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Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

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Plate 1.

Fig. 1. Lasius niger 9%. 4. Myrmica ruginodis ¥.

“ (<9

2. flavus 5. Polyergus rufescens “
3. Formica fusca “ 6. Formica sanguinea “

THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.

ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.

A RECORD OF OBSERVATIONS

ON THE

HABITS OF THE SOCIAL HYMENOPTERA.

BY

Tue Rr. Hon. LORD AVEBURY

(Sir JOHN LUBBOCK, Baxr.),

D.C. L. (Oxon.), LL. D. (Cantab., Dubl. et Edin.), M.D. (Wiirzb.), F. R.S.,
V. P.L.S., F.G.4., F.Z.9., F. $. A., F.E.S., Trust. Brit. Mus. ;
Assoc. Acad. Roy. des Sci. Brux.; Hon. Mem. R. Irish Acad., Amer. Ethno]. Soc.,
Anthrop. Soc. Wash. (U. 8.). Brux., Fierenze, Anthrop. Verein Graz.,

Soc. Entom. de France, Soc. Géol. de Ja Suisse, and Soc. Helvét. des Sci. Nat. ;
Mem. Amer. Phil, Soc, Philad. and Soc, d’Ethn. de Paris ; Corresp. Mem. Soc. Nat.
des Sci.; Nat de Cherb., Berl. Gesell. fiir Anthrop.. Soc. Romana di Antrop.,
Soc. d’Emul. d’Abbeville, Soc. Cient. Argentina, Soc. de Géog. de Lisb.,

Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Numis. and Ant. Soc. Philad.; _
Amer, Entom. Soc. For. Assoc., Mem. Soc. d‘Anthrop. de Baris ‘
For. Mem. Amer. Antiq. Soc.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
1906.

PREFACHE.

—r*or——

Tus volume contains the record of various experiments
made with ants, bees, and wasps during the past ten
years. Other occupations and many interruptions,
political and professional, have prevented me from
making them so full and complete as I had hoped.
My parliamentary duties, in particular, have absorbed
most of my time just at the season of year when these
insects can be most profitably studied. I have, there-
fore, whenever it seemed necessary, carefully recorded
the month during which the observations were made ;
for the instincts and behaviour of ants, bees, and wasps
are by no means the same throughout the year. My
object has been not so much to describe the usual

habits of these insects as to test their mental conditiop

and powers of sense.

vi PREFACE,

Although the observations of Huber, Forel, McCook,
and others are no doubt perfectly trustworthy, there are
a number of scattered stories about ants which are quite
unworthy of credence; and there is also a large class
in which, although the facts may be correctly recorded,
the inferences drawn from them are very questionable.
I have endeavoured, therefore, by actual experiments
which any one may, and I hope others will, repeat
and verify, to throw some light on these interesting

questions.

The principal point in which my mode of experi-
menting has differed from that of previous observers
has been that I have carefully marked and watched
particular insects ; and secondly, that I have had nests
under observation for long periods. No one before had
ever kept an ants’ nest for more than a few months.
I have one now in my room which has been under
constant observation ever since 1874, 4.e. for more than

seven years.!

* I may add that these ants are still (March 1882) alive and
well, The queens at least are now eight years old, if not more.

PREFACE. vil

I had intended to make my observations principally

on bees; but I soon found that ants were more con-
venient for most experimental purposes, and I think
they have also more power and flexibility of mind.

They are certainly far calmer, and less excitable.

I do not attempt to give anything like a full life-
history of ants, but I have reproduced the substance of
two Royal Institution lectures, which may serve as an
introduction to the subject. Many of the facts there
recorded will doubtless be familiar to most of my
readers, but without the knowledge of them the ex-
periments described in the subsequent chapters would

scarcely be intelligible.

I have given a few plates illustrating some of the
species to which reference has been most frequently
made ; selecting Lithography (as I was anxious that the
figures should be coloured), and having all the species
of ants drawn to one scale, although I was thus obliged
in some measure to sacrifice the sharpness of outline,

and the more minute details. I am indebted to Mr.

viii PREFACE.
Bates, Dr. GiNTHER, Mr. Kinsy, and Mr. WATERHOUSE,
for their kind assistance in the preparation of the

plates.

As regards bees and wasps, I have confined myself
for want of space to the simple record of my own

observations.

I am fully conscious that experiments conducted
as mine have been leave much to be desired, and
are scarcely fair upon the ants. In their native
haunts and under natural conditions, more especially

in warmer ¢limates, they may well be expected not
only to manifest a more vivid life, but to develop

higher powers.

I think, however, that my volume will at least show
the great interest of the subject, and the numerous

problems which still remain to be solved.

Hiau Eims, Down, Kent:
Oototer 18, 1881

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION.
Page
Position of ants in the Animal Kingdom—Ants divided into
three families—Number of species—Mode of observation—
Nests—Mode of marking ants—Stages in life of ants—Egg,
larva, pupa, imago—Length of life—Structure of ants—
Head, thorax, abdomen, antenne, eyes, ocelli, mouth parts,
legs, wings, sting—Origin of the sting—Character of ants—
Wars among ants— Modes of fighting Queen ants— Workers
—Different classes of workers—The honey ant—Soldiers—
Origin of the soldiers—Division of labour—Habitations of
ants—Communities of ants—Food—Enemies—Character—
Tndustry—Games—Cleanliness : . ‘ « 1

CHAPTER II.
FORMATION AND MAINTENANCE OF NESTS.

foundation of new nests—Doubts on the subject—Views of
Huber, Blanchard, Forel, St. Fargeau, Ebrard—Experiments
with queens— Foundation of a nest of Myrmica by two
queens—Adoption of queens—Fertility of workers—Eggs
laid by fertile workers always produce males—Queens seldom
produced in captivity—Origin of difference between queens
and workers—Longevity of ants—Arrangement of chambers
in a nest—Division of labour—The honey ant . %

zx CONTENTS.

CHAPTER II.

ON THE RELATION OF ANTS 10 PLANTS.
racy

Flowers and insects—Ants not so important in relation to
flowers as bees, but not without influence—Ants seldom
promote cross-fertilisation, and hence injurious to flowers—
Modes by which they are excluded — Belt — Kerner —
Aquatic plants — Moats — Dipsacus — Slippery surfaces—
Gentian, snowdrop, cyclamen — Concealment of honey—
Antirrhinum, Linaria, Campanula, Ranunculus, Lamiwn,
Primula, Geranium, &c.—Protection of honey by thickets
of spines or hairs—Protection by viscid secretions—<Silene,
Senecio, Linnea, Polygonum, &c.—Milky juice—Lactuca—
Nectaries on leaves—Leaf-cutting ants—Ants as tree guards
—Importance of ants in destroying other insects—Har-
vesting ants—Solomon—The Mischna—Meer Hassan Ali--
6ykes—Moggridge—Agricultural ants—Lincecum—McCook 80

CHAPTER IV.
RELATIONS TO OTHER ANIMALS.

Hunting ants—The Driver ants—Ecitons—Insects mimicking
ants—Enemies of ants-—Parisites—Mites— Phora— Domestic
animals of ants—Aphides—Eggs of Aphides kept through
the winter by ants—Blind beetles—Pets—Progress among
ants—Relationsof ants to one another—Stenamma—Solénopsis
—Slaveemaking ants — Formica sanguinea — Polyergus —
Expeditions of Polyergus—Polyergus fed by the slaves—
Strongylognathus—Degradation of Strongylognathus—<Aner-
gates—Explanation of the present state of Strongylognathus
and Anergates—Progress among ants—Phases of life—
Hunting pastoral, and agricultural species . - - 63

CHAPTER V.
BEHAVIOUR TO RELATIONS.

Wr Grote on ‘Morality as a necessity of society '—Behaviour
of anta to one another—Statementa of previous writers:

CONTENTS. x

Page
Latreille, St. Fargeau, Forel—Difference of character among
ants — Experiments — Isolated combats—Neglect of com-
panions if in trouble—Experiments with insensible ants—
Drowned ants—Buried ants—Contrast of behaviour to
friends and strangers—Instances of kindness—A crippled
ant—A dead queen—Behaviour to chloroformed friends—
Behaviour to intoxicated friends 5 : 98

CHAPTER VI.
RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS.

Number of ants in a community—They all recognise one another
—All others are enemies—Recognition after separation—
Strange ants never tolerated in a nest—Experiments—Be-
haviour to one another after a separation of more than a
year—Recognition unmistakable—How are they recognised ?
—Some naturalists have suggested by scent, some by a
pass-word—Experiments with intoxicated ants—With pupz
removed from the nest and subsequently returned—Separa-
tion of a nest into two halves, and recognition as friends by
the ants in each half of young bred in the other half—Pupzs
tended by ants from a different nest treated as friends in
the nest from which they were taken, and as strangers if
put into the nest of their nurses—Recognition neither per-
sonal nor by means of a pass-word . . . 119

OHAPTER VII.
POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

Statements of previous writers: Kirby and Spence, Huber,
Franklin, Dugardin, Forel—Habit of bringing friends to
food—Exceptional cases—Experiments to determine whether
ants are brought or directed to stores of food—Scent—Sight
—Experiments with different quantities of food—Ants
which returned empty-handed and brought friends to
assist . . , « 158

xu CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE SENSES OF ANTS.
PAGE

81GHT :—Difficulty of understanding how insects see—Number
of eyes—Two theories—Views of Miiller, Grenacher,
Lowne, Claparede—Appreciation of colour—Sensitiveness
to violet-—Perception of ultra-violet rays. HEARING :—An-
tennz regarded by many entomologists as organs of hearing
—Opinions as to whether ants, bees, and wasps hear—
General opinion that bees and wasps can hear—Huber and
Forel doubt in the case of ants—Experiments with ants—
Forel’s observations—Colonel Long—Mr. Tait—Structure of
anterior tibia. THE SENSE OF SMELL A . » 183

CHAPTER IX.
GENERAL INTELLIGENCE

Statements of previous writers—Economy of labour—Expen-
ments as to ingenuity in overcoming obstacles and econo-
mising labour—Experiments with bridges, embankments,
and moats—Earthworks—Ingenuity in building nests—
Difficulty in finding their way—Experiments with movable
objects—Sense of direction—Experiments with rotating
disks—Experiments with rotating table—Influence of light 238

CHAPTER X.
BEES.

Difficulty experienced by bees in finding their way—Communi-
cation between bees—Bees do not by any means always
summon one another when they have discovered a store of
food—Bees in strange hives—Infatuation of bees—Want of
affection—Behaviour to queen—Sentinels—The sense of
hearing—The sense of colour— Experiments with coloured
papers—Power of distinguishing colours—Preference for
blue—Influence of bees on the colours of flowers—Blue
flowers—Paucity of blue flowers—Blue flewers of compara-
tively recent origin ; 274

CONTENTS. xiii

CHAPTER XI.

WASPS.
yaa
Sommunication among wasps—Like bees, they by no means
invariably bring companions when they have discovered a
store of food—Courage of wasps— Polistes gallica—A tame
wasp—Power of distinguishing colours—Wasps less guided
by colour than bees—Industry of wasps—A day’s work—
Directness of flight of wasps . . ’ 311

APPENDICES . . . . - 838

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

at re
PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Lasius niger §. Fig. 4. Myrmica ruginodis §.
» 2. 4 flavus 3. » 5. Polyergus rufescens %.
w» 8. Formica fusca §. » 6. Formica sanguinea %.

PLATE II.

Fig. 1. Atta barbara § major. Fig. 4. Pheidole megacephala §

» 2. - % minor. minor,
» 3. Pheidole megacephala § » 5. Lormica rufa.
: major.
PLATE III.
Fig. 1. @ecdoma cephalotes 3 | Fig. 3. Stenamma Westmoodit §
major. » 4. Solenopsis fugaz $.
» 2 Gicodoma cephalotes §
minor,
PLATE IV.

Fig. 1. Camponotus inflatus §. Fig. 3. Strongylognathus testax

» 2. Tetramorium cespi- ceus 3.
tum § » Anergates atratulus 9
PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Lasius flavus = » 6. Aphis.
tes Bo is +0 » 1. Platyarthrus Hoffman
wo Be as » bite seggit.

4, » pupa. » Claviger foveolatus

Fig. 5. Beckia albinos.

LIST OF THE

PRINCIPAL BOOKS AND MEMOIRS

REFERRED TO,

anprf, E. Desc. des Fourmis d’Europe. Rev. et Mag. de
Zool., 1874.

Batss, H W. The Naturalist on the Amazons,

BELT, T. . . The Naturalist in Nicaragua.

BERT, Pavuu . ‘Les animaux voient-ils les mémes rayons
lumineux que nous?’ Arch. de Physiol, 1869.

BLANCHARD, E. . Metamorphoses of Insects. Trans. by Duncan,

BOISSIER DE SAUVAGES, l’Abbé. L’origine du Miel. Journ, de
Physique, vol. i.

Bicuner, L. . Mind in Animals.

BucKk.ey, S. B, . On Myrmica molefaciens. Proc. Acad, Nat.
Sci. Philadelphia, 1860.

BURMEISTER, H . Manual of Entomology,

CurTIS, J i On the Genus Myrmica. Trans. Linn. Soc.,
1854.

Darwin, C . Origin of Species.

DELPINO, F, . Suirapporti delle Formiche colle Tettigometre

Dewitz, H. . Ueber Bau und Entwickelung des Stachels de
Ameisen. Zeits. f. Wiss. Zoologie, vol. xxvib

OvJARDIN, F . Obs. sur les Abeilles. Ann. des Sci. Nat., 1852.

EpWwarps, H. . Notes on the Honey-making Ants. Proc

‘ California Acad., 1873.
ELDITT, HH. L. Die Ameisen-Colonien u, deren Mitbewohner
Emery, C. Saggio di un ordinamento naturale dei Mir

micidei.

xviii LIST OF BOOKS AND MEMOIRS,

Emery, C Le Formiche ipogei. Ann Mus, Civ. di St
Nat. di Genova.

ForgL, A. Fourmis de la Suisse.

GELIEU, J. DE Le Conservateur des Abeilles.

GouLD, Rev. W. Account of English Ants.

GaABER, VITUS Die Tympanalen-Sinnesapparate der Or-
thopteren.

GREDLER, V. Der zoologische Garten.

GRIMM . Die Myrmecophilen. Stettin. Ent. Zeits., 1845,

Hacens, Herr von Ueber Ameisengiiste. Berlin. Ent. Zeits.,
1865.

es i Ueber Ameisen mit gemischten Colonien,

Berlin. Ent. Zeits., 1867.

Heep, 0. . . Die Hausameisen Madeiras. Ziirich. Nat,
Ges., 1852.

HuBER, P. . Natural History of Ants,

HvuXLEY, T. H. . On the Reproduction of Aphis. Trans, Linn,
Soc., xxii. 1859, ;

KERNER, Dr. A. . Flowers and their Unbidden Guests. Trans,
by Ogle.

KIRBY AND SPENCE Introd. to Entomology.
Lanvois, Dr. H. . Thierstimmen; also Zeits. fiir Wiss. Zool.

1867.
Lanestroru, L. L. . Treatise on the Honey Bee.
LATREILE, P, . Hist. Nat. des Fourmis,
Lespis, ©. . Sur les Moeurs de Lomechusa paradoxa. Ann,

des Sci. Nat., 1863.
LINCECUM, GIDEON . On the Agricultural Ant of Texas, Linn.
Journal, 1861.

Long, Col. C. G. . Central Africa,
LuBBOCK, Sir J On the Anatomy of Ants. Trans. Linn. Soc,
1879.
je Ova and Pseudova of Insects. Phil. Trans.,
1858.
dy . Obs. on Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Parts 1-9,
Linn, Journ., 1874-81,
PR On Some Points in the Anatomy of Ants
Micros. Soc., 1877.
Luan, M . Lettres sur les Habitudes de quelques Fourmis

du Brésil. Ann. des Sci. Nat., xxiii. 1831.

LIST OF BOOKS AND MEMOIRS. xix

McCook, H. C. Note on Adoption of a Queen Ant. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1879.
” On the Nat. His. of the Agricultural Ant of
Texas.
a The Honey Ant of Texas,

MaRKEL,F. . . Beit. zur Kenntniss der unter Ameisen leben.
den Insecten. Germar’s Zeit. Ent., 1841.

Mayr, Dr. G. L. . Europ. Formiciden.

- * « Leben und Wirken der einh. Ameisen.

MEINERT, F. . . Bidrag til de Danske Myrers Naturhisturie.
Kiébenhaven, Dansk. vid. Selsk., 1861.

MryeEr, J . Ueber conconlose Ameisenpuppen. Stettin
Ent. Zeit., 1854.

MUOuurR, P.W.J. . Beitriige zur Naturgeschichte der Gattung
Claviger. Germar’s Mag. de Zool., 1818.

ORMEROD, E. L. - Natural History of Wasps.

RAMBERT, M. . - Mceurs des Fourmis.

RoBEetT, E. - . Observations sur les Mceurs des Fourmis,
Ann, des Sci. Nat , 1842.

RoceEr, J. : Beit. zur Kennt. der Ameisenfauna der

Mittelmeerlinder. Berlin. Ent. Zeit., 1857.

St. FARGEAU, LEPELETIER. Hist. Nat. des Hyménoptéres,

SAUNDERS, EDwarp Brit. Heterogyna and Foss. Hymenoptera.
Trans, Ent. Soc., 1880.

SavaceE,T.8. . On the Habits of Driver Ants. Trans, Ent.
Soc., 1847.

SCHENK, Professor . Beschr. Nassau. Ameisenarten, Stettin. Ent,
Zeit., 1853.

SIEBOLD, C, T. von, Ueber das Stimm. und GehGrorgan der Or-
thopteren, Weissmann’s Arch., 1844,

SMITH, F. Cat. of Brit. Foss. Hymenoptera,
+ . . Essay on British Formicide. Trans, Ent.
Soc., N.S. vol. iii. p. 98.
avKegs, Col, . Account of Pheidole providens, Trans. Ent,
Soc., 1836.
WEsMAEL, C Sur une nouv. Espéce de Fourmi du Mexique.
Bull. de l’Acad. de Sci. de Bruxelles, 1838.
WeEstwoop, J O. . Modern Classification of Insects.
" . Obs. on Typhlopone. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,

1841.

tan

ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION.

Tue Anthropoid apes no doubt approach nearer to
man in bodily structure than do any other animals;
but when we consider the habits of Ants, their social
organisation, their large communities, and elaborate
habitations; their roadways, their possession of domestic
animals, and even, in some cases, of slaves, it must be
admitted that they have a fair claim to rank next to
man in the scale of intelligence. They present, more-

over, not only a most interesting but also a very ex-
tensive field of study. They are divided into three
families: the Formicide, Poneride, and Myrmicide,
eomprising many genera and a large number of species.
{n this country we have rather more than thirty kinds ;
but ants become more numero.s in species, as well
as individuals, in warmer countries, and more than a

2 NUMBER OF SPECIES.

thousand species are known. Even this large number
1s certainly far short of those actually in existence.!

I have kept in captivity about half of our British
gpecies of ants, as well as a considerable number of
foreign forms, and for the last few years have generall;
had from thirty to forty communities under observation.
After trying various plans, T found the most con-
venient method was to keep them in nests consisting
of two plates of common window glass, about ten
inches square, and at a distance apart of from 1, to
} of an inch (in fact just sufficiently deep to allow
the ants freedom of motion), with slips of wood round
the edges, the intermediate space being filled up with
fine earth. If the interval between the glass plates
was too great, the ants were partly hidden by the
earth, but when the distance between the plates of
glass was properly regulated with reference to the
size of the ants, they were open to close obser-
vation, and had no opportunity of concealing them-
selves. Ants, however, very much dislike light in
their nests, probably because it makes them think
themselves insecure, and I always therefore kept
the nests covered over, except when under actual

' Ihave had some doubt whether I should append descriptions
of the British species. On the whole, however, I have not thought
it necessary todo so. They are well given in various entomological
works: for instance, in Smith’s Catalogue of British Fossorial
Hymenoptera; Saunders’ Synopsis of British Heterogyna; and in
Mayr’s Die Europiischen Formiciden, all of which are cheap and
easily procurable. I have, however, given figures of the principal
species wiih which I have worked,

MODE OF OBSERVATION. 3

observation. I found it convenient to have one side
of the nest formed by a loose slip of wood, and at one
corner I left a small door. These glass nests I either
kept in shallow boxes with loose glass covers resting
on baize, which admitted enough air, and yet was im-
pervious to the ants; or on stands surrounded either
by water, or by fur, with the hairs pointing downwards.
Some of the nests I arranged on stands, as shown in

Fie. 1.

|

Cw

B 4B

fig. 1. A A is an upright post fixed on a base BB.
CC is a square platform of wood round which runs a
ditch of water. Above are six nests, D, each lying
on a platform E, which could be turned for facility of
observation, as shown in the dotted lines D’ and FE’.
Thus the ants had a considerable range, as they could
wander as far as the water ditch. The object of having
the platform C C larger than the supports of the nests

4 ARTIFICIAL NEST

was that if the ants fell, as often happened, they were
within the water boundary, and were able to return
home. This plan answered fairly well, and saved space,
but it did not quite fulfil my hopes, as the ants were
so pugnacious, that I was obliged to be very careful
which nests vere placed on the same stand.

Of course it was impossible to force the ants into
these glass nests. On the other hand, when once the
right way is known it is easy to induce them to go in.
When I wished to start a new nest I dug one up, and
brought home the ants, earth, &c., all together. I
then put them over one of my artificial nests, on one
of the platforms surrounded by a moat of water. Gra-
dually the outer earth dried up, while that between
the two plates of glass, being. protected from evapo-
ration, retained its moisture. Under these circum-
stances the ants found it more suitable to their
requirements, and gradually deserted the drier mould
outside, which I removed by degrees. In the earth
between the plates of glass the ants tunnelled out
passages, chambers, &c. (fig. 2)¥ varying in form ac-
cording to the circumstances and species.

Even between the plates of glass the earth gradu-
ally dried up, and I had to supply artificial rain from
time to time. Occasionally also I gave them an alto-
gether new nest. They seem, however, to get attached tc
their old homes, and I have one community which
has i hahited the same glass case ever since 1874,

It is hardly necessary to say that, the individual

DIFFERENCES IN HABITS, 5

ants Jelonging to the communities placed on the
stands just described, knew their own nests perfectly
well.

These nests gave me special facilities for observing
the internal economy of ant life. Another main diffe-
rence between my observations and those of previous
naturalists has consisted in the careful record of the
actions of individual ants. The most convenient mode
of marking them was, I found, either with a small dab
of paint on the back, or, in the case of bees or wasps, by
snipping off a fragment at the extremity of the wing.
This, I need hardly say, from the structure of the
wing, gave the insect no pain; in fact, as it is only
necessary to remove a minute portion, not sufficient to
make any difference in their flight, they seemed
searcely to notice it. I never found any difficulty in
painting bees or wasps; if they are given a little honey
they become so intent that they quietly allow the
paint to be applied. Of course too much muat not be
put on, and care must be taken not to tonch the wings
or cover up the spiracles. Ants require somewhat more
delicate treatment, but with a little practice they could
also be marked without any real difficulty.

No two species of Ants are identical in habits ; and,
on various accounts, their mode of life is far from easy to
unravel. In the first place, most of their time is passed
underground: all the education of the young, for
instance, is carried on in the dark. Again, ants are
essentially gregarious; it is in some cases difficult to

6 STAGES IN THE LIFE OF ANTS—EGGS.

keep a few alive by themselves in captivity, and at any
rate their habits under such circumstances are entirely
altered. If, on the other hand, a whole community
is kept, then the greater number introduces a fresh
element of difficulty and complexity. Moreover, within
the same species, the individuals seem to differ in
character, and even the same individual will behave
very differently under different circumstances. Al-
though, then, ants have attracted the attention of many
of the older naturalists,—Gould, De Geer, Reaumur,
Swammerdam, Latreille, Leuwenhoeck, Huber,—-and
have recently been the object of interesting obser-
vations by Frederick Smith, Belt, Moggridge, Bates,
Mayr, Emery, Forel, McCook, and others, they still
present one of the most promising fields for observation
and experiment.

The life of an ant falls into four well-marked
periods—those of the egg, of the larva or grub, of the
pupa or chrysalis, and of the perfect insect or imago.
The eggs are white or yellowish, and somewhat elon-
gated. They are said to hatch about fifteen days after
being laid. Those observed by me have taken a month
or six weeks.

The larva of ants (Pl. V. fig. 3), like those of bees
ind wasps, are small, white, legless grubs somewhat
conital in form, being narrow towards the head.
They are carefully tended and fed, being carried about
from chamber to chamber by the workers, probably in
order to secure the most suitable amount of warmth

LARVA—PUPA. 7

and moisture. I have observed, also, that they are
very often assorted according to age. It is sometimes
very curious in my nests to see them arranged in
groups according to size, so that they remind one of
a school divided into five or six classes.

As regards the length of life of the larve, Forel
supposed! that those of Tapinoma matured the
quickest, and were full-grown in about six or seven
weeks. Some of Myrmica ruginodis, however, ob-
served by me, turned into pupe in less than a month.
In other cases the period is much longer. In certain
species, Lasius flavus, for instance, some of the larva
live through the winter.

When full grown they turn into pupe (PI. V. fig. 4),
sometimes naked, sometimes covered with a silken
cocoon, constituting the so-called ‘ant-eggs.’ We do
not yet understand why some larvee spin cocoons, while
others remain naked. Asa general rule, the species
which have not a sting, spin a cocoon, while those which
have, are naked. Latreille was the first to observe that
in one species (F. fusca) the pup sometimes spin a
cocoon, and sometimes remain naked. The reason for
this difference is still quite unknown. After remaining
some days in this state they emerge as perfect insects
In many cases, however, they would perish in the
attempt, if they were not assisted ; and it is very pretty
tc see the older ants helping them to extricate them-

» Les Fourmis de la Suisse, p. 420.

8 PUPA—IMAGO.

selves, carefully unfolding their legs and smoothing
out the wings, with truly feminine tenderness and
delicacy. Our countryman Gould was the first to
observe, and the fact has since been fully confirmed
by Forel, that the pupe are unable to emerge from the
cocoons without the assistance of the workers. The
ants generally remain from three to four weeks in
this condition.

In the case of ants, as with other insects which pass
through similar metamorphoses, such as bees, wasps,
moths, butterflies, flies, and beetles, &c., the larval
stage is the period of growth. During the chrysalis
stage, though immense changes take place, and the
organs of the perfect insect are more or less rapidly
developed, no food is taken, and there is no addition
to the size or weight.

The imago or perfect insect again takes food, but
does not grow. The ant, like all the insects above
named, is as large when it emerges from the pupa as it
ever will be; excepting, indeed, that the abdomen of
the females sometimes increases in size from the de-
velopment of the eggs.

We have hitherto very little information as to the
length of life in ants in the imago, or perfect, state.
So far, indeed, as the preparatory stages are concerned,
there is little difficulty in approximately ascertaining
the facts; namely, that while in summer they take
only a few weeks; in some species, as our small yellow
meadow ants, the autumn larve remain with compara-

e

LENGTH OF LIFE. 9

tively little change throughout the winter. It is much
more difficult to ascertain the length of life of the
perfect insect, on account of their gregarious habits,
and the difficulty of recognising individual ants. I
have found, however, as we shall presently see, that
their life is much longer than has been generally
supposed.

It is generally stated in entomological works that the
males of ants die almost immediately. No doubt this
is generally the case. At the same time, some males
of Myrmica ruginodis, which I isolated with their
mates in August 1876, lived until the following spring ;
one of them till May 17.

It has also been the general opinion that the
females lived about a year. Christ! indeed thought
they might last three or even four seasons, but this
was merely a suggestion, and Forel expressed the
general opinion when he said, ‘Je suis persuadé qu’en
automne il ne reste presque plus que les ouvriéres
écloses pendant le courant de J’été.’ The average
life of a queen is also, he thinks, not more than twelve
months. I have found, however, that the life of the
queens and workers is much longer than had been sup-
posed. I shall give further details in a subsequent
chapter, but I may just mention here that I kept
a queen of ormica fusca from December 1874 till
August 1888, when she must have been nearly fifteen
years old, and of course may have been more. She

1 Naturgeschichte der Insekt

3

10 STRUCTURE OF ANTS.

attained, therefore, by far the greatest age of any
insect on record. I have also some workers which I
have had since 1875.

The body of an ant consists of three parts: the
head, thorax, and abdomen. The head bears the
principal organs of sense, and contains the brain, as
the anterior portion of the nervous system may fairly
be called. The thorax, supporting the legs and, when
they are present, the wings, contaius the principal
muscles of locomotion. The abdomen contains the
stomach and intestines, the organs of reproduction,
the sting, &c.

Returning to the head: the antenne consist of a
short spherical basal piece, a long shaft, known as the
scape, and a flagellum of from six to seventeen (gen-
erally, however, from ten to thirteen) short segments,
the apical ones sometimes forming a sort of club.
The number of segments is generally different in the
males and females.

The eyes are of two kinds. Large compound eyes,
one on each side of the head; and ocelli, or so-called
simpleeyes. The compound eyes consist of many facets.
The number differs greatly in different species, and in
the different sexes, the males generally having the
greatest number. Thus, in Formica pratensis there
are, according to Forel, in the males about 1,200 in
each eye, in the fertile females between 800 and 900, in
the workers about 600. Where the workers vary in size

1 Having reference to the facts stated on page 37, this is a result
of great physiological interest.

THE HEAD. 1

they differ also in the number of facets. Thus, aguin
following the same authority, the large workers of
Camponotus ligniperdus have 500, the smaller ones
only 450; while in the Harvesting ant (Atta barbara)
the contrast is even greater, the large specimens
having 230, the small ones only from 80 to 90. The
ordinary workers have in Polyergus rufescens about
400; in Lasius fuliginosus, 200; in Tapinoma erra-
ticum, 100; in Plagiolepis pygmca, 70 to 80; in
Lasius flavus, about 80; in Bothriomyrmex meri-
dionalis, 55; in Strongylognathus testaceus, Stenamma
Westwoodti, and Tetramorium caspitum, about 45 ;
in Pheidole pallidula, about 30; Myrmecina La-
treillei, 15; Solenopsis fugax, 6 to 9; while in Ponera
contracta there are only from 1 to 5; in Eciton only 1;
and in Typhlopone the eyes are altogether wanting.

The number of facets seems to increase rather with
she size of the species than with the power of vision.

The ocelli are never more than three in number,
disposed in a triangle with the apex in front Some-
times the anterior ocellus alone is present. In some
species the workers are altogether without ocelli, which,
however, are always present in the queens and in the
males.

The mouth parts are the labrum, or upper lip; the
first pair of jaws or mandibles ; the second pair of jaws
or maxille, which are provided with a pair of palpi,
or feelers; and the lower lip, or labium, also bearing

a pair of palpi

12 THE THORAX.

The thorax is generally considered to consist, as in
other insects, of three divisions —the prothorax, mes0o-
thorax, and metathorax. I have elsewhere, Lowever,
given reasons into which I will not at this moment
enter, for considering that the first abdominal segment
has in this group coalesced with the thorax. The
thorax bears three pairs of legs, consisting of a coxa,
trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus, the latter composed
of five segments and terminating in a pair of strong
claws.

In the males and females the meso- and meta-
thorax each bear a pair of wings, which, however, are
stripped off by the insects themselves soon after the
marriage flight.

The workers never possess wings, nor do they show
even a rudimentary representative of these organs.
Dr. Dewitz has pointed out that the full-grown larve
of the workers possess well-developed ‘ imaginal disks,’
like those which, in the males and females, develope
into the wings. These disks, during the pupal life,
gradually become atrophied, until in the perfect insects
they are represented only by two strongly chitinised
points lying under the large middle thoracic stigmas.
No one unacquainted with the original history of
these points would ever suspect them to be the rudi-
mentary remnants of ancestral wings.!

The thorax also bears three pairs of spiracles, o1
breathing holes.

' Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., vol. xxviii. p. B88

THE ABDOMEN, 13

The abdomen consists of six segments, in the queens
and workers, that is to say in the females, and seven in
the males. The first segment, as a general rule, in the
Formicide forms a sort of peduncle (known as the scale
or knot) between the metathorax and the remainder of
the abdomen. In the Myrmicide two segments are
thus detached from the rest.

The Poneride form, as regards the peduncle, and
in some other respects, an intermediate group between
the Formicide and the Myrmicide. The second abdo-
minal segment is contracted posteriorly, but not so
much so as to form a distinct knot.

The form of the knot offers in many cases valuable
specific characters.

I have sometimes been tempted to correlate the
existence of a second knot among the Myrmicide with
their power of stinging, which is wanting in the For-
micide. Though the principal mobility of the abdomen
is given in the former, as in the latter, by the joint
between the metathorax and the knot, still the second
segment of the peduncle must increase the flexibility,
which would seem to be a special advantage to those
species which have a sting. It must indeed be
admitted that CEcophylla' has a sting, and yet only
one knot; but this, of course, does not altogether
negative my suggestion, which, however, I only throw
out for consideration

} Proo. Linn. Soe., vol. v. p. 10%.

14 THE STING.

The knot is provided with a pair of spiracles,
which are situated, as Forel states, in the front of the
segment, and not behind, as supposed by Latreille.

In most entomological works it is stated that the
Myrmicide have a sting, and that, on the contrary,
the Formicide do not possess one. The latter family,
indeed, possess a rudimentary structure representing
the sting, but 1t seems merely to serve as a support for
the poison duct. Dr. Dewitz, who has recently pub-
lished! an interesting memoir on the subject, denies
that the sting in Formicide is a reduced organ, and
considers it rather as in an undeveloped condition.
The ancestors of our existing Ants, in his opinion,
had a large poison apparatus, with a chitinous support
like that now present in Formica, from which the
formidable weapons of the bees, wasps, and Myrmicidz
have been gradually developed. I confess that I am
rather disposed, on the contrary, to regard the con-
dition of the organ in Formica as a case of retrogres-
sion contingent upon disuse.» I find it difficult to
suppose that organs—so complex, and yet so similar—
as the stings of ants, bees, and wasps, should have
been developed independently.

Any opinion expressed by M. Dewitz on such a
subject is, of course, entitled to much weight; never-
theless there are some general considerations which
seem to me conclusive against his view. If the sting

1 Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. vol. xxviii. p. 527,
* This view has subsequently been adopted by Dr. Beyer, Jena
Zeit, 1890.

ORIGIN OF THE STING, 18

of Formica represents a hitherto undeveloped organ,
then the original ant was stingless, and the present
stings of ants have an origin independent of that
belonging to the other aculeate Hymenoptera, such
as bees and wasps. These organs, however, are so
complex, and at the same time so similarly constituted,
that they must surely have a common origin. Whether
the present sting is derived from a leaf-cutting instru-
ment, such as that from which the sawfly takes its name,
I will at present express no opinion. Dr. Dewitz him-
self regards the rudimentary traces of wings in the
larve of ants as the remnants of once highly-developed
organs ; why, then, shou'd he adopt the opposite view
with reference to the rudimentary sting? On the
whole, I must regard the ancestral ant as having pos-
sessed a sting, and consider that the rudimentary con-
dition of that of Formica is due to atrophy, perhaps
through disuse.

On the other hand, it is certainly, at first sight, diffi-
cult to understand why ants, having once acquired a
sting, should allow it to fall into desuetude. There are,
however, some considerations which may throw a certain
light on the subject. The poison glands are much larger
in Formica than in Myrmica. Moreover, some species
have the power of ejecting their poison to a consider-
able distance. In Switzerland, after disturbing a nist
of Formica rufa, or some nearly allied species, I have
found that a hand held as much as 18 inches above the
ants was covered with acid. But even when the poison

16 THE POISON OF ANTS,

is not thus fired at the enemy from a distance, there
are two cases in which the aculeus might be allowed to
fall into disuse. Firstly, those species which fight
with their mandibles might find it on the whole most
convenient to eject the poison (as they do) into the
wounds thus created. Secondly, if the poison itself is
so intensified in virulence as to act through the skin,
a piercing instrument would be of comparatively small
advantage. I was amused one day by watching some
specimens of the little Cremastogaster sordidula and
the much larger Formica cinerea. The former were
feeding on some drops of honey, which the Formicas
were anxious to share, but the moment one approached,
the little Cremastogasters simply threatened them
with the tip of their abdomen, and the Formicas
immediately beat a hasty retreat. In this case the
comparatively large Formica could certainly have had
nothing to fear from physical violence on the part of
the little Cremastogaster. Mere contact with the
poison, however, appeared to cause them considerable
pain, and generally the threat alone was sufficient to
cause a retreat.

However this may be, in their modes of fighting,
different species of ants have their several peculiarities.
Some also are much less military than others. “ Myr-
mecina Latreillvi, for instance, never attack, and
scarcely even defend themselves. Their skin is very
hard, and they roll themselves into a ball, not defend-
ing themselves even if their nest is invaded ; to pre-

MODES OF FIGHTING. 17

vent which they make the entrances small, and often
station at each a worker, who uses her head to stop
the way. The smell of this species is also, perhaps, a
protection. Tetramorium cespitum has the habit of
feigning death. This species, however, does not roll
itself up, but merely applies its legs and anlenne
closely to the body.

Formica rufa, the common Horse ant, attacks in
serried masses, seldom sending out detachments, while
single ants scarcely ever make individual attacks.
They rarely pursue a flying foe, but give no quarter,
killing as many enemies as possible, and never hesi-
tating, with this object, to sacrifice themselves for the
common good.

Formica sanguinea, on the contrary, at least in
their slave-making expeditions, attempt rather to
terrify than to kill. Indeed, when invading a nest,
they do not attack the flying inhabitants unless these
are attempting to carry off pupz, in which case the
F. sanguineas force them to abandon the pupa.
When fighting, they attempt to crush their enemies
with their mandibles.

Formica exsecta is a delicate, but very active
species. They also advance in serried masses, but in
close quarters they bite right and left, dancing about
to avoid being bitten themselves. When fighting
with larger species they spring on to their backs,
and then seize them by the neck or by an antenna
They also have the instinct of acting together, three

18 DIFFERENT CLASSES OF INDIVIDUALS,

or four seizing an enemy at once, and then pulling
different ways, so that she on her part cannot get at
any one of her foes. One of them then jumps on
her back and cuts, or rather saws, off her head. In
battles between this ant and the much larger F. pra-
tensis, many of the F. exsectas may be seen on the
backs of the F. pratensis, sawing off their heads from
behind.

The species of Lasius make up in numbers what
they want in strength. Several of them seize an
enemy at once, one by each of her legs or antenna,
and when they have once taken hold they will suffer
themselves to be cut in pieces rather than leave go.

Polyergus rufescens, the celebrated slave-making
or Amazon ant, has a mode of combat almost peculiar
to herself. The jaws are very powerful, and pointed.
If attacked—if, for instance, another ant seizes her by
a leg—she at once takes her enemy’s head into her
jaws, which generally makes her quit her hold. If she
does not, the Polyergus closes her mandibles, so that
the points pierce the brain of her enemy, paralysing
the nervous system. The victim falls in convulsions,
setting free her terrible foe. In this manner a com-
paratively small force of Polyergus will fearlessly
attack much larger armies of other species, and suffer
themselves scarcely any loss.

Under ordinary circumstances an ants’ nest, like
a beehive, consists of three kinds of individuals:
workers, or imperfect females (which constitute the

THE HONEY ANT. 19

great majority), males, and perfect females. There
are, kowever, often several queens in an ants’ nest;
while, as we all know, there is never more than one
queen mother in a hive. The queens of ants are pro-
vided with wings, but after a single flight they tear
them off, and do not again quit the nest. In ad-
dition to the ordinary workers there is in some species
a second, or rather a third, form of female. In almost
any ants’ nest we may see that the workers differ more
or less in size. The amount of difference, however,
depends upon the species. In-Lasius niger, the small
brown garden ant, the workers are, for instance, much
more uniform than in the little yellow meadow ant,
or in Atta barbara (Pl. II. figs. 1 and 2), where. some
of them are much more than twice as large as others.
But in certain ants there are differences still more re-
markable. Thus, ina Mexican species, Myrmecocystus,'
besides the common workers, which have the form of
ordinary neuter ants, there are certain others in which
the abdomen is swollen into an immense sub-diapha~-
nous sphere. ‘These individuals are very inactive, and
principally as living honey-jars. Ihave described in a
subsequent page a species of Camponotus (Pl. IV.
fig. 1) from Australia, which presents us with the same
remarkable phenomenon. In the genus Pheidole (PI.
II. figs. 3 and 4), very common in southern Euroye,
there are also two distinct forms without any interme-
diate gradations; one with heads of the usual propor-
4 Wesmael, Bull. Acad. Rey. Bruwelles, vol. v. p. 771.

20 WORKERS—SOLDIERS.

tion, and a second with immense heads provided with
very large jaws. This differentiation of certain indi-
viduals so as to adapt them to special functions seems
to me very remarkable; for it must be remembered
that the difference is not one of age or sex. The large-
headed individuals are generally supposed to act as
soldiers, and the size of the head enables the muscles
which move the jaws to be of unusual dimensions; but
the little workers are also very pugnacious. Indeed,
in some nests of Pheidole megacephala, which I had
for some time under observation, the small workers
were quite as ready to fight as the large ones.

Again, in the genus Colubopsis Emery discovered
that two ants, then supposed to be different species, and
known as Colobopsis truncata and C. fuscipes, are really
only two forms of one species. In this case the entrance
to the nest is guarded by the large-headed form, which
may therefore fairly be called a soldier.

Savage observed among the Driver Ants, where also
there are two kinds of workers, that the large ones
arranged themselves on each side of the column formed
by the small ones. They acted, he says, evidently the
part of guides rather than of guards. At times they
place ‘their abdomen horizontally on the ground, and
laying hold of fixed points with their hind feet (which
together thus acted as a fulcrum), elevate the anterior
portion of their bodies to the highest point, open wide
their jaws, and stretch forth their antennz, which for
the most part were fixed, as if in the act of listening

FIVE KINDS OF INDIVIDUALS IN SAUBA. 21

and watching for approaching danger. They would
occasionally drop their bodies to the ground again, run
off to one side, and fiercely work their jaws and antennae,
as if having detected some strange sounds in the dis-
tance. Discerning nothing, they would quickly return
to their posts and resume their positions, thus acting
as scouts,”!

The same thing has been noticed by other natu-
ralists. Bates, for instance, states that in the marching
columns of Eciton drepanophora the large-headed
workers ‘all trotted along empty-handed and outside
the column, at pretty regular intervals from each other,
like subaltern officers in a marching regiment... . I
did not see them change their position, or take any
notice of their small-headed comrades ;’ and he says
that if the column was disturbed they appeared less
pugnacious than the others.

In other species, however, of the same genus, Eciton
vastator and E. erratica, which also have two distinct
kinds of workers, the ones with large heads do appear
to act mainly as soldiers. When a breach is made in
one of their covered ways, the small workers set to
work to repair the damage, while the large-headed ones
issue forth in a menacing manner, rearing themselves
up and threatening with their jaws.

In the Sauba Ant of South America (4codoma
cephalotes), the complexity is carried still further;

1 Rev. T. S. Savage on the ‘Habits of the Driver Anta,’ rane.
Ent. Soe., vol v. p. 12.

22 ORIGIN OF THE SOLDIERS.

Lund! pointed out that there were two different Lunds
of workers, but Bates has since shown that there are
in this species no less than five classes of individuals,
ramely: 1. Males. 2. Queens. 3. Small ordinary
workers (PI. III. fig. 2). 4. Large workers (Pl. III.
fig. 1), with very large hairy heads. 5. Large workers,
with large polished heads. Bates never saw either- of
these two last kinds do any work at all, and was not
able to satisfy himself as to their functions. They
have also been called soldiers, but this is obviously a
misnomer—at least, they are said never to fight. Bates
suggests? that they may ‘serve, in some sort, as passive
instruments of protection to the real workers. Their
enormously large, hard, and indestructible heads may
be of use in protecting them against the attacks of
insectivorous animals. They would be, on this view, a
kind of piéces de resistance, serving as a foil against
onslaughts made on the main body of workers.’

This does not, I confess, appear to me a probable
explanation of the fact, aad on the whole it seems that
the true function of these large-headed forms is not
yet satisfactorily explained.

The question then arises whether these different
kinds of workers are produced from different eggs,

I am disposed to concur with Westwood in the
opinion® ‘that the inhabitants of the nest have the
instinct so to modify the circumstances producing this

1 Ann. des Sct. Nat. 1831, p. 122. ? Loo. cit. p. 81.
* Modern Classification of Insects, vol. ii. p. 226.

DIVISION OF LABOUR. 28

svate of imperfection, that some neuters shall exhidit
characters at variance with those of the common kind.’
This, indeed, credits them with a very remarkable
instinct, aud yet I see no more probable mode of ac-
counting for the facts. Moreover, the exact mode by
which the differences are produced is still entirely
unknown.

M. Forel, in his excellent work on ants, has pointed
out that very young ants devote themselves at first to
the care of the larve and pupe, and that they take no
share in the defence of the nest or other out-of-door
work until they are some days old. This seems natural,
because at first their skin is comparatively soft; and it
would clearly be undesirable for them to undertake rough
work or run into danger until their armour had had
time to harden. There are, however, reasons for think-
ing that the division of labour is carried still further. I
do not allude merely to those cases in which there are
completely different kinds of workers, but even to the
ordinary workers. In L. flavus, for instance, it seems
probable that the duties of the small workers are
somewhat different from those of the large ones,
‘though no such division of labour has yet been detected.
I shall have to record some further observations point-
ing in the same direction.

The nests of ants may be divided into several
classes. Some species, such as our common Horse ant
(Formica rufa), collect large quantities of materials,
such as bits of stick, fir leaves, &c., which they heap

24 HABITATIONS OF AN'S.

up into conical masses. Some construct their nests of
earth, the cells being partly above, partly below, the
natural level. Some are entirely underground, others
eat into the trunks of old trees.

In warmer climates the variations are still more
numerous. Formica bispinosa, of Cayenne, forms its
nest of the cottony matter from the capsules of Bombax.
Sykes has described! a species of Myrmica which
builds in trees and shrubs, the nest consisting of thin
leaves of cow-dung, arranged like tiles on the roof of a
house; the upper leaf, however, covering the whole.

In some cases the nests are very extensive. Bates
meutions that while he was at Para an attempt was
made to destroy a nest of the Sauba ants by blowing
into it the fumes of sulphur, and he saw the smoke
issue from a great number of holes, some of them not
less than seventy yards apart.

A community of ants must not be confused with an
ant hill in the ordinary sense. Very often indeed a
community has only one dwelling, and in most species
seldom more than three or four. Some, however, form
numerous colonies. M. Forel even found a case in
which one nest of F. exsecta had no less than two
hundred colonies, and occupied a circular space with a
radius of nearly two hundred yards. Within this area
they had exterminated all the other ants, except a few
neste of Tapinoma erraticum, which survived, thanks
to their great agility. In these cases the number of

' Trans. Ent. Soc. vol. i

COMMUNITIES OF ANTS, 26

ants thus associated together must have been enor-
mous. Even in single nests Forel estimates the
numbers at from five thousand to half a million.

Ants also make for themselves roads, These are
not merely worn by the continued passage of the ants,
as was supposed by Christ, but are actually prepared by
the ants, rather however by the removal of obstacles,
than by any actual construction, which would indeed
not be necessary, the weights to be carried being so
small. In some cases these roadways are arched over
with earth, so as to form covered ways.’: In others, the
ants excavate regular subterranean tunnels, sometimes}:
of considerable length. The Rev. Hamlet Clark even
assures us that he observed one in South America, which
passed under the river Parahyba at a place where it was
as broad as the Thames at London Bridge. I confess,
however, that I have my doubts as to this case, for I
do not understand how the continuity of the tunnel was
ascertained.

The food of ants consists of insects, great numbers
of which they destroy; of honey, honeydew, and fruit :
indeed, scarcely any animal or sweet substance comes
amiss to them. Some species, such, for instance, as
the small brown garden ant (Lasius niger, Pl. I. fig. 1),
ascend bushes in search of aphides. The ant then
taps the aphis gently with her antenna, and the aphis
emits a drop of sweet fluid, which the ant drinks. Some-
times the ants even build covered ways up to and over
the aphides, which, moreover, they protect from the

4

26 » EFOOD—ENEMIES.

attacks of other insects. Our English ants do not
store up provision for the winter; indeed, their food
is not of a nature which would admit of this. I have
indeed observed that the small brown ant sometimes
carries seeds of the violet into its nest, but for what
purpose is not clear. Some of the southern ants,
however, lay up stores of grain (see Chapter III.).

Ants have many enemies. They themselves, and
still more their young, are a favourite food of many
animals. They are attacked also by numerous para-
sites. Ifa nest of the brown ants is disturbed at any
time during the summer, some small flies may probably
be seen hovering over the nest, and every now and
then making a dash at some particular ant. These
flies belong to the genus Phora, and toa species hitherto
unnamed, which Mr. Verrall has been good enough to
describe for me (see Appendix). They lay their eggs
on the ants, inside which the larve live. Other species
of the genus are in the same way parasitic on bees.
Ants are also sometimes attacked by mites. On
one occasion I observed that one of my ants had a
mite attached to the underside of its head. The mite,
which maintained itself for more than three months in
the same position, was almost as large as the head.
The ant could not remove it herself. Being a queen,
she did not come out of the nest, so that I could not
do it for her, and none of her own companions thought
of performing this kind office.

In character the different species of anis differ very

CHARACTER—INDUSTRY. 27

much from one another. F. fusca (Pl. I. fig. 3), the
one which is pre-eminently the ‘slave’ ant, is, as
might be expected, extremely timid; while the nearly
alied F. cimerea has, on the contrary, a considerable
amouut of individual audacity. F. rufa (Pl. Il. fig. 5),
the horse ant, is, according to M. Forel, especially
characterised by the want of individual initiative,
and always moves in troops; he also regards the
genus Formica as the most brilliant; though others
excel it in other respects, as, for instance, in the
sharpness of their senses. J’. pratensis worries its
slain enemies; F. sanguinea (Pl. I. fig. 6) never
does so. The slave-making ant (P. rufescens, Pl. I
fig. 5) is, perhaps, the bravest of all. If a single indi-
vidual finds herself surrounded by enemies, she never
attempts to fly, as any other ant would, but transfixes
her opponents one after another, springing right and
left with great agility, till at length she succumbs,
overpowered by numbers. M. scabrinodis is cowardly
and thievish; during wars among the larger species
they haunt the battle-fields and devour the dead.
Tetramorium is said to be very greedy; Myrmecina
very phlegmatic.

In industry ants are not surpassed even by bees
and wasps. They work all day, and in warm weather,
if need be, even at night too. I once watched an ant
from six in the morning, and she worked without
intermission till a quarter to ten at night. I had put
her to a saucer containing larve, and in this time she

28 . GAMES,

carried off no less than a hundred and eighty-seven to
the nest. I had another ant, which I employed in my
experiments, under continuous observation several days.
When I started for London in the morning, and again
when I went to bed at night, I used to put her ina
small bottle, but the moment she was let out she
began to work again. On one occasion I was away
from home for a week. On my return I took her out
of the bottle, placing her on a little heap of larve
about three feet from the nest. Under these circum-
stances I certainly did not expect her to return. How-
ever, though she had thus been six days in confine-
ment, the brave little creature immediately picked up
a larva, carried it off to the nest, and after half an
hour’s rest returned for another.

Our countryman Gould noticed! certain * amuse-
ments’ or ‘ sportive exercises,’ which he had observed
among ants. Huber also mentions? scenes which he
had witnessed on the surface of ant hills, and which,
he says, ‘I dare not qualify with the title gymnastic,
although they bear a close resemblance to scenes of
that kind.’ The ants raised themselves on their hind
legs, caressed one another with their antenne, engaged
in mock combats, and almost seemed to be playing
: hide and seek. Forel entirely confirms Huber’s state-
ments, though he was at first incredulous. He
says : 5—

1 An Account of English Ants, p. 103,
1 Nat Hist. of Ants, p. 197. * Loo. cit., p. 867.

CLEANLINESS. 29

‘ Malgré l'exactitude avec laquelle il décrit ce fait,
jJavais peine 4 y croire avant de l’avoir vu moi-méme,
mais une fourmiliére pratensis m’en donna |’exemple &
plusieurs reprises lorsque je l’approchai avec précaution.
Des 8 (i.e. workers) se saisissaient par les pattes ou
par les mandibules, se roulaient par terre, puis se
retachaient, s’entrainaient les unes les autres dans les
trous de leur déme pour en ressortir aussitdt aprés, etc.
Tout cela sans aucun acharnement, sans venin ; il était
évident que c’était purement amical. Le moindre
souffle de ma part mettait aussitét fin 4 ces jeux.
J’avoue que ce fait. peut paraitre imaginaire 4 qui ne
Va pas vu, quand on pense que Jl’attrait des sexes ne
peut en étre cause.’

Bates, also, in the case of Eciton legionis, observed
behaviour which looked to him ‘ like simple indulgence
in idle amusement, the conclusion,’ he says, ‘ that the
ants were engaged merely in play was irresistible.”!

Lastly, I may observe that ants are very cleanly
animals, and assist one another in this respect. I have
often seen them licking one another. Those, moreover,
which I painted for facility of recognition were gradue
ally cleaned by their friends.

' Loo. oit., vol. ii. p. 868.

CHAPTER If.

ON THE FORMATION AND MAINTENANCE OF NESTS, AND
ON THE DIVISION OF LABOUR.

Iv is remarkable that notwithstanding the researches of
so many excellent observers, and though ants’ nests
swarm in every field and every wood, we did not know
how their nests commence.

Three principal modes have been suggested. After
the marriage-flight the young queen may either—

1. Join her own or some other old nest ;

2. Associate herself with a certain number of
workers, and with their assistance commence a new
nest 3 or

3. Found a new nest by herself,

The question can of course only be settled by ob-
servation, and the experiments made to determine it
had hitherto been indecisive.

Blanchard, indeed, in his work on the ‘ Metamor-
phcses of Insects’ (I quote from Dr. Duncan’s transla-
tion, p. 205), says :—* Huber observed a solitary female
go down into a small under-ground hole, take off her
own wings, and become, as it were, a worker; then she
constructed a small nest, laid a few eggs, and brought

ORIGIN OF AN ANTS’ NEST. 31

up the larve by acting as mother and nurse at the same
time.’

This, however, is not a correct version of what
Huber says. His words are :—‘ I enclosed several females
in a vessel full of light humid earth, with which they
constructed lodges, where they resided, some singly,
othersincommon. They laid their eggs and took great
care of them ; and notwithstanding the inconvenience
of not being able to vary the temperature of their habi-
tation, they reared some, which became larve of a
tolerable size, but which soon perished from the effect
of my own negligence.’ !

It will be observed that it was the eggs, not the
larve, which, according to Huber, these isolated females
reared. It is true that he attributes the early and uni-
form death of the larve to his own negligence, but the
fact remains that in none of his observations did an
isolated female bring her offspring to maturity.

Other entomologists, especially Forel and Ebrard,
have repeated the same observations with similar results;
and as yet in no single case had an isolated female been
known to bring her young to maturity. Forel even
thought himself justified in concluding, from his ob-
servations and from those of Ebrard, that such a fact
could not occur.

Lepeletier de St. Fargeau? was of opinion that ants’
nests originate in the second mode indicated above, and

* Natural History of Ants, Huber, p. 121.
§ Hist. Nat. des Ins. Hyménoptéres, vol. i. p. 148.

32 RELUCTANCE TO ADOPT A NEW QUEEN.

it is, indeed, far from improbable that this may occur.
No clear case has, however, yet been observed. M. de
St. Fargeau himself observes! that ‘les particularités
qui accompagnent la formation premiére d'une four-
miliére sont encore incertaines et mériteraient d’étre
observées avec soin.’

Under these circumstances I made the following
experiments :—

la. I took an old, fertile, queen from a nest of
Lasius flavus, and put her to another nest of the same
species, The workers became very excited and attacked
her.

b. I repeated the experiment, with the same result.

c. Do. do. Inthis case the nest to which the queen
was transferred was without a queen; still they would
not receive her.

dande. Do. do. do.

I conclude, then, that, at any rate in the case. of L.
flavus, the workers’ will not adopt an old queen from
another nest.

The following observation shows that, at any rate
in some cases, isolated queen ants are capable of giving
origin to a new community.

On August 14, 1876, I isolated two pairs of Myr-
nica ruginodis which I found flyingin my garden. I
placed them with damp earth, food, and water, and
they continued perfectly healthy through the winter,

zs

' Hist Nat, des Ins. Hyménoptéres, vol. i. p. 144

ORIGIN OF A NEST OF MYRMICA. 33

In April one of the males died, and the second in the
middle of May. The first eggs were laid between April
12 and 23. They began to hatch the first week in
June, and the first larva turned into a chrysalis on
the 27th; asecond on the 30th; a third on July 1,
when there were also seven larve and two eggs. On
the 8th there was another egg. On July 8 a fourth
larva had turned into a pupa. On July 11 I found:
there were six eggs, and on the 14th about ten. On the
15th one of the pup began to turn brown, and the
eggs were about 15 in number. On the 16th a second
pupa began to turn brown. On the 2Ist a fifth larva
had turned into a pupa, and there were about 20 eggs.
On July 22 the first worker emerged, and a sixth larva
had changed. On the 25th I observed the young worker
carrying the larve about when I looked into the nest ;
a second worker was coming out. On July 28 a third
worker emerged, and a fourth on Aug 5. The eggs
appeared to be less numerous, and some had probably
been devoured.

This experiment shows that the queens of Myrmica
ruginodis have the instinct of bringing up larvee and the
power of founding communities. The workers remained
about six weeks in the egg, a month in the state of
larvee, and twenty-five to twenty-seven days as pup.

Since, however, cases are on record in which com
munities are known to have existed for many years,
it seems clear that fresh queens must be sometimes
adopted I have indeed recorded several experiments

34 ADOPTION OF A QUEEN.

in which fertile queens introduced into queeuless nesta
were ruthlessly attacked, and subsequent experiments
have always had the same result. Mr. Jenner Fust,
however, suggested to me to introduce the queen into
the nest, as is done with bees, in a wire cage, and leave
her there for two or three days, so that the workers
might, as it were, get accustomed toher. Accordingly
I procured a queen of F. fusca and put her with some
honey in a queenless nest, enclosed in a wire cage s0
that the ants could not get at her. After three days I
let her out, but she was at once attacked. Perhaps I
ought to have waited a few days longer. On the con-
trary, Mr. McCook reports a case of the adoption of a
fertile queen of Cremastogaster lineolata by a colony
of the same species: '—‘The queen,’ he says, ‘was
taken April 16, and on May 14 following was introduced
to workers of a nest taken the same day. The queen
was alone within an artificial glass formicary, and
several workers were introduced. One of these soon
found the queen, exhibited much excitement but no
hostility, and immediately ran to her sister workers, all
of whom were presently clustered upon the queen.
As other workers were gradually introduced they joined
their comrades, until the body of the queen (who is
much larger than the workers) was nearly covered with
them. They appeared to be holding on by their man-
dibles to the delicate hairs upon the female’s body, and

‘ Proc. Acad Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1879. ‘Note on
the Adoption of an Ant-Queen,’ by Mr McCook, p. 139.

FERTILE WORKERS. ‘35

continually moved their antenne caressingly. This
sort of attention continued until the queen, escorted by
workers, disappeared in one of the galleries. She was
entirely adopted, and thereafter was often seen moving
freely, or attended by guards, about the nest, at times
engaged in attending the larve and pupe which had
been introduced with the workers of the strange colony.
The workers were fresh from their own natural home, and
the queen had been in an artificial home for a month.’

In no case, however, when I have put a queen into
one of my nests has she been accepted.

Possibly the reason for the difference may be that
the ants on which I experimented had been long living
in arepublic; for, I am informed, that if bees have been
long without a queen it is impossible to induce them'to
accept another.

Moreover, I have found that when I put a queen
with a few ants from a strange nest they did not
attack her, and by adding others gradually, I succeeded
in securing the throne for her. ,

It is generally stated that among ants the queens
only lay eggs. This, however, is not correct.

Denny! and Lespés? have shown that the workers
also are capable of producing eggs; but the latter as-
serted that these eggs never come to maturity. Forel,
however, has proved? that this is not the case, but

1 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd ser., vol. £
8 Ann. des Sci. Nat., 1863.
® Fourmis de la Suisse, p. 329

36 EGGS LAID BY FERTILE WORKERS

that in some cases, at any rate, the eggs do produce
young. Dewitz even maintains! that the workers
habitually lay eggs, and explains the difference which
mm this view exists between the workers of ants and
those of bees, on the ground <hat (as he supposes) the
majority of ants die in the autumn, so that the eggs
laid by the queens alone would not be sufficient to
stock the nest in the spring; while among bees the
majority survive the winter, and consequently the eggs
laid by the queen are sufficient to maintain the num-
bers of the community. In reply to this argument, it
may be observed that among wasps the workers all
perish in the autumn, while, on the contrary, among
ants I have proved that, at least as regards many
species, this is not the case. Moreover, although eggs
are frequently laid by workers, this is not so often the
case as Dewitz appears to suppose. Forel appears to
have only observed it in one or two cases. In my
nests the instances were more numerous; and, indeed,
I should say that in most nests there were a few fertile
workers.

