ie SOS Pe CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY DATE DUE GAYLORD Ornell University Libra “inning Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924028609927 MAROCCO AND THE GREAT ATLAS From a Drawing by W. Prinsep, December 1829 PANORAMA OF THE GREAT ATLAS FROM THE CITY OF MAROCCO uh H I | SSS | PANORAMA OF THE GREAT ATLAS FROM THE CITY OF MAROCCO JOURNAL OF A TOUR IN MAROCCO AND THE GREAT ATLAS BY JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, K.C.8.L, C.B. PRES. R.S. JOHN BALL, F.R.S., M.R.LA. ’ WITH AN APPENDIX including 4 SKETCH of the GEOLOGY of MAROCCO, by GEORGE MAW, FLAS, F.GS. CAPE SPARTEL Tondon MACMILLAN AND €O, 1878 A@l rights reserved 74) ABSEG I xe af PREFACE. THE EXPEDITION of which an account is given in the fol- lowing pages was undertaken in the year 1871, and it was originally intended that a narrative of the proceedings should be given to the public soon after our return to England. Sir Joseph D. Hooker, who made careful notes throughout the journey, hoped to complete the work without much delay, and actually wrote the greater part of the first two chapters ; but the constant demands upon his time arising from his official duties at Kew, and the important botanical works to which he is a chief con- tributor, further increased by his election, in 1873, to the Presidency of the Royal Society, so far interfered with the completion of the original design as to compel him to re- quest his fellow-traveller, Mr. Ball, to undertake the com- pletion of the work. The latter was at the time engaged in preparing for publication a memoir on the Flora of Marocco, which has since appeared in the Journal of the Linnwan Society, wherein the botanical collections made during the journey are enumerated and described : and his performance of the task allotted to him has been further delayed by several prolonged absences from England. As regards many countries visited by travellers a delay of several years in publication might seriously affect the vi PREFACE. accuracy of a narrative intended to represent the ex- isting condition of the country and its inhabitants; but in the case of Marocco, where, from a comparison with the accounts of early travellers, no notable change is apparent during the last two centuries, the effect of a few years’ interval may be considered insensible. Up to the date of our visit the Great Atlas was little better known to geographers than it was in the time of Strabo and Pliny; and it may be hoped that whatever interest be- longs to our journey is as great now as it was at the moment of our return. The narrative now published is mainly founded on the journals kept by Sir J. Hooker and Mr. Ball, supplemented in some particulars by that of our fellow-traveller, Mr. G. Maw. To the latter we owe a sketch of the Geology of Marocco, which appears in the Appendix. Along with this we have published some interesting contributions received from Mr. H. B. Brady and Mr. Freeman Rogers, as well as some papers upon various matters connected with the physical geography and the flora of Marocco. It is impossible to present these pages to the public without repeating the expression of our obligations to some of those to whose assistance we largely owe whatever success we were able to attain. Foremost amongst these we must name H. E. Sir John Drummond Hay, K.C.B., British Minister Plenipotentiary in Marocco. From the moment, when, in compliance with the request of Sir J. Hooker, Lord Granville, then Foreign Secretary, instructed our Minister to apply for the permission of the Sultan to visit the Great Atlas, Sir J. D. Hay, by his extensive knowledge of the country and the people, and by his great personal influence, afforded invaluable assistance to the expedition. PREFACE. Vii We were also much indebted for assistance and hospi- tality to the British Consular agents on the Marocco coast, and especially to the late Mr. Carstensen, then Vice-Consul at Mogador. We should not omit our acknowledgments of the courtesy and valuable information received from the late M. Beaumier, French Consul at the same port. We trust that in the course of the following pages we have not omitted to express our thanks to other friends who have kindly contributed valuable information. The scope of this volume being mainly to give an account of our personal experience and observations, we have used, but sparingly, other materials, which might be in place if we had aimed at the production of a work of a more elaborate character. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Voyage to Gibraltar—View of Tangier—Interior of the town— Portuguese and English occupation—Hospitable reception by Sir John Drummond Hay — Ravensrock—Government of Marocco—Climate of North Marocco—Exceptional season— The Djebel Kebir and its vegetation—Cistus and Heath region—Oape Spartel—Night at the Lighthouse—Cave of Hercules—Arab village—Return to Tangier . : ‘ 1 PAGE CHAPTER II. Start for Tetuan—Vegetation of the low country—Serpent charmers—Twilight in the forest—The Fondak — Stormy night on the roof—Breakfast on the hill—Riff Mountains—A Governor in chains—Fate of high officials in Marocco— Valley of Tetuan—Jew quarter of the city—Ascent of the Beni Hosmar—Vegetation of the mountain—A quiet day—Jewish population—Ride to Ceuta—Spanish campaign in Marocco— Fortifications of Ceuta—Return to European civilisation— Spanish convict stations in Africa. ; ‘ . 25 CHAPTER III. Sail to Algeciras—Vegetation of the neighbouring hills—Com- parison between the opposite sides of the Strait of Gibraltar— Return to Tangier—Troubles of a botanist—Fez pottery— Voyage in French steamer—Rabat and Sallee— Land at Casa Blanca—Vegetation of the oe ae ne of the coast climate—Mazagan—View of Saffi i 58 x CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. Arrival at Mogador—The Sultan’s letter—Preparations for our journey—The town of Mogador—The neighbouring country— Ravages of locusts—Native races of South Maroceo—Excur- sion to the island—Climate of Mogador—Its influence on consumption—Dinner with the Governor : . CHAPTER V. Departure from Mogador—Argan forest—Hilly country of Haha —Fertile province of Shedma—Hospitality of the Governor —Turkish visitor—Offering of provisions—Kasbah of the Governor—Ride to Ain Oumast—First view of the Great Atlas—Pseudo-Sahara—Tomb of a saint—Nzelas—Ascend the ‘Camel’s Back’—Oasis of Sheshaoua—Coolness of the night temperature—Rarity of ancient buildings—Halt at Ain Beida—Tents and luggage gone astray—Night at Misra ben Kara—Cross the Oued Nfys—Plain of Marocco—Range of the Great Atlas—Halt under tamarisk tree . . . CHAPTER VI. Approach to the city of Marocco—Pleasant encounter—Halt in an olive garden—Interior of the city—Difficulty as to lodg- ing—QGovernor unfriendly—Camp in the great square—Nego- tiations with the Viceroy—Successful result—Palace of Ben Dreis—Diplomatie difficulties—Gardens of Marocco—Inter- view with El Graowi . ; . CHAPTER VII. Choice of a route in the Atlas—Difficulty of procuring inform- ation—Hills near the city—Panorama of the Great Atlas— Probable height of the range—Wild birds of Marocco—Con- dition of the Jews—Departure from the city—Farewell inter- view with El Graoui—District of Mesfioua—Interview with the Kaid—Approach to the Great Atlas—Aspect of the vegetation — Castle of Tasseremout—Washington’s visit— Jewish suppliants—Great boulder mounds—Ourika valley— Peculiarities of Moorish character—Rapacity of our escort PAGE 75 95 149 CONTENTS. Ape’s Hill. As this promontory is only the last in a ies of conical summits that gradually diminish in height 3 they approach the Mediterranean, the fortress is com- letely commanded on the land side. But the Spaniards ave erected small forts on the nearer heights, and with 1oderate watchfulness are secure enough from any assault rat could be made by the Moors. As we rode over the eck of land connecting the fortress with the adjoining ills, and finally approached the only entrance, which is sached by a succession of gates and drawbridges, we had 4isure to admire the elaborate character of the defences, 1 which every known resource of military engineering, s understood at the beginning of the last century, seems o have been accumulated. The soul of Uncle Toby would ave delighted in the multiplication of ditches, curtains, avelins, demi-lunes, hornworks, and palisades that have een expended here for the purpose of astonishing the mtutored mind of the ignorant Moor. The little town that forms the kernel of these vast ortifications far surpassed our expectations. Say what we 7ill, there is a vast gap between the condition of the least dvanced countries of Europe and the barbarism from yhich no Mohammedan State has yet contrived to raise tself. Ceuta, however, is a very favourable sample of a spanish town, and is far superior in aspect to most places f equal importance in the mother-country. The well- CH. Us. COAST VEGETATION. 55 built houses in the main street, all dazzling with fresh whitewash, were gay with bright flowers that stood in pots and boxes on the balconies behind ironwork of elaborately ornate character, and the inhabitants had an air of activity and animation not common in Spain, anywhere out of Catalonia. We drew our bridles at the Fonda Italiana, the best looking of several inns, where we learned that all the bedrooms were occupied, and were sent for sleeping quarters to a neighbouring house. We got a large room with two good beds, and found everything both there and at the inn, where we were well fed, scrupulously clean. Our remark, which probably would not have been approved in Downing Street, was, ‘What a pity, when they were about it, that the Spaniards did not annex the whole of North Marocco!’ The course of events in Spain during the last six or eight years has gone far to justify Downing Street, and to show that European anarchy may be even worse than Moorish misgovernment. As, in accordance with our daily custom, we reviewed the produce of our day’s botanising, before committing our plants to paper, it seemed to fall rather short of our expectations. The season was not yet advanced enough for many seaside species, and, besides, as every naturalist knows, one’s power of observation on horseback is com- paratively limited. When the eye is carried forward by an external agency, and its motion is not altogether regu- lated by the will, many minute objects are too imperfectly seen to convey a definite image; and however often one may dismount, many slight suggestions that would be tested by one on foot are allowed to pass without verifi- cation. Along with most of the shrubs that we had seen about Tangier, we passed many small trees of Tamaria africana and stout bushes of Juniperus phenicea. The most ornamental plant that we gathered was Phaca betica, with fine purplish blue flowers, very unlike any of the forms of the same genus with which we were familiar in the Alps. The most interesting plant, in a scientific 56 SPANISH CONVICT STATIONS. CH. 1. sense, that we found this day was so minute as to be alto- gether overlooked at the time; and it was only some time after our return to England that two minute specimens (less than an inch in height) were found engaged in a tuft of some stouter plant. They belong to a little crucifer, called Malcolmia nana. It has been found in a few spots scattered at wide intervals throughout the Mediterranean region, and as far eastward as the shores of the Caspian Sea. At Ceuta we had the spectacle—always a painful one —of gangs of convicts chained together, and working under the charge of soldiers, which meets the eye in so many parts of Southern Europe. Difficult as is the subject of penal discipline for criminals, it may safely be said that this is one of the worst—if not the very worst— system that has ever been devised. The punishment, however hard, loses through familiarity most of its deterrent effect; while, far from reforming, it seems to be the most efficient method known for finally corrupting the less hardened offender. The objections are somewhat lessened when the convict station is removed from the general gaze, and where the prisoners have little hope and even little temptation to escape. These conditions are satisfied in the three fortified posts which, besides Ceuta, the Spaniards hold on the coast of Marocco. The most considerable of these is Melilla, on a promontory a few miles south of Cape Tres Forcas, said to be a strong fort, but grievously damaged by an earthquake in 1848. It must be little better than a prison for the garrison as well as for the convicts, if it be true, as we were told, that it is considered unsafe to venture beyond musket-shot from the walls, and the Riff mountaineers amuse themselves from time to time by taking pot-shots at the sentries on the ramparts. The other posts are on rocky islets near the shore. El Pefion de Velez, also called Velez de Gomera, is about half-way between Ceuta and Melilla, and only about eight miles CH. ul. RIFF PIRATES. 57 from the site of the Carthaginian city of Bedis—Belis of the Arabs—whence some etymologists derive the Spanish Velez. From the rank of an episcopal city in early Christian times, Bedis fell into bad repute asa pirate port, until it was taken and destroyed by the Spaniards The third Spanish post is on the larger of the Zaffarine Islands, that rise from the Mediterranean nearly opposite the mouth of the Oued Moulouya, not far from the French frontier. Tojudge from a small packet of plants collected there by Mr. Webb, the only scientific traveller known to have visited them, these are mere barren rocks, affording no shelter to any but the common seaside species. Of late years the Riff people have kept to their moun- tain fastnesses, and piracy is no longer an habitual occupa~- tion ; but it would not be safe to suppose that it has been completely extinguished. The coast has many inlets and creeks that shelter fishing boats, which may easily be used for cutting out unarmed merchantmen when becalmed near the coast. As late as 1855 two or three cases of that nature were reported to the home authorities by the Governor of Gibraltar: and as pursuit was out of the question, and the Moorish Government owns no control over the Riff population, no redress was obtainable. The inereasing use of steam has probably made the occupation tedious and unprofitable. 58 SAIL TO ALGECIRAS, cH. mL, CHAPTER III. Sail to Algeciras—Vegetation of the neighbouring hills— Comparison between the opposite sides of the Strait of Gibraltar—Return to Tangier—Troubles of a botanist—Fez pottery—Voyage in French steamer—Rabat and Sallee—Land at Casa Blanca—Vegetation of the neighbourhood—Humidity of the coast climate—Mazagan— View of Safi. Witn the previous permission of the Commandant, we sailed from Ceuta in the Government felucca on the morn- ing of the 15th, and had a pleasant run before a south- west breeze, which took us before noon to Algeciras. Our intention had been to return the same day to Tangier, but we found that the ordinary steamer had been taken up to carry sight-seers to a bull-fight at Seville. Resigning ourselves to the delay, we found fair accommodation in an inn upon the quay, and started for a walk over the wooded hills behind the town, not sorry to have an opportunity of comparing the vegetation of the opposite shores at this point where Europe and Africa so nearly meet. The general aspect of the floras is nearly identical, but there is enough of difference to show that for a long period a barrier has existed sufficient to limit the diffusion of many characteristic species. Of these we found three on the hill near Algeciras—Rhododendron ponticum, Sibthorpia europea, and Helianthemum lasianthum, a fine species with large yellow flowers, approaching a Cistus in stature and habit. A much longer list of European plants that have not passed into Africa might be made if all the known species found between Gibraltar and Tra- falgar were taken into account; but it might with some reason be objected, that our knowledge of the African side CH. lil. VEGETATION OF THE OPPOSITE COASTS. 59 of the Strait is too incomplete to speak confidently on this point. On the other hand, however, we may with some certainty assert that comparatively many well-marked species found on the southern side of the Strait are limited to the African shore, and have not been able to spread into Europe. From the accessible materials we find at least thirty-eight species belonging to this category, of which the large majority are species spread over a wide area in Northern Africa. In attempting to draw inferences from these facts, it is necessary to bear in mind that the region where they occur—the southern part of the Iberian peninsula, and the opposite corner of Marocco—is remarkable for the variety of its flora, and for the large number of distinct species, each inhabiting a very restricted area. To those who suppose that the presence of numerous plants in two neighbouring districts, which are limited to one or the other, but are not common to both, is to be regarded as evidence for the existence of a physical barrier between them, an objector might reply that we have no more right to affirm that it is the prolonged existence of the Strait between Europe and Africa that has prevented the extension of so many species from one continent to the other, than we have to maintain that two neighbouring mountain groups, such as the Sierra Nevada of Granada and the Serrania de Ronda, each possessing a number of peculiar species, must have been formerly isolated by the sea, as otherwise the species would have been intermixed. In answer to this objection, it may, with some plausi- bility, be urged that a large majority of the species with restricted areas are mountain plants; that there is much reason to believe that most of these peculiar species did originate within insulated areas, at a time when these were separated by the sea from neighbouring masses, where the conditions of life for each organism must have been somewhat different; and that in a few instances local peculiarities of soil, either chemical or mechanical, may 60 ROCK OF GIBRALTAR. CH. I. explain the fact that a particular species is limited to a very small district. These considerations do not, however, fully explain the known facts regarding some regions of the earth possessing an exceptional number of peculiar species confined to small areas, the most remarkable of which are Asia Minor, South Africa, South-westemm Aus- tralia, and that which we are now discussing; and in weighing the evidence afforded by the floras of the oppo- site coasts as bearing on the probable duration of such a barrier as the Strait of Gibraltar, it is best to leave out of account all species that are not known to be widely dis- tributed. Here our very limited knowledge of the flora of North Marocco opposes a considerable difficulty. Subject to such light as future observation will throw upon the subject, it may be said that, so far as mere botanical evi- dence goes, we should infer that the barrier was not present at the time when the great majority of the existing plants spread into this region; but that it has been established long enough to oppose a limit to the further diffusion of many species that gtherwise would, in all probability, be found on both sides of the Strait, thus indicating a period geologically recent, but very ancient as compared with the historic record. On the following morning we crossed the bay to Gib- raltar, and, still finding no means of conveyance to Tangier, endeavoured to console ourselves by botanising on the ‘Rock.’ Later in the day the impatience natural to the British traveller induced us to open negotiations for the hire of one of the numerous tug steamers that make hand- some profits by helping becalmed ships through the Strait. The first demand of one hundred dollars helped to moderate our ardour ; and, though the more reasonable sum of forty- five dollars was afterwards named by another merchant, we finally decided to remain a second night in Europe, and await the ordinary steamer on the following day. It is well known that all the rules which prevent unauthorised persons from prying into the arcana of a CH, Ile IRISH GUARDIANS OF THE ROCK. 61 fortress are strictly enforced at Gibraltar; and on this account a naturalist wishing to explore the rock should always apply for the previous permission of the Governor. Not intending to remain more than a few hours, we had declined the hospitable invitation of Sir W. F. Williams, and not thought of obtaining an order to authorise our unrestricted rambling over the rock. Towards evening Ball had started with his tin box to examine the steep eastern face that looks towards the Mediterranean. While scrambling about in search of plants, he became aware that his movements were watched by two Irish soldiers, both decidedly the worse for liquor, and as he returned towards the path the word ‘spy’ was emphatically pronounced more than once. Anticipating any further unpleasant remarks, he addressed them some ordinary question, with a fair infusion of that national accent that is unmistakable to the Hibernian ear. The effect was im- mediate: the men were delighted to recognise a country- man; question and answer rapidly succeeded, and the only difficulty was to resist their pressing invitation to adjourn to a neighbouring wine-shop, where the poor fellows’ re- maining intelligence would have been finally quenched in the compound of grape-juice and ardent spirits that is sold at Gibraltar as Spanish wine—not much worse, perhaps, than the mixture that is drunk at home by not a few persons boasting a refined taste under the name of pale sherry. It seems natural to ask whether it is or is not true, as one is often assured, that correct plans of all the chief fortresses in Europe are to be found in the War Office of each of the chief States; for in such case the attempt to maintain secrecy as against the ignorant curiosity of travellers seems to be a puerile occupation for the military authorities in command. ; The rock of Gibraltar and the sandy tract called the Neutral Ground produce many rare and interesting plants; but these are already well known to botanists, 62 RETURN TO TANGIER. CH. I. being separately described in Kelaart’s Flora Calpensis, and further illustrated in a work of first-rate authority, Boissier’s Voyage Botanique en Espagne. The only tree that seems to prosper thoroughly on this barren sun-baked headland is the Chinese Phytolacca arborea, which was planted some fifty or sixty years ago in the Alameda and elsewhere, many of which have attained a great thickness, They remind one of the stunted clustered columns of some medixval churches, each of the very numerous branches developing a projecting cylinder of woody trunk covered with grey bark. The so-called Club House, which ranks as the head inn, being already full, we put up at the Fonda Espafiola, and had no cause for complaint, either as to food or accom- modation. On the morning of the 17th we had notice that the steamer for Tangier was to start at noon; and, after laying in additional stores of drying paper, and enjoying a delightful morning stroll along the road to Europa Point, we were ready at the appointed time. After more than the usual delay, we at length set our faces towards the African shore with a fresh SW. breeze in our faces. Few places in the world can show a greater variety of fine atmospheric effects than the Strait of Her- cules. To-day the horizon behind us was clear, while the hills that bound the entrance from the Atlantic were veiled in thin haze; and, as the sun sank low, a strange purple hue suffused one-half of the sky. The skipper managed to arrive late in the roads at Tangier, and we found that, although a bribe to the official of the port might obtain admission within the walls, our baggage could not be landed until the following morning. We therefore decided to sleep on board the little steamer, and at length, on the morning of the 18th, we returned to breakfast at the Victoria Hotel. Maw had made good use of his time. In a first excursion to the ‘ Lakes’ he had failed to find a beautiful iris, which we had first admired on Sir J. D. Hay’s dinner- table, and which we had taken to be the Iris tingitana of cH. LL DIFFICULTY OF DRYING PLANTS, 63 Boissier and Reuter. Not easily foiled from his purpose, Maw returned two days later, and succeeded in his object. Subsequent examination has convinced us that the plant growing near the lakes is a luxuriant form of the [ris Jilifolia of Southern Spain, though intermediate between that and J. tingitana. The latter may perhaps be an extreme form of the same plant, but is yet little known, and had not, as far as we know, been brought into cultiva- tion until carried to England by Maw. Our plant, which is one of the most beautiful of a beautiful group, is figured, under the name Xyphion tingitanum, in the 98th volume of the ‘ Botanical Magazine,’ No. 5981. Nothing can sur- pass in the scale of rich sombre decoration the gradations of dark purple and brown velvet that enrich the petals. One of the troubles that most try the patience of a botanical traveller here awaited us. As we had already assured ourselves, the spring climate of North Marocco is delightful to the human frame. The sky had been clear, the air warm, and only one or two slight showers of rain had fallen since we first landed on the coast; but the breezes, whether they travel eastward from the Atlantic, or west- ward from the Mediterranean, are laden with aqueous vapour nearly to the point of saturation, and nothing dries spontaneously by mere exposure to the air. Although our system of drying our plants by ventilating gratings makes it quite unnecessary to change the paper in such a climate as that of the Alps, or most parts of Europe, we now found that all the collections left at Tangier were suffering from damp, many specimens covered with mildew, and some hopelessly destroyed. Many hours on this and the following day were consumed in the endeavour to remedy the mischief. So far as structure is concerned, damp, when not too long continued, does not disorganise the tissues; but it finally removes the remaining freshness of colour which makes the beauty of a well-dried specimen. In the course of the day we made some purchases of Fez pottery, of which a large store is kept by a Jew dealer. 64 MOORISH POTTERY. CH. Ur. This ware, which combines elegance and variety of form with vigorous geometrical designs and rough execution, is now well known to the devotees of the prevailing fancy for ceramics, who pay in London or Paris many times over the original price. Through the kindness of the British Consul, Mr. White, we obtained some small specimens of a very scarce variety of unglazed pottery, of which the decoration consists merely in dots of black and red, form- ing various patterns. These were said to be the handy- work of two potters of Fez, who both died during the last cholera epidemic. During our seven days’ absence from Tangier, the vege- tation had advanced very rapidly, and many plants had come into flower during the interval; so that we found abundant occupation, even in the immediate neighbour- hood of the town. If we had wanted further evidence as to the character of the climate, it was afforded by the fact of our finding the British royal fern (Osmunda regalis), ov bare sandstone rocks, close to the sea. In our pro- verbially damp climate it requires boggy or marshy soil to grow freely; but then, in spite of proverbs, we have fits of dry weather during the spring, and every now and then prolonged summer droughts, that forbid delicate ferns to flourish in exposed situations. Early on the morning of the 20th we were awakened by the news that the long expected French steamer, Vérité, of Marseilles, had arrived, and would depart in the after- noon on her voyage to the Atlantic ports of Marocco and the Canary Islands. We were fully prepared to depart ; the expected autograph letter of the Sultan had been delivered to Sir J. D. Hay, and by him to Hooker; our heavy baggage had already been forwarded to Mogador, and we lost no time in completing our preparations, and bidding farewell to those whose kindness and hospitality had made our stay at Tangier so agreeable. In quitting Martin’s Hotel, the solitary inconvenience that we could call to mind was the swarms of flies that invade the rooms, CH. I. RABAT AND SALLEE. 65 not more abundant, however, than in many valleys of Switzerland and North Italy; and we carried away from Tangier the impression that even on the Mediterranean shores there are few spots that combine such advantages of climate, natural beauty, and material comfort. We found the Vérité, though boasting a French name, to be a nearly new Clyde-built steamer, owned by a Mar- seilles Company and commanded by Captain Abeille of that port, far better fitted up than most of those that ply along this coast. The passengers were few, and, as these disembarked at the intermediate ports, we at last became the sole occupants of the state cabin. On a fine evening, with the gentle heaving of the broad Atlantic billows to tune all to harmony, we passed the headland of Cape Spartel, and received the first rays of the great lanthorn as they shot out seaward when lighted for the night. At seven o'clock next morning the engines were stopped, and going on deck we found ourselves lying some way off the shore, opposite the mouth of the river Oued Bouregrag, that divides Sallee from Rabat. The latter, as seen from a distance, is a place of somewhat imposing appearance. The chief mosque has a great square tower, rivalling those of Seville and Marocco; and a pile of modern masonry, on a scale unknown elsewhere in modern days in this country, marks the large barrack where the Sultan’s body-guard is lodged when he pays his annual visit to the coast. Carpets are made here, and also a peculiar sort of unglazed pottery, coarse in texture, but admirable in form, and singular in ornamentation.! Over against Rabat, on the north side of the river, is Sallee, once a famous place, the last outpost of Roman civilisa- tion, and afterwards the home of pirates who were dreaded throughout the Mediterranean and along the coasts of France and England. Looking at the bare coast, and the paltry groups of mud boxes that make up a Moorish town, 1 Some fine specimens have been exhibited at the South Kensington Museum, by our companion, Mr. Maw. F 66 THE ATLANTIC ROLLERS, CH. Il. and knowing that the bar at the river’s mouth allows, except at spring tide, the passage only of ships of small tonnage, it, seemed scarcely credible that the European Powers should so long have allowed such a nest of hornets to flourish at their very gates. When one reads that up to the middle of the last century it was not a very rare thing for the ‘ Sallee rovers’ to lie under Lundy Island, and cut out Bristol merchantmen, one asks what the British navy was about, that the malefactors and their ships were not swept from the sea, and Sallee itself utterly destroyed. The false humanity that caused in our time such bitter lamentations over the chastisement of Bornean pirates had not been yet invented. We lay for the greater part of the day within some two or three miles of the shore, but the Atlantic rollers were too heavy to allow a nearer approach, or permit the landing of cargo. This happens too frequently to excite remark; and these great waves, originating in the passage of cyclones in the mid-Atlantic, often arrive so suddenly in the calmest weather as to create a serious danger for the seaman. At the least it is prudent to keep up a sufficient pressure of steam in the boiler to make it easy to gain the offing on the shortest notice; and we heard of several cases where the coast steamers had called in succession at all the Atlantic ports of Marocco without being able to communicate with any one of them, and cargo and passengers had been carried on to the Canary Islands with the uncertain prospect of being landed on the return voyage. Fogs offer another serious impediment to navigation on this coast. During the summer the low country for a distance of eight or ten miles from the shore is not rarely covered during the moming with a thick mist that clears away before mid-day. At such times ships dare not approach the sandy coasts, and, when the sky clears, the scarcity of landmarks makes it extremely difficult for the seaman to ascertain his exact. position. As the same difficulty prevented us from touching Rabat on our return voyage, we can add nothing to what has CH, MI. THE FOREST OF MAMORA. 67 been told by preceding travellers. Counting Sallee asa suburb of the larger town, the population is estimated at: 40,000, or more than all the other Atlantic ports put together. The inhabitants are said to suffer from three scourges—prolonged droughts, the invasion of locusts, and, worst of all, the annual visits of the Sultan, whose body- guard of several thousand soldiers has to be fed at their cost. To the naturalist a stay of some days at Rabat might be of great interest if he were able to accomplish a visit to the famous forest of Mamora, which fills a large part of the space, some twenty miles in width, between the mouth of the Bouregrag and the larger river Sebou that carries to the sea the drainage of the high mountains near Fez. The scene of most of the wonderful tales that circulate among the people of North Maroecco—adventures with lions, robbers, and other wild animals—is laid in the forest of Mamora; but excepting one solitary plant, brought thence by the Abbé Durand—a very distinct species of Celsia—nothing is known of the fauna and flora of the forests of this part of Marocco. These appear to cover a considerable tract parallel to the Atlantic coast, and probably consist mainly of the cork oak, which in any other country might become a considerable source of profit. Eastward of the forest the country south of the Oued Sebou is a marshy tract, breeding endemic fevers that are said to extend to Sallee and Rabat. In the afternoon the swell became more moderate, and a boat came out with passengers, including the family of Mr. Dupuis, the British Vice-Consul at Casa Blanca. It was decided that it would not be safe to land cargo, so the captain resolved to start’ without further delay and run for Casa Blanca—the Dar el-Beida of the Moors. The sun had set, and night was closing in as we approached the low shore, where a few white houses mark a station which has risen to some little importance owing to the preference shown for it by French merchants, who carry on a con- siderable trade with the interior. F2 68 BOTANISING AT CASA BLANCA. CH. IIe. We accepted a courteous invitation from Mr. and Madame Dupuis, and, landing early on the morning of the 22nd, went to breakfast at their house. A less attractive spot than Casa Blanca it is difficult to imagine. A fea- tureless coast of low shelves of red sandstone rock overlaid by stiff clay, stretches on either side in slight undulations, nowhere rising more than a couple of hundred feet above the sea. Not a tree gives variety to the outline or shelter from the blazing sun. The attempts made by the few residents to cultivate the orange and other useful trees have met with little success; and the eye seeks in vain the gay shrubs that adorn the southern shores of the Mediterranean. The Cistuses, Genistas, heaths, Arbutus, and myrtle, as well as the more sober prickly oak and laurel, are all absent, and the arborescent vegetation is almost limited to stunted bushes of lentisk some three or four feet high. As we strolled for several hours over the surrounding country, we at once perceived the influence of new cli- matal conditions. It was not that many new species marked the passage from one botanical province to another, for to our disappointment we found very few that we had not already gathered in North Marocco, and, excepting one rare Celsia, none that were not already well known. As elsewhere, Leguminose were predominant, and especially trefoils and medicks; grasses were both numerous and varied in species; and Umbelliferce were represented by many conspicuous plants, of which Ferula communis, growing to a height of ten or more feet, is especially notable. In the absence of more substantial materials, the thick stems are used for fences. The contrast offered by the vegetation of this coast with that of the Mediter- ranean shores is caused altogether by climatal conditions, which allow one set of species to flourish while the rest are more or less rigidly excluded. The information received from our obliging hosts respecting the country and the native population agreed CH. 1. TRADE ON THE ATLANTIC COAST. 69 well enough with what we heard elsewhere. The preju- dices of the natives are not so strong as to make them indifferent to the advantages of trade with the intrusive Christians who are settled on the coast; and the unfortu- nate issue of the last war with Spain has taught them the prudence of avoiding wanton provocation. Whatever may be the case with the tribes farther inland, the people of the coast provinces are quite disposed for commercial inter- course ; but the jealousy of the authorities makes enter- prise of all kinds too unsafe to be risked by an ordinary native of the country. Some of the provincial governors who live near the coast carry on trade with European merchants; but for the rest such business as exists is in the hands of the Jews. The only interference of the Govern- ment, which is at least ostensibly dictated by a regard for the welfare of the people, relates to the corn trade. In favourable years Marocco produces much more grain than the population can consume, but drought and locusts often destroy the crops throughout large districts. The permission to export corn is therefore given or withheld by sovereign order according to the reports received at head-quarters. It is needless to point out how much the uncertainty thus produced must interfere with the profits ot cultivation. At Casa Blanca our skipper took on board a con- siderable quantity of maize for the Canary Islands, and a good many bales of hides and wool for Marseilles; and we found the decks in some disorder when we returned on board our steamer in the evening. All next day—the 23rd—we remained in the roads of Casa Blanca, uncertain at what moment we should continue our voyage. The time did not hang heavily on our hands, for we had as much work as we could accomplish in getting our collections into tolerably good order. We here had to deal with an enemy that was new to all of us, excepting Hooker, and which for the next week was to cause more trouble and anxiety than any one not a naturalist can easily realise. 70 DIFFICULTY OF DRYING PLANTS. CH. m1. Nothing is more common with us at home than to grum- ble at the dampness of the climate; and, as far as the effects on the human animal are concerned, our complaints are perfectly just. Air at 50° Fahr. cannot at the utmost carry more than about 44 grains of aqueous vapour to the cubic foot; but at that temperature it produces, when nearly saturated, that feeling on the nerves of the skin, familiar to every inhabitant of these islands, which is the ordinary forerunner of colds, sore throats, rheumatism, and many another ailment. But the botanist, to whom the condition of his drying paper is even more important than that of his own body, finds an easy remedy for the incon- venience. By exposing his damp paper to a temperature of from 80° to 90° in the sunshine, or before a fire, he readily obtains a satisfactory degree of relative- dryness, and in a very few days his specimens are in a state to put away, and with ordinary care need give him no further trouble. But the case is very different where the ordinary temperature of the air in the shade is about 75°, as was the case here, not to speak of 85° which is the common limit in the tropics. To the human body there is nothing unpleasant in the effects of such air when nearly saturated with vapour, and so long as the temperature remains habitually between 70° and 80° it is decidedly favourable to health, if not to vigorous exertion. But a cubic foot of air at 77° contains nearly 104 grains of vapour, and when at all near to the point of saturation it has no perceptible drying effect on surrounding objects, and a moderate increase of 10° or 12° Fahr. in temperature has but a slight effect in increasing its desiccating power. We were first struck by remarking the very long time required to dry the decks as compared with what is usual in the Mediterranean, and we had still more painful experience of the difficulty of drying our paper. We were now the sole occupants of the saloon, and our captain left us free to use every part of the steamer; the deck was soon turned to account, cords were stretched across the CH. Il. MAZAGAN, 71 rigging, even the neighbourhood of the boiler was invaded, but with indifferent success. Few readers may care to sympathise with the distress of a naturalist who looks on his specimens, not only as scientific documents bringing some additions to our knowledge of the structure and relations of the organised world, but as things of beauty giving delight to the senses of form and colour, when, after much pains and care, he finds the flowers change their hues and drop off, the leaves turn black, and when mould, the sure sign of decomposition, begins to encrust the stems and fruits. At 1 a.m. on the morning of the 24th we were again under steam, and soon after daylight speed was slackened as we lay off Mazagan. The abruptness of the transition from deep blue water in the offing to a somewhat milky green where the ship gets into shallower water here attracted our notice. It is of common occurrence even on coasts where there is reason to believe that the bed of the sea shelves vary gradually away from the shore, and one might expect a gradual change of tint; but no satisfactory explanation occurred to us.’ It was some time before the land came in sight, and we were able to make out the square tower of the Portuguese fort that marks the position of Mazagan. The town stands on a slightly projecting point of land facing northward, and therefore especially exposed to the north-east breeze that prevails throughout the spring and summer. We lay all day rolling heavily, and the surf, breaking in hills of foam upon the shore, was too high to allow of the landing of cargo; but in the afternoon a small boat put off with provisions. Amongst these was a large freshwater fish, a species of shad, that had been caught in the Oued Oum-er-bia which runs into 1 Professor Tyndall has shown that the differences of tint in sea- water depend upon differences in the amount and dimensions of the particles of solid matter held in suspension ; but the abruptness of the transition from one tint to another has, we believe, not been fully explained. 72 THE RIVER OUM-ER-BIA. cH. 1. the sea some five miles east of Mazagan close to the site of Azemour, a ruined town once of some importance. The freshwater fish of the streams from the Atlas may probably offer many objects of interest to the ichthyologist, but do not seem likely to add much to the resources of the cook. We were told that the fine-looking animal which was displayed at table is considered a delicacy; but we found the flesh insipid and cottony, and during our subsequent journey we failed to find any fish worth eating. Neither on this occasion nor on our return did we see any trace of the ruins of Azemour or of the great river Oum-er-bia. This is apparently the chief stream of Ma- rocco. It drains the northern declivity of the chain of the Great Atlas for a distance of 150 miles, and nearly the entire of the extensive mountainous region, a still un- known network of high ridges and deep valleys, that covers nearly half the space between the main chain and the Atlantic seaboard. Like all the other rivers of this country the volume of water varies to an extent unknown in Europe. In dry seasons, when a large part of the waters that descend from the mountains is diverted into irrigation channels, and never reaches the sea, the main stream runs over a shallow bed fordable in many places; but after heavy rains the swollen waters have such a rapid current that we were told of travellers being detained a week or ten days waiting for the opportunity of crossing it. Lieut., afterwards Admiral, Washington !' estimated the breadth of the river where he crossed it, near Azemour, at 150 yards, and found it much the same at about eighty miles from the sea on the return journey from Marocco to the coast. Mazagan, though a small and poor-looking place, bears many traces of its European origin, as we remarked when we landed here on our return voyage from Mogador. It was built by the Portuguese in 1566, and held in spite of frequent assaults by the Moors for more than two hundred years, having been finally surrendered in 1770. ! ¢ Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,’ vol, i., pp. 132-151. Mm | he Ci. 11 SAFFI. 73 We left the roads at 9 a.m. on the 25th, and were glad to see for the first time the land rising in bold cliffs. The headland seen a few miles south-west of Mazagan is Cape Blanco ; but this projects little from the general outline of the coast, which shows a tolerably uniform direction, rising gradually towards the south-west, till we reach Cape Cantin, the chief headland of this part of the Atlantic seaboard. The summit is apparently about three hundred feet above the sea, and the calcareous strata nearly hori- zontal. Here the coast line, which from Cape Blanco had kept the direction from north-east by east to south-west by west, turns abruptly to the south. The cliffs recede a little at first and form a slight curve, then rising to a second headland some two hundred feet higher than Cape Cantin. Beyond this the shore again recedes, and the land subsides, where a slender stream has cut its way through the plateau inland, and affords space for the little seaport town of Saffi, or Ash of the Moors. The coast line again rises on the south side of Saffi, forming a steep escarpment some three or four hundred feet in height, called the Jews’ Rock, about four miles from the town. Saffi is by far the most picturesque spot on the west coast of Marocco. The extensive fortifications of the Por- tuguese, high walls and square towers, spreading along the shore and up the broken declivity on which the town is built, with several steep islets, whose rocks have been gnawed into uncouth shapes by the Atlantic waves, pro- duce, as seen from the sea, a striking effect. Though fully exposed to the west, this port is better protected from the north-east winds than any other on the coast, except Mogador. Behind it lies the fertile province of Abda, famed for its excellent breed of horses, and it is the nearest port to the city of Marocco—about one hundred miles distant—but the want of secure anchorage for ship- ping neutralises these natural advantages. Our stay on this occasion was short, and soon after dark we were again in motion. We spent pleasantly 74 OUR FRENCH CAPTAIN. cH. m1. enough our last evening on board the Vérité. Though he took little pains to conceal his strong prejudices against the English nation, our captain was thoroughly good- natured and obliging towards the individual Englishmen with whom he was associated. No doubt our scientific pursuits recommended us to his good offices, for the slight smattering of scientific knowledge acquired by half- educated persons in most Continental countries has the effect of awakening some interest in such pursuits. It may, indeed, be doubted whether, at least in France, the teaching of physical science goes far enough to convey any accurate knowledge, even of an elementary kind; but, at all events, the national temperament leads Frenchmen to expose their deficiencies more than other people readily do. An Englishman who knows that he is not well grounded in a subject holds his tongue, or if pressed by questions will probably exaggerate the extent of his own ignorance, where a Frenchman will gaily lay down the law and span over the gaps in his knowledge by startling bridges of conjecture. Our worthy skipper amused us not a little when, in conversation on the climate of this coast, reference being made to the rainless zone of the Peruvian coast, he explained that in that country the moisture of the air is absorbed by the gases that accompany earth- quakes, thus accounting to his own satisfaction for the meteorological phenomenon. But the full vehemence of his nature was reserved for matters of much more im- mediate interest. He had left Marseilles after the Com- mounist rising in that city had been suppressed, but while the miserable tragic farce that was to end in the horrors of May, 1871, was being enacted in Paris. He could not allude to the subject without a degree of fury that to us seemed utterly unreasonable. But it is easy for people at a distance to treat such matters with calmness, and there were not many Englishmen on the spot who at the time were able to share the noble calmness of Lord Canning during the Indian Mutiny. CH. Iv. ARRIVAL AT MOGADOR. 75 CHAPTER IV. Arrival at Mogador—The Sultan’s letter—Preparations for our journey —The town of Mogador—The neighbouring country—Ravages of locusts—Native races of South Marocco—Excursion to the island— Climate of Mogador—Its influence on consumption—Dinner with the Governor. Ar 5 a.m. on April 26 we at length reached the port of Mogador. Before many minutes a boat was alongside, and we were warmly welcomed by a gentleman who intro- duced himself as Mr. Carstensen, the British Vice-Consul, brother-in-law of Sir J. D. Hay. He was, indeed, no stranger; for, as a correspondent and active contributor to the Royal Gardens at Kew, he had long been in friendly relations with the chief of our party. To his energetic good offices and hospitable attentions we owe deep obliga- tions, and it was with sincere regret that we subsequently heard of his premature death in 1873. At an early hour we were comfortably established in the British Consulate, where our host and hostess received us as old friends, and we were soon engaged in discussion as to the arrangements for the prosecution of our journey, in all of which Mr. Carstensen’s familiarity with the country and perfect command of the language were of the utmost value. Having received previous notice of our arrival and of the objects of our journey, he had already prepared the way, and thus very much abridged the delays that are inevitable in such a country. The first step necessary was to call on the Governor and present to him the Sultan’s letter. We were courteously received by El Hadj Hamara, a well-looking man of 76 THE SULTAN’S LETTER. CH. Iv. middle age, in a small plain room, whose only furniture consisted in cushions laid round the walls. After shaking hands in European fashion, we proceeded to seat ourselves, cross-legged—no doubt looking very uncomfortable during the experiment—while the Sultan’s letter was produced. This was written on a small sheet of inferior paper, folded to the size of a note, and sealed with coarse sealing-wax. It was received by the Governor, the seal reverently applied to his forehead, and then broken. -After reading aloud the few lines of writing, the Governor handed the letter to Mr. Carstensen, who proceeded to translate literally for our benefit. It ran thus: ‘On receiving this, you will send the English hakeem and his companions to the care of my slave, El Graoui, to whom I have sent orders what he is to do.’ It should be explained that El] Graoui, spoken of as the Sultan’s slave, was the Governor of the portion of the Great Atlas that is practically subject to the Imperial authority, and precisely the person whose favour and assistance it was essential for our objects to secure. To strangers unused to the style of the Marocco Court, the Imperial letter did not seem a very promising docu- ment; but it was evident that, so far as the Governor of Mogador was concerned, it conveyed the impression that we were to be treated with respect and attention; and this was doubtless confirmed by the arrival of a courier from Marocco, bearing a letter from the Sultan’s eldest son, then acting as viceroy in the southern provinces of the empire, with orders to take every care for our safety and comfort during the journey to the capital. We soon had a specimen of the shape in which official protection displays itself in this country. On a represent- ation from Mr. Carstensen that we should require nume- rous baggage animals, besides horses and mules to ride, the order had gone forth a week before our arrival that no horses or mules should be sold or hired in the town of Mogador until we had selected such as we required. This accordingly was one of our first cares, and the embargo CH. Iv. TRIAL OF OUR TENTS. v7 was raised in the course of the day. We followed local advice, confirmed by our own previous experience in warm countries, in choosing mules in preference to horses. On a long journey they are far less liable to be laid up, and, to a scientific traveller who has frequent occasion to dismount, they give less trouble. Their obstinate temper is, how- ever, often annoying, and, though surefooted, they some- times have a very unpleasant trick of tripping or stumbling over stony ground. A precaution which we took this day is much to be recommended to travellers. This was to make a trial of pitching our tents on a piece of rough open ground. People readily suppose that a tent that is easily set up in an English lawn must answer their expectations on a march, and have little notion of the amount of discomfort caused by trifling defects. We speedily found that the pegs supplied in England are not nearly hard enough to pierce the stiff-baked clay or stony paste that forms the pre- vailing soil in this country ; and it was fortunate for our comfort that we took from Mogador an ample supply of rough pegs, made from the wood of the argan tree. We were each provided with a tent which satisfied our indi- vidual wants, but scarcely corresponded with the native ideas of what befits personages of distinction. We were well aware that in this country prestige was an essential element in success, and therefore willingly accepted the liberal offer of a large handsome native tent made by the local agent of Messrs. Perry & Co. of Liverpool. This was available only for the journey across the plains between Mogador and Marocco, as it was very heavy, forming a load for two camels, and therefore not suitable for a hilly country. It supplied a comparatively spacious saloon, wherein we passed our evenings very pleasantly, before retiring to our separate quarters for the night. The next matter requiring attention was our costume. It was foreseen that during some part of our journey, at least, it might be expedient to adopt the native dress, or 78 TRAVELLING COSTUME. CH. IV. such an approximation to it as would prevent our attract- ing notice from afar as strange and outlandish creatures. After due deliberation, the hak was finally rejected. This is the ordinary outer garment of natives of the upper class. An ample robe of fine white woollen stuff is a graceful and picturesque garment, especially on those who know how to group its folds about the person; but it is absolutely incompatible with the free use of the limbs, and more especially for botanists, whose pursuit brings them into frequent contact with the numberless spiny plants of this region. The unsightly jellabia, a blouse of rough white woollen stuff, with the addition of a hood that may be drawn over the head, was adopted, and was not found very inconvenient. Anticipating unavoidable exposure to a nearly vertical sun, we had provided ourselves with the grey pith venti- lating helmets so commonly used by Englishmen in the tropics. It was found that by winding round one of these a moderate strip of the usual material for turbans, it might be made to pass muster at a distance. But for head-gear on important occasions the turban was indis- peusable. The material, a broad band of light muslin, about thirteen or fourteen yards in length, is supplied from England, but the art of winding it round the head requires long practice, and we always resorted to the aid of one of our attendants. It certainly gives protection against a hot sun; but it is never quite convenient to a European of active habits, who finds it hard to acquire the orthodox gravity of Oriental demeanour, and is sadly apt to disturb the folds of the turban by some abrupt movement. There was one article of dress as to which no compro- mise was possible. The slippers down at heel that are commonly used by all classes of natives, and even the red or yellow loose boots that are sometimes worn on a journey, were equally unsuited to our habits and pursuits, and we held fast to our accustomed foot-covering. Mr. Carstensen had kindly made excellent arrange- CH. IV. JEWISH INTERPRETER. 79 ments for our convenience during our journey by selecting such native attendants as we should require. One was told off to each of us as a personal servant, expected to be always in readiness to render any required assistance ; and Hooker’s English attendant, Crump, was included in this arrangement. This may appear superfluous, and so it might be to ordinary travellers; but for a party of naturalists anxious to make the best use of their time, it was almost indispensable. Several other men were attached to the camp in various capacities, one of the most useful being a saddler, daily in requisition to repair damage done to leather work; but by far the most im- portant member of our suite was the interpreter to the British Consulate, whose services were spared for fully five weeks. Even with Mr. Carstensen’s thorough know- ledge of the language, this must have been felt asa serious inconvenience, for Abraham proved himself active and intelligent ; and the duties of a consular agent on the Marocco coast being by no means of a hum-drum cha- racter, the need of a man familiar with the country and the people in the capacity of secretary and assistant is daily felt. Being a Marocco Jew, born in a position of relative inferiority to his Mohammedan neighbours, Abraham no doubt felt a keen satisfaction in the sense of security which he derived from his position in the British service. To be able to converse in a tone approaching to equality with powerful officials; to emancipate oneself from restrictions trifling, yet galling, in matters of dress and demeanour; to share in some measure in the vague sense of power vested in the representatives of the great European States—must be the climax of ambition to a member of a despised nationality in a land where neither intelligence nor wealth nor good reputation give a man security or social recognition. It had been arranged that our escort was to consist of four soldiers, under the command of a kaid, nearly equiv- alent, as we were told, to a captain in European army 80 ORIGIN OF MOGADOR. CH. Iv. rank. This was more than was requisite for security, as, with all its barbarism, the Marocco Government is efficient enough within the parts of the territory where the Sultan’s authority is recognised and feared. Within those limits it is enough to let it be known that a traveller enjoys the Imperial protection ; no one will ever think of daring to molest him. After devoting a good part of the day to indispensable preparations for our future journey, we were free to look about us in the singular little town which, as the chief port of South Marocco, is the last outpost of civilisation on the African coast at this side of the French settlements of Senegal. Like many other places in Marocco, this owes its existence to the caprice of a Sultan. It was founded in 1760 by Sidi Mohammed, the most energetic of recent Moorish sovereigns, and became a considerable place when, a few years later, the same ruler destroyed Agadir, and ordered the merchants established there to remove to Moga- dor. Jackson tells us that it received its European name from the sanctuary of Sidi Mogodol, standing somewhere among the neighbouring sandhills; but a town of Mogador is shown in a map published in 1608,' standing a short way north of the island, which is there marked ‘I. Domegador.’ As have most of those marked on the early maps, the ancient town had doubtless disappeared before the found- ation of the present one, called by the Moors Soueira ; but the old name must have survived in the country. The low rocky island lying opposite to the town, and separated by a navigable channel, affords shelter from all winds except those from the SW.; but the depth of water is not great, and there are numerous dangerous reefs, so that in threatening weather steam is always kept up, and ships proceed to sea when SW. winds are expected. Al- though the island is shown on the oldest maps, and the channel is represented much as we now see it in the plates 1 See Appendix C, cH IV. INTERIOR OF MOGADOR. 