in length, and the majority are much
smaller. Many species are noted for their conspicuous colouring, which most frequently takes

the form of distinctly contrasting bands. All
| the members of this group are viviparous.
| The last and most highly specialised
section of the Snake Tribe is that of the
VIPER and its allies, collectively known as
the Viperine Family. In all the representa-
| tives of this group the hinder upper jaw-bone
, is so loosely articulated that it is capable of
erection at a right angle to the horizontal
«plane of the skull, the gape of the mouth
yl being in consequence abnormally wide. The
on | teeth in the upper jaw are reduced to a single

} anteriorly situated pair of tubular poison-fangs,
with which, when striking its prey, the snake
deals a direct stab. The head in the majority
of the Viperine Snakes is flattened and tri-
angular, nearly resembling in contour the
symbolic ace of spades. The body is usually
relatively thick, and the tail short and stumpy. The vertical pupil of the eye denotes nocturnal
habits. All the members of the section are venomous.

The Viperine Snakes are usually divided into two groups. The first contains the Typical
or Old World Vipers, and includes, in addition to the COMMON VIPER, the CERASTES or HORNED
VIPER of Egypt, and the large and most repulsive and deadly African PUFF-ADDER. The
COMMON VIPER or ADDER, the only poisonous British snake, has a very extensive geographical
distribution, extending throughout Europe and Asia as far east as the island of Saghalien, and
northwards to the Arctic Circle. The HORNED VIPER of the Sahara and North Africa is one of
the most venomous of living serpents. Lying buried beneath the sand, with only its head
above, it will spring aggressively at any animal which passes by, and the action of its venom
is so rapid that a horse or man bitten by it usually dies within half an hour. In colour the
horned viper closely resembles the sand or stony wastes among which it lies. The most
remarkable feature in this snake is the presence of two elevated horn-like processes immediately
above the eyes, which are most prominent in the male. The species has frequently been on
view at the Zoological Society’s Gardens. Onone occasion an ostensible example was purchased
and deposited in the Reptile-house, which proved on nearer investigation to be a base imposition.
A common desert-viper had been cleverly manipulated by the deft insertion of suitably shaped

fone SN . ‘ - - oe)
Photo by F. WH’. McLellan

RATTLE-SNAKE

The rattle-snake ts pre-eminently noted for tts power of fascinating birds
and the smaller mammals

SNAKES 199

splinters of wood into its head, so that it resembled the rarer horned variety. The PUFF-
ADDER, the largest member of its tribe, may attain to a length of 6 feet or more, and is
distributed throughout the African Continent. Its thick body is almost triangular in section,
the head very large, flat, and bluntly rounded anteriorly, while the eyes have a particularly
fierce, stony, and repulsive aspect. In colour individuals vary considerably, but there is generally
a chequered pattern of reds, browns, and greys, disposed in the form of darker and lighter
alternating crescent-shaped bands along the back. The poison of this snake is nearly as
virulent as that of the horned viper, and is commonly used by the African bushmen for
poisoning their arrows.

The Viperine group is abundantly represented in the New World, where its members
differ from the typical Old World species in sundry anatomical points, one of the most con~
spicuous features being the presence of a distinct depression or pit in the surface of the head
between the nostril and the eye on either side. On this account they are distinguished
by the title of Prr-vrpers. Among the more familiar representatives of this group are the
RATTLE-SNAKES, the FER-DE-LANCE, the BUSH-MASTER, and the COPPER-HEAD or MOCASSIN-
SNAKES. All these are notoriously venomous, fatal effects from bites received by human subjects
being of frequent recurrence. The RATTLE-SNAKES are especially distinguished by the peculiar,
loosely jointed, horny appendage to their tails, by the rapid vibration of which, when disturbed,
they fortunately give timely notice of their presence. In the young individuals this rattle
is only represented by a single button-like knob, additional loose, hollow, horny rings being
added between it and the scaly termination of the tail as age increases. In full-grown
examples the horny rings composing the rattle may number as many as twenty or more,
though, owing to the war of extermination incessantly levied against these reptiles in all
civilised areas, it is rarely that such elaborate rattle-bearers are now met with. The rattle-
snake, in the more northern districts of its distribution, hibernates in the winter, often
congregating together in great numbers for the sake of the mutual warmth. In the earlier
days certain caves were famous as the retreats into which not only hundreds but thousands
of the reptiles would congregate from the country round for their winter's slumber. At such
times hunting-parties were specially organised for their wholesale destruction, and accomplished
much towards reducing their ranks to their present numbers.

In addition to the common North American rattle-snake there are some four or five
other species distributed throughout the Southern States, Mexico, and Panama. None appear

FER-DE-LANCE SNAKE

One of the fiercest and most venomous of American viperine snakes

200

THE LIVING ANIMALS

OF THE WORLD

1

i Wl gege
ea BT 3
Photo by Scholastic Photo Co.]

[Parson's Green

BULL~FROG

The croaking of this species may be heard ata distance of several
miles

by the so-called BUSH-MASTER, a snake which
attains to a length of as much as from 9g to
12 feet, and, in addition to being exceedingly
venomous, is of an especially fierce and aggres-
sive disposition. It is devoid of a rattle-like
appendage, the tail terminating in a sharp
hornyspine. The FER-DE-LANCE, or RAT-TAILED
PIT-VIPER,is another Central and South American
species, held in wholesome dread on account
of its death-dealing potentialities. The South
American sugar-plantations are an especially
favourite resort of this deadly snake, its attrac-
tion being the rats which frequent the canes
and afford its chief food. Lying concealed
among the thick foliage, it will launch itself
aggressively at any passer-by, and its bite is
usually attended with fatal results within a few
hours. The fer-de-iance grows to a length
of 6 or 7 or occasionally even 8 feet, with a
thickness of a man’s arm. Its colours, as with
most members of its tribe, are somewhat variable.
The ground-colour of the back is usually olive
or reddish brown, with dark cross-bands; a
black stripe runs backwards from the eye to
the neck, and in some instances the sides of
the body are bright red.

The American Continent is not wanting in
aquatic representatives of the Viperine series.

The most notable of these is the fish-eating WATER-VIPER, whose distribution extends from
North Carolina in the south over the whole of North America as far westward as the Rocky

Mountains.

Fish and frogs constitute the main diet of this reptile.

AMPHIBIANS

CHAPTER Vi
FROGS AND TOADS

HE Amphibian Class, through the

Newts and Salamanders more espe-

cially, would appear at first sight to

have much in common with and to be most
closely allied to the Lizards, previously described.
Asamatter of fact, however, the group is much
more nearly related to the Fishes. Quite the
most characteristic feature in the Amphibians
that is indicative of the above-mentioned affinity
is the circumstance that for a more or less longer
period of their existence their respiratory or-
gans take the form of external gills, structures
not found in any of the preceding vertebrate

classes. Another diagnostic character of the

Phote by H’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.
AMERICAN BULL-FROG

Young ducks are sometimes a food of this voracious Batrachian

FROGS

AND TOADS

201

Amphibia is afforded by the circumstance that
they all pass through a transitional or larval
condition before arriving at the adult state.
The familiar tadpole phase of the common frog
or toad typically illustrates this point. During
its earliest larval state the fish-like resem-
blance is especially conspicuous. In addition
to possessing gills, the body is limbless, and
produced into a long fish-like tail, having
superior and inferior fin-like membranes,
with which the little animal propels itself
through the water. These locomotive fins,
however, are never furnished with supporting
fin-rays, as obtains among the Fishes. In
contradistinction to the Lizards and Snakes,
the skin of Amphibians is never covered with
spines or scales, but is soft and naked. In

- ‘ % es

Photo by Scholastic Photo Co.

EDIBLE FROG

The hind legs only of this species are used for the composition of the

famous dish

many of the Toads and Salamanders the surface of the skin is, however, warted and highly

glandular, and capable of emitting an acrid and sometimes po.sonous fluid.

More or less

pronounced conditions of moisture are essential for the well-being of all Amphibians. The
eggs are deposited, and the earlier or larval conditions, with but few exceptions, passed, in
the water, while the adults remain in its near proximity, and frequently take up their abode
in it. Amphibia do not, however, drink water after the manner of lizards and other reptiles,

but absorb all the moisture they require through the surface of their skins.

The deeper

and more essential skeletal elements of the Amphibia differ conspicuously from those of the

preceding groups.

are scarcely to be distinguished from those of fishes.

The vertebrae in the permanently gill-bearing species more particularly

In the Frog and Toad Tribe, on the

other hand, they are reduced to a less number, seven or eight only, that is found among
any other vertebrates, while ribs do not exist or are rudimentary and functionless throughout

the class.

Many bones of the skull in the Amphibia, as well as its general construction, are
more in accord with those of fishes than of ordinary reptiles.

The tongue, not always present.

is attached immediately inside the front of the lower jaw, its tip pointing down the animal's

throat.
been discovered which frequents salt water.

It is remarkable that, notwithstanding their aquatic proclivities, no Amphibian has

Amphibians amongst themselves constitute two very easily recognised sub-divisions, — the

oe

Hie me

Photo by HW’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.

TIGER-LIKE FROG

Ai species closely allied to the common frog, but more boldly marked

one including the Frogs and Toads, collec-
tively forming the Tailless group; and the
other represented by the Newts and Sala-
manders, or Tailed Amphibians. The former
group has an almost world-wide distribution,
numbering some thousand species; it is most
abundantly represented in the tropics, rang-
ing thence in diminishing numbers to the
limits of the Arctic Circle. In colder climates
these Amphibia usually hibernate during the
winter months; while in tropical countries,
where dry seasons intervene, they often
bury themselves in the mud, and remain
in a state of torpor till the return of the
rains. The majority are more or less es-
sentially nocturnal in their habits. Frogs
and toads commence life in an aquatic

202 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

tadpole phase. While in the adult state they are strictly carnivorous, the tadpoles are
vegetarian feeders.

The section to which the COMMON BRITISH FROG belongs includes nearly 150 species,
collectively known as Water-frogs, which present considerable differences in both their aspect
and habits. While some are perennially aquatic, others only resort to the water during the
breeding-season; some are terrestrial and occasionally earth-burrowers, while yet another series
is essentially arboreal.

In addition to the familiar British species the much-esteemed EDIBLE FROG of the
Continent has become acclimatised in England. A dark-coloured race of this frog, supposed
to have been introduced by the monks centuries since on account of its esculent properties, is

.., plentiful in the fens of Cambridgeshire, while a
4 greener race of the same species was imported
to and established in Norfolk somewhere about
the year 1840. The edible frog may be
distinguished from the common species by
the more complete webbing of its hind feet,
the absence of the dark so-called temporal
spot that extends from the eye to the shoulder,
and the presence in the males of a globular
sac on each side of the head, which confers
upon them louder croaking powers than are
possessed by the common species.

The loudest-voiced as well as almost the
largest member of this group is the BULL-
FROG of Canada and the United States. The
length of the body in this species may be
as much as from 7 to 73 inches, exclusive of
the legs; and its croakings, or more correctly
bellowings, are so loud that it may be heard
for adistance of several miles. These croakings
are most pronounced during the early spring
or breeding-season. In the Southern United
States, however, they are maintained more or
less persistently throughout the year. While
the British frog contents itself with a diet of
slugs, worms, beetles, and other insects, the
bull-frog aspires to larger quarry, and has an

EE

Photo by Ww. aailbistten’, RZ 8. ita ctiaritoes especial penchant for young ducklings. As a
RONTGEN RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF compensation the flesh of the bull-frog is said
COMMON FROG to be very delicately flavoured, and the species.

The relatively small amount of bone which enters into the structure of is sq much esteemed in some localities as to-
the skull is well shown in this photograph i rae
be kept in captivity and fattened for the
table. It has been recorded that the bull-frog makes leaps of from 8 to 10 feet in length and:
5 feet in height.

In point of size the bull-frog is somewhat eclipsed by a species discovered in the Solomon
Islands, and known as Guppy’s FrRoG. This huge frog has a body no less than 9 inches im
length. It has not been recorded whether its vocal powers are proportionately loud. Another
large species allied to the Bull-frogs is found in South and East Africa, whose flesh is attested!
to by Dr. Livingstone as being excellent eating and resembling chicken when cooked. This.
frog, known to the natives as the MATLAMITLO, is supposed by them to fall from the clouds,
on account of its sudden appearance in even the driest parts of the desert immediately after
athunder-storm. The species, however, is in the habit of making holes at the roots of bushes,

FROGS AND TOADS 293

into which it retires during the months of
drought, rushing out into the hollows filled
by the thunder-showers while the rain is still
actually falling. Even during the long drought
these frogs continue their croakings from their
retreats at night, and are very misleading to
travelers, who customarily associate their
presence with the immediate neighbourhood of
water.

There is a remarkable difference in the
voice-timbre of the various species of frogs.
In England, with its one indigenous variety,
comparisons cannot be instituted. In countries,
however, like Austrailia, where numbers of species
live in close proximity, the phenomenon is very
marked. Some only give voice in the evening
or night, while others keep up their clamour
throughout the day; with some the note is
metallic and almost bell-like, while one diurnal

croaking species, which congregates in great Phots by Scholanic Photo, Co.
numbers in the eastern Tasmanian coast district, ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD
emits a loud percussive note closely resembling ee eee eee

that of a stone-breaker’s hammer. On several

occasions, in fact, when driving through the areas these frogs frequented, the impression
produced by their croaking was so realistic that the next turn in the road was expected to
reveal the presence of a large gang of road-makers engaged in negotiating a wayside stone-heap.

One of the most remarkable species is the FLYING-FROG of Java. The power of flight is
simulated in this instance on a different principle to that which obtains in any other group.
It is not accomplished through the medium of abnormally produced ribs with connecting
membrane, as occurs in the Flying-lizards; nor by means of a flap of skin stretched between
the fore and hind limbs, as in the Flying-squirrels and Phalangers. In place of these the toes
of all four feet are abnormally prolonged, and their interspaces bridged over to their tips by
webbing. The body of this frog is about 4 inches long, while the webs of the feet, when fully
expanded, cover collectively an area of fully 12 square inches; they thus constitute aerial floats,
which enable their owner to make prodigiouslv long flying leaps among the trees in which it
takes up its abode. The colours of this singular
species are striking; the back and limbs are a
deep shining green, the under-surface and inner
toes yellow, and the webs black rayed with yellow.
In common with the typical Tree-frogs, the toes
of this Javan flying variety all terminate in a
dilated adhesive disk.

Among the oddities of the Frog Tribe
prominence may be given to the singular SHORT-
HEADED FROGS of East Africa. In these the head
is so short, and the body, when puffed out, so
nearly globular, that they have been aptly
described as more nearly resembling india-rubber

Besser Bea i : : ez
Phos by 0, ©. Bande, LE: balls than frogs. Another notable form, inhabiting

ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD Chili, is remarkable for the circumstance that
the throat-sac of the male is so enlarged and
and ducklings modified as to form a chamber on the under

Is accustomed to prowl round farmyards to pick up stray chicks

204 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

surface of the body. In this sac the eggs laid by the female are deposited and pass through
their tadpole phases.

The HorNeED FROGS, or HORNED TOADS, of South America constitute a distinct and
interesting group. They are of large size, stout and rotund, gorgeously apparelled, and
truculent in bearing. There are nearly a dozen known species, the distinctive feature from
which they take their name having reference to the stiff, horn-like development of their
upper eyelids. The largest species is a native of Brazil, whose body may be as much as
8 inches long. This species has the horn-like processes of the eyelids most prominently
developed. A somewhat smaller but conspicuously handsome species, plentiful in the Argentine
Republic, is at the present time represented by several individuals at the Regent's Park Gardens.
In this animal the body is relatively more obese and toad-like than in the Brazilian form,
but the horn-like angle of the upper eyelid is only slightly produced. The colours vary
somewhat, the general ground-tint of the upper-surface is bronze-green or yellow, upon which
are distributed large spots and blotches of dark olive or chocolate, having light yellow or
golden margins. The spots on the limbs are
the widest, and almost take the character of
cross-bands. Bright claret-red lines are some-
times developed in and among the body-spots.

A very interesting account of the habits
of this frog appears in Mr. W. H. Hudson's
“The Naturalist in La Plata.” Mr. Hudson
reports it as being common on the pampas
as far south as the Rio Colorado, in Patagonia.
In the breeding-season it congregates in pools,
and displays extraordinary vocal powers, which
are exercised at night. The notes uttered
are Jong, resembling those of a wind instru-
ment, and are so powerful that on still evenings
they may be heard distinctly a mile off. After
the pairing-season the frogs disperse, and,
retiring to moist places, bury themselves just
deep enough to leave their broad green backs
on a level with the surface. The eyes, under
these conditions, look out as from a couple

Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co,J [Parson's Green

of watch-towers, and are on the guz vive for
EUROPEAN GREEN TREE-FROG any approaching prey. This consists of any
Indigenous 0 Southern Europe moving creature which they can capture, such

as other frogs and toads, birds, and small
mammals. In very wet seasons they will frequent the neighbourhood of houses, and lie in
wait for chickens and ducklings, often capturing and attempting to swallow objects much too
large for them. In disposition they are exceedingly pugnacious, savagely biting at anything
that comes near them. When teased, the creature swells itself out to such an extent that one
expects to see it burst. It follows its tormentors about with slow, awkward leaps, its vast
mouth wide open, and uttering an incessant harsh croaking sound. When they bite, these
frogs hold on with the tenacity of a bull-dog, poisoning the blood of the creature seized with
their glandular secretion. Mr. Hudson records two instances in which to his knowledge horses
were killed through being bitten by a horned frog. One of them, while lying down, had been
seized by a fold in the skin near the belly; the other had been grasped by the nose while
cropping grass. In both instances the vicious frog was found dead, with jaws tightly closed,
still hanging to the dead horse. “It would seem,” Mr. Hudson remarks, “that they are
sometimes incapable of letting go at will, and, like honey-bees, destroy themselves in these
savage attacks.”

FROGS

AND TOADS 205

The TREE-FROGS represent one of the most distinct
groups of the tribe. All its members are more or less
arboreal in their habits, repairing to the water only
during the breeding-season, or leaving the trees to seek
shelter in the earth or underneath stones or timber for
the purposes of hibernation. As an adaptation for their
special habits, the toes of the tree-frogs are provided
at their tips with suctorial disks, so that they can walk
on perpendicular or smoothly glazed surfaces after the
manner of the Geckos among the Lizards. Another
characteristic feature is the development on the under
surface of their bodies of peculiar granular glands pierced
by numerous pores, through the medium of which they
rapidly absorb the moisture deposited by dew or rain
on the surfaces of the leaves among which they live.
The colours of the tree-frogs harmonise, as arule, so com-
pletely with those of their leafy environments that their
‘presence very readily escapes detection. Many of the
species, moreover, rival the chameleon in their capacity
of quickly adapting their tints to that of a newly occu-
pied surrounding. Green is naturally the dominant
ground-tint of these frogs. Often, however, it is inter-
mixed with stripes and bands of other colours, while
sometimes the green hue is entirely replaced, as in the
BLUE or BICOLOURED TREE-FROG of South America,
which is brilliant azure above and pure white beneath.
A very beautiful Australian species, abundant in Tasmania
and Victoria, and appropriately named the GOLDEN TREE-
FROG, has its grass-green overcoat thickly overlaid and
embroidered with, as it were, the purest beaten gold.

One small species of tree-frog is common on the
European Continent, its distribution extending to North

Africa and eastward throughout Asia north of the Himalaya to Japan.

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., Milford-on-Sea
QUEENSLAND TREE-FROGS

This species ts in the habit of making itself ut home in
chamber water-jugs

The species is

imported into England in considerable numbers, and readily becomes acclimatised in a conserva-

t
¥

Hnowe by He G Fs Spurrell, Esq.)
COMMON TOAD

Toads are accredited with attaining an age of several hundred years

14

[ Eastbourne

tory. Green above and whitish
beneath constitute the prevailing
tints of this species, such uni-
formity being, however, varied by
the presence of a darker, often
nearly black, light-edged streak,
that extends fromthe snout through
the eye and ear along each side
of the body, and sends a branch
upwards and forwards on the loins.
The male of this European species
shares with many others of its
tribe the possession of a large
external vocal sac, which when
inflated bulges out from the throat

in a spherical form to dimen-
sions little inferior to those of
the creature’s body. It may be

206 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

observed of examples of these frogs acclimatised in a conservatory that the falling of heavy rain
on the roof is an almost certain incentive to their croakings. By pouring water resonantly
from a little height into another vessel, the writer also found that he could produce a frog
chorus at command.

The European and other tree-frogs deposit their eggs in the water, some species constructing
asymmetrical crater-like nest of mud for the reception of the eggs and tadpoles. Certain kinds,
however, never leave the trees, having adapted their requirements to the naturally provided
environments. Thus one Brazilian species deposits its eggs in the water almost invariably
contained in the central cup of a tree, while another allied frog chooses for the same purpose
the moist interstices at the bases of decaying banana leaves. A step further, resulting in
complete independence of external water, is arrived at by the MARSUPIAL or POUCHED TREE-
FROG of Central America. In this species the female develops a capacious pouch on her back,
which opens backward, and wherein both the eggs — primarily assisted to their position by the
: . male — and tadpoles undergo their

| characteristic transformations.
| As a contrast to the foregoing
exclusively tree-dwelling forms, one
very fine species common in Queens-
land has pronounced social proclivities.
He is a fine fellow, with a bright
pea-green coat and large, lustrous black
eyes, and either with or without your
leave invades your bedroom from the
adjoining verandah, and makes the
lip of your water-jug his headquarters.
Here he will “lie low” the livelong
day. With the approach of night,
however, this lethargy is thrown aside,
and he hops forth, making excursions
through every room in search of black-
beetles, spiders, moths, or other accept-
able quarry. In this vermin-destroying
nes bie iy o ae is ; By 9s capacity he is a welcome guest to
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.) [Parsen’s Green all except perhaps the ultra-squeamish
COMMON TOAD housekeeper, his occasional offence of
The toad is highly appreciated by the horticulturist on account of 1s utility in anh oMpers glass or cup during his
destroying insect-pests excited chase of the wily cockroach
being readily condoned. He has a
playful habit too, during his midnight wanderings, of climbing up walls and ceilings, to which
he readily clings with his adhesive toes, and mayhap drops down on the recumbent form of
some peaceful sleeper, who, if a stranger, possibly wakes with an alarming apprehension of
snakes or other uncanny intruders. When once this QUEENSLAND GREEN FROG has determined
upon his camping-ground, he clings to it with remarkable pertinacity. You may deport him
time after time, and even carry him half a day’s journey into the wilderness, but he turns up
again the next morning or the following one.

Toads are distinguished from frogs by their sluggish creeping movements and by
their non-possession of teeth. There are over eighty species, having collectively an almost
cosmopolitan range, though they are not found in Australia, New Guinea, Madagascar, or
the Pacific Islands. The common British species enjoys a wide distribution, being found
throughout Europe, Asia excepting India, and North-west Africa. Its somewhat clumsy, brown,
wrinkled, and warted body, with darker spots and markings on the upper-surface and white-
speckled under-surface, will be familiar to every reader. With many it is an unwarranted

FROGS AND TOADS 207

object of aversion, and in country districts is not infrequently accredited with venomous
properties. Toad-spawn is plentiful in ponds and ditches in the early spring, and may
be distinguished from that of the frog by the fact of its being deposited in chain-like
strings, the eggs being arranged in a double alternating row, instcad of in irregular masses,
as obtains with the last-named species. The individual eggs are, moreover, smaller, and
deposited two or three weeks later in the season than those of the frog. A second and
somewhat rarer British toad is known as the NATTERJACK. It may be distinguished from
the ordinary species by the shorter hind limbs, the more prominent eyes, and the con-
spicuous yellow line down the middle of its back. It is also somewhat more active than
the common species.

The last member of the group which demands brief notice is the singular WATER-TOAD
of Surinam. This animal, also known as the Pipa, is an inhabitant of the moist forest regions
of the Guianas and Central America, and remarkable on account of the singular phenomena
connected with its breeding habits. The eggs, from 60 to over 100 in number, are deposited
by the female in the water in the ordinary manner, but at this stage they are taken in
hand by the male and literally planted in the back of the female, whose skin in this region
becomes abnormally soft and thickened at this season. The young toads undergo their
complete development in the parental integument, each egg and its resulting embryo occupying
a separate primarily cylindrical chamber, which by lateral pressure becomes hexagonal, resembling
a honeycomb-cell. Eighty-two days are occupied from the time of the deposition of the eggs
until the young toads emerge into the outer world, their appearance as they make their
avout, with here a head and there one or it may be two limbs thrust out from the surface of
the parent’s back, being highly grotesque.

CHAP TEAK Wil
NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS

HE Newts and Salamanders, or Tailed Amphibians, are distinguished from the preceding
group of the Frogs and Toads by the retention of a tail throughout life. In this
manner they very nearly resemble the advanced larval or tadpole phases of the latter.

In some instances, in fact, the
earlier or externally gill-bearing
tadpole phase is persistent. The
geographical distribution of the
Salamander Tribe is much less
extensive than that of the Frogs
and Toads, but few are found south
ofthe Equator, and they are entirely
unknown in Australia or in Africa
south of the Sahara.

Two members of the group
are indigenous to the British
Islands, where they are familiarly
known as NEwtTs, ASKERS, EFFETS,
orErts. Thelargerandhandsomer
of the two, the CRESTED NEWT,
occurs in ponds and_ ditches ips mE
throughout the warmer months of Phote by James B. Corr, Esq.
the year. It grows to a length of WARTED OR CRESTED NEWT

nearly 6 inches, of which the tail
‘g 2 i This harmless little creature is accredited by many country pecple with wenomous
constitutes about one moiety. Its properties :

208 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

colour is more usually blackish or olive-brown with darker circular spots above, and yellow or
orange-red with black spots or marbling beneath, while the sides are speckled white. In the
breeding-season the colours are more especially brilliant, and it is at this time that the male
develops the serrated crest along the middle of its back, from which it takes its title.

The eggs, or spawn, of the newt are deposited in a different fashion to those of the frog
and toad. In place of being aggregated together in an irregular or ribbon-like mass, each
is deposited separately and attached to the leaves of water-plants. By the dexterous use
of its feet, the female newt twists or folds the leaf, or a portion of it, around the egg, its
viscid envelope allowing it to readily adhere, and it is thus effectually concealed or protected
from injury. When about a quarter of an inch long, the tadpole escapes from the egg. At
this early stage the gills are quite simple and the front limbs represented by mere knobs.
Immediately in front of the gills are two fleshy lobes, by means of which the tadpole can
temporarily adhere to the surfaces of water-plants. Within a fortnight the little animal has
grown to double the size. The gills are now elegantly branched and the fore limbs well
developed. The latter are, however, only bifurcated at their extremities, and it is some little
time later that four distinct toes are possessed by each fore limb and that the hind limbs
make their appearance. ‘The gills, which have at this stage reached their most complex state
of development, now begin to diminish in
size, and are gradually absorbed, the lungs
in the meantime acquiring their full
functional proportions. The newt, having
now passed from the fish-like to a reptilian
stage, is unable to live entirely beneath
the water, and is obliged to come up to
the surface at intervals to breathe, or is
adapted for living entirely upon land.
Newts in their fully matured state, except
during the breeding-season, pass much of
their time on land, and wander to con-
siderable distances from the water. They
at all times, however, exhibit a preference
for moist situations, such as a shady wood
or damp cellar.

Like the toad and blind-worm, the
feeble, inoffensive newt has from the earliest
time to the present day been the victim of the most unmerited dread and persecution among
the uneducated. In some country districts it is not only accredited with the property of
biting venomously, but of spitting fire into the bitten wound. A property that is actually
possessed by these creatures is that of reproducing lost parts. The Geckos and other lizards,
as already recorded, are in the habit of reproducing their mutilated tails. The newt, however,
beats that record to the extent of reproducing lost legs, and, it has been affirmed, eyes also.

A second species of British newt, of somewhat smaller size and even more common
than the crested one, is the COMMON or SMOOTIL NEWT. It scarcely exceeds 3 inches in length,
and is distinguished by its smooth skin and relatively less conspicuous crest. In habits it is
less addicted to a prolonged aquatic residence than the crested form, and wanders to more
considerable distances from water. One of the largest and handsomest representatives of the
family is the MARBLED NEWT of Southern France and the Spanish Peninsula, which attains
alength of 8 or 9 inches. The upper-parts of the male at the breeding-season are bright
bronze-green with irregular black markings; its crest is ornamented with black and white
vertical bars, and a silvery white band is developed along the sides of the tail. The crestless
female has a distinctive orange streak running down the centre of the back.

The TRUESALAMANDERS have no British representative, thoughthe common or spotted species

A ae

Plcieily ores B. ifthe
SMOOTH NEWT

This species often travels long distances from water, taking up its residence
in damp cellar, and vaults

NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS 209

is abundant throughout Central and Southern
Europe. Its conspicuous livery —in which bold
markings of black and brilliant yellow are some-
what equally balanced, no two individuals, how-
ever, precisely corresponding — distinguishes it
broadly from all other members of the group.
The surface of the skin is very smooth and
shining, and thickly set on the surface with
glands and pores, from which a viscid and un-
doubtedly poisonous secretion is exuded. In
common with that of other salamanders, the tail
is cylindrical, instead of compressed and oar-
shaped, as in the Newts, and there is no crest
down the back. The SPOTTED SALAMANDER
frequents moist situations in mountain and forest
districts. It is essentially nocturnal in its habits,

lying up during the day in some suitable rock Photo by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.| [ Milford-on-Sea
or mossy crevice, exposure of its sensitive skin SPOTTED SALAMANDERS
to the direct rays of the sun speedily having Natives of Central Burope

a fatal effect. Large numbers of this salamander

are sold as suitable and curious additions to the fernery and vivarium, and will survive for
long periods, appropriate food and the necessary conditions of moisture being provided. Snails,
worms, and beetles and other insects constituting its natural food, it fulfils as useful a réle
as the toad in the extermination of insect-pests, and may be as strongly recommended for
introduction to the greenhouse.

Salamanders repair to the water to breed, after the manner of newts, but the young
are usually brought forth alive, though occasionally eggs are deposited, from which the
young tadpoles almost immediately emerge. The number usually produced at a birth ranges
from sixteen to thirty, but instances are recorded where there have been as many as fifty.

ay aa, Cane

Z Ghia

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.]

[-ilford-on-Sea

SPOTTED SALAMANDER

The skin of the salamander exudes a poisonous secretion, and its bright colours advertise its non-edible properties to carnivorous birds and mammals

210 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

The colossus of the tailed Amphibian race is the GIANT SALAMANDER of China and Japan,
which may attain to a length of from 3 to 3} feet. The body, like that of the ordinary
salamanders, is broad and depressed; but the eyes are very small, and have no eyelids; and the
tail, which is relatively short, is compressed, and has a fin both above and beneath. This
salamander lives entirely in the water, and is adapted for such an aquatic life by the
possession of both lungs and gills. In its native habitat it is most usually fourd in small,
clear mountain-streams, at elevations of from 700 to 5,000 feet above the sea-level, such
streams being often not more than a foot in width, and more or less overgrown with grasses;
in these the adults are usually found curled round the larger stones, while the smaller ones
occupy holes and crevices among them.

A representative of the tribe now commonly kept in aquaria is the Mexican AXOLOTL.
It has usually a velvety black skin, and grows to a length of g or 10 inches. As generally
known it presents a very newt-like aspect, or, more correctly, that advanced tadpole state of
ig ERE TAD e et EEE, Fhe gown TEAR \

{
}
|
|
}
'

Phetn by Fames B. Corr, Esq.

EY <

YELLOW PHASE OF SPOTTED SALAMANDERS

The first four or five months of the young salamander’s life are passed in the water

the newt in which the external gills are most highly developed. The animals breed freely in
the water, eggs being laid, which pass through the earlier tadpole to the adult phase. Up to
within comparatively recent times the foregoing metamorphoses were supposed to represent
the Alpha and Omega of the animal’s existence. Some exceptional examples, however, bred
in an aquarium in which rocks projected out of the water, surprised their owners by gradually
absorbing their supposed persistent gills, also their fin-like tail-membranes, and, crawling out
on the rocks, were transformed into ordinary salamanders.

The OM, or BLIND PROTEUS, of the subterranean caves of Dalmatia and Carniola is a form
with persistent external gills. Nearly allied is the North American form known as the FURROWED
SALAMANDER. The latter, however, living under more normal conditions, has well-developed eyes.
While possessing the customary number of limbs, the number of toes in the American type
is four to each foot. In the European Proteus there are but three toes to the front and two
toes to the hinder limb. In a yet lower form, the SIREN SALAMANDER of the South-eastern
United States, a yet more primitive persistently gill-bearing condition is presented.

~ @

Pond Pickerel (Lucius Reticulatus)

Sea Bass

Wi
ihn)
vi )"

yy ay
MI i)
Why

Red Snapper
(Neomoenis Aya)

(Lupomotis Gibbosus)

Brook ‘Prout
(Salvelinus Fontinalis)

Shad ; (Alosa Sapidissima)

Canadiun Red Trout

Bullhead (Amiurus Nebulosus)

Mud: Fish (Amia Calva) Yellow Perch (Perca Flavescens)

NORTH AMERICAN FOOD AND GAME FISHES.

Photo by H’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.9. | { Milfora-on-Sea
AUSTRALIAN LUNG-FISH

This fish ts also known as the Burnett River Salmon

BOOK IV. FISHES

Ce PT de Re vl

LUNG-FISHES AND CHIALER AS

BY W.. P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S., F.Z.S.

HOUGH amongst the lowest of the backboned animals, the Fishes are nevertheless
an exceedingly interesting group, distinguished from all others by the possession of
fins, which are divisible into two series,—an unpaired, ranged along the middle

of the back and abdomen, and including the tail-fin; and a paired series, representing the
fore and hind limbs of land animals. The body is either clothed with scales or naked,
and, being perfectly sustained by the water, needs no support from the fins, which serve as
balancing-organs.

In the brilliancy and beauty of their coloration fishes display a variety that cannot be
excelled by any other animals. Furthermore, the coloration is often rendered still more
beautiful from the fact that it can undergo rapid changes of hue. Frequently this coloration
is of a protective character, causing the fish to harmonise with its surroundings, and so escape
the observation of its enemies. The colours of living fishes can only, for the most part, be
indicated in the present pages when a pattern exists by the formation of stripes or spots;
but the wonderful variations in the form of the body will probably prove a revelation to many.

LUNG-FISHES

The LUNG-FISHES are a peculiarly important group, inasmuch as they form a connecting-
link between the class Fishes and the land-dwelling Amphibians —the class containing the
Frogs and Toads and their allies. They are accorded this position mainly because, like
Amphibians, they possess true lungs, which almost entirely replace the gills, the breathing-
organs of other fishes.

One of the best known of the lung-fishes is the AUSTRALIAN BARRAMUNDI, or LUNG-FISH OF
QUEENSLAND — the BURNETT or DAWSON SALMON of the settlers. It lives among the weeds at
the bottom of muddy rivers, rising frequently to the surface to take in atmospheric air by the
lungs, the gills alone being insufficient for breathing purposes. The flesh, which is salmon-
coloured, is much esteemed as food. The adult fish is said to attain to a weight of 20 lbs.
and a length of 6 feet.

Other lung-fishes, eel-like in form, occur in the rivers of Africa and South America, The

2II

212 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

African species is perhaps the better known of the two. On the approach of the dry season it
buries itself in the mud at the bottom of the river, and when the latter becomes dry the mud
hardens, holding the fish a prisoner till the return of the wet season several months later. A
considerable number of these fishes have from time to time been dug out and sent to England
enclosed in the mud into which they had retreated. The writer remembers assisting in the
liberation of some during the last meeting of the British Association at Oxford. So hard haa
the prison-walls become that the mass had to be plunged into tepid water; this soon brought
about a dissolut’on of the soil, and in a short time the fishes were swimming about as if in
their native rivers. The African lung-fish is known also as the MUD-FISH; its American relative
as the LEPIDOSIREN, or SOUTH AMERICAN Mup-Fisul. In the American species, as in its African
relative, the fins are whip-like in form; but the hinder or ventral pair, which correspond to
the hind limbs of the higher vertebrated animals, are remarkable in that in the male they
develop during the breeding-season numerous thread-like processes, richly supplied with blood,
the function of which is as yet unknown.

The young, both of the African and South American mud-fishes, bear external gills closely
resembling those of the tad-
poles of the frog and other
Amphibia; traces of these
gills remain throughout life
in the African form.

—— 2

CHIMERAS
Shark-like in their
general chaiacters, the
CHIM-ERAS, now briefly con-
sidered, are nevertheless
regarded as constituting a
very distinct group of great

antiquity.
i The modern representa-
BRR DAS. Rugland Sons tives of the group are few in
BOTTLE-NOSED CHIMARA number — five species in all.
The remarkable structure in front of the mouth is probably an organ of touch Of these, the species shown in

the accompanying photo-
graph and the SEA-CAT are remarkable for the possession of a movable tentacle on the snout. The
under surface of this tentacle is armed with small spines, and fits into a hollow in the head.
The first back-fin is supported in front by a strong spine, and can be depressed into a sheath
in the body-walls. The teeth take the form of large plates closely united with the jaws, and
studded with hardened points, or “ tritors.”’

One species widely distributed in the Mediterranean and Atlantic is taken usually in deep
water; it is the largest living species, often attaining a yard in length. Its occurrence is,
however, very erratic, months elapsing without any being taken; at other times several will
be caught in a few days. A closely allied fish is often exposed for sale in the Lisbon markets,
where it ranks with the Sharks as a food-fish.

The egg of the BOrTLE-NOSED CHIM4:RA is perhaps the only egg with a mimetic resemblance
to a foreign object. It is elliptical in form, and bordered by a fringe, so as to present a close
resemblance to a piece of seaweed.

In the next chapter we begin the description of the great group of Fan- and Fringe-finned
Fishes, which, briefly, embrace all fishes not grouped among the Lung-fishes, Chimeras, or
Sharks. The anatomical characters used for the purpose of classifying this great group are
not discussed here, save only in a few cases of prime importance, when features such as can
readily be observed, without demanding an intimate knowledge of anatomy, are selected.

WHITE-PERCH
The so cauled white perch is a species of bass, found in the rivers of the United Stazes

oe ade Saas Notas sine maa ELE: a ae ye ST IN OF Go sckE ~

Photo by Sir R, W. Shufeldt] [ #ashingtor
SEA-BASS

This is another American member of the Perch Tribe
213

CHAPTER

16

THE PERCH FAMILY

BY JOHN

Photo by Dr. R, Hf’, Shufeldz]

BICKERDYKE, M.A.

[Washington

LARGE-MOUTHED BLACK BASS

An exceedingly gamy fighter

HE thick-set, golden-bronze,
dark-barred, hog-backed
fish known as the PERCH

has many striking characteristics, and
is remarkable, among other things, for
the vast number of its relations scat-
teredalloverthe world. Sonumerous,
indeed, are its cousins that ichthy-
ologists have had to divide the Perch
Family into a large number of groups.
There are various species of perch
found, as a matter of fact, in the fresh-
waters and on all the coasts of the
temperate and tropical regions.

The COMMON PERCH, which is
widely distributed over Europe,
Northern Asia, and North America,
is properly an inhabitant of rivers,

lakez, and ponds, but sometimes descends to brackish water. It runs up to about 5 lbs. in
weight, and is carnivorous, eating most kinds of fish small enough for its swallow, including
the fry of its own species, which are, in some waters, an excellent bait.

In England perch spawn in the spring, the eggs being held in a band-like mass of
gelatinous matter deposited on weeds or the roots of trees not far below the surface of the
water. The spawn, as a matter of fact, is often collected by fish-culturists and hatched out.

Swans and water-fowl gener-
ally eat the eggs by the million,
and wherever perch are pre-
served these birds should, so
far as possible, be kept from
the water during the spawn-
ing-season. At Henley and
other places on the Thames
those interested in fishery
preservation place wirenetting
round the boughs and weeds
where perch have spawned,
to prevent the eggs being
eaten by swans and ducks.
Perch are usually termed
voracious fish, but when large
are extremely shy and difficult

|

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.]

BUTTER-FISH

A native of the tropical parts of the Indo-Pacific Ocean
214

(Milford-on-Sea

THE. “PERGH FAMILY 215

of capture. There is a story
told of a hunery little lake-
perch which had its eye
hooked out byaccident. The
angler, leaving the eye on the
hook, lowered it into the
water again, and a moment
after hauled out a one-eved
perch!

Among the species of
perch found in British waters
are the JUFFE, or POPE, a
very smail and common river-
fish of no great value; the
Bass, a fine sporting sea-fish,
which comes up the estuaries

y

Le ye bbe YY hy
Mat” Sasa l Drie: SMO y ¢ Ff

of rivers to spawn, and is Photc by Dr. ax. UW, Shufeldt] |W ashingten
much sought after by the ama- AMERICAN «SUN-FISH”
teur sea-fisher ; the C IMBER, Not to be confounded with the true Sun-fishes described in Chapter 771

or GAPER, a fairly common
fish on the coasts of the West of England; a rare sea-fish known as the Dusky PERCH, caught
occasionally off the South of England; the StONE-BAss, also called the WRECK-FISI!, from its
habit of following wreckage in the sea; and, lastly, the DENTEX, a rare species, not often
caught off the British coasts, which attains the weight of about 70 lbs.

On the Continent there is the PIKE-PERCH, a fish having the appearance of a cross between
a pike and a perch, and growing to 25 or 30 |bs.; this voracious species is found in the lakes
and rivers of the temperate northern zones, and is much esteemed for food. In the tropics
there are a number of true SEA-PERCHEs, which rarely enter fresh-water; they include the
ANTHIAS, most beautifully coloured with pink and yellow, of which there are between 100
and 200 species. Some of the tropical sea-perches grow to an enormous size, and there are
instances recorded of bathers having been attacked by them at Aden. Several monsters are
stuffed in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. Among the coral-islands live
many very beautifully coloured sea-perches of various species. Perhaps the most remarkable of
all is the BOAR-FISH, or BASTARD Dory, which has a prolonged snout, no doubt used for
getting out its food from the crannies among rocks and other awkward places.

CHAPTER IIT

SCALY-FINS, RED MULLETS, SEA-BREAMS, SCORPION-FISHES, SLIMEL-HEADS,
TASSEL-FISH, MEACRES, AND SIVORD-FISHES

BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S.,. F.Z.S,

OR quaintness of shape, combined with beauty of coloration, the family of Scaly-Anned
Fishes has no rivals. ‘The name by which they are collectively known refers to the scaly
covering which invests the bases of what are called the median fins —the fins seated

along the middle of the back and abdomen. A large number of distinct species have been
described, the majority of which occur in tropical seas, and especially in the neighbourhood
of coral-reefs; but some frequent the mouths of rivers, which they occasionally ascend for
a short distance. All are of relatively small size, of carnivorous habits, and but little used
for food.

The pattern of coloration commonly takes the form of bands or stripes, those in which
this pattern is most marked being known as ZEBRA-FISH. One of the most beautiful is the

216: THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

EMPEROR-FISH, which ranges
from the east coast of Africa
to the Indian and Malayan
seas. The ground-colour of
the body is deep blue, relieved
by some thirty golden-yellow
stripes running from the
shoulder backwards to the
tail. Crossing the head is
a crescent-shaped bar of black
edged with yellow, whiist a

“i similarly coloured patch runs

; upward from the pectoral fins
Photo by HW’ Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Miltord-onSea to within a short distance of
THE MISCALLED ARCHER-FISH the top of the back. This

species, which attains a length
of 15 inches, is highly esteemed
for food in India. The most beautiful of all, perhaps, is the zebra-fish of the Indo-Malayan
seas, which has the ground-colour of yellow, striped with vertical bars of blue edged with
drown, a yellow tail, and an anal fin barred with narrow blue lines.

A tubed-shaped mouth is a common feature of the fishes of this group, and two Indian
species in which this character is especially well developed have acquired the habit of shooting
therefrom a drop of water at insects resting on overhanging foliage fringing the sea or along
the banks of rivers. Having sighted its quarry, it would seem the fish moves upwards to
the surface of the water, and with careful aim ejects its liquid bullet with such unerring
precision that its prey is invariably knocked down and speedily seized. On this account these
fishes are commonly known as ARCHER-FISHES. The archer-fishes are sometimes kept in
tubs of water, for the purpose of affording amusement to their captors. Somehow the
shooting prowess of these fishes has been accredited to an allied form, shown in the above
photograph.

The peculiar shape of these fishes is sufficiently indicated by the photograph already
mentioned, but a large series would be necessary to show the numerous variations, some of
which are quite remarkable. The brilliancy of the coloration is probably protective, since the
most brightly coloured forms live amongst coral-reefs built by gorgeous polyps, or coral-animals,
so that amidst such surround-
ings the fishes are quite in-
conspicuous.

The RED MULLETS occur
chiefly in tropical seas, but
one species inhabits European
waters, and occur sparsely
around the British Islands.
Occasionally, however, these
Ashes visit the British coasts in
vast shoals, more than 5,000
having been taken in a single
night in August, 1819, in
Weymouth Bay, whilst in |
May, 1851, 10,000 were taken ‘~
off Yarmouth in one week.

Although about forty STRIPED RED MULLET

species of red mullet are The head is ornamented with brilliant blue and violet stripes

So named on account of its supposed habit of shooting water at insects

Photo by #%, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [Milford-on- Sea

RED MULLETS AND SEA-BREAMS 217

_—

known, the European species
is the most prized as a food-
fish. Its fame, indeed, extends
backwards to the time of the
ancient Romans, who sought
far and wide for large speci-
mens, paying ruinous prices
for them. ‘Then, as nowa-
days,” writes Dr. Giinther, “it
was considered essential for
the enjoyment of this delicacy
that the fish should exhibit
the red colour of its integu-
ment. The Romans brought
it, for that purpose, living
into the banqueting-room,
and allowed it to die in the

hands of the guests, the red J
colour appearing in all its cS "Photo by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.2.8.] : [Milford-on-Sox
brilliancy during the death- BROWN SNAPPER

struggle of the fish. The The snappers are esteemed for the table

fishermen of our times attain
the same object by scaling the fish immediately after its capture, thus causing a permanent
contraction of the chromatophores containing the red pigment.”

Beneath the chin of the red mullets will be noticed two long finger-like processes; these

can be thrust forward and moved about, or laid back in a groove between the sides of the
lower jaw, and are used to rake about in the sand and gravel at the bottom of the sea
es eae. .. _todiscover burrowing shrimps
Pe \ or worms. Even dead food
they are said to feel with
these barbels, as they are
called, before biting. The
red colour has been observed
in the Marine Aquarium at
Plymouth to become darker
when the fish rise from the
ground, and to pale away when
they descend.

Two forms of red mullet
occur in European waters, but
it is not yet finally settled
whether they represent distinct

‘

Photo by HE’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [Milford-m-Sea species. The one is the plain
RED SEA-BREAM RED MULLET, ofarich carmine-
Some species of sea-bream o:casionally enter fresh-water red above and silvery white

below; the other the SrRIPED

MULLET, or SUR-MULLET, which has a beautiful red colour on the back and sides, and from

three to five bright yellow bands passing from head to tail. Till recently the striped form was

regarded as the female of the plain red mullet, but many authorities incline to the view that
the two are distinct species.

The SEA-BREAMS are fishes of the tropical and temperate regions, represented by a

considerable number of species. Only one is at all abundant on the British coasts, and this

218 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

1 occurs especially on the south
and south-west coasts of
England and Ireland. It is
of an orange-scarlet colour
above, and somewhat silvery
on the sides, with a large
black spot on the shoulder.

Several species of sea-
bream occur in Australia,
where they are known as
SNAPPERS. One of the largest
of these, which attains a
length of more than 3 feet
and a weight of over 40
lbs., 1s not only considered

Photo by 1’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. |Milford-on-Sea : d
a oe ] eae excellent eating, but is also
SNAPPER the most popular sport-

An Australian species of Sea-bream yielding fish of that colony.

The ancient Romans
kept a species of sea-bream, the GILT-HEAD, in their vivariums, where it grew extremely fat.
This species is said to stir up the sand with its tail, to discover buried shell-fish. It is
particularly fond of mussels, and the noise it makes in crunching them between its jaws is
loud enough to be heard by the fishermen.

Nearly allied to the Sea-breams are a group known, for want of a better name, as the
THICK-RAYED FISHES, some of which rank as of prime importance among the food-fishes of
the British Colonies. A general idea of the shape of the members of this family may be
gathered from the photograph of an Australian GROPER. The name of LONG-FIN, given to one
species, is bestowed on account of the fact that one or more of the rays of the breast-fin on
each side is drawn out into a filament, often of very considerable length, which is used as
an organ of touch. In other species, where the elongation is less, and more rays have under-
gone modification, an auxiliary organ of locomotion is the result. At the Cape of Good
Hope species of long-fin are very abundant, and preserved in large quantities for export.

Other members of this family lack the elongated fin-rays altogether. The fishes known
as the TUMPETERS of New Zealand and Tasmania belong to this section. They are considered
by the colonists the best flavoured of any native fishes, and are caten smoked as well as fresh.
But two species are known, :
one ranging from 30 to 60
Ibs. in weight, and the other,

a much smaller form, scarcely
attaining a weight of 20 Ibs.,;
the latter is the more abun-
dant of the two, though con- |
fined to the coast of New
Zealand.

In the SCORPION-FISHES
we have a small group in-
cluding several forms remark-
able for their ugliness, having
added to an uncouth shape
skinny appendages, which, Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea
projecting from the body, KING-SNAPPER
resemble rather leaves of A member of the group of Slime-heads

SCORPION-FISHES AND SLIME-HEADS 219

seaweed than parts of the fish. These appendages, by their waving motion, serve either to
attract other fishes or to afford concealment by their resemblance to the surrounding weeds.
The ground-dwelling forms have some of the rays of the breast-fin modified into finger-
like processes, like those of the Gurnards, by which they both crawl and feel. Some members
of the family bear a rather close resemblance to the Sea-perches. In addition to their ugli-
ness, some have become especially offensive by the transformation of certain of the fin-spines
into poison-organs.

One of the ugliest, and at the same time most dreaded, of the family is the STONE-FISIL
figured on page 619. Each spine of the back fin is grooved. At the lower end of these
grooves lies a pear-shaped bag containing a milky poison, which is conveyed to the point of
the spine by ducts lying in the grooves. The native fishermen carefully avoid handling
these fish; but persons walking with bare feet in the sea step upon the spines, and, receiving
the poison into the wound, are killed.

-

is zZ ee |

[Milford-on-Sea

Photo by s. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.]

AUSTRALIAN GROPER
High!y esteemed as a food-fish

All the scorpion-fish are carnivorous, and differ from the majority of fishes in that
they produce their young alive. The smallest of the Spiny-finned fishes are members of
this group, some scarcely exceeding 1} inch in length. They are common amid the coral-
teefs of the Pacific.

Passing over some comparatively unimportant members of this family, we come to a
small group of vegetable-feeders from the Indo-Pacific, of which the TEUTHIs is one of the
best known representatives. They are chiefly remarkable for the fact that the abdominal
cavity is surrounded by a complete ring of bones, and that the air-bladder is forked at both
ends. Some are rather brilliantly coloured.

The SLIME-HEADS, which constitute the next family, derive their name from the presence
on the head of large mucus-bearing cavities covered with a thin skin. The eyes are always
of great size, indicating a deep-sea habitat, or at least a depth only dimly lighted. All
indeed, save two species, descend considerably below the surface, one species having been
found in 345 fathoms. The species of one genus are believed to inhabit still greater depths,
for their eyes are extremely small, indicating degeneration through disuse. The copious
supply of slime is also an indication of a deep-sea habitat. The members of this family
vary much in size and shape, but the most remarkable of all is a small and rare species

220 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORDED

found off Japan, in which the
scales have joined together
to form a_ perfectly solid
armour, whilst the paired fins
of the abdomen have been
' reduced to a single spine, with
.. a few vestiges of other rays.
The next family, a com-
paratively small one, includes
~ the TASSEL-FISH, so called from
| the long and delicate feelers
springing from the base of

bo aes 3 1

the breast-fins, of which they

PA EM, Mein AE Sop ree
INDIAN WEAVER-_FISH f originally formed a part. Vary-
ing in number from three to

fourteen, these feelers can be
moved independently of the fins. As these fishes all live in muddy water, and have the eyes
obscured by films, such tactile organs are necessary, in order to enable them to procure their
food. In some species they attain an enormous length. The flesh is highly esteemed. Some
species have an air-bladder, which yields a good kind of isinglass, and forms an article of com-
merce in the East Indies. The majority are small species, but some attain to a length of 4 feet.

No less important than the preceding group, from an economic point of view, are the
MEAGRES, a family of coast-haunting species of the tropical and sub-tropical Atlantic and
Indian Oceans, exhibiting a special preference for the mouths of large rivers, into which they
freely enter. Some, indeed, have become entirely fresh-water species.

One of the most interesting of the family is the species to which the name of DRUM has
been given, from the extraordinary noise which it produces—though some other kinds emit
similar noises, ‘“ These sounds,” Dr. Giinther writes, “can better be expressed by the word
‘drumming’ than any other. They appear to be very frequently heard by persons in vessels
lying at anchor off the coasts of the United States, where these fishes are very common. The
precise method by which these sounds are produced is not known. Since they are accompanied
by a tremulous motion of the vessel, it seems more probable that they are due to the beating
of the tails of the fish against the bottom of the ship to get rid of the parasites with which
that part of their body is infested.’ The drum attains a length of more than 4 feet and a

One of the group of scorpion-fishes

weight of over 100 lbs.

Though forming but a single small family, the SWORD-FISHES are nevertheless to be
reckoned amongst the most
interesting of living fishes.
Attaining a length of from
12 to 15 feet, exceeding
vigilant, pugnacious, and
powerful, they are amongst
the most formidable of all
fishes. They derive their
name from the great develop-
ment of the upper jaw, which
forms a huge, tapering, sword-
like weapon, covered along
its under-surface with numer-
ous smallteeth. They attack, Phos by A. 8, te_land & Som
apparently without provoca- RAGGED SEA-SCORPION
tion, whales and other large A second representative of the scorpion-fishas

[ Milford-on-Sea

Photo by HW, Saville-Kent, F.Z.9. |
STONE-FISH
Ai species of scorpion-fish dreaded on account of its poisonous spines

{

Photo by UW. Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.J (Milford-on-Sea

TASSEL-FISH
Valued for the isinglass tt yields
Is 221

222 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

= sa

cetaceans, which they invari-
ably succeed in killing by
repeated thrusts of the sword.
It appears that occasionally
sword-fishes make a mistake,
and, after the fashion of Don
Quixote, tilt at windmills, in
the shape of large vessels,
under the impression that
they are whales. But this
most grave error of judgment
brings with it a heavy penalty,
Wie dee backih 1s suid’ ww De offen vised at sail anton ihe sich Ye rating wear the surface af’ Hak Having ne pater ie
the water make effective backward move-

ments, the sword remains

fixed, and is eventually broken off in the struggle for freedom. Frank Buckland reminds us
that in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, is a section of the bow of
a whaler impaled by one of these swords. That portion of the sword which remains is I foot

Photo by A. §. Rudland & Sens

SWORD-FISH

long and 5 inches in circumference. ‘At one single blow,” he writes, ‘“ the fish had plunged
his sword through, and completely transfixed 13} inches of solid timber. The sword had of
course broken off and prevented a dangerous leak in the ship.” In the British Museum is

a second specimen of a ship’s side in which the sword of a sword-fish is fixed.