Among bees and wasps also the workers are occa-
sionally fertile ; but, so far as our observations go, it is
a curious fact that their eggs never produce females,
either queers or workers, but always males. The four
or five specimens bred by Forel from the eggs of
workers were, moreover, all males.

It became therefore an interesting question whethe1

‘ Zeit. *. wiss. Zool., vol. xxviii. p. 536,

ALWAYS PRODUCE MALES, 37

the same is the case among ants; and my nests have
supplied me with some facts bearing on the question,
Most. of my nests contained queens; and in these it
would be impossible, or at least very difficult, to dis-
tinguish and follow the comparatively few eggs laid
by the workers. Some of my nests, however, con-
tained no queen; and in them therefore all the eggs
must have been laid by workers.

One of these was a nest of Formica cinerea, which
I brought back from Castellamare in November 1875.
At that time it contained no eggs or larve. In 1876
a few eggs were laid, of which fifteen came to maturity,
and were, I believe, all males. In 1877 there were
fourteen pup, of which twelve came to maturity, and
were all males.

Again, in a nest of Lasius niger, kept in captivity
since July 1875, there were in 1876 about 100 young ;
and these were, as far as I could ascertain, all males.
At any rate there were about 100 males, and I could
uot find a single young female. In 1877 there were
again some pup; but owing to an accident none of
them came to maturity. In 1878 fifteen came to
maturity ; and fourteen were males. The other I could
not find after it left the pupa skin; but I have no
doubt, from the appearance of the pupa, that it was
also a male.

Another nest of Lasius niger, taken in November
1875, brought in 1878 only one young ant to maturity ;
and this was a male.

38 E@GS LAID BY FERTILE WORKERS

Again, in a nest of Formica fusca, taken in 1875,
though in 1876 and 1877 eggs were laid and a few
arrived at the pupa-state, none came to maturity.
They were all, however, either males or queens, and, |
have Jittle doubt, were males. In 1878 one came to
maturity, and it was a male.

A nest of F. fusca, captured in 1876, did not bring
up any young in 1877. In 1878 three larve came to
maturity; and they all proved to be males. Another
nest of F. fusca, captured in 1877, in 1878 brought
only one young one to maturity. This was a male. ,

In the following year, I again carefully watched my
nests, to see what further light they would throw on
the subject.

In six of those which contained no queen, eggs
were produced, which of course must necessarily have
been laid by workers.

The first of these, the nest of Lasius niger,
which I have watched since July 1875, and which,
therefore, is interesting from the great age of the
workers, about ten larve were hatched, but only four
reached the pupa state. Of these one disappeared;
the other three I secured, and on examination they all
proved to be males. The nest of Lasius niger, which
has been under observation since November 187 5, pro-
duced about ten pups. Of these I examined seven, all
of which I found to be males. The others escaped me.
I believe that, having died, they were brought out and
thrown away.

ALWAYS PRODUCE MALES. 39

The nest of Formica cimerea, captured at the same
time, produced four larvae, all of which perished before
arriving at the pupa stage. The larve of males and
of queens are much larger than those of workers,
and these larve were too big to have been those of
workers.

In a nest of Formica fusca, which I have had
ander observation since August 1876, three pups were
produced. They were all males. Another nest of
Formica fusca produced a single young one, which also
was a male.

Lastly, my nest of Polyergus rufescens, which M.
Forel was so good as to send me in the spring of 1876,
in 1879 produced twelve pupe. Eleven of these turned
out to be males. The other one I lost; and I have
little doubt that it was brought out and thrown away.
It was certainly not a worker. As regards the first
three of these pupa, I omitted to record at the time
whether they belonged to the Polyergus or to the
slaves, though I have little doubt that they belonged to
the former species. The last eight, at any rate, were
males of Polyergus.

Indeed, in all of my queenless nests, males have
been produced; and in not a single queenless nest has
a worker laid eggs which have produced a female, either
a queen or a worker. Perhaps I ought to add that
workers are abundantly produced in those of my nests
which possess a queen.

While great numbers of workers and males have

40 QUEENS SELDOM PRODUCED IN CAPTIVITY.

come to maturity in my nests, with one exception not
a single queen has been produced.

This was in a nest of Formica fusca, in which five
cueens came to maturity. The nest (which, I need
hardly say, possessed a queen) had been under observa~
tion since April 1879, and the eggs therefore must
have been laid in captivity. The nest had been richly
supplied with animal food, which may possibly account
for the fact.

It is known that bees, by difference of food, &c.,
possess the power of obtaininy at will from the same
eggs either queens or ordinary workers. Mr. Dewitz,!
however, is of opinion that among ants, on the con-
trary, the queens and workers are produced from
different kinds of eggs. He remarks that it is very
difficult to understand how the instinct, if it is to be
called instinct, which would enable the working ants
to make this difference can have arisen. This is no
doubt true; but it seems to me quite as difficult to
understand how the queens, which must have originally
laid only queen eggs and male eggs, can have come to
produce another class. Moreover, however great the
difficulty may be to understand how the ants can have
learnt to produce queens and workers from one kind of
egg, the same difficulty exists almost to the same
extent in bees, which, as Mr. Dewitz admits, do possess
the power. Moreover, it seems to me very unlikely
that the result is produced in one way in the case of

» Zeit. fiir wiss. Zool. 1878, p. 101

ORIGIN OF QUEENS, 41

bees, and in another in that of ants. It is also a strong
argument that in none of my nests, though thousands
of workers and males have been produced, have I ever
observed a queen to be so until this year. On the
whole, then, though I differ from so excellent a naturalist
with much hesitation, I cannot but think that ants,
like bees, possess the power of developing a given egg
into either a queen or a worker.

I have already mentioned that the previous views
as to the duration of life of ants turn out to be quite
erroneous. It was the general opinion that they lived
for a single year. Two of my queen ants lived, the
one nearly fourteen, the other nearly fifteen years, viz.,
from December 1874 to July 1887 and August 1888
respectively. During the whole time they enjoyed
perfect health, and every year have laid eggs pro-
ducing workers, a fact which suggests physiological
conclusions of great interest.

I have, moreover, little doubt that some of the
workers now in this nest were among those originally
captured, the mortality after the first few weeks having
been but small. This, however, I cannot prove.

A nest of F. sanguinea, which M. Forel kindly
forwarded to me on September 12, 1875 (but which
contained no queen), gradually diminished in numbers,
until in February 1879 it was reduced to two F. san-
guineas and one slave. The latter died in February
1880. One of the two mistresses died between May
10 and May 16, 1880, and the other only survived her

5

42 LONGEVITY OF ANTS.

a few days, dying between the 16th and 20th. These
two ants, therefore, must have been five years old at
least. It is certainly curious that they should, after
living so long, have died within ten days of one
another. There was nothing, as far as I could see, in
the state of the nest or the weather to account for this,
and they were well supplied with food; yet I hardly
venture to suggest that the survivor pined away for
the loss of her companion.

Some workers of F. cinerea lived in one of my
nests from November 1875 to July 1881.

In a nest of F. fusca, which I brought in on June
6, 1875, and in one of Lastus niger brought in
on July 25, 1875, there were no queens; and, as
already mentioned, no workers have been produced.
Those now living (December 1881) are therefore the
original ones, and they must be more than six years
old.

The duration of life in ants is therefore much
greater than has been hitherto supposed.

Though I lose many ants from accidents, especially
in summer, in winter there are very few deaths,

I have given the following figure (fig. 2), which
represents a typical nest belonging to Lusius niger,
because it is a good instance of the mode in which
my ants excavated chambers and galleries for them-
selves, and seems to show some ideas of strategy. The
nest is, as usual, between two plates of glass, the outer
border is a framework of wood, and the shaded part

ARRANGEMENT OF A NEST. 43

Fia. 2.

Ground plan of a typical nest of Lasius niger, reduced. a,
narrow doorway ; 3, hall; ¢, vestibule; d, main chamber; é, inner
sanctum; f, f,f,f, narrow entrance passages to sanctum ; 9, g, Spe-
cial pillars

44 ARRANGEMENT. OF CHAMBERS.

represents garden mould, which the ants have them-
selves excavated, as shown in the figure. For the
small doorway (a), indeed, I am myself responsible.
I generally made the doorways of my nests narrow, so
as to check evaporation and keep the nests from
becoming too dry. It will be observed, however, that
behind the hall (6) the entrance contracts, and is still
further protected by a pillar of earth, which leaves on
either side a narrow passage which a single ant could
easily guard, or which might be quickly blocked up.
Behind this is an irregular vestibule (c), contracted
again behind into a narrow passage, which is followed
by another, this latter opening into the main chamber
(d). In this chamber several pillars of earth are left,
almost as if to support the roof. Behind the main
chamber is an inner sanctum divided into three cham-
bers, and to which access is obtained through narrow
entrances (f, f, f, f). Most of the pillars in the main
chamber are irregular in outline, but two of them
(9g, 9) were regular ovals, and round each, for a distance
about as long as the body of an ant, the glass had been
most carefully cleaned. This was so marked, and the
edge of the cleaned portion was so distinct, that it is
impossible not to suppose that the ants must have
had some object in this proceeding, though I am unable
to suggest any explanation of it.

1 have already mentioned (ante, p. 23), that there
1s evidence of some division of labour among ants.
Where, indeed, there are different kinds of workers,

DIVISION OF LABOUR. 46

this is self-evident, but even in species where the
workers are all of one type, something of the same
kind appears to occur.

In the autumn of 1875 I noticed an ant belonging
to one of my nests of F. fusca out feeding alone. The
next day the same ant was again out by herself, and for
some weeks no other ant, so far as I observed, came out
to the food. I did not, however, watch her with suffi-
cient regularity. In the winter of 1876, therefore, I
kept two nests under close observation, having arranged
with my daughters and their governess, Miss Wendland
(most conscientious observers), that one of us should
look at them once an hour during the day. One of the
nests contained about 200 individuals of F. fusca, the
other was a nest of P. rufescens with the usual slaves,
about 400 in number. The mistresses themselves
never came out for food, leaving all this to the slaves.

We began watching on November 1, but did net
keep an hourly register till the 20th, after which date
the results are given in the following tables (see
Appendix). Table No. 1 relates to the nest of F.
fusca, and the ants are denoted by numbers. The
hours at which we omitted to record an observation are
left blank ; when no ant was at the honey, the square is
marked with an 0. An ant, marked in my register as
No. 3, was at the time when we began observing acting
as feeder to the community.

The only cases in which other ants came to the honey
were at 2 P.M.on November 22, when another ant came

46 DIVISION OF LABOUR.

out, whom we registered as No. 4, another on the 28th,
registered as No. 5. Other ants came out occasionally,
but not one came to the honey (except the above men-
tioned) from November 28 till January 3, when another
(whom we registered as No. 6) began feeding. After
this a friend visited the honey once on the 4th, ouce
on the 11th, and again on the 15th, when she was
registered as No. 7.

Table No. 2 is constructed in the same way, but
refers to the nest of Polyergus. The feeders in this
case were, at the beginning of the experiment, regis-
tered as Nos. 5, 6, and 7. On November 22 a
friend, registered as No. 8, came to the honey, and
again on December 11; but with these two exceptions
the whole of the supplies were carried in by Nos. 5 and
6, with a little help from No. 7.

Thinking now it might be alleged that possibly
these were merely unusually activeor greedy individuals,
I imprisoned No. 6 when she came out to feed on the
5th. As will be seen from the table, no other ant had
been out to the honey for some days; and it could
therefore hardly be accidental that on that very evening
another ant (then registered as No. 9) came out for
food. This ant, as will be seen from the table, then
took the place of No. 6, and (No. 5 being imprisoned
on January 11) took in all the supplies, again with a
little help from No. 7. So matters continued till the
ivth, when I imprisoned No. 9, and then again, ¢.e. on
the 19th, another ant (No. 10) came out for the food,

THE HONEY ANT, 47

aided, on and after the 22nd, by another, No. 11. This
seems to me very curious. From November 1 to
January 5, with two or three casual exceptions, the
whole of the supplies were carried in by three ants,
one of whom, however, did comparatively little. The
other two were imprisoned, and then, but not till then,
afresh ant appears on the scene. She carried in the
food for a week; and then, she being imprisoned, two
others undertook the task. On the other hand, in
Nest 1, where the first foragers were not imprisoned,
they continued during the whole time to carry in the
necessary supplies.

The facts therefore certainly seem to indicate that
certain ants are told off as foragers, and that during
winter, when little food is required, two or three are
sufficient to provide it.

I have, indeed, no reason to suppose that in our
English ants any particular individuals are specially
adapted to serve as receptacles of food. M. Wesmael,
however, has described! a remarkable genus (Myrmeco-
cystus mexicanus), brought by M. de Normann from
Mexico, in which certain individuals in each nest serve
as animated honey-pots. To them the foragers bring
their supplies, and their whole duty seemsto be to receive
the honey, retain it, and redistribute it when required.
Their abdomen becomes enormously distended, the in-
tersegmental membranes being so much extended that

» Bull. de VAcad dea Sci. de Brucelles, vol. v. p. 771.

48 THE HONEY ANT.

the chitinous segments which alone are visible exter-
nally in ordinary ants seem like small brown transverse
bars. The account of these most curious insects given
by MM. de Normann and Wesmael has been fully con-
firmed by subsequent observers; as, for instance, by
Lucas,! Saunders,? Edwards,? Blake,! Loew,’ and
McCook.®

On one very important point, however, M. Wesmael
was in error; he states that the abdomen of these ah
normal individuals ‘ne contient aucun organe; ou
plutét, il n’est lui-méme qu’un vaste sac stomacal.’
Blake even asserts that ‘ the intestine of the insect is
not continued beyond the thorax,’ which must surely be
a misprint ; and also that there is no connexion between
the stomach and the intestine! These statements,
however, are entirely erroneous; and, as M. Forel has
shown, the abdomen does really contain the usual organs,
which, however, are very easily overlooked by the side
of the gigantic crop.

I have therefore been much interested in receiving
a second species of ant, which has been sent me by
Mr. Waller, in which a similar habit has been evolved
and a similar modification has been produced. The two
species, however, are very distinct, belonging to totally

1 Ann. Soo. Ent. de France, v. p. 111.

? Canadian Entomologist, vol. vii. 7 12.
* Proc. California Academy, 1873.

* Thid., 1874.

* American Nat., viii. 1874.

© The Honey Ants.

HONEY ANTS. 49

different genera; and the former is a native of Mexico,
while the one now described comes from Adelaide in
Australia, The two species, therefore, cannot be de-
scended one from the other ; and the conclusion seems
inevitable that the modification has originated inde-
pendently in the two species.

It is interesting that, although these specimens
apparently never leave the nest, and have little use
therefore for legs, mandibles, &c., the modifications
which they have undergone seem almost confined to the
abdominal portion of the digestive organs. The head
and thorax, antenne, jaws, legs, &c. differ but little
from those of ordinary ants.

CHAPTER III.

ON THE RELATION OF ANTS TO PLANTS.

{1 is now generally admitted that the form and colour,
the scent and honey of flowers, are mainly due to the
unconscious agency of insects, and especially of bees
Ants have not exercised so great an influence over the
vegetable kingdom, nevertheless they have by no
means been without effect.

The great object of the beauty, scent, and honey
of flowers, is to secure cross fertilisation; but for this
purpose winged insects are almost necessary, because
they fly readily from one plant to another, and gener-
ally confine themselves for a certain time to the same
species. Creeping insects, on the other hand, naturally
would pass from one flower to another on the same
plant ; and as Mr. Darwin has shown, it is desirable
that the pollen should be brought from a different
plant altogether. Moreover, when ants quit a plant,
they naturally creep up another close by, without any
regard to species. Hence, even to small flowers, such
as many crucifers, composites, saxifrages, &c., which,
as far as size is concerned, might well be fertilised by
ants, the visits of flying insects are much more advan-

EXCLUSION OF ANTS FROM FLOWERS, 51

tageous. Moreover, if larger flowers were visited by
ants, not only would they deprive the flowers of their
honey without fulfilling any useful function in return,
but they would probably prevent the really useful
visits of bees. If you touch an ant with a needle or 3
bristle, she is almost sure to seiza it in her jaws; and
if bees, when visiting any particular plant, were liable
to have the delicate tip of their proboscis seized on by
the horny jaws of an ant, we may be sure that such a
species of plant would soon cease to be visited. On
the other hand, we know how fond ants are of honey,
and how zealously and unremittingly they search for
food. How is it then that they do not anticipate the
bees, and secure the honey for themselves? This |
guarded against in several ways.

Belt. appears to have been the first naturalist to
call attention to this interesting subject.

‘ Many flowers,’ he says,! ‘ have contrivances for pre-
venting useless insects from obtaining access to the
nectaries.

‘Great attention has of late years been paid by
naturalists to the wonderful contrivances amongst
flowers to secure cross fertilisation, but the struc-
ture of many cannot, I believe, be understood, unless
we take into consideration not only the beautiful adap-
tations for securing the services of the proper insect or

1 The Naturalist in Nicaragua. By Thos, Belt, F.G S., pp. 181
and 133.

52 {SOLATION BY WATER,

bird, but also the contrivances for preventing insects
that would not be useful from obtaining access to the
nectar. Thus the immense length of the Angrwecum
sesquipedale of Madagascar might, perhaps, have been
more easily explained by Mr. Wallace, if this impor-
tant purpose had been taken into account.’

Kerner has since published a very interesting
work,’ especially devoted to the subject, which has
been translated into English by Dr. Ogle.

In aquatic plants, of course, the access of ants is
precluded by the isolation in water. Nay, even many
land plants have secured to themselves the same advan-
tage, the leaves forming a cup round the stem. Some
species have such a leaf-cup at each joint, in others
there is only a single basin, formed by the rosette of
radical leaves. In these receptacles rain and dew
not only collect, but are retained for a considerable
time. In our own country Dipsacus sylvestris (the
common teazle) is the best marked instance of this
mode of protection, though it is possible that these
eups serve another purpose, and form, as suggested by
Francis Darwin, traps in which insects are caught, and
in which they are dissolved by the contained fluid, so
as to serve as food for the plant. However this may
be, the basins are generally found to contain water,
even if no rain has fallen for some days, and must,
therefore, serve to prevent the access of ants.

The next mode of protection is by means of slippery

» Kerner: Flowers and their Unbidden Guests.

SLIPPERY SURFACES, 59

surfaces. In this case, also, the leaves often form a
collar round the stem, with curved surfaces over which
ants cannot climb. ‘I have assured myself,’ says
Kerner, ‘not only by observation, but by experiment,
that wingless insects, and notably ants, find it impos-
sible to mount upwards over such leaves as these.
The little creatures run up the stem, and may even
not unfrequently traverse the under surface of the
leaves, if not too smooth; but the reflexed and slip-
pery margin is more than the best climbers among
them can get over, and if they attempt it they invari-
ably fall to the ground. There is no necessity for the
lamina of the leaf to be very broad; even narrow
leaves, as, for instance, those of Gentiana firma, are
enough for the purpose, supposing, of course, that the
margin is bent backwards in the way described.’

Of this mode of protection the cyclamen and snow-
drop offer familiar examples. In vain do ants attempt
to obtain access to such flowers, the curved surfaces
baffle them; when they come to the edge they inevit-
ably drop off to the ground again. In fact, these
pendulous flowers protect the honey as effectually
from the access of ants, as the hanging nests of the
weaver and other birds protect their eggs and young
from the attacks of reptiles.

Iu a third series of plants the access of creeping
insects is impeded or altogether prevented by certain
parts of the flower being crowded together so as to
\eave either a very narrow passage or none at all. Thus

64 CLOSED FLOWERS.

the Antirrhinum, or Snapdragon, is completely closed,
and only a somewhat powerful insect can force its way
in. The flower is in fact a strong box, of which the
Humble-bee only has the key. The Linarias are another
case of this kind. The Campanulas, again, are open
flowers, but the stamens are swollen at the base,
and in close contact with one another, so that they
form the lid of a hollow box in which the honey is
secreted. In some species the same object is effec-
ted by the stamens being crowded together, as in
some of the white ranunculuses of the Alps. In
other cases, the flower forms a narrow tube, still
further protected by the presence of hairs, sometimes
scattered, sometimes, as in the white dead nettle,
forming a row.

In others, as in some species of Narcissus, Primula,
Pedicularis, &c., the tube itself is so narrow that even
an ant could not force its way down.

In others, again, as in some of the Gentians, the
opening of the tube is protected by the swollen head
of the pistil.

In others, as in clover, lotus, and many other
Leguminosae, the ovary and the stamens, which cling
round the ovary in a closely-fitting tube, fill up almost
the whole space between the petals, leaving only a
very narrow tube.

Lastly, in some, as in Geranium robertianum,
Linum catharticum, &e., the main tube itself ig
divided by ridges into several secondary ones,

PROTECTION BY THICKETS OF HAIRS. 55

In still more numerous species the access of ants
and other creeping insects is prevented by the presence
of spines or hairs, which constitute a veritable chevaua
de frise. Often these hairs are placed on the flowers
themselves, as in some verbenas and gentians. Some-
times the whole plant is more or less hairy, and it
will be observed that the hairs of plants have a great
tendency to point downwards, which of course con-
stitutes them a more efficacious barrier.

In another class of cases access to the flowers is
prevented by yiscid_secretions, Everyone who has any
acquaintance with botany knows how many species
bear the specific name of ‘Viscosa’ or * Glutinosa.’
We have, for instance, Bartsia viscosa, Robinia viscosa,
Linum viscosum, Euphrasia viscosa, Silene viscosa,
Dianthus viscidus, Senecio viscosus, Holosteum glu-
tinosum, &c. Even those who have never opened a
botanical work must have noticed how many plants are
more or less sticky. Why is this? What do the plants
gain by this peculiarity? The answer probably is, at
any rate in most cases, that creeping insects are thus
kept from the flowers. The viscid substance is found
most frequently and abundantly on the peduncles im-
mediately below the blossoms, or even on the blossoms
themselves. In Epimedium alpinum, for instance,
the leaves and lower parts of the stem are smooth,
while the peduncles are covered with glandular, viscid
hairs. The number of small insects which are limed
and perish on such plants is very considerable. Kerner

56 VISCIDITY OF PLANTS.

counted sixty-four small insects on one inflorescence of
Lychnis viscosa. In other species the flower is viscid ;
as, for instance, in the gooseberry, Linnea borealis,
Plumbago Europea, &e.

Polygonum amphibium is a very interesting
case. The small rosy flowers are richly supplied with
honey; but from the structure of the flower, it would
not be fertilised by creeping insects. As its name
indicates, this plant grows sometimes on land, some-
times in water. Those individuals, however, which
grow on dry land are covered by innumerable glan-
dular viscid hairs, which constitute an effectual pro-
tection. On the other hand, the individuals which
grow in water are protected by their situation. To
them the glandular hairs would be useless, and in fact
on such specimens they are not developed.

In most of the cases hitherto mentioned the viscid
substance is secreted by glandular hairs, but in others
it is discharged by the ordinary cells of the surface.
Kerner is even of opinion that the milky juice of
certain plants—for instance, of some species of Lactuca
(lettuce)— answers the same purpose. He placed
several kinds of ants on these plants, and was surprised
to find that their sharp claws cut througk the delicate
epidermis ; while through the minute clefts thus made
the milky juice quickly exuded, by which the ants
were soon glued down. Kerner is even disposed to
suggest that the nectaries which oceur on certain
leaves are a means of protection against the unwele

ANTS PROTECTING TREES. 57

come, because unprofitable, visits of creeping insects,
by diverting them from the flowers.

Thus, then, though ants have not influenced the
present condition of the vegetable kingdom to the
same extent as bees, they have also had a very con-
siderable effect upon it in various ways.

Our European ants do not strip plants of their
leaves. In the tropics, on the contrary, some species
do much damage in this manner.

Bates considers! that the leaves are used ‘to thatch
the domes which cover the entrances to their subterra-
nean dwellings, thereby protecting them from the rains.’
Belt, on the other hand, maintains that they are torn up
into minute fragments, so as to form a flocculent mass,
which serves as a bed for mushrooms; the ants are, in
fact, he says, ‘mushroom growers and eaters.’ ”

Some trees are protected by one species of ants
from others. A species of Acacia, described by Belt,
bears hollow thorns, while each leaflet produces honey
in a crater-formed gland at the base, as well as a small,
sweet, pear-shaped body at the tip. In consequence, it is
inhabited by myriads of a small ant, which nests in the
hollow thorns, and thus finds meat, drink, and lodging
all provided for it. These ants are continually roaming
over the plant; and constitute a most efficient body-
guard, not only driving off the leaf-cutting ants, but,
in Belt’s opinion, rendering the leaves less liable to be

1 Loe. cit, v. i p. 26.

2 Loe, cit., p. 79. This view has since been confirmed by Schimper,

Bot. Mitt. aus den Tropen. Nr. 6.
6

58 ANTS AS TREE-GUARDS.

eaten by herbivorous mammalia. Delpino mentions
that on one occasion he was gathering a flower of Clero-
dendrum fragrans, when he was himself ‘suddenly
attacked by a whole army of small ants.’!

Moseley has also called attention? to the relations
which have grown up between ants and two ‘curious
epiphytes, Myrmecodia armata and Hydnophytum
formicarum. Both plants are associated in their
growth with certain species of ants. As soon as the
young plants developa stem, the ants gnaw at the base
of this, and the irritation produced causes the stem to
swell; the ants continuing to irritate and excavate
the swelling, it assumes a globular form, and may
become even larger than a man’s head.

‘The globular mass contains within a labyrinth of
chambers and passages, which are occupied by the ants
as their nest. The walls of these chambers and the
whole mass of the inflated stem retain their vitality
and thrive, continuing to increase in size with growth.
From the surface of the rounded mass are given off
small twigs, bearing the leaves and flowers.

‘It appears that this curious gall-like tumour on
the stem has become a normal condition of the plants,
which cannot thrive without the ants. In Myrmecodia
armata the globular mass is covered with spine-like
excrescences. The trees I referred to at Amboina had
these curious spine-ccvered masses perched in every

" Sotentific Lectures, p. 23.
§ Notes by a Naturalist on the ‘Challenger,’ p. 389.

INSECTIVOROUS ANTS. 59

fork, and with them also smooth surfaced masses of a
species of Hydnophytum.’

There are, of course, many cases in which the action
of ants is very beneficial to plants. They kill off a
great number of small caterpillars and other insects.
Forel found in one large nest that more than twenty-
eight dead insects were brought in per minute; which
would give during the period of greatest energy more
than 100,000 insects destroyed in a day by the
inhabitants of one nest alone.

Our English hunting ants generally forage alone.
In warmer countries, however, they hunt in packs, or
even armies.

As already mentioned, none of our northern ants
store up grain, and hence there has been much dis-
cussion as to the well-known passage of Solomon. I
have indeed observed that the small brown ants, Lasius
niger, sometimes carry seeds of the violet into their
nests, but for what purpose is not clear. Itis, however,
now a well-established fact that more than one species
of southern ants do collect seeds of various kinds.
The fact, of course, has long been known in those
regions.

Indeed, the quantity of grain thus stored up is some-
times so considerable, that in the ‘ Mischna,’ rules are
laid down with reference to it; and various com-
mentators, including the celebrated Maimonides, have
discussed at length the question whether such grain
belonged to the owner of the land, or might be taken

60 HARVESTING ANTS,

by gleaners— giving the latter the benefit of the doubt.
They do not appear to have considered the rights ef
the ants.

Hope! has called attention to the fact that Meer
Hassan Ali, in his ‘History of the Mussulmans,’
expressly mentions it. ‘More industrious little crea-
tures,’ he says, ‘cannot exist than the small red ants,
which are so abundant in India. I have watched them
at their labours for hours, without tiring. They are so
small, that from eight to twelve in number labour with
great difficulty to convey a grain of wheat or barley,
yet these are not more than half the size of a grain of
English wheat. I have known them to carry one of
these grains to their nest, at a distance from 600 to
1,000 yards. They travel in two distinct lines over
rough or smooth ground, as it may happen, even up
and down steps, at one regular pace. The returning
unladen ants invariably salute the burthened ones, who
are making their way to the general storehouse ; but it
is done so promptly, that the line is neither broken nor
their progress impeded by the salutation.’

Sykes, in his account of an Indian ant, Pheidole
providens,? appears to have been the first of modern
scientific authors to confirm the statements of Solomon.
He states that the above-named species collects large
stores of grass seeds, on which it subsists from February

1 Trans. Ent. Soc. 840, p. 213.
2 Ibid. 1836, p. 99. Dr. Lincecum has also made a similar
observation.

AGRICULTURAL ANTS. 61

tv October. On one occasion he even observed the
ants bringing up their stores of grain to dry them
after the closing thunderstorms of the monsoon; an
observation which has been since confirmed by other
naturalists.

It is now known that harvesting ants occur in the
warmer part of Europe, where their habits have been
observed with care, especially by Moggridge and Lespés.
It does not yet seem quite clear in what manner the
ants prevent the grains from germinating. Moggridge
found that if the ants were prevented from entering
the granaries, the seeds began to sprout, and that this
was also the case in deserted granaries. It would ap-
pear therefore that the power of germination was not
destroyed.

On the other hand, Lespés confirms the statement
long ago made by Pliny that the ants gnaw off the
radicle, while Forel asserts that Atta structor allows
the seeds in its granaries to commence the process of
germination for the sake of the sugar.

A Texan ant, Pogonomymex barbatus, is also a
harvesting species, storing up especially the grains of
Aristida oligantha, the so-called ‘ ant rice,’ and of a
grass, Buchle dactyloides. These ants clear disks, ten
or twelve feet in diameter, round the entrance to their
nest, a work of no small labour in the rich soil, and
under the hot sun, of Texas. I say ‘clear disks,’ but
some, though not all, of these disks are occupied, espe-
cially round the edge, by a growth of ant rice. These

62 AGRICULTURAL ANTS.

ants were first noticed by Mr. Buckley,’ and their
habits were some time afterwards described in more
detail by Dr. Lincecum,? who maintained not only that
the ground was carefully cleared of all other species of
plants, but that this yrass was intentionally cultivated
by the ants. Mr. McCook,’ by whom this subject has
been recently studied, fully confirms Dr. Lincecum
that the disks are kept carefully clean, that the ant
irice alone is permitted to grow on them, and that the
produce of this crop is carefully harvested; but he
thinks that the ant rice sows itself, and is not actually
cultivated by the ants. I have myself observed in
Algeria, that certain species of plants are allowed by the
ants to grow on their nests.
' Proo. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1860.

3 Linnean Journal, 1861, p. 29.
© The Nat. Hist. of the Agricultwral Ants of Togas, p. 88.

CHAPTER IV.
ON THE RELATIONS OF ANTS TO OTHER ANIMALS,

TuE relations existing between ants and otheranimals are
even more interesting than their relations with plants,
As a general rule, not, however, without many remark-
able exceptions, they may be said to be those of deadly
hostility.

Though honey is the principal food of my ants,
they are very fond of meat, and in their wild state
ants destroy large numbers of other insects. Our
English ants generally go out hunting alone, but
many of the species living in hotter climates hunt in
packs, or even in armies.

Savage has given ' a graphic account of the ‘ Driver
ants (Anomma arcens West.) of West Africa. They
keep down, he says, ‘the more rapid increase of noxious
insects and smaller reptiles; consume much dead
animal matter, which is constantly occurring, decaying,
becoming offensive, and thus vitiating the atmosphere,
and which is by no means the least important in the
Torrid Zone, often compelling the inhabitants to keep

1*On the Habits of the Driver Ants,’ Trans. Ent. Soc. 1847
4,

64 HUNTING ANTS,

their dwellings, towns, and their vicinity in a state of
comparative cleanliness. The dread of them is upon
every living thing. . .

‘Their entrance into a house is soon known by the
simultaneous and universal movement of rats, mice,
lizards, Blapside, Blattide, and of the numerous
vermin that infest our dwellings. Not being agreed,
they cannot dwell together, which modifies in a good
measure the severity of the Drivers’ habits, and renders
their visits sometimes (though very seldom in my view)
desirable.

‘They move over the house with a good degree of
order, unless disturbed, occasionally spreading abroad,
ransacking one point after another, till, either having
found something desirable, they collect upon it, when
they may be destroyed en masse by hot water. ...

“When they are fairly in, we give up the house,
and try to await with patience their pleasure, thankful,
indeed, if permitted to remain within the narrow limits
of our beds or chairs.’

These ants will soon destroy even the largest animal
if it is confined. In one case Savage saw them kill near
his house a snake four feet long. Indeed, it is said that
they have been known to destroy the great python,
when gorged with food and powerless. The natives
even believe that the python, after crushing its victim,
does not venture to swallow it, until it has made a
search, and is satisfied that there are no Drivers in the
vicinity! It is very remarkable that these lLunting

ECITONS. 65

ants are blind, They emerge, however, principully by
night, and like some of the blind hunting ants of
Brazil (Eciton vastator and EF. erratica), well described
by Bates," prefer to move under covered galleries, which
they construct rapidly as they advance. ‘The column
of foragers pushes forward step by step, under the
protection of these covered passages, through the
thickets, and on reaching a rotting log, or other
promising hunting ground, pour into the crevices in
search of booty.’

The marauding troops of Ecitons may, in some
cases, be described as armies. ‘Wherever they move,’
says Bates,? ‘the whole animal world is set in commo-
tion, and every creature tries to get out of their way.
But it is especially the various tribes of wingless insects
that have cause for fear, such as heavy-bodied spiders,
ants of other species, maggots, caterpillars, larve of
cockroaches, and so forth, all of which live under fallen
leaves or in decaying wood. The Ecitons do not mount
very high on trees, and therefore the nestlings of birds
are not much incommoded by them. The mode of
operation of these armies, which I ascertained, only
after long-continued observation, is as follows: The
main column, from four to six deep, moves forward in
a given direction, clearing the ground of all‘animal
matter dead or alive, and throwing off, here and there,
a thinner column to forage for a short time on the

' The Naturalist on the River Amazon, vol, ii. p. 364.
1 Ibid., p. 358.

66 INSECTS MIMICKING ANTS.

flanks of the main army, and re-enter it again afte
their task is accomplished. If some very rich place be
encountered anywhere near the line of march—for
example, a mass of rotten wood abounding in insect
larvee, a delay takes place, and a very strong force of
ants is concentrated upon it.’

Belt, also, has given! an excellent account of these
Ecitons. He observed that spiders were peculiarly
intelligent in escaping them, making off several yards
in advance ; and not like cockroaches and other stupider
insects, taking shelter in the first hiding-place, where
they were almost sure to be detected. The only chance
of safety was either to run right away or to stand still.
He once saw a Harvestman (Phalangiwm) standing
in the midst of an army of ants with the greatest
circumspection and coolness, lifting its long legs one
after the other. Sometimes as many as five out of
the eight would be in the air at once, but it always
found three or four spots free from ants, on which it
could safely place its feet. On another occasion, Belt
observed a green leaf-like locust, which remained per-
fectly still, allowing the ants to run over it. This
they did, but seem to have been quite deceived by its
appearance and immobility, apparently taking it for a
leaf.

In other cases, insects mimic ants, and thus escape
attack or are able to stalk their prey. Belt mentions
a spider which in its form, colour, and movements so

» The Naturalist in Nicaragua, p. 17.

ENEMIES OF ANTS. 67

much resembled an ant, that he was himself for some
time deceived.

Nor are ants without their enemies. We all know
how fond birds are of their larve and pups. They have
also numerous parasites. I have already alluded to the
mites which are often found in ants’ nests. These are
of several kinds; one of them, not uncommon in the
nests of Lasius flavus, turned out to be a new species,
and has been described for me by Mr. Michael (see
Appendix).

Certain species of Diptera, belonging to the family
Phoride, are also parasitic on ants. As already men-
tioned, I forwarded specimens to Mr. Verrall, who finds
that some of them are a new species of the genus Thora,
and that among them is also the type of a new genus,
which he proposes to call Platyphora, doing me the
honour of naming the species after me. I subjoin his
description in the appendix.

But the social and friendly relations which exist
between ants and other animals are of a more complex
and much more interesting character.

It has long been known that ants derive a very
important part of their sustenance from the sweet
juice excreted by aphides. These insects, in fact,
as has been over and over again observed, are the
cows of the ants; in the words of Linnzus, ‘ Aphis
formicarum vacca. A good account of the rela-
tions existing between ants and aphides was given

68 DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF ANTS.

more than a hundred years ago by the Abbé Boisier
de Sauvages.!

Nor are the aphides the only insects which serve as
cows to the ants. Varivus species of Coccide,
Cercopis, Centrotus, Membracis, &c., are utilised in the
same manner. H. Edwards? and M’Cook ® have observed
ants licking the larva of a butterfly, Lycena pseudar-
giolus.

The different species of ants utilise different species
of aphis. The common brown garden ant (Lasius
niger) devotes itself principally to aphides which
frequent twigs and leaves; Lasius bruwnneus, to the
aphides which live on the bark of trees; while the
little yellow ant (Lasius flavus) keeps flocks and herds
of the root-feeding aphides.

In fact, to this difference of habit the difference of
colour is perhaps due. The Baltic amber contains
among the remains of many other insects a species of
ant intermediate between our small brown garden ants
and the little yellow meadow ants. This is possibly
the stock from which these and other allied species are
descended. One is tempted to suggest that the brown
species which live so much in the open air, and climb
up trees and bushes, have retained and even deepened
their dark colour; while others, such as Lasius flavus,

1 Observations sur Vorigine du micl, par YAbbé Boisier de
Sauvages, Jour. de Physique, vol. i. p. 187.

2 Canadian Entomclogist, January 1878.

® The Mound-making Avts of the Alleghenies, p. 289.

APHIDES. 69

the yellow meadow ant, which lives almost entirely
below ground, has become much paler.

The ants may be said almost literally to milk the
aphides; for, as Darwin and others have shown, the
aphides generally retain the secretion until the ants
are ready to receive it. The ants stroke and caress the
aphides with their antennz, and the aphides then
emit the sweet secretion.

As the honey of the aphides is more or less sticky,
it is probably an advantage to the aphis that it should
be removed. Nor is this the only service which ants
render to them. They protect them from the attacks
of enemies; and not unfrequently even build cowsheds
of earth over them. The yellow ants collect the root-
feeding species in their nests, and tend them as carefully
as their own young. But this is not all. The ants not!
only guard the mature aphides, which are useful; but
also the eggs of the aphides, which of course, until
they come to maturity, are quite useless. These eggs
were first observed by our countryman Gould, whose
excellent little work on ants! has hardly received the
attention it deserves. In tlkis case, however, he fell
into error. He states that ‘the queen ant’ [he is
speaking of Lasius flavus] ‘lays three different sorts of
eggs, the slave, female, and neutral. The two first are
deposited in the spring, the last in July and part of
August; or, if the summer be extremely favourable,

1 An Account of English Ants, by the Rev. W. Goulé, 1749
p. 36.

70 EGGS OF APHIDES KEPT THROUGH

perhaps a little sooner. The female eggs are covered
with a thin black membrane, are oblong, and about
the sixteenth or seventeenth part of an inch in length.
The male eggs are of a more brown complexion, and
usually laid in March ”

These dark eggs are not those of ants, but of
aphides. The error is very pardonable, because the
ants treat these eggs exactly as if they were their own,
guarding and tending them with the utmost care. I
first met with them in February 1876, and was much
astonished, not being at that time aware of Huber’s
observations. I found, as Huber had done before me,
that the ants took great care of these brown bodies,
‘carrying them off to the lower chambers with the
utmost haste when the nest was disturbed. I brought
some home with me and put them near one of my
own nests, when the ants carried them inside. That
year I was unable to carry my observations further.
In 1877 I again procured some of the same eggs, and
offered them to my ants, who carried them into the
nest, and in the course of March I had the satisfaction
of seeing them hatch into young aphides. M. Huber,
however, did not think that these were ordinary eggs.
On the contrary, he agreed with Bonnet, ‘that the
insect, in a state nearly perfect, quits the body of its
mother in that covering which shelters it from the celd
in winter, and that it is not, as other germs are, in the
egg surrounded by food by means of which it is de-
veloped and supported. It is nothing more than an

*

THE WINTER BY ANTS. 7)

asylum of which the aphides born at another season
have no need ; it is on this account some are produced
naked, others enveloped in a covering. The mothers
are not, then, truly oviparous, since their young are
almost as perfect as they ever will be, in the asylum in
which Nature has placed them at their birth.’!

This is, I think, a mistake. Ido not propose here
to describe the anatomy of the aphis; but I may
observe that I have examined the female, and find
these eggs to arise in the manner described by Huxley,?
and which I have also myself observed in other aphides
and in allied genera.? Moreover, I have opened the eggs
themselves, and have also examined sections, and have
satisfied myself that they are really eggs containing
ordinary yelk. So far from the young insect being
‘nearly perfect,’ and merely enveloped in a protective
membrane, no limbs or internal organs are present.
In fact, the young aphis does not develop in them
until shortly before they are hatched.‘

When my eggs hatched I naturally thought that
the aphides belonged to one of the species usually
found on the roots of plants in the nests of Lasius
flavus. To my surprise, however, the young creatures

' The Natural History of Ants, by M. P. Huber, 1820, p. 246.

2 Linnean Transactions, 1858.

8 Philosophical Transactions, 1859.

4 I do not enter here into the technical question of the difference
between ova and pseudova. I believe these to be true ova, but the
point is that they are not a mere envelope containing a young aphis,

but eggs in the ordinary sense, the contents of which consist of yelk,
and in which the young aphis is gradually developed.

72 EGGS OF APHIDES KEPT THROUGH

made the best of their way out of the nest, and, indeed,
were sometimes brought out by the ants themselves.
In vain 1 tried them with roots of grass &c.; they
wandered uneasily about, and eventually died. More-
over, they did not in any way resemble the subterranean
species. In 1878 1 again attempted to rear these
young aphides; but though I hatched a great many
eggs, I did not succeed. In 1879, however, I was more
fortunate. The eggs commenced to hatch the first
week in March. Near one of my nests of Lasius
flavus, in which I had placed some of the eggs in
question, was a glass containing living specimens of
several species of plant commonly found on or around
ants’ nests. To this some of the young aphides were
brought by the ants. Shortly afterwards I observed on
a plant of daisy, in the axils of the leaves, some smal}
aphides, very much resembling those from my nest,
though we had not actually traced them continuously,
They seemed thriving, and remained stationary on the
daisy. Moreover, whether they had sprung from the
black eggs or not, the ants evidently valued them, for
they built up a wall of earth round and over them.
So things remained throughout the summer; but on
the 9th October I found that the aphides had laid some
eggs exactly resembling those found in the ants’ nests;
and on examining daisy-plants from outside, I found
on many of them similar aphides, and more or less of
the same eggs.

I confess these observations surprised me very much,

THE WINTEK BY ANTS. T3

The statements of Huber, though confirmed by
Schmarda, have not, indeed, attracted so much notice
as many of the other interesting facts which they have
recorded ; because if aphides are kept by ants in their
nests, it seems only natural that their eggs should
also occur. The above case, however, is much more
remarkable. Here are aphides, not living in the ants’
nests, but outside, on the leaf-stalks of plants. The
eggs are laid early in October on the focd-plant of
the insect. They are of no direct use to the ants,|
yet they are not left where they are laid, exposed to the
severity of the weather and to innumerable dangers,
but brought into their nests by the ants, and tended
by them with the utmost care through the long winter
months until the following March, when the young ones
are brought out and again placed on the young shoots of
the daisy. This seems to me a most remarkable case
of prudence. Our ants may not perhaps lay up food
for the winter ; but they do more, for they keep during
six months the eggs which will enable them to procure
food during the following summer, a case of prudence
unexampled in the animal kingdom.

The nests of our common yellow ant (Lasius flavus)
contain in abundance four or five species of aphis,
more than one of which appears to be as yet undescribed.
In addition, however, to the insects belonging to this
family, there are a large number of others which live
habitually in ants’ nests, so that we may truly say that
our English ants possess a much greater variety of]

7

74 OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS

{domestic animals than we do ourselves. Markel satie-

fied himself that large nests of Formica rufa might
contain at least a thousand of such guests;! and I
believe that the aphides in a large nest of Lasius
flavus would often be even more numerous. André?
gives a list of no less than 584 species of insects,
which are habitually found in association with ants,
and of which 542 are beetles.

The association of some of these insects with ants
may be purely accidental and without significance.
In some of them no doubt the bond of union is
merely the selection of similar places of abode; in
some few others the ants are victimized by parasites of
which they cannot rid themselves. There are, for
instance, the parasitic mites, and the small black fly,
belonging to the genus Phora, which lays her eggs on
ants, and which I havealready mentioned. Then there
are some insects, such as the caterpillar of that beautiful
beetle, the rosechafer, which find a congenial place of
residence among the collection of bits of stick, &c.,
with which certain species of ants make their nests.

Another class of ant guests are those which reside
actually in the galleries and chambers of, and with, the
ants, but which the latter never touch. Of these the
commonest in England are a species allied to Podura,
f.r which IT have proposed the name Beckia (Pl. V.

1 Beit. cur Kenntniss der unter Ameisen lebenden Insokten
Markel, Germar’s Zeit. f. Ent. 1841, p. 210
2 Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1874, p. 206.

KEPT BY ANTS. 75

fig. 5). It is an active bustling little being, and I
have kept hundreds, I may say thousands, in my
nests. They run about in and out among the ants, keep-
ing their antenne in a perpetual state of vibration.
Another very common species is a sort of white wood-
louse (Pl. V. fig. 7), which enjoys the rather long name
of Platyarthrus Hoffmanseggii. André only mentions
Platyarthrus as living with Formica rufa, Myrmica
scabrinodis, and Leptothorax acervorwm. I have
found it also with Lasius niger, L. flavus, and F.
fusca. It runs about, and is evidently at home,
among the ants. Both Platyarthrus and Beckia,
from living constantly in the dark, have become
blind; I say ‘have become,’ because their ancestors
no doubt had eyes. In neither of these cases have I
ever seen an ant take the slightest notice of either of
these insects. One might almost imagine they had
the cap of invisibility.

It is certain that the ants intentionally (if I'
may so say) sanction the residence of these insects,
in their nests. An unauthorised interloper would be
at once killed. I have, therefore, ventured to suggest
that these insects may, perhaps, act as scavengers.

In other cases the association is more close, and the
ants take the greatest care of their guests.

It appears that many of these insects produce a
secretion which serves as food for the ants. This is:
certainly the case, for instance, with the curious blind

beetle, Claviger (Pl. V fig. 8), (so called from its clube

76 MYRMECOPHILOUS BEETLES.

shaped antennz),which is quite blind,! and appears to
be absolutely dependent upon the ants, as Miiller first
pointed out. It even seems to have lost the power of
feeding itself; at. any rate it is habitually fed by the ants,
|who supply it with nourishment as they do one another.
Miiller saw the ants caressing the beetles with their
antenne. The Clavigers have certain tufts of hairs at the
base of the elytra, and Miller, whose observations have
since been confirmed by subsequent entomologists, saw
the ants take their tufts of hairs into their mouths and
lick them, as well as the whole upper surface of the body,
with apparently the greatest enjoyment. Grimm? has
made a similar observation with reference to Dinarda
dentata, another of these myrmecophilous beetles.
He several times observed the ants licking the tuft
of hairs at the end of the abdomen. Lespés® has con-
firmed this. On one occasion he saw an ant feed a
Lomechusa. Several of the former were sucking a
morsel of sugar. The beetle approached one of them,
and tapped her several times on the head with her
antenne. The ant then opened her mandibles, and fed
the Lomechusa as she would have done one of her own
species. The Lomechusa crept on the sugar, but did
not appear able to feed herself.

As might naturally be expected the myrmecophilous
insects are not found indiscriminately in the nests of

1 Germar’s Mag. de Zcol. 1818, p. 69,
8 Stettin. Ent. Zeit. 1845, p. 123
8 Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 1855, p. 54

PETS. 77

ants, but while some associate with several upecies,
many are confined to a few or even to one.

V. Hagens is of opinion' that in some of these
beetles which frequent the nests of two or more species
of ant, varieties have been produced. Thus he has
observed that the specimens of Thiasophila angulata
in nests of Formica congerens are darker than those
found with F. exsecta. Heterius sesquicornis found
with Lasius niger and Tapinoma erraticum are
smaller than those which occur in the nests of larger
ants; and the form of Dinarda dentata, which is met
with in nests of F. sanguinea, has rather wider wing-
cases than the normal type.

I would by no means intend to imply that the
relations between ants and the other insects which
live with them are exhausted by the above suggestions.
On the contrary, various other reasons may be imagined
which may render the presence of these insects useful
or agreeable to the ants. For instance, they may emit
an odour which is pleasant to the ants. Again, Mr.
Francis Galton has, I think, rendered it very probable
that some of our domestic animals were kept as pets
before they were made of any use. Unlikely as this
may appear in some cases, for instance in the pig, we
know as a fact that pigs are often kept by savages as
pets. I would not put it forward as a suggestion
which can be supported by any solid reasoning, but it

* Bertin, Ent, Zeit. 1865, p. 108.

78 RELATIONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT

seems not altogether impossible that some of these
tame insects may be kept as pets.

It is from this point of view a very interesting fact
that, according to Forel, in the cases of Chenniwm and
Batrisus there is rarely more than one beetle in each
nest. :

I now come to the relations existing between the
different species of ants.

It is hardly necessary to say that, as a general rule,
each species lives by itself. There are, however, some in-
teresting exceptions. The little Stenamma Westwoodti
(Pl. III. fig. 3) is found exclusively in the nests of the
much larger F. rufa and the allied F. pratensis. We do
not know what the relations between the two species are.
The Stenammas, however, follow the Formicas when
they change their nest, running about among them and
between their legs, tapping them inquisitively with
their antenne, and even sometimes climbing on to
their backs, as if for a ride, while the large ants seem
to take little notice of them. They almost seem to be
the dogs, or perhaps the cats, of the ants. Another small
species, Solenopsis fugaa (Pl. III. fig. 4), which makes
its chambers and galleries in the walls of the nests of
larger species, is the bitter enemy of its hosts. The
latter cannot get at them, because they are too large
to enter the galleries. The little Solenopsis, there-
fore, are quite safe, and, as it appears, make incursions
into the nurseries of tne larger ant, and carry off the

" Fourmis de la Suisse, p. 426.

SPECIES OF ANTS. 78

larvie as food. It is as if we had small dwarfs, about
eighteen inches to two feet long, harbouring in the
walls of our houses, and every now and then carrying
off some of our children into their horrid dens.

Most ants, indeed, will carry off the larve and pups
of others if they get a chance; and this explains, or at
any rate throws some light upon, that must remarkable
phenomenon, the existence of slavery among ants. If
you place a number of larve and pupz in front of a
nest of the Horse ant (F. rufa), for instance, they are
soon carried off; and those which are not immediately
required for food remain alive for some time, and are
even fed by their captors.

Both the Horse ant (Formica rufa, Pl. II. fig. 5)
and the slave ant (J. fusca, Pl. I. fig. 3) are abun-
dant species, and it. must not unfrequently occur
that the former, being pressed for food, attack the
latter and carry off some of their Jarve and pupe.
Under these circumstances it no doubt occasionally
happens that the pupze come to maturity in the nests
of the Horse ant, and it is said that nests are some-
times, though rarely, found in which, with the legiti-
mate owners, there are a few F. fuscas. With the
Horse ant this is, however, a very rare and exceptional
phenomenon ; but with an allied species, F’. sanguinea
(Pl. I. fig. 6), a species which exists in some of our
southern counties and throughout Europe, it has be-
come an established habit. The F. sanguineas make
periodical expeditions, attack neighbouring nests, and

80 SLAVE-MAKING ANTS.

carry off the pupse. When the latter come to maturity
they find thémselves in a nest consisting partly of F.
sanguineas, partly of their own species, the results of
previous expeditions. They adapt themselves to cir-
cumstances, assist in the ordinary household duties,
and, having no young of their own species, feed and
tend those of the F’. sanguineas. But though the F.
sanguineas are thus aided by their slaves, or as they
should rather perhaps be called, their auxiliaries, they
have not themselves lost the instinct of working. It
seems not improbable that there is some division of
functions between the two species, but we have as yet
no distinct knowledge on this point; and at any rate
the F. sanguineas can ‘do’ for themselves, and carry
on a nest, if necessary, without slaves.

The species usually enslaved by F. sanguinea are
Formica fusca and F. rufibarbis, which indeed are so
similar that they are perhaps varieties rather than
species. Sometimes both occur in the same nest.
André says that they also make slaves of Formica
gagates.! Schenk asserts? the same of Lasius alienus,
and F. Smith of ZL. flavus, but Forel denies these
statements.*

Another species, Polyergus rufescens, is much
more dependent on its slaves, being, indeed, almost
entirely so.

Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1874, p. 164.
3 Cat. of Brit. Foss. Hymen., p. 7
® Fourmis de la Suisse, p. 368,

FORMICA—POLYERGUS, 81

For the knowledge of the existence of slavery
among ants we are indebted to Huber,’ and I cannot
resist quoting the passage in which he records his
discovery :—‘ On June 17, 1804,’ he says, ‘ while walk-
ing in the environs of Geneva, between four and five
in the evening, I observed close at my feet, traversing
the road, a legion of Rufescent ants.

‘They moved in a body with considerable rapidity
and occupied a space of from eight to ten inches in
length, by three or four in breadth. In a few minutes
they quitted the road, passed a thick hedge, and entered
a pasture ground, where I followed them. They
wound along the grass without straggling, and their
column remained urbroken, notwithstanding the ob-
stacles they had to surmount. At length they ap-
proached a nest, inhabited by dark ash-coloured ants,
the dome of which rose above the grass, at a distance
of twenty feet from the hedge. Some of its inhabitants
were guarding the entrance; but, on the discovery of
an approaching army, darted forth upon the advanced
guard. The alarm spread at the same moment in the
interior, and their companions came forth in numbers
-from their undergroune residence. The Rufescent ants,
the bulk of whose army lay only at the distance of two
‘paces, quickened their march to arrive at the foot of
the ant-hill; the whole battalion, in an instant, fell
upon and overthrew the ash-coloured ants, who, after
a short but obstinate conflict, retired to the bottom of

1 The Natural History of Ants, by M P. Huber, p 249.

82 EXPEDITIONS OF POLYERGUS,

their nest. The Rufescent ants now ascended the
hillock, collected in crowds on the summif, and took
possession of the principal avenues, leaving some of
their companions to work an opening in the side of the
ant-hill with their teeth. Success crowned their enter-
prise, and by the newly-made breach the remainder of
the army entered. Their sojourn war, however, of
skort duration, for in three or four minutes they
returned by the same apertures which gave them
entrance, each bearing off in its mouth a larva or a
pupa.’

The expeditions generally start in the afterncon,
and are from 100 to 2,000 strong.

Polyergus rufescens present a striking lesson of
the degrading tendency of slavery, for these ants have
become entirely dependent on their slaves. Even
their bodily structure has undergone a change: the
mandibles have lost their teeth, and have become mere
nippers, deadly weapons indeed, but useless except in
war. They have lost the greater part of their instincts:
their art, that is, the power of building; their domestic
habits, for they show no care for their own young, all
this being done by the slaves; their industry—they
take no part in providing the daily supplies; if the
colony changes the situation of its nest, the masters
are all carried by the slaves on their backs to the new
one; nay, they have even lost the habit of feeding.
Huber placed thirty of them with some larve and pupsx
and a supply of honey in a box. ‘At first,’ he says,

POLYERGUS FED BY THE SLAVES. 83

they appeared to pay some little attention to the
larvae ; they carried them here and there, but presently
replaced them. More than one-half of the Amazons
died of hunger in less than two days. They had not
even traced out a dwelling, and the few ants still in
existence were Janguid and without strength. I com-
miserated their condition, and gave them one of their
black companions. This individual, unassisted, estab-
lished order, formed a chamber in the earth, gathered
together the larve, extricated several young ants that
were ready to quit the condition of pups, and preserved
the life of the remaining Amazons.’

This observation has been fully confirmed by other
naturalists. However small the prison, however large
the quantity of food, these stupid creatures will starve
in the midst of plenty rather than feed themselves.

M. Forel was kind enough to send me a nest of
Polyergus, and I kept it under observation for more
than four years. My specimens of Polyergus certainly
never fed themselves, and when the community changed
its nest, which they did several times, the mistresses
were carried from the one to the other by the slaves.
I was even able to observe one of their marauding ex~-
peditions, in which, however, the slaves took a part.

I do not doubt that, as Huber tells us, specimens of
Pulyergus if kept by themselves in a box would soon
die of starvation, even if supplied with food. I have,
however, kept isolated specimens for three months by
giving them a slave for an hour or two a day to clean

84 STRONGYLOGNATHUS,

and feed them: under these circumstances they re
mained in perfect health, while, but for the slaves,
they would have perished in two or three days. Ex-
‘cepting the slave-making ants, and some of the Myr-
mecophilous beetles above described, I know no case
in nature of an animal having lost the instinct of
feeding.

In P. rufescens, the so-called workers, though
thus helpless and idle, are numerous, energetic, and
in some respects even brilliant. In another slave-
making ant, Strongylognathus, the workers are
much less numerous, and so weak that it is an un-
solved problem how they contrive to make slaves.
In the genus Strongylognathus there are two species,
S. huberi and S. testaceus. S. huberi, which was
discovered by Forel, very much resembles Polyergus
rufescens in habits. They lave sabre-like mandibles,
like those of Polyergus, and their mode of fighting is
similar, but they are much weaker insects; they make
slaves of Tetramorium cespitwm, which they carry ofl
as pupe. In attacking the Tetramoriwms they seize
them by the head with their jaws, just in the same
way as Polyergus, but have not strength enough to
pierce them as the latter do. Nevertheless, the. Tetra-
moriwms seem much afraid of them.

The other species, Strongylognathus testaceus, is
even weaker than S. huberi, and their mode of life is
atill in many respects an cuigma. They also keep the
workers of Tetramorwm in, so to say, a state of

DEGRADATION OF STRONGYLOGNATHUS, 86

slavery, but how they procure the slaves is still a
mystery. They fight in the same manner as Polyergus;
but yet Schenk, Von Hagens, and Forel all agree that
they are no match for the Tetramoriwms, a courageous
species, and one which lives in lurge communities. On
one occasion Forel brought a nest of Tetramorium
and put it down very near one of Strongylogna-
thus testaceus with Tetramoriwm slaves. A battle at
once commenced between the two communities. The
Strongylognathus rushed boldly to the fight, but,
though their side won the day, this was mainly due
to the slaves. The Strongylognathus themselves were
almost all killed ; and though the energy of their attack
seemed at first to disconcert their opponents, Forel
assures us that they did not succeed in killing even a
single Tetramortwm. In fact, as Forel graphically
observes, Strovigylognathus is ‘une triste caricature’
of Polyergus, and it seems almost impossible that by
themselves they could successfully attack a nest of
Tetramorium. Moreover, in Strongylognathus, the
workers are comparatively few. Nevertheless, they are
always found with the Tetramoriwms, and in these
mixed nests there are no males or females of Tetra-
moriwm, but only those of Strongylognathus. Again,
the whole work of the nest is done by the slaves,
though Strongylognathus has not, like Polyergus,
entirely lost the power of feeding itself.

But if the economy of Strongylognathus is an
enigma, that of Anergates is still more mysterious.

86 ANERGATES,

The genus Anergates was discovered by Schenk,'
who found a small community consisting of males,
females and workers, which he naturally supposed to
belong to one species. Mayr, however, pointed out?
that the workers were in fact workers of Tetramoriwm
cespitum ; and it would appear that while in Strongy-
lognathus the workers are comparatively few, Aner-
gates differs from all other ants in having no workers
at all. The males and females live with Tetramorium
cespitum, and are in several respects very peculiar,—
for instance, the male is wingless. One might consider
it rather a case of parasitism than of slavery, but the
difficulty is that in these mixed nests tLere are no males,
females, or young of Tetramorium. As to this all ob-
servers are agreed. It seems quite clear that Aner-
gates cannot procure its slaves, if such they are, by
marauding expeditions like those of Polyergus; in the
first. place, because the Anergates are too few, and
secondly, because they are too weak. The whole ques-
tion is rendered still more difficult by the fact that
neither Von Hagens? nor Forel ever found either larvee
or pup of Tetramorium in the mixed nests. The com-
munity consisted of males and females of Anergates,
accompanied and tended by workers of Tetramorium
cespitum. The Anergates are absolutely dependent

' «Die Nassauischen Ameisen-Species,’ Stettin Ent. Zeit. 1853,
ig oe Formicidae, p. 66.

® Verh. des Natur. Vereines de» Preuss. Rheinlande wid Weat-
phalens 1867, p.63. Seealso V. Hagens. Berl. Ent. Zeit. 1867, p. 102

HABITS OF ANERGATES, 87

upon their slaves, and cannot even feed themselves,
The whole problem is, therefore, most puzzling and
interesting.’