81 to Jackson’s work, from drawings made about the beginning of this century, we were positively assured that old people in Mogador recollected the time when the island was con- nected with the mainland by an isthmus, over which cattle could be driven at low water; and this story seemed to have gained credence with the European inhabitants. Though it has no buildings of importance, the town is in one respect the most habitable in Marocco, being re- markably clean, and in that respect superior to very many seaports in Europe. This is largely due to the efforts of two intelligent French physicians, who have at various periods visited Mogador, but especially to the exertions of Dr. Thevenin, who has resided there for many years. The Governor and other officials, with the European consuls and merchants, all reside in the Kashah—the chief of the three quarters into which the town is divided. Here are several narrow but regularly-built streets; the houses are mostly of two stories, enclosing a small court- yard, which is entered by a low and narrow doorway from the street. In the Moorish town, inhabited by natives of the lower class, the houses are of one story, and poor in appearance; but the practice of whitewashing within and without once every week makes them look clean, and, no doubt, has much to do with the remarkable immunity of this place from contagious and endemic diseases. The Jewish town is much overcrowded ; but we were assured that even here the modern gospel of soap and water has made much progress. In the afternoon we sallied forth with our portfolios ; but in deference to public opinion, which could not endure that strangers of consequence should be seen trudging on foot, we rode for about a mile out of the town. Its sur- roundings are not prepossessing. The low tertiary lime- stone rock, on which it is built, and which doubtless extends inland for some distance, is covered up to the city walls by blown sand, driven along the shore before the SW. winds, forming dunes that cover the whole surface; and G 82 LOCUSTS. CH. IV. in most directions one may ride two or three miles before encountering any other vegetation than a few paltry attempts at cultivating vegetables for the table within little enclosed plots, whose owners are constantly disputing the ground with the intrusive sand. The chief break in the monotony of the sand ridges is due to the small stream of the Oued Kseb (called Oued el-Ghoreb on Beaudouin’s map), which reaches the sea little more than a mile away on the south side of the town. Much of the water being diverted, the current is not strong enongh to keep a channel through the sands, but forms at its mouth a marsh, where many of the most interesting plants of the neigh- bourhood are to be found. The drip from the small aqueduct that supplies water to the town suffices to give nourishment to other less uncommon species. Mogador has long been tolerably well known to bo- tanists. It was visited by Broussonet at the latter end of the last. century, and was for some time the residence of Schousboé. More recently the neighbourhood has been explored by the late Mr. Lowe and by M. Balansa. We could uot, therefore, reasonably expect to find here anything new to science; but our short excursion was nevertheless full of interest, though not altogether of an agreeable kind. We here saw for the first time a district recently ravaged by locusts; and while we acquired a lively sense of the amount of mischief effected by these destructive creatures, we also found out how it happens that the damage is confined within tolerable limits ; how, in short, they fail to turn the country into a desert. When one reads the reports of credible eye-witnesses, who describe the arrival of swarms of locusts that devour every green thing, one asks oneself how it can be possible for man or animals to survive such destruction. In the first place, it may be remarked that, like most other sweeping state- ments, these are not strictly true. The locusts do not, in point of fact, devour every green thing. In the spots where they were most destructive we always remarked CH. Iv. RECOVERY OF VEGETATION. 83 that certain plants escaped untouched. The result of this immunity would naturally be to substitute the latter for the species destroyed by the locusts, were there not some very efficient agency for repairing the damage and main- taining the life of the species, if not of the individual. An important element in considering this question is the season at which the mischief is effected. The young locust grows very fast, and it is mainly during the period of growth that it consumes vegetation. When once the animal has attained its full size, it becomes comparatively inert, and its capacity for destruction is vastly diminished. If the swarm of young locusts arrives before the middle of April, when the rainy season is not quite over, the first showers revive the plants that have been devoured almost to the root with surprising rapidity. Perennial species throw out new buds, and are soon again covered with leaf and flower; and the same often happens with annuals, unless these have already shed their seed, and then a new crop soon reappears. It may be supposed that the vast amount of decaying animal matter left on the surface, even in the most barren spot, contributes not a little to the vigour of the vegetation, and thus compen- sates for the destruction effected at an earlier stage. It is when the swarms appear late, and attack the wheat or maize after the flowers are developed, that the conse- quences to the population are very serious, and famines result that periodically affect large districts. In the present year it was clear that rain had fallen since the locust invasion, and although much damage had been done, tolerable specimens of many plants here seen for the first time were to be found. A few of these are common to the Canary Islands and this part of Africa; others are not yet known except on this coast. The most curious of them is the Senecio (Kleinia) pteronewra, whore succulent almost leafless branches, as thick as a man’s finger, bear a few heads of flowers that differ little, save in their larger size, from those of the common groundsel. a2 84 SHELLUH PEOPLE. CH. Iv. Well pleased with our first glance at the South Marocco flora, we returned to our comfortable quarters, and spent a pleasant evening in discussing our future movements, and in drawing upon our host’s ample stores of information respecting the country and its inhabitants. We were now for the first time brought into contact with the primitive stock of this part of Africa, one main branch of the Bereber race, which is distinguished by speaking some dialect of the Shelluh (Shleuh) language.! The affinity of this people with the Berebers of the Lesser Atlas—including under that name the Kabyles of Algeria, with the Riff tribes of North-west Marocco—has been denied, but does not appear to be open to reasonable doubt. The type is physically the same, excepting among some of the tribes south of the Great Atlas, where the intermixture of Negro blood has introduced new and very diverse elements. The languages now spoken among these tribes doubtless exhibit marked differences, especially to the ear of a foreigner. Jackson long ago denied the relationship between the Shelluh and the Bereber, while Washington, in the paper already quoted, came to a con- trary conclusion. It may now be considered as beyond question that the differences between the Shelluh and the Kabyle are merely dialectic.? The value of linguistic evidence in ethnological inquiries has of late been ques- tioned by eminent critics, and it must be conceded that such evidence, when it merely rests on lexicographical coincidences, is of less value than when it is derived from grammatical structure; yet, after all deductions, the facts remain to be accounted for, and, in the absence of proof to the contrary, it goes far towards proving community of origin. It must be remembered, that unlettered races are subject to far greater and more rapid changes of dialect 1 The usage of preceding English writers is hereafter followed by writing the name, Shelluh; but to our ears the native pronunciation is - more accurately given by the spelling Shleuh or Shloo, 2 See Appendix H. CH. Iv. BEREBER STOCK. 85 than those who preserve in sacred books or popular poetry fixed standards of correct speech ; add to this, the chances of error when a traveller, communicating with a native through an interpreter, and contending with sounds un- usual to his ear, attempts to form a vocabulary. These causes, acting together, tend to increase the difficulty of recognizing linguistic affinities that really exist. In the absence of any indication of the intrusion of a conquering race that can be supposed to have imposed its language on the previous population, it seems most pro- bable that the native races of North Africa, between the Libyan Desert and the Atlantic coast, including also the Canary Islands, all belong to a single stock, which may best be called Bereber. The two main branches are both mountain peoples. To the north we have the tribes of the Lesser Atlas, extending from the gates of Tetuan to the hill country of Tunis, who may best bear the common name of Kabyles—to the south-west the population of the Great Atlas, from the neighbourhood of Fez to the coast between Agadir and Oued Noun, broken up into numerous tribes, but all speaking some dialect of the same language, and thence called generically Shelluhs. Of the scattered fragments of the Bereber stock that have spread far through the oases of the Great Desert, till they have come into contact with the Negro tribes from the south of that barrier, our information is still most imperfect. In constant conflict with each other, and with the Arab and Negro tribes who dispute with them the scanty means of subsistence that Nature here provides, they appear on the whole to predominate over their competitors. The Touarecks, scattered over a territory as large as half of Europe, from Algeria to Soudan, form a separate branch of the same stock; while we learn from Gerhard Rohlfs that the predatory tribes of the desert south of Marocco are merely Shelluhs who have changed their habits and manner of life to suit altered conditions of existence, The character of the Bereber has scarcely received 86 EXCURSION TO THE ISLAND. OH. Iv. justice at the hands either of ancient or modern writers. They have been inconvenient neighbours for those who have sought to encroach on their territory, and they are justly dreaded by the traveller through the Great Desert as the most active and enterprising of the human enemies he must confront or evade. Comparing them with the Moor and Arab population of South Marocco, our report agrees with that of Jackson, who probably knew them better than any other European has done. They are decidedly superior in intelligence, in industry, and general activity to their neighbours. Two of our retinue, selected by Mr. Carstensen among the mountaineers who resort to Mogador to pick up a living about the port, distinguished them- selves over all the rest both in physical and mental qua- lities; and one of these especially, who became Hooker’s personal attendant, showed an amount of general intelli- gence and unfailing cheerfulness that made him a favourite with the entire party. On the morning of the 27th we made an excursion to the island. It is formed of an irregular, low, knobby mass of very friable tertiary rock, which seems to yield rapidly to the erosive action of the heavy waves that almost constantly break on its seaward face, where the overhanging cliffs are hollowed into caverns. At the time of our visit it appeared to be uninhabited. Two or three heavy pieces of cannon, honeycombed with rust, lay near the highest point, but’ seemed never to have been placed in position. A small building was said to have been some- times used for the custody of State prisoners, but otherwise there was no indication here of the presence of man. In such a spot we expected to find the coast vegetation fully developed, but we counted withont the locusts. Nowhere else did we observe such complete destruction. A good many plants growing on the rocks, within constant reach of the sea-spray, had escaped ; but on the rest of the island scarcely a green leaf remained, and it required a patient search to discover a few fruits of some leguminous plants cH. Iv. RARE PLANTS. 87 that appear to abound in this locality. Of the seaside rock-plants three were supposed to be peculiar to this single spot. Andryala mogadorensis, of Cosson, a very showy species of an unattractive genus, has been well figured in the ‘ Botanical Magazine’ for 1873; Fran- kenia velutina, the most ornamental species of that variable genus, appeared at first quite distinct, but we were afterwards led to suspect it to be a local form or sub- species of the widely spread perennial Frankenia, so common in the Mediterranean region. Both of these we afterwards found on the coast near Saffi. Of.the third plant—Asteriscus imbricatus, of Decandolle—but a single stunted specimen was found by Ball, and as yet it has no other known habitat. We here saw for the first time a plant which turned out to be rather common in South Marocco, and which was taken by us, as it had been by preceding botanists, to be the Apteranthes Gussonianu, of Mikan, first described by Gussone as Stapelia europea, and in truth closely resembling in habit and appearance some of the South African species of Stapelia. The fruit, which we afterwards found in abundance, did not appear different from that of Gussone’s plant; but when the specimens carried to England by Maw flowered two years later, the structure of the flower showed that it should be recognised as a distinct species of the group which has received the generic name Boucerosia, and it was accord- ingly published by Hooker, in the ‘ Botanical Magazine’ (No. 6137), under the name Boucerosia maroccana. In the course of the day we called on Monsieur Beaumier, the French Consul, in company with Dr. Thevenin, an intelligent physician, who has spent several years at Mogador, much to the advantage of the inhabit- ants whether Christian or native. M. Beaumier not only received us with the proverbial courtesy of his country, but showed a warm interest in the success of our journey, and kindly supplied us with many items of information, along with manuscript notes prepared by 88 ; CLIMATE OF MOGADOR. em. 1¥. himself during his residence in South Marocco. His premature death, from an illness contracted during a visit to France in 1875, has been a serious loss to the country which he had made his second home. Amongst other items of information, we owe to M. Beaumier a series of meteorological observations carried on at Mogador with a single interruption for nearly nine years, and supplying all requisite particulars for eight complete years. The results are so remarkable that they have attracted the attention of many physicians, and may probably lead at some not distant date to the selection of this place as a sanitarium for consumptive patients. Dr. Thevenin mentioned several facts of much interest in their bearing on this question. In the first place, phthisis is all but completely unknown among the inhab- itants of this part of Africa; while in Algeria cases are not rare among the natives, and in Egypt they are rather frequent. In the course of ten years he had met but five cases among his very numerous native patients, and in three of these the disease had been contracted at a dis- tance. He further mentioned several cases among Euro- peans who had arrived in an advanced stage of the disease, on whom the influence of the climate had exercised a remarkable curative effect. An examination of the tables, showing the results of M. Beaumier’s observations, and especially those for tem- perature, may help to explain these facts, as they certainly show that Mogador enjoys a more equable climate than any place within the temperate zone as to which we possess accurate information. It should be mentioned that these observations were made with good instruments, sufficiently well situated on the shady side of the open court-yard of the French Con- sulate, about thirty feet. above the sea level. The hours of observation were 8 A.M., 2 P.M., and 10 p.M.—not perhaps the best that could be selected, but sufficient in a climate where rapid transitions are unknown. CH. IV. EQUABLE TEMPERATURE. &9 A few of the results here stated in Fahrenheit’s scale are derived from M. Beaumier’s tables as continued to the end of 1874:— Mean temperature during eight years = 66.9° Do. for the hottest year (1867) — 68.65 Do. for the coldest year (1872) = 65.75 Mean of the annual maxima = 82.5 Mean of the annual minima = 53-0 Highest temperature observed = 87.8 Lowest temperature observed = 50.7 More striking still is the comparison between the tem- perature of summer-and winter. The following results show the monthly mean temperature, derived from eight years’ observations :— June = 70.8 Summer . ‘ Z a {say = FL August = 71.2 December = 61.4 Winter . . . . . { January = 61.2 February = 61.8 showing a difference of only 10° of Fahrenheit’s scale between the hottest and coldest months. It has not been possible to ascertain accurately the daily range of the thermometer, as there were no self-recording instruments employed; but there is reason to believe that this would exhibit a still more remarkable proof of the equability of the climate. So far as the observations go they show an ordinary daily range of about 5° Fahr., and rarely ex- ceeding 8° Fahr. It may be added, that in the course of six weeks from our arrival on April 26 to our de- parture on June 7, the lowest night temperature observed at Mogador was 61° Fahr., and the highest by day 77° Fahr. If the climate of Mogador be compared with that of such places as- Algiers, Madeira (Funchal), and Cairo, which have nearly the same mean winter temperature, it will be found that in each of those places the mercury is occasionally liable to fall considerably below 50°, and that 90 CLIMATAL CONDITIONS. CH. Iv. the summer heat is greatly in excess of the limits that suit delicate constitutions, the mean of the three hottest months being about 80° Fahr. at Algiers, abont 82° at Funchal, and 85° at Cairo. It will help to complete the impression as to the Mogador climate to say, that rain falls on an average on forty-five days in the year; and that, per 1,000 observations on the state of the sky, the propor- tions are Clear 785; Clouded 175; Foggy 40: the latter entry referring to days when a fog or thick haze prevails in the morning, but disappears before mid-day. The desert wind is scarcely felt at Mogador. On an average it blows on about two days in each year, and on these rare occasions it has much less effect on the ther~ mometer than it has in Madeira, doubtless owing to the protective effect of the chain of the Great Atlas. These remarkable climatal conditions have been mainly attributed to the influence of the north-east trade wind, which sets along the coast, and prevails, especially in summer, throughout a great part of the year; the average of north and north-east winds being about 271 days out of 365. West and south-west winds blow chiefly in winter on about fifty-seven days in each year, and variable winds from the remaining four points prevail on an average of thirty-seven days. The north-east breeze, increasing in force as the sun approaches the meridian, maintains the exceptionally cool summer temperature already indicated as characteristic of the Mogador climate—a privilege which is not shared by Saffi or Mazagan, where the summer heat is sometimes excessive. It must be noted that although the summer temperature of the interior of Marocco is much higher than that of Mogador, it yet falls far short of what is found in places lying in the same latitude in North Africa or Asia. This is evidently owing to the influence of the Great Atlas chain, with its branches that diverge northward towards the Mediterranean, which CH. 1v. MOGADOR AS A SANITARIUM. 91 screen the entire region from the burning winds of the desert, and send down streams that cover the land with vegetation. When one comes to consider how it happens that a place possessing such extraordinary natural advantages has not become frequented by the class of invalids to whom climate offers the only chance of recovering health, or prolonging life, the obvious answer is, that invalids cannot live on air alone, and that few persons in that condition have the courage to select a place where they may reason- ably expect much difficulty in procuring the comforts and even the necessaries of life, competent medical advice, and some reasonable opportunities for occupation or amuse- ment. The difficulties under the first two heads are perhaps not very serious. Lodging and food may ap- parently be procured on reasonable terms, and for many years past there has always been a competent French physician residing here. The resources of the place in point of society are of course limited, and must vary with the arrival and departure of the few European residents ; but any one fortunate enough to be interested in any branch of natural history would find constant occupation of an agreeable kind in a place where there are not half a dozen days in the year that may not be agreeably passed out of doors.! A special subject, to be earnestly recommended to any competent inquirer, whether invalid or not, who may pass six months at Mogador, is the language and ethnology of the Shelluh branch of the Bereber race. Many of these mountain people come to seek a living at Mogador, and ! Those who are interested in the subject should consult a pamphlet entitled ‘ Mogador ct son Climat,’ par V. Seux, Marseille, 1870, and a paper in the Bulletin of the French Geographical Society for 1875, by Dr. Ollive, now residing at that place, styled ‘ Climat de Mogador et de son influence sur la Phthisie.’ There are some errors in the tables in- cluded in the latter paper, and especially in that headed ‘ Tableau comparatif des Températures moyennes de diverses stations hiver- nales.’ 92 EXPORTS FROM MOGADOR. CH. Iv. from our experience it would not be difficult to find one who would become a useful servant. In the course of the day we visited the extensive stores of Messrs. E. Bonnet & Co., who export large quantities of olive oil from the neighbouring provinces. By increased care in the preparation and subsequent purification of the oil, its quality has been much improved. The cultivation of the vine has of late rapidly increased, and wine of tolerable quality has taken a place among the products which Marocco supplies to England. Notwithstanding all that we had heard of the excel- lence of the climate, we had to confess that at this season Mogador is not a paradise for the botanist. The NNE. winds come saturated with vapour, and charged with minute particles of salt from the breaking of the Atlantic waves on the reefs near the town; and, as the temperature _ of the land is scarcely higher than that of the sea, the air has little or no drying effect on paper and plants. The consequence was that Mr. Carstensen’s kitchen was used both by day and night to save our specimens from destruc- tion by damp. As our interpreter, besides the cook and one or two more of our retinue, were Jews, it was decided that, in order to spare their feelings and those of the Jewish community in Mogador in respect to the Sabbath, we should despatch them along with our heavy baggage on April 28, while we should follow on the succeeding day to the spot where they were to await us. Later in the day, after completing the arrangements for our journey, we went by invitation to dine with the Governor. We found that our host had had a table prepared with chairs for Mrs, Carstensen, who with two European ladies graced the entertainment. Beside them a carpet was spread for Mr. Carstensen and our party; while the Governor himself, with three native functionaries, sat in their usual fashion, cross-legged, on another carpet several yards distant. The first preliminary was the washing of fingers. One atten- cH. IV. DINNER WITH THE GOVERNOR. 93 dant bore water, another a brass bowl or basin, and a third presented to each in turn an embroidered towel. This process is always repeated at the close of dinner, and is common to all classes in the country. The feast then began, as every well-ordered Moorish banquet must do, by green tea. Three cups, carefully prepared in the presence of the guests, in a silver teapot half filled with sugar, were handed in succession to each, and then fresh tea, with mint leaves added, is again prepared, and of this decoction the natives usually take one or two cups more. The serious part of the repast then followed. A large dish of coarse earthenware, covered with a conical cap of fine straw, twice the size of a beehive, is laid on a low wooden frame in the centre of the circle of guests. On the present occasion duplicate dishes were prepared for us, and for the Governor and his native friends. When the cover was removed, we were introduced to the national dish which was destined to be our frequent acquaintance during our journey in the South. The basis of keskossow is coarse wheaten, or sometimes millet flour, cooked with butter, for which oil is occasionally substituted. To this is added mutton, lamb, or fowls, cut up into pieces, with various vegetables, either laid on the farinaceous sub- stratum or mixed up with it. Numerous dishes succeeded each other, but they appeared to be all variations on the same gastronomic theme. The cookery on this occasion was better than we often found it; but the pervading flavour of rancid butter, long kept in great earthen pots, is repulsive to European stomachs, and few strangers are ever fortunate enough to be able to enjoy Moorish feasts. To some of us this was the first occasion for practising the art of eating with our fingers, and it was lucky that our host was not at hand to observe the awkwardness of our first essays. We improved somewhat with practice, but never could approach the dexterity and neatness with which the natives accomplish the operation, using only the fingers of the right hand. Conversation was completely 94 A JOLLY MOOR. CH. Iv. drowned during dinner by the native music provided in compliment to the distinguished guests. Four men, squatting on the ground, struck the stretched metal strings of an instrument somewhat resembling a very rude Tyrolese zither, and kept up a constant chant or recitation in loud nasal tones, very different from the slow mono- tonous almost always melancholy songs of the Arabs in the East. These men, on the contrary, declaimed the words with unflagging energy, as though determined that the hearers should understand the story; and it was a moment of intense relief when at the end of dinner the deafening clang of strings and voices ceased. The fingers were again washed, green tea again served, courtesy re- quiring that each guest should take at least three cups, and then the Governor and his friends advanced and joined our party. Mr. Carstensen had asked permission to bring some wine for our use during dinner, and afterwards naturally took the occasion to invite the Moors present to take a share. With very slight show of reluctance, they accepted ; and, though the quantity consumed was but trifling, the effect. was unmistakable. The conversation became very lively, and jokes passed which excited peals of laughter, though most of them evaporated in the process of transla- tion. One of the Moorish guests—Director of the Tobacco monopoly, as we were told—from the first struck us as a man of jovial temperament; and on him the extra glass or two of wine had a potent effect, the jollity culminating in an extemporised dance, reminding one of the dancing bears, once the delight of our youth, that have disappeared since the era of Zoological Gardens. The copious doses of green tea did not prevent some of the party from sleeping ; while others sat ap till near morning, engaged in the almost hopeless endeavour to get large piles of botanical paper thoroughly dry, before we finally started on our journey into the interior. cH. Vv. DEPARTURE FROM MOGADOR. 95 CHAPTER V. Departure from Mogador—Argan forest—Hilly country of Haha— Fertile province of Shedma—Hospitality of the Governor—Turkish visitor—Offering of provisions—Kasbah of the Governor—Ride to Ain Oumast—First view of the Great Atlas—Pseudo-Sahara—Tomb of a Saint—Nzelas—Ascend the ‘Camel’s Back ’—Oasis of She- shaoua—Coolness of the night temperature—Rarity of ancient buildings—Halt at Ain Beida—Tents and luggage gone astray— Night at Misra ben Kara—Cross the Oued Nfys—Plain of Marocco —Range of the Great Atlas—Halt under Tamarisk tree. Tue morning of Saturday, April 29, was fixed for our departure from Mogador, and about 7 a.m. all were ready to start. Mr. and Mrs. Carstensen, with a rather numerous party of the European residents at Mogador, had arranged to escort us for a distance of some seven miles; and it was agreed that, instead of following the direct road to the city of Marocco, which runs about ENE. from Mogador, we should make a detour nearly at right angles to that direction, or about SSE., so as to gain a fuller acquaint- ance with the Argan forest. Our course lay in the same direction that we had chosen in our first short excursion from the town. Between the belt of sandy shore that is daily washed by the tide, and the sand dunes that rose in undulations on our left, we rode past the mouth of the Oued Kseb, and then began to ascend over sandy dunes, whereon the prevailing plant is Genista monosperma, the R’tam of the Arabs, whose slender silvery branches wave in the slightest breeze. Several of the peculiar plants of this coast occurred at intervals, such as Chetranthus semperflorens, Statice mucronata, a curious and somewhat ornamental species, 96 THE ARGAN FOREST. CH. V. and two or three kinds of Erodiwm. As the track rises aud recedes a little from the coast, the tertiary calcareous rock that underlies the sandhills crops out here and there, and the first Argan trees begin to show themselves. As we advanced, the trees grew larger and nearer together, and as we approached our intended halt, at a place called Douar Arifi, they formed a continuous forest. The Argan tree is in many respects the most remark- able plant of South Marocco; and it attracts the more attention as it is the only tree that commonly attains a large size, and forms a conspicuous feature of the land- scape in the low country near the coast. In structure and properties it is nearly allied to the tropical genus Sider- oxylon (Iron-wood); but there is enough of general re- semblance, both in its mode of growth and its economic uses, to the familiar olive tree of the Mediterranean region to make it the local representative of that plant. Its home is the sub-littoral zone of South-western Marocco, where it is common between the rivers Tensift and Sous. A few scattered trees only are said to be found north of the Tensift ; but it seems to be not infrequent in the hilly district between the Sous and the river of Oued Noun, making the total length of its area about 200 miles. Extending from near the coast for a distance of thirty or forty miles inland, it is absolutely unknown elsewhere in the world. The trunk always divides at a height of eight or ten feet from the ground, and sends out numerous spreading, nearly horizontal branches. The growth is apparently very slow, and the trees that attain a girth of twelve to fifteen feet are probably of great antiquity. The minor branches and young shoots are beset with stiff thick spines, and the leaves are like those of the olive in shape, but of a fuller green, somewhat paler on the under side. Unlike the olive, the wood is of extreme hardness, and seemingly indestructible by insects, as we saw no example of a hollow trunk. The fruit, much like a large olive in appearance, but varying much in size and shape, CH. Vv. GOATS IN THE ARGAN TREES. 97 is greedily devoured by goats, sheep, camels, and cows, but refused by horses and mules; its hard kernel furnishes the oil which replaces that of the olive in the cookery of South Marocco, and is so unpleasant to the unaccustomed palate of Europeans. The annexed cut, showing an aver- age Argan, about twenty-five feet in height, and covering a space of sixty or seventy feet in diameter, with another, where goats are seen feeding on the fruit, exhibits a ARGAN TREES. scene which at first much amused us, as we had not been accustomed to consider the goat as an arboreal quadruped.! Owing to the spreading habit of the branches, which in the older trees approach very near to the ground, no young seedlings are seen where the trees are near together, and but little vegetation, excepting small annuals; but 1 For fuller particulars as to the Argan tree and its economic uses, see Appendix D. H 98 SHELLUH ENGLISH. CH. v. in open places, and on the outer skirts of the forest, there grows in abundance a peculiar species of Thyme (7. Broussonnetit), with broadly ovate leaves and bracts that are coloured red or purple, and the characteristic strong scent of that tribe. It is interesting to the botanist as an endemic species, occupying almost exactly the same geo- graphical area as the Argan. As we afterwards found, | it is replaced in the interior of the country by an allied, but quite distinct, species. Its penetrating odour seems to be noxious to moths, as the dried twigs and leaves are mouch used in Mogador, and found effectual for the pre- servation of woollen stuffs. Not many flowering plants were seen in the shade of the Argan trees; the only species worthy of note being a very slender annual Asphodel (A. tenutfolius), and Carwm mauritanicum—a plant somewhat resembling our British pignut. Meanwhile carpets had been spread under the shade of one of the largest Argan trees, and a copious breakfast was displayed. Fully an hour had been consumed be- tween eating and conversation and the parting cigar, when, bidding farewell to our friends, we finally started on our road for the interior, under the guardianship of the worthy old Kaid who commanded our escort. Separated from our interpreter and our luggage, we felt ourselves at first strangely isolated; but thanks to the cheerful readiness of our Shelluh attendants, and especially of Omback, who had been specially assigned to Hooker, this impression soon wore off. Our men had been engaged in unloading cargo from English ships in the port of Mogador, and had commenced the study of the English tongue by picking up about a dozen words from the sailors. They at.once showed themselves anxious to add to their store, and the result was that all, but especially Omback, gained such a smattering of the language as served our purpose for many of the ordinary purposes of life. ‘Catch him flower’ became the ordinary way of cH. v. NORTH-AFRICAN ACACIAS. 99 desiring a man to gather some plant by the wayside, and many similar phrases soon passed current between us. The only term of disapproval in use with our men was ‘ bloody dog,’ and this was not seldom applied to the mules when- ever they gave trouble, as those creatures are wont to do. As we rode on, the Argan forest grew thinner, the trees were gradually intermixed with other species, amongst which we noted a few specimens of Callitris quadrivalvis —the Arar of the Moors—and before long we gained, from the brow of a low hill where the forest’ ceased alto- gether, a rather wide view over a country not altogether unlike some parts of England. The hills of the province of Haha rise in successive undulations as they recede from the coast in sloping downs, relieved at intervals by clumps of trees, and elsewhere broken by masses of low shrubs. The calcareous rock, which seems never far from the sur- face, is thinly covered over with red earth; and patches of cultivation, chiefly barley or wheat, the former now nearly ripe, here and there indicated the presence vf man some- where within reach, but seemed to show that he plays a subordinate part in fashioning the appearance of the country. The prevailing bush or small tree is Zizyphus Lotus, whose double sets of thorns—one pointing forward and the other curved back—were destined to plague us throughout all the low country of South Marocco. The Zizyphus was often quite covered over by climbing plants, that rise ten or twelve feet from the ground. The most frequent of these, an Ephedra and an Asparagus, do not appear to require any special organs of attachment. Pro- bably the intricate branches and complex spines of the Zizyphus render these superfluous. Soon after this we first met bushes of one of the peculiar plants of South Marocco, then little known, and of which we were not able to learn much by personal inspec- tion. The Aca®la gummifera of Willdenow is one of a group of allied species of which the remainder inhabit Upper Egypt and Nubia, while one, at least, is widely H2 100 AN IMAGINARY RIVER. CH. Vv. spread throughout Eastern Africa and Arabia. The taste- less gum known as the gum-arabic of commerce is probably produced by several of these species. Like its allies, the South Marocco plant flowers late in the year, after the first autumn rains, and ripens its pods during the winter. Hence, as seen by us in spring, without flower or fruit, there was little to distinguish this from several of the other forms of this group.} Among herbaceous plants that attracted our notice was Glaucium corniculatwm (here always orange, and never crimson as it is in Palestine), with Campanula dichotoma, only just coming into flower, whilst two or three degrees farther north, in Palestine and Syria, it usually flowers three weeks earlier. More interesting, as being one of the few local plants common to South Marocco and the Canary Islands, was the Linaria sagittata (Antirrhinum sagittatum of Poiret), very unlike any other toadflax in the form of its leaves and its much branched twining stems that spread far and wide over the low bushes. Although the air was cooled by a pleasant breeze, the direct rays of the sun were very powerful, and we were glad to make a short halt for luncheon near a well, where a small ruined building of rough masonry gave a narrow fringe of shadow. Resuming our route, we soon after re- crossed the sluggish stream of the Oued Kseb, whose banks were fringed with Viter Agnus castus, and with Cyperacee: not yet in flower. We took this at the time for one of the branches of a river shown on the French map as falling into the Atlantic north of the Djebel Hadid, some twenty miles from Mogador; but we afterwards came to the con- clusion that no such river is in existence. At or near the ford is the boundary of the province 1 It may be hoped that the plant will now beeome well known to botanists, as our friend M. Cosson has obtained a good supply of seed, which he has liberally distributed among many of the chief botanic gardens of Europe. See Appendix D, CH. V. A GOVERNOR'S CASTLE. 101 of Shedma, much less extensive than that of Haha, but apparently more fertile. The soil now sensibly improved, and there were indications of more careful husbandry. At the same time the larger portion of the surface re- mained in a state of nature, and gratified our botanical appetites by a display of many novelties, The varied species of Genista, that are so conspicuous in North Maroeco and the Spanish peninsula, were here little seen, but are replaced by several allied genera. Cytisus albidus and Anagyris fetida are especially prominent. Withania fruticosa, a curious Solanaceous shrub, which we had already seen near Casa Blanca and during the morning ride, here became extremely common; but what most interested us was Linaria ventricosa of Cosson, a large species, with stiff erect branches three or four feet in height, first found in the adjoining province of Haha by M. Balansa, and which we afterwards saw to be widely spread through South Marocco, and one of tbe character- istic features of the flora. The dwarf fan-palm (Chamcerops humilis, or palmetto of the Spaniards), much less common in Marocco than it is in the hotter parts of Southern Europe, was here rather abundant, perhaps because it is one of the few plants that the locusts are unable or unwilling to devour. As we rode onward, gradually ascending over a gently undulating country, this became constantly more produc- tive. In two or three places the people were cutting tolerable crops of ripe corn; the olive, fig, and pome- granate became frequent, and for the first and last time we saw the former tree cultivated with care, pruned, and apparently manured. The sun had just set when we at length reached our camp outside the large castle of the Governor of Shedma, and found our interpreter and other attendants anxiously awaiting our arrival. The tents were already pitched, and our heavy luggage was in its place. We should have been glad to eat a moderate repast in peace, lay out the 102 MOORISH ENTERTAINMENT. CH. V. plants collected during the day, and retire to rest; but that would have been nowise suitable to the dignity of a party travelling under the especial protection of the Sultan, and whose importance had doubtless been exag- gerated to the utmost by the inventive talents of our interpreter. In the absence of the Governor, his son, a stout overfed man of forty, welcomed us on our arrival, and invited us to dine in the kasbah, and of course courtesy required us to accept the invitation. After a brief toilet, we proceeded to enter the castle, and were led through open spaces to the inner building, which forms the dwelling of the Governor, and then through a court, with flower-plots in the centre, to a large and hand- some hall, where we were to be entertained. As usual, there was little furniture, save several showy Rabat car- pets, but we noticed three or four ornamental French timepieces in a recess where it would appear that the Governor or his son were used to sleep. Besides our host, there was present a grave man whose features dif- fered much from the ordinary Moorish type. He turned out to be a Turk who had already passed several months as a guest in the Governor's castle. We never understood accurately what had brought him so far from Istamboul ; but we were led to believe that he had come on some informal mission, and that its traditional jealousy of foreigners, nowise confined to Christians, had led the Moorish Court to interpose obstacles in the way of his advance into the country. After a quarter of an hour’s interchange of civil speeches, conversation began to flag; but the Governor’s cook, who perhaps wished to display his professional skill on the occasion, was yet far from completing his opera- tions. Quite an hour passed, we were tired and sleepy, and our fat host showed no talent for conversation, so that the time hung heavily enough until the usual pre- face to dinner, green tea, was introduced. Doubtless the entertainment was everything that a Moorish connoisseur CH, Vv. OFFERINGS OF PROVISIONS. 103 would have thought refined and exquisite. Orange- flower water was provided for washing the fingers, and incense was burned at the beginning of the repast. Our host was attentive enough to pick out and present to us choice pieces of meat or vegetable from the dishes that followed each other in slow order, but he fortunately did not think it necessary to show the utmost mark of hos- pitable attention by taking an especially delicate morsel from his own mouth and thrusting it into that of a guest. It was quite ten o’clock when, after further potations of green tea, we returned to our tents. Presently Hooker was requested, through Abraham, our interpreter, to receive the mona, or offering of food, which, in accord- ance with the Sultan’s order, was to be provided at each place where we stopped on our journey. The mona on this occasion befitted the dignity of the Governor of an important province rather than the wants of three tra- vellers who had just been abundantly fed, and whose retinue could not, with the best intentions, consume one half of the articles supplied. Opposite the door of our large tent a number of the Governor’s servants appeared, the whole group being lit up by torchlight. First, five live sheep were dragged forward, then twenty fowls, then followed a large hollow dish filled with eggs. To these succeeded a very large earthen jar of butter, and another of honey, a package of green tea, four loaves of sugar, candles of French manufacture, which are largely imported, and finally corn for our horses and mules. As if all this were not enough, there then advanced a pro- cession of men, carrying the usual large dishes with bee- hive covers, each of which in turn was laid down before Hooker. It may be here mentioned that the presentation of mona was henceforward a daily ceremony, repeated every evening, some time after our arrival in camp. The requisition was made by the soldiers of our escort upon the local authority, whether a governor or a mere village sheik ; and this was a part of their duties which they performed 104 MOORISH STRONGHOLDS. CH. ¥. with unfailing zeal and punctuality. On such an occasion as the present we had no fear of pressing too hardly on the donors of the mona; but in poor places, and especially in the valleys of the Great Atlas, we had an unpleasant feel- ing that the exorbitant demands of our rapacious escort im- posed a heavy tax on the limited means of the population. Struggling against sleep, we diligently worked at our plants till long past midnight, and then, at length, sought rest, after our first day’s journey in South Marocco. On the morning of April 30, we were up betimes, and had an opportunity of viewing the kasbah. It is a large pile of building, enclosed by a high wall, within which there is space for great numbers of horses, camels, and domestic animals of all kinds, with dwellings for the numerous retainers and rooms for guests, all separate from the cen- tral block which forms the residence of the great man, his family, and personal attendants. Except that it is mainly built of tapza, or blocks of mud, rammed into square moulds and hardened in the sun, this and other similar buildings in Marocco differ little from the castles which the semibarbarous feudal chiefs inhabited throughout a great part of Europe in the so-called ages of chivalry, and down to the beginning of the last century. A more extended acquaintance with the country afterwards showed further points of. comparison. There is not one of these kasbahs that has not been the scene of atrocious deeds of cruelty and treachery, such as we find in the records of most of our medizval strongholds. When we shudder at tales of Moorish atrocities we are apt to forget that they merely disclose an anachronism, no way surprising in a country that has stood altogether aloof from the influences that have brought Europe to a condition of relative civil- isation. The kasbah of Shedma is well placed, on nearly flat ground, at the summit of one of the highest of the undu- lating hills that intervene between the coast and the great plain of Marocco, standing, by our measurements, 1,430 CH. v. COUNTRY MARKETS, 105 feet (436 métres) above the sea level. The view over the gently heaving surface of the lower hills to the south was very pleasing. The slopes covered with short herbage, the green now beginning to turn brown and yellow, are studded with trees, chiefly Argan, olive, and fig, sometimes in clumps, sometimes dotted over the surface. Close to us, adjoining the gate of the kasbah, were several very fine Argan trees just coming into flower. We were rather late in this morning’s start, and it was near 9 a.m. when, after the tents and luggage were packed, we got under way, accompanied by our host of last night, the Governor’s son, who volunteered to show us his father’s garden, of which he was evidently proud. We rode down the hill, and soon reached a place called the ‘Tuesday Market’ (Souk el Tleta), beside which we were to inspect the first example we met of Moorish horticulture. The enclosed space, about an acre in extent, was divided into oblong beds, in which the only cultivated flowers were roses and marigolds, growing amidst an abundant growth of weeds. Along with these we noticed several beds of mint, which is in constant requisition for mixing with green tea, At the open space of the ‘Tuesday Market,’ our host took leave of us. We had not thought it necessary to make him a present, but he had no hesitation in asking for such small articles as caught his fancy. Maw had beguiled the tedious hour of waiting for dinner last night by exhibiting the combustion of magnesium wire, and com- plied with a request to that effect by giving up a small portion of his store. The Moor had spied a small lens in the hands of Crump, Hooker’s servant, and now asked for that. He next begged for some trifling European article belonging to Abraham, our interpreter, and finally for a box of fusees, the last possessed by Ball. In a country where shops are unknown, except in a few large towns, the only chance for obtaining anything which the peasant cannot raise on his own ground is at the nearest market. These are held at some selected spot throughout 106 VIEW OF THE GREAT PLAIN. om. ve the inhabited parts of the country, not always near a vil- lage, and the place takes its name from the day of the week on which the market is held. We found this place to be 1,183 feet (360°3 m.) above the sea level. Our way now lay for some distance amidst enclosed and cultivated land, through green lanes bordered by shrubs covered with climbing plants. As the enclosures came to an end, and we again found ourselves in an open country dotted with trees, we observed the Argan gradually becom- ing more scarce, and the Zizyphus more frequent, until the last of the former were seen about ten miles east of the kasbah. Among the smaller shrubs Rhus pentaphylla was prominent. The genus Jewertwm is especially cha- racteristic of South Marocco, as may be inferred from the fact that four new species were found by M. Balansa, besides many of those common about the Mediterranean. We here met one of the peculiar Marocco species (7. col- linwm); and the ever varying 7. Poliwm constantly re- curred throughout our journey, from the coast up to over 4,000 feet above the sea. After several brief halts, requisite for collecting new and rare plants by the way, we rested for half an hour in a shady spot near a well. Up to this point our course since morning had varied between due E. and SSE.; but for the remainder of this day’s journey our general direction was about ENE. The track slowly wound its way upwards amongst hills covered with Retam, till it reached the brow of a rounded eminence that overlooks a wide expanse of treeless plain extending eastward to the horizon, except where some low flat-topped hills were seen in the dim distance. We had now accomplished the first stage of our journey. We had traversed the zone of hilly country lying between the coast and the great plain of Ma- rocco, on the verge of which we here stood. Leaving out of account a few prominences to be spoken of hereafter, the plain appears to the eye quite horizontal ; but in fact there is a very perceptible inclination of about forty feet CH. V. AIN OUMAST. 107 per mile from south to north, as it slopes from the foot of the Great Atlas towards the river Tensift, and a further slighter dip of about ten feet per mile from east to west, between the city of Marocco and Sheshaoua. The defici- ency of water at once explains the great change in the vegetation, which was speedily perceptible in detail, but obvious to the eye from the first view of the country newly opened before us. Corresponding to this is a considerable change of climate, arising from the rapid heating of the surface by day, and the no less rapid cooling by radiation at night. We are already far from the equable climate of Mogador; and although the air in the shade is only plea- santly warm, we are happy to have the protection of pith helmets covered by turbans between our heads and the direct rays of the sun. The verge of the great plain over which we rode this afternoon is far less barren than the portion which yet lay before us; and we found several species characteristic of similar situations in Spain and Africa, along with some others, hitherto undescribed, that appear to be character- istic of this part of Marocco. Thus Artemisia Herba alba became conspicuous, in some places almost covering the surface. Of the more noticeable herbaceous plants here seen were Matthiola parviflora, Gypsophila compressa, Ebenus pinnata (rather common throughout the low country), Onobrychis crista galli, an Elceoselinwm, near to E. meoides, and numerous Composite, of which Cladanthus arabicus is one of the most conspicuous. We did not notice the fragrant odour which some travellers have found in the flowers of this species. To the same natural Order belong several undescribed plants, which became more abundant as we advanced into the interior of the country, belonging to the genera Anacyclus, Matricaria, Anthemis, and Cen- tured. About half-past four we reached our appointed camping place, at Ain Oumast, one of the few wells of drinkable water found in the region we had now entered. In the coast 108 COOLNESS OF THE NIGHT. CH. Y. zone it would appear that in ordinary years the rainfall is sufficient to enable the natives to raise grain crops wherever the soil is suitable for the purpose ; but in the interior, cul- tivation is limited to the tracts that are capable of irriga- tion from the streams descending from the Great Atlas, or else to the immediate neighbourhood of wells. The ground around Ain Oumast had borne a scanty crop of grain, and the rough surface, now baked hard by the sun, was not very comfortable for sleeping upon, even with the intervention of a mattress of cork shavings. For a short way before our arrival, the main chain of the Great, Atlas had for the first time been in view, dimly apparent at a distance of some sixty miles; but as the sun declined towards the horizon, the outlines became clearer, and we naturally watched with increasing interest every feature of that mysterious range seen, even from a distance, by few civilised men, whose recesses we hoped to be the first to explore. We discussed eagerly the question whether some patches of lighter colour represented snow, or merely surfaces of whitish limestone rock; and, as usual, the only effect of discussion was to confirm each in the impression first formed, which it was impossible to verify or disprove unless, by viewing the range from the same direction under similar conditions at a later season, we could discover whether the appearances in question should have altered or disappeared. The mona presented by the Kaid or sheik of the place was naturally less profuse than that offered at Shedma, but yet abundant for the needs of our camp. As almost everywhere, save in the remoter valleys of the Atlas, green tea and a quantity of white sugar formed a main feature in the entertainment, and doubtless the most expensive to the peor people who had to provide it. The day had been warm, though not oppressive, the thermometer probably standing at about 80° Fahr. in the shade, and the fall of temperature during the night was very sensible. Even after the sun had risen on May 1— CH. Vv. SAHARA VEGETATION. 109 soon after five a.m.—-the thermometer marked only 54° Fahr., but by six a.m. it reached 67°. The observation for altitude gave 1,132 feet (345°5 m.) above the sea; probably too low by fifty or sixty feet, owing to the local effect of radiation in depressing the temperature of the air in contact with the surface. We were on our way soon after six; and, on leaving behind the bushes and small trees that grow on the skirts of the irrigated ground, we entered on a wide bare plain, stretching unbroken as far as the eye can reach, which forms the most singular feature in the aspect of this part of Marocco. The surface is covered with calcareous rough gravel, mixed in places with siliceous concretions. The scanty vegetation was already nearly all dried up, and it was not without difficulty that we secured specimens of most of the few species that can endure the parching heat and drought. Conspicuous among these was Peganwm Harmala, forming at intervals green patches amid the general barrenness. Stipa tortilis was frequent, but mostly dried up, and here and there occurred tufts of a meagre variety of Avena barbata. More interesting than these were a diminutive annual species of Eechiwm (#. modestwm, Ball) and two species of Centawrea—one hitherto known as Rhaponticum acaule of Decandolle, the other, before undescribed (C. maroccana, Ball). In its general aspect, and in the character of its vegetation, this region bears a striking likeness to the stony portions of the Sahara, and we were not sorry to include this among our Marocco experiences, though well pleased that the acquaintance was not to be much prolonged. Some six or seven miles east of Ain Oumast we passed a short way north of Sidi Moktar, the tomb of a saint much venerated in this region, and the last spot where for a long distance water is to be found at all seasons. This is one of the halting-places, called Nzelas, frequented by ordinary travellers who follow this road. The Nzela is one of the peculiar institutions of this country deserving of 110 SIDI MOKTAR. CH. Y. some notice. The Marocco Government recognises, at least in theory, the duty of protecting travellers from vio- lence to their persons and goods; for without some provi- sion for the purpose the small amount of trade now existing between the interior and the coast could scarcely continue to exist. As well as all other executive functions, the sovereion commits this to the Governor of each province, who accordingly stations a few armed men at the places where travellers are accustomed to halt. Such a post is a Nzela. It does not imply the existence of any shelter, and still less of any supplies for the sustenance of men and cattle. In a country where the sparse population lives in tents or temporary sheds, the traveller must pro- vide such things for himself; but at a Nzela the wayfarer may count on security from violence, and the guards are entitled to a trifling payment for each beast of burden that is committed to their protection. From any demands of this nature, as well as from the tolls that are levied on passing from one province to another, we were declared by our escort to be free, as personages travelling under the direct authority and protection of the Sultan. The boundaries of the three provinces of Shedma, Mtouga, and Ouled bou Sba met at Sidi Moktar; but such places in Marocco are proverbially unsafe, because they are the fre- quent resort of robbers and outlaws. In case of a robbery or murder being committed, the people of each tribe throw the blame upon their neighbours, and the men of one province are very shy of attempting to pursue malefactors who take refuge within the boundaries of another. After the commission of many outrages at this place, it was found necessary to transfer a portion of territory to the Ouled bou Sba, at the same time making the Governor of that province and tribe responsible for the safety of those whom business or piety lead to the sanctuary of Sidi Moktar. As we rode onward the Great Atlas chain remained in view, but dimly seen through the haze that increased with CH. V. THE CAMEL’S BACK. 111 the increasing heat of the day, and ahead of us rose some flat-topped hills of singular aspect which have attracted the attention of all travellers in this region. Some of these hills extend for a considerable distance, while others form small isolated masses ; but they agree in two respects —all are flat-topped, and all show a steep escarpment especially on their westward faces. We afterwards saw reason to believe that they all rise about 450 feet above the portion of the plain near at hand, and reach nearly the same height as the plain surrounding the city of Marocco. The general appearance suggested the proba- bility of a former wide extension westward of the latter plain, and subsequent erosion by marine or fluviatile ac- tion. As we approached the most conspicuous of these isolated hills, we were struck with the singular appearance of the stunted bushes of Zizyphus Lotus, which form the only arborescent vegetation of this region. From a little distance they looked as if covered by some white-flowered climbing plant, or else laden with white fruit. This ap- pearance was due to the extraordinary number of two species of snails (Helia lactea and H. explanata) that completely covered the branches. We frequently noticed the same appearance afterwards, but nowhere so markedly as here. Towards the foot of the first and most conspicuous of the hills above mentioned, which bears the inappropriate name Hank el Gemmel (Camel’s back), the plain rises gently rather more than one hundred feet in all; above this the slope of the hill becomes steep, and finally exhibits an almost vertical face at the top. At the foot of the steeper slope, about four hours’ ride from Ain Oumast, our track passed by an ancient well, now almost dry, and often completely so; and here, under the imperfect shade of a lotus tree, we made a short halt. The direct rays of the sun being very powerful, we were somewhat surprised to find the temperature of the air to be only 77° Fahr. Leaving our escort, we ascended the low but steep hill 112 ORIGIN OF FLAT-TOPPED HILLS. CH. v. above the well. The scarped face exhibited a section of the yellowish-white limestone that appears to underlie nearly the whole of the low country between the coast and the base of the Atlas. No fossils were found; and in the present state of our knowledge, or rather ignorance, of the whole region, it seems impossible to fix its position in the geological series. The level summit is capped by a thin layer of coarse chalcedony, in which we recognised the origin of the siliceous fragments scattered over the plain below. This layer would offer resistance to superfi- cial denudation, and account for the tabular forms of the hills, but where these were attacked from below by marine or river action the covering would necessarily be broken up and the fragments scattered over the plain below. With reference to the opinion expressed by Maw in his paper in the Proceedings of the Geological Society, and in the Appendix to this volume, as to the origin of the tufaceous coating of the plain between Ain Oumast and Marocco, the only difficulty that presents itself arises from the presence of these siliceous fragments on the surface along with the disintegrated tufa. If, as he and other geologists believe, such a superficial coating is due to evaporation from the underlying mass of water charged with carbonate of lime, it seems hard to account for the diffusion of the chal¢edony fragments, unless we suppose a submergence of the plain subsequent to the formation of the tufa layer, and a renewed supply of such fragments by further erosion of the hills that formed the sea or river coast line. To confirm this conjecture, we may note the fact that the fragments of chalcedony became progress- ively rarer as we advanced from the lower portion of the plain over which we this day travelled to the upper level surrounding the city of Marocco. The summit of the hill was found to be 1,648 feet (502°4 m.) above the sea and 303 feet above the well at its base. It was barren, yet supplied a few additional plants to our collection. Frankenia revolute was abundant, as CH. ¥. THE OASIS OF SHESHAOUA. 