CHAPTER. LY

HAIR-TAILS, HORSE-MACKERELS, SEA-BATS, DORIES, MACKERELS, SUCKING-
FISHES, WEAVERS, FROG-FISHES, ANGLER-FISHES, BULL-HEADS, AND
GURNARDS

BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S., F.Z.S.

F the family of HaIr-TAILS perhaps the most important members are the SCABBARD- or
FROST-FISH and the SNOEK. The first is common in the Mediterranean and the
warmer parts of the Atlantic, extending northwards to the south coast of England,

where it occurs at rare intervals. It is also known in New Zealand, where it is called
the Frost-fish, and furthermore is regarded as one of the most delicious fish of the colony, its
flesh being fine, tender, and of delicate flavour. On this account it is much in demand, but
the supply is very uncertain. The conditions of capture, indeed, of this fish are unparalleled
in the annals of fishing, for it can be taken neither with the rod nor the net. The would-be
captor has to wait patiently under favourable conditions on the seashore for the fish to come

Photo by Percy Ashenden] (Cape Town

SNOEK
This fish is also known as the Barracuda

Photographed & colored by WW. Saville-Kent, FP. Z. S.
WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SCARLET ROCK-COD.

A member of the Sea-Perch family having excellent edible qualities.

Photographed & colored by IV. Saville-Kent, F.ooZ. 9.
FREEMANTLE DEVIL-FISH or ARMED GURNARD

An Australian representative of the Gurnard & Bull-head family. having spines which can inflict exceedingly painful wounds

THE SCABBARDs OF FPROSTer ls 223

and cast itself up on the beach.
This happens with tolerable cer-
tainty during the autumn = and
winter months, when the sea is
calm and the nights frosty. Then
the frost-fish come ashore alive,
wriggling through the surf on
to the beach. Two explanations
have been offered for this extra-
ordinary conduct. One is that
the fish commits suicide; being
pursued by a shark or other en-
emy, it prefers uncertain life on
land to certain death at sea! The
other and more probable hypothe-
sis has it that the air-bladder of the eek ; : :
fish becomes distended to enable a : ———

it to reach the surface for food Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S ] [Milford-cn-Sea
— for it is a deep-sea fish — and FRINGED HORSE-MACKEREL
that the keen, frosty air prevents Note the great length of the fin-rays

it from compressing the bladder

and returning to the depths; thus it gradually drifts into shallow water, is hurled shorewards
by the surf, and finally wriggles itself on to the beach to die. The long stretches of sandy
beach a few miles from Dunedin are a favourite resort for frost-fish catching. Two or three
men camp out at the foot of the cliffs overhanging the beach, pitching a tent and lighting
a huge fire, so as to render life bearable during the long vigils. The “ fishing” consists in
perambulating the beach up and down shortly before dawn, and keeping a sharp look-out in
the surf for the silver streak which betokens the approach of a victim. As soon as a fish is

1

ths : Aa ccd

Photo by Reinhold Thiele & Co.] (Chancery Lane, HW’, C.
HORSE-MACKEREL

The strong keel formed by ridged scales running down each side cf the tail is a characteristic feature

224 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

descried, all that remains to be done is to seize hold of it and drag it ashore, if it has not
already stranded itself, and then dispatch it.

The BARRACUDA, or SNOEK, is likewise a New Zealand species, attaining a length of 5 feet.
It is found also at the Cape and South Australia. In New Zealand the flesh is exported to
Mauritius and Batavia as a regular article of commerce, being worth £17 per ton.

The HORSE-MACKERELS, or SCADS, are represented by some very bizarre-looking forms. It
is a large family, belonging to tropical and temperate seas. One species, the COMMON HORSE-

T

|

sl

Photos by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.) (Milfors-sn-8ea

JOHN DORIES

These two photographs show the difference in the jaws when protruded and when at rest

MACKEREL, is common in British seas. Many members of the family have the hinder portion
of the body on each side armed with large plates, well seen in the accompanying
photographs; others have the median fins produced into long filamentous processes. All are
eatable, and some highly esteemed as food. One of the most remarkable is the PILOT-FISH of
tropical and temperate seas, occurring occasionally off the British coasts. It derives its name
from its habit of accompanying ships and large sharks. From this habit of accompanying
ships it was regarded by the ancients as a sacred fish, since they considered it pointed out
the way to embarrassed sailors, and announced the vicinity of land by suddenly disappearing,
The close companionship between the pilot-fish and the shark has excited much comment,
many observers believing that the former was of great use to the latter in guiding it to its
food. How this is done is graphically described by Dr. Meyer, who writes: “ The pilot swims
constantly in front of the shark; we ourselves have seen three instances in which the shark
was led by the pilot. When the shark neared the ship, the pilot swam close to the snout or
near one of the pectoral fins of the animal. Sometimes he darted rapidly forwards or sidewards,
as if looking for something, and constantly went back again to the shark. When we threw
overboard a piece of bacon fastened on a great hook, the shark was about twenty paces from
the ship; with the quickness of lightning the pilot came up, smelt at the dainty, and
instantly swam back again to the shark, swimming many times round his snout and splashing,
as if to give him exact information as to the bacon. Tne shark now began to put himself
in motion, the pilot showing him the way, and in a moment he was fast upon the hook.”
As Dr. Giinther remarks, commenting on this account, one may entertain reasonable doubts as
to the usefulness of the pilot to the shark in this instance! It is probable that the pilots
follow the sharks for the sake of feeding on fragments scattered by the latter, and also for
the sake of picking off the parasites with which sharks, in common with other large fish, are
infested; furthermore, the pilot, being but a small fish, obtains greater security from enemies
when in the company of its giant friend. The habit of seeking the company of more
powerful or otherwise offensive animals is apparent also in other members of this family, the

SEA-BATS AND DORIES 225

young of the horse-mackerel seeking shelter beneath the “umbrella” of a jclly-fish till they
are big enough to defend themselves.

But the most remarkable members of this family are the SEA-BATS. Few in species and
confined to the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Western Pacific, they are nevertheless in those
regions very common. Although not used as food-fishes, they are of extreme interest on account
of their shape, which is nearly oval and much compressed from side to side, and the form of
their fins, which in some species are excessively developed. Young sea-bats differ markedly

from the adults in the much greater length of the fin-rays, so much so that they have
frequently been described as distinct species.

We pass now to the DorIEs, which recall the Sea-bats in the oval and compressed form
of the body. The resemblance to sea-bats is, indeed, so close that the latter are frequently
described as dories. The mouth of the members of this family is so constructed that,
when opened, the upper jaw is thrust forward, and the whole mouth forms a kind of long tube.
Dories inhabit the seas of the temperate regions, two species being fairly common in British
waters. The best known of these two is perhaps the JoHN Dory, the largest specimens
of which attain to a weight
of 18 lbs. Mr. Cunning-
ham has described the very
peculiar way in which the
dory captures its prey. ‘It
does not,” he writes, “ over-
take it by superior speed like
the mackerel, or lie in wait
for it like the angler, but
stalks it and approaches it
by stealth. It is able to do
this in consequence of the
extreme thinness of its body
and the peculiar movement
of its hinder dorsal and
ventral fins. The dory places
itself end on towards the fish
it desires to devour, and in
this position it is evident
that it excites no alarm on
the part of its prey. The
appearance of the dory, seen
in this way, is a mere line
in the water, to which no
particular significance can be
attached. I have not par-
ticularly noticed the effect
of the ribbons of membrane
which project from the dorsal
fin. But I have observed
that the movements of the
dory are very gradual, except

in turning; it alters the es ?
position of its body by a Photo by HW, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea
turn of the tail or side-fins, LONG_FINNED DORY

and then swims forward by This species closely resembles a fossil form. It has nothing to do with the True Dories, but is
vibrating the second dorsal one of the Coral-fishes, and is placed here for the sake of contrast

226 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

and ventral, a movement which causes very slight disturbance of the water. The appearance
of the dory in these actions is suggestive of suppressed excitement, his eyes being fixed on
his prey. I do not recollect seeing him actually swallow another fish, but have no doubt that
he gets near enough to a sprat, for example, without alarming it, to seize it by the sudden
elongation of his curious jaws.” The way in which these jaws are elongated is admirably
shown in the photograph on page 622.

Passing now to the Mackerel Family, we arrive at a group of considerable importance
from an economic point of view. Extremely active, migrating, and predaceous, mackerel swim
in shoals and seize their prey with great voracity, hunting merely by sight, and snapping at
anything moving through the water, especially if it is silvery, like a small surface-fish. The
various species differ greatly in size, ranging from the Common Mackerel of about 18 inches
long to the giant Tunny weighing nearly half a ton.

COMMON MACKEREL swim in vast shoals, or “ schools,” as they are called, and one half a mile
wide and at least twenty miles long is on record. Mackerel feed on the young of other fish
and small fish generally, and, when these are not to be had, on minute crabs and shrimps.
They are very prolific, a
single mackerel laying
from 430,000 to 540,000
eggs,

The TUNNIES are
amongst the largest of
the surface-fishes of the
ocean. Abundant in the
Mediterranean Sea, they
occur occasionally in
British waters. For
centuries the flesh of the
tunny has been held in
high regard as food, and
it is frequently seen in
the Lisbon markets at
the present day. The
4 flesh, which is as red as

F 1

Photo ty Reinhold Thiele & Co.] huneery. Lanes IC; beef, is cut up and sold
JOHN DORY by weight. The Boniro
In the centre of each stde ts a round black spot surrounded by a pale yellow ring closel y resembles the

tunny, but is a much
smaller fish, which preys largely upon flying-fishes, which it follows for long distances.

Peculiarly interesting are the SUCKING-FISHES. The name by which they are commonly
known is bestowed on account of the presence of a large oval sucker, placed on the top of
the head and extending backwards over the shoulders —an organ formed by modification of
the back-fin. By means of this sucking-disk these fishes are enabled to attach themselves to
sharks, turtles, ships, or any large object floating in the sea. The hold which they obtain
is so strong that it is almost impossible to remove them by force. Being poor swimmers,
this method of transportation enables them to pass rapidly to fresh feeding-grounds.

The natives of Zanzibar, Cuba, and Torres Straits are said to employ sucking-fishes in
the capture of sleeping turtles, the fish being secured by a ring round the tail, and liberated
as soon as a sufficiently near approach to the quarry has been made. About ten different
species are known, the bulkiest of which attains a length of 2 feet and a weight of about
8 lbs., a longer but more slender species measuring 3 feet.

Carnivorous, of small size, and feeble swimming-powers, the family of the WEAVERS are
remarkable rather for their disagreeable qualities than anything else, though at least one

1A)
i)
a)

WEAVERS AND FROG-FISHES

ie

[Milford-on-Sea

Photo by w. Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.)
SUCKING-FISH
By means of the sucker on the top of its head this fish attaches itself to ships and larger fishes

species is declared to be excellent eating. The STAR-GAZER is a particularly ugly-looking fish,
especially noteworthy in that the eyes, which are on the top of the head, can be raised
and depressed at pleasure, whilst the heavy jaw is armed with a freely moving tentacle, which,
waving about in the current of water drawn in at the mouth, serves as a lure to attract small
fishes, the rest of the body being concealed between stones at the bottom of the sea.

The COMMON WEAVER is a well-known British fish, much dreaded on account of the
poisonous wounds which it inflicts unless most carefully handled, the poison being introduced
by the spines of the back-fin and gill-cover. No special poison-organs seem to be developed,
but the mucous secretion around the spines has poisonous properties. As the flesh of this fish
is extremely palatable, fishermen remove the spines at once directly after capture. Should a
wound be inflicted, great suffering and occasionally death follows.

Passing over one or two unimportant groups, we come to the family of the FROG-FISHES,
which, but for the fact that many of its members are poisonous, calls for no special comment
here. One species, however, from the coasts of Central America, possesses the distinction of
having the most highly developed poison-organs of any fishes, being equalled only by the

re = ea cpetipess a ee

‘|

|

Photo by Reinho'd Thiele & Co ] , 7 i [Chancery Lane, H.C.
LARGER WEAVER

The spines of the first back-fin and of the gill-cover are highly potsonous

228 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Venomous Snakes. The poison-weapons are a spine on the gill-cover and two spines of the
back-fin. The former is of the same shape as the hollow venom-fang of a snake, perforated
at both ends. <A little bag containing the poison lies at the base of the spine, and when
pressed by the spine as it makes its puncture ejects its contents into the body of the latter,
whence it escapes from the hole in the top. The structure of the back-spines is similar.
The family of the ANGLER-FISHES contain more strange forms than any other. Living
on the sea-bottom and seeking their prey by stealth, angler-fishes do not need powerful
swimming-muscles; consequently the size of the body and tail has become considerably
reduced, so that the head, relatively to the rest of the body, is unusually large. The head,
jaws, and belly are indeed of great size and capacity. The side or paired fins are not
used for swimming, but have become modified to serve as feet, enabling the fish to shuffle
along the ground. A further remarkable feature of these fishes is seen in the back-fin,
the rays of which are very long, the foremost being provided with a flag-like flap of skin at

fe A, a; eae,

|

Photo by Reinhold Thicle & Cc.) [Chancery Lane, H’. C
ANGLER-FISH
This hideous species is also called the Frog-fish

| pc eee

the top, extremely sensitive to touch, and playing a very important part in the capture of
food. It seems that the fish commonly lies concealed on the sea-bottom, with this “ flag”
erected. From its general resemblance to the surrounding seaweed it is quite inconspicuous,
so that passing fishes take no trouble to avoid it. If by any chance they should touch it,
however, the jaws beneath open instantly, and the unfortunate trespasser is suddenly engulfed.
This elaborate and sensitive mechanism has been likened to a spring-trap, which is always set,
and never betrays its presence. It seems probable, however, that this flag serves also as a lure,
passing fishes being occasionally attracted by the waving flap of skin. Should they become
sufficiently curious as to proceed to touch it, capture in the manner above described is certain.
Certain deep-sea forms have a luminous organ in the place of the flap of skin, and this
certainly seems to act only as a lure.

Angler-fishes are found all over the world; some, as we have seen, are bottom-fishes, some
inhabit deep sea, whilst others lie hidden amongst floating seaweed, to which they cling by

BULL-HEADS

means of _ their
arm-like fins. Only
one species occurs
in British waters.
Its method of
spawning is remark-
able, in that the
eggs are laid in the
form of large raft-
like sheets, which
float on the surface
of the sea. The
number of eggs laid
by a single fish has
been computed to
be 1,345,000. A
single sheet of
spawn may measure
from 2 to 3 feet
in breadth and from
25 to 30 feet long.
The Butt-
HEADS and GurR-
NARDS, constituting
the next family, are
characterized by the

r

Photo by Reinhold Thiele & Co.J

The curious finger-like processes are used as organs of touch as well as locomotion

AND GURNARDS 229

Photo by Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.]

anew Lane, W. C.
RED-GURNARD

—_ === ae

[Milford-on-Sea

BUTTERFLY-GURNARD

The head of all gurnards is encased in an armour of bony plates

spiny armature of the head and the great size of the breast-fins. The

former are represented in British
waters by four species, one of
which, the MILLErR’s-THUMB,
inhabits fresh-water. The
marine species include the Sza-
SCORPION and FATHER-LASHER.

The BuLt-HEADS on the
Indian and Australian coasts are
represented by the closely allied
FLaT-HEADS, or CROCODILE-
FISHES, in which the head, as its
name implies, is much depressed,
and fully armed with spines,
which are highly poisonous, and
cause a violent irritation. These
fishes live in shallow water,
lying on the bottom, with which
their colours harmonize so com-
pletely that they are practically
invisible. The very large ventral
fins—those seen in the photo-
graph immediately behind the
breast-fins—are of great use in
locomotion.

The GuRNARDS are well-
known fishes, common on the

239 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

y
BA: oe |
Photo by H’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] | Milford-on- seu Photo by W’. Savilie-Kent, F.Z.S.] [ Milford-on-Sea

BAR-TAILED FLAT-HEAD ROCK FLAT-HEAD
A shallow-water fish About forty species of flat-heads are known

coasts of Britain, and extending from tropical to arctic seas. Their curiously shaped heads
give them a very quaint appearance. One of the most remarkable peculiarities of these fishes
is the separate condition of some of the rays of the breast-fins, which form finger-like organs,
used to feel the ground and rake over loose stones, to discover small shrimps and other
animals hidden underneath. Furthermore, the gurnards are peculiar in that they are enabled
to communicate one with another by means of sounds produced by the expulsion of air from
one compartment of the air-bladder to another. The females are much more common than
the males, and also slightly larger. The young are remarkable for the enormous size of the
breast-fins, though even in the adult these are unusually large.

Close allies of the Gurnards are the FLYING-GURNARDS, which, by reason of the extreme
development of the brcast-fins, are enabled to take flying leaps out of the water. One species
js common in the Mediterranean. The flying-gurnard is not to be mistaken for the true
“flying-fish,” or flying-herring, described later.

The curious mail-clad ARMED BULL-HEAD, or POGGE, commonly taken in shrimp-nets, is an
ally of the flying-gurnard.

CHAPTER Vv

LUMP-SUCKERS, GOBIES, BLENNIES, BARRACUDAS, GREY MULLETS,
STICKLEBACKS AND THEIR ALLIES, GARPIKE, AND FLYING-FISHES

BY W, P.. PYCRAFT, A.L.S,, F.Z.5.

GLY in appearance and carnivorous in habits, the Sucker-fish Family are distinguished
by the presence of a large round sucker on the belly, with which they adhere to rocks.
Furthermore, the sucker-fishes are remarkable for the softness of their skeleton, which

may be cut through at any point with an ordinary knife. The male lump-sucker is smaller
than the female, but much more brightly coloured, especially during the breeding-season, when
he dons a livery of blue, scarlet, and yellow. He is also a model parent, always remaining near
the eggs and keeping a constant stream of fresh water running over them by the action of
his breast-fins. A single female may produce as many as 136,000 eggs in a single season.
In Scotland the male is known as the Cock and the female as the HEN PADDLE. The species
is more common off the coasts of Scotland than elsewhere in the British Islands.

Like the Lump-suckers, the GOBIES, which form the next family, have the ventral fins
modified so as to form a sucking-disk, which is used as an anchor. But the gobies are easily

THE GOBY FAMILY 231

distinguished by their smaller size, elongated bodies, hard skeleton, and the disposition and
structure of the fins, characters which need not be discussed further.

One species, the SPOTTED Goby, or POLE-WING, found in the Thames, is noteworthy
on account of its nest-building habits. The male chooses the empty shell of a cockle or
mussel, selecting one with its concave surface downwards. Beneath this the sand is cleared
away and cemented by a special glue-like secretion formed by the skin of the fish. A cylindrical
tunnel is then built to give access to the nest, and the whole is covered over with loose
stones. In the nest-chamber formed by the shell the eggs are laid, the male immediately
after mounting guard over them till they hatch, which they do in about nine days.

Another species, the PELLUCID Gosy, is remarkable in that its whole life’s course is run

\

|

|

; + \ F An
’

|

Photo by Reinhold Thiele & Co ] [uhunerry Nane, H.C.
LUMP-SUCKER
Known a/sa as the Cock and Hen Paddse

in a single year. In June and July the eggs are laid; they are hatched in August; by the
time winter has arrived the fish have reached maturity, and die off in the following July and
August, so that in September only the fry are to be met with.

One of the strangest of all fishes is a member of the Goby Family. This is the
WALKING-FISH, so called from its habit of spending most of its time on the mud-banks of
rivers, or on the roots of trees growing in the neighbourhood. The late Surgeon-General Day,
describing these fishes as he saw them along the side of the Burmese rivers, writes that at
first sight they look like large tadpoles. When suddenly startled by something, away they go
with a hop, skip, and a jump inland among the trees, or on the water like a flat stone or
piece of slate sent skimming by a schoolboy. When climbing, the breast-fins are used, as if
they were arms, to grasp the boughs. If placed in deep water, these fishes are speedily
drowned !

232 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

The BLENNIES are fishes whose skins are soft, slimy, and quite scaleless, or at most
covered with very tiny and degenerate scales. The general form of the body may be seen in
the photograph below. They are shore-fishes, lurking about in the crevices of rocks, among
seaweed, or under stones, and occurring generally along the coasts of temperate and tropical!
regions. The species known as the SEA-CAT or WOLF-FISH is, however, a deep-water form.

Asarule the eggs are deposited in hollow places between stones or rocks; but in the
BUTTER-FISH, or GUNNEL, the eggs are adhesive, and the parents roll them into a ball by
coiling their bodies round them. Furthermore, since the parents are frequently found, under
natural conditions, coiled round these masses of spawn, it appears that they adopt this method
of guarding their treasures. Some species bring forth their young alive.

The largest of the family is the WOLF-FISH, whose jaws are armed with very powerful
teeth, able to crush the hardest shells, such as those of the whelk. Sea-urchins and crabs are
also eaten.

We pass on to a group comprising three families — the BARRACUDAS, SAND-SMELTS, and
GreY MULLETs.

It should be mentioned that two very distinct fishes are known as BARRACUDAS, one of
which we have already described
under the name of Snoek. The
| forms described here as barracudas

are large, voracious fishes living
; in tropical and sub-tropical seas,
and evincing a preference for the
coast rather than the open sea.
Attaining a length of 8 feet and
a weight of 4o lbs., they are a
source of danger to bathers. They
are very frequently used as food,
though in the West Indies such
food is attended with some danger,
as the flesh is often poisonous,
from the fish having fed on smaller

ee |

|
|

U 4 poisonous fishes.
Photo by Reinhold Thiele & C2.) Nehancery Lange The SAND-SMELTS are small
BLENNY carnivorous species inhabiting the
Blennies have soft, shiny, scaleless skins seas of temperate and tropical

regions. Many enter fresh-water,
and some have become entirely acclimatised there. Some species bear a very close resemblance
to the true smelt, from which, however, they may be readily distinguished by their small,
spinous, first back-fin. The young of at least one small group or genus of this family are
remarkable for their habit of clinging together for some time after they are hatched in dense
masses and almost incredible numbers.

The GREY MULLETS are brackish-water fishes, feeding on vegetable growths and minute
shell-fish. They also suck up large quantities of sand into the mouth for the sake of the
minute organisms contained therein; much of this is passed on into the stomach, which is
thick and muscular, like that of many birds. Altogether some seventy species of grey mullets
are known, the majority of which attain a weight of about 4 lbs., but there are many which grow
to 10 or 12 lbs. All are eaten, and some highly esteemed.

The FLUTE-MOUTHS, STICKLEBACKS, and TORTOISE-FISHES are three closely allied and
extremely interesting families. The first are really gigantic marine sticklebacks, in which the
jaws are produced into a long tube. They are shore-fishes, entering brackish water, and
confined to sub-tropical and tropical parts of the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific.

Of the STICKLEBACKS there are several species, some of which are entirely salt-water fishes

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.]
NORTHERN MULLET
AA member of the family of Grey Muliets

[ Milford-on-Sea

Photo by Reinhold Thiele & Co.]

RED MULLET
Not related to the Grey Maullets, this spectes ts placed here for the sake of contrast

233

234 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

| whilst others enjoy the
rather unusual distinction
of being able to live in
either fresh or salt water,
even when rapidly trans-
ferred from one to the
other. The small species
commonly inhabiting
ponds and ditches can sus-
tain changes of this kind
with impunity. These
last are very ferocious.
One kept in an aquarium
| devoured in five hours
; seventy-four young dace

t 2

Phote by W’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.5.} [iftlfurd-on-Sea about a quarter of an
GARPIKES inch long. They occa-
Frequently calied Guard-fishes sionally occur in vast

shoals, and, according to
the naturalist Pennant, appear in the river Welland, in Lincolnshire, once in seven years in
amazing shoals, so that a man employed in collecting them earned four shillings a day by
selling them at the rate of a halfpenny a bushel!

The salt-water species, or FIFTEEN-SPINED STICKLEBACK, is less well known. Like its fresh-
water relative, it is a nest-builder, and the male defends the eggs and young with great courage.

The TORTOISE-FISHES may serve as the representatives of the last family of this group. They
are very remarkable fishes, being invested in a wonderful bony cuirass, formed by a modification
of the skeleton, similar to what has taken place among the Tortoises and Turtles. The body is
so thin that it looks as if it had been artificially compressed, and is semi-transparent. Three
species are known from the tropical Indo-Pacific and three from other seas; besides these are
four smaller and less perfectly armed forms, one of which, the TRUMPET-FISH, or BELLOWS-FISH,
occurs rarely off the south coast of England.

The GARPIKE and FLYING-FISHES are both interesting, especially the latter. The garpike
is represented by several species, easily recognised by the long, pointed jaws. These fishes
are furthermore peculiar in
that the bones are green, a
colour which remains even
after cooking, and on this
account some object to eating
them, supposing the unusual
colour to indicate unsound-
ness. The elongated jaws are
not developed in the young
fish, and, strangely enough, as
this character is acquired, the
lower jaw grows faster than
the upper. In some species
the lower jaw remains perma-
nently the longer; hence they
are known as HALF-BEAKS. ; ag

ad

The FLYING-FISHES, or Photo by WH’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.) [Milford-on-Sea
FLYING-HERRINGS, like the PIPE-FISH
Fl yin g-gurnar ds already The Flute-mouth, as this fish is often called, ts really a gigantic stickleback 4

iW)
Ww
Un

FLYING-FISHES

noticed, are enabled, by reason of the
great development of the breast-fins,
to take extended journeys through
the air. The flight of these fishes
is, however, not quite the same as
true flight, inasmuch as the fins serve
mainly as a parachute, and do not, by
sustained vigorous movements, propel
the body through the air, like the
wings of bats and birds. Darting out
of the water when pursued by an
enemy or frightened by a_ passing
vessel, these fish are borne along
by the wind, the speed at first being
very considerable, exceeding indeed

that of a ship going ten miles an Photo by A. 8, Rudland © Sons
hour. At a single flight they may FLYING-FISH
cover as much as 500 feet, but are More than forty distince species of this family are known

quite unable to steer themselves,

except when, during their course, the tail-fin is immersed in the water, when by a stroke
from one side to the other the direction may be changed from left to right, or vice versa,
as the case may be. By day they will avoid ships, but by night, when they are unable to
see, “ they frequently fly,” writes Dr. Giinther, ‘against the weather-board, where they are
caught by the current of air and carried upwards to a height of 20 feet above the surface
of the water, while under ordinary circumstances they keep close to it.”

Cn ace BR yo

THE IWRASSE-LIKE FISHES

BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S., F.Z,S.

HE members of the four families noticed in this chapter are remarkable for their won-
derful coloration. The species of the first family, from their peculiarly striking re-
semblance to the Scaly-finned group, share with them the name of CORAL-FISHES. This

resemblance is a very remarkable one. Occurring, like the Scaly-fins, more abundantly in the
neighbourhood of coral-reefs, they also resemble the latter not only in shape, but also in colora-
tion, the same pattern being often common to members of both families.

To this family belongs the remarkable fish known as the AMPHIPRION, which makes its
home in the interior of an enormous species of sea-anemone measuring 2 feet across. When
first discovered by Mr. Saville-Kent, it was believed that the fish had been swallowed — a view,
however, which was speedily rejected, when it was found that, if ejected by means of a stick,
it invariably returned. Thus the anemone is obviously to be regarded as host, and not as
captor. More than this, from the facts so far to hand, it appears that this strangely assorted
pair are mutually dependent on one another, at least to a large extent — the fish undertaking
to supply the larder, whilst the anemone in return affords shelter from enemies. The part
played by each is as follows: —The fish, which is very conspicuous, wearing a livery of
vermilion crossed by three bands of white, sallies forth and swims about till it attracts the
attention of some other carnivorous member of its class, on which, if it gives chase, the
amphiprion returns with all speed to its living cave, and quickly disappears down its mouth.
The pursuer, blundering against the outspread tentacles, is immediately paralysed by a shower

236 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

of stinging-darts which proceed
therefrom as a result of the
shock, and, rendered insensible,
becomes the spoil of both.
Thus the active fish plays the
part of a lure, and in return
is afforded shelter.

The WRASSES proper may
be distinguished, amongst other
things, by their thickened lips
—hence the name Lip-fishes

_ — given them by German
Photo by Reinhold Thiele & Co] [Chancery Lane, W. C. naturalists — by the greatly ex-
SPOTTED WRASSE tended back-fin, the greater

On account of their greatly thickened lips wrasses are also known as Lip-fishes part of which is spinous, and

the arrangement of the teeth,
which need not be discussed here. They are shore-fishes, living in the neighbourhood of weed-
covered rocks, or in tropical seas, where they are most abundant, amid coral-reefs. Most are
brilliantly, many gaudily coloured, iridescent hues frequently adding to the beauty formed
by the permanent deposit of coloured pigments in the scales. Some grow to a large size,
specimens not seldom exceeding a weight of 50 lbs., and these are the most esteemed as
food-fishes, the smaller species, as a rule, being regarded as of inferior quality.

A well-knewn British species is the STRIPED or RED WRASSE, the sexes of which exhibit
a remarkable variation in colour, the male having the body marked with blue streaks or
a blackish band, whilst the female has two or three large black blotches across the tail. A
second British species, the BALLAN WRASSE, is bluish green in colour, with the scales and
fin-rays reddish orange. It may be found hiding in the deep gullies among rocks, sheltering
in the dense clusters of seaweed, and feeding on crabs and shrimps. It takes a bait freely,
and fishermen have remarked that at first they catch few but large fish; some days later a
great number may be caught, but all will be of small size, indicating that the larger fish
assume the dominion of a district and keep the smaller at bay.

Amongst the most brilliantly colored of the wrasses are the PARROT-FISH. Mr. Saville-
Kent, writing of the species which inhabit the waters of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia,
remarks that to stand up to your knees or higher in water, with such a shoal of magnificent
fishes swimming round you, is an experience well worth a journey to the tropics. The coloration
of these fishes, which is extremely transient, fading almost immediately after death, nearly
defies description. One of
the most beautiful is perhaps
the GOLD-FINNED CORAL-
FISH, in which the body is of
an intense ultramarine, whilst
the fins are bright golden.
Others have the most amaz-
ing combinations of green,
vermilion, blue, and yellow,
in endless variety. It was one
of the parrot-fishes which
found such favour with the
ancients. ‘‘In the time of - J
Pliny,” writes Dr. Giinther, Photo by UW’. Saville-Kent, irae iA ERROR SH [Milford-on-Sea
“it was considered to be the The Parrot-fishes, or Parrot-wrasses, are so called on account of the peculiar structure of the
first of fishes . . . and the ex- teeth in the front of the jaws, which form a sharp-edged beat

]

THE WRASSE-LIKE FISHES

tl
WwW
“N

pense incurred by Elipentius
was justified, in the opinion
of the Roman gourmands, by
the extreme delicacy of the
flesh. It was a fish, said the
poet, whose very excrement
the gods themselves were
unwilling to reject. Its flesh
was tender, agreeable, sweet,
easy of digestion, and quickly
assimilated; yet, ifit happened
to have eaten an aplysia, it after |
produced violent diarrhcea.” Photo by W, Saville Kent, F.Z.S.] Ce

To this day the Greeks hold BLACK-SPOTTED PARROT-FISH

it in high regard, and eat it
with sauce made of its liver
and intestines. It feeds on seaweed, and from its habit of thoroughly chewing its food, and
moving it backwards and forwards in the mouth, it was at one time believed that this fish
chewed the cud after the fashion of the ruminating mammals!

One of the most interesting of all the wrasses is a small species from King George's
Sound, which, while retaining the principal characters common to the group, has assumed
the general shape and proportions of the pipe-fish.

The third family of the wrasses are remarkable chiefly on account of the fact that they
produce their young alive. These fishes are confined to the temperate regions of the North Pacific.

The CHROMIDS constitute the last family of the wrasse-like group. Numerous in species,
they are all dwellers in fresh-water. One species occurs in amazing numbers in the Lake of
Galilee, shoals over an acre in extent, and so closely packed that movement seemed almost
impossible, having been recorded. They are taken in such enormous numbers that the nets
in which they are caught often break. Occasionally shoals are carried down the Jordan into
the Dead Sea; but the fish never get farther than a few yards, becoming stupefied almost
at once, and, turning over on their backs, fall an easy prey to flocks of cormorants and
kingfishers. Heaps of putrefying carcases are washed ashore, poisoning the atmosphere, in spite
of the presence of flocks of ravens and vultures which have gathered to the feast.

Another species is remarkable for its peculiar method of protecting the eggs and young.
The female deposits the eggs, over 200 in number, in a small hole worked out among the
roots of reeds and rushes. There they are taken into the mouth of the male one by
one, and retained till hatched
a few days later. The young
fry remain in this nursery
for some considerable time,
increasing rapidly in size, so
that the father-nurse is unable
to close his mouth. Some of
the young develop among
the gills; others lie, closely
packed, with their heads
turned towards the mouth of
the parent, remaining in this
position till nearly 4 inches

The flesh of some of the Parrot-wrasses is of great delicacy

Photo by HV. Lethmann] [Newtons long, when they are ejected
A WRASSE or wriggle out to forage for
The majority of the Wrasses are brilliantly coloured themselves.

16

CRAPTER Vit

PIPE-FISHES, SEA-HORSES, GLOBE-FISHES, SUN-FISHES, AND THEIR ALLIES

BY W. PB. PYCRAFT, F.LS., F.2:S.

HE fishes described in the present chapter form two well-marked groups, known as
the TUFT-GILLED and the COMB-GILLED FISHES, on account of the peculiar arrange-
ment of the gills, or breathing-organs; they are also remarkable for their peculiar

shapes. The breast-fins are present in all; but in three of the families the second pair

of fins, corresponding to the hind limbs of the ae onpaeiaey are wanting.
The TUFT-GILLED FISHES

are represented by two families
— the MAILED TUBE-MOUTHS
and the PIPE-FISHES and SEA-
HORSES, all of which have
undergone very considerable
modification of form, the body
being encased in mail-like
armour, whilst the jaws are
toothless and produced into
a long tube.

The first family is com-
posed of a few small fishes
from the Indian Ocean.
Grotesque in appearance, they
are remarkable also for the
fact that the female takes

Photo by A. 8. Rudland & Sons sole charge not only of the
GLOBE-FISH eggs, which are exceedingly
From the formidable armature of spines, known also as the Sea-hedgehog minute, but the young fry

also. Only one other fish is
known in which the care of the eggs and young is undertaken by the female: this is one
of the Cat-fishes, described in a later chapter. The eggs in the TUBE-MOUTHS are carried
in a pouch formed by the union of the inner borders of the ventral fins, which are long and
broad. For the retention of the eggs within the pouch its wall develops long filaments, which
serve the purpose of slender fingers.

The second of these families contains the PIPE-FISHES and SEA-HORSES. They are smail
marine fishes, inhabiting the seas of tropical and temperate regions wherever there is sufficient
vegetation to offer shelter, for they are peculiarly defenceless creatures. They possess but
feeble powers of swimming, and consequently are not seldom borne away by strong currents
far out to sea or on to distant shores. Their method of locomotion is, indeed, quite different
from that of other fishes, as they progress neither by undulatory motions of the body nor by
powerful strokes of the tail, but by wriggling in the case of the pipe- -fishes, or vibrating motions
of the back-fin in the sea-horses.

The long, semi-cylindrical PIPE-FISHES, partly on account of their peculiar form and colour,

and partly on account of their swaying motions, so closely resemble the fronds of seaweed
238

lu

PIPE-FISHES 39

amongst which they dwell as to pass un-
noticed by their enemies. Unlike the Tube-

and young devolves upon the males. The
young are borne in a pouch, but, ventral
fins being wanting, this is formed by a fold
of skin developed from each side of the
trunk and tail, the free margins being
united in the middle line. Here the eggs
remain till they are hatched. But the
pouch is by no means done with after this
event, for the young continue to occupy
it for some time, returning when danger
threatens — a habit which recalls the custom
of the young of the kangaroo. Mr. Yarrell
relates a curious fact which he gleaned from
some fishermen —to wit, that if they take a
pipe-fish, open the pouch, and drop the young into the sea, they will not disperse, but hover
around the spot, as if waiting for their parent. Then, if the newly opened fish be held in the
water, the young immediately return and enter the pouch. In another species of pipe-fish
the eggs, instead of being carried in a pouch, are held by a sticky secretion to a groove
in the under surface of the parent. This groove would seem to indicate the beginning
from which the complete pouch has been developed. The pipe-fishes swim in a very
peculiar manner, holding the body now in a vertical, and now in a horizontal position,
accompanied by contortions of every conceivable kind, poking their long snouts into bunches
of seaweed in search of food as they go.

Photo by A. 8. Rudland & Sons
BLACK-SPOTTED GLOBE-FISH
Globe-fishes possess the power of inflating the body with air, when

they float at the surface, and thus escape enemies

Photo by N. Lazxcernick] [New York
TRIGGER-FISH

A well-known member of the File-fishes

240 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

The SEA-HORSES have a still more eccentrically modified form, inasmuch as the body is
thrown into a series of curves, the head being bent upon the trunk in a manner suggestive
of the head and neck of the horse; hence the name of the group. The tail, which lacks the
membranous portion, or fin, can be spirally coiled, and is used as an organ of prehension,
and on this account is unique amongst fishes. Gripping the stems of seaweeds with this tail.
and swaying the body to and fro among the vegetation, the fish is rendered comparatively incon-
spicuous, the lines of the body being broken up by numerous more or less filamentous pro-
cesses, which in one species, the FUCUS-LIKE SEA-HORSE, become excessively developed, forming
long, frond-like blades. These, streaming in the water, both by their shape and coloration
render the resemblance to the vegetable growths in which the animal hides so perfect that
detection is almost impossible. Thus they furnish one of the most remarkable examples of
adaptation to the environment amongst living animals. The males of most sea-horses, like the
pipe-fishes, carry the eggs and young in a pouch on the abdomen, but in the species just
mentioned the eggs are embedded in the soft skin on the under surface of the tail.

Sea-horses swim with the body more or less vertical, the motive power being supplied
by rapid vibration of the back-fin. Both pipe-fishes and sea-horses occur in British seas, the
first being the more common.

Photo by H. V. Lethmann)| COFFER_FISHES New York

Coffer-fishes have the body encased in a hard shell of closely fitting plates, leaving only the tail and fins free to move

The COMB-GILLED FISHES, to which we come next, are dividel into two families, whose
members are as remarkable for their extraordinary shape as are the tuft-gilled forms just
discussed. The abnormal shapes which mark out certain fishes so conspicuously from the more
normal and typical forms are generally regarded as adaptations, serving to ensure concealment,
to ward off attack, or to effect the capture of prey otherwise unattainable. Instances illustrating
all three of these ends are furnished by these two groups of the tuft- and comb-gilled fishes.

The FILE-FISHES and COFFER-FISHES, which form the first of the two families, present
considerable variation in shape as well as in the covering of the body, which may be naked,
covered with rough scales or bony spines, or invested in a complete bony cuirass.

The file-fishes are represented by numerous species, the typical one being known aiso as
the TRIGGER-FISH, on account of an armature of spines on the top of the back. These spines
are three in number; the first is very strong, roughened like a file — hence the name File-
fish — and hollowed out behind to receive the second much smalier spine, which has a
projection in front at its base, fitting into a notch in the first. Thus these two spines can
only be raised or depressed simultaneously, and the first cannot be forced down unless the
second has been previously depressed. These fishes have very powerful teeth, to break off
pieces of coral, which form a large part of their diet. They also destroy a large number of
shell-fish, and work great destruction amongst pearl-oysters. Frequently these fishes, when
eaten, prove highly poisonous, from having fed on poisonous corals, jelly-fish, or decomposing
substances,

bi

Photo by WH’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] | Milford-on-Sea
LACE-FINNED LEATHER-JACKET

stnuther species of Fi‘e-fish

be

Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea
SPOTTED BOX- OR TRUNK-FISH
In this species of Coffer-fish the arrangement of the plates forming the hard cuirass can be plainly seen

241

242 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

As arule file-fishes are of small size, but
some attain a length of 2 feet, and many are
beautifully and symmetrically marked.

The COFFER-FISHES derive their name
from the box-like cuirass in which they are in-
vested. This is formed by numerous closely fit-
ting, hexagonal bony plates, forming a mosaic,
and leaving only the fins and hind part of the
tail free. This bony case varies greatly in
form, in some species being three-ridged, in

oA others four- or even five-ridged ; while in some
long horns are developed, making the defensive
armature still more complex. More than
twenty species are known, all confined to
tropical and sub-tropical seas.
evaiuariesauiis The GLOBE-FISHES and SUN-FISHES con-
retinitis senate fo th deastonet lot stitute the last family of this really extra-
resemblance to the seaweed amongst which it dwells : ordinary assemblage. The covering of the
body consists either of minute scales or large
spines, which can frequently be raised or depressed at will. All the members inhabit tropical
or sub-tropical seas, and a few occur in the fresh-waters of the same regions.

The GLOBE-FISHES have short, thick bodies, covered either with small spines, as in the
TOAD-FISH, or very large ones, as in the PORCUPINE-FISH, or SEA-HEDGEHOG, They are remark-
able for their habit of filling the gullet with air, and then distending the body to an enormous
size. This device enables the fish to escape its enemies; for when so inflated it rises to the
surface and floats belly-upwards, and, the inflated portion projecting above the water, the fish
is blown along by the wind to more secure regions. The more heavily armed species
become still more formidable when inflated, as the spines are then fully erected. Escaping
from enemies below by flight, they are thus secure from enemies above by reason of their
armature. Globe-fishes have been found floating alive and unhurt within the stomachs of
sharks which had swallowed them, and one has even been known to eat its way out through
its captor’s side, and so killing its would-be devourer! When a globe-fish desires to return
to its normal elongated shape, it expels the air from the gullet through the mouth and
gills, the expulsion causing a curious hissing

Photo by WH’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] ( Milford-on-Sea

sound.

Extremely unlike the foregoing members
of the group of comb-gilled fishes, the SUN-
FISH is nevertheless quite as remarkable in
form, looking as if it had undergone the am-
putation of its hind parts. The singular shape
of the other members of the comb- and tuft-
gilled fishes are undoubtedly adaptations to
avoid enemies, either by rendering the animal
inconspicuous, or hurtful by reason of its
powerful armature. The form of the sun-
fish appears to be an adaptation for the
capture of food, as this fish preys largely
upon the fry of other fishes which inhabit
enormous depths, and consequently can only
be obtained by diving. Sun-fishes inhabit SEA-HORSES
the surface-waters, but as divers have few Dideline Direeibas ie dein wade ey eter ee a
equals. them

Photo by WH’ Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [ Milford-on-Sea

CHAPTER Vit

THE COD FAMILY

BY JOHN BICKERDYKE, M.A,

HE large and important Cod Family belongs to the order of Spineless Fishes and the

group in which both sides of the head are symmetrical. The Common Cod, the Whit-

ing, the Haddock, the Pollack, the Coal-fish, the Hake, the Ling, and the little Rocklings,
all belong to this important family, which has one representative in fresh-water, the Burbot,
or Eel-pout, found in various rivers in Central and Northern Europe and North America.

Perhaps the most remarkable member of the Cod Family is the CHIASMODUs, which has
huge jaws lined with large pointed teeth, and a distensible stomach and abdomen. During
the Challenger Expedition a specimen was taken 1,500 fathoms down in the North Atlantic.
It had swallowed another fish, a kind of scopelus, more than twice its own size. The stomach
of the chiasmodus had swelled to an enormous extent, and had become so thin from distension
that the fish inside could be clearly seen through its walls. The scopelus, it is interesting to
mention, is a fish brought up sometimes by the dredge from 2,500 fathoms. It occasionally
comes to the surface at night, and has phosphorescent spots along its sides, giving out a dim
light, which has its uses in the dark depths of the sea.

To come back to the head of the family, the Cop is a fairly plentiful fish all around the
British and Irish coasts, but appears to be decreasing in some waters as time goes on, owing
to the over-trawling of the North Sea. Off the coasts of Norway, in the neighbourhood of the
Lofoden Islands, the cod are sometimes so thickly packed in shoals that as the fishermen

Photo by A. S. Rudland & Sons

WHITING
Easily distinguished from the cod by the absence of a barbel on the chin
243

244 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

lower their tackle they can feel the leads hitting the backs of the fishes. Both there and off
the Faroe Islands and Iceland it is common practice to fish with a hook bearing a little piece
of polished lead on its shank, no other bait being required, owing to the cod being so numerous
that food is scarce.

About the commencement of the fifteenth century the English began to go to Iceland
for cod, and since the sixteenth century English cod-fishing vessels have visited Newfoundland
and other far northern waters, which produce fish superior to English cod. It should be
mentioned that the Cod Family is not found to any extent in tropical seas.

While the BuRBor is one of the few species of the group inhabiting fresh-water, and is
peculiar in living there permanently, there are instances recorded of POLLACK having ascended
from the salt water of the Norwegian fiords into fresh-water lakes, and it is an undoubted
fact that many other species of sea-fish can accustom themselves to a residence in fresh-water.

All through the year cod frequent the British coasts; but it is two or three months before

ener — eae

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milferd-on-Ses
POLLACK-~WHITING

At British representative of the group in which the lower jaw is the longer and all the teeth of the upper jaw are of equal size

the spawning-season, which commences in January or later according to the locality, that they
gather in vast shoals and come close inshore. First come the small codling of a pound or
so, and as the winter approaches the longshore fish are found gradually to increase in size,
until by Christmas-time it is no uncommon thing on the east coast of England and Scotland
for fish of from 10 to 20 Ibs. to be caught from the beach.

Asa rule the eggs of cod float, owing to a little globule of oil which each one contains,
but in water which lacks salinity they sink. The quantities of eggs shed by each fish are
enormous; nearly two millions were counted in a cod of a little under 12 lbs. It is fairly
certain, however, that not more than two or three, if so many, mature fish are the product
of the two million eggs; for if each fish even doubled itself in numbers (if we may use the
expression) every year, the sea would soon contain more fish than water. Millions upon
millions of eggs are destroyed when there is an on-shore wind during the spawning-season,
Sometimes the shore on which they have been wafted has been seen to glisten with them.

By the end of summer such of the young cod-fish as have escaped their many dangers
attain about 1 inch in length. They are very varied in colour, which depends on that of the

THE. COD PAMILY 245

seaweed and their other surroundings. The parent fish, too, vary somewhat in appearance,
those round the English coast as a rule having brown backs with irregular spotty markings
on the sides, while those from more northern waters usually have darker backs and are less
often spotted. Cod are most enormous feeders, and in consequence grow very rapidly. At
the Southport Aquarium codling of only } lb. increased in weight to 6 or 7 Ibs. in about
sixteen months.

So voracious is the cod that it is very apt to swallow anything it sees moving, without
considering whether it is wholesome. In 1879 a black guillemot in perfect condition was
removed from the stomach of one of these fish; while among other strange finds by cod-
fishermen from the same receptacle was a piece of tallow candle 7 inches long, a hare, a
partridge, a white turnip, and, going back to the year 1626, a ‘‘ work in three treatises,” which
was found in the stomach of a fish captured in Lynn Deeps on midsummer eve, and brought to
the Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge. The usual food of cod is, however, small fish of various kinds—
herrings, pilchards, sprats, crabs, and sea-worms; but the species is not particular what it seizes
when shoaling before the spawning-season and food is scarce owing to the number of mouths.

CHAPTER IX
CAVE-FISHES, SAND-EELS AND THEIR ALLIES, AND FLAT-FISHES

BY W.P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S., F.Z.S.

HE subterranean fresh-water caves of Cuba furnish the most interesting and most
remarkable members of the family in certain small fishes known as CAVE-FISHES.
Living in complete darkness, the eyes have degenerated so as to be no longer useful
as organs of sight; indeed, in many species they are entirely wanting. By way of compensation
delicate organs of touch have been developed, taking the form, in different species, of barbels,
hair-like processes, or tubercles. These blind fishes are closely allied to certain marine forms
found in the tropical Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and it is curious to note that amongst these
about seven very rare species are found at great depths in the southern oceans, so great that
light fails to reach them, and they too are blind.
The SAND-EELS, or LAUNCES, are extremely common on the sandy shores of Europe and
North America, living in vast shoals, and displaying a wonderful unison in their movements,
rising and falling as with one accord. They burrow in the sand with amazing rapidity, forcing

Phote by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea
SPOTTED SOLE

A larger and coarser fish than the common sole

246 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE.WORLD

their way by means of a horny projection on the lower jaw, and remaining buried at ebb-tide
some § or 6 inches under the sand, when they are captured by fishermen, armed with rakes, for
bait. When swimming in shoals, their presence is often betrayed by schools of porpoises, which
feed greedily upon them, preventing their return to the bottom by getting under the shoal,
whilst others swim round it. Mackerel also make large raids upon the ranks of such shoals.
FLAT-FISHES may be reckoned among the most important of food-fishes, and besides are
of quite peculiar interest, on account of the remarkable modifications of structure which they
have undergone. They differ from all other vertibrates in that, save for the first few weeks
of existence, they spend the whole of their lives with one side of the body uppermost — the
right or left, according to the species. Whether resting or swimming, this position holds
good. The newly hatched fish, however, maintains the normal poise of the body, the back
being uppermost. Of the many changes which the organs of the body undergo during this
strange transformation from a “round” to a “ flat” fish, one of the most interesting is that
which concerns the eyes. These, in the very young fish, lie one on either side of the head;
but as the fish grows older it begins to lie on its side on the ground, and ultimately, when
it is two or three months old, loses the power of sustaining itself in an upright position
altogether. The most remarkable feature in this very strange mode of development is,
that as the ash comes to lie more and more on its side, so the eye which is undermost
begins to move round to the other side, till eventually the two eyes lie side by side on the
upper-surface. Strangely enough, in some species the eye moves round the head, passing
over its edge, and so to its place beside the stationary eye, whilst in others it acquires its
ultimate position by moving ¢kvough the head, sinking in on one side and appearing again on
the other. The coloration of these fishes is also peculiar, in that the two sides are quite
differently coloured, the upper side resembling in tone that of the sea-bottom, whilst the under
side is pure white. In the young fish, before the habit of lying on one side has been
acquired, both sides are coloured alike. The difference in coloration between the two sides of
the adult fish appears to be due to the effect of light, since in flat-fishes kept in a tank with

|

Photo by W, Saville Kent, F.Z.S.}

[ Milford-on-Sea
HALIBUT

The largest member of the Flat-fish Family, The back-fin usually commences much farther forward

tu

FLAT-FISHES 47

a mirror at the bottom the
under-surface was found in
many cases to be very largely
coloured. But the colour of
the upper surface is by no
means constant. On the con-
trary, the flat-fish appears to
possess the power, in common
with all other fishes, of chang-
ing its colour so as to harmon-
ise with the tone of its sur-
roundings. Thus on a light
sandy ground the exposed
surface of the body becomes
pale, while on a dark muddy
bottom it is almost black.
By this power of changing
the colour of the exposed : :
portion of the body so as to Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] LMiferaren* Sea
harmonise with the surround- BRILL
ings, the fish is enabled to Tew

: A As in the turbot, the eyes are on the left side of the head, instead of on the right side, as in the
become in a large measure : ‘Vakibus
invisible, and in proportion
to the effectiveness of the change to escape its enemies. Some soles are quite invisible.

The most important of the flat-fishes are the PLAICE, FLOUNDER, Dab, HALIBUT, SOLE,
TURBOT, and BRILL.

The PLAICE is one of the commonest of the British flat-fishes, and may be distinguished
by the numerous orange or red spots which are scattered over the upper surface of the body.
From 15 to 18 inches in length, specimens are occasionally captured which have attained a
length of 28 inches. Plaice feed on shell-fish, such as mussels or scallops, which they crush
by means of strong, blunt teeth in the throat; but worms are also eaten.

The eggs of the plaice are amongst the largest fish-eggs known.

The FLOUNDER is a smaller fish than the plaice, and lacks the red spots. It differs from
the other flat-fishes in the preference it shows for the mouths of rivers, ascending these,
indeed, so far as to enter fresh-water.

The HALIbuT is the largest of the flat-fishes, specimens of as much as 20 feet in length being
on record, while examples of from 6 to 7 feet long are not uncommon in Grimsby market.
This fish has a wide distribution, occurring on both sides of the North Atlantic and North
Pacific, being most abundant in deep water. The halibut which are brought into the markets
of Grimsby and Hull are chiefly caught off the coasts of Iceland and the Farées with
long lines.

The SOLE is a shallow-water fish, feeding chiefly upon worms, crabs, and shrimps. These
it apparently hunts by smell, gliding over the sea-bottom, and tapping with the lower side
of its head, which is provided with sensitive organs of touch in the shape of filaments. By day
it conceals itself by burrowing in the sand, coming out after dark to feed.

The TURBOT resembles the brill, from which it may be distinguished by the greater breadth
of the body in proportion to the length, the absence of scales, and the presence of large bony
tubercles scattered over the surface. In Great Britain the turbot is most abundant in the
English Channel.

The BRILL closely resembles the turbot not only in general form, but in the numerical
superiority of the females, and in the habits of the young, which, like the turbot, are surface-
feeders and possess an air-bladder.

CHAPTER X
EELS AND CAT-FISHES

BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A.LS., F.Z.S.

ELS, like flat-fishes, show plainly, in the shape of their bodies, a remarkably perfect
adaptation to their environment. They are burrowing fishes, passing much of their time
buried in the mud, and leaving little more than the head exposed. In accordance with

this habit, the body is very long and round, and lacks both the hinder paired fins, and scales.
When swimming, the body is propelled by rapid undulations, the movement being from side to
side, it may be remarked, instead of up and down, as in the ‘ serpentine” movements of snakes.

Whether all the fishes commonly regarded as eels really belong to this family or not is
a moot-point. It is possible that the eel shape has been independently acquired by unrelated
forms as a result of adaptation to a similar mode of life. But as the group now stands it
embraces several distinct types,—the COMMON FRESH-WATER EELS; numerous marine species,
such as CONGERS, SERPENT-EELS, DEEP-SEA EELS, and PAINTED EELS; and the fresh-water
ELECTRIC EELS.

The RIVER-EELS and CONGERS are perhaps the best known, and are also highly important
food-fishes. That they are fishes of comparatively slow growth seems to be shown by the

Photo by N. Laxcarnick)

EELS

Two species are shown in this photograph

248

EELS AND CAT-FISHBES 249

ii

|

Pea

[ Milford-on-Seu

L Hees ee ida iw. ‘ P a
Photo by WH’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.]
CONGER-EEL

The females of this species often swvallow the males
p

fact that the common eel takes about four or five years to attain a weight of between 5 and
6 lbs. The males are smaller than the females, the greatest length attained by the former
being a little over 1 foot 7 inches, whilst the latter may attain a length of nearly 4 feet.
For a long while what is now known to be the female river-eel was regarded as a distinct
species — the SHARP-NOSED EEL. The two sexes have quite different habits, the smaller males
being found mostly in the brackish water of river-mouths, and rarely above the reach of the
tides, whilst the females ascend the rivers for great distances, thousands finding their way
into isolated ponds, which they reach by traveling overland. Here they appear to remain
till they have reached maturity, when they migrate with one accord to the sea. Coming down
the rivers during the months of October and November, hundreds are taken in large niches
with traps, the mouths of which are directed up-stream.