As regards Strongylognathus, Von Hagens made two
suggestions, the first being that this insect is really a
monstrous form of Tetramorium. This, however,
cannot at any rate be the case with Anergates. On
the whole, then, he inclines to think that perhaps the
nests containing Strongylognathus or Anergates are
only parts of a community, and that the young of the
Tetramoriums are in another nest of the same com-
munity. This would account for the absence of the
young of the Tetramoriums, but would not remove
all the difficulties. It is in other respects not
consistent with what we know of the habits of ants,
and on the whole I agree with Forel in thinking the
suggestion untenable.

The difficulty of accounting for the numbers of
Tetramoriwms, coupled with the absence of young,
was indeed almost insuperable as long as the workers
were supposed to live only for one year. My observa-
tions, however, which show that even in captivity a
nest may continue for five years, place the question in
a different position, and give us, I think, a clue.

On the whole, I would venture to suggest that the
mnale and female Anergates make their way into a nest

! On the centrary, in Tomognathus sublevis, a Finland species
which lives in the nests of Leptothoraw muscorum and L. acervorum,
the workers only are known, The male, like that of Aneryates, ia
wingless.

88 EXPLANATION OF THE PRESENT STATE OF

of Tetramorium, and in some manner contrive to assas-
sinate their queen. I have shown that a nest of ants
may continue, even in captivity, for five years, without
a queen. If, therefore, the female of Anergates could
by violence or poison destroy the queen of the Tetra-
moriums, we should in the following year have a com-
munity composed of the two Anergates, their young,
and workers of Tetramoriwm, in the manner described
by Van Hagens and Forel. This would naturally not
have suggested itself to them, because if the life of
an ant had, as was formerly supposed, been confined
to a single season, it would of course have been out of
the question; but as we now know that the life of ants
is so much more prolonged than had been supposed, it
is at least not an impossibility.

It is conceivable that the Tetramoriums may have
gradually become harder and stronger; the marauding
expeditions would then be less fruitful and more dan-
gerous, and might become less and less frequent. If,
then, we suppose that the females found it possible
to establish themselves in nests of Tetramoriwm, the
present state of things would almost inevitably be, by
degrees, established. Thus we may explain the re-
inarkable condition of Strongylognathus, armed with
weapons which it is too weak to use, and endowed with
instincts which it cannot exercise.

At any rate, these four genera offer us every grada-
tion from lawless violence to contemptible parasitism.
Formica sanguinea, which may be assumed to have

STRONGYLOGNATHUS AND ANERGATES, 85

comparatively recently taken to slave-making, has not as;
yet been materially affected.

Polyergus, on the contrary, already illustrates the
lowering tendency of slavery. They have lost their
knowledge of art, their natural affection for their
young, and even their instinct of feeding! They are,
however, bold and powerful marauders.

In Strongylognathus, the enervating influence of
slavery has gone further, and told even on the bodily
strength. They are no longer able to capture their
slaves in fair and open warfare. Still they retain a
semblance of authority, and, when roused, will fight
bravely, though in vain.

In Anergates, finally, we come to the last scene of,
this sad history. We may safely conclude that in
distant times their ancestors lived, as so many aunts
do now, partly by hunting, partly on honey; that by
degrees they became bold marauders, and gradually took
to keeping slaves; that for a time they maintained
their strength and agility, though losing by degrees
their real independence, their arts, and even many of
their instincts; that gradually even their bodily force
dwindled away under the enervating influence to
which they had subjected themselves, until they sank
to their present degraded condition—weak in body and
mind, few in numbers, and apparently nearly extinct,
the miserable representatives of far superior ancestors,
maintaining a precarious existence as contemptible

parasites of their former slaves,
8

90 PROGRESS AMONG ANTS.

M. Lespés has given a short but interesting
account of some experiments made by him on the
relations existing between ants and their domestic
animals, from which it might be inferred that even
within the limits of a single species some communities
are more advanced than others. He states that speci-
mens of the curious blind beetle Claviger, which
always occurs with ants, when transferred from a nest
of Lasius niger to another which kept none of these
domestic beetles, were invariably attacked and eaten.
From this he infers that the intelligence necessary to
keep Clavigers is not coextensive with the species, but
belongs only to certain communities and races, which,
so to say, are more advanced in civilisation than the
rest of the species.

With reference to the statements of Lespés, I have
more than once transferred specimens of Platyarthrus
from one nest to another, and always found them
received amicably. I even placed specimens from
a nest of Lagius flavus in one of Formica fusca
with the same’ vesult. I brought from the South of
France some specimens of a different species, as yet
undescribed, and put them in a nest of Formica fusca,
where they lived for some time, and brought up more
than one brood of young. These creatures, however,
occur in most ants’ nests, while Clavigers are only
found in some.

But whether there are differences in advancement
within the limits of the same species or not, there are

PHASES OF LIFE. 91

certainly considerable differences between the different
species, and one may almost fancy that we can trace
stages corresponding to the principal steps in the
history of human development.

I do not now refer to slave-making ants, which
represent an abnormal, or perhaps only a temporary
state of things, for slavery seems to tend in ants as in
men to the degradation of those by whom it is
adopted, and it is not impossible that the slave-making
species will eventually find themselves unable to com-
pete with those which are more self-dependent, and
have reached a higher phase of civilisation. But
putting these slave-making ants on one side, we find in
the different species of ants different conditions of life,
curiously answering to the earlier stages of human
progress. For instance, some species, such as Formica
fusca, live principally on the produce of the chase ;
for though they feed partly on the honey-dew of
aphides, they have not domesticated these insects.
These ants probably retain the habits once common to
allants. They resemble the lower races of men, who
subsist mainly by hunting. Like them they frequent
woods and wilds, live in comparatively small communi-
ties, and the instincts of collective action are but little
developed among them. They hunt singly, and their
battles are single combats, like those of the Homeric
heroes. Such species as Lasius flavus represent a
distinctly higher type of social life; they show more
skill in architecture, may literally be said to have

92 HUNTING, PASTORAL, AND AGRICULTURAL ANTS.

domesticated certam species of aphides, and may be
compared to the pastoral stage of human progress—to
the races which live on the produce of their flocks and
herds. Their communities are more numerous; they
act much more in concert; their battles are not mere
single combats, but they know how to act in combina-
tion. I am disposed to hazard the conjecture that
they will gradually exterminate the mere hunting
species, just as savages disappear before more advanced
races. Lastly, the agricultural nations may be com-
pared with the harvesting ants.

Thus there seem to be three principal types, offer-
ing a curious analogy to the three great phases—the
hunting, pastoral, and agricultural stages—in the
history of human development.

CHAPTER V.

BEHAVIOUR TO RELATIONS.

Mr. Grote, in his ‘Fragments on Ethical Subjects,’
regards it as an evident necessity that no society can
exist without the sentiment of morality. ‘ Everyone,’
he says, ‘ who has either spoken or written on the sub-
ject, has agreed in considering this sentiment as ab-
solutely indispensable to the very existence of society.
Without the diffusion of a certain measure of this feel-
ing throughout all the members of the social union,
the caprices, the desires, and the passions of each
separate individual would render the maintenance of
any established communion impossible. Positive
morality, under some form or other, has existed in
every society of which the world has ever had ex-
perience.’

If this be so, the question naturally arises whether
ants also are moral and accountable beings. They have
their desires, their passions, even their caprices. The
young are absolutely helpless. Their communities are
sometimes so numerous, that perhaps London ana
Pekin are almost the only human cities which can
compare with them. Moreover, their nests are no mere

94 BEHAVIOUR OF ANTS TO ONE ANOTHER.

‘collections of independent individuals, nor even tem-
‘porary associations like the flocks of migratory birds ;
but organised communities labouring with the utmost
aig for the common good. The remarkable
analogies which, in so many ways, they present to our
human societies, render them peculiarly interesting to
us, and one cannot but long to know more of their
character, how the world appears to them, and to what
extent they are conscious and reasonable beings.

For my own part I cannot make use of Mr. Grote’s
argument, because I have elsewhere attempted to show
that, even as regards man, the case is not by any means
clear. But however this may be, various observers
have recorded in the case of ants instances of attach-
ment and affection.

Forel lays it down as a general rule that if ants are
slightly injured, or rather unwell, their companions take
care of them: on the other hand, if they are badly
wounded or seriously ill, they are carried away from
the nest, and left to perish.

Latreille, also, makes the following statement :—
‘Le sens de l’odorat, he says,' ‘se manifestant
dune maniére aussi sensible, je voulois profiter
de cette remarque pour en découvrir le siége. On a
soupgonné depuis longtemps qu'il résidoit dans les
antennes. Je les arrachai 4 plusicurs fourmis fauves
ouvriéres, auprés du nid desquelles je me trouvois. Je
vis aussitét ces petits animaux que j’avois ainsi mutilés

‘ Hist. Nat. des Fournis, p. 41.

STATEMENTS OF PREVIOUS OBSERVERS. 95

tomber dans un état d’ivresse ou une espéce de folie.
Ils erroient ga et 14, et ne reconnoissoient plus leur
chemin. Ils m’occupoient ; mais je n’étais pas le seul.
Quelques autres fourmis s’approchérent de ces pauvres
affligées, portérent leur langue sur leurs blessures, et y
laissérent tomber une goutte de liqueur. Cet acte de
sensibilité se reuouvela plusieurs fois; je l’observois
avec une loupe. Animaux compatissans! quelle legon
ne donnez-vous pas aux hommes.’

‘ Jamais,’ says M. de Saint Fargeau,' * une Fourmi
o’eri rencontre une de son espéce blessée, sans l’enlever
et la transporter 4 la fourmiliére. L’y soigne-t-elle ?
Je ne sais, mais je vois dans ce fait une bienveillance
que je ne retrouve dans aucun autre insecte, méme
social.”

I have not felt disposed to repeat M. Latreille’s
experiment, and M. de St. Fargeau’s statement is |
think by no means correct ; indeed, many of my experi-
ences seem to show not only a difference of character
in_the different species of ants, but that even within
the limits of the same species there are individual
differences between ants, just as between men.

I will commence with the less favourable aspect.

On one occasion (August 13) a worker of Lasius
niger, belonging to one of my nests, had got severely
wounded, but not so much so that she could not feed;
for though she had lost five of her tarsi, finding herself
gear some syrup, she crept to it and began to feed. I

' Hist. Nat. des Ins. Hyménoptéres, vol. i. p. 99.

96 EXPERIMENTS.

‘aid her gently on her back close to the entrance inte
the nest. Soon an ant came up to the poor sufferer,
crossed antenne with her for a moment, then went
quietly on to the syrup and began to feed. Afterwards
three other ants did the same ; but none took any more
notice of her.

August 15.—I found at 1 p.M.a Myrmica ruginodis
which, probably in a fight with another ant, had
lost the terminal portion of both her antenne. She
seemed to have lost her wits. I put her into her
nest ; but the others took no notice of her; and after
wandering about a little, she retired into a solitary place,
where she remained from 3 P.M. to 8 without moving.
The following morning I looked for her at 5.30, and
found her still at the same spot. She remained there
till 9, when she came out. She remained out all day;
and the following morning I found her dead.

Indeed, I have often been surprised that in certain
cases ants render one another so little assistance. The
tenacity with which they retain their hold on an
enemy they have once seized is well known. M.
Moequerys even assures us that the Indians of Brazil
made use of this quality in the case of wounds ; causing
an ant to bite the two lips of the cut and thus bring
them together, after which they snip off the ant’s head,
which thus holds the lipstogether. He asserts that he
|bas often seen natives with wounds in course of healing
‘with the assistance of seven or eight ants’ heads!!

" Ann. Soo. Ent. France, 2 sér. tom. ii. p. 67.

ISOLATED COMBATS. 97

Now I have often observed that some of my ants had
the heads of others hanging on to their legs for a con-
siderable time; and as this must certainly be very
inconvenient, it seems remarkable that their friends
should not relieve them of such an awkward encum-
brance.

The behaviour of ants to one another differs also
much according to circumstances; whether, for instance,
they are alone, or supported by friends. An ant which
would run away in the first case will defend herself
bravely in the second.

If an ant is fighting with one of another species,
her friends rarely come to her assistance. They seem
generally (anless a regular battle is taking place) to
take no interest in the matter, and do not even stop to
look on. Some species, indeed, in such cases never
appear to help one another ; and even when the reverse
is the case, as for instance in the genus Lasius, the
truth seems to be that several of them attack the same
enemy—their object being to destroy the foe, rather
than to save their friend.

On one occasion several specimens of Formica fusca
belonging to one of my nests were feeding on some
Toney spread on a slip of glass (May 22). One of
them had got thoroughly entangled in it. I took her
and put her down just in front of another specimen
belonging to the same nest, and close by I placed a drop
of honey. The ant devoted herself to the honey and
entirely neglected her friend, whom she left to perish.

98 NEGLECT OF COMPANIONS IF IN TROUBLE,

Again, some specimens of Cremastogaster scutellaris
were feeding quietly (May 22) on some honey spread on
a slip of glass, and one of them had got thoroughly
mixed in it. I took her out and put her on the glass
close by She could not disentangle herself ; not one of
her friends took the least notice of her, and eventually
she died. I then chloroformed one, and put her on the
board among her friends. Several touched her, but
from 12 to 2.30 P.M. none took any particular notice
of her. ,

On the other hand, I have only on one occasion seen
a living ant expelled from her nest. This happened ina
community of F. fusca. I observed (April 23, 1880)
an ant carrying another belonging to the same commu-
nity away from the nest. The condemned ant made a
very feeble resistance. The first ant carried her burthen
hither and thither for some time, evidently trying to
get away from the nest, which was enclosed in the usual
manner by a fur barrier. After watching for some time
I provided the ant with a paper bridge, up which she
immediately went, dropped her victim on the far side,
and returned home. Could this have been a case in
which an aged or invalid ant was being expelled from
the nest?

I have often had ants in my nests to which mites
nad attached themselves.

Thus, on October 14, 1876, I observed that une
of my ants (Formica fusca) had a mite attached
to the underside of her head, which it almost equalled

EXPERIMENTS WITH INSENSIBLE ANTS, 99

in size. The poor ant could not remove it herself, and,
being a queen, never left the nest, so that I had no
opportunity of doing so. For more than three months
none of her companions performed this kind office for
her.

With reference to this part of the subject, also, I
have made some experiments.

January 3, 1876.—I immersed an ant (Lasius
niger) in water for half an hour; and when she was
then to all appearance drowned, I put her on a strip of
paper leading from one of my nests to some food. The
strip was half an inch wide; and one of my marked
ants belonging to the same nest was passing continually
to and fro over it to some food, The immersed ant lay
there an hour before she recovered herself; and during
this time the marked ant passed by eighteen times
without taking the slightest notice of her.

I then immerscd another ant in the water for an
hour, after which I placed her on the strip of paper asin
the preceding case. She was three-quarters of an hour
before she recovered: during this time two marked
ants were passing to and fro; one of them went by
eighteen times, and the other twenty times; and two
other ants also went over the paper; but none of them
took the slightest notice of their drowned friend.

I then immersed another ant for an hour, and
put her on the strip of paper. She took an hour to
recover. The same two marked ants as in the previous
observation were at work. One passed thirty times, the

10C EXPERIMENTS WITH DROWNED ANTS.

other twenty-eight times, besides which five others
passed by; but not one took the slightest notice.

I immersed three ants for eight hours, and then
put them on the strip of paper. They began to recover
in three-quarters of an hour, but were not quite them-
selves till half an hour afterwards. During the first
three-quarters of an hour two marked ants passed, earch
four times ; and two others also went by. During tlie
following half-hour the two marked ants passed sixteen
times, and three others; but none of them took any
notice.

I immersed another ant for forty minutes, and put
her on the strip of paper. She recovered in twenty
minutes, during which time the marked ones, which
were the same as in the preceding case, went by four-
teen times without taking any notice.

I immersed two ants for ten hours, and then placed
them on the strip of paper. The same two marked ants
passed respectively eighteen and twenty-six times, and
one other passed by also without taking any notice.
After this I left off watching.

I immersed two ants for four hours, and then put
them on the strip of paper. They began to recover
in an hour, during which two marked ants, not the
same as in the preceding case, passed respectivety
twenty-cight and ten times, and two others went by;
but none of them took any notice

1 immersed an ant for an hour, and then put heron
the same strip of paper as in the previous cases. A marked

EXPERIMENTS WITH DROWNED ANTS. 10)

ant passed her twelve times ; three others also went by
but took no notice of her; but, on the other hand, a
fourth picked her up and carried her off into the nest.

Again, I immersed an ant for an hour, and put her
on the strip of paper. The marked ant passed twice,
after which she did not return. Soon after, another ant
came by and, picking up the immersed one, carried
her off to the nest. |

Ido not bring forward these cases as proof or even as
evidence that ants are less tender to friends in distress
than previous observers have stated to be the case; but
they certainly show that tenderness is not invariably
the rule; and, especially when taken in connexion with
the following cases, they are interesting illustrations
of the individual differences existing between ants—that
there are Priests and Levites, and good Samaritans
among them, as among men.

As evidence both of their intelligence and of their
affection for their friends, it has been said by various
observers that when ants have been accidentally buried
they have been very soon dug out and rescued by their
companions. Without for one moment doubting the
facts as stated, we must remember the habit which ants
have of burrowing in loose fresh soil, and especially their
practice of digging out fresh galleries when their nests
are disturbed.

It seemed to me, however, that it would not be
difficult to test whether the excavations made by ants
under the circumstances were the result of this genera]

102 EXPERIMENTS WITH BURIED ANTS.

habit, or really due to a desire tu extricate their
friends.

With this view I tried the following experiments :—

(1) On August 20 I placed some honey near a nest
of Lasius niger on a glass surrounded with water, and
so arranged that in reaching it the ants passed over
another glass covered with a layer of sifted earth, about
one-third of an inch in thickness. I then put some
ants to the honey, and by degrees a considerable num-
ber collected round it. Then at 1.30 p.m. I buried an
ant from the same nest under the earth, and left her
there till 5 p.M., when I uncovered her. She was none
the worse, but during the whole time not one of her
friends had taken the least notice of her.

(2) I arranged (September 1) some honey again in
the same way. At 5 p.m. about fifty ants were at the
honey, and a considerable number passing to and fro.
I then buried an ant as before, taking of course one
from the same nest. At 7 P.M. the number of ants at
the honey had nearly doubled. At 10 P.M. they were
still more numerous, and had carried off about two-
thirds of the honey. At 7 a.m. the next morning the
honey was all gone, two or three were still wandering
about, but no notice had been taken of the prisoner,
whom I then let out. In this case I allowed the honey
to be finished, because I thought it might perhaps be
alleged that the excitement produced by such a treasure
distracted their attention, or even (on the principle of
doing the greatest good to the greatest number) that

EXPERIMENTS WITIi BURIED ANTS. 103
Pee
they were intelligently wise in securing a treasure of

food before they rescued their comrade, who, though
in confinement, was neither in pain nor danger. So far.
as the above ants, however, are concerned, this cannot,
I think, be urged.

(3) On the 8th September I repeated the experi-
ment, burying someantsat 4P.M. Up to 6.3 no attempt
had been made to release them. I let them out and
buried some more. The next morning, at 7 a.M., the
honey was all gone, some ants were still wandering about,
but no notice had been taken of the captives, whom I
then liberated.

(4) I then (August 21) made exactly the same
experiment. with Myrmica rugimodis, as representing
the other great family of ants.

In order to test the affection of ants belonging to
the same nest for one another I tried the following
experiments. I took six ants from a nest of F.
fusca, imprisoned them in a small bottle, one end of
which was covered with a layer of muslin. I then put
the muslin close to the door of the nest. The muslin
was of open texture, the meshes, however, being
sufficiently small to prevent the ants from escaping.
They could not only, however, see one another, but
communicate freely with their antenne. We now
watched to see whether the prisoners would be tended
or fed by their friends. We could not, however,
observe that the least notice was taken of them. The
experiment, nevertheless, was less conclusive than

104 CONTRAST OF BEHAVIOUR

could be wished, because they might have been fed at
night, or at some time when we were not looking. It
struck me, therefore, that it would be interesting to
treat some strangers also in the same manner.

On September 2, therefore, I put two ants from one
of my nests of F. fusca into a bottle, the end of which
was tied up with muslin as described, and laid it down
close to the nest. In a second bottle I put two ants
from another nest of the same species. The ants
which were at liberty took no notice of the bottle con-
taining their imprisoned friends. The strangers in the
other bottle, on the contrary, excited them considerably.
The whole day one, two, or more ants stood sentry, as
it were, over the bottle. In the evening no less than
twelve were collected round it, a larger number than
usually came out of the nest at any one time. The
whole of the next two days, in the same way, there
were more or less ants round the bottle containing the
strangers; while, as far as we could see, no notice
whatever was taken of the friends. On the 9th the
ants had eaten through the muslin, and effected an
entrance. We did not chance to be on the spot at the
moment; but as I found two ants lying dead, one in
the bottle and one just outside, I think there can be
no doubt that the strangers were put to death. The
friends throughout were quite neglected.

September 21.--I then repeated the experiment,
putting three ants from another nest in a bottle as
before. The same scene was repeated. The frienda

TO FRIENDS AND STRANGERS. 105

were neglected. On the other hand, some of the ants
were always watching over the bottle containing the
strangers, and biting at the muslin which protected
them. The next morning at 6 a.m. I found five ants
thus occupied. One had caught hold of the leg of one
of the strangers, which had unwarily been allowed to
protrude through the meshes of the muslin. They
worked and watched, though not, as far as I could see,
with any system, till 7.30 in the evening, when they
effected an entrance, and immediately attacked the
strangers.

September 24.—I repeated the same experiment
with the same nest. Again the ants came and sat over
the bottle containing the strangers, while no notice was
taken of the friends.

The next morning again, when I got up, I found
five ants round the bottle containing the strangers,
none near the friends. As in the former case, one of
the ants had seized a stranger by the leg, and was trying
to drag her through the muslin. All day the ants
clustered round the bottle, and bit perseveringly,
though not systematically, at the muslin. The same
thing happened all the following day.

These observations seemed to me sufficiently to test
the behaviour of the ants belonging to this nest under
these circumstances. I thought it desirable, however,
to try also other communities. I selected, therefore,
two other nests. One was a community of Polyergus
rufescens with numerous slaves. Close to where the

9

106 INSTANCES OF KINDNESS TO FRIENDS,

ants of this nest came to feed, I placed as before two
small bottles, closed in the same way—one containing
two slave ants from the nest, the otner two strangers.
These ants, however, behaved quite unlike the pre-
ceding, for they took no notice of either bottle, and
showed no sign either of affection or hatred. One is
almost tempted to surmise that the warlike spirit of
these ants was broken by slavery.

The other nest which I tried, also a community of
Formica fusca, behaved exactly like the first. They
took no notice of the bottle containing the friends, but
clustered round and eventually forced their way into
that containing the strangers,

It seems, therefore, that in these curious insects
hatred is a stronge: passion than affection.

Some of those--who have done me the honour
of noticing my papers have assumed that I disputed
altogether the kindly feelings which have been attri-
buted to ants. I should, however, be very sorry to
treat my favourities so unfairly. So far as I can observe,
ants of the same nest never quarrel. I have never
seen the slightest evidence of ill-temper in any of my
nests: all is harmony. Nor are instances of active
assistance at all rare. Indeed, I have myself witnessed
various cases showing care and tenderness on their part.

In one of my nests of Formica fusca was an ant
which had come into the world without antennzx.
Never having previously met with such a case, I
watched her with great interest ; but she never ap-

A CRIPPLED ANT. 107

peared to leave the nest. At length one day I fcund
her wandering about in an aimless sort of manner, and
apparently not knowing her way at all. After a while
she fell in with some specimens of Lasius flavus, who
directly attacked her. I at once set myself to separate
them; but whether owing to the wounds she had
received from her enemies, or tomy rough, though well-
meant handling, or to both, she was evidently much
wounded, and lay helplessly on the ground. After some
time another Formica fusca from her nest came by.
She examined the poor sufferer carefully, then picked
her up carefully and carried her away into the nest.
It would have been difficult for any one who witnessed
this scene to have denied to this ant the possession of
humane feelings.

Again, in one of my nests of Formica fusca on
January 23 last (1881), I perceived a poor ant lying on
her back and quite unable to move. The legs were in
cramped attitudes, and the two antennz rolled up in
spirals. She was, of course, altogether unable to feed
herself. After this I kept my eye on her. Several
times I tried uncovering the part of the nest where she
was. The other ants soon carried her into the shaded
part. On March 4 the ants were all out of the nest,
probably for fresh air, and had collected together in a
corner of the box; they had not, however, forgotten
her, but had carried her with them. I took off the
glass lid of the box, and after a while they returned as
asual to the nest, taking her in again. On March 5

108 A DEAD QUEEN.

she was still alive, but on the 15th, notwithstanding all
their care, she was dead!

At the present time I have two other ants perfectly
crippled in a similar manner, and quite unable to move,
which have lived in two different nests, belonging also
to F. fusca, the one for five the other for four months.

In May 1879 I gave a lecture on Ants at the Royal
Institution, and was anxious to exhibit a nest of
Lasius flavus with the queen. While preparing the
nest, on May 9, we accidentally crushed the queen.
The ants, however, did not desert her, or drag her
out as they do dead workers, but, on the contrary,
carried her with them into the new nest, and subse-
quently into a larger one with which I supplied them,
congregating round her, just as if she had been alive,
for more than six weeks, when we lost sight of her.

In order to ascertain whether ants knew their
fellows by any sign or pass word, as has been suggested
in the case of bees, I was anxious to see if they could re-
cognise them when in a state of insensibility. I tried
therefore the following experiments with some specimens
of Lasius flavus.

September 10, at 6 P.M., a number of these ants were
out feeding on some honey, placed on one of my tables,
and surrounded by a moat of water. I chloroformed
four of them and also four from a nest in my park, at some
distance from the place where the first had been origi-
nally procured, painted them, and put them close to the
honey. Up to 8.20 the ants had taken no aotice ef

BEHAVIOUR TO CHLOROFORMED FRIENDS. 109

their insensible fellow creatures. At 9.20 I found that
four friends were still lying as before, while the four
strangers had been removed. Two of them I found
had been thrown over the edge of the board on which
the honey was placed. The other two I could not see.

Again, on September 14, at 8.40, I put in the
same way four friends marked white, and four
strangers marked red, close to where my L. flavus were
out feeding on honey placed on a slip of glass over
water. For some hours they took no notice of them.
At length one took a friend, and after carrying her
about some time dropped her, at 12.40, into the water.
Some time after another took up a stranger and carried
her into the nest at 2.35. A second stranger was
similarly carried into the nest at 2.55, a third at 3.45,
while the fourth was thrown over the edge of the board
at 4.20. Shortly after this two of the strangers were
brought out of the nest again and thrown into the
water. A second friend was thrown away, like the
first, at 4.58, the third at 5.17, and the fourth at 5.46.
I could not ascertain what happened to the last stranger,
but have little doubt that she was brought out of the
nest and thrown away like the rest.

On the following day at 6.45 I tried the same ex-
periment again, only reversing the colors by which they
were distinguished. At 7 one of the strangers was carried
off and dropped over the edge of the glass into the water,
and at 8asecond. At 8.45 a friend was taken up and,
after being carried about some time, was thrown into

110 BEHAVIOUR TO CHLOROFORMED FRIENDS.

the moat At 9.45 a friend was picked up and
carried into the nest, but brought out again and
thrown away about 3 in the afternoon. The other
four remained where they were placed until 8 P.M., and
though the other ants often came up and examined
them, they did not carry them off.

September 29.—Again placed nine chloroformed
ants, five friends and four strangers, close to where a
number were feeding. There was a continual stream
of ants to the honey, ten or fifteen being generally
there at once.

A stranger was picked upat 10.20 eirtieee ae 10.32
a ‘5 3 10.22 9 10.35

A friend Fe e 11.22 9 11.42
Astranger ,, 7 11.35 $3 11.50
: » ‘ 11.41 ‘ 11.45

Shortly after the others were picked up and carried
away to the edge of the board, where they were dropped,
but none were taken into the nest.

October 2.—Again at 10 a.m. placed ten chloro-
formed ants, five friends and five strangers, close to
where some were feeding. They were picked up and
carried off as before in the following order :—

At 11. 5 a stranger was picked up and dropped at 11.15

11.12 a friend 5 a 11.50
11.25 a stranger <5 ys 11.36
12. 7 A ” - 12.45

12.10 a friend a ” 12.16

BEHAVIOUR TO CHLOROFORMED FRIENDS. 1}}

At 1.10 a stranger was picked up and dropped at 2. €

1.42 a friend 5 ra 1.46
1.52 ‘3 PR 54 1.56
2.6 3 3 = 3.10

Only one of them, and that one a stranger, was
carried into the nest at 12.45, but brought out again
at 1.10.

October 6.—At 9 A.M. again tried the same experi-
ment with four strangers and five friends.

At 9.25 a friend was picked up and dropped at 9.31

9.32 ,, . " 9.38
9.35 a stranger 5 os 9.45
9.45 a friend “s 5 9.52
10. 8 a stranger Po 9 10.17
10.17 a friend 7 i 10.20
10.22 a stranger 95 9 10.25
10.28 3s i 9 10.40
10.25 a friend ‘5 o 10.31

None of them were carried into the nest.

These experiments seem to prove that under such
circumstances ants, at least those belonging to this
species, do not carry off their friends (when thus
rendered insensible) into a place of safety.

I think, however, that in this experiment the
ants being to all intents and purposes dead, we could
not expect that any difference would be made between
friends and strangers. I therefore repeated the same
experiment, only, instead of chloroforming the ants,
[ intoxicated them. This experiment is more difficult,

112 BEHAVIOUR TO INIOXICATED FRIENDS.

as it is not in all cases easy to hit off the requisite
degree of intoxication. The numbers therefore of
friends and strangers are not quite the same, because
in some cases the ants recovered too quickly and had
to be removed. In such cases I have latterly replaced
the ant so removed by another, so as to keep the
number of friends and strangers about equal. The
sober ants seemed somewhat puzzled at finding their
intoxicated fellow creatures in such a disgraceful con-
tion, took them up, and carried them about for a time
in a somewhat aimless manner.

November 20.—I experimented with six friends
and six strangers, beginning at 11.

At 11.30 a friend was carried to the nest.

11.50 a stranger was dropped into the water.

12.30 3 ” ”
12.31 a friend ” ”
1.10 a stranger ” 9
1.18 3 ” ”
1.27 ” ” 9
1.30 a friend (partly recovered) was taken to
the nest.

2.30 a friend was taken up and carried about
till 2.55; she was then taken to the nest, but at the
door the bearer met two other ants, which seized the
intoxicated one, carried her off, and eventually
dropped her into the water.

At 3.35 a friend was carried to the nest.
Qut of these twelve, five strangers and two friends

BEHAVIOUR TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS. 113

were dropped into the water; none of the strangers,
but three friends were taken to the nest. None of
the friends were brought out of the nest again.
November 22.—Experimented in the same way on
four friends and four strangers, beginning at 12 o’clock.
At 12.16 a stranger was taken and dropped into

the water.
12.21 ” 9 ”
12.23 bP] ” ”
12.40 2 3 3

I then put four more strangers treated as before.
At 3.10 a stranger was taken and dropped into the

water.
3.30 9 +) ”
3.35 ” ” ”

3.44 a friend (partly recovered) was taken back
to the nest.

4.10 a stranger was taken and dropped into the
water.

4.13 a friend (partly recovered) was taken back
to the nest.

In this case eight strangers were dropped into the
water, and none were taken to the nest ; two friends, on
the contrary, were taken to the nest, and none were
dropped into the water.

December 1.—Experimented with five friends and
five strangers, beginning at 2.15.

At 2.30 a stranger was dropped intc the water,

3. 2 Oe ” »

114 BEHAVIOUR TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS.

At 3.20 a friend was taken into the nest.

3.35 a stranger was taken into the nest, but after-
wards brought out again and thrown into
the water.

3.52 ” ” ” ”

4. 51 put out four more friends and as many
strangers.

4.45 a stranger was dropped into the water.

5.10 ss taken into the nest, but
afterwards brought out and
thrown into the water.

5.24 3 taken into the nest, but
afterwards brought out and
thrown into the water.

5.55 a friend was thrown into the water.

6. 4. a stranger i Pe
6. 4 ” ” ”
6. 8 a friend was taken into the nest.
6.20 2” 9 ”?
6.23 29 ” ”

6.30 a stranger was dropped into the water.
6.50 a friend 35 *3 5
8. 5 a friend was taken into the nest.

In this case two friends were thrown into the water
and seven taken into the nest ; while six strangers were
thrown into the water and four were taken into the nest;
all of these, however, were afterwards brought out again
and thrown away.

December 8.—Experimented with six friends and six
strangers, beginning at 11.30

BEHAVIOUR TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS. 116

At 11.30 a friend was carried to nest.

11.47 » 5

11.50 5 =

11.52 sg ss

11.56 a friend was dropped into water.
11.58 a stranger 3 35
11.58 ” ” ”
12 a stranger was carried to nest.
12. 2 » » ”

12. 3 ” ” ”

I then put four more of each, and as a friend or a
stranger was carried off, replaced her by another.
At 12.45 a friend to the water.
12.58 a stranger to the water.
1 a friend to the nest.

1 ” ”

1 ” ”

1.58 ” ”

1.59 9 as

2.30 a stranger to the water.
2.30 5 0»

2.35 a stranger to the nest.
2.42 a stranger to the water.

2.48 rH 9
2.51 ” 5
2.52 ” ”

2.55 a friend to the nest.
2°55 a stranger to the water.
2.55 % 5

116 BEHAVIOUR TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS.

At 3. 2 a friend to the water.
3. 6 a stranger to the water.
3.12 a friend to the water.
3.15 ” ”

3.16 a friend to the nest.
3.22 a stranger to the water
3.25, ,

3.25 a friend to the nest.
3.35 a stranger to the water
3.50 a friend to the nest.
3.50 5 »

All these ants appeared quite insensible. Altogether
sixteen friends were taken to the nest and fivethrown into
the water, while of the strangers only three were taken
to the nest, and fifteen were thrown into the water.
Moreover, as in the preceding observation, even the
three strangers which were at first taken to the nest,
were soon brought out again and thrown away; while

ise was not the case with any of the friends as far as

we could ascertain, though we searched diligently for
them also. In this case also all the intoxicated ants
were motionless and apparently insensible.

January 15.—Repeated the same experiment,
beginning at 12.20. Up to7 p.m. not one of the intoxi-
cated ants had been moved. At 8.20 we found a
stranger in the water, at 9.30 another, and at the
following morning athird. The others were untouched.

January 17.—Repeated the same experiment,
beginning at 11.30.

BEHAVIOUR TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS. 117

At 12a friend was carried to the nest.

12.20 a stranger was dropped into the water.
12.34 a friend was carried to the nest.
12.40 a stranger was dropped into the water.
12.45 a friend was carried to the nest.

1 astranger 9 33

1 35 os water

(Stopped observing till 2.)

2.30 a stranger was dropped into the water.
2.30 a stranger was carried to the nest.

4.10 ” ” ”
4.30 a friend ss 55
6.20 a stranger ea water.
6.35 ” ” ”

Thus, then, the general results were that the ants
removed forty-one friends and fifty-two strangers. Of
the friends, thirty-two were carried into the nest and
nine were thrown into the water. Of the strangers, on
the contrary, forty-three were thrown into the water;
only nine were taken into the nest, and seven of these
were shortly afterwards brought out again and thrown
away. Indeed,I fully believe that the other two were
treated in the same manner, though we could not satisfy
ourselves of the fact. But it way only by very close
observation that the seven were detected, and the other
two may well have escaped notice.

It seems clear, therefore, that even in_a condition
of _insensibility these ants were recognised by their
friends.

118

Tabular View.—Experiments on Ants under

Chloroform and Intowicated,

BEHAVIOUR TO INTOXICATED FRIENDS.

CHLOROFORMED ANTS.

FRIENDS STRANGERS
To | Unre- To | Unre-
To Nest Water weve To Nest Water moved
Sept. 10 ee 4 Ae 4 ses
14 4 aud 2 2 cA
and brought
out again
15 1 1 vee 2 2
and brought
out again
29 ee 5 ic 4].
Oct. 2 eee 5 1 4 vee
and brought
out again
6 Pe 5 62s 4
1 20 4 3 20 2
INTOXICATED ANTS.
Nov. 20 3 2 xe tee 5 1
22 2 = 2 _ 8 vee
In these cases some of the Ants had partly recovered ; in the
following they were quite insensible.
Dec. 1 2 3 6 see
none brought all these
out again brought out
again
8 16 5 ae 3 15 aes
none brought all these
out again brought out
again
Jan. 15 sae és 4 aT 3 1
17 iss: ||. sone 3 6 aes
none brought one brought
out again out again
27 7 4 2 30 1

CHAPTER VI.

RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS.

Ir has been already shown that with ants, as with
bees, while the utmost harmony reigns between those
belonging to the same community, all others are
enemies. I have already given ample proof that a strange
ant is never toleratedin a community. This of course
implies that all the bees or ants of a community have
the power of recognising one another, a most surprising
fact, when we consider the shortness of their life and
their immense numbers. It is calculated that in a
single hive there may be as many as 50,000 bees, and
in the case of ants the numbers are still greater. In
the large communities of Formica pratensis it is
probable that there may be as many as from 400,000
to 500,000 ants, and in other cases even these large
numbers are exceeded.

If, however, astranger is put among the ants of
another nest, she is at once attacked. On this point
I have satisfied myself, as will be seen in the following
pages, that the statements of Huber and others are
perfectly correct. If, for instance, I introduced a
stranger into one of my nests, say of Formica fusca or

120 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS.

Lasius niger, she was at once attacked. One ant would
seize her by an antenna, another by a leg, and she was
either dragged out of the nest or killed.

Moreover, we have not only to deal with the fact
that ants know all their comrades, but that they recog-
nise them even after a lengthened separation.

Huber mentions that some ants which he had kept
in captivity having accidentally escaped, ‘met and

recognised their former companions, fell to mutual
caresses with their antenne, took them up by their
mandibles, and led them to their own nests; they
came presently in a crowd to seek the fugitives under
and about the artificial ant-hill, and even ventured to
reach the bell-glass, where they effected a complete
desertion by carrying away successively all the ants
they found there. In a few days the ruche was
depopulated. These ants had remained four months
without any communication.’! This interesting state-
ment has been very naturally copied by succeeding
writers. See, for instance, Kirby and Spence’s ‘In-
troduction to Entomology,’ vol. ii. p. 66, and Newport,
‘Trans. of the Entomological Society of London,’
vol. ii. p. 239.

Forel, indeed, regards the movements observed by
Huber as having indicated fear and surprise rather than
affection ; though he is quite disposed to believe, from
his own observations, that ants would recognise one
another after a separation of several months,

' Huber, p. 172.

RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS. 321

The observation recorded by Huber was made
casually, and he did not take any steps to test it by
subsequent experiments. The fact, however, is of
so much importance that I determined to make
further observations on the subject. In the first place,
I may repeat that I have satisfied myself by many
experiments, that ants from one community introduced
into another,—always be it understood of the same
species,—are attacked, and either driven out or killed.
It follows, therefore, that as within the nest the most
complete harmony prevails—indeed, I have never seen
a quarrel between sister ants— they must by some means
recognise one another.

When we consider their immense numbers this is
sufficiently surprising ; but that they should recognise
one another, as stated by Huber, after a separation of
months, is still more astonishing.

I determined therefore to repeat and extend his
observations.

Accordingly, on August 20, 1875, I divided a colony
of Myrmica ruginodis, so that one half were in one
nest, A, and the other half in another, B, and were
kept entirely apart.

On October 3, I put into nest B a stranger and
an old companion from nest A. They were marked
with a spot of colour. One of them immediately
flew at the stranger; of the friend they took no
notice.

October 18.—At 10 a.m. I put in a stranger and a

10

122 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS

friend from nest A. In the evening the former was
killed, the latter was quite at home.

October 19.—I put one ina small buttle with a
friend from nest A. They did not show any enmity. I
then put in a stranger; and one of them immediately
began to fight with her.

October 24.—I again put into the nest a stranger
and a friend. The former was attacked, but not the
latter. The following day I found the former almost
dead, while the friend was all right.

October 31.—I again put a stranger anda friend into
the nest. The former was at once attacked; in this
case the friend also was, for a moment, seized by the
leg, but at once released again. On the following
morning the stranger was dead, the friend was all
right.

November 7.—Again I put in a stranger and a friend.
The former was soon attacked and eventually driven
out; of the latter they did not seem to me to take any
particular notice. I could see no signs of welcome, no
gathering round a returned friend; but, on the other
hand, she was not attacked.

Again, I séparated one of my colonies of Formica
fusca into two halves on August 4, 1875, and kept
them entirely apart. From time to time I put speci~
inens from the one half back into the other. The de-
tails of this experiment will be found in the Appendix.
At first the friends were always amicably received, but
after some months’ separation they were occasionally

AFTER SEPARATION FOR NEARLY TWO YEARS. 123

attacked, as if some of the ants, perhaps the young ones,
did not recognise them. Still they were never killed,
or driven out of the nest, so that evidently when a
mistake was made, it was soon recognised. No one
who saw the different manner in which these ants and
strangers were treated, could have the slightest doubt
that the former were recognised as friends and the
latter as enemies. The last three were put back on
May 14, 1877, that is to say, after a separation of a
year_and nine months, and yet they were amicably re-
ceived, and evidently recognised as friends !

These observations were all made on Formica fusca,
and it is of course possible that other species would
behave in a different manner.

Indeed, in this respect Lasius flavus offers a sur-
prising contrast to F. fusca. I was anxious to see
whether the colonies of this species, which are very
numerous round my house, were in friendly relations
with one another. With this view, I kept a nest of L.
flavus for a day or two without food, and then gave
them some honey, to which they soon found their way
in numbers. [ then put in the midst of them an ant
of the same species from a neighbouring nest; the
others did not attack, but, on the contrary, cleaned her
—thongh, from the attention she excited and the
numerous communications which took place between
her and them, I am satisfied that they knew she was
not one of themselves. After a few minutes she accom-
panied some of the returning ants to the nest. They

124 TREATMENT OF STRANGERS,

did not drag nor apparently guide her; but she went
with the rest freely. This I repeated several times
with the same result.

I then took four ants, two from a nest about 500
yards from the first in one direction, the other from an
equal distance in another. In all cases the result was
the same. I then got a few from a colony about half a
mile off. These also were most amicably received, and
in every case the stranger went of her own accord to
the nest. One of the strangers was, indeed, dragged
about half way to the entrance of the nest, but was
then left free and might have run away if she had
liked. She, however, after wandering about for half a
minute, voluntarily entered the nest. In one or two
cases the stranger ran as quickly and straight to the
nest as if she had been there over and over again.
This, I suppose, can only have been by scent; and cer-
tainly no hounds in full cry could have pursued their
game more directly or with less hesitation. In other
cases, however, they were much longer before they went
in. To satisfy myself that these facts were not owing
to the nest having been taken from that of colonies
or allies, I subsequently procured some ants of the
same species from a nest in Hertfordshire ; and they
also behaved in a similar manner. In one or two cases
they seemed to be attacked, though so feebly that I could
not feel sure aboutit; but in no case were the ants killed.

The following fact surprised me still more. I put
an ant (Aug. 13) at 9 4.M. on a spot where a number of

TREATMENT OF STRANGERS. 125

Lasius flavus (belonging to one of my nests of domesti-
eated ants) had been feeding some hours previously,
though none were there, or, indeed, out at all, at the
moment. The entrance to the nest was about eight
inches off; but she walked straight to it and into the
nest. A second wandered about for four or five minutes,
and then went in; a third, on the contrary, took a wrong
direction, and, at any rate for three-quarters of an hour,
did not find the entrance.

At that time, however, I did not ascertain what
became of the specimens thus introduced into a strange
community. I thought it would be worth while to
determine this, so I subsequently (1881) took six ants
from one of my nests of L. flavus, marked them, and
introduced them into another nest of the same species.
As in the preceding cases they entered quite readily ;
but though they were not at first attacked, they were
evidently recognised as strangers. The others ex-
amined them carefully, and at length they were all
driven out of the nest. Their greater readiness to enter
a strange nest may perhaps be accounted for by the fact
that, as a subterranean species their instinct always is
to conceal themselves underground, whereas, F. fusca,
a hunting species, does not do so except to enter ita
own nest.

How do theee ants and bees recognise their com-
panions? The difficulty of believing that in such
populous communities every individual knows every
other by sight, has led some entomologists to suppose

126 MODE OF RECOGNITION.

that each nest had a sign or password, This was, for
instance, the opinion of Gélieu, who believed that iv
each hive the bees had some common sign or password.
As evidence of this, he mentions! that one of his hives
had been for some days robbed by the bees from
another: ‘et je désespérais de conserver cet essaim,
lorsqu’un jour, sur le soir, je le vis fort inquiet, fort
agité, comme s‘il eit perdu sa reine. Les abeilles
couraient en tout sens sur le devant et le tablier de la
ruche, se flairant, se tatant mutuellement, comme si
elles eussent voulu se dire quelque chose. C’était pour
changer leur signe de reconnaissance, qu’elles changérent
en effet pendant la nuit. Toutes les pillardes qui
revinrent le lendemain, furent arrétées et tuées. Plu-
sieurs échappérent aux gardes vigilantes qui défendaient
Yentrée avertirent sans doute les autres du danger
quelles avaient couru, et que l’on ne pouvait plus
piller impunément. Aucune de celles qui voulurent
recommencer leur déprédation ne pénétra dans la
ruche, dont elles avaient fait leur proie, et qui prospéra
merveilleusement.’

Dujardin doubts the explanation given by Gélieu.
He thinks that the nest which was robbed was at that
time queenless, and that the sudden change in the
behaviour of the bees was due to their having acquired
a queen.

Burmeister, on the contrary, in his excellent
‘Manual of Entomology,’ says that ‘ the power of com.

' Le Conservateus des Abeilles, p. 143.

SUPPOSED USE OF PASS SIGNS. 127

municating to their comrades what they purpose is
peculiar to insects. Much has been talked of the
so-called signs of recognition in bees, which is said to
consist in recognising their comrades of the same hive
by means of peculiar signs. This sign serves to pre-
vent any strange bee from entering into the same hive
without being immediately detected and killed. It,
however, sometimes happens that several hives have
the same signs, when their several members rob each
other with impunity. In these cases the bees whose
hive suffers most alter their signs, and then can im-
mediately detect their enemy.’!

Others, again, have supposed ants recognise one
another by smell,

Mr. McCook states that ants more or less soaked in
water are no longer recognised by their friends, but, on
the contrary, are attacked. Describing the following
observation, he says : °—‘ I was accidentally set upon the
track of an interesting discovery. An ant feil into a
box containing water placed at the foot ofa tree. She
remained in the liquid several moments and crept out.
Immediately she was seized in a hostile manner, first
by one, then another, then by a third: the two an-
tennz and one leg were thus held. A fourth ant
assaulted the middle thorax and petiole. The poor
little bather was thus dragged helplessly to and fro
for a long time, and was evidently ordained to death.

1 Burmeister’s Entomology, p. 502.
2 Mound-making Ants of the Alleghanies, p. 280.

128 SUPPOSED RECOGNITION BY SCENT.

Presently I took up the struggling heap. Two of the
assailants kept their hold; one finally dropped, the
other I could not tear loose, and so put the pair back

upon the tree, leaving the doomed immersionist to her
"hard fate.”

After recording one or two other similar observa-
tions, he adds:'—‘ The conclusion, therefore, seems
warranted that the peculiar odour or condition by which
the ants recognise each other was temporarily destroyed
by the bath, and the individuals thus “ tainted” were
held to be intruders, alien and enemy. This con-
clusion is certainly unfavourable to the theory that any
thing like an intelligent social sentiment exists among
the ants. The recognition of their fellows is reduced
to a mere matter of physical sensation or “ smell.”
This conclusion does not, I confess, seem to me to be
conclusively established.

We can hardly suppose that each ant has a pecu-
liar odour, and it seems almost equally difficult, con-
sidering the immense number of ants’ nests, to suppose
that each community has a separate and peculiar smell.
Moreover, in a previous chapter I have recorded some
experiments made with intoxicated ants. It will be
remembered that my ants are allowed to range over a
table surrounded by a moat of water. Now, as already
mentioned, out of forty-one intoxicated friends, thirty-
two were carried into the nest and nine were thrown
into the water; while out of fifty-two intoxicated

\ Mound-making Ants of the Alleghanies, p. 281.

SUPPOSED USE OF A PASSWORD. 123

strangers two were taken into the nest and fifty were
thrown into the water. I think it most probable that
even these two were subsequently brought out and
treated like the rest.

It is clear, therefore, that in these species, and I
believe in most, if not all others, the ants of a com-
munity all recognise one another. The whole question
is full of difficulty. It occurred to me, however, that
experiments with pupe might throw some light on
the subject. Although all the communities are deadly
enemies, still if larvae or pups from one nest are trans-
ferred to another, they are tended with apparently as
much care as if they really belonged to the nest. In
ant-warfare, though sex is no protection, the young are
spared, at least when they belong to the same species.
Moreover, though the habits of ants are greatly changed
if they.are taken away from their nest and kept with
only a few friends, still, under such circumstances, they
will carefully tend any young who may be confided to
them. Now if the recognition were individual—if the
ants knew any one of their comrades, as we know our
friends, not only from strangers, but from one another
—then young ants taken from the nest as pup and
restored after they had come to maturity would not
be recognised as friends. On the other hand, if the
recognition were effected by means of some signal or
password, then the pupz which were intrusted to ants
from another nest would have the password, if any, of
that nest; and not of their own. Hence in this case

130 EXPERIMENTS WITH PUPA.

they would be amicably received in the nest from
which their nurses had been taken, but not in their
own.
In the first place, therefore, I put, on September 2,
1877, some pup from one of my nests of Formica
fusca with a couple of ants from the same nest. On
the 27th I put two ants, which in the meantime had
emerged from one of these pups, back into their own
nest at 8.30 A.M., marking them with paint as usual.
At 9 they seemed quite at home; at 9.30, ditto; at
10, ditto; and they were nearly cleaned. After that
I could not distinguish them.

On the 29th another ant came out of the pupa-
state; and on October 1 at 7.45 I put her back into
the nest. She seemed quite at home, and the others
soon began to clean her. We watched her from time
to time, and she was not attacked; but, the colour
being removed, we could not recognise her after 9.30.

On Jnly 14 last year (1878) I put into a small glass
some pupz from another nest of Formica fusca with
two friends.

On August 11 I put four of the young ants which
had emerged from these pups into the nest. After
the interval of an hour, I looked for them in vain.
The door of the nest was closed with cutton-wool; so
that they could not have come out; and if any were
being attacked, I think we must have seen it. I
believe, therefore, that in the meantime they had been
cleaned. Still, as we did not actually watch them, I

EXPERIMENTS WITH PUPA, 131

was not satisfied. I put in, therefore, two more at
5 p.M. At 5.30 they were all right; at 5.45, ditto,
one being almost cleaned. At 6 one was all right;
the other was no longer recognizable, having been quite
cleaned. At 6.30 also one was quite at home; the
other could not be distinguished. At 7 both had been
completely cleaned

The following day I marked another, and put her
in at 6 a. At 6.15 she was all right among the
others, and also at 6.30, 7, 7.30, 8, and 9.30, after
which I could no longer distinguish her.

Again, on the following day I put in another at
6.45 am. At 7 she was quite at home, and also at
7.16, 7.30, 8, and to 9.30, after which I did not watch
her.

To test the mode in which the ants of this nest
would behave to a stranger, I then, though feeling no
doubt as to the result, introduced one. The difference
was very striking. The stranger was a powerful ant;
still she was evidently uncomfortable, started away
from every ant she met, and ran nervously about,
trying to get out of the nest. She was, however, soon
attacked.

Again, on October 1 some pup of Lastus niger
were placed in a glass with five ants from the same
nest.

On December 8 I tcok three of the ants which had
emerged frum these pups, and at midday put them
back into their old nest, having marked them by ni¢k«

132 PUP REMOVED FROM NEST,

ing the claws. Of course, under these circumstances
we could not watch the ants. I examined the nest,
however, every half hour very carefully, and am satisfied
that there was no fighting. The next morning there
was no dead ant; nor was there a death in the nest for
more than a fortnight.

December 21.—Marked three more in the same
manner, and put them in at 11.15 a.m. Looked at
the usual intervals, but saw no fighting. The next
morning there was no dead one outside the nest; but
I subsequently found one of these ants outside, and
nearly dead. I am, however, disposed to think that I
had accidentally injured this ant.

December 23.—Painted three, and put them in at 10
a.m. At 11 they were allright, 12 ditto, 1 ditto, 2 ditto,
3 ditto, 4 ditto, 5 ditto. At 3 I put in three strangers
for comparison: two of them were soon attacked ; the
other hid herself’ in a corner; but all three were
eventually dragged out of the nest. I found no other
dead ant outside the nest for some days.

December 29.—Painted three more, and put them
in at 10.30 4m. At 11 they were all right, 12 ditto, 1
ditto, 2 ditto. During the afternoon they were once or
twice attacked for a minute or two, but the ants seemed
soon to perceive the mistake, and let them go again.
The next morning I found one dead ant, but had
no reason to suppose that she was one of the above
three. The following morning there was again only
one dead ant outside the nest ; she was the third of the

AND RESTORED AFTER COMING TO MATURITY. 133

strangers put in on the 23rd, as mentioned above. Up
to January 23 found no other dead one.

January 3, 1879.—Painted three more, and put
them in at 11.30 a.m. At 12 two were all right: we
could not see the third ; but no ant was being attacked.
12 ditto. I, all three are all right; 2 ditto; 5 ditto.
As already mentioned, for some days there was no dead
ant brought out of the nest.

January 5.—Painted three more and put them in
at 11.30 a. At 12 two were all right among the
others; I could not find the third; but no ant was
being attacked. 12.30 ditto, 1 ditto, 2 ditto, 4 ditto.
On the following morning I found two of them all right
among the others. There was no dead ant.

January 13.—Painted three more and put them in
at 12.30. At 1 they were all right. 2 ditto. 4, two
were all right ; I could not see the third, but she was
not being attacked. The next morning, when I looked
at the nest, one was just being carried, not dragged,
out. The ant carried her about 6 inches and then put
her down, apparently quite unhurt. She soon returned
into the nest, and seemed to be quite amicably re-
ceived by the rest. Another one of the three also
seemed quite at home. The third I could not see; but
up to January 23 no dead one was brought out of the
nest.

January 19.—Marked the last three of these ants,
and put them into the nest at 9.30 a.m. They were
watched continuously up to 1. At that time two of

134 ANTS REMOVED AS PUPA, AND RESTORED

them had been almost completely cleaned. One was
attacked for about a minute soon after 11, and another
a little later; but with these exceptions they were
quite amicably received, and seemed entirely at home
among the other ants.

Thus every one of these thirty-two ants was amic-
ably received.

These experiments, then, seem to prove that ants
removed from a nest in the condition of pup, but
tended by friends, if reintroduced into the parent nest,
are recognised and treated as friends. Nevertheless
the recognition does not seem to have been complete.
In several cases the ants were certainly attacked,
though only by one or two ants, not savagely, and only
for a short time. It seemed as if, though recognised
as friends by the great majority, some few, more
ignorant or more suspicious than the rest, had doubts
on the subject, which, however, in some manner
still mysterious, were ere long removed. The case
in which one of these marked ants was carried out of
the nest may perhaps be explained by her having been
supposed to be ill, in which case, if the malady is con-
sidered to be fatal, ants are generally brought out of
the nest.

It now remained to test the result when the pupx
were confided to the care of ants belonging toa different
nest, though, of course, the same species.

I therefore took a number of pup out of some of
my nests of Formica fusca and put them in small

TO THE NEST AFTER COMING TO MATURITY. 133

glasses, with ants from another nest of the same species.
Now, as already mentioned, if the recognition were
effected by means of some signal or password, then, as
we can hardly suppose that the larve or pupe would
be sufficiently intelligent to appreciate, still less to
remember it, the pupz which were intrusted to ants
from another nest would have the password, if any, of
that nest, and not of the one from which they had been
taken. Hence, if the recognition were effected by
some password or sign with the antenne, they would
be amicably received in the nest from which their
nurses had been taken, but not in their own.

I will indicate the nests by the numbers in my
note-book.

On August 26 last year I put some pupe of
Formica fusca from one of my nests (No. 36) with two
workers from another nest of the same species. Two
emerged from the chrysalis state on the 30th; and on
September 2 I put them, marked as usual, into their
old nest (No. 36) at 9.30 a.m. At 9.45 they seemed
quite at home, and had already been nearly cleaned.
At 10.15 the same was the case, and they were scarcely
distinguishable. After that I could no longer make
them out; but we watched the nest closely, and J
think I can undertake to say that if they had been
attacked we must have seen it.

Another one of the same batch emerged on August
18, but was rather crippled in doing so. On the 21st
I put her into the nest (No. 36). This ant was at once

136 ANTS REMOVED AS PUP, AND RESTORED

attacked, dragged out of the nest, and dropped into the
surrounding moat of water.

Again, on July 14 last year (1878) I put some pups
of Formica fusca from nest No. 36 into a glass with
three ants of the same species from nest No. 60.

On the 22nd I put an ant from one of these pupe
into her old nest (No. 36) at 9.30 a.m. She was at-
tacked. At 10 she was being dragged about. 10.30
ditto. I regretted she was not watched longer.

August 8.—Put another ant which had emerged
from one of these pupe into her old nest (No. 36) at
7.45 4M. At 8 she seemed quite at home among the
others. 8.15 ditto, 8.30 ditto, 9 ditto, 9.30 ditto.

August 9.—Put two other young ants of this
batch into their old nest (No. 36) at 7 a.m. At 7.30
they were all right. At 7.30 one of them was being
dragged by a leg, but only, I think, to bring her under
shelter, and was then Jet go. Young ants of this spe-
cies, when the nest is disturbed, are sometimes dragged
to a place of safety in this way. At 8.30 they were
all right and nearly cleaned. After this I could not
distinguish them ; but if they had been attacked, we
must have seen it.

August 11.—Put in another one as before at
8.30 am. At 8.45 she was allright. At 9 she was
dragged by a leg, like the last, but not for long; and
at 9.39 she was quite comfortable amongst the others.
1C ditto, 10.45 ditto, 12 ditto, 5 ditto.

August 24.—Put in the last two ants of this lot

TO THE NEST AFTER COMING TO MATURITY, 137

as before at 9.15 a.m. At 9.30 they were all right.
9.45 ditto. At 10 they were almost cleaned. At 10.30
I could only distinguish one ; and she had only a speck
of colour left. She appeared quite at home ; and though
I could no longer distinguish the other, I must have
seen it if she had been attacked.

Thus, then, out of seven ants of this batch put back
into their old nest, six were amicably received. On the
other hand, I put one into nest No. 60, from which the
three nurses were taken. She was introduced into the
nest at 8.15 A.M., and was at once attacked. 8.45, she
was being dragged about. 9 ditto, 9.15 ditto, 9.30 ditto,
Evidently therefore she was not treated as a friend.

Again, on July 14, 1878, I put some pupe of
Formica fusca from nest No. 60 with three ants from
nest No. 36.

On August 5 at 4 p.m. I put an ant which had
emerged from one of these pupz, into her old nest
(No. 60). At 4.15 she seemed quite at home. They
were already cleaning her ; and by 4.30 she was no longer
distinguishable. We watched the nest, however, care-
fully for some time; and I feel sure she was not attacked.

August 6.—Put another of this batch into nest
No. 60 at 7.15 4.mM. At 7.30 she was not attacked. At
8, one of the ants was carefully cleaning her. At 8.15
she was quite at home among the others. At 8.36
ditto; she was nearly cleaned. 9.30 ditto..

August 8.—Put in another as before at 7.45. At
b she was all right. 8.30 ditto, 9.30 ditto, 9.45 ditta,

11

{88 ANTS REMOVED AS PUPA, AND hESTORED

Awgust 9.—Put in another as before at 7 a.M. At
7.30 she is quite at home among the others, and already
nearly cleaned. At 8I could no longer distinguish her ;
but certainly no ant was being attacked. 9 ditto.

August 11.—Put in another as before at 8 A.M.
At 8.15 she was quite at home. 8.30 ditto, 9 ditto,
9.30 ditto, 10 ditto, 12.30 ditto.

August 13.—Lastly, I put in the remaining young
ant as before at 7 a.m. At 7.15 she was allright. At
7.30 ditto and nearly cleaned. At 8 I could no longer
distinguish her; but no ant was being attacked.

Thus, then, as in the preceding experiment, these
six ants when reintroduced into the nest from which
they had been taken as pup, were received as friends.
On the other hand, on August 5 I put a young ant of
the same batch into nest No. 36, from which the three
nurses had been taken. She was introduced at 11 and
was at once attacked. At11.30 she was being dragged
about, and shortly after was dragged out of the nest.
I then introduced a second; but she was at once
attacked like the first.