113 was also a lavender somewhat intermediate in appearance between Lavandula multifida of the Southern Mediter- ranean shores and L. abrotanoides of the Canary Islands. We also found a form of Cotyledon hispanica of Linneus (Pistorinia hispanica of Decandolle), with pale yellow flowers, intermediate in some respects between the common plant of Southern Spain and P. Salzmanniana of Boissier and Reuter. Resuming our journey, we bore somewhat south of east over a country similar in character to that traversed in the forenoon, but not showing such a complete dead level surface. On the way we noticed for the first time Cucumis Colocynthis, one of the characteristic plants of the desert region, extending from Arabia and Southern Palestine across the entire of Northern Africa, but rarely approaching the littoral zone. Here, as near Suez and elsewhere, so far as we have observed, this plant is curiously infrequent. Growing as it does ina region where it has few rivals to contend with, and the surface is remarkably uniform, one yet finds but one or two individuals scattered at comparatively wide intervals over the stony plain. The fruits are used in Marocco to preserve woollen clothing from moths, but their purgative qualities do not seem to be known to the native doctors. Here and there in this part of our route we encountered small blocks of volcanic rock—trap or basalt—as to the origin of which we have no information. We have no grounds for supposing eruptive action to have oceurred in this region within a period so recent as that subsequent to the formation of the tufa which covers the whole sur- face of the lower country, and it is not easy to account for the transport of these blocks from a distance after its formation. The direct heat of the sun was great in the afternoon, and the way barren and monotonous, so that it was with thorough satisfaction that, on reaching the summit of a slight swelling rise on the plain, at near 5 P.M., we saw I 114 BRITISH PLANTS AT THE OASIS. CH. v. before us a green shallow basin, at the farther end of which our eyes rested gladly on the abundant foliage of gardens and orchards. A stream from the Great Atlas, diverted into numerous slender irrigation channels, is the source of this apparent fertility, but so much of the water is taken up in this way that only a trifling surplus remains; and, save after heavy rains, it seems that a mere streamlet flows northward to join the Oued Tensift, the chief river of South-western Marocco. The green that gladdened our eyes seemed to have given but deceptive promise, for we at first entered on a scrub formed exclusively of Cheno- podicaeous bushes, including Arthrocnemum fruticosum, Caroaylon articulatum, Sueda fruticosa, and Atriplex Halimus. The same thing happens here that may be noticed in the neighbourhood of the freshwater canal in the Isthmus of Suez. Where the soil contains a quantity of soluble salts, the first effect of admitting moisture by irrigation is to form a salt marsh, which becomes covered with its own characteristic vegetation; but if the surface is so dis- posed as to allow the percolation of fresh water, the salts are gradually carried off, the salt marsh is converted into fertile land, and the ugly Chenopodiacew disappear. Accordingly, after traversing a broad belt of scrub, we soon found ourselves amidst luxuriant vegetation, and saw our tents, which had preceded us, pitched under the shade of tall fig-trees, in one of the orchards belonging to the village of Sheshaoua. This place is a true oasis, and an abundant growth of fig, olive, pomegranate, apple, plum, and apricot, with an undergrowth of grasses and herbaceous plants, affords a striking contrast to the desert tracts surrounding it. The vegetation of the irrigated land, excepting a few tall palms, was almost exclusively European; and not without pleasure we gathered many common English species, such as our common bramble, dandelion, charlock, Sisymbrium Irio, Geranium dissectum, Hypocheris cH. v. NEGRO GOVERNOR. 115 racdicata, Sonchus oleraceus, Lycopus europeus, Plan- tago major, Rumeax pulcher, Carex divisa, and Scirpus Holoscheenus. The usual monu was sent soon after our arrival; and the local governor, a deputy of the Governor of Marocco, paid a visit of ceremony in the evening. He was a black of nearly pure Negro type, and in all probability originally a slave. We were not then familiar with the fact that slaves frequently rise in Marocco to the highest posts in the State. The body-guard of the Sultan is exclusively recruited among the black population, either voluntary immigrants, or slaves imported young from Timbuctoo. These form the only troops in the country that can be relied on to repress internal disorder, though in case of war with a European Power there is little doubt that the whole Moorish population would respond to an appeal to their patriotism and fanaticism. Whether the same would hold good as to the Bereber tribes of the Great and Lesser Atlas may be much doubted. With these the sentiment of national, or rather tribal, independence is the predominant feeling, and so long as an invader kept aloof from their native valleys they could not be easily moved to action. It naturally happens that an absolute ruler, too conscious of his slight claim on the affections of his own people, is led to prefer men whose prominent virtue is that of the dog—attachment and fidelity to him who feeds them. When it is considered that, in addition, the Negro often possesses far more energy than the Moor, united to at least equal natural intelligence, it may be believed that the rulers of Marocco have shown no want of policy in favouring this section of the population. The thermometer about sunset stood at 72° Fahr., while in the water flowing beside our camp it marked but 62°, At 1 a.m., when we had concluded our nightly task in laying out our plants, it had fallen to 52°, and rose only to 57° an hour after sunrise, when the barometer was recorded, and gave an estimated altitude of 1,141 feet 12 116 ABSENCE OF PERMANENT DWELLINGS. CH. y. (347-8 m.), or almost exactly the same as that of Ain Oumast. The coolness of night temperature throughout this region of Northern Africa doubtless contributes to make the climate not only healthy but favourable to human activity ; and it was impossible for us not to specu- late at times on a possible, though remote, future, when this may become the home of a prosperous and progressive community. Early rising does not always mean an early start, and many delays occurred on the morning of May 2, before our caravan was fairly under way at about 9 o’clock. On leaving our encampment, we perceived, on rising ground close at hand, the remains of an ancient town, with stone houses, for the most part in ruins, but some of them still inhabited, and a kasbah or castle of somewhat imposing -appearance. We failed to obtain any information as to these buildings, which may probably be of considerable antiquity. It must be remembered that throughout the portion of Marocco inhabited by an Arab population per- manent houses are unknown, excepting in the coast towns and the royal cities of Marocco, Fez, and Mekines. The country people live in dowars, which are merely groups of rude dwellings, half hovel half tent, usually formed of branches, over which a piece of camel’s hair cloth is stretched, and leaving no wreck behind when choice or necessity leads their inhabitants to remove from one spot to another. Even the Governor’s kasbah, though often a pile of large dimensions, rarely survives a single genera- tion. The great wall and massive towers surrounding it, as well as the building itself, are constructed of unbaked bricks or of blocks of mud half dried in the sun; and save in cases where a son succeeds his father in power, the cus- tom of the country is to level the whole structure to the ground on the death or removal of the occupant. A few seasons complete the work, and nothing remains but a few mounds of clay to mark the site. Thus it happens that in a country of which the greater part is naturally CH. Vv. AIN BEIDA. 117 fertile, the stranger may travel long distances without perceiving a trace of human habitations, or any other buildings than the zaouwias and koubbas, which are scat- tered over the country at unequal intervals. By these names are designated the tombs of persons, who, when alive, attained a reputation for sanctity, differing only in the rank which they hold in local estimation. The per- son over whose remains a za@ouia is constructed may be regarded as the patron saint of the tribe or province, while the koubba marks the resting-place of a saint of less renown. We soon left behind us the irrigated ground, and entered on a barren region, less absolutely sterile than that of the preceding day’s journey, and having a more varied vegetation. Blocks of black voleanic rock were more frequent, and of larger size, indicating that we were nearer to the place of their origin, wherever that may be. In some spots Artemisia Herba alba was the predominant. plant, but we met several new species not before seen. One of the most curious of these is a white-flowered Picris (P. albida), afterwards seen at intervals in the low country, whose ligules wither so rapidly that we failed to secure any satisfactory specimens. Without becoming hilly, the surface lay in slight heaving undulations, the upward slope being always longest towards the east; and the same remark applied throughout the day’s ride.. In about three hours we reached Ain Beida, where a copious spring of excellent water fertilises a tract of about a square mile. We turned aside from our track to halt beneath a very fine pistachio tree,' fully forty feet high and two feet in diameter. The sun was very hot, though the temper- ature of the air was not more than 80° Fahr., and we were assured that our halting place for the night was only four hours’ distant ; and so it happened that between luncheon, 1 This was apparently the Pistacia atlantica. The true Pistachio tree (P. vera of Linneus), so extensively cultivated in the warmer parts of the Mediterranean region, was not seen by us in Marocco. 118 MISRA BEN KARA. CH. Vv. and rest, and short excursions into the blazing sunshine to botanise in the surrounding corn-fields, we did not resume our journey until 3.20 p.m. The baggage train as usual had gone on ahead; and as the evening light was fading fast, about 7.20 P.M., when we expected to be near our night quarters, some inquiry from our escort revealed two disagreeable facts: first, that we were still nearly two hours’ ride from Misra ben Kara; and secondly, that the baggage train had taken a different road. It is not sur- prising that such intelligence coming suddenly on three hungry and tired Englishmen, with the further prospect of passing the night without food or shelter, led to a vehement row, in which strong, if not intelligible language was discharged at the head of the worthy Kaid El Hadj, the commander of our escort. The whole affair had pro- bably arisen from some misunderstanding ; but it was settled by sending two of the escort to ride at full gallop after the missing baggage train, while we jogged on sad and silent towards our destined quarters for the night. Being pressed for time, we had abstained from botanising by the way from Ain Beida; but at one place we stopped to gather some extraordinarily fine specimens of Phelipea lutea, which caught our eyes in the failing light. This is the king of the broomrape tribe; the stems stood four or five feet high, with sceptre-like spikes of large yellow flowers, nearly two feet long, but it was quite too dark to ascertain on what plant this curious parasite had attached itself. The stars shone down with marvellous brilliancy on the desolate tract over which we rode in single file, always ascending slightly, and the chain of the Great Atlas stood out more definitely than we had yet seen it, when, at past 9 o'clock we reached Misra ben Kara, and found to our relief that the baggage train had just preceded us. About 11 p.m. some food was prepared, and, being fairly tired, we soon lay down for the night after a frugal meal. But not to sleep, for the furious barking of the dogs from the adjoining village, or dowar, and the clatter kept up by CH. V. ENDURANCE OF THE NATIVES. 119 our own people, did not let us close our eyes till the night was far spent. On this, as on many another occasion, we were forced to admire the extraordinary endurance of the common people of this country. It was not mainly the amount of work they are able to accomplish, but their high spirits and cheerful demeanour under hardships and difficulties. Four of our men travelled on foot, walking or running at a jog trot under a burning sun, and on arrival in camp the same men were always ready for work in setting up tents, moving heavy luggage, and attending to the various wants of their employers. Having often to wait till mid- night for their food, they would pass the time in lively talk, and after the stimulus of a draught of green tea, their renewed spirits generally broke out in the form of songs or chaunts that seemed interminable. Then, after three or four hours’ sleep, they were ready to begin again next morning with the same unflagging energy and spirit. During the day the men on foot resorted to a curious expedient for diminishing the effect of heat, by thrusting a stick down the back between the skin and their scanty woollen garment, and thus securing ventilation. We were up soon after daybreak on May 3. Our camp was close to the wretched village of Misra ben Kara, a large collection of mere hovels put together with mud and dried branches, and enclosed, as the dowar generally is, within a sort of rampart formed of the dried stems and branches of the Zizyphus Lotus, piled up to a height of eight or ten feet, through which a single opening gives admission to the inhabitants and their domestic animals. It stands at a short distance from the Oued Nyfs,! one of ' The spelling here adopted is that used by M. Beaumier in his sketch-map of the route from Mogador to Marocco, but it is extremely difficult to fix the sounds expressing many of thenative names. Some- times this sounded to our ears as Oued enfisk, sometimes as Oued enfist ; the latter, it will be remarked, is merely a slight anagram of the name Oued Tensift, belonging to the main river flowing westward on the north side of the city of Marocco. 120 THE OUED NYFS. CH. v. the chief streams flowing northward from the Great Atlas. We started about 7 a.M., and soon reached the banks, fringed with magnificent oleanders in full flower, below which the shallow stream runs ina deep bed. Like all the rivers of this country, this is liable to great oscillations ; and though it seemed nowhere two feet deep when we crossed it, travellers are said to be sometimes detained for days, owing to the impossibility of fording the stream in rainy weather. We found here a few plants not hitherto seen, but were especially pleased with an undescribed Statice (8. ornata, Ball), not found elsewhere on our journey, whose numerous bright amethyst blue flowers were scattered on long, slender, much-branched panicles. On the east side of the river we fairly entered on the portion of the great plain immediately surrounding the city of Marocco, extending some thirty miles from west to east, and southward to the base of the Great Atlas. This is inclined upwards from west to east, and still more decidedly from north to south; but to the eye it appears a dead level, and the hills represented on Beaudouin’s map as approaching near to the city on the south and east have no existence in fact. The north-western border of the plain is, on the other hand, marked by prominent rough hills of a ruddy hue, as seen from a distance, which rose on our left as we advanced towards the city. Some portion of these hills, seeming to form an inter- rupted range, extending along the north side of the Oued Tensift and parallel to its course, was traversed by Wash- ington on his route from Azemor to Marocco in December, 1829. He estimates their height above the plain at from 500 to 1,200 feet, and describes the rock as schistose, with veins of quartz, the line of strike from north by east to south by west, and the dip 75°. To us it appeared that the higher summits, which perhaps do not lie near Washington’s track, must rise fully 2,000 feet above the plain. On the southern side of the Oued Tensift, and CH. V. WASHINGTON'S MILTSIN. 121 nearer to the city, are some lower hills, very similar in appearance to the others, and probably of similar geolo- gical structure. One of these, visited by Maw, is described as formed of very hard, dark, grey rock, with knotted white concretions elongated in the line of stratification, the strike from north-west to south-east, and the dip south- west, varying from 50° to 80°. Our attention, commonly fixed on the vegetation of the country, was on this day chiefly engaged by the great range of mountains, no longer very distant, that bounded the horizon to the south. We had expected to find no difficulty in singling out the peak of Miltsin, described by Washington in the first volume of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, as the highest peak of the Atlas visible from the city of Marocco, and the altitude of which, as determined by a rough trigonometrical measurement, he fixes at 11,400 English feet. Approach- ing the city by a very different route from that of Wash- ington, we soon convinced ourselves that there is no summit visible in the main range much surpassing its rivals in height, and we subsequently came to the conclu- sion, that Miltsin, which appears somewhat higher than its neighbours in the view from the city, is situated somewhat on the north side of the watershed, and therefore nearer to the observer than any other lofty summit of the range. Tt may fairly be inferred from Washington’s account that he had no opportunity for measuring a base-line—such as could allow him to determine accurately the height of distant summits. The conclusion to which we now came, and which was confirmed by our subsequent observatiors, was that the part of the main range within sight of Tarocco and its neighbourhood is remarkably uniform in height. There are many prominent points that probably approach the limit of 13,500 English feet, and no depres- sions that fall more than about 2,000 feet below that height. This, as will be seen hereafter, does not apply to the westerly part of the chain lying west of the sources )22 DUST COLUMNS. cH. Y. of the Oued Nyfs, but this is only imperfectly seen from the neighbourhood of Marocco. The day was hotter than any we had yet experienced, the temperature in the shade being about 85° Vahr., and the breeze which usually rises during the hottest hours was scarcely felt. But the vicinity of lofty mountains usually determines strong currents in the heated air, and these must have been at work, though unfelt by us. As we looked towards the mountain chain, we noticed lofty columns of sand or dust, remarkably uniform in shape, that travelled steadily westward across the plain in the opposite direction to the breeze, so far as this could be detected. At one time as many as three of these were seen at the same time, each moving independently. These miniature cyclones, arising from the interference of opposite currents of air, are not uncommon in the plains on the south side of the Alps, but are rarely to be seen on so great a scale as here. About two hours after starting, the great tower of the chief mosque came into view, and one of our soldiers rode on ahead to announce our approach. Not long after- wards we met a courier bound for Mogador with letters for Mr. Carstensen, and we took the opportunity of reporting progress and sending him a few details as to our journey. In default of regular postal communication, which is not to be thought of in such a country, the facility for forwarding letters in Marocco is far greater than could be expected. For a few shillings a native is easily induced to make a journey of many days, and take care of letters, which always reach their destination. The reverence with which Mohammedan people generally regard all written communications—which may perchance contain the name of Allah—serves as a protection so effectual, that the loss of letters and despatches is scarcely ever heard of. These couriers {ravel forty or even fifty miles a day, and after a day’s rest are ready to return to the place whence they came. The chief object of Mr. Carstensen’s letter to Marocco had CH. V. CHANGES IN THE VEGETATION. 123 been to recommend us to the good offices of some wealthy and influential Moors, correspondents of English mercan- tile houses, and we were not long before experiencing the benefit of this piece of kindly attention. The heat of the sun was much felt as we rode over the open plain, and it was suggested that we should do well to halt awhile, and await the return of the soldier who was to report to us the state of affairs in the city. The only spot on the way affording the slightest shelter is under the reclining trunk of a fine tree of Tamaria arti- culata, which had apparently been blown down, though still adhering to the ground by its roots, and throwing out vigorous shoots and branches. The remaining portion of the trunk was 24 feet long, and at & feet from the roots the girth was 7 feet 7 inches (2°32 m.) We saw no other specimen of this tree, characteristic of the semi- tropical region of Northern Africa; but our opportunities for exploring the country surrounding the city were very limited, and it seems probable that it is here indigenous, though the extreme scarcity of fuel may have led to its partial extermination. The slender twigs into which the branches are divided gave no protection from the sun ; but, by throwing a carpet overhead, we extemporised a service- able roof, whose shade was most welcome. Though bare to the eye, this part of the plain produced many small herbaceous plants, such as Notoceras canariensis, our native Coronopus Rucllii, Mesembryanthemum nodiflo- rum, and Schismus calycinus. The Mesembryanthemum is as common here as it is in the East ; but the last-named grass, so characteristic of the skirts of the desert in Egypt and Arabia, seems to be rare in South Marocco. Throughout our morning’s ride, as well as on the journey between Sheshaoua and Misra ben Kara, we no- tice the apparently unaccountable way in which certain social species prevail over a considerable tract, and then suddenly give place to others, without any apparent refer- ence to the composition of the soil. Where Chenopodiacee, 124 IRRIGATION CANALS. CH. Y. such as Suwda and Caroxylon prevail, it is reasonable to conjecture the presence of nitre, gypsum, or other salts in the superficial layer; but such plants as Artemisia Herba alba, Genista monosperma, and a local form of Helian- themum virgatum will sometimes take almost exclusive possession of the surface, though this in some places is mainly composed of siliceous sand, in others of disinte- grated calcareous tufa, and in others of decomposed vol- canic rock, nowhere seen by us 77 sitw, but derived from scattered blocks of various sizes. In the plain near the city siliceous sand predominates, and, as a consequence, the vegetation is more meagre than elsewhere. We hereabouts first saw the only works of public utility which we encountered during our journey. What first struck the eye were long lines of irregular earthen mounds traversing the plain in a north and south direction, and we soon ascertained that these were watercourses rudely arched over. The streams from the mountains south of the city are distributed through irrigation canals over a large part of the plain, and thus render it fit for cultivation. Early experience must have taught the people that by protecting these canals from evaporation, they could be made available to a much greater extent; and it is probable that the construction of these -covered water- ways, some of which were in a ruinous condition, goes back to a remote period. In point of fact, the whole drainage of three considerable valleys, whose torrents we afterwards crossed, appears to be intercepted by this irrigation process, and absorbed by the vegetation of the plain. It is pro- bable that by the skilful extension of the same system wide tracts, now barren, might be made productive. (CH. vi. APPROACH TO CITY OF MAROCCO. 125 CHAPTER VI. Approach to the City of Marocco—Pleasant encounter—Halt in an olive garden—Interior of the city—Difficulty as to lodging—Governor unfriendly—Camp in the great square—Negotiations with the Viceroy — Successful result— Palace of Ben Dreis— Diplomatic difficulties—Gardens of Marocco—Interview with El Graoui. Arter vainly waiting nearly two hours for the return of our soldier, we determined to push on towards the city of Marocco, though somewhat uncertain what the character of our reception might be. This was not merely a matter affecting our personal comfort during our short stay, but was certain to have an important effect on the success of our subsequent journey, and it was a most fortunate circumstance that Hooker’s long experience in contend- ing with the jealousies and suspicions of the native au- thorities in Nepal and the border States of North-eastern India, and his thorough knowledge of the character of people, who, though far removed, very much resemble the Moors in their ideas and maxims of policy, had prepared him to deal with them successfully. We had gained the first essential condition for exploring the unknown valleys of the Great Atlas, by obtaining the consent of the Sultan ; but it was impossible to guess the precise tenor of the orders forwarded by him to the local authorities, and, whatever these might be, the ultimate result would largely depend on the good or ill faith of the latter in carrying them into effect. The person whose favourable disposi- tions it was chiefly important to secure was El Graoui, who exercises under the Sultan a wide authority as Gover- nor of nearly all the tribes of the Great Atlas that recog- nise the imperial authority, extending over a considerable 126 PALM GROVES. cll. Vi. portion of the country at the foot of the mountains in- habited by a Shelluh population. El Graoui, as we knew, lived in the city of Marocco, but outside his own juris- diction. The Governor of the city and its immediate neighbourhood was Ben Daoud, a man notorious for his dislike to strangers and especially to Christians, and it was to him that we had to look for our reception, on our arrival. From whatever side it be approached the city of Marocco presents an imposing appearance. The western side presented an outline about a mile and a half in length. Massive walls, some thirty feet in height, with square towers at intervals of about 120 yards, completely enclose it, and on two sides at least it is girdled by a wide belt of gardens in which the date-palm, olive, and fig are the most conspicuous trees. Here, as elsewhere, the date- palm flourishes in a sandy soil where the roots plunge into a more compact subsoil kept moist by infiltration. On the north-west side the palm groves, which we passed on our left, are so close and continuous as to give the effect of a forest, while along our route they alternated with other cultivated trees. The effect of the scene as we approached was peculiar and new. The luxuriance of the vegetation that at intervals screened from view the great range of the Atlas, the majestic old olive trees, the rough trunks of the tall palms on which stood many a motionless chameleon ; the walls and towers of the great city seen at intervals as we wound among the gardens and groves, combined to form a striking and highly pic- turesque scene. It was near 4 o’clock when, as we were drawing near the walls, we were startled by the sudden appearance of a party of well-mounted Moors in flowing haiks, whose horses leaped in succession through a gap in an adjoining fence and advanced to meet us. Our sur- prise was increased when the foremost of the party greeted us in English with a friendly welcome. This gentleman, whose outward appearance was quite undistinguishable cn. vi. HALT OUTSIDE THE CITY. 127 from that of his companions, was Mr. Hunot, brother of the British Vice-Consul at Saffi, and representative at Marocco, of the house of Messrs. Perry & Co., of Liverpool. His companions, grave and courteous-looking Moors of considerable local influence, were Sidi Mohammed Has- sanowe ! and Sidi Boubikir, with two or three more of less note. We were invited into an adjoining garden, where carpets were spread under large olive trees, and a refec- tion in the Moorish style, consisting of green tea, cakes of wheaten flour and kabobs, was speedily prepared. Mr. Hunot had spent several months in the city, and in the absence of M. Lambert, a French merchant, who has lived there for many years, was the only European resident. Although his thorough familiarity with the language, customs, and ideas of the natives made his position less difficult, he found it practically so irksome that he was then on the point of returning to Saffi, his ordinary residence; and we owe it to his kind desire to assist us during this critical period of our journey that he postponed his departure for a day. The time passed very pleasantly, and we listened with satisfaction to the opinion expressed by our hosts that no obstacles would be inter- posed to our intended journey in the Atlas; when the first sign of rocks ahead was disclosed on the return of the messenger despatched to ascertain what sort of lodg- ing had been prepared for us. When the messenger ac- knowledged that a very small house with but two rooms had been provided, it became clear that, so far as the city authorities were concerned, there was no disposition to show us much courtesy. Hooker at once sent back a message to the Governor, that we should require a much larger house, or else an enclosed garden in which to pitch our tents. After about half-an-hour’s delay, the messenger again appeared, saying that a much larger house, with four 1The designation Sidi, equivalent to the Italian Signore, given to persons of consideration, forms no part of the name. In conversation it is abbreviated to Si. 128 ENTER THE CITY. CH. VIL rooms, and more adjoining if required, was ready to re- ceive us. Hereupon we resolved to enter the city, and in company with our new friends, whose ample haiks pic- turesquely draped must have contrasted favourably with the ugly jellabias that we wore over our European dress, we defiled in a long cavalcade, followed by the mules, camels, and donkeys of our train, through the gardens that on this side approach close to the city walls. Before the gate we found an officer, evidently of in- ferior position, with some ten or twelve ragged fellows on foot, armed with rusty matchlocks, posted there to receive us, and to conduct us to our quarters ; and with this sorry escort, we made our entry into Marocco. It is impossible by any language to convey the sense of utter disappointment and disgust which overpowered us on our first arrival; and though these feelings soon became subordinate to others connected with our personal position, they are those which predominate in our subsequent recollections. After passing the gateway we had before us a wide road, with a lofty mud wall on one side and a lower mud wall on the other. The high wall on the right forms part of the enclosure of the Sultan’s palace; over that on the left branches of shrubs or trees appeared, showing that gardens or orchards lay behind. On either side of the road rose accumulations of refuse and filth that looked as if they might have been the growth of centuries, and the farther we went the greater became the piles of abomina- tion, until it seemed as if these would block up the pas- sage. We had passed a fine Moorish arch of wide span, that forms the chief entrance to the palace enclosure, and following this as it makes a sharp turn to the right, there were still no signs of dwellings. The mud walls on either side, on which many storks built their nests, were often in a ruinous state ; and here and there it seemed as if people had burrowed beneath so as to make something between aden anda hovel. At length we turned into a sort of lane, and soon emerged into what appears to be one of the CH. VI. INTERIOR OF THE CITY. 129 main streets. Hitherto we had met very few passers-by ; but we now found ourselves in a rather crowded thorough- fare, encountering a good many men on horseback, and a large number of foot passengers, many of them veiled women. ‘The street displayed nothing but mud walls, about twenty feet in height, without a single window, but with openings at frequent intervals leading into short and narrow passages or lanes. The behaviour of the people as we passed was singular. Some of them cast scowling looks at us and muttered words, certainly not of welcome, which may very likely have included some unflattering references to our grandmothers; but the great majority went by without seeming to heed us in the least, as though European costume, which had probably not been seen within the walls since M. Beaumier’s visit in February, 1868, were a familiar sight calling for no remark. At length the head of our escort turned suddenly into one of the narrow lanes, barely wide enough to let a laden camel pass; we followed and, after passing the entrances of five or six other houses, reached a low door at the end of the lane. Stooping through the mean entrance and a short passage, we found a small open court, about fifteen feet square, on each side of which was a narrow room, receiving no light except from the court. A very brief inspection showed that the whole place was swarming with insects of every kind; and as Hooker turned round to express his opinion and his intentions, it was found that the officer with his rabble escort had decamped the moment he saw us safe into the house, thinking no doubt that we had thus no option but to remain there. When Hooker announced in very decisive terms his resolution not to sleep in such a house, Mr. Hunot and our new Moorish friends, foreseeing a row between us and the Governor, urged that we should put up with the house for that night, and on the following morning negotiate for a more suitable dwelling. As we were holding council together as to what should be done, a number of men K 130 FIRMNESS THE BEST POLICY. CH. VI. appeared on the scene, each bearing one of the customary large beehive covered dishes, as a mona for our evening meal. They were instantly ordered to carry their dishes back to Ben Daoud, and inform him that we refused to stop in that house. They said they could not take away the food, as their orders were to leave it for us; but on the order being repeated in more imperative tones, they departed, most likely settling the difficulty by appropri- ating the mona between themselves and their friends. At this point Hooker’s knowledge of the Oriental character was conspicuously shown. If it be often true in the West that people are taken at their own valuation of themselves, this becomes an invariable rule among Eastern people. It was absolutely necessary for our eventual success that it should be understood that we were persons travelling by the express authority of our own Government, and entitled to all respect from the officers of the Moorish Sultan, how- ever high their position might be. Were we to allow our- selves to be treated as mere private persons recommended to their good offices, there was an end to all hope of breaking down the barriers by which national prejudice and ancient tradition had closed the interior of the country against the intrusion of strangers. Had we even given way for a single day, the ingenuity of the natives would have found abundant pretexts for evading our de- mands; it was much easier to refuse the proffered lodging at once than to give a good reason why we could not spend a second night in a house where we had passed the first. A messenger was despatched to Ben Daoud. ‘Tell the Governor, said Hooker, ‘that my Sultana gives me a large house with a garden to live in; hospitality would require that the Governor of Marocco should provide me —the guest of his Sultan—with a better house; but, in any case, I shall not live in a worse one.’ In a short time the messenger returned with the answer: ‘The Governor has no better house to give the Christians; CH. VI. CAMPING UNDER DIFFICULTIES, 131 but Marocco is large, and they are welcome to provide for themselves!’ It was then immediately decided to camp out for the night; and the better to mark our sense of the reception given us, it was at first proposed to pitch our tents outside the walls. From this, how- ever, we were dissuaded. In such a position, apparently deprived of the protection of the local authorities, we should certainly, it was said, be attacked by robbers, from whom our Mogador escort might not prove a secure de- fence. It was finally decided that our best course would be to encamp in the great open space beside the chief mosque and tower of the Koutoubia. Our men had been ordered not to unload the baggage, so we were immedi- ately under way. In the twilight the filth and abjectness of all that met the eye were not so glaringly prominent as before ; but as we rode through more streets and lanes and open spaces, we saw no single building of the slightest pre- tension, until we entered the great square, at the farther end of which is the tower of the Koutoubia, the solitary specimen of architecture of which the ancient capital can boast. The daylight was fading fast, but enough remained to show that the spot of our encampment was anything but in- viting. Go where we would the ground was covered with refuse of every kind, full of scorpion holes, and swarming with insects, of which the most abundant and unsightly, though the least mischievous, were very large black Coleoptera, distant relatives of our European cockroaches, and the whole space was bordered hy a ditch or open drain that reeked with foul exhalations. Meanwhile, we had sent the captain of our escort with a message to Muley Hassan, the Viceroy, informing him of our resolution to encamp in our own tents, until a suitable house had been provided for us. A civil answer was returned, expressing a wish that we should not camp out, and saying that he had sent orders to Ben Daoud immediately to provide us a suitable residence. Soon after came a polite message from El x 2 132 INDIFFERENCE OF THE NATIVES. CH. Vie Graoui, expressing his regret that we had not been lodged to our satisfaction, and forwarding a letter that he had addressed to Ben Daoud on the subject. Nearly an hour passed, when at last a final answer came from Ben Daoud, saying that it was then too late to comply with our wishes, but that on the following morning we should have a good house with a garden. During all this time we had remained grimly sitting on horseback, no way anxious, until it should be quite necessary, to commit ourselves for the night to the un- pleasant accompaniments that surrounded us; but there was no longer any choice, and the order was given to pitch the large tent and unload the baggage. During the interval we had been much struck by the demeanour of the people, who had from time to time passed by as we stood grouped together in this most public place of the city. Whether in obedience to orders, or from a spontaneous desire to display their utter indifference as to the doings of the infidels, no one paid the slightest attention, or even turned a head to notice us or our pro- ceedings. Even the very boys engaged in some rough play when we first arrived on the square showed the same ostentatious disregard—in striking contrast to the eager curiosity of the Arab children in Algeria and the East, who will sit for hours together watching every movement of European travellers. By this time, however, the night had closed in, and the great square was silent and dark before our large tent was pitched and the baggage brought under cover. Soon after there appeared a train of men bearing dishes—the evening mona—along with twenty-four sol- diers sent by El Graoui to guard our camp during the night, and about half-past 9 we were able to get the rather long delayed evening meal and discuss our further prospects and proceedings. While thus engaged the sound of angry voices outside the tent interrupted conversation ; it was evident that a violent altercation was going on, in CH. VI. CITY OF MAROCCO. 133 which many voices took part. When all was again quiet, we ascertained the cause of the row. Ten soldiers sent by Ben Daoud as a guard for the night had come to take their places round the camp, when they found the ground already occupied. El Graoui’s men warned them off, telling them they had no business there, and when the others insisted on remaining to carry out their master’s orders the first comers threatened to thrash them if they did not immediately depart. Peace was re-established when Ben Daoud’s men retired to the farther end of the square behind the great mosque. When we came to talk over the varied experiences of the day, we first of all agreed that, old travellers as we all were, and familiar with the squalor of Oriental cities, we none of us had ever known, or even imagined, the exist- ence of a large town so expressive of human degradation, so utterly foul and repulsive, as this wherein we found our- selves. Of all the places commonly visited by travellers Jerusalem is perhaps that which at the first moment ap- proaches nearest to the same impression ; but, not to speak of the numerous important buildings and the associations connected with them, nor yet of the modern structures that have arisen during the last half-century, the poorest quarters of Jerusalem are far from rivalling the universal squalor and hideousness of all that meets the eye in Ma- rocco. A ruinous house, with windows closed by weather- beaten rickety lattice-work, is not a beautiful object, but it may be sometimes picturesque, and, at the worst, is far better than a dead wall of crumbling mud, such as here meets the eye on every side. It would seem as if the most miserable suburbs of all the other towns of North Africa and Western Asia had been collected together and enclosed within a lofty wall, so that seen from without the whole might be palmed off on mankind as the effigy of a great city. On deliberating over the events of the evening in rela- tion to our own future prospects, we found reason to think 134 THE GREAT SQUARE BY NIGHT. cH, VI. that what had happened did not necessarily bode ill for the objects of our expedition. A fierce rivalry, as we knew, already existed between El Graoui and Ben Daoud, men whose power and influence in the State were supposed to be of equal weight. Whether to gratify his own feelings, or because he so understood the intentions of the Sultan, Ben Daoud had showed himself unfriendly, while El Graoui had clearly declared himself on our side. But as Ben Daoud had no authority whatever in the Atlas valleys, his enmity could do us no real harm; while El Graoui, whose opposition alone was to be feared, might easily be carried farther than he would have otherwise gone on our behalf for the mere pleasure of thereby spiting his rival. In this way our visit came to play a certain part in the interior politics of Marocco, and the serio-comic develop- ment of the story acquires a share of interest from the light it throws on native character. Some time after midnight, after finishing our custom- ary task in laying out our collections of the day, which had been much smaller than usual, we sallied out to view the surrounding scene. The moon stood high in the cloudless sky, wherein there was so little vapour that the stars seemed scarcely dimmed by her brilliancy. The great tower, stark against the black vault, appeared gi- gantic in its proportions as it looked down on the strange scene below. The noises of the city—even the howling of the dogs—were for the moment completely stilled; our camels, horses, mules, and asses lay resting after their day’s work, and amongst them the sleeping figures of our men, wrapped up in white haiks or jellabias, looked weird and ghostly in the moonlight. The distinctness with which we heard the occasional whispers of the guards around our camp served only to make the deep silence of the night the more impressive. On this night the advantages of a tent of what is known as the Alpine Club pattern, where the floor is made of canvas continuous with the sides, and the entrance is CH. Vi. DIPLOMATIC CONTEST. 135 closed by a flap rising about a foot from the ground, were shown in a striking way. In the great tent, where the ground underfoot was pierced with scorpion holes and swarming with insects, Hooker and Maw did not venture to undress, and had to pass the night perched upon the baggage, while Ball was able to spread his mattress regardless of the creatures that might be moving about under the canvas floor, When his tent was struck next morning the ground underneath was absolutely covered with a continuous mass of creeping things, yet not a single insect entered the tent. When we all rose betimes on the morning of the 4th, we felt that this must bea decisive day in our contest with the Moorish authorities. At an early hour Hooker despatched two messengers, one to the Viceroy, request- ing an interview, the other to Mr. Hunot, begging him to use his local knowledge and influence to make sure that the request should reach the Viceroy. Soon after arrived a message from Ben Daoud, saying that we were at liberty to pitch our tents in an adjoining garden. If that offer had been made on our first arrival, it is most likely that it would have been accepted ; but, as it was now clear that Ben Daoud was intent on yielding as little as possible, Hooker wisely resolved to insist on the demand which he had made on the previous evening, and returned an answer in nearly the same terms as before. At 8 A.M.a morning meal of wheaten cakes and milk came from El Graoui, and throughout that and the fol- lowing days he continued to supply our wants and those of our followers on the most liberal scale. Besides a light breakfast, three copious meals with meat and vege- tables cooked in the most approved style, accompanied by dates and oranges, were regularly furnished; and the addition of a mule-load of oranges that came later in the day furnished in abundance the most acceptable luxury that nature affords in this region. It was clear that the question debated among the 136 A COMPLETE VICTORY. CH. VI, Marocco authorities as to the best way of dealing with the troublesome Christian visitors was considered a rather knotty one, for fully two hours elapsed before our Mogador kaid returned with the Viceroy’s answer. We were wel- come to Marocco, he said, and he had ordered the palace of Ben Dreis, with the adjoining garden, to be prepared for our reception. That building belonged, it was added, to his father, the Sultan, and not to the Governor of Marocco, so that we should consider the use of it asa mark of the personal favour and friendship of the Sultan. The request tor an interview was evaded, probably to avoid any further demands that may have been apprehended; but we had obtained a complete victory, and had nothing more to ask so far as our stay in Marocco was concerned. Although the sequel of the story was not unfolded till a day or two later, it may as well be here given. Si Boubikir, one of our Moorish friends who had inte- rested himself on our behalf, was sent for by the Viceroy, and at the same time Ben Daoud was also summoned. The latter was addressed by the Viceroy in the coarsest terms: ‘ You dog! you slave! you son of a slave! how have you dared to neglect my father’s orders? Were you not ordered to provide a suitable residence for these Eng- lish gentlemen?’ With further additions of threats and abuse. On the following day (after we had paid our visit to El Graoui) a person sent by Ben Daoud came to Abra- ham, our interpreter, to express a hope that we should also pay a visit to the Governor of the city in token of reconciliation. He was to assure us that Ben Daoud was no way to blame for anything that had happened, as he had acted throughout by the express orders of the Viceroy, who had desired him to begin by offering the smaller house, then one somewhat larger, and to leave it to the Viceroy to meet our demands, if we persisted in asking for a house with a garden. It was quite impossible to guess how much or how little truth there might be in this tale, and how far the scene got up before Si Boubikir was CH, VI. PALACE OF BEN DREIS. 137 amere comedy; but it is characteristic of the country, that it should not be considered improbable. Hooker decided that it was not expedient to overlook the affronts of which Ben Daoud was either the author or the instru- ment, and his message was met by a curt refusal. The house or palace of Ben Dreis, which we were to inhabit, originally belonged to a powerful minister, whose property, after the custom of the country, had been confiscated by the sovereign. In 1864 it was occupied by Sir Moses Montefiore ; and a correct sketch of it is given in Dr. Hodgkin’s narrative of that gentleman’s mission of benevolence to Marocco. We were told that a short time would be required to prepare the house for our reception, and it turned out that the first requisite step was to knock down the wall that stood where the entrance had formerly been. A house in which Jews or Christians had lived was regarded as unclean and unfit for the dwelling of a true believer, and accordingly after the departure of Sir M. Montefiore, the entrance had been walled up, and the house had so remained ever since. When the way had been cleared, an escort of soldiers, despatched by the Viceroy, accompanied us to our new dwelling, which stands inside its walled garden very near to the Bab Roub—the gate by which we yesterday entered the city. We were agreeably surprised when we approached by far the finest house which we any- where saw in this country, a massive square building, entered by a Moorish arch. As usual, the ground-floor rooms, with the central court, roofed in, contrary to the usual practice, were fit only for servants, or for stabling animals and storing goods, and the best apartments were on the upper floor. These were, of course, destined for us. But the first glance showed that in a country where animal, and especially insect, life is so active, the rooms in their present state would be no pleasant habitations. This, however, was foreseen and provided for, and, before many minutes were over, a crowd of 138 OUR HOME IN MAROCCO. CH. VI. men, including our own attendants, were hard at work carrying up large vessels of water from the irrigation stream in the adjoining garden, and armed with rough brooms, with which to complete the work of cleaning the premises. Water was turned on in such abundance as to stand ankle deep in most of the rooms, and pour ina copious stream down the staircases and other openings. When all was done the blazing sun soon dried all up, and during our stay we suffered no inconvenience, and scarcely saw any insects, except a few harmless beetles. When the rooms had been thus cleansed and dried, we proceeded to instal ourselves in our new quarters. There was a large central room, open to the sky in the middle, with roofed bays or recesses around, and several adjoining, which served as bedrooms. The terrace roof, overlooking the trees of our garden and the city wall, commanded a magnificent view of the Great Atlas range, and in the early morning, and towards sunset, afforded an unfailing attraction. During this and the following days much time was consumed in long discussions respecting our future plans and arrangements. During the remainder of his stay in Marocco Mr. Hunot was kind enough to devote most of his time to us, and in his visits he was generally accom- panied by Si Mohammed Hassanowe and Si Boubikir, who sat gravely by, rarely taking any part in the conversation. One of the subjects requiring mature consideration related to the manner in which the objects of our journey might best be made intelligible and satisfactory to the Moorish authorities. The matter had already been under discus- sion at Mogador and during our journey, but its import- ance was now much more obvious when it was clear that our farther progress would depend on the view that El Graoui might take of our character and intentions. We were well aware that anything so simple as the statement that the object was to gratify our curiosity as to the vege- tation of the Great Atlas, would at once be set aside as a false pretext, intended to cover some sinister design. That CH. VI. GRAVE DELIBERATIONS. 139 one man should be crazy enough to make a long journey for such a purpose might have been thought within the range of possibility; but to suppose that three should all at once be smitten with the same form of insanity was plainly too ridiculous. To endeavour to explain that Hooker, as Director of a great national establishment such as Kew Gardens, should be anxious to enrich it by the introduction of new, rare, or useful plants, was not likely to be more successful. The existence of any public insti- tution having a claim to attention apart from the per- sonal will or caprice of the sovereign could not be made intelligible to the native mind. It was clear that if we did not present ourselves as persons in some way carrying out the direct orders of the Queen of England, we should have no claim to respect, and should be regarded as adventurers prompted by some motive we did not care to avow. Of course, we felt a natural reluctance to use the Queen’s name in an unauthorised way; but, without entering into subtle discussion as to the extent to which the acts of ministers are to be regarded as those of the sovereign, the fact that the Foreign Secretary had, through the Queen’s representative, applied for the Sultan’s per- mission for Hooker’s journey, undoubtedly justified him in assuming a position different from that of an ordi- nary traveller. It is true that the knowledge and personal interest which Her Majesty has always shown in matters relating to Art have never been publicly displayed in reference to natural history; but it would certainly not be straining the truth to let it be understood that such a unique institution as the Royal Gardens at Kew is regarded by her with sympathy and favour. The most natural way of conveying this to the Moorish mind seemed to be to say that the Sultana of England had great gardens, in which were plants from all the countries in the world, excepting the Great Atlas, and that she had sent Hooker and his assistants to collect and send home whatever 140 MOORISH IDEAS. CH. VI. new plants they could find there. To this suggestion, a serious objection was made. It would appear unworthy of a great ruler, we were told, to trouble herself about anything so frivolous as a garden: ‘ Her thoughts must be engaged in the government of her vast dominions, and above all in the management of her armies and fleets, and not on mere matters of amusement.’ ‘But,’ as it was urged, ‘there is one use of plants that every one can understand. Cannot you say that you are seeking for herbs useful to cure diseases, and are charged to bring these home to the Queen of England?’ Of course it was true that if by any chance such new plants as we might find possessed medicinal qualities, they would thereby acquire additional interest, and, therefore, in our numerous subsequent communications with the authorities, Hooker stated that his commission was to collect and bring home the plants of the country, and especially those useful in medicine. It is pretty certain, however, that the imagina- tion of our interpreter enlarged upon this text, to what extent we could not of course say. How much that we afterwards heard was serious, and how much more play of fancy, it is hard to guess; but there is no doubt that the current belief among our own followers was that the Sultana of England had heard that there was somewhere in Marocco a plant that would make her live for ever, and that she had sent her own hakim to find it for her. When, in the course of our journey, it was seen that our botanical pursuits entailed rather severe labour, the commentary was: ‘The Sultana of England is a severe woman, and she has threatened to give them stick (the bastinado) if they do not find the herb she wants !’ It was impossible to decide on our future route until after an interview with El Graoui; but whatever that might be, it was certain that we should require a number of animals to convey ourselves and our baggage; and we yielded to the general opinion of the country in preferring mules for this purpose. Camels are unfit for the rough CH. Vie MAROCCO MONEY. 141 mountain paths; and the mule is decidedly superior to the horse in endurance of prolonged fatigue, inferior food, and vicissitudes of climate. In a journey of some length it is decidedly economical to purchase horses and mules rather than hire them ; and we resolved to supply a part of our wants in that way, Mr. Hunot being good enough to undertake to choose eight mules, for which on the following day we paid 8/. each. The current coin in South Marocco we found to be French five-franc pieces (called by Europeans, dollars) for all except small transactions. These are carried on by Moorish silver pieces, worth respectively something less than four pence and two pence, and little coins of an alloy of copper and zine, called flows, of which about fifteen go to an English penny. It was necessary to provide our interpreter, Abraham, with bags of these coins to defray the trifling expenses of our journey. It being understood that the provision of food for our followers and the animals of our train would be undertaken by the local authorities, wherever we should go, the only serious expenses we had to provide for were the purchase or hire of mules, and such gratuities as we might think proper to distribute amongst our escort and our servants on our return to Mogador. For presents to governors, sheiks, and others whom it might be desirable to conciliate or reward, we had brought with us a supply which turned out to be more than sufficient for the purpose. To pass a quiet evening in our own house, free from any immediate cause for trouble, and with the prospect of a good night’s rest, such as we had not known since we left Mogador, was an enjoyment keenly felt ; and though our quarters were absolutely devoid of furniture of any kind, the mere sense of quiet and freedom from intrusion made them seem to us perfectly luxurious. The position of our dwelling was indeed admirably chosen. Completely sepa- rated from the inhabited quarters of the city, with their noises and their stenches, by large gardens and high walls, 142 TOWER OF THE KOUTOUBIA. CH. VI. the only building within our view was the great tower of the Koutoubia. Some idea of the effect as seen through one of our windows is given in the accompanying woodeut. It is very similar in design and dimensions to the Giralda at Seville and the great tower at Rabat, and like these is said to have been built’ by Christian captives. Including the lanthorn at the top, the height is about 270 feet. It is a singular proof of the deficiency of the Moors in con- structive faculty, that the only stone structures in this, the ancient capital of the country, once the abode of wealth and barbaric luxury, should be this tower, and the great arch forming the entrance to the Sultan’s palace, of which the carved stones were transported piece by piece from Spain. The morning of May 5 presented the unusual appear- ance of heavy clouds covering the sky and concealing from view the range of the Great Atlas. This did not last long. The sun soon reasserted his dominion over the plain, though the clouds still hung round the higher peaks. The direct heat of the sun was already great at this sea- son, but the air was always relatively cool. In the shade of our rooms the thermometer marked about 80° Fahr. during the warmer hours of the day, and fell to about 70° at night. It was a matter of some interest to us to study the spontaneous vegetation of the gardens of Marocco. We could without difficulty have obtained permission to visit the very extensive gardens that occupy the larger part of the enclosed space surrounding the palace of the Sultan ; but we decided that we should be able to work more effectually, and without risk of exciting the suspicions of the natives, by confining ourselves to the rather large space surrounding our own dwelling. To the English reader it may be well to remark that, in Marocco, as in most Eastern countries, a garden means something very different from what we understand by it at home. So far as any idea of enjoyment is connected with it the paramount object is JDL S J, B. delt. TOWER OF THE KOUTOUBIA AT MAROCCO CH. VI. MOORISH GARDENS, 143 shade and coolness. Trees, and running water, without which in this climate few trees will grow, are therefore the essential requisites. Beyond this the Moor, if he be rich and luxurious, may plant a few sweet-scented flowers, of which the rose, violet, jessamine, and Acacia Far- nesiana are most prized; but beyond this, no mere plea- sure of the eye is ever dreamt of, and here, as elsewhere, there seems to be among the natives a complete want of the sense of beauty. To the Moor the chief object of a garden is not plea- sure but profit. In this admirable climate nearly all the vegetable products of the temperate and subtropical zones may be had in profusion wherever water is attainable, and of this the Great Atlas provides an unfailing supply to the city and its neighbourhood. Even at the low prices of the country, fruits are the most profitable of all crops; and it is asserted that the Aguidel Garden—the largest of those within the palace enclosure—containing about forty English acres, produces on an average 20,0001. a year. The fruit-bearing trees tea in our garden were the date-palm, orange, olive, fig, pomegranate, apricot, almond, pear, apple, and mulberry, along with a few vines. Besides these were cypresses, willows (Salix babylonica), aspens, Robinia, Melia, and Celtis. There were several tall bushes of Acacia Farnesiana, just coming into fruit, and of white jessamine. The only cultivated flowers were the rose, Mirabilis, and hollyhock, and a, large-leaved variety of sweet violet, which has also been found in Madeira. Of wild arborescent plants we noted only Zizyphus Lotus and Lonicera biflora; the latter species (peculiar to North Africa) we observed here and there throughout our journey. Although the list of -wild herbaceous plants includes few that are not common throughout the Mediterranean region, it may interest some readers to give it in full. Specimens of nearly all the species enumerated were preserved by us. 144 WILD PLANTS OF OUR GARDEN, CH. VI. List of Plants growing wild in the Garden of Ben Dreis, in the * *® ¥* * City of Marocco. Papaver Rheeas, L. Fumaria parviflora, Lam. agraria, Lag. Sisymbrium Irio, L. ——— erysimoides, Dsf. Brassica geniculata, (Dsf.) Capsella Bursa-pastoris, L. Lepidium sativum, L. Viola odorata, L., var. Frankenia pulverulenta, L. Spergularia diandra, (Guss.) Lavatera cretica, L. Malva parviflora, All. niceensis, All. Erodium moschatum, (L.) malacoides, (L.) Oxalis corniculata, L. Zizyphus Lotus, L. Medicago pentacycla, D.C. Trifolium resupinatum, L. Lotus arenarius, Brot, Lythrum flexuosum, Lag. Bryonia acuta, Dsf. Conium maculatum, L. Apium nodiflorum, (L.) Ammi majus, L. Carum Petroselinum, (L.) Caucalis nodosa, (L.) — infesta, (L.) Lonicera biflora, Dsf. Galium Aparine, L. Gnaphalium luteo-album, L. Anacyclus Valentinus, L. Chrysanthemum coronarium, L. Senecio gallicus, Chaix, var. Calendula stellata, Cav. ? Carduus myriacanthus, Salzm. ? Onopordon illyricum, L. Picris pilosa, Del. Leontodon Rothii (Thrincia hispida, Rth.) * * x Fe * * * * % ® * *¥ Fe * * Those marked (*) are British species. Leontodon hispidulus, Boiss, Sonchus maritimus, L, —— oleraceus, L. Convolvulus arvensis, L. Solanum villosum, Lam. Withania somnifera, (Link.) Hyoscyamus albus, L. Cynoglossum pictum, Ait. Verbascum sinuatum, L. Linaria greeca, Chay. Scrophularia auriculata, L., var, Veronica anagallis, L. Marrubium vulgare, L. Verbena officinalis, L, Beta vulgaris, Moq. Chenopodium ambrosioides, L. —_——_—— murale, L. album, L. Rumex crispus, L. ——— pulcher, L. Polygonum aviculare, L. Euphorbia pubescens, Vapl. peplus, L. Mercurialis annua, L. Urtica dioica, L., var. Parietaria officinalis, L., var. Typha angustifolia, L. ? Cyperus longus, L. Phalaris minor, Retz. Piptatherum multiflorum, P.B. Agrostis verticillata, Vill. * Cynodon dactylon, L. * Poa annua, L. * * Keeleria phleoides, Pers, Cynosurus aureus, (L.) Festuca rigida, (L.) Brachypodium distachyon, (L.) Bromus madritensis, L, mollis, L. macrostachys, Dsf., var. Hordeum murinum, L.. This list affords a fair illustration of the general uni- formity of what may be termed the ruderal vegetation cu. vie UNIFORMITY OF RUDERAL VEGETATION. 