The migration of eels to the sea is for the sole purpose of spawning and fertilising the
eggs, which done, they die. The spawning appears to take place in extremely deep water,
where the young eels pass the earlier stages of their development. Like the majority of
young fishes, the fry are at first very different in form from the adults, and many have
from time to time been described as distinct species, no suspicion of their true nature
having been aroused. And this is not to be wondered at, for at this stage they are perfectly
transparent and compressed from side to side, so as to be but little thicker than a sheet of
stout paper; the head is ridiculously small, and only median fins are present. As develop-
ment proceeds, having reached a certain maximum size, they, strangely enough, begin to
slowly diminish, growing shorter and at the same time rounder, so that eventually, by the
time the characteristic eel form is attained, they are considerably shorter than they were at
the maximum period of larval life.

By the time the adult eel form has been attained, the larve have made their way to
the mouths of various rivers, preparatory to making their ascent, which takes place between

250 THE LIVING. ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

February and May. They are then from 2 to 5 inches long, and perfectly transparent save for
a black line inside the body, running along the spinal cord. The numbers passing up a single
river during this ascent are almost beyond belief. In one of these migrations, or “ eel-fares,”
upwards of three tons were captured in a single day in the Gloucester district in 1886, and
it has been calculated that more than 14,000 go to make a pound weight. In the previous
year the annual consumption of eels was estimated at a minimum of 1,650 tons, with a
total value of £130,000. Few obstacles seem too great to be overcome in their ascent, for
they will ascend the flood-gates of locks, or even travel overland if the ground be wet, till a
desirable resting-place is found. In some parts of England these young eels, or ‘ elvers,” as
they are called, are salted and made into cakes.

The CONGER-EEL is a marine species, differing from the river-eel, amongst other things,
in its larger head and eyes, and in the arrangement of its teeth and the large size of the
gill-openings. The conger is also greatly superior in size, examples of between 6 and 7 feet

K gt 7 ‘ 7 : |
oF pe £ pA

i has ar

Photo by Dr. R. W. Shufeldr) [Washington
CAT-FISH

Note the presence of barbels, or ‘* feelers,’’ round the mouth

in length and 60 lbs. in weight being common. The females are larger than the males, and
an instance is on record of a female which was over 8 feet in length and weighed 128 lbs.
Congers feed on other fishes, cuttle-fishes, and lobsters, as well as upon one another, the larger
females eating the smaller males.

SERPENT-EELS are confined to tropical and sub-tropical seas, and are remarkable for their
extreme voracity. More than eighty species are known, some of which are brilliantly coloured.

The DEEP-SEA EELS are represented by numerous species, and dwell at depths varying
from 340 to 2,000 fathoms. In some species the body is remarkably modified, the mouth being
of enormous size, and the stomach capable of marvellous distension, so much so that eels of
this family have been captured which had swallowed fishes several times their own weight. The
tail in many of the deep-sea eels tapers to a fine hair-like point.

The PAINTED EELS are remarkable for their bright spotted or mottled coloration, and are
of large size, ranging from 6 to 8 feet in length. Armed with formidable teeth, the larger

Photo by N. Laxarnick] (New York
PAINTED EELS FROM BERMUDA

More than eighty species of these fishes are known

Photo by N. Laxarnick] [New York
CAT-FISHES

These belong to the unarmoured group

251

252 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

species are held in no little fear by fishermen and bathers, attacks from these fishes being by
no means rare. Their distribution is closely similar to that of the Serpent-eels.

The ELecTrIC EEL is an extremely abundant fish in the rivers and lagoons of Brazil and
the Guianas. It is the most powerful of the electric fishes, and attains a length of 6 feet.
The electric organs of this fish are sufficiently strong to kill by their shock other fishes and
even mammals. The traveler Humboldt is responsible for the statement, now generally dis-
credited, that the Indians procured this fish by driving horses into the water, and so provoking
such violent discharges from the fish that they became exhausted and fell an easy prey.

The CAT-FISHES, or SHEATH-FISHES, are an extremely interesting group, one of the principal
characteristics of which is the total absence of scales, the body being either entirely naked
or armed with bony tubercles or overlapping plates. Another peculiarity of these fishes is
the presence of feelers round the mouth; these, by their delicate sense of touch, enable the
fish to procure its food in extremely muddy water, when the eyes would be useless. The
latter, indeed, in many species are extremely reduced in size. Many cat-fishes are armed
with powerful spines, attached to the body by a very complicated mechanism. Such spines
are capable of inflicting dangerous wounds, either by the introduction of poison or the
violent inflammation following on the laceration of the wounded part. Some species have
elaborate accessory breathing-organs, enabling them to travel overland for short distances
from one piece of water to another. Other members of the group possess electrical organs of
considerable power; one species inhabiting the Nile attains a length of 4 feet.

The nesting-habits of the group are exceedingly interesting, some building nests in which
to deposit the eggs; others carry the eggs in the mouth till they hatch. In one species the
care of the eggs is undertaken by the female, which carries them about embedded in the skin
of the under surface of the body, which at this season becomes very soft and spongy. When
the eggs are laid, she presses them into the spongy skin by lying on them.

The cat-fishes are of world-wide distribution, but only one species, the WELS, occurs in
European waters, It commonly attains a length of from 6 to 9 feet, and occasionally as
much as 13 feet. The majority of cat-fishes inhabit fresh-water, but some are marine.

CAAT ER, 21
THE CARP FAMILY

BY JOHN BICKERDYKE, M.A.

_ es a — HE Carp Fam-
ily, like the

/ Perch group, is
one of the largest among
fishes. It includes the
Rudd, Roach, Tench,
Bream, Minnow, etc.,
and is divided into many
groups, which again in-
clude numerous species
found chiefly in the
temperate and tropical
parts of the world. In-
cluded among these are

: Photo by sl, S. Rudland 0 Sons the Barbels, of which
CARP there ate about 200

Th: members of the Carp Tribe are vegetadle-feeders. They have teeth in the throat, but none in AP EEIES varying from
the iows little fishes of 2 inches

THE CARP FAMILY aes

to monsters of 6 feet or more in length. Some of the largest are found in the Tigris; bur
the Mahseer of India must be regarded as the king of all the species. In some of the
rivers flowing from the Himalaya Mountains are curious Barbel which have their vent and
anal fin in a sheath covered with large scales. Roach are important members of the Carp
Family, and the Roach group is a very large one, including the various fishes coming under the
term of white fish” in Germany. The Roach proper is common all over Europe north of
the Alps. In this group is the Ide of the central and northern parts of Europe, which when
domesticated becomes golden in hue, and is then called the Golden Orf, a pretty fish kept in
many English aquariums. Rudd are found all over Europe and Asia Minor. Of Tench,
only one species is known, the Golden Tench being merely a variety differing in the matter of
colour. The Bream group consists of the Common Bream, Bream-flat, and the American Bream,
or Shiner. Lastly, we may mention the Bleak group, of which there are fifteen known species
in Europe, East Africa, and the temperate parts of Asia. This list by no means exhausts the
numerous members of the Carp Family.

The COMMON CARP is one of the most
remarkable fishes which swim. In early times
in England it was extensively cultivated as
a food-fish, and in Germany at the present
day is as much domesticated as the sheep,
pig, or ox. The fish-culturists have indeed
done extraordinary things with it, having, for
instance, produced a variety with a single
row of scales down each side and sometimes
on the back only, called the MIRROR-CARP, or
KING-CARP. There is also the LEATHER-CARP,
with no scales at all, which is much esteemed
in Germany.

There is reason to believe that the common
carp was originally a native of the East, and
it certainly has been domesticated in China
for many hundreds of years. Thence it is
supposed to have been imported to Germany
and Sweden, reaching England some time in Sainie ie Gace hg wa Pape es
the early years of the fifteenth century. In GOLD_FISH :
that curious work the ‘“ Boke of St. Albans,”
published in 1496, it is said that the carp is
a ‘‘dayntous fysshe, but there ben fewe in Englonde, and therefore I wryte the lesse of hym.”

China is the home of the GOLD-FISH, a pretty little carp common in that country and
the warmer parts of Japan. The Chinese have distorted Nature with regard to this fish even
more than the Germans have the common carp. Their most extraordinary monstrosity is,
perhaps, the TELESCOPE-FISH, which has a huge tail and projecting eyes. It is believed that
gold-fish were not known in England before the year 1691.

The carp has many interesting peculiarities. It is an extraordinarily fertile fish, and
one of the most rapid growers in fresh-water. Under the most favourable conditions it
attains a weight of from 3 to 3} Ibs. in three years. In a pond which is overstocked, carp
hardly increase in weight at all; while, on the other hand, their growth in hot countries is
very much greater than above stated. A fish of from 4 to 5 lbs. may contain, on an average,
from 400,000 to 500,000 eggs; these are spawned in May or June, and hatched in from
twelve to sixteen days, according to the temperature.

The life of this curious fish may be one of extraordinary duration, carp having been known
to attain an age of a hundred years or more. When very old, they are apt to go blind and
develop white marks, due to the growth of funguses.

17

A native of China and the warmer parts of Fapan

254 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

In the winter carp either bury themselves in the mud, or lie among the water-weeds or
roots of trees at the bottom. They are vegetarians for the most part, with no teeth in their
mouths, but strong, powerful grinding-teeth in their throats; they are believed to regurgitate
their food and chew it, somewhat as a cow chews the cud.

With regard to the weight which this fish attains, one of 19 lbs. was taken at Sheffield
Park in 1882. This was exceptionally large; but one still larger, weighing 21 lbs. 10 ozs., was
caught at Bayham Abbey, near Lamberhurst, in 1870; while one of 22 lbs. was exhibited
many years ago to the Zoological Society. In the German lakes these fish reach a weight
of 40 lbs., or even more.

Carp will, however, occasionally eat small fish, and have even been caught with a salmon-fly.

CHAPTER. AL!
PIKES, ARAPAIMAS, BEAKED SALMON, AND SCOPELIDS

BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S., F,Z.S.

HE PIKES are strictly fresh-water fishes, which are extremely voracious, and grow

to a large size. They are met with in most of the fresh-waters of Europe, Asia, and

America; yet they must be regarded rather as a Western than an Eastern type,

since all the known species occur in America, whilst only one—the COMMON PIKE—is known

outside that country. These fishes capture their prey by stealth—practised, however, not so

much by concealment as by lying suspended in the water, perfectly motionless save for the

movement of the gills, which is barely perceptible. When the victim comes within reach, it is

seized by a sudden rush. The form of the body is admirably adapted to this manner of feeding,

resembling rather a submerged log than a fish. It is, furthermore, on account of this shape

that the name Pike has been bestowed, since it recalls the ‘‘pike” borne by the soldiers of
bygone days.

When on the feed, nothing comes amiss to pike, and the havoc they commit in
trout-streams is enormous. Not only other fishes are devoured, but both the young and
adults of water-birds are frequently seized, and instances are on record where boys have been
attacked while bathing. The mouth of a pike bristles with teeth, even the roof being thickly
covered. These are all attached by hinges, moving readily backwards towards the throat, s¢
as to assist the swallowing operation, but preventing any possibility of the victim’s escape.

In Great Britain the
pike is held in high
esteem by anglers, though
as an article of food it does
i J not find much favour. The
females are larger than
the males. The largest
specimens attain a length
of about 4 feet, sometimes
a little more, anda weight
of from 36 to 37 lbs.

About six species of
pike are known, five of
which are confined to
American waters. Of these,
~—. the one known as the
Photo by Dr. R. HW’. Shufeldt] [Washington MUSKET-LUNGE, or Mus-

PIKE KINONGE, attains the same
The most voracious of fresh-water fishes large size as the common

=

Photo by N. Laxarnich} (New York

PICKEREL

This is an American species

Photo by H’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.) (Milford-on-Sea

“SERGEANT BAKER”

An edible Australian representative of the group of fishes which, for want of an English name, are here called Scopelids
259

256 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Milford-on-Sea

BEAKED SALMON

Known in New Zealand as the Sand-ee!

pike; the other species are known as PIKEREL. The immature pike is commonly called a
JACK.

The ARAPAIMAS are large fresh-water fishes, confined to the tropics, their distribution being
practically the same as that of the Lung-fishes; they are represented in America, Australia,
and Africa, but one species occurs in the East Indian Archipelago. The largest species of
all—which is also the largest fresh-water bony fish known—is found in the rivers of Brazil and
the Guianas, attaining a length of 15 feet and a weight of 400 Ibs. It is highly esteemed
as an article of food, being salted and exported from the inland fisheries to the sea-ports.
The natives take it either with a rod and line, or with a bow and arrow, a line being fastened
to the arrow, thus converting it into a harpoon,

Four species of arapaimas are distinguished by the presence of ‘‘barbels”’ on the chin;
of these, two are Australian, one American, and one occurs in Sumatra and Borneo. Yet
another species is found in the Nile and the rivers of West Africa. The Australian species,
like the large Brazilian form, are highly esteemed as food; one of these, known as the DAWSON
RIVER SALMON, is confined to the rivers of Queensland, the other to the rivers emptying
into the Gulf of Carpentaria.

The BEAKED SALMON occurs in the open seas of the Cape, Japan, and Australia; but in
New Zealand, where it is known as the SAND-EEL, it is found in bays with a sandy bottom.

The group of fishes known as SCOPELIDS is one of particular interest, on account of the
number of remarkable forms which it contains. For the most part they are inhabitants of
the open sea, many being found only at great depths. Of the latter, some apparently come
to the surface to feed at night, whilst others are entirely confined to the abysses of the ocean.
As with the members of other groups which have adopted a deep-sea habitat, certain modifications
of the body have become necessary in these fishes. Many of them have a direct relation to the
absence of light, which has rendered normal eyes of little use; consequently the eyes of these
fishes have become either greatly reduced or enormously enlarged, or sometimes lost altogether.
Asarule the large-eyed forms are those which come to the surface at night or do not live
beyond the reach of daylight; whilst those in which the eyes are small or reduced live in
the very lowest depths, far beyond the limit of daylight. In all these forms compensation
for the loss of light has taken place, generally by the development of phosphorescent organs.
These may take the form of a number of Juminous areas distributed down each side of the
body, as in the PHOSPHORESCENT SARDINE; or of a pair of lens-like light-producing organs,
occupying the place of the eyes of other fishes. Another eyeless member of the group, instead
of developing light-producing organs, has increased the length of the rays of the paired fins
to an enormous extent, so that they serve as delicate feelers either for the discovery of food
or the detection of enemies. Many of the fishes of this group have extremely large mouths,
armed with a formidable array of tusk-like teeth, between which are numerous smaller ones.

As food-fishes the majority of the Scopelids are not of much value. The species known
as the QUEENSLAND SMELT, shown in the adjoining photograph, is an edible species, occurring
off the north-west coast of Australia. Its near ally, the BUMMALOE, or BoMBAY Duck, how-
ever, enjoys a quite exceptional notoriety. Salted and dried, it is exported in large quantities

”

PIKES, ARAPAIMAS, BEAKED SALMON, SCOPELIDS 257

from Bombay and the coast of Malabar, and forms an indispensable adjunct to an Indian curry.
This fish apparently inhabits considerable depths, and when freshly taken is brilliantly
phosphorescent. Another edible species is the ‘ SERGEANT BAKER” of Australia, of which a
photograph is given on page 653.

With regard to the deep-sea Scopelids, it is interesting to note that, in addition to very
remarkable modifications of the eyes and fins, and the production of phosphorescent light,
certain of the body-cavities are characterised by an intensely black coloration. The inside of
the mouth, the gills, and the lining of the abdomen, for example, are always so coloured in
those fishes which inhabit the deepest abysses. This coloration is difficult to account for, but

f ‘i . eal |
|

Ce

Photo by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] Lietverid-ona'Ben
QUEENSLAND SMELT

A near ally of the Bummaloe, or Bombay Duck, that indispensable adjunct to an Indian curry

it is generally supposed to be due to excretory products. Another interesting point concerns
the air-bladder. Whenever this organ is present in the fishes of this or any other family
inhabiting the abysses of the ocean, it bursts before the unfortunate victim is brought to the
surface, owing to the enormous differences in pressure which obtain between the depths of
the sea and the surface.

CHAPTER AIII

THE SALMON FAMILY

BY SIR HERBERT MAXWELL, BART., F.R.S.

LTHOUGH the Salmon Family occupies a low place in the classification of fishes, yet

every member thereof is possessed of singular beauty of form and colour. The

ATLANTIC SALMON, which is the species frequenting European rivers and those of the
eastern coast of North America, may be considered the type of the family, and certainly it
would be difficult to name any animal more perfectly adapted to its peculiar mode of life,
which is one of constant activity. A native of fresh-water, hatched in early spring from eggs
laid in rivers during the winter months, it spends from fifteen to twenty-seven months in the
shallows of the river, almost indistinguishable in habits and appearance from a small common
trout. Sometimes in the second spring after its birth, and failing that, always in the third
spring, the fish, having attained the length of 5 or 6 inches, undergoes a wonderful change:
its prevailing tints of olive and gold become overspread with a glittering coat of silver, known

258 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

1 to anglers as the ‘‘sea-jacket,”
and shoals of ‘smolts,’ as
they are called in this stage,
begin descending to the sea.
In about fifteen or eighteen
months, perhaps in some
instances longer, they return
to the inland waters as
“ srilse ” — small salmon from

_ 2to § lbs. in weight. Grilse

and mature salmon spawn

chiefly in November and

December, undergoing, before
Known also as the Sea-trout, and in Ireland as the White Trout they do so, another strange

Photo by 4A, 8, Rudland & Sons

SALMON-TROUT

metamorphosis. Their brilliant
silvery scales become darkly discoloured, the males turning copper-colour, the females blackish
and dull purple; their elegant form becoming distorted to such a degree as to render them
hardly recognisable as the same fish which left the tide in the perfection of beauty. In their
efforts to reach the higher waters where they spawn, salmon display extraordinary perseverance
and activity in surmounting weirs, waterfalls, and other obstacles which bar their way. After
spawning, the fish are emaciated and lanky, but speedily regain the bright silver hue so
characteristic of the species. In this state they are usually known as ‘“kelts”; they are
worthless either for food or for sport, and make their way back to the sea, where abundant
provender soon restores their condition. Their chief food consists of herrings, haddocks, and
other small fishes. Dr. Kingston Barton recently recorded finding five full-grown herrings in
the stomach of one salmon. Although the excellence of their flesh exposes salmon to the
attacks of innumerable foes, including man, predacious fishes, seals, and cetaceans, a few survive
for many years and attain to great size. Fish weighing from 30 to 4o lbs. are far from
uncommon; one of 60 Ibs. has been taken in the Tay with rod and line, and the same river
has yielded one of upwards of 70 lbs. to the nets. The fine sport afforded to anglers by the
salmon causes a good beat on a prolific river to be a very valuable property. Two thousand
pounds was the season’s rent paid a few years ago for less than three miles of the Tweed,
and the season happened to be such a bad one that the lessee only killed thirteen fish!

Closely resembling the true salmon in habits and appearance, and sometimes rivalling
it even in size, are two kinds of sea-trout— the SALMON-TROUT, greatly prized both for its
sporting qualities and for the excellence of its flesh, and the BULL-TrRoUT, a very inferior
fish in both respects. Bull-trout are not infrequently taken in the Tay weighing upwards
of 40 lbs.

The Pacific Ocean has its counterpart to the Atlantic salmon and sea-trout in several
closely allied species, whereof the QUINNAT and the STEELHEAD are the most notable. These
ascend the great rivers of Western North America in prodigious shoals, penetrating more than
2,000 miles inland to deposit their spawn. Few of these fish survive to return to the
sea. In their emaciated condition they succumb to exhaustion and starvation; their corpses,
piled to the height of several feet, line the banks of the river for miles, and contribute
nothing to the traveler’s comfort. Although Pacific salmon are of no value to the sportsman,
as they are said to refuse any bait in fresh-water, yet they are the staple of an important
trade, tens of thousands of tons being taken and canned for export.

If we could peer far enough back into the course of time, we should no doubt be able
to identify a common stock from which all the Salmon Family are descended. That they are
all natives of fresh-water is proved by the fact that they cannot reproduce their kind in the
sea. Those that resort to the ocean for food must be the descendants of vigorous, roving
members of the family, which, having to choose between starvation and migration, braved the

i

nats MAD
Photo by Dr. Robert

A SALMON LEAPING.

The height to which saimon will leap in ascending a waterfall is little short of marvellous. When the fal] is very high

the ascent is often accomplished in a series of leaps, the fish resting in pools of comparatiy ely still water.

THE SALMON FAMILY 259

perils of travel, and became so much altered in constitution by the liberal diet they found
as to establish themselves as separate species.

Among the stay-at-homes there are many interesting and beautiful fishes. None of them
exhibit the variable nature of the family more than the common BROOK-rROUT of British
waters, and not long since men of science dignified each of these varieties by a separate
title, treating them as distinct species. However, experiment and observation have now led to
the almost unanimous conclusion that the pygmy denizens of some hungry Highland burn,
whereof the weight must be reckoned in fractions of ounces, are of precisely the same
species as the lordly trout of deep lakes, which sometimes scales as much as 25 Ilbs.,
and as all the other innumerable varieties, such as the trout of the Thames, of the
English chalk-streams, and of the Irish loughs. The quality of the soil affects the food-
supply, which in turn regulates the size and appearance of the fish. Moreover, Nature seems
indifferent to the number of individuals composing the population which the water is to
sustain. If there are no pike, and spawning-ground is abundant, there will be many and small
fish; if the contrary is the case, there will be few and large ones; the aggregate weight per
acre of water will remain the same, proportioned to the food-supply. The American equivalent
of the British brook-trout is the RAINBOW-TROUT, a beautiful creature which has lately been
widely distributed in European waters. What is known as the brook-trout in America really
belongs to the CHAR group, fish of the Salmon Family, closely resembling trout, but distinguished
from them by extraordinary brilliancy of colour. Common trout, like salmon, lose all their
beauty as the spawning-season approaches. Char, on the other hand, take gaudy colouring
at that time, the whole of the under-parts becoming clear red or flame-colour. Unlike trout,
British char never enter rivers, but spawn in lakes. In Norway, however, char descend to
the sea. The distribution of char is indeed mysterious, nor has any explanation been offered
why they inhabit certain waters, while other lakes in the neighbourhood, apparently equally
suitable, contain none.

The GRAYLING is an elegant member of the Salmon Family, and a deserved favourite with
fly-fishers. Instead of the golden tints and scarlet spots of the brook-trout, this fish displays
the silvery colouring of the salmon-trout. It is not at all uncommon to meet with grayling
in the chalk-streams of Southern England weighing 3 lbs. and upwards.

The Powan is the type of another large group of salmon-like fishes, inhabiting lakes in the
temperate and sub-
arctic regions of both
hemispheres. There
are four species in
Great Britain, among
which may be men-
ticned the mysterious
VENDACE of Loch-
maben, unknown to
exist elsewhere.

Toa stilt. the
Salmon Family is
closed by the delicate
SMELT, called in Scot-
land the SPARLING,
which is netted in
vast numbers in the

estuaries of suitable Phote by W. Reid] eieads as
rivers, It never AMERICAN SALMON-TROUT FROM DIAMOND LAKE,
ascends beyond the NEW ZEALAND

highest point of the These fish were taken out of the water to be photographed, and then put back again

260 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

tide, where it deposits its spawn in the spring months. It is a gratifying tribute to the
good work done of late years by the local authorities in purifying the Thames that, after
a long absence, this valuable fish has reappeared in that river, which it now ascends in con-
siderable numbers as high as Teddington Weir.

Much discussion has taken place recently with regard to the question whether salmon
feed while in fresh-water.
Not long ago it was
announced that they
suffered from a diseased
condition of the stomach
during this period, and
were consequently quite
unable to feed. Subse-
quently it was found
; ee eer aac “that the supposed dis-

SMELT eased condition of the
stomach was due to the
fishes not being perfectly
fresh when they were examined. It is now known that although salmon do not feed freely
in fresh-water, yet they take a certain amount of nutriment, such as an occasional shrimp, fly,

r — x

This fish 1s remarkable for its peculiar smell when freshly caught, which resembles that of the cucumber

or even small fish, while there.

CHAPTER XIV

THE HERRING AND ITS KINDRED

BY F. G, AFLALO, F.Z.S,

ING HERRING,” as the trade-paper of the fishing industry rightly calls it, is one of
the chief commercial fishes of the British seas, and the enormous North Sea herring
fisheries probably support more boats and men from all parts than any other. Europe

has no very large herring; but the TARPON of the Mexican coast, as well as another giant which
occurs in the northern waters of Australia, grows to an enormous size. All the members of the
Herring Family feed and travel near the surface of the sea, and are therefore caught in drift-
nets, miles of which are ‘‘shot” a few fathoms from the top of the water, catching the
shoaling-fish in their meshes. All of them, too, are wanderers, most capricic us in their goings
and comings. Hence the uncertainty of the fisherman’s wage.

The principal kinsmen of the herring in British seas are the SPRAT and PILCHARD, though
the two kinds of SHAD, which, like the salmon, ascend certain rivers for spawning purposes,
also support a number of fishermen; and the ANCHOVy is, authorities have lately suspected,
sufficiently numerous on the British coasts to repay a regular fishery, if the men could be
induced to try the experiment and use a sufficiently fine-meshed net for this little fish.

The HERRING of the more northern waters is larger than that of the English Channel,
17 inches being recorded as its maximum size in the former, as against only 12} inches farther
south. In the Baltic, however, the writer found the herrings still smaller than those of the
English Channel. The herring lacks the lateral line, already alluded to in other fishes; its
scales are large and thin; its under-edge is smooth and keeled; and the male is slightly the
larger of the two sexes. The SPRAT, on the other hand, is a smaller species. It has no teeth;
its belly is saw edged; its back fin starts nearer the tail than that of the herring. The
herring, moreover, differs from the sprat, and indeed from all our most important fishes, in that
its eggs sink to the bottom The eggs of almost all other sea-fish float at or near the surface
of the sea. so that the herring’s spawn alone can be damaged by the operations of the ground-

THE HERRING AND IFS KINDRED 261

[Milford-on-Sea

Photo hy EF. Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.]

OX-EYED HERRING

This species attains a length of several feet

sweeping trawl-net. The shad’s eggs also sink to the bottom, but are deposited in the less
buoyant waters of rivers.

The PILCHARD, the all-important fish (together with mackerel) on the south-west coast of
England, is of a more decided green hue than either of the foregoing. Its scales are large and
coarse, and its back-fin starts closer to the head thanin the rest. The pilchard of Cornwall and
the sardine of the Mediterranean are one and the same fish in different stages of growth —that is
to say, the pilchard is a grown-up sardine. The late Matthias Dunn of Mevagissey was one of
the first practical fishermen to accept this identity, and the flourishing sardine factory at his
native town bears lasting witness to his enterprise. Although, from the economic standpoint,
we associate the pilchard with the extreme south-west of the English Channel, the fish finds its
way to more eastern counties. The writer has found it at both Bournemouth and Ventnor;
and it is taken, though sparsely, in the herring-nets of the North Sea fleets.

The ANCHOVY, smaller than any of the foregoing, may be distinguished by its projecting,
shark-like snout and deeply cleft mouth. It is seen in England only pickled for table purposes,
but the writer used fresh anchovies for bait almost daily during a stay of four months on the
shores of the Mediterranean.

The two shads— the ALLIS SHAD and TWAITE SHAD —are in some respects, though less
important commercially, the most interesting of the family. Their habit of coming up rivers to
spawn, like salmon, has been already noticed, but they appear to be more difficult to please than
the other fish. The Severn used to be a noted shad-river, but the fishery has fallen off of
late years. The ALLIS SHAD grows to a weight of 7 or 8 Ibs., and its pale green and silver
scales are varied by some darker spots at irregular intervals on the shoulders and sides. The
edge of the belly is serrated, like that of the sprat. The fish has a curious transparent
eyelid, and its other peculiarities include an abnormally large number of gill-rakers, through
which the water filters much as it does through the “ whalebone” of whales. Its food is said
to consist of small fishes and shrimps, as well as of vegetable substances. Though usually
caught, for market purposes, in a seine-net, which is slipped round the shoal in shallow water,
the shad is now and then taken on the hook, and instances of this are on record in the
neighbourhood of Deal. The rivers of Morocco are very productive of shad, particularly the
BOUREGREG at Rabat, and the UM ERBEYA at Azimur. At the latter town the writer has
bought newly caught shad weighing 5 or 6 lbs. for native money equivalent to as many pence,

262 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

and very excellent fish they proved in camp. The TWAITE SHAD is a somewhat smaller fish,
attaining to a maximum weight of perhaps a couple of pounds. It is not known to differ
materially in habits from the larger species.

Reverting for a moment to the herring as a type of the family, a few words may be said
on some very interesting facts in connection with its life-history and commercial uses. In
the first place, the fact that the spawn sinks to the bottom is of more importance than
would at first sight appear, since it not only exposes this spawn to disturbance by the trawl,
but also subjects it to the voracity of cod, haddock, and other ground-feeding fishes. Some
little protection is afforded by a natural provision which enables the eggs to adhere to stones
and weeds, but this cannot in the long-run be of much service against prowling fishes. The
eggs of the shad, which likewise sink (in fresh-water), do not adhere in this way.

The migrations of the herring, again, have furnished almost as much material for argument
to marine biologists as the migrations of birds in ornithological circles. Older naturalists
described marvellous Arctic journeyings with careful attention to detail, much of which is
now repudiated. Later theories hold that the shoals of herrings simply move, according to

i

a : ees ee |

Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] | Milford-on-Sea
BARRELLED ARAPAIMA

Known also as the Dawson River Salmon, on account of the colour and flavour of its flesk

changes in the weather and temperature, backwards and forwards between the shore and the
deeper water outside; and so far as the fishermen are concerned, the mere fact of the fish
moving at any season of the year beyond reach of their drift-nets, which work at only
moderate distances from the land, would be quite sufficient to convince them that the absent
fish had departed on world-wide travels. Much of the former acceptance of these extensive
migrations may have been due to confusion between the goings and comings of the different
races of herrings now recognised by biologists. It is also probable that, when the identity and
movements of these different “races” are more firmly established, we shall be able to clear
up many of the difficulties at present surrounding the spawning-time of the herring, and to
show that it does not, as sometimes alleged, deposit its spawn at every season of the year
indiscriminately, but that some herrings spawn at one season, some at another. Although
the herring is not, individually and by comparison with some other sea-fish, an enormously
fertile fish, its numbers must be fairly large, when we bear in mind that something like
50,000 crans a week are, in good seasons, packed in Shetland alone. Taking, as an average,
750 fish to the cran, this gives a weekly curing of not far short of 40,000,000 of herrings
in a single fishery. Owing indeed to the property, already noted, of adhering to stones

THE HERRING AND ITS KINDRED 263

and rocks, it is improbable that even the trawl troubles the eggs to any appreciable extent,
as the stony ground on which the herrings generally spawn is not suited to the operations
of the trawler. The spawning and life-history of the herring are, in fact, the converse
of those of the plaice. The former deposits its eggs on the ground close inshore, and the
young herrings, almost as soon as they are hatched, steer for the open sea and live near
the surface of the water. The flat-fishes, on the other hand, deposit eggs that float at the
surface some distance from the shore; and the young plaice and soles, when hatched, come
inshore and take up their residence close to the bed of the sea.

It would be improper to conclude this account of the Herring Family without a passing
reference to the commercial mixture known as “ WHITEBAIT.” Until comparatively late in the

——

4
i

Photo by HW”, pacilhin ea. F.Z.S.] DMilford-on-sea
AUSTRALIAN PILCHARDS

Distinct from the British species

last century whitebait was regarded, even by scientific men, as a distinct species, and there
were even some who declared that they had identified peculiar characters. It is now, however,
common knowledge that the so-called ‘‘ whitebait” is neither more nor less than a mixture
of young herrings and sprats, the former predominating in summer, the latter in winter.
Other fishes are also found in the dish, and, appropriately enough, at a recent banquet
given by the Worshipful Company of Fishmongers, at which the writer had the pleasure
of “assisting,” a plate of whitebait was found to include no sprats, but the fry of
herrings, gurnards, and sand-cels: this was in the month of July. Whitebait are caught
in special fine-meshed nets in river-estuaries; and although they make a capital dish for
the epicure, the large supplies needed for the restaurants probably entail a most regrettable
sacrifice of valuable food-fishes, which, if left a year or two, would provide food for ten
times the number of consumers. It would, however, be too much to expect that epicures
should give up such an unrivalled dish for this cause. Moreover, if these little fishes were
not captured by man, it is highly probable that a large proportion would fall victims to birds
or other fishes.

CHAPTER 2. Y
BONY PIKE, BOIV-FIN, STURGEON, REED-FISH, AND BICHIR

BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S., F.Z.S.

r HE present chapter deals with the remaining forms belonging to that great assemblage
of fishes known as the Bony-mouthed group, which includes all the members of the
class save the Lung-fishes on the one hand and the Shark Tribe on the other.

This great assemblage, as we have already remarked, is divided into two sections — the
Fan- and Fringe-finned Fishes. The fishes presently to be described belong partly to the one
and partly to the other of these divisions, and were at one time, together with the Lung-fishes,
regarded as nearly allied, and as forming but a single group, which, on account of the structure
of the scales, was known as the Enamel-scaled group.

The Bony PIKE, the BOW-FIN, and the STURGEON are the last of the Fan-finned Fishes.

The Bony PIKE, or GAR-PIKE, is an inhabitant of the fresh-waters of North America, and
has the most completely ossified skeleton and the most perfectly jointed backbone of all the
fishes, whilst externally it is covered with a complete armour of thick, quadrangular scales
coated with enamel. Three distinct species of this family are known, all of which are of
large size, attaining a length of 6 feet. They are carnivorous in their habits, lying in wait
among the reeds, and rushing out to seize their prey as soon as within range. In the
Mississippi, great lakes, and rivers of South Carolina bony pike are especially abundant,
occurring at times in such numbers as to fill the shad-nets and render the fishery for many
days impossible. The larger members are said to be as aggressive as sharks, and remarkably
tenacious of life.

The geographical distribution of the BOW-FIN closely corresponds with that of the bony pike.
It is an extremely common fish, and, though worthless for food purposes, has yet been deemed
worthy of a number of different names, such as GRINDLE, DOG-FISH, SAWYER, MUD-FISH, and
LAWYER-FISH. At one time it was regarded asa near ally of the Herring Tribe, but modern
research has shown this view to be erroneous. The bow-fin attains a length of about 2 feet,
and is very voracious, preying both upon other fishes and aquatic insects and shrimps. It has
a habit of coming frequently to the surface to breathe, especially when the water is foul,
taking in large mouthfuls of air. When near the surface, it is said to utter a bell-like note,

—- 1 a —— 7]

|

| f
b 4 \ ; 3
Photo by A. 8. Rudland & Sons Photo by Scholastic Photo Co, | | Parson's Group
BONY PIKE
One of the very few survivors of the ancient group of Enamel-scaled Fishes

204

BONY PIKE, BOW-FIN, STURGEON, REED-FISH, BICHIR 265

probably caused by the escape '
of air from the air-bladder. |
During the breeding-season
the male takes entire charge
of the eggs.

The STURGEONS differ
from the other fan-finned
fishes in many particulars.

To begin with, the skeleton | ]
is almost entirely cartilagi- Phato by A, 8. Rudland & Sons

nous instead of bony, whilst STURGEON

externally the body is either The air-bladder of the sturgeon is used for making isinglass, its roe for caviare

naked or covered with bony
bucklers, arranged symmetrically. The snout is prolonged into a more or less shovel-shaped
beak, used for turning over the mud at the bottom of the water in search of prey, and in
some forms this becomes further developed into a spoon-shaped paddle, constituting one of the
most remarkable appendages of fishes.

Sturgeons grow to a large size, and are the largest of the fresh-water fishes of the
northern hemisphere. The GIANT STURGEON of the Black and Caspian Seas and the Sea of

Photo by A. S. Rudland & Sens
STERLET

A smaller species of the Sturgeon group

Azoff attains a length of 24 feet, and sometimes more, specimens of 3,200 lbs. weight having
been recorded.

On account of the wholesomeness of their flesh, sturgeons are highly esteemed wherever
they are found. In Russian rivers they are very abundant, regular fishing-stations being
established for their capture. The approach of a shoal of fish is announced by a watchman,
and it is said as many as
15,000 sturgeon have been
captured at one of these sta-
tions inasingle day. Should
the fishing be suspended for a
short time, the fish assemble
_ in such numbers as to form a
| solid mass, completely block-
| ing a river 400 feet in width

a | and 25 feet in depth.
Photo by A. 8. Rudland & Sons From the roe of these
BICHIR fishes caviare is made, and

A second representative of the Enamel-scaled group isinglass from the inner lining

266 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

eases: |

| of the air-bladder. But
| the best-flavoured flesh
and the finest caviare are
obtained from a compara-
tively small form, the
STERLET, a species which
does not exceed a yard in
length. It is common in
the Black and Caspian
Seas, the Siberian rivers,
and the Danube as far as
Vienna.
With the Sturgeons
T Phos 9y sllonte Pinan G09 [Parson's Green we come to the end of
BICHIR the Fan-finned Fishes.
Note the remarkable finlets on the back and the peculiar structure of the breast-fins The Fringe-finned group
are represented to-day
only by the BICHIR and the REED-FISH. These are extremely interesting forms, if only
because they are the sole survivors of a once numerous tribe, the remains of which occur
as fossils in some of the oldest geological formations. They are known as Fringe-finned
on account of the fact that the rays which support the fin-membrane in the paired fins are
ranged round a lobe-shaped base, instead of running directly backwards to the body. As in
the bony pike, the body is clothed externally by large quadrangular bony plates of considerable
thickness, and coated with a layer of enamel.

The BICHIR, which is found in the Nile and other tropical rivers of Africa, is easily
recognised by the peculiar structure of the back-fin, which takes the form of a series of detached
finlets, varying in number from eight to eighteen. The length attained by the bichir is
about 4 feet. Gill-breathing is supplemented by the air-bladder, which is used as a respiratory
organ, the expired air escaping by a slit, known as the “spiracle.” The young bichir breathes,
like a tadpole, by means of large external gills, projecting backwards on each side of the
head; later these are replaced by the more efficiently protected internal gills.

The only surviving relative of the bichir is the REED-FISH of Old Calabar, which differs
by its eel-like form and the absence of the hinder paired fins.

poo : == LE

CHAPTER. 2v-l

SHARKS AND RAYS

BY F. G. AFLALO, F.Z.S.

WO prevalent errors with reference to sharks continually recur in England. The first
is local, and has reference to the absence of “ proper” sharks, whatever that may
mean, from British waters. The second, of wider application, holds that all sharks are

dangerous to man. When, some few years ago, the writer addressed a letter to the Zzmes
newspaper, warning yachting-men against summer bathing in deep water in Cornwall, a host
of critics accused him of a tendency to pose as an alarmist, and insisted that he was
confusing sharks with dog-fish. Apart from the fact that the distinction between the two
groups is in some cases extremely slight—it does not even rely on size, for there are dog-
fishes which attain to larger dimensions than the smallest sharks—these gentlemen were wholly
in error, since four sharks at any rate are very common in Cornish seas, and even occur in
lesser numbers on other parts of the British coasts. The largest of these, the great BASKING-

= |

Photo by W7, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [ Milford-on-Sea
WOLLIBONG, OR CARPET-SHARK
The leaf: like processes surrounding the head serve to attract prey, while the shark lies conceated on the sea-bottom

Photo by WH, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [Milford-on-Sea
SPOTTED SHARK

Note the peculiar shape of the tail, and the aperture behind the eye, known as the ‘‘ spiracle’”

267

68 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

LAY)

SHARK (of which a photograph, taken at Mevagissey, is given below), illustrates in its harmless
person the fallacy of condemning all sharks as man-eaters, since in this, the largest of its
race, we have an absolutely innocuous fish. From its habit of lying at the surface with the
large back-fin erect, it is also known as the Sail-fish, while the equally appropriate name of
Sun-fish sometimes causes confusion with other British fishes properly so called.

A commoner British shark is the BLUE SHARK, smali examples of which, weighing 30
or 40 lbs., the writer has often killed with the rod at Mevagissey. When thus hooked, this
fish has a curious and very trying habit of revolving rapidly in the water, scoring its own
granulated skin with the line. The PORBEAGLE-SHARK, another Cornish species, is of thicker
build than the last, and swims with far less graceful movements. It is a deep brown colour
above, and its general outline may be likened to that of a torpedo. The FOX-SHARK, or

i A

e+ ana oe

4

Jul

Piolo by-8; ‘Dalby Sal A] ae ye “ ed oes aa ; [Mevagissey
BASKING-SHARK .

Regularly hunted on the west coast of Ireland for the sake of the oil obtainable from its liver. Note the keel by the side of the tail

THRESHER, so often seen on hot summer days leaping out of water among the pilchard-shoals,
is easily recognised, even at considerable distances, by the disproportionately long upper lobe
of the tail-fin. This is the shark which attacks certain of the Whale Tribe. Many who
stay at home find it agreeable to cast doubt on the story; but the writer has, in Australian
seas, witnessed the sight of two of these sharks flinging themselves on the back of an
apparently exhausted whale in such unmistakable circumstances that the only alternative
(which the reader may accept, if preferred) is to suppose that they were all congenial
playmates.

Before specifying some general characters of this interesting group of predatory fishes, it
may be as well briefly to summarise the BRITISH DOG-FISHES; for the HAMMERHEAD-SHARK,
very common in southern seas, is so rare a visitor to Britain as to be negligible in an
epitome of the group. The dog-fishes, then, which trouble fishermen are the SMoorTH Hounp

SHARKS AND RAYS

and RouGH Howunp, the
NURSE, the PICKED Doc, and
the SILVER Doc, or TOPE.
The NURSE and ROUGH
HOUND are spotted leopards
of the sea, and the latter has a
very curious property. Ifa
fresh-caught “row-hound,” as
the fishermen pronounce the
name, be put in a basket or
boat’s well with pollack and
other fishes,the points of con-
tact will be marked by dis-
coloration of its neighbours.
This is probably due to some
acrid and bleaching secretion
of the row-hound’s skin, for
which some economic use
might possibly be found. The
PICKED DOG, or SPUR-DOG,
has very sharp spines in front
of both back-fins, and has
therefore to be handled by

Photo by HW, Savilla-Kent. F.Z.S.)

[Milford-on-Sea

OCELLATED DOG-FISH

So called from the presence of the eye-like spots on the body, two of which can be seen above the
breast-fins

the fishermen very cautiously, often punishing their hands badly when entangled at night in the

nets.

Of SMOOTH HoUNDS there are’ two species or varieties, between which there is some

confusion, and in one at any rate there are interesting anatomical peculiarities in the unborn
fish (like many other sharks and dog-fishes, the smooth hound bears living young instead of
depositing eggs), any account of which would obviously be out of place in so short a description.

Generally speaking, then, the sharks are cartilaginous fishes, having the upper lobe of the
tail larger than the lower, a shovel-shaped snout, and the crescent-shaped mouth beneath the

head.

b

Photo by A. S. Rudland & Sons

INDIAN STING-RAY

The tail is armed with a powerful poison-spine

18

Another peculiar feature of the group is the presence of breathing-spiracles behind

the eyes; while the latter
have a manner of blinking
not found in other fishes. Of
the teeth, which differ in
structure from those of other
kinds of fishes, there are
several rows. The gill-open-
ings are lateral, and usually
number five, though one
species has six and another
With the exception
of the afore-mentioned BASK-
ING-SHARK and the PorT
JACKSON SHARK, which the
writer met with in Australia,
they are all more or less
dangerous; and when of in-
sufficient size to be harmful
to man, do great damage
among the lines and nets of
the fishermen. Indeed, the

seven.

270 THE LIVING ANIMALS

OF THE WORLD

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.]

HORNED OX-RAY,

This species and its allies attain enormous proportions.
yoke of oxen to draw it

y

< \

OR DEVIL-FISH

One taken at Barbadoes required seven

late Matthias Dunn of Meva-
gissey seriously urged on the
Admiralty to dynamite them
in the interests of the fishing
industry. Most of the sharks
deposit their eggs in the
curious oblong vessels known
by those who pick up the
disused cases on the fore-
shore as ‘ purses”; and
these attach themselves to
rocks and stones by long
tendrils that cling to every
support. A number of
species (the PORBEAGLE and
TOPE among British kinds),
however, bring forth their
young alive.

Between the Sharks and
Rays there is a curious and
interesting link in the form
of the MONK-FISH, or ANGEL-
FISH, which is common on
all sandy shores, and a fre-

quent victim of the trawl. Such local names as Mongrel-skate and Shark-ray indicate a wide-
spread acceptance of its intermediate position between the two groups under notice. Like some
of the sharks already noticed, it produces living young, and its maximum size may be

set down as at any rate over 7 feet.
Bournemouth Bay during the summer of 1896.

rather less than 50 lbs.
Like many of the rays, this
species feeds to a great ex-
tent on flat-fishes.

In outward form the
monk-fish, though it is in
reality more nearly allied to
the sharks, brings us by an
easy transition tothe flattened
Rays, with their long whip-
like tails and pointed snouts.
There are a dozen, or rather
more if we count casual visi-
tors, of these skates and rays
in British seas, the largest
being the great EAGLE-RAY,
examples of which have been
recorded of the enormous
weight of 1,000 Ibs. Many
of the smaller kinds are
studded with sharp spines,
curved in some species, and
the THORNBACK owes to

Photo by WH’. Saville-Kent, F.Z,8.J
WHIP-TAILED STING-RAY

Sting-rays are abundant in tropical seas

The writer measured and weighed one trawled in
Its length was nearly 44 feet, and its weight

[Milford-on-Sea

SHARKS AND RAYS 271

these its trivial name. All |
these rays, in fact, have some :

form or other of formidable
offensive and defensive appa-
ratus. The STING-RAY has
on its tail a fearful serrated
dagger, 6 or 8 inches long in
large examples; while the
TORPEDO- or NUMB-FISH has
electric organs in the head,
with the aid of which it can
giveashocksufficiently strong
to paralyse the fishes on
which it feeds.

Two interesting peculi-
arities of the rays deserve
notice in concluding this
chapter. The first is that - +

their egg-purses, instead of Photo by W’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.J | Milford-en-Sea
attaching themselves with SHOVEL-NOSED SKATE
filaments to weeds and rocks, Known also as the Halavi Ray

like those of the sharks, are

provided with a sticky secretion which answers the same purpose of anchoring them in
security from currents that would carry them out into deep, cold water. The second is
the sexual difference in the teeth, which are pointed in the male and flat in the female.
Whether this difference in the teeth Gwhich may be likened to that between the bills of
the male and female Huia-bird of New Zealand) indicates a corresponding difference in food,
or, on the other hand, some co-operation between the sexes in procuring it, is an interesting
question that our present slight knowledge of the habits of these fishes does not enable us
to answer.

Finally, attention must be drawn to the remarkable transformation which the breast-fins
and tail have undergone. The
former have developed into
powerful swimming-organs,
locomotion being effected by
their undulatory movements,
instead of by similar move-
ments of the whole body, or
by side-to-side motions of
the tail, as in other fishes.
Whilst the latter, no longer
used in swimming, has either
beenreduced toa mere vestige,
as in the HORNED OX-Ray,
or has become developed into
a long and tapering “ whip-
lash,” provided with a poison-

Hae Poe Ones oe 4d cet a A 3h re tave'ty, spine. In such cases the long

be Pe rs px 9 " ue ty ; zy as bg q x aq, é

pees SER hie Che Ce . carat tail is used to encircle prey,
Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.J [ Milford-on-Sea and at the same time to force

PAINTED SKATE the victim on to the deadly

So called on account of tts conspicuous coloration spine.

BOOK VV. FOINTED ANIMALS

Ci sar LER

THE CRAB AND SCORPION GROUPS

BY W. F. KIRBY, F.L.S.

HIS section of animals is often called a‘ sub-kingdom,”
and differs from back-boned animals in having the frame-
work of the body outside. That is, instead of a skeleton,

Crabs, Spiders, Centipedes, and Insects are protected either by a
hard shelly casing, or by a tough skin, to which the muscles are
attached; and this arrangement renders them much stronger and
much less susceptible to injury, in proportion to their size, than
vertebrate animals. They have cold blood, generally of a white
colour; and their bodies and limbs are usually composed of a
considerable number of separate joints.

The group is a very large one, and it is probable that there
are at least 300,000 different
kinds of insects already known,
while the total number of spe-
cies now existing is estimated
by different entomologists as
from two to ten millions. It
is, therefore, no exaggeration
to say that every word of our

= = 4

{ X, brief account of the Insects
l | represents from ten to twenty
Fike SOmae ~~ known species at least. The |
BARNACLES other classes of the group are

A species which commonly attaches also very numerous. Our ac-
itself to ships bottoms and S i
‘Faaling aweerkage count must necessarily be very
short; the characters of the
principal classes of the Jointed Animals are referred to in
their places,

CRABS, LOBSTERS, SHRIMPS, WOOD-LICE, BARNACLES, ETC,

Jointed animals are generally provided with one pair
of long jointed organs, called ‘“ antennz,” a naturalised
word derived from the Latin, in which language antenna
means a sail-yard. They are often called “ feelers,” and
usually fulfil this function at least; but they are also ku

frequently organs of smell, and sometimes probably of BIR, Fy The ARG Repenale Dew
hearing and other senses. One peculiarity of the CRAB A PAIR OF BARNACLES
and LOBSTER group is that they are generally furnished :

; , ’ ‘ The larger sexe of this photograph exhibits more
with two pairs instead of one pair of these organs. structural details than the last

272

CRABS, LOBSTERS, SHRIMPS, WOOD-LICE, BARNACLES 273

=

They are nearly all aquatic animals, by far
the larger portion being marine, and they
breathe with gills. They are provided with |
a hard calcareous or horny covering. The
head is not separated from the trunk, as in
insects; and they are provided with a num-
ber of jointed organs, usually classified as
three pairs of jaws, three pairs of foot-jaws,
and five pairs of legs in the more typical |
families; but in the smaller and more aber-
rant species the number is more variable.
In their early stages they frequently pass
through very extraordinary changes of form,
but after assuming their adult shape they
grow by casting their shells at intervals.

We will now notice a few typical |
examples of the different groups of these
creatures.

The BRINE-SHRIMP is a little reddish
creature about half an inch long, which
prefers the concentrated solution of brine-pits to sea-water. It has eleven pairs of legs, and,
notwithstanding its name, the front portion of its body is considerably broader and flatter in
proportion than that of a real shrimp, the other half consisting of a jointed tail.

BARNACLES were formerly considered to be shell-fish, but are now usually classed with the
crabs and lobsters, because, when they are young, they appear as freely swimming creatures,
with one eye, two antennz, and six pairs of jointed limbs. When they grow larger, they fix
themselves to a rock or some other object by the head, and develop a shell, usually composed
of several pieces. The commonest is the ACORN-BARNACLE, the white shell of which, measur-
ing rather less than an inch across, swarms on rocks at the seaside. It is shaped like a limpet,
but open at the top. The GOOSE-BARNACLES hang down by a stalk, and their jointed sheils
more resemble those of a mussel than that of a limpet, though they are composed of several
pieces. Various species similar to both those mentioned are found on piers, rocks, the bottoms
of ships, and even sometimes on the skin of whales.

In dark cellars in the country, under loose bark, or under pieces of wood which have been
left in the fields, we often see creeping about brown creatures
| about half an inch long, with jointed bodies and antennz, and
| short jointed legs. They are called WoOoD-LICE, and several
| species roll themselves up into a ball when alarmed. These
| creatures feed chiefly on decaying vegetable substances; and
| there is a larger marine species much like them, which is common
in holes and crannies in the rocks on the seashore.

There are other curious creatures, called WHALE-LICE and
FISH-LICE, which are parasitic in their habits. Some of these
look like spiders, and one or two have enormously long legs;
but others are of strange and almost indescribable forms, and
sometimes without legs at all. One species, found on the sprat,

has two long appendages at the end of its body not unlike a
pair of compasses.

Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.5.] [Regent's Park
ACORN-BARNACLE

The general appearance is so different from the Stalked Barnacle that it
is difficult to believe the two belong to the same group

mary a ae sf

PRE TE na Fei SHRIMPS and PRAWNS are red when cooked, but when alive
egent f ar. . . .
WOOD_LOUSE are very pretty semi-transparent objects, which may be seen

idl st ; ; : :
Ae remabieef a meron RNIN about through the glass of aquariums placed against
marine group the wall. Prawns are larger than shrimps, and have a strong

274 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD
|
|
|

Photo by HY. P. Dando, F.Z.8.] [Regent's Park

SHRIMP

4 species which plays an important part in the food-supply

of London

serrated spine in front of the head. Shrimps and
prawns, of which several kinds are found off the
British coasts, generally prefer shallow water, with
a sandy bottom. In most of these the first twa
pairs of feet are divided to form a pair of pincers
at the extremity; but in such small creatures this
is easily overlooked, unless special attention is
directed to it. It is different with the LoBsTERs
and CRAYFISH, which much resemble shrimps in
form, but are very much larger, and armed witha
pair of very large pincer-like claws, in addition to
the other legs. Lobsters live in the sea, in holes
in the rocks, into which they dart backwards, and
there protect themselves with only the head and
claws projecting at the opening, ready to face any
intruder. Crayfish, which are smaller, live in holes
in the banks of brooks and rivers. There are many
species, some of large size and bright colours. The
COMMON LOBSTER is black when living, but other
species are red, blue, or variegated.

Sometimes, if we pick up a whelk-shell on the
beach, we shall find it inhabited, not by a mollusc,
but by a crab, with its legs and claws wedged
together, so as to fill the aperture completely —
one claw, much larger than the other, resting in
front; and if we pull it out, we shall find that,
though the front of its body and the legs and claws

are hard, like those of an ordinary crab, it has a long, soft, fleshy tail, absolutely defenceless
and unprotected. Crabs belonging to this curious section are called HERMIT-CRABS, and protect
themselves by taking possession of shells which they have either found empty or appropriated
by the easy and economical process of devouring the owners. The few species found on the
British coasts are all small, and more frequently noticed in whelk-shells than in any others;

but tropical species attain to
a considerable size, and may
sometimes be found in shells
measuring 3 or 4 inches across
at the opening.

Crabs are distinguished
from the lobsters by their
compact form, and by having
the short tail turned in under
the body. There are a great
number of species, differing
much in size, shape, and
appearance. One of the best
known in England is the
large EDIBLE CRAB, whichmay
often be seen in fishmongers’
shops, and, unlike the lobster,
does not change much in

colour when boiled. Every
visitor to the seaside must

4

Photo by C, N. Mavroyent] [Smyrna

FRESH-WATER CRAB

In general appearance very similar to the common shore-crab

Photo by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S8.] [Milford-on-Sea
SPIDER-CRAB

~dn active sea-scavenger

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.5.] [Milford-on-Sca
BLUE CRAB
Much esteemed for the table

275

276 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

have seen numbers of the little greenish SHORE-CRABS, running about on the sand, or over
seaweed-covered rocks, at low tide. These small crabs are harmless, but large kinds are able
to give a very severe pinch. It is related that when the great chemist Sir Humphry Davy
was a boy he used to maintain that pain was no evil, until a large crab gripped his toe one
day when he was bathing, after which he changed his opinion.