August 22.—I put some pupe of Formica fusca
from nest No. 64 under the charge of three ants from
nest No. 60. By September 7 several young ones had
emerged. I put two of them into nest No. 64 at
8.15 am. They were amicably received, as in the pre-
eeding experiments, and the ants began to clean them,
At 8.30 they were allright. 8.45 ditto. At 9 they had
been completely cleaned, so that I could not distinguish

TO THE NEST AFTER COMING TO MATURITY. 139

them; but there was no fighting going on in the
nest.

On the same day, at 9.45 a.m., I put into nest 64
two more as before. At 10 they were both quite at
home among the other ants. 10.15 ditto, 10.30 ditto,
11 ditto, 12 ditto, 1 ditto. I then put in a stranger;
and she was at once fiercely attacked.

September 8.—Put in two more of the ants which
had emerged from the pupz, as before, at 9.30 a.M.
At 9.45 they were all right. 10 ditto, 10.30 ditto, 11
ditto, 11.30 ditto, 12 ditto, 1 ditto.

On the other hand, on September 14, I put one of
these ants in the same manner into nest No. 60 at 6.30
A.M. She wasat once attacked. At 6.45 she was being
dragged about by anantenna. 7 ditto. At7.30 she was
by herself in one corner. At 8.30 she was again being
dragged about. 9.30 ditto. The difference, therefore,
was unmistakable.

Once more, on July 29 I put some pup of Formica
fusca from out of doors under the charge of three ants
from nest No. 36.

August 3.—Several had come out, and I put two
of them into the nest of their nurses (No. 36) at 2 P.M.
Both were at once attacked. At 2.45 they were being
dragged about. 3 ditto. 3.30 one was being dragged
about. 4, both were being attacked. Eventually one
was turued out of the nest. The other I lost sight of.

August 4.—Put two more of this batch into nest
No. 36, at 12.30. One was at once attacked. 1, one

140 YOUNG ANTS RECOGNISED EVEN

was being dragged about by an antenna. 2.30, both
were being attacked. At 2.45 one was dragged out o:
the nest. :

I then put back one of the old ones; as might have
been expected, she was received quite amicably.

I then tried the same experiment with another
species, Lasius niger. I took some pups from two of
my nests, which I knew not to be on friendly terms,
and which I will call 1 and 2, and confided each batch
to three or four ants taken from the other nest. When
they had come to maturity I introduced them into the
nests as before.

They were taken from their nest on September 20;
and the results were as follows.

Pupz from nest 1 confided to ants from nest 2.

September 20.—Put one of the young ones into
nest 2 at 7.15 a.m. Several at once threatened her.
At 7.25 one of the ants seized her by an antenna, and
began dragging her about. 7.30, she was still being
dragged about. 8, ditto. 8.15, she was now being
dragged about by three ants. 8.30, she was still attacked.
9, ditto. At 9.15 she was dragged out of the nest.

September 23.—Put two of the young ants into
nest 1 at 9.15 4M. One was at once attacked, and
the other a few minutes afterwards. 9.45, both were
attacked. 10, ditto. One was now dead and hanging on
toa leg of assailant. 1015 ditto. 10.45, both were still
being dragged about.

At 11 a.m. I put into nest 2 three more very young

WHEN REMOVED IN THE STATE OF PUPA, 141

ones. At 11.10 one was attacked. At 11.20 all three
were being viciously attacked, and yet one was nearly
cleaned. At 12 one was being attacked, one was alone
in a corner, the other wecould not find. At 12.10 one
was dragged out of the nest and then abandoned, on
which, to my surprise, she ran into the nest again,
which no old ant would have done. She was at once
again seized by an antenna. At 12.30 she was still
being dragged about; the second was being cleaned.
In this instance, therefore, I think two out of the three
were eventually accepted as inmates of the nest.

September 25.—Put two of the young ones inte
nest 1 at 2.30 p.m. At 2.45 one was attacked, but not
viciously. 3 ditto, 3.15 ditto. No notice was taken of
the other, though several ants came upand examined her.
3.30, the first; was not attacked, the second was almost
cleaned. 4, the first has been again attacked, but not
viciously, and moreover has been partly cleaned. The
second was evidently received as a friend, and was almost
cleaned. 4.30, they are both comfortably among the
others and are almost clean. At 5 I could no longer
distinguish them.

I now pass to the other batch, namely, pupe from
aest 2 with ants from nest 1.

September 25.—Put three of the young ants into
aest 1 at 9.30 a.m. At 9.45 two were attacked, the
third was by herself. 10 ditto. At 10.15 one made her
escape from the nest. At 10.20 the third was attacked.
At 10.30 one of them was dragged out of the nest, and

142 YOUNG ANTS RECOGNISED

then abandoned. At 10.50 the third also was dragged
cut of the nest.

I then put two of these ants and a third young one
into nest 2. At 11.15 a.M. they seemed quite happy;
but at 11.30 two were being dragged about; the third,
who was very young, was, on the contrary, being care-
fully cleaned. At 12 this last one was undistinguish-
able ; of the other two, one was being attacked, the
second was taken no notice of, though several ants
came up to her. At 12.5 the first was dragged out of
the nest and then abandoned ; the second was being
carefully cleaned. This went on till 12.20, when the
paint was entirely removed.

September 27.—I put in three more of these young
ants into nest 1, at 7.45 a.m. At8 o’clock they seemed
quite at home among the other ants. A few minutes
after, one was being held by a leg ; the other two seemed
quite at home. At 8.30 one was almost cleaned, the
other I could not see. At 9 two of them were quite at
home, but I could not see the third. At 9.30 they were
both nearly cleaned ; and after that we were no longer
able to distinguish them.

Thinking the results might be different if the ante
were allowed to become older before being returned into
their nests, I made no further observations with these
ants for two months. IJ then took two of the ants which
had emerged from the pupe separated on Septem-
ber 20, and which had been brought up by ants
from nest 2, and on November 22 I put them back

EVEN WHEN REMOVED As PUP. 143

at 12 a.m. in their old nest (that is to say, in nest 1),
having marked them as usual, with paint. They showed
no signs of fear, but ran about among the other ants with
every appearance of being quiteat home. At 12.15 ditto.
At 12.30 one was being cleaned. At 12.45 both were
being cleaned ; and by 1 o’clock they could scarcely be
distinguished from the other ants. There had not
been the slightest symptoms of hostility. After this
hour we could no longer identify them; but the nest
was carefully watched throughout the afternoon, and I
think I can undertake to say that they were not
attacked When we left off watching, the nest was
enclosed in a box. The next morning I examined it
carefully, to see if there were any dead bodies. This
was not the case; and I am satisfied, therefore, that
neither of these two ants was killed. To test these
ants, I then, on November 24, at 8.30 a.M., put into
the nest two ants from nest 2. At 8.40 one was
attacked; the other had hid herself away in a corner.
At 9.15 both of the ants were being dragged about. At
9.35 one was dragged out of the nest and then released,
and the other a few minutes afterwards. After watch-
ing them for some time to see that they remained out-
side, I restored them to their own nest. The contrast,
therefore, was very marked.

Again, on November 25, I took two ants which had
emerged from pups belonging to nest 2, removed on
September 20, and brought up by ants from nest 1,
and put them back into their old nest at 2 p.m. They

144 YOUNG ANTS RECOGNISED

were watched continuously until 4 p.m., but were not
attacked, nor even threatened. The following morning
one of them was quite well, the other one we could
not distinguish; she had probably been cleaned. If
she had been killed, we must have found her dead
body. I then at 10 a.m. put in two more. At
10.30 one of them was attacked for a moment, but
only for a moment. With this exception neither of
them was attacked until 2 o’clock, when one of them
was again seized and dragged about for a minute or
two, but then released again. We continued watching
them till half-past 4, when they seemed quite at home
amongst the others. On the other hand a stranger,
put in as a test at 12, was at once attacked. It was
curious, however, that although she was undoubtedly
attacked, yet at the very same time another ant began
to clean her.

The next morning we found one ant, and only one, in
the box outside the nest; and this turned out to be the
stranger of yesterday. She had been almost cleaned ;
but there were one or two small particles of paint still
remaining, so that there could be no doubt of her
identity.

The next day, November 27, I put in three more
of the ants derived from these pupe at 10 am. At
10.30 they were all right, running about amongst the
others. At 11 o’clock the same was the case; but
whilst I was looking again shortly afterwards, one of
them was seized by an antenna and dragged a little

WHEN REMOVED AS PUPE. 145

way, but released again in less than a minute. Shortly
afterwards one of the others was also seized, but let go
again almost immediately. At one o’clock they were
all right, and also at two. They had, however, in the
meantime been more than once threatened, and even
momentarily seized, though they were never dragged
about as strangers would have been. At three o’clock
I found one of them dead; but I think I must have
accidentally injured her, and I do not believe that she was
killed by the other ants, though I cannot speak quite
positively about it. The other two were quite at home,
and had been partly cleaned. At six one of them was
running about comfortably amongst the rest ; the other
I could not distinguish ; but certainly no ant was being
attacked.

November 28.—I put in the last two ants from the
above-mentioned batch of pupe at noon. Like the
preceding, these ants were occasionally threatened, and
even sometimes attacked for a moment or two; but
the other ants soon seemed to find out their mistake,
and on the whole they were certainly treated as friends,
the attacks never lasting more than a few moments.
One of them was watched at intervals of half an hour
until 5 p.m.; the other we could not distinguish after
3 P.M. the paint having been licked off; but we
should certainly have observed it had she been
attacked.

On the whole, then, all the thirty-two ants belonging
to Formica fusca and Lasius niger, removed from

146 SISTER ANTS RECOGNISED

their nest as pups, attended by friends and restored te
their own nest, were amicably received.

What is still more remarkable, of twenty-two ants
belonging to F. fusca, removed as pup, attended by
strangers, and returned to their own nest, twenty were
amicably received. As regards one I am doubtful; the
last was crippled in coming out of the pupa-case; and
to this perhaps her unfriendly reception may have been
due.

Of the same number of Lasius niger developed
in the same manner from pupe tended by strangers
belonging to the same species, and then returned into
their own nest, nineteen were amicably received, three
were attacked, and about two I feel doubtful.

On the other hand, fifteen specimens belonging to
- the same two species, removed as pupx, tended by
strangers belonging to the same species, and then put
into the strangers’ nest, were all attacked.

The results may be tabulated as follows :—

Pupz brought up Pure brought up by strangers.
by friends and Put in own Put in strangers’
replaced in their own nest. nest, nest.
Attacked ...... - 0 7 15
R: ceived amicably .. 33 37 0

The differences cannot be referred to any difference
of temperament in different nests. The specimens of
F, fusca experimented with in August aud September
last were taken principally from two nests, nun:bered
respectively 36 and 60. Now, while nest 26, in most

! I do not feel sure about three of these,

EVEN IF BROUGHT UP SEPARATELY. 147

cases, amicably received ants bred from its own pupa
but tended by ants from 60, it showed itself fiercely
hostile to ants from pupe born in nest 60, even when
these had been tended by ants from nest 36. Nest 60,
again, behaved in a similar manner ; amicably receiving,
as a general rule, its own young, even when tended
by ants from 36; and refusing to receive ants born in
nest 36, even when tended by specimens from nest 60.

These experiments seem to indicate that ants of the
same nest do not recognise one another by any pass-
word. On the other hand, they seem to show that if ants
are removed from a nest in the pupa-state, tended by
strangers, and then restored, some at least of their rela-
tives are puzzled, and for a time doubt their claim to con-
sanguinity. I say some, because while strangers under
the circumstances would have been immediately at-
tacked, these ants were in every case amicably received
by the majority of the colony, and it was sometimes
several hours before they came across one who did not
recognise them.

In all these experiments, however, the ants were
taken from the nest as pup, and though I did not
think the fact that they had passed their larval existence
in the nest could affect the problem, still it might do
so. I determined therefore to separate a nest before
the young were born, or even the eggs laid, and then
ascertain the result. Accordingly I took one of my nests
of F. fusca, which I began watching on Sept. 13, 1878,
and which contained two queens, and on February 8,

148 SISTER ANTS RECOGNISED

1879, divided it into halves, which I will call A and B,
so that there were approximately the same number of
ants with a queen in each division. At this season,
of course, the nest contained neither young nor even
eggs. During April both queens began to lay eggs.
On July 20 I took a number of pups from each division
and placed each lot in a separate glass, with two ants ~
from the same division. On August 30 I took four
auts from the pupe bred in B, and one from those in A
(which were not quite so forward), and after marking
them as usual with paint, put the B ants into nest
A, and the A ant inte nest B. They were received
amicably and soon cleaned. Two, indeed, were once
attacked for a few moments, but soon released. On
the other hand, I put two strangers into nest A, but
they were at once driven out. For facility of observa-
tion I placed each nest in a closed box. On the 31st
I carefully examined the nests and also the boxes in
which I placed them. I could only distinguish one
of the marked ants, but there were no dead ants either
in the nests or boxes.

I carefully examined the box in the same way for
several successive mornings, but there was no dead
ant. If there had been I must have found the body,
and I am sure, therefore, that these ants were nut
attacked.

Again, on August 31 I put two more of the ants
which had emerged from the pupz taken out of nest
B, and nursed by ants from that nest, into nest A at

EVEN IF BROUGHT UP SEPARATELY. 148

10 am. At 10.30 a.m. they were quite comfortable
amongst the others. At 11 4.M. I looked again and
they seemed quite at home, as also at 11.30 a.M., after
which I looked every hour,and they were never attacked.
The next morning I found them peaceably among the
other ants.

On September 15 I put three of the ants which had
emerged from the pupe taken out of nest A, and
nursed by ants from that nest, and put them into nest
B at 1.30 P.M. They seemed to make themselves quite
at home. I looked again at 2.30 p.M., with the same
result. At 3.30 p.m. I could only find two, the third
having no doubt been cleaned, but no ant was being
attacked. At 5.30 p.m. they were no longer distin-
guishable, but if any one was being attacked we must
have seen it. The next morning they all seemed quite
peaceful, and there was no dead ant in the box. I
looked again on the 17th and 19th, but could not
distinguish them. As, however, there was no dead
ant, they certainly had not been killed. I then put in
a stranger; she was soon attacked and driven out of
the nest—showing that, as usual, they would not tole-
rate an ant whom they did not recognise as in some
way belonging to the community.

Again, on April 10, 1881, I divided a two-queencd
nest of Formica fusca, leaving a queen in each half.
At that time no eggs had yet been laid, and of course
there were no larve or pupe. In due course both
queens laid eggs, and young ants were brought up in

150 RECOGNITION NOT INDIVIDUAL OR PERSONAL,

each half of the nest. I will call the two halves as
before A and B.

On August 15, at 9 a.m., I put three of the young
ants from A into B, and three from B into A. At
9.30 A.M. none were attacked, 10 a.m. ditto, 10.30 a.m.
ditto. One was being cleaned; 12 a.m. ditto, 2 P.M.
ditto. In fact, they seemed quite at home with the
other ants. The next morning I was unable to recog-
nise them, the paint having been entirely removed.
The ants were all peaceably together in the nest, and
there were no dead ones either in the nest or in the
outer box. It is evident, therefore, that they had
been treated as friends.

August 17.—I put in three more from B into A at
noon. At 12.30 P.M. they were with the other ants;
at 1 P.M., ditto, at 2 P.M. ditto, at 3 P.M. ditto, at
5 p.m. ditto. The following morning I was still able
to recognise them, though most of the paint had been
removed. They also were evidently treated as part of
the community.

September 19.—Put in three more from A into B
at 8.30 a.m. I looked at them at intervals of half an
hour, but none of them were attacked. Next morning
there was no ant outside the nest, nor had any been
killed.

October 10.—Put in three more at 7 a.m. and
looked at intervals of an hour. They were not at-
tacked, and evidently felt themselves among friends,
The next morning I was still able to recognise twa,

NOR DUE TO THE USE OF A PASSWORD. 151

There was no dead ant either in the nest or the outer
box.

Lastly, on October 15, I put in four more at 7 a.M.,
and watched them all day at short intervals. They
exhibited no sign of fear, and were never attacked.
In fact, they made themselves quite at home, and were
evidently, like the preceding, recognised as friends. For
the sake of comparison at noon I again put in a stranger.
Her behaviour was in marked contrast. The preceding
ants seemed quite at home, walked about peaceably
among the other ants, and made no attempt to leave
the nest. The stranger, on the contrary, ran uneasily
about, started away from any ant she met, and made
every effort to get out of the nest. After she had
three times escaped from the nest, I put her back with
her own friends.

Thus, then, when a nest of Formica fusca was
divided early in spring, and when there were no young,
the ants produced in each half were in twenty-eight
cases all received as friends. In no case was there the
slightest trace of enmity.

These observations seem to me conclusive as far as
they go, and they are very surprising. In the previous
experiments, though the results were similar, still the
ants experimented with had been brought up in the
nest, and were only removed after they had become
pupe. It might therefore be argued that the ants
having nursed them as larve, recognized them when
they came to maturity; and though this would cer-

152 MODE OF RECOGNITION.

tainly be in the highest degree improbable, it could
not be said to be impossible. In the present case,
however, the old ants had absolutely never seen the
young ones until the moment when, some days after
arriving at maturity, they were introduced into the
nest; and yet in twenty-one cases they were undoubt-
edly recognised as belonging to the community.

It seems to me, therefore, to be established by
these experiments that the recognition of ants is not
personal or individual; that their harmony is not
due to the fact that each ant is individually acquainted
with every other member of the community.

At the same time, the fact that they recognise
their friends even when intoxicated, and that they
know the young born in their own nest even when
they have been brought out of the chrysalis by
strangers, seems to indicate that the recognition is not
effected by means of any sign or password

CHAPTER VII.

POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

THE Social Hymenoptera, according to Messrs. Kirby
and Spence,' ‘have the means of communicating to
each other information of various occurrences, and use
a kind of language which is mutually understood,
+ « . and is not confined merely to giving intel-
ligence of the approach or absence of danger; it is
also co-extensive with all their other occasions for
communicating their ideas to each other.’

Huber assures us as regards Ants? that he has
‘frequently seen the antenne used on the field of
battle to intimate approaching danger, and to ascertain
their own party when mingled with the enemy; they
are also employed in the interior of the ant-hill to
apprise their companions of the presence of the sun, so
favourable to the development of the larve, in their
excursions and emigrating to indicate their route, in
their recruitings to determine the time of departure,’
&c. Elsewhere also he says® ‘that should an Ant fall
in with any of her associates from the nest they put
her in the right way by the contact of their antennz.’

1 Introduction to Entomology, ii. p. 50. 2 Loc. cit. p. 206,
* Loo. cit. p. 157.
12

154 STATEMENTS OF PREVIOUS AUTHORS.

These statements are most interesting; and it is
much to be regretted that he has not given us in detail
the evidence on which they rest. In another passage,
indeed, he himself says,' ‘If they have a language, I
cannot give too many proofs of it.’ Unfortunately,
however, the chapter which he devotes to this impor-
tant subject is very short, and occupied with general
statements rather than with the accounts of the par-
ticular experiments and observations on which those
statements rest. Nor is there any serious attempt to
ascertain the nature, character, and capabilities of this
antenaal language. Even if by motions of these organs
Ants and Bees can caress, can express love, fear, anger,
&c., it does not follow that they can narrate facts or
describe localities.

The facts recorded by Kirby and Spence are not
more explicit. It is therefore disappointing to read in
the chapter especially devoted to this subject, that, as
regards the power possessed by Ants and Bees to com-
municate and receive information, ‘ it is only necessary
to refer you to the endless facts in proof, furnished by
almost every page of my letters on the history of Ants
and of the Hive Bee. I shall therefore but detain you
for a moment with an additional anecdote or two,
especially with one respecting the former tribe, which
is valuable from the celebrity of the narrator.’

The first of these anecdotes refers to a Beetle
(Ateuchus pilularius) which, having made for the

Loe it. p. 208.

HUBER, KIRBY AND SPENCE. 155

reception of its eggs a pellet of dung too heavy for it
to move, ‘repaired to an adjoining heap and soon re-
turned with three of his companions. All four now
applied their united strength to the pellet, and at
length succeeded in pushing it out, which being done,
the three assistant Beetles left the spot and returned
to their own quarters.” This observation rests on the
authority of an anonymous German artist ; and though
we are assured that he was a ‘man of strict veracity,’
I am not aware that any similar fact has been recorded
by any other observer. I am by no means satisfied
that his explanation of what took place is correct. M.
Fabre,! in his interesting observations, places the facts
in a very different light.

The second case is related by Kalm, on the authority
of Dr. Franklin, but again does not seem to me to justify
the conclusions drawn from it by Messrs. Kirby and
Spence. Dr. Franklin having found a number of ants
in a jar of treacle, shook them out and suspended the
jar ‘ by a string from the ceiling. By chance one ant
remained, which, after eating its fill, with some diffi-
culty found its way up the string, and, thence reaching
the ceiling, escaped by the wall to its nest. In less
than half an hour a great company of ants sallied out
of their hole, climbing the ceiling, crept along the
string into the pot and began to eat again; this they
continued until the treacle was all consumed, one
swarm running up the string while another passed

1 Sowenirs Entomologiques.

156 KIRBY AND SPENCE.

down. It seems indisputable that the one ant had in
this instance conveyed news of the booty to his com~
rades, who would not otherwise have at once directed
their steps in a body to the only accessible route.”!

Elsewhere, Messrs. Kirby and Spence say :?—‘ If you
scatter the ruins of an ants’ nest in your apartment, you
will be furnished with another proof of their language.
The ants will take a thousand different paths, each going
by itself, to increase the chance of discovery; they will
meet and cross each other in all directions, and perhaps
will wander long before they can find a spot convenient
for their reunion. No sooner does any one discover a
little chink in the floor through which it can pass
below than it returns to its companions, and, by means
of certain motions of its antenne, makes some of them
comprehend what route they are to pursue to find it,
sometimes even accompanying them to the spot;
these, in their turn, become the guides of others, till
all know which way to direct their steps,’

Here, however, Messrs. Kirby and Spence do not
sufficiently distinguish between the cases in which the
ants were guided, from those in which they were directed
to the place of safety. It is obvious, however, that the
power of communication implied in the latter case is
much greater than in the former.

A short but very interesting paper by Dujardin on
this subject is contained in the ‘ Annales des Sciences’
for 1852. He satisfied himself that some bees which

1 Loo. cit. p. 422. * Introd. to Entomology, vol. ii, p. 6.

DUJARDIN. 187

came to honey put out by him for the purpose ‘avaient dd
recevoir dans la ruche un avertissement porté par quel-
ques-unes de celles qui étaient venues isolément, soit 4
dessein, soit par hasard.’? That no doubt might re-
main, he tried the following experiment, which he says,
*me parait tout-a-fait concluante. Dans lépaisseur
d’un mur latéral 4 18 métres de distance des ruches A
et B, se trouve une niche pratiquée, suivant usage du
pays, pour constater la mitoyenneté, et recouverte pa
un treillage et par une treille, et cachée par diverses
plantes grimpantes. J'y introduisis, le 16 novembre,
une soucoupe avec du sucre légérement humecté; puis
jallai présenter une petite baguette enduite de sirop 4
une abeille sortant dela ruche. Cette abeille s’étant
cramponnée 4 la baguette pour sucer le sirop, je la
transportai dans la niche sur le sucre, oti elle resta cing
ou six minutes jusqu’é ce quelle se fut bien gorgée;
elle commenga alors 4 voler dans la niche, puis decd et
dela devant le treillage, la téte toujours tournée vers la
niche, et enfin elle prit son vol vers la ruche, ot elle
rentra.

“Un quart d’heure se passa sans qu'il revint une
seule abeille 4 la niche; mais, 4 partir de cet instant,
elles vinrent successivement au nombre de trente, ex-
plorant la localité, cherchant l’entrée de la niche qui
avait dai leur étre indiquée, et ot lodorat ne pouvait
oullement les guider, et, 4 leur tour vérifiant avant de
retouiner 4 la ruche, les signes qui leur feraient re-
trouver cette précieuse localité ou qui leur permet.

158 FOREL.

traient de Vindiquer 4d’autres. Tous les jours suivanta
les abeilles de la ruche A vinrent plus nombreuses 4
la niche ot j’avais soin de renouveler le sucre bumecté,
et pas une seule de la ruche B n’eut le moindre
soupcon de l’existence de ce trésor et ne vint voler de ce
cété. Tl était facile, en effet, de constater que les
premiéres se dirigeaient exclusivement de la ruche 4 la
niche, et réciproquement.’

It is of course clear from these observations that
the ants and bees accompanied their fortunate friends
to the stores of food which they had discovered, but
this really does not in itself imply the possession of any
great intelligence.

That ants and bees have a certain power of com-
munication cannot, indeed, be doubted. Several
striking cases are mentioned by M. Forel. For in-
stance, on one occasion an army of Amazon ants
(Polyergus rufescens) was making an expedition to
attack a nest of F. rufibarbis. They were not, how-
ever, quite acquainted with the locality. At length it
was discovered :—‘ Aussitét,’ he observes, ‘un nouveau
signal fat donné, et toutes les amazones s’élancérent
dans cette direction.’ On another occasion he says :—
‘Je mis un gros tas de T. cespitum d’une variété de
grande taille 4 un décimétre d’un des nids d'une
colonie de Pheidole pallidula) En un clin d’eil
Valarme fait répandue, et des centaines de Pheidole se
jetérent au-devant de l’ennemi.’

The species of Camponotus, when alarmed, ‘non

FOREL, 159

seulement se frappent vivement et 4 coups répétés lea
uns les autres, mais en méme temps ils frappent le sol
deux ou trois fois de suite avec leur abdomen, et
répétent cet acte 4 de courts intervalles, ce qui pro-
duit un bruit trés marqué qu’on entend surtout bien
lorsque le nid est dans un tronc d’arbre.’!

It would even seem, according to M. Forel, that
some species understand the signs of others. Thus
F. sanguinea, he says,’ is able to seize ‘Vinstant ot
les pratensis se communiquent le signal de. la déroute,
et elles savent s’apprendre cette découverte les unes
aux autres avec une rapidité incroyable. Au moment
méme oti l’on voit les pratensis se jeter les unes contre
les autres en se frappant de quelques coups rapides,
puis cesser toute résistance et s’enfuir en masse, on
voit aussi les sanguinea se jeter tout-a-coup au milieu
d’elles sans la plus petite retenue, mordant 4 droite et 4
gauche comme des Polyergus, et arrachant des cocons
de toutes les pratensis qui en portent.’

M. Forel is of opinion (p. 364) that the different
species differ much in their power of communicating
with one another. Thus, though Polyergus rufescens
is rather smaller than F. sanguinea, it is generally
victorious, because the ants of this species understand
one another more quickly than those of F. sanguinea.

These statements are extremely interesting, and
certainly appear to imply considerable intelligence.
If, however, his inferences are correct, and the social

' Loe. cit. p. 355. 2 Loe. cit. p. 359.

160 CONDITIONS OF THE PROBLEM.

Hymenoptera are really so highly gifted, it ought
not to be necessary for us to rely on accidental observa-
tions ; we ought to be able to test them by appropriate
experiments.

Those which I have made with reference to bees
will be described in a subsequent chapter.

Every one knows that if an ant or a bee in the course
of her rambles has found a supply of food, a number of
others will soon make their way to the store. This,
however, does not necessarily imply any power of de-
scribing localities. A very simple sign would suffice,
and very little intelligence is implied, ifthe other ants
merely accompany their friend to the treasure which she
has discovered. On the other hand, if the ant or bee
can describe the locality, and send her friends to the
food, the case is very different. This point, therefore,
seemed to me very important; and I have made a
number of observations bearing on it.

The following may be taken as a type of what hap-
pens under such circumstances. On June 12,1874, I
put a Lasius niger, belonging toa nest which I had
kept two or three days without food, to some honey.
She fed as usual, and then was returning to the nest,
when she met some friends, whom she proceeded to
feed. When she had thus distributed her stores, she
returned alone to the honey, none of the rest coming
with her. When she had asecond time laid in a stock
of food, she again in the same way fed seve1al ants on
her way towards the nest; but this time five of those

SOME SPECIES MORE COMMUNICATIVE THAN OTHERS. 161

so fed returned with her to the honey. In due course
these five would no doubt have brought others, and so
the number at the honey would have increased.

Some species, however, act much more in association
than others—Lasius niger, for instance, much more
than Formica fusca.

In March 1877 I was staying at Arcachon. It was
a beautiful and very warm spring day, and numerous
specimens of Formica fusca (Pl. I, fig. 3) were
coursing about on the flagstones in front of our
hotel. At about 10.45 a.m. I put a raisin down before
one of them. She immediately began licking it,
and continued till 11.2 a.m., when she went off
almost straight to her nest, the entrance to which was
about twelve feet away. In a few minutes she came
out again, and reached the fruit, after a few wander-
ings, at about 11.18 a.m. She fed till 11.30 am,
when she returned once more to the nest.

At 11.45 another ant accidentally found the fruit.
I imprisoned her.

At 11.50 the first returned, and fed till 11.56, when
she went off to the nest. On the way she met and
talked with three ants, none of whom, however, came
to the fruit. At 12.7 she returned, again alone, to the
fruit.

On the following day I repeated the same experi-
ment. The first ant went backwards and forwards
between the raisin and the nest for several hours, but
only six others found their way to it.

162 EXPERIMENT WITH FORMICA FUSCA

The details of this observation will be found in the
Appendix.

Again, wn July 11, 1875, I put out some pups in a
saucer, and at 5.55 p.m. they were found by a F. fusca,
who as usual carried one off to the nest.

At 6 p.m. she returned and took another. Again

6. 1 ” ”
6. 3 ” ”
6. 4 " i
6. 5 ” 3°
6 6 3” 2
6 7 +b) 99
6. 8 ” ”
6. 9 ” ”
6.10 ‘ =
6.11 ” ”
6.12 bh »
6.14 . a
6.15 4 .
6.16 bs i
6.17 a3 .
6.19 a if
6.20 if
6.21 ‘ a
6.23 mn -
6.25 i
6.27 ‘
6.29 e s
6.30 i" é

EXPERIMENTS WITH MYRMICA AND LASIUS. 163

At 6.31 p.m. she returned and took another. Again

6.33 ‘i ”
6.35 ‘5 .
6.36 . -
6.37 - ‘i
6.38 i -
6.40 35 a
6.41 45 6
6.45 ‘3 i
6.47 - %
6.49 98
6.50 ‘5 -
6.51 e ‘*
6.52 95 “
6.53 3 es
6.55 ‘ Pa
6.56 ‘ a
6.57 7 i
7 0 ” 9
7. 1 ” ”
7. 2 2 ”
7. 6 ” ”

After these 45 visits, she came no more till 8 P.M.;
but when I returned at 10 p.m. I found all the pups
gone. During the time she was watched, however, she
brought no other ant to assist.

I also made similar experiments with Myrmica
ruginodis and Lasius niger, imprisoning (as before)
all ants that came, except the marker ones, and with

164 EXPERIMENTS TO TEST

similar results. The details will be fcand in the
Appendix, but need not be given in full here.

I then tried the following experiment :—

In figure 3, a is the ants’ nest, 0 the door of
(pe nest. M is the section of a pole on which the
whole apparatus is supported. B is a
board 2 feet long; C, D, E, and F are slips
of glass connected with the board B by
narrow strips of paper G, H, 1 K is a
movable strip of paper, 14 inch long,
connecting the glass F with the strip H;
and L is another movable strip of paper,
as nearly as possible similar, connecting
Handi. On each of the slips of glass c
and F I put several hundred larve of L.
flavus. The object of the larvee on Cc was
to ascertain whether, under such circum-
stances, other ants would find the larve acci-
dentally ; and I may say at once that none

fe # didso. I then put an ant (a), whom I
had imprisoned overnight, to the larvae on F. She
took one, and, knowing her way, went straight home
over the bridge K and down the strip oH. Now it
is obvious that by always causing the marked ant
(4) to cross the bridge K on a particular piece of
paper, and if at other times the papers K and L were
reversed, I should be able to ascertain whether other
ants who came to the larve had had the direction
and position explained to them ; o1 whether, having only

Fig. 3.

POWERS OF COMMUNICATION. 165

been informed by a of the existence of the larve, they
found their way to them by tracking 4’s footsteps. If the
fermer, they would in any case pass over the bridge kK
by whichever strip of paper it was constituted. Or
the other hand, if they found the larve by tracking
then as the piece of paper by which a passed was
transferred to L, it would mislead them and carry them
away from the larve to 1. In every case, then, I trans-
posed the two papers forming the little bridges as
soon as the ant a had crossed over K and L.

I put her (November 7, 1875) to the larve on F
at 6.15 a.m. After examining them carefully, she re-
turned to the nest at 6.34. No other ants were out;
but she at once reappeared with four friends and
reached the larve at 6.38. None of her friends, how-
ever, crossed the bridge; they went on to D, wandered
about, and returned home. a returned to the larvee at
6.47, this time with one friend, who also went on to D
and returned without finding the larve.

7. 0. Ant a to larvae.

7. 8 5 Anant at Ci hee ang

L tol.
7.17 ee with a friend, who at 7.21
with two friends,

226 a one of whom | at e
7.32 i the other at 7.35 *
with a friend who
7.39, [rs on to D, “| 7.41 ”

then at. .....

166 EXPERIMENTS TO TEST

7.46 Ant 4 to larve. An ant at 7.42 eres

7.55 is ss 7.47 iy

83 — we s

8. 8 ” ” 7.54 ”

8.19 ae ae

8.24 5 iy 9.10 found the
larvee.

8.39 9 - 9.30 went over L
to I.

8.50 4

9.12,

9.22

9.40 45

9.47 >

9.55 yy

10.35 4g

At 10.35 I imprisoned her till 12.30, when I put he
again to the larve.

12.48 back to larvee.

12.55 % An ant at 12.58 went over L to 1.
1. 0 ” 2” 1. 1 bh) >
1.15 ” ” 1.10 ” ”
1.20 3 5 1.13 9 5

After this she did not come any more. During the
time she made, therefore, 25 visits to the larve; 21
other ants came a distance of nearly 4 feet from the
nest and up to the point of junction within 2 inches of

POWERS OF COMMUNICATION. 16?

the larve ; but only one passed over the little bridge to
the larva, while 15 went over the bridge L to On
repeating this experiment with another marked ant, she
herself made 40 journeys, during which 19 other ants
found their way to the point of junction. Only 2 went
over the little bridge to the larvae, 8 went over L to I,
and the remainder on to D.

In another similar experiment the marked ant made
16 journeys; and during the same time 13 other ants
came to the point of junction. Of these 13, 6 went
on to D, 7 crossed over L to 1, and not one found the
larve. Thus altogether, out of 92 ants, 30 went on ta
p, 51 crossed over in the wrong direction to 1, and only
11 found their way to the larva.

From January 2 to January 24 (1875) I made a
series of similar observations; and during this time 56
ants came in all. Of these, 20 went straight on to
D, 26 across the paper to 1, and only Fig. 4.

10 to the larve.

This, I think, gives strong reason to
conclude that, under such circumstances.
ants track one another by scent.

I then slightly altered the arrange- B
ment of the papers as shown in the
accompanying diagram (fig. 4). A, as
before, is the nest, o being the door.

B is the board; h is a glass on which
are placed the larve; m is a similar glass, but empty 3
n a strip of paper: to the end of are pinned two

168 EXPERIMENTS TO TEST

other strips f and g, in such a manner that they can be
freely turned round, so that each can be turned at will
either to h or m. Under ordinary circumstances the
paper f, as in the figure, was turned to the larve; but
whenever any ant, excepting the marked one, came, I
turned the papers, so that f led to mandgtoh. The
result was striking, and I give the observation in full
in the Appendix. In all, 17 ants came, every one of.
whom took the wrong turn and went to m.
Although the observations above recorded seem to
Fig. 5. me almost conclusive, still I varied the
experiments once more (see fig. 5),
making the connexion between the
board 8B and the glass containing the
larve by three separate but similar
strips of paper, d, e, and f, as shown in
the figure. Whenever, however, a
strange ant came, [ took up the strip f
m and rubbed my finger over it two or
three times so as to remove any scent, and then re-
placed it. As soon as the stranger had reached the
paper e, I took up the strip d, and placed it so as to
connect ¢ with the empty glass m. Thus! escaped the
necessity of changing the paper f, and yet had a scented
brilge between e and m. The details, as before, are
given in the Appendix.
In this experiment the bridge over which the
marked ant passed to the larve was left in its place,
the scent, however, being removed or obscured by the

POWERS OF COMMUNICATION. 169

friction of my finger ; on the other hand, the bridge (d)
had retained the scent, but was so placed as to lead
away from the larve; and it will be seen that, under
these circumstances, out of 41 ants which found their
way towards the larve as far as e, 14 only passed over
the bridge f to the larve, while 27 went over the
bridge d to the empty glass m.

Taking these observations as a whole, 150 ants
came to the point e, of which 21 only went on to the
larvee, while 95 went away to the empty glass. These
experiments, therefore, seem to show that when an
ant has discovered a store of food and others flock to
it, they are guided in some cases by sight, while in
others they track one another by scent.

I then varied the experiment as follows :—I put an
ant (L. niger) to some larve as usual, and when she knew
her way, I allowed her to go home on her own legs; but
as soon as she emerged from the nest, if she had any
friends with her, I took her up on a bit of paper and
carried her to the larve. Under these circumstances very
few ants indeed found their way tothem. Thus, on June
23, 1876, at 5.30, an ant which had been previously
under observation was put to some larve. She took
one and returned as usual to the nest. At 5.34 she
came out with no less than 10 friends, and was then
transferred to the larve. The others wandered about a
little, but by degrees returned to the nest, not one of
them finding their way to the larve. The first ant
picked up a larva, returned, and again came out

13

170 EXPERIMENTS TO TEST

of the nest at 5.39 with 8 friends, when exactly
the same thing happened. She again came out with
companions at the undermentioned times :—

Number of Number of

Hour. Friends, Hour. Friends.
5.44 4 6.44 —
5.47 4 6.46 3
5.49 _— 6.49 2
5.52 —_— 6.56 —_—
5.54 5 6.59 —_—
5.57 2 7. 2 2
5.59 2 7. 4 _
6. 1 5 7. 6 3
6. 4 1 7.8 3
6. 7 — 7.10 5
6.11 3 7.13 _
6.14 4 | 7.17 3
6.17 6 7.19 7
6.20 —_— 7.21 5
6.23 5 7.24 _
6.25 6 7.26 3
6.29 8 7.29 1
6.32 2 7.31 2
6.35 — 7.35 —
6.42 4

Thus during these two hours more than 120 anta
came out of the nest in company with the one under
observation. She knew her way perfectly; and it is

POWERS OF COMMUNICATION. 171

elear that if she had been left alone, all, or at least
most of, these ants would have accompanied her to the
store of larve. Three of them were accidentally
allowed to do so; but of the remainder, only 5 found
their way to the larve; all the others, after wandering
about a while, returned hopelessly to the nest.

One of the ants which I employed in my experi-
ments was under observation several days. I was,
however, away from home most of the day, and when I
left in the morning and went to bed at night I put her
in a bottle ; but the moment she was let out she began
to work again. On one occasion I was away for a week,
and on my return I let her out of the bottle, placing
her on a little heap of larve about 3 feet from the
nest. Under these circumstances I certainly did not
expect her to return, However, though she had thus
been six days in confinement, the brave little creature
immediately picked up a larva, carried it off to the
nest, and, after half an hour’s rest, returned for another.

I conclude, then, that when large numbers of ants
come to food they follow one another, being also to a
certain extent guided by scent. The fact, therefore,
does not imply any considerable power of intercom~
munication. There are, moreover, some other circum-
stances which seem to show that their powers in this
respect are but limited. For instance, I have already
mentioned that if a colony of Polyergus changes the
situation of its nest, the mistresses are all carried to
the new one by the slaves. Again, if a number of F.

172 EVIDENCE OF COMMUNICATION,

fusca are put in a box, and in one corner a dark place
of retreat is provided for them with some earth, one soon
finds her way to it. She then comes out again, and going
up to one of the others, takes her by the jaws. The
second ant then rolls herself into a heap, and is carried
off to the place of shelter. They then both repeat the
same manceuvre with other ants, and so on until all their
companions are collected together. Now it seems to
me difficult to imagine that so slow a course would be
adopted if they possessed any considerable power of
descriptive communication,

On the other hand, there can, I think, be no doubt
that they do possess some power of the kind.

This seems to me clearly shown by the following
observations. In order, if possible, to determine
whether the ants in question were brought to the
larvee, or whether they came casually, I tried (1875)
the following experiments: I took three tapes, each
about 2 feet 6 inches long, and arranged them
parallel to one another and about 6 inches apart.
One end of each I attached to one of my nests
(L. niger), and at the other end I placed a small
glass. In the glass at the end of one tape I placed a
considerable number (300 to 600) of larvae. In the
second I put two or three larve only; in the third
none at all, The object of the last was to see whether
‘many ants would come to the glasses under such cir-
cumstances by mere accident; and I may at once say
that but few did so. I then took two ants and

EVIDENCE OF COMMUNICATION. 173

placed one of them to the glass with many larvae, the
other to that with two or three. Each of them took a
larva and carried it to the nest, returning for another,
and soon. After each journey I put another larva in
the glass with only two or three larve, to replace that
which had been removed. Now, if other ants came
under the above circumstances as a mere matter of
accident, or accompanying one another by chance, or
if they simply saw the larve which were brought and
consequently concluded that they might themselves
also find larve in the same place, then the numbers
going to the two glasses ought to be approximately
equal. In each case the number of journeys made by
the ants would be nearly the same ; consequently, if it
was a matter of scent, the two glasses would be in the
same position. It would be impossible for an ant,
seeing another in the act of bringing a larva, to judge
for itself whether there were few or many larve left
behind. On the other hand, if the friends were
brought, then it would be curious to see whether more
were brought to the glass with many larve, than to
that which only contained two or three. I should also
mention that, excepting, of course, the marked spec?-
mens, every ant which came to the larve was im-
prisoned until the end of the experiment. I give the
details in the Appendix.

The results of the above experiments are shown at
a glance in the following Table :—

174 EVIDENCE OF COMMUNICATION.

Tabular View of Experiments on Power of Communication

Glass with many larvae Glass with one or two larves
Obser-
vations | Time | No.of | No.of Time | No.of | No.of
occupied | journeys | friends occupied | journeys | friends
hours hours

1 1 7 11
2 —_ —_— _— 1 6 0
3 _ —_ _ 2 13 8
4 -— _ _ 3 24 6
5 3 38 22 1 10 3

6 23 32 19

7 1 5 16
8 13 11 ZL 3 23 2
9 — _ _ 4 7 3
10 1 15 13 2 21 1
11 2 32 20 1 11 1

12 5 26 10
13 = as acs 5 19 1
14 = = _ 8 20 4
16 24 41 3 2 5 0
16 1 10 16 34 10 2
17 44 53 2 45 40 10
18 ix _ _— 2 20 1

19 1 El 12
20 _ _ _ 1 6 0
21 1k 20 ig 4} 74 27
22 _ _ _ 14 25 4

23 4} 7 7
24 _ — _ 2 35 4

25 2 34 3
26 1} 35 21 2 18 0
27 2 37 9 1} 15 0
28 iy 9 10 2 14 0
29 2 37 5 13 25 3
30 Wu 9 10 2 14 0
3L 2 37 5 1} 25 3
32° 2 24 7 1 vi 0
33 33 43 ag 33 26 1
34 1 27 28 1 18 12
35 1 14 2 1 16 9
52 678 304 59} 5465 104

It must be admitted that this mode of observing

EVIDENCE OF COMMUNICATLIUN. 173

is calculated to increase the number of friends brought
by the ants to the glass with only 2 or 3 larve, for
several reasons, but especially because in many cases
an ant which had for some time had access to a glasa
with many larve was suddenly deprived of it, and it
might well be that some time elapsed before the
change was discovered. Some stray ants would, no
doubt, in any case have found the larve; and we
may probably allow for ahout 25 under this head.
Again, some would, no doubt, casually accompany their
friends ; if we allow 25 also in this respect, we must
deduct 50 from each side, and we shall have 254
against 54. Nevertheless, even without any allowances,
the results seem to me very definite. Some of the
individual cases, especially perhaps experiments 9, 10,
20, 21, and 22 (see Appendix), are very striking ; and,
taken as a whoie, during 52 hours, the ants which had
access to a glass containing numerous larve brought 304
friends ; while during 59 hours those which were visiting
a glass with only 2 or 3 larve brought only 104 to
their assistance.

One case of apparent communication struck me
very much. I had had an ant (L. niger) under obser-
vation one day, during which she was occupied in
carrying off larve to her nest. At night I imprisoned
her in a small bottle; in the morning I let her out at
6.15, when she immediately resumed her occupation.
Having to go to London, I imprisoned her again at
9 o'clock. When I returned at 4.40, I put her again

176 EVIDENCE OF COMMUNICATION.

to the larve. She examined them carefully, but went
home without taking one. At this time no other ants
were out of the nest. In less than a minute she came
out again with 8 friends, and the little troop made
straight for the heap of larve. When they had gone
two-thirds of the way, I again imprisoned the marked
ants; the others hesitated a few moments, and then,
with curious quickness, returned home. At 5.15 I
put her again to the larve. She again went home
without a larva, but, after only a few seconds’ stay in
the nest, came out with no less than 13 friends. They
all went towards the larve; but when they got about
two-thirds of the way, although the marked ant had
on the previous day passed over the ground about 150
times, and though she had just gone straight from
the larve to the nest, she seemed to have forgotten
her way and wandered; and after she had wandered
about for half an hour, I put her to the larve. Now
in this case the 21 ants must have been brought out
by my marked one; for they came exactly with her,
and there were no other ants out. Moreover, it would
seem that they must have been told, because (which
is very curious in itself) she did not in either case
bring a larva, and consequently it cannot have been
the mere sight of a larva which induced them to
follow her. I repeated an experiment similar to this
more than once.

For instance, one rather cold day, when but few
ants were out, I selected a specimen of Atta ‘testaceo

EXPERIMENT WITH AN ATTA 177

pilosa, belonging to a nest which I had brought back
with me from Algeria. She was out hunting about,
six feet from home, and I placed before her a large
dead bluebottle fly, which she at once began to drag
to the nest. I then pinned the fly to a piece of cork,
in a small box, so that no ant could see the fly until
she had climbed up the side of the box. The ant
struggled, of course in vain, to move the fly. She
pulled first in one direction and then in another, but,
finding her efforts fruitless, she at length started off back
to the nest empty-handed. At this time there were
no ants coming out of the nest. Probably there were
some few others out hunting, but for at least a quarter
of an hour no ant had left the nest. My ant entered
the nest, but did not remain there; in less than a
minute she emerged accompanied by 7 friends. I
never saw so many come out of that nest together
before. In her excitement the first ant soon distanced
her companions, who took the matter with much more
sang-froid, and had all the appearance of having come
out reluctantly, or as if they had been asleep and were
only half awake. The first ant ran on ahead, going
straight to the fly. The others followed slowly and
with many meanderings ; so slowly, indeed, that for
twenty minutes the first ant was alone at the fly,
trying in every way to move it. Finding this still
impossible, she again returned to the nest, not chancing
to meet any of her friends by the way. Again she
emerged in less than a minute with 8 friends, and

178 EXPERIMENT WITH AN ATTA.

hurried on to the fly. They were even less energetic
than the first party; and when they found they had
lost sight of their guide, they one and all returned to
the nest. In the meantime several of the first detach-
ment had found the fly, and one of them succeeded in
detaching a leg, with which she returned in triumph
to the nest, coming out again directly with 4 or 5
companions. These latter, with one exception, soon
gave up the chase and returned to the nest. I do not
think so much of this last case, because as the ant
carried in a substantial piece of booty in the shape of
the fly’s leg, it is not surprising that her friends should
some of them accompany her on her return; but
surely the other two cases indicate a distinct power of
communication.

Lest, however, it should be supposed that the result
was accidental, I determined to try it again. Accord.
ingly on the following day I put avother large dead fly
before an ant belonging to the saine nest, pinning it
to a piece of cork as before. After trying in vain for
ten minutes to move the fly, my ant started off home.
At that time I could only see two other ants of that
species outside the nest. Yet in a few seconds, con-
siderably less than a minute, she emerged with no less
than 12 friends. As in the previous case, she ran
on ahead, anc they followed very slowly and by no
means directly, taking, in fact, nearly half an hour to
reach the fly. The first ant, after vainly labouring for
about a quarter of an hour to move the fly, started off

EXPERIMENT WITH AN ATTA. 179

again to the nest. Meeting one of her friends on the
way she conversed with her a little, then continued ©
towards the nest, but, after going about a foot, changed
her mind, and returned with her friend to the fly.
After some minutes, during which two or three other
ants came up, one of them detached a leg, which she
carried off to the nest, coming out again almost immedi-
ately with six friends, one of whom, curiously enough,
seemed to lead the way, tracing it, I presume, by scent.
T then removed the pin, and they carried off the fly in
triumph.

Again, on June 15, 1878, another ant belonging to
the same nest had found a dead spider, about the same
distance from the nest. I pinned down the spider as
before. The ant did all in her power to move it; but
after trying for twelve minutes, she went off to the nest.
Although for a quarter of an hour no other ant had left
the nest, yet in a few seconds she came out again with
10 companions. As in the preceding case, they followed
very leisurely. She ran on ahead and worked at the
spider for ten minutes; when, as none of her friends
had arrived to her assistance, though they were wan-
dering about, evidently in search of something, she
started back home again. In three quarters of a
minute after entering the nest she reappeared, this
time with 15 friends, who came on somewhat more
rapidly than the preceaing batch, though still but
slowly. By degrees, however, they all came up, and
after most persevering efforts carried off the spider

180 EXPERIMENT WITH PHEIDOLE.

piecemeal. On July 7,1 tried the same experiment
with a soldier of Pheidole megacephala. She pulled
at the fly for no less than fifty minutes, after which she
went to the nest and brought five friends exactly as
the Atta had done. .

In the same way, one afternoon at 6.20 I presented
a slave of Polyergus with a dead fly pinned down.
The result was quite different. My ant pulled at the
fly for twenty-five minutes, when, as in the previous
cases, she returned to the nest. There she remained
four or five minutes, and then came out again alone,
returned to the fly, and again tried to carry it off.
After working fruitlessly for between twenty and twenty-
five minutes, she again went back to the nest, staying
there four or five minutes, and then returning by her-
self to the fly once more. I then went away for an
hour, but on my return found her still tugging at the
fly by herself. One hour later again I looked, with the
same result. Shortly afterwards another ant wandering
about found the fly, but obviously, as it seemed to me,
by accident.

At 3 o’clock on a subsequent day I again put a dead
fly pinned on to a bit of cork before a Formica fusca,
which was out hunting. She tried in vain to carry it off,
ran round and round, tugged in every direction, and at
length at ten minutes to four she returned to the nest:
very soon after she reappeared preceded by one and
followed by two friends; these, however, failed to dis-
cover the fly, and after wandering about a little returned

EXPERIMENT WITH FORMICA. 181

to the nest. She then set again to work alone, and in
about forty minutes succeeded in cutting off the head
of the fly, which she at once carried into the nest. In
alittle while she came out again, this time accompanied
by five friends, all of whom found their way to the fly ;
one of these, having cut off the abdomen of the fly,
took it into the nest; leaving three of her companions
to bring in the remainder of their prey.

These experiments certainly seem to indicate the
possession by ants of something approaching to lan-
guage. It is impossible to doubt that the friends were
brought out by the first ant; and as she returned
empty-handed to the nest, the others cannot have been
induced to follow her merely by observing her proceed-
ings. In face of such facts as these, it is impossible
not to ask ourselves how far are ants mere exquisite
automatons ; how far are they conscious beings? When
we see an ant-hill, tenanted by thousands of industrious
inhabitants, excavating chambers, forming tunnels,
making roads, guarding their home, gathering food,
feeding the young, tending their domestic animals,
—each one fulfilling its duties industriously, and
without confusion,—it is difficult altogether to deny
to them the gift of reason; and the preceding observa-
tions tend to confirm the opinion that their mental
powers differ from those of men, not so much in kind
ne in degree.

CHAPTER VIII.

ON THE SENSES OF ANTS.

The Sense of Vision.

In is, I think, generally assumed not only that the world
really exists as we see it, but that it appears to other
animals pretty much as it does to us. A little con-
sideration, however, is sufficient to show that this is
very far from being certain, or even probable.

In the case of insects, moreover, the mode of vision
is still an enigma. They have, at least many of them
have, a large compound eye on each side; and ocelli,
generally three in number, situated on the summit of
the head. The compound eyes consist of a number of
facets, each situated at the summit of a tube, to the
base of which runs a fibre of the optic nerve.

The structure of the ocellus and that of the com-
pound eye are essentially different, and it does not seem
possible that either the ocellus should be derived from
the compound eye, or the compound eye from the ocel-
lus. On the contrary, both seem to point back tc
a less developed ancestral type. Starting from such an
origin, an increase of the separate elements and an im-
provement of the lens would lead to the ocellus, while

TWO KINDS OF EYES. 183

an increase of the number of eyes would bring us to
the compound eye.

On the other hand, it must be admitted that there
are reasons for considering the different kinds of eyes
to be of perfectly distinct origin. The eye of Limulus,
according to Grenacher, is formed on a plan quite
unlike that of other Crustacea. Again, the develop-
ment of the eye in Musca, to judge from Weismann’s
observations, is very dissimiliar from that of other
insects. The varied position of the eye in different
groups, as, for instance, in Pecten, Spondylus,
Euphausia, Onchidiwm, &c., point to the same con-
clusion.

It seems clear that the image produced by the
ocelli must be altogether different from the picture
given by the compound eyes; and we may therefore
reasonably -onclude that the two organs have distinct
functions. It used formerly to be supposed that the
compound eyes were intended for distant, the ocelli for
near vision. Claparéde, however, has maintained the
opposite theory, while Mr. Lowne regards the ocelli as
incapable of producing ‘anything worthy the name of
an image,’ and suspects that their function ‘is the
perception of the intensity in the direction of light,
rather than vision.’

The ocelli, or simple eyes, probably see in the same
manner as ours do. That is to say, the lens throws an ©
image on the back of the eye, which we call the retina.
In that case they would see everything really reversed,

184 HOW INSECTS SEE.

as we do; though long practice has given us the right
impression. The simple eye of insects thus resembles
ours in this respect. .

As regards the mode of vision of the compound eyes,
there are two distinct theories. According to one—
the mosaic theory of Miiller—each facet takes in only
a small portion of the field; while according to the
other, each facet acts as a separate eye.

This latter view has been maintained by many high
authorities, but it is difficult to understand how so
many images could be combined into one picture. Some
insects have more than 20,000 facets on each side of
their head. No ants, indeed, have so many, but
in some—as, for instance, in the males of Formica
pratensis — there are not less than 1,000. The theory,
moreover, presents some great anatomical difficulties.
Thus, in certain cases there is no lens, and conse-
quently there can he no image ; in some it would seem
that the image would be formed completely behind the
eye, while in others again it would be in front of the
receptive surface. Another difficulty is that any true
projection of an image wuld in certain species be pre-
cluded by the presence of impenetrable pigment, which
only leaves a minute central passage for the light-rays.
Again, it is urged that even the sharpest image would
_ be useless, from the absence of a suitably receptive
surface ; since the structure of the receptive surface
corresponding to each facet seems to preclude it from
receiving more than a single impression.

THE MOSAIC THEORY. 185

The prevailing opinion of entomologists now is that
each facet receives the impression of one pencil of rays ;
so that, in fact, the image formed in a compound eye
is a sort of mosaic.

On the other hand, this theory itself presents
great difficulties. Those ants which have very few
facets must have an extremely imperfect vision.
Again, while the image produced on the retina of the
ocellus must of course be reversed as in our own eyes;
in the compound eyes, on the contrary, the vision would,
on this theory, be direct. That the same animal should
see some things directly, and others reversed ; and yet
obtain definite conceptions of the outer world, would
certainly be very remarkable.

In fact, these, so far fortunate, insects realise the
epigram of Plato—

Thou lookest on the stars, my love,
Ab, would that I could be

Yon starry skies, with thousand eyes
That 1 might look on thee!

But if the male of F. pratensis sees 1,000 queens
at once, when only one is really present, this would
seem to be a bewildering privilege, and the prevailing
opinion among entomologists is, as already mentioned,
that each facet only takes in a portion of the object.

But while it is difficult to understand how ants see,
it is clear that they do see

From the observations of Sprengel there could of

14

186 LIMITS. OF VISION.

course be little, if any, doubt, that bees are capable of
distinguishing colours; and I have proved experi-
mentally that this is the case. Under these circum-
stances, I have been naturally anxious to ascertain,
if possible, whether the same holds good with ants.
I have, however, found more difficulty in doing so
because, as shown in the observations just recorded,
ants find their food so much more by smell than by
sight.

This being so, I could not apply to ants those
tests which had been used in the case of bees.
At length, however, it occurred to me that I
might utilize the dislike which ants, when in their
nests, have to light. Of course they have no such
feeling when they are out in search of food; but if
light is let in upon their nests, they at once hurry
about in search of the darkest corners, and there they
all congregate. If, for instance, I uncovered one of
my nests and then placed an opaque substance over one
portion, the ants invariably collected in the shaded part.

I procured, therefore, four similar strips of glass,
coloured respectively green, yellow, red, and blue, or,
rather, violet. The yellow was rather paler in shade,
and that glass consequently rather more transparent
than the green, which, again, was rather more trans-
parent than the red or violet. I also procured some
coloured solutions.

Prof. Dewar was kind enough to test my glasses
and solutions with reference to their power of trans-

POWER OF DISTINGUISHING COLOURS. 187

mitting colour. Taking the wave-length of the ex-
treme visible red as 760 and that of the extreme
violet as 397, we have

760 to 647 give red.

647 ,, 585 ,, orange.

585 ,, 575 ,, yellow.

575 ,, 497 ,, green.

497 ,, 455 ,, blue.

445 ,, 397 ,, violet.

The result of his examination of my glasses and

solutions was as follows :—

The light-yellow glass cut off the high end down
to wave-length 442.

The dark-yellow glass cut off the high end down
to wave-length 493.

The green glass cut off the high end down to wave-
length 465, and also the red to 616.

The red glass cut off the high end down to wave-
length 582.

The violet glass cut off the orange and yellow from
wave-length 684 to 583, and a band between
wave-lengths 543 and 516.

The purple glass cut off the high end down to
wave-length 528.

The solution of chromate of potash cut off the
high end to 507.

The saffron cut off the high end to about 473,

The blue fluid cut off the low end to 516.

The red fluid cut off the high end to 596,

:88 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED GLASSES.

I then (July 15, 1876) laid the strips of g'ass on
one of my nests of Formica fusca, containing about
170 ants. These ants, as I knew by many previous
observations, seek darkness, at least when in the nest,
and would collect in the darkest part. I then, after
counting the ants under each strip, moved the glasses,
at intervals of about half an hour, so that each should
by turns cover the same portion of the nest. The
results were as follows—the numbers indicating the
approximate numbers of ants under each glass (there
were sometimes a few not under any of the strips of
glass) :—

1. Green. Yellow. Red. Violet.

50 40 80 0

2. Violet. Green. Yellow. Red.
0 20 40 100

3. Red. Violet. Green. Yellow.
60 0 50 50

4, Yellow. Red. Violet. Green.
50 70 1 40

5. Green. Yellow. Red. Violet.
30 30 100 0

6. Violet. Green. Yellow. Red.
0 14 5 140

%. Red. Violet. Green. Yellow
50 0 40 70

8. Yellow. Red. Violet. Green,
40 50 1 70

EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED GLASSES. 189

9. Green. Yellow. Red. Violet.

60 85 65 0
10. Violet. Green. Yellow. Red.
1 50 40 70
ll. Red. Violet. Green. “Yellow.
50 2 50 60
12. Yellow. Red. Violet. Green.
35 55 0 70

Adding these numbers together, there were, in the
twelve observations, under the red 890, under the
green 544, under the yellow 495, and under the violet
only 5. The difference between the red and the green
is very striking, and would doubtless have been more
so, but for the fact that when the colours were trans-
posed the ants which had collected under the red
sometimes remained quiet, as, for instance, in cases
7 and 8. Again, the difference between the green and
yellow would have been still more marked but for the
fact that the yellow always occupied the position last
held by the red, while, on the other hand, the green
had some advantage in coming next the violet. In
considering the difference between the yellow and
green, we must remember also that the green was
decidedly more opaque than the yellow.

The case of the violet glass is more marked and
more interesting. To our eyes the violet was as opaque
as the red, more so than the green, and much more so
than the yellow. Yet, as the numbers show, the ants

190 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED GLASSES.

had scarcely any tendency to congregate under it
There were nearly as many under the same area of the
uncovered portion of the nest as under that shaded >y
the violet glass. si

Lasius flavus also showed a marked avoidance of
the violet glass.