145 throughout the Mediterranean region. Of 81 species enu- merated there are but four (Brassica geniculata, Loni- cera biflora, Picris pilosa, and Leontodon hispidulus) that do not extend to Southern Europe; fully one-half are found in Northern France and Germany; and 37 are included in the British flora. About 4 P.M. we started by previous appointment to pay our visit to El Graoui. The usual course in this country is to make the first visit toa man in authority one of pure ceremony, wherein presents are made that are intended to prepare the way for any serious business, which is reserved for a second interview; but the necessity for deciding without delay on our future plans, which de- pended altogether on the consent and assistance of El Graoui, forbade this dilatory mode of proceeding, and it was decided that we should go at once thoroughly into the subject of our intended journey. This was a proud day for our interpreter, Abraham. While, in spite of some concessions made to Sir Moses Montefiore, his coreligion- ists in the city are forced to put off their shoes when they leave their own enclosure, Abraham, rejoicing in a pair of gamboge leather boots, could enter with head erect the presence of the most powerful subject in Marocco. Preceded by several mounted soldiers, we passed, by the same filthy roads as before, through the great gate leading to the palace. Perhaps the sight of a stately procession irritated the feelings of the people; certainly there was on this occasion no doubt as to the disposition of the bystanders, made sufficiently clear by muttered curses and spitting towards us, and even by a few stones thrown in the same direction, though scarcely intended to reach us. The walled space which surrounds the dwelling of the sovereign appeared to be a nearly regular square, of which the sides measure about half a mile. Besides the resi- dence of the Sultan, rarely inhabited of late years, and the extensive ranges of mean irregular buildings used by his attendants and body-guard, another block of buildings L 146 VISIT TO EL GRAOUI. CH. VI. served as the dwelling of his son, the then Viceroy ; and a third group, to which we proceeded, was the home of El Graoui, who thus avoided the inconvenience of inhabiting a place subject to the authority of his rival, Ben Daoud. We saw no building of the slightest architectural preten- sions, or at all comparable to the house in which we ourselves were lodged. Through narrow tortuous passages, amidst low buildings, scarcely more than ten feet high, and of the meanest appearance, we reached a whitewashed building of two floors, and through a narrow door and passage were ushered up a short flight of steps into a small room, wherein sat a stout man of completely black com- plexion, whose broad countenance gave the impression of considerable energy with an habitual expression of good- humoured ferocity. The room was decorated with wood- work, cut into elaborate geometrical patterns and painted in bright colours, the only form of decorative art known to the Moors, and lighted by a lanthorn overhead through small bits of coloured glass. We seated ourselves on the carpet-covered cushions ranged on either side, and a few of the ordinary phrases of courtesy, familiar to all readers who have made a tour in the East, were exchanged, Pre- sently, on a signal from the great man, the inevitable green tea was served in English china tea-cups, followed by a slight refection, the air of the room being meanwhile perfumed with the heavy scent of incense burned over charcoal. After this, we, without further preface, commenced conversation as to the object of our journey, taking care to adhere as nearly as possible to the line of discourse previously fixed upon. Having in general terms ex- plained that we wanted to collect the plants of the high mountains, Hooker was careful to add that we did not care about stones or minerals. We had been warned that the belief in the existence of precious metals in the Atlas is traditional in the country; and though no ruler of Maroceo is known to have made any effort to search vi DIPLOMATIC CONVERSATION. 147 t or work mines, extreme jealousy is felt lest strangers ould be attracted by the prospect, and attempt, in con- quence, to establish themselves in the country. In point fact, we were obliged to refrain from any overt attempt collect even the commonest rocks, and the fragments iich we carried away were picked up and pocketed—as by stealth—when removed from the watchful eyes of ir followers. El Graoui, with apparent frankness and good-humour, id that he should have much pleasure in carrying into fect the intentions of the Sultan in our regard, and that 2 should have full liberty to go where we pleased in the tions of the Great Atlas where the authority of the iltan is recognised, orders being given that the local ithorities should provide food for us and our followers. ais brought us at once to a question of pressing im- wrtance. Up to this moment we had no notion as to the nits that might be set to our journey by the Marocco ithorities, though too well aware that Hooker's en- wements in England would not under any circumstances low us to carry our explorations very far. In answer our inquiries, we were told that we were free to travel ithe northern slope of the mountains that send their aters to the plain of Marocco. The names of various stricts were mentioned, several of which were strange to ir ears, and not to be found on any map; but we retained ose of Glaoui, Ourika, and Reraya, the latter two being terwards familiar to us. Further than this, we were formed that we might travel eastward through the ‘ovinces of Demenet and Ntifa, both apparently high ountain regions, whose waters run northward to the um-er-bia. We were emphatically told that we must not tempt to cross the chain southward in the direction of .e Sous valley, and we gave a distinct promise to abstain om doing so. The actual decision as to our future route as far too important a matter to be disposed of on the iot by men so imperfectly prepared as we necessarily ole 148 ARRANGEMENTS FOR OUR JOURNEY. CH. VI. were, and it was arranged that Hooker should, in the course of the next day or two, acquaint El Graoui with the route which we might adopt. The main point being thus settled, some further con- versation ensued as to the arrangements for our journey. El Graoui informed us that he would send an escort of five soldiers under the command of a Kaid, and further sug- gested that the escort that had already accompanied us from Mogador should remain with us throughout the journey. As it seemed desirable to humour the great mau’s fancies, the latter arrangement was at once agreed to, and in the sequel we found it decidedly advantageous. The interview was brought to a close by Hooker pre- senting to El Graoui a pair of excellent, though not showy, rifled pistols, which he had brought from England under the impression that they might be useful for per- sonal defence. We had an unnecessarily large store of articles intended for presents—silver watches, musical boxes, opera glasses, cutlery, and the like; but, on review- ing our stores, Mr. Hunot decided that such objects would be thought too paltry for a man of El Graoui’s importance, and that serviceable fire-arms would be far better suited to his taste, CH. VII. A NATIVE INFORMANT WANTED. 149 CHAPTER VII. Choice of a route in the Atlas—Difficulty of procuring information— Hills near the city—Panorama of the Great Atlas—Probable height of the range—Wild birds of Marocco—Condition of the Jews— Departure from the city—Farewell interview with El Graoui— District of Mesfioua—Interview with the Kaid—Approach to the Great Atlas—Aspect of the vegetation—Castle of Tasseremout— Washington’s visit—Jewish suppliants—Great boulder mounds— Ourika valley—Peculiarities of Moorish character—Rapacity of our escort. On returning from our interview with El Graoui, we felt that our most urgent want was reliable information about the districts mentioned by him as within the possible range of our expedition. Hooker had already ordered Abraham to make inquiry for some one who had actually travelled eastward from the city into the mountain coun- try; but such a person was by no means so easily found as a stranger might suppose. The few Moors who ever go into the interior are cut off from communication with the natives by ignorance of the language ; and, besides this, the Moor is usually too incurious and intellectually sluggish to carry away information about anything not directly concerning his own business or pleasure. Had our stay in Marocco been prolonged, we might perhaps have been able to collect some details as to the interior provinces from natives of the mountain valleys who must from time to time resort to the city; but it is very doubtful whether a Christian stranger could obtain anything reliable in this way. People constantly forget how wide the gap is that separates the mind of a modern European from that of the inhabitant of a barbarous country, where the conditions of society are such that apprehension of danger 150 GEOGRAPHICAL DIFFICULTIES. CH. VII. to life and property becomes the predominant feeling. The notion that a man can care to acquire knowledge of any kind for its own sake is not for a moment ad- mitted, and suspicion is necessarily the first feeling aroused by any inquiry, however apparently harmless. Bearing this in mind, we often felt astonishment at the share of success that has been attained by some geographers, and especi- ally by Captain Beaudouin, the author of the French War’ Office map of Maroceo. It is true that some large por- tions of that map are quite unreliable, and that it contains many grave errors as to the direction of the mountain ranges and valleys; but, considering that the greater part of it was compiled by the comparison of itineraries and descriptions furnished by a large number of separate native informants, the wonderful thing is that in many districts it should approach so near to accuracy as it does; and it undoubtedly shows a very remarkable degree of care, patience, and intelligence on the part of its author. In the course of the afternoon, Abraham brought to us an elderly Jew, named Salomon ben Daoud, described as a man employed by the merchants trading with the interior, and familiar with all the roads leading to those parts of South Marocco with which the people of the city have any intercourse. The contrast between the ap- pearance of this man and that of the Moors was com- plete. He had something of the downcast, long-suffering expression common among his coreligionists in this coun- try, but an unmistakable air of intelligence that at once made him interesting. It was easy to understand that, although despised and often ill-used by the governing race, these people by their superior brain-power have con- trived to make themselves indispensable to their masters, and that all people in authority, from the Sultan to the deputy-governor, are forced to rely upon them. Although Salomon was able to answer readily most of our questions respecting the several routes leading from Marocco into the neighbouring portions of the Great Atlas, it was in- cH. vi. A JEWISH TOPOGRAPHER. 151 evitable that the information given by an uneducated man should fall very far short of what we should have desired ; and the abundant catalogue of names of places—very few of them possible to be identified on the map—which he glibly enumerated, rather tended to confuse than to clear up our understanding of the country. With a view to mature deliberation on a point of such importance Salo- mon was requested to write down the chief particulars which he had given us verbally; and his memorandum, written in Hebrew, was afterwards translated by Abraham. This translation, checked by the memoranda taken down at the time by Ball, is printed in Appendix B, and affords a slight contribution towards the topography of a portion of Marocco hitherto completely unknown to Europeans. The morning of Saturday, May 6, found us still in doubt as to our future course; but, on a careful review of the whole matter, we adopted a decision of which we saw no subsequent reason to repent. It appeared that if we decided on pushing forward into the interior of the coun- try we might be able to reach the head of the valley of the Tessout— the main western branch of the Oum-er-bia— lying probably about 120 miles due east of Marocco. The portion of the Atlas chain whence that stream flows is in all probability as high as the range seen from the city, and perhaps somewhat higher, and the district through which we should travel was and still remains a complete terra wmeognita, as to which Beaudoin’s map is almost certainly incorrect.! Against these strong inducements we had, however, to set many weighty reasons in favour of the alternative course, which consisted in at once direct- ing our steps towards the main chain south-east of the city, and thence travelling gradually towards the Atlantic coast, penetrating in succession to the head of as many of the chief valleys as circumstances should allow. The first course was open to the objection that, under 1 See Appendix C. 152 CHOICE OF A ROUTE. CH. VII. any circumstances, it would involve a considerable amount of travelling through a comparatively uninteresting coun- try—at least four days, and probably six, for the route to and fro between Marocco and Demenet, and four days at least for returning to Mogador ; and further, that if diffi- culties should arise to prevent us from reaching the head of the Tessout valley, we might possibly miss altogether the main object of our journey by failing to reach the higher region of the Great Atlas. On the other hand, by coasting along the northern skirts of the chain, and penetrating as many valleys as might be found practicable, we should avoid altogether the need for retracing any part of our course, and might reasonably expect to reach a part of the chain whence a couple of days’ ride would carry us back to Mogador. The strongest argument was, however, the consideration that by choosing the latter route we should have numerous chances of accomplishing our desire to reach the upper part of the mountain range, and that if we should fnd impassable obstacles in one or another valley, we should yet have an unimpaired chance of succeeding elsewhere. Hooker’s strong im- pression that our future course would not be unopposed gave especial weight to the latter view, and the sequel will show that we were well advised. It was therefore decided to apply to El Graoui for letters to all the Kaids of the valleys subject to his authority in the range ex- tending from Tasseremout to the borders of Huha, while, with a view to a possible change in our course, he was also requested to write to the Governor of Demenet. In one way or other the days passed in Marocco were so fully occupied as to leave no leisure, and Maw alone was able to afford time for an excursion to one of the low hills on the south side of the Oued Tensift, seen on the left of the track by which we had approached the city. The nearest of these—a rough mass of metamorphic rock, rising’ nearly 800 feet above the level of the plain— is only about three miles distant from the walls. CH. VI. MAROCCO CARPETS. 153 Our regret at not having been able to accompany Maw on this excursion was much increased when towards evening he returned with a number of interesting plants, several of which proved to be additions to the Marocco flora. The most notable of these was an undescribed species of the tropical and subtropical genus Boerhavia, and a curious Reseda, seemingly distinct from any de- scribed species. Besides these, he had gathered a variety of Forskahlea tenacissima described by the late Mr. Webb as F. Cossoniana, Andropogon laniger, a fine grass whose leaves have the scent of Verbena, Echinops strigosus, and one or two more species characteristic of the flora of Southern Algeria. Maw also visited some of the bazaars, and described them as miserable and repulsive, and we preferred to let the carpet merchant who had been recommended to us bring his goods to our quarters. The carpets made here are not considered equal to those of Rabat, but they are comparatively cheap and durable. On inquiring how our purchases could be forwarded to Mogador, we found that the hire of a camel with his driver for this weary four or five days’ journey amounted only to about seven shillings of our money, and that the risk of robbery was considered too trifling to be worth mentioning. The comparison of five observations, taken on as many successive days, gives for the altitude of our station in Marocco a height of 511°9 métres, or 1,679 English feet. Allowing for the difference of level, the height of the great square may be taken to be very closely 500 métres or 1,640 English feet. The observations were calculated on the assumption that the barometer at sea level at Mogador stood at 760 millimétres, and hence it is not surprising that the results of each day’s observation vary form the mean, in some cases as much as fifty feet; but, as settled weather prevailed at this period, the mean adopted is probably very near the truth. Most of the results of our observations (see Appendix) agree well with the few 154 PANORAMA OF THE GREAT ATLAS. CH. VII. observations previously made in the interior by M. Beau- mier and M. Balansa; but in this instance there is a difference of seventy métres (or 230 English feet), M. Beaumier’s result being 430 métres above the sea. No particulars are given by him as to the instruments used, or the methods of observations and reduction, and we feel no hesitation in provisionally adopting the height result- ing from our own observations. As may well be supposed, the object that most fully and constantly engaged our attention during our stay in Marocco was the view of the Great Atlas range, for which the terraced roof of our house afforded every needful faci- lity. The interest attaching to an almost unknown chain of great mountains was enhanced by the hope of pene- trating its recesses. We were often tantalised by finding clouds hanging about the flanks, or clinging to the higher peaks, as happened during the latter days of our stay, but there was always enough to be seen to reward our atten- tion. We were able to identify the mountain, Miltsin, which Washington took to be the highest peak in the Atlas chain visible from Marocco; but we had already, during the last day’s journey before entering the city, satisfied ourselves that there is no summit visible trom the plain of Marocco that can claim any marked predomin- ance over its neighbours. Travelling, as we were, nearly parallel to the main chain, we were far more favourably placed than Washington, who approached the city from the NNW., and always viewed the chain from nearly the same direction. The crest is undoubtedly more sinuous than it appears as laid down on the map, or when seen from a distance; some of the projecting summits are therefore nearer to the eye than others; but it appeared to us then, and our subsequent experience only strengthened that belief, that most of the peaks or prominences in the higher portion of the chain seen from the plain of Marocco, in a distance of fifty or sixty miles, attain to very nearly the same height. CH. VII. WASHINGTON’S OBSERVATIONS. 155 Washington speaks of a base-line of seventeen miles which served him for his trigonometrical observations, but it is obvious from his narrative that this cannot have been measured so as to admit of much accuracy in his results. As a matter of fact, it appears from his map and accom- panying section, and from the narrative of his excursion to Tagherain, that Washington considerably underrated the distance from the city to the crest of the Great Atlas. His Miltsin is doubtless a summit near the head of the Ourika valley, which apparently stands some short way north of the axis of the chain. According to the scale of his map Miltsin is twenty-seven and a half geographical miles distant from the house which he occupied, whereas it is impossible to estimate the true distance at less than thirty-three geographical miles. If we allow for the height of Marocco above the sea level, and increase the estimated height of Miltsin in the ratio of its true distance to that assumed by Washington, we get for the height of the peak 13,352 feet (4,069°6 m.) above the sea, which is perhaps somewhat above the true measurement. Owing to the prevalence of clouds during the latter period of our stay in Marocco, we failed to secure a satis- factory outline of the Atlas chain; but, through the kind- ness of Sir J. D. Hay, we are enabled to insert a copy of a drawing made by the late Mr. William Prinsep, who accompanied the mission to Marocco in December, 1829. The view of the same range given in Jackson’s generally accurate work must have been done from description or from imperfect recollection, as it bears no resemblance to nature. We had been many times struck by the demeanour of the wild birds during our journey from Mogador. They seem in this country to be quite free from what we look on as the instinctive fear of man, which in truth is an in- herited tendency only in those countries where the human population habitually pursues them. As we rode along, the turtle doves, which abound wherever there are trees 156 DEMEANOUR OF THE WILD BIRDS. CH. vil. or bushes, scarcely seemed to notice our passage, and would remain perched upon a bough close beside the track. Here in the city of Marocco a small bird about the size of a sparrow, but much more elegant in shape and attractive from its green-grey plumage—the Fringillaria Saharce—displayed still greater boldness. During our meals, which were always taken in the central saloon open to the sky, they would boldly alight beside us, and pick up the crumbs that were sometimes purposely scattered for their benefit. We saw nothing ofthe harmless serpents, one of which at least is said to inhabit every house in Marocco, and which the natives consider it unlucky to destroy or drive away. Probably they find the food that suits them only in inhabited houses, and ours had been so long untenanted that they had deserted the empty rooms. Sunday, May 7, was fully employed in completing the arrangements for our journey, and packing up the bota- nical collections already secured. Our men had doubtless enjoyed the rest, and were gratified by a distribution of new shoes, or rather slippers, which replaced those pretty thoroughly worn out on the journey from Mogador. In a country where the surface is generally stony, and the soil abounds in plants beset by thick sharp spines, the thin slippers universally used by the people are very soon consumed. Abraham appeared to-day gorgeously arrayed in a new suit, with dark yellow boots such as are worn by Moors of the better class. He had grown much in importance during the last few days, since, in his capacity as our in- terpreter, he, a Jew, bas sat with his slippers on in the presence of El Graoui, the most powerful subject in Marocco. With regard to the position of the Jews, there can be no doubt that the benevolent efforts of Sir Moses Monte- fiore, backed up by the representatives of England and other civilised States, have produced some permanent CH. VII. CONDITION OF THE JEWS. 157 effect. In the coast towns, under the eyes of European consular agents, they seem to enjoy security from violence, and even from insult. In the city of Marocco, where they inhabit a separate quarter, walled in and accessible only by two gates, they are safe so long as they keep within those limits; but they are still forced to walk barefoot when they pass into the city, and are exposed to derision and insult against which they dare not protest. In the remoter parts of the territory, where their scattered communities are found here and there, their condition is apparently still worse, and they are frequently subjected to brutal ill-usage; but even there their superior intel- ligence and skill in industrial crafts, for which the Moor is incompetent, secures them a certain degree of con- sideration.! ; We this day made acquaintance with Kaid el Hasbi, the captain of the escort of five men, who, along with our Mogador guard, was to travel with us through the Atlas. Nature had given him a disagreeable countenance with a forbidding expression, and our subsequent experience fully confirmed the first unfavourable impression. It had been arranged that our first day’s journey from Marocco was to be a short one, and accordingly our final start on Monday, May 8, was delayed until 8 a.m. Our large tent, too heavy for mules, had been sent back to Mogador; but, nevertheless, our baggage formed a very sufficient load for nine mules. Not counting our inter- preter and Hooker’s European attendant, we had nine followers engaged in various capacities, besides twelve men in charge of the hired animals, making up altogether, with the escort, who numbered nine privates and two officers, a party of thirty-seven men and thirty-three horses and mules. We wound slowly through the filthy lanes of the 1The reader who may desire a more detailed account of the city of Marocco than we can afford is referred to the Description and Plan of the City, by M. Paul Lambert, in the Budlletin of the French Geo- graphical Society for 1868. 158 PARTING WITH EL GRAOUI. CH. Vil. Jews’ quarter, and went out by the south-east gate of the - city, having on our right the high wall that encloses the vast gardens attached to the Sultan’s residence. Having entered the city through groves of the date-palm, the foliage of which is too tough for the teeth of the locust, we had scarcely noticed these pernicious creatures on that occasion; but in the well-irrigated tracts south and west of the city which are devoted to tillage they had this year been more than usually destructive. It is in their young condition, while still active on the wing, that their vora- city is greatest ; but in that stage it is practically impos- sible to contend with them. When they have attained their full growth they become unwieldy, and at length nearly torpid; and it is then that the natives endeavour to exterminate them, with a view to prevent the females from depositing their countless eggs and leaving to the district _ a legacy of future devastation. It seemed that El Graoui, for his own reasons, wished to give us a parting testimony of good-will and favour, without at the same time committing himself too glar- ingly for native ideas. It was not, doubtless, by mere accident that about a mile outside the walls we found him close to our track, with a train of mounted attendants, superintending the process of locust slaughter, and were informed that he wished to bid us farewell. Mounted on a splendid black charger, the old man, in spite of his unwieldy figure, had a commanding appearance. His manner was quite friendly; and, as the brief conversation proceeded, he rode along with us for a couple of hundred yards, and then shook hands with many good wishes for our safety and success. The process of locust destruction which El Graoui was supposed to superintend was of the rudest description. The bodies of the bloated sluggish insects are swept into heaps with rough brooms, and a fire of twigs is then lighted over each heap. On the way from Sektana to Mogador, Maw afterwards saw another more expeditious CH. VII. LOCUST DESTRUCTION. 159 process adopted in a part of the country intersected by open irrigation channels. Rough screens made of reeds are set up along one side of the watercourse, as shown in the annexed cut, and the inactive insects, being driven against them, fall into the water and are drowned. Some effect may doubtless be produced by these contrivances ; but it seems very doubtful whether, if every locust that reaches the inhabited districts were destroyed, the plague would be materially abated. In a region including wide tracts almost without population there are unlimited opportunities for depositing the eggs; from these arise countless swarms, which, in their active condition, are capable of traversing wide spaces in search of nourish- ment. The suppression of the locust plague probably awaits the spread of some creature to which their eggs would afford suitable food. In great measure influenced by Washington’s account of his visit to Tasseremout, and his conviction that from that place the highest ridge of the Atlas might be reached in a single day’s excursion, we had decided on making that our first halting-place; and, as the distance can be little over twenty miles, we reckoned on reaching it by evening. Our way lay about due south-east through the district of Mesfioua, which is under the rule of a Kaid, or sub- governor, subject to the orders of El Graoui. To the eye the country seems a dead level; but the rapid flow of water in the covered channels and smaller 160 OUTER RAMPART OF THE ATLAS. CH. vu. open rivulets showed that the slope of the ground from south to north is very decided. Along the smaller water- courses we noticed in abundance what appeared to be a new Pulicaria, but was afterwards found to be the same as an eastern species (P. longifolia) described by Boissier. We rode along in high spirits, delighted to leave the city, and still more with the near prospect of setting foot on the mountain chain whose unknown recesses had so long been a fascination for us; and the only drawback on our enjoyment was the shifting veil of clouds that hung about the higher summits, only now and then allowing some rug- ged peak to stand out for a few moments. As we gradually drew nearer, our attention was more and more fixed on the remarkable line of flat-topped bluffs, conspicuous in the view from the city, that extends for a distance of fully twenty miles along the base of the Atlas chain, and on the east side seems to jut out in a northern direction. From a distance the face appears quite precipitous and almost vertical, and there is but one conspicuous break in its continuity. This, as we afterwards found, is caused by the stream running under Tasseremout, which has cut a deep channel through the barrier. After riding about three hours we approached an in- habited place, which we were told was the residence of the Kaid. We had left behind us the tract of country ravaged by locusts, and the general aspect of things was here much brighter than we had beheld since leaving the coast region. The more brilliant green and more vigorous growth of herbaceous plants led us to infer that, irrespec- tive of the influence of irrigation, the zone extending round the base of the mountain region must receive at least some share of the more frequent rains that occur there at seasons when the low country in general is con- demned to utter drought. On reaching the kasbah of the Kaid, which showed as a low but substantial building, with walls sloping outward, we were accosted by an official deputed to apologise for the absence of his chief, who CH. VIL. APPROACH TO THE ATLAS. 161 was to return towards evening, and to invite us to halt there for the remainder of the day. As it was now about noon, this proposition was met at once by a decided negative, when the chief of our Marocco escort intervened and, with an air of dogged insistance, urged the necessity for a halt. There ensued the first of many an altercation with the same disagreeable person, in which it is needless to say that Hookeyr’s decision and firmness prevailed, and the order went forth to continue our journey. Amongst the bushes near at hand we for the first time gathered a curious, but no way ornamental, Cruciferous plant, first found by M. Balansa, which exhibits the only distinct generic type yet found in the interior of South Marocco, and has been described by M. Cosson under the name Ceratocnemum rapistroides. It here grew four or five feet high, with long slender branches; but in open places we afterwards found it in comparatively stunted condition—a foot, or less, in height. The country, after quitting the kasbah, gradually changed its character. Scattered blocks of moderate size showed themselves with increasing frequency, and seemed to be of very varied composition. Some were formed of a coarse-grained sandstone or fine conglomerate, others appeared to be granitic, though deficient in mica, while others looked like porphyry. The restrictions by which we were bound prevented us from undertaking any close examination, and still more from attempting to carry away specimens. The predominance of silex in the soil was made apparent by the vegetation. We had already often admired the pretty little rose-coloured Spergularia dian- dra, common on sandy soil throughout Southern Marocco ; but this here became a conspicuous ornament ; its numerous delicate flowers forming large cushions of bright colour on the surface of the soil. Among other characteristic species not before seen were Aizoon canariense and a new species of Anthemis ; but the predominant element in the vegetation was furnished by the Leguminosae, and espe- M 162 CAMP AT MESFIOUA. CH. VII. cially by the genera Trifoliwm, Medicago, Ononis, and Lotus. Of the first two genera we found in the lower re- gion none but the common Mediterranean species, while the others displayed many local forms. One Ononis here found was altogether new; and a Lotus, not elsewhere seen in our journey, seemed identical with an Oriental species not hitherto found west of Greece. As we advanced, the upward slope of the ground to- wards the foot of the great range became much more perceptible, though still very gradual. At near 4 Pm, we arrived at another house belonging to the Kaid of Mesfioua, and were informed that that functionary was waiting to receive us, and expected us to halt there for the night. The instinctive feeling of an Englishman who has made up his mind to accomplish a certain distance in his day’s journey is to close his ears to any suggestion of delay, and all the more decidedly when there is reason to think that other people are scheming to oppose him; so at first it seemed as if we should have further altercation with our escort. But as prudence pointed out that, whatever the feelings of the local authorities might be in our regard, it would be injudicious to do anything to give offence, and as at the same time the appearance of the country near at hand promised good botanising, we speedily decided on making a virtue of necessity, and with sufficiently good grace agreed to pitch our tents. By this time the Kaid had come out to receive us, but retired after a brief saluta- tion, it being understood that conversation was reserved till evening. Without loss of time, we sallied forth with our port- folios, attended by one of the soldiers who was supposed to watch over our safety, and directing our steps to a dry river-bed that winds through the plain close by, were rewarded for our self-denial by finding a number of in- teresting plants not before seen. The most conspicuous of these was a Tamuri«, which in some places grew thickly near the banks. It is remarkable for the bright pink cH, vi. GUM EUPHORBIUM PLANT. 163 colour of the seed vessel, and differed much in general aspect, though not widely in structure, from the common T. gallica. The river-bed is probably the natural channel of the stream that flows below Tasseremout, part of which is diverted into irrigation channels, but during rainy wea- ther resumes its original course. As the sun declined the clouds cleared away from the higher ridges of the Atlas, of which we enjoyed the finest view we had yet attained. Nearly due east and thence bearing towards ESE., was a group of high summits which, to judge from several large patches of snow, must be quite as lofty as that nearer to us. Between this, which belongs as we believe to the district called Glaoui, and the nearer range it was clear that a considerable valley runs deep into the chain. The drainage of this valley must flow to the Oued Tensift ; but whether that be the main eastern branch of the river, or an affluent not indicated on the maps, is as yet uncertain. After dinner, we adjourned from our tent to pay our promised visit to the Kaid, who, according to custom, had green tea served in a small low room, which was reached through intricate passages. As a matter of course, the object of our journey was the chief topic of conversation. Among other plants we spoke of the furbioun,!' or Gum Euphorbium, which we knew to be produced by a cactoid Euphorbia that grows about the base of the Great Atlas, east of the city of Marocco. Concurrent native testi- mony fixes the province of Demenet as its chief home ; and it must be very rare, or altogether absent, in the districts traversed by us, as it is scarcely possible that it should have been overlooked. Apparently conciliated by some trifling presents, the Kaid informed us that he had in his garden some plants brought from Demenet, and offered one of these, which was safely forwarded to Kew, as a gift to Hooker. 1 See Appendix D. uM 2 164 A LOST PLANT REFOUND. cH. vi. When nearly ready to start on the morning of May 9, we were informed that the Kaid meant to accompany us on the way to Tasseremout.! This caused a slight delay, which was not unpleasantly occupied in looking around us. The morning air was delightfully cool (58° Fahr. at 6 a.m.), although the day before had been hot, and at 11 P.M. the thermometer had fallen only to 73°. The position of the Kaid’s dwelling was in itself very beautiful, in the midst of a fertile country encircled by hills, and these backed by a majestic range of lofty mountains. The line of escarp- ment skirting the base of the Atlas, already distinctly seen in the view from Marocco, was conspicuous on the eastern side, but towards the south was partly concealed by fine olive groves. The mean of two nearly concordant ob- servations gives for the height of this place 2,399 feet (731°1 m.) above the sea. At about 7 A.M. we moved, and, crossing the dry river- bed, very soon began to ascend among low hills, apparently formed by erosion from an upper plateau that surrounds the base of the mountains. We often rode along hollow ways between high banks or lofty hedges formed of tangled shrubs and climbing plants, in which were mingled some familiar forms with several altogether new to us. A dog- rose, scarcely distinguishable from the common British Rosa canina, was common in some places, along with profuse masses of Hphedra altissima and other south- ern forms. Climbing high over all these was a beautiful Coronilla, with very large white and lilac-blue flowers. We knew that a fine species of this genus, first. brought from Marocco by Broussonnet, had been formerly culti- vated in England, though long since lost from our gardens ; but the Coronilla viminalis figured by Salisbury shows yellow flowers, and is placed amongst the shrubby species of the genus. It was clear that in the plant before us the 1 As constantly happened, it was very difficult to fix the sound of this name. The accent sometimes fell on the last syllable, sometimes on the penultimate. CH. VII. NORTHERN BASE OF ‘'HE ATLAS. 165 stems die down nearly to the root every winter; and our belief that this was an entirely new species only yielded to subsequent careful examination, which proved that it is no other than Broussonnet’s plant. The date-palm had disappeared soon after we entered the hills; here, and elsewhere on our route, it seems to be confined to the lower region, rarely attaining the level of 3,000 feet above the sea. Its place was here supplied by the palmetto (Chamerops humilis), which seldom forms a trunk, perhaps because it is not allowed to attain a sufficient age. As we advanced, the vegetation constantly offered a more varied and attractive aspect; and one of our first prizes was a new species of thyme (Thymus maroccanus, Ball), somewhat like the species of the Argan zone, but with oblong leaves and uncoloured bracts. Of comparatively familiar forms there were Cistus monspe- liensis, and C. polymorphus, the first species of that genus that we had seen in South Marocco, the pretty little Cleonia lusitanica, with many other Labiate. Of plants new to our eyes by far the most interesting was the curious Polygala Balanscee. To those who know only the milkworts of Europe and North America, it must seem strange to hear of a large shrubby Polygala, with branches that end in a sharp point, few small leaves, so quickly de- ciduous that it generally appears quite leafless, and large flowers of a showy purple-red colour. In truth, although there is great variety of form in this large genus, the species which is common throughout the lower valleys of the Great Atlas is very distinct from all its congeners. In Arabia and South Africa there are some species forming dwarf bushes with spinescent branches, but in other re- spects very different. When full grown this is six or eight feet in height; and the round, green, almost leafless stems give it, when the flowers are absent, much the appear- ance of Spartium junceum, the large broom of Southern Europe. After riding some way up a rather steep stony track, 166 CASTLE OF TASSEREMOUT. cH. vu we reached a grove of very fine olive trees, and our escort came to a halt. We had reached Tasseremout. For some time we had seen a large pile of solid masonry which crowned the hill immediately above the olive grove. This seemed to deserve a visit; but, on the other hand, the attractions of the surrounding vegetation were irresistible to botanists. The matter was settled by Hooker proceed- ing to visit the castle with the Kaid, while Ball botanised, FORT AT TASSEREMOUT, and Maw secured living specimens of some of the more interesting plants. The castle of Tasseremout is one out of a large num- ber of similar buildings standing on the northern outworks of the Great Atlas chain that will afford interesting matter for inquiry to future travellers when the country becomes more accessible, and the lessened jealousy of the natives will make a thorough examination of them less impossible than it would be at present. The natives vaguely attribute cu. vir. HILL FORTS OF THE GREAT ATLAS. 167 their construction to Christians or Romans, the same word conveying either meaning; but the Jews cften explain this to mean Portuguese. The general character of these buildings, as far as our information goes, is tolerably uniform. The walls are of great thickness and built of rough hewn stone: the arches are always rounded and the lower chambers vaulted; and they are evidently places of defence. There is little reason to believe that the Portuguese, who held at one time or other most of the Atlantic coast of Marocco, ever established a firm footing inland, and still less that they had such a hold on South Marocco as would be implied by the erection of a chain of forts along the foot of the Atlas. On the other hand, the history of Mauritania during the long period of the decline of Rome, and preceding the Saracen conquest, is an almost complete blank, save for a few apocryphal stories. It is certain that the lower country was once completely subject to Roman power and Roman institutions, and it re- mains to be ascertained how far an organised government survived the weakening of the central authority. That the independent tribes of the Atlas may have been incon- venient neighbours to the half-Romanised inhabitants of the plain is more than probable, and that the forts should have been erected to hold the former in check seems the most likely conjecture as to their origin. Excavation, whenever that may be practicable, will scarcely fail to tell something of the original occupants of these buildings, and to diminish our ignorance of a dark period of past history. As to the question which interested us most nearly, the Kaid had at first been reserved ; and when it became necessary to decide, his language was decidedly unfavour- able. It was impossible, he said, to reach the high moun- tains with snow on them from Tasseremout. Any one attempting to do so would pass beyond his district, where he could not protect us, and he could not allow us-to incur such a risk. We remembered Washington’s account of 168 WASHINGTON’S ATTEMPTED ASCENT. CH, VI. his winter excursion from this place; and, what was more curious, we found that a tradition of the visit of Christians who have gone up the mountains here many years before survived among the people. When, in December, 1829, the late Sir J. Drummond Hay was received at Marocco with great distinction by the then Sultan, it was arranged that, after taking leave of the sovereign, the party should enjoy two or three days’ hunting towards the foot of the Atlas, and they accordingly encamped somewhere below Tasseremout. Washington and some other officers attached to the mis- sion resolved to take the opportunity for ascending the mountains as far as possible. At starting they evidently thought it practicable to attain the higher peaks from this place by a continuous ascent, and appear to have been surprised to find, after several hours’ climbing, when they had reached and somewhat passed the limit of the winter snow, that the ‘highest peaks were still far beyond their reach.’ To one familiar with high mountain countries, the natural course for attaining to the backbone of a con- siderable chain is by penetrating to the head of one of the deeper valleys; and the course taken by Washington’s party would appear no more promising than the attempt to scale Monte Rosa from the plain of Piedmont by as- cending the mountains behind Ivrea. The mountain stream that flows below Tasseremout seems to come from the SE., where the range presents no conspicuous sum- mits; whereas the higher points visible from our camp at Mesfioua lay nearly due south. We were therefore not inclined to insist on carrying out our original design of making Tasseremout our base of operations; and when we were told that the valley of Ourika, lying some distance to the west, led to the snowy mountains, we at once decided ou moving thither in the course of the afternoon. To con- sole us for our disappointment, the Kaid invited us to a repast which, like the food supplied at Mesfioua, was much better cooked than usual. We especially appreciated some cakes, or bannocks, of wheaten flour that made an CH, VII. JEWISH SUPPLIANTS. 169 agreeable change from the biscuit to which we were often reduced. Our impressions on this our first acquaintance with the outer region of the Great Atlas were very agreeable. The country appeared populous and fruitful. There was, in- deed, little space for tillage, and that was of the rudest kind; but besides the olive, which attains a great size, the carob (Ceratonia Siliqua) and walnut, both growing to perfection, combine beauty with economic value. The common Opuntia, or Indian fig, also grows luxuriantly, and supplies an item in the diet of the natives. Before we started, about 3 p.m. a body of miserable- looking Jews presented themselves, and offered a mona of olives, chilis, cakes of repulsive appearance, and some terrible spirituous liquor served in a battered tin teapot. When we excused ourselves on the ground that we had but just finished eating, they insisted that we should, at least, partake of the liquor. Abraham explained that we could not possibly drink out of a vessel so indescribably foul as the earthenware cup presented to us; whereupon one of the women lifted the skirt of her filthy petticoat, and proceeded to polish the cup to her own satisfaction. There was something pathetic in the abject air of these poor people, of whom there are many communities in this part of the Atlas. Born to suffering and oppression, they yet contrive to hold together, and even increase their numbers, thanks to superior intelligence and skill which make them almost indispensable to their neighbours. They are forced by law or custom to wear none but black outer garments, and the older men have high brimless cylindrical hats, tapering somewhat towards the top. They had taken it into their heads that Christian strangers travelling with a large escort must be persons of influence and authority, and had come to implore our favour and protection. The men concluded by kissing the skirts of our jellabias ; and, as we were riding off, the women, who stood in a group behind, advanced and kissed our knees, 170 BOULDER DEPOSITS. cH. Vil. in true Oriental fashion. We were assured by our inter- preter, who naturally sympathised with the people of his own race, that they often suffer from ill-usage, for which there is absolutely no redress ; but it does not appear that their condition is practically as bad as that of the same people in Roumania and some other so-called Christian States. In some respects, indeed, they are better off than their Mohammedan neighbours. Not suspected of wealth, their head-men are not liable to be ‘ squeezed,’ and, living apart, they are not engaged in the intestine feuds of adjoining tribes, and not often victims of the cruelties that accompany them. During our afternoon ride from Tasseremout to the Ourika river, our course lay to the SW., along the base of the escarpment which had so much attracted our notice from a distance; and much discussion arose as to the origin of the vast masses of boulders that were spread along the comparatively level shelf along which we rode, and descended, in some places at least, to the margin of the plain. During the ascent from our camp of last night to Tasseremout, we first made acquaintance with these deposits, at a height of about 3,000 feet above the sea, that of the olive grove at Tasseremout being 3,534 feet. On the slope to the right of our track a mass of irregular weather-worn blocks of sandstone lay in disorder, the most prominent characteristic being that they were all of large size (measuring from ten to twenty cubic yards, according to Maw), with little or no intermixture of finer materials. Maw was disposed to consider these as glacial deposits ;1 but, among other difficulties, it was urged that the moraines of glaciers descending from a great mountain chain always include a large proportion of finer materials along with large blocks, and that these include fragments of the various rocks through which the glacier 1 See Mr. Maw’s paper on the ‘Geology of Marocco.’ Appendix F. CH. VII. ORIGIN OF BOULDER MOUNDS. 171 flows, while it was prima facie improbable that such a mountain chain as that before us should be altogether formed of the sandstone of which, so far as we could see, the blocks before us were exclusively composed. Soon after leaving Tasseremout, we came to the opening of a narrow valley or ravine cutting through the escarpment, and exposing to view great piles of boulders similar to those seen below, but on a larger scale. After this, the escarpment showed an unbroken face for a distance of about ten miles. Seen near at hand the slope, which from a distance seemed nearly vertical, appeared to have an inclination of from 35° to 45°, and rose to an average height of about 1,000 feet above its base. The upper beds, whose exposed edges were everywhere seen, seemed to consist of hard limestone with siliceous concretions; while the lower beds were of less consistent shaly limestone. The ground over which we rode ina SW. direction, parallel to the base of the escarpment, was very irregular in form, rising in places into mounds sloping inwards towards the cliffs as well as outwards towards the plain ; and, although in great part covered with vegetation, it appeared pretty certain that the whole was composed of irregular masses of sandstone intermixed to some extent with fragments of the rocks forming the barrier beside us. To those who did not admit the probability of the boulders before seen being deposited by glacial action, the phe- nomena here presented offered strong confirmation. 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GLso L089 GELo T-669 9 669 869 L6¢ c09 G29 Tey Li9 Teg 0-699 O-FL9 0-F09 G-699 G-189 0-189 G-L99 G-869 0-769 GIL OTL 0d 7 TUSV ET UAL (uostanduios Aq ‘puno.y : - “od “oq punoiry ‘asnoyy f+ doqpea uesaqy LV (ur aSuyra ‘aevusaiolj : oo 0d ‘ + AaT[VA ursoyT WY UL Srusepy dug * vAnrayy Quuypissuy, dairy Auta 07 ssvd Jo Frumumng ft 8 Cargassy) (Aoqea = vytMg = ‘dur xe “og é : “og ZITO Jo anuypra MOlaq Fatt vytinyy Aq dug qNoWerassey, ‘asnoy US, PIVY MoTAq aA01D aT[O : : “oq enoysayq ye dues “od od “od am Vm ——~ e—— “Wa 9 Wad Z Wy 9 Wwe g Wd Z% WOON ‘Wad OT “WV 6 “Wd QT WV 2 IWwV 9 Wal 9 ‘Wd TOON, ‘Wd OT moon, “WV 9 Wd TT WV ¢ Ww 2 VI “ 6c APPENDIX A. 364 “Tz AVN To zrusury YEA uostreduuos §=q_ apn af CHF | 88PS Tax] — = ae — *STOTJBAIASGO 9aIY} JO UBT Cle F 9.CFET — ae = —_ ed a T-8b@'T§ | 9 | ¢T-092 | 9-199 9F9 od pa O-PPS aN 09} &T192 0-149 ¢-9F9 ~ropesoyy yar uostredwogy § | — | gcrgi§ | to | 9-192 — F149 169 “SUOTJVAIASGO BaIY} JO UBT | ZeE'e L080'T | — pais aa = a = Z-PBO'TS | OL | G8-T9L | E4929 | 2.229 Od = O-6POTS | ZA | T69L | 6-FL9 Lo od = ae 810 ae 8G | 1292 | 8-29 zL9 “IopeSo UJI wostavd woe ‘ T-628'T§ | ¢9 | T-FOL 8-679 L¥9 aa : o§ nek Less T§ | 8¢ | gF9L T-F89 9F9 ‘od =| Pert) F00gel |— | — = a ‘od | psa] Feerst | ez] — — | 986F “punolry YA wostrvduos Aq ZEQn z-eee'zt | 6g ee a g9¢ ‘ropedoyy yt tostivdwioy § | zgs‘F ssFT§ | 6¢ | o2e2 | SOTO | ¢-c89 Soro o6t || = mm aig ropeSoyy YH ostavduiog § | gap og 1-9/6'T§ | oF | T-292 _ _ ee woyust | somey |B | cote yaya | qayout SUOT}VAIASGO -8ug Ut | ur apnagnty 16 ropedoy | “O2%L -01egy apnywyry * * 3 =| paqoar10,) 1peqoa110D | paaresyO Sa Ro ac | : od c “od ‘ “od : “og faye ZEUS “TeqUIWy] . “OL 3 . . 06 3 ‘ og % + ziusury “dure : , : “og . + wuniyog “ureg § ssed yoroysey, Uo apnzgye — peyeannys| fon ssud qoroyory, Uyo qyouums MOT “I 002 § + ssed goray, U-SBy MOTAG QUIOY S,JUTLg ausoyy 4LY UT SaAr{o qsoystyy + suorBares -qo [Ie jo uostiedui0s uo pardope qsVY ‘aug “yey EOS ae ‘uoTyeAsasqo JaqVa-Sutpiog Aq ‘punolwy wean em S~m ICV 6 WY 6 Wd OL NV OL ‘Wd g “Wa OS'Z anes 8 ‘Wa T Wad g UOTJVAIASGO JO VV Rested TART “OMT “panuyuo—SaaqdaALILTy dO ATAV I], 365 TABLE OF ALTITUDES. uvayy ‘ropeSoy yt costrediue, “o] *SUOTIVALISGO OM} JO TL] Y 0d ‘1OpeBoW YPM wostruduo,y § “"SUOHBarasqo OA} FO THATY «T Od ‘opesdopy YIEM uostrudiio,y § *SUOLVALasqo OMI JO ULOT YT “OL “Od Od, Yat sropesoyy yquar uostuuwdwo,) § ‘LayuLy YJEM uostredaroy §§ “pordope apnqgLy ‘oyu GIEM dostudwo,y §§ ‘Topesopy yyIa uostreduioy § “TpoyUTuU] YIM wostuvdwmog §§ *S}[NSe1 INOJ Jo i ‘paydope apnyty + ZL0°0T 190° 0T CeO TL ¥09'S SIP | §Tzer§ N Us-F¢T 98h SFP T-9FP§ F-LSP§ GOLF i ORF 1§ 1§ G-290'TS ObF'ZS$ T-0¢8'¢ py 1696'S 80z‘TS$ Gong T+4 8g | L892 29 | C@-p92 89 | 6-92 uo | LZg2 09 | 6192 89 PTL ZG | L094 8¢ | 8.092 09 | 9-192 9 | F192 OL | 1092 gy | 1-092 T9 | 6-692 6g | — 09 | 28-092 | = WOPL POPL 0-62 8-262 eat 8-612 V-189 ST-T99 Lo &L89 6-989 1-669 £669 §-3L9 0-999 029 &89 GERI 889 69 IND g9¢ | . ‘op 0d relpey ja apy ‘dus yeqsey oy Jo wnog ‘op ‘op “od “op “op ‘od { uiupayg jo yqsey jo Lynn dAOGE “UW g WoOY "op 0g s 3 + op oc] g * Breysyy ‘dureg | ore qeqsey Aq dureg f VINO PUB [ISIN], (uly useMyeq peysieze AA - ULRUTEAL Mopaq durep ‘op 0g 4 ‘op oc] vnowsyag dure vITOYy ‘YVqsey wou y[epT : * Bpnozyy ye yeqsey + ZUSUTY 48 Yyeqsey 2 + Bpored 1 aes Jo Yury aedd q > cop ‘op od ‘op ‘op “od | Yezay eqeld Jo yruung ‘ -yuzay, aga Jo asuq ye 4Uy a | “wy 9e"g “WV 9 “IVR Wag ie cae ~ mee Wars a Wy g “WY Why ad “IWwV 8 “WV ee GS NOD Vea ca Wd 02S i ‘WV G T (ca &e oun’ AUIY 366 APPENDIX B. travelling in Marocco, and before the necessity for a consider- able correction to the readings of Secrétan’s aneroid had become apparent. The difference arising from this and other correc- tions applicable to the highest points reached by us is con- siderable, and requires a deduction of about 500 feet from the estimated height of the Tagherot pass, and about the same from the calculated altitude of Djebel Tezah. The corresponding error in the calculated altitudes for the low country stations, e.g. those between Mogador and Marocco, averages about 200 feet. J. B. APPENDIX B. Itineraries of Routes from the City of Marocco through the Great Atlas. THE information respecting the routes here given was supplied by a Jew named Salomon ben Daoud, an inhabitant of the city of Marocco engaged in trading operations with the natives of the portions of the Great Atlas wherein the authority of the Sultan is recognised. In the absence of more accurate reports, it appears desirable to publish this slight contribution to the topography of a country altogether unknown to Europeans, excepting so far as we were able to visit a few of the places enumerated. To assist those who may hereafter seek to follow any of these routes, the names of places inserted in the French map of Marocco by Captain Beaudouin, or in the map annexed to this volume, are distinguished by an asterisk. The distances are reckoned by hours, one of which may be counted as equi- valent to four miles in the plain, and to a somewhat lesser distance in the mountain. A day’s journey usually varies from eight to ten hours. The spelling of the names is made to agree with that adopted throughout this work, the vowels having the same sounds as in most European languages, and not those peculiar to our country. ITINERARIES OF ROUTES. 367 ROUTE 1. Marocco to Demenet, and Excursion from Demenet to places in the neighbourhood. Marocco to Ain el Berda . i : 7 . 38 hours, ) *Sidi Rahal. . F é ve Boy 5 *Oued Tessout (ford the river) . ay, SEP. 455 i *Tidli (a mountain) . ; af DE og 5 Draha ss. ‘ : é ‘ - lLhou. ” *Deimenet . : 3 d : . 38 hours. VS 4g This road is undulating, with hills and valleys, or hollows. From Demenet cross over the river Emhasser, and pro- ceeding for one hour on the mountain you will reach a place called Iminifri, on a high mountain, which contains an opening or pass only just large enough for one person to creep through on his hands and knees, the length of the pass being about 100 yards ; and when through it you will find open ground on the top of the high mountain. There will be seen remains (ruins) of old Christian buildings, in which live many birds. From the upper part of this mountain overhanging parts (or cliffs) branch out downwards against the mountain, towards the River Tor, of 500 yards long ; but these overhanging parts do not reach the water of the river. [The places here spoken of apparently lie N.W. of Demenet —the El Acchabi of the French map. The river Tor is pro- bably the Oued Lakdeur of the same map. | ROUTE 2. Demenet to the Sources of the Oued Tessout. Demenet to Ait Cid Hassan (between mountains) . 