Some crabs are smooth and shining, but others are covered with bosses, excrescences, and
spines, which give them a very formidable appearance, and must be a useful protection against
any enemies to whose attacks they are exposed. In many species one of the two great claws
is always much larger than the other. Some have round bodies, others are oval or nearly
square; some have short legs, and others very long ones. The species differ much in their
habits; and in tropical countries there are land-crabs which live entirely on shore, and others
which are amphibious, and climb cocoanut-trees to get at the nuts. As a general rule,
however, crabs are carnivorous and marine, and play the part of sea-scavengers.

The KING-CRABS differ very much from any now living in the British seas, but
are generally considered to be allied to the Trilobites, an extinct family which appears to
eae ; a Sear Sp A ~ | have been’ extremely
numerous in very ancient
seas. King-crabs are 2
or 3 feet long from the
front of the body to the
end of the tail. The
front part of the body
is entirely covered by a
curved oval shield, while
the hinder part of the
| body is much narrower,
and armed at the sides
with strong teeth directed
backwards, and also with
a long and strong spear,
something like that of
a sword-fish on a small
ee eer re a scale, as long as the rest

FIGHTING CRABS of the body. The few

The males are remarkable for having one large scarlet clazw, the other being rudimentary (the females dee as enon oe es
possess two small claws only). The eyes also are seated at the end of long stalks instance of what is called
“discontinuous distribu-

tion,” since they are found only on the coasts of the Moluccas, East Indies, and the
Southern United States and West Indies.

SCORPIONS, SPIDERS, AND MITES

These creatures form a peculiar group in which there are only two principal divisions of
the body, the head and thorax being fused into one mass, and the abdomen forming a separate
division. In the Mites, however, the body forms a single round or oval mass, even the division
between the thorax and the abdomen having disappeared. The members of the group have
no antennz, but two pairs of jaws and a pair of palpi, frequently very long, and armed with
a pincer-like arrangement at the end, in which case they are called “ foot-jaws.” Except in
some of the mites, which have only four or six, all the group have eight legs. They pass
through no metamorphosis, but moult several times after quitting the egg before attaining
their full growth. They have frequently several pairs of simple eyes, but ne compound ave
like the large pair on the head of most insects,

In the SCORPIONS, of which there is a considerable variety in different parts of the world,

SCORPIONS, SPIDERS, AND MITES 277

the united head and
thorax are compara-
tively short; but the
abdomen is very long,
and divided into a
broad half, consisting
of seven segments,
and a narrow tail of
five very movable
segments, besides a
sharp, curved sting at
the extremity. There
are from three to six
pairs of eyes on the
head and thorax, and
in front of the body
projects a pair of very
large pincer-bearing
foot-jaws. Scorpions

Photo by Highley
are generally of a EGYPTIAN SCORPION
yellowish or black

colour ; and thelargest
black scorpions of Africa and India sometimes measure as muchas g inches in length. They are
nocturnal creatures, hiding under stones, or in holes in the ground, or in crevices in walls during
the day. They kill the insects and other small animals on which they feed with their stings, the
sting of one of the large black scorpions, like that of the large tropical centipedes, being as painful
and dangerous as that of asnake. There are a few small and comparatively harmless species
found on the shores of the Mediterranean, but most of the scorpions inhabit warmer countries.
The JOINTED SPIDERS are creatures I or 2 inches long, remarkable for having the head and the
segments of the thorax
separated from each other,
so as to form distinct di-
visionsof the body. They
have rather long and very
hairy legs, and only one
pair of well-developed
eyes, another pair being
rudimentary. Some
species are diurnal and
others nocturnal in their
habits. They feed on in-
sects, and sometimes on
small birds, etc., and can
inflict a very painful bite.
They are found in South-
eastern Europe, Africa,
Southern Asia, and from
the Southern States of
North America south to
Chili and Argentina.
EGYPTIAN SCORPION The FALSE SCORP-

Shows the sting uplifted for attack IONS,or BOOK-SCORPIONS,

A fairly large and venomous representative of the group

278 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

are small animals resembling scorpions in shape, but with no sting, and the abdomen not

narrowed into a tail.

p - -

Th, Wy *
al 5
: ph
| Sel ry
y hy ae
| (4 ae
v #
' ‘ ¥
“
a - .
#47 % :
Es B
¢ Me ag he.

Photo by Highley
TREE TRAP-DOOR SPIDER OF BRAZIL
Trap-door spiders are plentiful in some parts of Europe

They are sometimes found in houses among dusty old books, as well

as out of doors among moss, or under
stones or bark. Sometimes they cling to
the legs of flies; they are believed to feed
on mites and other small creatures, but not
to injure the flies, only employing them as
a convenient method of being conveyed from
one place to another.

The WHIP-SCORPIONS are not unlike
scorpions, and have large claws, but the front
legs are very long, slender, and whip-like, and
there is either no tail, or else a long, slender,
whip-like one without a sting. They are
inhabitants of warm countries, and, rightly
or wrongly, are reputed to be venomous.
Different species measure from 1 inch to 4
or 5 inches in length.

The curious HARVEST-MEN
eyes, a small, compact, oval body, large
pincers, and very long, slender legs, longer
and more slender in proportion to their size
than those of crane-flies, and equally liable
to be broken off, if the owner is roughly

have two

handled. They feed on plant-lice and other small insects.
We now come to the large and important group of SPIDERS, which more frequently attract

attention in England than any others of the group.

into distinct segments, and is connected with
the thorax by a short stalk. Spiders have
strong poisonous jaws, which make some of
the larger species formidable even to man, and
several pairs of eyes; while many possess an
apparatus for spinning a_ strong silken web,
in which they entangle their prey, consisting
chiefly of flies and other winged insects.

The largest known spiders are usually
placed first in the series. These are the great
BIRD-CATCHING SPIDERS of South America,
some of which have bodies 3 inches long,
and strong, hairy legs. These large spiders
have now been proved not only to feed on
insects, but occasionally on humming-birds,
and even sometimes on larger birds, such as
finches.

The TRAP-DOOR SPIDERS are allied, but
smaller, perhaps averaging about an inch in
length. They construct a silken gallery in the
ground, with a round door, which they shut
behind them when they enter. There is only
one species in England, which does not form
a trap-door, but a silken tube.

The abdomen is not usually divided

Photo by Highley

HOUSE-SPIDER
Exhibits the four pairs of legs characteristic of the group

If any insect settles on it, the spider clutches it from within,

tears a hole in the tube, drags its prey inside, and then repairs the rent.

SCORPIONS, &PIDERS, AND MITES 279

Different spiders have many curious methods of capturing their insect-prey. Some catch
insects by running after them, and others by leaping on them, while those which spin webs
are also very dissimilar in their habits and in their abodes. The brown HOUSE-SPIDERS spin
webs in any room left undisturbed long enough to allow them to construct them. On the
other hand, the ORB-SPINNERS, or GARDEN-SPIDERS, construct elaborate webs out of doors. One
of the most beautiful of these is the DIADEM-SPIDER, which is nearly an inch long, and of a
green or reddish colour, with a white cross bordered with black on the back. The web is very
regularly constructed, the principal threads radiating in all directions from a common centre,
where the spider generally sits in fine weather, ready to rush out upon any insect which may
become entangled in the web.

The GOSSAMER-SPIDERS spin light webs, which are easily carried up into the air, and upon
which the spiders are borne from one place to another. Sometimes on an autumn morning
the air may be seen to be full of these floating webs, which also cover the grass and bushes
where they have settled. The WATER-SPIDERS, again, construct a habitation of water-tight
sill under water, like a diving-bell, and inflate it by carrying down bubbles of air from the
surface, entangled in the hairs of the body.

The nesting-habits of many spiders are very curious. The eggs are usually laid in a
silken case, and the RUNNING-SPIDERS may often be seen with the egg-cases attached to the
end of the body, as in the female cockroach.

The males of many spiders are much smaller than the females, and are very liable te
be devoured by their partners.

Among the most curious of the group are the SPINY SPIDERS, strange, horny, semicircula:

GARDEN-SPIDER IN WEB
A beautiful example of the structure of the web

280 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

creatures, studded with strong spines. They are allied to the Garden-spiders, but confined to
the tropics.

The SPOTTED SPIDER is a very beautiful species, often seen among cases of mixed insects, etc.,
sent from India. It is black, with brown abdomen and numerous yellow spots, and about 14 inch
long; the body is much longer than broad, and the legs are about twice as long as the body.

Attempts have been made to turn spider-silk to commercial purposes, but the great
difficulty is that spiders are so voracious and cannibalistic in their propensities that they
cannot be kept in captivity, for they will kill and eat each other as long as there are any
left, to the very last spider. The silk of some of the large tropical spiders is sometimes.
strong enough to cause aman much annoyance when riding through the woods, striking up
against his face, and sometimes knocking off his hat.

The last section includes the MITES and TICKS, most of which are small or microscopic.
The whole body forms one
round or oval mass, with
scattered hairs, and eight
legs, though most mites
have only six legs when
young, while the PLANT-
MITES have only four. The
largest mites are those
called Ticks. There are
one or two small species
which are sometimes suf
ficiently troublesome; but.
in many warm countries:
they are a far more serious
nuisance, lurking on the
herbage, and fixing their
proboscis in the skin of
any passing man or ani-
mal, and retaining their
hold till they are gorged
with blood, and_ allow

SPANISH TARANTULA themselves to drop off by
their own weight.

Photo by Highley

So called because the bite of an Italian species was supposed to produce a fit of melancholia, which
could only be cured by the tune known as the ‘* tarentella *’ Among the smaller

mites some species are
parasitic on warm-blooded animals, causing itch, mange, and other diseases; while many infest
insects, especially humble-bees and dung-beetles. These are of considerable size for mites; and
there are other bright scarlet species which are sometimes found on saw-flies, dragon-flies, etc.
Many feed on decaying animal or vegetable-matter, such as the CHEESE-MITE and the SUGAR-MITE,,
the former being a very familiar and interesting microscopic object; and others, again, are very’
destructive to plants, like the small scarlet mite known in greenhouses as the RED SPIDER.
Among the plant-feeding mites are the four-legged GALL-MITES, which produce galls or
other excrescences on the plants which they infest.
Mites are probably almost as varied in their forms and habits and as interesting objects of
study as insects or spiders; but the group is somewhat neglected by naturalists, owing to the
small size of most of the species, and the consequent difficulty of collecting and preserving them.

CENTIPEDES AND MILLIPEDES

These are creatures with long, worm-like bodies, composed of a number of rings or segments,
each provided with one or two pairs of legs. They have one pair of antenna, like insects, but

CENTIPEDES AND MILLIPEDES 281

they pass through no metamorphoses, nor do they moult. Instead of this, they begin their
existence, on quitting the egg, without legs, or with only three pairs of legs. and continue to
add to the number of their segments and legs until they have attained their full growth.
They are called Centipedes, or Hundred-legs, and Millipedes, or Thousand-legs ; but in the
majority of species the number of legs is considerably below 100, though in some few it may
exceed 300.

The CENTIPEDES have only one pair of legs attached to each segment of the body, and
are carnivorous, being armed with a pair of strong mandibles, which are perforated poison-
fangs. The common species are all small and harmless, but the bite of the large tropical
centipedes is more painful and almost as dangerous as that of a snake. Centipedes are long,
broad, flattened creatures, with about twenty-one pairs of legs, and sometimes measure more
than a foot in length. A reddish centipede, belonging to an allied family, is common in
England under stones and in loose mould. It has long antenne and fifteen pairs of legs,
and feeds chiefly on worms. It is about an inch long.

Pion by WP. Dando, F.2.8.
GIANT CENTIPEDE

Most centipedes have considerably fewer than a hundred legs

The ELECTRIC CENTIPEDES are much longer and more slender than the others in proportion
to their length, with rather short antenne, and short and very numerous legs. They are of
a white or yellow colour, and 2 or 3 inches long. All are nocturnal in their habits, and
feed on decaying animal or vegetable matter, and are fond of ripe fruit. They emit a pale
phosphorescence, visible in the dark along the track over which they have crawled.

MILLIPEDES are not venomous, and feed chiefly on soft vegetable matter. Except the first
three behind the head, which are provided with only one pair each, every segment bears two
pairs instead of one pair of legs. The COMMON SNAKE-MILLIPEDE is about an inch and a
half long, and is brown, with yellow rings and ninety-nine pairs of short white legs. It is
nearly as destructive as the Wire-worms, which it resembles in its habits, and may often be
seen clinging to a partly eaten potato. Mililipedes are able to roll themselves up into a
spiral. Many foreign kinds grow to a much larger size, measuring nearly a foot in length.
They are more frequently sent to Europe from foreign countries than centipedes, probably
because they are sluggish, harmless creatures which do not bite.

The members of one family of millipedes, called PILL-MILLIPEDES, are so similar to wood-lice

=

282 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

in shape and appearance that they might
easily be mistaken for them, and they exhibit
the same habit of rolling themselves up into
a ball.

A curious genus, generally placed in a
distinct class by itself, includes a few species
which may be called SLIMy MILLIPEDES.
The species are found in widely separated
parts of the world, chiefly in the most southern
regions, such as South America, South Africa,
Australia, and New Zealand, though one or
two are known from Ceylon and the West
Indies. They resemble slimy caterpillars, with
conspicuous antenne, and from thirteen to
forty pairs of legs. The body is not dis-
tinctly divided into segments, and it exudes
a very viscous slime, which acts like bird-lime
in capturing the small insects which form at
least a part of the food of these creatures, but
which will not adhere to their own bodies.
These creatures are found among decaying
vegetable matter.

ECONOMIC STATUS OF INSECTS

Photo by W. P. Dando, #.Z.8.] [Regent's Park A careful inquiry into the injurious and
the beneficent work of insects leaves us in
doubt as to whether the sum total of one over-

Shows the absence of jaws, which distinguishes these creatures from the
y predatory seniipetes i balances the other or not. We find that

GIANT MILLIPEDE

insects are injurious in many ways: As
destroyers of valuable plants; as destroyers of stored food, clothing, dwellings, books, etc. ;
injuring useful animals, annoying man, and carrying disease. And there are many ways in
which insects are a benefit: As destroyers of injurious insects; as destroyers of noxious plants;
as pollenisers of plants; as scavengers; as makers of soil; and as food (for man and beast),
clothing, and use in the arts.

Some idea of the destructiveness of an insect pest can be gained fromthe fact that the
State of Massachusetts has expended over a million dollars in a not particularly successful
attempt to extirpate the Gypsy moth in a few of its Eastern counties. On the other hand,
we may balance to the insect’s account the 36,000,000 pounds which the industrious silkworm

produced last year.

CHAPTER I]
INSECTS

NSECTS are easily distinguished from the other jointed animals by many salient characters.
They have one pair of antenna, two large compound eyes, composed of a great number
of facets, and sometimes one, two, or three simple eyes placed on the crown or front of

the head. In its adult condition an insect is composed of three different parts, which can
be most readily noticed in a wasp. There is the head, with the antenna and mouth-parts;
the thorax, to which one or two pairs of wings are attached above, and three pairs of legs
below; and the abdomen. Insects breathe through openings, called “ stigmata,” in the sides of
the thorax and abdomen. They never possess more than six legs in the perfect state, the
abdominal legs present in caterpillars, etc., disappearing in the adult condition. They generally
pass through what is called a ‘‘ metamorphosis,” — four different stages of life, called respectively
egg; larva or caterpillar; pupa, nymph, or chrysalis; and imago, or perfect insect.

Insects are divided into several large sections, of which the following seven are the most
important, and many entomologists prefer to include all insects under them: —

Sheath-winged Insects, or Beetles; Straight-winged Insects, or Earwigs, Cockroaches,
Soothsayers, Stick-insects, Crickets, Grasshoppers, and Locusts; Nerve-winged or Lace-winged
Insects, or Dragon-flies and their relatives; Stinging Four-winged Insects, or Ants, Bees and
Wasps, and their allies; Scale-winged Insects, or Butterflies and Moths; Half-winged Insects,
or Bugs and Frog-hoppers; Two-winged Insects, or Flies.

We proceed to notice these orders separately.

SHEATH-WINGED INSECTS, OR BEETLES

BY THE REV. THEODORE WOOD, F.E.S.

BEETLES are distinguished from most other insects by the fact that the front wings are
not employed in flight, but are modified into horney sheaths, which cover and protect the
lower pair while not in use. This arrangement, however, is also found in the Earwigs as well
as in the so-called “ Black-beetle” and its allies, and it is to be noted that the wing-cases of
beetles lie evenly side by side together when the wings are folded, while the folding of the wings

themselves is transverse as well as. _ longitudinal. The number of species
is very great, upwards of 100,000 having already been described, of
which about 3,400 have been taken in the British Islands.

The order is again divided into & several smaller groups, first among

of the land. Of these the common
example. It is found on sandy and
at once by its bright green wing-
the metallic blue of the abdomen.
swiftness in the hot sunshine, taking

which stand the predacious beetles
English TIGER-BEETLE is a familiar
peaty heaths, and may be known
cases, marked with white spots, and
Thelegsare coppery. Itflieswithgreat

to wing as readily as a blue-bottle fly, and feeds entirely upon other insects.
Another representative of the group is rich golden green in colour,
with coppery reflections. It is only Photo by W, P. Dando, an occasional visitor to Britain
’

3 F.Z.S., Regent's Park 3
but abounds in France and Germany, where it feeds upon the caterpillars

of the famous Processionary Moth, TIGER-BEETLE and is largely instrumental in
checking their ravages in the great The colouring of this insece Oak forests.

= a H is bright green with ; A .
Familiar to almost all is the Deane PURPLE GROUND-BEETLE,so plentiful
in gardens, and easily recognisable coppery legs by the violet margin to the black

283

284 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Photo by HW’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.
Regent's Park

GROUND-BEETLE
The beetles of this group are generally of

a black or bronzy colour, some species
being beautifully metallic

WATER-BEETLE, which belongs to another group. This fine insect,
which is not predacious in the perfect state, is locally plentiful
in ditches, and is in great request as an inmate of the fresh-
water aquarium. The hind limbs are not modified for swimming

purposes.

Next in order come the COCKTAILS, so called from their

wing-cases. It pours out an evil-smelling liquid from the end
of the body when handled.

The curious red-and-blue BOMBARDIER, which, when interfered
with, discharges a little puff of bluish-white smoke from the tip of
the abdomen, accompanied by a distinct report, is also a member
of this group. It is found under stones on river-banks, and also
on the coast.

Next come the predacious beetles of the water, of which we
have a well-known British representative in the GREAT BROWN
WATER-BEETLE. This insect, which is plentiful in weedy ponds,
swims by means of its hind limbs, which are modified into broad,
flat oars, with a mechanical arrangement for “feathering” as they
are drawn back after making each stroke. It flies by night, often
traveling for a long distance from one pond to another, and
regains the water by suddenly folding its wings and allowing
itself to fall from a height. In
the female insect the wing-cases are
grooved for about two-thirds of their
length.

This beetle must not be con-
founded with the still larger BLACK

curious habit of turning up the end cf the body when alarmed.

To this group belong most of the tiny “ flies’

,

which cause such

severe pain when they find their way into the eyes. Some
species, however, attain to a considerable size, the well-known
Devit's Coacu-HorsE being fully an inch in length. The great ei ca es ee er ae ae

Photo oy #6”. P. Dando, F.Z.S.
Regent's Park

BLACK WATER-BEETLE

A shining black species, longer, narrower,
and more convex than the Great
Brown Water-beerle

majority are scavengers, being GREAT. BROWN
found in carrion, manure, and de- WATER-BEETLE (MALE)
caying vegetable matter. A few, 7@ at gan aaa ae 4
however, are lodgers in the nests broad. The wing-cases of the
of ants, by whom they appear to female are grawed

be regarded as pets and treated with the utmost kindness.

The next group includes the curious insects popularly
known as BURYING-BEETLES, which inter the bodies of small animals
in the ground, scooping out the earth from underneath them by
means of their broad and powerful heads, and shovelling it back
when the carcases have sunk to a sufficient depth. The eggs
are laid in the carrion thus buried. Most of these beetles are
distinguished by broad blotches or bars of orange on the wing-
cases, but one common British species is entirely black.

Allied to these, and very similar in habits, are the FLAT
BURYING-BEETLES, of which there are about a dozen British species.
In the best known of these the thorax is dull red in colour, and
the black wing-cases are curiously wrinkled. Another species is
reddish yellow in colour, with two round black spots on each
wing-case. It is found on oak-trees, and feeds upon caterpillars.

SHEATH-WINGED INSECTS 285

The LEAF-HORNED BEETLES are distinguished by the fact that the terminal joints of
the antenne lie one upon another like the leaves of a book. In many cases they can be
expanded at will into a broad fan-like club. The well-known SVAG-BEETLE is a representa-
tive of this group. It is a somewhat local species, being plentiful in some parts of the
country, and entirely unknown in others. The grub lives for several years in the trunks of
elm-trees, feeding upon the solid wood. When fully grown, it burics itself in the earth, and
constructs a large cocoon, in which it passes the chrysalis stage of its existence. The perfect
beetle emerges in November, but remains within the cocoon until the following June. In the
female the jaws are very much smaller than in the male, but are nevertheless more formidable
as weapons. The insect may often be seen flying on warm summer evenings.

A still larger insect belonging to the same group is the HERCULES BEETLE, found in the
West Indies and tropical America, a male of average size being nearly § inches in length.
In this beetle the thorax is prolonged into a horn, which is curved downwards, while the
head is produced into a similar horn curved upwards, so that the two look like a pair of
enormous jaws. It has been stated that these horns, both of which are furnished with tooth-
like projections, are employed in sawing off the smaller branches of trees, the beetle grasping
| were, . aes fe = a a
| | |
| |

| i & sil
Photos by HW, P. Dando, F.Z.S.] [Regent's Park
TWO BURYING-BEETLES

These insects are about an inch in length; many are black, but others have orange-red bands on the wing-cases

a bough firmly, and flying round and round in a circle, till the wood is completely cut
through. This assertion, however, is totally unworthy of credit. An example of the beetle —
evidently imported — was recently found crawling on a hedge near Biggleswade.

One of the largest of all known beetles is DRURY’S GOLIATH BEETLE, a native of the Gaboon,
whose body is almost as big as the closed fist of a man. It appears to feed, while a grub,
on the wood of decaying trees, and undergoes its transformation to the chrysalis state in an
earthen cocoon, the peculiarity of which is that a thick belt, or ridge, runs round the middle.
How this belt is formed is a mystery, as it lies upon the outside, while the grub necessarily
constructs the cocoon from the inside. Several living examples of this beetle were exhibited in
the summer of 1898 in the Insect-house of the Zoological Gardens where they remained for five
or six weeks, feeding on the flesh of melons. A photograph of this beetle will be found in the
Coloured Plate.

The common COCKCHAFER belongs to another division of the same group. This insect is
extremely injurious, as the grub lives for three years or more underground, feeding on the
roots of various cultivated plants. The perfect beetle appears in May and June, and is only
too plentiful almost everywhere. A month or so later its place is taken by the SUMMER
CHAFER, or JUNE BuG, which may often be seen flying in hundreds round the tops of

Ig

286

THE LIVING ANIMALS

OF THE WORLD

Photo by H’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.

MALE STAG-BEETLE

The males are often 2 inches long ; the females have comparatively small

jaws

bury them.

being exactly sufficient for its requirements.

sect; it tunnels down to a
depth of 14 or 15 inches be-
neath a patch of excrement, and
lays its egg at the bottom of
the burrow.

The SkipjyAcK BEETLES,
parents of the well-known Wire-
worms, which cause so much
mischief by feeding upon the
roots of cultivated crops, repre-
sent another group. These
beetles owe their popular title
to their singular method of re-
gaining their feet when they
happen to roll over upon their
backs. Their bodies being very
smooth and polished, and their
legs very short, they cannot re-
cover their footing in the
ordinary manner. On the lower
part of the body, however, is a
highly elastic spine, known as

low trees soon after sunset, while the
smaller COCH-Y-BONDDHU — the “ Cocker-
bundy” of the angler — often appears about
the same time in hundreds of thousands.
The beautiful

ROSE-BEETLE, |
too, with its ‘|
bright golden-

green
cases marked
with wavy
whitish lines,
may often be
sunning

wing-

seen
itself in roses
or on the
blossoms of
pinks.
T hie
fam © w& s
EGYPTIAN
SCARAB.EUS is
also a member
of this group.

Photo by HW’. P. Dando, F.Z.S.
Regent's Park

SKIPJACK BEETLE

The larvae of this family are known
as Wire-worms

It is remarkable not only

for the sacred character attributed to it
by the ancient Egyptians, but also for its
curious habit of rolling along balls of dung
until it can find a soft spot in which to
When the egg hatches, the grub feeds upon the dung, the quantity provided
The common Dor BEETLE is allied to this in-

Photo by L, H. Foutel]

[New York

HERCULES BEETLE FLYING

The most remarkable feature about this insect is its huge horn-like projection from the thorax,
which is nearly as long as the rest of its body

SHEATH-WINGED INSECTS 87

iW)

the “ mucro,” which lies in a sheath. When the beetle falls over, it arches its body into the
form of a bow, resting only upon the head and the extreme tip of the abdomen, removes the
spine from its sheath, and then drives it sharply back again. The result is that the central
part of the body strikes the ground with such force that the insect springs into the air to a
height of 2 or 3 inches. Then, turning half over as it falls, it alights on its feet.

The FIRE-FLY of the tropics belongs to the same group. The luminosity of this insect
proceeds from two different parts of the body, a brilliant yellowish-green light shining out
through two transparent window-like spots on the thorax, while an orange glow is visible on
the lower surface of the abdomen. The exact cause of the light is unknown, as is also the
manner of its control by the
insect.

The same may be said
of the common GLOW-WORM,
in which the light proceeds
from the lower surface of
the hind part of the body.
The male of this insect is
winged; the female is grub-
like in appearance and wing-
less. The grub itself, which
may be found in autumn, is
also luminous, and feeds upon
snails.

Another group includes
a very large number of beetles
of very varying character and
appearance. Among these are
the OIL-BEETLES, so called
from their habit of exuding
small drops of an oily liquid
from the joints of their limbs
when handled. The eggs are
laid in batches of several
thousand in holes in the
ground, and the little long-
legged grubs, on emerging,
clamberupthe stemsofflowers,
and hide themselves among

the petals to await the coming Hoh Seyret Bens) en Ce er ee ee Lsnepiele
of a bee. When one of the

] l f A very destructive insect which feeds on the leaves of trees, The larwa devours the roots of
atter appears, two or three o plants, and is often so plentiful as to cause very serious mischief
the grubs cling to its hairy

body, and are carried back to the nest, in which they live as parasites. One of these beetles
may be seen commonly upon grassy banks in early spring.

Allied to these insects is the BLISTER-BEETLE, or SPANISH FLy, so well known from its use
in medicine. It is a very handsome species, of a bright golden-green colour, occasionally
found in Great Britain on the foliage of ash-trees. In many parts of Southern Europe it is
extremely abundant.

The beetles belonging to the large and important group of WEEVILS are characterised, as
a rule, by the fact that the head is prolonged into a more or less long and slender snout,
or “rostrum,” at the end of which the jaws are situated. The number of species already
known is above 20,000.

288 FHE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

One of the largest and
most famous of these in-
sects is the DIAMOND-
BEETLE of Brazil, the scales
from whose wing-cases are
so frequently mounted as
microscopic objects. When
viewed through a_ good
instrument under a power-
ful light, the beauty of
these scales is simply in-
describable. All that one
can say of them is that
they seem to be composed
of diamonds, rubies,
topazes, and emeralds
massed together in rich
profusion, while diamonds
are transformed into rubies,
rubies into topazes, and

Photo by L. He Foutel) (New York :
HARLEQUIN BEETLE topazes into emeralds at
every change of light.

The OSIER-WEEVIL, a
black-and-white species about three-eighths of an inch long, is found on osiers in Great Britain,
the grub boring galleries in the stems, and often causing considerable damage. The well-known
CORN-WEEVIL is still more destructive in granaries, the walls of which are often completely
blackened by its crawling multitudes. The grub lives inside the grain, eating out the whole
of the interior, and a single pair of the weevils are said to be capable of producing a family of
more than 6,000 individuals in the course of a single season. The RICE-WEEVIL is equally
destructive to rice, and may be recognised by the two red spots on each wing-case.

The famous “GRU-GRU” of the West Indies, which is regarded as so great a dainty both
by the negroes and by many of the white colonists, is the grub of the PALM-AWEEVIL. It
lives in the stems of palm-trees, and also in those of sugar-canes, causing a great deal of
mischief by its burrowings. When fully fed, it constructs a cocoon by tearing off strips of
bark and weaving them neatly together. The SUGAR-WEEVIL is still more troublesome, feeding
upon the juice of the sugar-cane, and affecting the entire plant in such a manner that sugar

Notice the enormous length of the front legs

can no longer be manufactured from it.
‘“Bad” nuts are also due to one of
these insects, the common NUT-WEEVIL,
which introduces its egg into the kernel | ‘
during the earlier stages of its development. ™. as
When the grub hatches, it proceeds to de-
vour the kernel, leaving a quantity of bad-
flavoured “‘frass” behind it, while the shell
is left untouched until the perfect insect | of
emerges. An allied species attacks acorns
in a similar manner.
Among the finest and largest of all
beetles are many of those belonging to the y ieee ae — = a J
‘ oto by F. Edwards olesborne
great Long-horn group, of which the com- JUMPING-BEETLE, ALLIED TO THE
mon BRITISH MUSK-BEETLE is a familiar TURNIP_FLEA
example. This insect owes both its popular It is about one-tenth of an inch in length

SHEATH-WINGED INSECTS 289

and scientific titles to its powerful odour, which perhaps resembles that of sweetbriar rather
than musk, and can often be detected at a distance of twenty or thirty yards. The beetle,
which is rich metallic green in colour, with long, slender antenne, may be found in July
sunning itself on the trunks or foliage of willow-trees. It varies considerably in size.

Still more plentiful is the WASpP-BEETLE, with its black wing-cases banded with bright
yellow. While flying, it may easily be mistaken for the insect whose name it bears. The
grub lives in old posts, rails, hop-poles, etc., feeding upon the solid wood.

The TIMBERMAN is remarkable for the extreme length of the antenne, which, in the male
insect, are three or four times as long as the body, and trail out far behind it during flight. It
is found, not uncommonly, in fir woods in Scotland.

The beautiful HARLEQUIN BEETLE of tropical America is one of the largest members of
the group, and is remarkable for the great length of the front legs as well as for the singular
colouring of the wing-cases. It lives almost entirely in the
trees, swinging itself from branch to branch somewhat after the
manner of a spider-monkey. When it ventures into the air, /
it is greatly incommoded by the size of its limbs and the J
length of its antennz, and seems to have but little power of
directing its course.

Another great group of beetles is that of the PLANT-EATERS,
many of which are exceedingly beautiful. The REED-BEETLES,
for example, are resplendent in crimson and green and purple
and blue, while the metallic radiance of others has gained for them
the title of GOLDEN APPLES.

The notorious COLORADO BEETLE or Poraro BuG is a
member of this group. It may be recognised at once by the five
black streaks running down each of the yellow wing-cases. On
the havoc which it causes among potato-plants in North America
it is unnecessary to dilate. Onasmaller scale, the TURNIP-FLEA
is very mischievous in Britain, perforating the leaves of turnip-
plants, or — worse still — eating off the seed-leaves as soon as they
appear above the surface of the ground. Of only too many of
these exquisite beetles, in fact, it must be said that their beauty is
only equalled by their destructiveness.

The LabDybIRDs include a very large number of species.
Some of these, such as the common Two-sSpoT LADYBIRD, are
exceedingly variable, a long series being easily obtained in
which no two specimens resemble one another. Both as grubs
and as perfect insects they feed upon the ‘Green Fly” of the mong the group to which this insect belongs
farmer, combining with the grubs of the Lace-wing and Hoverer mia Ayal nicit ea

’ 5 DS 5 coloured British beetles
Flies to keep its numbers within due limits.

Almost equally common is the SEVEN-SPOT LADYBIRD, a considerably larger insect, with
seven round black spots on its scarlet wing-cases, which may be seen on almost any grassy
bank in spring. Both this and the preceding species sometimes visit the Kentish coast in vast
swarms, the beach being reddened by their bodies for miles. The last immigration of this
description took place in 1886, in the summer of which year the hops in East Kent were
almost destroyed by blight, and the ladybirds made their way at once to the hop-fields and
cleared them of the pest in a wonderfully short space of time. A much smaller species,
known as the TWENTY-TWO Spor, is yellow in colour and has eleven black spots on each wing-
case. It is generally found crawling about on nettle-leaves in the early part of the summer.

Allied to the Ladybirds are the very curious TORTOISE-BEETLES. In these insects the
wing-cases project to a considerable distance beyond the sides of the body, and the legs are
so short that only the feet can be seen from above, so that the appearance is very much like

r j

Photo by ¥, Edwards} [Colesborne

REED-BEETLE

200 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORKLD

r ae

that of a tortoise with the limbs partly with-
drawn into the shell. Many different species
are known, in some of which the wing-cases
are streaked with brilliant metallic silver,
which, however, fades away very shortly after
death. The commonest of the British tor-
toise-beetles is found on thistles.

Another very large group of beetles is
represented by the CELLAR-BEETLE, which is
generally very common in old houses. This
insect must not be confused with the so-
called ‘‘ Black-beetle,” from which it may
easily be distinguished by its deep black
colour, its very much shorter feelers, and the
curious point into which the end of its body
is produced. It hides away in dark corners
by day, and crawls slowly about by night.
Related to it is the MEAL-wWORM, so much
in request for the food of cage-birds, which
is usually very plentiful in granaries.

Very different in appearance, yet belong-
ing to the same group, is the handsome
CARDINAL BEETLE, a bright scarlet insect
which is not uncommon in summer. It may
sometimes be found lurking behind pieces
of loose bark, and is also fond of resting
upon the flowers of umbelliferous plants in the hot sunshine. A second species, which is not
nearly so plentiful, may be distinguished by the fact that the head is entirely black.

Still more curious is the RHIPIPHORUS BEETLE, which is parasitic within the nests of
wasps. Where the egg is laid, or how the grub first finds its way into the nest, no one has
yet succeeded in discovering; but having made its entry, the insect proceeds to burrow into
the body of a wasp-grub, and lives within it for several days, feeding upon its flesh mean-
while. After increasing considerably in size, it creeps out of the carcase of its victim and
changes its skin, after which it resumes its interrupted meal, and continues to feed until the
last vestige of the wasp-grub has been devoured. It then changes to a chrysalis in the
cell, and the perfect insect appears a few days later. Oddly enough, the wasps appear to take
no notice of its presence, and never attempt to molest it. The two sexes of this beetle are
quite unlike one another, the male having the wing-cases yellow and the feelers heavily plumed,
while the female is black, with the feelers only slightly toothed.

Most singular of all the insects belonging to this order, however, is the strange little
STALK-EYED BEETLE, which spends the greater part of its life half buried in the body of a bee.
In this insect the feelers are branched, somewhat like the antennules, or lesser feelers, of a
lobster, and the eyes, which are comparatively few in number, are set at the ends of short
foot-stalks. The male has very narrow wing-cases, but extremely large wings, which have a
milky appearance during flight that can hardly be mistaken. The female has no wings at all,
and in general aspect is nothing more than a grub. In early spring a great number of
solitary bees are infested by this extraordinary parasite, which burrows into their bodies under
cover of the projecting edges of the segments, and there remains feeding upon their internal
juices for several weeks, with only just the tip ofits tail protruding. When fully fed, it emerges
from the body of its involuntary host, leaving a large round hole behind it, which frequently
closes up and heals. In any case, strange to say, the ravages of the parasite appear to have but
little effect upon the health of the bee.

Phots by HW. P. Dando, F.Z.S.

MUSK-BEETLE

The odour of this beetle may often be detected at a distance of twenty or
thirty yards

STRAIGHT-WINGED INSECTS 291

STRAIGHT-WINGED INSECTS, OR EARWIGS, COCKROACHES, SOOTHSAYERS,
STICK-INSECTS, CRICKETS, GRASSHOPPERS, AND LOCUSTS

BY W.,. F.. KIRBY, F.L.S,

THE insects of this order are less numerous in species than those of any other but the next,
and are easily recognised. The fore wings are usually of a leathery consistency, and the hind
wings are folded beneath them like a fan in the more typical families, though in
the Earwigs and Cockroaches a somewhat different arrangement prevails. In the
Earwigs, indeed, the wings are doubled back at the ends, and in the Cockroaches
the wing-cases, or ‘“‘tegmina,” as they are technically called, overlap. As a rule
these insects feed entirely on vegetable substances. The ‘‘ Soothsayers”’ form an
exception, being carnivorous, though they are not parasitic, like the _Ichneumon- |
flies, but feed on fresh food; and several species of Earwigs, Cockroaches, and photo ty WP.
Crickets, especially those which are semi-domesticated, are omnivorous, and will aie nas
eat animal as well as vegetable food. These insects have an imperfect metamor- he Sita
phosis — that is, there is no inactive pupa-state; but the young, on emerging from Hite appena-

. : She - age at the end
the egg, already possess a recognisable resemblance to their full-grown parents, af wile teri
and their metamorphosis consists of a series of moults, before the last of which oe
rudimentary wings appear in those species which ultimately acquire these appen- ‘filling i
dages. A considerable number of species never have wings, a circumstance which wafolding the
frequently renders it difficult to determine whether a specimen is fully developed. “8
The antenne are usually long, and the joints distinctly separated, but are very rarely feathered.
At the other end of the body we often find two long jointed organs, called “cerci.” The jaws
are always furnished with strong mandibles. Many Grasshoppers and Locusts have a curious
arrangement on the shank of the front leg, consisting either of a round or an oval cavity
on each side, closed by a membrane, or of two long parallel slits in front. These are con-
sidered to be organs of hearing. The largest known insects belong to this order; the proportion
of large or moderate-sized species is considerable; and the smallest are probably considerably
larger than the smallest members of any other group. They are not numerous in temperate

climates; there are only about fifty British
| | species, and most of the larger of these are
either naturalised species, or merely casual
visitors from abroad.

The EARWIGS form the first family. Some
are wingless, but most have very short wing-cases,
under which very large wings, forming the most
beautiful feature of these otherwise unattractive
insects, are doubled and folded into a very
small compass. Some of the smaller species fly
readily; but others, such as the COMMON Ear-
WIG, though furnished with ample wings, are
rarely seen to use them. The most conspicuous
organ of the earwigs is the curious forceps at
the extremity of the body, the use of which
does not seem to be well made out, though it
has been suggested that it is used for folding
/ and unfolding the wings. The forceps differs
| very much in size and shape in different species ;
imine ance. itis always larger in the male than in the

AMERICAN COCKROACH female, and often differently shaped. In the

a :
Gases Sumani abeealnacee cial wer find tu sauce para her “EDMON, earwig the male forceps is flattened
ire and contiguous at the base, and rounded and

i 7

|

292 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Photo by Highley
STICK-INSECT
The largest insect known is a species of stick-insect 3 it is a native of
Borneo, and measures 13 inches

Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co,] [Parson's Green
WALKING LEAF-INSECTS

Watives of the East Indies, and remarkable for their resemblance to
green leaves

incurved at the extremity. There are two
varieties, in one of which the forceps is
twice as long as in the other; but inter-
mediate gradations do not seem to be met
with. In the female the forceps is narrow,
nearly straight, and approximating. The
earwig is a nocturnal insect, and hides itself
during the day in large-headed flowers, like
dahlias, to which it is very destructive, or
in any convenient dark and narrow crevice,
especially among decaying vegetable matter.
It derives its name from its occasionally
entering the human ear, but it may be
easily driven out by dropping ina little olive
oil. In most books it is denied that earwigs
enter the ear at all, but it is, nevertheless,
an undoubted fact; and the fanciful deriva-
tion that has been suggested of earwzng in
the place of carwig cannot be entertained
respecting an insect which seldom shows its
wings at all. It should be noted that the
female earwig is said to tend her young
very much as a hen tends her chickens — an
uncommon habit in insects.

The COMMON COCKROACH is too well
known to need description. The individuals
with half-developed wings are the perfect
females; but there are other species in which
the wings are fully developed in both sexes,
others in which the male is winged and
the female wingless, and others again in
which both sexes are wingless. In warm
countries and on ship-board cockroaches are
far more troublesome than in cold climes;
and the large brown ones, with a mark on
the back of the thorax resembling a crown,
and very broad wing-cases and wings, are
called DRUMMERs in the West Indies, from
the loud noise they keep up during the
night.

Lady Burton has given an amusing
account of her introduction to cockroaches
abroad: “ After two days we were given a
very pleasant suite of rooms — bedroom,
dining- and drawing-room—with wide win-
dows overlooking the Tagus and a great part
of Lisbon. These quarters were, however,
not without drawbacks, for here occurred an
incident which gave me a foretaste of the
sort of thing I was to expect in Brazil.
Our bedroom was a large whitewashed place;
there were three holes in the wall, one at

Oo

LIATH BEETLE. CARPENTER BEE.

CORAL-WINGED GRASSIIOPPER. BLUE-WINGED CANDLE INSECT.

ROBBER FLY LONG-IIORNED ANT-LION,

STRAIGHT-WINGED INSECTS 293

the bedside bristling with horns, and these were cockroaches some three

inches long. The drawing-room was gorgeous with yellow satin, and

the magnificent yellow curtains were sprinkled with these crawling \
things. The consequence was that I used to stand on a chair and
scream. This annoyed Richard very much. ‘A nice sort of traveler

and companion yow are going to make,’ he said; ‘I suppose you think \
you look very pretty and interesting standing on that chair and \
howling at those innocent creatures.’ This hurt me so much that,
without descending from the chair, I stopped screaming, and made a
meditation like St. Simon Stylites on his pillar; and it was, ‘ That if I
was going to live ina country always in contact with these and worse
things, though I had a perfect horror of anything black and crawling,
it would never do to go on like that.’ So I got down, fetched a basin
of water and a slipper, and in two hours by the watch I had knocked
ninety-seven of them into it. It cured me. From that day I had no
more fear of vermin and reptiles, which is just as well in a country
where Nature is over-luxuriant. A little while after we changed our
rooms we were succeeded by Lord and Lady Lytton, and, to my
infinite delight, I heard the same screams coming from the same room
a little while after. ‘There,’ I said in triumph, ‘you see I am not the oz/y woman who
does not like cockroaches.’ ”

The dimensions of the insects are not so much exaggerated; for I believe this story refers
to the large reddish cockroach, which is common in many cities, although only in warehouses.
It does not usually much exceed an inch in length; but the antennz are very long, and the
wing-cases expand nearly 3 inches. (See photograph on page 689.)

The SOOTHSAYERS, or PRAYING-INSECTs, are not british, though one or two species are found
in the south of Europe. They have long fore legs, the shanks of which are set with a double

row of long, curving, sabre-like spines, and when at rest they
| hold them up as if in the attitude of prayer; but they are
really on the look-out for prey, and the long spines are admirably
adapted for wounding or grasping the insects which form their
food. They also fight fiercely among themselves, and it is no
uncommon occurrence fora female to tear to pieces and devour
her mate, either during or after their courtship. The soothsayers
are often of a green colour, so as to match the grass and leaves
among which they lve, and thus conceal them from their prey.

The STICK-INSECTS, or SPECTRE-INSECTS, have some resem-
blance to the Soothsayers, but are exclusively vegetable-feeders, and
have long, sprawling legs, or shorter ones, sometimes more or less
lobate; but they never possess prehensile fore legs for seizing prey.
The wing-cases are generally quite small; but some species have
beautiful large green or pink wings, folded fan-wise, and covered by
the stout front border of the wing. Many species are wingless,
and of a grey or brown colour, which renders them scarcely distin-
guishable from dry bits ofstick ; and among these is the largest living
insect known, a grey stick-like species from Borneo, measuring
| nearly 13 inches from head to tail. Other species have curious

Photo by HW’. P. Dando, F.Z.S. excrescences on the legs and body, which make them look like
bits of wood overgrown with moss or lichen; while others possess
large flat lobes growing from the legs and body, which cause them
A brown insect about 2 inches long. +4 be almost indistinguishable from green leaves; and, indeed,

The very broad and flat front legs . 3
are used for eee - these insects are frequently called ‘* Walking Leaves.”

Photc by WH’, P. Dando, F.Z.S,

HOUSE-CRICKET

Very similar in its habits to
the cockroach

MOLE-CRICKET

294

THE LIVING ANIMALS

OF THE WORLD

Photo by L. H. Foutel]
LONG-HORNED GRASSHOPPER

[New York

This insect belongs to the same family as the well-known British species.

specimen from which this photograph was taken had unfortunately (as is often
the case} broken antenne ; they should be twice as long as the wings

thrown on the ground overnight, and a
board laid over it, one or two mole-crickets
are likely to be found underneath in the
morning. The HOUSE-CRICKET resembles
this insect in colour, but is not much more
than half an inch long, and there is nothing
remarkable in the structure of its legs. It is
almost the only noisy insect found in English
houses, and is very similar to the common
cockroach in its habits, although free from
the disagreeable smell which adds to the
disgust the latter insect often inspires. The
third species, the FIELD-CRICKET, a
smooth black insect, larger and stouter than
the house-cricket. It constructs burrows in
grassy places, but is not now a very common
species in England. In the last two species,
and many others, there is a bare space on
one of the wing-cases of the male, crossed
by ribs in a manner varying according to
the species, which helps to produce the
loud chirping for which these insects are
remarkable.

The LONG-HORNED GRASSHOPPERS,
which form the next family, are distinguished
by having four joints to their feet, a long ovi-
positor in the female, and very long, slender
antennz. The commonest species inhabiting
England, and one of the largest grasshop-
pers, is the GREAT GREEN GRASSHOPPER,
which is found leaping about among long

is

Photo by ¥. Edwards)

With the CRICKETS we commence
the last three families of the group,
which distinguished from the
others by their power of leaping.
The hind legs are very long, with
very thick thighs, and generally a
double row of strong teeth or spines
on the shanks. The feet are generally
three-jointed, and there is usually a
long ovipositor in the females. There
are very few true crickets in Eng-
land, but three of these are very con-
spicuous species. The first the
MOLE-CRICKET, a large light brown
insect nearly 2 inches long, with
broad, short front legs rather like
those of a mole, which it uses in a
similar way. Though common and
destructive in fields and gardens, it

are

is

+ é -
es is not often seen; but if water be
2
, y 4

[Colesborne
CAPE GRASSHOPPER (FEMALE)

This insect, which is remarkable for the inflated bladder-like appearance

of the male, is an object of superstition among the Boers.
Colour, bright appie-green with white stripes

EGYPTIAN LOCUST
A commom North African species

Photo by Highley

EGYPTIAN LOCUST
This figure shows the upper surface of the specimen represented in the preceding photograph
295

296 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

grass and low bushes, especially in the south of England. It is about 2 inches in length.
Among the foreign species of this rather extensive family, we may mention some green or
reddish South American species, with a large round spot on the hind wings, not unlike those seen
in the peacock-butterfly.
The last family includes the SHORT-HORNED GRASSHOPPERS, or TRUE LOcuUSTS, so
very destructive in many countries,
! ' though the real MIGRATORY Locusts
are only casual visitors to England,
the native British species being all
small insects, found among grass,
and doing but little damage. The
commonest of the Migratory Locusts
visiting Britain is the RED-LEGGED
Locust, which expands from 2 to 4
inches, and has grey wing-cases varied
with brown, pale green hind wings,
and red hind shanks, with white
black-tipped spines. Another species,
the EGyprian Locust, more rarely
met with, has brown fore wings, and
grey hind wings, crossed by a broad
blackish band. Two photographs are
given on page 693 of a specimen
brought to England among vegetables
in the spring of 1901. Many foreign
locusts, large and small, have beauti-
ful red or blue hind wings, and some
of these are commonon the Continent,
though not in England; those found
in Europe are comparatively small,
measuring only I or 2 inches across
the wing-cases; but some of the great
South American locusts measure as
much as 7 or 8 inches in expanse.
However, some of the smaller species,
such as the CypRIAN LocusT and
the Rocky MOUNTAIN LocustT,which
measure less than 2 inches across
the wing-cases, are much more de-
structive than the large species.
A real invasion of locusts is a
terrible calamity, for the insects fly

Pesky Wo TesiieeDuc lier th like birds, but in vast flocks, and de-
WART-EATING GRASSHOPPER (TWO VIEWS) vour every scrap of vegetation where
Used by Swedish peasants to bite off their warts they settle. Sometimes a flight, two

or three miles broad, continues to fly
steadily over the same spot for hours together. Sometimes flocks perish at sea, and are cast
up on the beach in heaps like sand-hills, extending for a distance of forty or fifty miles. Nor are
the young locusts less destructive before they acquire wings; for they march across a district in
such numbers as to extinguish fires, fill up trenches, and overcome all similar obstacles placed in
their way by sheer force of numbers; and it is well said of a visitation of locusts, ‘‘ The land is
as the Garden of Eden before them, and behind is a desolate wilderness.”

NERVE-WINGED OR LACE-WINGED INSECTS 297

NERVE-WINGED OR LACE-WINGED INSECTS, OR DRAGON-FLIES AND THEIR RELATIVES

BY THE REV. THEODORE WOOD, F.E.S,

THE Nerve-winged Insects owe their title to the peculiar character of their wings, the horny
veins which form the framework of those organs being multiplied and sub-divided to such an
extent that they assume the appearance of exceedingly delicate network.

These insects fall naturally into two great groups, in one of which the chrysalis, or pupa, 1s
active, and continues to take food like the grub, while in the other it is passive and helpless, like
that of a butterfly or a moth.

Prominent among the members of the first division are the Dragon-flies, which owe their
title partly to their extreme voracity, and partly to the fact that they feed entirely upon living
insects, which they pursue through the air. They are exceedingly swift of wing, and may
be seen hawking over ponds and streams on any fine day throughout the summer and early
autumn.

The earlier part of their lives is spent in the water, in which the eggs are laid by the
parent insect. The grubs are usually of a dull grey or brownish-green colour, and are remark-
able for acurious organ known as the “‘ mask,”
which partly covers the lower surface of the
head. This apparatus consists of two joints,
which fold upon one another, but can be ex-
tended at will, the one farthest from the head
terminating in a pair of large and powerful
jaws. When the grub perceives an insect-
victim, it swims cautiously beneath, and seizes
it by means of these jaws. The “mask” is
then folded, and the prisoner drawn down
within reach of the mandibles, by means of
which it is speedily devoured.

The method of swimming practised by
the dragon-fly grub is also very curious.

Through the centre of the body runs a
longitudinal tube, terminating in a circular

orifice, closed by means of five tightly fitting S
valves. These valves, which together form a
sharp spike when closed, can be separated at
will. When the insect wishes to swim, it
fills the tube with water, and then squirts DRAGON-FLY

the contents forcibly out, the result being — These insects are often known as ‘¢ Horse-stingers,”” although they do
that it is driven swiftly forwards by the i os Bee art el a
reaction.

The pupa of the dragon-fly is very much like the grub, with the exception that the
rudiments of the future wings may be seen on the back.

About forty species of these insects are found in the British Islands, of which the GREAT
DRAGON-FLY is a well-known example. The body is 3 inches in length, while the extended
wings measure about 4 inches from tip to tip. In colour it is light rusty brown, with a
few pale markings. The “ HORSE-STINGER ” — which is perfectly harmless, notwithstanding its
popular title —is also common, and may be recognised at once by its flat dull yellow body,
which becomes blue in the fully developed male. In the graceful and beautiful DEMoisELLE
the male is deep blue, with black patches on the wings, while the female is entirely green.

Allied to these insects is the COMMON May-FLY, popularly supposed to live for one day
only. As a matter of fact, however, it spends a couple of years in the grub and pupa states,
inhabiting burrows in the banks of ponds and streams. These burrows are curved, and have

Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.

298 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

L

PRETO

Photo by H#’. P, Dando, F.Z.S.

defend the nest when attacked.

QUEEN TERMITE
Her huge white body is full of eggs, of which

she lays thousands every day

two entrances, one above the other, so that the insect can
pass in and out with perfect ease.

The May-fly is also remarkable for the fact that the
perfect insect changes its skin shortly after reaching maturity.
Before this change takes place the female insect is the
“Green Drake” of the angler; afterwards, the ‘ Grey Drake.”

To this group belong also the TERMITES, or “ White
Ants,” so exceedingly numerous in almost all the warmer
parts of the world. These are social insects, living together
in vast colonies, and making most wonderful nests, which
consist of a vast and complicated series of chambers and
passages, sheltered beneath a turreted dome of clay. In
the centre is the ‘royal cell,’ inhabited by the “king”
and “ queen,” as the perfect male and female are called.
These are winged when first they leave the pupal shell.
But after taking a single flight, they snap off their wings.
at the base, just as ants do; while for the rest of their
lives they are absolute prisoners in the cell built around
them by the workers.

Shortly after this strange incarceration takes place, the
body of the queen swells to a huge size, so that, to quote
Professor Drummond, she becomes ‘a large, loathsome,
cylindrical package, 2 or 3 inches long, in shape like a
sausage, and as white as a bolster.” She now begins to
deposit eggs at the rate of several thousands in a day,
which are at once carried off by the workers, to whom is.
entrusted the entire care of the helpless young. These
workers, which are exceedingly numerous, also enlarge the
nest from time to time, and construct tunnels of clay up the
trunks and along the branches of trees, through which they
may convey to the nurseries in security the gums and
decaying wood for the nutriment of the young.

A fourth form of insect is also found in the termites’
nest, known as the “ Soldier.” The head is much larger
and the jaws are much longer and_ stronger than those
of the worker, and the sole function appears to be to
Both soldier and worker, apparently, proceed from the

same eggs which produce the king and queen, the difference in development being probably
due —as in the hive-bee — to the character of the food with which the young are supplied.

ie

Photo by HW’, P. Danao, F.Z.S.

TERMITES

The perfect male and female are winged, the “worker? and the ** soldier? being more like grubs than perfect insects

Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S8.] : (Milford-on-Sea
TERMITES’ NESTS IN QUEENSLAND ;

These nests are sometimes 14 or 15 feet high

pre

TERMITES’ NEST IN QUEENSLAND

The smaller nests, when opened and emptied, are used by the natives as ovens
, ’ y

299

300 ‘THE LIVING ANIMALS. OF THE WORLD

ack re

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] ne Os [Milford-on-Sca
TERMITES AT WORK

This shows one of the most destructive of qwood-eating insects, nearly of the natural size

In a state of nature termites are undoubtedly beneficial. They are scavengers, in fact,
whose duty it is to remove the dead and decaying wood which would otherwise encumber the
ground for many years. But in civilised districts they are extremely mischievous, books,
furniture, and all the woodwork of houses being often completely destroyed by them before
their presence is even suspected.

The second division of the order also forms two well-marked groups — namely, the Flat-
winged Insects, in which the wings are fully spread, horizontally or obliquely, even in repose,
and the Hairy-winged Insects, in which those organs can be folded longitudinally, like the
joints of a fan.