I then experimented in the same way with a nest
of Formica fusca, in which there were some pupe,
which were generally collected in a single heap. I
used glasses coloured dark yellow, dark green, light
yellow, light green, red, violet, and dark purple. The
colours were always in the preceding order, but, as
before, their place over the nest was changed after
every observation.

To our eyes the purple was almost black, the violet
and dark green very dark and quite opaque ; the pupe
could be dimly seen through the red, rather more
clearly through the dark yellow and light green, while
the light yellow were almost transparent. There were
about 50 pup, and the light was the ordinary diffused
daylight of summer.

These observations showed a marked preference for
the greens and yellows. The pupe were 64 times
under dark green, 3 under dark yellow, 33 under red,
and once each under light yellow and light green, the
violet and purple being altogether neglected.

] now tried the same ants under the same colours,
but in the sun; and placed a shallow dish containing
some 10 per cent. solution of alum sometimes over

EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED GLASSES, 19}

she yellow, sometimes over the red. I also put four
thicknesses of violet glass, so that it looked almost
black.

Undcr these circumstances, the pups were placed
under the red 7 times, dark yellow 5, once they
were half under each, but never under the violet,
purple, light yellow, dark or light green.

The following day I placed over the same nest, in
the sun, dark green glass, dark red, and dark yellow.
Tn nine observations the pupz were carried three times
under the red and nine times under the yellow.

I then tried a similar series of experiments with
Lasius niger, using a nest in which were about
40 pupe, which were generally collected in a single
heap all together. As before, the glasses were moved
in regular order after each experiment ; and I arranged
them so that the violet followed the red. As far,
therefore, as position was concerned, this gave violet
rather the best place. The glasses used were dark
violet, dark red, dark green, and yellow, the yellow
being distinctly the most transparent to our eyes.

Experiment Experiment

1. Pup under yellow. 8. Pupe under green.

2. ” ” 9. ” red.

3. ” ” 10. ” yellow.
4. ” ” 11. °° red.

5. ” ” 12. ” yellow,
6. x _ 13. ‘ e

+ mR green. 14, ” red.

192 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED GLASSES.

Experiment Experiment

15. Pupz under green. 24. Pup under red.
16. » >» 25. » yellow.
17. 9 yellow. | 26. ” red.

18, ” ” 27. ” ”

19 oS red. 28. a Fr

20. ” ” 29. ” ”

21. % yellow. | 30. Pa yellow.
22. ” ” 31. 3 red.
23. » 0» 32. ‘i green.

I now put two extra thicknesses of giass over the
red and green.

33. Pupz under red. 37. Pup under red.
34. “5 yellow. 38. FA Py

35. ‘5 red. 39. 0 yellow.
36. 59 yellow. 40. 35 red.

The result is very striking, and in accordance with
the observations on Formica fusca. In 40 experi-
ments the pups were carried under the yellow 19
times, under the red 16 times, and under the green 5
times only, while the violet was quite neglected.
After the first twenty observations, however, I removed
it.

I then tried a nest of Cremastogaster scutellaris
with violet glass, purple glass, and red, yellow, and
green solutions, formed respectively with fuchsine,
bichromate of potash, and chloride of copper. The
purple looked almost black, the violet very dark; the

EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED GLASSES. 193

red and green, on the contrary, very transparent, and
the yellow even more so. The yellow was not darker
than a tincture of saffron. The latter indeed, to my
eye, scarcely seemed to render the insects under them
at all less apparent ; while under the violet and purple
I could not trace them at all. I altered the relative
positions as before. The nest contained about 50
larvee and pup.

I made thirteen trials, and in every case the larve
and pup were brought under the yellow or the green
—never once under any of the other colours.

Again, over a nest of Formica fusca containing
about 20 pupz I placed violet glass, purple glass, a
weak solution of fuchsine (carmine), the same of
chloride of copper (green), and of bichromate of potash
(yellow, not darker than saffron).

I made eleven trials, and again, in every case the
pup were brought under the yellow or the green.

I then tried a nest of Lasius flavus with the
purple glass, violet glass, very weak bichromate of
potash, and chloride of copper as before.

Witk this species, again, the results were the same
as in the previous cases.

In all these experiments, therefore, the violet and
purple light affected the ants much more strongly than
the yellow and green.

It is curious that the coloured glasses appear to
uct on the ants (speaking roughly) as they would, or,

194 DISLIKE OF VIOLET.

I should rather say, inversely as they would, on a
photographic plate. It might even be alleged that the
avoidance of the violet glass by the ants was due to their
preferring rays transmitted by the other glasses. From
the habits of these insects such an explanation would be
very improbable. If, however, the preference for the
other coloured glasses to the violet was due to the trans-
mission and not to the absorption of rays—that is to
say, if the ants went under the green rather than the
violet because the green transmitted rays which were
agreeable to the ants, and which the violet glass, on
the contrary, stopped—then, if the violet was placed
over the other colours, they would become as distasteful
to the ants as the violet itself. On the contrary, how-
ever, whether the violet glass was placed over the others
or not, the ants equally readily took shelter under them.
Obviously, therefore, the ants avoid the violet glass
because they dislike the rays which it transmits.

But though the ants so markedly avoided the violet
glass, still, as might be expected, the violet glass cer-
tainly had some effect, because if it were put over the
nest alone, the ants preferred being under it to being
under the plain glass only.

I then compared the violet glass with a solution
of ammorio-sulphate of copper, which is very similar in
colour, though perhaps a little more violet, and arranged
the depth of the fluid so as to make it as nearly as poss
sibie of the same depth of colour as the glass,

EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED SOLUTIONS. 194

Approx. number
of Exp. 1. Exp. 2. Exp.3. Exp.4. Exp. 5. Exp. 6.

under the
Glass... 0 0 0 2 0 2
Solution... 40 80 100 80 50 70
Exp.7, Exp.& Exp.9. Exp. 10. Total
Glass... 0 2 3 0 we 9
Solution... 60 40 90 100 see 710

In another experiment with Lasius niger I used
the dark yellow glass, dark violet glass, and a violet
solution of 5 per cent. ammonio-sulphate of copper,
diluted so as to be, to my eye, of exactly the same tint
as the violet glass; in 8 observations the pupz were
three times under the violet solution, and 5 times
under the yellow glass. I then removed the yellow
glass, and in 10 more observations the pupe were
always brought under the solution.

It is interesting that the glass and the solution
should affect the ants so differently, because to my
eye the two were almost identical in colour. The
glass, however, was more transparent than the solu-
tion.

To see whether there would be the same difference
between red glass and red solution as between violet
glass and violet solution, I then (Aug. 21) put over a
nest of Formica fusca a red glass and a solution of
carmine, as nearly as I could make it of the same tint.
In 10 experiments, however, the ants were, generally
speaking, some under the solution and some under
the glass, in, moreover, as nearly as possible equal
numbers.

August 20.—Over a nest of Formica fusca cons

196 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED SOLUTIONS.

taining 20 pupe, I placed a saturated solution of
bichromate of potash, a deep solution of carmine, which
let through scarcely any but the red rays, and a white
porcelain plate.

bs.
oe Under the bichr. of potash were 0 pup, carmine 18, porcelain 2
2 » ” 0 ” ” 6 ” 14
3. wy ” 6 ” ” 3 » 11
4. ” » 0 ” ” 5 ” 18
5. ” ” 6 ” ” 4 ” 10
6. » ” 0 ” ” 19 ” 1
T. ” » 0 ” ” 0 ” 20
8 ” ” 4 » a 16 ” 1
9 ” ” 2 ” ” 4 ” 14
10. ” » 0 » ” 4 4» 16
i ” ” 0 ss ” 3 ” 17
Total 18 81 124

I then put over another nest of Formica fusca
four layers of red glass (which, when examined with
the spectroscope, let through red light only), four
layers of green glass (which, examined in the same
way, transmitted nothing but a very little green), anda
porcelain plate. Under these circumstances the ants
showed no marked preference, but appeared to feel
equally protected, whether they were under the red
glass, the green glass, or the porcelain,

Thus, though it appears from other experiments
that ants are affected by red light, still the quantity
that passes through dark red glass does not seem greatly
to disturb them. I tested this again by placing over a
nest containing a queen and about 10 pupe a piece of

EXPERIMENTS ON A QUEEN ANT. 197

opaque porcelain, one of violet, and one of red glass,
al of the same size. The result is shown below.
Obs

upze were taken under
1, Queen went under red glass 5 eae der red glass { porcelair
2. a porcelain 0 ¥ 7 ”
3. 5 red glass 0 is 7 ”
4. » ” 6 ” 2 ”
5. ” ” 6 ” 2 ”
6. ” ” 3 ” 7 »
7. ” ”» 10 ” 0 ”
8. ” ” 4 » 6 y
9. ” ” 1 ” 0 wm
10. aH porcelain 0 si 10 is
11. 59) red glass 10 » 0 mn
12. ei porcelain 4 “ 6 af
13. s red glass 7 By 3 Pe
14, 6 porcelain 4 » 6 ve
15. 36 red glass 4 Re 6 3
16. a porcelain 0 <5 10 ra
17. a3 red glass 10 Sy 0 5
18, 5 ” 8 ” 2 »
19. é porcelain 7 = 3 ss
20 ” ” 1 ” 9 ”
Total ... «a. 90 88

Obviously, therefore, the ants showed no marked
preference for the porcelain. On one, but only on one
occasion (Obs. 9), most of the pupz were carried under
the violet. glass, but generally it was quite neglected.

I now tried a similar experiment with porcelain and
yellow glass.

Obs.

8 {Pape were taken 9 { under
under yellow. porcelain

2. ” ” 2 » 8 ”

3. ” ” 8 ” 2 »

1. Qucen went under porcelain

198 EXPERIMENTS WITH SLECTRUM.

Obs

4. Queen wen* under yellow glass 5 | alia 5 { ts
5. ” porcelain 3 A 8 mA
6 os yellow glass 8 is 3 ”
7 ” porcelain 6 53 5 +
8 ” ” 0 ” 7 »
9. Fr ” 0 ” 10 »
10 a5 yellow glass 5 ‘i 5° og
11 55 porcelain 8 * 2 om
12. ” » 3 a 7 ”
13. es yellow glass 10 Pr 0 re
14 <3 porcelain 0 ‘5 10 45
15. os yellow glass 10 55 0 i
16 ” ” 7 ” 3 ”
17 ” ” 10 ” 0 »
18 a porcelain 1 3 9 59
19 ” ” 0 ” 10 ”
98 92

The porcelain and yellow glass seemed, therefore,
to affect the ants almost equally.

I then put two ants on a paper bridge, the ends
supported by pins, the bases of which were in water.
The ants wandered backwards and forwards, endea-
vouring to escape. I then placed the bridge in the
dark and threw the spectrum on it, so that succes-
sively the red, yellow, green, blue, and violet fell on the
bridge.

The ants, however, walked backwards and forwards
without (perhaps from excitement) taking any notice of
the colour.

I then allowed some ants (Lasius niger) te find
some larve, to which they obtained access over a
narrow paper bridge. When they had got used to it,

LIMITS OF VISION. : 199

I arranged so that it passed through a dark box, and
threw on it the principal colours of the spectrum,
namely, red, yellow, green, blue, and violet, as well as
the ultra-red and ultra-violet; but the ants took no
notice. :

It is obvious that these facts suggest a number of
interesting inferences. I must, however, repeat the
observations and make others; but we may at least, I
think, conclude from the preceding that:—(1) ants
have the power of distinguishing colours; (2) that they
are very sensitive to violet; and it would also seem (3)
that their sensations of colour must be very different
from those produced upon us.

But I was anxious to go beyond this, and to attempt
to determine how far their limits of vision are the
same as ours. We all know that if a ray of white light
is passed through a prism, it is broken up into a
beautiful band of colours—the spectrum. To our eyes
this spectrum is bounded by red at the one end and
violet at the other, the edge being sharply marked at
the red end, but less abruptly at the violet. But a ray
of light contains, besides the rays visible to our eyes,
others which are called, though not with absolute
correctness, heat-rays and chemical rays. ‘These, so far
from falling within the limits of our vision, extend {sr
beyond it, the heat-rays at the red, the chemical raye
at the violet end.

I have tried various experiments with spectra
derived from sunlight; but, owing to the rotation of

200 THE ULTRA-RED AND ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS.

the earth, they were not thoroughly satisfactory. Mr.
Spottiswoode was also good enough to enable me to
make some experiments with electric light, which were
not very conclusive; more recently I have made some
additional and much more complete experiments,
through the kindness of Prof. Dewar, Prof. Tyndall,
and the Board of Managers of the’ Royal Institution,
to whom I beg to offer my cordial thanks.

Of course, the space occupied by the visible spec
trum is well marked off by the different colours.
Beyond the visible spectrum, however, we have no
such convenient landmarks, and it is not enough to
describe it by inches, because so much depends on the
prisms used. If, however, paper steeped in thalline is
placed in the ultra-violet portion of the spectrum, it
gives, with rays of a certain wave-length, a distinctly
visible green colour, which therefore constitutes a green
band, and gives us a definite, though rough, standard
of measurement.

In the above experiments with coloured spectra,
the ants carried the pupx out of the portion of the
nest on which coloured light was thrown and deposited
them against the wall of the nest; or, if I arranged 1
nest of Formica fusca so that it was entirely in the
light, they carried them to one side or into one corner.
It seemed to me, therefore, that it would be interesting
so to arrange matters, that on quitting the spectrum, after
passing through a dark space, the ants should encounter
not a solid obstacle, but a barrier of light. With this

EXPERIMENTS WITH ELECTRIC LIGHT. 201

object, I prepared some nests 12 inches long by 6 inches
wide; and Mr. Cottrell kindly arranged for me at
the Royal Institution on the 29th of June, by means of
the electric light, two spectra, which were thrown by two
glass prisms on to a table at an angle of about 45°.
Each oceupied about 6 inches square, and there was a
space of about 2 inches between them—that is, between
the red end of the one and the violet of the other.

Experiment 1.—In one of the spectra I placed a nest
of Formica fusca, 12 inches by 6, containing about
150 pupe, and arranged it so that one end was distinctly
beyond the limit of the violet visible to us, and all but
to the edge of the green given by thalline paper, and
the other just beyond the visible red. The pups at first
were almost all in or beyond the violet, but were carricd
into the dark space between the two spectra, the bright
thalline band being avoided, but some pupz being
deposited in the red.

Experiment 2.—I then tried the same experiment
with a nest of Lasius niger, in which there were many
larvee as well as pup. They were all at the commence-
ment at the blue end of the nearer spectrum. The
larvee were left by themselves in the violet, while pups
were ranged from the end of the green to that of the
red inclusive.

Experiment 3.—Arranged a nest of L. niger as
before ; at the commencement the pupe and larve were
much scattered, being, however, less numerous in the

violet and ultra-violet rays. Those in the ultra-violet
15

202 EXPERIMENTS WITH ELECTRIC LIGHT.

rays were moved first, and were deposited, the larve in
the violet, and the pupz in the red.

Experiment 4.—Made the same experiment with
another nest of L. niger. At the commencement the
larve aad pupe were in the violet and ultra-violet
portion, extending to double the distance from the
visible end to the thalline band. The ants soon began
bringing the pupx to the red. Over part of the red I
placed a piece of money. The pupe were cleared from
the ultra-violet first. That the pupz were not put in
the red for the sake of the red light was evident,
because the space under the coin was even more
crowded than the rest. The pups were heaped up in
the dark as far as the thalline band of the other spec-
trum. J then brought the second spectrum nearer to
the first. The pups which thus came to be in the
thalline band were gradually moved into the dark.

Experiment 5.—Tried the same with another nest
of L. niger. The pupe were at first in the violet and
ultra-violet about double as far as the thalline line,
while most of the larve were in the green. The
furthest part was cleared first; and they were again
brought principally into the yellow, red, and dark.

Again, I scattered them pretty equally, some being
ia the ultra-violet portion, as far as double the distance
of the thalline from the violet; most, however, being
in the violet and blue.

The ants began by removing the pupe which were

EXPERIMENTS WITH ELECTRIC LIGHT. 203

in and near the thalline band, and carried them into
the yellow or red.

Experiment 6.—Repeated the same experiment.
Begun it at 11.15. Placed some pupe in the red, some
in the yellow, and a few scattered over the second
apectrum; there were none in the nearer one.

They were all carried away from the red past the
violet, and put down in the dark portion, or in the red
and yellow, of the nearer spectrum.

These experiments surprised me much at the time,
as I had expected all the pupe to be carried into the space
between the two spectra; but it afterwards occurred to
me that the ultra-violet rays probably extended further
than I had supposed, so that even the part which lay
beyond the thalline band contained enough rays to
appear light to the ants. Hence perhaps they selected
the red and yellow as a lesser evil.

Experiment 7.—I altered, therefore, the arrange-
ment. Prof. Dewar kindly prepared for me a con-
densed pure spectrum (showing the metallic lines) with
a Siemens’ machine, using glass lenses and a mirror to
give a perpendicular incidence when thrown on the
nest. I arranged the pupe again in the ultra-violet
as far as the edge of the fluorescent light shown with
thalline paper. The pupz were all again removed, and
most of them placed just beyond the red, but none in
the red or yellow.

Experiment 8.—Arranged the light as before, and
placed the pup in the ultra-violet rays. In half an

204 EXPERIMENTS WITH ELECTRIC LIGHT.

hour they were all cleared away and carried into the dark
space beyond the red. We then turned the nest round
so that the part occupied by the pupz again came to be
in the violet and ultra-violet. The light chanced to be
so arranged that along one side of the nest was a line of
shadow ; and into this the pupe were carried, all those
in the ultra-violet being moved. We then shifted the
nest a little, so that the violet and ultra-violet fell on
some of the pupx. These were then all carried into
the dark, the ones in the ultra-violet being moved first.

In these experiments with the vertical incidence
there was less diffused light, and the pupz were in no
case carried into the red or yellow.

Experiment 9.—I arranged the light and the ants
as before, placing the pupe in the ultra-violet, some
being distinctly beyond the bright thalline band. The
ants at once began to remove them. At first many
were deposited in the violet, some, however, being at
once carried into the dark beyond the red. When all
had been removed from the ultra-violet, they directed
their attention to those in the violet, some being carried,
as before, into the dark, some into the red and yellow.
Again, when those in the violet had all been removed,
they began on the pupe in the red and yellow, and
carried them also into the dark. This took nearly half
an hour. As I had arranged the pupe so that it might
be said that they were awkwardly placed, we then
turned the nest round, leaving the pup otherwise as
they had been arranged by the ants; but the result of

ANTS NOT SENSITIVE TO ULTRA-RED RAYS. 208

moving the nest was to bring some of them into the
violet, though most were in the ultra-violet. They
were, as before, all carried into the dark space beyond
the red in about half an hour.

We then turned the glass round again, this time
arranging the end about the length of the spectrum
beyond the end of the violet visible to oureyes. They
began clearing the thalline band, carrying some into
the violet, but the majority away further from the
spectrum. In a quarter of an hour the thalline band
had been quite cleared; and in half an hour a band
beyond, and equal to the thalline band, those in the
violet being left untouched. After the pupe in the
ultra-violet portion had all been moved, those in the
violet. were also carried away and deposited about twice
as far from the edge of the violet as the further edge
of the bright thalline band.

Experiment 10.—Experimented again with the
same arrangement as before, using another nest of
Lasius niger and placing the pups in the violet and a
little beyond. The ants at once began removing them
into the dark, tunnelling into the heap, and then carry-
ing away those in the ultra-violet first, although they
were further off. In half an hour they had all been
moved out of the violet and ultra-violet, about half
being placed in the dark, and half having been pro-
visionally deposited in the red and yellow.

Experiment 11.—Same arrangement as before.
The pupe being placed all along one side of the nest,

206 ANTS NOT SENSITIVE TO ULTRA-RED RAYS,

from the edge of the red to a distance beyond the violet
as great as the whole length of the spectrum. I began
at 4.15. By degrees they were all cleared away from the
spectrum, except those in the violet, where indeed, and
immediately outside of which, the others were placed.
At 5, however, they began to carry them back into the
red. At 5.45 the blue and violet were nearly cleared,
the pupe being placed in the red and yellow. At 6.15
they had all been brought from the violet and ultra-
violet into the red and yellow.

I then shook up the pups so that they were
arranged all along one side of the nest, and extended
about an inch beyond the red. This excited the ants
very much, and in less than ten minutes all those in the
spectrum, and for about 6 inches beyond the violet, were
moved, but at first they were put down anywhere, so that
they were scattered all over the nest. This, however,
lasted for a very short time, and they were all carried
into the dark beyond the red, or into the extreme end
at some distance beyond the violet. At 7 the edge
of the heap of pupz followed the line of the red at one
end, coming about } inch within it, which was not
owing to want of room, as one side of the nest was
almost unoccupied; at the other end they were all
carried 3 inches beyond the end of the violet.

It would seem, then, as the result of these experi-
ments, that the limits of vision of ants at the red
end of the spectrum are approximately the same
as ours, that they are not sensitive to the ultraered

BUT VERY SENSITIVE TO ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS, 207

rays; but, on the other hand, that they are very sen-
sitive to the ultra-violet rays, which our eyes cannot
perceive.

I then arranged the same ants in a wooden frame
consisting of a base and two side walls, between which
in the middle was a perpendicular sliding door. The
pupe had been arranged by the ants in the centre of
the nest, so that some were on each side of the door.
We then threw, by means of a strong induction-coil, a
magnesium-spark on the nest from one side, and the
light from a sodium-flame in a Bunsen burner on the
other, the light being in each case stopped by the sliding
door, which was pressed close down on the nest. In this
way the first half was illuminated by the one light, the
second by the other, the apparatus being so arranged
that the lights were equal to our eyes—tkat, however,
given by the magnesium, consisting mainly of blue,
violet, and ultra-violet rays, that of the sodium being
very yellow and poor in chemical rays. In a quartei of
an hour the. pup were all carried into the yellow.
The sodium light being the hotter of the two, to
eliminate the action of heat I introduced a water-cell
between the ants and the sodium-flame, and made the
two sides as nearly as possible equally light to my eye.
The pupe, however, were again carried into the sodium
side.

I repeated the same experiment as before, getting
the magnesium-spark and the sodium-flame to the same
degree of intensity, as nearly as my eye could judge,

208 EXPERIMENTS WITH MAGNESIUM SPARK

and interposing a water-screen between the sodium-
flame and the ants. The temperature was tested by
the thermometer, and I could distinguish no difference
between the two sides. Still the ants preferred the
solium side. This I repeated twice. I then removed
the magnesium-spark somewhat, so that the illumina-
tion on that side was very much fainter than on the
other; still the pups were carried into the sodium-
light. I then turned the nest round so as to bring
them back into the magnesium. They were again
carried to the sodium side.

Once more I repeated the same experiment. The
light on the magnesium side was so faint that I could
scarcely see the pupz, those on the sodium side being
quite plain. The thermometer showed no difference
between the two sides. The pups were carried into
the sodium-light. Ithen turned the nest round twice;
but the pupze were each time carried out of the
magnesium-light.

These experiments seemed strongly to indicate, if
not to prove, that ants were really sensitive to the
ultra-violet rays. Now to these rays sulphate of
quinine and bisulphide of carbon are extremely onaque,
though perfectly transparent in the case of visible rays,
and therefore to our eyes entirely colourless and trans-
parent. If, therefore, the ants were really affected by
the ultra-violet rays, then a cell containing a layer of
sulphate of quinine or bisulphide of carbon would tend
to darken the underlying space to their eyes, though
to ours it would not do so.

AND SODIUM FLAME. 209

It will be remembered that if an opaque substance is
placed over a part of a glass nest, other things being
equal, the ants always congregate under it ; and that if
substances of different opacity are placed on different
parts of a nest, they collect under that which seems to
them most opaque. Over one of my nests of Formica
fusca, therefore, I placed two pieces of dark-violet glass
4 inches by 2 inches; and over one of them I placed a
cell containing a layer of bisulphide of carbon, an inch
thick, slightly coloured with iodine. In all these experi-
ments, when I. moved the liquids or glasses, I gave
the advantage, if any, to the one under which experi-
ence showed that the ants were least likely to congre-
gate. The ants all collected under the glass over
which was the bisulphide of carton.

I then thought that though no doubt the iodine
rendered the bisulphide more completely impervious to
the ultra-violet rays, I would: try the effect of it when
pure and perfectly colourless. I therefore tried the
same experiment with pure bisulphide, moving the two
glasses from time to time in such a manner that the
ants had to pass the first violet glass in order to reach
that over which was the bisulphide.

At &30 the ants were all under the glass over which
was the bisulphide of carbon: I then changed
the position.

8.45 3” be ”

9 ” ”» ”

9.15 » ” ”

210 EXPERIMENTS WITH

Although the bisulphide of carbon is so perfectly
transparent, [ then thought I would try it without
the violet glass. I therefore covered part of the nest
with violet glass, a part with a layer of bisulphide of
carbon, moving them from time to time as before, and
the ants in every case went under the bisulphide.

I then reduced the thickness of the layer of bisul-
phide to ;4; of an inch, but still they preferred the
disulphide.

Then thinking that possibly the one shelter being a
plate of glass and the other a liquid might make a
difference, I tried two similar bottles, one contain-
ing water and the other bisulphide of carbon; but in
every case the ants went under the bisulphide of
carbon. On the other hand, when I used coloured solu-
tions so deep in tint that the ants were only just visible
through them, the ants went under the coloured liquids.

October 10.--I uncovered the nest at 7 A.M., giving
the ants an option between the bisulphide of carbon
and various coloured solutions, taking for violet am-
monio-sulphate of copper ; for red, a solution of carmine
go deep in tint that the ants could only just be seen
through it ; for green, a solution of chlorate of copper;
and for yellow, saffron. They were each separately
tried with the bisulphide, and in every case the ants
preferred the coloured solution.

I now took successively red, yellow, and green
glass; but in every case the ants preferred the glass to
the bisulphide. Although, therefore, it would seem

BISULPHIDE OF CARBON. 211

from the previous experiments that the bisulphide
darkened the nests to the ants more than violet glass,
it would appear to do so less than red, green, or yellow

I now made some experiments in order, if possible,
to determine whether the reason why the auts avoided
the violet glass was because they disliked the colour
violet, or whether it was because the violet glass trans-
mitted more of the ultra-violet rays.

For this purpose I placed a layer of the bisulphide
of carbon over a piece of violet glass. By this arrange-
ment I got the violet without the ultra-violet rays ;
and I then contrasted this combination with other
coloured media. .

First, I took a solution of bichromate of potash
(bright orange), and placed it on a part of the nest, side
by side with the violet glass and bisulphide of carbon.
I should add that the bichromate of potash also cuts off
the ultra-violet rays. In all the following observations
I changed the position after each observation.

At 1.30 p.m. the ants were under the bichromate.
3 ss en half under the bichromate
and half under the violet
glass and bisulphide.

8 AM. 55 » _under the bichromate.

8.30 55 45 under the violet glass and
bisulphide.

9 5 » half under each.

9.30 ss 3 some under each, but most

212 EXPERIMENTS WITH

under the violet glass and

bisulphide.
9.45 a re half under each.
10 ” ” bd 9

In this case, therefore, though without the layer of
bisulphide the violet glass would always have been
avoided, the result of placing the bisulphide over the
violet glass was that the ants did not care much
whether they were under the violet glass or under the
bichromate of potash.

I then took the same solution of carmine which T

oad already used.
10. The ants were under the carmine.
10.15 ” ” ”
10.30 i most under the carmine, but
some under the violet.
10.45 i under the carmine.
11. 5 most under the carmine, but

some under the violet.

Here, then, again the bisulphide made a distinct
difference, though not so much so as with the bichro-
mate of potash.

I then took the solution of chlorate of copper
aready used.

1 About half the an's were under each,
1.30. The greater number were under the violet
glass and bisulphide.

BISULPHIDE OF CARBON. 213

2. The greater number were under the violet
glass and bisulphide.

2.30 ” ” ”

3. Almost all were under the glass and bis::Iphide.

The addition of the bisulphide thus caused the violet
glass to be distinctly preferred to the chlorate of copper.
I then took a solution of sulphate of nickel, almost
exactly the same tint as, or a shade paler than, the
chlorate of copper.
At 3.45 the ants were under the violet glass and
bisulphide.
4. ” 3 ”
5. ” ” ”
October 18.
TAM. 55 ” ”
8. About half of the ants were under each.

Here the effect was even more marked.
I then took some saffron 1 inch in thickness and of
u deep-yellow colour.
12.45 The ants were about half under each.
1. Most of the ants were under the violet glass
and bisulphide.
1.15 ” ” ”
2. Most of the ants were under the saffron.

Here, again, we have the same result.

I then tried the different-coloured glasses, all of
which, as I had previously found, are unmistakably
preferred to the violet. It remained to be seen what

214 EXPERIMENTS WITH .

effect placing the bisulphide of carbon on the violet
would have.

First, I placed side by side, as usual, a piece of
green glass and the violet glass covered with bisuly nide
of carbon :—

lst exp. Half of the ants were under each.
2nd ,, They were under the violet glass and
bisulphide.
3rd, ” ” ”
4th exp. Most of them were under the violet glass
and bisulphide.
5th 9 33 2? 2”
Next, I tried pale-yellow glass.

Ist obs. The ants were almost all under the violet
glass and bisulphide.

2nd ,, About three-quarters were ,, 3

3rd_,, They were all % 8

4th ,, About half were under each.

I then took the dark-yellow glass.

Ist obs. About half the ants were under the yellow
glass and half under the viclet glass and

bisulphide.
2nd ,, Most of them were under the violet glass
and bisulphide.
3rd ,, 5 55 yellow glass.
4th ,, ss PA violet glasa

and bisulphide.
6th ,, About half under each.

BISULPHIDE OF CARBON, 215
I now took deep-red glass,

1st obs, The ants were under the red glass.

2nd ,, Half of the ants were under each.

3rd _,, Most of the ants were under violet glass
and bisulphide.

4th ,, Half were under each.

It seemed evident, therefore, that while if violet
glass alone was placed side by side with red, yellow, or
green, the ants greatly preferred any of the latter, on
the other hand, if a layer of bisulphide of carbon, which
to our eyes is perfectly transparent, was placed over
the violet glass, they then went as readily, or even
more readily, under it than under other colours.

In order to be sure that it was not the mere
presence of a fluid, or the two layers of glass, to which
this was due, I thought it would be well to try a similar
series of expcriments, using, however, a layer of similar
thickness (1 inch) of water coloured light blue by
ammonio-sulphate of copper.

I therefore took again the piece of violet glass, over
which I placed a flat-sided bottle, about 1 inch thick,
containing a light-blue solution of ammonio-sulphate
of copper; and, in contrast with it, I used the same
coloured glasses as before. The difference, however,
was very marked, the ants always preferring the red,
green, and yellow to the violet.

These experiments seem to demonstrate that in
the previous series the ants were really influenced by

216 EXPERIMENTS WITH

some difference due to the bisulphide of carbon, which
affected their eyes, though not ours.

I then thought it would be interesting to use,
instead of the bisulphide, a solution of sulphate of
quinine (4 dr. to 4 ounces), which differs from it in
many points, but agrees in cutting off the ultra-violet
rays. I used, as before, a layer about an inch thick,
which I placed over violet glass, and then placed by its
side the same coloured glasses as before.

First, I took the red glass.

Obs. 1. About half the ants were under each.
»» 2. Most of them were under the red glass.
» 3. About half under each; rather more under the
violet glass and sulphate of quinine than
under the red glass.

” 4. oe ”? ”

I now took the dark-yellow glass instead of the red.

Obs. 1. Most of the ants were under the violet glass and
sulphate of quinine,

i ee All Pe 5 ‘

” 3. ” ” ” ”

9» Se 9 9 9 yellow glass.
” 5. 29 9 ” ”

», 6. All the ants were under the violet glass and

sulphate of quinine.

y @. About half under each.

n 8. Rather more under the violet glass and sulphate
of quinine than under the yellow glass.

BISULPHIDE OF CARBON. 217
I then took the light- yellow glass instead of the dark.

bs. 1. The ants were ail under the violet glass and
sulphate of quinine.
» 2. Rather more than half under tne yellow glass.
», 3. Almost all under the violet glass and sulphate
of quinine.
» 4. All oo) ” ” ”

I then took the green glass instead of the yellow.
Obs. 1. They were under the violet glass and sulphate
of quinine.
99 2 ” ” ”
3. About half under each.
4. About three-quarters under the green glass.
5. Almost all under the violet glass and sulphate
of quinine.

39
”

”

Thus, then, while if the ants have to choose
between the violet and other coloured glasses, they
will always prefer one of the latter, the effect of
putting over the violet glass a layer either of sul-
phate of quinine or bisulphide of carbon, both of
which are quite transparent, but both of which cut off
the ultra-violet rays, is to make the violet glass seem
to the ants as good a shelter as any of the other glasses.
This seems to me strong evidence that the ultra-violet
rays are visible to the ants.

I then tried similar experiments with a saturated
solution of chrome alum and chromium chloride. These

16

218 CHROME ALUM AND CHROMIUM CHLORIDE.

are dark greenish blue, very opaque to the visible
light-rays, but transparent to the ultra-violet. I used
a Jayer } inch thick, which was still so dark that I
could not see the ants through it; and for comparison,
a solution 1 inch thick of bisulphide of carbon, moving
them after each observation as before.

Exp. 1. The ants were under the bisulphide of
carbon.

” 2. 99 ” 2?

Exp. 3. Most of the ants were under the bisulphide

of carbon.
» 4. All but three » 9
> o All ” ”

T now took chromium chloride instead of alum.
Exp. 1. Most were under the bisulphide of carbon.
9 2. All +) ” ”
» 3. Almost all ,, "
» 4. About three-fourths were te the
chromium chloride.

» 5. All were under the chromium chloride.

» 6. About two-thirds 5 i

5, 7. About one-half under each.

» 8. All under the bisulphide of carbon.

» 9. About three-fourths under the bisulphide

_ of carbon.
10. About half ,, 5 $5
y Li. All under the chrome alum.
wv 22s - bisulphide of carbon.

t4

ANTS SENSITIVE TO ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS. 219

This result is very striking. It appears to show that
though to our eyes the bisulphide of carbon is absolutely
transparent, while the chrome alum and chromium chlo-
ride are very dark, to the ants, on the contrary, the
former appears to intercept more light than a layer of
the latter, which to our eyes appears dark green.

The only experiments hitherto made with the view
of determining the limits of vision of animals have
been some by Prof. Paul Bert! on a small fresh-water
crustacean belonging to the genus Daphnia, from
which he concludes that they perceive all the colours
known to us, being, however, specially sensitive to the
yellow and green, and that their limits of vision are
the same as ours.

Nay, he even goes further than this, and feels
justified in concluding from the experience of two
widely divergent species—Man and Daphnia —that
the limits of vision would be the same in all cases.

His words are —

A. ‘Tous les animaux voient les rayons spectraux
que nous voyons.’

B. ‘Ils ne voient aucun de ceux que nous ne
voyons pas.”

C. ‘Dans l’étendue de la région visible, les différ-
ences entre les pouvoirs éclairants des différents rayons
coloriés sont les mémes pour eux et pour nous.’

He adds, that ‘puisque les limites de visibilités
semblent étre les mémes pour les animaux et pour nous,

' Archiv. de Physiol, 1869, p. 547.

2206 THE SENSE OF COLOUR.

ne trouvons-nous pas la une raison de plus pour
supposer que le réle des milieux de l’ceil est tout-a-fait
secondaire, et que la visibilité tient 4 l’impressionnabilité
de l'appareil nerveux lui-méme ?’

Such a generalisation would seem to rest on but a
slight foundation ; and I may add that I have made
some experiments myself! on Daphnias which do not
agree with those of M. Bert. On the contrary, I
believe that the eyes of Daphnias are in this respect
constituted like those of ants.

‘These experiments seem {o me very interesting.
They appear to prove that ants perceive the ultra-violet
rays. Now, as every ray of homogeneous light which
we can perceive at all appears to us as a distinct colour,
it becomes probable that these ultra-violet rays must
make themselves apparent to the ants as a distinct
and separate colour (of which we can form no idea),
but as unlike the rest as red is from yellow, or green
from violet. The question also arises whether white
light to these insects would differ from our white light
in containing this additional colour. At any rate, as
few of the colours in nature are pure, but almost all
arise from the combination of rays of different wave-
lengths, and as in such cases the visible resultant would
be composed not only of the rays which we see, but of
these and the ultra-violet, it would appear that the
colours of objects and the general aspect of nature

§ British Assoc. Report 1881, and Linnean Soc. Journ. 1882

THE SENSE OF HEARING. 291

must present to them a very different appearance from
what it does to us.

The Sense of Hearing.

Many eminent observers have regarded the antenna
of insects as auditory organs, and have brought forward
strong evidence in favour of their view.

I have myself made experiments on grasshoppers,
which convinced me that their antenne serve as organs
cf hearing.

So far, however, as Ants, Bees, and Wasps are con-
cerned, the evidence is very conflicting. The power of
hearing has indeed generally been attributed to them.
Thus St. Fargeau, in his ‘ Hist. Nat. des Hyménoptéres,’!
thinks there can be no doubt on the subject. Bevan
expresses, no doubt, the general opinion with reference
to Bees, when he says that ‘ there is good evidence that
Bees have a quick sense of hearing.’ ?

As regards Wasps, Ormerod, who studied them
so lovingly, came to the same conclusion.?

On the other hand, both Huber‘ and Forel ® state
that ants are quite deaf. As I have already men-
tioned in the ‘Linnean Journal’ (vols. xii. and xiii.),
1 have never succeeded in satisfying myself that my
ants, bees, or wasps heard any of the sounds with

1 Vol. i. p. 113. 2 The Honey Bee, p. 264.

® Nat. Hist. of Wasps, p. 72. 4 Nat. Hist. of Ants.
5 Fourmis de la Suisse, p. 121.

223 THE SENSE OF HEARING.

which 1 tried them. I have over and over again
tested them with the loudest and shrillest noises I
could make, using a penny pipe, a dog-whistle, a
violin, as well as the most piercing and startling
sounds I could produce with my own voice, but all
without effect. At the same time, I carefully avoided
inferring from this that they are really deaf, though
it certainly seems that their range of hearing is very
different from ours.

In order, if possible, to throw some light upon
this interesting question, I made a variety of loud
noises, including those produced by a complete
set of tuning-forks, as near as possible to the ants
mentioned in the preceding pages, while they were
on their journeys to and fro between the nests and
the larve. In these cases the ants were moving
steadily and in a most business-like manner, and any
start or alteration of pace would have been at once
apparent. I was never able, however, to perceive that
they took the slightest notice of any of these sounds,
Thinking, however, that they might perhaps be too
much absorbed by the idea of the larve to take any
notice of my interruptions, I took one or two ants at
random and put them on a strip of paper, the two ends
of which were supported by pins with their bases in
water. The ants imprisoned under these circumstances
wandered slowly backwards and forwards along the
paper. As they did so,I tested them in the same
manner as before, but was unable to perceive that they

APPARENT DEAFNESS OF ANTS. 223

took the slightest notice of any sound which I was
able to produce. I then took a large female of F.
ligniperda, and tethered her on a board to a pin by a
delicate silk thread about 6 inches in length. After
wandering about for a while, she stood still, and I
then tried her in the same way; but, like the other
ants, she took no notice whatever of the sounds.

It is of course possible, if not probable, that ants,
even if deaf to sounds which we hear, may hear others
to which we are deaf.

Having failed, therefore, in hearing them or making
them hear me, I endeavoured to ascertain whether they
could hear one another.

To ascertain then if possible whether ants have the
power of summoning one another by sound, I tried the
following experiments. I put out (Sept. 1874) on the
board where one of my nests of Lasius flavus was
usually fed, six small pillars of wood about an inch
and a half high, and on one of them I put some
honey. A number of ants were wandering about on
the board itself in search of food, and the nest itself
was immediately above, and about 12 inches from, the
board. I then put three ants to the honey, and when
each had sufficiently fed I imprisoned her and put
another; thus always keeping three ants at the
honey, but not allowing them to go home. If then
they could summon their friends by sound, there
ought soon to be many ants at the honey. The resulta
were as follow:

224 ATTEMPTS TO ASCERTAIN

September 8.—Began at 11 am. Up to 3 o'clock
only seven ants found their way to the honey, while
about as many ran up the other pillars. The arrival of
these seven, therefore, was not more than would
naturally result from the numbers running about close
by. At 3 we allowed the ants then on the honey to
return home. The result was that from 3.6, when the
first went home, to 3.30, eleven came; from 3.30 to 4,
no less than forty-three. Thus in four hours only seven
came, while it was obvious that many wouid have
wished to come, if they had known about the honey,
because in the next three quarters of an hour, when
they were informed of it, fifty-four came.

On September 10 I tried the same again, keep-
ing as before three ants always on the honey, but not
allowing any to go home. From 12 to 5.30, only eight
came. Those on the honey were then allowed to take
the news home. From 6.30 to 6, four came; from
6 to 6.30, four ; from 6.30 to 7, eight; from 7.30 to 8,
no less-than fifty-one.

On September 23 we did the same again, begin-
ning at 11.15. Up to 3.45 nine came. The ants
on the honey were then allowed to go home. From
4 to 4.30 nine came; from 4.30 to 5, fifteen; from 5
to 5.30 nineteen; from 5.30 to 6, thirty-eight. Thus
in three and a half hours only nine came 3; in two,
when the ants were permitted to return, eighty-one.

Again, on September 301 tried the same arrange-
ment, again beginning at 11. Up to 3.30 seven anty

WHETHER ANTS CALL ONE ANOTHER. 225

eame. We then allowed the ants which had fed to
go home. From 3.30 to 4.30 twenty-eight came.
From 4.30 to 5, fifty-one came. Thus in four hours
and a half only seven came; while when the ants were
allowed to return no less than seventy-nine came in an
hour and a half. It seems obvious therefore that in
these cases no communication was transmitted by
sound.

Again, Professor Tyndall was good enough to arrange
for me one of his sensitive flames; but I could not
perceive that it responded in any waytomyants. The
experiment was not, however, very satisfactory, as I was not
able to try the flame with a very active nest. Professor
Bell most kindly set up for me an extremely sensitive
microphone : it was attached to the underside of one of
my nests; and though we could distinctly hear the ants
walking about, we could not distinguish any other
sound.

It is, however, far from improbable that ants may
produce sounds entirely beyond our range of hearing.
Indeed, it is not impossible that insects may possess
senses, or sensations, of which we can no more form an
idea than we should have been able to conceive red or
green if the human race had been blind. The human
ear is sensitive to vibrations reaching at the outside to
38,000 in a second. The sensation of red is produced
when 470 millions of millions of vibrations enter the
‘eye in a similar time; but between these two numbers,
vibrations produce on us only the sensation of heat;

226 EXPERIMENTS WITH SENSITIVE FLAME.

we have no special organs of sense adapted to them
There is, however, no reason in the nature of things
why this should be the case with other animals; and
the problematical organs possessed by many of the
lower forms may have relation to sensations which we
do not perceive. If any apparatus could be devised
by which the number of vibrations produced by any
given cause could be lowered so as to be brought within
the range of our ears, it is probable that the result
would be most interesting.

Moreover, there are not wanting observations which
certainly seem to indicate that ants possess some sense
of hearing.

I am, for instance, indebted to Mr. Francis Galton
for the following quotation from Colonel Long’s recent
work on Central Africa.! ‘I observed,’ he says, ‘the
manner of catching them’ (the ants, for food), ‘as here
pictured’ (he gives a figure). ‘Seated round an ant-
hole were two very pretty maidens, who with sticks
beat upon an inverted gourd, “bourmah,” in cadenced
time to a not unmusical song, that seduced from its
hole the unwary ant, who, approaching the orifice, was
quickly seized.” The species of ant is not mentioned.

Moreover, there are in the antenne certain remark-
able structures, which may very probably be auditory
wgans.

These curious organs (Fig. 6) were first noticed,

' Central Africa, by Col, C, C. Long, p. 274,

ANTS PROBABLY HEAR HIGH NOTES 227

so far as [ am aware, by Dr. J. Braxton Hicks in his ex«
cellent paper on the ‘Antenne of Insects,’ published in
the 22nd volume of the ‘Linnzan Transactions ;’ and,
again, by Dr. Forel in his ‘Fourmis de la Suisse.’
They certainly deserve more attention than they have
yet received. The cork-shaped organs (Figs. 6 and 7, ¢e)
occur in allied species; but these stethoscope-like
organs have not, so far as I am aware, been yet
observed in other insects. They consist of an outer
sac (Figs. 6 and 7, s), of a long tube (t), and a posterior
shamber (w), to which is given a nerve (7).

Forel! also describes these curious organs. He
appears to consider that the number varies consider-

Terminal portion of antenne of Myrmica ruginodis 3 x 75

ably, namely, from 5 to 12. My own impression is
that this difference is only apparent, and that in reality
the numbers in each species vary iittle. Though

1 Trans. of Linnean Soc., vol. xxii. p. 391.
3 Fourmis de la Suisse, p. 301.

228 ORGANS OF SENSE

sometimes the presence of air renders them ery con-
spicuous, they are in others by no means easy to make

Fig. 7.

n
w

Diagrammatic section through part of Fig. 6.

e, chitinous skin of the antenna. ee, two of the cork-shaped
organs. 8, external chamber of one of the stethoscope-shaped
organs. 7, the tube. w, the posterior sac. n, the nerve.

out ; and I think that when a small number only are
apparently present, this is probably due merely to the
fact that the others are not brought out by the mode
of preparation.

In addition to the group of these organs situated
in the terminal segment, there is one, or in some rare
cases I have found two, in each of the small preceding
segments. The tubes in these segments appeared to
the eye to be nearly of the same length as those in the
terminal segment, but I could not measure their exact
length, as they do not lie flat. In some cases, when
the segment was short, the tube was bent—an indica-
tion, perhaps, that the exact length is of importance.
It is possible that these curious organs may be audi-
tory, and serve like microscopic stethoscopes. Professor
Tyndall, who was good enough to examine them with
me, concurred in the opinion that this was very pro-
bable. I believe I am correct in saying that the bend-

IN CHE ANTENNAS OF ANTS. 229

ing of the tube in the short segments would make
little difference in its mode of action.

Kirby and Spence were, I believe, the first to
notice that an insect allied to the ants (Mutilla
Europea) has the power of making a sibilant,
chirping sound, but they did not ascertain how
this was effected. Goureau! subsequently called at-
tention to the same fact, and attributed it to fric-
tion of the base of the third segment of the abdo-
men against the second. Westwood,? on the other
hand, thought the sound was produced ‘ by the action
of the large collar against the front of the mesothorax.
Darwin, in his ‘ Descent of Man,’ adopts the same view.
‘I find,’ he says, ‘that these surfaces (i.e. the over-
lapping portions of the second and third abdominal
segments) are marked with very fine concentric ridges,
but so is the projecting thoracic collar, on which the
head articulates; and this collar, when scratched with
the point of a needle, emits the proper sound.’ Landois,
after referring to this opinion, expresses himself strongly
in opposition to it. The true organ of sound is, he
maintains,‘ a triangular field on the upper surface of
the fourth abdominal ring, which is finely ribbed, and
which, when rubbed, emits a stridulating sound. It
certainly would appear, from Landois’ observations,
that this structure does produce sound, whether or not

1 Ann, de la Soc. Ent. de France, 1837.
2 Modern Classifications of Insects, vol. ii.

§ Descent of Man, vol. i. p. 366.
* Thierstimmen, p. 132.

230 STRIDULATING APPARATUS

we consider that the friction of the collar against the
mesothorax may also assist in doing so.

Under these circumstances, Landois asked himself
whether other genera allied to Mutilla might not
possess a similar organ, and also have the power of pro-
ducing sound. He first examined the genus Ponera,
which, in the structure of its abdomen, nearly resem-
bles Mutilla, and here also he found a fully developed
stridulating apparatus.

He then turned to the true ants, and here also he
found a similar rasp-like organ in the same situation.
It is indeed true that ants produce no sounds which
are audible by us; still, when we find that certain
allied insects do produce sounds appreciable to us by
rubbing the abdominal segments one over the other;
and when we find, in some ants, a nearly similar
structure, it certainly seems not unreasonable to
conclude that these latter also do produce sounds,
even though we cannot hear them. Landois describes

Fig. 8.

Attachment of abdominal segments of Lasius flavus ¥ x 225.

the structure in the workers of Lasius fuliginosus as
naving 20 ribs in a breadth of 0°13 of a millimetre,

ON ABDOMINAL SEGMENTS. 231

but he gives no figure. In Fig. 8 I have represented
the junction of the second and third abdominal seg-
ments in Lasius flavus, x 225, as shown in a longi-
tudinal and vertical section. There are about ten
well-marked ribs (r), occupying a length of approxi-
mately 54, of an inch. Similar ridges also occur
between the following segments.

In connection with the sense of hearing I may
mention another very interesting structure. In the
year 1844, Von Siebold described! a remarkable organ
which he had discovered in the tibie of the front legs
of Gryllus,and which he considered to serve for the pur-
pose of hearing. These organs have also been studied
by Burmeister, Brunner, Hensen, Leydig, and others,
and have recently been the subject of a monograph by
Dr. V. Graber,’ who commences his memoir by observ-
ing that they are organs of an entirely unique character,

Fig. 9.

Tibia of Lasius flavus § x 75.

and that nothing corresponding to them occurs in any
other insects, or indeed in any other Arthropods.

1 See also Sharp, Zrans. Ent. Soc., 1893.

2 Ueber das Stimm. und Gehérorgan der Orthopteren, Wiegmann’s
Art. f. Natur., 1844.

3 Die Tympanalen Si pparate der Orthopteren, von Dr. Vitus
Graber, 1875.

232 REMARKABLE STRUCTURE IN

I have tnerefore been very much interested by die
covering (1875) in ants a structure which seems in
some remarkable points to resemble that of the
Orthoptera. As will be seen from a glance at Dr.
Graber’s memoir, and the plates which accompany it,
the large trachea of the leg in the Orthoptera is con-
siderably swollen in the tibia, and sends off, shortly
after entering the tibia, a branch which, after running
for some time parallel to the principal trunk, joins it
again. See, for instance, in his monograph, plate ii.,
fig. 43; plate vi., fig. 69 ; plate vii. fig. 77; &c.

Now, I have observed that in many other insects the
trachez of the tibia are dilated, and in several I have
been able to detect a recurrent branch. The same is
also the case in some mites. I will, however, reserve
what I have to say on this subject, with reference to
other insects, for another occasion, and will at present
confine myself to the ants. If we examine the tibia,
say of Lasius flavus, Fig. 9, we shall see that the
trachea presents a remarkable arrangement, which at
once reminds us of that which occurs in Gryllus and
other Orthoptera. In the femur it has a diameter of
about =2,, of an inch; as soon, however, as it enters
the tibia, it swells to a diameter of about ;1, of an
inch, then contracts again to 515, and then again, at
the apical extremity of the tibia, once more expands
to s4;. Moreover, as in Gryllus, so also in Formica, a
small branch rises from the upper sac, runs almost

THE TIBIA OF ANTS. 233

straight down the tibia, and falls again into the main
trachea just above the lower sac.

The remarkable sacs (Fig. 9,88) at the two ex-
tremities of the trachea in the tibia may also be well
seen in other transparent species, such, for instance,
as Myrmica ruginodis and Pheidole megacephala.

At the place where the upper tracheal sac con-
tracts (Fig. 9), there is, moreover, a conical striated
organ (x), which is situated at the back of the leg, just
at the apical end of the upper tracheal sac. The
broad base lies against the external wall of the leg, and
the fibres converge inwards. In some cases I thought
I could perceive indications of bright rods, but I was
never able to make them out very clearly. This also
reminds us of a curious structure which is found in the
tibie of Locustide, between the trachea, the nerve,
and the outer wall, and which is well shown in some of
Dr. Graber’s figures.

On the whole, then, though the subject is still
involved in doubt, I am disposed to think that ants
perceive sounds which we cannot hear

The Sense of Smell.

I have also made a numter of experiments on the
power of smell possessed by ants. I dipped camel’s-hair
brushes into peppermint-water, essence of cloves, laven-
der-water, and other strong scents, and suspended them

17

234 THE SENSE OF SMELL.

about } of an inch above the strips of paper along which
the ants were passing, in the experiments above recorded.
Under these circumstances, while some of the ants passed
on without taking any notice, others stopped when they
came close to the pencil, and, evidently perceiving the
smell, turned back. Soon, however, they returned and
passed the scented pencil. After doing this two or
three times, they generally took no further notice of
the scent. This experiment left no doubt on my mind;
still, to make the matter even more clear, I experi-
mented with ants placed on an isolated strip of paper.
Over the paper, and at such a distance as almost, but
not quite, to touch any ant which passed under it, I
again suspended a camel’s-hair brush, dipped in assa-
foetida, lavender-water, peppermint-water, essence of
cloves, and other scents. In this experiment the
results were very marked ; and no one who watched
the behaviour of the ants under these circumstances
could have the slightest doubt as to their power of
smell.

I then took a large female of F. ligniperda and
tethered her on a board by a thread as before. When
she was quite quiet I tried her with the tuning-forks ;
but they did not disturb her in the least. I then ap-
proached the feather of a pen very quietly, so as almost
to touch first one and then the other of the antenne,
which, however, did not move. I then dipped the pen
in essence of musk and did the same; the antenna
was slowly retracted and drawn quite back. I then

THE SENSE OF SMELL. 235

repeated the same with the other antenna. If I
touched the antenna, the ant started away, apparently
smarting. I repeated the same with essence of laven-
der, and with a second ant. The result was the same.

Many of my other experiments—for instance, some
of those recorded in the next chapter—point to the
same conclusion ; and, in fact, there can be no doubt
whatever that in ants the sense of smell is highly
developed.

CHAPTER IX.

GENERAL INTELLIGENCE, AND POWER OF FINDING
THEIR WAY.

A NUMBER of interesting anecdotes are on record as tu
the ingenuity displayed by ants under certain circum-
stances.

M. Lund, for instance, tells the following story as
bearing on the intelligence of ants : '—

‘Passant un jour prés d’un arbre presque isolé, je
fus surpris d’entendre, par un temps calme, des feuilles
qui tombaient comme de la pluie. Ce qui augmenta
mon étonnement, c’est que les feuilles détachées avaient
leur couleur naturelle, et que l’arbre semblait jouir de
toute sa vigueur. Je m’approchai pour trouver l’expli-
cation de ce phénoméne, et je vis qu’d peu prés sur
chaque pétiole était postée une fourmi qui travaillait
de toute sa force; le pétiole était bientét coupé et la
feuille tombait par terre. Une autre scéne se passait
au pied de J’arbre: la terre était couverte de fourmis
occupées & découper les feuilles 4 mesure qu’elles tom-
baient, et les morceaux étaient sur le champ transportés
dans le nid. En moins d’une heure le grand cuvre

4 Ann, des Sei. Nat, 1831, p. 112.

ECONOMY OF LABOUR. 232

saccomplit sous mes yeux, et l’arbre resta entiérement
dépouillé.’

Butes' gives an apparently similar, but really very
different account. ‘The Saiiba ants,’ he says, ‘ mount
the tree in multitudes, the individuals being all
worker-minors. Each one places itself on the surface
of a leaf, and cuts with its sharp scissor-like jaws a
nearly semivircular incision on the upper side; it then
takes the edge between its jaws, and by a sharp jerk
detaches the piece. Sometimes they let the leaf drop to
the ground, where a little heapaccumulates, until carried
off by another relay of workers; but, generally, each
marches off with the piece it has operated upon.’

Dr. Kerner recounts? the following story communi-
cated to him by Dr. Gredler of Botzen :—

‘One of his colleagues at Innsbriick, says that
gentleman, had for months been in the habit of sprink-
ling pounded sugar on the sill of his window, for a
train of ants, which passed in constant procession from
the garden to the window. One day, he took it into
his head to put the pounded sugar into a_ vessel,
which he fastened with a string to the transom of the
window; and, in order that his long-petted insects
might have information of the supply suspended above,
a number of the same set of ants were placed with the
sugar in the vessel. These busy creatures forthwith

1 Naturalist on the Amazons, vol. i. p. 26.
2 Flowers and their Unbidden Guests, Dr. A. Kerner. Trans. by
W. Ogle, 1878, p. 21.

238 STATEMENT BY

seized on the particles of sugar, and soon discovering
the only way open to them, viz. up the string, over
the transom and down the window-frame, rejoined their
fellows on the sill, whence they could resume the old
route down the steep wall into the garden. Before
long the route over the new track from the sill to the
sugar, by the window-frame, transom, and string was
completely established; and so passed a day or two
without anything new. Then one morning it was
noticed that the ants were stopping at their old place,
that is, the window-sill, and getting sugar there. Not
a single individual any longer traversed the path that
led thence to the sugar above. This was not because
the store above had been exhausted; but because some
dozen little fellows were working away vigorously and
incessantly up aloft in the vessel, dragging the sugar
crumbs to its edge, and throwing them down to
their comrades below on the sill, a sill which with
their limited range of vision they could not possibly
see!”

Leuckart also made a similar experiment. Round a
wee which was frequented by ants, he spread a band
soaked in tobacco water. The ants above the band
after awhile let themselves drop to the ground, but
the ascending ants were long baffled. At length he
saw them coming back, each with a pellet of earth in
its mouth, and thus they constructed a road for them-
selves, over which they streamed up the tree.

PREVIOUS OBSERVERS, 239

Dr. Biichner records the following instance on the
authority of a friend (M. Theuerkauf) :—

‘A maple tree standing on the ground of the
manufacturer, Vollbaum, of Elbing (now of Dantzic)
swarmed with aphides and ants. In order to check
the mischief, the proprietor smeared about a foot width
of the ground round the tree with tar. The first ants
who wanted to cross naturally stuck fast. But what
did the next? They turned back to the tree and
carried down aphides, which they stuck down on the
tar one after another until they had made a bridge, over
which they could cross the tar-ring without danger.
The above-named merchant, Vollbaum, is the guarantor
of this story, which I received from his own mouth on
the very spot whereat it occurred,’!

In this case I confess I have my doubts as to the
interpretation of the fact. Is it not possible that as
the ants descended the tree, carrying the aphides, the
latter naturally stuck to the tar, and would certainly
be left there. In the same way I have seen hundreds
of bits of earth deposited on the honey with which I
fed my ants.

On one occasion Belt observed? a community of
leaf-cutting ants (Hcodoma), which was in the process
of moving from one nest to another. ‘ Between the
old burrows and the new one was a steep slope. In-
stead of descending this with their burdens, they cast

1 Mind in Animals, by Prof. Ludwig Biichner, p, i120.
2 Naturalist in Nicaragua, O. Belt, p. 76.

240 EXPERIMENTS AS TO POWERS.

them down on the top of the slope, whence they
rolled to the bottom, where another relay of labourers
picked them up and carried them to the new burrow.
It was arausing to watch the ants hurrying out with
bundles of food, dropping them over the slope, and
rushing back immediately for more.’

With reference to these interesting statements, I
tried the following experiment :—

October 15 (see Fig. 10).—At a distance of 10
inches from the door of a nest of Lasius niger I fixed

Fig 10. an upright ash wand 3 feet 6 inches
high (a), and from the top of it
s I suspended a second, rather shorter

wand (b). To the lower end of this
@ second wand, which hung just over the
¢ entrance to the nest (c), I fastened
a flat glass cell (d)in which I placed a number of larve,
and to them I put three or four specimens of L. niger.
The drop from the glass cell to the upper part of the
frame was only 4 an inch; still, though the ants
reached over and showed a great anxiety to take this
short cut home, they none of them faced the leap, but
all went round by the sticks, a distance of nearly 7
feet. A‘ ¢ P.M. there were over 550 larve in the glass
cell, and I reduced its distance from the upper surface
of the nest to about 2 of an inch, so that the ants
could even touch the glass with their antennae, but
could not reach up nor step down. Still, though the
drop was so small, they all went round. At 11 P.M. the

OF ECONOMISING LABOUR 241

greater number of the larvee had been carried off; so
I put a fresh lot in the cell. The ants were busily at
work. At 3 4.M.I visited them again. They were
still carrying off the larve, and all going round. At
6 A.M. the larvee were all removed. I put a fresh lot,
and up to 9 a.M. they went on as before.

The following day (October 17) I took two longer
sticks, each 6 feet 6 inches in length, and arranged
them in a similar manner, only horizontally instead of
vertically. J also placed fine earth under the glass
supporting the larve. At 8 o’clock I placed an ant on
the larve; she took one, and I then coaxed her home
along the sticks. She deposited her larva and im-
mediately came out again, not,- however, going along
the stick, but under the larva, vainly reaching up and
endeavouring to reach the glass. At 8.30 I put her
on the larve again, and as she evidently did not know
her way home, but kept stretching herself down and
trying to reach the earth under the glass cell, I again
coaxed her home along the sticks. At 9.3 she came
out again, and again went under the larva and wandered
about there. At 101 put her on the larve and again
helped her home. At 10.15 she came out again, and
this time went to the stick, but still wanted some
guidance. At 10.45 she again reached the frame, but
immediately came out again, and J once more coaxed
her round. After wandering about some time with a
larva in her mouth, she dropped down at 11.14. After
depositing her larva, she came out directly and went

242 WANT OF INGENUITY IN ASSISTING

under the larve. I again coaxed her round, and thie
time also she dropped off the glass with her larva. At
12.30 she came out again, and for the last time I
helped her round. After this she found her way by
herself. At 12.20 another (No. 2) found her way
round and returned at 12.37. For the next hour thei
times were as follows :— ,

No. 1. No. 2.