4 hours. . *Ait Emdoual , : ; : - 1 hour. In Ait Emdoual is a river one day’s journey long. There are inhabitants along the river. From this to Ait Affan one day’s journey over barren desert ground uninhabited. From *Ait Affan to Ansai (contains some inhabitants). ? hours, ‘5 65 Ait Kassi 3 5 Tel Khedit 368 APPENDIX B. Tel Khedit is a mountain, and contains the source of the river Tessout ; and on this mountain the snow remains both in summer and winter. [This route agrees in many respects with the indications of the French map. The name Ait Chihatchen, there laid down south of Demenet, is probably the Ait Cid Hassan of the itin- erary. It appears, however, that the importance of the moun- tain chain on the north side of- the upper valley of the Tessout must be much exaggerated by the hill-shading on the map. The main chain of the Atlas is undoubtedly that on the southern side of that valley. The head of the valley is, on the French map, united to the province of N’tifa. A priori probability and the wording of the itinerary suggest that it all belongs to Demenet. } ROUTE 3. Marocco to N’tifa. Marocco to Zourt ben Sessy . ; : . 2 hours. Ras el Ain : : : ; at Di gh {Here is a mountain called Bou Surkar, or stony.] % *Tamlelt . : . #8 hours. Pr *N’tifa ‘ : : : 1 day. [None of these places seem to be laid down on the French map, unless Tendalet be the same place as Tamlelt. N’tifa is properly the name of the province. The particular place so named by our informant, is probably the residence of the Kaid, or Governor. It seems likely that this is very near the place marked Bezzou on the French map.] ROUTE 4. Demenet to Ntifa. Demenet to Ait Mazan (valleys and hills) . . 38 hours, 53 *“N tifa, 4 Fi ‘ ‘ ‘ 7B 5 6 On this road is found the Gum Euphorbium plant, or tree, and the trees producing the brown gum arabic. From N’tifa forward is the country of the tribe Ait Attab where there is little or no government among the people. ITINERARIES OF ROUTES. 369 ROUTE 6. Tour in the Mountains East and South-east of Marocco. Marocco to Zourt ben Sessy . ‘ . . . 2 hours. of Rasel Ain. : : c . a Be 355 5 *Tagana F De ys 7 Ait Zehad (onthe raapuialttd in 1 Mestiota} 4, % Iminterrat . ; : : ; 22 a. [Here are found some ruins of Christian buildings of old times. ] Marocco tu Tasselt . ‘ 5 - , - . 2 hours. 3 Tel Eizrat De 55 ‘3 Tighidoun Ta ouie, 4 ,, 3 Ait Izzel (high mountain) 4 sy - Assefrag (Lusfaour) 6, - Imin Gagar 6, a Imin Zadin 2 5, i Taschinout (Tasecremout 2) . 3 oy 5 Ait “Abanlern , B53 % Tidiren . 2 45 ” Ohamma ays zi Ain Hehia . De igs . Gries (Gers ?) 3 4 49 Ohida 3, iy Tigardoun .. 2) 35 is Tigola (Tougla ) . Dee PF Tabia (Ait Tieb ee 2 95 5 Tamzart 4 5 These being the mountains of the Mesfioua country. ROUTE 6. Tour in the Mountains South of Marocco. Marocco to Amreen (plain, orchards) . 5 . 4 hours, 7 Resmat : : : é : ere 4 *Ourika . ‘ : ' i . Ae ” There is the river Ourika passing between mountains. Crossing, and going up to the left, the first village is Achliz. The chief, or sheik, who governs Ourika lives here, be being under the orders of his superior, Ibrahim el Graoui, who lives in Marocco. From Achliz you go to Azrou Miloul, and from this to Tourit. Here are salt wellsorsprings. From Tourit you go to Agadir BB 370 APPENDIX B. which is on the top of the mountain, from this to Timluzen, and from this to the Zaouia. The before last stages from Ourika are all half an hour’s distance one from the other. From Tourit to Sissag on high mountains. [Apparently Sissag is the name of the Zaouia.}] These are the villages on the left side of the river until Sissag. The villages on the right hand side of the river are as follows :—The first is Alzli; from this you go to Tafzhia, and from this to Anrar, and from this to Amsin ; from this to Assgher, and from this to Arzballo; from this to Egremon, and from this to Ashni, and from this to Esurgraf; this mountain is covered with snow. These are the Ourika mountains near to Marocco town, besides the higher mountains which are above these we have mentioned. [All the places here mentioned are in the Ourika valley. The left and right sides are those on the left and right of the stream to a person ascending the valley, contrary to the usage in European countries where those terms are supposed to refer to one following the course of the stream. ] ROUTE 7. Description of the Roads of Ghighaya. Marocco to Tahanout P : : . . 6 hours. 4 Tasslamat : i é ; . 4 hour. ‘3 *Souk el Ad (of Moulai Ibrahim) . 2 hours. From this to El Anraz; here is a village called Amareen, three hours distant-—it leads to Immaregen ; and from this one hour’s journey will bring the traveller to a place called Agadir Tagadurt el Bour, and from this last is the commencement of the road or highway to the province of Sous. [There can be no doubt that the district here rendered Ghighaya from the Hebrew, is the same as we wrote down as Reraya, the r in the latter name having a guttural sound with- out an equivalent in any European language known tous. The Souk el Ad, or Sunday Market, is of course somewhere near to the Sanctuary of Moiilai Ibrahim. Although we fail to identify any of the villages named above, it seems probable that the place spoken of as Agadir Tagadurt el Bour, is the same as Arround, where we passed two nights. | ITINERARIES OF ROUTES. 371 ROUTE 8. Description of the Road between Ghighaya and Ourika. Marocco to Tahanout. : ; : - - 6 hours. Pr Tedroura. : A . 2 . 1 hour. " Ourika . r : ‘ ‘ a TES 5 This being a road to a mountain containing snow, in the country of Ghighaya. From Tranghert, six hours’ journey to a mountain called Ousertik, within the jurisdiction of the Go- vernor, Kaid Ibrahim el Graoui. [The writer here gives an alternative route from Marocco to Ourika, slightly longer than the direct way given in Route 6, and then refers, obviously not from personal knowledge, to a moun- tain path connecting Ourika with one or other of the two valleys included in the district of Reraya or Ghighaya. Tranghert is probably a village in the western branch of the Ourika valley.] SaLomon BEN Daovp. APPENDIX C. Notes on the Geography of South Marocco. By JoHN BALL. SomE remarks upon the geography of South Marocco seem to be called for from a writer who has ventured to put forth a new map, largely differing from those hitherto published ; but the subject is encompassed with so much difficulty, and the amount of accurate information available is so limited, that a prudent writer must be content to regard most of his own con- clusions as merely provisional, and liable to be modified or set aside by the results of further exploration, whenever this shall become practicable. In the mean time, some good may be effected by clearing the ground of some received errors that are absolutely disproved by facts now ascertained. Little need here be said of the slight contribution to the knowledge of South Marocco that can be gleaned from the writers of antiquity. The earliest document bearing on the BB2 372 APPENDIX C. subject was doubtless the record of the voyage of Hanno, set up in the temple of Saturn at Carthage. This is known to us only by the version, rendered by an unknown hand into Greek, which, with all the accumulated errors of the translator and the subsequent transcribers, has reached us under the title of the Periplus of Hanno. From this record the particulars to be gleaned regarding this part of Africa are scanty and of an uncertain character. Commentators have, with much proba- bility, identified the Solois promontory of Hanno (A:juxov axpwripiov Adstor dévopeot) with Cape Cantin. But what are we to make of the next statement that, having passed the cape, they sailed for half a day east, or south-east (mpoe i\uow ei i- sxorra), before reaching the great marshy lake, ‘ where elephants and other wild beasts abounded’? True it is that south of Cape Cantin there are two slight indentations, mere coves, where the land for a short distance trends to the south-east; but the general direction for a mariner along this part of the coast is SSW., as far as Mogador. Agreeing with the commentators that the ‘ great marshy lake’ was probably near the mouth of the Oued Tensift, we are led to believe that Hanno disembarked settlers at no less than five stations on the coast of what is now the province of Haha. If we may rely on the correctness of the Greek text we must infer that these were settlements established by the Carthaginians before the date of Hanno’s expedition.! The next place reached by Hanno was ‘ the great river Lixus, flowing from Libya, about which dwelt a nomadic people,’ who are called in the text Lixite (Adira). It is further stated that the river is said to flow from great mountains in the neighbourhood, around which dwell the Troglodytes, re- ferred to in our text, p. 301. The only assertion that can be con- fidently made about the Lixus of Hanno is, that it was quite a different stream from that afterwards known to the Romans by the same name, the latter being the modern Oued el Kous, falling into the sea at El Araisch, and which Pliny makes fifty- seven Roman miles from Tangier. The learned commentator, C. Miiller, identifies the Lixus of the Periplus with the Draha ; ! The phrase used is katgxloapey méAcis mpds TH OaddtTy Kadoupevas Kapixdv re Térrqy wat “Anpay nal Médirtay kot “ApapBuv. When the author speaks of Thymiaterium, founded by Hanno in this expedition, he says, éxtloapey mpdrny adr, GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH MAROCCO. 373 but, unless we assume that great physical changes have occurred during the interval, this supposition is scarcely compatible with the existence of a numerous population near the mouth of the river. It may possibly have been the river Akassa (the native name of the river of Oued Noun); but it appears far more probable that it was the Sous, the only one of these rivers which is believed constantly to discharge a large volume of water into the sea. It may be, indeed, that there is an etymo- logical connection between the names Sous and Lixus, as there undoubtedly is between some names still current and those used by the Romans. After Hanno, the next voyager along this coast of whom we known anything was Polybius. The original record of his voyage has, unfortunately, not come down to posterity, but a few particulars have been preserved by Pliny.! We learn inci- dentally that the Romans called Cape Cantin promontorium Solis, a name evidently suggested by the earlier name Solois of the Carthaginians, afterwards rendered in Greek by Ptolemy W\tov d&xpor. Whether Polybius succeeded in reaching the Senegal, or some other river within the tropics, may be un- certain ; but he undoubtedly visited many places on the Atlantic coast of Marocco. We hear for the first time of the rivers Subur (modern Sebou), and Salat (the Bouregrag, which falls into the sea at Sallee). He touched at the port of Rutudbis, said to hae been eight Roman miles beyond the mouth of the river Anatis, which was 205 Roman miles from Lixus (El Araisch). The river is doubtless the modern Oum-er-bia, and the port was the same which the Portuguese named Mazagan. The next port touched by Polybius was named Jisadir, which has been with much probability identified with Agadir? As for the rivers named by Polybius on the coast south-west of the Atlas, their identification with any known to modern geo- graphers is purely conjectural. 1 See Pliny, V. 1, § 8. His account is vague and confused, and the distances not to be reconciled with those given by him elsewhere. 2 Not content with the indication afforded by the identity of the two terminal syllables in each name, C. Miiller conjectures that the ancient name of the promontory near Agadir was Ras adir, Ras being the com- mon Arabic designation for a headland. He apparently supposes that the natives spoke Arabic in the time of Polybius. Even now none of the headlands on this coast have the designation Ras. 374 APPENDIX C. Of Roman writers Pliny is the only one from whom any positive information as to the geography of this part of Africa is to be gained ; but even this is very limited! He complains that the reports as to the region beyond the narrow limits within which Roman power was established in his day were most fallacious, and censures the Roman authorities for indo- lently giving circulation to mendacious stories, instead of investigating the truth for themselves, In his day Sala (modern Sallee) was the most southern of the Roman settlements in Marocco. He describes it as ‘a town standing on a river of the same name, on the confines of the desert (solitudinibus vicinum), which was infested by herds of elephants, and still more by the tribe of the Autololes, through whose territory lay the way to the great mountain of Africa, the many-fabled Atlas.’ It appears elsewhere that Pliny had access to the manuscripts left by Juba, which, unfortunately, have not come down to posterity. That accomplished prince appears to have held control over the whole territory of Marocco as far as the base of the Atlas. Itis to these lost pages of Juba that we probably owe the only fragment of moderately correct information as to South Marocco which is to be found in Pliny’s work.? The river Asana, whose mouth is said to be 150 Roman miles beyond Sala, is doubtless the Anatis of Polybius, and the Oum-er-bia of the Moors. The next river, which he calls Fut, is the Tensift. The distance assigned for the interval between the mouth of the Fut and the Atlas is excessive; but not largely so if Agadir be intended, that. being the first place on the coast from which the high summits of the Atlas are habitually visible. The statement as to the existence of remains of vine- yards and palm-groves about the ruins of ancient dwellings seems to lend probability to the belief that the Carthaginian 1 I am indebted for information as to several passages in Pliny’s writings to my friend, Mr. E. Bunbury, who will doubtless throw further light on the subject in an important work, ‘An Historical View of Ancient Geography ’ which he is preparing for publication. * «Indigenz tamen tradunt in ora ab Sala CL m. p. flumen Asanam, marino haustu sed portu spectabile: mox amnem quem vocant Fut: ab eo ad Dyrin (hoc enim Atlanti nomen esse eorum lingua convenit) CC m. p., interveniente flumine cui nomen est Vior. Ibi fama exstare circa vestigia habitati quondam soli vinearum palmetorumque re- liquias.’ GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH MAROCCO. 375 settlements on this coast may have had a prolonged existence. The fall of the parent State would have had but an indirect influence on their destiny. Verbal resemblances are so often misleading that little weight can be attached to them ; but it is natural to compare the word Dyris, said by Pliny to be the na- tive name for the Atlas, with that now used by the natives— Idrarn—this being the plural form of Arar, which meaus generically a mountain, both in the Shelluh and in several other Bereber dialects. Besides what Pliny may have learned from King Juba as to the geography of the coast of South Marocco, he had access to contemporary testimony as to some part of the interior of the country. Suetonius Paulinus (the same who at a later date played a conspicuous part in Britain) being appointed governor of the provinces of N.W. Africa, then recently incorporated in the Roman Empire, resolved to penetrate southward beyond the Great Atlas, whether with a view to intimidate the native tribes, or for the mere satisfaction of carrying the Roman eagles into a new region. He appears to have left a written account of his expedition, which, like so much else of ancient geogra- phical literature, has been lost. The particulars preserved by Pliny are unfortunately so vague as to be almost valueless. In ten days from his starting point, wherever that may have been, we are told that he reached the highest point of his march. He reported the mountain to be covered with dense forests of trees of an unknown kind, and declares the summit of the range to be deeply covered with snow, even in summer.! From the summit of the Atlas Suetonius descended, and marched on through deserts of black sand, out of which rose here and there rocks that had the aspect of being burnt, to a river called Ger. Although it was the winter season the heat of these regions was found intolerable. The neighbouring forests abounded in elephants and other wild beasts, and with serpents of every kind, and were inhabited by a people called Canarians. The controversies to which this passage has given rise are not likely to be definitively decided. The balance of opinion 1 This must have been from native report, as the expedition was made in winter. If he had said that the snow never quite disappears, and sometimes falls heavily, even in summer, his statement would have been accurate enough, 376 APPENDIX C. leans to the belief that Suetonius ascended the valley of the Moulouya, and traversed the Atlas by the pass now called Tizin Tinrout, leading to Tafilelt. This was the pass traversed by Gerhard Rohlfs in 1864, and to his narrative alone we can refer for information respecting it and the country extending southward towards the Great Desert. The existence in that part of W. Africa, on the south side of the Great Atlas, so far from the influence of the Atlantic climate, of vast forests capable of maintaining elephants and sheltering a native popu- lation, would apparently be irreconcilable with existing physical conditions, and is not readily admissible in the Roman period. Whatever vigorous vegetation exists in the region traversed by Rohlfs adjoins the banks of the stream; and, though sand may encroach here and there, and sun-burnt rocks are seen there, as elsewhere on the south side of the Atlas, the description is not what would occur to any one following the course of the stream. It seems, further, highly improbable that a prudent general, such as Suetonius Paulinus, would have undertaken to lead an ag- gressive military force along the tortuous valley of the Moulouya, some 250 miles in length, enclosed for the most part between lofty mountains; and it is also to be noted that at the period of his expedition the Romans held no station in the valley of the Moulouya, if indeed they ever penetrated far into it. The few particulars quoted above lead to the conclusion that the Roman general in his southward march beyond the Atlas did not follow the course of a stream, but was compelled to cross a tract of desert before reaching the river of which he speaks, which, therefore, probably flowed from E. to W. On the whole, it seems to me that the brief record is more easily reconciled with the supposition that Suetonius Paulinus made Sala (Sallee), the farthest Roman station in Western Africa, his base of operations; that he marched thence across the open country towards SSW., and gained the summit of the Atlas range at the pass between Imintanout and Tarudant.! Between the course of the Sous and that of the Akassa, or river of Oued Noun, there are extensive tracts of sandy desert, where, even in winter, his troops may easily have suffered from heat and thirst; and the river (called Ger) may have been the main branch; or one of the tributaries of the Akassa flowing from the range of 1 Mentioned in the text at p. 204. GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH MAROCCO. 377 Anti-Atlas. The former existence of great forests, frequented by elephants, on the flanks of that range, is far more probable than on the parched southern slopes of the interior, where, as Rohlfs tells us, the rocks and hills are now absolutely bare of tree and shrub vegetation. Finally, it is more natural to look for the ancient Canarians in the country near the Atlantic coast than in the interior. The solitary argument of any weight in favour of the Moulouya and Tafilelt route seems to be derived from the fact that in descending southward from the pass at the head of the Moulouya valley the traveller follows the course of a stream which now bears the name Gers, or Ghir. But it must be re- marked that this name exists elsewhere in Marocco, there being at least three streams so denominated, and further that it is now- a-days borne by the river of Tafilels only during a short part of its course. Rohlfs, who is here our only authority, tells us that the stream first met in descending from the pass of Tizin Tinrout is called Siss.! After following this for seven or eight hours, it is joined by another stream which he called Ued Gers. The united stream bears the latter name for a distance of some six hours’ ride, and then resumes the name of Siss, which it bears throughout its subsequent course till it is lost in the sands of the Sahara. The long period that intervened between the decline of Roman power and the establishment of Mohammedan rule in Marocco, is a blank to the historian and the geographer. It can scarcely be doubted that Roman authority and Roman institutions spread themselves throughout a great part of the open country between the Atlas and the Atlantic, although there is but little direct evidence to that effect. ! This is evidently the river Ziz of Leo Africanus ; and in his time, as at the present day, travellers going from Fez to Segelmese (modern Tafilelt) followed the course of the Ziz, or Siss. He also speaks of a river Ghir, which may possibly have been the affluent of the Siss men- tioned by Rohlfs; but the particulars given are vague and scanty. It is interesting to remark that in Leo’s day the valley of the Siss was inhabited by a hardy and energetic Bereber tribe named Zanaga, pro- bably the same as the Azanegues whom Ca da Mosto found about Oued Noun. They have since migrated across the Sahara, and still calling themselves Zanega, and speaking a Bereber dialect, are dangerous neighbours to the negro tribes of the Senegal. 378 APPENDIX C. Little reliance can be placed on the statement of Leo Afri- canus that the people of Barbary were converted to Christianity 250 years before the birth of Mohammed, or about A.D. 320, for, in a country so split up into independent tribes, the new faith must have made way irregularly and at various periods; while it is most probable that it never struck root among the moun- tain tribes of the Great Atlas. But the positive assertion of the same writer, that when the Arabs arrived in Marocco they found the Christians masters of the country, probably holds good of all except the mountain tracts. Whether any reliable information as to South Marocco is to be gleaned from the writings of the eminent Arabian geogra- phers who lived between the tenth and fourteenth centuries, I am unable to say; but it seems sufficiently certain that the period of European exploration leading to practical results com- menced in the fourteenth century. The Genoese, the Catalans, and the Venetians appear to have despatched several expeditions along the coast, most of them intended to reach the gold-pro- ducing regions of tropical Africa. The Portuguese, who were destined to outstrip all their rivals in maritime exploration, were the first to establish themselves on the western coast of Marocco ; and, at one time or other, they held most, if not all, the Atlantic seaports. Much information doubtless lies con- cealed among the medieval records of Italy; Spain, and, espe- cially, of Portugal; but up to the present time nothing has been published to show that any European was able, from personal knowledge, to give an account of the interior of Marocco, before Marmol, who, having been taken prisoner by the Moors, passed several years at Fez and elsewhere in North Marocco, about the middle of the sixteenth century. The earliest known document showing a moderately correct knowledge of the coast is a map (number 5 in the series), contained in the celebrated Portulano of the Laurentian Library in Florence, bearing the date 1351.} In this map, which, from internal evidence, must be of Genoese origin, the general outline of the Marocco coast is correct, and 1 A portion of this map, containing the coast of Africa from the Straits of Gibraltar to the latitude of the Canary Islands, was published (in facsimile) by Count Baldelli Boni of Florence in his edition of Marco Polo, and is reproduced in Mr. Major’s valuable work, ‘The Life of Prince Henry the Navigator.’ London, 1868. GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH MAROCCO. 379 the positions of the few places laid down unmistakable. The now abandoned town of Fedala (Fidalah), Mefegam (Mazagan), and Mogodor here appear for the first time. Of early Portu- guese maps there must be many not now known to geographers, and it was certainly from Portuguese authorities that Gerard Mercator partly derived the materials used in both editions of his Atlas. In the Atlas Minor, published by Hondins in 1608, a map of South Marocco is given in page 567, wherein for the first time an attempt is made to represent the positions of cities and mountains, and the courses of rivers in the interior of the country. The outline of the coast is here less correct than that given in the much more ancient Medicean map; but there is far more of detail, especially as to places which were evidently well known to the Portuguese. Thus, as mentioned in the text, we here for the first time find the island of Mogador with the name ‘J. Domegador.’ The places laid down in the interior appear for the most part to be taken (but with nu- merous errors) from the work of Leo Africanus; but the char- tographer has spoiled his map by making the river Sous flow from SE. to NW., instead of from NNE. to SSW. Mountains are scattered pretty uniformly over the map; but what is made to appear as the loftiest mass, and is marked ‘ Atlas M., with a town named Tagovast at its foot, stands 8. of Tarudant about the western extremity of the range of Anti-Atlas. The accom- panying letterpress, page 566, is to a great extent derived from Leo Africanus, but with additions from other sources. It is curious to read that Tarudant, now a place which no Christian stranger dare approach, was then resorted to by French and English merchants. The name of the remarkable man, who stands almost alone as a geographical authority for the interior of Marocco, has already been mentioned ; but it is impossible to dismiss him so lightly. Leo Africanus, to give him the name by which he is known to posterity, was a Moor of Grenada, born in the latter part of the fifteonth century, who, with his kinsfolk, fled to Fez at or about the time of the siege of Granada in 1492. In those days Fez was the head-quarters of Arabic culture ; Leo was an earnest and successful student, and, as a man of learning and intelligence, was taken into favour by Mouley Ahmet, the founder of the dynasty still reigning in Marocco. Hither in 380 APPENDIX C, company with the new ruler, or with his protection and authority, he travelled through almost every part of the empire, as well as nearly all the rest of Northern Africa, and evidently made copious notes. He wrote, in Arabic, various works on history and grammar which have not been preserved, and, in the same language, the original version of his description of Africa. It would appear that he carried this with him, in manuscript, when, in 1517, he was made captive by Christian corsairs, who took him to Rome. Leo X., hearing that a learned Moor had been brought a captive to Rome, sent for him, and treated him with kindness and liberality. A sug- gestion that he should undergo the rite of baptism seems to have encountered no obstinate prejudices, for he soon complied, receiving at the font the Pope’s own names, Giovanni Leone, and perhaps becoming as earnest a Christian as the Pontiff him- self. He afterwards lived many years in Rome, acquired the Italian tongue, and translated his work on Africa into that idiom. This remained for some time unpubtished, until it fell into the hands of Ramusio, who included it in his famous work ‘Delle Navigationi et Viaggi,’ of which the first edition, in three folio volumes, was printed in Venice in 1550. It is not easy to account for the numerous variations between the original text and the versions which appeared in various languages during the century following the original publication; but in the absence of satisfactory explanation it seems safest to accept the text of Ramusio as alone authentic. Like most modern readers, the members of our party, when they resolved to visit Marocco, knew nothing of the work of Leo Africanus beyond the fact that he is occasionally referred to by writers on North Africa. The time for preparation was far too short for extensive reading, and we took with us only the works of Jackson and Gerhard Roblfs. It has, however, since that time been a matter of frequent regret that we had not the opportunity, while travelling in the country, of referring to the only writer who had actually seen the greater part of it with his own eyes, and as to whose general truthfulness there is no room for suspicion. It is impossible here to enter into the many interesting details that abound throughout the text ; but it is worth while to point out the more important changes that are disclosed between the condition of South Marocco as it was GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH MAROCCO. 381 more than three and a half centuries ago, and that of the present day. So far as regards the manners, ideas, habits, and mode of living of the inhabitants, the changes are quite insignificant, save in so far as these are affected by a general decline in material prosperity. The central authority was at that period much weaker, and the s2parate tribes led a more independent existence. Amongst the Bereber people of the mountains, and even in many of the larger towns, such government as existed was ordinarily of the democratic type. Thus we read that in Tarudant four chiefs were elected to manage the affairs of the city, holding office for only six months at a time. If it were possible to doubt the results of the establishment of a system of grinding despotism, administered by officials who enjoy practical impunity so long as they satisfy the pecuniary demands of their master, the pages of Leo Africanus bring ample evidence. It is, indeed, true that a slight improve- ment has ensued as regards internal tranquillity. There is now rather less of habitual turbulence; the mutual encounters between neighbouring tribes may be somewhat less frequent ; and brigandage, which appears to have been not uncommon in the open country, is now comparatively rare. It may be doubted whether this advantage, such as it is, is not as much due to diminished population as to the successful administration of the Moorish Sultans. On the other hand, there is overwhelming evidence of a general and progressive decline in prosperity. Throughout the southern provinces, and especially in Haha and Sous, Leo Africanus found numerous flourishing towns, most of them visited and described by him. In each one of these he found people living in comparative ease, inhabiting good houses with gardens, and possessing, according to the standard of the age, some literary education. From the towns, and even from the inner valleys of the Atlas, students flocked to Fez, then the head-quarters of Arabic knowledge and civilisation. All the principal places were then local centres of production, the arti- _ficers being principally Jews. It is notable that excepting the city of Marocco, then full of a numerous and active population, none of the towns men- tioned owed their foundation to the conquering race. Leo, not 382 APPENDIX C. likely to detract from the achievements of his own people, expressly attributes the origin of most of them to the ‘antichi Africani,’ by which designation he commonly speaks of the primitive Bereber stock; and, as regards the smaller towns lying in the Jow country north of the Atlas, he frequently speaks of the population being harassed by the Arabs, then, as at this day, leading a semi-nomad existence in the plains. If we confront his description with the present state of the country we find comparative ruin and desolation. In all the southern provinces we now find but two inland cities of any importance, Marocco and Tarudant, and these dwindled to a mere tithe of their ancient wealth and population. "Where the traveller in the sixteenth century found thriving towns at in- tervals of ten or twelve miles, there are now miserable villages whose wretched inhabitants maintain a bare existence, and are often unable to pay the imposts which leave no surplus behind. It does not appear that in the great province of Haha there is now a single place that can be called a town except the ruined seaport of Agadir, destined by nature to be the chief port of South Marocco, but closed to trade by the caprice of a Sultan. Throughout the interior we saw or heard of but two places that could by courtesy be called towns, Amsmiz and Moulai Ibrahim. Although no statistics are available, it seems a moderate estimate if we reckon that the present population of South Marocco cannot exceed one-third of what it was when Leo wrote. Along with the decay of wealth and population, we naturally find that of everything that could raise the people in the scale of existence. In Leo’s day iron and copper mines were worked in many places in the Atlas, and various handicrafts exercised, of which there is now no trace. Education, such as it was, was widely spread ; and insome parts of the Atlas where it was ab- sent, the traveller noted the fact as a proof of the low condition of the population. He notes as a curious incident that when he visited the mountain district of Semele, where the people were ignorant of reading and writing, they forced him to remain nine days, hearing and deciding all pending cases of litigation ; in doing which, as he records, he had to act both as judge and notary, there being no one competent to write down the decisions of the court. GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH MAROCCO. 383 Several incidental statements in the work of Leo Africanus suggest an inquiry of considerable interest. There is nothing in the published annals of the Portuguese wars with the Moors to suggest a belief that the former at any time established their authority in the interior of South Marocco, or even undertook any inland expeditions. From Leo’s narrative it appears, how- ever, that, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, they had, at least occasionally, penetrated much farther into the interior than has commonly been supposed, and that the authority of the Portuguese king was in some places paramount. At Tumeglast, a place in the plain of Marocco, probably not far from the present village of Frouga, Leo lodged in the house with a Moor, named Sidi Yehie, who had come in the name of the king of Portugal to levy tribute, the same Moor having been made by the king chief (capitano) of the district of Azasi. Elsewhere he relates that the king of Marocco sent an expeditionary force against an independent chief in the district of Hanimmei, forty miles east of the city of Marocco (apparently in the present province of Demnet), and which force was accompanied by 300 Portuguese cavalry. The expedition was unsuccessful, the Sultan’s troops were defeated, and, according to the narrative, not one of the Christian horsemen returned from the disaster. It seems highly improbable that the Portuguese should have taken part in such an affair if their troops had not at the time been sta- tioned somewhere in the interior. After Leo Africanus but little of a definite kind is to be learned from subsequent writers as to the geography of South Marocco. In 1791 the reigning Sultan applied to General O’Hara, then Governor of Gibraltar, for the assistance of an English physician to treat his favourite son, Mouley Absalom, who was at the time governing the province of Sous. Mr. Lempriere, an army-surgeon, undertook the office, and travelled by the west coast to Agadir, and thence to Tarudant. After successfully treating his patient, he was partly induced, and partly forced, to travel to the city of Marocco, whence, after considerable delay and difficulty, he succeeded in returning to Gibraltar. Myr. Lempriere probably travelled across the Atlas by the road from Tarudant to Imintanout, but his narrative supplies little information to the geographer. He speaks of the distance from Tarudant to the northern foot of the Atlas as an 384 APPENDIX C, easy journey of three days, and describes the track as leading beneath and along tremendous precipices. Frequent reference is made in the text to Jackson’s ‘ Ac- count of the Empire of Marocco,’ of which the first edition appeared in 1809, and the third in 1814. This is undoubtedly the fullest and most correct modern work on Southern Marocco. Jackson spent sixteen years in the country, chiefly at Mogador and Agadir; he acquired the familiar use of the Moorish Arabic, and seems to have obtained merited influence among the natives. Hither because he had but little taste for explora- tion, or because he found the difficulties too serious, Jackson has added little to our knowledge of the geography of the country. His map, though it contains some corrections, is on the whole inferior to that of Chénier, published a century earlier. A definite contribution to the slight existing amount of positive knowledge was made by the late Admiral Washington, then a lieutenant in the navy, who accompanied the late Sir J. Drummond Hay on his mission to the city of Marocco in the winter of 1829-1830. His paper, published in the first volume of the ‘ Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,’ is frequently referred to in our text; and in the accompanying map the posi- tions of several points in the interior of the country were accurately laid down from astronomical observation. A most important step towards extending our knowledge of the entire empire of Marocco was made in 1848, when the French War Department published the map compiled by Cap- tain Beaudouin. Whatever errors it may contain—and these were unavoidably numerous—this must be regarded as a monu- ment of intelligence and industry. Recognising the fact that the greater part of the territory is likely long to remain inac- cessible to Europeans, the author applied himself to obtaining information from natives who were personally acquainted with various portions of the country. Hundreds of such informants, as we were assured, were separately examined by Captain Beau- douin ; the information supplied by each was laid down on a skeleton map; and by the careful comparison of the separate materials the general map was compiled. Without noticing minor errors, which are, of course, inevit- able in such a work, the most serious objection to be made to GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH MAROCCO. 385 this map is that the orography is exhibited in a fashion primd Jacie improbable, and which has heen to a great extent negatived by subsequent evidence. The main range of the Southern Atlas is represented as a nearly straight wall, over 400 miles in length, with few and short diverging ridges, and, parallel to this on the south side, another equally straight and narrow ridge is made to stretch for nearly 300 miles. From near the eastern ex- tremity of the main range two other straight ridges are shown, diverging abruptly at an acute angle, and enclosing a trench- like valley that extends north-west for fully 120 miles. If this were even approximately correct, we should be led to conclude that the structure of the Great Atlas is quite unlike that of any other known mountain region. The tendency of mountain ranges to follow a uniform general direction is always modified by the numerous secondary causes that have helped to fashion the earth’s surface. The first recent traveller who succeeded in penetrating some considerable portions of the Marocco territory was M. Gerhard Rohlfs. Assuming the garb and professing the faith of a Mussulman, he traversed many districts where no Christian dare present himself; but the care necessary to prevent his real character from becoming known imposed severe restrictions on M. Rohlfs. Produced under conditions where it was impossible to be seen taking notes or using any scientific instrument, it is not surprising that the narrative of his adventurous journey is extremely meagre ; but even for the little that he is told about a region so little known the reader is thankful. The chief geographical results of these journeys were embodied in the map annexed to G. Rohlfs’ first work! by the eminent geographer, M. Petermann. The scale of that map is small and admits of little detail ; but, so far as regards the mountain country, I am disposed to think that the direct evidence, supplemented in some points by native report, requires us to depart more widely from the orographic features of Beaudouin’s map than M. Peter- mann has thought it fit to do. In the map accompanying this volume I have ventured, in addition to the changes for which I had direct authority, to in- troduce a few others, avowedly conjectural, which must await further exploration before they can be either adopted or con- 1 Afrikanische Reisen, von Gerhard Rohlfs. Bremen, 1867. cco 386 APPENDIX D. demned. It is difficult to believe that in an age when the barriers that have closed the other least known regions of the earth are successively removed, Marocco, so close to Europe and so attractive, can alone resist the progress of modern exploration.! APPENDIX D. ON SOME OF THE ECONOMIC PLANTS OF MAROCCO. By JosEPH DALTON HOOKER, Gum Ammoniacum. Our endeavours to obtain accurate information regarding the Marocco gum ammoniac plant were ceaseless and fruitless. Jackson, who gives a rude figure of a portion of a leaf and a scanty description (‘Account of the Empire of Marocco,’ 136, t. 7), says that it is the produce of a plant like Fennel, but larger, and called Fashook in Arabic, and that it grows in the plains of the interior provinces, abounding in the north of the city of Marocco, in a sandy light soil. Jackson further states that neither bird nor beast is seen where this plant grows, the vulture only excepted, and that it is attacked by a beetle having a long horn proceeding from its nose, with which it perforates the plant, and makes the incisions whence the gum oozes out. Under his description of the vulture, he states that, with the exception of the ostrich, this is the largest bird in Marocco; that it is common in all places where the gum 1 The scope of these remarks being limited to the geography of South Marocco, I have not noticed several recent publications, not devoid of interest and value, but in which no important contribution is made to our geographical knowledge. We have referred in the text to papers by MM. Beaumier, Balansa, and Lambert, in the Bulletin of the French Geographical Society. A more considerable work, entitled ‘Morocco and the Moors,’ by Arthur Leared, M.D., appeared in 1874, It contains much information carefully collected by the author, along with a lively account of his own experiences, but circumstances pre- vented him from entering on new ground, GUM AMMONIACUM. 387 ammoniac grows, as in the plains east of El Araiche,' where he has seen at least twenty of these birds in the air at once, darting down on the insects with astonishing rapidity (p. 118). Jackson’s figure (t. 8) of the so-called beetle apparently repre- sents a dipterous insect resembling a Bombylius, with a very long straight proboscis. Lindley (‘Flora Medica,’ 46) doubtfully refers Jackson’s Fashook to the eastern Perula orientalis L.; and Fliickiger and Hanbury (‘Pharmacographie,’ 289) say that, according to Lindley, the Ferula tingitana yields a milky gum resin, having some resemblance to Ammoniacum, which is an object of traffic with Egypt and Arabia, where it is employed like the ancient drug in fumigations. The authors go on to say that there can be but little doubt that the Maroccan Ammoniacum is identical with that of the ancients, and that it may well have been imported by way of Cyrene from regions lying farther west- ward. Pliny and Dioscorides say that the Ammoniacum is the juice of a Narthex growing about Cyrene and Lybia, and that it is produced in the neighbourhood of the temple of Ammon. Dr. Leared (‘Morocco and the Moors,’ 356) was informed that the Fashook grows at a place two days’ journey from Mogador, on the road to the city of Marocco,? but states that the exudation from the roots of specimens which he obtained differed from the African Ammoniacum. We, on the other hand, were persistently assured that it grew nowhere along that route, nor nearer to it than El Araiche, north of Marocco city. And this is confirmed by information obtained by Mr. R. Drummond Hay to the effect that it is found near Marocco, and chiefly around Tedla. The Moors who gave us this in- formation at once recognised the figure by Jackson, and called the plant Kilch (Kelth according to Leared), The roots presented to Kew by the kindness of Dr. Leared did not make any indications of growth. 1 Not El Araisch, SSW. of Tangier on the Atlantic coast, but some place in the interior, and N. of the city of Marocco. 2 This is no doubt Licoselinum humile (Ball), which we found near or at the above defined locality. Ball formed a very decided opinion that Jackson’s plant, whether the true Ammoniacum or not, was a species of El@oselinum., cod 388 - APPENDIX D. The Maroccan Ammoniacum plant must not be confounded with the Persian Dorema Ammoniacum, or ‘ Ushak,’ which is also bled by insects. , The Fashook gum is used by the Moors and by some Ori- entals as a depilatory, and in skin diseases ; it is exported to the East from Mazagan, vid Gibraltar and Alexandria, Euphorbium, Farbiune or Dergmuse. Euphorbia resinifera.—Berg. und Schmidt, Officinelle Gerwichse, v. iv. (1863) xxxiv. d.; Fliickiger and Hanbury, Pharmaco- graphia, 502; Ball, in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. xvi. 661; Eu- phorbium, Jackson’s ‘ Account of the Empire of Marocco,’ 134, t. 6 (left-hand figure only). Wehavelittletoadd to the description of the Euphorbium tree given by Jackson, and that in the ‘Pharmacographia’ cited above. As stated in the body of this work it is confined to the interior of the empire, and the only living specimens we met with were from a garden in Mesfiouia (see p. 163). Jackson confounded two plants under this name; one, the true species, growing in the Atlas, with 3—4-angled branches, the other a sea-coast plant, with 9-10-angled branches, which is carried to Ma- vocco for tanning purposes, and of which he says, that during the three years of his residence at Agadir he never saw any gum upon it. The true plant is figured and described by Jackson as an erect tree, with a stout short woody trunk, and very numerous upeurved long sparingly divided branches, the whole resembling a candelabrum. The angles of the branches are armed with short spines, and the flowers are produced from the tips of the young shoots. The thorns adhere to everything that touches them, and he supposes them to have been intended by nature ‘to prevent cattle from eating this caustic plant, which they always avoid on account of its prickles.’ The juice flows from incisions made with a knife, and hardens and drops off in Sep- tember. The plants, he says, produce abundantly once only in four years, and the fourth year’s produce is more than all Europe can consume. The people who collect the gum are obliged to tie a cloth over their mouths and nostrils, to prevent the small EUPHORBIUM. 389 dusty particles from annoying them, as they produce incessant sneezing. The history of the Euphorbium as given in the ‘ Pharmaco- graphia’ is, that it was known to both Dioscorides and Pliny as a native of the Atlas, and was named in honour of Euphorbus, physician to the learned King Juba II. of Mauritania, himself the author of treatises on Opium and Euphorbium. The prevalence of cactoid Huphorbie in Marocco, of which there are three species in the southern districts, is a similar instance to that of the Argan, of tropical forms advancing far north in the extreme west of the old world; and as the Argan has its nearest ally in Madeira, so have the Maroccan Euphor- biums close congeners in the Canary Islands. All these belong to the section Diacanthiwm of Boissier, of which the other species are Abyssinian, Arabian, Indian, and South African. Gum Euphorbium was extensively used by early practitioners as an emetic and purgative, and was exported in large quantities ; now, however, the trade in it is rapidly declining, and we were informed that it is chiefly used in veterinary practice, and as an ingredient in a paint for the preservation of ships’ bottoms. Euphorbia resinifera is in cultivation at Kew, where speci- mens may be seen both in the Succulent-plant House and Economic-plant House. The Arar, Thuja or Gum Sandrac Tree. Callitris quadrivalvis.—Ventenat, Nov. Gen. Decad. 10; Richard, Conif. 46, t. 8, f. 1; Endlich, Synops. Conif. 41; Par- latore, in DC. Prod. xvi. pars 2,452; Ball, in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. xvi., 670. Thuja articulata.—Shaw’s ‘Travels in Barbary,’ 462, with a plate; Vahl, Symb. ii. 96, t. 48; Desf. Flor. Atlant. 11. 353, t. 252. Frenela Fontanestt.—Mirbel, in Mem. Mus. xiii. 74. This tree isa native of the mountains of North Africa, from the Atlantic to Eastern Algeria; but we are not aware whether its eastern limit has ever been accurately determined. It has no congener, its nearest ally being a South African genus of Cypresses (Widdringtonia), of which several species are recorded 390 APPENDIX D. from the Cape Colony, Natal, and Madagascar, and which differ in having alternate leaves and many ovules to each scale. The great interest attached to this plant arises from the beauty and durability of the wood, which, there is every reason to believe, was known to the ancients from the earliest times, under the name of Thuja. It is thus hypothetically, but pro- bably correctly, identified with the Ovioy! of the Odyssey (ii. 6),. with the Oviov and via of Theophrastus (‘ Hist. Pl.’ v. 5), and the thyine wood of the Revelations (xviii. 12). It is un- doubtedly the Citrus wood of the Romans, and the Alerce of the Spaniards ; the latter name being derived from the Moors of Marocco, for it is not a native of Spain. The first botanical notice of the Callitris is in Shaw’s ‘Travels in Barbary,’ where it is figured and briefly described as Thuja articulata (462); and for its identification with the Alerce we are indebted to the late Mr. Drummond Hay when Consul of Tangier, who, further, sent a plank of the wood to the Royal Horticultural Society.2 At about the same time, the at- tention of a most intelligent traveller, the late Capt. 8. E. Cook (afterwards Widdrington), was attracted by the wood of the cathedral of Cordova (formerly a mosque built by the Moors in the ninth century) called Alerce, which differed from any Spanish wood, or any other wood now used in Spain. Coupling this name with the communication made by Mr. Drummond Hay to the Horticultural Society, Capt. Cook was enabled to identify the Cordova wood with the Callitris, which, as he assumes, was brought from Marocco, to roof a mosque intended to be second in sanctity only to that of Mecca. Except in a garden at Tangier, we saw no specimen of the Callitris approaching a large size, or capable of yielding the beams which we were shown in the ceilings and roofs of build- ings in that town and elsewhere, and which are considered to be indestructible. On the contrary, most of the native speci- mens we saw in Southern Marocco resembled small Cypresses, with very sparse foliage and branches, and were apparently 1 It is mentioned under this name by Homer in his description of the Island of Calypso. See Daubeny On the Trees and Shrubs of the Ancients, p. 42. 2 See Cook’s Sketches in Spain, vol. i. p, 5 (1834); and Loudon’s Gardener's Magazine, Sex, ii, vol, iii, p. 522, ARAR TREE. 391 shoots from the stumps of trees that had been cut or burnt down, though possibly their impoverished habit may have been due to the sterility of the soil. The largest were in the Ourika valley, and were about thirty feet high (see p. 177). In many cases the stem swelled outat the very base into a roundish mass half buried in soil, which is said to attain even four feet in diameter, though we saw none approaching that size. It is the basal portion, whether the result of mutilation or natural growth, that affords the wood so prized by ancients and moderns, and which forms a most valuable article of export from Algiers to Paris, where small articles of furniture, &c., are made of it and sold at very high prices. Under the name of Citrus wood, it is alluded to, according to Daubeny, by Martial and Lucan, and by Horace (‘ Carma.’ lib. iv. Od. 1), who suggests its employment as the most precious commodity that could he selected for a temple in which a marble statue of Venus should be placed :— AJlbanos, prope te, lacus Ponet marmoream sub trabe citrea; Also Petronius Arbiter, descanting upon the luxury of the Romans, seems to represent it as worth more than its weight in gold, when he says— Ecce Afris eruta terris Ponitur, ac maculis imitatur vilius aurum Citrea mensa. For a detailed description of what was known of this tree to the ancients, and of its value, we must refer to the description in Pliny (‘Nat. Hist.’ book xiii. chaps. 29, 30). This author describes it as the thyion and thyia of Homer and the Greeks, and adds that its wood was used with the unguents burnt for their pleasant odow by Circe ; as also that Theophrastus awarded a high rank to it, the timber being used for roofing temples and being indestructible; as also that it is produced in the lower part of Cyrenaica, and that the finest kind grows in the vicinity of the temple of Jupiter Ammon. Pliny himself gives Mount Atlas as the native country of the wood; in the vicinity of which, he says, is Mauritania, a country in which abounds a tree which has given rise to the mania 392 APPENDIX D. for fine tables, an extravagance with which women reproach the men when they complain of their vast outlay upon pearls. He attributes the knots from which the tables are made to a disease or excrescence of the roots, of which the most esteemed are entirely concealed under ground, these being much more rare than those which are produced above ground, and that are to be found on the branches also. The principal merits of the tables were to have veins arranged in waving lines, or forming spirals like whirlpools. The former they called ‘tiger’ and the latter ‘ panther’ tables ; whilst others, which are highly esteemed, have markings re- sembling the eyes on a peacock’s tail. In others, again, called ‘apiate,’ the wood appears as if covered with dense masses of grain. The most esteemed colour was that of wine mixed with honey. : In respect of their size, Pliny gives a little over 4 ft. as the average maximum, though one that belonged to Ptolemzus, King of Mauritania, was 44 ft. in diameter and } of a foot in thickness. It was formed of two semi-diameters so skilfully united that the joining was concealed. Another, made of a single piece, was named after Nonius, a freedman of Tiberius Cesar, and was 4 ft. less # in. in diameter, and 51 inches in thickness. And with regard to the price, Cicero paid a million sesterces (9,0002.) for one; two belonging to King Juba were sold by auction, one for one million two hundred thousand sesterces, and the other for somewhat less. Some of Pliny’s statements are probably fabulous; as that the barbarians bury the wood when green, first giving it a coating of wax, and that the workmen, when it comes into their hands, put it for seven days beneath a heap of corn, and then take it out for as many more, after which it is surprising to find how much it has lost in weight. More apocryphal still is his statement that it is dried by the action of sea-water, and thereby acquires a hardness and density that render it proof against corruption ; also that, as if created for the behoof of wine, it receives no injury from it.} In Marocco, where no ornament or article of luxury is known, it need hardly be said that the Alerce wood is employed only for building purposes and fire-wood; though the resin 1 See Bostock’s translation of Pliny, vol. iii. p. 194, Ke. ARAR TREE. 393 called Sandarach, which was once a reputed medicine, is col- lected by the Moors and exported from Mogador to Europe, where it is used as a varnish. Gum Arabic. Acacia gummifera.—Willd. Sp. Pl. iv. 1056; DC. Prod. ii. 455; Hayne, Armeigew. x. t. 8; Benth. in Trans. Linn. Soc. xxx. 509; Ball, in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. xvi. 442. Mimosa gummifera.—Brouss. in Poir. Dict. Suppl. i. 164. Acacia coronillefolia.—Desf. Cat. Hort. Par. ed. ii. 207. Mimosa coronillefolia.—Pers. Encheirid. n. 44. Sassa gunmifera.—Gmel Syst. ex DC. 1. c. Of this plant very little indeed is known, and we were un- fortunately unable to find either flower or fruit of the only Acacia which we met with on our visit to Marocco, and which we were assured was the Gum Arabic plant (Alk Tlah) of that country. It is interesting as representing the northern limit of distribution of the immense genus Acacia in Africa. Our specimens, such as they are, coincide perfectly with the de- scription of Acacia gummifera in Willdenow, and with the excellent figure in Hayne, which was taken from specimens col- lected by Broussonet near Mogador. We found the plant abundantly in the lower region of Southern and Western Marocco, occurring as a thorny bush, along with Rhus penta- phylla and other shrubs. That it was the plant producing the Marocco Gum Arabic the natives consistently testified, though this could not be inferred from the description in Jackson’s ‘ Account of the Empire of Marocco’ p. 136, who says of the gum that it ‘is produced from a high thorny tree called Attalet, having leaves similar io the Arar, or gum Sandarac tree, and the Juniper.’ Jackson goes on to say :— ‘The best kind of Barbary gum is procured from the trees of Marocco, Ras-el-wed, in the province of Abda; the secondary qualities are the produce of Shedma, Duquella, and other pro- vinces ; the tree grows abundantly in the Atlas mountains, and is found also in Bled-el-jerréde. The gum, when new, emits a faint smell, and, when stowed in the warehouse, it is heard to crack spontaneously for several weeks ; and this cracking is the surest criterion of new gum, as it never does so when old; 394 APPENDIX D, there is, however, scarcely any difference in the quality. The Attaleh is not so large a tree as the Arar, which produces the Sandarac gum, nor does it reach the size of the Auwar tree, which produces the gum Senegal. It has a low crooked stem, and its branches, from the narrowness of its leaves (long and scanty), have a harsh, withered, and unhealthy appearance at the time it yields the most gum—that is, during the hot and parching months of July and August; but although not an ornamental tree, it isa most useful plant, and will always be considered valuable. Its wood is hard, and takes a good polish; its seeds, which are enclosed in a pericarpium, resemble those of the Lupin, yield a reddish dye, and are used by the tanners in the prepara- tion of leather. These seeds attract goats, who are very fond of eating them. The more sickly the tree appears, the more gum it yields ; and the hotter the weather, the more prolific it is. A wet winter and a cool or mild summer are unfavourable to the production of gum.’ As observed in the body of this work, the gum does not seem. to be collected in the western portion of its range in South Marocco, but in Demnet, whence it is brought to Mogador ; and it may very well be that it is only in the hotter and drier regions of the interior that the gum is produced in sufficient quantities to be worth collecting. It is remarkable that no notice whatever of Acacia gunmi- fera occurs in Fliickiger and Hanbury’s invaluable ‘ Pharmaco graphia’ (1874), where the Marocco gum is supposed to be the produce of Acacia arabica Willd., a plant which extends from Nubia to Natal, and eastward to Central India, but which is not known as a native of Marocco. In another passage of the above work (p. 211), the ‘Marocco, Mogador, or brown Barbary gum,’ is described as consisting ‘of tears of moderate size, often vermiform, and of a rather uniform light dusky brown tint. The tears, which are internally glassy, become cracked on the surface and brittle if kept in a warm room ; they are perfectly soluble in water.’ It is possible that the Acacia arabica, which is found in Senegal, may extend to the Sus Valley, and be the source of some of the Marocco gum; and that more than one species producing gum are confounded together by the Moors; this is the natural inference from Jackson’s account, itself anything GUM ARABIC. 395 but explicit. On the other hand, I am informed in a letter lately received from Mr. R. Drummond Hay, H.B.M. Consul at Mogador, who has kindly had inquiries made for me, that the Acacia arabica (Alk Awarwhal) is not found in Sus, no tree of the kind existing either north or south of the Atlas, but that its gum is brought from Soodan by Arabs, and is of in- ferior quality to that of the Acacia gummifera. Myr. Hay further informs me that the Acacia gummifera grows chiefly in the provinces of Blad Hamar, Rahamma, and Sus. As stated above, the specimens which we collected of Acacia gummifera precisely accord with the published description and drawing ; but we have others under this name from Mr. Cosson’s collector, Ibrahim, gathered near Mogador and at Ouanyna, which differ in having very short spines, 4 to + in. long, whilst those of our plant are from 2 to ? in. long and much stouter. Very small plants of Acacia gummifera are living at Kew, raised from seeds obligingly presented by Mr. Cosson. They grow exceedingly slowly, and several have been lost by damping off. They are not in a state fit for exhibition. The Argan Tree. Argania Sideroxylon.rRoem. and Sch. Syst. Veg. iv. 502; Alph. DC. Prod. viii. 187; Hook. in Kew Journ. Bot. vi. (1854) 97, t. iii. iv.; De Noé, in Rev. Hort. 1853, 125; Ball, in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. xvi. 663. Sideroxylon spinoswum.