Of the former group, the ANT-LION of Southern Europe is a familiar example. The
perfect insect is seldom seen, owing to its nocturnal habits. In appearance it is not unlike
a small and delicately built dragon-fly, with a yellowish head, a black body, and transparent
wings marbled with brownish spots. The larva, however, is terrestrial, and lives in a funnel-
shaped pitfall which it scoops out in the sand, always working backwards in a spiral direction,
and jerking out the sand with its broad head in an almost continuous shower. Having
completed the excavation, it buries itself at the bottom with merely the tips of its jaws
appearing above the surface, and there waits for ants or other small creatures to fall down the
sloping sides, accelerating their descent, if need be, by flinging sand upon them. The size of
the pit varies with that of the insect, the fully grown grub digging down to the depth of
about 2 inches, while the cavity is about 3 inches in diameter.

The mouth of the ant-lion grub is very curiously constructed, the jaws lying in a groove
on the inner margin of the mandibles, or jaws proper; so that while an insect is held
prisoner by the latter, the former can be employed in sucking its juices. When the body
of the victim has been completely drained, the empty skin is thrown out of the pit by a
jerk of the head.

The chrysalis, too, is remarkable for possessing jaws, by means of which it cuts its way

NERVE-WINGED OR LACE-WINGED INSECTS 301

out of the cocoon which it made, when a larva, by spinning grains of sand together with silken
threads.

In some South European and African insects allied to the ant-lions the hind wings are
modified into extremely long and slender shafts, slightly expanded at the extremities. In
an Indian species belonging to a
related genus these wings are scarcely
more than threads, and bear a super-
ficial resemblance to the attenuated
limbs of certain gnats. One group, | he

of which a Japanese species is a

well-known representative, is char- “OY
acterised by the long, slender, and
clubbed antenne.

The MANTIS-FLIES are remark- ;
able for the structure of the fore |
limbs, which are almost exactly
similar in character to those of the
praying-mantis. The upper segment
of the leg is so lengthened as to look
like an additional joint; the lower
surface of the thigh is armed with a
fumber of long, sharp spines} and) “sau yy wo saudieceae, FER
the tibia, or lower part of the leg, TERMITES’ NEST
folds closely down upon it, after the
manner of the blade of a clasp-knife.
These limbs are used for seizing, an insect which is once grasped being effectually prevented
by the spines from breaking away.

The larvze of these insects are parasitic in the nests of tree-wasps and spiders, and have
the peculiarity of practically losing their limbs as they approach maturity; so that while at
first they are free and active, they afterwards become almost as helpless as those of many
beetles. One species is found in Southern Europe, the remainder being widely distributed

over the hotter regions of the globe.
| ; Allied to the Mantis-flies are the curious SNAKE-
| FLIES, or CAMEL-FLIES. In these insects the head is
|
|

tee Gti gba
es

Showing one year’s reconstruction to nest, of which the photographer made a section

very large, and is attached to the thorax, or central

division of the body, by a long and distinct neck,

which allows it great freedom of motion. The neck
‘is usually raised and the head bent down, giving to
the insect a remarkably snake-like appearance.

These flies are predaceous in their habits, and the
four British species may be found on the banks of
ponds and small streams, where they can obtain

i _.....J imsect-victims in plenty. The larvee live beneath the

Bhete: byes Be Dan dey BAS bark of trees, and wriggle about in a singularly
SCORPION-FLY serpentine fashion.

Remarkable for the curious structure of the end of the body Equally curious in a different way are the

SCORPION-FLIES, in which the body is prolonged into

a slender three-jointed process, the extremity of which, in the male, is furnished with

a pair of curved forceps. In spite of their somewhat formidable appearance these insects

are perfectly harmless. They are very plentiful almost everywhere, and may be found in

numbers on any sunny summer morning resting on the herbage on hedge-banks, or running

actively about on the leaves of low bushes. Like the Snake-flies, they are predaceous, feeding
20

302 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

entirely upon other insects, and often attacking those which are bigger and apparently stronger
than themselves. The eggs are laid underground, and the grubs, which are entirely subter-
ranean in their habits, feed upon decomposing vegetable matter. When fully fed, they burrow
still deeper into the ground, and there change into pupa, from which the perfect insects emerge
about a fortnight later. In the common English species the body is shining black, and the legs
are yellow, while the transparent wings are marked with brown spots, which generally form
three broken transverse bands. The insect is about half an inch in length.

Certain allied insects have very slender bodies and long legs, and might easily be mistaken
for ‘‘ daddy-long-legs " by any one who failed to notice the presence of two pairs of wings. A
species found in Southern Europe is reddish yellow in colour, with a brown thorax and yellowish
wings. It has a curious habit of suspending itself from a twig by its fore legs, and seizing any
flying insect which may come within reach with the middle and hinder pairs.

in =

Fhoto by UW’. BP, Dando, F.Z.S.
ADULT FORM OF ANT-LION

The grub of this insect lives in small pits in sandy places, and feeds upon the ants, etc., which roll down the sloping sides

Allied to the foregoing is the extraordinary little snow-insect, which makes its appear-
ance in mid-winter, and may even be found crawling on the surface of snow. In general
appearance it is not unlike a larval grasshopper, with very long, slender legs, and antennze
of about the same length as the body. There is also a well-developed beak. The wings are
quite rudimentary in the female, while even in the male they are so short as to be perfectly
useless for flight. The insect is remarkably active, nevertheless, and possesses the power of
leaping, although the hinder thighs are not developed in any great degree. In colour it is
metallic green, with the beak, antenna, legs, wings, and Ovipositor rusty red. It is not
uncommon in the north of England and Scotland.

Far more generally distributed is the LACEWING-FLY, or GOLDEN-EYE, which may be
seen almost anywhere on warm summer evenings flitting slowly to and fro in the twilight.
During the daytime it may often be found resting upon fences, or sitting on the leaves of low

NERVE-WINGED OR LACE-WINGED INSECTS 303

plants. In colour it is pale green, with a peculiar milky appearance, and the eyes glow as
though lighted by an inward fire. The wings are so closely and claboratcly veined that
they look like a piece of the most delicate lace-work. It is not advisable to handle the insect,
for, although perfectly harmless, it possesses the power of pouring out from its body a liquid
of the most horrible odour, which clings to the fingers in spite of repeated ablutions.

The life-history of the lacewing-fly is very curious. When the maternal insect lays her
eggs, she first deposits a drop of a highly glutinous fluid upon a leaf or slender twig, and
then, with an upward jerk of her long body, draws it out into a slender thread. On contact
with the air this thread immediately hardens, and just as she releases her hold the fly attaches
asingle egg to the tip. In this way 200 or 300 eggs are laid together in a little cluster,
which looks just like a tiny patch of moss. In the earlier botanical manuals, indeed, it was
actually named, figured, and described as a moss.

The grubs which hatch out from these eggs feed upon plant-lice, of which they devour
vast numbers, draining the juices by means of their
hollow jaws, and then fastening the empty skins on |
their own backs, as an American Indian might decorate
himself with the scalps of his victims. Owing to this
singular habit, the grub becomes perfectly unrecognis-
able after the first few days of its life, only the jaws and
feet being visible beneath the pile of dry skins. When
fully fed, it changes to the pupal condition ina silken
cocoon, which it attaches to a leaf, and the perfect insect
makes its appearance in the course of a few days.

The ALDER-FLIES, in general appearance, are not
unlike caddis-flies, but may easily be distinguished by the
fact that the wings are not longitudinally folded while at
rest. They are very abundant in the neighbourhood of
ponds and small streams, where they may be seen flying
slowly and heavily, or resting on low herbage or the foliage
of trees and bushes. The female insect lays her eggs in
clusters of 300 or 400 on the leaves of water-plants,
and the little grubs make their way down into the water
immediately on hatching out, where they creep about on |
the mud at the bottom in search of the tiny creatures on "Photo by HY, P. Dando, F.Z.8. Regent's Park
which they feed. When full-grown, they are about an LARGE CADDIS-FLY
inch in length. They then leave the water and bury ; ; a

z The largest species measures abcut an inch and a half
themselves in the earth, where they change to pupe, aopusg the anges :
the perfect insects emerging in June or July.

The CADDIS-FLIES, of which there are many British representatives, belong to the Hairy-
winged group. The larve of these insects are entirely aquatic, and remind one of hermit-crabs,
the front part of the body being clothed with horny armour, while the hinder part is entirely
unprotected. In order to escape the attacks of predaceous insects these grubs construct cases
round their bodies, which they drag about wherever they go. In one or two instances,
however, the case is attached to the lower surface of a stone.

The materials of which these cases are made vary in accordance with the species. In one
group, for instance, they consist of pieces of twigs and leaves, cut into short lengths, and arranged
side by side in such a manner as to forma spiral band. The larva of another kind uses entire
leaves, gluing them firmly together and living between them. A third species employs grains of
sand and tiny stones, which it arranges in the form of a cow’s horn. Most curious of all, however,
is the case of a caddis-fly which is made entirely of the shells of water-snails. As these shells are,
as a rule, still tenanted by their owners, the snails may sometimes be seen attempting to crawl
simultaneously in half a dozen different directions, while the grub is dragging them in a seventh.

304 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

All the grubs retain tight hold of their cases by means of a pincer-like organ at the end
of the body. When fully fed, they close the aperture at each end of the tube, and assume
the chrysalis state, the perfect insects emerging a few weeks later. Although the wings are large
and broad, they fly very slowly, and never seem to take more than a short journey through the
air. They may often be seen in numbers resting upon the herbage on the banks of streams
and ponds, or crawling down into the water in order to deposit their eggs.

STINGING FOUR-WINGED INSECTS, OR ANTS, BEES AND WASPS, AND THEIR ALLIES

BY W. F. KIRBY, F.L.S.

THE order of insects to which the Ants, Bees, and Wasps
belong includes a very large number of species. All these are
provided with four membranous wings, alike in consistency, and
provided with comparatively few nervures. The wings are
usually of small size, as compared with the dimensions of the
insects, but are very powerful, owing to the fore and hind
pair being connected together during flight by a series of little
| links; and the flight of the insects is usually very rapid.
| These insects pass through a perfect metamorphosis, the pupa
| I S
hats bes Fe Dany eS ~~ being always inactive; the jaws are provided with mandibles,

though a proboscis, or sucking-tube, is also present, and the
abdomen of the female is armed with an ovipositor, or boring

One of the commonest of the larger British : i i Z 3 :
sci ai tae Wlecddlelh Batrp tosees,, neednarinis instrument, which is frequently modified into a powerful sting,
rather more than an inch in expanse, used to deposit the eggs in their proper position. One pecu-

with transparent wings bordered Paar . : A

VE Petaag liarity is that several species of ants, bees, and wasps live in
large communities, in which the bulk of the inhabitants, on
whom most of the work of the nest falls, are imperfectly developed and usually sterile females,
called neuters, or workers. This arrangement is also met with in the White Ants, which
belong to the order of Lace-winged Insects. Among both the Ants and White Ants the neuters
are unprovided with wings; but these organs are ~~ 1
present in the fully developed males and females,
though soon cast.

A great variety of other insects also belong to
this order, such as Saw-flies, Gall-flies, and an immense
number of parasitic species, generally called Ichneu-
mon-flies, among which are some of the smallest

SAW-FLY

insects known.

This extensive order of insects is divided into two
principal sections —those in which the ovipositor is
used as a saw or an auger, and those in which it is
modified into a sting. One of the most interesting
sections of the Borers includes the SAW-FLIEs, in
which the boring instrument is modified into a pair
of toothed saws, which are used for cutting incisions
in leaves, or in the tender bark of twigs, in which
to deposit the eggs. These flies have four transparent
wings, sometimes stained with yellow or purple, and
their bodies are moderately stout and obtuse, and
generally black, red, or yellow. The antenne are very | |
variable in form, and are sometimes knobbed at the Photo by 1’. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent’s Park
end like those of a butterfly; sometimes they are MARBLE GALL-FLY AND GALL
formed of a number of long, slender joints; some-

Found on oak, and not unlike the foreign gall used for

making ink

STINGING FOUR-WINGED INSECTS 305

times of only three—a moderately long basal one, a short
middle one, and a long terminal one, composed of a number
of joints united into one; and rarely, as in the case of the
males of some small species about half an inch long which
feed on fir and pine, the antenne are feathered. The grubs
are very like caterpillars, and are sometimes called ‘“ false
caterpillars”; but a true caterpillar (except in one or two very
rare exceptions among foreign species) has never more than. 3
Photo by Hf’, P. Dando, F.Z.S,
TREE-WASP

Very similar to the common wasp, but builds
its nest in trees instead of in the ground

sixteen legs, while these ‘ false caterpillars” have more, often
as many as twenty-two. They also resemble caterpillars in
another way, for the pupe are enclosed in cocoons. One
interesting Australian species, which feeds on gum-trees, pro-
ceeds from a black caterpillar with only six legs. The perfect insect has a blackish head and
thorax, with three large yellow spots on the latter, yellowish antennz and wings, and a green
abdomen; it measures about an inch and a half across the wings, and has knobbed antenne.
An allied species, found in Tasmania, is said to tend its young larve —an unusual habit, except
among social insects like bees, wasps, and ants. Among the commonest and the most destructive
saw-flies in England are those feeding upon the currant, gooseberry, and pear, of which there are
several species, measuring about half an inch across the wings. The commonest flies which lay
their eggs on the gooseberry and currant are yellow, with the head, antenne, and three long spots
on the back black, and the wings transparent, with black veins. The grubs are bluish green, with
twenty legs, and numerous black dots; and several may often be seen on one leaf. The best-known
of the PEAR SAW-FLIES is black, with the wings transparent, except the veins; the grub is very
like a slug, and is green or yellow, very slimy, with the front of the body much thickened,

The Woop-wasps include only a few species, the grubs of which live in the stems of
plants, or in the solid wood of trees. One of the largest feeds on fir- or pine-trees, and the
fly measures from half an inch to an inch and a half in length, and varies much in size, though
the male is generally much smaller than the female. The female is yellow, with two black

bands, and a stout ovi-
positor half as long as
the abdomen. In the

Prin! male the tip of the abdo-
| 0 men is black, and ends in
°. arectangular point. The

= wings are transparent,

with yellow nervures.
Next to these in-
sects come the GALL-
FLIES, mostof which pro-
duceround gallsonoaks;
and in some species we
meet with a wingless
brood, living alternately
with the winged broods,
but at the roots of the
trees instead of in the
open air. The veining
L of the wings is reduced
ae Pic _..../ to one or two veins;
Photo by Scholastic Phete, Ce.) ae Gi the antennz are rather
TREE-WASP’S NEST long,and not angulated ;
Generally built in a thick bush and the abdomen is

306 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

short, and constricted at the base. The flies seldom measure more than half an inch across the
wings. Some galls are hard, like the one found on the Turkey oak, from which ink is made;
while others are large and juicy, resembling cherries, or small apples, among which is the
so-called apple of Sodom. Others, like the Bedeguar, which is found on roses, have a mossy
appearance. The latter are produced by a small black saw-fly, with part of the legs, and,
in the female, the base of the abdomen, red
beneath.

Some of the smaller gall-flies do not pro-
duce galls, but are parasitic on other insects;
but galls are very liable to the parasitic attacks
of other insects, especially to those of smali
brilliant metallic green four-winged flies, belong-
ing to an allied family, with very few nervures,
but with a black membranous spot on the
front edge of the fore wings, and angulated
antenne. Many galls do not begin to grow
until the larva is hatched and begins to eat.

We now come to five or six families of
parasitic species, popularly called ICHNEUMON-
FLIES, and immensely numerous and varied.

L

Photo by) th. P. Dando, F,Z.S.] [Regent's Park There are probably considerably over 2,000
PINE-BORING WASP (FEMALE) species in England alone; but they are com-
Formidable in appearance, but quite harmless paratively little known or studied. Some of

these have beautifully delicate wings, fringed
with long bristles, and are among the smallest insects known, being of quite microscopic
dimensions. These are parasitic on the eggs of various insects, and some are aquatic. But
the more typical ichneumon-flies are of larger size, often measuring more than an inch across
the wings. Their bodies are usually black or yellow, and there is often an irregularly shaped
space in the middle of the fore wing, where the veins of the wing converge. In these
flies the ovipositor is very short; but in others it is of great length, especially in the case
of the largest British insect of this group, which is
parasitic on the larve of the great black-and-yellow
wood-wasp, of which we have already spoken. This
parasite is as large as the wood-wasp, but much more
slender; it is black, with red legs, and two white dots
on each segment of the abdomen. The ovipositor, which
looks like three black threads, is as long as the whole
body.

The numerous parasites of which we have spoken
usually deposit their eggs in punctures in the bodies |
of caterpillars or other immature insects, which the grubs |
devour from within during the life of their victim, |
leaving it to die when they themselves have reached ,
their full growth. Photo by 1", P. Dando, F.Z.S.

Intermediate between the boring and stinging insects PINE-BORING WASP (MALE)
of this order comes the small family of the RUBY-TAILED Smaller than the female, and very different in appearance
FLIES. These are brilliantly coloured bronze-red, blue,
or green metallic four-winged flies, with the thorax covered with large depressions, and the
abdomen smooth, and usually composed, as seen from above, of one large, smooth joint, and
one or two much smaller coarsely punctured ones beyond it, the last ending in a variable
number of short teeth. They roll themselves up in a ball when alarmed, and are parasites,
depositing their eggs in the nests of other insects. An entomologist once saw a ruby-tailed

STINGING FOUR-WINGED INSECTS 307

fly hurled to the ground by a mason-bee which |
had built her nest in a hole in a wall. The fly
rolled herself up into a ball, when the bee bit off
her wings, and then flew away. But as soon as
she was gone the wingless fly stretched herself
out again, and climbed up the wall to the bee’s
nest to deposit her eggs.

The group of stinging insects begins with
the ANTS, which are probably the most intelligent
animals now living in the world. Different species,
however, differ very much in their manners and
customs, and in the grade of civilisation to which
they have attained. Some of the more industrious
among them keep other insects as cattle, and even
as pets; others harvest grain, while a few species
cultivate grain for their own use; and others make
large mushroom-beds of comminuted leaves, and
thus do great harm to cultivated trees in many
parts of tropical America. When the industrious
ants are not too busy, they sometimes indulge in '
sports and pastimes. But there are some species
which live in idle communities. Such ants are only Photo by W’. P. Dando, F.Z.S.] [Regent's Park
energetic as marauders, and are so degraded that
they cannot even feed themselves, and starve to ‘ i ;
death if they are deprived of the services of their i a i OR rere ie Saale
black slaves, which have beén carried off as pupa
by the others in piratical raids, and brought up by other slaves, which do all the work in the
nests of their captors.

Quitting the Ants, we arrive at a rather extensive series of insects of moderate or con-
siderable size, and with very spiny legs, called BURROWING-WaAsPs. They are brightly coloured,
active insects, and generally dig holes in the ground, which they provision with caterpillars,
grasshoppers, or spiders, which they paralyse with their stings, and leave in a moribund condition
to form the food of their progeny. They are generally winged in both sexes, but in one family
the females are stout and very hairy, and look like large hairy ants, while the males are slender
winged insects, very unlike their partners. In the burrowing-wasps the front of the thorax,
or second division of the body, is usually transverse, and often narrow; but in the TRUE Wasps
it bends back to the wings. Among these latter it is only the small group of the SOCIAL
Wasps which are gregarious, and among which we find workers as well as males and females.
The largest of the British wasps is the HORNET; but there are several much larger species in
the East Indies, some of which are black and yellow, like the Chinese MANDARIN-waspP, the
largest of all, which often measures 2 inches across the
wings. Others are black, with one large reddish band on
the abdomen. Their nests, which they construct of a kind
of paper, are formed in a hole in the ground, in a
hollow tree, or in a bush, or under the eaves of a house.
A nest is commenced by a single female which has survived
the winter, and is afterwards enlarged by the exertions of

ICHNEUMON-FLY

i “A
Photos by HW’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.

KUBY-TAILED WOOD-ANT

her progeny.
The last group in this order are the BerEs. They
FLY may generally be easily recognised by their shaggy bodies
S. i Wasps, most specie solitary
Generally of a brilliant The largest species and legs As with the 2 ° ut oEL e ae. APS olitary .
metallic green or blue found in Britain or live in very small communities. Some few are smooth,

308 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

and more or less metallic. A photograph of a large and
beautiful South American species appears in the Coloured
Plate. The largest British bees are the stout-bodied HUMBLE-
BEES, or BUMBLE-BEES, which are generally yellow, more or
less banded with black, or else black with a red tail. They
form a small nest of cells just beneath the surface of the
ground in meadows. A common European species, not found
i in England, is the large black, violet-winged CARPENTER-BEE,
Photos by W’. P. Dando, F.Z.8.y Regent's Park which makes its nest in a gallery burrowed in a post, where
SOLITARY ANT there is a separate compartment for each grub.
(MALE) ae) There are only a few species belonging to the TRUE HIVE-
Nota true ant, but a burrowing-wasp, believed : : : P
to be parasitic in the nests of humble-bees BEES found in different parts of the world. They can always be
distinguished from any of the SOLITARY BEES, some of which
much resemble them, by having a single long, narrow cell, about four times as long as broad,
running along the front edge of the fore wing. In the solitary bees the corresponding cell
is much broader and shorter, rarely more than one and a half times as long as broad, and
only occupying a small portion of the front edge of the wing.

Hive-bees have always been looked upon with more interest than most other insects, both
on account of the valuable products of honey and wax which they produce, and because of
their remarkable habits. They are probably less intelligent than ants, but they are larger;
and as all classes of their adult population are winged insects, and have been kept in a
domesticated or semi-domesticated state for many centuries, they have lent themselves more
readily to observation.

The hive-bees live in very large communities, and in a state of nature they make their
nests in hollow trees or in crevices of rocks, where they build their waxen cells, store their
honey, and rear their young. There are three classes among them, — the queen-bee, the female
and the mother of the hive; the male, or drone; and the neuter, or worker, which is really
an imperfectly developed and usually sterile female. Like other insects, bees pass through
a metamorphosis, which in their case is of the description called “complete,” for the immature
forms of the bee show no resemblance whatever to the winged insect which will finally be
perfected. Every bee commences its life in the form of an egg. Each egg is laid by the
queen-bee in a separate cell, and in a few days the egg hatches into a white footless maggot,
which is carefully tended by the workers, and fed
by them with a preparation secreted by the bees, si)
which is carefully graduated, not only according
to the age of the grub, but is differently
constituted according to the sex and status of |
the bee; for it is well known that it is in the
power of the workers to develop a young grub
which would otherwise become a sterile worker
into a perfect queen-bee, by placing it in a
large cell, and rearing it on the same nourishing
food which is supplied to those grubs which
are intended to become perfect queens. When
the grub is full-grown, it spins itself a small
silken cocoon, and becomes a pupa, or nymph,
as it is called. The pupa somewhat resembles
a swathed mummy, for all the external portions
of the future bee can be seen outlined in the
hard casing which encloses it. As soon as it ' ~— z 4
arrives at maturity, it makes its way out a as Case en
through the upper end, when the cell is at HORNET

STINGING FOUR-WINGED

INSECTS 309

once prepared by the other bees for a fresh occupant. The
newly born bee is at first moist, flabby, and pale-coloured ;
but in a few hours her skin dries and hardens, when she at once
commences her life-long Jabours, at first tending the young bees
and doing other necessary duties in the hive, and then, a fort-
night later, going forth with her companions to collect honey
and pollen in the meadows and gardens.

There is never room for more than one queen-bee in
a hive; and the queens, which may be recognised by their
longer bodies and shorter wings, have such a mortal hatred
of each other that, whenever two of them meet, they will
fight, if permitted, until one is killed. But in summer, when
young bees are hatching daily in large numbers, and the hive
is getting over-populated, the workers do not permit the
queens to fight; and finally one of them (usually the old
queen in the first instance) works herself up into a great
flurry, and rushes out of the hive, attended by several hundred
followers, to seek for fresh fields and pastures new. This is
called ‘swarming ”; and a strong hive will often throw off as
many as four or five swarms in the course of the summer.
It is then the object of the bee-keeper to get the queen to
enter a new hive, for otherwise the swarm may fly to a
distance and be lost; but wherever the queen-bee takes up
her abode, her companions will assemble round her, and at
once commence the work of building combs and storing up
honey.

The drone, or male bee, is rather larger than the worker,
and has a
more ob-
tuse body.

L

Photo by WH’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.
HIVE-BEE
(QUEEN, WORKER, AND DRONE)

There are only about ten or twelve kinds of
true hive-bees known

He may be at once distinguished by his
long thirteen-jointed antennz, or feelers,

Photo by B, H, Bentley] [Sheffield
BUMBLE-BEE ON EVERLASTING-PEA

Bumble-bees make their nests in the ground, and live in smaller communi-
ties than the hive-bee

for the antennae are shorter and only
twelve-jointed in the queen and worker.
There are several hundred drones in a hive;
but the queen only pairs once in her life,
on the wing, and the ceremony is im-
mediately followed by the death of the
drone. The drones have no sting, for the
sting of the female and worker is really a
modified ovipositor, or egg-laying apparatus,
analogous to the organ which is so con-
spicuous in many ichneumons and_ other
insects belonging to the same order as the
bees. In the autumn the unfortunate drones
are all massacred or else driven forth from
the hive by the workers, when they speedily
perish. The workers are by far the most
numerous of the inhabitants of a bee-hive;
there may be many thousands of them, and
their number appears to be only limited by
the dimensions of the hive itself.

310 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

The ancients had observed something of the economy of bees, but many of their ideas
on the subject were strangely fantastic. It was perhaps natural to suppose that the leader of
the bees was a king rather than a queen; but it was also supposed that a swarm of bees
could be obtained by killing an ox and leaving the carcase to rot. This notion appears to have
originated in swarms of flies, more or less resembling bees, having been noticed flying round or
near putrefying carcases.

Among all the truly social insects — 7c. hive-bees, wasps, ants, and termites, or so-called
white ants — we find that the bulk of the community consists of sterile females, and the number
of fertile females is very small, even in those cases where more than one female is permitted to
live in a nest, as among wasps.

Photo by C. Reid] [Wishaw, N. B.
BEES

Swarming from the hive after the queen

HUMBLE-BEES live in small communities, consisting of males, females, and workers; but
their economy is very simple compared with that of the hive-bee, and they do not confine
themselves to a single female to a nest.

The SOLITARY BEEs are very numerous in species, and consist only of males and females.
They do not live in communities, but each female constructs a dwelling for her own
young. Many cf them burrow in the ground, and they are so far gregarious that a large
number of females will sometimes form their burrows near each other in the same. bank.
The solitary bees are very varied in their habits, and some of them are parasitic on other
species.

The large CARPENTER-BEES, which form their nests in wood, are not British; but there
are some small species which make theirs in the interior of bramble-sticks. Some are very
hairy; others are smooth, and look at first sight like small wasps, being banded with black and
yellow. But one of the handsomest and most conspicuous of the solitary species is the FULVoUS
BEE, which is a hairy species much resembling a small humble-bee, and is one often seen in
abundance along with other bees, flying round sallow blossoms in spring.

SCALE-WINGED INSECTS sii

SCALE-WINGED INSECTS, OR BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

BY W, F, KIRBY, F.L.S.

BUTTERFLIES and MOTHS are easily distinguished from other insects by many very obvious
characters, and a considerable number are remarkable for the beautiful and varied colours of
their wings. These are, as it were, tiled with overlapping scales, attached to the membrane
by a slender stem; hence their name, Scale-winged Insects. These scales differ very much
in shape, sometimes being long and slender, and almost hair-like, while at other times they
are widened at the extremity, like a battledore, or they may be short and broad, like a fan
orashovel. Different forms of scales are found on different parts of the wings of the same
insect; and some forms of scale are peculiar to the male, as are usually the dense tufts of scales
found on the fore wings of the Skipper Butterflies, and on the hind wings of the Chrysippus
Butterfly. The varied colours of these scales are due partly to pigment, interposed between the
extremely delicate double or triple tissues of which the scales are composed; or, more rarely, to
the refraction of light from the surface of the scales themselves, or, as has recently been stated,
to different coloured scales alternating so that the varying colours are visible at different angles,
as in the metallic “shot” colour of the Purple Emperor Butterfly, and in various species
found in South America and other countries. In the case of the Purple Emperor, and in
many other butterflies, this “shot” colouring is confined to the males. Indeed, as a rule,
female butterflies and moths are larger than the males, but far less brilliantly coloured than
their mates. There are, however, many species in which the sexes differ little in size or
colour; but it only rarely happens that the female is more brightly coloured than the male.

The bodies of butterflies and moths, the legs, and often more or less of the base or
borders of the wings are clothed with hair or hair-like scales. These insects have a long or
short proboscis, through which they imbibe their food, which consists of the honey of flowers,
the sap of trees, or moisture from the ground. Like other insects, they have six legs in the
perfect state; but in some species either the front or hind pair becomes more or less rudimentary,
especially in the males.

Butterflies and moths pass through four stages. The egg is laid by the female on
some plant which will provide
suitable nourishment for the
caterpillar. Acaterpillar, which
is the next stage, is a jointed,
worm-like creature with sixteen
legs; those corresponding with
the legs of the perfect insect
are horny, and a pair is placed
on each of the first three
joints behind the head. The
next four pairs, called “ pro-
legs,” are thick and fleshy, and
a pair is placed under each of
joints seven to ten (reckoning
the head as joint one), the last
joint of all being provided with
a pair slightly differing from the
others, and called ‘‘claspers.” In
many young caterpillars, how-
ever, and also inthe full-grown
caterpillars of a considerable

number of moths (especially These butterflies are ‘0 remarkably like certain leaves that tt is almost impossible ta distinguish
among those with slender the difference even at close quarters

Photo by #. Edwards} Lvviesoorne
LEAF-BUTTERFLY

312

THE LIVING ANIMALS

OF "THEW Ode D

Photo by L. H. Foutel]
SOUTH AMERICAN LONG-WINGED
BUTTERFLIES

Showing external resemblance between two butterflies of
aifferent families

(New York

Photo by L. H. Foutel] (New York
DIANA FRITILLARY

The male is dark brown, with a broad orange border spotted
with black. The fema.e has green marginal markings

i

4

Phere yf Baad [\Coleiborne:
QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY

Brown above, with plush spots; spotted with silver beneath

bodies), one or more of the first three pairs of pro-legs
may be rudimentary or absent, and the caterpiliar
walks by arching its back at every step, in a way
that must be seen to be appreciated, though such
caterpillars (popularly called Loopers, on account of the
way they loop up their bodies in walking) are often
very active, and cover the ground much more rapidly
than one might imagine. Sometimes the claspers, or
last pair of legs, are modified into tentacles, which,
in the caterpillars of the Puss-moth and its allies,
contain retractile whips, used as weapons of defence.

Caterpillars are very voracious, and increase in
size with great rapidity; and whenever their skin
gets too tight, after splitting it, they slip it off
(along with the lining of the stomach and intestines),
and after afew hours’ lethargy, necessary to recover
from the debilitating effects of such a serious opera-
tion, and to give the new skin time to dry and
harden, they begin to feed again as voraciously as
ever. The number of these moults varies according
to the species; when the caterpillar has attained its
full growth, it enters upon the third stage of its
life as a pupa, or chrysalis.

A pupa means a doll, or swaddled baby, and is
a very appropriate name for the dark-coloured object,
cased in a horny skin, with no detached organs visible,
except the sheath for the proboscis in some of the
Hawk-moths, in which this organ is unusually long,
but with the separate cases of the wings, legs, etc.,
of the future butterfly or moth plainly visible in the
sutures on its surface. The pupz of some butterflies
have more or less metallic colours; and to these only
is the term “ chrysalis” applicable.

Some pupe are naked, and those of most butter-
flies are either suspended by the tail, or attached to
a branch by a belt of silk round the body. Those
of moths are generally formed either in an earthen
cell under the surface of the ground, or else
are enclosed in an oval case called a “cocoon,”
chiefly composed of silk, though sometimes moss or
chips of wood are worked into it. Other pupe
are found between leaves, or, in the case of cater-
pillars which feed in the wood of trees, or in the
stems of plants, in the galleries where they have
lived.

When the perfect butterfly or moth is ready to
emerge, the pupa splits, and the insect works its way
to the open air. Its body is limp and heavy, and the
wings are like little flaps of wet rag; but it discharges
a quantity of superfluous fluid, generally of a red
colour, and fixes itself on a branch, or other con-
venient foothold, where its wings can hang downwards.

SCALE-WINGED INSECTS 313

The expansion and contraction of the
muscles pump air into the hollow tubes
which form the framework of the wings;
these rapidly expand to their full size, and
become dry and firm at the same time.
After this, the insect flies about with its
companions, pairs, lays its eggs, and then
dies, after enjoying its life for a period,
varying according to the species and
the season, from a few hours to several
months.

We have not yet spoken of the
feelers, or antennz, of butterflies and
moths. They are two long, jointed
organs, nearly always knobbed at the
end in butterflies, or at least the
terminal joints are thicker than the rest.
But in moths the antenne are of different
shapes, and generally end in a point.
Sometimes they are simple and thread-
like ; sometimes they are thickest in the
middle, and thinner at both ends, as in
the Hawk-moths; and they are often
comb-like, especially in the males, as in
the Silk-moths.

Photo by Highley

BUTTERFLIES TAWNY ADMIRAL

As already mentioned, butterflies GE See eet ET)

may be distinguished from moths by

their antenne being thickened
at the extremities. There
are comparatively few species
in Europe — only about three
hundred, of which between
sixty and seventy are met with
in the British Islands; but in
tropical countries they aremuch
more numerous and_ varied.
It is a mistake to suppose
that butterflies are always
bright-coloured insects, and
moths the reverse; for though
many butterflies are brightly
coloured, others are very dingy.
On the other hand, although
it is equally true that many
moths are dull-coloured, others,
especially among those with

slender bodies, or those which fly
CATERPILLAR OF TAWNY ADMIRAL by day, are quite as brilliantly

Photo by L. H. Foutel] [New York

Remarkabie for the sharply contrasted black and pale markings coloured as any butterflies.

31q¢ THE LIVING ANIMALS

OF THE WORLD

Photo by E. C. Atkinson
BLUE BUTTERFLY

Among the most conspicuous of the smaller European
butter fites

Butterflies are divided into several groups, the first
of which includes the BRUSH-FOOTED BUTTERFLI¢s,
so called because the front pair of legs is converted
into hairy paws, useless for walking, and only
employed for toilet purposes. This is a very exten-
sive group, including about haif the butterflies
known, and is divided into several smaller sections.
The most interesting species among the DANaAIDS
is the MONARCH, one of the largest and commonest
butterflies found in North America. Itis migratory
in its habits, and has succeeded in acclimatising
itself throughout the Pacific islands as far as Australia
and New Zealand, as well as in the Canaries; and
so many specimens have been taken recently in the
south of England that it seems not unlikely to take
up its residence there also. It is a tawny butter-
fly, not unlike the one represented on the preceding
page, but much larger, measuring about 5 inches
across the wings. The caterpillar is yellow, with trans-
verse black bands, and a pair of long, black slender

filaments near each extremity of the body. The
pupa is pale green, with golden spots, and is

suspended by the tail, as is the case with most of those of the Brush-footed Butterflies.
The next group, the LONG-WINGED BUTTERFLIES, includes a considerable number of species

with long rounded wings, found in tropical and sub-tropical America.

A species with black

and transparent markings is shown on page 710, but many have wholly transparent wings,
except for a narrow black or brown border.
Turning to more familiar insects, there are several kinds of large or moderate-sized tawny

butterflies, marked with black spots
and lines, called FRITILLARIES. The
caterpillars are spiny, and feed on violets
and other low-growing plants. The pho-
tograph on page 710 shows the DIANA
FRITILLARY, a large and handsome
species, which is somewhat of a rarity in
the Southern States of America; it meas-
ures 4inches in expanse, and the sexes
are very dissimilar. It is dark brown,
with a broad orange border spotted with
black in the male, and rows of more
or less connected green or white spots
in the female.

The ANGLE-WINGED BUTTERFLIES
include several of the best known
and most brightly coloured species,
such as the RED ADMIRAL, a velvety
black butterfly, with a transverse red
band on the four wings, and_ several
white spots between this and the
tip, the hind wings having a red
border, spotted with black and blue.
It measures about 2) inches across

Photo by HW’, Saville-Keat, F.Z.8.] [ Milford-on-Sea

BLUE MORPHO BUTTERFLY AND HUMMING-BIRD

Note proportionate sizes

Phoics by F. Edwards) (Colesoorne
LARGE BLUE BUTTERFLY (MALE, MAZARINE BLUE BUTTERFLY (MALE,
FEMALE, AND UNDERSIDE) FEMALE, AND UNDERSIDE)

[Colesborme

Photos by F. Edwards]
LONG-TAILED BLUE BUTTERFLY BLOXWORTH BLUE BUTTFRFLY (MALE,
(MALE, FEMALE, AND UNDERSIDE) FEMALE, AND UNDFRS!DE)

315

316 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

the wings, and is common in gardens and orchards in summer and autumn. The caterpillar,
which feeds on nettle, is brown or black, with yellow stripes and spines. The TAWNY ADMIRAL
is a North American butterfly, remarkable for its resemblance to the larger butterfly called
the Monarch, of which we have already spoken. The Danaids and Long-winged Butterflies
have tough integuments and a disagreeable odour, which more or less protects them from
birds. Many other butterflies belonging to other families have a superficial resemblance to
these, and are believed to share in their immunity. This phenomenon is technically called
“mimicry.” The caterpillar of the tawny admiral is grey and black, with curious spiny tufts.

Photos by ¥, Edwards] ager 5 oat tae aaa ge (Coles saras
LARGE COPPER BUTTERFLY (MALE, DUSKY COPPER BUTTERFLY (MALE,
FEMALE, AND UNDERSIDE) FEMALE, AND UNDERSIDE)

Taken near Ilfracombe, August, 1887.

The group of the SATYRS contains a great variety of moderate-sized brown or tawny
butterflies, usually with round spots centred with white towards the margins of the wings.
Many species are common in meadows; others, which are dark brown or black, with red, white-
centred marginal spots, are numerous inemountainous countries, and two species are found in
the north of England and Scotland. The caterpillars of the Satyrs are usually smooth and
green, with a forked tail, and the pupz are formed on the surface of the ground.

The great BLUE BUTTERFLIES of South America form another group of Brush-footed
Butterflies.

The second family is almost entirely American, and is only represented in England by
a brown butterfly about an inch in expanse, called the DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY. The

SCALE-WINGED INSECTS 317

caterpillar is reddish, and feeds on primroses. It is not
a very abundant species in England.

The third family is represented in Britain by three
very distinct sections of rather small butterflies, the
largest of which scarcely measures more than an inch and
a half across the wings. These are the HAIR-STREAKS
(brown, with light lines on the under surface of the
wings, and a short tail on the hind wings, except in
the GREEN HAIR-STREAK, so named from the green under
surface of the wings); the small BLUE BUTTERFLIES, which
generally have brown females; and the CopprERs, the only common
species of which measures about an inch across the wings. The
fore wings are bright coppery red, with dark brown spots and borders,

and the hind wings are dark brown, .

Photo by HW’. Saville-Kent,

with a coppery red border, spotted F.Z.8., Milford-on-Sea
outside with black. The small NEW GUINEA
: GOLDEN
copper butterfly and some BUTTERFLY
| iy Ly of the blues are

A remarkableandrecently
common in meadows discovered swallow-

and gardens. eon
Many of the members of
the fourth family are of a
white or yellow colour,
among which are
the destructive
WHITE

CAB-
BAGE-BUTTER-
BET CHS,. SE Ree
species of which are
very common in England,
where they may be seen in
every garden throughout the
summer. The photograph on page 716
represents one of these at rest. <A prettier
species is the ORANGE-TIP, which is common
in spring. The underside of the hind wings is
mottled with green; and there is a bright orange
spot before the tip of the fore wing, both above and below. Photo by We SazillecKent F.ZS8.,
Some of the South American butterflies of this family much LherRanan our peeerue
resemble the Long-winged Butterflies of the same country. Poise Pun pian

The family of the SWALLOW-TAILED BUTTERFLIES includes
a considerable number of large and handsome species, but they are not numerous in Europe,
and only one black-and-yellow species, measuring 3 inches across the wings, is found in
England, where it is now almost confined to the fens of the south-eastern counties; its
green caterpillar, with transverse black bands spotted with orange, feeds on carrot, fennel,
and other similar plants. All the caterpillars of this family are remarkable for possessing a
retractile fork on the neck; but the butterflies do not all possess the long appendage to the
hind wings which has given some of them the name of Swallow-tails. Thus it is wanting in
most of the great BIRD-WINGED BUTTERFLIES of the Eastern Islands, one of which, the CR&sus
BUTTERFLY, is represented in the Coloured Plate. The great difference between the sexes is

21

Se

THE. LIVING ANIMALS OF THe

WORLD

‘Photo by F Edwards]
BATH WHITE BUTTERFLY

Common or the Continent of Eurcpe

[Coleshorne

a female, and the day after a fine male.

coloured butterflies in the world.

the male are more than seven

wings, which are velvety black and fiery orange, the
latter colour replacing the green of the allied species.
The beauty and brilliancy of this insect are indescrib-
able, and none but a naturalist can understand the
intense excitement I experienced when I at length
On taking it out of my net and open-
ing the glorious wings, my heart began to beat violently,
the blood rushed to my head, and I felt much more
like fainting than I have done when in apprehension
I had a headache the rest of
the day, so great was the excitement produced by what
will appear to most people a very inadequate cause.”
The SKIPPERS, the last family of butterflies, are
comparatively stout-bodied insects, with the antennz fo
widely apart at the base, and sometimes forked at the _

captured it.

of immediate death.

Photo by 7. Edwards]

[Coleshorne

BLACK-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY

I found it
to be as I had expected, a perfectly new and most
magnificent species, and one of the most gorgeously
Fine specimens of
inches across the

well worth noting. The female is consider-
ably larger than the male, but in the
coloured figure the former has been reduced,
owing to the exigencies of space. Mr. A.R.
Wallace writes as follows of the capture of
the first specimen :—

‘‘One day about the beginning of January,
I found a beautiful shrub with large white leafy
bracts and yellow flowers, a species of Mus-
senda, and saw one of these noble insects
hovering over it, but it was too quick for me,
and flew away. The next day I went again
to the same shrub and succeeded in catching

[shepfeld
GREEN-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY
The cabbage-butterfly referred to on page 715

Photo by B, H. Bentley]

tip. They are not numerous in Europe; the
prettiest of the British species is perhaps
the PEARL-SKIPPER, which measures rather
more than an inch across its brown and tawny
wings; the under surface of the hind wings
is green, and marked with several clear white
spots.
Morus

Moths are much more numerous than
butterflies, and there are about 2,000 different
kinds found in the British Islands alone.
Consequently we are able to notice only a few.

The Hawk-MorTns have long, pointed

wings, thick, tapering bodies, and the antennz
thickest in the middle. The pink, greenish-
striped ELEPHANT HAWK-MOTH (see page 718)
is a comparatively small species. The speci-
mens measure about 2 inches across the wings.
Some species are much larger. The DEATH’s-
HEAD HAWK-MOTH, whose caterpillar feeds on
potato-leaves, is 5 or 6 inches in expanse; and
some of the South American species measure
as much as 9 inches. The caterpillars of the
hawk-moths are generally green, often with
oblique lines of a different colour on the sides.
They are not hairy, though the skin is some-
times rough, and there is a fleshy appendage,
called a “horn,” on the back, just before the
extremity of the body. The brown pupz
are found in cells in the ground.

The CHINESE
MULBERRY-SILK-
WORM, which pro- ORANGE-TIP
GUGES MIOBE-OL TNS _Shacotng tines diferent guiiions allen tae are filled ant parity
silk of commerce, or entirely concealing upper wing

Photo by EB. C. Atkinson

is a smooth,
whitish caterpillar, about 2 inches long, with a horn. It is
often reared in England on lettuce. The moth is a sluggish,
stout-bodied insect. It is whitish, with two dusky stripes on the
fore wings. The pupa is enclosed in an oval whitish or yellow
cocoon of pure silk.

The EMPEROR-MOTHS, of which there is only one species
in England, likewise spin large cocoons, sometimes used for

Photo by F. Edwards, Colesborne

LARGE GRIZZLED t
SKIPPER BUTTERFLY

Upper- and under-sides 4

commercial purposes. The
caterpillars are generally more
or less spiny or tufted. Some
of the moths have long tails
on the hind wings, like swallow-
tailed butterflies, and there
are several species in South
Europe, South Africa, the East
Indies, and North America of
a beautiful sea-green colour.
It will be noticed that the
specimens represented on page
718 have the tails a little |
broken, which isa very com- ;
mon accident with swallow- | ee ;

tailed butterflies and moths.

We may also notice the round SWALLOW-TAILED BUTTERFLY

Photo by HW’. P. Dando, F.Z.S.

320 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

ELEPHANT HAWK-MOTHS

Showing position when at rest

Photo by Highley

LUNA MOTHS

A green North American moth with tail, allied to the English Emperor-
moth

or crescent-shaped spots in the middle of
the wings of some of the moths represented
on this page and the next. These are
very characteristic of the emperor-moths,
and there is often a transparent spot in the
centre of the concentric markings. Two
other North American species of this family
are shown in the photographs on page 719,
rather under natural size. The second of
these, the CECROPIA MOTH, is represented
withitscocoon. This moth has occasionally
been captured in England, having been
introduced either accidentally or by design.
A year or two ago a specimen was brought
to the Natural History Museum at South
Kensington which had been caught in the
street close by. During the summer many
foreign butterflies and moths may be seen
alive in the Insect-house at the Zoological
Gardens, Regent's Park, and several of the
photographs given inthese pageswere taken
from specimens living there in the summer
of 1901. The largest of the emperor-moths
is the great ATLAS MOTH of North India,
the largest of all known butterflies or moths,
which occasionally measures almost a foot
across its reddish-tawny wings.

CROESUS BIRD-WINGED BUTTERFLY, MALE.

Molucca

CROESUS BIRD-WINGED BUTTERFLY, FEMALE,

M

yucca,

fol

SCALE-WINGED INSECTS

The IMPERIAL MOTH, a handsome North
American moth belonging to a family allied to
the emperor-moths, is represented below.

The EGGARs form another allied family,
also with tufted caterpillars, but with the
central eye of the wings absent, or reduced
to asmall black spot. A set of remarkable
photographs, representing the eggs, cater-
pillars, cocoons and sections of cocoons, and
the moths of a large and handsome species
—the CYPRESS-MOTH of Smyrna — appears
on pages 720 and 721. We have received
the following account of their habits from
Mr. Mavroyeni, to whom we are indebted
for the photographs: ‘In the month of

CECROPIA MOTH
The largest of the North American Emperor-moths

spring.” We believe that the cocoons of
this species are prepared for use as silk in
Greece.

Among other kinds, we may notice the
bright-coloured TIGER-MOTHS, with their black
and cream-coloured fore wings and red-and-
black hind wings, which frequent gardens,
and are reared from reddish-brown caterpillars
with long hair. stout-bodied
moths; and there are other moths, with
brown fore wings and whitish hind wings,
which fly to candles, or buzz over flowers in
the evening. These are called OWL-MOTHsS;
but there are larger and handsomer members

These are

Photo by L. H. Foutel, New York

POLYPHEMUS MOTH
A kands ne North

LE-mperor-moth

American

July they start weav-
ing their cocoons, in
which they remain for
seventeen days. A
couple of weeks after
themoths haveemerged
from their cocoons and

laid their eggs, the eggs
hatch, and the young
caterpillars run up the
tree, and feed from the
end of August, during

autumn, winter, and

Photo by L. H. Foutel |
IMPERIAL MOTH

[New York

Yellow, with purplish-brown dots and blotches. Native of North

America

322 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

of the same family, called YELLOW
UNDERWINGS, measuring nearly 2
inches across the wings, and likely to
be flushed in strawberry-beds or hay-
fields. They have brown fore wings,
and bright yellow hind wings, with a
black border. The RED-UNDERWING
MorH is about 3 inches in expanse,
and has greyish-brown fore wings, and
red hind wings, with a black cen-
tral band; it is often seen flying
about willow-trees in the afternoon,
or resting on tree-trunks, when the
bright-coloured hind wings are quite
concealed.

The LOOPER-MOTHS are those
produced from caterpillars which have
4 Ky only ten legs instead of sixteen, as
Mae 2 Moen impene already explained. Most have slender
bodies of moderate length, and broad
and rather brightly coloured wings,
green, russet-brown, yellow, etc.
Some, measuring about an inch in
expanse, are called CARPET-MOTHS,
from the zigzag patterns on the fore
wings, which are generally black and
white, or brown and white, and
sometimes green. The YELLOW-
SHELL, a yellow moth, with some zig-
zag brown and whitish lines across the
wings, which expand about an inch,
is common in hedges and bushes.
The white, black-and-yellow-spotted
GOOSEBERRY-MOTH, or MAGPIE-
MOTH, so common in gardens, is also
one of the Loopers.

Among the smaller mouths are the
PEARL-MOTHS, with long — slender
bodies, wings longer than broad, and
often with a pearly lustre, one or two
species of which are common among
nettles. We may also mention the
SNOUT-MOTH, a brown slender-bodied
moth, with a pointed beak projecting
in front of the head, likewisea common
insect among nettles. The Grass-
MOTHS are small moths, with narrow

whitish fore wings, and broad brownish
CYPRESS-MOTHS AT REST hind wings, which they wrap round

COCOONS OF CYPRESS-MOTH
These yield silk

Photo by C, N. Mavroyeni] [Smyrna

In the month of Fuly they start weaving their cocoons, in which they remain for their bodies when at rest. They are
seventeen days. A couple of weeks after their eggs are hatched, and the ¥ ee fi : %
young caterpillars run up the tree, and feed from she end of common in every field and meadow.

August, during autumn, winter, and spring The BELL-MOTHS have broadtruncated

SCALE-WINGED INSECTS 323

fore wings, and rounded hind wings. A species
belonging to this family, with green fore wings
and brownhind wings, may beshaken fromevery
oak-tree in summer, and at the same time num-
bersofits little green caterpillars will drop them-
selves down, and remain swinging at the end of
a thread, till they think that the danger is past,
when they climb up again.

The CLOTHES-MOTHS, familiar to every-
body, are representatives of an enormous family
of small moths, comprising nearly two-thirds
of the British species, but only a few live in
houses. Most have narrow wings with long
fringes, and many feed in tortuous galleries
which they eat in the substance of leaves. The inside of the cocoons, showing the pupae
Some are among the smallest moths known.

The WHITE PLUME-MOTH, which may be noticed floating about in weedy places like a
piece of thistle-down, is a representative of a small family in which the fore wings are divided
into three separate feathers, and the hind wings into two. The other species are brown, and
smaller. When at rest, they look like small daddy-long-legs.

The TWENTY-PLUME MOTH is a yellowish-grey species, less than an inch in expanse, often

to be seen at rest on windows or palings.
We y It might easily be taken for a small looper-
|

|

Pheto by C. N. Mavroyen!]

CY PRESS-MOTHS

moth, but that each wing is split into six
feathers.

SILKWORMS

We have now completed a rapid survey
of the principal groups of Butterflies and
Moths, and may fittingly conclude this part
of our subject by giving a short account of
the historyof SILKWORMS — insects which far
surpass all other butterflies and moths in
their importance to mankind, on account of
the valuable product which is obtained from
their cocoons. The industry has been
carried on from time immemorial in China;
and many old Chinese works contain in-
teresting particulars, especially relating to
the rearing of silkworms by the queens and
their ladies, for silk was probably a royal
monopoly in old times. These Chinese
records date back to about 2200 B.c., when
the silk industry was already flourishing;
but, according to the usually received tradi-

| tion, silkworms were first reared during the
reign of the Emperor Hwang-té (2640 B.c.)
_ by his queen. The following extracts from
5 the ‘“Le-he Book of Ceremonies,” written
between 204 B.C. and 135 B.C., and quoted
by Horsfeld and Moore in their ‘‘ Catalogue
When they leave their cocoons, *he young caterpillars run up the cree to feed Of the Lepidoptera of the East India

Photo by C. N. Mavroyenit [Smyrna
"y oy LSmy

CYPRESS-CATERPILLARS

324 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Leesa ¢ ap
Photo by F. Peat Millar] [ Beith
DEATH’S-~-HEAD MOTH
Remarkable for the skull-like pattern on the back

upon the mulberry-trees, people were to prepare
the trays and frames for the purpose of rearing
the silkworms.

“In the spring season, when the empress and
her ladies had fasted, they proceeded to the east,
and personally engaged in picking the mulberry-
leaves. On this occasion the married and single
ladies were forbidden to wear their ornaments, and
the usual employments of females were lessened, in
order to encourage attention to the silkworms.
When the rearing of the silkworms was completed,
the cocoons were divided (for reeling) and the silk
weighed (for weaving), each person being rewarded

fies :
Photo by F, Peat Millar]

CONVOLVULUS HAWK-MOTH

A grey moth, with pink bands on the body

Museum,” may not be
uninteresting to our
readers : —

“In 1 the $first
month of spring orders
were issued to the
forester not to cut
down the mulberry-
trees; and when the
cooing doves were ob-
served fluttering with
their wings, and the
crested jays alighting

Photo by WH’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.,
Milford-on-Seu

DAY-FLYING MOTH
OF MADAGASCAR

Remarkable for the brilliancy of
its colours — green and black,
with the hind wings brilliant

coppery red towards the
extremity

according to her
labour, in order to
provide dresses for the
celestial and ancestorial
sacrifices. In all this
none dared indulge in
indolence.

“Tn the last month
of summer the order
was given to the
female officers to dye
the silk of various

ks none,

Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni]

[impr
GREAT PEACOCK-MOTH
Brown wth pale borders. The largest moth found in Europe

Photo by Dr RU Shufeldt] | Washington
POLYPHEMUS MOTH

On leaves of linden-tree, just out of cocoon. A native of North America

325

326 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

colours, in order to weave chequered sarcenets,
comprising black and white, black and green,
green and red, with red-and-white checks —
all of which was to be done according to
the ancient rule, without the least variation;
the black, yellow, azure, and red tints were
all to be correct and good, without the least
fault, in order to provide dresses for the
celestial and ancestorial sacrifices, and stand-
ards for distinguishing the high and low
degrees.

“Tn ancient times the emperor and his
princes had a public mulberry garden and
a silkworm establishment erected near some
river. On the morning of the first day of
the third month of spring, the sovereign,
wearing a leather cap and a plain garment,
ascertained by lot the chief of his three
queens, with the most honourable amongst his
concubines, and caused them to attend to the rearing of the silkworms in the above-named
establishment. They then brought the eggs of the worms, and washed them in the river
above alluded to, after which they picked the mulberry-leaves in the public garden, and aired
and dried them, in order to feed the worms. rare

‘‘When the season was over, the royal
concubines, having completed the business of
rearing the silkworms, brought the cocoons
to show them to the prince, when he pre-
sented the cocoons again to his consort,
whereupon his consort said, ‘This is the
material of which your highness’s robes are
to be formed.’ Having said which, she
covered herself with her robe, and received
the cocoons. On this occasion the ladies of
the court were honoured with the present of
a sheep. This was the mode in which the
presentation of the cocoons was anciently
conducted.”