12.46
12.47
12.54 12.54
10

1.1

1.7
1. 8

1.12
1.14

1.19
1.21

1.26
1.28

1.32
1.34

1.38
1.41

1.45
1.47

1.52
1.54

Thus they both made 9 visits in an hour. As
regards actual pace, I found they both did about 6 feet

ONE ANOTHER OVER CHASMS, 243

ina minute. Soon after these began, other auts came
with them. It was a beautiful day, and all my ants
were unusually active. At 1 p.m. I counted 10 on the
sticks at once, by 1.30 over 30, and at 5 in the after-
noon over 60. They went on working very hard, and
forming a continuous stream till I went to bed at 11;
and at 4 in the morning I found them still at work;
but though they were very anxious and, especially at
first, tried very hard to save themselves the trouble of
going round, they did not think of jumping down, nor
did they throw the larve over the edge.

Moreover, as I had placed some sifted mould under
the glass, a minute’s labour would have been sufficient
to heap up one or two particles, and thus make a little
mound which would have enabled them to get up and
down without going round. A mound } inch high
would have been sufficient; but it did not occur te
them to form one.

The following morning (October 18) I put out some
larvee again at 6 aM. Some of the ants soon came;
and the same scene continued till 11.30 4.m., when I
left off observing.

Again, on October 22, I placed a few larve in a
glass, which I kept continually replenished, which
was suspended } of an inch above the surface of the
frame containing their nest, but only connected with it
by tapes five feet long, I then, at 6.30, put a L. niger
to the larve; she took one and tried hard to reach
down, but could not do so, and would not jump; so I

244 WANT OF INGENUITY IN

coaxed her round the tapes. She went into the nest,
deposited her larva, and immediately came out again.
I put her back on the larvee at 7.15; she took one, and
again tried hard, but ineffectually, to reach down. I
therefore again coaxed her round. She went into the
nest, deposited her larva, and came out again directly
as before. I put her back on the larve at 7.35, when
the same thing happened again. She got back to the
nest at 7.40, and immediately came out again. This
time she found her way round the string, with some
help from me, and reached the larve at 7.50. I helped
her home for the last time. The next journey she
found her way without assistance, and reached the
larve at 8.26. After this she returned as follows,
viz. :—

At 8.50
9. 0
9.10
9.17
9.28

T now made the length of the journey round the
tapes 10 feet. This puzzled her a little at first.
She returned as follows :—

9.41 10.35
9.55 10.44
10. 8 10.54
10.16 11. 6

10.26 11.14 with afriend

CONSTRUCTING BRIDGES. 245

I now increased the length to 16 feet, and watched
her while she made thirty journeys backwards and
forwards. She also brought during the time seven
friends with her.

It surprised me very much that she preferred to go
so far round rather than to face so short a drop.

In illustration of the same curious fact, I several
times put specimens of LZ. niger on slips of glass raised
only one-third of an inch from the surface of the nest.
They remained sometimes three or four hours running
about on the glass, and at last seemed to drop off
accidentally.

Myrmica ruginodis has the same feeling. One
morning, for instance, I placed one in an isolated
position, but so that she could escape by dropping one-
third of an inch. Nevertheless at the same hour on
the followiag morning she was still in captivity, having
remained out twenty-four hours rather than Jet herself
down this little distance.

Again I filled a saucer (woodcut, Fig. 11, s) with
water and put in it a block of wood (w), on the top of
which I fastened a projecting wooden rod (B), on the
end of which I placed a shallow glass cell (4) containing
several hundred larve. From this cell I allowed a slip
of paper (P) to hang down to within 35 of an inch
of the upper surface of the nest. At one side I put
another block of wood (Cc) with a lateral projection
(Dp) which hung over the cell containing the larve.
I then made a connexion between D and A, so that ants

246 WANT OF INGENUITY

could ascend c, and, passing over D, descend upon the
larve. I then put some specimens of Lasius niger to
the larve, and soon a large number of ants were en-
gaged in carrying off the larve. When this had con-
tinued for about three hours, I raised D 8; of an inck
above 4. The ants kept on coming and tried hard to
reach down from D to 4, which was only just out of
their reach. Two or three, in leaning over, lost their
foothold and dropped into the larve; but this was
obviously an accident; and after a while they all gave
up their efforts, and went away, losing their prize, in
spite of most earnest efforts, rather than drop ;3 of
an inch.

At the moment when the separation was made there
were fifteen ants on the larve. These could, of course,
have returned if one had stood still’ and allowed the
others to get on its back. This, however, did not
occur to them; nor did they think of letting themselves
drop from the bottom of the paper on to the nest.
Two or three, indeed, fell down, I have no doubt, by
accident ; but the remainder wandered about, until at
length most of them got into the water. After a time
the others abandoned altogether as hopeless the attempt
to get at the larve.

I waited about six hours, and then again placed the

IN CONSTRUCTING BRIDGES, 247

glass (a) containing the larve so as to touch the piece
of wood (D), and again put some ants to the larve.
Soon a regular string of ants was established; when I
again raised the wood (D) 55, of an inch above the glass
(4), exactly the same result occurred. The ants bent
over and made every effort to reach the larve, but did
not drop themselves down, and after a while again
abandoned all hope of getting the larve.

In order to test their intelligence, it has always
seemed to me that there was no better way than to
ascertain some object which they would clearly desire,
and then to interpose some obstacle which a little
ingenuity would enable them to overcome. Following
up, then, the preceding observations, I placed some
larve in a cup which I put on a slip of glass surrounded
by water, but accessible to the ants by one pathway in
which was a bridge consisting of a strip of paper 3
inch long and 3 inch wide. Having then put a Lasius
niger from one of my nests to these larve, she began
carrying them off, and by degrees a number of friends
came to help her. I then, when about twenty-five ants
were so engaged, moved the little paper bridge slightly,
so as to leave a chasm, just so wide that the ants could
not reach across. They came and tried hard to do so;
but it did not occur to them to push the paper bridge,
though the distance was only about 3 inch, and they
might easily have done so. After trying for about a
quarter of an hour, they gave up the attempt and re-
turned home. This I repeated several times

248 WANT OF INGENUITY

Then, thinking that paper was a substance to which
they were not accustomed, I tried the same with a bit
of straw 1 inch long and } inch wide. The result was
the same. I repeated this more than once.

Again I suspended some honey over a nest of
Lasius flavus at a height of about 4 an inch, and
accessible only by a paper bridge more than 10 feet
long. Under the glass I then placed a small heap of
earth. The ants soon swarmed over the earth on to the
glass, and began feeding on the honey. I then
removed a little of the earth, so that there was an
interval of about 4 of an inch between the glass and
the earth; but, though the distance was so small, they
would not jump down, but preferred to go round by the
long bridge. They tried in vain to stretch up from the
earth to the glass, which, however, was just out of their
reach, though they could touch it with their antenne ;
but it did not occur to them to heap the earth upa
little, though if they had moved only half a dozen
particles of earth they would have secured for them-
selves direct acvess to the food. This, however, never
occurred to them. At length they gave up all attempts
to reach up to the glass, and went round by the paper
bridge. I left the arrangement for several weeks, but
they continued to go round by the long paper bridge.

Again I varied the experiment as follows :—Having
1eft a nest without food for a short time, I placed some
honey on a small wooden brick surrounded by a little
moat of glycerine $an inch wide and about 1, of

IN CONSTRUCTING EARTHWORKS, 24S

an inch in depth. Over this moat I then placed a
paper bridge, one end of which rested on some fine
mould. I then put an ant to the honey, and soon a
little crowd was collected round it. I then removed
the paper bridge; the ants could not cross the
glycerine ; they came to the edge and walked round and
round, but were unable to get across, nor did it occur
to them to make a bridge or bank across the glycerine
with the mould which I had placed so conveniently for
them. I was the more surprised at this on account of
the ingenuity with which they avail themselves of earth
for constructing their nests. For instance, wishing, if
possible, to avoid the trouble of frequently moistening
the earth in my nests, I supplied one of my communities
of Lasius flavus with a frame containing, instead of
earth, a piece of linen, one portion of which projected
beyond the frame and was immersed in water. The
linen then sucked up the water by capillary attraction,
and thus the air in the frame was kept moist. The
ants approved of this arrangement, and took up their
quarters in the frame. To minimize evaporation I
usually closed the frames all round, leaving ‘only one or
two small openings for the ants, but in this case I left
the outer side of the frame open. The ants, however
did not like being thus exposed ; they therefore brought
earth from some little distance, and built up a regular
wall along the open side, blocking up the space between
the upper and lower plates of glass, and leaving only
one or two small openings for themselves. This struck

18

250 INGENUITY IN BUILDING NESTS.

me as very ingenious. The same expedient was, mores
over, repeated under similar circumstances by the
tlaye: belonging to my nest of Polyergus.

The facility or difficulty with which ants find their
way, while it partly falls within the section of the
subject dealing with their organs of sense, is also
closely connected with the question of their general
intelligence.

Partly, then, in order to test how far they are
guided by sight, partly to test their intelligence, J
made various observations and experiments, the ac-
companying woodcuts being reduced copies of tracings
of some of the routes followed by the ants during the
course of the observations.

I may here note that the diagrams Figs. 12-17 are
careful reductions of large tracings made during the
experiments. Though not absolutely correct in every
minute detail of contour, they are exact for all practical
purposes. As the ants pursued their way, pencil-mark-
ings in certain instances, and coloured lines in others,
were made so as to follow consecutively the paths
pursued.

Experiment 1.—February. On a table communi-
cating with one of my nests (see Fig. 12)I placed upright
a common cylindrical lead pencil } inch in diameter
and 7 inches long, fastened with sealing-wax to a
penny piece. Close to the base of the pencil (a) I
brought the end of a paper bridge (B) leading to the
nest, and then placed a shallow glass with larve® at c,

DIFFICULTY IN FINDING WAY. 251

4 inches from the base of the pencil. I then put au
ant to the larve; when she had become acquainted
with the road, she went very straight, as is shown in
the woodcut ‘Fig. 12). In one case, at the pvint E, she
dropped her larva and returned for another. When

Fig. 12.

Routes followed in experiment No. 1, as detailed above.

A, position of pencil. 8B, paper bridge. c and D, glass with larva,
£, point where larva dropped, the opposite arrow and loop marking
return route, 1,2, 3, 4, comparatively straight paths to the glass,
6, 6, circuitous route on shifting of glass. , different access to nest,
she returned on the next journey and was on the glass,
I moved it 3 inches, to D, so that the end of the glass
was 6 inches from the base of the pencil. If she were
much guided by sight, then she would have had little

252 DIFFICULTY IN

or no difficulty in finding her way back. Her pathway,
however (No. 5), which is traced on the paper, shows
that she was completely abroad ; and, after all, she got
back to the nest by a different route.

Fig. 13.

eee

Routes followed in experiment No. 2, as mentioned in text

B, paper bridge leading to nest. ©, glass tray with larve, ia its
first position ; and D in its position when shifted, 1, 2, 3, 4, thin
white lines indicating the comparatively straight routes, 6, thick
white line, and 6, dotted" ne showing tortuous paths when glass had
peen altered in position The arrows indicate directions travelled,

FINDING THEIR WAY. 253

I then varied the experiment as subjoined, and as
shown in the woodcut (Fig. 13).

Experiment 2.—I connected the table with the
nest by a paper bridge, the end of which is shown
at B (Fig. 13), and which came down about an inc
from the pole supporting the nest (see Fig. 1). Th’
pole rose 18 inches above the table. I then put t's
glass tray (C) with larve as before, 12 inches from
the base of the pole, and put an ant to the larve.
When she had learnt her way I traced four of her
routes, as shown in the thin lines 1, 2,3,4. I then
on her next journey (5, thick white Nae), when she
was on the tray (C), moved it three inches to D, as
shown in the figure, and again traced er route. The
contrast is very striking between the « latively straight
thin white lines 1, 2, 3, 4 of the for ¢ journeys when
familiar with the road; whereas in th: broad white line
No. 5 the zigzag twistings show how much difficulty
the ant experienced in finding her way. When she re-
turned I again moved the tray as before, and the dotted
sinuous white line (6) shows the course she followed.

Experiment 3.—I then again varied the experi-
ment as follows :—I placed the larvae in a small china
cup on the top of the pencil, which thus formed a
column 74 inches high. The cross line close to the
arrows (Fig. 14) is as before, the base of the paper bridge
leading to the nest. c shows the position of the penny
on which the pencil was supported. The dotted white
lines 1, 2, 3,4 show the routes of a marked ant on four

254 SIGHT LITTLE USED

successive journeys from the nest to the base of the
pencil. Ithen moved the pencil 6 inches to D, and
the two following routes are marked 5 and 6. In one
of them, 5 (thick white line), the ant found a stray

Fig. 14

Routes followed in experiment No, 3, as described in text

The line at the six arrows represents a paper bridge going to nest
c, china cup on top of pencil. p, pencil moved. 4, place where
a stray larva was found. 1, 2, 3, 4, dotted lines show the nearly
direct journeys. 5, thick white line (crossing c in black) of route
returning to nest, the ant having picked up a stray larva at EB. 6&
very circuitous thin white line of track from nest to pencil p.

IN FINDING THEIR WAY 255

.arva at E, with which she returned to the nest, without
finding the pencil at all. On the following journey,
shown in the fine white zigzag line (6), she found the
pencil at last, but, as will be seen, only after many
meanderings.

Diagram of complex path traversed in experiment 4.

A, first position of pencil. B, second position of pencil. 1, 2
straight lines of two tracks of the observed ants. 3, winding narrow
white line, showing course pursued by the same ant before arriving
at B, when the position of the pencil was unchanged.

Experiment 4.—I then repeated the observation

256 SIGHT LITTLE USED

on three other ants (see Figs. 15-17) with the same
result: the second was 7 minutes before she found the
pencil, and at last seemed to do so accidentally; the
third actually wandered about for no less than half an
hour (Fig. 15), returning up the paper bridge several
times.

Other experiments somewhat similar to the pre-

Fig. 16.

Diagram representing three tracks of an ant in another experiment

4, the first position of pencil and the food, towards which and
from the base-line of nest 1 and 2 lead by nearly direct broadish
white lines to A. When the latter was removed to B the ant, in its
effort to reach this, pursued the narrow white winding line ending
in3—7>

ceding, the results of which. are shown in the figures
16 and 17, seem to prove that this species of ant, at any

IN FINDING THEIR WAY. 257

rate, guides itself but little by sight. This, which 1
had not at all anticipated, seems to follow from the
fact that after the pencil and tray of larve had been
removed but a short distance to the right or left, the

Fig. 17,

Another tracing showing a similar experiment. 1, 2, 3, the direct
broad lines towards A; and 4, the complicated track made whep
reservoir of larve was removed to B.

ants on their journey to the shifted object travelled
very often backwards and forwards and around the spot
where the coveted object first stood. Then they would
retrace their steps towards the nest, wander hither and

258 IMPORTANCE OF SCENT.

thither from side to side between the nest and the
point A, and only after very repeated efforts around the
original site of the larve reach, as it were accidentally,
the object desired at B.

Another evidence of this consists in the fact that if
when ants (L. niger) were carrying off larve placed in a
cup ona piece of board, I turned the board round so that
the side which had been turned towards the nest was
away from it, and vice versa, the ants always returned
over the same track on the board, and, in consequence,
directly away from home.

If I moved the board to the other side of my
artificial nest, the result wasthe same. Evidently they
followed the road, not the direction.

In order further to test how far ants are guided by
sight and how much by scent, I tried the following ex-
periment with Lastus niger. Some food was put out at
the point a on a board measuring 20 inches by 12 (Fig.

Fig. 18. 18), and so arranged

al

that the ants in going
lle straight to it from the
ri nest would reach the
UH board at the point b,
: : and after passing under
LI a paper tunnel, c, would

a

proceed between five
pairs of wooden bricks, each 3 inches in length and 14
in height. When they got to know their way, they went
quite straight along the line d eto a. The board was

IMPORTANCE OF SCENT. 259

then twisted as shown in Fig. 19. The bricks and tunnel
being also rearranged so that they were exactly in the
same direction as before, but the board having been moved,
the line d e was now outside them. This change, however,
did not at all discom- Fig. 19.
pose the ants; but
instead of going, as
before, through the
tunnel and between
the rows of bricks
to a, they walked
exactly along the
old path to e.

I then arranged
matters as before,

but without the tunnel and with only three pairs of

bricks (Fig. 20). When an ant had got quite used to the
path d to e,I altered

Fig. 20.

the position of the 3

bricks and food, as a}

shown in Fig. 21, mak- l |

ing a difference of 8

inches in the position H

of the latter. The ant I: H

came as before, walked =a ]

a

up to the first brick,
touched it with her antenne, but then followed oer old
line toa. From there she veered towards the food, and
very soon found it. When she was gone, I altered it

260 THE SENSE OF DIRECTION.

acain, as shown in Fig. 22; she returned after the usual
interyal, and went again straight to a; then, after some
Fig. 21. wanderings, to f, and

r at length, but only
4 V4 after a lapse of 25
yj minutes, found the
4 food at g. These ex-
4 V4 periments were re-

peated more than once,
@ and always with simi-
Fig. 22. jar results. I then
varied matters by re-
S moving the bricks,
which, however, did not
seem to make any dif-
s ference to the ants.
f g I then mecustomed
a some ants (Lasius ni-
ger) to go toand fro over a wooden bridge, b,c (Fig. 23),
to some food.

Fig. 23.
b c
When they had got quite accustomed to the way, 1
watched when an ant was on the bridge and then turned
it round, so that the end 6 was atc, andcatb. In

most cases the ant immediately turned round also; but
even if she went on to 6 or c, as the case may be, as

EXPERIMENTS. 26)

svon as she came to the end of the bridge she turned
round.

I then modified the arrangement, placing between
the nest and the food three similar pieces of wood.
Then when the ant was on the middle piece, I trans-
posed the other two. To my surprise this did not at
all disconcert them.

I then tried the arrangement shown in Fig. 24.

Fig. 24.

sf

eO

a is a paper bridge leading to the nest ; 6 is a board
about 22 inches long by 13 broad, on which is a disk of
white paper fastened at the centre by a pin d; e is
some food. When the ants had come to know their way
so that they passed straight over the paper disk on their
way from a to e, I moved the disk round with an ant
on it, so that f came to g andgto/f. As before, the
ants turned round with the paper.

As it might be possible that the ants turned
round on account of the changed relative position
of external objects, I next substituted a circular
box 12 inches in diameter, open at the top, and

262 EXPERIMENTS WITH

7 inches high (in fact, a hat-box) for the flat paper,
cutting two small holes at f and g, sv that the ants
passing from the nest to the food went through the box
entering at f and coming out at g. The box -vas fixed

Fig. 25.

at_ d, so that it might turn easily. I then, when they
had got to know their way, turned the box round as
soon as an ant had entered it, but in every case the

“\

a

Fig. 26.

ant turned round too, thus retaining her direction. 1
then varied the experiment as shown in Figs. 25 and 26.

I replaced the white disk of paper, but put the
food e at the middle of the board. When the ant had

ROTATING DISKS. 263

got used to this arrangement I waited till one was on
the disk (Fig. 25) and then gently drew it to the other
side of e, as shown in Fig. 26. In this case, however,
the ant did not turn round, but went on to g, when she
seemed a good deal surprised at finding where she was.

In continuation of the preceding experiments I
constructed a circular table 18 inches in diameter.
It consisted, as shown in Figs. 27 and 28, of three
concentric pieces—a central F G, an intermediate
DE, H I, and an outer piece B 0, K L, each of these

Fig. 27.

Mw
i) \bene

— Rg i}

three pieces being capable of separate rotation. Thik
arrangement was kindly devised for me by Mr. Francie
Galton.

I then connected the table with a nest of Lasiua
niger by a paper bridge a, and also made a paper path
across the table, as shown in Fig. 28, divided into five
pieces corresponding to the divisions of the table.
This I did because I found that the ants wandered less
if they were provided with a paper road than if they
walked actually on the wood itself. JI then placed a
cup containing larve on the table at B, and put an ant on

264 EXPERIMENTS WITH

the larve. She at once picked one up, aud, with some
little guidance from me, carried it off to the nest,
retarning at once for another, bringing some friends
with her to help. When she knew her way, I gradually
moved the cup across the table along the paper path

Fig. 28,

to M, placing it on a column five inches high. After
a while the ants came to know the way quite well,
and passed straight along the path from the nest to
the larve at M. Having thus established a service of
ants, [ tried the following experiments :—

1. I removed the piece of paper G ¥. This dis-

ROTATING TABLE. 265

turbed them; but they very soon re-established the
chain.

2. I turned round the central piece of the table @
F, so that the paper G F was reversed, G being where
F had been, and vice versG. This did not seem to
diconcert the ants at all. They went straight over
the paper as before, without a moment’s hesitation.

3. When some ants were between 1 and D,I rotated
the outer circle of the table halfway round, which of
course carried the cup containing the larve from L to B.
The ants took no notice of this, but went straight to L.

4, When some ants were between I and D, I rotated
the table several times, bringing it finally to its
original position. This disturbed them a good deal;
but eventually they all continued their course to L.

5. When some ants were between I and p, I half
rotated the two centre parts of the table, the result of
which, of course, was that the ant was moving to-
wards, instead of away from, the nest. In every case
the ants turned round too, so as duly to reach L. So
also those which were on their way back from the
larve to the nest turned in the same manner.

6. When the ants were between I and p, I half
rotated the whole table. Again the ants turned round
too, though of course in this case, when they reached
the place where L had been, the cup with the larve
was behind them at B.

The two latter experiments, though quite in aecord-

ance with those previously made, puzzled me a good
19

266 EXPERIMENTS WITH

deal. Experiment 3, as well as some of those recorded
previously, seemed to show that ants were little guided
in such cases by the position of surrounding objects.
However, I was anxious to test this.

7. Accordingly I took a round box and placed it
upside down on the table, having cut two niches, one
at each side, where it lay on the paper path, so as to
afford a passage for the ants, as in the experiments
recorded in my previous paper; but on this occasion I
left the lid on, cutting, however, a hole through which
I could watch the result. In this case, therefore, the
surrounding objects, 7.e. the walls of the box, turned
round with the table. Then, as before, when the ants
were between 1 and D, I turned the table half round.
The results were as follows:—

| Ants which Ants which
; turned. did not turn

Experiment

CrPNOFOCCORREE
©) = BD et bet 0S = et Se bo

e
_
©

In this case, then, only 11 ants turned; and as 4
of them were together, it is possible that 3 simply

A ROTATING BOX. 267

followed the first. Moreover, the ants which turned
did so with much more hesitation and less*immediately.

8. For comparison, I then again tried the same
experiment, but without the box. The results were aa
follows :—

Ants which Ants which
turned did not turn
Observation 1 3 0
” 2 3 0
3 3 1?
»”» 4 3 0
” 5 4 0
” 6 4 0
20 L

Under these circumstances, therefore, all the ants
but one certainly turned, and her movements were
undecided.

From these last two experiments it is obvious that
the presence of the box greatly affected the result, and
yet the previous results made it difficult to suppose
that the ants noticed any objects so distant as the walls
of the rooms, or even as I was myself. The result
surprised me considerably ; but I think the explanation
is given by the following experiments.

I again put some larve in a cup, which I placed in
the centre of the table; and I let out an ant which I
had imprisoned after the previous experiments, placing
her in the cup; she carried off a larva to the nest and
soon returned. When she was again in the cup I half
totated the table: when she came out she seemed a

268 EFFECT OF LIGHT.

little surprised ; but after walking once round the cup,
started off along the paper bridge straight home.
When she returned to the cup I again half rotated the
table. This time she went back quite straight When
she had come again, I once more half rotated the table ;
she returned quite straight. Again the same happened.
A second ant then came: I half rotated the table as
before. She went wrong for about an inch and a half,
but then turned round and went straight home.

I was working by the light of two candles which were
on the side of the table towards the nest. The next time
the two ants came I half rotated the table as before, and
moved the candles to the far side. This time the ants
were deceived, and followed the paper bridge to the end
of the table furthest from the nest. This I repeated a
second time, with the same result. I then turned the
table as before without altering the lights, and the
ants (four of them) went back all right. I then again
turned the table, altering the lights, and the ant went
wrong.

I then altered the lights without rotating the table.
the first ant went wrong; the second right; the third
wrong; the fourth wrong; the fifth hesitated some
seconds, and then went wrong; the sixth right; the
seventh went all but to the edge the wrong way, but,
after various wanderings, at last went right. When,
therefore, the direction of the light was changed, but
everything else left as before, out of seven ants, five
were deceived and went in the wrong direction.

After an interval of a week, on March 25, I arrangea

EFFECT OF LIGHT. 269

the nest and the rotating table as before, and let out
three ants which I had imprisoned on the 19th, and
which knew their way. I put them on the larve at M
as before. The paper pathway had been left untouched.
The ants examined the larve and then went straight
home along the paper path; but, to my surprise, only
one of them carried off a larva. Nevertheless they
had evidently taken the news to the nest, for the ants
at once began coming to the cup in considerable num-
bers and carrying off the larve. Ido not altogether
understand this proceeding, and unluckily had not
marked the first three ants; so that I cannot tell
whether they brought or sent their friends. It seems
possible that they felt unequal to the exertion of carrying
a burthen to the nest until they had had some food.
When the ants were fairly at work I turned the
table 90 degrees. In this case eight ants which were
on their way to the larve continued their march along
the paper, while two turned back; but none left the
paper and went across the table straight for the larve.
I then stopped the experiment for a while, so that
the excitement might subside; as when the ants
become too numerous it is not so easy to watch them.
When all was quiet I put the cup with the larve
on the middle of the table, and covered the greater
part of the table with the box as before. In a short
time some ants again came to the larva, and then,
just as they were leaving the cup on their way home, I
turned the table, as before, half round.
Under these circumstances, however, instead of

270 RELUCTANCE OF ANTS

turning as in the previous experiment, ten ants, one
after another, continued their course, thus coming out
of the box at the end furthest from the nest. When
ten ants successively had, under these circumstances,
gone wrong, to make the experiment complete, I tried
it again, everything being the same, except that
there was no box. Under these circumstances five
ants, one after the other, turned directly the table was
rotated.

From these experiments, therefore, it seems clear
that, in determining their course the ants are greatly
influenced by the direction of the light.

March 27.—I let out two ants imprisoned on the
25th, and placed them on the larve, which I put on a
column 7 inches high, covered with blue paper, and
communicating with the nest by the paper path
(a, Fig. 29) arranged as usual, but supported on
pins. At first I arranged it as shown below, placing
the larve at m, on a table 18 inches in diameter,

Fig. 29. so that the ants, on arriving at
the larvee, made nearly a semi-
circle round the edge of the

m table. I then gradually moved
7=—= the larve to mM’ and afterwards
to mM’. The ants, however,
obviously knew that they were
going unnecessarily round. They
ran along the paper bridge in a very undecided manner,
continually turning round and often coming down the

TO GO OUT OF TEEIR WAY. 271

pins; while in returning to the nest they persistently
came down the side of the pillar nearest to the nest,
though I repeatedly attempted to guide them the
other way. Even when placed on the paper bridge
between M and mM’, they were very dissatisfied. In
fact, it was obvious that they knew they were being
sent a long way round, and were attempting to make a
chorter cut.

I then again placed the larve on the column at
M, and when the ants were once more going to and
f.o regularly along the paper path, I altered the
position of the column and larve tom’, placing the
edge of the pillar, which the ants had been accustomed
to ascend, towards the paper bridge, connecting it with
the original bridge by a side- Fig. 30.
bridge a, M being an inch from
the original bridge. Under
these circumstances three ants
ran on to M; then two found
their way over the bridge a to
mw’. Of the next ten ants, five
went to M and five over a to Mm’.
The next ten all went over the paper bridge a to m’,

I then put the pillar and the larve on the other side
of the original paper path at m”, connected with the
main path by a short bridge a’, taking for a’ a new
piece of paper, so that scent would be no guide. I left
the little bridge a in its place. The ants went as
follows :—

272 ANTS TO SOME EXTENT

To Mm” 1 To mw O Tom 0
” 1 » Oo » 1
”° 1 ” 0 bed 1
” 1 ” 0 9 1
” 1 ” 1 bb) 1
33 0 ” 0 3” 1
” 1 ” 0 3” 0
» 1 » O » O
” 1 bed 0 ” 0
» dL » O » O
” 1 39 1 ” 0
9” 1 ” 1 ” 0
9 1 ” 0 ” 0

12 3 5

It seems clear, therefore, that though the ants did
not trust so much to their eyes as a man would have
done under similar circumstances, yet that they were
to some extent guided by sight.

I then removed all the paper pathways and put the

Fig. 31. pillar tom. Of the first two ants
which came to the table, the first
found the pillar in five minutes,
the second, after wandering about
for a quarter of an hour, gave the
search up in despair, and went
home. I then moved the pillar
to m’, and watched the next ant
that came on to the table; she found it in a minute or

GUIDED BY SIGHT. 273

two. I then moved ittom”’. Two ants came together.
One found the pillar in 7 minutes; the other took no
less than 25, although, as already mentioned, the table
was only 18 inches in diameter. Obviously, therefore,
though it seems clear that they are helped by sight, still
these last observations support those previously re-
corded, and show that in finding their way they do
not derive by any means so much assistance from their
eyes as we should under corresponding circumstances

CHAPTER X.

BEES.

I ORIGINALLY intended to make my experiment prin-
cipally with bees, but soon found that ants were on the
whole more suitable for my purpose.

In the first place, ants are much less excitable, they
are less liable to accidents, and from the absence of
wings are more easy to keep under continuous obser-
vation.

Still, I have made a certain number of observations
with bees, some of which may be worth here recording.

As already mentioned, the current statements with
reference to the language of social insects depend much
on the fact that when one of them, either by accident or
in the course of its rambles, has discovered a stock of
food, in a very short time many others arrive to profit
by the discovery. This, however, does not necessarily
imply any power of describing localities. If the bees
or ants merely follow their more fortunate comrade,
the matter is comparatively simple; if, on the con-
trary, others are sent, the case becomes very different.

In order to test this I proposed to keep honey in a
given place for some tinie, in order to satisfy myself

METHOD OF OBSERVATION. 275

that it would not readily be found by the bees; and
then, after bringing a bee to the honey, to watch
whether it brought others, or sent them—the latter of
course implying a much higher order of intelligence
and power of communication.

I therefore placed some honey in a glass, close to
an open window in my sitting-room, and watched it for
sixty hours of sunshine, during which no bees came
to it.

I then, at 10 4.M. on a beautiful morning in June,
went to my hives, and took a bee which was just
starting out, brought it in my hand up to my room
(a distance of somewhat less than 200 yards), and gave
it some honey, which it sucked with evident enjoyment.
After a few minutes it flew quietly away, but did not
return ; nor did any other bee make its appearance.

The following morning I repeated the same experi-
ment. At 7.15 I brought up a bee, which sipped the.
honey with readiness, and after doing so for about four
minutes flew away with no appearance of alarm or
annoyance. It did not, however, return ; nor did any
other bee come to my honey.

Onseveral other occasions I repeated the same expeti-
ments with a like result. Altogether I tried it more than
twenty times. Indeed, I rarely found bees to return to
honey if brought any considerable distance at once. By
taking them, however, some twenty yards each time they
came to the honey, I at length trained them to come tu
my room. On the whole, however, I found it more con-

276 BEES DO NOT INVARIABLY

venient to procure one of Marriott’s observatory hives,
both on account of its construction, and also because I
could have it in my room, and thus keep the bees more
immediately under my own eye. My room is square, with
three windows, two on the south-west side, where the hive
was placed, and one on the south-east. Besides the
ordinary entrance from the outside, the hive had a small
postern door opening into the room; this door was
provided with an alighting-board, and closed bya plug:
as a general rule the bees did not notice it much unless
the passage was very full of them.

I then placed some honey on a table close to the
hive, and from time to time ‘fed certain bees on it.
Those which had been fed soon got accustomed to come
for the honey; but partly on account of my frequent
absence from home, and partly from their difficulty
in finding their way about, and their tendency to lose
themselves, I could never keep any marked bee under
observation for more than a few days.

Out of a number of similar observations I will here
mention a few and give them in detail in the Appendix,
as throwing some light on the power of communicating
facts possessed by the bees; they will also illustrate the
daily occupations of a working bee.

Experiment 1.—Thus, on August 24, 1874, I opened
the postern door leading into my room at 6.45 a.M., and
watched till 1 p.m. three bees, which had been trained
to come to honey at a particular spot. They did not,
however, know their way very well, and consequently

BRING FRIENDS TO SHARE TREASURES. 277

lost a good deal of time. One made 23 journeys
backwards and forwards between the hive and the
honey, the second 13, and the third only 7.

The following day I watched the first of these bees
from 7.23 to 12.54, during which time she made 19
journeys. Scarcely any other bees came, but I did not
record the exact number.

Experiment 2.—I watched another bee from 6.55
A.M. till 7.15 P.M., during which time she made 59
visits to the honey, and only one other bee .came
to it.

Experiment 3.— Another from 7 aM. till 3 P.M. ;
she made 40 journeys, and only two other bees came.
She returned the two following mornings, and was
watched for three hours each day, during which time
no other bee came.

Experiment 4.—Another morning I watched a dif-
ferent bee from 9.19 a.m. to 2 P.M.: she made 21 jour-
neys, and no other bee came.

Then, thinking that perhaps this result might be
due to the quantity of honey being too small, I used a
wide-mouthed jar, containing more than one pound of
honey.

Experiment 5.—I watched two bees from 1.44 till
4.30, during which time they made 24 journeys, but only
one other bee came.

Experiment 6.—Besides the honey in the jar I
spread some out over two plates, so as to increase the
surface. I watched a bee from 12.15 till 6.15 p.m. She

278 DIFFICULTY IN

made 28 journeys, but did not bring a single frien
with her.

Experiment. 7.—On July 19 I put a bee toa honey-
comb which contained twelve and a half pounds of honey
at 12.30, and which was placed in a corner of my room
as far as possible from the window. That afternoon she
made 22 visits to it, and no other bee came. The
following morning she returned at 6.5 a.M., and I
watched her till 2. She made 22 journeys, but did not
bring a single friend with her.

Experiment 8.—Another bee was also brought to
the same honeycomb, watched from 2.30till 7.14. She
made 14 journeys, but did not bring a single friend.

I might give other similar cases, but these are, I
think, sufficient to show that bees do not bring their
friends to share any treasure they have discovered, so
invariably as might be assumed from the statements
of previous observers. Possibly the result is partly
due to the fact that my room is on the first floor, so
that the bees coming to it flew at a higher level than
that generally used by their companions, and hence
were less likely to be followed.

Indeed, I have been a good deal surprised at the
difficulty which bees experience in finding their way.

For instance, I put a bee into a bell-glass 18 inches
long, and with a mouth 6} inches wide, turning the closed
end to the window; she buzzed about for an hour,
when, as there seemed no chance of her getting out,
I put her back into the hive. Two flies, on the

FINDING THEIR WAY. 279

contrary, which I put in with her, got out at once. At
11.30 I put another bee and a fly into the same glass: .
the latter flew out at once. For half an hour the bee
tried to get out at the closed end; I then turned the
glass with its open end to the light, when she flew out at
once. To make sure, I repeated the experiment once
more with the same result.

Some bees, however, have seemed to me more in-
telligent in this respect than others. A bee which J]
had fed several times, and which had flown about in
the room, found its way out of the glass in a quarter of
an hour, and when put in a second time came out “at
once. Another bee, when I closed the postern door
which opened from my hive directly into my room,
used to come round to the honey through an open
window.

One day (April 14, 1872), when a number of
them were very busy on some berberries, I put a saucer
with some honey between two bunches of flowers ; these
flowers were repeatedly visited, and were so close that
there was hardly room for the saucer between them,
yet from 9.30 to 3.30 not a single bee took any notice
of the honey. At 3.30 I put some honey on one of the
bunches of flowers, and it was eagerly sucked by the
bees; two kept continually returning till past five in
the evening.

One day when I came home in the afternoon I found
that at least a hundred bees had got into my room
through the postern and were on the window, yet not

280 BEES FOLLOW ONE ANOTHER

one was attracted by an open jar of honey which stood
in a shady corner about 3 feet 6 inches from the
window..

Another day (April 29, 1872) I placed a saucer of
honey close to some forget-me-nots, on which bees
were numerous and busy; yet from 10 a.m. till 6 only
one bee went to the honey.

I put some honey in a hollow in the garden wall
opposite my hives at 10.30 (this wall is about five feet
high and four feet from the hives), yet the bees did
not find it during the whole day.

On March 30, 1873, a fine sunshiny day, when the
bees were very active, I placed a glass containing
honey at 9 in the morning on the wall in front of the
hives; but not a single bee went to the honey the
whole day. On April 20 I tried the same experiment
with the same result.

September 19.—At 9.30 I placed some honey in a
glass about four feet from and just in front of the
hive, but during the whole day not a bee observed it.

As it then occurred to me that it might be
suggested that there was something about this honey
which rendered it unattractive to the bees, on the
following day I first placed it again on the top of the
wall, for three hours, during which not a single
bee came, and then moved it close to the alighting-
board of the hive. It remained unnoticed for a quarter
of an hour, when two bees observed it, and others soon
followed in considerable numbers.

10 STORES OF FOOD. 281

It is generally stated not only that the bees in a
hive all know one another, but also that they immedi-
ately recognise and attack any intruder from another
hive. It is possible that the bees of particular hives
have a particular smell. Thus Langstroth, in his in-
teresting ‘ Treatise on the Honey-Bee,’ says, ‘ Members
of different colonies appear to recognise their hive
companions by the sense of smell ;’ and I believe that
if colonies are sprinkled with scented syrup they may
generally be safely mixed. Moreover, a bee returning
to its own hive with a load of treasure is a very dif-
ferent creature from a hungry marauder; and it is
said that a bee, if laden with honey, is allowed to enter
any hive with impunity. Mr. Langstroth continues:
‘There is an air of roguery about a thieving bee which,
to the expert, is as characteristic as are the motions of
a pickpocket to a skilful policeman. Its sneaking look
and nervous, guilty agitation, once seen, can never be
mistaken.’ It is at any rate natural that a bee which
enters a wrong hive by accident should be much sur-
prised and alarmed, and would thus probably betray
herself.

So far as my own observations go, though bees
habitually know and return to their own hive, still, if
placed on the alighting-board of another, they often
enter it without molestation. Thus:—

On May 4 I put a strange bee into a hive at 2
o’clock. She remained in till 2.20, when she came out,
but entered again directly. I was away most of the

20

282 BEHAVIOUR OF BEES’

afternoon, but returned at 5.30; at 6 she came out of
the hive, but soon returned ; and after that I saw no
more of her.

May 12.—A beautiful day, and the bees very active.
I placed twelve marked bees on the alighting-board of
a neighbouring hive. They all went in; but before
evening ten had returned home.

May 13.—Again put twelve marked bees on the
alighting-board of another nest; eleven went in. The
following day I found that seven had returned home ;
the other five I could not see.

May 17.—Took a bee, and, after feeding her and
marking her white, put her to a hive next but one to
her own at 4.18. She went in.

4.22, Came out and went in again.

4.29. Came out. I fed her and sent her back.

4.35. Came out. Took a little flight and came back.
4.45, Went in, but returned. 4.52. Went in.

4.53. Came out. 4.56. 55

., 4.58. 45

5. 1. Came out, took another little flight, and returned.
I fed her again. 5.25. Went in again.

5.28. Came out again. 5.29. 5

5.31. f 5.33. -

5.36. = 5.4C. 2

5.46. Shut her and the others in with a piece of notes
paper.

6.36. One of the bees foreed her way through, 1
opened the door; and several, including the

IN A-STRANGE HIVE, 283

white one, came out directly. Till 6.50 this bee
kept on going in and out every mir ate or two;
hardly any bees were flying, only a few stand-
ing at the doors of most of the hives. At
7.20 she was still at the hive door.

May 20.—Between 6 and 7 p.m. I marked a bee
and transferred her to another hive.

May 21.—Watched from 7.30 to 8.9 in the morning
without seeing her. At half-past six in the evening
went down again, directly saw and fed her. She was
then in her new hive; but a few minutes after I ob-
served her on the lighting-stage of her old hives so I
again fed her, and when she left my hand she returned
to the new hive.

May 22.—8 o'clock. She was back in her old
hive.

May 23.—About 12.30 she was again in the new
hive.

Though bees which have stung and lost their sting
always perish, they do not die immediately ; and in the
meantime they show little sign of suffering from the
terrible injury. On August 25 a bee which had come
several times to my honey was startled, flew to one of
the windows, and had evidently lost her way. While
I was putting her back she stung me, and lost her
sting in doing so. I put her in through the postern,
and for twenty minutes she remained on the landing-
stage ; she then went into the hive, and after an hour
returned tothe honey and fed quietly, notwithstanding

284 LABOUR OF BEES NOY 1INCESSANT.

the terrible injury she had received. After this, hows
ever, I did not see her any more.

Like many other insects, bees are much affested
by light. One evening, having to go down to the
cellar, I lit a small covered lamp. A bee which was
out came to it, and, flying round and round like a
moth, followed me the whole of the way there.

I often found that if bees which were brought to
honey did not return at once, still they would do so a
day or twoafterwards. For instance, on July 11, 1874,
a hot thundery day, and when the bees were much out
of humour, I brought twelve bees tosome honey: only
one came back, and that one only once; but on the
following day several of them returned.

My bees sometimes ceased work at times when I
could not account for their doing so. October 19 was a
beautiful, sunshiny, warm day. All the morning the
bees were fully active. At 11.25 I brought one to the
honeycomb, and she returned at the usual intervals for
a couple of hours; but after that she came no more, nor
were there any other bees at work. Yet the weather
was lovely, and the hive is so placed as to catch the
afternoon sun.

I have made a few observations to ascertain, if
possible, whether the bees generally go to the same
part of the hive. Thus,—

October 5.—I took a bee out of the hive, fed her,
and marked her. She went back to the same part.

October 9.—At 7.15 I took out two bees, fed and

RECKLESSNESS OF BEES. 285

marked them. They returned; but I could not see
them in the same part of the hive. One, however, I
found not far off.

At 9.30 brought out four bees, fed and marked them.
Que returned to the same part of the hive. I lost sight
of the others.

Since their extreme eagerness for honey may be
attributed rather to their anxiety for the commonweal
than to their desire for personal gratification, it cannot
fairly be imputed as greediness; still the following
scene, described by Dr. Langstroth, and one which
most of us have witnessed, is incompatible surely with
much intelligence. ‘No one can understand the
extent of their infatuation until he has seen a con-
fectioner’s shop assailed by myriads of hungry bees.
T have seen thousands strained out from the syrup
in which they had perished ; thousands more alighting
even upon the boiling sweets; the floor covered and
windows darkened with bees, some crawling, others
flying, and others still so completely besmeared as
to be able neither to crawl nor fly—not one in ten
able to carry home its ill-gotten spoils, and yet the air
filled with new hosts of thoughtless comers.’!

If, however, bees are to be credited with any moral
feelings at all, I fear the experience of all bee-keepers
shows that they have no conscientious scruples about
robbing their weaker brethren. ‘If the bees of a strong
stock,’ says Langstroth, ‘once get a taste of forbidden

' Hive- and Honey-Bee, Langstroth, p. 277,

286 WANT OF AFFECTION.

sweets, they will seldom stop until they have tested the
strength of every hive.’ And again, ‘Some bee-
keepers question whether a bee that once learns to
steal ever returns to honest courses.’ Siebold has men-
tioned similar facts in the case of certain wasps (Polistes).
Far, indeed, from having been able to discover any
evidence of affection among them, they appear to be
thoroughly callous and utterly indifferent to one
another. As already mentioned, it was necessary for
me occasionally to kill a bee; but I never found that
the others took the slightest notice. Thus on October
11 I crushed a bee close to one which was feeding—in
fact, so close that their wings touched; yet the sur-
vivor took no notice whatever of the death of her
sister, but went on feeding with every appearance of
composure and enjoyment, just as if nothing had hap-
pened. When the pressure was removed, she remained
by the side of the corpse without the slightest appear-
ance of apprehension, sorrow, or recognition. She evi-
dently did not feel the slightest emotion at her
sister’s death, nor did she show any alarm lest the
same fate should befall her also. In a second case
exactly the same occurred. Again, I have several
times, while a bee has been feeding, held a second
bee by the leg close to her; the prisoner, of course,
struggled to escape, and buzzed as loudly as she could;
yet the bee which was feeding took no notice whatever.
So far, therefore, from being at all affectionate, I doubt
whether bees are in the least fond of one another

DEVOTION TO QUEEN. 237

Their devotion to their queen is generally quoted
as an admirable trait; yet it is of the most limited
character. For instance, I was anxious to change
one of my black queens for a Ligurian; and accord-
ingly on October 26 Mr. Hunter was good enough to
bring me a Ligurian queen. We removed the old
queen, and we placed her with some workers in a box
containing some comb. I was obliged to leave home
on the following day ; but when IJ returned on the 30th
I found that all the bees had deserted the poor queen,
who seemed weak, helpless, and miserable On the 31st
the bees were coming to some honey at one of my
windows, and I placed this poor queen close to them.
In alighting, several of them even touched her ; yet not
one of her subjects took the slightest notice of her. The
same queen, when afterwards placed in the hive, im-
mediately attracted a number of bees.

As regards the affection of bees for one another, it
is no doubt true that when they have got any honey
on them, they are always licked clean by the rest;
but I am satisfied that this is for the sake of the
honey rather than of the bee. On September 27, for
instance, I tried with two bees: one had been drowned,
the other was smeared with honey. The latter was
soon licked clean ; of the former they took no notice
whatever. I have, moreover, repeatedly placed dead
bees by honey on which live ones were feeding, but the
latter never took the slightest notice of the corpses.

Dead bees are indeed usually carried out of the

288 SENSE OF SMELL.

hive ; but if one is placed on the alighting-stage, the
others seem to take no notice of it, though it is in
general soon pushed off accidentally by their move-
ments. I have even seen the bees sucking the juices
of a dead pupa.

As regards the senses of bees, it seems clear that
they possess a keen power of smell.

On October 5 I put a few drops of eau de Cologne
in the entrance of one of my hives, and immediately
a number of bees (about fifteen) came out to see what
was the matter. Rose-water also had the same effect ;
and, as will be mentioned presently, in this manner
I called the bees out several times; but after a few
days they took hardly any notice of the scent.

These observations were made partly with the view
of ascertaining whether the same bees act as sentinels.
With this object, on October 5 I called out the bees by
placing some eau de Cologne in the entrance, and
marked the first three bees that came out. At 5 P.M.
T called them out again; about twenty came, including
the three marked ones. I marked three more.

October 6.— Called them out again. Out of the first
twelve, five were marked ones. I marked three more.

October 7.—Called them out at 7.30 a.m. as before.
Out of the first nine, seven were marked ones.

At 5.30 rm. called them out again. Out of six,
five were marked ones.

October 8.—Called them out at 7.15. Six came out,
all marked ones,

SENTINELS. 289

Octuber 9.—Called them out at 6.40. Out of the
first ten, eight were marked ones.

Called them out at 11.30 4.m. Out of zix, three
were marked. I marked the other three.

Called them out at 1.30 p.m. Out of ten, six were
marked.

Called them out at 4.30. Out of ten, seven were
marked.

October 10.—Called them out at 6.5 a.m. Out of
six, five were marked.

Shortly afterwards I did the same again, when out
of eleven, seven were marked ones.

5.30 P.M. Called them out again. Out of seven,
five were marked.

October 11.—6.30 a.m. Called them out again.
Out of nine, seven were marked.

5pm. Called them out again. Out of seven, five
were marked.

After this day they took hardly any notice of the
scents.

Thus in these nine experiments, out of the ninety-
seven bees which came ont first, no less than seventy-
one were marked ones, though out of the whole number
of bees in the hive there were only twelve marxed for
this purpose, and, indeed, even fewer in the earlier ex-
periments. I ought, perhaps, to add that I generally
fed the bees when I called them out.

290 SENSE OF HEARING.

The Sense of Hearing.

August 29.—The result of my experiments on the
hearing of bees has surprised me very much, It is
generally considered that to a certain extent the
emvtions of bees are expressed by the sounds they
make,! which seems to imply that they possess the
power of hearing. Ido not by any means intend to
deny that this is the case. Nevertheless I never found
them take any notice of any noise which J made, even
when it was close to them. I tried one of my bees
with a violin. I made all the noise I could, but to my
surprise she took no notice. I could not even see a
twitch of the antenne. The next day I tried the same
with another bee, but could not see the slightest sign
that she was conscious of the noise. On August.31 I
repeated the same experiment with another bee with
the same result. On September 12 and 13 I tried
several bees with a dog-whistle and a shrill pipe; but
they tovk no notice whatever, nor did a set of tuning-
forks which I tried on a subsequent day have any more
effect. These tuning-forks extended over three octaves,
beginning with a below the ledger line. I also tried
with my voice, shouting, &c., close to the head of a bee;
but, in spite of my utmost efforts, the bees took no
notice. I repeated these experiments at night when
the bees were quiet; but no noise that I could make
seemed to disturb them in the least.

' Bee, for instance, Landois, Zeits. 7. wise. Zool. 1867, Dp. 184

COLOUR SENSE, 291

In this respect the results of my observations on
bees entirely agreed with those on ants, and I will
here, therefore, only refer to what has been said in
a preceding chapter.

The Colour Sense of Bees.

The consideration of the causes which have led to
the structure and colouring of flowers is one of the
most fascinating parts of natural history. Most botanists
are now agreed that insects, and especially bees, have
played a very important part in the development of
flowers. While in many plants, almost invariably with
inconspicuous blossoms, the pollen is carried from
flower to flower by the wind, in the case of almost all
large and brightly coloured flowers this is effected by
the agency of insects. In such flowers the colours,
scent, and honey serve to attract insects, while the size
and form are arranged in such a manner that the
insects fertilise them with pollen brought from another
plant.

There could, therefore, be little doubt that bees
possess a sense of colour. Nevertheless I thought it
would be desirable to prove this if possible by actual
experiment, which had not yet been done. Accordingly’.
on July 12 I brought a bee to some honey which
I placed om blue paper, and about 3 feet off I
placed a similar quantity of honey on orange paper.
After she had returned twice I transposed the
papers; but she returned to the honey on the blue

292 EXPERIMENTS WITH

paper. After she had made three more visils, always
to the blue paper, I transposed them again, and she
again followed the colour, though the honey was left
in the same place. The following day I was not able to
watch her; but on the 14th at—

7.29 a.M. she returned to the honey on the blue paper
7.31 left.

7.44 ” i 7.41 4,

7.56 ” ”

{ then again transposed the papers. At 8.5 she
returned to the old place, and was just going to
alight ; but observing the change of colours, without a
moment’s hesitation darted off to the blue. No one
who saw her at that moment could have entertained
the slightest doubt about her perceiving the difference
between the two colours. At 8.9 she went.

8.13 she returned to the blue; 8.16 went.
8.20 Pe ‘5 8.23
8.26 a 630 %

Transposed the colours again.

At 8.35 she returned to the blue, and at 8.39 went.
8.44 - " 8.47 ,,
8.50 ‘ ” 8.53 sy

Transposed the colours again.

8.57 she returned again to the blue; 90 ,
9. 4 5 % 9. 7
9.12 * ” 9.15

s

9.19 she returned again to the blue;

9.25
9,30
9.40
9.50

COLOURED PAPER,

”?

9

”

9

293
9.22 went.
9.27 4,
9.34 yy
9.44 ,
9.55

Transposed the colours again.

10. 2 she returned again to the blue; 10. 6

10.10
10.20
10.30
10.40
10.48
11.12
11.21

11.26
11.36

”

”

29

”

”

red

”°

>

10.14
10.25
10.34
10.44
10.51
11.14

9

and flew about, having

9

”

been disturbed.

11.28 went.

11.40

9

12. 5 came and flew about, but did not settle till—

12.17 she returned again to the blue ;
12.21 came and flew about.

12.17 went.

Though it was a beautiful afternoon, she did nct

return any more that day.

On October 2 I placed some honey on slips of glass
resting on black, white, yellow, orange, green, blue,

and red paper.

A bee which was placed on the orange

returned twenty times to that slip of glass, only once
or twice visiting the others, though I moved the posi-
tion and also the honey. The next morning again two

294 EVIDENT POWER OF

or three bees paid twenty-one visits to the orange and
yellow, and only four to all the other slips of glass. I
then moved the glass, after which, out of thirty-two
visits, twenty-two were to the orange 4nd yellow.
This was due, I believe, to the bee having been placed
on the orange at the beginning of the experiment.
[ do not attribute it to any preference for the
orange or yellow; indeed, I shall presently give reasons
for considering that blue is the favourite colour of
bees.

October 6.—I had ranged my colours in a line, with
the blue at one end. It was a cold morning, and only
one bee came. She had been several times the pre-
ceding day, generally to the honey which was on the
blue paper. This day also she came to the blue; I
moyed the blue gradually along the line one stage
every half-hour, during which time she paid fifteen
visits to the honey, in every case going to that which
was on the blue paper.

Again, on September 13 at 11 a.m., J brought up a
bee from one of my hives; at 11.40 she returned to
honey which I had put ona slip of glass on green papet
She returned at 11.51. And again at

12. 1
zs 12.13
S 12.22
7 12.33
- 12.46

n 12.58

DISTINGUISHING COLOURS. 2094

She returned at 1.12. This time she lost her way in

the room.

1.49

2.1. This time she got stuck ‘n the
honey, and had to clean
herself.

2.25

2.40. I now put red paper instead
of the green, and put the
green paper with a similar
quantity of honey on it a
foot off.

2.51 to the honey on green paper.
I then gently moved the
green paper, with the bee
on it, back to the old spot.
When the bee had gone, I
put yellow paper where the
green had been, and put
the green again a foot’ off.

8. Oto the honey on the yellow
paper. I disturbed the
bee, and she at once flew
to the honey on the green
paper; when she had gone,
I put orange paper in the
old place, and put the green
paper about a foot off.

3.10 to the honey on the green paper

296

EVIDENT POWER OF

I again gently moved the
paper, with the bee on it,
to the usual place; and
when the bee had gone,
put white paper in the old
place, and put the green a
foot off.

She returned at 3.20 tothe honey on the green paper.

I again gently moved the
green paper, with the bee
on it, to the old place; and
when she had gone, re-
placed it by blue paper,
putting the green a foot off.

3.30 to the honey on the green paper.
I again repeated the same
thing, putting yellow in-
stead of blue.

3.40 to the green paper. I now re-
versed the position of the
yellow aad green vapers;
but

3.51 to the green. After this

4. 6

4.15

4,28, when she left off for the day,

nor were there any bees still working in the garden.
The same afternoon a wasp, which I was observing,
remained at work till 6.29 P.M.

DISTINGUISHING COLOURS. 297

August 20.—About noon I brought five bees to
some honey at my window. They all soon returned,
and numerous friends came with them. One of them
I put to some honey on blue paper. She returned as
follows, viz. :—

At 12.36 At 2.30
12.42 2.38
12.53 3. 2

1.28 3.10
1.38 3.22
1.49 3.50
2. 2 4.4
2.11 4.14
2.24 4.23

when I left off watching and shut her out. The longer
intervals are due to her having got some honey every
now and then on her wings and legs, when she lost a
little time in cleaniny herself.

August 21.—I opened my window at 6 am No
bee came till at 7.33 the one above-mentioned came to
the honey on blue paper.

I also placed some honey on orange paper about
two feet off.

At 7.42 she returned to the honey on blue paper,

and again
7.55 she returned to the honey on blue paper.
8. 3 ” ”
8.14 ” Pe

a1

298 EVIDENT POWER OF

At 8.25 She returned to the honey on blue paper.

8.35 » ”
8.44 ”» ”
8.54 ” ”

9. 5 ” ”

I then transposed the papers, but not the honey.

At 9.16 she came back to the honey on blue paper.
I then transposed the papers again.

At 9.29 she came back to the honey on blue paper
I then transposed them again.

At 9.39 ” » ” *

At 9.53 she came back to the honey on blue paper.
I now put green paper instead of orange, and transposed
the places.

At 10.0 she came back to the honey on green paper.
I transposed them again.

At 10.8 she came back to the honey on blue paper.
I transposed them again.

At 10.21 she came back to the honey on green paper.
I now put red paper instead of green, and transposed
the places.

At 10.30 she came back to the honey on blue paper
I transposed them again.

At 10.42 re » » 0
10.53 ” ‘si % sf
ll. 4 8 f 35 65
1 1.16 ” ” ” ”

I now put white paper instead of red, and trans
posed the places,

DISTINGUISHING COLOURS. 298

At 11.28 she came back to the honey on blue paper
I transposed them again.

At 11.41 » » » »
1 1 56 ” ” ” ”
12. 8 ” 99 ” ”

At 12.17 she came back to the honey on blue paper.
[ now put green paper again instead of white, and
transposed the places.
* At 12.27 she came back to the honey on blue paper
I transposed them again.

At 12.40 » » » ”
12.50 ” ” ” ”?

1. 0 ” ” 2” ”

1. 13 ” ” ”

At 1.25 she came tiiale to the honey on blue
paper, and then to the green. I transposed them
again.

At 1.40 she came back to the honey on blue paper.
I transposed them again.

At 1.47 she came back to the honey on green paper.

», 1.57 she came back to the honey on blue paper,
and then to the green.

At 2. 6 she came back to the honey on blue paper.

99 2.17 ” ” ”

The following day I pacustomen this bee to green
paper. She made 63 visits (beginning at 7.47 and
ending at 6.44), of which 50 were to honey on green
paper.

The following day, August 23, she began work,—

300 EVIDENT POWER OF

At 7.12 returning to honey on green paper. I then
put some on yellow paper about a foot off.

At 7.19 she turned to the honey on green paper.
I transposed the colours.

At 7.25 she turned to the honey on green paper.
I replaced the yellow paper by orange and transposed
the places.

At 7.36 she turned to the honey on green paper.
I transposed the colours so that the orange might be on
the spot to which the bee was most accustomed.

At 7.44 she turned to the honey on green paper
I now put white instead of orange.

At 7.55 she turned to the honey on green paper.
Transposed the papers.

At 8.1 she turned to the honey on green paper.
I now put blue paper instead of white.

At 8.12 she turned to the honey on blue paper;
but it will be remembered that she had been previously
accustomed to come to the blue. I now put red instead
of blue.

At 8.23 she turned to the honey on green paper,

8.25 ” ” ”
8.47 ” ” ” ”

I then ceased observing and removed the honey.

Thus the bee which was accustomed to green,
returned to that colour when it was removed about a
foot, and replaced by yellow, orange, white, and red;
but, on the other hand, when it was replaced by blue,
she went to the blue. I kept this bee under obser-

”

DISTINGUISHING COLOURS. 304

vation till the 28th, but not with reference to
colours.

august 24.—At 7.451 put another bee to honey
on green paper, to which she kept on returning till
9.44, The next day (August 25) she came at 7.38, and
I let her come to the green paper till 9. The follow-
ing morning she returued at 6 4.M., coming back as
follows, viz.:—

At 6.10
6.18
6.25
6.35
6.45
6.54
7.3
7.13

I now put orange in place of green, and put the
green a foot off.

At 7.24 she returned to the green. I replaced the
paper with the bee on it; and when she had gone I
.put light blue in place of the green, and again moved
the green a foot off.

At 7.36 she returned to the blue. I again replaced
the paper with the bee on it; and when she had gone I
put yellow in place of the green, and again moved the
green a foot off.

At 7.44 she returned to the green. I then did

302 M. BONNIER’S VIEWS.

exactly the same, only putting vermilion in place of
the green.

At 7.55 she returned to the green. I then did ex-
actly the same, only putting white in place of green.

At 8. 3 ” ” ” 39

These observations clearly show that bees possess
the power of distinguishing colours.

It remained to determine, if possible, whether
they have any preference for one colour over another.
M. Bonnier in a recent memoir! denies this. He
does not question the power of insects to distinguish
colours, which he admits that the preceding observa-
tions clearly prove, but he maintains that they would
not be in any way attracted or guided by the colours
of flowers. This he has attempted to demonstrate by
experiment. With this view he proceeded as follows:
—He took four cubes, 22 centim. by 12 (i.e. about 9
inches by 3), and coloured red, green, yellow, and white,
placing them 6 feet apart in a line parallel to and about
60 feet distant from the hives. He then placed on
each an equal quantity of honey, and from minute
to minute counted the number of bees on each cube.
He found that the number of bees on each was approx-
imately equal, and that the honey was removed from
each in about twenty minutes. In the experiment he
records the bees began to arrive directly the honey
was arranged, and in ten minutes thére were nearly a
hundred bees on eachcube. I presume, therefore, that

Les Neotaires,

M. BONNIER'S EXPERIMENT. 303

the bees were previously accustomed to come to the
spot in question, expecting to find honey.