—Linn. Hort. Cliff. 69 (excl. syn. et loc.); Correa, in Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. vii. 393. Lhamnus siculus.—Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 12, iti. 227, excl. syn., non Boce. R. pentaphyllus.—Linn, Syst. Nat. ed. Gmel. 398, fid. Dryandr. excl. syn. Boce. LEleodendron Argan.—Retz Obs. Bot. vi. 26; Willd. Sp. Pl. i. 1148, excl. syn. Jacq. and Boce.; Schousboe, Iagttag. over vextrig. in Maroce. 89. Argan.—Dryandr. in Trans. Linn. Soe. ii. 225. This tree is rightly regarded as the most interesting veget- able production of Marocco, being confined to that empire and to a very circumscribed area in it, belonging to an almost exclu- sively tropical natural family, yielding a most important article 396 APPENDIX D. of diet to the inhabitants, and a wood that for hardness and durability rivals any hitherto described. The earliest account of the Argan tree known to us is a brief one by the celebrated African traveller Leo Africanus, who visited Marocco in 1510. Speaking of some of the customs of the Moors, Leo Africanus says: ‘Unto their Argans (for so they call a kind of olive which they have) they put nuts; out of which two simples they ex- press a very bitter oil, using it for a sauce to some of their meats, and pouring it into their lamps’ (‘ Purchas,’ ii. 772). And in another passage he describes the oil correctly, as ‘of a fulsome and strong savour.’ The further history of the Argan tree is given in a very full and careful account by the late Sir W. Hooker, in the ‘London Journal of Botany’ for 1854 (vol. vi. p. 97, Tab. iii. iv.), which, as the work is of limited circulation, we here introduce. ‘Through the kindness and by the exertions of the Earl of Clarendon, Chief Secretary for Foreign Affairs, the Royal Gardens of Kew have been put in possession of living plants and fresh seeds of a tree or shrub very little known in Europe, little known even to botanists, but highly esteemed by the Moors, in those parts of Marocco where it is a native, for its useful quali- ties, viz. the “Argan.” Its economical properties are best explained by the copy of a letter which his Lordship did me the favour to communicate along with the plants and seeds, from Henry Grace, Esq., British Acting Vice-Consul at Moga- dor, addressed to J. H. Drummond Hay, Esq., Her Britannic Majesty’s Agent and Consul-General at Tangier; both of which gentlemen spared no pains in procuring the information and seeds and living specimens; an example we should be glad to see followed by our consuls in other countries abounding in new and useful plants. ‘« Mogador, November 7, 1853. ‘“Sir,—The Argan tree grows more or less throughout the states of Western Barbary, but principally in the province of Haha, and south of this town. The soil in which it is found is light, sandy, and very strong; it is usually seen upon the hills, which are barren of all else, and where irrigation is impossible. ‘«T should imagine, from the appearance of some of the trees, that they are from one to two hundred years old; and a re- markably large one in this neighbourhood is probably at least ARGAN TREE. 397 three hundred. This individual measures 26 ft. round the trunk ; at the height of three feet it branches off; the branches (one of which measures 11 ft. in circumference near the trunk) rest upon the ground, extending about 15 ft. from the trunk, and again ascend. The highest branch of this tree is not more than 16 ft. to 18 ft. from the ground, while the outer branches spread so as to give a circumference of 220 ft.: this is the largest I am aware of. ‘«The mode of propagation, in this vicinity, is mostly by seed. When sowing this, a little manure is placed with it, and it is well watered until it shoots; from which period it requires nothing further. In from three to five years after sowing it bears fruit, which ripens between May and August (according to the situation of the tree). The roots extend a great distance underground, and shoots make their appearance at intervals, which are allowed to remain, thus doing away with the necessity of transplanting or sowing. When the fruit ripens, herds of goats, sheep, and cows are driven thither; a man beats the tree with a long pole, and the fruits fall and are devoured vora- ciously by the cattle. In the evening they are led home, and, when comfortably settled in their yards, they commence chew- ing the cud and throw out the nuts, which are collected each morning as soon as the animals have departed upon their daily excursion. J have heard it remarked that the nut passes through the stomach ; but this is only a casualty, and not a general rule. Large quantities of the fruit are likewise collected by women and children: they are well dried, and the hull is taken off, and stored for the camels and mules travelling in the winter, being considered very nutritious. «« The process of extracting the oilis very simple. The nuts are cracked by the women and children (and not a few fingers suffer at the same time, owing to the want of proper tools, for’ the nuts are very hard, and a stone is the only implement used); the kernels are then parched in a common earthen vessel, ground in handmills of this country, and put into a pan; a little cold water is sprinkled upon them, and they are well worked up by the hand (much the same as kneading dough) until the oil separates, when the refuse is well pressed in the hand, which completes the process. The oil is left to stand, and the sedi- ment removed. The cake (in which a great deal of oi] remains, 398 APPENDIX D. owing to the want of a proper press) is generally given to the milch cows or goats. ‘“T never heard of any part being used as manure, but I have no doubt it would form an excellent one. ““ Some of these Argans grow in clusters, others are in single trees, ‘““T have, &e., (Signed) «“Flenry GRACE. “To J. H. Drummond Hay, Esq., ke. de.”” ‘Except a brief notice of the exportation into Europe of Argan oil by the Danish Councillor of State, Georges Hist, who travelled in the kingdoms of Marocco and Fez during the years 1766-1768, the only published account of the uses of the Argan is given in a very little known Danish work, published by P. K. A. Schousboe, entitled “Iagttagelser over Veextriget i Marokko. Forste Stycke. Kiobnhavn, 1800, 4, 7 Tab.,” of which a German edition appeared in 1801, in 8vo, by J. A. Markussen. It gives an account of some Marocco plants; and, after an introductory sketch of the physical geography of Marocco, it contains descriptions of the plants of the country in Latin and German, with occasional observations in German. The account of the Argan under Retz’s name of EHlewodendron Argan is long: first comes a technical description, followed by a history of its synonymy, and then the following notes (kindly translated for us by Mr. Bentham) :— ‘«Tt is surprising that this tree should hitherto have been so little known; as it is found in a country near Europe, and visited by many travellers, who speak in their diaries and descriptions of oil of Argan and of Argan trees, these last as con- stituting a considerable proportion of the forests of the country. It is, however, not to be met with in the northern provinces, but only towards the south. All those persons, from whom I have sought more accurate information on the subject, are unanimous in stating that it only grows between the rivers Tansif and Sus—that is, between the 29° and 32° N. lat.—and there constitutes forests of considerable extent. It flowers in the middle of June, and the fruit remains on the tree the greater part of the year. The young fruit sets in the end of July or beginning of August, and grows slowly till the rainy season ARGAN TREE. 399 commences, towards the end of September. It now enlarges rapidly and attains its full size during that season, so as that by the middle or end of March it is ripe enough to be gathered for economical uses. Both the fruit and the wood are serviceable, but especially the former ; for from the kernel an oil is extracted which is much employed for domestic purposes by the Moors, and is an important production of the country, as it saves much olive oil, which can thus be thrown into commerce, and made to bring money into the country. It is calculated that in the whole Argan region one thousand hundredweight of oil is annually con- sumed, thus setting free an equal quantity of olive oil for export- ation to Europe. Our countryman, Hést, in his ‘ Efterretninger om Marokos,’ p. 285, says that the Argan oil is exported to Europe, where it is used in manufactures. Such may have been the case in former times when it might be cheaper; but now there would be no advantage in doing so, as it costs almost as much as olive oil. At present, no Argan oil whatever is exported. <« As the practice in preparing this oil is somewhat different from that of common olive oil, it may be useful to enter into some details on the subject. I have myself been present during the whole operation, and consequently speak from experience. ‘“Tn the end of March the countryman goes into the wood, where the fruits are shaken down from the trees and stripped of their husks on the spot. The green fleshy pericarp, which is good for nothing else, is greedily eaten by ruminating animals, such as camels, goats, sheep, and cows, but especially by the first two. Therefore, when the Arab goes into the woods to collect Argan nuts, be gladly takes with him his herds of the above animals, that they may eat their fill of the green husks whilst he and his family are collecting and shelling the nuts. The horse, the ass, and the mule, on the contrary, do not like this food. When a sufficient quantity of nuts are collected they are brought home, the hard wooden shell is cracked between stones, and the inner white kernels are carefully extracted. These are roasted or burnt like coffee on earthen, stone, or iron plates ; in order that they may not be too much done, they are constantly stirred with a stick. When properly roasted they should be all over of a brown colour, but not charred on the outside. The smoke, which is disengaged during the process, has a very 400 APPENDIX D. agreeable odour. As soon as the kernels have cooled, they are ground in a handmill into a thick meal, not unlike that of pounded almonds, only that it is of a brown colour, and the meal is put into a vessel in which the oil is separated, which is done by sprinkling the mass now and then with hot water, and keeping it constantly stirred and kneaded with the hand. This process is carried on until the mass becomes so bard that it can no longer be kneaded: the harder and firmer are the residuary coarse parts, the more completely is the oil extracted. At the last, cold water is sprinkled upon it, in order, as they say, to expel the last particles of the oil. During the operation the oil runs out at the sides, and is from time to time poured into a clean vessel. The main point to be attended to in order to ex- tract the greatest quantity and the best quality of oil, is that it should be well kneaded, and that the proper proportion of hot water for the extraction of the oil should be used ; it is always safer to be sparing of it than to be too profuse. The residuary mass, often as bard as a stone, is of a black-brown colour, and has a disagreeable bitter flavour. The oil itself, when it has settled, is clear, of a light brown colour, and has a rancid smell and flavour. When it is used without other preparations in cooking, it has a stimulating and pungent taste which is long felt on the gums. The vapour which arises when anything is fried in it, affects the lungs and occasions coughing. The com- mon people use it generally without preparation ; but in better houses it is the custom, in order to take off that pungency, to mix it previously with water, or to put a bit of bread into it and let it simmer before the fire. ‘“ The wood, which is hard, tough, fine-grained, and of a yellow colour, is used in house carpentry, and for other pur- poses.”? ‘We have been at some pains to distribute the seeds of this plant, with which we have been liberally supplied, to various parts of the East Indies, and to such of our Colonies as ap- peared suited to the growth of this tree, in respect of climate, &c. It is impossible for seeds to be in better condition ; and though the surrounding hard portion of the nut is as thick and solid as that of hickory, those which we ourselves sowed sprouted in less than a month from the time they were put in ARGAN TREE. 401 the ground. The young trees bore the rough treatment of the voyage in midwinter remarkably well ; and it is easy to see that this is a plant of ready culture in favourable climates. ‘The value of the busks of the fruit as food for cattle, and the uses of the wood, are mentioned in the above extracts. The nature of the oil seems only to have been considered in relation to olive oil. But vegetable oils are now so much in demand, especially by Messrs. Price & Co., for their great candle-works at Vauxhall, as well as at Birkenhead, near Liverpool, that I was anxious to know the opinion of Mr. G. F. Wilson, the scientific director of those vast establishments, on the nature of Argan oil. Some seeds were consequently communicated to that gentleman, and he lost no time in experimenting upon them, and assuring me that “ they contain a large percentage of a very fine oil. We have tried it in several ways, in each case with a favourable result. Some is now being exposed to a severe test, to show how the air acts upon it: I have, however, little fear but that it willanswer. Our city friends are inquiring for us the best means of getting a ton or two of the nuts for experiments on a large scale. The only unfavourable point I see is the small weight of kernel to that of hard shell :— 6 Nuts gave—kernel 30 grains hard shell 350 grains outer husk 193 grains. ” a ” ” The hard shell probably should be sent home with the seed when the kernels are required to yield a sweet oil; for unless prepared with great care, hardly to be expected in a wild country, the oil would not be nearly so sweet if sent home expressed, instead of in its kernel and shell. Perhaps if the kernel is pounded and rammed tightly into casks, we might obtain sweet oil without great waste in freight.” ‘In a botanical point of view this plant is scarcely of less in- terest than in an economical. It has had the hard fate, often the consequence of being with difficulty procured, to be much misun- derstood, and, except by Schousboe, to be imperfectly described ; and references are given in works to plants as being identical which have no relationship with it; or to descriptions which, if the same, exhibit little or no resemblance. ‘The first botanist who appears to have noticed this plant is DD 402 APPENDIX D. Linneus, who, in the Hortus Clifforttanus, in 1737, described it, from dried specimens, under the name of Sideroxylon spinosum. “From Clifford’s Herbarium,” observes Mr. Dry- ander, “now in the possession of Sir Joseph Banks, the Argan was taken up by Linné in his Hortus Cliffortianus; though most of the synonyms are wrong, and consequently the locus natalis (utragque India) which is deduced from them. The specimen in Linné’s Herbarium, under the name of Sideroaylon spinosum, is without flowers, and it is impossible to tell you with any certainty what it is. Clifford’s Herbarium is there- fore the only authority by which this species can be ascertained.” Linneus’s Rhamnus siculus, in the Appendix to the third volume of the twelfth edition of the Systema Nature, is, we are assured by Mr. Dryander, “the Argan, or Olive-tree of Marocco (see Host’s ‘ Efterretninger om Marokos,’ p. 284), as appears from the specimen in Linné’s Herbarium, which has a ticket affixed, with the name of Argan of Marocco, and which I have also compared with specimens in Sir Joseph Banks’s Herbarium from Marocco.” The description, too, of Linneus is very correct. He errs only in considering the plant to be the same as the Rhamnus Siculus pentaphyllos of Boccone (Rhus pentaphyllum, Desf.), which has folia quinata, which latter he introduces into the specific character, but not into the description ; and he errone- ously followed Boccone in giving Sicily as the native country in addition to Africa, and in adopting the specific name Siculus. “In the Species Plantarum of Linnzus, Malabar alone is mentioned as the native country of the Sideroxylon spinosum. Nevertheless, with the exception of Willdenow, who rejects it altogether as “planta valde dubia, forte nullibi obvia,” most of the older authors adopt this name for the Argan of Marocco. Under it, it appears in the first edition of Hortus Kewensis, with the reference to Species Plantarum of Linneus, and to Commelyn, Hortus Amstelod. tab. 83, where, however, nothing is said of its native country, further than may be surmised by the name adopted from Breynius’s “ Lycio similis frutex Indicus spinosus, Buxi folio” (which, as already observed, Willdenow considered to be his Mlacourtia sepiaria, from India), and of which the flowers and fruit were unknown to the author. If this were the Argan, it was in cultivation in Holland as early as 1697, At a period not much later, viz. in 1711, according ARGAN TREE. 403 to the Hortus Kewensis, it was introduced into England : “ Cult. 1711, by the Duchess of Beaufort, Br. Mus. H.S. 141, fol. 39.” It is indicated as a stove-plant. ‘Sir James Smith, article Sideroxylon spinoswm in Rees’s “Cyclopedia ” (1819), throws no new light upon the subject ; he omits the reference toCommelyn. Retz, in “ Obs. Bot.” vol. vi. p- 26, refers the plant to Hl@odendron, in which he is followed by Willdenow, and by Schousboe, which latter author has given by far the fullest and best account of the plant botanically and economically. “M. Corréa de Serra, “Annales du Museum d’Histoire Natu- relle,” 1809, tom. viii. p. 393, tab. v. f. 1, has published a very good analysis of the fruit, with very brief characters and no observations, At length Mr. Brown, “ Botanicorum facile princeps,” in his invaluable Prodromus, under his Observations on Sapoter, says, “Sideroxylon spinosum, L., fructu valde diversum proprium hujus ordinis genus efficit;” and, acting upon his suggestion, Remer and Schultes, “Systema Vegeta- bilium,” vol. iv. pp. xlvi. and 502, have formed of this plant a new genus, Argania, in which they have been followed by End- licher and Alphonse De Candolle. In this latter work a very full generic character is given, which need not here be repeated.’ “Tt is singular that no further allusion to this tree should appear in Jackson’s “ Account of the Empire of Marocco” than the following: “ Oil Arganic is also in abundance in Suse ; it is much used for frying fish and burning-lamps. When used for frying fish, a quart of it should be boiled with a large onion cut in quarters ; and when it boils, a piece of the inside of a loaf, about the size of an orange, should be put in; after which it should be taken off the fire and let stand tc cool, and when quite cold should be strained through a sieve ; without this pre- caution it is supposed to possess qualities which promote leprosy.” —Dr. Barretta.’ The limited distribution of the Argan is one of its most noticeable features, for as a genus it is not far removed from Stderoxylon, a very widely spread tropical and subtropical genus of both hemispheres, and which reaches its northern limit in Madeira (in the same latitude as that attained by the Argan), where one species, S. Mermulana, Lowe, is found on poz 404 APPENDIX E. the rocky heights of the interior. The order is not found in the Canary Islands, but reappears in the Cape de Verdes in a species of Sapota, and is well represented in the humid regions of Western Africa. It would thus appear that Argania and the Madeiran Sideroxylon are two outlying representatives of a very tropical order; and, considering the proximity of the areas they inhabit, and their position in the extreme west of the Old World, they are, in a Botanico-Geographical point of view, plants of a very high interest, as evidences of a relationship between the Floras of these areas, which must originally have been established under very different conditions from those which now prevail. The Argan was, as stated above, introduced into England in 1811, and was long established on a south wall, but ulti- mately was killed in an unusually severe winter. Numerous plants were raised, from seed sent by Sir John Hay, by Mr. Grace, and from those brought by myself, and the plant may be seen in the Economic-plant House at Kew. It is of very slow growth, which has disappointed colonists and others, to whom the fruits have been largely distributed from Kew. APPENDIX E. On the Canarian Flora as compared with the Maroccan. By JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER. In respect of their botanical relationship to neighbouring Con- tinents, Islands or Archipelagos may be roughly classed under two divisions: namely, those which are situated within a mode- rate distance of continents, and whose Floras are manifestly derived from them or have had a common origin with theirs ; and those which are situated very far from any continents, and whose Floras differ so much either from that of the neighbouring continent or from that of those parts of the continent that are nearest to them, that their origin is a matter of speculation. Of the first division, the British Isles, and probably Vancouver's Island, in North-West America, are conspicuous instances, their Floras being almost identical with those of the neighbouring continents. St. Helena, the Galapagos, Mauritius, and the Sandwich Islands are instances of the opposite extreme, for their Floras differ widely from those of any continents. THE CANARIAN FLORA. 405 Between these extreme cases there are many intermediate ones; and there are others of an exceptional character, as Ice- land, which, though far removed from any part of Europe, has but one flowering plant not found on that continent (Pa- tanthera hyperborea) ; and Ceylon, which though it is almost united to the Peninsula of Hindostan, yet iu many respects differs greatly from that peninsula in its Flora. Amongst the exceptional cases to continental proximity being accompanied by close botanical relationship is the Flora of the Canarian Archipelago, which differs so greatly from that of the northern part of its neighbouring continent, namely, from that of Marocco,! that it demands notice in any work treating of the vegetation of the latter country. This diversity between the Maroccan and Canarian Floras has been pointed out in Ball’s ‘ Introductory Observations to the Spicilegium Flore Maroccane,’? where it appears that whilst Marocco, out of 1,627 species of flowering plants, contains 165 endemic plants, it has only 15 which are confined to it and to the Canaries, or to it and Madeira. And Ball goes on to re- mark (p. 301), in respect of these few species common to both Floras: ‘I think it is safe to say that the facts rather tend to show the accidental diffusion of a few Macaronesian’ species on the adjacent coast of Africa, than to indicate the direct con- nection between the continent and those islands within a geo- logical period at all recent.’ Were this diversity due solely or chiefly to the Canaries want- ing many Maroccan plants, the inquiry would not be a pressing one; but as to this deficiency is to be added the presence in the Canaries of many indigenous species, and even several genera 4 1 The Canary Islands are situated about 3° farther south, and 280 miles distant from Mogador. They are thus opposite a much more hot and arid part of the African coast than that north of the Atlas. The large island of Fuertaventura is only about 70 miles from the continent south of Oued Noun. 2 Journ. Linn. Soc. vol. xvi. p. 297. 3 A term first applied by Webb to the Flora of the Canarian Archi- pelago, but which should also include the Flora of Madeira (as Ball makes it do in the above mention of it), the Azores, and perhaps also of the Cape de Verde Islands, which together form either a distinct bota- nical province, or a marked subdivision of the Mediterranean province. ‘ No less than nine very distinct genera are confined to the Canaries or Madeira or both :—Parolinia, Boncomia, Visnea, Phyllis, Plocama, 406 APPENDIX E. which are absent in Marocco, and in Marocco the great rarity of endemic genera, of which Argania only is arboreous, the inquiry becomes a very important one, inviting a much closer study than can here be given to it. The Flora of the Canarian Archipelago, though consisting, like the Maroccan, for the most part of Mediterranean species, yet differs from that of Marocco, in containing many plants that may be classed under the following categories :— I. It contains many non-Maroccan plants, obviously intro- duced by man, and not from Europe only, but from various parts of both the Old and New Worlds. This will not appear surprising when it is remembered that Teneriffe was for several centuries the Prime Meridian of Geographers and the resort of all the European ocean-navigators, who took their departure from it on their outward voyages, and made for it on their home- ward ones. The Alternanthera achyrantha, a tropical American plant, was no doubt imported into the Canaries, and possibly from thence introduced into Spain (where it is now natural- ised). oR ow bs MOUNTAIN FLORA OF GREAT ATLAS. 423 much to do with the dearth of species, some parts of the range even now presenting evidence of subterranean heat. The preponderance of Abyssinian forms is proved by almost all of the genera and half the species being natives of Abys- sinia, and by many other species being very closely related to, or obvious representatives of, plants of that country. There are, further, several of the genera and many of the species pecu- liar to Abyssinia and the peaks of Biafra. The number of European genera amounts to 43, and species to 26, the greater part of which are British. Very few of them extend into South Africa. The greater part are Abys- sinian; the remarkable exceptions being Radiola, Scabiosa succisa, Luzula campestris, and Festuca gigantea, all of which, however, may have been hitherto overlooked in Abyssinia. I find no other evidence of relationship between the Biafran mountain Flora and that of Marocco than what is afforded by the European species common to both. In most other respects the Floras differ totally, the other mountain plants of Biafra being Abyssinian or Cape types, or more nearly related to tropical African ones. APPENDIX G On the Mountain Flora of Two Valleys in the Great Atlas of Maroceo. By JoHN BALL, ALTHOUGH an attempt to discuss the character and relations of the Flora of a region so wide and so little known as the mountain region of the Great Atlas would as yet be quite premature, it appears that the materials at our disposal suffice for an examination of the vegetation of the valleys lying south and south-west of the city of Marocco, which may be an acceptable contribution to botanical geography. For this pur- pose it seems best to limit the discussion to the two valleys where our collections were sufficiently extensive to give a tolerably complete representation of the vegetation, as far as this was developed at the season of our visit, and to exclude altogether the plants found along the skirts of the great range below the level of about 1,200 metres above the sea. The Flora of the zone below that level is largely mixed up with extraneous 424 APPENDIX G. elements, represented by plants of the low country that reach the base of the mountains, but do not penetrate the interior valleys, and if these had been admitted the special features of the mountain Flora would have become less apparent. The plants collected in the course of a somewhat hurried excursion from Seksaoua, when we reached a height of about 1,600 metres, have been designedly omitted. On such occasions attention is to a great extent monopolised by the new and rare species not hitherto seen in the same region, while comparatively familiar forms are less carefully noted. Collections made under such circumstances rarely give a moderately complete report of the vegetable population. In ascending to the higher region of mountains that approach to the limit of vegetation the absolute number of species is so much smaller that this source of error is far less apparent; and it is not likely that in the two ascents which we made to the dividing ridge of the Atlas many species that came within our range of vision were overlooked. The following tabular arrangement shows that in the Ait Mesan valley, where we spent the greater part of six days, we collected 375 species of pheenogamous plants, to which have been added three subse- quently found there by MM. Rein and Fritsch; while in the Amsmiz valley only 223 species—or less than three-fifths of the above number—were collected. Of these 146 species are com- mon to both valleys; so that our list does not in all exceed 455 species of flowering plants, to which I have added 10 vascular cryptogams, of which two only were found in the Amsmiz valley. In the following list I distinguish a middle zone, extending from 1,200 to 2,000 metres above the sea, and a superior zone including all above that limit; the latter corresponding pretty nearly with the sub-alpine and alpine zones of the higher moun- tains of Europe. With reference to their distribution I have divided the species into four categories: 1, Mid-European, those extending to Central Europe, of which more than three-fourths belong to the British Flora: 2, wide-spread Mediterranean, extending beyond the bounds of the three adjoining regions, Algeria, the Spanish peninsula, and the Canary Islands: 3, confined to adjoining regions; that is, to one or more of those just enumerated : 4, endemic, known only in the Great Atlas, or the neighbouring provinces of Marocco. MOUNTAIN FLORA OF GREAT ATLAS. 425 Tabular View of the Mountain Flora of the Great Atlas, showing the distribution of the Species found in the Valleys of Ait Mesan and Amsmiz. SS indicates the superior zone from 2,000 m. to 3,500 m. above the sea; M the middle (or mountain) zone, from 1,200 m, to 2,000 m. Name of Species Amsmiz Con- fined to adjoin- ing regions Ranunculus spicatus, L. var. e atlanticus, Ball 5 bulbosus, L. var. s arvensis, L. . $5 muricatus, L. . % Reinii, nov. sp. . Aquilegia vulgaris, L. var. Delphinium Balansz, B. et R.) Var? . Berberis cretica, L. var. Papaver tenue, Ball. » rupifragum, B. et R. } var. Roemeria hybrida, D.C. . Hypecoum pendulum, L.. Corydalis heterocarpa (Dur) Fumaria officinalis, L. 6 parviflora, Lam. 55 media, Lois var. 4 agraria, Lag. var. 5 tenuisecta, Ball. ‘ Nasturtium officinale, R. Br. , atlanticum, Ball Arabis albida, Stev. ; : » erubescens, Ball ‘ é » auriculata, Lam. . . » decumbens, Ball . F » conringioides, Ball Cardamine hirsuta, L. var, Alyssum alpestre, L. vars. 3 montanum, L, var. is campestre, L. . ‘ calycinum, L. ‘ ee spinosum, L. be Draba hispanica, Boiss. , f Sisymbrium Thalianum , , Ke runcinatum, TUB: var. Erysimum australe, Gay, var, : Brassica rerayensis, Ball . - Capsella bursa-pastoris, L. n Zl BnAnRNDHHROHDE Ee RBHAR tee = Fo ma gigiggo gl lke Loe Tk 1K] 426 APPENDIX G. TABULAR VIEW OF THE MOUNTAIN FLORA—continued. Name of Species Ait Mesan Amsmiz Wide- spread ‘Mediter- ranean Con- fined to adjoin- ing regions En- demic Lepidium nebrodense, Raf. var. Biscutella lyrata, L. Var. . . : Thlaspi perfoliatum, L. et var. Hutchinsia petra, R. Br. . Isatis tinctoria, L. var. . ; Crambe hispanica, L. . . Capparis spinosa, L.. si : Reseda attenuata, Ball . . » phyteuma, L. . » lanceolata, Lag. . 7 Cistus polymorphus, Willd. . Helianthemum niloticum, L.] var.?. ‘ ‘ 7 55 rubellum, Presl. . a3 glaucum, Cav. . _ virgatum, Desf. et var. ; Fumana glutinosa, L. » calycina, Claus. . . Viola tezensis, Ball . % P Polygala rupestris, Pourr. . 5 Balansz, Coss. . . Dianthus attenuatus, Sm. . 9 virgineus, L. . . Tunica compressa, Desf, . » prolifera, L. 7 : Silene inflata, Sm. var. . . » nocturna, L. . é » corrugata, Ball , P » muscipula, L. : . italica, L. . . ; Holosteum umbellatum,L. . Cerastium glomeratum, Thuill. ss brachypetalum, Desf. arvense,L. . Stellaria media, L. . P . a5 uliginosa, Murr. é Arenaria pungens, Clem, et var. oe serpyllifolia, L. . 5 $y procumbens, Vahl. . A fasciculata, Gouan. 5 setacea, Thuill. var. verna, L. var. . 6 Buffonia tenuifolia, L. . . Sagina procumbens, L. var. . » Linnei, Prese. y i Polycarpon tetraphyllum, L. . 53 Bivouz, J. Gay - ane | zRanD DP a EE Se !'SE SE ! 5 Ba DBRORER EEE 4 a ANRAMHEAHH ie) izgliligeeuni SS BR@®Ie 8 BE | 5 wn Relunulnn * OK 1 | eK TKK LO | ok ok ok kK i xo EK | i MOUNTAIN FLORA OF GREAT ATLAS. TABULAR VIEW OF THE MOUNTAIN FLORA—continued. 427 Name of Species Amsmiz' Wide- spread Mediter-| ranean Con- fined to adjoin- ing regions Montia fontana, L. . Hypericum perforatum, L is coadunatum, Chr. Sm. var. . Malva sylvestris, L. . » rotundifolia, L. . a Linum corymbiferum, Desf. . Fagonia cretica, L. . Geranium malveflorum, B. et R. ss pyrenaicum, its 7 . a molle, L. . , : os rotundifolium, L. . lucidum, L. r ‘ es robertianum, L. var. . Erodium Jacquinianum, F. et M. is malacoides, L. . . 9 guttatum, W. . . Oxalis corniculata, L. 5 r Ruta chalepensis, L. 3 A Rhammus Alaternus, L. . ‘ * lycioides, L. . Acer monspessulanum, L, i Pistacia Lentiscus, L. 2 ‘ Lotononis maroccana, Ball Argyrolobium Linnzanum, 1 Walp. var. . as stipulaceum, Ball Adenocarpus anagyrifolius, Coss, Genista dasycarpa (Coss.) ‘ sf myriantha, Ball . : on florida, L. var. . . Cytisus Balanse, Boiss, var, . » albidus, D.C. ‘ » Fontanesii, Spach Ononis atlantica, Ball . @ » antiquorum,L. . “ Trigonella monspeliaca, L. +5 polycerata, L. et var. Medicago lupulina, L. . 3 a5 suffruticosa, Ram. . turbinata, W. vars. . ag denticulata, W. z minima, Lam. . F Melilotus indica, All. P é Trifolium atlanticum, Ball. 3 glomeratum, L. var. is repens, L. ‘ a a“ humile, Ball . ‘ EN tomentosum, L, 2 Pe eg Rt BORER YES B s z 2 REE TES KERS Bs! leloag BYE OnE R I RHEE | n BEER tt Bei emi i lle eRie peleputelies bok 1 bok RI * (o* | x 428 APPENDIX G. TABULAR VIEW OF THE MOUNTAIN FLORA—continued. Name of Species Amsniz Wide- spread Mediter- ranean Con- fined to adjoin- ing regions Anthyllis Vulneraria, L. et var. ss tetraphylla, L. . . Lotus cytisoides, D.C. . ‘ Coronilla pentaphylla, Desf. . as ramosissima, Ball. 53 minima, L. ‘ . FP scorpioides, L. . . Hippocrepis atlantica, Ball 59 multisiliquosa, L. var. . Psoralea bituminosa, Te--% ; Colutea arborescens, L. . > Astragalus sesameus, L. . e 3 Reinii, Ball. ; oe Glaux, L. var. . ‘ 55 atlanticus, Ball é 55 ochroleucus, Coss. . incurvus, Desf. 6 Vicia onobrychoides, L. . ‘ » glauca, Presl. var. . > » sativa, L. vars. « . Lathyrus aphaca, L. . . . spheericus, Retz. ¥ Ceratonia siliqua, L. i Prunus prostrata (Labill. ) A Poterium sanguisorba, L. . 9 verrucosum, Ehrnb. ) var. ” anceps, Ball . . 35 ancistroides, Desf. , Rosa canina, L. var. . F ‘ » Seraphini, Viv. . . Saxifraga globulifera, Desf. . PF tridactylites, L. . ‘5 granulata, L. . : Ribes Grossularia, L. P é Cotyledon umbilicus, L. . ‘ Sedum modestum, Ball . P » dasyphyllum, L. var. . » acre, L.. Sempervivum. atlanticum, Ball Monanthes atlantica, Ball P Bryonia dioica, Jacq. : Eryngium Bourgati, Gouan, var. 55 variifolium, Coss. . Bupleurum spinosum, L. . . es acutifolium, Coss. . 49 oblongifolium, Ball lateriflorum, Coss. . RBeE VERVE SS S&S PR ER BERE 4 n ne BARRE Sone aes Bee Saou R oe 5 n BREE@ EB! RIE n aeen = wm liguinioihepepan x KO te eR 1 OK OK Tbk 1k x * lok | 1 Lok KK | x RK | xX | MOUNTAIN FLORA OF GREAT ATLAS. TABULAR VIEW OF THE MOUNTAIN FLORA—continued. Name of Species Amsmiz' Wide- spread Mediter-| ranean Con- fined to adjoin- ing regions Deverra scoparia, Coss. et Dur. Carum mauritanicum, B. et R. Pimpinella Tragium, Vill. . Tinguarra sicula, L. ‘i ‘ Scandix pecten Veneris,L. . Kundmannia sicula, L. . r Meum atlanticum, Coss. . ‘ Heracleum Sphondylium, L. . Bifora testiculata, L. x 5 Caucalis latifolia, L. i r 5 daucoides,L. . i i leptophylla, L. . . “6 ceerulescens, Boiss. . Elceoselinum meoides, Desf. . Hedera Helix, L. . ‘ Sambucus nigra, L. . . . Viburnum Tinus, L. . . Lonicera etrusca, Santi . Putoria calabrica, L. . . Callipeltis cucullaria, L. . Rubia tinctorum, L.. ‘ . » peregrina, L.et var. . Galium Poiretianum, Ball i » corrudefolium, Vill. . » sylvestre, Poll. var. . » acuminatum, Ball ‘ » noli-tangere, Ball i » tunetanum, Lam. * » parisiense, L. var. ‘ » tricorne, With. . ; » spurium, L.. ‘ 5 » murale, L. . ; i Asperula aristata, L. var. . ‘ “ hirsuta, Desf. . i Crucianella angustifolia, L. . Sherardia arvensis, L. . fi Centranthus angustifolius, D.C. ” calcitrapa, L. a Valerianella discoidea, W. ‘ 6 auricula, D.C. . FA carinata, Loisel. . Scabiosa stellata, L. . ‘ Pterocephalus depressus, Coss. Bellis annua, L. var. r r » ccerulescens, Coss. , - Evax Heldreichii, Parl. . . Micropus bombycinus, Lag. . Filago germanica, L. var. : » heterantha, Rafin. _ alga Bs! teeae Ri 2 ogg Pepi ial | oe i * 1 x lx lex 1 I Ix 1 * | 1 * xx * * I 1 o*K *K x * 1x * I eK 1K | Ok 1 * * * | lox 1 x J 430 APPENDIX G,. TABULAR VIEW OF THE MOUNTAIN FLORA—continued. Name of Species Amsmiz _ |Mediter- Wide- | gned to spread ranean Con- adjoin- ing regions Filago gallica, L. Phagnalon saxatile, L. . i atlanticum, Ball Gnaphalium luteo-album, L. - helichrysoides, Ball Inula montana, L. Pulicaria mauritanica, Coss. Odontospermum aquaticum, L. Anacyclus depressus, Ball ss valentinus, L. . F Achillea ligustica, All. et var. . Anthemis tuberculata, Boiss. - heterophylla (Coss.). Chrysanthemum Gayanum (Coss.) et var. atlanticum, Ball ‘5 Catananche, Ball Senecio lividus, L. var. 4 ” giganteus, Desf. Calendula maroccana, Ball Echinops spinosus, L. : Xeranthemum modestum, Ball Atractylis cancellata, L. . ” macrophylla, Desf. Carduus macrocephalus, Desf... 55 Ballii, H. fil. . Cnicus echinatus Desf. » ornatus, Ball : » chrysacanthus, Ball » Casabone, L. . Steehelina dubia, L. var. . Centaurea incana, Desf. var. x Salmantica, L. var. . Carthamus cceruleus, L. var. Carduncellus lucens, Ball Catananche ccerulea, L. et var. 5 ceespitosa, Desf. Tolpis umbellata, Bert. Rhagadiolus stellatus, L. Crepis taraxacifolia, Thuil. var, » Hookeriana, Ball Phecasium pulchrum, L. . Hieracium Pilosella, L. Hypochzeris glabra, L. var. as leontodontoides, Ball Leontodon autumnalis, L. var.. a Rothii, Ball : 3, helminthioides, Coss. ” R' RI e®RE RR YOR eee 5 a BRERSE Sean 5 nm (gaa ioe eT B!ES nam Blag( igi el IRI IRR i eR lee Bee Bs! xR | OF aK | 1 *« 1 ek 1 xe 1 x I * | KK KK OK Ok demic MOUNTAIN FLORA OF GREAT ATLAS. TABULAR VIEW OF THE MOUNTAIN FLORA—continued. 431 Name of Species Ait Mesan Amsmiz! Mid- Euro- pean Wide- spread ranean Mediter-| Con- fined to adjoin- ing regions En- demic Taraxacum officinale, Wigs. var. Lactuca viminea, L. a ea) Pourr. 59 saligna, L. . A Sonchus oleraceus, L. asper, Vill. . ‘ Microrhynchus nudicaulis, L. . 3 spinosus (Forsk.) Scorzonera undulata, Vahl. % pygmea, S.et S. . Jasione atlantica, Ball Campanula maroceana, Ball . ai rapunculus, L Leefflingii, Brot. Specularia falcata (Ten.) . . Trachelium angustifolium, Schousb. is i Arbutus Unedo, L. . Armeria plantaginea (All, )? Asterolinum linum-stellatum, Tap ox . ‘ . . Anagallis linifolia, L. et var. . Jasminium fruticans, L. . Fraxinus oxyphylla, M. B. . me dimorpha, Coss. et) Dur Phillyrea media, L. . . Olea europea, L. é fi Nerium Oleander, L. P Convolvulus Cantabrica, L. es undulatus, Cav. 9 sabatius, Viv. var. ‘5 siculus, LL. . A i altheoides, L, Hyoscyamus albus, L. F Anchusa atlantica, Ball Lithospermum arvense, L, 39 incrassatum, Guss. var. } apulum, Vahl. Myosotis sylvatica, Hoffm. var. a hispida, Schlecht. var. on stricta, Link . P Cynoglossum Dioscoridis, ha et var. . ‘ Rochelia stellulata Verbascum calnycium, Ball Celsia maroccana, Ball Linaria ventricosa, Coss. . 'REBFOERB ERI BRE | Ba & 5 n BEER Bo ommeg o ogee! Feeeee eR a lok eR 1 KOK | * OK OK | * OK OK OK 1K 2K OK 2K OK OK OK OK OK 432 APPENDIX G. TABULAR VIEW OF THE MOUNTAIN FLORA—continued. Con- ; ae _| Mia- peo fined to] ame or Species Mesan emenig a Mediter- a “| demic ranean | regions Linaria heterophylla, Desf. M - * - - » galioides, Ball et var. . 8 - - al = % » arvensis, L. var. . ‘ 8 MS - * - - » marginata, Desf.. ; Ss - - - % - » lurida, Ball . F ; s - - * » Munbyana, Boiss. et uM - = a. ¥ . Reut. . » Tournefortii (Poir. ) s 8 - - * - rubrifolia, Rob. et Cast. M - - % - ~ Anarrhinum pedatum, Desf. M - - - * - <5 fruticosum, Desf. . - M * - = Scrophularia canina, L. var.? . - M * - i ~ Digialis lutea, L. var. . . M - * - - Veronica Beccabunga, L. . : Ss - * - - - 3 cuneifolia, Don. var. . 8 8 - * - - i arvensis L,et var. . 8 s * - - - 3 triphyllos, L. . : = M * - - 9 agrestis, L. : ‘ s - * - 7 hederifolia, L.et var.| MS | MS * - - Phelipsa coerulea, Vill. . é M * - - - Orobanche Hookeriana, Ball . M - - - * 5 barbata, Poir. . F M - - - x - Lavandula dentata, L. et var. . M M - * ~ - eam Coss) .| MS | MS - - - * Mentha rotundifolia, L. . A 8 - * - - - peas eres is et vs i a ae fs a Thymus Serpyllum, L. var. ‘ Ss - * - = » lanceolatus, Desf. var. M M - e - - e maroccanus, Ball i M - - - - * Micromeria microphylla, Benth M - - * = Calamintha graveolens, M. B. . M - - * - a e alpina, L. var. F 8 8 * = - - 5 atlantica, Ball .| MS | MS - * - Hyssopus officinalis, L. . . s s * - - - Salvia Maurorum, Ball . és - M - - - % » clandestina, L. var. .| MS - * - - Nepeta multibracteata, Desf. M - - * - 35 atlantica, Ball . - M - - * Sideritis villosa, Coss. i" -| MS | MS - - * of scordioides, L. var. . Ss * - - = Lamium amplexicaule, L. -| MS | MS * - = an 95 album, L. var. . M - * = = Teucrium granatense, B. et a a var. : i = = me - 3 polium, L. vars. : M M = * a = Ajuga Iva, L. . ‘ .| MS MS ae * a Globularia Alypum, L a fe ‘ - M = * io = Plantago albicans, L. var. Z - M = % = = MOUNTAIN FLORA OF GREAT ATLAS. 433 TABULAR VIEW OF THE MOUNTAIN FLORA—continued. é Con- Ait id sea fined En ; re | a < ‘ te = Name of Species Mesan |“ ™msmiz eee Mediter- ee danie ranean regions Plantago coronopus, L. var. .| MS ‘3 mauritanica, B. et R. - Paronychia argentea, Lam. .| MS | MS = * = = a capitata, Lam. var. MS * as 3 macrosepala, Boiss. et var. \ Scleranthus annuus, L. var. . Ss * = Polycnemum Fontanesii, Dur.) et Mog. . ‘ * Rumex scutatus, L. var. » Papilio, Coss. Polygonum aviculare, L Daphne Gnidium, L. ae Laureola, L. Thymelwa virgata, Endl. var. Osyris alba, L. . Aristolochia Pistolochia, L. Euphorbia rimarum, Coss. Quercus Ilex, L. et var. Salix purpurea, L. var. Populus alba, L. var. » nigra, L. Ephedra altissima, Desf. 5 procera, F. et M. Pinus halepensis, Mill. Callitris quadrivalvis, Vent. Juniperus oxycedrus, L. : ie pheenicea, L. et var. “I thurifera, L. Orchis pyramidalis, L. » latifolia, L. Ophrys apifera, Huds. Tris germanica, L. Chamerops humilis, L Gagea foliosa, Schult. Muscari comosum, L. Scilla hispanica, Mill. Omithogalum comosum, L. 5 tenuifolium Guss. ” orthophyllum, Ten. ‘ \ ss | | * | boxe * Ke I | xe Le KK 1 1 1K 1 eK I | | I I I | I x* | t I 1K OK Ox | I ( 2 BIB E ESE ® ROB RES! ESE RBBB SB! EES ae 4 \ Lok KT \ 1 99 pyrenaicum, L. var. : Allium paniculatum, L, var. Asphodelus microcarpus, Viv. . Anthericum Liliago, L. var. Colchicum Civonze, Guss. . om" arenarium W. K. var.? leet a BS 5 & @ * x 1K ST I i] ! "oon Lo} 434 APPENDIX G. TABULAR VIEW OF THE MOUNTAIN FLORA—continued. M Con- ; ro _ | Mia- Res fined to] Namerot Bpecies Mesan |4™™iz eae ‘Mediter- ate demic ranean | regions Smilax mauritanica, Desf. M - = * we Asparagus acutifolius, L. . . M - - * - $5 scoparius, Lowe ? M - - - * Juncus bufonius, L. . . M M * - - = Scirpus Savii, S.et M. . M - * - - - Carex Halleriana, Asso. - M * - = ~ » ambigua, Link. M - ~- x - » fissirostris, Ball Ss MS - - - * Phalaris nodosa, L. M - - * - - Piptatherum coerulescens, Desf.| ms M - * - - Stipa parviflora, Desf. M - - * - - » gigantea, Lag. ? : ‘ M - = % » nitens, Ball . s - - - oe * Agrostis verticilata, vill. M - = * ~ Phragmites communis, Trin. M - * - - Echinaria capitata, Desf. MS |] MS * - Aira caryophyllea, L. : MS * - - - Trisetum flavescens, L. . ‘ M * - - Avena bromoides, Gouan. var. . M a * = is Arrhenatherum elatius. L. ; - M * - es = Poa annua, L. . , ‘ .| MS M % a _ = 5» bulbosa, L. ‘ i -{ MS/MS * - - - » pratensis, L. : : -| MS |] Ms * - - 5, trivialis, L. ‘ .| MS - * z = = Melica ciliata; L. var. 2 i M = x = = » Cupani, Guss. var. MS M - * - - Dactylis glomerata, L. vars. .| ms | ug * - = es Cynosurus ere Desf. . MS - * ~ Festuca rigida, L. . M eS * = as = » unilateralis, Schrad. - var. = - * "i <3 geniculata, Ty et Var. : M M - * ~ » duriuscula, var. Ss s * = a a » arundinacea, Schreb. M M * a = = Brachypodium pinnatum, L. M - * = rm = var. $3 distachyum, L. M M = % = & Bromus tectorum, L. .-| MS = * ae sh = » madritensis, L. M M * = z 5 mollis, L. vars. MS M * = = » _macrostachys, Desf. var. M - - * a Lolium perenne, L, M = % = = = Triticum hordeaceum, Coss. et) Dur. F ‘ J M - = ® sa Secale montanum, Gruss. M ot * ca Elymus Caput-medus, L. var. M - % = Hordeum murinum, L.. ‘ M M * fa a Migilops ovata, L. . M M = % = 2 “ ventricosa, Tausch, M - = * ey = MOUNTAIN FLORA OF GREAT ATLAS, 435 TABULAR VIEW OF THE MouNrAIN FLORA—continued. 7 Con- Ait ss] Mie Veen |S] ni Name:of Specles Mesan Amsmis cee ‘Mediter- Se “| demic ranean regions Andropogon hirtus, L. var. 2 M - - * - Cistopteris fragilis, Bernh. . s s * - Cheilanthes fragrans, L. . - - * Pteris aquilina, L. ‘ ¥ - Asplenium a ae L. MS - * viride, L ‘ s * Adiantum-nigrum, L| 8 * Notochlena vellea, Desv. 7 M - - * Ceterach officinarum, Willd. MS MS * - Equisetum ramosissimum, Desf. M - * - Selaginella, rupestris, (Spreng.) M - - * - Total number of species . 465 | 388 | 225 | 161 | 168 61 75 Before discussing the inferences to be derived from this list, it may be well to notice some sources of error that, to a slight extent, affect the results. Although. the season of our visit— the second half of May—was probably the best as regards the middle zone, it was too early to find the vegetation fully de- veloped in the superior zone, especially on the highest ridges. It is probable that on this account the proportion of Umbelliferce and Graminee found in the higher region is smaller than it would have been at a later season. At first sight it would appear that the shorter time that we were able to devote to an examination of the upper region, and the snow-storm which we encountered in the ascent to the Tagherot Pass, make the proportion of species found there, as shown by our lists, unduly small. There can be no doubt that we must have lost several species owing to these causes, but not enough to vitiate the results to a serious extent. In confirmation of this opinion it may be mentioned that although a native employed by M. Cosson has since made a large collection in the same part of the Great Atlas, and two German naturalists—MM. Rein and Fritsch—have visited the head of the Ait Mesan valley, very few species have been added to the Flora of the higher mountain region. The first conclusion that strikes a botanist on examining the foregoing list is that the general type of the vegetation clearly marks this as belonging to the great Mediterranean Flora, which FF 2 436 APPENDIX G. extends, with local peculiarities, from Persia and Belutschistan to the Atlantic Islands, Out of 248 genera represented in the Flora of these valleys there is not one which is not common to other portions of the Mediterranean region, and one only (Jon- anthes) is confined to the Great Atlas and the Canary and Cape de Verde Islands, all the others being types more or less widely spread. Further than this, the proportion borne by each of the prevailing natural orders to the whole vegetable population is pretty nearly the same that we are accustomed to find in the mountain regions of the Mediterranean region. The materials for a comparison are unfortunately yet incom- plete as regards many of the mountain districts which are best fitted for the purpose. The Flora of the Lesser Atlas of Al- geria, as well as that of the rest of the French possessions in Africa, will be fully known only on the appearance of the im- portant work promised by M. Cosson. The Flora of Spain by MM. Willkomm and Lange is yet unfinished, and there is the further difficulty that those authors have admitted a large num- ber of plants to the rank of species which many botanists reckon only as varieties. M. Boissier’s great work, the ‘ Flora Orientalis,’ is also unfinished, and no adequate materials exist for compiling lists of the plants of the Greek mountains, of those of Asia Minor, or of the Lebanon chain, all of which would afford interesting materials for comparison. In the fol- lowing table I have taken for comparison the Flora of the Sierra Nevada, with the neighbouring mountains of the ancient kingdom of Granada above the level of about 800 metres, com- piled from Boissier’s ‘Voyage botanique dans le Midi de l’Espagne;’ that of the Bulgardagh (the principal group of the Cilician Taurus), from a list published by M. Pierre de Tchihatcheff in the ‘Bulletin of the French Botanical Society ;’ that of Dalmatia, from Visiani’s excellent ‘Flora Dalmatica ;’ and that of the southern slopes of the chain of the Alps from Nice to the Karst, formed by myself from all available sources. In the same table I have introduced, for the purpose of fur- ther comparison, separate columns for the middle and superior regions of the Great Atlas valleys, and in connection with the last I have added in a separate column the results for the higher zone of the Sierra Nevada. Under each heading I have stated 437 MOUNTAIN FLORA OF GREAT ATLAS. “SULLY 391) Ot} UT “UT 00'S JO PAST OY} WIEN prodsor109 07 sin} Sutsaptsuoo “ua QO9'T gRoqe Jo JaAeT 944 aAOgE puNoJ sozoods [[v 9PNIOU! | VPLAON VLIBIG oY} JO oUoZ qoradng 944 UT x @t 18 0 61 6 et oT 0 0 a co oT Z 7" + @aoun Fe 09 g a) 80 OL 9-0 T 90 & FO % : " arpou TMU ar of p OL ¢ 80 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 ‘7 7 * atauUTyuary LE 6IT L GS GT 61 20 90 T tL OP 60 + f *aaovred 7) : = g (arupussvry ; OS Be j GI 6 et eS OF @loOF 60 F Uyo aatsnpur) aoSeyrxeg | #0 TT LT eT oT 8 TT OL 90 T GIF IT ¢ St aragT MOD) PG Ch GF 10 3 80 & 90 =T GT g TL ¢ * atoov|MATOAUOD ST OF Pe TS eroo9 Or 6 90 =T UT g el 9 waovpnuvduysy Le 86 FS 1S I+ 9% 9% BE 4g @LooF Gr oL * q@annsoyy FO OL TO) OT TS 9% 8% 90 =~ BI 9 GIL ; 7 t wATITBST:D FE 18 a Lg TS 8% ee OF an ST 8 : * aooupmounuLyy GT G8 9-% ford 0-2 st Pe 9 Cr 0% 6 : * mouLsiog 0% &@g 9-3 6-1 LI et 86 OF GI 9 GZ OT 7 8 moony 6-0 L0 GT LT OT an GE 8 ZZ OT : WaUTULLIF) 9.0 FL tl GI TT OF Lt & ee 8 es OT 7 moovoaude a we Ge zo (0% OF 2 PP CT OF 8t waoVIqNyy PP SIT Le LP 9-4 0G z ¢ Le Ot rr 0 @eLOFTTOUL) bh GOT ng 8G er Lg 4 OL Be ST VF TZ * mourn ydorog Gg ER OL 8G T9 FG 9 I $9 $I og ¢ 7 eaqurqery GG G&T CG 2 GG BF 6-TL 1% TS OL GG Le ; “+ eeragrona() SP Tel a6 09 Ch OOF 8 GT Tp FT LG 96 : * wot Aydosrey 69 82I fg OL 9:9 6¢ 8 FI 8-01 2g oR 6f | * + BOUTURLT) ¢.01 9-9 GL 19 a! LIT 8g GOL Rb | * 7 esoUunUntaT O-1T 0-81 FET OTT ZI Gl OF “E69 : + aytsodutoy 8 S80 FTL SZt | Gel % T-9L ¢¢ OFT £0 satopaTAqooouo yy 9-16 z-98 9-68 cul | G28 FET | GES ORG | 0-98 THE * souopeyAqoorq wae G “ls 987 ‘ds 068 a 3 adic ds epe's Baie Bane 7 7 a ds 9/1 ds [FE ds egp SV 24) 30 sae ena ap ermia tenor Rican ee SUV 3D | SPV “3D shores apis uLoyqNog : eaonedug |‘epeaayy exiatg | °FCZ sonodng | ‘euoz o[ppry SeyVY “3D UO UDIUDALI PITY AYP UL SPLJSIP URDPUNOUL LBYIO YPN pawwd wd sv}PPr pL) ay? fo shoypa onp ure spunjd fo stop.to porypu puv stro. odroured a9 Jo yona £0 sawads fo taquene ays Hur.noyg—] ‘aTavy 438 APPENDIX G. the whole number of phanerogamous species included in the Flora of the region, and opposite the name of each natural order I have entered the number of species found in each region, and the percentage proportion which this number bears to the en- tire flora. Besides the orders which bear the largest proportion in the Great Atlas Flora I have enumerated those that usually characterise the vegetation of high mountains in this part of the world, though several of these are little, or not at all, repre- sented in the Flora of the Great Atlas. Confining the comparison in the first instance to the figures given for the Atlas Flora asa whole in the first column, and those given in the fourth, sixth, seventh, and eighth columns respect- ively, for the Sierra Nevada, the Bulgardagh, Dalmatia, and the southern side of the Alps, we remark in the first place that Monocotyledons bear about the same proportion to Dicotyledons in the Great Atlas that they do in the Sierra Nevada, the per- centage here being much larger than it is in the Bulgardagh, and considerably less than in Dalmatia or the Southern Alps. In this part of the world this percentage in the Flora of a given region mainly depends upon the number of Graminee and Cyperacee. The abundance of the latter group in the Alps doubtless arises from the fact that at a former period physical conditions favoured the migration of a large number of northern species that have been unable to extend to the more southern mountain regions of the Mediterranean area. In all the regions under consideration we find, with a single exception, that the same eight natural orders take precedence ef all others as regards the number of species that they exhibit, the aggregate in every case exceeding one-half of the whole phanerogamous Flora. -These natural orders are Composite, Leguminose, Graminee, Caryophyllee, Crucifere, Labiate, Scrophularinee, and Umbellifere. The exception arises from the prevalence, already noticed, of Cyperacee in the Flora of the Southern Alps. In comparing the figures in the Great Atlas column with those for the other areas above enumerated, it is well to recollect that our materials are taken from a district much more limited in extent than the others, and are necessarily imperfect, because obtained from a single short visit to each valley at a season when many species are yet unde- veloped. It is probable, for instance, that the proportion of MOUNTAIN FLORA OF GREAT ATLAS. 439 Umbelliferce would be increased if the whole Flora were better known. Subject to this remark, it will be seen, as might be ex- pected, that the constituents of the Great Atlas Flora show more analogy with those of the Sierra Nevada and Bulgardagh Floras than with those of Dalmatia and the Southern Alps; but the proportion of Composite is larger than in any of them (nearly 14 per cent). In comparing the vegetation of a small district with that of a large one it must be recollected that a small natural group containing a few widely spread species, such as Gerantacee, is likely to show a larger percentage proportion to the whole Flora in the small district than in the larger one. It may happen that the same species are spread through both re- gions; but in one case the number is to be compared with a small total, in the other with a much larger one. This remark has a bearing on the fact that in the Great Atlas Flora the natural orders that bear an unusually large proportion to the total number of the Flora are Leguminose, Caryophyllee, Ru- biacee, Papaveracee, Geraniaceee, and Convolvulacee. On the other hand, there is a remarkable deficiency in the natural orders that especially characterise the Flora of the Alps, and in a less degree, the high mountains of Southern Europe. These are Ranunculacee, Rosacee, Sanifragee, Primulacee, Juncee, and Cyperacee; not to speak of Gentiance, which are here altogether absent. If, instead of regarding the Atlas Flora as a whole, we ex- amine separately the figures given in the several columns for the middle and superior zones respectively, we find very different proportions for the chief natural orders, except for Composite and Leguminosee which are in both very numerous. In the middle region of the Atlas these two orders represent very nearly one-fourth of the phenogamous Flora. After these Graminee, Rubiacee, Papaveraceee, Geraniaceee, Cistinee, and Convolvulacee are, in the middle region, unusually frequent, while Crucifere, Rosacee, Boragineee, and Liliacee are remark- ably deficient. In the superior zone, on the other hand, the proportion of Composite and Leguminose is less excessive, making jointly a little over one-fifth of the whole Flora of the upper region. The most marked characteristic here is the very large proportion of Crruciferw, being less by one species only than the number of Composite. Taking into account the 440 APPENDIX G. number of individuals as well as that of species, this must be regarded as the dominant element in the Flora of the higher region of the Great Atlas, affording as it does 12 per cent of the whole Flora. The only region in which this characteristic is approached is the Bulgardagh in Cilicia, where Cruciferce supply near one-tenth of the whole list. Caryophyllee also form an unusually large element in the Flora of the upper zone of the Atlas; but, unlike Crucifere, this order exhibits no en- demic species, and four-fifths of the whole number are common plants of Central and Northern Europe. Rubiacece and Bora- gine have more representative species than is usual in moun- tain Floras ; while there are but three species of Rosacece in our list ; and Campanulaceee, Primulacee, Conifer, and Cyperacee are each represented by a single species, and Gentianece and Juncece are altogether absent from the higher zone. Although statistical results, such as those given above, are not without interest, as throwing light upon the general cha- racteristics of the Flora of a given region, any rational grounds for speculation as to the real affinities and past history of the vegetation must be derived from a closer examination of the in- dividual species of which it is constituted. It is at least con- ceivable that two Floras should exhibit similar proportions of species belonging to the several natural groups, with no identical species, and with little or no indication of community of origin. The particulars given in our general list will have already led the reader to infer that the results of an exam- ination into the distribution of the individual species that go to make up the Great Atlas exhibit some very peculiar features. Taking the totals at the foot of our list, and excluding crypto- gams, it is seen that more than one-third of the species are plants of Middle and Northern Europe, while about one-sixth is made up of endemic species peculiar to Marocco, and, with few exceptions, not known out of the Great Atlas, more than half of ‘the whole list belonging to one or other of these categories. The results, as shown in the following table, are still more re- markable when we separately examine the zones into which mountain vegetation is naturally divided. As in the former table the figures first enteved in each column represent the number of species belonging to cach category, those next given showing the percentage proportion borne by that number to the total proportion of each region. MOUNTAIN FLORA OF GREAT ATLAS. 441 TABLE Il.—Showing the distribution of the species of flowering plants included in the Flora of the Great Atlas, and of the Sierra Nevada of Granada,’ and the Bulgardagh in Cilicia? | Wide: -spread) Confined to Mid-Euro- “Meater- | adjoining | Endemic pean ranean regions species found above +) 154 33-8 | 165 386-2] 61 13:4] 75 166 1,200 m. 455 sp Middle Zone of mila from 1,200 m. to 2,000 m. 341 s P- } Superior Zone of Atlas, "at Great Atlas, including ve 106 31-1) 141 41:3 | 46 185 | 48 141 2,000 m, to 3,500 m 78 44:3 43 244 20 114) 35 199 176 sp. Superior Zone of Sierra Nevada, above 1,600 m. 486 sp. . Bulgardagh in Cilicia. 882 sp. 5 209 43:0 | 74 15:2 | 104 21-4) 99 20-4 159 18:0 | 359 40-7 | 157 17:8 | 207 23:5 From this table we see that while over one-third of the whole Atlas Flora consists of plants of Central and Northern Europe, the proportion reaches nearly to one-half in the higher region (above 2,000 metres); and also that the proportion of endemic species, which in the aggregate is one-sixth of the whole, rises to one-fifth in the upper zone. On the other hand, the proportion of purely Mediterranean species, which amounts to 55 per cent. in the Flora of the middle zone, falls below 36 1 The name Sierra Nevada is here used in a wide sense, and is intended to include the Serrania de Ronda, and the other mountains of Andalusia. Under this head, the plants classed as ‘confined to adjoining regions’ are either common to the Sierra Nevada and the mountains of Northern Spain, including the Pyrenees, both Spanish and French, or else are common to the Sierra Nevada and the moun- tains of Northern Africa. ? The Bulgardagh has been introduced into this table rather for the sake of contrast than as showing similarity to the conditions in the Great Atlas. The species classed as ‘confined to adjoining regions’ are all found in the other mountain districts of Asia Minor, and it has been necessary to include under the heading ‘Wide-spread Mediter- ranean’ a large number of Oriental species, whose western limit is in Greece or Crete. As compared with the Great Atlas, the number of species common to the western and south-western parts of Europe is here quite insignificant. 