In the reign of Justinian eggs of the
Chinese mulberry-silkworm were smuggled
into Europe by two monks, and the culture
of silk rapidly spread through Southern
Europe, where it has continued to form
a staple industry ever since. In the Pelo-
ponnesus especially such large plantations of
mulberry-trees were grown for the purpose
of rearing silkworms as to give the peninsula
its modern name of Morea. Silk is obtained
in different parts of the world from the cocoons
of various other moths, chiefly belonging to
the group of Emperor-moths; but these pro-
ducts are only of local importance, and are not Resemibles she Aaerioun Luda Mow foveed ve pace esau aes
likely to compete with the mulberry-silkworm. equally delicate green

Photo by W’. Saville. Kent, PZ. 5] [Milford-on-Sea
WHITE PLUME-MOTH

A very delicate insect. The wings are cleft almost to the base into separate
feathers, two on the fore wings and three on the hind wings

Photo by H”, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S8.] [Milford-on-Sea
INDIAN SWALLOW-TAILED MOTH

HALF-WINGED INSECTS a

tu
N

HALF-WINGED INSECTS, OR BUGS AND FROG-HOPPERS

BY W. F. KIRBY, F.L.S

THE order including the Bugs and Frog-hoppers is divided into two sub-orders. There are
also one or two small groups, sometimes treated as separate orders, and sometimes regarded
as aberrant sections of the order, to which we shall allude later.

The TRuE Bucs have their fore wings of a horny texture, but generally overlapping,
and the extremities form a transparent
membrane, resembling that of the hind
wings. They have a long sucking-proboscis |
curved down beneath their bodies, and |
their antenne usually consist of only four
or five long joints. Most are vegetable-
feeders, but some species feed on the
juices of other insects, while a few attack
warm-blooded animals, either casually or
habitually.

The first family includes the SHIELD-
puGs. These derive their name from the
unusual development of a part of the
thorax called the “scutellum.” In most
insects it is only a small plate of no great
importance, attached to the end of the

Photos by HW’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.

: SHIELD-BUG JUNIPER-BUG
thorax; but in the Shield-bugs it forms ; Se eee

* i In tropical countries these bugs are Some species of this family are car~
a great solid arch, covering the whole of often as large as cockchafers nivorous as well as herbivorous

the wings, and protecting them as the
wing-cases protect the wings of beetles. There are only a few small species in England, but a
great number of beautiful species inhabit warm countries, some of a brilliant blue or green
or yellow, or spotted. Many of them are comparatively large insects, nearly an inch long,
and resemble brilliantly coloured beetles, from which, however, they can easily be distinguished
by the antennz, the proboscis, and the shield, the latter of which is not divided down the
middle like the wing-cases of beetles.
i) Next to the Shield-bugs, and
considered by many entomologists as
belonging to the same group, are
the PENTAGONAL SHIELD-BUGS, so
called because the scutellum, though
much smaller than in the Shield-
bugs, is often half as long as the
abdomen,and forms a broad triangle,
sometimes broken at the sides, so
as to make a_ five-sided plate,
lying above the bases of the wings.
Several green or brown species of
this family, about half an inch long,
are common in England among
bushes. Many have a very dis-
_... .4 agreeable smell, and hence they are
ato ers [Colesborne Called STINK-BUGS in America. They
LACE-WING BUG feed on vegetable juices, and also
An elegant little insect, injurious to pear-trees frequently on soft-bodied insects,

Nin

323 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Several species (chiefly foreign) among the Shield-bugs and the present group have a strong
spine, or else a blunt protuberance, projecting from each shoulder.

The remaining plant-bugs are much more numerous — at least in England — than those
already mentioned, and form several families, which cannot be noticed in detail. Many species
are rather small and delicate creatures, narrower and softer than the Shield-bugs and Pentagonal
Shield-bugs, and are adorned with various colours, black and red predominating. Some have
more transparent wings than the others, such as the beautiful little LACE-WINGED BuGs, one
species of which is often very destructive to pear-trees.

The BED-BUG is a reddish-brown, somewhat oval insect, common in many old houses,
hiding in cracks and crevices in walls and woodwork, and coming out at night to suck the
blood of sleepers with its sharp proboscis. There are allied species, sometimes found in
hen-houses, pigeon-houses, and places where bats congregate. The bed-bug has only been
known in England for a few centuries, and though now a great pest in all parts of the world,
was probably a native of Africa originally.

The bed-bug, notwithstanding its offensive odour, is preyed upon by several other insects,
among which are the common cockroach and the MASKED buG. The latter is a black-winged
bug about three-quarters of an inch long, and remarkable for the habits of its larva, which
conceals itself with dust or fluff, so that it may steal upon its
prey unobserved. The masked bug and its larva feed on soft-bodied
insects of various kinds, and are more frequently found in outhouses
than in dwelling-rooms. This bug occasionally attacks warm-blooded
animals; and a short time ago a great deal of nonsense was published
in the newspapers about a mysterious insect-pest in North America,
called the KISSING-BUG, which seems to have been nothing more
unusual thanthisinsect. Thercare, however,somemuch larger species
belonging to the same family, which are formidable pests in the
Southern States of North America, Chili, and various other countries.

After these insects come the WATER-BUGS, of which there are

r

Photo by HW’. P. Dando, F.Z.S. several families, though the number of species is comparatively
MASKED BUG small. Some are very slender insects, with long, slender legs,
Die deoake a View, Prue aie and may be seen running on the surface of ponds in England;
themselves with dust, in order while others, which are tropical species, are marine, and are met

to creep upon their prey

Genetica with running on the surface of the water in the open sea.

The largest members of the group are some of the great
water-bugs found in Africa, India, and America. Their fore wings are of a light brown, and
measure from 3 to 5 inches in expanse. Their legs are short and strong, and the front legs
are adapted for grasping their prey, which consists of insects and small fishes. There are some
smaller species in which the female lays her eggs in a cluster on the back of the male, which
carries them about till they are hatched. These bugs fly about in the evening, and are
frequently attracted by electric light.

In England there are two allied species called WATER-SCORPIONS, from their long front
legs, which somewhat resemble the nippers of a scorpion. The commonest is a brown insect,
with the abdomen red beneath. It is about an inch long, including the breathing-tube,
which sticks out behind the body like a tail, and is formed of two separable parts. It is an
oval insect, half as broad as long, and is common in stagnant water. The other species is twice
as long, and is much more slender, with longer and more slender legs. It is yellowish brown,
like most of the other water-bugs, and is a sluggish and rather scarce insect, creeping about
in the mud at the bottom of deeper water than that preferred by the commoner species.

The WATER-BOATMEN are yellowish-brown insects, measuring half an inch in length, with
smooth bodies, and long, hairy hind legs, with which they row themselves about on the
water, as if with oars, while floating on their backs. All the larger water-bugs are capable of
inflicting a severe puncture with their sharp proboscis, if handled incautiously.

Photo by WW. P. Dando, F.Z.S.

Photo by Hf. P, Dando, F.Z.S.

GREAT WATER-BUG

Very similar species are found in Africa, Asta, and America

GREAT WATER-BUG

These insects live in water during the day, and fly about in the evening

Poel 2

330 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

The FROG-HOPPERS and their allies differ from the Bugs in the fore wings being uniform
in texture throughout, and not membranous, with the tips transparent. Sometimes the fore
wings are of a more or less horny texture, but they are frequently as transparent as the
hind wings. All the species are plant-feeding insects.

The first family, the CICADAS, includes a number of large or moderate-sized species, in
which the males are provided with a large, drum-like apparatus on the abdomen, and some of
which make the loud noise for which they have long been celebrated. There is only one
comparatively small species in England, which is rare, and almost confined to the New Forest.
It is black, with transparent wings, about 1} inch in expanse, and has red transverse lines
on the abdomen. The largest Indian species, however, sometimes expands 8 inches. Cicadas
have broad heads, broad short bodies, ending rather abruptly in a point, and their larve live
in the ground, where they are sometimes injurious to the roots of trees. The wings are

| Se nae ere

Vacto oy F. Edwards) [Colesborne

INDIAN CANDLE-FLY

Erronecusly stated to be luminous

usually, but not always, transparent--a very common Indian and Chinese species, about
3 inches in expanse, being black, with large yellow spots on the fore wings. In North
America and Australia cicadas are often miscalled Locusts.

The LANTERN-FLIES, or CANDLE-FLIES, which form the next family, derive their name from
having been stated to be luminous, a statement which is now considered very doubtful.
They are insects of considerable size and bright colours, occasionally resembling butterflies
and moths; the largest species, the LANTERN-FLY of South America, sometimes measures as
much as § inches across the wings, which are of a pale yellowish or greenish tint, with a large
round spot on the hind wings, formed of black rings or crescents, and enclosing one or two
large white spots. On the head is an immense hollow, blunt protuberance, marked with one
or two longitudinal red lines. In some species there is a curved horn in front of the head;
in some the horn forms a short cross; in others it ends in a red knob; while others are
destitute of such an appendage. The hind wings are often brightly coloured, red or yellow
usually predominating.

HALF-WINGED INSECTS

331

The TRUE FROG-HOPPERS are small insects about a quarter of
an inch long, found among grass and bushes. The fore wings are
of rather a stout consistency and uniform in colour (often yellowish),
and the hind wings transparent. The larvae are soft grubs, and
live in the masses of froth so common in grass and bushes, which are

qt

vulgarly known as ‘ cuckoo-spit.”

Passing over several families of small species, we arrive at two
which contain many very destructive insects. The APHIDES, PLANT-
LICE, or SMOTHER-FLIES are the small green or brown winged or
wingless insects which frequently cover the shoots of roses and
other trees and plants, and exude a sweet sticky substance, called
‘“‘honey-dew,” very attractive to ants. One species, known as the
AMERICAN BLIGHT, is extremely destructive to apple-trees, patches
of a substance resembling white cotton appearing on the bark.
Under these patches the bark rots from the attacks of the insects,
the pest being very difficult to eradicate.

Many of the Aphides exhibit the curious phenomenon known
as “alternation of generations.” The first
brood consists of winged males and females ;

r , but the eggs which the latter lay produce
exclusively wingless females, or rather sexless
| creatures capable of laying eggs, and these
multiply indefinitely for a time, till perfect
males and females are againreproduced. In

* some cases the winged forms live on the
leaves of trees, and the wingless forms at

the roots of grass, etc. One of the most

| destructive of all these insects is the VINE-
APHIS, which was probably introduced into
Europe from America, and which threatened
at one time almost to destroy the vine in-

L Zz _ dustry in France. Wingless sexless forms
Photoby H” P. Dandy F.Z.S. live and multiply at the roots of vines; and
APHIS in summer winged males and females are

A sexual wingless form produced, which fly up, and lay eggs on the

leaves; while some of the wingless insects
also quit the ground, and form small galls on the vine-leaves.
Although very abundant in America, the insect is not nearly so
destructive to the plants which it attacks as in Europe.

Some species of SCALE-INSECTS are almost equally destructive,
especially to greenhouse plants. The male is slender and two-
winged, but the female is wingless and often legless, and after de-
positing her eggs usually dies above them, thus forming a covering
to protect them from injury. Cochineal consists of the bodies of a
species of scale-insect which infests the leaves of a cactus in Mexico.

The True LIcE are found on various species of mammals,
and imbibe their food through a proboscis. The BIRD-LICE, or
BITING-LICE, form a well-defined group by themselves. They are
sometimes regarded as forming distinct orders of insects; but
some authors treat the first group as a degraded family of insects
allied to the Frog-hoppers, and the second group as an equally
degraded and aberrant family allied to the Lace-winged Insects.

[ae

eO0°0

Photo by HP. Dando, F.Z.S.
SCALE-INSECT
The females die, cowering their eggs
with their own bodies

‘Phote by W’.P. Dando, F.Z.S.
SCALE-INSECTS

Showing their appearance when
crowded together on a branch

332 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

TWO-WINGED INSECTS, OR FLIES
BY W. F. KIRBY, F.LS.

Tuts order of insects is probably one of the
most numerous in individuals, though it may be
that, when we know more of the insect population of
the world, we shall find that it is outnumbered in
species by the Beetles or the order to which the
Bees and Ants belong. It differs from all other
orders in possessing only two wings instead of four,
which is the usual number in insects. The meta-
morphoses are complete, and the mouth is furnished
with a proboscis for imbibing liquid food. Hind wings
are represented in many species by a pair of organs
called ‘‘ poisers,” resembling a knob at the end of a
stick, and other species have two small additional
lobes attached to the wing, called “ winglets”; but
there is no such thing as a really developed hind
wing in any insect belonging to the group. They
are always two-winged flies, except in the case of a
few aberrant species, such as the Fleas, in which no

ee ee a

|
|
A

seep CaN Maury eal [smprna wings, or only mere rudiments of wings, are to be

CICADA AND PUPE met with. The Gnats, Daddy-long-legs, and House-

Noted for the loud drumming sound produced by the males flies are among the commonest representatives of this
order.

The first section of the group includes the GNATS and the DADDY-LONG-LEGS, or CRANE-
FLIES, the members of which may be distinguished by having moderately long antenne, composed
of more than six joints, and never terminating in a bristle. They are all vegetable-feeders,
with the exception of the females of gnats and sand-flies, which are furnished with a lancet-
like arrangement for sucking the blood of warm-blooded animals.

The GALL-FLIES, WHEAT-MIDGES, etc., have rather long, jointed antennz, which are not
feathered, though sometimes tufted on the sides, and their maggots produce small galls on
various trees and plants, or distort and otherwise injure them. They resemble small gnats,
and there are two particularly destructive species which attack corn in England and elsewhere,
— the WHEAT-MIDGE, an orange-yellow fly with black eyes, which produces little yellowish or
reddish maggots which injure the growing grain in the ear; and the HESSIAN FLy, which
is brown, and produces semi-transparent maggots, which afterwards grow darker, and when
full grown become pupz resembling flax-seeds. The maggots attack the
stalk, feeding on the sap till the stalk cracks and bends over. This is an Ry at cae
infallible sign of their presence, and of the mischief they are doing. |

Among the best-known insects of this group are the GNATs, or
MOSQUITOES, of which there are many genera and species. There is no

difference, however, to permit of their being classified in two separate Xi
popular categories. In England any of these troublesome insects are ~t
called Gnats; out of England they are termed Mosquitoes, if we are / \

tormented by them, even though they may belong to the same species
as the English ones — for “mosquito” is merely the Spanish word for
“onat”’ Anglicised.

Gnats breed in standing water, fresh or otherwise, but seem to prefer | Photo by W, P. Dando, F.Z.S.
rain-water, for they are very numerous about small pools and water-butts. BROWN MOSQUITO
Consequently they were formerly far more abundant in England than at bon.
present, when the fens were still undrained, and when every house had by Ce gees

TWO-WINGED INSECTS san

its rain-water butt. The females of some species construct
small rafts of eggs, which float about on the surface of the
water till hatched, and then produce small maggots with a
breathing- apparatus at the end of the tail. In this condition
they swim head-downwards, while the more compact pupa
floats head-upwards. They may be destroyed by pouring a
little kerosene into their breeding-places; and as this floats
on the surface of the water, it does not interfere with the
use of the water in water-butts, which is usually drawn off
by a tap below. The males of gnats often have feathered
antenne and long, slender legs. The females, however, are
more nocturnal in their habits, and come into houses in the
evening, and keep people awake by their humming and pain-
ful “bites,” or rather punctures, which frequently cause a
distressing irritation for a day or two afterwards. What

Photo by H’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.]

HORNET ROBBER-FLY
Common in the south of England

is worse is that they are now

known to disseminate various diseases, such as elephantiasis and also malarial fever of every
kind, in this manner —from the comparatively mild ague of the English fens (now nearly
extinct) to the terrible malaria of Southern Europe, India, and Africa, formerly attributed to
the unhealthy atmosphere of marshy countries, or to exposure to the night air in warm
countries, but now known to be caused by the bites of the gnats, or mosquitoes, which breed
in swampy places, and fly about in the evening. It is believed that only certain species of

r-

pores

Photo by WP. Dando, F.Z.S.
DADDY-LONG-LEGS
Large species, with variegated wings

22

1

gnats convey the germs of these diseases ;
and it has been stated that, though ague-
bearing species of gnats are still found in
England, those which have been examined
for the purpose have been free from these
germs, and are therefore incapable of prop-
agating the disease.

In many parts of the world gnats are
excessively numerous and troublesome at
certain seasons of the year, filling the air
like clouds of dust, so that it is difficult
to sleep or eat from the annoyance and
irritation caused by their attacks. This
will be readily credible to those who have
experienced the pain which they cause even
when not very numerous, and have been
kept awake at night by their shrill piping
as they approach. They appear to be
equally numerous in cold and warm
countries — Lapland, France, South Russia,
Italy, various parts of America, and in fact
most parts of the world being liable to the
inordinate multiplication of different species.

In England they were formerly so
abundant in the fenlands that mosquito-
curtains were in use less than a century
ago, and may be so still. But their numbers
have so diminished of late years that, when-
ever gnats are a little more troublesome
than usual, it is reported that there has
been an invasion of mosquitoes. A year or

334 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

two ago there was a report that “ mosquitoes” had been brought to Cromer in some fishing-
vessel, and the newspapers contained paragraphs about “mosquitoes” having caused much
annoyance in different parts of London. But many of the specimens submitted to the inspection
of entomologists proved to be nothing more than the commonest of all the blood-sucking
gnats, called the PIPING-GNAT by Linnzus, on account of its shrill note. The note is produced
by the rapid vibration of the wings, which has been estimated at the rate of 3,000 per
minute. Gnats do not always fly near the ground. Sometimes they have been seen ascending
from cathedrals and other high buildings in such vast swarms that they resembled clouds of
smoke, and gave rise to the idea that the building was actually on fire.

Equally troublesome and annoying are the SAND-FLIES, as they are called in England, or
the BLACK-FLIES, as they are called in America. They are very small flies, short and broad,
and with broader wings than gnats; and one of them, which actually destroys many mules
and other domestic animals in the Mississippi Valley, as we learn from Professor Comstock, is
called the BUFFALO-GNAT, from a fancied resemblance of the side-view of the insect to a
buffalo. Other species are equally destructive to the cattle in the Banat of Hungary. It is
a curious circumstance that, in the case of nearly all two-winged flies which attack men and
animals, it is usually only the females which suck blood, the males frequenting flowers and

being perfectly harmless.

1 Respecting mosquitoes in South

America, Mr. H. W. Bates writes, in
his work “ The Naturalist on the
Amazons,” when passing a night in a
boat about twenty-five miles from the
town of Villa Nova: “At night it
was quite impossible to sleep for mos-
quitoes; they fell upon us by myriads,
and without much piping came straight
at our faces as thick as rain-drops in
ashower. The men crowded into the
cabins, and then tried to expel the
pests by the smoke from burnt rags;
but it was of little avail, although

we were half suffocated during the operation.” But the sand-flies, encountered a little higher
up the river, were much worse: ‘“‘ We made acquaintance on this coast with a new insect-pest,
the Pium, a minute fly, two-thirds of a line in length, which here commences its reign, and
continues henceforward as a terrible scourge along the upper river, or Solimoens, to the end
of the navigation on the Amazons. It comes forth only by day, relieving the mosquito at
sunrise with the greatest punctuality, and occurs only near the muddy shores of the stream,
not one ever being found in the shade of the forest. In places where it is abundant, it
accompanies canoes in such dense swarms as to resemble thin clouds of smoke. It made its
appearance in this way the first day after we crossed the river. Before I was aware of the
presence of flies, I felt a slight itching on my neck, wrist, and ankles, and, on looking for
the cause, saw a number of tiny objects, having a disgusting resemblance to lice, adhering to the
skin. This was my first introduction to the much-talked-of Pidm. On close examination, they
are seen to be small two-winged insects, with dark-coloured body and pale legs and wings, the
latter closed lengthwise over the back. They alight imperceptibly, and, squatting close, fall
at once to work, stretching forward their tiny front legs, which are in constant motion, and
seem to act as feelers, and then applying their short, broad snouts to the skin. Their
abdomens soon become distended and red with blood, and then, their thirst satisfied, they soon
move off, sometimes so stupefied with their potations that they can scarcely fly. No pain is
felt whilst they are at work, but they each leave a small circular raised spot on the skin, and
a disagreeable irritation, The latter may be avoided in great measure by pressing out the

Photos by HW’. P. Dando, F.Z.S.
HOVER-FLY RAT-TAILED LARVA
This fly has a superficial resemb ance to a bee Common in filthy water
(See page 734)

TWO-WINGED INSECTS 330

blood which remains in the spot; but this is a trouble- ee 7
some task when one has several hundred punctures in
the course of a day [like Prince Siror, in one of Bulwer
Lytton’s stories, who fell ‘“ pierced by five hundred 2 = 2 i
spears]. I took the trouble to dissect specimens, to

ascertain the way in which the little pests operate. The
mouth consists of a pair of thick fleshy lips, and two
triangular horny lancets, answering to the upper lip and
tongue of other insects. This is applied closely to the
skin, a puncture is made with the lancets, and the blood
then sucked through between these into the cesophagus,
the circular spot which results coinciding with the
shape of the lips. In the course of a few days the red spots dry up, and the skin in time
becomes blackened with the endless number of discoloured punctures that are crowded together.
The irritation they produce is more acutely felt by some persons than others. I once traveled
with a middle-aged Portuguese who was laid up for three weeks from the attacks of Pium, his
legs being swelled to an enormous size, and the punctures aggravated into spreading sores.”

However, the traveler in Amazonia has one consolation: the great rivers which traverse
the forests are of three different colours; and the black-water rivers—so called from the dark
colour of the water, owing apparently to the amount of vegetable matter which they hold in
solution —are never infested with mosquitoes. Probably the character of the water renders it
unsuitable to them for breeding purposes.

The CRANE-FLIES, or DADDY-LONG-LEGS, are also very injurious insects, but in a different
manner, for their subterranean maggots feed on and destroy the roots of grass in the same
way as the grubs of the Cockchafers. They are insects of considerable size, with slender bodies,
terminating in a short, horny point (the ovipositer) in the female, and with long, slender legs,
which are liable to break off at the least touch. The commonest species has a grey body and
transparent wings; but there is a larger one with the wings prettily variegated with brown,
and a smaller one in which there are yellow markings towards the end of the body.

The more typical FLIES have usually shorter and broader wings, and thicker, shorter, and
more hairy legs, than those just mentioned; and the antenne have usually only three or four
joints, and are often furnished with a long, slender bristle at or before the end of the last joint.

As in the case of the Gnats and Crane-flies, so as regards the more typical Flies, we have
only space to notice a few of the more important families.

Some of the GAD-FLIES are no larger than house-flies, but others are as large as wasps or
larger, with broader wings, and of a black, grey, or yellowish colour; they frequent fields, and
settle on cattle, or on our clothes or hands. Some have transparent and others dark-coloured
wings, but they are all capable of inflicting a severe puncture, often sufficient to draw blood,
even in the case of the smaller species.

The prettiest of the gad-flies are the GOLDEN-EYED FLIES.
They are black, with the abdomen more or less marked with
yellow; and black, or black and transparent, wings. The eyes
are of a beautiful golden green, dotted and lined with purple.
They are moderately stout insects, about the third of an inch
long, and are not uncommon. Another insect, known as the
BLOOD-SUCKING RAIN-FLY, has a rather long and slender body
for a gad-fly, and is nearly half an inch long. It is of a
lighter or darker grey, with reddish markings on the sides of
the abdomen in the male. The wings are greyish brown with

BLOM ELLY whitish dots, and a white mark towards the tip. Both these
ERs Git odepate 4h ans Ca, flies are very troublesome, the latter chiefly on the edges of
when 1 becomes ‘* fly-blown"? woods or near water, especially in rainy weather.

Photo by W’, P, Dando, F.Z.S
HOUSE-FLY (MALE AND FEMALE)

The larvae of the house-fly live in refuse, so do not
thrive where cleanliness abounds

" Phote by W’, P, Dando, F.Z.S.
BLUE-BOTTLE FLY, OR

336 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

The ROBBER-FLIES are large flies, with long, tapering bodies, of a black or partly yellow
colour, and feed on smaller flies and other insects of different kinds. They have very thick,
hairy legs, and a strong proboscis. A handsome Australian species, allied to these, but with a
broader body, is represented in the Coloured Plate. .

The HORNET ROBBER-FLY, represented on page 731, is one of the most conspicuous of
the British species. Among other places, it may be seen flying over the short grass at the
top of the cliffs between Brighton and Rottingdean. They are very predaceous, and are
probably rather beneficial than otherwise, by contributing to keep down injurious insects.
But in North America there is a species called the BEE-KILLER, which is an extremely
destructive insect, taking up its station in front of a hive, and killing large numbers of bees
as they fly backwards and forwards from the hive.

The HOVER-FLIES are brightly coloured, rather smooth flies, and are familiar objects in
gardens, and in open places in woods. They have the habit of hovering motionless in the
air, and then darting off suddenly. Some of the larger species proceed from curious maggots,
with long tails, which have been compared to the tail of a rat. These live in putrid water;
and as the flies have a slight resemblance to bees, the fact is believed to have given rise to
the old fable that bees are generated from the rotting carcases of oxen or other large animals.

The BOT-FLIES are remarkable for being parasitic on warm-blooded animals, their maggots
living in tumours on the skin of oxen, known as ‘‘warbles,” or in the stomach and intestines
“ ee of horses, or in the nostrils and other cavities in the heads of
| sheep or deer.

The HousE-FLIES and their allies form a very large group,
divided into many families. The true house-fly is an autumn
insect; but there are other flies which resemble it which live
in houses at different times of the year. Most of them are
harmless, although there is one species, very like a house-fly,
| which comes into houses in rainy weather, and inflicts a

Ehate Oy ME Be Dang EO zeNs puncture like a gad-fly. This is the meaning of the popular
se ge ea O8 saying that “ the flies bite in rainy weather.”
Tite parecraph Ae ais Sandee Although house-flies do not bite, yet they are sometimes
exceedingly troublesome when they are in unusual numbers;
and as they settle everywhere, they may convey infection mechanically, though not as the
principal agents in the dissemination of definite diseases, like the mosquitoes. Thus, in Egypt,
they are said frequently to convey ophthalmia, a very prevalent disease in that country.

The very first paper published in the “ Transactions of the present Entomological Society
of London” (for the existing Society had several short-lived predecessors) was a paper read by
William Spence at the meeting on April 7, 1834, about a year after the Society had been
definitely founded, entitled ‘‘ Observations on a Mode practised in Italy of excluding the
Common House-fly from Apartments.” This desirable result is attained simply by stretching
a net of white or coloured thread, with meshes of an inch or more in diameter, across an
open window, which the flies will not venture to pass, if the room is lighted from one side
only —“‘ for if there be a ¢horough light either from an opposite or side window, the flies pass
through the net without scruple.” Mr. Spence’s son also referred to a passage in Herodotus
where he says that Egyptian fishermen in his time defended themselves from the gnats by
covering their beds with the nets which they had used in the day for fishing, and through
which these insects, though they bit through linen or woollen, did not even attempt to bite.
The matter seems to have been overlooked in recent years, though it is evidently well worthy
of consideration when flies or gnats are troublesome.

There is a conspicuous insect allied to the house-flies, but a little larger, measuring about
half an inch in length. It is called the Noon-Day FLy, and is often seen in considerable
numbers, in the hottest part of the day, flying round and settling on the trunks and leaves
of trees; it also settles on cow-dung. It is a shining black fly, with the sides and under surface

TWO-WINGED INSECTS he A

of the head golden yellow in the male; the wings are transparent, slightly tinged with pale
brown, and bright rusty yellow towards the base.

The African TSETSE-FLY is not very unlike a house-fly, and is one of the worst pests to
cattle in those parts of Africa which it infests; for any horse, ox, or dog attacked by it will
infallibly die after a longer or shorter period of suffering, though wild animals and sucking
calves are not affected by it. It used to be supposed that the fly itself infused some deadly
venom with its puncture; but later experiments have led naturalists to the conclusion that
the fly is not itself poisonous, but that it forms the channel of communication of some fatal
disease, just as some species of mosquitoes convey the infection of malaria.

The BLOW-FLIES, or BLUE-BOTTLES, of which there are several species closely allied to each
other, are common in houses; and a smaller brilliant green fly, called the GREEN-BOTTLE FLy,
is common on hedges. These are all flies which lay their eggs on fresh or putrid meat, when
it is said to be “ fly-blown.” They will also lay their eggs
in open sores; and in former days the sufferings of the
wounded after a battle were often frightfully aggravated by
this cause; and at the present day farmers would frequently
lose sheep through their attacks, if they were not carefully
tended in hot weather.

Various species of flies in Eastern Europe, the Southern
States of America, Jamaica, etc., habitually lay their eggs in
the mouths or nostrils of men and animals, and the resulting
maggots cause dreadful suffering and often death. In India,
and especially in the Eastern Archipelago, there are some 1 |

|

brilliantly coloured, smooth, metallic blue and green flies as Photo by H’, P, Dando, F.Z.S.
big as humble-bees. There is also a family of flies allied to TSETSE-FLY
the house-flv, which have very bristly bodies, and are parasitic Destructive to horses and cattle in Africa

on caterpillars, like ichneumon-flies. _

There are other flies which easily |
attract attention, such as the yellow
hairy fly found about cow-dung, and
some rather small species with
prettily variegated wings, which feed
on flowers or fruit. The cheese-
hoppers are also the maggots of a
small black fly.

Besides these, there are some
aberrant parasitic families of flies
with long, hairy legs, and only one
or two joints tothe antennze. These
are the FOREST-FLIES and BIRD-
FLIES, which attack horses and birds; ‘
and also some wingless insects, such Photo by HW’. P. Dando, F.Z.S.
as the so-called SHEEP-TICK (easily TSETSE-FLY (ENLARGED)
distinguished from a true tick by
possessing only six legs), the
BEE-PARASITES, and the spider-like BAT-PARASITES. This parasitic group is also remarkable for
depositing full-grown larve or pupz instead of eggs.

The FLEAS are a small group of small wingless insects, with such powers of leaping that
it has been said that if a man was as agile as a flea he could jump over the dome of
St. Paul’s. The larve of fleas are small, worm-like creatures, with bristles, but without legs;
they probably live on any sort of animal or vegetable refuse. They subsequently change to pupe
in small cocoons, and emerge as perfect fleas, which live by sucking the blood of warm-blooded

Showing the proboscis and veining of the wings more distinctly

338 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD
r a e pie coe j; ‘} animals; oz, when that fails them, they may
attack caterpillars, or other small soft-bodied
creatures. Though not very particular about
their food, different species are more or less
attached to different animals; and while in
Europe the most troublesome species is the one
considered to be most particularly attached to
man, the species most troublesome in North
America is known in Europe as the DOG-FLEA.
They are all very similar in habits and appear-
ance. Fleas are not only annoying, but, in con-
| junction with rats, are believed to be among the
Photo by HW’, P. Dando, F.Z.8. sited principal agents inthespread of theplague. There
BEE_-FLY is another insect called the JIGGER, or SAND-FLEA,
Sinllae 10 the By DUA douenyy ve tenkeoes te Copres common in most of the warmer parts of America,
and which has more recently been introduced
into Africa. The female burrows into the feet of men or animals, where her body swells up
with eggs to the size of a pea; and serious and sometimes fatal ulcers are the ordinary result,
unless the insect is carefully extracted at an early stage of the attack.

USES OF FLIES

It must not be supposed from the foregoing observations that flies are simply and solely
pests to man and beast, without any redeeming qualities. Their services are less required in
cold and settled countries, but in warm climates their value as scavengers can hardly be
over-estimated. As regards the removal of carrion alone, Linnzus declared that the progeny
of only three blow-flies would devour the carcase of a dead horse as quickly as a lion—a
statement which, even if slightly exaggerated, conveys a vivid idea of their voracity and the
rate at which they increase.

Flies are also useful in keeping down the multitudes of destructive insects. Numbers of
caterpillars fall victims to the bristly flies alluded to on the last page; and the Bee-flies, which
form a family placed next to the Gad-flies, render far greater service in destroying locusts.
They much resemble small humble-bees, being very much the same shape, and they are
clothed with yellow down in the British species, and the transparent wings are conspicuously
marked with black bands (as in the photograph above), or with brown shading and_ spots.
The insects have a very rapid flight, and use their long proboscis to suck the honey of
flowers; but their grubs are parasitic —at least in some instances —on wild bees; and it is
probable that their resemblance to bees has some reference to this mode of life. But in
Cyprus, Algeria, North America, etc., the larve of allied species feed inside the egg-cases
of locusts, sometimes destroying as large a proportion as four-fifths of the whole brood.
Locusts have many enemies, but it will easily be seen that the attacks of foes like these
must reduce their numbers considerably, notwithstanding the swarms which frequently survive,
and which are liable to the attacks of other enemies, such as robber-flies, locust-birds, etc.,
after they have actually arrived at maturity.

Nor must we omit to notice the use of flies as articles of food for man or useful
animals. Many persons are very fond of cheese-hoppers, which are really the maggots of a
small fy; and we read in Kirby’s ‘ Textbook of Entomology,” page 92: ‘ The Rev. A. E.
Eaton informs me that he believes that two species of phemeride (May-flies) form a portion
of the so-called ‘Kungu Cake,’ manufactured by the natives of South Africa of gnats, and
probably any other insects which can be obtained in sufficient abundance.” “ Gentles,” which
are the maggots of flies, are used by anglers for ground-bait.

BOOK VI. SHELL-FISH, LAMP-SHELLS, SEA.
URCHINS, STAR-FISHES, MOSS-ANIMALS.
WORMS, CORALS, ¥ELLY-FISHES,
wND SPONGES

BY W. SAVILLE-KENT, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

CE ACP) Boe, ok

SHELL-FISH, OR MOLLUSCS

HE Molluscan Group or Sub-kingdom represents
one, if not the most important, of the invertebrate
sections of living animals with relation both to its

numbers and variety and in its commercial and economic
utility to mankind. In its ranks are included all those
animals generally known as Shell-fish, and familiar to the
non-scientific in the shape of Oysters, Mussels, Whelks,
Periwinkles, and the innumerable varieties of gorgeous or
delicately tinted shells of tropical seas.

Collectively, Molluscs differ from all such invertebrate
groups as Insects, Crustaceans, and Worms in that they
possess neither jointed limbs nor jointed bodies, their
body-substance being enclosed by a more or less distinct
muscular sac, or integument, technically known as the
“mantle.” Molluscs possess no internal skeleton; but for
the protection of their soft and otherwise defenceless
bodies the mantle is among the great majority of species
endowed with the property of secreting a more or less
indurated calcareous shell, within which, when danger
threatens, the creature can entirely withdraw. In some
species the shell secreted is relatively small, and serves
only as a protective shield to especially vital areas; while
in a third very considerable assemblage a shell is altogether
absent. The minute yet technically recognisable structural
differences between the shells of even the most closely
allied specific forms, and the wider and distinctly evident
divergences that separate the more remotely connected
varieties, furnish the basis for their classification and
nomenclature by the systematic conchologist. Molluscan
shells, being so extensively preserved in the fossil state,
furnish the geologist with invaluable data for his deter-
mination of the age and respective relationship of the
fossil-bearing strata of the earth’s crust.

Having no jointed limbs, molluscs are dependent upon
some other mechanical adaptation for their powers of loco-
motion. This, in the majority of species, is represented by
a modification of the lower surface of the animal’s body,

339

Photo by W7, Saville-Kent, Fd. 5.
AN OCTOPUS CROUCHING
IN A ROCK-POOL

Green shore-crabs constitute the chief food of
the octopus

My A Pen {
Photo by WH’. Sa -Kent,

AN OCTOPUS ON ITS BACK AT
BAY, LEFT HIGH AND DRY BY
THE RETREATING TIDE
In this attitude the octopus can use its many-suckered
tentacles and its formidable parrot-
like beak as defensive weapons

340 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Photo by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.
OCTOPODS
A blue-spotied West Australian species

particular modification of the locomotive
organ, or foot, serves, on the one hand, to
readily distinguish the first or most highly
organised group from the second or central
class; while the third or lowest one is as
clearly separated from the second and first by
the character of theshell. The first and most
highly developed section includes such species
as the Octopus, the Cuttle-fish, the Squid,
and the several varieties of Nautiluses; to
the second or central group are referred
all the marine and _ terrestrial Slugs and
Snails with their innumerable modifications ;
while the third and lowest group comprises
all the double-shelled or bivalve forms, such
as Oysters and Mussels.

In the OCTOPUS and its alliesthe creeping-
base, or foot, is prolonged round its margin
into eight or more arm-like extensions. The
anterior of these in the earlier phases of their
development grow round and enclose the
mouth, which consequently opens upen the
centre of the locomotive surface. The arms
of the octopus and other forms are in most
instances provided throughout their length
with complex sucking-disks, wherewith their
owners can seize and retain their prey or
walk with ease and celerity over the smoothest
perpendicular or overhanging rock-surfaces.
The octopus, as the type of its class, possesses

which is so richly supplied with muscular
tissues as to constitute an effective creeping-
base. As a locomotive organ this muscular
area is usually known as the “ foot.”

Of living molluscs some 50,000 distinct
species have been recorded. The great
majority of these organisms are, as is well
known, marine. A very considerable number,
however, are inhabitants of fresh-water; while
a yet smaller proportion, like the Slugs and
Snails and their allies, are especially adapted
for a terrestrial existence. Excepting two
relatively small and inconspicuous groups, the
great natural division or sub-kingdom of
Molluscs is separated by systematic zoologists
into three main sections or classes. The

Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F,Z,S.] [Milford-on-Sea

A TASMANIAN SQUID, OR CUTTLE-FISH
Giant species of squids have been recorded in which she shorter tentacles
measured +2 feet, and the two longer ones as much as
30 or go feet in length

SHELL-FISH, OR MOLLUSCS 341

yet another most effective locomotive organ. This is the sa-called funnel, or siphuncle, a
membranous tube connected with the capacious gill-cavity which is formed by a folding of the
mantle on the under-surface. When at rest or moving leisurely, the water taken in through the
pocket-like entrance to this cavity is discharged through the funnel without any particular
effort. The animal can, however, at will leave go its attachment to the rocks, and propel
itself swiftly through water by successive forcible expulsions of the water through the funnel.
By directing the aperture of the funnel to the right or left, the creature can also direct its
course in whatever direction it desires. When thus swimming, its translation is necessarily
backwards. Another notable feature of the octopus is the ‘ink-bag,” a huge gland secreting
an inky-black fluid, which, as produced by the common cuttle-fish, constitutes the sepia of
commerce. The contents of the ink-bag are discharged through the funnel at the will of the
animal; as soon as the ink is brought into contact with the water, it becomes distributed
through it in the form of a thick cloud, under cover of which the mollusc makes good its
escape from any attacking enemy.

The octopus in British seas by no means attains to its maximum growth. Examples with
arms from 2 to 2} feet in length are accounted large specimens. In Mediterranean waters,
however, these dimensions are much exceeded, individuals with arms 5 feet long, which are
capable of covering a circular area no less than 10 feet in diameter with their fully extended
appendages, being frequently recorded. In the West Indies, on the North-west American coast,
and also in Chinese seas, similar, if not larger dimensions are attained by these creatures.
That these monster octopods, or “ devil-fish,” as they are sometimes designated, prove a source
of danger to human life has been abundantly demonstrated. Lurking, as is their custom,
among rock-crevices, they seize hold of any moving object which approaches within reach of their
extended arms. Bathers in this manner have been seized and drowned, it being impossible for
even the strongest swimmer to free himself from the clutches of one of these animals, which,
while retaining a firm hold on the rocks with a portion of its hundred-suckered arms, has
entwined the others around its victim.

The natural food of the octopus are crabs, lobsters, and their like; and in places like
the Channel Islands, where the tide retires very
low, leaving the rock-fissures inhabited by the
molluscs more or less exposed, their presence may
be often foretold by the accumulation of empty,
broken-up crab-shells around the entrances to their
retreats. In common with other members of its
tribe, the octopus is furnished with a strong, horny,
parrot-like beak, wherewith it can with ease break
through the shells of its accustomed food. The
year 1900 was remarkable for the extraordinary
abundance of the octopus on the English south
coast, the result of their collective depredations
very seriously affecting the local crab and lobster
fisheries. The pots laid down over-night, in place
of yielding the following morning their customary
quota of marketable crustaceans, were more often
than otherwise found to contain nothing but
broken-up shells and a loathsome “ devil-fish.”

The Squrps and CUTTLE-FISHES, with their
large lustrous eyes, are especially adapted for an
open sea life, and for this purpose are furnished |
with lateral fin-like membranous expansions. A Photo oy HW” Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.
more important structural distinction is their pos- sHELL OF THE PEARLY NAUTILUS
session of two supplementary appendages, which, The inner lining of this shell is brilliantly iridescent

342 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

usually retracted within special pouches when
not in use, can be shot out to a length at
least twice that of the eight ordinary arms.
Both the cuttle-fish and the squid, or cala-
mary, are also the possessors of an internal
calcareous or horny shell which underlies
and strengthens the upper-surface. The
cuttle-bone used as a dentifrice and ink-
eraser is the product of the first-named
mollusc. The Ten-armed group, as it is
named, with reference to the two supple-
mentary arms, ten in all, possessed by its
members, is notable for including species
whose dimensions not only exceed those of
any other invertebrate type, but whose fully
extended length rivals that of the largest
vertebrates. Giant squids, or calamaries, have
been taken off the coast of Newfoundland,

Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. yielding, with their tentacular arms extended,
SHELL OF THE ARGONAUT, OR a linear measurement of over 50 feet, asso-
PAPER-NAUTILUS ciated with an estimated weight of as much

The female animal only possesses a shell, and uses it as a cradle as 1,000 lbs There can be no doubt that

for her eggs and young : : d 5
these giant squids have in many instances

furnished the basis of the oft-recurrent sea-serpent stories, more especially on those occasions
where the supposed marine reptile and a whale have been reported as seen engaged in combat.
As a matter of fact the sperm-whales habitually feed on deep-sea squids, and have been
known, when mortally wounded, to vomit forth detached portions of these gigantic molluscs.
The long tentacular arms of one of these monsters, thrown around the whale with which it
had entered upon a death-struggle, might at a little distance be easily mistaken for some
huge snake-like organism.

The various species of NAUTILUS, including the so-called ‘‘ Paper” and “ Pearly” species,
belong likewise to this group of Molluscs. In the former case, however, it is only the female
animal which secretes a shell, and this is used as a cradle wherein she deposits her eggs and
rears her young. The pretty romance of the PAPER-NAUTILUS, or ARGONAUT, as it is technicaily
termed, floating on the sun-lit waves with spreading sails and an even keel, has unfortunately
been entirely dissipated by the penetrating search-light of modern science. The animal only
floats on the surface when ill, or when torn from its customary pasture-fields by abnormal
storms, otherwise it creeps about the sea-bottom, or disports itself in the sub-marine grottoes
like an ordinary octopus, with which, in point of fact, the shell-less male agrees in all essential
details. The shell-cradle of the paper-nautilus is not vitally connected with the body of the
animal, as is that of the pearly species and all ordinary shell-fish. It is freely detachable
from the body, and during life is grasped and held closely to it by the expanded extremities
of the two lateral tentacles by which the delicate shell is mainly secreted.

The next group comprises the great bulk of Simple-shelled Molluscs, of which it is
impossible in these pages to give more than a brief enumeration of some of the most
prominent. The Lung-breathing section, which is usually awarded the first place on the list,
includes the familiar GARDEN-SNAILS, the SHELL-LESS SLUGS, the FRESH-WATER SNAILS which
come to the surface to breathe, and many distinct terrestrial species. The largest living repre-
sentative of this group is the huge LAND-SNAIL of tropical West Africa, sometimes known as
the AGATE-SNAIL, the shell of which is not infrequently as much as 7} inches long.

The NAKED-GILLED SEA-SLUGS constitute a second clearly defined group. All the species
are essentially marine, and most abundant among seaweeds and coral-growths. They are

PRIUS
VO ie OM

: Med
‘Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F. Z, 8.]

LIMPETS, WHELKS, AND BARNACLES

On the rocks at Ilfracombe when the tide was low

Photos by HW’.

Ui Smal
e-Kent, F.Z.8.
GREAT CLAM-SHELL ON CORAL-
REEF

The soft parts have been removed to show the size of she shell
and the pure whiteness of the intertor

SHELL BEACH, ABROLHOS
Composed of iridescent tep-shells

ISLANDS

GIANT CLAM-SHELLS ON THE
GREAT BARRIER REEF, AS EXPOSED
AT EXTREME LOW TIDE

The shell in the foreground is 4 feet in diamstee

a44 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THRE WORLD

notable for the slug-like form of their body, which is usually supplemented by the out-
growth from it of complex, variously modified gill-flaments. In some species these exter-
nal gills take the form of symmetrical flower-like tufts at the posterior end of the back,
while in others simple or variously branched gills may be developed on the upper-surface.
The colours of many of these sea-slugs are more brilliant than those of any other molluscs,
this being especially the case with the tropical coral-reef-frequenting species. Bright scarlet,
yellows, and blues, separately or variously combined, are among the dominant tints. Many
of these tropical species are also of considerable size. One particular kind, having a flower-
like dorsal gill-tuft, observed by the writer on the West Australian reefs, was over 10 inches
long and 8 inches broad. Its general ground-colour was intense vermilion, relieved, however,
by a frilled border nearly an inch in width of the purest white, with radiating streaks of
scarlet. It is an interesting circumstance that these naked-gilled molluscs, shell-less so far

an ERT : E j as their adult phases are concerned, emerge

Pe ; {| from the egg with a perfectly formed, but neces-
sarily very minute, transparent shell, resembling
that of a garden-snail. Jt isconsequently inferred
that the group has been derived from some per-
manently shell-bearing form.

The Comb-gilled section embraces the great
majority of the marine molluscs having a single
more or less convoluted or spirally twisted shell.
They take their name from the circumstance
that the gills have a compactly disposed comb-
like contour. This gill-tuft is situated in an
excavated chamber inside the shell, immediately
over the neck. The COMMON WHELK, the
PELICAN’S-FOOT SHELL, and the WINKLE are a
few typical British marine representatives of this
group, which, however, attains to the zenith of
its development in the size, variety of form, and
ornate coloration of its shells in tropical seas.
The inter-tropical coral-reefs in particular yield
a most abundant harvest in this direction. The
shells in common use obtained from such a

bs MA i\ \ i

~ f ta ——_ source include the ponderous HELMET-SHELLS, or
Bhstebe We Savile Kent, keZ:Sd] RMeeea-bn Sea CONCHS, employed for the manufacture ofcameos;
HIGHLY MAGNIFIED TONGUE the GIANT WHELKS and TRUMPET-SHELLS, often
OF A SEA-SNAIL ee :
eee : over 18 inches long, used as signal-horns through-
With this structure its owner bores or files a hole through 5 : 2 : i
the shells of other molluscs upon which it preys out Polynesia and on the tropical Australian

coast; and the capacious MELON-SHELLS, made
to do duty for boat-baling and as water-vessels and general domestic receptacles throughout
the same tropical area. To this list may be added the HARP-SHELLS, VOLUTES, CONES,
MITRES, OLIVES, THORNY WoOoODCOCKS, and a host of others prized by the conchologist.
To this section must also be referred the innumerable species of COWRIES, of which the large,
boldly mottled “ TIGER” and ‘“ PANTHER” species are well known, The comparatively small,
yellowish, thickly built, porcelain-like shell of the “ MONEY-COWRIE” constitutes, as is well
known, the current coin throughout extensive areas of Africa and India. It is recorded that as
large a quantity as sixty tons of these small shells, originally collected from tropical seas, have
been shipped from one British port alone to the African coast for commercial use within a
single year. One very diminutive cowrie, pale pink in colour, with a delicately streaked surface,
is indigenous to British waters.
The third large group of Molluscs which demands attention is that of the Bivalves, or

SHELL-FISH, OR MOLLUSCS 345

Leaf-gilled group. Though not so numerous
in species as the last, it outrivals it in the
enormous abundance in which the individuals
of many varieties are produced. OYSTERS,
MUSSELS, COCELES, SCALLOPS, and other
allied forms occur in closely associated
colonies, constituting natural ‘“ beds” or
“ banks,” which may be of vast extent and,
in at any rate the case of oysters, several
feet in thickness. From a commercial and
economic standpoint this group is un-
doubtedly of the highest importance to the
human race. Not only do its members, as

Photo by WH, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S8.] [Milford-on-Sea
A SCORPION-SHELL
Closely allicd to the ‘* Pelican’s Foot’

instanced by the foregoing forms, contribute
largely to the world’s commissariat, they also
yield the much-prized material known as “‘ mother-of-pearl” and the purest and most zsthetically
beautiful gems —orient pearls. Pearls and mother-of-pearl are the products of two groups
of shell-fish, respectively known as PEARL-OYSTERS and PEARL-MUSSELS. There are a consider-
able number of species, mainly denizens of tropical seas, which, like ordinary oysters and
mussels, occur naturally in banks and beds of vast extent. In some species, such as the CEYLON
PEARL-OYSTER, the shell is small, and the mother-of-pearl substance, or “ nacre,” asit is technically
termed, so thin as to be of relatively little value. Hence the fishery for this species is
conducted almost exclusively for the sake of the pearls, which are fairly numerous and
frequently of the finest quality. From the tropical Australian seas pearl-shells of the largest
size, which produce the thickest and most valuable mother-of-pearl, are obtained. Pearls
of the best quality are more rarely found in this description of shell, and its fishery is
prosecuted primarily on account of the substantial substance and magnificent quality of its
nacre. A single pair of shells of this species will attain in its adult state to a weight of
from 12 to 18 Ibs. The fishery for this pearl-shell has, however, been prosecuted so relent-
lessly that bivalves of such matured age and weight are now of rare occurrence, and obtained
only from almost inaccessibly deep waters. Unless, in point of fact, systematic methods of
conservaticn and cultivation are resorted to on an extensive scale and on lines corresponding
fundamentally with those successfully followed in the culture of ordinary commercial oysters,
there would seem to be an imminent risk of the valuable Australian pearl-shell fisheries
becoming depleted to more or less complete exhaustion.

The tropical Australian seas, and notably those which wash the Great Barrier Reef, are
famous for the production of the largest of living bivalve molluscs. These are represented by
the GIANT CLAMS, which, dwelling among the coral-growths, are left exposed to view for brief
periods during abnormally low spring tides. A photograph of a colony of these monster
bivalves, taken by the writer
amidst this molluse’s char-
acteristic surroundings, is re-
produced on page 741. The
example in the foreground
measured no less than 4
feet in diameter and weighed
several hundred-weights. In
many clams the living tissues,
or mantle-borders, that are
exposed to view when the

ROCK-OYSTERS shell-valves are partly open,
This is the ordinary commercial oyster of the Australian shores are brilliantly tinted.

346 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

Of the SCALLOPS many of
the larger species are highly
esteemed for the table. it is
notable of them that they can
progress through the water
in a jerky, flight-like manner
by the repeated flapping of
their opposing shells. In
many scallops the jewel-like
é 5 Aa . + Amati eyes are developed in a row
Photo by WH’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S8.] [ Milford-on-Sea round the margin of the

A QUEENSLAND OYSTER-BANK mantle.

The Bivalve Class in-
cludes certain representatives
which are held in evil repute, on account of their destructive habits. PHOLAS and its allies
bore their way into solid rock, bringing about its complete disintegration. From the dreaded
SHIP-WORM, or TEREDO, on the other hand, there would appear to be no description of wood
that can withstand its ravages.

The Bivalve Molluscs are not without fresh-water representatives. The well-known PoNnp-
and RIVER-MUSSELS, which form the most conspicuous examples of this group, number several
hundred species. While insipid and of no account for the human commissariat, many of its
members produce pearls of value. One such, obtained from the river Conway, in North Wales,
is said to occupy a place in the crown of England.

The CHITONS, or MULTIVALVE MOLLUSCS, invite brief notice. As the last-named title
implies, the shell-elements in this group are relatively numerous, consisting of eight pieces,
or plates, which may form contiguous transverse shelly shields that entirely cover in and
protect the dorsal surface of the elongate, boat-shaped body, or may be more or less isolated
from one another. In the former instance the animal bears some considerable resemblance to
a gigantic limbless wood-louse, and, like that familiar terrestrial crustacean, it is capable of
rolling itself into a spheroidal shape as a means of protection. None of the chitons are
provided with eyes in the adult state in that region of their body — namely, the head — where
they might be most naturally expected to exist. Recent scientific investigation has, however,
elicited the fact that in various species the respective shell-plates are studded with minute
eye-specks, the aggregate number of visual organs thus possessed by certain forms reaching to
the astonishing figures of 11,000 or 12,000. The majority of the chitons are shallow-water,
rock-frequenting molluscs, which may be successfully sought by turning over stones at low

Illustrating another characteristic growth-phase of the Australian rock-oyster

water.

CHAPTER, i]
LAMP-SHELLS

LITTLE group of double-shelled creatures, formerly regarded as near allies of the Oysters

and Mussels, are the LAMP-SHELLS. Their scientific appellation, signifying ‘ arm-footed,”

relates to the two spirally convoluted arm-like structures which constitute the salient
features in these animals. That of lamp-shells bears reference to the small circular perforation
near the extremity, or “ beak,” of the united shells, which imparts to the entire structure a
not altogether remote resemblance to an ancient Greek or Roman lamp with its sub-terminal
wick-hole. In all essential points of their organisation the lamp-shells differ so essentially
from ordinary bivalves that they are now generally recognised as representing an independent
animal class, having, as a matter of fact, a closer relationship with Worms than with Molluscs.
In their earlier condition certain lamp-shells are indistinguishable from larval worms; while
the convoluted arms of the adult animals, thickly beset with bristles and hairs, closely resemble

Photos by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S8.] (Milford-on-Sea
SOUTHERN CROSS PEARL, s:
VALUED AT £10,000 PEARL-SHELL WITH GROUP OF
; a . : GOLDEN PEARLS
Consists of nine laterally united pear!s corresponding

in shape and size Many thousand shells may be opened without finding a sirgle pearl

Photos by W’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.

QUEENSLAND PEARLS ON BLACK- PEARL PRODUCED BY OPERATION
LIPPED PEARL-SHELL ON THE ANIMAL
The black-lipped shell produces pearls of great value The pear! produced is a solid hemispherical or ‘* button’’ pearl

345 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

the arms, or “ cirrhi,” of many sea-worms. The superadded valves of the lamp-shells differ
fundamentally from those of the bivalve molluscs in the circumstance that they are developed
upon the upper and lower surfaces respectively of the enclosed animal, and not on the sides.
The union between the two valves is also accomplished through the medium of interlocking
calcareous teeth, in place of a horny or ligamentous hinge-joint, as obtains in an oyster or
a mussel. A supplementary calcareous support, having a corresponding spiral shape, is also
developed in connection with the convoluted arms. This structure varies in the contour of
its minuter details in every specific form, which thus furnishes zoologists with a basis for
systematic classification. The lamp-shells collectively form two natural groups or orders. In
one of these the shells are hinged together, and are of conspicuously unequal dimensions.
The larger shell of the two is more distinctly concave and produced into a perforated beak.
It is this structure that in some species resembles the wick-hole of an antique lamp, and has
given rise to the popular title by which these shells are distinguished. The second or
hingeless group is further distinguished by the shells being of almost uniform shape and size.
In the most interesting example of this group, known as LINGULA, the two shells are thin,
horny, of a green tint, and mounted on a long, flexible, worm-like stalk. Like a worm, this
creature moves about in the mud, and constructs a sand-lined dwelling-tube.