I do not think, however, that any conclusive result
could be expected from this experiment. In the first
place, after the first five minutes there were about
thirty bees on each cube, and in less than ten minutes
nearly a hundred, and the colour therefore must have
been almost covered up. The presence of so many bees
would also attract their companions. Moreover, as the
honey was all removed in less than twenty minutes, the
bees were evidently working against time. They were
like the passengers in an express train, turned hurriedly
into a refreshment-room ; and we cannot expect that
they would be much influenced by the colouring of the
tablecloth. In fact, the experiment was too hurried,
and the test not delicate enough.

Then, again, he omitted blue, which I hope to show
is the bee’s favourite colour, and his cubes were all
coloured. It is true that one was green; but any one
may satisfy himself that a piece of green paper on
grass is almost as conspicuous as any other colour. To
make this experiment complete, M. Bonnier should
have placed beside the honey on the coloured cubes a
similar supply, without any accompaniment of colour to
render it conspicuous.

T could not, therefore, regard these experiments as
ac all conclusive. The following seem to me a more
fair test :—-

I took slips of glass of the size generally used for

304 EXPERIMENTS TO TEST

slides for the microscope, viz. 3 inches by 1, and pasted
on them slips of paper coloured respectively blue, green,
orange, red, white,and yellow. I then put them on a lawn,
in a row, about a foot apart, and on each put a second
slip of glass with a drop of honey. I also put with them
a slip of plain glass with a similar drop of honey. I had
previously trained a marked bee to come to the place for
honey. My plan then was, when the bee returned and
had sipped about for a quarter of a minute, to remove the
honey, when she flew to another slip. This thenI took
away, when she went to a third; and so on. In this
way—as bees generally suck for three or four minutes
~-I induced her to visit all the drops successively before
returning to the nest. When she had gone to the nest
I transposed all the upper glasses with the honey, and
also moved the coloured glasses. Thus, as the drop of
honey was changed each time, and also the position of
the coloured glasses, neither of these could influence
the selection by the bee.

In recording the results J marked down successively
the order in which the bee went to the different coloured
glasses. For instance, in the first journey from the
nest, as recorded below, the bee lit first on the blue,
which accordingly I marked 1; when disturbed from
the blue, she flew about a little and then lit on the
white ; when the white was removed, she settled on
the green ; and so on successively on the orange, yellow,
plain, and red. I repeated the experiment a hundred
times, using two different hives—one in Kent and

PREFERENCE FOR PARTICULAR COLOURS. 306

oue in Middlesex—and spreading the observations over
some time, so as to experiment with different bees.
and under varied circumstances, Adding the numbers
together, it of course follows that the greater the
preference shown for each colour the lower will be the
number standing against it.

The following table gives the first day’s observa-
tions in extenso :—

Journeys Blue Green pote Orange Red White Yellow
1 i 3 6 4 7 2 5
2 5 a 7 6 1 2 2
3 i 4 7 6 5 a 2
4 2 4 6 7 5 1 3
5 1 4 7 2 6 5 3
6 1 2 3 6 5 4 7
7 2 Be 4 7 3 5 6
8 3 4 6 2 § 5 i
9 5 1 7 4 6 5 2

10 1 6 4 5 3 2 &
11 4 6 5 2 7 3 1
26 39 65 51 55 35 37

In the next series of experiments the bees had
been trained for three weeks to come to a particular
spot on a large lawn, by placing from time to time
honey on a piece of plain glass. This naturally gave
the plain glass an advantage; nevertheless, as will be
seen, the blue still retained its pre-eminence. It seems
hardly necessary to give the observations in detail.
The following table shows the general result :—

306 EXPERIMENTS SHOWING

Series Weer] Blue | Green |Orange| Plain | Red | White|Yellow
Ist... oe ll | 26] 39] 61 65 | 55 | 35] 37
2nd, May 30... | 15] 38) 57] 59 | 72] 66] 58] 70
8rd, July 2... 16{ 44] 76] 82] 73) 53) 53] 67°
4th, , 4 .] 16] 43} 61] 64] 80] 66] 50] 56
6th, , 5...) 10] 36] 47] 39] 40] 40] 36] 42
6th, , 6... 2 2 8 9] 10] 14 6 7
7th, , 20...) 11] 33] 39} 50] 47| 49] 41) 49
8th, , 23...} 10] 31] 46] 48 | 52) 87] 385] 31
9th, , 25.../ 10] 22) 64] 38] 52] 33] 35] 46

100 | 275 | 427 |} 440 | 491 | 413 | 349 | 405

The precautions taken seem to me to have placed
the colours on an equal footing ; while the number of
experiments appears sufficient to give a fair average.
It will be observed also that the different series agree
well among themselves. The difference between the
numbers is certainly striking. Adding together 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, we get 28 as the total number given
by each journey; 100 journeys therefore give, as the
table shows, a total of 2,800, which divided by 7 would
of course, if no preference were shown, give 400 for
each colour. The numbers given, however, are—for
the blue only 275, for the white 349, yellow 405, red
413, green 427, orange 440, and plain glass as many as
491.

Another mode of testing the result is to take the
per-centage in which the bees went respectively to each
colour first, second, third, and so on. It will be
observed, for instance, that out of a hundred rounds
the bees took blue as one of the first three in 74 caser,

PREFERENCE FOR BLUE, 307

and one of the last four only in 26 cases; while, on the
contrary, they selected the plain as one of the first
three only in 25 cases, and one of the last four in 75
cases,

Blue | Green | Orange} Plain Red | White | Yellow

First oe 31 10 11 5 14 19 9
Second ... 18 11 | 18 7 10 21 20
Third ae 25 12 8 iS 16 13 13
Fourth... 8 23 15 11 ll 12 20
Fifth wee eel 13 15 19 17 16 10
Sixth ans 3 15 22 21 18 12 9
Seventh ... 4 16 16 24 14 7 19

100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100

I may add that I was by no means prepared for
this result. Miller, in his remarkable volume on
Alpine Flowers, states that bees are much more attracted
by yellow than by white.! In the same work he gives
the following table :—

In every 100 visits of insects
there were
Flowers

Butterflies Bees Biles ine sees

8 yellowish-white species 12°8 51:3 15-4 20°5

23 yellow 7 47 27°65 28°1 72
16 red sé 51-4 35'1 9:2 8-2
7 blue 3 64:9 26°6 107 1:9

This table does not indeed show any absolute pre-
ference for one colour rather than another. In the
first place, the number of species compared is very
different in the case of the different colours; and in

1 Alpenblumen, p. 487.

308 PAUCITY OF BLUE FLOWERS.

the second place, the results may of course be due to
the taste, quantity, or accessibility of the honey (all of
which we know exercise a great influence), rather than
by the colour of the flower. Still the table rather
seemed to indicate that bees preferred red, white, and
yellow, to blue.

I may very likely be asked, if blue is the favourite
colour of bees, and if bees have had so much to do
with the origin of flowers, how is it that there are
so few blue ones? I believe the explanation to be
that all blue flowers have descended from ancestors
in which the flowers were green; or, to speak more
precisely, in which the leaves immediately surround-
ing the stamens and pistil were green; and that they
have passed through stages of white or yellow, and gene-
rally red, before becoming blue. That all flowers were
originally green and inconspicuous, as those of so many
plants are still, has, I think, been shown by recent
researches, especially those of Darwin, Miiller, and
Hildebrand.

But what are the considerations which seem to
justify us in concluding that blue flowers were formerly
yellow or white? Let us consider some of the orders
in which blue flowers occur with others of different
colours.

For instance, in the Ranunculaceex,! those with
simple open flowers, such as the buttercups and Thalic-

1] take most of the following facts from Miiller’s admirable
work on Alpine Flowers.

PROBABLE REASON. 309

trums, are generally yellow or white. The blue
delphiniums and aconites ure highly specialised,
abnormal] forms, and doubtless, therefore, of more recent
origin, Among the Caryophyllacez the red and purplish
species are amongst those with highly specialised
flowers, such as Dianthus and Saponaria, while the
simple open flowers, which more nearly represent the
ancestral type, such as Stellaria, Cerastiwm, &c., are
yellow and white.

Take, again, the Primulaceew. The open-flowered,
honeyless species, such as Lysimachia and Trientalis,
are generally white or yellow; while red, purple, and
blue occur principally in the highly specialised species
with tubular flowers. The genus Anagallis here, how-
ever, certainly forms an exception.

Among the’ violets we find some yellow, some blue
species, and Miiller considers that the yellow is the
original colour. Viola biflora, a small, comparatively
little specialised fly-flower, is yellow; while the large,
long-spurred V. calcarata, specially adapted to humble-
bees, is blue. In V. éricolor, again, the smaller
varieties are whitish-yellow; the larger and more
highly developed, blue. Myosotis versicolor we know
is first yellow and then blue; and, according to Miller,
one variety of V. tricolor alpestris is yellow when it
first opens, and gradually becoines more and more blue.
In this case the individual flower repeats the phases
which in past times the ancestors have passed through.

The only other family I will mention is that of the

310 LATE ORIGIN OF BLUE FLOWERS

Gentians. Here, also, while the well-known deep blue
species have long tubular flowers, specially adapted to
bees and butterflies, the yellow Gentiana lutea has
a simple open flower with exposed honey.

Miillerand Hildebrand’ have also pointed out that the
blue flowers, which, according to this view, are descended
from white or yellow ancestors, passing in many cases
through a red stage, frequently vary, as if the colours had
not had time to fix themselves,and by atavism assume
their original colour. Thus Aquilegia vulgaris, Ajuga
Genevensis, Polygala vulgaris, P. comosa, Salvia pra-
tensis, Myosotis alpestris, and many other blue flowers,
are often reddish or white; Viola calcarata is normally
blue, but occasionally yellow. On the other hand, flowers
which are normally white or yellow, rarely, I might
almost say never, vary to blue. Moreover, though it is
true that there are comparatively few blue flowers, still,
if we consider only those in which the honey is con-
cealed, and which are, as we know, specially suited to
and frequented by bees and butterflies, we find a larger
proportion. Thus, of 150 flowers with concealed honey
observed by Miiller in the Swiss Alps,? 68 were white
or yellow, 52 more or less red, and 30 blue or violet.

However this may be, it seems to me that the
preceding experiments show conclusively that bees do
prefer one colour to another, and that blue is distinctly
their favourite.

' Die Farben der Bliithen, p. 26
* Alpenblumen, p. 492.

CHAPTER XI.

WASPS.

I BAvE also made a few experiments with wasps.

So far as their behaviour, when they have discovered
a store of food, is concerned, what has been said with
reference to bees would apply in the main to waspsalso.
I will give some of the details in the Appendix, and
here only refer very briefly to some of the experiments.

Experiment 1.—Watched a wasp, which I had accus-
tomed to come to my room for honey, from 9.36 A.M. to
6.25 p.m. She made forty-five visits to the honey, but
did not bring a single comrade.

Experiment 2.—The following day this wasp began
working—at least, came to my room for the first time at
6.55 a.M., and went on passing backwards and forwards
most industriously till6.17 p.m. She made thirty-eight
journeys, and did not bring a single friend.

Experiment 3.—Another wasp was watched from
6.16 a.M. till 6 p.m. She made fifty-one journeys, and
during the day five other wasps came to the honey. I
do not think she brought them.

Experiment 4.—Another wasp was watched from
10 a.m. to 5.15 p.M.; she made twenty-eight journeys,

312 POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

and brought no friend. This wasp returned the next
morning at 6 A.M.

Experiment 5.—A wasp was watched from 11.56
AM. to 5.36 P.M. She made twenty-three journeys,
without bringing a friend

Experiment 6.—Another wasp between 6.40 4.M.
and 5.55 p.m. made sixty journeys, without bringing a
friend.

Experiment 7.— Another wasp between 7.25 a.M.
and 6.43 P.M. made no less than ninety-four visits to
the honey, but did not bring a single friend.

Experiment 8.—I watched a wasp on September 19.
She passed regularly backwards and forwards between the
nest and the honey, but during the whvle day only one
other wasp came of herself to the honey; this wasp
returned on the 20th, but not one other. The 21st was
a hot day, and there were many wasps about the house;
my honey was regularly visited by the two marked wasps,
but during the whole day only five others came to it.

September 22.—Again only one strange wasp came,
up to one o’clock.

September 27.—Only one strange wasp came

October 2 and 3.—These days were cold; a few
marked bees and wasps came to my honey, but no
strangers.

October 4.—Two strangers.

October 6.—Only one stranger.

On these days the honey was watched almost with-

POWER OF HEARING. 313

out intermission the whole day, and was more or less
regularly visited by the marked bees and wasps.

My experiments, then, in opposition to the state-
ments of Huber and Dujardin, serve to show that wasps
and bees do not in all cases convey to one another in-
formation as to food which they may have discovered,
though I do not doubt that they often do so. Of
course, when one wasp has discovered and is visiting
a supply of syrup, others are apt to come too; but I
believe that in many instances they merely follow one
another. If they communicated the fact, considerable
numbers would at once make their appearance ; but I
have not often found this to be the case. The frequent
and regular visits which my wasps paid to the honey
put out for them, prove that it was very much to their
taste; yet few others made their appearance.

These and other observations of the same tendency
seem to show that, even if wasps have the power of in-
forming one another when they discover a store of good
food, at any rate they do not habitually do so.

On the whole, wasps seem to me more clever in
finding their way than bees. I tried wasps with the
glass mentioned on p. 278, but they had no difficulty
in finding their way out.

My wasps, though courageous, were always on the
alert, and easily startled. It was, for instance, more
difficult to paint them than the bees; nevertheless,
though I tried them with a set of tuning-forks covering

92

314 COURAGE OF WASPS.

three octaves, with a shrill whistle, a pipe, a violin, and
my own voice, making in each case the loudest and
shrillest sounds in my power, I could see no symptoms
in any case that they were conscious of the noise.

The following fact struck me as rather remarkable.
One of my wasps smeared her wings with syrup, so that
she could not fly. When this happened to a bee, it was
only necessary to carry her to the alighting-board, when
she was soon cleaned by her comrades. But I did not
know where this wasp’s nest was, and therefore could
not pursue a similar course with her. At first, then,
I was afraid that she was doomed. I thought, however,
that I would wash her, fully expecting, indeed, to terrify
her so much that she would not return again. I there-
fore caught her, put her in a bottle half full of water,
and shook her up well till the honey was washed off. I
then transferred her to another bottle, and put her in
the sun to dry. When she appeared to have recovered
I let her out: she at once flew to her nest, and
I never expected to see her again. To my surprise, in
thirteen minutes she returned as if nothing had hap-
pened, and continued her visits to the honey all the
afternoon.

This experiment interested me so much that I re
peated it with another marked wasp, this time, how-
ever, keeping the wasp in the water till she was quite
motionless and insensible. When taken out of the
water she soon recovered ; I fed her; she went quietly
away to her nest as usual, and returned after the usual

TAME WASP. 315

absence. The next morning this wasp was the first ta
visit the honey.

I was not able to watch any of the above-mentioned
wasps for more than a few days, but I kept a specimen
of Polistes gallica for no less than nine months.

I took her, with her nest, in the Pyrenees, early in
May. The nest consisted of about twenty cells, the
majority of which contained an egg; but as yet no
grubs had been hatched out, and, of course, my wasp
was as yet alone in the world.

I had no difficulty in inducing her to feed on my
hand ; but at first she was shy and nervous. She kept
her sting in constant readiness; and once or twice in
the train, when the railway officials came for tickets,
and I was compelled to hurry her back into her bottle,
she stung me slightly—I think, however, entirely from
fright.

Gradually she became quite used to me, and when
I took her on my hand apparently expected to be fed.
She even allowed me to stroke her without any appear-
ance of fear, and for some months I never saw her
sting.

When the cold weather came on she fell into a
drowsy state, and I began to hope she would hibernate
and survive the winter. I kept her ina dark place, but
watched her carefully, and fed her if ever she seemed
at all restless.

She came out occasionally, and seemed as well as
usual till near the end of February, when one day I

316 POWER OF DISTINGVISHING COLOURS.

observed she had nearly lost the use of her antennx,
though the rest of the body was as usual. She would
take no food. Next day I tried again to feed her ; but
the head seemed dead, though she could still move her
legs, wings, and abdomen. The following day I offered
her food for the last time ; but both head and thorax
were dead or paralysed; she could but move her tail,
a last token, as I could almost fancy, of gratitude and
affection. As far as I could judge, her death was quite
painless; and she now occupies a place in the British
Museum.

Power of distinguishing Colours.

As regards colours, I satisfied myself that wasps are
capable of distinguishing colour, though they do not
seem so much guided by it as bees are.

July 25.—At 7 a.M. I marked a common worker
wasp (Vespa vulgaris), and placed her to some honey
on a piece of green paper 7 inches hy 4}. She worked
with great industry. After she had got well used to the
green paper I moved it 18 inches off, putting some
other honey on blue paper where the green had pre-
viously been. She returned to the blue. I then replaced
the green paper for an hour, during which she visited
it several times, after which I moved it 18 inches, as
before, and put brick-red paper in its place. She returned
to the brick-red paper. But although this experiment
indicates that this wasp was ‘ess strongly affected by

EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED PAPERS. 317

colours than the bees which I had previously observed,
still I satisfied myself that she was not colour-blind.

I moved the green paper slightly and put the
honey, which, as before, was on a slip of plain glass,
about four feet off. She came back and lit on the green
paper, but finding no honey, rose again, and hawked
about in search of it. After 90 seconds I put the
green paper under the honey, and in 15 seconds she
found it. I then, while she was absent at the nest,'
moved both the honey and the paper about a foot from
their previous positions, and placed them about a foot
apart. She returned as usual, hovered over the paper,
lit on it, rose again, flew about for a few seconds, lit
again on the paper, and again rose. After 2 minutes
had elapsed I slipped the paper under the honey, when
she almost immediately (within 5 seconds) lit on it.
It seems obvious, therefore, that she could see green.

I then tried her with red. I placed the honey on
brick-red paper, and left her for an hour, from 5 P.M. to
6, to get accustomed to it. During this time she con-
tinued her usual visits. I then put the honey and the
coloured paper about a foot apart; she returned first
to the paper and then to the honey. I then transposed
the honey and the paper. This seemed to puzzle her.
She returned to the paper, but did not settle. After
she had hawked about for 100 seconds I put the honey
on the red paper, when she settled on it at once. I
then put the paper and the honey again 18 inches
apart. As before, she returned first to the paper, hut

818 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED PAPERS.

almost immediately went to the honey. In a similar
mauner I satisfied myself that she could see yellow.

Again, on August 18 I experimented on two wasps,
one of which had been coming more or less regu-
larly to some honey on yellow paper for four days, the
other for twelve—coming, that is to say, for several
days, the whole day long, and on all the others, with
two or three exceptions, for at least three hours in the
day. Both, therefore, had got well used to the yellow
paper. I then put blue paper where the yellow had
been, and put the yellow paper with some honey
on it about a foot off. Both the wasps returned to the
honey on the blue paper. I then moved both the papers
about a foot, but so that the blue was somewhat nearer
the original position. Both again returned to theblue.
I then transposed the colours, and they both returned
to the yellow.

Very similar results were given by the wasp watched
on September 11. After she had made twenty visits
to honey on blue paper, I put it on yellow paper, and
moved the blue 12 inches off. She came back to the
yellow. I then put vermilion instead of yellow; she
eame back to the vermilion. I transposed the colours ;
she came back to the vermilion.

I put white instead of vermilion; she came to

the blue.
» green 5 white ; she came to the blue,
» orange 4, green ; she came to the blue,
I transposed the colours ; she returned to the orange.

EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED PAPERS. 319

I put white instead of orange ; she came to the white,

» green 33 white ; she came to the blue.

» purple 5 green; she came to the
purple.

yy orange Fa purple; she came to the
orange.

» green ay orange; she came to the
green.

I transposed the colours; she came to the blue.
a ” ” » green.

So far, therefore, she certainly showed no special
predilection for the blue. I then left her the rest
of the day to visit the honey on blue paper exclusively.
She made fifty-eight visits to it. The following
morning I opened my window at 6.15, when she im-
mediately made her appearance.

I let her make ten more visits to the honey on blue
paper, moving it about a foot or so backwards and
forwards on the table. Ithen put orange paper instead
of the blue, and put the blue about a foot off. She
returned to the orange.

I put yellow instead of orange; she came to the

yellow.

» vermilion ,, yellow; she came to the
vermilion.

» white » she came to the white.

+ green » White; she came to the
green,

I transposed the colours ; she came to the blue.

320 EXPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED PAPERS.

I now put vermilion instead of green, and moved
both of them a foot, but so that the vermilion was
nearest the window, though touching the blue; she
came to the vermilion.

Again, September 11,1 marked a wasp. She re-
turned to the honey over and over again with her usual
assiduity. The following morning I put the honey on
green paper; she came backwards and forwards all day.
On the 13th I opened my window at 6.8, and she came
in immediately. During an hour she made ten
journeys. On her leaving the honey for the eleventh
time, I placed some honey on vermilion paper where
the green had been, and put the honey and the green
paper about a foot off.

She came at 7.25 to the vermilion. I then put orange
instead of vermilion.
Pe 7.34 , orange. I then put blue
instead of orange.
a5 7.40 ,, blue. I then put white in-
stead of blue.
% 7.47 4, white. I then put yellow in-
stead of white.
¥ 7.55 4, yellow and then to the green.
I transposed the colours.
5 8.2 ,, green. I then moved both
colours about a foot, but so that the yellow was a little
nearer to the old place.
She returned at 8.9 to the yellow.

PERCEPTION OF COLOUR. 321

I then removed the yellow paper and honey, and
placed the honey which had been on the green paper
about a foot from it on the table.

At 8.15 she returned and lit on the green paper,
but immediately flew off to the honey. I then trans-
posed the honey and the paper.

At 8.24 she returned and again Jit on the paper, but
immediately flew off to the honey.

Thus, therefore, though it is clear that wasps can
distinguish colours, they appear, as might be expected
from other considerations, to be less guided by them
than is the case with bees,

I have been much struck by the industry of wasps,
They commence work early in the morning, and do not
leave off till dusk. I have several times watched a
wasp the whole day, and from morning to evening, if
not disturbed, they worked without any interval for rest
or refreshment.

Being anxious to compare bees and wasps in this
respect, on August 6, 1882, I accustomed a wasp and
three bees to come to some honey put out for them on
two tables, one allotted to the wasp, the other to the
bees. The last bee came at 7.15 p.m. The wasp con-
tinued working regularly till 7.47, coming at intervals
of between six and seven minutes. Next morning, when
I went into my study a few minutes after 4 a.m, I
found the wasp already at the honey. The first bee
came at 5.45, the second at 6.

The wasp occupied about a minute, or even less, in
supplying herself with a load of honey, and made during

329 CONCLUSION.

the day, as shown in the Appendix (p. 423), no less than
116 visits to the honey, or 232 journeys between my
room and her nest, during which she carried off rather
more than sixty-four grains of honey.

It would, however, perhaps be unfair to the bees to
regard this as indicating that they are less industrious
than wasps. The deficiency may be due to their being
more susceptible to cold.

I may add that I then left home for a few days. I
covered over the honey, leaving only a small entrance
for the wasp. When I returned, on the 12th, I found
her still at work, and by herself. It was evident that
she had continued her labours, but without bringing
any friends to assist her.

Every one has heard of a ‘bee-line.’ It would be
no less correct to talk of a wasp-line. On August 6 I
marked a wasp, the nest of which was round the corner
of the house, so that her direct way home was not out
of the window by which she entered, but in the opposite
direction, across the room to a window which was closed.
I watched her for some hours, during which time she
constantly went to the closed window, and lost much
time in buzzing about at it. August 7, I was not able
to watch her. August 8 and 9, I watched her from 6.25
A.M., when she made her first visit. She still constantly
went to the closed window. August 10 and 11, I was
away from home. August 12, she made her first visit
at 7.40, and still went to the closed window. August
13, her first visit was at 6.15; she went to the closed
window and remained buzzing about there till 7, when
I caught her and put her out at the open one by which
she always entered. August 15 and 16, she continued

CONCLUSION. 3823

to visit the honey, but still, always, even after ten days’
experience, continued to go to the closed window, which
was in the direct line home ; though, on finding it closed,
she returned and went round through the open window
by which she entered.

324

APPENDIX A.

Tables iNustrating Experiments on Divis

of Labour.

20n oO

.

(See p, 45.)
TaBLE I.—Slaves of Formica fusca. Nest No. 1.

DIVISION OF LABOUR.

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DIVISION OF LABOUR. 325

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326

DIVISION OF LABOUR.

TaBLE I, (continued).

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DIVISION OF LABOUR.

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328

Taste II.—Slaves of Polyergus. (See p. 45.)

DIVISION OF LABOOR.

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DIVISION OF LABOUR.

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330 DIVISION OF LABOUR.

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332

TaBLE IL. (contenued).

DIVISION OF LABOUR.

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13
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ic

&

RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS, 333

APPENDIX B.

Tue following are the details referred to on p. 122:--

On August 4, 1875, I separated one of my colonics
of Formica fusca into two halves, and kept them
entirely apart.

On March 15 following I put in a stranger and one
of the old companions from the other half of the nest at
7 A.M., and watched them longer than those previously
experimented on. The stranger was very soon attacked ;
the friend seemed quite at home.

June 4, 1876.—8 a.M. Put into the nest a stranger
and an old friend. The stranger was at once attacked,
and dragged about by one of her antennae. 9 a.M. The
stranger was being attacked; the friend, though not
attacked, kept rather away from the other ants.
10.30 a.M. The stranger was attacked, not the friend.
12.30 p.m. ditto, 1 P.M. ditto, 1.30 P.M. ditto, 2 p.m
ditto, 2.30 P.M. ditto, 4 P.M. ditto, 4.30 P.M. ditto. 5 P.M
The stranger was dragged out of the nest.

June 5.—Putina stranger and a friend at 9.30. At
10 the stranger was being attacked, not the friend.
10 A.M. ditto, 10.30 a.m. ditto.

At 11 a.m. I put in another stranger and another old
friend, when nearly the same thing was repeated. At
11.30 a.M. the stranger was being dragged about by her
antenne; the friend was not attacked. 12 a.m. The
stranger was by herself in a corner of the nest. The
friend was almost cleaned from the paint by which she
was marked. I then put in another friend. At2 P.M
the stranger was being dragged about by an antenna,

334 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS

the friend was being cleaned. 2.30 p.m. ditto, 3 ditto,
At 3.30 p.m. the friend was almost clean: the stranger
was being dragged about. 6 P.M. ditto.

June 10.—Repeated the same observation at 10 4.M.,
but transposed the colours by which they were distin-
guished, so that there might be no question whether
perhaps the difference of treatment was due to the
difference of colouring. At 11 a.M. the friend was all
right, the stranger was being dragged about by an
antenna. 11.30 a.M. the friend all right, the stranger
being dragged about by one leg. 12 a.m. ditto.
12.30 p.m. the friend all right, the stranger being
dragged about by an antenna. 1 P.M. ditto, 2 P.M. ditto,
3 P.M. ditto,

July 3.—Put in a friend and a stranger at 11 a.m.
At 11.30 a.m. the stranger was being dragged about,
the friend was being cleaned. 12 4.M. ditto. 12.30 a.m.
both were now being attacked. 1 P.M. ditto.

This seems to show that some at least of the
ants have forgotten their old friends. Perhaps, however,
these were young ants.

July 16.—Put in two friends at 7.45 a.m. At 8 a.m.
each was being dragged about by anantenna. 8.30 A.M.
one was being dragged about by both antenna, the
other by both antennzand one leg. 10 A.M. both were
still attacked, but it is curious that at the same time
others were cleaning off the paint. 12.30 p.m. both
still attacked.

July 17.—Put ina friend at 8.15 am. At 8.30 A.M.
they were cleaning her. At9 a.m. she was almost clean.
9.30 a.M. she seemed quite at home, and had only one
spot of paint on her. 10.20 a.m. ditto.

July 20.—Put in adfriend and stranger at 9 A.M.
At 9.30 a.m. the friend seemed all right; the stranger
was in a corner by herself. At 10 a.m. the friend was
being cleaned ; the stranger had come out of her corner
and was being fiercely attacked. At 11 a.m. the friend

AFTER LONG SEPARATION. 335

seemed quite at home and was almost cleaned; the
stranger was being dragged about, but wasalmost cleaned.
At 12 a.m. the same thing was going on, and also at
12.30 p.m. At 1.30 P.M. the stranger was still being
pulled about; but what struck me as remarkable, the
friend also had hold of one of the ants by an antenna.
At 2 p.m. the friend was by herself, the stranger was
being attacked. At 4 p.m. the friend again had hold
of an ant by an antenna; the stranger was being
pulled about. At 5 p.m. the friend seemed quite at
home in the nest, the stranger was dragged out of the
nest. The following morning I was still able to dis-
tinguish the friend ; she seemed quite at home.

August 5.—Put in a stranger and a friend at 8 a.m.
At 8.30 a.M. both were attacked. 9 a.m. ditto, 9.30
A.M. ditto, 10 a.m. ditto, 11 a.M. ditto, 12.30 a.m. ditto.

August 6.—Repeated the experiment at 2 a.m.
Both ants hid themselves in corners. At 3.30 a.m. the
stranger was being attacked; the friend was ina corner
by herself. At 4.30 a.m. both were attacked. 5.30
A.M. ditto.

August 7.— Put in a stranger and a friend at 8.30
AM. At 8.45 a.m. both were being attacked. 9.30 a.m.
ditto, 10 a.m. ditto.

August 8.—Put in a friend at 7 am. At 8 a.m.
she seemed quite at home with the others. At 9 a.m.
they had almost cleaned her. At 9.30 a.m. she seemed
quite at home with the others. At 10 a.m. ditto.

August 12.—Put in a friend and a stranger at 7
p.M. Both were immediately attacked. 7.15 a.m. they
were being dragged about. 7.45 a.m. ditto, 8 ditto,
8,15 A.M. ditto.

August 13.—Put in a friend at 6.30 a.m. At 7.50
aM. two attacked her. At 8 A.M. she was being
attacked by one ant, but another was cleaning her.
8.15 aM. ditto. 8.45 a.m. Two were attacking her,
one dragging at her by an antenna. 9 A.M. ditto, 9.30

336 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS

A.M. ditto, 1U a.M. ditto, 10.30 a.m. ditto. Others had
almost entirely cleaned off the paint.

At 5 p.M. put a friend and a stranger into the other
half of the nest. At 5.15 a.m. the friend seemed
guite at home, and had been nearly cleaned; the
stranger was being attacked. 5.30 a.m. ditto, 8.15 a.M.
ditto. 7.15 a.m. Two of the ants were dragging the
stranger out of the nest; the friend had been quite
cleaned.

August 14.—At 8.15 a.m. I put an ant from each
half of the nest into the other. At 8.30 A.M. one was
alone in the corner, the other was being attacked. At
9 a.M. both were being attacked. 9.30 .M. ditto, 10.30
A.M. ditto; 11.30 4.M. ditto, both, however, being almost
cleaned.

August 19.—At 8 a.M.I put into each nest one
from the other. The one was received amicably and
cleaned, so that after a while I lost sight of her. It waa
clear that she was received in a friendly manner,
because no fighting was going on. At 11 a.m. I put
into the same nest another friend: at 11.30 a.m. she
was all right, and, being cleaned at 12 a.m., I could no
longer distinguish her.

The ant put into the other nest was not so well
received. At 9.30 4.M., 11.30 4.M., and 12.30 a.m. she
was being dragged about, but she was also being cleaned,
and after 12.30 a.m. I lost sight of her. As the paint
had been entirely removed, but no ant was being
attacked, I have no doubt she was at length recognised
as a friend.

August 21—At 10.15 4.mM. I again put into each
nest an ant from the other. One was at once cleaned,
and I could not find her. I should, however, certainly
have seen her if she had been attacked.

The other was at first attacked by one of the ants;
but this soon ceased, and they began to clean her. By
11.30 a.m. she was quite at her ease among the other

AFTER LONG SEPARATION. 337

ants, and aimost clean. After 12 a.m.I could not see her
any more. At 1.40 p.m. J again put into each nest an
ant from the other, accompanied, however, in both cases
by astranger. The contrast was most marked, and no
one who saw it could have doubted that the friends and
strangers were respectively recognised as such, or that
they themselves were fully aware of their posi-
tion.

In the first nest the friend at once joined the other
ants, who began to clean her. The stranger ran about
in evident alarm, was pursued by the others, and took
refuge in a corner. At 2 P.M. the friend was with the
other ants, the stranger alone inacorner. At 2.25 P.M.
the friend was almost cleaned, and after 2.30 P.M. we
could no longer distinguish her: the stranger was still
alone. At 3.40 P.M. she came out of her hiding-place
and was attacked; after a while she escaped from the
nest. At 5.30 p.m. she met one of the ants, and a
battle at once began. I separated the combatants and
put the stranger back near her own nest, which she at
once entered, and where she was soon cleaned by her
own friends.

I will now describe the adventures of the other
couple. The friend immediately joined the other ants ;
the stranger was hunted about and soon seized. At 2
p.M. the friend was all right, the stranger being dragged
about. At 2.30 P.M. ditto. The stranger was soon
afterwards dragged out of the nest. The friend, whom
I watched at intervals till 6.30 P.m., continued on the
best terms with the others; it was quite clear, there-
fore, that they did not regard her as a stranger.
She herself was not afraid of, and did not avoid
them. Still for some time she apparently wished to
return to the ants with whom she had recently lived.
She came out of the nest, and tried to find her way
home. I put her back again, however,.and by the even-
ing she seemed to have accustomed herself to the

338 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS

change. I then opened the door of the nest soon after
5 p.M.; but she showed no wish to leave her newly re-
joined friends.

September 1.—At 11 a.M. I again put into each haif
of the nest an ant from the other and a stranger. In
the one nest the friend joined the other ants, and seemed
quite at home; the stranger, on the contrary, en-
deavoured to conceal herself, and at length, at 4 in the
afternoon, escaped from the nest.

In the other division the friend also appeared quite
athome. The stranger, on the contrarv, endeavoured
to escape, but in the course of the afternoon was
attacked and killed.

October 15.—At 8 A.M. I repeated the same expevi-
ment. In the first nest, up to 10 a.M., neither ant was
attacked ; and it is curious that the stranger was licked,
and, indeed, almost cleaned. Soon afterwards, however,
the ants began to attack her, and at three P.M. she was
expelled, the friend, on the contrary, being quite at
home. Still the following day, at noon, I found her out
of the nest (all the rest being within). This almost
looks as if, though safe, she did not feel happy; and
I accordingly put her back to her old home, which
she at once entered.

In the other division the friend was soon nearly
cleaned, and the stranger partly so. The friend seemed
quite at home. At 12.30 the stranger was being
dragged about by three ants; but after this I lost sight
of her.

November 10.—At 11.36 put into on: of the divi-
sions a friend anda stranger. At 12 the friend was
all right, the stranger was being dragged about by an
antenna. From this time till 7 P.M. the stranger was
continually being dragged about or held a prisoner,
while the friend was quite at home.

November 11.—At 10.15 I put into the other
livision a friend and a stranger. At 11 tbe friend was

AFTER LONG SEPARATION. 339

quite at home, and the colour with which I had marked
her had been almost cleaned off. The stranger, on the
contrary, was being dragged about by two of the ants.
After this, however, I could not find her. She had, na
doubt, escaped from the nest.

November 12.—The following day, therefore, at
11.30, I again put a friend and a stranger into this
division of the nest. The friend seemed quite at
home. One of the ants at once seized the stranger by
an antenna and began dragging her about. I will give
this observation in detail out of my note-book.

At 11.45. The friend is quite at home with the
rest; the stranger is being dragged about.

At 12. The friend is all right. Three ants now
have hold of the stranger by her legs and an antenna.

At 12.15, 12.30, 12.45, and at 1 the stranger was
thus held a prisoner.

At 1.30 one now took hold of the friend, but soon
seemed to find out her mistake, and left go again.

At 1.45, The friend is all right. The stranger is
being attacked. The friend also has been almost
cleaned, while on the stranger the colour has been
scarcely touched.

At 2.15. Two ants are licking the friend, while
another pair are holding the stranger by her legs.

At 2.30. The friend is now almost clean; so that
I could only just perceive any colour. The stranger,
on the contrary, is almost as much coloured as ever.
She is now near the door, and, I think, would have
come out, but two ants met and seized her.

At 3. Two ants are attacking the stranger. The
friend was no longer distinguishable from the rest.

At 3.30, 3.40, and 5 the stranger was still held a
prisoner.

At 6.0. The stranger now escaped from the nest,
aud I put her back among her own friends.

December 11.—At 10 a.m. I again pnt in a friend

340 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS AFTER A

and a stranger. The friend was not attacked, and cun-
soited peaceably with the rest. I found her again all
right on the following morning. The stranger, on the
contrary, was soon attacked and expelled.

December 22.—Repeated the same experiment.
The stranger was attacked and driven out of the nest.
The friend was received quite amicably.

December 26.—Ditto. The friend was received as
usual. I lost sight of the stranger, who probably escaped.

December 31.—Ditto. The stranger, after being
dragged about some time in the nest, made her
escape. But even outside, having met with an ant
accidentally, she was viciously attacked.

January 15, 1877.—Ditto.

January 16.—I put in two friends; but ‘thinking
the preceding experiments sufficient, I did not on this
occasion add a stranger. Neither of the friends was
attacked.

January 19.—Put in two friends at 11 a.m.
Neither was attacked, and the following morning they
were all right amongst the rest.

January 22.—Put in three friends with the same
result.

January 24.—Put in two friends with the same
result,

January 26.—Put in three friends with the same
result.

February 11.—I put in two friends from the other
division at 10 a.m. I looked at 10.15, 10.30, 11,
11.30, 12, 2, 4, and 6 p.M. They were on every occa~
sion quite at home amongst the others.

_ February 12.—Put in three from the other division
al 12, They were quite at home. I looked at them
at 12.30, 1, 2,4, and 6. Only for a minute or two at
first one appeared to be threatened.

February 13.—Put in one friend from the other
division. The ant was put in at 9.15 a.m., and visited

SEPARATION OF MORE THAN A YEAR, 34)

at 9.30, 10, 11,12,and 1. She was evidently quite at
home.

February 15.—Ditto. The ant was put in at 10.15
A.M., and visited at 10.30, 11, 12, 1, 2, 3, and 4. She
was not attacked.

February 19.—Ditto. The ant was put in at 10
AM., and visited at 10.15, 10.30, 11, 12, 1, and 2.
She was not attacked.

March 11.—lD)itto. Ditto at 9.30 a.M., visited at
10.30, 12.30, 2.30, and 5.30. She was not attacked.

March 12.—Ditto. Ditto at 10 a.M., visited at 12,
2,and 4. She was not attacked.

March 18.—Put in two friends at 1 p.M., visited at
2and 4. She was not attacked.

April 21.—Put in one friend at 9.30 am. At 10.
she was all right, also at 12 and 4 p.m. She was not
attacked.

April 22.—Put in two friends at 8.304.M. Visited
them at 9 and 10, when they were almost cleaned.
After that I could not find them; but I looked at 2, 4,
and 6, and must have seen if they were being attacked.

April 23.—Put in two friends at 12.32. Visited
them at 1,2,3,4,and 6 P.M. They were not attacked.

May 13.—Put in two friends and a stranger at 7.45.
At 9 the two friends were with the rest. The stranger
was in a corner by herself. 11 ditto, 12 ditto. At1
the friends were all right; the stranger was being
attacked. 2, the friends al] right; the stranger had
been dragged out of the nest. The next morning J]
looked again ; the two friends were all right.

May 14.—Put in the remaining three friends at 10.
Visited them at 11, 12, 1, 2, 4, and 6. They were not
attacked, and seemed quite at home.

This completed the experiment, which had lasted
from August 4, 1875, till May 14, 1877, when the last
ones were restored to their friends. In no case was a
friend attacked.

342 RECOGNITION OF FRIENDS AFTER A

The difference of behaviour to friends and strangers
was therefore most marked.

The friends were gradually licked clean, and except
for a few moments, and that probably by mistake,
never attacked. The strangers, on the contrary, were
not cleaned, were at once seized, were dragged about
for hours with only a few minutes’ interval, by one, two,
or three assailants.

Though the above experiment seemed to me con-
clusive, I thought it would be well to repeat it with
another nest.

T therefore separated a nest of Formica fusca into
two portions on October 20, 1876.

On February 25, 1877, at 8 a.m. I put an ant from
the smaller lot back among her old companions, At
8.30 she was quite comfortably established among ther.
At 9 ditto, at 12 ditto, and at 4 ditto.

June 8.—I put two specimens from the smaller lot
back as before among their old friends. At 1 they were
all right and among the others. At2 ditto. After this
I could not distinguish them amongst the rest; but they
were certainly not attacked.

June 9.—Put in two more at the same hour. Up
to 3 in the afternoon they were neither of them attacked.
On the contrary, two strangers from different nests,
which I introduced at the same time, were both very
soon attacked.

July 14.—I put in two more of the friends at 10.15.
In a few minutes they joined the others, and seemed
quite at home. At 11 they were among the others
At 12 ditto, and at 1 ditto.

July 21.—At 10.15 I put in two more of the
old friends. - At 10.30 I looked; neither was being
attacked. At 11 ditto, 12 ditto, 2 ditto, 4 ditto, and
6 ditto.

October 7.—At 9.20 I put in two, and watched
them carefully till 1. They joined the other ants and

SEPARATION OF MORE THAN A YEAR, 343

were not attacked. I also put in a stranger from
another nest. Her behaviour was quite different.
She kept away from the rest, running off at once in
evident fear, and kept wandering about, seeking tc
escape. At 10.30 she got out; I put her back, but
she soon escaped again, JI then put in another
stranger. She was almost immediately attacked. In
the meantime the old friends were gradually cleaned.
At 1.30 they could scarcely be distinguished; they
seemed quite at home, while the stranger was being
dragged about. After 2 I could no longer distinguish
them. They were, however, certainly not attacked.
The stranger, on the contrary, was killed and brought
out of the nest.

This case, therefore, entirely confirmed the pre-
ceding, in which strangers were always attacked; friends
were in mo.t cases amicably received, even after more
than a year of separation. But while the strangers
were invariably attacked and expelled, the friends were
not always recognised, at least at first. It seemed as if
some of the ants had forgotten them, or perhaps the
young ones did not recognise them. Even, however,
when the friends were at first attacked, the aggressors
soon seemed to discover their mistake, and friends were
never ultimately driven out of the nest. This recogni-
tion of old friends after a separation of more than a
year seems to me very remarkable.

The details are, I fear, tedious, but I have thought
them worth giving, because a mere general statement,
without particulars, would not give so clear an idea of
the result.

344 POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

APPENDIX C.

Tue following are the details of the observation re
corded on p. 161:—

At 9.45 I put an ant (N1) to a raisin.
At 9.50 she went to the nest.
9.55 I put another (N2) to the raisin.
10.0 she went to the nest.
10. O N1 came back.
10.2 she went to the nest.
10. 7 NI came back.
10.9 she went to the nest.
10.11 N2 came back.
10.13 she went to the nest.
10.12 N1 came back.
10.14 she went to the nest.
10.13 put another (N3) to the raisin.
10.18 she went to the nest.
10.16 N1 came back.
10.17 she went. to the nest.
10.22 N2 came back.
10.24 she went to the nest.

(I here overpainted N2, and she returned no more.)

At 10.24 N1 came back.
10.26 she went to the nest.

10.30 N1 came back.
10.32 she went to the nest.

10.33 N3 came back.
10.35 she went to the nest.

POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

At 19.35 N1 came back.

gradually recovered. )
At 10.40 N3 came back.

345

(She met with an acci-
dent. At first she seemed a good deal hurt, but

10.46 she went to the nest.

10.46 a stranger came; I bottled her,

10.47

” 99
10.52 N1 came back.

”

10.54 she went to the nest.

10.57 N3 came back.
: 11.2 she went to the nest.
11. 8 N3 came back.

11.13 she went to the nest.
11.10 a stranger came; I removed her to a

little distance.

At 11.11 a stranger came; marked her N4,
11.16 N3 came.

11.23 N4
11.24 N3
11.27 N4
11.31 N3
11.32 N4
11.40 N3
11.40 N4
11.45 N3

» a stranger came.
11.48 N1 came.

11.49 N4
11.51 N1
11.53 N3
11.54 N4
12. 0 N3
» N4

» NI
2. 5N4
12. 6 N3
12.13 N3

24

29

2?
bP)

29
bed
29

At 11.18 went.

11.25
11.26
11.29
11.34
11.35
11.42

”
11.47
11.49
11.50
11.53
11.56

11.56
12. 2

”

”
12. 7
12. 8
12.15

”
”

846 POWER OF COMMUNICATION,

At 12.14 N4 came. 12.15 went.

12.17 a stranger came.

12.19 N4 came. 12.20 ,,
12.20 N3_,, 12.22 ,,
12.21 N1 ,, 12.25 ,,
12.25 N4 ,, 12.26 ,,
12.27N3 ,, 12.28 ,,
12.30 N4_ ,, 12.32 ,,

» a Stranger came.
» N83 (was disturbed) 12.37 ,,

12.38 N4 came. 12.40 ,,
12.42 N3 ,,
12.47N4 ,, 12.49 ,,

Thus during these three hours only six strangers
came. The raisin must have seemed almost inexhaust-
ible, and the watched ants in passing and repassing
went close to many of their friends; they took no
notice of them, however, and did not bring any out of
the nest to co-operate with them in securing the food
though their regular visits showed how much they
appreciated it. .

Again (on July 15), an ant belonging to one of
my nests of Formica fusca was out hunting. At 8.8 I
put a spoonful of honey before her. She fed till 8.24,
when she returned to the nest. Several others were
running about. She returned as follows :—

9.10 to the honey, but was disturbed, ran away, and
returned at 10.40. At 10.53 went back to the nest ;

a 11.30 » 11.40 sy 35

- 12.5 but was disturbed ; she ran away again, but
5 1.30 At 1.44 to the nest;

* 2. 0 » 2.15 6

. ae — ae

= | ee ae

» 4.15 9» 4.23 ‘“s

POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

Returned at 4.52

”
”
”
”
”
»
”

5.56
6.25
7.13
7.45
8.22
9.18
10.10

347

At 5. 3 went back to the nest.

bP

6.10

”
9
”
”
>
bd
”

During the whole day she brought no friend, and
only one other ant found the honey, evidently an inde-

pendent discovery.

348 POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

APPENDIX D.

Tue following are the details referred to on page
164 :—

Septenrber 24, 1875.—I put out two sets of larve ;
and to one of them I placed two specimens of
Myrmica ruginodis, which Iwill call 1 and 2. They
returned as follows, carrying off a larva on each
journey :—

No. 1. No. 2.
10.23
10.26
10.28
10.32
10.34
10.37
10.40
10.41 bringing a friend,
10.50
10.55
11. 6
11.16
11.40
11.44
11.45
11.46 an ant came alone,
11.56
12. 0

12. 6 bringing a friend.
12.11

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 349

No. 1. No. 2.
12.15
12.16
12.17 an ant came alone.
12.22 12.22 5 *
12.29
12.34
12.36
12.40
12.45 an ant found the second
12.47 set of larvee.
12.53
12.58 two ants found the
12.59 second set of larvae.
1 5
1. 6
1. 7 an ant found the second
1.16 set of larvae.
1.20
1.21
1.26
1.35
1,42
1.47
1.54
1.55 with 2 friends.
1.59
2. 2
2.3 an ant found the
2.4 larvee.
2. 9 with a friend.
2.10
2.16
2.18
2.24

2.25 2.25 another ant found the
2.34 second set, of larvee.

350

POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

No. 1.
2.36

2.44
2.51

3. 1
3.10

3.18

3.28
3.40
3.48
3.55
4. 0
4. 8
4.16
4.27
4.35
4.42

4.53

No. 2.
2.41

2.45
2.50

2.55
3. 0

3. 6
3.10
3.17

3.22
3.27

3.36
3.47
3.53
3.59
4.7
4.14
4.20
4.31
4.39
4.42

4.47
4.53

with a friend,

POWER OF COMMUNICATION, 351

No. 1. No. 2.
4.58
5. 3
5. 5
5. 9
5.17 5.17
5.25
5.32
5.40
5.46
5.55
6. 5
6. 8
6.11
6.16
6.20

They came no more up to 7.30, when we left off
watching. The following morning at 6.5 I found No. 1
wandering about, and evidently on the look-out. I
put her to some larve; and shortly afterwards No. 2
also found them. Their visits were as follows :—

6.10
6.21
6.36

6.44
6.52
7 1

71

7.30 another ant found the
7.30 larvee.

7.40

352 POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

No. 1. No. 2.
7.49
7.54
8. 5
8.13
8.25
8.31
8.39
8.44
8.48

Thus, during this period these two ants carried off
respectively 62 and 67 larve; 10 strangers found the
larvee, half of them only coming to the set visited by
the ants under observation. This seems to show that
most of them, at any rate, found the larve for them-
selves.

I will now pass to Lasius niger.

September 27, 1875.—At 3.55 p.m. I put an ant of
this species to some larve. She returned as follows :—

4. 3 5. 5
4.11 5.10
4.21 5.14
4.25 5.18
4.28 5.23
4.31 5.29
4.37 5.40
4.40 5.43
4.44 5.46
4.48 5.50
4.52 5.54
4.56 5.59
5. 0

whew she met with an accident. During this time no
other ant came to the larve.
On October 1, 1875, at 6.15 a.m., I put three speci-

POWER OF COMMUNICATION 353

mens of Lasius niger to some larve. One did not
return; the other two behaved as follows :—

No, 1 returned to the larve at No. 2 at Other ants came at
6.52
7.12
7.14 to lot 2.
7.22
7.30
7.32
7.42 7.42
7.45 to lot 3.
7.50
7.54
8. 0
8. 1
8. 6 with a friend. 8. 6
8. 9
8.10
8.17
8.19 to lot 1.
8.23 yy
8.25
8.26
8.32
8.36
8.37 445
8.38
8.39
8.41
8.44
8.45
Here I left off watching for half an hour.
9,22
9.28
9.29

9.35 9.35

854 POWER OF COMMUNICATION,

No, 1 returned to the larvee at No. 2 at Other ants came at
9.41
9.45
9.47 :
9.50
9.52
9.54 with a friend.
9.57
9.58 to lot 1
10. 0
10. 1
10. 9
10.11
10.13 with a friend. _
10.16 10.16
10.25
10.30
10.36
10.46
10.50
10.55
10.58
11. 0
11. 2
11. 3
11. 7
11. 8
11.15
11.16
11.19 11.19
11.23
; 11.25
11.27
11.29 with a friend.
11.30
11.33

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 355

No. 1 returned to the larve at No.2 at Other ants came at
11.37
11.41
11.42
11.45 11.47 to lot 1.
11.48
11.49
11.53
11.59
12. 1
12. 4
12. 8
12. 9
12.11
12.14
12.15 12.15
12.18
12.19 ,,
12.20
12.21
12.25
12.29 with a friend.
12.30
12.35
12.36
12.39
12.42
12.43
12.45
12.47
12.48
12.51
12.53
12.54
12.56 55
12.57 12.57

1. O with friend. 1. 0

356 POWER OF COMMUNICATION,

No. 1 returned to the larve at No. 2 at Other ants came st
1. 2
1. 5
Led.
1. 9
1.10
1.11 to lot 1.
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.18 1.18
1.21
1.24
1.27 1.27
1.28
1.30
1.33
1.35
1.36
1.39
1.42 1.42
1.45
1.46
1.48 1.48
1.61
1.53
1.57
1.59
2:1
2.4
2.15
2.17
2.21
2.22
2.25
2.29

2.31

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 35

No. ! returned to the larvz at No.2 at Other ants came ag

2.33
2.37

2.39
2.40

2.43
2.44
2.47

2.49
2.50
2.54
2.57
3. 0

3. 4 with a friend.
3. 6
3. 9 with a friend.
3.12
3.14
3.16 3.16
3.20

3.21
3.23
3.26 3.26
3.30 3.30
3.33 3.33
3.35 3.35
3.37

e 3.38

3.39
3.41
3.43

3.45
3.46

3.48
3.49
3.54

4. 0

358 POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

No 1 returned to the larve at No.2at Other ants came at

4. 3

4.4
4. 7
4.12
4.15
4.20
4.26
4.29
4.31

4.32

4.34
4.36
4.39

4.40
4.42

4.43

4.44
4.45
4.49 4,49

4.55
4.56

4.58
4.59
5. 2 5. 2

5. 6 with two friends,
5. 7 after which she came no more.

The first ant returned at
5.10
5.13
5.15
5.18
5.21
5.25
5.28
6.31
5.33 to lot 2.

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. $56

The first ant returned at

5.35 7.28
5.38 7.31
5.41 7.34
5.45 7.38
5.51 7.41
5.54 7.44
6. 0 TAT
6. 4 7.51
6. 7 7.55
6.14 7.59
6.17 8. 2
6.20 8. 5
6.28 8.12
6.31 8.15
6.48 8.18
6.54 8.20
7. 0 8.24
7.3 8.28
7. 6 8.32
711 8.35
7.14 8.38
7.18 8.42
7.21 8.44 another
7.24 8:45 [ant came.
7.25 9.44

We continued to watch till 10.15, but she came no
more. She had, however, in the day carried off to the
nest no less than 187 larve. She brought 5 friends
with her; less than 20 other ants came to the larve.

October 3.—I put a Lasius niger to some larva,
Sbe returned as follows viz:—

1.42 2.4
1.48 2. 8
152° : 2.12 with a stranger.
2. 0 2.15

30 POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

2.19 4.7
2.24 4.10
2.27 4.12
2.32 4.15
2.36 4.18
2.40 4.22
2.44 4.25
2.49 4.29
2.57 4.32
3. 1 4.35
3. 4 4.38
3. 7 4.43
3.10 4.46
3.13 4.49
3.15 4.54
3.18 4.57
3.20 5. 0
3.23 5. 3
3.31 5. 6
3.35 5.10
3.38 5.14
3.41 5.18
3.49 with a friend. 5.22
3.51 5.26
3.54 5.29
3.57 She dropped on the floor
4.1 of my room.
4.4
[ picked her up; and she returned at
6.40 7. 7 with 3 friends.
6.50 7.11. She now fell into
6.54 some water.
7.4

In addition to the ahove experiments with larva, I
tried the following with syrup.

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 361

April 19.—I put. out a little syrup on eleven slips of
glass,which I placed on eleven inverted flower-pots on the
lawn. At 8.35 a Lasius niger found the honey on one
of the flower-pots.

8.50 | she returned to the

honey, and at } 9. 5 went back to the nest.

9.21 % is 9.30 si -
9.42 29 ” 9.50 ” 9
10.12 a i 10.21 es ¥
10.35 % ¥ 10.46 < 5
ll. 9 be 11.20 ‘ a
11.45 ~ as 11.50 i i
11.57 : s 12. 2 ‘i a
12.20 a 12.30 ee a
12.45 ‘ = 12.53 % -
1. 8 2” ” 1.18 ” ”
1.34 ” ” 1.43 2 »”
1.57 ” 7) 2. 7 ” ”
2.28 ” ” 2.33 so ”
249 i 2.58 ne i
2.59 ” ” 3. 2 ” ”
3. 9 ” ” 3.11 ” ”
3.29 +) ry) 3.30 ” ”
3.59 7) ” 4. 8 ” ”

After which I watched till 6 p.m.; but she did not
return again to the honey. During the above time
eight ants came to the same honey, and twenty-one to
the other ten deposits.

On July 11 I put one of my specimens of Lasius
niger to some honey at 7.10. She fed till 7.25, when
she returned to the nest.

At 7.32 she returned. At 7.36 another ant came,

TAT 5 7.50 [whom I imprisoned.
8. 0 a 8.11 2 7
8.18 :

36% POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

At 8.36 she returned.

8.59 "i

9:17 .

9.38 ss

9.53 *

10.10 ie

10.27 .

10.44 55

1l. 6

11.16 :

11.38

12. 0 ‘

12.36 7" At 12.45 another ant came,
[whom Iimprisoned.

12.56 e

1.21 .

1.44 35

2.10 :

2.21

2.29 .

2.50 2.51 z

3. 5 a

After this she did not come back any more up
to 8 P.M.

April 25 was a beautiful day. At 9 a.m. I put some
syrup in the same way on five inverted flower-pots,
and at

9.10 put an ant to one of the deposits of syrup. At
9.34 another ant came to the samesyrup. This one
I willcall No 2. At
9.40 No. 1 returned.
10.45 No. 2 55 At 11 one came to the same
honey; this one I will call
No. 3.
11. 7 No. 1 . but did not come back any more
12.31 No. 2 9% and at 12.47 went

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 363

1.15 No. 3 returned, and at 1.25 went.

1.22 No. 2 ss a 148 ,,
1.54 No. 3 3 55 BEB sy
2.18 No. 2 Pa A 2.30 ,,
2.35 No. 3 5 5 2.36 4,
2.56 No, 2 59 9 ae) er
3.24 No, 2 returned.

4.19 No.2 ,,

After which I went on watching till 7, but none of
these three returned. During the day 7 ants came to
this honey, and 27 to the other four deposits. Here,
therefore, it is evident that the three watched ants did
not communicate, at any rate, any exact information to
their friends.

June 27, 1875.—I placed four inverted glasses
(tumblers) on the grass, and on the top of each placed
a little honey. I then, at 8 o’clock, put two ants, be-
longing to F’. nigra, to the honey on one of the glasses.

At 8.25 No. 1 came back, and at 8.45 she returned
to the nest, but did not come to the honey any more.

At 9.5 No, 2 came out and wandered about ; I put
her to the honey again; she fed and at 9.22 returned
to the nest.

she returned to the went back to the
at eee { honey, and at ea | nest.
10.42 ea 10.50 in
10.58 ae 11.10 is
11.21 ot Sees 11.39 is
12.45 - = 12.59 if
1.40 ” ”

I continued to watch till 7 P.M., but neither of them
teturned any more.

August 7, 1875.—I put out four small deposits of
honey (which I continually renewed) on slips of glass
placed on square pieces of wood, and put an ant (L.
niger) to one of them at 9.20. She fed and went away.

364 POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

At 9.35 she returned, and fed till 9.43

10.14 - i" 10.17
10.25 ie 10.27
10.37 se . 10.40

This time a friend came with her.
At 10.47 she returned, and fed till 10.53

11. 0 s - 11.14
11.35 i‘ i 11.40
11.52 3 is 11.55
12.13 “ - 12.16
1. 0 ‘ a 1. 5
1.15 ve 1.18
1.26 - ‘ 1.29
1.45 a és 1.48
1.58 e . 2.1
2.9 - - 2.14
2.20 3 3 2.21 She was dix
[turbed.
2.25 z as 2.30
2.37 i : 2.40
3. 2 of - 3. 8
3.16 ; f 3.20
3.39 is is 3.41
3.58 “ 4, 2
4.13 ie i? 4.20
4.29 . : 4,36

At this time there was a shower of rain, so I
removed the honey for half an hour.

At 5. 2 she returned, and fed till 5.10

5.20 “ < 5.25
5.33 ss 5.37
5.42 - : 5.45
5.50 #8 Z 5.52
5.58 ” ” 6. 6
6.15 : 6.18

621 4 i. 6.23

POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

At 6.25 she returned, and fed till 6.27

6.32 a 3 6.35
6.40 s “ 6.44
6.49 i . 6.53
7.15 - : 7.20
7.25 . : 7.27
7.30 . 7.33
7.36 737

”

365

During the whole of this time only three other ants

caine to the honey.

On January 3, 1875, I placed some larve in three
small porcelain saucers in a box 7 inches square attached
to one of my frame-nests of Lasius flavus (Pl. I.
Fig. 2). The saucers were in a row 6 inches from the en-
‘trance to the frame, and 14 inch apart from one another.

A‘ 1.10 an ant came to the larve in the cup which

J will call No. 1, took a larva, and returned
to the nest.

1.24 she returned and took another.

1.45 ” »

2.10 she went to the further saucer, No. 3. I
took her up and put her to No. 1. She
took a larva and returned.

2.24 she returned to cup No. 3. As there were
only two larvee in this cup, I left her alone.
She took one and returned.

2.31 she returned to cup No. 3 and took the
last larva.

2.40 she came back to cup No. 3 and searched
diligently, went away and wandered about
for two minutes, then returned for another
look, and at length at 2.50 went to cup
No. 1 and took a larva.

3. O came to cup 1 and took a larva.

3. 7 >” ”

366 POWER OF COMMUNICATION

3.15 came to cup 1 and took a larva, first,
however, going and examining cup 3 again.

3.18 came to cup 3, then went to cup 2 and
took a larva.

3.30 came to cup 3, then went to cup 2 and
took a larva.

3.43 came to cup 3, then went to cup 2 and
took a larva.