442 APPENDIX G. per cent. in the upper region. Of these Mediterranean species the large majority (more than two-thirds) are widely distributed plants, several of them extending to the mountains of Asia Minor, and twenty species only are exclusively confined to the Great Atlas and to the mountains of Southern Spain, the Lesser Atlas, or the Pyrenees. There is nothing in the distri- bution of these latter plants to indicate any special connection between the Atlas and any one of the mountain regions above mentioned. Six Atlas species are common to Southern Spain and the Algerian Atlas, six more are known only on the moun- tains of Southern Spain, five have been hitherto supposed to be peculiar to the Lesser Atlas, and three are elsewhere confined to the Pyrenees. Some further light may be thrown on the origin of the Great Atlas Flora by considering the affinities of the plants which are reckoned in our list as endemic in Marocco, nearly all being confined, so far as we know, to the chain of the Great Atlas. Although all of these, along with some that we have classed as mere varieties, would be counted as distinct species by many botanists, a considerable number, amounting to more than a quarter of the whole, are, according to the views expressed elsewhere by the writer,! to be ranked as sub-species. But here again we fail to discover indications of special relations between the Great Atlas Flora and that of neigh- bouring mountain regions. Ranking as sub-species twenty-one out of the seventy-five endemic forms enumerated in our list, we find that ten of these are allied to widely spread Mediterra- nean species, three are related to plants of Central Europe, three to species common to Algeria and Southern Spain, three more to species confined to the Spanish peninsula, and two to endemic Algerian forms, If we scrutinise in the same manner the endemic forms of the higher region of the Great Atlas, we find that out of the thirty-five enumerated eight, or less than one-fourth, are to be ranked as sub-species. Of these, three are nearly allied to wide- spread Mediterranean species, one to a plant common to Spain and Algeria, two to endemic Spanish species, one to an Algerian ' See ‘Spicilegium Flore Maroccane,’ in Proceedings of the Linnean Society, ‘Botany,’ vol. xvi. parts 93 to 97 inclusive. MOUNTAIN FLORA OF GREAT ATLAS. 443 endemic form, and one is related to a species indigenous in the Alps and other high mountains of Central Europe. While recognising the fact that the relations between the vegetable population of the Great Atlas and that of the south of Spain are less close than might have been expected on theoretical grounds, we must yet admit that, on the whole, the Great Atlas is more nearly connected in a botanical sense with this than with any other mountain region that is known to us; and it becomes a matter of some interest to compare closely the list of species obtained by us in the Atlas, with the comparatively well known Flora of Southern Spain. The results of this com- parison are given for the Great Atlas generally, and for the superior zone separately, in the following table, in which the Atlas species are distinguished under five heads: 1, those found in the higher region of the Sierra Nevada; 2, in the mountain region of Andalusia ; 3, in the lower warm region below the level of about 2,000 feet; 4, absent from Southern Spain, but found in the central or northern provinces; and 5, those not included in the Spanish Flora. Tasie III. Superior ' Lower Central, or | region, vountain region of | Northern |Absent from : Sierra Alay ue Southern Spain, Spain Nevada agalusia, Spain exclusively Great Atlas Val- : ee ee i 103 82 100 44 126 | Superior region | of the Great 61 19 20 21 5d | Atlas, 176 sp. The figures given in this table are of much interest, proving, as they do, the wide differences that exist between the Floras of two mountain regions not widely separated from each other, and exposed to climatal conditions not altogether dissimilar. We see that three-sevenths of the plants found in the higher region of the Great Atlas are absent from the South of Spain, and that the same remark applies to considerably more than one-third of all the plants found in the portion of the Great Atlas visited by us, although a notable proportion (in both cases) is to be found in Central and Northern Spain. Especially noteworthy is the fact that many of the species thus absent in Southern Spain ave plants of Central Europe, most of which 444 APPENDIN G. extend to the northern part of the Spanish Peninsula, although some of them are altogether wanting in the Floras of Spain and Portugal. A simple inspection of our list suffices to show that it dis- closes no trace of affinity between the Great Atlas Flora and that of the Canary Islands, or, to use a term of wider geogra- phical import, that of Macaronesia. The few species belonging exclusively to the latter region and to Marocco are nearly all confined to the coast region.!_ Almost all the species common to the Atlas and to Macaronesia are widely spread Medi- terranean plants that ascend from the low country into the valleys. The solitary mountain plant belonging to this category is Arabis albida, the southern form of A. alpina, common in the East, and in the Apennines of Central and Southern Italy, but which, strange to say, has not been found in Spain. In Teneriffe, as in the Atlas, it ascends to about the level of 2,700 metres above the sea. The only fact suggesting a remote affinity between the Great Atlas and Macaronesian Floras is the presence in the former of a species of Monanthes, a generic group hitherto found only in the Canary and Cape de Verde Islands. But the absence of any closer connection clearly shows that the separation between the Macaronesian group and the main land of Africa must date from a period, even geologically speaking, remote. ‘When we come to sum up the results of the foregoing dis- cussion, bearing always in mind the fact that we possess a mere fragment of the Flora of the Great Atlas, and that future exploration may largely modify our conclusions, we find as its most striking characteristic the presence of a large proportion of plants of Central and Northern Europe, along with a con- siderable number of peculiar species not hitherto known else- where; and we observe that these two constituents, which 1 The only possible exception to this statement among the plants enumerated in our list is that entered as Asparagus scoparius, Lowe (?) From the differences between the foliage and that of other known species it was at first entered as a new species peculiar to the Atlas. Subsequent comparison with a Madeira specimen from the late Mr, Lowe suggested their possible identity. Should this be hereafter verified, the number of endemic species in the tables given above must be reduced from 75 to 74. MOUNTAIN FLORA OF GREAT ATLAS. 445 together form about one-half of the Flora of the region here discussed, amount to very nearly two-thirds of the species found in the higher zone. We remark that of these northern plants none are of Alpine or Arctic type, that nearly all belong to what has been called the Germanic Flora, and all are plants of the plain, not in Europe characteristic of mountain vege- tation.! Of the species belonging to the Mediterranean region, which constitute more than one-half of the vegetation of the middle zone, and about one-third of that of the higher zone of the Atlas, the large majority are widely diffused species. The remaining number, for the most part mountain plants, may be divided into three nearly equal sections, some being common both to Southern Spain and Algeria, others to the Atlas and Southern Spain exclusively, and others to the Great Atlas and the Lesser Atlas of Algeria. Nothing indicates any special connection with the Floras of either of those regions. The absence of any distinct generic types from the Great Atlas Flora has already been remarked. It is not less impor- tant to note the absence of any of the southern types, charac- teristic of the sub-tropical zone, some representatives of which are found in the same or even in higher latitudes, in Arabia, Syria, Persia, and Northern India, and which also appear in the Canary Islands. We finally are led to regard the mountain Flora of Marocco as a southern extension of the European temperate Flora, with little or no admixture of extraneous ele- ments, but so long isolated from the neighbouring regions, that a considerable number of new specific types have here been developed. The physical causes which have operated to bring about these conditions are doubtless numerous and complicated, but the most important of them are easily indicated. The in- fluence of the Atlantic climate, and the prevailing direction of the aérial and oceanic currents, have fitted this region for the habitation of such northern species as do not require a long period of winter repose. In the present condition of the African continent, the Great Desert, extending for a distance of 700 or 800 miles between the Atlas and the river region of 1 The only apparent exception is Sugina Linn@i. This is habitually a mountain plant; but in Germany it is often seen in the moorland region, at a level of about 2,500 feet above the sea, 446 APPENDIX H. tropical Africa, effectually prevents the northward extension of most forms of animal and vegetable life ; while in a period geologically recent, it is most probable tha’ the same area was occupied by a wide gulf, which served the same purpose of barring the migration of southern forms. It may be premature to attempt to trace in further detail the origin of the Great Atlas Flora; but the facts already as- certained certainly authorise some negative inferences. The absence of plants of Arctic type proves that if some moun- tains of Southern Europe received contributions to their vegetation during the glacial period by means of floating ice- rafts, that mode of diffusion did not extend to the Great Atlas. If we suppose that during the glacial period the temperature of the region north of the Atlas had fallen so low as to permit the migration of northern species across the intervening low country, we find it difficult to understand why so many species which, according to this theory, must have retreated to the Atlas on the subsequent rise of temperature, should have failed also to find a refuge in the mountains of Southern Spain. It is a further difficulty that if the constituents of the Great Atlas Flora had, to a large extent, travelled by the route here indicated, other species, now inhabiting the mountains of Southern Spain, could scarcely fail to take the same road, and a much nearer connection than is now apparent would have been established between the Floras of these two mountain regions. It is, at least, possible that the wide diffusion of many of the species constituting the so-called Germanic Flora may date from a period much more remote than is ordinarily supposed ; and it is a circumstance not without significance that so many species of this type prove themselves capable of tolerating wide variations in conditions of soil and climate. 7 APPENDIX H. Notes on the Geology of the Plain of Marocco and the Great Atlas. By GEoRGE Maw, F.G.S., F.L.S., &c. Or the Geology of Barbary little information has hitherto been put on record. The only publications with which I am ac- GEOLOGY OF MAROCCO AND GREAT ATLAS. 447 quainted are some notes on the geological features of the district between Tangier and Marocco in Lieut. Washington's ‘ Geo- graphical Notice of the Empire of Marocco,’ published in the first volume of the ‘ Journal of the Royal Geographical Society ;’ a few cursory remarks on the Marocco Plain by Dr. Hodgkin, in his account of Sir Moses Montefiore’s ‘ Mission to Morocco in 1864 ;’ a short paper, by Mr. G. B. Stacey, on the subsidence of the coast near Benghazi, published in the twenty-third volume of the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society ;’ a report by M. Mourlon on some rocks and fossils in the Museum of Brussels, collected in the north-west of Marocco by M. Desquin, a Belgian engineer, published in Vol. XXX. of the ‘ Bulletin de l’Académie Royale de Belgique,’ for 1870, to which I shall have further occasion to refer ; a geological memoir, by M. Coquand (‘ Bull. de la Soc. Géolog. de France,’ vol. iv. p. 1188), on the environs of Tangier and northern part of Marocco ; and finally, a paper I read before the Geological Society of London in 1872. Barbary, with the exception of the immediate neighbourhood of a few of the ports, has been almost inaccessible to Euro- peans; and the extreme jealousy of the Moorish Government with reference to the mineral riches of the country has hitherto prevented any geological investigation. In the year 1869 I visited the northern portion of Marocco, including the Tangier and Tetuan promontory, and during the spring of 1871 accom- panied Dr. Hooker and Mr. Ball to Mogador, the city of Marocco and the Great Atlas, permission for our visit having been obtained from the late Sultan through representations made to the Moorish Government by Lord Granville through Sir John D. Hay, our Minister Plenipotentiary at Tangier. The object of the second journey was mainly botanical ; and as an engagement was given by Dr. Hooker that we should not collect minerals, the opportunities for geological investigation were very limited. The observations I was able to make on the structure of the great chain, which had not been previously ascended by a European, and of the plain of Marocco, are embodied in the accompanying section. Stopping for about a fortnight at Tangier, we made several excursions in the neighbourhood. The western part of the northern promontory of Marocco, facing the Straits of Gibraltar, consists of highly-contorted beds 448 APPENDIX H. of hard courses interstratified with brindled yellowish sand- stones and variegated puce and grey marls, having a general dip to the south-east, but so twisted about that the dip and strike are often reversed within a few feet. The country has a general undulating contour, here and there rising up into ridges of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, in which the hard bands weathered out from the softer strata are strikingly prominent from a great distance. We observed no paleontological evidence of their age; but, judging from their resemblance to the cliff-sections near Saff, where fossils occur, they are presumably Neocomian or Cre- taceous. Fucoids were collected by M. Coquand in the vicinity of Tangier, in beds considered by him to be representatives of the Upper Chalk ; but M. Mourlon, referring to the works of Pareto and Studer on the nummulitic rocks of the Northern Apennines and Switzerland, inclines to place the Tangier fucoid beds above the nummulitic horizon, and as part of the Upper Eocene. But near the villages of Souani and Meharain, a little to the south of Tangier, undoubted Cretaceous fossils were met with by M. Desquin, including Inoceramus, Ostrea Nicaiset, O. syphax, Globiconcha ponderosa (1), Trigonia (casts), and Echinodermata (andeterminable) ; and M. Mourlon concludes that the Tangier promontory con- sists of Eocene beds resting on Cretaceous. The eastern half of the northern promontory, including Tetuan and Apes’ Hill facing Gibraltar, consists of beds of a different character, for the most part of a hard metamorphic limestone, in which dip and strike are very obscure: these may be a southern extension of the Gibraltar limestone; but I had no opportunity of tracing the connection to Tetuan. The late James Smith, of Jordan Hill (in ‘Journal of Geo- logical Society,’ vol. ii. p. 41), mentions the occurrence of casts of Terebratula fimbriata and T. concinna, belonging to the Lower Oolite, in the Gibraltar limestone. M. Coquand also assigns to the Jurassic period the beds in the neighbourhood of Tetuan, and GEOLOGY OF MAROCCO AND GREAT ATLAS. 449 divides them into four stages, characterised respectively by marls, dolomites, a calcareous sandstone with the odour of petroleum, and a lithographic limestone containing siliceous concretions. Iam of opinion that the Tetuan series, ranging with the Gibraltar hmestone, and probably extending far to the south, is separated from the more recent Cretaceous series to the west and north-west by a great north and south fault, which divides nearly equally the Tangier promontory. M. Mourlon, referring to some specimens of shelly limestone in the Brussels Museum, collected near the river Mhellah in the district of Ouled Eissa, between Fez and Tetuan, resembling the Muschelkalk in aspect, and associated with beds resembling those at Tetuan, considers that they may also be of Jurassic age. The Tetuan limestone has given rise to enormous beds of brecciated tufa, on terraces of which the city is built. The flow seems to have taken place from the hills to the north-west of the city, and has produced beds of a collective thickness of 60 or 70 feet. This is evidently true tufa, due to aqueous deposition, and is of a different character from the great cal- careous sheet, to which I shall have occasion further to refer, which shrouds over the entire plain of Marocco. Respecting the Mediterranean coast-line of Barbary, I will not add much to a paper read before the British Association at Liverpool, in which I remarked on the singular absence of coast-cliffs of any height. The undulating contour of the land- surface extends down to the water’s edge, a continuation of the form of the bottom of the straits without the intervention of cliff-escarpments, from which I surmised that the present sea- level and coast-line of the straits had not been of long duration. Of frequent changes of level on the Barbary coast there is abundant evidence. The more recent seem to be, first, an elevation of from 60 to 70 feet along the entire coast, implied by the existence of concrete sand-cliffs with recent shells exactly similar to the raised beaches of Devon and Cornwall. These occur in Tangier Bay to a height of 40 feet, resting on the up- turned edges of nearly vertical mesozoic beds ; to the south of Cape Spartel, as a long cliff nearly 50 feet high ; as low shoals near Casa Blanca; as a compact cliff about 50 feet high at Saffi, and as a coast-cliff and islands at Mogador, where the concrete sand-beds attain a height of 60 or 70 feet above the GG 450 APPENDIX H. sea-level. It seems probable that this elevation of coast-line was coincident with a similar rise, implied by the existence of concrete sand-cliffs, all along the Spanish and Portuguese coasts, viz. on the eastern face of Gibraltar, where stratified raised beaches are seen cropping up at a considerable height from under the great mass of drift-sand in Catalan Bay; at Cadiz, as low cliffs 40 to 50 feet high, forming a hard coarse freestone of which the city is built; and also at the Rock of Lisbon, where, at a height of from 150 to 180 feet, isolated fragments of stratified concrete sandstone are seen clinging to the sea-escarp- ment of the older rocks. The great range of latitude included in this simultaneous coast-rise suggests the probability that the elevation of similar coast-beds in Devon and Cornwall may pertain to the same movement. Judging from the evidence afforded by the coast near Mogador, a subsequent submergence appears to be taking place. The island is probably diminishing in bulk ; and, from observa- tions made by M. Beaumier, the French Consul, it appears to have been reduced about one-fourth in area in twenty years ; but whether from denudation or subsidence is not clear. The sea is, however, sensibly encroaching, as an old Portuguese fort and some Moorish buildings are now environed with sand and salt-marsh close to the sea, in a position where they would not have been built. This submergence of the coast at Mogador may perhaps be contemporaneous with the subsidence at Ben- ghazi, Barbary, described by Mr. G. B. Stacey in the twenty- third volume of the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.” The general absence of cliffs characterises nearly the whole of the Barbary coast. A few low cliffs occur at scat- tered intervals west of Tangier; but from Cape Spartel to Cape Cantin a low monotonous coast shelves under the waters of the Atlantic, and not a cliff is to be seen, save an occasional raised beach. After rounding Cape Cantin the coast trends nearly north and south; and here the first good coast-section presents itself as a vertical cliff nearly 200 feet high (fig. 1), consisting of nearly level stratified alternations of grey and reddish marl, and fine-grained sandstone with beds of argil- laceous carbonate of iron resembling the cement-stone of the Kimmeridge clay. GEOLOGY OF MAROCCO AND GREAT ATLAS. 451 Ata distance the cliff has a massive rocky aspect due to the vertical infiltration of tufaceous seams, which support the softer beds and stand out in prominent masses. The cliffs continue southwards to Saffi, where I obtained a small series of fossils from the section represented in fig. 1, amongst which Mr. Etheridge has determined Zxogyra conica, Ostrea Leymerit, and O. Boussingaultt. He considers the beds to be of Neocomian age. The hard band ¢ is almost entirely made up of Hxogyra conica, Iam indebted to the late Mr. Carstensen, H.B.M. Vice- consul at Mogador, for a specimen of Ostrea Leymerit, brought Surface Tufa. 150 feet. Q Shaly Marls, with fossiliferous bands containing Ezogyra conic, probably Weocomian, Compact grey sandstone. Ferruginous band. Sea-level. 50 feet. Cliff Section, Saffi. to him by a Moor from Agadir, and obtained, ata height of 1,500 feet, on the flanks of the maritime termination of the Great Atlas range, 160 miles south of the Saffi section. Two or three miles south of Saffi another section occurs, known as the‘ Jew’s Cliff;’ and from this Dr. Hooker, who landed on his homeward voyage, obtained a few fossils, viz. several undeterminable species of Pecten; an Ostrea allied to O. Virleti, and a scutelliform Echinus of an unknown type, which Mr. Etheridge proposes to place under a new genus, and names Rotuloidea fimbriata. All these Mr. Etheridge sup- poses to be of Miocene age; and the ‘Jew’s Cliff’ section may probably give the key to the age of the beds of the Marocco GG2 452 APPENDIX H. plain in which we found no fossils. In connection with the occurrence of these Tertiary beds at Saffi, I must refer to MM. Desquin and Mourlon’s observations in the neighbourhood of Mazagan to the north-west, near which, at a place called Sidi Moussa, calcareous tufas associated with flints occur, containing Fic. 2. 1 Rotuloidea fimbriata, Etheridge. 1. Dorsal aspect, showing the twelve fimbriations, subpetaloid a Pde aoe. , Subpetaloid ambulacra and central 2. Ventral aspect, showing mouth, position of vent, and ramifyi 9 3. Posterior border and height of test. ‘: amifying furrows. 4. Apical disk, with the madreporic tubercle, the four i Pacer ei 2 genital pores, and place of the Solen, Venus, Modiola, Cardium, &e.; the deposit in its main characters resembling the description given by M. Coquand of the fluvio-marine travertines of the north of Marocco, and also the Sahara beds described by M. Ville ; with the difference that the Sahara deposits are characterised by the presence of little Paludinas, whilst those of Sidi Moussa are full of vermiculiform GEOLOGY OF MAROCCO AND GREAT ATLAS. 453 perforations. The depressions are occupied by a very porous conglomerate, passing into a calcareous sandstone used for building. This conglomerate contains an abundance of Helix vermiculata, a species living in the country, and also found in the calcareous sands which are supposed to be of post-Pliocene age. The plain of Doukala (Ducaila of Washington), at a level of about 140 feet above the sea, is covered with these sands. At Sidi Ammer an escarpment was observed, the base of which consisted of clay and red ferruginous marls, containing a stratum formed for the most part of oysters, in which also Teredina personata occurred, supposed by M. Nyst to belong to the Eocene formation ; succeeded by another fossiliferous bed con- taining Balanus sulcatus, Pecten Beudanti, Arca, Buceinum prismaticum, and Conus, supposed by M. Nyst to be Miocene, the upper part of the escarpment resembling the beds of later age before described. An examination of the higher points of the western coast near Safti, and at Azfi in the province of Abda, near Mazagan, tended to establish the fact of the occurrence of Pliocene beds in the district. At Cape Safi, 180 metres in altitude, a reddish calcareous sand was met with abounding in Cyclostoima, Cylindrellas, and a species of elix differing from that at Mazagan; and at other points, including the hill of Aher and at Sidi Bousid, white marls and sands associated with calcareous sandstones were met with analogous to the supposed quaternary beds in the neighbourhood of Mazagan. The only other point in the geology of the coast-line I have to refer to is the great mass of blown sand surrounding Mogador, presenting a weird expanse of sea-like waves of sand, on a scale vastly greater than anything of the kind on our own coast, mimetic of mountain-chains and bold escarpments in miniature, differing only from true hill-and-valley structure in the absence of continuous valley-lines, the hollows being completely sur- rounded by higher ground. Many of the ranges of sand are from 80 to 100 feet in height, and their perfectly straight 454 APPENDIX H. scarped faces are produced by the violent westerly gales blowing the sand wp the angle of repose, and accumulating it in foun- tain-like showers over the rounded backs of the sand-hill ranges. It is worthy of note that the sub-aérial ripple-markings superimposed on the greater undulations, occupy a reversed position with reference to the prevalent winds, their long side facing the wind, with the more vertical straight scarps on the lee side. The moving sand in this case is drifted up the long side, and falls over the scarp at the angle of repose. The Plain of Marocco.—We now turn inland; and before referring to the details of the structure of the Great Atlas range, it will save repetition if I briefly describe the general contour of the district under consideration. Leaving the sand- hills, which die out inland, and travelling westward, we gradu- ally ascend over an undulating country, in aspect somewhat like the Weald of Sussex, covered for 30 miles with Argan Forest, till we reach, at 60 miles inland, the average level of the plain, about 1,700 feet above the sea. The fundamental rock is here rarely to be seen ; for the entire face of the country is shrouded over by a sheet-like covering of tufaceous crust (fig. 3), rising over hill and valley, and following all the undulations of the ground. Only in river-beds and here and there by the side of a hill were the fundamental beds visible, and seen to consist of alternations of hard and soft eream-coloured calcareous strata, dipping and undulating in various directions at low angles, and so closely resembling the surface crust that it was difficult to distinguish the one from the other, unless the surface crust happened to lap unconform- ably over the scarped exposures of the stratified beds. This singular deposit varies in thickness from a few inches to two or three feet, and is taken advantage of by the Moors for the ex- cavation of cellars in the soft ground, over which the crust forms a strong roof, Thesa are termed matamoras, and are used for the storage of grain, and as receptacles for burying the refuse from the villages, The calcareous crust in the neigh- bourhood of Marocco is extensively burned for lime. In section it presents a banded agatescent structure, often much brecciated. It is impossible it can have been deposited by any waterflow, as completely isolated hills are shrouded over by it as thickly as the GEOLOGY OF MAROCCO AND GREAT ATLAS, 455 valley bottoms; and the only satisfactory explanation of its origin I can suggest is, that it results from the intense heat of the sun rapidly drawing up water charged with soluble car- bonate of lime from the caleareous strata, and drying it layer by layer on the surface, till an accumulation several feet thick has been produced. The rapid alternations of heavy rains and scorching heat which take place in the Marocco plain are con- ditions favourable to this phenomenon, which is unknown in northern temperate climates. Section. A familiar illustration of the same kind of action is seen in what brickmakers term ‘limewash.’ A brick formed of marl containing soluble carbonate of lime, if rapidly dried or placed in the clamp in a wet state, will have on its upper surface, after burning, an unsightly white scum or crust, by the accretion of soluble matter driven upwards and outwards by the quick evaporation. Before we left Mogador on our journey inland, 456 APPENDIX H. we were told of great beds of shingle covering the plain, and fully anticipated some interesting drift phenomena; but these shingle-beds were found to be nothing more than the broken débris of the surface tufa, covering the plain for hundreds of square miles with stony fragments. Of marine drift there is not a vestige, the few isolated patches of waterworn stones and alluvial shingle being always connected with river valleys, ex- cepting only the huge boulder deposits of the Atlas hereafter to be referred to. About midway between Mogador and the city of Marocco, the monotony of the plain is broken by a curious group of flat- topped hills, which rise two or three hundred feet above its Fic. 4, ‘Camel's Back,’ flat-topped hills in the Plain of Marocco. general surface. They present straight scarped sides, on which are exposed cream-coloured calcareous strata capped with a flat tabular layer of chalcedony, which seems, in arresting denuda- tion, to have determined their peculiar and symmetrical form. In these we found no fossils; and I am doubtful whether they are an inland extension of the Miocene beds observed by Dr. Hooker at the ‘Jew’s Cliff’ near Saffi, or are some members of the Cretaceous series, of which there are sections on the coast north of Saffi and on the flanks of the Atlas. At this point the main boundaries of the plain come into full view,—on the north a rugged range of mountains trending east and west, which we estimated at from 2,000 to 3,000 feet in height ; and on our right the great chain of the Atlas, rising 11,000 feet above us and between 12,000 and 13,000 feet above GEOLOGY OF MAROCCO AND GREAT ATLAS. 457 the sea, bounds the view to the south, framing-in the great plain, here some 50 miles broad, which is lost as a level horizon in the eastern distance. The Atlas Range-—Commencing at Cape Guer, on the At- lantic sea-board, the range, which at a little distance has the aspect of a single ridge, averages at its western extremity from 4,000 to 5,000 feet in height, from which it slightly falls off in height for a few miles, and then gradually increases in height as it recedes from the coast. In the eastern part of the province of Haha the summits probably attain to a height of about 10,000 feet. Ata point about 60 miles from the sea there is a comparatively deep breach in the range, through which runs the main road to Tarudant. Eastward of that pass the projecting summits appear to lie between 11,000 and 11,500 feet above the sea to a distance from the coast of about 100 miles, and about SW. of the city of Marocco, where a second depression occurs, affording a pass to the south, at an altitude of about 7,000 feet. Immediately east of this, and due south of the city of Marocco, the range for 30 miles in length presents a long unbroken ridge, 12,000 feet in height, on which are deposited a few isolated crags and peaks rising from 500 to 800 feet above the general level ; and it is doubtful whether this part of the chain attains an extreme height of 13,000 feet. Still farther east the ridge- like character is lost, the range becoming broken up into a series of less continuous peaks (including Miltsin, estimated by Lieut. Washington to be 11,400 feet in’altitude, and supposed by him to be the highest point in the chain) of diminished height: be- yond this, eastward, little or nothing is known either of the altitude or character of the range, excepting that it trends NE. by E. towards the southern borders of Algeria on the Sahara. Rohlfs, in his journal of his overland journey from Ma- rocco to Tripoli, speaks of mountains to the east of Marocco being covered with perpetual snow; but this is a character which has been erroneously attributed to the Maroccan section of the Atlas range. When we arrived at Marocco in the first week of May, the snow was limited to steep gullies and drifts— all the exposed parts, including the very summit, being entirely bare. There were, however, frequent storms, which intermit- tently covered the range down to 7,000 or 8,000 feet; but it is certain that these occasional falls would be rapidly cleared off 458 APPENDIX H. by the summer heat; and we came to the conclusion that there was nothing like perpetual snow on any portion of the chain we visited, included in the section (apparently the highest part) lying due south of the city of Marocco. As seen from the city, the great ridge appears to rise abruptly from the plain some 25 miles off; and so deceptive is the dis- tance, that it looks as though it were a direct ascent from the plain to the snow-capped summit, even too steep to scale; but in reality this wall-like ridge represents a horizontal distance of 15 miles or more from the foot to the summit. As we ap- proached it, an irregular plateau four or five miles wide was seen to form a sort of foreground to the great mass of the chain, from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the plain, and 4,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea-level. This is intersected by occasional narrow ravines, which wind up to the crest of the ridge; and its face, fronting the plain, is for the most part exposed as an escarpment of red sandstone and limestone beds dipping away from the plain, and again rising from a synclinal against the crystalline porphy- rites of the centre of the ridge, and unconformably overlying nearly vertical grey shaly beds with a strike ranging with the general trend of the Atlas range. Against the plateau escarp- ment rest enormous mounds of boulders spreading down to the level plain. These, then, are the general features of the chain of the Atlas and plain of Marocco, the further details of which it will be convenient to consider under the following heads :— (a) Surface Deposits and Boulder Beds. (2) Moraines of the higher valleys. (c) Stratified Red Sandstone and Limestone Series. (d) Grey Shales. (e) Metamorphic Rocks. (f) Porphyrites. (g) Eruptive Basalts. (a) Surface Deposits and Boulder-beds.—Next to the Tufa crust already described, which extends over almost the entire plain of Marocco, perhaps the most remarkable feature in the physical geology of the country is the enormous deposit of boulders that occurs in the lateral valleys, and flanks the great chain on its confines with the plain. Of marine drift there is GEOLOGY OF MAROCCO AND GREAT ATLAS. 459 not a trace; and alluvial drift and valley gravels are very limited in their distribution, being confined to the borders of a few insignificant rivers that intersect the plain and the localities of occasional waterflows ; but as soon as the flanks of the Atlas are reached, new and distinct drift phenomena present them- selves. It was on our second day’s journey from Marocco to the Atlas that the great boulder-beds came under our notice, first in a valley leading up from Mesfioua to Tasseremout, as scattered blocks of red sandstone, remarkable for their large average size, many of them of from ten to twenty cubic yards ; but here the method of their disposition scarcely enabled us to decide that they were other than stream-borne masses from the higher ground. From Tasseremout we turned west, and at the Boulder-mounds, skirting Atlas Plateau Escarpment. (Section.) mouth of a second valley, two miles from the village, suddenly came upon a huge development of these Red Sandstone boulder- beds as great ridge-like and very symmetrical masses with ter- minal faces three or four hundred feet high, and, like the more scattered blocks NW. of Tasseremout, intermixed with but a,very small proportion of fine matter. From this valley we turned out northwards, skirting the escarpment facing the plain; and for more than ten miles no lateral valley breaks into the cliff-like face ; but below it the great boulder-beds (figs. 5, 6) still occur in huge masses not resting directly against the escarpment, but as iso- lated mounds two or three hundred feet in advance, sloping down towards the escarpment in one direction, and in the other rolling away in great wave-like ridges and undulating sheets, 460 APPENDIX H. which terminate at a well-marked line of demarcation, just where the level portion of the plain commences. I measured by aneroid the height of these mounds; and at one point their summit was 3,950 feet above the sea-level, from which they spread down uninterruptedly to the edge of the plain nearly 2,000 feet below. They bear a striking resemblance to the glacial ridges or escars between Edinburgh and Perth; their mound-like structure is distinctly visible from the city of Ma- rocco, twenty-five miles off, appearing like a row of pyramidal tali resting against the face of the escarpment as though they had been cast down from its edge on to the plain. The internal structure of the mounds also suggests such a deviation from the Boulder-mounds, skirting Atlas Plateau Escarpment. disposition of the boulders in layers sloping away from the es- carpment towards the plain ; and on a nearer approach it is seen that the individual mounds are not connected with channels or valleys breaking through the escarpment. The depression between the escarpment and the drift- mounds is a remarkable feature, and suggests an entire change of conditions since the boulder-beds were deposited. If they are a mere sub-aérial talus, they should rest directly against the cliff face, and the depression separating them must have been formed after the accumulation had ceased; and yet no satis- factory reason can be assigned for such cessation, if rain and river action were the only operating causes. The form of the GEOLOGY OF MAROCCO AND GREAT ATLAS. 461 mounds in the valley west of Tasseremout at once conveyed to me the impression that they were of glacial origin; and the discovery of undoubted moraines in the higher valleys strength- ened my conviction that the boulder-mounds and ridges flanking the Atlas plateau can only be satisfactorily explained as the result of glaciers covering the escarpment, leaving on their re- cession the intermediate depression. (b) Moraines of the Higher Atlas.—Kindred phenomena occur higher up in the Atlas valleys, most notable in the case of unquestionable moraines, commencing at the village of Ad- jersiman, in the province of Reraya, at an altitude of 6,000 feet. Here we met with a gigantic ridge of porphyry blocks, having a terminal angle of repose of between 800 and 900 feet in vertical height, and grouped with several other mounds and ridges of similar scale, all composed of great masses of rock with little or no admixture of small fragments, and completely damming up the steep ravine and retaining behind it a small alluvial plain 6,700 feet above the sea-level. We failed to detect any scratched blocks or strie; but that these ridges are true glacial moraines no one who has seen them and compared them with other glacial phenomena would for a moment doubt; and their interrupted occurrence at various heights is strictly in accordance with the distribution of mo- raines in many of the Swiss and Scotch valleys. Lieut. Washington, in referring to the pointed mountainous hills NW. of the city of Marocco, crossed on his homeward journey, describes one of them as being ‘covered with masses of gneiss and coarse-grained granite (? diorite), many of the blocks being several tons in weight,’ and asks, ‘how got they there?’ ‘If granite, the nearest granite mountains are at a distance of twenty-five to thirty miles: can they be boulders?’ As far as my own observations go, there was no rock in sitw in the part of this range I visited near Marocco resembling granite or dio- rite ; and in connection with the boulder-mounds of the Atlas, the occurrence of foreign blocks north of the plain of Marocco so far from the parent source, is a circumstance of great interest. (c) Stratified Red Sandstone and Limestone Series.—A long line of comparatively low and flattish hills, forming a plateau, with an average height of about 4,500 feet above the sea, and 2,800 feet above the plain of Marocco, intervenes between it 462 APPENDIX H. and the main ridge of the Atlas. The edge of this plateau facing the plain is for some distance an escarpment, exposing stratified beds of limestone containing bands of chalcedonic concretions, underlain by grey and puce-coloured marls. As this plateau is crossed from north to south towards the Atlas ridge, its central line would represent a synclinal, from which the beds rise northwards towards the plain and southwards towards the Atlas; but it is locally broken and contorted, and near Tasseremout the limestone beds stand up nearly on end. South of the synclinal, i.e. between the centre of the irregular plateau and the Atlas, great deposits of red sandstone and dark- red conglomerate, interstratified with cream-coloured shelly limestone, occur, which appear to be inferior members of the series of limestones and marls exposed in the escarpment facing the plain. Lieut. Washington, who ascended Miltsin to a height of 6,400 feet, describes hard red sandstone with an east and west strike dipping 10° south, as occurring at this elevation, which is nearly 2,000 feet higher than we observed the Red Sandstone series in the province of Reraya farther west, and also both in his approach and descent from Miltsin of ranges of limestone running NE. and SW. dipping 70° SE. with abrupt sterile sandstone mountains rising above them. From the few obscure fossils, including an Ostrea, I was able to collect from the limestone bands, Mr. Etheridge considers that they are of Cretaceous age. They are, like the beds of the plain, remark- able for containing great deposits of chalcedonic concretions ; but the latter may possibly be of more recent age. They rest unconformably on the upturned edges of grey shaly beds, and extend also over the porphyries that form the great mass of the Atlas chain, They appear to have been deposited subsequently to the porphyry ridge assuming its present hill-and-valley con- tour, as little isolated fragments are seen clinging to the sides of a narrow ravine leading out of the valley we ascended through the province of Reraya to the Atlas. Their relation to the few exposures of stratified beds in the plain is somewhat uncertain, as no fossils were obtained in the latter, and there are no direct connecting links ; but, judging from petrological similarity, and from the fact that Neocomian fossils occur in exposed beds on the coast-cliffs, and Cretaceous fossils in the beds forming the crest of the plateau, it seems possible that an unbroken series GEOLOGY OF MAROCCO AND GREAT ATLAS, 463 occurs from the cliff north of Safli to the plateau skirting the Atlas, representing the whole of the Cretaceous epoch ; but it is also open to question whether the level beds of the plain may not be an inland extension of the strata of Miocene age from which Dr. Hooker obtained fossils at the Jew’s Cliff south of Saffi. (d) Grey Shales.—At several points on entering the lateral valleys of the Atlas, almost vertical shaly beds are crossed, having a strike nearly east and west, corresponding with the trend of the chain. They clearly underlie, and are unconform- able to, the Red Sandstone and Limestone series; and their almost vertical position appears connected with one of the several upheavals that have affected the chain. Of their geological age there is no evidence, except that they are pre- Cretaceous. In places, as at Assghin, they abound in nodules of carbonate of iron. Pale shales, containing quartz veins, crop up near the village of Frouga, in the plain south-west of Marocco, which may possibly belong to this series; and if the porphyries forming the mass of the Atlas are contemporaneous, they are probably interbedded with these grey shaly beds. Lieut. Washington speaks of the occurrence of clay-slate dipping 45° east between El Mansoria and Fidallah, and again of a hilly country of clay-slate near the plain of Smira, and at Peira, farther south ; but it is impossible to say whether these beds are related to the grey shales of the Atlas. (e) Metamorphic Rocks.—The most important development of metamorphic rocks in the neighbourhood of Marocco is on the north side of the city. In its immediate neighbourhood, three miles to the north-west, a low rugged hill occurs, composed of a very hard and compact dark-grey rock, containing knotted white concretions elongated in the line of stratification, which dips from 50° to 80° south-west, the strike being north-west and south-east. The whole of the north side of the plain is bounded by ranges of rugged hills of similar form, and apparently rising from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the plain. We had not an opportunity of visiting them; but, judging from their outline, they are identical in formation with the hill close to Marocco. We observed nothing in the Atlas resembling it. Lieut. Washington, who crossed these hills on his journey to ° Marocco at about the point I visited, and again forty miles to 464 APPENDIX H. the east, near the source of the river Tensift, on his homeward journey, speaks of them as from 500 to 1,200 feet in height, consisting of micaceous schist and a schistose rock with veins of quartz dipping 75°, with a strike north by east and south by west. The strike may vary a little at different points, and, taking Lieut. Washington’s and my own observations together, would average about north and south; and it is worthy of note that these apparently ancient rocks are nearly at right angles to the strike of the rocks of the Atlas chain a few miles to the south, The only other metamorphic rocks that came under our notice were :—first, white marble or metamorphic limestone, intercalated with the porphyrites at the summit of the ridge of the Atlas south of Arround ; secondly, mica-schists, pierced by red porphyry dykes, forming the mass of Djebel Tezah, a peak 11,000 feet in height, and fifteen miles farther west, ascended by Dr. Hooker and Mr. Ball after my return. It is possible that the mica-schists may be a portion of the grey-shale series, metamorphosed by the intrusion of the porphyry dykes. Lieut. Washington, on his first day’s journey south of Tangier, refers to the occurrence of rounded schistose hills about 300 feet high, strike north-west and south-east, dip 75° south-west, containing mica-slate with veins of foliated quartz; but I have no recollec- tion of observing any such metamorphic rocks between Tangier and Tetuan. (f) Porphyrites—Of the eruptive rocks of the Atlas, por- phyrites and porphyritic tuffs occupy by far the most prominent position, forming the great mass of its ridge. On entering the lateral valleys, after crossing the vertical shaly beds, great masses of red porphyrites and tufts are met with, associated with specular iron and occasional green por- phyries. The harder portions of the latter are seen as Verde antique pebbles in the river-beds ; but we failed to detect this én situ. From the large proportion of tuffs that occurs the porphyrites appear to be interbedded, and are possibly contem- poraneous with the vertical grey shales to which they are adjacent. They are overlapped unconformably by the Red Sandstone and Limestone series of Cretaceous age. The late ’ Mr. D. Forbes informed me that they bear a strong likeness to the porphyrites of the Andes, of Oolitic age; but beyond the GEOLOGY OF MAROCCO AND GREAT ATLAS. 465 fact that they were in existence and had undergone denuda- tion into hill-and-valley contour before the Cretaceous beds were deposited over them, there is no certain evidence as to their age. There may have been at least one or two subsequent intru- sions of red porphyrites, viz. of the dykes of Djebel Tezah, metamorphosing grey shales into mica-schists, and of the dykes that break up through the stratified beds of the plain east of Sheshaoua—which may probably be more recent than the por- phyrites of the Atlas, as they appear to penetrate strata which extend over the denuded surface of the Atlas mass; but I can- not speak with certainty as to the relative age of the stratified beds and the porphyritic bosses which rise up out of the plain. (g) Hruptive Basalts,—Of these we met with three distinct species :— (1) Black vesicular basalt (porous and compact pyroxenic lava with olivine) on the coast near Mogador, and imbedded in the base of the post-Tertiary concrete sandstone cliffs: but it was nowhere seen in situ; and I think it possible that the fragments may have been derived from the Canary Islands, which are only 70 or 80 miles distant, or possibly from some point of eruption nearer the land. (2) Amygdaloid green Basalt, which rises up in dykes, in many places penetrating the Red Sandstone and Limestone series on the flanks of the Atlas, and also piercing the diorite of the Arround valley. We observed numerous dykes at Tasse- remout, Tassgirt, and Asni, south-east and south of Marocco city. Beyond the fact that they are probably post-Cretaceous, there is no evidence as to their age. From what we could see of their distribution, the whole range of the Atlas seems abundantly intersected by these dykes. (3) Diorite rises up in considerable masses among the por- phyrites in the valley of the Arround, due south of Marocco, but forms no great proportion of the bulk of the ridge. Its in- trusion may have been contemporaneous with the dislocation and upturning of the Red Sandstone and Limestone series over- lying the porphyrites. General Summary.—It now only remains briefly to reca- pitulate the order of sequence of the geological phenomena observed in the plain of Marocco and the Atlas, 466 APPENDIX H. The oldest rocks that have been noticed are :— (1) The ranges of rugged metamorphic rocks north of the city of Marocco, and forming the northern boundary of the plain, respecting the age of which, and the period of their upheaval and metamorphism, there is no evidence. (2) The interbedded porphyrites and porphyritic tuffs of the Atlas, forming the backbone of the ridge, the age of which, and of the grey shales with which they seem to be interbedded, is also uncertain. (3) Mica-schists of Djebel Tezah, in the Atlas, south-west of Marocco, pierced with eruptive porphyritic dykes, which may be an altered condition of the vertical grey shales adjacent to the interbedded porphyrites. These rocks are our starting point, respecting which there is no evidence of their age, or even relative age. (4) We now come to a long period of denudation of the Atlas ridge, and its sculpturing into hill-and-valley contour, before the deposition of the Red Sandstone and Limestone | series, (5) The deposition over what is now the Marocco plain, of the Cretaceous Red Sandstone and Limestone series (and beds possibly of Miocene age), which also occupies pre-existing valleys in the older porphyrites of the Atlas. (6) The intrusion of diorite into the porphyrites and por- phyritic tuffs, probably accompanied by a further elevation of the Atlas range, disturbing the stratified Red Sandstone and Limestone series, throwing them into a synclinal trough, from which the beds rise northwards towards the plain, and south- wards towards the Atlas. (7) A further long period of denudation of the Red Sandstone and Limestone series, rescooping out the lateral valleys of the Atlas, in continuation of the valleys that existed in the por- phyrite ridge prior to their deposition, and also denuding the beds in the Marocco plain to the extent of at least 300 feet, leaving isolated remnants as flat tabular hills rising above the present general level of the plain. (8) A further possible emission of red porphyrites through the stratified beds of the plain, which may have been con- temporaneous with the eruption of the red porphyry dykes of Djebel Tezah, in the High Atlas; but I could not clearly SKETCH SECTION ACROSS PLAIN OF MAROCCO TO WATERSHED OF CREAT ATLAS (Note -The Camels Back Hilis&Frouga, are West of the line of Section’) $ g g e : : . 83 3 8 BE : . 3 38 28 a : : : ss 4 3 > x3 & 3 92 : re 3 Ss se os i Shy 3 5S <9 . N gfe 886 a3 Bi S5 8 : Sey ays R BS Qe A s BIS KER ‘s Re yO Ss : : Be SPE 8 ss a3 8 = s ER s She 89s (8 L 4 ‘ : Tae K BS) ~ : rs % N as : S 8 eS 8 Ridges&Piles of Red Sonidstone std SS S : 5 . K i: Tees re ie ga S ‘ © NS S f S5 = ES 2 x i ecualen oer? rng cemeas trom sos SEH Tf | { | i | |! | iH nai lal Vth : = ——— = = = or = "2 Reena, She gp eres _— s 5 ; , : ; ®, Grey Shales nearlyvertical strikeneew WELW correspondingwittthetrend of | Horizontal Scale Mholnches to 3Miles . Vertical Scate I jolnchesto 6000 feet ve i a between Tasselunt &Moularlorahimn .& onthe borders of the F / Froiga. Nodular concretions of Carbonate of Trow. St Camels Back’ flal topped Hills of Creamy Colored Limestone: ASHI] & Marls with: tabular masses of Chalcedony, 1850 feet Red Porphyrite : Oy Intrusive’ 4 “A Red Porphyrite, Oy Intrusive: obnokg ey ON VALYOSSY QD. -209U 83) 4. eae : RS Loot areas -_ 1900fect: * ° SNS = a ; & Ses S SF 5 ae ° =. = s AQ yamagpny np ADMD YY OTIOL S. ASPALOD MP Af APHOGUPYILIS LOD: 7 Simm wo. 4 nmnit & Boulder Beds 3930 feet wot hscarpmernt; Limestone with Chalececdonic concretions resting on varcegated Maris Camp atTasselunt 3439 feet Mb Greenstone Drke at Tasseremout Hitlof Tasseremout about: 4600 feet LUO P AUIY DIG, HOYNIOW PS PUIGYOST YY, UIWNGIY Pes} br rpruo. Red Sandstone &Lamestone Serves (Qy Getaccous) dotord Basalt __ 2a. Sandstone d Limestone Serves ADOUO SIO LOW $OUMO) TY OY JO SAD PAOD Y2 AUR UBAS SOAP OUI JO PUIL BY PM ae dstoreac Limestone Series een aN BXEEAUK Sar , ra ie ia vs SSS VOSE = =k ZS ZS Sy i a S| nee Says . | & CORI yy J AREA W®. & Fe/ S : 83 x Bs a. Fs 3 N S hy eR 5, * x i 8 8 Sade ae : SRRESS . 4 = § “3 < cS S82 38 . RN SUE Gd > a> ¥ & ; BON ESSES 5 aS y ~ 2) I,J AON ) Yow Noiloas hHolays <0 as (MOXOS. JOFUN YD JOFSAY ALO OLNOLL PSVYT YOY sy Lv IWs4o Jo aahswalvm ol CoD0uW do Nivqds SKETCH SECTION ACROSS PLAIN OF MAROCCO TO WATERSHED OF CREAT ATLAS (Note -The Cantels BackHills&F} rouga, are Westof the line of Section’) § : g > i“ Sy 8: 38 : re: at ss Ss sy 3 8 S a : eiyis f 3 - ‘ Sif Qs; 8 BS Q3 a 5 | Ste ges : gy Bs 3s 3 8 S83 3 8 § 5 a 7 : : Hi 3 a af 8 : é : : ie HP = 8 as N re SS Sy q as : : a % ; Sn bBiles Red Sandetyne SS SSS s Ee x y ‘ a [2 egies re be . 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JOP QNOUWBLISSOT, YO ay Ay PU0QIUD IAL POUCEEES PUMJASSVI GD bute) STI POIANA U0 DUIASAL SUOND.AYUOD TUQZIOPIYY | ih YPM. CUasrUrTy quausdsoosry Job} POY OCC SPIEL 4OP THO 10 FNUMULIEN ah : S an SO REESTERS sas 2 3 FOUYUOOGI § sy79q AIP70G-JO WOOT § LES Fea at.Assghty No ae vig. Gre Va caer. cpl MO) awd ylioy pay V8? OGE + ee HY UDASRUYT P21070) WhO I.4y 49 SITIHY podeloy POLY. BPDg site) WE 1 i! 1 TRG a Laur Vi 4 rey) lored: tf niet GEOLOGY OF MAROCCO AND GREAT ATLAS, 467 ascertain whether these bosses really pierced the stratified beds, or were existing before their deposition. (9) A post-Cretaceons eruption through the Red Sandstone and Limestone series of a multitude of dykes of amygdaloid basalt, the age of which is uncertain. The more recent changes commence with :— (10) The formation of gigantic boulder-beds flanking the northern escarpment of the Atlas plateau, and spreading down in great mounds and undulating ridges from a height of 3,900 feet to the borders of the plain, 1,900 feet above the sea, with a range in vertical height of about 2,000 feet, and extending up the entrances of several of the lateral valleys, as well-defined and symmetrical moraines. (11) The formation of moraines at the heads of the Atlas valleys, commencing at a height of 5,800 feet, and spreading up to the cliffs of the Atlas ridge, to a height of between 7,000 and 8,000 feet, with a terminal angle of repose 850 feet in vertical height. (12) The formation of a plain of shingle behind the mo- raines, at a height of about 6,700 feet, which seems to be the bed of a small lake. (13) The recession and extinction of glaciers in the Atlas range, on which there is now not even perpetual snow. (14) An elevation of the coast-line of at least 70 feet, repre- sented by the height of the raised beaches of concrete sand at Mogador and other parts of the coast, which may possibly be contemporaneous with the elevation of similar raised beaches on the coasts of Spain and Portugal, and with the raised beaches of our south-western coast. (15) A slight subsidence of the coast-line, now going on, with an accumulation of extensive deposits of blown sand at Mogador. (16) The formation of a tufaceous surface-crust over almost the entire plain of Marocco, due to the drawing up to the surface, by rapid evaporation, of water from the subjacent calcareous strata, depositing, layer by layer, laminated car- bonate of lime. HH 2 468 APPENDIX I. APPENDIX I. MOORISH STORIES AND FABLES. From much information that has been kindly furnished to us by Mr. Freeman Rogers, a gentleman who was several years resident in Marocco, and had become familiar with the people and their language and manners, the following extracts have been taken for the sake of the light which they throw on the condition of the country. It being the main object of this volume to relate our personal experiences, we have not been able to avail ourselves of much information supplied to us by Mr. Rogers, and other competent witnesses; but it has appeared to us that the extracts here given form a useful supplement to the facts which came to our knowledge during our short stay in Marocco, and will help the reader to form a truer conception of its present condition. The stories, which may be said to have a political character, furnished to us by Mr. F. Rogers, all refer to events that have occurred during the last twenty-five years, and are precisely similar in character to others which were passing at the time of ‘our visit. They are accepted as substantially accurate by our informant, and we see no reason to refuse them credence. They certainly tally with the universal belief of the natives as to the conduct of their rulers. Any one who is familiar with the chronicles of the Middle Ages, who has marvelled at the deeds of ferocious cruelty recorded of German petty rulers, or the more refined atrocities of Italian princes, must sometimes have felt a wish to know what manner of men they were who committed these deeds. To satisfy such a curiosity, he cannot do better than pay a visit to the interior of Marocco. If duly commended to their good offices, he will be received by men of stately and courteous manners, prompt to display a lavish hos- pitality, who will inevitably send him away with a favourable impression ; but before he has been many weeks in the country, he will become aware that these amiable hosts are habitually guilty of deeds of combined ferocity and treachery that equal, if they do not surpass, those of the dark periods of European history. MOORISH STORIES AND FABLES. 469 The popular fables, which were taken down from the mouth of an old Moorish story-teller, and literally translated by Mr. Rogers, complete the impression derived from the fragments of contemporary history. They all turn upon the success of fraud and force in the affairs of life. The moral, so to speak, of all is ‘woe to the weak and.the confiding ;’ but admiration is mainly given to those who supply the place of strength by successful perfidy. Abd el Saddock, Kaid of Mogador, Duquatlah, Abda, and Sous) On one occasion this Kaid was sent to Sous by the Sultan to reduce some provinces to submission. When arrived there, a grand entertainment was given to him by the refractory Sheiks, and immense quantities of provisions sent in to supply the guests, among which was a large quantity of a particular dish of which the Kaid was known to be very fond, and this was all poisoned. The Kaid, suspecting from the Sheiks’ importunity for him to eat of it that it was poisoned, ordered his soldiers to guard the doors and let no one escape, and then called upon the Sheiks one by one to partake of the dish. Most of the Sheiks refused to eat, and some few came cheerfully forward at the Kaid’s call; those who refused were compelled to eat, and those who came cheerfully forward were not allowed to eat; and so the Kaid in one day not only got rid of his enemies, but saved his friends, whom he rewarded by putting them in the place of those who fell by their own treachery. Kaid Boh Djemmu. Some short time after the news of the foregoing had spread over the country, a revolt took place at Shedma, and many of 1 Abd el Saddock was the father of Hadj Hamara, the Kaid of Mogador, by whom we were hospitably entertained soon after our arrival. The father appears to have cumulated important offices to an extent now rare, if not unknown, in Marocco. As thie Sultan’s hold over the province of Sous is very feeble, and limited to the occasional receipt of tribute, there is no resident Kaid, but the title is given to any Official sent, pro hde vice, to represent the Sultan. But the pro- vinces of Duquallah and Abda, like the rest of the settled country, are ordinarily administered by resident governors. 