Although lamp-shells are represented by comparatively few species at the present day, in
the older epochs they existed in enormous abundance. It is further remarkable of this group
that many species are scarcely distinguishable from their fossil ancestors. Lingula, the type
last referred to, is especially notable in this respect.

CHAPTER tlt
STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC.

HE somewhat varied assemblage of marine animals familiarly known as STAR-FISHES,
FEATHER-STARS, BRITTLE-STARS, SEA-URCHINS, and SEA-CUCUMBERS all agree
structurally with one another and differ from all other living organisms in several con-

spicuous features. Prominent among these is the circumstance that their protecting skin is
more or less extensively impregnated externally and strengthened internally with calcareous ele-
ments which take the form of plates and spines
and spicules.

The COMMON SEA-URCHIN may be cited as
an example in which these calcareous elements
attain their maximum development. The sub-
spherical box-like case or shell, wherein all the
vital organs are enclosed and safely protected, is
a common object of the seashore, and, empty and
denuded of its external coating of prickly spines,
familiarly known as a ‘*‘ sea-egg.” Examined closely,
this shell is found to consist of a series of cal-
careous plates, which dovetail or fit together in
juxtaposition with the utmost nicety. The surface
of the shell is studded throughout with rounded
hemispherical knobs, those of a larger size having
a very distinctly symmetrical plan of distribution.
These rounded knobs are the bases of attachment

Photo by U7. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. of the spines, which radiate at all points from
COMMON OR SHORT-_SPINED the surface of the shell when the animal is
SEA-URCHIN alive. It will be further recognised on a nearer

This species is used for food in Italy and other Continental countries @Xamination that the walls of the shell are pierced

STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHING, ETC, 349

on a definitely symmetrical pattern with minute perforations, such perforations being most
distinctly visible on the inner surface of the shell. These minute punctures are the
apertures through which in life the delicate tubular locomotive organs, or so-called ‘ feet,”
are thrust out and retracted. The majority of these tubular organs terminate in a circular
sucking-disk, wherewith, collectively, the urchin is able to adhere to and travel over the
surface of the smoothest rock, or even up the glass walls of an aquarium. In the empty
beach-gathered urchin-shell a circular hole may be observed at the two opposite poles, the
one in the centre of the lower and flatter surface being the larger of the two. It is within
this lower and larger one that the mouth, with its complex apparatus of teeth, is suspended.

Oe

Photo by 4”. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.

LONG-SPINED SEA-URCHINS

The need e-like spines of these sea-urchins are over a foot in length, Acres of these creatures may be sometimes seen on tidally exposed
areas of the Queensland Great Barrier Reef, where this photograph was taken

The membranous disk which covers the upper and smaller circular aperture in the living
animal is perforated centrally by the vent, and around it are grouped the eye-spots and sundry
excretory apertures.

A noteworthy feature associated with the greater portion of the structural details of the
sea-urchin which have been enumerated is the dominance of the number five in the constituent
elements. It is found, for instance, that the perforated areas through which the tube-feet are
protruded form, as with the petals and other elements of many flowers, five symmetrically
corresponding segments. The dental apparatus comprises five equivalent tooth-like structures,
and there are five eye-spots and five excretory apertures at the upper pole. This particular
number, with multiples of the same, is furthermore characteristic of all the typical members

23

350 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

of the class. Thus, in the COMMON
STAR-FISH,there are five so-called arms,
five eye-spots. one at the tip of each
arm, and five equivalent elemental
components of all the more impor-
tant viscera. In the SEA-CUCUMBERS,
which have elongate worm-like bodies,
there is a similar apportionment of
the nerves and muscles of the body
generally into fives, and also of the
branching tentacles which surround
the mouth. Tubular locomotive organs,
the so-called “ tube-feet,’ are common
to all the three types enumerated.
The calcareous plates and _ spinules,
while attaining to a maximum develop-
ment in the urchins, are also abundantly
represented in the other groups. In
the common star-fish these calcareous
elements form within the skin an
openly reticulated trellis-like frame-
work, while in the ordinary sea-
cucumbers they more usually take the form of innumerable microscopically minute spicules.
The two less familiarly known groups of the FEATHER-STARS and BRITTLE-STARS fully agree
with the previously enumerated types in their five-fold structural composition. The brittle
stars have almost invariably five arms only, but they are independent outgrowths from the
body proper, instead of being prolongations of it, as in the common star-fish.

The FEATHER-STARS, which include some of the rarest and most beautiful representatives
of the group, are mostly inhabitants of deep water, and remarkable for the circumstance that
either throughout life or in their early phases they are affixed to submarine objects by slender
stalks. This peculiarity imparts to the animals such a flower-like aspect that, in conjunction
with the indurated calcareous nature of their skeletons, they have received the title of
“ Stone-lilies.” This appellation, however, was originally more particularly applied to their
fossilised remains, which occur in remarkable abundance in the older geological strata.

The most familiar representative of the group is the Rosy FEATHER-STAR, occasionally
obtained among seaweed in rock-pools on the southern coast, but more often brought up with
the dredge from deeper water. In this form the elongate feather-like arms radiate from the
central, relatively small, five-rayed body. There is no supporting foot-stalk in this adult stage,
the animal being freely movable, and clinging to seaweeds and other objects by means of a
cluster of claw-like filaments developed upon its under-surface. Releasing its hold upon
its temporarily selected position, it can crawl about with the aid of the hooked extremities of
its arms and their radiating joints. It can also propel itself through the water in a somewhat
clumsy fashion by the consecutive flexion and extension of these appendages. This freedom
of locomotion was not, however, always possessed by the feather-star. In its early days, and
when of very small size, it was affixed to a slender foot-stalk, and dependent for its food on
the animalcules and other minute organisms which drifted or swam within reach of its extended
arms. The rosy feather-star takes its name from the bright rose-red tints by which it is
usually characterised. Individuals of the species are, however, subject to considerable colour-
variation. On the Australian coast, where many forms are abundantly represented, examples
tinted deep crimson, black, bright golden yellow, or sundry admixtures of these several hues
are not uncommonly found associated among a dredge-haul of these elegant sea-stars.

The PERMANENTLY STALKED STONE-LILIES are at the present day of rare occurrence. Up

"Phot. 0. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] " [Milford-on-Sea
THICK-SPINED SEA-URCHIN

In large specimens the spines are as thick as a slate-pencil, and may be used
for the same purpose

STAR-FISHES, SEA“URCHING, EITC. 352

to within comparatively recent years the so-called
MerbuSsa’s-HEAD LILY was, indeed, regarded as
the only living representative of the group. This
species has a pentagonal jointed foot-stalk that
may be 3 feet long, with five slender appendages
developed in whorls at short sub-equal distances
throughout its length. From the shallow cup-
shaped body at the apex of the stalk a tassel-like
bundle of arms is developed, all of these being
produced by repeated bifurcation from one of
the five equivalent basal stem-joints. Dredging
expeditions have within the last quarter of a
century revealed the existence of a considerable
number of previously unknown species of stone-
lilies in the abysses of the ocean, a depth of no
less than 3,200 fathoms representing the habitat
of one such type.

The Star-fish group is represented by the
COMMON FIVE-FINGERS, or CROSS-FISH, as it Is
sometimes called, and includes a very numerous
assemblage of species of varying size and shape
and colour. The British seas alone yield some
twenty forms. Among the more notable of these
is the SUN STAR-FISH, which, departing from the
rule of possessing five arms only, has twelve or more, its contour, from which it derives its
name, somewhat resembling that of a symbolic sun. The colours of this species are particularly
brilliant, consisting usually of a variably patterned admixture of crimson, pink, and white.

, : An extreme contrast in contour to the sun-star 1s
presented by the so-called BiRD’s-FOOr species, in
which the body is pentagonal and so flattened out
as to somewhat resemble the foot of a duck. In
the CUSHION-STARS the body, while pentagonal, is
comparatively thick.

The so-called SNAKE-ARMED SAND-STARS and
BRITTLE-STARS constitute a section distinguished
from the preceding by the character of the arms,
which branch separately from the central body, and
are composed of an innumerable series of calcareous
joints, which snap asunder under the - slightest
provocation. The great majority of the species are
provided with five simple arms only. In an ex-
ceptional form, however, known as the SHETLAND
ARGUS, and its allies, these five arms, while simple
at their base, bifurcate repeatedly and in geometrical

Photo by N, Lazxcarnich] [New York

STAR-FISH IN WATER
If pulled to pieces, each of the five arm’, or fingers, will

grow into a perject star-fish

progression to such an extent as to form in life
a complex network of writhing, snake-like tendrils,
that has been appropriately likened to a Medusa’s
head. It has been calculated that there are no
less than 80,000 terminal arm-subdivisions in adult
examples of this species.

Among the Sea-urchin Tribe there are

Photo by E. Connold] (St, Leonards
STAR-FISH, OUT OF WATER,
TURNING OVER

The sucker-tipped tubes with which the starfish effects : 2
locomotion are well shown in this photograph many notable departures from the typical torm

so2 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

previously referred to. In some, while the sub-spheroidal form of the case, or test, is
still retained, the external spiny armature is greatly varied. In one series these spines are
exceedingly long, slender, and of needle-like contour and sharpness. In others, while long, they
are abnormally thick and cylindrical, somewhat resembling slate-pencils, for which they are
sometimes used as a substitute; or they may be club-shaped, branched, or reduced to
flattened plates. In other forms the shell itself is conspicuously modified. With some known
as BISCUIT- or CAKE-URCHINS it is flattened out to the resemblance of a cake or biscuit, the
spines being minute and inconspicuous. In another group, distinguished as HEART-URCHINS,
the shell is oval and bilaterally symmetrical, though the dominant number of five still holds
good with regard to the building up of its structural details. One of the most interesting
is the LEATHER-URCHIN, so called on account of the flexible and loosely jointed character of
its shell, the way being paved by such a form to the normally soft- and flexible-skinned
sea-cucumbers. Sea-urchins are to a great extent vegetable-feeders, and the larger species are
appreciated as an article of food in many countries, the ovaries, or roe, with which at certain
periods the shell is mostly filled, forming the edible portion.

SE Toy ee The SEA-CUCUMBERS — better known in the
commercial world as Béche-de-mer, or Trepang —
represent the only group which possesses a
substantial market-value. Its typical members
present an elongate worm-like contour, but pro-
gress by means of extensile tube-feet, after the
manner of the Urchins and Star-fishes, and
have their dental, nervous, and muscular systems
fashioned on the same five-sectioned basis. The
mouth, which is situated at one extremity of the
body, is surrounded by a series of ten or twenty
delicately branched or mop-like tentacles, which
can be protruded or retracted at the animal’s
will, and are used for seizing food. The skin of
the typical sea-cucumber is more or less soft and
ih od flexible, and has embedded within its substance

es innumerable minute calcareous spinules.
Photo by HW, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea The commercially valuable sea-cucumbers, or
A YOUNG BRITTLE STAR-FISH béche-de-mer, are all inhabitants of tropical waters,
(MUCH MAGNIFIED) the North-eastern Australian coast and the Malay

The arms of the brittle-stars are composed of loosely fitting,

ienllip Pi aciiend johnc seas yielding the most highly prized forms. The

Queensland Great Barrier Reef, consisting of a
series of coral-reefs extending for upwards of 1,000 miles at a little distance from the
Australian mainland, represents one of the most productive areas for this marine delicacy, the
bulk of which goes to the Chinese market. The fishery is prosecuted with the assistance
mainly of the Queensland natives, who, either by diving or wading on the reefs at low tide,
collect the creatures in vast quantities. On being brought to the curing-stations, the animals
are emptied from the collecting-sacks into large caldrons, where they are allowed to stew in
their own juice for about twenty minutes. Taken out of the caldrons, they are split open and
eviscerated, dried for a short interval in the sun, and then placed in tiers on wire gratings in
a smoke-house, where they remain for twenty-four hours. They should at this stage have
shrunk up to about one quarter of their normally extended size, much resemble charred sausages
in aspect, and should rattle like dry walnuts when bagged up for exportation. From £50 to
#150 per ton are the prices that the better qualities of béche-de-mer realise when well cured
and delivered at Chinese ports. The chief culinary use to which the cured sea-cucumbers are
applied is that of the concoction of soup, the best quality prepared taking rank with that
made from swallows’ nests. At the hotels and clubs in the leading Australian cities béche-

oUAK=FPISH ES, SEA-URCHING, ETC,

de-mer soup is held in high favour, and its more
extensive introduction onthe menu-cards of Western
civilisation may be only a question of time.

Many species of sea-cucumbers inhabit British
seas, but none possess that density of tissue which
is essential for their economic conservation; the
majority, moreover, are of comparatively small size,
some few inches long only when fully extended,
whereas the commercially valuable tropical ones may
measure as much as from 2 to 3 feet. The mode of
feeding of sea-cucumbers is somewhat interesting ;
the smaller species, with much-branching tentacles,
generally affix themselves by their tube-feet to
some object, and, extending their tentacles in all
directions, utilise them, like those of a _ sea-
anemone, for seizing any minute and suitable prey
which may strike against them. The microscopic
organisms on which they chiefly feed abound in
the waters they inhabit, and one after the other,
the branched tentacles having effected a capture,
are gathered together and tucked bodily into the
creature's central mouth and apparently half-way
down its throat. The larger coral-frequenting
species are provided mostly with mop-shaped
tentacles. They crawl about leisurely in search of
their food, mopping over the ground, and gathering
up in their tentacles the minute shells and other
organisms on which they subsist, which are col-
lectively thrust with an indrawn tentacle into the

throat.

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F,Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea

A BRANCHING-ARMED BRITTLE-STAR

The specimen is attached to a brilliant scarlet sponge

In some of the lower forms the tube-

Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.

SEA-CUCUMBERS, SOME WITH
EXTENDED TENTACLES

<1 West Australian species whose colours are bright pink and yellow

feet have disappeared, the integument is thin
and semi-transparent, and the worm-like animal
crawls about by means of its skin-spinules,
which take the form of anchors or grappling-
hooks. In an opposite direction they may
develop a supplementary covering of dermal
plates and a more rigid integument, which
indicate their nearer relationship with sea-
urchins.

The majority of sea-urchins and star-
fishes pass through a series of interesting
metamorphoses before arriving at the adult
state. The larval phases in these instances
are free-swimming organisms, having arm-like
processes, strengthened by calcareous rods
that have been likened in contour to a clock-
stand. A small spherical central area, like a
clock in its case, representing the stomach of
the larva, develops spicules around it, and
becomes the body of the urchin, the other

354 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

i ii EN is. Sian ~~] +outlying portions becoming
| gradually absorbed. Some of
the brittle-stars and sea-
| cucumbers bring forth their
young in the adult form,
nursing them from the egg in
special breeding-chambers.
The capacity of a star-fish
to renew its lost arms is
commonly manifested. Asingle
detached arm, moreover, in such
a type as the common five-
fingered species, can reproduce
its body and the remaining four
arms. Fishermen, who are in
the habit of tearing up star-
fishes and throwing them back
into the water, under the im-

¥ adel tout i meiss iid ee | pression that they are thus
Photo by W,, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. effectually incapacitating them
SEA-CUCUMBER, OR BECHE_-DE-MER from further injury to their

: ie oyster-beds, commit an error,
These animals are collected in vast quantities on the Australian Great Barrier fi . 2
Reef, smoked, and sent to the Chinese market such mutilation tending to the

multiplication of their numbers.
In the matter of colour-ornamentation the Star-fish group is richly endowed. Allusion
to the brilliant crimson and pink-and-white tints of the British sun star-fish has been
already made. As with most animal groups, however, it is amid their tropical representatives
that the most striking colour-variations obtain. One form which is common among the coral-
reefs on the Queensland coast-line, and much resembles the common British “ five-fingers”
in size and shape, is brilliant ultramarine-blue. Another large pentagonal species, belonging to
the group known as Cushion-
stars, has a golden-brown
ground, upon which are
thickly scattered small bead-
like tubercles of turquoise.
A third form, not un-
common on the Tasmanian
coast-line, which is nearly
related to the Bird’s-foot
species, previously mentioned,
is distinguished by tints which
range through several shades
of crimson to brilliant violet.
Not a few of the star-
fishes are notable for their
eminent phosphorescent
properties. The group of
the Snake-armed and Brittle-
stars are more especially
distinguished in this respect.
Many of these species PRICKLY SEA-CUCUMBER
occur in such numbers in This species of béche-de-mer commands a high price in China, and makes delicious soup

Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea

STAR-PISHES, SEA-URCHING, ETC.

BLACK SEA-CUCUMBER

This photograph was taken through the water in a coral-pool, A large clam-shell, with its expanded fringe of tentacles,
is close beside the sea-cucumber

comparatively deep water that the dredge may be filled with a tangled mass of their writhing
snake-armed bodies. Should it be night when the dredge is brought aboard, and its contents
are emptied upon the deck, the spectacle presented as the star-fishes scramble in all direc-
tions, their bodies and arms aglow with pale green or blue phosphoric coruscations, is highly
remarkable.

CHAPTER ly
MOSS-ANIMALS

LITTLE group of animals whose relationship with the sub-divisions previously and
hereafter described cannot be very definitely determined is that of the MOSS-ANIMALS,
sometimes designated CORALLINES, or LACE-CORALS. All its members are of exceed-

ingly minute size, and if living separately would be scarcely discernible to the unaided vision.
They are, however, in the habit of forming stocks, or colonies, after the manner of corals,
by a process of continual budding, and in this way build up social aggregations which may
be of considerable dimensions. The majority are marine, and largely in evidence on almost
every seashore in the form of the so-called SEA-MATS, consisting of masses of minute, light
brown, horny cells, which take the form of seaweeds, or are spread in thin, lace-like
encrustations upon the surfaces of shells, stones, and the larger seaweeds. The living
inhabitants of these cells are as transparent as glass, their most characteristic feature being
the elegant shuttle-cock-shaped crown of tentacles which is thrust out or withdrawn at will
from the aperture of each tiny tenement. The assistance of the microscope is requisite for
the apprehension of these details, as also of the somewhat complex alimentary and other
organs enclosed within the component cells.

356 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

A comparatively small
number of these moss-animals
are inhabitants of fresh-water,
forming brown tubular aggre-
gations on the under side of
the leaves of water-lilies or
other submerged objects. It
is interesting to observe that
the tentacular crown in almost
all these fresh-water species
is horseshoe-shaped, instead of
like a shuttle-cock, as in the
marine forms. One very not-
able fresh-water species is re-
markable for the circumstance
that in place of horny tubes
the component individuals
secrete a common transparent

MOSS_-ANIMALS gelatinous matrix, which is

These coral-like masses are composed of many thousand closely united dwelling- provided with a creeping-base,

cells of microscopic dimensions wherewith the colony-stock is

enabled to travel over the

surfaces of the water-plants among which it lives, or up the glass sides of an aquarium.

In some respects, and more especially their earlier developmental phases, the Moss-animals

show affinities with the Lamp-shells, while the tentacular crown of the adult individual is
closely imitated in certain worms.

Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.]

[Milford-on-Sea

CHAPTER ¥
WORMS

HE Wor s and their allies embrace a numerous assemblage of animals which exhibit a
remarkable amount of variation both in structure and habits. A fundamental distinction
which serves to separate readily even the most highly organised members of the group

from the other articulate or jointed-bodied animals, such as Crabs, Insects, or Centipedes,
is furnished by the character of the locomotive appendages. These in the Worm Tribe never
assume a jointed character, but take the form of unjointed membranous processes which may
or may not be supplemented by bristles. Frequently bristles alone constitute the essential
locomotive organs. In certain groups, such as the Leeches, Flat-worms, Thread-worms, and
others, even these are unrepresented.

The appropriate title of BRISTLE-WORMS has been conferred upon the section in which
the locomotive organs take the form of bristles). Among these the CoMMON EARTH-WORM is
included. At first sight the worm’s body appears to be perfectly smooth and naked; it
is found, however, on closer investigation to be furnished, according to the species, with
either two or four longitudinal rows of fine, hook-like bristles. Although these bristles
project but slightly above the surface of the skin, they constitute very effective aids to
locomotion, enabling the animal to obtain a secure grip upon the surface of the ground
over which it may be traveling. Progression under such conditions is effected, in fact, on
the same principle as that of the snake, the ends of the stiff bristles with which the segments
are armed fulfilling the same rdle as the projecting edges of the reptile’s scales. Earth-
worms are chiefly vegetable-feeders, dragging into their holes fallen leaves, straws, and every

WORMS 357

other description of vegetable débris. They also swallow and pass through their systems large
quantities of earth, absorbing from it its organic constituents, and depositing the indigestible
residuum therefrom in the form of “ earth-casts.” The useful function thus performed by
worms in bringing up earth from considerable depths and redepositing it upon the surface of
the ground has been fully demonstrated in one of Mr. Darwin’s works. There are some twenty
species of British earth-worms, none of which, however, attain to the proportions of certain
kinds indigenous to Australia and South Africa. Some of these giant species are as much as
3 or 4 feet long when unextended, and will on the stretch measure twice such lengths. Their
thickness, which is proportionate, may vary from that of a man’s finger to that of an ordinary
sausage.

The most numerically abundant and structurally varied representatives of the bristle-
bearing worms are inhabitants of the sea, and are divisible into two easily recognised
natural groups. In one of
these the animals resemble
earth-worms in their ability
to move about freely from
place to place. In the other
group they secrete and per-
manently reside within a tu-
bular edifice, which may be
calcareous and of shell-like
hardness, or composed of par-
ticles of sand, mud, or other
substances. The free-roving |
group, which embraces by far |
the larger number, includes |
such forms as the LUG-WORM,
or Lop-worM (held in high
repute for fishing-baits), and
a host of other allied species.
In all of these the develop-
ment of bristles and other
appendages is more pro-
nounced than in the Earth-
worms. In another group,
known as the NEREIDS, the
elongate worm-like body is pe ee Fneiaidcaied
more orless flattened in shape ; TUBE_WORMS
unjointed leg-like appendages, Some with their flower-like gill-tufts expanded
supplemented by bristles, are
developed from the majority of the segments, and the animal presents a somewhat centipede-
like aspect. This likeness is further enhanced by the presence of antenne-like organs at the
anterior extremity, while the mouth is armed internally with a pair of sharp-pointed, horny
jaws. In many of the nereids the lateral organs are flattened out and paddle-like, constituting
effective swimming-structures. Some of the larger species attain a length of several feet, and
are especially noteworthy for the brilliantly iridescent tinting of their skins. The palm of beauty
with respect to its brilliant colouring must undoubtedly, however, be awarded to the so-called
SEA-MOUSE, frequently cast up by storms on the British coast. In this creature the body is
comparatively short and thick, 3 or 4 inches long by 13 to 2 inches wide. The centre
of the back is covered in by a felt-like mass of fine interlacing hairs of a brownish hue,
underneath which are broad, flat scales which protect the breathing-apparatus. ‘The sides are,
however, thickly clothed with long, slender hairs and bristles, each of which reflects the

>)

356 THE LIVING ANIMALS. OF THE WORLD

f most brilliant prismatic
tints,

The TUBE-DWELLING
WORMS are note-worthy for
the elegant and often beau-
tifully coloured flower-like
gill-tuft with which the head
is crowned. Its separate
filaments are clothed with
vibrating hairs, which create
currents bringing food-par-
ticlestothe mouth Inthose
forms which build up a hard
calcareous dwelling-tube, one
of the gill-filaments is usually
so modified as to constitute
a stopper-like organ, where-

Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F Z 8.) (Milford on-Sea : ss x
SEA-WORMS. OR NEREIDS with the animal,on retreating
into its domicile, can effectu-

ally bar out the ingress of in-
truders. Insome members of the group the gill-tufts are elegantly branched and supplemented
by long, simple, thread-like filaments, that are thrust out to long distances in every direction
both for food and the materials required for the further lengthening and enlargement of the tube

The LEECHES differ essentially from the Bristle-worms in the absence of bristles or
supplementary appendages, in the presence of an adhesive sucking-disk at the posterior and
sometimes also the anterior extremity, and on their well-known blood-sucking propensities.
While the MEDICINAL and so-called HORSE-LEECHES inhabit fresh water, some, more espe-
cially in tropical countries, infest the moist jungles and scrubs in vast numbers, and are among
the most actively aggressive pests with which the traveler has to contend. A few leeches also
inhabit the sea, preying upon the skate and other fishes. The bodies of these marine species
are cylindrical, with a sucker at each extremity, and roughly corrugated or warted.

The FLAT-WORMS embrace a large number of intestinal and other parasitic species, includ-
ing TAPE-WORMS, THREAD-
WORMS, LIVER-FLUKES, and |
others. Among the free-living

Their 7nnumerable “false feet” impart to them a centipede-like aspect

non-parasitic members of this
group, the so-called INDIA-
RUBBER-WORM is remarkable
forthe extraordinaryelasticity
of its tissues. Black in hue,
it lives among rocks and sea-
weeds, and preys upon small
fishes and other organisins,
These being seized by the |
suctorial mouth are unable to
effect their escape, the worm’s |
body being capable of stretch- |
ing out to a length of 20 feet
or more, and ‘‘ playing” the
captured victim like a living isd by Wi salle Riek Hee GE
elastic fishing-line until its SEAEMICE le al
struggles are exhausted. Hoos Un LE GRR PRED EEE Oe ee

tn the sand

eel cet Rn tr d
Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.

PORTION OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF OF AUSTRALIA

Showing soft or leathery and other corals

9 > 3 a ii mr TNT MT eee Ome eae 7

bein on

eins

S - fas 2 im, = BT b etey” AW
Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [Milford-on-Sea

ANOTHER PORTION OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF

Composed chiefly of stag’s-horn corals, This coral varies in colour, being sometimes brown with white tips, in other
instances grass-green or even brilliant violet

359

360 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

isa a aaaiaaeaeeeemmeemeene - ~

Photo by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.

A MUSHROOM-CORAL FULLY

In this conditicn the coral, or skeleton of the animal, is entirely concealed

EXPANDED

CHAPTER. ¥i

CORALS, SEA-ANEMONES, AND
FELLY-FISHES

ITH the Sea-anemones and
Jelly-fishes almostthe lowest
organised group of living

animals is reached. As typified by an
ordinary sea-anemone, the body may
be described as a simple sac, the
orifice of which is inverted for some
little distance, and held in position
with relation to the outer wall by a
series of radiating partitions. One or
more rows of tentacles, varying in
number and character according to the
species, surround the mouth of this
partially inverted sac. There is no
distinct intestinal track, the whole
space enclosed within the outer wall
and ramifying among the radiating
partitions containing the digestive
juices. The radiating membranous

partitions develop upon their surfaces the reproductive elements, and in the case of Corals,

which are merely skeleton-producing
sea-anemones, partly secrete within
them the symmetrical radiating cal-
careous plates so characteristic of the

group.

Some thirty odd species of sea- |,

anemones are indigenous to British
waters, and one or more of these

will be familiar to most readers. The °«,

STRAWBERRY-ANEMONE, clinging to the
rocks as a hemispherical lump of
crimson, green, brown, or red and

yellow speckled jelly when the tide is |

down, and expanding like a beautiful

flower when the waters flow back upon |
it, is the commonest and in many |

respects the most beautiful of all, the
circlet of turquoise beads, regarded as
rudimentary eyes, developed around
the outer margin of the tentacles, add-
ing a charm possessed by few other
species. The DAHLIA-ANEMONE, whose
expanded disk and innumerable petal-
like tentacles may measure as much
as 6 or 8 inches in diameter, is the
largest British species. These dimen-
sions are, however, vastly exceeded by

MUSHROOM-CORALS, WITH THE ANEMONE-
LIKE POLYP EXPANDED

Taken through the water on a coral-recf

bx % et We w J

Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] : 7 ; [Milford-on-Sea
PART OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF OF AUSTRALIA
Chiefly composed of star-corals, many of them resembling human skulls, The Great Barrier Reef of Australia, consisting of

innumerable detached reefs and coral-islets, is over 1,200 miles in length

361

362 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

its tropical allies. The Australian coast produces giant
species which may measure no less than from 18 inches
to 2 feet across their expanded disks. These giant
anemones are further interesting on account of the cir-
}cumstance that they are self-constituted ‘“ harbours of
refuge” to sundry species of fishes and crabs, which
nestle among their tentacles like birds in a leafy bower.
The anemones are themselves bright in colour, but the
| associated fishes are even more so. In an example which
was photographed by the writer on the Western Australian
coast, the anemone was olive-green, with the tips of the
tentacles bright mauve. The fishes, of which three examples
were present, were brilliant orange-scarlet with white
bands. In addition to the fishes a small flat-clawed crab.
shared the sheltering hospitality of the anemone. Some
of the tropical coral-reef-frequenting anemones, which have
their tentacles beautifully branched, must be cautiously
| handled, in consequence of their notable stinging proper-
ities. All sea-anemones and corals are, in fact, provided
with peculiar stinging-cells, with which they benumb and
thus make an easy capture of the living organisms on
which they prey. While the majority of the sea-anemones
live single or individually separate lives, there are some
which form aggregations or colony-stocks of numerous.
units. These compound growths are brought about by
repeated budding, or the sub-division or fission, without
complete separation, of an originally single individual. It
is by a similar process of recurrent sub-division that the
wonderful fabrications of the coral-polyps are built up.
An ordinary coral-animal or polyp, as previously

Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., [Milford-on-Sea

PORTION OF A STAG’S-
HORN CORAL

Each minute circular cell represents the situation
in life of a smail sea-anemone-like
animal, or coral-pilyp
stated, differs in no respect
from a sea-anemone, except-
ing for the possession of a
calcareous skeleton secreted
within its basal tissues, includ-
ing portions of the mem-
branous radiating partitions.
Some coral-animals, like the
majority of the Anemones, are
solitary, and rorm single attached
or loosely lying corals. The well-
known MUSHROOM-CORALis one
of the latter. One species
observed, which was _ photo-
graphed through the water by the
writer as it lay expanded in a
tide-pool on the Australian Great A CLUMP OF STAG’S-HORN CORAL

Rarrier Reef, might easily be The life-colours of this coral are a delicate cream with brilliant magenta tips

Photo by W, Savtlle-Kent, F.Z.S.

CORALS, SEA-ANEMONES, AND JELLY-FISHES 363

mistaken for a big sea-anemone allied to the dahlia-anemone. On being disturbed, however, it
immediately shrinks back upon its base, ejecting all the water with which its expanded tissues
were filled, and revealing the presence of the hard radiating coral beneath. Each of the calcareous
radii, which are now clearly defined through the thin semi-transparent skin, corresponds in position
with one of the internal membranous partitions, and also with the origin of one of the tentacles.
New mushroom-corals are produced as buds thrown off from the parent, which attach themselves
and secrete a foot-stalk, to which they remain affixed, like the young of the feather star-fish, for
the earlier epoch of their existence. Ultimately, however, they become detached, and, falling
from their stalks, lie loosely on the sea-bottom, after the manner of their parents. The huge

Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S8.] [Milford-on-Sea
BLEACHED CORALS FROM THE GREAT BARRIER REEF

Brenching stag’ s-horn corals are chiefly represented in this group. Several of the large solitary mushroom-cor als may, however,
be observed in the foreground

coral-masses commonly known as MADREPORES, out of which coral-islands and reefs are con-
structed, all commence as a single coral-animal, with its contained skeleton analogous to the
mushroom-coral, though in all instances much smaller. The buds developed by the coral-
polyp in these instances remain attached to the parent. If they spread out laterally, they
build up by accumulation the large flattened or sub-spherical masses known as BRAIN-
CORALS and STAR-CORALS, which are most abundant on coast-line reefs, or form the bases of
the outer barrier-reefs. Where, on the other hand, the budding is terminal or oblique,
branching tree-like growths such as the STAG’S-HORN CORALS, with their innumerable allies
and variations, are produced. The colours of the coral-polyps are as brilliant and diverse
as those of ordinary sea-anemones, living reefs, whereon a number of different species are

364 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

in a condition of healthy growth, yielding a spectacular effect that vies with that of any
floral parterre. Sometimes large areas, acres upon acres in extent, may be covered with one
almost uniform purple, green, brown, or other coloured growth of the branching stag’s-horn
species. The aspect presented is not unlike that of a heath-covered common.

In addition to the solid, calcareous-skeletoned Madrepores, or ‘ Stony Corals,” as they are
often termed, there are a number of species in which a skeleton composed only of loosely

Yi BS ath Za 4 *e W. oa ageregated calcareous spicules
; d “| ;

ye : Lod rg %& 4, is produced. The so-called

d , : iy FLEXIBLE CORALS, or SEA-
FANS, belong to this category,
as also the precious CORAL
OF COMMERCE. In the last-
named species. the _ solid,
brilliantly coloured skeleton
so much prized as an article
of jewellery is deposited as a
supplementary basis outside
the tissues by which the star-
patterned skeletons of the
stony corals are secreted.

A group which demands
brief notice is that of the
Hybroip Poryps. — These
include the majority of the
JELLY-FISHES, a few coral-
secreting species, and the or-
ganisms whose seaweed-like
horny skeletons, known as SEA-
FIRS, are, in common with those
of Sea-mats, included among
the flotsam and jetsam on
Photo by U7, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea every sea-beach. In the

A QUEENSLAND STAR-CORAL ComMMON Hypra, or FRESH-
WATER POLYP, an exceptional
fresh-water representative of
this group is presented. It may be likened to a tiny sea-anemone, having, when extended,
a slender foot-stalk and long thread-like tentacles. Like a sea-anemone, it will shrink up
when disturbed into a mere button of jelly. Its organisation is more simple than that of
the anemone, its body-cavity being a simple sac, without any intucking of the orifice, or
strengthening by supplementary membranous partitions. A similar simple structural plan
is characteristic of all the organisms belonging to the series. An interesting phenomenon
connected with the fresh-water hydra is the circumstance, demonstrated now over a century
ago, that, if one of these animals be cut up into little pieces, each separate fragment is
capable of repairing itself and growing into a new polyp.

The JELLY-FISHES, or MEbDusAas, and their allies would appear at first sight to possess but
little structurally in common with the Coral-polyps and Sea-anemones. In their most familiar
form they are represented by a more or less translucent bell-shaped body, which drifts with
the current or propels itself through the water by its alternate expansions and contractions. In
the centre of the lower surface, occupying the position of the bell’s clapper, a polyp-like,
tubular mouth is usually discernible, and this is frequently surrounded by a circle of tentacles,
sometimes simple and sometimes elaborately ramified. Long, thread-like tentacles are also
commonly developed around the margin of the swimming-bell.

This species in life is of a pale lemon-yellow tint

CORALS, SEA-ANEMONES, AND JELLY-FISHES

365

The larger number of the jelly-
fishes are, as a of fact,
transitional phases only of the fixed
hydroid polyps previously referred to.
In certain instances the body of the
fixed polyp becomes elongated, and
splits up horizontally into a series

matter

of jelly-fishes, or medusas, resembling
a pile of saucers, which consecutively
break away and lead a free-roving
existence. In other forms a com-
pound tree-like growth gives birth
to medusa-like buds, like the flowers
on a plant, which ultimately become
detached and swim away. What
are known as the COMB-BEARING
JELLY-FISHES — their locomotive or-
gans consisting of comb-like bands of
vibratile hairs —are especially note-
worthy. In some of these the body
is nearly spherical or ovate, one of
the species, in reference to its shape,
being popularly known as the SEA-
LEMON.

|

{

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.]

A GIANT ANEMONE FROM THE

From 18 inches to 2 feet in diameter when expanded.

[Milford-on-Sea

GREAT
BARRIER REEF

Bright apple-green in

colour, and with almost spherical bead-like tentacles

Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.]

A GIANT SEA-ANEMONE

Measures, when opened, 18 inches in diameter.

[Milford-on-Sea

Ts almost always associated with

companion or ‘* commensal’” fish and crabs of brilliant colour. The
fish cruise round in search of food, but always return to

shelter among the anemone’s tentacles.
taken through the water

24

Photograph

7

A notable feature of these medusas is their remarkable glass-like transparency, their

presence in the water in many
instances being recognisable only
by the prismatic
their rows of vibratile hairs when
the light falis upon them at a
favourable angle. The most remark-
abie member of this particular group
is undoubtedly the form known as
VENUS’S GIRDLE. This species takes
the form of a long, ribbon-Jike band
of transparent jelly. The edges of
the ribbon are clothed with vibratile
hairs, and the mouth is situated in
the centre of one of the edges. The
animal progresses by the action of
its hairs alone, or may be assisted
by the twistings and undulations of
its ribbon-like body.

Many jelly-fishes possess an un-
enviable reputation with reference
to their stinging properties. The so-
called PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR is
one of the more noteworthy of these.
The organism consists of an ovately
pointed air-bladder, which floats on
the water, and from which depend
numerous nutritive polyps and a mass
of capturing-filaments, or tentacles.

glimmerings of

366

CHE LIVING ANIMALS OF "THE WORLD

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.,
Milford-on-Sea

FRILLED SPONGE

A species not infrequently dredged
up by the pearl-shell fishers in
Sharks’ Bay, Western
Australia

CHAPTER. VII
SPONGES AND ANIMALCULES

HE SPonGEs are regarded as a group standing on the border-
land between the Polyps and the lowly organisms which
follow. The familiar BATH- and TOILET-SPONGES of com-

merce represent but an insignificant fraction in comparison with the
many hundred species which find no place in the world’s market.
Toilet-sponges owe their intrinsic value to the relative fineness and
elasticity of their component fibrous skeletons. In these particular
species the skeleton is composed of a substance akin to horn. In
other sponges the skeleton may consist of horny fibres mixed with
flinty spicules, or it may be of flint only, or of spicules of carbonate of
Finally, there are sponges which possess no internally support-
ing skeleton, fibrous or spicular, and whose substance is consequently
little more than gelatinous. All these numerous forms, however,
agree with one another in the identity of their most essential vital
elements. In the living sponge the skeleton, fibrous or otherwise,
is embedded within a gelatinous matrix by whose component cells
Externally the sponge-body is perforated over the
greater portion of its extent
by minute holes or pores,
while one or more holes of
relatively large size occupy
the summit of the sponge,
or are scattered here and
there among the numerous
smaller pores. The smaller
pores represent incurrent ap-
ertures, and lead to chambers
within the sponge’s substance
lined by cells. Each of these
is provided with a long whip-
like appendage, with a trans-
parent wineglass-shaped cup

lime.

it is excreted.

or collar, which is a beautifully constructed food-trap.
The lashings of the whips of the collar-cells cause
currents of water bearing nutrient particles to flow in
at all the smaller pores. Arriving at the chambers,
these particles are caught by the outstretched collar-traps
and absorbed into the cell’s substance. The water,
together with rejected and waste materials given off by
the sponge-body, is carried forward, and passes out at the
larger orifices or vents.

Among the more remarkable sponges may be men-
tioned the NEPTUNE's-CUP SPONGE, like a huge chalice
3 or 4 feet high, indigenous to the South Seas; the
wonderful cornucopia-shaped LACE-SPONGE, consisting of
a lace-like reticulation of flinty fibres; and its near
ally the GLASS-ROPE SPONGE, forming a cup- or bird’s-
nest-shaped body, supported on a long cylindrical stalk

Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S8., Milford-on-Sea

RETICULATED SPONGE
The skeleton of this sponge is composed of fine
horny fibres resembling those of ordinary
commercial Sponges

SPONGES AND ANIMALCULES 367

of flinty fibres that may be over a foot in height.
One of the compound or social sea-anemones is in
the habit of forming bark-like encrustations on this
glassy stem, and it was for a long time doubtful whether
the sea-anemone or the sponge produced the support-
ing-stalk,

The ANIMALCULES, which represent the simplest
and lowest forms of living animals, consist chiefly of
organisms which are the equivalents of one of the
single cells, or, as they might be termed, the
“Vife-bricks,” out of which all the higher animals,
and also plants, are built up. They are of minute
dimensions, and require the aid of the microscope
for their proper investigation. Among the most
highly organised members of this sub-kingdom
mention must be made of the CILIATED ANIMALCULES,
or INFU-
SORTA,
socalled
because
toh ey
were
first dis-
covered
inhabit-
ing de-
caying
vege-
ta ise
and ani-
mal in-
fusions.
The so-
called

amazing

which represent its organs of locomotion.

Photo by W, Savilie-Kent, F.Z.S.] [ Milford-on-Sea

PORTUGUESE BIRD’S-NEST SPONGE
Dredged from a depth of 600 fathoms off the coast of
Portugal, In life the be dy, oF ft cup,” of this
sponge was deep orange colour, from which

the grey beard-like mass of anc horing

fibres dk pended

SLIPPER-ANIMALCULE is one of the commonest
forms which makes its appearance amidst such
environments. The length of this single-celled
animal scarcely averages the one-hundredth part
of an inch, but within this restricted space an
degree of structural and functional
differentiation is included. Its outer surface
is, in the first place, densely clothed with hairs,

This

outer cell-wall has a subjacent somewhat softer
layer, in which are developed as crowded a series
(as compared with the hairs) of minute rod-like
bodies, which, under various stimuli, can be shot
out like darts through the skin, and are adjudged
to be offensive and defensive weapons, partaking

Photo by E. Connsld] [st. Leonards much of the same nature as the thread- or
CHALINA SPONGE stinging-cells of sea-anemones. Among other
Composed partly of horny and partly of finty elements noteworthy structures, the slipper-animalcule

368 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

has a distinct throat-opening, two rhythmically contracting cavities fulfilling a respiratory
function and a complex reproductive nodule, or nucleus. Compared with a host of its kindred,
this animalcule is a giant, the longest diameter of many of the smaller varieties measuring
no more than the %oooth part of inch, or even less.

The elegant little BELL-ANIMALCULE, with its crystal wineglass-shaped body, crown
of vibrating hairs, and long spirally contractile foot-stalk, is a familiar object to the
possessor of a microscope. Most commonly these single-celled organisms, like the single-
celled elements of organic tissues, multiply by repeated sub-division, the number that
can be reproduced in a short space of time by this simple process being almost
incredible. As many as a million, it has been calculated, of some species may be
thus derived from an original single individual within twenty hours. In this connection
these lowly organisms can among living animals most logically lay claim to immortality.
The individual, in point of fact, never dies. Finding itself growing old and obese at
the ripe age of, say, sixty minutes, it has simply to split itself up into two offsets,
which swim away and repeat the process. Occasionally, for the rejuvenescence of the
race, two individuals coalesce completely with one another, and multiplication by splitting
takes place.

Some near relations of the little bell-animalcule, while sub-dividing so far as their bodies
are concerned, remain united by their foot-stalks, and thus in time build up beautiful tree-
like structures, laden as it were with crystal bells or fruit. In some of these the common
branching foot-stalk is erect and rigid, while in others it is flexible, and contains, as in the
ordinary species, a central elastic ligament. Under these circumstances the whole tree-like
structure, with its crystal bells, collapses and expands again under the slightest stimulus, and
constitutes one of the most
beautiful objects that can be
viewed through the microscope.

In lower forms of the
infusorial animalcules one or
more long, lash-like organs take
the place of locomotive hairs.
In this category are included
the COLLAR-BEARING ANIMAL-
CULES. Some of these build
up tree-like growths by re-
peated subdivisions and im-
perfect separation, after the
manner of the bell-animalcules,
while others excrete tubular
dwelling-cases, inhabited by
the resultants of the splitting
process. Such forms can with
difficulty be distinguished from
skeletonless sponges.

The animalcule Nocti-
LUCA, which by its countless
myriads is the chief constituent
of ocean phosphorescence, is a
member of the Lash-bearing
group. This noteworthy form

Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [ Milford: on-Sea

CUP-SPONGES, PHOTOGRAPHED AS GROWING as a arr 4
IN A CORAL_POOL invites a somewhat more

The Neptune’s-cup Sponge, allied to this species, is sometimes 2 or 3 feet in height extended notice. It is to the
and diameter presence of the Noctiluca in

SPONGES AND ANIMALCULES 369

countless myriads upon the upper stratum
of the water on calm summer nights that is
especially due the diffused form of phosphor-
escence which is more essentially characteristic
of temperate latitudes. Under the most favour-
able of these conditions, the waves falling upon
the strand leave as they retreat a_ glittering
carpet of scintillating points; the oars of the
passing boat seem as it were to dip into molten
silver; while on the high seas the revolving
screw or paddle of the steam-vessel leaves in its
wake a broad, luminous track as far as the eye
can reach. A glassful of water taken from the
sea at such times immediately reveals the origin
of these wonderful phenomena. Here and there
will be seen floating minute bladder-like trans-
parent spheres, resembling as nearly as possible
small granules of boiled sago. Investigated more = 9 9 # Seville Kent, B28] [ Milford-on-Sea
closely with the microscope, each individual gripes OF FORAMS HIGHLY MAGNIFIED
speck will be found to exhibit a pouch-like ih aa Mie dey leiatot
contour, having a central furrow, from which the composed of similar microscopically minute shells ~
lash projects, and upon which the minute mouth-

aperture opens. Irritated by agitation in any shape or form, the Noctilucas at once respond
by, as it were, angry flashes of silvery-greenish light, and it is to the coruscations in their
aggregate condition of many millions of these minute organisms that the several phenomena

above recounted are produced.

One other characteristic manifestation of ocean phosphorescence dependent upon the
presence in countless numbers of these minute animalcules may be recorded. To those
accustomed to a seafaring life the spectacle is a common one, on nights when the luminosity
is most in evidence, of fishes following or darting away from the sides of the vessel apparently
aglow themselves with phosphoric light, and leaving behind them, in accordance with their
size, a more or less conspicuous luminous path in
the murky waters. It is commonly supposed that
such form of luminosity is emitted by the fishes
themselves; but on closer investigation it will be
found that this also is due to the presence of the
animalcules under notice in countless numbers,
which are disturbed into a sudden display of
their phosphoric properties by the passage of the
fishes through their midst. This light is reflected,
as from a mirror, by the fishes’ glittering scales,
while the Noctilucas continue scintillating for
several seconds in the path or wake through
which the fishes have passed.

There are other animalcules nearly allied to

\

o @
. Os

Noctilucas which sometimes occur in such vast
abundance in both salt and fresh water as to
visibly affect its character. In addition to a very
Photo by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [ Milford-on-Sea long lash they have a girdle of vibratile hairs.
NOCTILUCAS The fresh-water representatives of this group are

Pieie dee he miialeeles aDlah cblelly dridac warns sometimes brilliant green, at others bright scarlet.
phosphorescence That instance among the Biblical Egyptian plagues

370 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD

in which the water of the Nile was as it were
“turned to blood, and all the fish died,” has been
attributed to a phenomenal development of these
animalcules, which, on dying, polluted and putre-
fied the water. Instances of fishes being destroyed
in vast quantities through a like agency through-
out even extensive sea-areas have been occasionally
recorded. While these pages are going to press
an account has appeared in an American journal
of red water caused by these flagellate animalcules,
which occurred last July for an extent of at least
200 miles along the coast of California, producing
with their decomposition a most sickening odour,
and the death of shoals of fishes, octopods, sea-
cucumbers, and other organisms.
4 Next to the Flagellates come the ROOT-FOOTED
Photo by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.5.J [Milford-on-Sea ANIMALCULES, which possess no mouth and no
POLYCYSTS hairs or lashes, but progress by pushing out lobes
Flinty-shelled organisms of microscopic dimensions. The living of their jelly-like substance in any desired direction,
ce REG ee a i romwhich into which the rest of the body flows. Food is
picked up at any point with which an acceptable
morsel may be brought in contact. The little gelatinous animal known as an AMGEBA is one of
these. Related forms of this jelly animalcule secrete shells of varying form and structure.
Some of these, known as FORAMS, are of carbonate of lime, and wonderfully like nautiluses and
other of the higher molluscan shells in aspect. Though so minute, scarcely visible to the
unassisted eye, they occur in the sea in such numbers as to form by their aggregations
the more considerable ingredients of vast areas of the earth’s strata, both past and present.
The chalk cliffs of Albion and the white tenacious ooze of the broad Atlantic are thus to a
large extent composed of the shells of minute organisms, which formerly flourished near the
surface of the ocean, but sank on their death to its abysmal depths.

The simplest of the forams fabricate shells with a single chamber, which are often
elegantly vase- or flask-shaped. More usually, however, the shell represents the product of
repeated buddings or outgrowths, and may attain considerable dimensions. Flattened circular
forms of this type much resemble time-worn coins, and are hence called NUMMULITES. Their
fossil-shells enter mainly into the composition of rocks which extend through North Africa
and Asia to the Himalaya, and supplied the stone of which the Pyramids are built.

Allied to the Forams, but distinguished by the radiating, needle-like contour of their
false feet and the flinty texture of their shells, are an equally numerous assemblage of
organisms known as RADIOLARIANS. Like the Forams, they are inhabitants of the sea, and
their discarded shells enter extensively into the constitution of strata. A little globular fresh-
water form, devoid of a shell, and with slender bristle-like feet radiating in every direction,
is known as the SUN-ANIMALCULE, and forms a connecting-link between the last two groups.

From Man to Egg-laying Mammals, Molluscs to Animalcules, the vast scheme of the
Animal Creation has now been successively portrayed. With such simple gelatinous life-specks
as the Amceba and its allies THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD make their exit: unorganised
organisms, groping blindly in the darkness —‘‘ Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything.”

INDEX

BIRDS

A

Adjutant-stork, 50, 51

African Saddle-billed Stork, 52

Albatross, 44, 45; White-capped,
46

Amadavats, 123

Amazon Parrots, 94

Andalusian, 21

Angolan Vulture, 81

Ant-thrushes, 143, 145

Apteryx, 1, 12

Argus-pheasant, 22

Auk, 31; Great, 31; Little, 31

Australian Black Swan, 73

Australian Laughing-kingfisher,
103

Australian Lyre-bird, 144

Australian Magpie, 135

Australian Pelican, 61

Australian Pygmy Goose, 71

Australian White-bellied Sea-
eagle, 77

Avocet, 57

Aylesbury Duck, 67

B

Bailador, 144

Bantam, Japanese, 22; Sebright, 22

Barbets, 112, 114

Barnacle Goose, 71

Bartlett, Mr., 20

Baya Sparrows, 124

Bean-goose, 71

Bearded Tits, 132

Bearded Vulture, 79

Bee-eaters, 110, 111

Bell-birds, 143, 145

Bendire, Captain, 24

Bird of Paradise, 118; King, 120;
King of Saxony’s, 120; Red, 121

Birds of Prey, 74

Birds of the Sun, 118

Bishop-birds, 124

Bittern, 55, 57; Sun-, 41

Black-bellied Sand-grouse, 30

Blackbird, 138, 139

Black Brent Goose, 71

Black-cap, 138

Black-chested Crested
fowl, 22

Blackcock, 15

Black Cockatoo, 94

Black-footed Penguin, 42, 43, 44

Black-headed Gull, 33

Black-necked Swan, 71, 73

Black Spanish, 21

Black Stork, 50

Black Swan, 73; Australian, 73

Black-throated Diver, 41

Guinea-

INDEX

Black Vulture, 79

Black-winged Stilt, 38

Black Woodpecker, 116

Blue Jay, 118

Blue Mountain-lories, 93

Blue Mountain-parrot, 97

Blue Penguin, 44

Blue Tit, 131

Boatswain-bird, 66

Bottle-tit, 131

ee Spotted, 120; Golden,

Brama, Dark, 19

Break-bones, 46

British Starling, 121

Broad-bills, 135, 143, 146

Bronze Cuckoos, 101

Brown Leghorn, 18

Brown Linnet, 127

Brush-tongued Parrots, 93

Brush-turkey, 23

Budgerigars, 93, 94

Buff-backed Heron, 56

Buller, Sir Walter, 12

Bullfinch, 126, 127

Bunting, Corn-, 127; Green-head-
ed, 127; Reed-, 128; Snow-, 127

Bustard, 38; Denham’s, 36; Great,
36, 38; Indian, 37

Bustard-quail, 25; Indian, 25

Butcher-birds, 135

Buzzard, Honey-, 76; Rough-
legged, 83.