470 APPENDIX I. the Sheiks made themselves conspicuous by their opposition to the Kaid, who determined to get rid of all his enemies at one blow ; he therefore made peace with them, and all seemed well and tranquil for some time. At last came the holiday /’ashora, or the day of the Sultan’s tenthing, when an invitation was issued by the Kaid to all his Sheiks to appear at his entertain- ment; none dare refuse, and so all went. The Kaid had, in the meantime, prepared a large room, into which he sent the Sheiks known to be his enemies, and another into which he sent those known to be his friends. When all had feasted until they could eat no more, the Kaid quietly ordered the windows and doors to be closed, the men to be bound, burning charcoal to be placed in the room, and the doors then to be built up, and all left to their fate. Nine days afterwards, when the room was opened, nothing remained of all those men, some twenty- two or twenty-three, but bones, attesting the fatal effects of burning charcoal and the daring ferocity of the rats; except one man whom the Kaid pardoned, believing him to be inno- cent, as his life seemed to be so miraculously preserved. What the Sultan means when he bestows a Wife. The Kaid of Shedmah, Boh Djemma, had distinguished him- self against some rebels who had risen against the Sultan, and the praise bestowed upon him openly by his enemies in the hearing of the Sultan, excited the suspicious sovereign’s anger and jealousy to such an extent that he was determined to get vid of such a dangerous enemy; in order to which he called for the Kaid and praised his exploits in the presence of all his great men, ordered him a suit of his own royal clothing and a favourite horse, and promised him a wife out of his own seraglio, The Kaid rejoiced, and his enemies too: the Kaid, because he regarded himself as a favourite ; and his enemies, who were older and knew better, because that he was doomed. In a few days the Kaid was sent home and his new wife along with him in great state, and in ten days more the Kaid was carried to the grave, he having died suddenly (poisoned by the Sultan’s female executioner) in the night. A similar occurrence took place with the Kaid of Haha; but he had a watchful and wise mother, who watched the new MOORISH STORIES AND FABLES. 471 wife until she saw her prepare a dish for her son, when she presented herself before him, charged the new wife with her intended crime, and dared her to eat of her own dish. The Kaid’s eyes were opened, and he compelled the Sultan’s lady, his new wife, to eat of the dish which she had prepared for him, when she immediately died from the effects of her own poison. This Kaid ever after kept away from the Sultan until, a few years ago, his evil genius prevailed on him to obey the Sultan’s call, when he died within an hour after taking supper with the Sultan, Abd el Saddoch, Kaid of Mogador, Duquallah, Abda, and Sous, and his False Friend. Some years since, the Kaid of Mogador! (father of the Kaid Hadj Amara who entertained you when there) ruled over the provinces of Duquallah, Sous, and Abda, and made a great deal of money during his administration, and secured the love of all good Moors by his making the Jews acknowledge their in- feriority to the Moors. But suspecting that his time to be squeezed by the Sultan had nearly arrived, he determined to pre- pare for it, and so outwit a false friend, who was an enemy of his, and the Sultan at the same time; in order to which, he called upon his false friend, and invited him to dine with him that evening in private as he had something to tell him. After dinner the Kaid told his guest that he was getting afraid of the Sultan seizing him in order to get his money. ‘Now,’ said he, ‘T have a favour to ask of you, which is that you will carefully preserve the treasure which I will show you, and when I am seized upon take the keys of my house, but do not live in it, and when my son Hamara knows how to use my money, then tell him of the box and give him the keys; and further, T want you to swear that you will never tell where I have hid my treasure, and that you will not tell any one of what has passed this night.’ The false friend took the oath with mental reser- vations, as would appear from the sequel. The Kaid then ordered four slaves to attend upon him, and all descended to the cellar, where the money was concealed ina large strong wooden box, buried in the ground. The box was then opened 1 The same of whom the first story is related above. 472 APPENDIX I. and was seen to be full of silver and gold, &c. The Kaid then had the box covered up, and the false friend took his departure. After he went away, the Kaid retwmed with his slaves and had the money, but not the box, removed to a really secure place, and had the box filled with bits of stones and broken pottery and recovered over in the same manner as it was before, when seen by the Kaid’s false confidant; he then had his slaves car- ried off to prison and put to death on some pretext or other. The next day when the Kaid’s confidant heard of the slaves being dead, he knew it was to prevent their telling, and con- cluded that it was the secret which he possessed which the Kaid wanted to guard, and that he alone knew of the secret of the Kaid’s wealth and its hiding place. In some short time after- wards, an order came from the Sultan ordering Abd el Saddock up to Maroceo; upon which the Kaid teld his confidant of his trouble and begged him to be true to his oath, blessed him, kissed him, and then went to wait upon the Sultan. The Sultan upon seeing him ordered his arrest and torture, accusing him of robbing him and his people, &c. ; upon which the Kaid was carried off to the torture, when he kept denying having any money, and being guilty of the charges brought against him. At last the Sultan, losing all patience, sent him word that he had received information, so the Kaid had better speak the truth at once, for such a one (the false friend) had declared that he had a large box full of treasure, but was sworn not to tell of its whereabouts. The Kaid, therefore, must either tell or suffer death by torture. At this the Kaid pretended to be much alarmed, and declared that nothing could be concealed from Seedna, so he would confess the whole truth, and that what such a one said was true and that it was concealed in such a place, and put there in presence of such a one (the informer, the Kaid’s confidant), and that if the Sultan sent for it he would have it all. The Kaid was then put in prison, and notaries and soldiers sent for the money under the guidance of the informer who was in great glee, thinking that now his fortune was made and his favour with the Sultan secure; but upon arriving at the cellar and the box being opened, nothing but stones and broken pottery was found where there had been gold and silver. Imagine the wretch’s horror as the notaries said he himself must inform the Sultan, as they dare not MOORISH STORIES AND FABLES, 473 do so ; however, as there was no use in lamenting, they returned to Marocco, and the informer had to tell Seedna that there was nothing in the box but rubbish; upon which the Sultan ordered the Kaid to be brought before him and demanded the meaning of such a thing. The Kaid answered, ‘True, our lord, it is that I did not oppress your people, and the money hidden in that box was made by lawful means, and I reposed confidence in my friend here, and left the money for my son; and so I told your majesty truly that I had nothing, because it then became by my gift my son’s money, and this, my false friend, has broken his trust, robbed my son and Seedna, and then to cover his knavery, sought my life by trying to turn our lord against me. I therefore beg that our lord will make him con- fess what he has done with Seedna’s money.’ The Sultan thought the informer simply wanted to make him a fool to cover his knavery, and at once, in a passion, ordered him to be flogged until he confessed. But as he could not confess that he had taken the money and had none of his own to replace it, the lash was continued until the wretch died under it. The Kaid was set free and restored to Mogador, and the informer’s son is now assistant weigher at the Custom House, Mogador. SIX MOORISH FABLES. 1. Fable of « Hedgehog and a Fox. Once upon a time a fox accidentally meeting a hedgehog addressed him as follows, ‘I am much oppressed with thirst ;’ to which the hedgehog replied, ‘So am I, and I know a well where we can drink.’ The fox then said, ‘Come along.’ They travelled on till they reached the well where they found two buckets worked by a pulley, one ascending whilst the other de- scended. ‘ Now,’ said the hedgehog, ‘I will go in first, and when I tell you, jump into the other bueket.’ The hedgehog went down and had his drink, and then shouted to the fox, ‘Now you jump in.’ He did as he was told, and as he went down met the hedgehog coming up in the ascending bucket ; upon seeing which he said, ‘What does this mean!’ The hedgehog answered thus, ‘It is the world goes round :’ and when he was safely at the top, and the fox had reached the 474 APPENDIX I. bottom, he called down to him and said, ‘ Those who want to kill me I catch them in a trap, and to those who do me a good turn I do the same to them.’ 2. The Camel, the Hedgehog, and the Lion. Once upon a time there was a camel who met with a hedge- hog, and the camel tried to trample on him. The hedgehog said to the camel, ‘ Wait till I call my brother, he is able to kill both you and me.’ ‘No,’ said the camel, ‘if he comes he will per- haps kill me.’ ‘No, no,’ said the hedgehog, ‘if you wish to see him, lie down on your belly or on your back, open your mouth and let the flies come in, and appear as if you were dead.’ The camel said, ‘All right.’ ‘ Well, well,’ said the hedgehog, ‘I will go call my brother.’ The hedgehog went away to look for a lion, and meeting with one, said, ‘ Your servant, my lord ; there is a wild beast which wishes to eat me.’ The lion replied, “Will he eat me?’ The hedgehog said if he were there he certainly would; but he has gone away to get food, ‘but my lord, if you would like to see what he has procured for his breakfast, come along with me.’ The lion said, ‘ You go first.’ ‘Very well I will do so,’ said the hedgehog, ‘and when you fol- low and get near, roar with all your might.’ The lion said, ‘ All right.’ The hedgehog said, ‘I shall go first.’ Soaway went the hedgehog, and said to the camel, ‘Now, he is coming you lie still; don’t stir or he will eat you.’ The camel said, ‘All right ;’ and whenever they heard the roarings of the lion, the camel said to the hedgehog, ‘Listen to the noise he makes while talking.’ The lion then drew nearer and roared again ; when the camel exclaimed, ‘In the name of the most mer- ciful God, is he going to eat me?’ The hedgehog said, ‘Don’t stir, don’t fear.’ The camel said, ‘All right.’ They waited till the lion came, when the hedgehog addressed him, and said, ‘This is a morsel of the breakfast the monster is going to eat.’ The lion and the hedgehog now bade each other adieu ; and when the lion had departed the hedgehog said to the camel, ‘Now you may get up, but tell me which of the two is master.’ The camel replied, ‘It is you, it is you; good morning. The hedgehog said to the camel, ‘ Are you going away?’ The camel replied, ‘Yes, my lord, I am;’ and from that day to this they have never spoken. MOORISH STORIES AND FABLES. 475 3. The Snake, the Hedgehog, the Man, and the Hunters. The Hedgehog personates the Kadi. The Hunters 5 the Soldiers, The Snake 45 the People. The Man 45 the Sanctuary. Once upon a time there were some hunters, who went out to hunt a fairy embodied as a snake. The snake being pursued meeting with a man passing by, said to him, ‘ Will you afford me protection, for there are hunters following, who want to catch me?’ The man answered,‘ Very well,’ and allowed the snake to be concealed in his clothes ; presently the hunters came up to the man and asked him whether he had seen a snake, to which he answered no, and the hunters passed on in pursuit. After the hunters had left, the man asked the snake to go down. The snake said, ‘No, and if you attempt to force me down, I will kill you.’ The man said to the snake, ‘ Very well, let us go to the Kadi and hear what the law says.’ The snake said, “Very well, come along.’ So they went on till they came to the hedgehog, who was Kadi; and the man said, ‘ Your servant, my lord; here is a snake that I have saved from the hunters, and I have told him to get down, but he would not.’ The hedgehog addressed the snake, and said, ‘I will decide the law for you, but first get down.’ The snake at once got down, and then demanded of the hedgehog what the law said. The Kadi then addressed the man as follows : ‘ The snake is on the ground and a stick is in your hand.’ The man, taking the hint, struck the snake on the head and killed it. 4, The Sheep, the Fou, the Lion, and the Shepherd. Once upon a time a fox met a lion, and the lion, addressing the fox, said, ‘ Will you be my servant to catch sheep for me 1? The fox said, ‘I will, if you will give me my share.’ The lion said, ‘No, and if you eat a single bit, I will kill you.’ ‘ Very well,’ said the fox, ‘if that is the bargain, I will agree to go hunt for you.’ So away went the fox and hunted about till he found some sheep, one of which he killed and ate. He then went off to the owner of the sheep and said, ‘ The lion sent me to hunt your sheep for him, but I would not do so, and he came 476 APPENDIX I. himself and ate one, and I have run to tell you.’ ‘Very well,’ said the shepherd, ‘you shall be the guard over my sheep, and let me know when the lion comes;’ and the fox said, ‘ All right.’ So he waited till the evening, and then went to guard the sheep; and whilst on guard he killed and devoured two more, and afterwards, making a little wound in his own leg, he ran off to the shepherd, and said, ‘The lion has come and eaten two sheep, and wanted to eat me also; see the wound he made in my leg.’ The shepherd said, ‘I see it is true; I will put two men to assist you to guard.’ The fox said, ‘ All right ; I will go hunt for something to eat, and then return.’ So he went off in search for the lion, and meeting him, said, ‘I know where there are lots of sheep ; they are in such a place, you come in the evening to eat them.’ The lion said, ‘ All right.’ The fox then ran back to the shepherd, and said, ‘ The lion is coming to- night,’ and directed the men who were to assist in guarding to conceal themselves, but before doing so to bring a big sack into which the fox put a great stone, and waited till the lion came. When the lion came he said to the fox, ‘Why have not you killed me a sheep?’ The fox said, ‘ Because I was afraid of a great mon- ster that none but you can master, and there he is in that sack ; go in and kill him.’ The lion said, ‘ All right,’ and went in, when the fox tied securely the mouth of the bag, so that the lion could not get out. The fox then said to the lion, ‘Have you found him?’ The lion replied, ‘No, no, I have not, and it is funny I cannot get out.’ The fox said, ‘ Push away, try and get out.’ The lion said, ‘I cannot.’ The fox said, ‘ Probably the monster holds you there.’ The fox said to the lion three times, ‘ Can’t you get out?’ and three times the lion replied, ‘I cannot.’ The fox said, ‘He who wishes to kill me I catch him in a trap, and to him who does good to me I will do good in return.’ So he went away and called the guard, and said, ‘There he is, beat him ;’ so they beat him, and beat him till they were tired ; and at last broke his leg. The fox said to the guard, ‘ Now let him out, he has broken his leg and cannot escape ;’ and when the lion got out the fox, addressing him, said, ‘Now, which is master?’ The lion replied, ‘ You are my master ;’ and the fox said, ‘Whoever wishes to eat me at one time will try again,’ and turned to the men and ordered them to kill him. After which the fox said, ‘Now that we have killed the lion, good- MOORISH STORIES AND FABLES. 477 bye ;’ and the men replied, ‘Good-bye.’ He went away, and waiting till evening, and returning at supper time, he wounded the leg of each remaining sheep, and ran off to the owner and said, ‘A monster bigger than the last has come and wounded all your sheep.’ Previous to this the fox went to the market, and bought a suit of clothes, and sprinkled them with the blood of the sheep, and made it appear as if the big monster of whom he spoke had also killed aman. He then said to the owner, ‘ All your sheep are spoiled; we had better kill them and make a feast.’ So the shepherd killed the rest of the sheep, and ate them with the fox; and when they had finished, the fox filled a bowl with dirty water. The owner after he had finished his breakfast, said, ‘What am I to donow? The sheep are killed.’ The fox said, ‘ Now I will tell you how it all happened.’ The man said, ‘How?’ The fox said, ‘ Not till you open that door so that the light is let in;’ and then said quickly, ‘It is I who killed your sheep ;’ he then threw the dirty water in his face, and made off. 5. The Pigeon and the Monkey. Once upon a time as a pigeon was passing by he met with a monkey. The monkey said to the pigeon, ‘ Come, let us play ;’ and the pigeon said, ‘ Very well, what shall we play at?’ The monkey put up a stick and proposed they should get up it. The pigeon agreed, and the monkey said, ‘ Which shall go up first?’ The pigeon said, ‘You.’ The monkey said, ‘ All right,’ and tried but could not manage it ; upon which the pigeon im- mediately flew to the top. The pigeon said, ‘Now it is my turn to say, ‘ What shall we next try?’ The monkey said, ‘ All right.’ So the pigeon challenged the monkey to tie his tail to his leg, and when he had accomplished it, and untied it, he said, “Come, let us see whether you can tie your wing to your leg.’ The pigeon said ‘All right,’ and fastened his wing to his leg, but could not undo it; and the monkey devoured him. 6. The Hyena and the Hedgehog. Once upon a time there was a hedgehog travelling in quest of something to eat, and saw a hyena coming towards him with intent to devour him. As soon as the hyena had reached him, 478 - APPENDIX K. he said, ‘My lord, I observe that you are dirty and stand in need of a bath, and if you require one I have a bath at your service in my house.’ The hyena replied, ‘ Yes, it is true, I am much troubled with fleas, please come along and give it me; but first come to my house and breakfast, and then we will go to the bath.’ The hedgehog said, ‘That is just what I want, for I am out now looking for food.’ So the hedgehog went to the hyena’s house and had his breakfast. The hedgehog then said, ‘Now come along and take your bath.’ The hyena said, ‘ All right.’ So they went to the hedgehog’s house and the bath was heated to boiling. The hedgehog said to the hyena, ‘ Now jump into the bath, and scratch yourself.’ So the hyena jumped in ; whereupon the hedgehog closed down the lid, and tied it with a string. The hyena said, ‘This is too hot for me, I want to get out.’ ‘No, no,’ said the hedgehog, ‘it is far better for you to be there than for me to be in your belly ; bawl away till you are dead.’ APPENDIX K. On the Shelluh Language. By JoHN BALL, Jackson in his ‘Account of Marocco’ refers to the opinion of Marmol, that the Shelluhs of Marocco and the Berebers (Kabyles) of Algeria speak the same language, as altogether in- correct, and positively affirms, on the contrary, that these lan- guages are quite distinct. In proof of this assertion, he gives a short list of Shelluh words or short phrases, with the Bereber equivalents of most of them, and concludes, from the differences between these, that the languages are profoundly, if not radically, different. A comparison of this kind is so notoriously mis- leading that no importance would have been attached to the conclusion derived from it, were it not for the fact that Jackson was well acquainted with the Shelluh language, probably better than any other European has since been; and that although not versed in comparative philology, a science not yet come into THE SHELLUH LANGUAGE. 479 existence in his time, he was a man of good general intelligence who seems to have had frequent occasion to compare the two languages. The first person who was able to speak on the subject with any authority was Venture de Paradis, a man of remarkable linguistic attainments, who died prematurely while accom- panying the French Syrian Expedition in 1799. His grammar and vocabulary of the Bereber language were not published until 1844, and his conclusions were not until then made known to the world. It appears that in the year 1788 two Shelluhs, one a native of Haha, the other from Sous, went to Paris. Notwithstanding the difficulty of communicating with men who possessed no written language, Ventwre de Paradis con- trived to obtain from them a list of Shelluh words and short phrases. He was very soon after attached to a mission sent to Algiers, where he was detained for more than a year. He made acquaintance with two Kabyles, theological students, at Algiers, and, finding that his list of Sbelluh words corresponded very nearly with the Kabyle equivalents, he devoted himself to the study of the Kabyle dialect of the Bereber tongue, and pre- pared the grammar and dictionary which remained for more than half a century unpublished, It might be sufficient to refer the reader to the judgment of so competent an authority ; but a slight examination of the subject has afforded such con- firmation to the conclusions of Venture de Paradis as seems to place them beyond the reach of controversy. It must be remarked in the first place that, from the want of sacred books or other written records among the races of the Bereber stock, there is no one of the many dialects spoken by them that can be taken as the classical standard to which others may be compared. French writers in treating of what they style ‘la langue Berbére’ usually mean the Kabyle, spoken by most of the mountain tribes of Algeria. The same language, with dialectic differences, is used by many tribes of the Sahara ; but throughout the larger part of the vast region lying between the southern borders of Algeria and Marocco and the Soudan, the prevailing tongue, though unquestionably belonging to the Bereber family, deserves to rank as a distinct language from the Kabyle. A slight examination of the latter shows that it has been largely adulterated by contact with the Arab popula- 480 APPENDIX K. tion, who from an early period have ruled the open country and carried on all commercial intercourse ; while the character- istic grammatical features have been in many respects obscured or effaced. On the other hand, it appears from a recent publica- tion by General Faidherbe! that the dialect spoken at the south-western limit of the Bereber races, adjoining the river Senegal, while preserving the chief Bereber grammatical cha- racteristics, has undergone much etymological alteration, whether from contact with the Negro tribes, or from inherent causes. As far as the available materials enable us to form a judgment, it seems clear that the best living representative of the Bereber language is that spoken by the Touarecks of the Great Desert, and especially by the great tribes, the Azguer and Ahaggar, who occupy between them a territory measuring at least half a million of square miles. Of this, which is properly called Tamashek’, a grammar was published by General Hanoteau in 1860, and another by Mr. Stanhope Freeman in 1862. The Tamashek’ is distinguished from the other languages of the same family by the greater regularity and completeness of its grammatical system, by the comparative absence of Arab words, of which the Kabyle shows a large infusion ; but especially by the possession of a system of writing, rude, indeed, and imper- fect, but not known to any other branch of the Bereber stock. This privilege has not led to the growth of a national literature ; the written characters are used only for rock inscriptions, for mottoes on shields, and occasionally for verses on festive occa- sions ; but their use is widely spread among men of the higher class, and still more among the women, and, however restricted, has doubtless tended to give comparative fixity to the lan- guage. Of the Shelluh tongue the materials available are, indeed, very scanty. The most considerable document is contained in the ninth volume of the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society,’ where Mr. Francis Newman has given a literal Latin version of a story written in Arabic characters by a native of South Ma- rocco. It would require far more knowledge of the Shelluh language and familiarity with Arabic writing than I possess to enter on any examination of that document; and there is the ) Le Zénaga des Tribus Sénéqalaises. Paris, 1877. THE SHELLUH LANGUAGE. 481 further difficulty that the natives who learn to write their own language in Arabic characters are usually those who also acquire the Arabic language, and in so doing learn to adopt Arabic phrases and forms of speech. In the following table I have in- troduced all the Shelluh words given by Jackson and Washing- ton, of which I have been able to find equivalents in Kabyle or Tamashek’, and have endeavoured to adopt a uniform mode of orthography. The vowels are intended to have the sounds to which they correspond in most European languages, and not those peculiar to England. Zh and sh have nearly the same sounds as in English ; gh before ¢ or 7 has the hard sound; and ry’ indicates the peculiar sound intermediate between the guttural and the ordinary r, which European travellers indicate sometimes by r, and sometimes by gh. In several instances synonyms are given in brackets. English Shelluh Kabyle Tamashek’ Man . , argaz . .| ergaz . . | ales ftamraut fthemthout | f tameth Worn ‘L tamtout ‘|\themgart f * | | tamethout . abaradh Boy. . | ayel : .| ashish . ‘ eee dh Girl. . | tayelt . . | tehayalt . . | tamarat Slave . . | issemgh . .| ismigh . » | akli Horse . .| ayiss . . Nae ee . | ayiss aroum aram famnis Camel 7 algrom elgroum * | Lamagour Sh fizimer thiksi izimer cep + + |‘. djellib *|\thili f° * | Lekraz Mule . tasardount . aserdoun é = Boar . . | amouran . | mourran. . | azibara Cow. “ tafounest ‘ tefonest . . | tes Green lizard. | tasamoumiat .| tesermoumit . = Water . .| amen. . aay . + | aman Bread . . en | ‘ nates . | tagella < a aifki Milk . .| akfai .. { abtat F | akh Meat . . ouksoum . | aksoum . ‘ = ‘ , SJ tighliim Eggs . «| tikellin. - |) thimillims * = Barley . . | toumzin . . | toumsin . . | timzin ftena as fd Dates \[tinie J : hae a teini Green figs akermous . | tibaksisin ‘ a Honey . ‘ tamint . . | thament. ‘ = Il 482 APPENDIX kK. English Shelluh Kabyle Tamashek’ Sun. . | atfoukt . . | tefoukt . . | tafoukt : adrar (plur. edrar (plur. fate (plur. POUL ADY rs { idrarn) ouderan) idrarn) Palm tree .| taghinast . | jatfaroukt . =_ Year. . | aksougaz . | ezoughaz . | aouétai Morning . | gir. : . | ighilwas. . | ifaout To-morrow .| azgah . .| ezikka . . | toufat Village. . | thedderth .| tedert . ; _ tikimie tighimi =a nee tigameen f * | Lakham Wood . . | asr’oer . .| esghar . . | asr’er Dinner . . | imkelli . . | elles , .| amekchi ikf se Head . .| akfie . : eee \ é 4 \ Inet A tiththaouin Eyes. . | alen 3 . | ellin ‘ : (sing. tith) Nose. tinzah . inzer. : _— * Z idaren (sing. Feet. . | idarn { Saat —_— Go Cimper.) . | aftou . .| eddou . . | eg’al : fas ) as (come, or Come . ashi é - | Leshkad / go) Give. . | fikihie . . | efki .| ekf Eat . ainish . | itch . . | eksh Call. . | irkerah . . | kera : ‘ _ ; f ghaouer | rim Sitdown .| gaouze aguim f * 1 ekk’im Good . . | egan ras. .| deldli. . | elkir r’as It will be seen that, as regards thirty out of thirty-five Shelluh substantives here enumerated, the Kabyle equivalents are distinguished only by dialectic differences, and the same holds as to at least four outof six verbs. It thus appears, as far as the evidence goes, that there is as much verbal resemblance between these tongues as between Italian and Spanish, or other allied languages belonging to the same stock. The comparison with the Tamashek’ shows a less close etymological relationship. Out of twenty-four substantives for which Tamashek’ equivalents have been found, twelve only, and two only out of five verbs, show identity of origin. But it is interesting to find indica- tions that the Shelluh retains a closer conformity to the rules of Tamashek’ grammar than does the better known Kabyle language. In the very few cases where a comparison is possible we find, indeed, absolute identity. Thus the Shelluh word for boy (ayel), is apparently not found either in Kabyle or Tama- shek ;’ but the feminine form (¢ayelt), for girl, precisely follows THE SHELLUH LANGUAGE. 483 the rule of Tamashek’ inflexion for gender, and a slight modifi- cation of this (¢ehayalt) is found in the Kabyle. A somewhat similar example is the word tasardount for mule, this being the regular feminine form of the Kabyle name, aserdoun. The word adrar (mountain) forms its plural edrarn exactly accord: ing to rule, and both singular and plural are identical with the Tamashek’ forms; while the Kabyle shows dialectic differences, especially in the plural where the final r of the singular is lost. The last word in the list affords an illustration of the liability to error incurred by a traveller attempting to form a vocabulary of a language with which he has but a slight acquaintance. Good is here used in the sense of a satisfactory answer to inquiries, pretty much as all right is adopted in colloquial English. Jackson was doubtless familiar with the expression eyan ras, which he gives as the Shelluh equivalent, and which we also often heard from the natives; but the ras of the Shelluh is obviously the same as the Tamashek’ adverb r’as, meaning only, ov exclusively, which invariably follows the word elkir in the corresponding Tamashek’ reply, elkir 7’as. It has not appeared necessary to add to the table given above «column for the corresponding words in the Zénaga language from the vocabulary given by General Faidherbe. The amount of verbal similarity between this and the Shelluh is very trifling, and the distinguished author referred to was doubtless misinformed when led to express a belief in their close con- nection. The time is perhaps not yet come for forming a definitive judgment as to the origin of the Bereber languages, and the precise nature of the relations between them and the ancient language of Egypt on the one hand, and those of the Semitic family on the other. The present writer feels his own incom- petence to grapple with questions of such difficulty, and will merely refer the reader to the conclusions recently announced by M. de Rochemonteix as those which appear to carry with them the greatest weight. In his essay, published in 1876,’ the learned writer finds that the ancient Egyptian and the Bereber possessed the same pronominal roots, and employed the same methods for forming 1 Essai sur les rapports grammaticaux entre VEgyptien ct le Berbére, par le Marquis de Rochemouteix. Paris, 1876. 112 484 APPENDIX K. their inflexions and derivatives; and he arrives at the same opinion with reference to the inflexions of the substantives. He further asserts that the modifications which time and external conditions have effected are of a superficial character, and in no way conceal the close grammatical affinity of these languages. Whether this affinity be due to direct inheritance, or to common descent from a more remote ancestral stock, is a question not touched by the writer, who bases his conclusions on a study of two only of the Bereber dialects, the Kabyle and the Tamashek.’! With reference to the relation indicated by the conjugation of the Bereber verb, in which the grammatical processes show a considerable affinity with those of the Semitic languages, while the comparison of the verbal elements shows no token of com- mon origin, M. de Rochemonteix expresses the opinion that at 1 It is of some interest to remark that the latest conclusions of philologists on the affinity of the North African dialects, substantially agree with the testimony of the earliest writer who came in contact with them. The following passage is taken from the original version of the description of Africa by Leo Africanus, published by Ramusio in his famous work ‘ Delle Navigationi et Viaggi:’ Venetia, 1563, vol. i. p. 2 The Moorish writer divides the indigenous white population of Northern Africa into five races, enumerated by him, and then con- tinues: ‘Tutti i cinque popoli—i quali sono divisi in centinaja di legnaggi, et in migliaja di migliaja d’habitationi, insieme si con- formano in una lingua la quale comunemento é da loro detta Aquel Amarig, che vuol dir lingua nobile. Et gli Arabi di Africa la chiamano lingua barbaresca, che é la lingua africana nathia. Et questa lingua é diversa et differente dalle altre lingue: tuttavia in essa pur trovano alcuni vocaboli della lingua araba, di maniera che alcuni gli tengono et usangli per testimonianza, che gli Africani siano discesi dall’ origine d’ i Sabei, popolo, come s’@ detto nell’ Arabia felice. Ma la parte contraria afferma, che quelle voci arabe che si trovano nella detta lingua, furono recate in lei dapoi che gli Arabi entrarono nell’ Africa, et la possederono. Ma questi popoli furono di grosso inteletto et ignoranti, intanto che niun libro Jasciarono, che si possa addurre in favore né dell’ una né dell’ altra parte. Hanno ancora qualche differenza tra loro non solo nella pronontia, ma etiandio nella signification di molti et molti vocaboli. Et quelli che sono pid vicini a gli Arabi, et pid usano la domestichezza loro, pid similmente tengono de loro vocaboli arabi nella lingua. Ht quasi tutto il popolo di Gumera’ (the Rif Country)‘ usa la favella araba, ma corrotta, Et molti della stirpe della gente di Haoara parlano pure arabo, et tuttavia corrotta. Et cid aviene per haver lunghi tempi havuta conversazione con gli Arabi.’ ROMAN REMAINS. 485 an early period of their development, the Bereber people must have been brought into contact with the Semitic stock, and may well have been struck by the advantage of precision obtained by systematic conjugation of the verb, and thus gradually moulded their own rude tongue on the model supplied to them. APPENDIX L. Notes on the Roman Remains known to the Moors as the Castle of Pharaoh, near Mouley Edris el Kebir. Communicated by Messrs. W. H. RICHARDSON and H, B. Brapy, F.R.S8. LearnyineG that a party of English travellers had visited these ruins in the spring of 1878, and believing that they had not been seen by any European traveller since Jackson visited the place early in the present century, we were anxious for in- formation respecting them; and in reply to our request we received an account of their visit kindly drawn up by Messrs. W. H. Richardson and H. B. Brady, F.R.S. We have also been favoured with the loan of a sketch executed by Mr. G. T. Biddulph, who formed one of the same party, from which the vignette given p. 487 is taken. After the notes were in the hands of the printer the ap- pearance in the ‘Academy,’ No. 32, p. 581, of a very full account of the ruins by Dr. Leared, already well known as a successful Marocco traveller, informed us that the ruins had been visited by him in 1877, in company with the members of the Portu- guese mission to the Sultan, and about the same time by some members of the German Diplomatic Mission. Dr. Leared has fully succeeded in establishing the identity of the so-called Castle, or Palace, of Pharaoh with the Roman town of Volubilis, and has left little to be said on that point. Nevertheless the ruins are interesting enough to make the additional notes of other travellers useful and valuable; and we have therefore availed ourselves of the greater part of the paper kindly sent to us by Messrs. Richardson and Brady. 486 APPENDIX L. ‘One of the points we had determined to visit on our tour was the ruin known by the Moors as “ Pharaoh’s Palace,” or “Pharaoh’s Tomb.” The time of our journey was in some respects unfortunate for visiting places held in veneration by the natives; we were, in fact, staying in Fez at the time of Mohammed's birthday, when religious fanaticism exhibits itself, not merely in holidays and powder-play, alternating with devo- tional exercises, but in processions to the shrines of saints, and in sundry manifestations of ill-will to unbelievers. We had considerable difficulty in obtaining intelligible information as to the exact site of the ruins. Our idea had been that they ought to have been accessible from the road between Alcazar and Fez, striking off near Sidi Guiddar. The interpreter and the mounted soldiers who were with us, overruled this when it was proposed, and we therefore continued our journey. They were probably right; but in our various conversations with them on the sub- ject they managed to convey the impression that either they did not themselves know the precise locality, or that they did not intend that we should visit the place. ‘During our stay in Fez we were joined by two Englishmen, Messrs. G. T. Biddulph, and F. A. O’Brien, whose acquaintance we had made in Tangier, and we proceeded to Mekinez in company. Mekinez is a sort of Mecca to the Aissowies—the most fanatical of all the sects of western Mohammedans—and the road was thronged with devotees returning from their annual pilgrimage to the city of Mohammed-ben-Aissa, their prophet. We were kindly received by the Lieutenant Bashaw (Kaid Hamo), who seemed desirous to forward our views in every way in his power. He thought it necessary on our departure to provide us with a soldier who knew the district thoroughly, so that altogether we had a guard of four regular soldiers. Thus furnished, the tone of our interpreter changed, and we had no more obstacles thrown in our way. ‘We proposed to make the Roman station the first stage on our road from Mekinez to Rabat. Whether it would have been better to have taken it, as we had originally intended, on the way to Fez, or subsequently, between Fez and Mequinez, it is needless now to inquire; it certainly is a good deal out of the direct route between Mekinez and Rabat, if maps are to be trusted. However, we got on the way on March 23 a ROMAN REMAINS. 487 little after 10 a.m. The site of the ruin is some fifteen miles north-west of Mekinez, at no great distance from Mouley Edris el Kebir ; both are on the southern slopes of one of the ranges that constitute the Lesser Atlas. There was little of interest by the way. Part of the road was on the horizon of a bed of white, friable, microzoic, tertiary limestone, which forms a con- spicuous feature in the mountain strata of this district. This is traceable for a great distance, and its exposure at one or two points in the heights to the far east, we had at first mistaken DRS oe Roinan ruins of Vulubilis. for snow. After about four hours’ riding we had to diverge from the main road; and here we learned that it would be necessary to encamp at some distance to the south-west, in the last dowar within the government of Mekinez. The hill- country, it was said, was so infested by a lawless set of Bere- bers that we should not be safe out of the jurisdiction of the Bashaw. Before the evening was out we had reason to know that these fears were not entirely groundless. Leaving our ser- vants with the luggage, therefore, we took two soldiers and rode across country to the object of our journey. 488 APPENDIX L. ‘The ruins stand on a little hill, a mile or more from the road. At the base of the hill runs a bright little mountain stream. The ground for many acres is strewed and heaped with squared stones, the débris of ancient buildings; lines of wall-foundations appear in every direction, and pillar bases in rows or squares, arranged as though for the support of colonnades surrounding courts or patios. The demolition is no doubt largely due to spoliation, but it is also partly the result of the unstable character of the mortar, which has to a great extent weathered out from between the stones. In some of the walls still standing the stones appear to retain their places by their own weight rather than by the help of any cement that is left to hold them together. Two perfect Roman arches still remain, and one or two nearly complete, but even these look as though they might not long withstand the mountain winds.’ ! ‘In the present condition of the place it is impossible even to guess what was the original ground-plan of the buildings. The principal frontage appears to have had the west aspect, and there is still the remnant of a sort of facade. Amongst the fallen stones of this front is part of an entablature which has borne ———_ an inscription in four lines. We could only find oe one stone of it ; and this bore the following letters, a about eight inches in height. There were the TI | shafts of many marble columns amongst the fallen ——— stones, and not a few capitals, some simple, others more or less carved with volutes, Ionic fashion, and one at least with the remnant of acanthus leaves, as though derived from a Corinthian building. Some of the mouldings had the common egg and arrow ornament, and there was a portion of a narrow frieze on the western side with one of the common frets of classic architecture formed of a double series of interlacing curved lines; but beyond these there was but little decorative sculpture. There is clearly a basement storey of very large 1 The vignette is taken from a sketch by G, T. Biddulph, Nay. ROMAN REMAINS. 489 stones lying underneath the present ground level. Here and there the subsidence of the ground, or the falling in of the ma- sonry, reveals passages and what appear to be small rooms or vaults, with solid, well constructed walls. In the short hour that circumstances permitted us to linger, it was impossible to do more than observe things as they stood. The mere removal of the loose stones would do a good deal, and a very little exca- vation would do much more, to indicate the history of the original structures, and we have little doubt that many inscribed stones might still be found that would help materially to the same end. On the north side of the western arch and facade is a sort of enclosure formed of loose stones piled together ag a rude wall,and whitewashed. This wall has been reared by pilgrims, each of whom has carried and placed a stone, according to their custom, at what they regard as a “‘saint’s place.”’ Up to the year 1877 no traveller appears to have visited the ruins since Jackson, who twice refers to them in his ‘ Account of the Empire of Marocco.’ Ina note to p. 21 (8rd Edition, 1814) he says: ‘The father of the Sultan Sulieman built a magnificent palace on the banks of the river of Tafilelt, which bounds his dominions on the eastward ; the pillars are of marble, and many of them were transported across the Atlas, having been collected from the (Ukser Farawan) Ruins of Pharaoh pear the sanctuary of Muly Dris Zerone, west of Atlas.’ In another place (p. 146) he says: ‘ When I visited these ruins in my journey from the sanctuary of Muly Dris Zerone, near to which they are situated, in the plain below, the jealousy of the (Stata) protecting guide sent by the Fakeers to see me safe to the confines of their district was excited, and he endeavoured to deter me from making any observations by insinuating that the place was the haunt of large and venomous serpents, scorpions, &e. A good number of cauldrons and kettles filled with gold and silver coins have been excavated from these ruins.’ me MOGADO (SOUETRA) 0 & Zaouia Ne ee NX » } OULED BOU SBA ” i) 7 oy a Shesghaoua 1133 i 142 i i : i 10° Long: West of Greenwich ~y ‘i 0) ; } Sheshaoua 113 142 | i i i i i oe J London; Macmillan & Co. 6° - A NIEW MLAIP BY JOHN BALL, F.R.S. Scale of English Statute Miles (8 ae Pe Te o 10 fa 50 ee ' Route of Mess™*Hooker and Ball. -..-.---- Native Tracks ____ Province Boundaries—....-.-..~., Boundaries of O48 08.00... Heights in English Feet ® TOWNS oe Villages - 0 Hamlets. Nzelas $ Sairas Tombs uw Castles, Forts Lf # | dunfords Geographical kstab* 55 Charing Goss , London -INDEX. ABD BDA, province of, 73 — horses of, 73 Abraham, 79, 156, 209 Acacia gummifera, 99, 337, 393 Achliz, 172, 180, 181 Adenocarpus anagyrifolins, 175, 197 Adjersiman, 199, 203 Adonis, crimson, 16 Africa, tropical, mountain flora of, Appendix, 421 Agadir, 80, 374, 382 — plants from, 327 Agave americana, 10, 28 Ain Beida, halt at, 117 Ain El Hadjar, 317 Ain Oumast, 107, 108 Ain Tarsil, defile of, 300 — rock dwellings at, 300 Ait, definition of, 184 Ait Mesan, 190 — camp in, 194, 237 — halt in, 193 — people of, 235 -— valley, ascent of, 195 — vegetation of, 210, 424 Aizoon canariense, 161 Akassa, 873, 376 Akermont, plain of, 320 Akka, oasis of, 336 Alaternus, 10, 210 Algeciras, 58 Algerian flora, characteristic species of, 255 Allium nigrum, 27 Almond, 29, 39 Altitudes in Morocco, Appendix, 357 Alyssum montanum, 261 -— spinosum, 219 Ambak, or Omback, 98, 195, 334 American aloe, 10, 28 Amsmiz, town of, 246 ASS Amsmiz, governor of, 247 — position of, 249 — return to, 272 — valley, geological structure of, 254 — — head of, 258 — — vegetation of, 255, 424 — — view of, 252 Anagyris foetida, 101 Ancient buildings, rarity of, 116 Ancient town, remains of, 116 Andrachne maroccana, 297 Andropogon laniger, 153 Andryala mogadorensis, 87, 340) Angera mountains, 5, 45 Anti-Atlas, 262 Antirrhinum ramosissimum, 245 Ape’s Hill, 5, 37, 45 Apteranthes gussoniana, 87 Aquilegia vulgaris, 268 Arab village, 24 Arabis pubescens, 48 Arar, 99, 389 Argan tree, 96, 311, 395 Arisarum vulgare, 342 Arround, 199, 214, 226 — our house at, 215 — villagers in trouble, 272 Artemisia Herba alba, 107, 124 Arthrocnemum fruticosum, 114 Artichoke, wild, 322 : Asfi, or Saffi, 73 Ash, southern species, 29, 210 Asperula hirsuta, 172 Asphodels, 17 Asphodelus cerasiferus, 28 — tenuifolinus, 98 Asplenium Hemionitis, 20 — marinum, 23 — Petrarcher, 295 Assghin, 180 117, 492 AST Asteriscus imbricatus, 87 Atlantic rollers, 66 Atlas, Great, central range of, 200 — approach to, 161 — aspect of, 200 — elevation of chain, 227 — fauna of, 233 — first view of, 106, 108 — geology of, Appendix, 457 — height of, 121, 155, 227, 242, 263, 265 — hill forts of, 166, 241, 298, 297 — last view of, 321 — mountain flora of, 202, 230, Ap- pendix, 423 — mountain tribes of, 184, 187, 233 — outer rampart of, 159 — outer ranges, vegetation of, 189 — panorama of, 154 — sterile aspect of Western, 296 — summit ridge of, 223 — topography of, Appendix, 385 — trees and shrubs of middle re- gion, 177, 209, 251 — trees of upper region, 218, 267, 268 — view of, from Sektana, 242 Atlas, Lesser, 35 Atractylis macrophylla, 194, 302 Atriplex Halimus, 114 Aurora Borealis, 14 Avena barbata, 109 Azemour, 72, 120 AD ROUB, gate, 137 Balansa, M., 82, 191, 280, 300 Barberry, 267 Barley, 197, 200, 216 Beaudouin’s map, 151, 276, 303, 384 Beaumier, M., 87, 129, 154 Bedis, Belis, 57 Bee eater, 30 Bellis annua, 17 Ben Daoud, Governor of Morocco, 126, 136 Ben Dreis, palace of, 137 Beni, definition of, 184 Beni Hassan, 9, 37 Beni Hosmar, 37 — ascent of, 41 — vegetation of, 41-47 Berberis cretica, 268 Bereber, or Riffian families, 46 Berehers, 84, 85 ~~ their language, Appendix, 478 INDEX. CHA Blanco, Cape, 73 Boissier’s ‘ Voyage en Espagne,’ 62 Boucerosia Maroccana, 87 Boulder deposits of the Atlas, 170, 458 Brady, Mr. H. B., Appendix, 485 Brass workers, 335 Brassica geniculata, 145 — anew species of, 285 Broom-rape, 118 Broussonet, M., 82, 164 Bulbo, 25, 33 Bupleurum canescens, 315 — spinosum, 219 ABO NEGRO, 51 Caillé, his journey from Tim- buktou, 336 Calendula suffruticosa, 16 Callitris quadrivalvis, 99, 177, 323, 389 Calluna vulgaris, 18 Calycotome villosa, 42 — spinosa, 42 Camel’s back, ascent of, 111 Campanula dichotoma, 100 Canals for irrigation, 124 Canarians, of Pliny, 375, 377 Canary Islands, flora of, Appendix, 404 Cantin, Cape, 73 Capparis egyptica, 243 Carex divisa, 115 Carob trees, 10, 29, 31. tonia Caroxylon articulatum, 114 Carstensen, Mr., 75 — meeting with, at Shedma, 311 Carum mauritanicum, 98 Casa Blanca, 67, 68, 69, 344 Castle of Pharaoh, Appendix, 485 Catananche ccerulea, 189 Cedar, Atlantic, 46 Celastrus europzeus, 177 — senegalensis, 177 Centaurea Clementei, 44 — incana, 308 — maroccana, 109 Cerastes, or el efah, 319, 340 Ceratocnemum rapistroides, 161 Ceratonia Siliqua, 169, 178, 183, 193 Ceratophyllum, 337 Ceuta, 7, 45, 54 Chalcedony, 112 See Cera- INDEX. CHA Chamerops humilis, 17, 28, 101, 165 Charlock, 114 Cheiranthus semperflorens, 95 Chrysanthemum Catananche, 232 — coronarium, 26 Cistus ladaniferus, 18 — monspeliensis, 165, 322 — polymorphus, 165 — species of, 321 Citrus wood of the Romans, 390 Cladanthus arabicus, 107 Clematis cirrhosa, 28, 176 — flammula, 176 Cleonia lusitanica, 165 Coast climate, humidity of, 70, 92 Cock, sacrifice of, 223 Convolvulus sylvatica, 41 Coronilla ramosissima, 189 — viminalis, 164 Coronopus Ruellii, 123 Cosson, M., 3, 327 Costume, travelling, 78 Cotyledon hispanica, 113 Cuckoo, 32 Cucumis Colocynthis, 113 Cynara acaulis, 291 — eatable roots of, 292 — humilis, 28 — hystryx, 192 Cytisus albidus, 101 — tridentatus, 19 AISY, blue, 17, 198 Dandelion, 114 Dar el Beida, 67 Daucus maximus, 307 Davallia canariensis, 20 Demenet, province, 147, 152, 367, 394 Diet, bad effects of, 287 Diorite, 222 Diotis maritima, 23 Diplomatic conversation, 146 Djebel Aoulouse, 262 — Hadid, 313, 321 — — iron mines of, 317 -— Kebir, 5, 9, 10, 17 — — vegetation of, 10 — Tezah, 252 — — ascent of, 259, 261 Djinns, or demons, 223 Douar, or native village, 24, 116 Douar Arifi, 96 Douerani, 280 — hospitable chief of, 281 493 FRA Drosophyllum lusitanicum, 19, 22, 48 Dupuis, M., 67 Dust columns, 122 Dyris, ancient name of Atlas, 295, 375 BENUS pinnata, 107 Echinoderms, fossil, 340, 451, 452 Echinops strigosus, 153 Echinospermum barbatum, 192 Echium modestum, 109 El efah, 340 El Fondak, 32 El Ghoreb, 82 El Graoui, governor of Great Atlas, 76, 125, 136 — house of, 146 — interview with, 126, 145 — parting with, 153 — present to, 148 El Hadj Hamara, 75, 471 El Penon de Velez, 56 Elzoselinum exinvolucratum, 286 — new species of, 107 Elder trees, 197 Ephedra altissima, 164 Erica, species of, 18 Erodium atlanticum, 289 — petreum, 45 Eryngo, 26 Escort, rapacity of, 174, 212 — trouble with, 182 Euphorbia Beaumieriana, 337 — pinea, 297 — resinifera, 337, 388 — rimarum, 217 Euphorbium, 163, 328, 388 Europa Point, 62 Evax Heldreichii, 232 IANATICISM, Moorish, 235 Fashook gum, 386 Ferula communis, 68 Fez pottery, 9 Fish, fresh water, 72 Flora of North Marocco, 18 Forests, neglect of, 177, 235 Forskahlea tenacissima, 153 — Cossoniana, 153 Frankenia revoluta, 112 — velutina, 37, 340 Fraxinus dimorpha, 176 494 FRA Fraxinus oxyphylla, 29, 210 Fringillaria Sahare, 156 Fuertaventura, vegetation of, 417 Furbioun, 163, na, 84 Furbioun, 163, 388 ENISTA, species of, 320 — clavata, 28 — monosperma, or R’tam, 95, 124 — triacanthos, 19 Geranium dissectum, 114 Gers, river, 375, 377 Gibraltar, rock of, 60, 743 — voyage to, 1 Glacier, ancient moraine of, 199 Glaucium corniculatum, 100 Goats feeding in trees, 97 Gooseberry, 198, 261 Governor in chains, 37 Grass, esparto, 335 Gum ammoniacum, 386 — arabic, 337, 393 — cistus, 10, 18 — Sandrac, 177 Gurgouri, 243, 244 Guzula, 264 Gypsophila compressa, 107 AHA, Kasbah of, 309 — Kaid, cruelty of 309,330, 331 — — hospitality of, 309 — people, outrage by, 330 — province of, 99 — — disturbed state of, 298, 329 Hamed, 212, 334 Hand mills, 22 Hank el Gemmel, 111 Hanno, Periplus, 301, 372 Hanoteau, General, his Tamashek’ grammar, 430 Hardman, Mr., 52 Hasni, camp at, 194, 207, 237 — departure from, 239 Hay, Sir J. D., 2, 8, 9, 11, 64 Hedysarum membranaceum, 176 Helianthemum, species of, 322 — lasianthum, 58 -— umbellatum, 48 — virgatum, 124 Helix, clusters of, 27 —- explanata, 111 — lactea, 111 Hemicrambe fruticulosa, 41 Hercules, cave of, 22, 23 INDEX. LAN Hercules, straits of, 62 Hills, origin of flat-topped, 112 Hollar, engraving by, 13 Horticulture, Moorish, 105 Hunot, Mr., 127, 138, 338 Hypocheeris radicata, 114 BERIS, gibraltarica, 44 Imintanout, district of, 293 Iminteli, 253, 269 — Jew’s house at, 254 — night ride to, 269 Import duties, Moorish, 53 Indian fig, 27, 169 Information, difficulty of procuring, 149, 275 Instincts, barbarous survival of, 190 Interpreter, 25, 33 Iris germanica, 200 — sysyrhynchium, 17 — tingitana, 63 Iron mountain, 313 Irrigation, native skill in, 196 Isatis, 197 ACKSON’S ‘ Account of Marocco, 80, 296, 384, 489 Jewish exports and industries, 49, 50 — festival, 50 . — suppliants, 169 Jews’ Cliff, 339 Jews, condition of, 157 —- friendly, 254 Jordan, Mr., his journey to Sous, 341 Juba, King, 374 Juniperus oxycedrus, 210, 252 — pheenicea, 42, 55, 178, 210, 219 — thurifera, 218 ABYLES, 84, 85 — their language, 478, 479 Kaid el Hasbi, 157, 173, 185, 245, 248, 334 Kelaart’s Flora Calpensis, 62 Keskossou, 93 Kief, 46 Koubba, 117 Koutoubia, tower of, 131,"142 “7 ADY HAVELOCK,’ return on board, 338 Lanzarote, vegetation of, 417 INDEX. LAR Laraish, 26 Lavandula abrotanoides, 113 — multifida, 113 Leared, Dr., Appendix, 386, 483 Lempriere, Mr., his journey, 383 Lentisk, 10, 31, 42, 68, 210 Leo Africanus, 203, 264, 379, 484 —his account of the Berebers of Djebel Hadid, 318 Leontodon hispidulus, 145 Leopard, anecdote of, 14 Lighthouse of Cape Spartel, 21 Linaria heterophylla, 240 — maroccana, 240 — sagittata, 100 — ventricosa, 101, 197 Lithospermum apulum, 35 — fruticosum, 19 Lixus, river, 301, 372 Lizard, remarkable, 289 Locusts, destroyed, 158, 159 — ravages of, 82 Lonicera etrusca, 210 Lotononis maroccana, 176 Lotus creticus, 23 — marrocanus, 176 — Salzmanni, 23 Lowe, Rev. Mr., 82 Lupin, blue and yellow, 16 Lycopus europzeus, 115 Lygeum Sparteum, 192 N ACARONESIAN flora,Appendix, 405, 420, 444 Madder, 216 Maize in the Atlas, 200, 216 Malcolmia littorea, 26 — nana, 56 Mamora, forest of, 67 Map, French War Office, 36, 384 Marabout, 9 Marmol, prisoner at Fez, 378 Marocco, city, 125, 133 — — approach to, 125, 126 — — bazaars of, 153 — — behaviour of people of, 129,145 — — carpets of, 153 — — current coin of, 141 — — difficulty as to lodging in, 129, 130 — — distant view of, 182, 290 — — elevation of, 153 -- — gardens of, 143 — — unfriendly Governor of, 127 — — Great Square of, 134 495 MOG Marocco, city, interior of, 128, 129 — — map of, 150 — -— plain of, 120 — — population of, 342 — — routes from, Appendix, 366 — — serpents of, 156 — — start from, 157 -—- — vermin of, 131 Marceco, empire, barbarism of, lv, 349 — — climate of, 15, 317, 345, 349 — -— economic plants of, Appendix, 386 — — Flora of, compared with tro- pical African, Appendix, 421 — — geology of, Appendix, 446 — — native races of, 85 — — prisons of, 229, 230 — — prospects of, 350 — — resources of, 348 — — table of altitudes in, 362 — — wild animals of, 14 — — wild birds of, 156 Marocco, South, geography of, Ap- pendix, 371 Marrubium, new species of, 249 Matthiola parviflora, 107 Maw, Mr., departure of, from Sek- tana, 243 — — his return to Mogador, 293 —— on geology of Marocco, Ap- pendix, 446 Mazagan, 71, 72, 344 — European origin of, 72 Medicago suffruticosa, 232 Medical advice, native desire for 186, 187, 209, 241 Mediterranean, change of level of, 23 Melilla, 56 Mercator’s Atlas, 378 Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum,123 Mesfioua, district of, 159 — Kaid of, 162 Milhain, 196, 299 Miltsin, peak of, 121, 154 Mint tea, 93, 105 Misra ben Kara, 118, 119 Mogador, arrival at, 75 — climate of, 88-90, 327 — departure from, 95 — disturbances at, 329, 333 — exports of, 91 — final departure from, 338 -~- Governor, dinner with, 92, 93 — island, 80, 86, 450 496 MOG Mogador, neighbouring country of, —— return to, 325 — society of, 91 — town of, 80, 81 ‘Mogador et son climat,’ by V. Seux, 91 Mona, or offering of food, 103, 108, 115, 198, 203, 292 Monanthes, new species of, 268 Montefiore, Sir Moses, 137 Montia fontana, 219 Moorish escort, 79 — government, defects of, 235 — ideas, 140 — stories, Appendix, 466 Moors, diet of, 288 — endurance of, 119 Moulai Ibrahim, 191, 192, 241 Mountains, native names for, 295 Mskala, 309 Mtouga, hostilities at, 305 — Kasbah of, 303 — return of envoy from, 293 — treatment of prisoners at, 305 Mules, sale of, 334 Muley Hassan, Viceroy of Marocco, 131, 135 Mzouda, 277 EGRO Governor, 115 — moral sense of, 286 Notoceras canariensis, 123 Ntifa, province, 147, 368. Nurzam, 245 Nzela, 109, 110 AK, cork, 67, 253 — evergreen, 20, 189, 253, 268 Observations for altitude of stations, 357 — requisite corrections, 358 Ocean currents, 345 Odontospermum odorum, 316 Oil mills, 190 Oleanders, 29, 120, 210 Olive, 10, 29, 31, 101, 114, 197, 204 — wild, 320 Onobrychis crista galli, 107 Ophrys apifera, 190 — lutea, 32 Opuntia vulgaris, 10, 28, 169 Orange, 10, 39, 114 INDEX. PLI Orchis latifolia, 176 — pyramidalis, 190 Orobanche, species of, 240 Osmunda regalis, 64 Ostrich feathers, 336 Ouanzerout, 195 Oued Bouregrag, 65, 67, 373 — Enfist, 191 — Ghaghaia, 192 — Kseb, or El Ghoreb, 82, 95. 100 ~— — affluence of, 303 — Moulouya, 35, 36, 376 — Nfys, 119, 191, 245 -- Noun, 96, 245 — — course of, 276 — — source of, 264 — Oum-er-bia, 71, 72, 147, 151, 374 — — current of, 72 -— Sebou, 67, 373 — Tensift, 96, 107, 114, 122, 162, 163, 191 — Tessout, 147, 367, 368 — Usbi, 281 — Za, 36 Ourika valley, 155, 168, 172, 175 — — opening of, 172 —- — vegetation of, 175, 176 ALMETTO, 17, 28, 42 Pan, 43 Papilio podalgyrius, 197 Partridge, red legged, 233 Peaches, 39 Peganum Harmata, 109 Periploca levigata, 315 — greeca, 316 Phaca beetica, 55 Phelipzea lutea, 118 Phillyrea, 10, 210 Pos avnle Canariensis, 406, 409, 19 Phytolacca arborea, 62 Picris albida, 117 — pilosa, 145 Pimpernel, blue, 16 Pinus halepensis, 256 Pirates, Riff, 57 Pistachia atlantica, 117 Pistorinia hispanica, DC., 113 — Salzmanniana, 113 Plantago major, 115 Plantanthera diphylla, 22 Plants, climbing, 28 Pliny, on Marocco, 374, 375 INDEX. PLI Pliny, on Citrus wood, 391 Poisoning, 312, 332 Polybius, his voyage, 374 Polygala Balansz, 165 — Webbiana, 48 Pomegranate, 10, 101, 114 Porphyry rocks, 197, 222 Portuguese buildings on the coast, 72, 73, 343 — exploration, 378 -— in South Marocco, 167, 383 — maps, 379 Prickly pear, 10, 28 Prinsep, Mr. W., drawing of Great Atlas by, 155 Pseudosaharan vegetation, 109 Pulicaria longifolia, 160 Purpurarie, vegetation of, 417 UERCUS Ballota, 268 — coccifera, 10, 20, 189 — Ilex, 253 — lusitanica, 20, 189 — suber, 253 ABAT, 65 Ranunculus, species of, 43, 44 Ravensrock, 9, 10, 24 — view from, 10, 11 Reraya, 180, 184 — district of, 184 Reseda, species of, 291 Retam, 95, 106 Retama monosperma, 27 Rhamnus oleoides, 189 Rhaponticum acaule, 109, 242 Rhododendron ponticum, 18, 58 Rhus, species of, 320 — pentaphylla, 106 Richardson, Mr. W. H., Appendix, 485 Riff tribes, 84 — Mts. or Lesser Atlas, 2, 9, 35 Riffian families, 46 Rochemonteix, M. de, 483 Rock dwellings at Ain Tarsil, 300 — — Mtouga, 307 Rogers, Mr. Freeman, Appendix, 468 Rohlfs, Gerhard (note), 46, 260, 385 Rosa canina, 164 — sempervirens, 41 Rubia tinctorum, 216 Rumex pulcher, 115 497 SID Rumex vesicarius, 293 Rye, 197, 200, 216 AFF, or Asfi, 73, 338 — view of, 73 Sagina Linnzi, 219, 231 (note), 445 Sallee, 65, 67 — pirates of, 65 Salomon ben Daoud, 150, 366 Salvia eeyptiaca, 245 — tricolor, 346 Sand hills, formation of, 325 Saxifraga Maweana, 42 Schismus calycinus, 123 Schousboé, 82 Scilla hemispherica, 17 — maritima, 17 Scirpus Holoschzenus, 115 Scorpions, 319 Sedum modestum, 177 Seksaoua, arrival at, 283 — hostilities at, 283 — rock vegetation at, 286 Sektana, plateau of, 240 Selaginella rupestris, 189 Senecio Doronicum, 45 — giganteus, 172 — (Kleinia) pteroneura, 83 Serrania de Ronda, 11, 45 Shad fish, 71 Shedma, arrival at, 101, 309 — camp at, 101 — Governor of, 310 — — poisonings by, 312 — — hospitality of, 102, 311 — Kasbah of, 104, 311 Shedma, province, 101, 110 Sheep, sacrifice of, 229 Shelluh or Shleuh, characteristics 187, 188 — cloak, 216 — diet 203 — houses, 215 — language, 84, 91; Appendix, 478 — market, 251 — medical practice among, 209 — mountaineers, 216 — population, 187, 188 — serious demeanour, 297 — superiority, 233 — taste for ornament, 235 — villages, 179, 180 Sheshaoua, oasis of, 107, 114 Sibthorpia europea, 58 Sidi Boubikir, 127, 136, 138 ? 498 SID Sidi Mohammed Hassanowe, 127,138 — Moktar, 109 Sierra Morena, 18 Siss, river, 377 Sisymbrium Irio, 114 Smilax aspera, 28 —— mauritanica, 28 Snake charmers, 30, 31 Snow, absence of perpetual, 291 — beds of, 201, 259, 260, 263 — storm on Great Atlas, 222 Sonchus oleraceus, 115 Souk el Ileta, 105 Sous, pass over Atlas to, 207, 226, 264 — river, 96, 301, 373, 379 — valley, 259, 264, 265 — view of, 264, 265 Spanish campaign in Marocco, 1859- 1860, 52 Spartel, Cape, 5, 16, 20 — excursion to, 16 Sparteum junceum, 165 Spergula saginoides, 231 Spergularia diandra, 161 Stachys saxicola, 302 Stapelia europea, 87 Statice mucronata, 95 — ornata, 120 — sinuata, 23 Stellaria uliginosa, 219 Stipa tortilis, 109 Stork, 30 Strait of Gibraltar, comparison of sides, 58, 59 Succowia balearica, 42 Suetonius Paulinus, his expedition, 375 Sultan, body-guard of, 115 — letters of, 64, 75, 76 — orders of, 9 Sueda fruticosa, 114 AGANAGURT, fort of, 297 Tagherot pass, 226 — height of, 227 Tagovast, 342, 379 Tamarix africana, 65 ~- articulata, 123 — gallica, 163 Tamashek’ language, 480 Tangier, 4, 64, 346 — climate of, 8, 63 — history of, 7 — interior of, 6 INDEX. WAS Tangier, return to, 24, 62, 345 — trade of, 8 Tapia, 104 Tarudant, 294, 341, 379, 383 —- pass leading to, 294, 376, 383 Tasseremout, 159, 160, 165, 166 — fort at, 166 Tassghirt, 194 Tassilunt, camp at, 183 Tent, Alpine Club pattern, 134, 237 Tetuan, 2, 9, 39, 50 — Jew quarter, 39 — Jewish population of, 48 '— start for, 25 — valley of, 37 Teucrium, species of, 286 — collinum, 106 — Polium, 106 ; Thevenin, Dr., 81, 87 Thuja, of the ancients, 390 Thymus Broussonneteii, 98 — maroccanus, 65 Tifinout, pass of, 226 Tilli, Professor, 291 Timbuktou, caravans from, 336 Touareggs, or Touarecks, 85, 480 Trachelium, species of, 296 Trafalgar, cape, 11 Trap, or basalt, 113 Trees, destruction of, 178 — scarcity of, 20, 296 Tres Forcas, cape, 56 Troglodytes, 301 nasa beeticus, 47 EGETABLES, absence of culti- vated, 288 Vegetation and agriculture of low country, 27 Velez de Gomera, 56, 57 Venture de Paradis, on the Kabyle language, 479 Veronica Beccabunga, 219 Villages, ruined, 252 Vine, wild, 28, 216 Vitex Agnus-castus, 100 Volubilis, town of, Appendix, 485 ALNUT, 169, 178, 269 Washington, Admiral, 2, 384, 447 INDEX. WAS Washington, Admiral, excursion of, 168 — observations of, at Marocco, 155 — route of, 120 Water, colour of, 71 Webb, Mr. Barker, 41, 42, 44, 57 Wedding, Jewish, 337 Wheat, red-bearded, 182 White, Mr., 64 Williams, Sir W. F., 61, 347 Withania fruticosa, 101 LONDON : 499 ZYG Xue tingitanum, 63 AFFARINE ISLANDS, 57 Zaouia, 117 Zénaga, or Zanaga tribe (note), 377 — their language, 480, 483 Zizyphus lotus, 99, 106, 111, 119, 143 Zygophyllum Fontanesii, 339 PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOOD2Z AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE AND PARLIAMENT STREET PST ay Baer 2 AEN br SAR A SOR emer ae Yo