Cc

Canary, 127

Cape Barren Goose, 70

Cape Penguin, 42

Cape Sparrow, 75

Capercailzie, 14

Capercallie, 14

Caracaras, 82

Carrier Pigeon, 30

Carrion-crow, 118

Carrion-hawks, 82

Casarita, 146

Cassowary, 9; Sclater’s, 9

Cattle-cleaner, 56

Cattle-egret, 56; Indian, 57

Chaffinches, 125

Chaka, 66

Chatterer, 135, 143; Thick-billed,
144

Chiff-chaff, 138

Chimney-swallow, 142

Chinese Goose, 71

Chough, 118; Cornish, 120

Cinereous Vulture, 79

Coal-tit, 131

Cobbler’s-aw! Duck, 37

373

OF OTHER LANDS

Cochin, 21; Red, 18
Cockateels, 91
a ea Black, 94; Leadbeater’s,

Cock-of-the-rock, 143, 144, 145

Cock-of-the-wood, 14

Colies, 110, 111

“Comebacks,” 24

Comercolly feathers, 51

Common Cuckoo, 96

Common Heron, 55

Common Night-heron, 55, 56

Common Starling, 123

Common Thrush, 139

Concave-casqued Hornbill, 109

Condor, 74

Coot, 26

Cormorant, 60, 61, 62

Corn-bunting, 127

Corn-crake, 26

Cornish Chough, 120

Cotton-teal, 71

Courlan, 41

Crane, 26, 39; Crowned, 40, 41;
Manchurian, 40; Sarus, 40;
Stanley, 38; Wattled, 40; White,
40; Whooping, 40

Crested Hornbill, 108

Crested Pelican, 60

Crested Screamer, 66, 67

Crested Titmouse, 131

Crested Penguin, 44

Crested Tyrant-bird, 146

Crimson-headed Tanager, 124

Crowned Crane, 40, 41

Crowned Pigeons, 28

Crows, 117

Cuckoo, 96; Bronze, 101; Com-
mon, 96; Emerald, 101; Gold-
en, 101; Great Spotted, 100;
Ground-, 101; Lark-heeled, 101;
Pheasant-, 99

Cuckoo’s Mate, 116

Cunningham, Mr., 11

Curassow-hawk, 82

Curassow, Razor-billed, 25

Curl-crested Toucan, 113, 114

Curlew, 34, 37

Cygnets, 72

D

Dabchick, 42

Dancer, 144

Dark Brama, 19

Darter, 60, 61

Denham’s Bustard, 36

Devil’s Bird, 49

Diamond-bird, 135

Dipper, 140

Diver, 41, 42; Black-throated, 41
Diving-ducks, 69

374

INDEX

Diving-petrel, 44, 49

Dorking, 21

Dotterel, 37

Dove, Namaqua, 30; Scaly, 30

Du Chaillu, 24

Duck, 66; Aylesbury, 67; Para-
dise, 69; Penguin-, 69; Rouen,
69; Wild-, 67

Dunlin, 35

E

Eagle, 75, 80; Golden, 80; Harpy-,
81; Mountain-, 80; Sea-, 81;
Wedge-tailed, 82; White-tailed,
81

Eagle-owl, 85, 86

Eared Grebe, 42

Eared Night-jar, 88

Edible Swift, 90

Egret, 56; Cattle-, 56
Egyptian Kite, 78
Egyptian Pelican, 59
Egyptian Spur-winged Plover, 38
Egyptian Vulture, 79, 80, 82
Eider-duck, 68, 69

Emden Goose, 71

Emerald Cuckoo, 101
Emeu, 9, 10, 12; Spotted, 12
Emperor Penguin, 43
English Nuthatch, 130
English Pouter, 30

Erne, 81

Eugene’s Pigeon, 28
European Flamingo, 53
European Hoopoe, 110
Evening-grosbeaks, 124

F

Fairy Martins, 141

Falcon, 74, 75, 82; Jer-, 83; Pere-
grine, 83, 84

Father John, 54

Fern-owl, 87

Finches, 117; True, 124

Fin-feet, 27

Fire-crest, 132

Fire-crested Wren, 132

Fishing-hawk, 78

Flamingo, 52, 53; European, 53

Flappers, 68

Flower-peckers, 134, 135

Fly-catchers, 140; common, 140;
Spotted, 140

Fowls, Domesticated, 20

Francolin, 17

Fresh-water Ducks, 67

Frigate-bird, 60, 63, 66

Frill-back, Indian, 30

Frog-mouth, 88

Fruit-pigeon, 28; Nicobar Impe-
rial, 29

Fulmar Petrel, 44, 49

G

Gallinule, 26; Mantell’s, 27
Game-birds, 13
Game-breed, 21

Gander, 71

Gannet, 62, 64
Garden-warbler, 138
Gardener-bird, 120
Gentle Penguin, 44

Giant Petrel, 44, 46
Glead, 75

Glossy Ibis, 55

Glossy Starlings, 123

Glynn, Arthur, 8

Goat-sucker, 87

God's Birds, 118

Godwit, 35

Gold-crests, 132

Golden Bower-bird, 121

Golden-crested Wren, 132

Golden Cuckoos, 101

Golden Eagle, 80

Golden-eye, 70

Golden Oriole, 123

Goldfinch, 126

Goliath Heron, 56

Goose, 66, 71; Australian Pygmy,
71; Barnacle-, 71; Bean-, 71;
Black Brent, 71; Cape Barren,
70; Chinese, 71; Emden, 71;
Grey, 71; Grey-lag, 71; Guinea-,
71; Half-webbed, 71; Kelp-, 71;
Orinoco, 71; Pink-footed, 71;
Spur-winged, 71; Toulouse, 71;
Upland, 71; White-fronted, 71

Gos-hawk, 81, 82

Gosling, 71

Goura, 28

Grackles, 123

Grant, Ogilvie, 24

Grass-finches, 123

Grass-parrakeets, 94

Great Auk, 31

Great Bird of Paradise, 118

Great Black-backed Gull, 34

Great Blue Heron, 56

Great Bustard, 36

Great-crested Grebe, 41, 42

Great Grey Shrike, 136

Great Spotted Cuckoo, 100

Great Tit, 133

Great Titmouse, 131

Greater Spotted Woodpecker, 115,
116

Grebe, 41; Eared, 42;
crested, 41, 42

Greenfinches, 124, 127

Green Glossy Starling, 123

Green-headed Bunting, 127

Greenlets, 138

Green Pigeon, 28

Green Woodpecker, 115

Grey African Parrot, 93

Grey Goose, 71

Grey Gull, 34

Grey-hen, 15

Grey-lag Goose, 71

Grey Linnet, 127

Grey-naped Ground-pigeon, 30

Grey Plover, 35

Grey Wagtail, 129

Griffon-vulture, 79, 80

Grosbeak, 124; Evening, 124

Ground-cuckoos, 101

Ground-hornbill, 109

Ground-parrakeet, Long-tailed, 94

Ground-pigeon, Grey-naped, 30

Ground-thrush, 145

Grouse, 13; Red, 13

Guan, 25

Guanaco, 5

Guillemot, 31

Guinea-fowl, Black, 24; Black-
chested crested, 22

Guinea-goose, 71

Gull, 32; Black-headed, 33; Great
black-backed, 34; Grey, 34;
Herring-, 33; Skua, 35

Great-

H

Half-webbed Goose, 71

Hamburg, Pencilled, 22; Silver-
spangled, 19

Hanging-parrots, 94

Harpy-eagle, 81

Harriers, 86

Hawfinch, 124

Hawk, Curassow-, 82; Fishing-,
78; Gos-, 81, 82; Night-, 88;
Sparrow-, 81

Hawk-billed Parrot, 93, 94

Hawk-eagle, Martial, 83

Hedge-sparrow, 140

Hen, Pharaoh’s, 80

Helmet-hornbill, 107

Heron, 49; Buff-backed, 56; Com-
mon, 55; Common Night-, 55,
56; Goliath, 56; Great Blue, 56

Herring-gull, 33

Hill-mynas, 123

Himalayan Monal, 17

Hoatzin, 26

Hobby, 83

Honey-buzzard, 76

Honey-eaters, 128, 134

Honey-guides, 112, 113, 115

Hoopoe, 102, 109; European, 110;
Wood-, 110

Hornbill, 102, 106; Concave-
casqued, 109; Crested, 108;
Ground-, 109; Helmet-, 107

House-martin, 142

House-sparrows, 125

Huia, 118

Humboldt’s Penguin, 44

Hume, A. O., 25

Humming-birds, 87, 90

Hyacinthine Macaw, 93

I

Ibis, 55; Glossy, 55; Sacred, 54
Indian Bustard, 37

Indian Bustard-quail, 25

Indian Cattle-egret, 57

Indian Frill-back, 30

Israelites, The, and Quails, 18

J

Jabiru Stork, 51, 52
Jacamars, 112, 114
Jacana, 38

Jackass, Laughing-, 106, 107
Jackass-penguin, 42
Jackdaws, 117, 118
Jacobin, 30

Japanese Bantam, 22
Java Sparrow, 123

Jay, Blue, 118
Jer-falcon, 83

“Johnny,” 44
Jungle-fowl, 20; Red, 20

K
Kagu, 41
Kaka, New Zealand, 93
Kakapo, 41, 95
Kea, 91; New Zealand, 92
Kelp-goose, 71
Kestrel, 83, 84
King-bird, 146
King Bird of Paradise, 120

INDEX

aio

Kingfisher, 102, 104, 106; Aus-
tralian Laughing-, 103; Laugh-
ing-, 105; Racket-tailed, 105;
Wood-, 105

King of Saxony’s Bird of Para-
dise, 120

King-penguin, 44

Kite, 75; Egyptian, 78

Kittiwake, 34

Kiwi, 12; Mantell’s, 12; Owen’s, 12

Knot, 35

Koel, 100

L

Lammergeier, 79

Land-rail, 26

Lark-heeled Cuckoos, 101

Larks, 128

Laughing-jackass, 106, 107

Laughing-kingfisher, 105; Austra-
lian, 103

Leadbeater’s Cockatoo, 95

Leghorn, 21; Brown, 18

Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, 116

Linnet, 126, 128; Brown, 127;
Grey, 127; Red, 127

Little Auk, 31

Little House-builder, 146

Little Owls, 86

Long-eared Owl, 86

Long-tailed Ground-parrakeet, 94

Long-tailed Macaw, 93

Long-tailed Titmouse, 131

Long-tailed Whydah-bird, 123

Long-tailed Widow-birds, 123

Lories, 91,- 92

Love-birds, 94

Lyre-bird, Australian, 144; Prince
Albert’s, 142; Victorian, 144

M

Macaw, 91, 93, 96; Hyacinthine,
93; Long-tailed, 93

Magpie, 118, 119; Australian, 135

Mallard, 67

Manakins, 144

Manchurian Crane, 40

Marabou feathers, 51

Marsh Tit, 131, 132

Martial Hawk-eagle, 83

Martin, 141; Fairy, 141; Sand-,
141

Meadow-pipit, 130

Megapode, 67; Nicobar, 24

Merganser, 67, 70

Merlin, 83

Minorca, 21

Monal, Himalayan, 17

Moor-hen, 26

More-pork, 88

Motmot, 110, 111; Racket-tailed,
111, 112

Mound-builder, 67

Mountain-eagle, 80

Mountain-lories, Blue, 93

Mountain-nestor, 91

Mountain-parrot, Blue, 97

Mouse-birds, 112

Munias, 123

Mute Swan, 72

N

Namaqua Dove, 30
Nandu, 2

Nelly, 46

Nestors, 91; Mountain-, 91

New Guinea Crowned Pigeon, 29

New World Vultures, 74

New Zealand Kaka, 93

New Zealand Kea, 92

Nicobar Imperial Fruit-pigeor, 29

Nicobar Megapode, 25

Nicobar Pigeon, 28

Night-hawk, 88

Night-heron, Common, 55

Night-jar, 87; Eared, 88; Pen-
nant-winged, 87, 88

Nightingale, 139

Noddy Tern, 32

Noddy, White, 32

Nuthatch, 130, 131; English, 130

Nutmeg-pigeon, White, 28

Oil-bird, 88

Old World Vultures, 79

Orinoco Goose, 71

Oriole, 117, 123; Golden, 123

Ortolan, 127

Osprey, 78

Osprey feathers, 56

Ostrich, 5, 7; African, 1; Cock, 8;
South American, 2

Oven-birds, 145

Owl, 74, 85; Eagle-, 85, 86; Fern-,
87; Little, 86; Long-eared, 86;
Pygmy, 86; Short-eared, 86;
Snowy, 86; Spectacled, 84;
Tawny, 85, 86; Wood-, 86

Owl-parrot, 93, 95

Ox-eye, 133

Ox-pecker, 123

Oyster-catcher, 35

P

Painted Megapode, Wallace’s, 24

Painted Pigeon, 28

Painted Snipe, 36

Pallas’s Sand-grouse, 30

Paradise-birds, 118

Paradise Duck, 69

Parrakeet, Swamp-, 94

Parrot, 91; Amazon, 94; Brush-
tongued, 93; Grey African, 93;
Hanging-, 94; Hawk-billed, 93,
94; Owl-, 93, 95; Pygmy, 93

Parson-bird, 134

Partridge, 14; French, 15; Grey,
17; Red-legged, 15; Tree, 17

Peacock, 21, 22

Peacock-pheasant, 16

Pelican, 49, 61; Australian, 61;
Crested, 60; Egyptian, 59

Pencilled Hamburg, 22

Penduline Titmouse, 131

Penguin, 41; Black-footed, 42, 43,
44; Blue, 44; Cape, 42; Crested,
44; Emperor, 44; Gentle, 44;
Humboldt’s, 44; King-, 44;
Jackass-, 42; Rockhopper, 47

Penguin-duck, 69

Pennant-winged Night-jar, 87, 88

Perching-birds, 117

Peregrine Falcon, 83, 84

Petrel, Diving-, 44, 49; Fulmar.
44, 49; Giant, 44, 46; Storm-, 49

Phalarope, 36

Pharaoh’s Hen, 80

Pheasant, Amherst’s, 16; English,
16; Golden, 15; Impeyan, 20;
Reeves’s, 16, 18; Silver, 16

Pheasant-cuckoo, 99

Pigeon, 28; Carrier-, 30; Crowned,
28; Eugene's, 28; New Guinea
Crowned, 29; Nicobar, 28;
Painted, 28; Wonga-\Wonga, 29

Pink-footed Goose, 71

Pipits, 128, 130; Meadow-, 130;
Rock-, 130; Tree-, 130

Pittas, 145

Plain-wanderers, 25

Plantain-eaters, 91, 96, 101

Plant-cutters, 145

Plover, 35; Grey, 35; Egyptian
Spur-winged, 38

Plymouth Rock, 21

Pochard, 67, 70

Poe, 134

Polish, 22

Pondicherry Vulture, 79, 80, 81

Pouter, English, 30

Prince Albert’s Lyre-bird, 142

Ptarmigan, 13, 14

Puff-birds, 112, 114

Puffin, 31

Pygmy Falcons, 84

Pygmy Goose, Australian, 71

Pygmy Parrots, 93

Q

Quail, 15, 17; American, 18
Queensland Rifle-bird, 121
Quezal, 112

R

Racket-tailed Kingfishers, 105
Racket-tailed Motmot, 111, 112
Rail, 13, 26

Raven, 117

Razor-bill, 31

Red-backed Shrike, 135, 136
Red-beaked Waxbills, 123
Red Bird of Paradise, 121
Red-breast, 139

Red Cochin, 18

Red Grouse, 13

Red-legged Falconet, 84
Red Linnet, 127
Red-rumped Swallows, 141
Red-starts, 139

Red Wagtail, 129
Reed-bunting, 128
Reed-warbler, 136
Reedlings, 131, 132

Reeves’s Pheasant, 18

Rhea, 1, 3; White, 4
Rifle-bird, Queensland, 121
Robin Red-breast, 139
Rock-hopper Penguin, 44, 47
Rock-pipit, 130

Rollers, 102

Rood-runner, 100

Rook, 118

Roseate Tern, 32
Rose-colored Starling, 122
Rouen Duck, 69
Rough-legged Buzzard, 86
Ruff, 36

Rufous Tinamou, 1
Ruppell’s Vulture, 80

Ryper, 14

S
Sacred Ibis, 54
Sacred Vulture, 80
Saddle-billed Stork, African, 52
Saint Kilda Wren, 140
Salvin’s Swift, 89

376

INDEX

Salt-water Ducks, 67

Sanderling, 35

Sand-grouse, 28; Black-bellied, 30;
Pallas’s, 30

Sand-martin, 141, 143

Sarus Crane, 40

Satin-bird, 120

Scaly Dove, 30

Scarlet Tanager, 124

Scaup, 70

Scoter, 70

Screamer, 66; Crested, 66, 67;
Horned, 66

Scrub-birds, 142

Sea-eagle, 81; Australian White-
bellied, 77

Sea-swallows, 32

Sebright Bantam, 22

Secretary-bird, 41, 74, 75, 76

Sedge-warbler, 138

Serieme, 41

Settler’s Clock, 106

Sheldrake, 68, 70

Shoe-billed Stork, 52

Short-eared Owl, 86

Short-faced Tumbler, 30

Shrikes, 135

Silver-spangled Hamburg, 19

Silver Wyandotte, 20

Skimmer, 33

Skua Gull, 35

Skylark, 128, 129, 130

Smew, 70

Snake-bird, 116

Snake-neck, 61

Snipe, Common, 37; Painted, 36

Snow-bunting, 127

Snowflake, 127

Snowy Owl, 86

Sociable Weaver-bird, 124

Song-thrush, 137

ape an 127; Baya, 124; Cape,

Sparrow-hawk, 81

Spectacled Owl, 84

Spiny-tailed Ducks, 67

Spoonbill, 54

Spotted Bower-bird, 120

Spotted Fly-catcher, 140

Spur-winged Goose, 71

Stanley Crane, 38

Starling, British, 121; Common,
123; Glossy, 123; Green Glossy,
123; Rose-colored, 122

Stilt, Black-winged, 38

Stinker, 46

Stinking-ph-asant, 26

Stone-chats, 139, 140

Stone-curlew, 34

Stork, 49; Adjutant-, 50, 51; Afri-
can Saddle-billed, 52; Black, 50;
Jabiru, 50, 51, 52; Shoe-billed,
52; Whale-headed, 50, 52;
White, 48, 49

Storm-petrel, 49

Sun-birds, 134

Sun-bittern, 41

Swallow, 135, 140, 141, 142; Chim-
ney, 142; Common, 142; Red-
trumped, 141

Swamp-parrakeet, 94

Swan, 66; Black, 73; Black-
necked, 71, 73; Coscoroba, 72;
Mute, 72; Trumpeter-, 72;

Whooper-, 72
Swift, 87, 88; Edible, 90; Salvin’s,
89
T

Tanager, Crimson-headed, 124;
Scarlet, 124; White-capped, 124

Tawny Owl, 85, 86

Teal, Cotton-, 71

Tern, 32; Noddy, 32; Roseate,
32; White, 31

Thick-billed Chatterer, 144

Thick-knee, 34

Thrush, 135, 138; Common, 139;
Ground-, 145

Tiercel, 83

Tinamou, Great, 2; Rufous, 1

Titmouse, 128, 131; Bearded, 132;
Bottle-, 131; Coal-, 131, 134;
Great, 133; Long-tailed, 131;
Marsh-, 131

Toddy-birds, 124

Todies, 110, 111

Toucan, 112; Curl-crested, 113, 114
114

Toulouse Goose, 71

Touracos, 101

Tree-creepers, 130

Tree-pipit, 130

Trogons, 110, 112, 113

Tropic-bird, 60, 64, 66

True Titmouse, 131

Trumpeter, 41

Trumpeter-swan, 72

Tube-nosed Birds, 41, 44

Tumbler, Short-faced, 30

Turkey, 24; Honduras, 24; Mexi-
can, 24

Turnstone, 37

Tyrant-bird, Crested, 146

Tyrant Fly-catchers, 146

U

Umbrelia-bird, 143
Upland-goose, 71

Vv

Victorian Lyre-bird, 144

Vulture-like Guinea-fowl, 23

Vulture, 78; Angolan, 81; Beard-
ed, 79; Black, 79; Cinereous,
79; Egyptian, 79, 80, 82; Grif-

fon-, 79, 86; New World, 74;
Old World, 79; Pondicherry, 79,
80, 81; Riippell’s, 80; Sacred, 80

WwW

Wading-birds, 35

Wagtail, 129; Grey, 129; Red, 129;
Yellow, 129

Wallace’s Painted Megapode, 24

Wall-creeper, 130

Water-hen, 27

Water-ouzel, 140

Water-pheasant, 38

Water-rail, 26

Wattled Crane, 40

Waxbills Red-beaked, 123

Wax-wings, 136

Weaver-birds, 123

Weavers, Sociable, 124

Wedge-tailed Eagle, 82

Weka-rail, 26

Whale-headed Stork, 50, 52

Wheat-ears, 139

Whin-chats, 139

White-bellied Sea-eagle, Austra-

lian, 77

White-capped Albatross, 46

White-capped Tanager, 124

White Crane, 40

White-eyes, 134

White-fronted Goose, 71

White Noddy, 32

White Nutmeg-pigeon, 28

White Rheas, 4

White Stork, 48, 49

White-tailed Eagle, 81

White-throat, 138

Whooper-swan, 72

Whooping-crane, 40

Widow-bird, Long-tailed, 123

Wild-duck, 67

Willow-warbler, 138

Wind-hover, 84

Witch, 49

Wonga-Wonga Pigeon 29

Woodcock, 35, 37

Wood-hewers, 145

Wood-hoopoes, 110

Wood-kingfishers, 105

Wood-owl, 86

Woodpecker, 112, 115; Black, 116;
Greater Spotted, 115, 116; Les-
ser Spotted, 116

Wood-warbler, 138

Wren, 140; Common,
Kilda, 140

Wrynecks, 115, 116

Wyandotte, Silver, 20

140; St.

Y

Yellowhammer, 127
Yellow Wagtail, 129

INDEX

REPTILES AND

A

Adder, 190; African Puff-, 197,
198; Death-, 196, 198

“Esculapian Snake, 191

Agama Family, 171

Alligator, 147, 152; Chinese, 153;
Mississippi, 153; Typical, 153

Alligator-terrapins, 158

Amphibians, 200; Tailed, 201;
Tailless, 201

Amphisbenas, 178

Anaconda, 193

Askers, 207

Asp, Egyptian, 196

Australian Black Snake, 196

Australian Water-lizard, 171

Axoloth, 210

B

Banded Iguana, 172, 177

Bearded Lizard, 170

Bicoloured Tree-frog, 205

Blind Proteus, 210

Blind-snakes, 190

Blind-worm, 165

Blue-tongued Lizard, 181, 182

Blue Tree-frog, 205

Boa, 190; Common, 192; -con-
strictor, 189, 190, 192; True, 192;
Water-, 193

Box-tortoises, 156

British Ringed Snake, 194

Broad-snouted Crocodile, 148

Bull-frog, 200, 202

Bush-master, 199, 200

Cc

Caiman, 147, 153; Great, 153

Carpet-snake, 191

Cerastes, 198

Chameleons, 183, 184, 185

Chelonians, Order of, 153

Cobra-de-Capello, 196

Common Boa, 192

Common Snakes, Family of, 194

Copper-head, 199

Craits, Indian, 196

Crested Newt, 207

Crocodile, 147, 151; American,
152; Broad-snouted, 148; Nile,
147, 152; Orinoco, 152; Queens-
land, 150; True, 150

Cunningham's Spine-tail, 182

Cyclodus, Great, 181

D

Death-adders, 196, 198
Diamond-back Rattle-snake, 197
Diamond-backed Terrapin, 158
Diamond-lizard, 176

E

Earth-snakes, 193
Edible Frog, 201, 202
Effets, 207

Efts, 207

Egg-eating Snake, 195
Egyptian Asp, 196
Elephant-tortoises, 154, 156, 160
European Green Tree-frog, 204

F

Fer-de-lance, 199, 200

Fiji Banded Iguana, 172, 177
Flying-dragons, 167

Flying-frog, 203

Frilled Lizard, 168

‘rog, 200; Blue or Bicoloured,
Tree-, 205; Common British,
202; Edible, 201, 202: European
Green Tree-, 204; Flying-, 203;
Guppy’s, 202; Horned, 204;
Queensland Green, 206; Short-
headed, 204; Tiger-like, 201;
Tree-, 205

Furrowed Salamander, 210

a

G

Galapagos Sea-lizard, 172

Garial, 147; Long-snouted, 152

Garter-snake, 192

Gavial, 147; Long-snouted, 152

Gecko, Burmese, 166; Madeiran,
167

Gecko Family, 166

Giant Cobra, 196

Giant Salamander, 210

Giant Tortoises, 154, 157

Girdle-tailed Lizards, 173, 177

Glass-snake, 165

Golden Tree-frog, 205

Gooana, 174

Great Cyclodus, 181

Greaved Lizards, 176

Green Turtle, 162

Guppy’s Frog, 202

H
Hajé, 196
Hamadryad, 196
Hawksbill, 162
Heloderm, 173;
Mexican, 173
Hinged Tortoises, 156
Hooded Snake, 196
Horned Frogs, 204
Horned Toad, 171, 174, 175, 204;
Ornamented, 203
Horned Viper, 198

Arizona, 178;

Iguana, Tuberculated, 172, 176
Iguana, 171; Banded, 172, 177
Indian Craits, 196

Indian Python, 191

Indian Rat-snake, 195

Indian Whip-snakes, 196

J
Jew Lizard, 170, 172
L

Lace-lizard, 174
Land-tortoises, True, 154
Leathery Turtle, 162

377

AMPHIBIANS

Leopard-snake, 193

Leseur’s Water-lizard, 170

Lizard, 165; Agamoid, 168;
Bearded, 170, 172; Blue-tongued,
181, 182; Diamond-, 176; Frilled,
168, 169; Girdle-tailed, 173, 177;
Greaved, 176; Green, 178, 179;
Jew, 170; Lace-, 174; Ocellated,
179, 180; Pearly, 179; Sand-,
178; Spine-tailed, 182; Spinous,
173; Spiny, 171; Stump-tailed,
180, 181; True, 178; Viviparous,
176, 178; Wall-, 176; Water-,
170

Loggerhead, 162

Long-necked Water-tortoises, 160

Long-snouted Crocodile, 152

Long-snouted Garial, 152

Long-snouted Gavial, 152

Luth, 162

M

Marbled Newt, 208
Margined Tortoise, 156
Marine Turtles, 161
Marsupial Tree-frog, 206
Matamata Tortoise, 160
Matlamitlo, 202
Medicinal Skink, 180
Mexican Heloderm, 173
Moccasin-snake, 195, 199
Monitor, 174; Nile, 174;
178
Mountain-devil, 170, 173
Mud-terrapins, American, 158

White,

N

Natal Rock-snake, 192

Natterjack, 207

Newt, 207; Common, or Smooth,
207, 208; Crested, 207; Marbled,
208

Nile Monitor, 174

Oo
Ocellated Lizard, 179, 180
Olm, 210
Orinoco Crocodile, 152
Pp

Painted Terrapin, 158

Pearly Lizard, 179, 180

Pine-snake, 194

Pipa, 207

Pit-vipers, 199

Pond-tortoises, 15€

Pouched Tree-frog, 206

Puff-adder, African, 197, 198

Pygmy Snakes, 195

Python, 190; Irdian, 191; Retic-
ulated, 191

Q

Queensland Green Frog, 206

R

Rat-tailed Pit-viper, 200

Rattle-snakes, 199; Diamond-back,
197, 199

Reptile class, 147

378

INDEX

Reticulated Python, 191
Ringed Snakes, 190, 194
Rock-snakes, 191; Natal, 192

Ss

Salamander, 207; Furrowed, 210;
Giant, 210; Siren, 210; Spotted,
209, 210; True, 208

Sand-lizard, 178

Scheltopusik, 165

Sea-lizard, Galapagos, 172

Sea-snakes, 195

Shield-tails, 193

Short-headed Frogs, 204

Side-necked Tortoises, 160

Silatica, 173

Siren Salamander, 210

Skink, Common, 180, 181

Skink Family, 180

Skink, Medicinal, 180

Slow-worm, 165

Smooth Newt, 207, 208

Smooth Snake, 190, 195

Snake-necked Water - tortoises,
160

Snake, 187; Esculapian, 191;
Australian Black, 196; Blind,
190; Carpet, 191; Common
Ringed, 190; Copper-head, 199;
Dark Green, 187, 188; Earth,
193; Egg-eating, 195; Garter,
192; Hooded, 196; Indian Rat-,
195; Indian Whip-, 196; Leo-
pard, 193; Moccasin, 195;
Pygmy, 195; Rattle-, 197, 199;

A

Allis Shad, 261

Amphiprion, 235

Anchovy, 260, 261

Angel-fish, 270

Angler-fishes, 222, 228

Anthias, 215

Arapaima, 254, 256; Barbelled, 262
Archer-fish, 216

Armed Bull-head, 230

Australian Lung-fish, 211

B

Ballan Wrasse, 236

Barbels, 252

Barracuda, 224, 232
Barramundi, 211

Bar-tailed Flat-head, 230
3asking-shark, 268

Bass, 215; Large-mouthed Black,
214; Sea-, 213; Stone-, 215
Bastard Dory, 215

Beaked Salmon, 254, 256
sellows-fish, 234

Bichir, 264, 265, 266
3lennies, 230, 232

Blue Shark, 268

Boar-fish, 215

3ombay Duck, 256

Bonito, 226

Bony Pike, 264

Rock-, 191; Sea-, 195; Smooth,
190; Spectacled, 196; Spitting-,
196; Tesselated, 193, 195;
Tiger-, 198; Tree-, 195; Vip-
erine, 195; Water-, 194

Snakes, Family of Common, 194

Snapper, 158; Temminck’s, 159,
162

Snapping-turtles, 158, 161
Spectacled Snake, 196
Spine-tail, Cunningham’s, 182
Spine-tailed Lizard, 182
Spiny Lizard, 171
Spitting-snake, 196

Spotted Salamander, 209, 210
Stump-tailed Lizard, 180, 181

T

Tasmanian Black Snake, 198
Teguexin, 176
Temminck’s Snapper, 159, 162
Terrapin, 153; Alligator, 158;
American Mud-, 158; Cuban,
164; Diamond-backed, 158;
Painted, 158; True, 158.
Tesselated Snake, 193, 195
Tiger-snake, 198
Toad, 200, 206; Horned, 171, 174,
175, 204; Ornamented Horned,
203; Water-, 207
Tortoise, 153; Asiatic, 154; Box-,
156; Elephant-, 154, 155, 156,
157, 160; European, 154; Giant-,
154, 158; Grecian, 156; Hinged,

FISHES

Bottle-nosed Chimera, 212
Bouregreg, 261

Bow-fin, 264

Box-fish, Spotted, 241
Bream, 252; Sea-, 215, 217
Brill, 247

Brook-trout, 259

Brown Snapper, 217
Bull-head, 22, 229; Armed, 230
Bull-trout, 258

Bummaloe, 256

Burbot, 243, 244

Burnett River Salmon, 211
Butter-fish, 214, 232
Butterfly-gurnard, 229

Cc
Carp, 253
Carp Family, 252
Carp, King-, 253; Leather-, 253;
Mirror-, 253
Carpet-shark, 267
Cat-fishes, 248, 250, 251, 252
Cave-fishes, 245
Char, 259
Chiasmodus, 243
Chimeera, 211; Bottle-nosed, 212
Chromids, 237
Coal-fish, 243
Cock Paddle, 230
Cod, 243
Cod Family, 243

156; Margined, 156; Matamata,
160; Pond-, 156; Side-necked,
160; True Land-, 154

Tree-frog, 205; Golden, 205;
Marsupial or Pouched, 206;
Queensland, 205

Tree-lizard, Australian, 170

Tree-snakes, 195

Tuatera, 183, 186

Tuberculated Iguana, 176

Turtle, 153, 161; Green, 162;
Leathery, 162; Marine, 161;
Snapping-, 158

Vv
Viper, Common, 198; English,

196, 198; Horned, 198; Rat-
tailed Pit-, 200; Water-, 200

WwW

Wall-lizard, 176

Water-boa, 193

Water-lizard,
Leseur’s, 170

Water-snakes, 194

Water-toad, 207

Water-tortoise, Long-necked, 160;
Snake-necked, 160

Water-viper, 200

Whip-snakes, Indian, 196

Australian, 171;

Y
York Devil, 170, 173

Coffer-fishes, 240, 242

Comber, 215

Comb-gilled Fishes, 238, 240
Conger-eels, 248, 249, 250
Coral-fish, 235; Gold-finned, 236
Crocodile-fishes, 229

Dab, 247

Dawson Salmon, 211, 256, 262

Deep-sea Eels, 248, 250

Dentex, 215

Devil-fish, 270

Dog-fish, 264; British, 268; Ocel-
lated, 269

Dory, 222; Bastard, 215 john;
224, 225; Long-finned, 225

Drum-fish, 220

Dusky Perch, 215

E

Eagle-ray, 270

Eel-pout, 243

Fel, 248; Common Fresh-water,
248; Conger-, 248, 249, 250;
Deep-sea, 248, 250; Electric, 248,
252; Painted, 248, 250, 251;
Sand-, 256; Serpent-, 248, 250;
Sharp-nosed, 249

Electric Eel, 248, 252

Emperor-fish, 216

INDEX

379

F

Fan-finned Fishes, 212

Father-lasher, 229

Fifteen-spined Stickleback, 234

File-fishes, 239, 240

Fringe-finned Fishes, 212

Flat fishes, 246

Flat-head, 229; Bar-tailed, 230;
Rock, 230

Flounder, 247

Flute-mouths, 232, 234

Flying-fishes, 230, 234, 235

Flying-gurnards, 230

Flying-herrings, 234

Fox-shark, 268

Fresh-water Eels, 248

Frog-fishes, 222, 227

Frost-fish, 222

Gaper, 215

Garpike, 230, 234, 264

Gilt-head, 218

Globe-fish, 238, 242; Black-spotted,
239

Goby, 230, 231;
Spotted, 231

Golden Orf, 253

Golden Tench, 253

Gold-fish, 253

Grayling, 259

Grey Mullets, 230, 232

Grilse, 258

Grindle, 264

Groper, 218, 219

Gunnel, 232

Gurnard, 222, 229; Butterfly-, 229;
Flying-, 230; Red, 229

Pellucid, 231;

Haddock, 243

Hair-tails, 222

Hake, 243

Half-beaks, 234

Halibut, 246, 247

Hammerhead-shark, 268

Hen Paddle, 230

Herring, 260; Flying-, 234; Ox-
eyed, 261

Horned Ox-ray, 270, 271

Horse-mackerel, 222, 223, 224;
Fringed, 223

I

Indian Sting-ray, 269
Indian Weaver-fish, 220

. J
Jack, 256
John Dory, 224

K
King-carp, 253
King-crabs, 276
King-snapper, 218

L

Lace-finned Leather-jacket, 241
Large-mouthed Black Bass, 214
Launces, 245

Lawyer-fish, 264

Leather-carp, 253

Ling, 243

Long-fin, 218

Long-finned Dory, 225

Lump-suckers, 230, 231

Lung-fish, 211; African, 212;
Queensland, 211

M

Mackerels, 222, 226

Mailed Tube-mouths, 238

Meagres, 215, 220

Miller’s-thumb, 229

Minnow, 252

Mirror-carp, 253

Monk-fish, 270

Mud-fish, 212, 264; South Am-
erican, 212

Mullet, Grey, 232; Northern, 233;
Red, 216, 233; Striped Red, 216

Musket-lunge, 254

Muskinonge, 254

N
Nurse, 269

O

Ox-eyed Herring, 261
Ox-ray, Horned, 270

P

Painted Eels, 248, 250

Painted Skate, 271

Parrot-fish, 236;
237; Satin, 236

Pellucid Goby, 231

Perch, Common, 214; Dusky, 215;
Pike, 215; Sea-, 215

Perch Family, 214

Phosphorescent Sardine, 256

Pickerel, 255, 256

Pike-perch, 215

Pikes, 254

Pilchard, 260, 261, 263; Australian,
263

Pilot-fish, 224
Pipe-fish, 234, 238
Plaice, 247

Pogge, 230
Pole-wing, 231
Pollack, 243, 244
Pollack-whiting, 244
Pope, 215
Porbeagle-shark, 268
Porcupine-fish, 242
Port Jackson Shark, 269
Powan, 259

Black-spotted,

Q

Queensland Smelt, 256, 257
Quinnat, 258

R

Ragged Sea-scorpion, 220
Rainbow-trout, 259

Ray, 266, 270; Eagle-, 270
Red Mullets, 215

Red Sea-bream, 217

Red Wrasse, 236
Reed-fish, 264, 266
River-eels, 248

Roach, 252

Rock Flat-head, 230
Rocklings, 243

Rough Hound, 269
Rudd, 252

Ruffe, 215

s

Salmon, Atlantic, 257; Beaked,
254, 256; Dawson River, 211,
256, 262; Pacific, 258

Salmon Family, 257

Salmon-trout, 258, 259

Sand-eels, 245

Sand-smelts, 232

Sardine, 261; Phosphorescent, 256

Sawyer, 264

Scabbard-fish, 222

Scads, 224

Scopelids, 254, 256

Scopelus, 243

Scorpion Fishes, 215, 218

Sea-bats, 222, 225

Sea-bream, Red, 217

Sea-cat, 212, 232

Sea-hedgehog, 242

Sea-horses, 238, 240, 242; Fucus-
like, 240

Sea-scorpion, Ragged, 220

Sea-trout, 258

Sergeant Baker, 255, 257

Serpent-eels, 248, 250

Shad, 260; Allis, 261; Twaite, 261

Shark. 266; Basking-, 268, 269,
Blue, 268; Carpet-, 267; Fox-,
268; Hammerhead-, 268; Por-
beagle-, 268; Port Jackson, 269;
Spotted, 267

Sharp-nosed Fel, 249

Sheath-fishes, 252

Shovel-nosed Skate, 271

Silver Dog, 269

Skate, Painted, 271; Shovel-nosed,
271

Smelt, 259, 260; Queensland, 256,
257

Smolt, 258

Smooth Hounds, 268

Snapper, 218; Brown, 217; King-,
218

Snoek, 222

Sole, 247; Spotted, 245

Sparling, 259

Spotted Box-fish, 241

Spotted Goby, 231

Spotted Shark, 267

Spotted Trunk-fish, 241

Spotted Wrasse, 236

Sprat, 260

Spur-dog, 269

Star-gazer, 227

Steelhead, 258

Sterlet, 265, 266

Stickleback, Fifteen-spined, 234

Sticklebacks, 230, 232

Sting-ray, 271; Indian, 269; Whip-
tailed, 270

Stone-bass, 215

Stone-fish, 219, 221

Striped Wrasse, 236

Sturgeon, 264, 265; Giant, 265

Sucker-fish Family, 230

Sucking-fishes, 222, 226, 227

Sun-fishes, 242

Sur-mullet, 217

Sword-fishes, 215, 220, 222

T
Tarpon, 260
Tassel-fish, 215, 220, 221
Telescope-fish, 253
Tench, 252; Golden, 253
Teuthis, 219

380

INDEX

Thick-rayed Fishes, 218

Thresher, 268

Toad-fish, 242

Tortoise-fishes, 232, 234

Trigger-fish, 239, 240

Trout, Brook-, 259; Bull-, 258;
Rainbow-, 259; Salmon-, 258;
Sea-, 258; White, 258

Trumpeters, 218

Trumpet-fish, 234

Trunk-fish, Spotted, 241

Tunny, 226

Turbot, 247

Twaite Shad, 261

A

Acorn-barnacle, 273
Alder-flies, 303
American Blight, 331
Angel-winged Butterflies, 314
Ant-lion, 300, 302
Ant, 304, 307;
White, 298
Aphis, 331; Vine-, 331
Atlas Moth, 320

Solitary, 308;

Barnacle, 272; <Acorn-, 273;
Goose-, 273

Bath White Butterfly, 318

Bat-parasites, 337

Bed-bug, 328

Bee, 304, 307; Carpenter-, 308,
310; Fulvous, 310; Hive-, 308,
309; Queen-, 308; Solitary, 308,
310

Bee-fly, 338

Beetle, 283; Blister-, 287; British
Musk-, 288; Cardinal, 290; Cel-
lar-, 290; Colorado, 289; Dia-
mond-, 288; Dor-, 286; Drury’s
Goliath, 285; Harlequin, 288;
Hercules, 285; Jumping-, 288;
Oil, 287; Purple Ground-, 283;
Reed-, 289; Rhipiphorus, 290;
Rose-, 286; Stalk-eyed, 290; Ti-
ger-, 283; Tortoise-, 289; Wasp-,
289

Bell-moths, 322

Bird-flies, 337

Bird-lice, 331

Bird-winged Butterflies, 317

Biting-lice, 331

Black-flies, 334

Blister-beetle, 287

Blood-sucking Rain-fly, 335

Blow-fly, 335, 337

Bloxworth Blue Butterfly, 315

Blue-bottle Fly, 335, 337

Blue Butterfly, 314; South Amer-
ican, 316

Blue Crab, 275

Blue Morpho Butterfly, 314

Bombadier, 284

Book-scorpions, 277

Brine-shrimp, 273

Brush-footed Butterflies, 314

Buffalo-gnat, 333

U
Um Erbeya, 261

Vv

Vendace, 259

Ww

Walking-fish, 231 ;

Weaver-fish, 222, 226; Indian, 220;
Larger, 227

Wels, 252

JOINTED ANIMALS

Bug, 327; Bed-, 328; Lace-wing,
327; Masked, 328; Pentagonal
Shield-, 327; Stink-, 327; True,
327; Water-, 328

Bumble-bees, 308

Burying-beetles, 284; Flat, 284

Burrowing-wasps, 307

Butterfly, 311; Angel-winged, 314;
Australian, 317; Bath White,
318; Bird-winged, 317; Black-
veined White, 318; Blue, 314,
315; Blue Morpho, 314; Brush-
footed, 314; Cabbage-, 317;
Chrysippus, 311; Creesus, 317;
Dusky Copper, 316; Green-
veined White, 318; Large Blue,
315; Large Copper, 316; Large

Grizzled Skipper, 319; Leaft-,
311; Long-tailed Blue, 315;
Long-winged, 312; Mazarine

Blue, 315

Cc

Cabbage-butterflies, White, 317

Caddis-flies, 303

Camel-flies, 301

Candle-fly, 330; Indian, 330

Cardinal Beetle, 290

Carpenter-bee, 308, 310

Carpet-moths, 322

Caterpillars, False, 305; True, 305

Cecropia Moth, 320, 321

Cellar-beetle, 290

Centipedes, 280, 281; Electric, 281;
Giant, 281, 282

Cheese-mite, 280

Chrysippus Butterfly, 311

Cicadas, 330, 332

Clothes-moths, 323

Coch-y-bonddhu, 286

Cockchafer, 285, 287

Cockerbundy, 286

Cockroaches, 291, 293; American,
291; Common, 282

Cocktails, 284

Colorado Beetle, 289

Convolvulus Hawk-moth, 324

Corn-weevil, 288

Crab, 272; Blue, 275; Edible, 274;
Fighting, 276; Fresh-water, 274;
Hermit-, 274; Shore-, 276; Spi-
der-, 275

Crane-flies, 332, 335

Cray-fish, 274

White Perch, 213

White Trout, 258

Whitebait, 263

Whiting, 243

Wolf-fish, ae

Wollibong, 2

Wrasse, 836: Ballan, 236; Red,
236; Spotted, 236; Striped, 236

Wrasse-like Fishes, 235

Wreck-fish, 215

Z
Zebra-fish, 215

Cricket, 291, 294; Field, 294;

House-, 294; Mole-, 294
Creesus Butterfly, 317
Cypress-moth, 321, 322, 323
Cyprian Locust, 296

D

Daddy-long-legs, 302, 332, 333, 335
Danaids, 314

Day-flying Moth, 324
Death’s-head Moth, 324
Demoiselle, 297

Devil’s Coach-horse, 284
Diadem-spider, 279
Diamond-beetle, 288

Diana Fritillary, 312

Dog-flea, 338

Dor-beetle, 286

Dragon-fly, 297; Great, 297
Drone, 308

Drummer, 292

Drury’s Goliath Beetle, 285
Duke of Burgundy Fritillary, 316

E
Earwigs, 291
Edible Crab, 274
Eggars, 321
Egyptian Locust, 295, 296
Elephant Hawk-moths, 320
Emperor-moths, 319

F

False Scorpions, 279

Field-cricket, 294

Fire-fly, 287

Tish-lice, 273

Fleas, 332, 337; Sand-, 338

Fly, 332; Black, 333; Golden-
eyed, 335; Noon-day, 337; Sand-.
333

Forest-flies, 337

Fritillaries, 314

Frog-hopper, 330; True, 331

Fulvous Bee, 310

G
Gad-flies, 335
Gall-flies, 305, 332; Mare, 304
Garden-spiders, 279
Glow-worm, 287

Gnat, 332; Buffalo, 333; Piping,
333

Golden Apples, 289

Golden Butterfly, New Guinea, 317

Golden-eye, 302

Golden-eyed Flies, 335

Goose-barnacle, 273

Gooseberry-moth, 322

Gossamer-spiders, 279

Grasshopper, 291, 294; Cape, 294;
Great Green, 294; Loneg-horned,
294

Grass-moths, 322

Great Green Grasshopper, 294

Great Peacock-moth, 325

Green-bottle Fly, 337

Green Drake, 298

Green-veined White Butterfly, 318

Grey Drake, 298

Ground-beetle, 284

Gru-gru, 288

H

Hair-streak, 317; Green, 317
Half-winged Insects, 283, 327
Harlequin Beetle, 288, 289
Harvest-men, 278

pe ae 312, 318; Elephant,
Hercules Beetle, 285, 286
Hermit-crabs, 274

Hessian Fly, 332

Hive-bees, True, 308, 309
Hornet, 307, 308

Hornet Robber-fly, 333
Horse-stinger, 297
House-cricket, 293
House-fly, 335

House-spider, 278
Hover-fly, 334

Humble-bees, 308, 310
Hundred-legs, 281

I

Ichneumon-flies, 306, 307
Imperial Moth, 321

Indian Swallow-tailed Moth, 326
Insects, 283

Jigger, 338

Jointed Spiders, 279
Jumping-beetle, 288
June Bug, 285
Juniper-bug, 327

L

Lace-wing Bug, 327; -fly, 302

Lace-winged Insects, 283, 297

Ladybird, 289; Twenty-two-spot,
289; Two-spot, 289; Seven-spot,
289

Lantern-flies, 330

Larva, Rat-tailed, 334

Leaf-butterfly, 311

Leaf-horned Beetles, 285

Leaf-insects, Walking, 292

Lice, Bird-, 331; Biting-, 331;
True, 331

Lobsters, 272, 274

Locust, 291; Cyprian, 296; Egyp-
tian, 295, 296; Migratory, 296;
Red-legged, 296; True, 296

Long-horned Grasshopper, 294

INDEX

381

Long-winged Butterflies, South
American, 312

Loopers, 312, 322

M

Magpie-moth, 322

Mandarin-wasp, 307

Mantis-flies, 301

Masked Bug, 328

May-fly, Common, 297

feal-worm, 290

Millipede, 280, 281; Giant, 282;

Slimy, 282

Mite, 276; Cheese-, 280; Gall-,

280; Plant-, 280; Sugar-, 280

Mole-cricket, 293, 294

Monarch, 314

Mosquito, 332; Brown, 332

Moth, 311, 318; Atlas, 320; Bell-,
322; Cecropia, 320; Clothes-,
323; Convolvulus Hawk-, 324;
Cypress-, 321, 322, 323; Day-
flying, 324; Death’s-head, 324;
Emperor-, 319; Gooseberry, 322;
Great Peacock-, 325; Indian
Swallow-tailed, 326; Magpie-,
322; Owl-, 321; Pearl-, 322;
Polyphemus, 321, 325; Red-un-
derwing, 322; Snout, 322; Ti-
ger-, 321; Twenty-plume, 323;
White Plume, 323, 326

Mulberry-silkworm, 319

Musk-beetle, British, 288, 290

N

Nerve-winged Insects, 283, 297
Noon-day Fly, 336
Nut-weevil, 288

oO

Oil-beetles, 287
Orange-tip, 317, 319
Orb-spinners, 279
Osier-weevil, 288
Owl-moths, 321

P

Palm-weevil, 288
Pearl-moths, 322
Pearl-skipper, 318
Pentagonal Shield-bugs, 327
Phil-millipedes, 281
Pine-boring Wasp, 306
Piping-gnat, 334

Pium, 334

Plant-eaters, 289

Plant-lice, 331

Plant-mites, 280
Polyphemus Moth, 321, 325
Potato-bug, 289

Prawns, 273
Praying-insects, 293
Praying-mantis, 301

Purple Emperor Butterfly, 311
Purple Ground-beetle, 283
Puss-moth, 311

Q
Queen-bee, 308

Queen of Spain Fritillary, 312
R

Red Admiral, 314
Red-legged Locust, 296

Red Spider, 280
Red-underwing Moth, 322
Reed-beetles, 289
Rhipiphorus Beetle, 290
Rice-weevil, 288

Robber-fly, 336; Hornet, 333
Rocky Mountain Locust, 296
Rose-beetle, 286

Ruby-tailed Flies, 306, 307
Running-spiders, 279

Sand-flea, 338

Sand-flies, 334

Satyrs, 316

Saw-fly, 304; Pear, 305

Scale-insect, 331

Scale-winged Insects, 283, 311

Scaly Fins, 215

Scarabeus, Egyptian, 286

Scorpion, 276; Egyptian, 277; Wa-
ter, 328; Whip-, 278

Scorpion Flies, 301

Sheath-winged Insects, 283

Sheep-tick, 337

Shield-bugs, 327

Shore-crabs, 276

Short-horned Grasshoppers, 296

Shrimps, 272, 273, 274

Silkworm, 323; Mulberry-, 319

Skipjack Beetle, 286

Skippers, 318

Slime-heads, 215, 219

Slimy Millipedes, 282

Smother-flies, 331

Snake-flies, 301

Snake-millipede, Common, 281

Snout-moth, 322

Soldier, 298

Solitary Ant, 308

Solitary Bees, 308, 310

Soothsayers, 291, 293

Spanish Fly, 287

Spectre-insects, 293

Spider, 276, 278; Bird-catching,
278; Diadem-, 279; Garden-,
279; House-, 278; Jointed, 279;
Red, 280; Running-, 279; Spot-
ted, 280; Spiny, 279; Trap-door,
278; Tree Trap-door, 278; Wa-
ter-, 279

Spider-crab, 275

Spotted Spider, 280

Stag-beetle, 285, 286

Stalk-eyed Beetle, 290

Stick-insects, 291, 292

Stink-bugs, 327

Straight-winged Insects, 283, 291

Sugar-mite, 280

Sugar-weevil, 288

Summer Chafer, 285

Swallow-tailed Butterflies, 317, 319

T

Tarantulas, Spanish, 280
Tawny Admiral, 313, 316
Termite, King-, 298; Queen-, 298
Termites at work, 300

Termites’ Nests, 299, 301
Thornback, 270

Thousand-legs, 28)

Ticks, 280

Tiger-beetle, 283

382

INDEX

Tiger-moths, 321
Timberman, 289

Tope, 269

Tortoise-beetles, 289
Trap-door Spiders, 278
Tree Trap-door Spider, 278
Tree-wasp, 305

Tsetse Fly, 337

Turnip-flea, 288, 289
Twenty-plume Moth, 323
Twenty-two-spot Ladybird, 289
Two-winged Insects, 283, 332

Vv

Vine-aphis, 331

WwW

Walking Leaf-insects, 292

Wart-eating Grasshopper, 296

Wasp, 304; -beetle, 289; Burrow-
ing-, 307; Mandarin-, 307; Pine-
boring, 306; Social, 307; Tree-,
305; True, 307; Wood-, 305

Water-beetle, Black, 284; Great
Brown, 284

Water-boatmen, 328

Water-bug, 328; Great, 329

Water-scorpions, 328

Water-spiders, 279

Weevil, 287; Corn-, 288; Nut-
288; Osier-, 288; Palm-, 288;
Rice-, 288; Sugar-, 288

Whale-lice, 273
Wheat-midges, 332
Whip-scorpions, 278

White ants, 298

White Cabbage-butterflies, 317
White Plume-moth, 323, 326
Wood-ants, 307

Wood-lice, 272, 273
Wood-wasps, 305

Worker, 308, 309

Y

Yellow-shell, 322
Yellow-underwings, 322

SHIELL-FISH, CORALS, SPONGES, ETC,

A

Agate-snail, 342

Ameeba, 370

Anemone, Giant, 365; Sea-, 360;
Strawberry-, 360

Animalcule, Bell-, 368; Slipper-,
368; Sun-, 370

Animalcules, 366, 367; Ciliated,
367 ; Collar-bearing, 368; Flagel-
late, 370; Root-footed, 370

Argonaut, 342

B

Barnacles, 343

Béche-de-mer, 352, 354

Bell-animalcule, 368

Bird’s-foot, 351

Biscuit-urchins, 352

Brain-corals, 363

3ristle-worms, 356

Brittle-star, 348, 350, 351; Branch-
ing-armed, 353

Cc

Cake-urchins, 352

Calamaries, 342

Chalina Sponge, 367

Chitons, 346

Clams, Giant, 343, 345

Cockles, 345

Collar-bearing Animalcules, 368

Comb-bearing Jelly-fishes, 365

Conches, 344

Cones, 344

Coral, Mushroom, 360, 362; of
Commerce, 364; Stag’s-horn,
362, 363

Corallines, 355

Corals, 360; Bleached, 363; Brain-,
363; Flexible, 364; Star-, 363,
364; Stony, 364

Cowrie, Money-, 344; Panther-,
344; Tiger-, 344

Cross-fish, 351

Cup-sponges, 368

Cushion-stars, 351

Cuttle-fish, 341; Tasmanian, 340

D

Dahlia-anemone, 360
Devil-fish, 341

E

Earth-worm, Common, 356

F

Feather-star, 348, 350; Rosy, 350
Five-fingers, 351, 354

Flagellate Animalcules, 370
Flat-worms, 356, 358

Flexible Corals, 364

Forams, 369, 370

Fresh-water Polyp, 364
Fresh-water Snails, 342

Frilled Sponge, 366

G

Garden-snails, 342

Glass-rope Sponge, 366

Great Barrier Reef, Australian,
359, 361

H

Harp-shells, 344
Heart-urchins, 352
Helmet-shells, 344
Horse-leeches, 358
Hydra, Common, 364
Hydroid Polyps, 364

I

India-rubber Worm, 358
Infusoria, 367

J

Jelly-fishes, 360, 364; Comb-bear-
ing, 365

L

Lace-corals, 355
Lace-sponges, 366
Lamp-shells, 346
Land-snail, 342
Leather-urchins, 352
Leech, 356, 358;

Horse-, 358;
Medicinal, 358

Lingula, 348

Liver-flukes, 358
Lob-worm, 357
Lug-worm, 357

M

Medusas, 364

Medusa’s-head Lily, 351

Melon-shells, 344

Mitres, 344

Molluscs, 339; Multivalve, 346

Money-cowrie, 344

Moss-animals, 355, 356

Multivalve Molluscs, 346

Mushroom-coral, 360, 362

Mussels, 339, 345; Pearl-, 345;
Pond-, 346; River-, 346

N

Naked-gilled Sea-slugs, 342

Nautilus, 340, 342; Paper-, 342:
Pearly, 341, 342

Neptune’s Cup Sponge, 366

Nereids, 357, 358

Noctiluca, 368, 369

Nummulites, 370

oO

Octopods, 340
Octopus, 339, 340

Olives, 344
Oyster, 339, 345; Pearl-, 345
Rock-, 345

P

Panther-cowrie, 344

Paper-nautilus, 342

Pearl-mussels, 345

Pearl-oyster, 345; Ceylon, 345

Pearls, Queensland, 347; Southern
Cross, 347

Pearly Nautilus, 341

Pelican’s-foot Shell, 344

Pholas, 346

Polycysts, 370

Polyp, fresh-water, 364

Pond-mussels, 346

Portuguese Bird’s-nest
367

Portuguese Man-of-war, 365

Sponge,

R

Radiolarians, 370
Reticulated Sponge, 366
River-mussels, 346
Rock-oysters, 345
Root-footed Animalcules,

S

Sand-stars, Snake-armed, 351

Scallops, 345, 346

Scorpion-shell, 345

Sea-anemones, 360

Sea-cucumber, 348, 350, 352, 35:
Prickly, 354

Sea-fans, 364

Sea-firs, 364

Sea-lemon, 365

Sea-mats, 355

Sea-mouse, 357, 358

Sea-slugs, Naked-gilled, 342

Sea-snail, Tongue of, 344

Sea-urchins, 348; Long-spined,
349; Short-spined, 348; Thick-
spined, 350

370

mn
os)

INDEX

Sea-worms, 358

Shell-fish, 339

Shell-less Slugs, 342

Shetland Argus, 351

Ship-worm, 346

Slipper-animalcule, 368

Slugs, 340; Shell-less, 342

Snails, 340; Agate-, 342; Fresh-
water, 342; Land-, 342; Garden-,
342

Snake-armed Sand-stars, 351

Sponge, 366; Chalina, 367; Frilled,
366; Glass-rope, 366; Lace, 366;
Portuguese Bird’s-nest, 367; Re-
ticulated, 366

Sponges, Bath-, 366;
Toilet-, 366

Squid, 341; Giant, 342; Tasma-
nian, 340

Stag’s-horn Coral, 362

Star-corals, 363, 364

Star-fish, Sun, 351

Star-fishes, 348, 350

Stone-lilies, 350

Stony Corals, 364

Cup-, 368;

383

Strawberry-anemone, 360
Sun-animalcule, 370

T

Tape-worms, 358
Teredo, 346

Thorny Woodcocks, 344
Thread-worms, 356, 358
Tiger-cowrie, 344
Trepang, 352
Trumpet-shells, 344
Tube-worms, 356, 357, 358

V
Venus’s Girdle, 365
Volutes, 344

WwW

Whelk, 339, 343, 344; Giant, 344
Winkle, 344
Worms, 356

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