5.53 came to cup 3, but did not climb up it,
then went to cup 2 and took a larva, which
she either dropped or handed over to
another ant; for without returning to the
nest, at 3.55 she returned to the empty
cup, and then to cup 2, where she took
the last larva, so that two cups are now
empty.

4. 3she came to cup 3, then to cup 2, and
lastly to cup 1, when she took a larva.

4.15 came to cup 1 and took a larva.

4.22 ” ”

4.38 ” ”

5. Ocame to cup 3, then to cup 2, and lastly to
cup 1, when she took a larva.

5.19 came to cup 1 and took a larva.

5.50 5 2, and then to cup 1 and took
a larva.
6.20 ss 1 and took the last larva.

I now put ahout 80 larve into cup 3.

It is remarkable that during all this time she never
came straight to the cups, but took a roundabout and
apparently irresolute course.

At 7.4 she came to cup 1 and then to cup 3, and
then home. There were at least a dozen ants exploring
in the box; but she did not send any of them to the
larvee.

At 7.30 she returned to cup 3 and took a larva.

POWLR OF COMMUNICATION, 36%

I now left off watching for an hour. On my return
at 8.30 she was just carrying off a larva.

8.40 she came back to cup 3 and took a larva.

8.55 she came to cup 1, then to cup 8 and took alarva.

9.12 ” ” ” ry)

9.30 ” 3 ” ”

9.52 ” ” ” ”
10.14 ss 1

” ”
10.26 she went and examined cup 2, then to cup 3
and took a larva.

At 10.45 she came to cup 3, and I went to bed.
At 7 o’clock the next morning the larve were all
removed. In watching this ant I was much struck by
the difficulty she seemed to experience in finding her
way. She wandered about at times most irresolutely,
and, instead of coming straight across from the door of
the frame to the cups, kept along the side of the box;
so that in coming to cup 3 she went twice as far as she
need have done. Again, it is remarkable that she
should have kept on visiting the empty cups time after
time. I watched for this ant carefully on the following
day; but she did not come out at all.

During the time she was under observation, from 1
till 10.45, though there were always ants roaming about,
few climbed up the walls of the cup. Five found their
way into the (empty) cup 1, and one only to cup 3. It
is clear, therefore, that the ant under observation did
not communicate her discovery of larvee to her friends.

The following day I watched again, having, at 7
A.M., put larve into one of the porcelain cups arranged
as before. No ants found them for several hours.

At 11.37 one came and took a larva.

», 11.50 she returned and took a larva.
» 11.59 A 3

» 12. 9 ” ”

» 12.16 of i

POWER OF COMMUNICATION.

At 12.21 she returned and took a larva

» 12.26 ” ”
y 12.32 ” ”
99 12.37 ” ”
” 12.41 ” ”
» 12.45 ” ”
» 12.50 ” ”
” oe ” ”
” Z ” ”
» 1.11 ” ”
9 (1.21 ” ”
» 1.35 »» ”
» 1.40 09 »
» (1.44 ” »”
» 1.52 ” ”
” pas ” ”
” . ” ”
99 2.10 ” ”
9-217 +) ”
» 2.24 ” ”
9 2.30 ” ”
» 2.36 ” ”
» 2.43 ) ”
» 2.48 ” ”
» 2.54 oy) ”
” ae » »
” . ” ”»
» 3.10 = ey
» 3.14 ” ”
» 3.19 » ”
» 93.34 35 35
» «3.39 ) ”
» 3.47 » ”
» 3.56 ” ”
» 4.7 ” ”
» 4.138 35 s
» 4.20 Ss ‘4

CO-OPERATION 369

At 4.28 she returned and tuok a larva

” 4.39 > ”
» 4.44 » ”
» 4.50 ” ”
» 4.55 ” ”
9 : ” ”
99 (Oe ” ”
» 5.17 » ”
» 5.23 ” 9
» 9.28 ” ”
» 5.40 ” ”
» 5.45 ” ”
” Sige ” ”
” . ” 29
» 6.13 ” ”
» 6.35 ” 9
» 6.40 ” ”
» 6.46 ” 9
» 6.51 ” ”
» 6.58 ” ”
” 7. 2 ” ”
» (8 ” ”
» 7.12 ” ”
» 7.16 ” ”
» 7.21 ” ”
» 7.26 ” 39
» «7.44 ” ry)
» 7.53 ” 99
» 1.57 ” 9
” . ” ”
29 i ” ”
» 8.13 ” ”
95 8.20 99

370 EXPERIMENTS ON CO-OPERATION.

At 8.45 she returned and took a larva.

» 8.50 » ”
” 8.55 ” ”
” 9. 2 ” 9
” 9.11 39 »
ted 9. 1 9 ” ”
” 9.25 29 ”?
” 9.33 ” ”
” 9.40 ” ”
» 9.46 » »
” 9.52 ” 9
» 10.32 » »
3 10.39 9 ”
bP 10.49 29 3
” 10.54 ” ”
” 1 1. 1 ted 39

At this time I went. to bed. There were still about
twenty-five larve in the cup, which had all been
removed when I looked at 6.15 the next morning
During the whole time she was under observation, only
two other ants found their way to the cup, though
there were some wandering about in the box all day.
Towards evening, however, they went into the nest, and
for some hours my ant was the only one out. It will
be observed that she returned at shorter intervals than
the previous ones. This was partly because she had a
shorter distance to go, and partly because she was not
bewildered by three cups, like the preceding. I had
plae2d a bit of wood to facilitate her ascent into the
cup. This she made use of, but instead of going the
shortest way to the cup, she followed the side of the
box, partly, perhaps, because the floor was covered with
a plate of porcelain. This, however, would not account
for the fact that at first she invariably went beyond the
cup, and even past the second cup; gradually, however,
this circuit became smaller and smaller; but to the

EXPERIMENTS ON CO-OPERATION. 371

tast she went round the outside of cup 1, instead of
going straight to the spot where I had placed the bit
of wood.

On January 9 again I watched her under simi
lar circumstances. From 9.35 to 1.40 she made 55
journeys to and fro, carrying off a larva each time; but
during this period only one other ant found the larve.

In the afternoon of the same day I watched the
ant which had been under observation on the 3rd Jan.
From 3.27 to 9.30 she made forty-two visits, during
which time only four other ants came to the larva.

On January 10 I watched the same ant as on the
4th. Between 11 a.M. and 10 P.M. she made no less
than ninety-two visits; and during the whole time only
one strange ant came to the larve.

On January 18 I put out some more larve in the
srnall porcelain cups. Between 8 and 9 both these ants
found them, and kept on coming all day up to 7 P.M.,
when I left off observing. There were a good many
ants wandering about in the box; but up to 4 o’clock
only four came to the larve. Two of them I impri-
soned as usual; but two (which came at 4.30 and 4.36)
I marked. These went on working quietly with the
first two till I left off observing at 7 p.M.; and during
this latter time only three other ants found the larve.

On January 31 I watched another specimen. At
9.14 I put her into a small cup containing a number of
larve. She worked continuously till half-past seven in
the evening, when I left off watching. During that
time she had made more than ninety journeys, carrying
each time a larva to the nest. During the whole time
not a'single other ant came to the larvae.

Again, on February 7, I watched two ants in the
same manner. At 7 a.M. I put some larve in the small
china cups. Up to 8 noants hadcometothem. Soon
after 8 I put two marked ants, neither of them being
the same as these whose movements are above recorded.

372 EXPERIMENTS ON CO-OPERATION.

They were then watched until a quarter to eight in the
evening, during which time one of them had made
twenty-six journeys, carrying off a larva each time ; the
other forty-two. During this period of about eleven
hours, two other ants had come to the cup at which
these were working, and the same number to one of the
other cups.

None of these ants, therefore, though they had found
a large number of larve, more than they could carry in a
whole day, summoned any other to their assistance.

Again, February 7, 1875, I put some larve in three
porcelain cups in the feeding-box of a frame containing
a nest of Lasius flavus, about six inches from the
entrance of the frame, and put, at 8 and 8.29 a.m.
respectively two ants to the larve in the left-hand
cup. They each carried off a larva and returned as
follows :—

No. J. No. 2.
At 8.38 — returned again and took another.

9. 0 = ” ”
9.7 ” ”
9.20 ” ”
9.30 ae 39 ”
9.43 ” 39
9.54 <7, ” ”
9.56 » »
10.20 ss »

30.25 —_

At 10.43 another ant came to the larvee in the
i eee cup. I imprisoned her.
11. 0 returned again and took another.

UL. 1 aes ” ”
11. 9 a

Wis = . ss
11.20 2 2
11.29

EXPERIMENTS ON CO-OPERATION. 373

At. 11.37 — returned again and took another.
11.40
11.52 és .

At 12.2 another ant came to the larve in the left-
nand cup. I imprisoned her.

” ”

At 12. 3 — returned again and took another

12.15 - Pr

12.30 “ 55

12.37 —_— $5 -

12.41 5 3

12.50 35 35

12.58 35 $5

1. 0 ve ” ”

1.7 ” ”

1.12 Pa ) ”

1.16 ” »

1.28 09 ”

1.32 me ” ”

1.35 ” 39

1.44 9 ”

1.50 a ” ”

1.55 ” ”

2. 6 ” ”

2. 9 — ” ”

2.17 ” ”

2.29 ” 2

2.39 a ” ”

2.42 » »

2.49 2.49 35 5

3. 0 = ” ”
3. 3

29 ”

At 3.10 another ant came to the left-hand cup. |
imprisoned her.

At 3.14 returned again and took another,
3.15

2” 9

3.2 4 ” ”

374 EXPERIMENTS ON CO-OPERATION.

At 3.31
3.34
3.36 —

At 4.10 another ant came to the middle cup.

imprisoned her.

At 4.45
5.50
6. 2 6. 2

7.48 7.48

”
0

”
”
”
”
”
”
”
”
”
”
”

— returned again and took another.

9
”

— returned again and took another.

”
”
”
”
”°
29
”
”
”
”
9

After this they were not watched any more.
be observed that the second ant made many more visits
than the first—namely, forty-two in about eleven hours,
as against twenty-six in eleven hours and a half.

During this time two ants came to the larve in the

1

It will

cup they were visiting, and three to the other two cups.

The following case is still more striking. On July
11, 1875, at 11 a.M., I put a Lastus flavus to some pupx
of the same species, but from a different nest. She made
eighty-six journeys, each time carrying off a pupa with
the following intervals. Commencing—

At .1. 0
11. 5 she returned.
11. 9 returned again.
11.16 again.
11.20 ,,
11.24 ,,
11.26 ,,

At 11.29 again.

11.49
11.55
12. 0
12. 5
12.16
12.30

”
”
”
”
”
”

EXPERIMENTS ON (O-OPERATION,

At 12.40 again.

12.44
12.50

”
”
”
”
”
”
29
”

At 3.40 again,

3.47
3.53

”
”
”°
9
”
3
9
°°
ted
”
”
”
te)
3
9
”
9
9
”
”
”
”
”
”
”

876

376 EXPERIMENTS ON

After which she did not. come again till 8, when we
left off watching. During the whole of this time she
did not bring a single ant to help her. Surely it would
have been in many respects desirable to do so. It will
be seen that some of the pupe remained lying about
and exposed to many dangers from 11 a.M. till 7 P..;
and when she left off working at that time, there were
still a number of the pupe unsecured; and yet, though
she had taken so much pains herself, she did not bring
or send others to assist her in her efforts or to complete
her work.

I have given the above cases at length, though I
fear they may appear tedious and prolix, because they
surprised me much.

No doubt it more frequently happens that if an ant
or a bee discovers a store of food, others soon find their
way to it, and I have been anxious to ascertain in what
manner this is effected. Some have regarded the fact
as a proof of the power of communication; others, on
the contrary, have denied that it indicated any such
power. Ants, they said, being social animals, naturally
accompany one another; moreover, seeing a companion
coming home time after time with a larva, they would
naturally conclude that they also would find larvae in
the same spot. It seemed to me that it would be very
interesting to determine whether the ants in question
were brought to the larve, or whether they came
casually. I thought therefore that the following experi-
ment might throw some light on the question, viz.: to
place several small quantities of honey in similar
situations, then to bring an ant to one of them, and
subsequently to register the number of ants visiting
each of the parcels of honey, of course imprisoning for
the time every ant which found her way to the honey
except the first. If, then, many more came to the
honey which had been shown to the first ant than to
the other parcels, this would be in favour of their

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 377

possessing the power of communicating facts to one
another, though it might be said they came by scent
Accordingly, on July 13, 1874, at 3 p.m., I took a piece
of cork about 8 inches long and 4 inches wide, and stuck
into it seventeen pins, on three of which I put pieces
of card with a little honey. Up to 5.15 no ant had
been up any of these pins. I then put an.ant (Lasius
niger) to the honey on one of the bits of card. She
seemed to enjoy it, and fed for about five minutes, after
which she went away. At 5.30 she returned, but went
up six pins which had no honey on them. I then put
her on to the card. In the mean time twelve other
ants went up wrong pins and two up to the honey ;
these I imprisored for the afternoon. At 5.46 my first
ant went away. From that time to 6 o'clock seven
ants came, but the first did not return. One of the seven
went up a wrong pin, but seemed surprised, came down,
and immediately went up to the right one. The other
six went straight up the right pin to the honey. Up
to 7 o'clock twelve more ants went up pins—eight
right, and four wrong. At 7 two more went wrong.
Then my first ant returned, bringing three friends with
her ; and they all went straight to the honey. At 7,11
she went home: on her way to the nest she met and
accosted two ants, both of which then came straight to
the right pin and up it to the honey. Up to 7.20
seven more ants came and climbed up pins—six right,
and one wrong. At 7.22 my first ant came back with
five friends; at 7.30 she went away again, returning at
7.45 with no less than twenty companions. During
__ this experiment I imprisoned every ant that found her

way up to the honey. Thus, while there were seven-
teen pins, and consequently sixteen chances to one, yet
between 5.45 and 7.45 twenty-seven ants came, net
counting those which were brought by the original ant ;
and out of these twenty-seven, nineteen went straight
up the right pin. Again, on the 15th July, at 2.30, I

26

378 EXPERIMENTS ON

put out the same piece of cork with ten pins, each with
a piece of card and one with honey. At 4.40 I put an
ant to the honey; she fed comfortably, and went away
at 4.44,

At 4.45 she returned, and at 5. 5 went away again.
» 5.40 ig Fe 5.55 5
» 6.13 35 and again at 6.25 and 6.59.

There were a good many other ants about, which, up ta
this time, went up the pins indiscriminately.

At 7.15 an ant came and went up the right pin, and
another at 7.18. At 7.26 the first ant came back with
a friend, and both went up the right pin. At 7.28
another came straight to the honey.

At 7.30 one went up a wrong pin.
», 7.31 one came to the right pin.

» 7.36 34 a with the first ant,
” 7.39 td br

99 7.40 ” bed

” 7.41 ” 9

ee 7.43 35 35

9 (45 a 5

99 7.46 ” ” y

3 <5 wrong pin.

be bd ”
» @.47 two ,, 33
» 7.48 one ,, right pin.
5, the first ant came back.
», 7.49 another ant came to the right pin

yy 7.50 ” ” Wrong 55
yy 7.51 ” ” right ”
» three ants ,, WrONg 4,

», 7.52 one ant 3 right ,,
9 1.55 5, ” WON 99
” ” right 4

”
we CSO 55 Pa WIONE 55

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 379

At 7.58 one ant came to the right pin.
» 7.59, ” WYON® 55

Thus after 7 o’clock twenty-nine ants came; and
though there were ten pins, seventeen of them went
straight to the right pin.

On the 16th July I did tae same again. At 6.25 I
put an ant to the honey; at 6.47 she went.

At 6.49 an ant came to the right pin.
» 6.50 another

bed ”

» 6.55 ,, ” ”

» 656 4, » Wrong pin, and then to
the right one.

» 6.58 gy 5 se pin.

4 7.0

ee es, the first ant came back, ‘and remained at the

honey till 7.11.
>», ¢. 5 another came to the right pin; but she was
with the first.
», 7. 6 another ant came to the right pin.
5 be BS
sy Cale

9 ” ”
oO ” 3
”» 9 ”

These two ants were met by the first one, which
crossed antennz with them, when they came straight
to the honey.

At 7.14 another ant came straight to the honey.
», 7.21 the first ant returned ; at 7.26 she left.
» 7.24 another ant came, but went first to a wrong
pin, and then on to the right-one._
5, an ant came to wrong pin.
” * ” ”
0 ” 9

”
” 7. 34 ” ” 39
» 7.35
” * 7.38 the first came ‘back, at 7.45 went away again.

380 EXPERIMENTS ON

At 7.42 an ant went to a wrong pin.

» VAT ” ” ”
» 7.48 ” ” ”
sy 7.49 ” ”
» 1.52 » the right pin.
» 1.55 the first ant returned, and at 7.56 went
away again.
», 7.57 an ant went to wrong pin.
» 7.58 ss right ,,
» 8. 0 » wrong >,
” right ,,
» 8 1 3 wrong ,,

After this, foran hour no more ants came. On this
secasion, therefore, while there were ten pins, out of
thirty ants, sixteen came to the right one, while four-
teen went to one or other of the nine wrong ones.

July 18.—I put out the boards as before at 4 o’clock.
Up to 4.25 no ant came. I then put one (No. 1) to the
honey; she fed for a few minutes, and went away
at 4.31.

At 4.35 she came back with four friends, and went
nearly straight to the honey. At 4.42 she went away,
but came back almost directly, fed, and went away again.

At 4.57 she returned, and at 5.8 went away again.
5 4.45 an ant came to wrong pin.

29 4.47 ” ted

39 4.49 29 ”

» 4.50 ss right pin

4.52 “ 4

9 4.55 * wrong pin.

» 4.56 - right pin. This ant (No, 2)1

allowed toreturn tothe nest,
which she did at 5.23,

» 5. 6 a right pin.

» 5.11 » wrong pin.

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 381

At 5.12 an ant came to right pin.
I changed the pin.
» 5.16 an ant came to the pin which I had put in
the same place.

5 oe right pin.
9 5.19 ”
9) 5.20 two ants iy with No, 2.
5» ant No.1 i and went at 5.25.
» 5.25 an ant in This ant had been
spoken to by No, 2.
» 5-26 another aut 53
99 5.35 ” ”
x De 37 ” ”
»» 5.40 :
» 0.41 ant No. 1 5 and went at 5.49
», 6.45 another ant ss

» 5.50
35 eb. 51 ant No. 1 came back, and 5.54 went.
» 5-58 twoants came to the ‘right pin.
», 5.59 another ant Fr re
came to a wrong pin.
I changed the pin again.
», 6.49 an ant came to the pin which I had put in
the same place.
» 7 1 another ant came to the right pin.
9 7.20 ” ”

oes
» 7.46 ant No. 1 returned, 7. 55 went.

9 ”

Thus during this time, from 4.50 until 7.50, twenty-
niue ants came, twenty-six went to the right pin, while
only three went up any of the nine wrong ones. More-
over, out of these twenty-six, only four were distinctly
brought by the two ants which I had shown the
honey.

On the 19th I tried a similar experiment. The
uurked ants frequently brought friends with them ; but,

382 EXPERIMENTS ON

without counting these, from 3.20 te 8 o'clock, out of
forty-five ants, twenty-nine went up the right pin, while
sixteen went up the nine wrong ones.

Thus on
July 13, out of 27 ants, 19 went right and 8 wrong.
” 15 ted 29 ”? 17 ” 12 ”
> 1 6 ” 30 > 16 ” 14 ”
» 18 5 26 4 23 09 3»
9 19 ” 45 Led 29 ” 16 ”

Or adding them all together, while there were never
less than ten pins, out of 156 ants, 103 came up the
right pin, and only 53 up the others.

I was at first disposed to infer from these facts that
the first ant must have described the route to its friends,
but subsequent observations satisfied me that they
might have found their way by scent.

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 383

APPENDIX E.

Tne following are the details of the experiment
referred to in p. 168 :—

January 24, 1875.—I put an ant, which already
knew her way, on the larvee at 3.22.
At 3.30 she returned.

4.15 93 At 3.38 another ant came; and
4.25 PH the bridge /f being
4.34 Se turned towards m,
shewent over it tom.
4.42 ,, 3.50 2 i
4.50, 4.35 :
4.56 5 5.15 45 -
At 5. 5 she returned.
5.14 .
5.25 .

January 25.—6.30 a.M. put two ants, which knew
their way, to the larve.

No. 1. No, 2.
Returned 6.55
a 7.7
Returned 7.11
ey a
e 7.27
s 7.35
<5 7.46

a 1.47

384 EXPERIMENTS ON

No. 1. No, 2.

Returned 7.49
Returned 7.51

5 7.53
3 7.57
i 8. 0
Se 8. 3
5 8. 8
8.16 an ant to ™
° 8.17
- 8.18
es 8.21
8.22 5
re 8.25 ne 8.25
Pe 8.29
es 8.30
Fe 8.31
a 8.34
i 8.35
» «8.36
aa 8.40 54 8.40
_ 8.44
8.45 Py
a5 8.46
. 8.47
se 8.51 3 8.51
5 8.55
5 8 5?
= (803
* 9. 8
» (9-18
n 924
3 9.2
9 «930
ee:y)

POWER OF COMMUNICATION, 385

No. 1,

Returned 9.37

”

”
39

9.43

9.45
9.47
9.50

9.55
9 58
10. 1
10. 7
10.10

10.16

10.18
10.20
10.22
10.24
10.28

10.32

10.35
10.38

10.42
10.45

10.48
10.51

10.53
10.55

No, 2.

Returned 9.35

9.43
9.45
9.51
9.55
9.58
1.10
10. 7
10.10
10.15
10.17
10.20
10.22
10.30

10.33
10.35

10.39
10.42

10.46
10.49

10.51
10.53

9.44 an ant to m

10.11

386

Returned

”

3°
”
”
29

EXPERIMENTS ON

No, 1. No, 2.

10.58 Returned 10.58
11. 0

a Ved
11. 2
1l. 5
11.10
11.12

11.16
11.21
11.23

11.26 4, 11.26
11.30 ,, 11.30
1185 4. “1184
11.36

11.40 4, 11.40

11.45 4, 11.45
11.46

» 11.50

et

» 11.56
11.58

» 11.59
12. 0

122 , 122
12.6 , 12.6
12.10 4, 12.10
12.14

12.16

12.20 ,, 12.20
12.24 4, 12.30

1

11.15 another ant
tom

12.20 ,,
dropped.
imprisoned her.

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 387

No. 1 No, 2.
Returned 12.31 12.35 an ant to m
» 12.36
» ~C«244
» 12.46
» 12.50
» «254
» «12.59
: id

I then put her into a small bottle.

I let them out again at 7.10 on the 27th. Though
the interval was so long, they began at once to work ;
but one unfortunately met with an accident. The other
returned as follows, viz. at

7.20
7.30
7.40
7.48 stranger to m.
7.46
7.51
7.55
7.59

In these experiments, therefore, 17 unmarked ants
came ; but at the point n they all took the wrong turn,
and not one reached the larve.

388 EXPERIMENTS ON

APPENDIX F.

TuE following are the details referred to on p. 168 :—

January 27, 1875.—At 5.30 I let out the same two
ants as were wnder observation in the preceding experi-
ments.

No 1. No. 2.
Returned at 5.40, the other not till 6.49
: 6. 0
+s 6. 8 :
5 6.26 6.22 an ant to m.
_ 6.32
‘3 6.37
» 641
‘3 6.45
is 6.48 5 4 6.49 6.50
» 6.51 6.52,
$5 6.54 rr bs 7. 0 6.53 an ant to
larvee.
Pe 71
” 7. 5 ” ” 7. 6
- 7. 9 ss 55 7.12
ie (rn
5 3 7.22 7.27 an anttom
re 725 4 4 7.28
- Oo Gx Ba

I then put them into the bottle,

POWER OF COMMUNICATION, 389

January 28.—Let them out at 6.45.

No. 1.

Back at 7. 0

”

29
”°

7. 5
7.11
7.16
7.2)
7.27

8.36
8.40
8.44
8.48

No, 2.

7.3

7.12

7.31 an ant to m,
7.32
7.42
She dropped into
some water.

I then put them into the bottle.

January 29.—I let them out at 7.35 A.M.

No. 1 returned at 7.47, after which I saw her na
I fear she must have met with an accident.

No. 2 returned at

more.

390

EXPERIMENTS ON

8.50 another ant came to the larva;
marked her No. 3.

No. 3.
9.20

2 ants to larvee.
9.47 5 ants to m.

At 9.40 I found one of the ants which had been
ander observation on the 24th, and put her to the
larvee She returned as follows (No. 4) :—

No. 2,

9.58

10.10

10.20

10.37
10.41
10.44
10.48

10.53

No. 3. No. 4.
9.50
9.52
9.55
10. 3
10.12
10.15
10.20
10.23
10.26 10.26
10.29
10.33
10.36
10.40
10.41
10.44
10.51

10.56

No. 1.

10.59

11.4

11.17

11.47

12. 0

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 391

No. 2.

10.59
11. 2

11.17

No. 3.
10.57

ll. 2

11.10

11.14

11.18

11.23

1l. 5 an ant to arvwy.

ine «x. &
1150 4H
11.21

” ”

11.22 an ant tom

11.25 an ant to larva.

11355 & 3S

11.55 an ant to m.

in 6 . &

392

No, 1.

12.10

12.15

12.27
12.36

1.13
1.22

1.44

EXPERIMENTS ON

No, 2.
12. 8

12.13

12.18
12.25

12.30
12.36

12.40
12.43

12.47
12.50

12.53
12.56

12.59

1.7
1.12

1.55

No. 3

12.14

12.24

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 393

I then put her into a small bottle. We kept a look-
out for Nos. 2 and 3 till 7.30 p.m.; but they did not
return.

January 30.—Let No. 4 out at 7 am. Sha
returned at 7.45.

No. 3 came)

of herself at} 8+ 0 No. 4.
Returning at 8. 9 8. 6
8.15 another ant to larve,
” 8.20
8.25
” 8.30
” 8.36
No. 3. No, 4.
Returning at 8.40
8.43
8.51 an ant tom.
” 8.52
3. 3
” 9. 5

Imprisoned them.
Let them out at 10.55.
Returning at 11. 1
11. 3
11. 8
11. 9
1’.14 another ant to m.

Aud they went on coming regularly till 1, when I put
them again into a bottle.

Janwary 31.—-Let them out at 6.35 a.M.

No 3. No. 4.
6.55
7.12
7.15
7.21

394 EXPERIMENTS ON

No. 3, No, 4.
7.29
7.37
7.42 7.42
7.48
7.53
7.55 another ant to
8. 0 a
8. 1
8.12
8.18
8.20
8.24 =
8.27
8.28
8.32
8.36 an ant to larva.
8.39
8.44

I imprisoned them.

January 31.—Let them out at 5.35 P.M.
No. 3. No. 4.
5.47

7.23 another ant to larvee

7.26 Pa
7.27 ‘5 Mm

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 395

No. 3.
: 7.29 another ant to m.
7.30 7.30 59 larvae.
Im prisoned her 7.31 re mM.

February ‘1.—Let her out at 7.5.

No. 3.
She returned at 7.20
5 7.30 a
.7.88 another ant to m.
33 7.40
55 7.48
5 7.58
7.59 a
‘ 8. 6
: 8.12
8.14 "
8.17 -
" 8.22

Imprisoned her and let her out again at 6.20 P.M.
‘She returned at 6.35

. 6.52
: 7.0
7.5
7 7.15
is 7.20

7.95

Imprisoned her.
February 2.—Let her out at 6.30 a.m.

She returned at 6.50
5 7. 0
7. 2 another ant to m.
‘a Tt
7.10 two otherants tom
” 7.138

396 EXPERIMENTS ON

She returned at 7.17

7.27 another ant to larve,
= 7.28
a9 7.36

7.38 * m.
4 7.45
3 7.50

7.51 +5 ~
7.55
a 8. 4
ss 8.11
. 8.18
a 8.25
i 8.30
ie 8.35
8.45

8.46

Imprisoned her.

In this experiment, then, the bridge over which the
marked ant: passed to the larvee was left in its place,
the scent, however, being removed or obscured by the
friction of my finger; on the other hand, the bridge
had retained the scent, but was so placed as to lead
away from the larve; and it will be seen that, under
these circumstances, out of 41 ants which found their
way towards the larve as far as e, 14 only passed over
the bridge f to the larve, while 27 went over the
bridge d to the empty glass m.

Taking these observations as a whole, 150 ants
came to the point e, of which 21 only went on to the
larvee, while 95 went away to the empty glass. These
experiments, therefore, seem to show that when an
ant has discovered a store of food and others flock to
it, they are guided in some cases by sight, while in
others they track one another by scent

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 395

APPENDIX G.

THE following are the details of the experiment referred
to on p. 172 :—

Experiment 1.—Time occupied, 1 hour. The ant
with few larvw: made 6 visits and brought no friends.
The one with many larve' made 7, and brought 11
friends.

Experiment 2.—Time occupied, 2 hours. The ant
with few larva made 13 journeys, and brought 8
friends. The one with many larve did not come
back.

Experiment 3.—Time occupied, 3 hours. The ant -
with few larve made 24 journeys, and brought 5
friends. The one with many larve made 38 journeys,
and brought 22 friends.

Experiment 4.—-Time occupied, 2} hours. The
ant with few larvee did not come back. The one with
many made 32 journeys, and brought 19 friends.

Experiment 5.—Time ocupied, 1 hour. The ant
with few larve made 10 journeys, and brought 3
friends. The other made 5 journeys and brought 16
friends. .
Experiment 6.—Time occupied, 1} hour. The ant
with few larve made 15 journeys, but brought no
fiiends. The other made 11 journeys and brought 21
friends.

Experiment 7.—I now reversed the glasses. Time
wccupied 3 hours. The ant with few larve made 23
icurneys and brought 4 friends.

398 EXPERIMENTS ON

Experiment 8.—Time occupied, 14 hour. The ant
with few larvee made 7 journeys and brought 3 friends.
The one with many larve made 19 journeys and brought
G friends. ;

Experiment 9.—Time occupied, 1 hour. The ant
with few larvee made 11 journeys and brought 1 friend.
The one with many larve made 15 journeys and
brought 13 friends.

Experiment 10.—I now reversed the glasses, the
same two ants being under observation ; so that the ant
which in the previous observation had few larve, now
consequently had many, and vice versa. Time occupied
2 hours. The ant with few larve made 21 journeys
and brought 1 friend. The one with many larve made
32 journeys and brought 20frienls. These two experi-
ments are, I think, very striking.

Experiment 11.—Time occupied, 5 hours. The
ant with few larve made 19 journeys and brought 1
friend. The one with many larve made 26 journeys
and brought 10 friends.

Experiment 12.—Time occupied, 3 hours. The ant
with few larvee made 20 journeys and brought 4 friends.
The one with many larvae brought no friends and made
17 journeys.

Experiment 13.—Time occupied, 1 hour. The ant
with few larva made 5 journeys and brought no friends,
The one with many made 10 journeys and brought 16
friends.

Experiment 14.—I now reversed the glasses. Time
occupied, 24 hours. The ant with few larve made 10
journeys and brought 2 friends. The other made 41
joarneys and brought 3 friends.

Experiment 15.—Time occupied, 44 hours. The
ant with few larvee made 40 journeys and brought 10
friends. Of these, 8 came at the beginning of the ex-
periment, and I much doubt whether they were brought ;
during the last hour and a half she only brought 1

POWER OF COMMUNICATION. 399

friend. However, I think it fair to record the observa-
tion.

The ant with many larve made 47 journeys and
brought 1 friend.

Experiment 16.—Time, 44 hours. The ant with
few larvae made 20 journeys and brought 1 friend. She
did not return after the first 2 hours. The other ant
made 53 journeys and only brought 2 friends. This
latter was the same one as in the previous experiment,
when, however, she had the glass with only two or three
larve.

Experiment 17.—Time, 1 hour. The ant with few
larve made 6 journeys and brought no friend. The
one with many larvee made 11 journeys and brought 12
friends.

Experiment 18.—Time, 14 hour. The ant with
few larve made 25 journeys and brought four friends.
The one with many larve made 20 journeys and brought
15 friends.

Experiment 19.—Time, 44 hours. The ant with
few larvee made 74 journeys and brought no less than
27 friends. This is quite in opposition to the other
observations ; and I cannot account for it. She was
the ant who brought 15 friends in the previous experi-
ment, and it certainly looks as if some ants were more
influential than others. The ant with many larva
made 71 journeys and only brought 7 friends.

Experiment 20.—Time, 2 hours. Theant with few
larvae made 35 journeys and brought 4 friends. The
one with many larve made 34 journeys and brought 3
friends.

Experiment 21.—I now transposed the two glasses.
Time, 14 hour. The ant with few larve made 15
journeys and brought no friends. The other made 35
journeys and brought 21 friends.

Experiment 22.—I now transposed the glasses
again. Time, 2 hoars. The ant with mary larve made

400 EXPERIMENTS ON POWER OF COMMUNICATION,

27 journeys and brought 9 friends. The ant with few
larvee made 18 journeys and brought no friend. This,
I think, is a very striking case. She was under observa-
tion 534 hours; and the scene of her labour was the
same throughout. The first 2 hours she had few larve
and brought 4 friends; then for 14 she had many larvee
and brought 21 friends; then again for 2 hours she
had few larve and brought no friend.

Kaperiment 23.—Time, 14 hour. The ant with
few larvee made 25 journeys and brought 3 friends.
The other made only 9 journeys, but brought 10 friends.

Experiment 24.—I now transposed the glasses.
Time occupied, 2 hours. The ant which now had few
larvee made 14 journeys, but brought no friends. The
other made 37 journeys and brought 5 friends.

Expervment 25.—Time 3 hours. I put an ant for an
hour to a full glass; she made 10 journeys and brovght
4 friends. I then left only two or three larve: in the
second hour she made 7 journeys and brought no
friend. I then again filled the glass; and during the
third hour she made 14 journeys and brought 8
friends

EXPERIMENTS ON CO-OPERATION. 401

APPENDIX H.

Tue following are the detailed observations on bees
alluded to in Chapter X.

August 24.—I opened the postern door at 6.45, and
watched some marked bees till the middle of the day.

Bee No. 1.

6.50 One came to the honey. She then flew to the
window, but after buzzing about for some time
returned to the hive.

7.21 back to honey. 7.23 back to hive.

7.26 back to honey.

7.30 flew to window and then fell on the floor. I was
afraid she would be trodden on, so at 7.45 I
showed her the way to the hive.

8.40 back to honey.

8.45 back to hive. I now closed the postern door

till 10.15.
10.35 back to honey. 10.39 to hive.
10.45 5 and then to hive.
12.35 7 12.37 to hive again.

Bee No, 2.

7. 0 she cametothe honey. 7. 5 she went back to hive,
7.12 back to the honey. 7.22 5
7.24 % 7.30 if
7.42 . 7.46 a

7.52 . 7.57 ‘s

42 COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES,

8. 5 back to the honey. 8. 9 she went back to hive.

8.15 ‘3 8.20 :
8.26 is 8.30 7
8.40 e 8.44 ‘
8.55 9. 0 @

I then closed the door till 10.15; at 9.5, however,
she came round to the honey through an open window,
but could not find her way back, so I had to put her
into the hive.

10.15 back to the honey. 10.17 shewentback{o hive,

10.20 55 10.23 a
10.30 55 10.33
10.50 ” 10.55 a
11. 1 3 11. 6 »
11.17 3 11.23 ”
11.33 ” ? ”
11.45 9 11.50 ”
12. 0 a 12. 3 5
12.10 ” 12.15 9
12.24 3 12.30 99
12.37 ” 12.43 »
12.52 ” 12.56 »
Bee No. 3.
Also on August 24.
10.16 came to honey. 10.19 returned to hive,
10.30 i 10.34 ot
10.55 te 10.57 :
ll. 2 : 11. 5
11.11 ‘ 11.15 is
11.24 11.27 is
11.35 pi 11.37 =
11.45 2 11.47 A
11.57 ? a
12.13 is 12.16 s

COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES. 403

12.26 came to honey. 12.30 returned to hive.
12.36 = 12.42 i
12.56 7 12.59 9
The next day I timed this bee as follows :—
7.23 came to honey. 7.25 returned to hive.
7.35 i 7.37 5
7.44 ‘5 7.45 ss
8.10 - 8.12 -
8.53 te 8.55 *
(The door was then closed till 9.30.)
9.35 Pa 9.40 to window, and at
9.49 to hive.
10. 0 és 10. 5 returned to hive.
10.13 . 10.15 -
10.22 = 10.26 cs
10.35 s 10.40 is
10.45 . 10.48 i
10.56 . ? -
11. 7 a 11.12 i
11.18 11.20
11.35 11.37 a
11.47 % 11.51 a
12. 2 7 12. 6
12.25 A 12.29
12.51 - 12.54 .

During these observations scarcely any unmarked
bees came to the honey.

In these cases the postern, being small and on one
side, was not very easily found. If the honey had
been in an open place, no doubt the sight of their com-
panions feasting would have attracted other bees;
but the honey was rather out of sight, being behind
the hive entrance, and was, moreover, only accessible
by the narrow and winding exit through the little
postern door.

But, however exposed the honey night he, I found

104 COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES,

similar results, unless the bees were visible to their
fellows. Of this it may be well to give some detailed
evidence.
Thus, one morning at
9.19 { I brought a bee } 9.94 as returned to

to some honey. the hive.
she came back
ee { to the honey. \ Ee v
10. 8 5 10.10 is
10.16 10.19 i
10.28 < 10.30 3
10.37 “3 10.40
10.50 . 10.53 ce
11, 0 is ll. 4 e
11.11 - 11.15 a
11.22 i 11.27 ”
11.34 ne 11.37 ”
11.46 1 11.50 a
11.55 as 12. 0 29
12. 6 é 12. 7 ”
12.40 ‘5 12.46 9
12.54 a 12.57 “
1. 2 . 1.4 a
Flew about.
1.15 i 1.18 5
1.23 - 1.27 -
1.34 7 1.41 _
1.54 - 2. 0 .

After which she did not return. During this time no
other bee came to the honey.

Again on another occasion I watched several bees,
whick on my list of marked bees stood as Nos. 3, 4, 7,
8, 10, and 11.

9.45 bee No. 10 came. 9.50 went back to hive.
Oo Oe 10. 3
10.18 , 10 10.21

ae , 4 | 10.30 7

10.30 bee No, 4 came.

10.36
10.46
10.49
11. 0
11. 5
11.11
11.21
11.22
11.26
11.30

”
11.40
11.45
11.47

bed
12. 1
12. 2
12. 3
12, 4
12.14
12.17
12.24
12.30
12.36
12.37
12.37
12.45
12.50
12.50
12.53
12.57
12.57
1. 0
1. 2
1.9
1.10

”
a strange
bee No. 4 came.

”

bb)

COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES.

Iva pWA RAT

7
10
4
7
10

”
”
”
”
”?
bed
ced

bee came.

”°

405

10.35 went back to hive.

10.45
10.52
10.52
11. 9
11. 9
11.16
11.29

11.31
11.39
11.36
11.45
11.50
11.59

another strange bee came.

bee No. 4 came.

29

— —_ i

ary

ORNOPRNORTOORNON BRAC ON

12. 6
12. 8
12. 7
12. 7
12.18
12.21
12.31
12.33
12.46
12.44

”

406 COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES,

1.10 bee No. 7 came 1.16 went back to hive.
HIG gs 4s 1.19 i

1.17 yy 5 oy 1.21 ”

120° 4. FS 1.24 :

120 4 8 45 1.25 .

Uo «kA 1.24

1.23 ” 5» 1.27 ”

122 4, 44

1.29 7

” 9

After this I ceased recording in detail; but the
above shows that while the marked bees came regu-
larly, only in two cases did any unmarked bees come
to the honey.

In the above cases the honey was poured into
saucers, but not weighed. In the following I used a
wide-mouthed jar containing rather more than one
pornd of honey.

1.44 bee No. 5 came. 1.45 went away.
164 sy D Ss 1.58 ke
22 » 5 » 2. 5 »
i ene | ae
29 », 1 2.15 5
B18) x BS. 2.20 .
OAG* cy She 2.21 s
BOB? 4. Py 2.31 ie
237 4, 1 4, 2.41 A
S30) jae, Cb 2.40 ‘
249 » 5 4 2.51 -
2.52 1 2.55

2?
3.10 another came which I nianibered as No. 14
3.11 bee No. 1 came. 3.13 went away.

BO ok Bh ge 3.22 ,,
320 | bw 393 ,.
$19: id. 3.23 4,
820° a . 6 San |

$3) ,. Ie « 3.33 +

COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES, 401

3.37 bee No. 1 came. 3.40 went away.

ae ee 3.42 ~

$38) ., 2 | 3.41 i

540 a BD. & 3.49 i

346 4, 14 ,, 3.51 - She was
34 4. 14s 3.56 - | Sictovhed.
40 ap. Da 4. 3 x

BO! yes Ce clay 4, 3 2

i ae Lae 4.11 .

£0 4 BO os 4.12 .

415 14. 5 4,20 se

422 , 1 4 4.25 ot

404 , 14 s, 4.29 is

a 4.29 -

During the whole of this time only one strange bee
came, as recorded above.

In the following case I put out, besides one pound
of honey, also four ounces of honey spread over two
plates.

12.15 one of my marked _—12.21 she went.

bees came.
12.26 she returned 12.31 +5
12.36 - 12.44,
12.51 e 12.57 4g
1. 4 e 11a) Je
1.15 - iio,
1.25 2 132 4
1.38 - 144,
49 95 1.55 ee
2.0 , DF gs
2.14 ” 2.19 ”
2.25 ” 2.33 ”
2.38 35 2.44 ”
2.50 + 2.58 *

3. 5 = S15

3 COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES.

3.20 she returned. 3.32 she went. She wae
3.39 ee 3.45 4 (disturbed.
3.52 is oe ae

4.7 5 4. 9 is

4.15 : 4.20 45

4.27 % 4.32 5

4.43 5 4.45 5

4.50 - 4,59 yg

5.7 - 513g

5.25 7 5.31 5,

5.42 . 548 4,

5.56 3 6. 1 :

6.14

During this time no other bee came to the honey.

I had, on August 20, introduced some bees to honey
in my room, since which it had been much visited by
them. On the 24th I put a bee to some honey inside
a flower-pot five inches high and five wide at the base.
The flower-pot was laid on its side, and the mouth
closed,-so that: the bee had to come out through the
hole in the bottom, which was about } an inch in dia-
meter. To make things easier for her, I made her a
small alighting-board of wood, the top of which was
evel with the hole. I then placed the flower-pot on
the spot where she was accustomed to find the boney.
She had made her first visit that morning at 6.45, re-
turning

I then arranged the flower-pot as de-
scribed, and put her, while feeding, into
it: she found her way out without diffi-
culty.

At ~ 40 she returned, but did not seem able to find

!

9.55.

COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES, 409

her way; so I put her in. The same
thing happened again at

she found her way
further difficulty.

in easily, and had no
She returned at

10. 6. This time a friend came with her and

At

28

followed her in.

I captured her. No. 2

took no notice, but returned

10.19
10.30
10.44
10.54
11. 6
11.20
11.31
11.44
11.55
12. 9
12.25
12.37
12.50
1. 2
1.14

At 2.43
2.59
3.23
3.33
3.44
3.56
4. 7
4.21
4.34
4.44
4.55
5.10
5.24
5.35
5.46
5.58
6. 9
6.20
6.42
7. 0
7.15

making 59 visits.

410 COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES.

After which she came no more that day. With the one
exception above mentioned, during the whole time no
other bee came to the honey. I might also mention
that I had put out six similar flower-pots in a row, and
that this seemed to puzzle the bee a good deal; she
frequently buzzed about before them, and flew from one
to the other before entering. When she went in, she
generally stood still just inside the entrance for about.
thirty seconds, buzzing loudly with her wings. I
thought at first whether this could be intended as a
sort of gong to summon other bees to the feast ; but
though several were flying about, at any rate none came.
The following day (August 25) she came at 6. 51, and
had made nine journeys up to 8.41, when I left off
watehing. During this time no other bee came.

August 26.—She came at 6.32, and up to 8.43 had
made thirteen journeys.

August 27.—She came at 6.7, and up to 8.43 had
made fourteen journeys.

August 28.—She came at 6.17, and up to 7.11 had
made five journeys. During these days no other bee
came.

On July 19 I puta bee (No. 10) to a honeycomh
containing 12 lbs. of honey

At 12.30 she returned. At 12.36 went back to hive

12.50 = 12.55 z
1. 6 i 1.12 #
1.53 is 1.57 “
2.5 - 29 :
2.16 = 2.20 i
2,28 : 2.32? 2
2.49 i 2.55
3.13 < 3.20 iy
3,31 Z, 3.39 is
3.45 3.5E .

4. 2 i 4. 8 7

COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES. 411

4.18 she returned. 4.24 went back to hive.
4.31 : 4.37 i
4.47 m 4.58 .
5.10 2 5.19 if
5.27 5 5.30 pS
6. 9 5 6.15 5
6.23 . 6.29 .
7.19 a 7.24 ‘i
7.35 - 7.40 ie
7.50 5 7.55 3

and during all this time no other bee came to the comb,
On the following morning, July 20, this bee came
to the honeycomb

At 6. 5 aM. At 6.10 went back to hive.
6.37 she returned. 6.42 $5
7.17 e 7.21 is
7Al i 747 5
8. 8 ‘ 8.12 7
8.21 a 8.25 4
8.32 Ss 8.54 ss
9. 4 - 9.9 is
9.45 3 9.51 ee

10. 4 s 10.10 .
10.19 ‘“ 10.26 .
10.40 : 10.47 :
10.59 a ll. 4 ig
11.14 . 11.19
11.44 if 11.52 =
11.59 5 12. 6 6
12.15 ft 12.23 é
12.29 : 12.35 <
12.41 », (was dis-
turbed) 12.52 m
1. 2 1. 9 i
1.16 1.30

1.46 « 1.55 ni

412

I then left off observing ; but during the whole of this
time no other bee had come to the comb.

October 9.—I took a bee (No. 11) out of the hive
and put her to some honey: she returned and kept on
visiting it regularly.

October 10.—This bee came to the honey at
+.30 a.M., and went on visiting it; but I was not able
to watch her continuously. During these two days nc

other bee came to this honey.
October 11.—No. 11 came to the honey

At 7.12 a.m., but did nct alight.

7.18 she returned.

At 7.21 went back to hive

7.27 - 7.31
7.38 - TAA
7.51 : 7.56
8. 2 i 8. 8
8.15 35 8.22
8.30 - 8.35
8.41 - 8.46
8.55 in 8.59
9. 6 5 9.11
9.20 . 9.25
9.45 is 9.50
9.55 u 10. 1
10. 7 é 10.11
10.19 10.23

9

COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES.

”
”
29
”
99
”
”
”
”
”?
”
”
”

10.30 a strange bee came; I killed her.

10.35 she returned. At 10.40 went back to hive,

10.55
11, 4
11.26
11.35

99

10.59
11.8
11.30
11.38

Another strange bee came.

At 11.52 she returned. At 11.55 went.

12. 7

”

12.12

”°
”
bd
”

12.17 she returned.

12.31
12.58
1. 8
1.19
1.30
1.45
2. 2
2.15
2.29
2.45
2.50
2.57

COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES.

”

99

12.22 went.

12.36
1. 2

3. 0

”

9

413

after which she did not come any more that day. It
was, however, a bad day, and after 1 o’clock she was

almost the only bee which came out of the hive.

The

following morning she came to the honey at 7.58 a.M.,
but did not alight, behaving just as she had done the

day before.

At 8. 6 a.m. No. 11 returned to honey. At 8. 9 went.

8.14

Astrange beecame. At 9.59 No. 11 went.

”
”
bed
”
”
”
”
”
39

”

8.20
8.34
8.46
8.59
9.14
9.24
9.33
9.44

99
”
tb)
”
”
”
”

br)
but was disturbed.

\{ 10. 5 she returned to the honey. At 10. 8 went.

10.12
10.16
10.26
10.33
10.40

9
”
”

”

”
29
”
”
9

10.13
10.20
10.28
10.36
10.46

”
”
>
”

114 COMMUNICATION AMONG BEES.

10.55 a strange bee came. No. 11 returned to the
honey regularly, and went on coming.

October 13.—At 6.28 a.m. she came, but, as before,
flew away again without alighting.

At 6.32 she came to the honey. At 6.36 went away.

6.42 55 +s 6.46 3
6.51 95 $5 6.56 ‘5
7.10 35 35 7.14 3
7.26 ‘5 3 7.34 55
7.46 9 35 7.50 $5
7.55 ay <5 8. 0 9
8.12 Pa 55 8.15 55
8.20 73 3 8.26 7
8.30 6 5 8.33 55
8.37 3 es 8.44 +
8.50 55 es 8.56 5
and so on.

October14.—She came for the first time at 8.15 a.M.,
aud went on visiting the honey at the usual intervals.
After this day I saw her no more; she had probably
met with some accident. But these facts show that
some bees, at any rate, do not communicate with their
sisters, even if they find an untenanted comb full of
honey, which to them would be a perfect Eldorado.
This is the more remarkable because these bees began
to work in the morning before the rest, and continued
to do so even in weather which drove all the others
into the shelter of the hive. That the few strange
bees which I have recorded should have found the
honey is natural enough, because there were a good
many bees about in the room. My room, I may add,
is on the first floor ; if it had been on the level of the
ground I believe that many more bees would have found
their way to the honey.

I will now proceed to the similar observations made
with wasps.

EXPERIMENTS WITH WASPS. 415

The first one, I believe a worker of Vespa Germanica,
| marked and put to some honey on September 18.

The next morning she came for the first time
at 7.25, and fed till 7.28, when she began flying
about the room, and even into the next; so I thought
it well to put her out of the window, and she then flew
straight away to her nest. My room, as already
mentioned, had windows on two sides; and the nest
was in the direction of a closed window, so that the
wasp had to go out of her way in passing out through
the open one.

At 7.45 she came back. I had moved the glass
containing the honey about two yards; and though it
stood conspicuously, the wasp seemed to have much
difficulty in finding it. Again she flew to the window
in the direction of her nest, and I had as before to
show her the way out, which ¥ did at 8.2.

At 8.15 she returned to the honey almost straight.
At 8.21 she flew again to the closed window, and
apparently could not find her way, so at 8.35 I put
her out again. It seems obvious from this that wasps
have a sense of direction, and do not find their way
merely by sight.

At 8.50 back to honey, and 8.54 again to wrong
window; but finding it closed, she took two or three
turns round the room, and then flew out through the
open window.

At 9.24 back to the honey, and 9.27 away, first,
however, paying a visit to the wrong window, but with.
out alighting.

\t 9.36 back to honey; 9.39 away, but, as before, going
first to wrong window. She was away, there-
fore, 9 minutes.

9.50 back to honey ; 9.53 away.! Interval 11 minutes
1.0 4, » 107 » Ll

! This time straight.

2

416 COMMUNICATION.

10.19 back to honey; 10.22away. Inteival 12 minutes

10.35 ,, » 1029 , mes Slee ye
WAT, » 10.50 4, a
11.4 ,, ” 117 ” 14 ”
11.21 ,, ao. (bed: & ee
11.34 ,, ee LET es ey AQ x
11.49 ,, 5 MLSS) 5. oe. cls sae
12.3 5, ” 12.5 ,, ” 11 ”
12.13 4 » TU a 8 ce
12.25 ,, » (eee a lea es
12.39 ,, » 1243 ,, ae ae
12.54 ,, « 1257 5 a, 2dde cas
1.15 ,, ” 1.19 ,, ” 18 ”
1.27 ” ” 1.30 ,, ” 8 ”

Here for the first time another specimen came to
the honey.

At 1.37 back to hovey; 1.39 away.!

146 ,, a 1.49 4, Interval 7minutes.
1.54 ” bb) 1.58 ” ” 5 >
2. 5 ” ” 2. 7 9 ) 7 ”?
2.15 ” ” 2.19 ” bP) 8 ”
2.27? ; 2.32 4, re 8 $3
2.39 ” ” 2.42 be) PP) 7 ”
2.50 4, iy 2.54 45 5 8 -
3. 2 ” ” 3. 6 ” ” 8 ”
3.14 > 9° 3.17 ” ” 8 39
3.26 ” ” 3.29 ” ” 9 ”
3.38 ” ” 3.42 ” ba) 9 ”
3.50 > 99) 3.58 ” ” 8 ”
4, 7 ” ” 4.12 9 ” 9 ”
4.20 ” ”? 4.23 ” ” 8 ”?
4.32 9 ” 4.36 bd rr) 9 ”

! Was rather disturbed, as I tried to mark her.

2 She very often, however, throughout the day, in going away,
few to the other window first, and then, without alighting, returned
to and went through the open one

COMMUNICATION. 47

4.46 back to honey; 4.49 habe Interval 10 minutes,
5.

5. 0 29 99 ” 99 11 ”?
5.13 ,, » 5. 17 » » 10 5
5.26 » 29 5. 30 > ” 9 ”
5.40 ,, ” 5.44 ,, » 10 4g
5.54 5, is 5.59, » IW y
6. 7 ” Phd 6.11 9 2” 8 ”
6.20 ” 99 6.25 ” ” 9 ”

She did not come any more that day; but, as will
be seen, she had made forty-five visits to the honey in

eleven hours.

During the whole of this time no

strange wasp, except the one above mentioned, came to

this honey.
The following day, September 20, this wasp made
her appearance in my room at 6.55, when she flew

straight to the honey.

At 6.55 came to honey; 6.59 went away.

7. 8

3
”
2”
bed
2
”
”
”
te)
bP)
”
”

7.10

» Absent 9 minutes,
”
2
”
”
99
”
”
”
”
”

3” ”°
9 ”
” 29

4
€ ST 00 00 6D 00 6 00 HD & & ~& OH

418 COMMUNICATION.

10.53 came tohoney; 10.56 away. Absent 11 minutes

li. 7 ‘ 11.11 ae aa
11.21 bs 11.25 a ae
11.32 _ ae ee

The wasp which came once yesterday returned ind
rather disturbed the first.

At 11.49 cametohoney; 11.50away. Absent 13 minutes,
11.57 - 12.0 ,, a
12. 8 “ 12.11 ,, ten pa
Here I was away for about two hours.

2.42 came to honey; 2 - away.

2.58 5 >, Interval 12 minutes,
3.15 317 we. ee cas
3.25 0 3.28 5 » 8 »

Here I was called away.
4.25 came to honey;4.28 ,,

4,4] : AAG op ye, “ERO
5.15 i 5.19 ,, a’, Fae | ss
5.30 if 685 45 a ar
5.45 5.50 4, ex). NO! ae
6. 2 ” 6.6 y ” 12 ”
6.15 620 4 a, oon od

This was the last visit that day. She made, there-
fore, thirty-eight visits during the time she was watched,
which was not quite eight hours. She was at work
from 6.55 to 6.15; and assuming that she was occupied
in the same manner during the three hours when she
was not watched as during the rest of the time, she
would have made over fifty visits to the honey during
the day.

Wishing, however, to have a complete record of a
day’s work, I watched her the following day without
intermission.

COMMUNICATION.

419

September 21 ~-I began watching at ten minutes

past six.
6.16 came to honey; 6.19 away.

6.29
6.41
6.55
7.11
7.23
7.37
7.56

8.11 came to honey; 8.14 away.

8.20
8.31
8.40
8.50
8.58
9. 8
9.18
9.30
9.39
9.50
10. 1
10.14
10.25
10.37
10.47
11. 0
11.17
11.34
11.50
12. 5
12.2C
12.36
1,8

”
>
”
”
”
29
23

2
”
”
”°
2”
”
29
29
”

”

6.32

8.24

”
”
”
”
”°
”
”

”

Interval 10 minutes.

”
”
”
”
”
”

Was disturbed, and seemed rather troubled.

Interval 8 minutes.

”
9

—_
WOTIOOWDONONOANWDAMODIH

420 COMMUNICATION.

1.26 came to honey ; 1.28 away. Interval 15 minutes

1.40 = 12> 5 ea. ge
1.57 : 2.2 4 oe:
2.10 ie 2.13 4, a a
2.25 i 2.30 4, me eS oe
2.45 Z 2.56 4, a. es

She buzzed about at the other window for a few
minutes, which made the interval longer than

usual.
3.13 came to honey; 3.18 away. Interval 17 minutes,
3.29 ss 3.31 ,, 7 lly
3.41 5 3.45 ,, 9 10_~—=C#S,
3.49 ” 3.52 ” 2 4 ”
4. 2 9 4.6 5 ” 7 ”
4.19 * 4.22 ,, ” 13. Cs,
4.29 3 4.33 ,, i ae
4.40 a 4.44 ,, % a
4.51 - 4.53 ,, a Ts
5. 4 a 5.6 4, 5 I 4,
5.16 ” 5.20 ” ” 10 ”
5.32 = 5.35 ,, is 12) yy
5.45 Bs 5.50 ,, 35 10

It will be seen that the intervals of her absence
were remarkably regular. On one occasion, indeed,
she was only away four minutes; but this time I think
she had been disturbed, and had not provided herself
with a regular supply of food.

The number of visits was fifty-one in eleven hours
and a half. I tried whether she would be in any way
affected by a dead wasp, so I put one on the honey;
but she took no notice whatever.

I observed with other wasps, that when the open
window was not the shortest way to their nests, they
had a great tendency to fly to that which was in the
right direction, and to remain buzzing about there.

INDUSTRY OF WASPS. 421

During the whole of this day only four or five
strange wasps came to the honey.

As regards the regularity of their visits, and the
time occupied, other wasps which I observed agreed
very closely with this one. For comparison, it may be
worth while to give one or two other cases. I will
commence with that of a worker, I believe V. vulgaris.
observed on September 19.

10 a.M. I put her to the honey; she fed and then flew
about the room, and at last got into my bee-
hive.

10.54. She came in again at the window. I again put
her to the honey. She again flew all about
the room.

11.41. She returned, and this time came to the
honey; but when she had fed again flew
round and round the room, and did not seem
able to find her way out. I therefore put her
out.

12.11 she returned, and the same thing happened again.

12.28 1 abe aie } 12.31 flew straight away.

to honey ;

12.45 ”
12.53 3 12.57 a

1.10 »

1.26 5 1.29 »

1.38 $5 1.41 » Interval 9 minutes
1.50 ” 1.53 ” ” 9 ”
2. 3 ” 2. 6 ” » 10 ”
2.12 a 2.16 o ee ae

Was disturbed.

2.20 5 2.25 95 a 2
2.40 a5 2.43 ‘5 Pee) ee
2.51 ” 2.54 ” ” 8 ”
3. 1 ” 3.4 ” ” 7 ”
3.13 aa 3.16 ‘i wy DO) és
3.25 55 3.28 ‘ 9

422 REGULARITY OF VISITS,

3,35 Pad back } 3.38 i \ Interval 7 minutes.

to honey ; away
3.46 9 3.50 - oe «BR Ss
3.58 an 4.1 3 $3 8 yy
4.10 » 414 5, » 9 5
4.23 ” 4.25 55 gs OD oe
4.34 ” 4.38 ” ” 9 ”
4.46 9 4.50 . are
4.58 es 5. 4 ae as:
5.14 » Was disturbed and flewabout. 8 __,,

She did not return any more that evening, but
made her appearance again at half-past six the next
morning.

From twelve o’clock, when she had learnt her way,
till five, she made twenty-five visits in five hours, or
about five an hour, as in the previous cases.

It struck me as curious that on the following day
this wasp seemed by no means so sure of her way, but
over and over again went to the closed window.

Again, September 21, at 11.50 I fed a wasp.

11.56 she returned to honey; 11.57 flew away

12. 6 . is 12,8 gs
1.25 - si Hoy
1.37 * - 139 4,
1.57 ‘5 is 2.0 55
2.15 . s OAT 5
2.22 4 ‘ 225 5
2.32 ss ‘3 2.36 ,,
2.50 ” » 2.55 5
3. 2 . e 3.4 4,
3.14 ‘3 BAS as
3.28 ‘5 3.30 4,
3.40 . ‘3 3.44 40
3.51 - 3.55 yy
4. 4 35 s 4.8 ,

4.16 4, . 4.20 ,,

A DAY'S WORK. 493

? she returned to honey; 4.31 flew away.

4,37 cS J 4,41 i
4.46 S 4,48 -
4.57 a 5 5. 0 9
5. 9 . 5 5.12 4
5.22 i. 35 5.26 ”
5.31 S - 5.36 =

She made therefore twenty-three journeys, but did
not bring a single friend.

The last case of which I will give particulars is the
following, which has been already alluded to on p. 321.
When I went to my sitting room at 4.13 a.m., I found
her already there, though it was still almost dark. Her
visits to the honey were as follows :—

4.13 a.m. returning at

4.32 ” ” ?
4.50 ” ” ”
5. 5 > ” bed
5.15 ”? > ”
5.22 ” ” ”
5.29 ” » ”
5.36 ” Ped ”
5.43 ” ” ”
5.50 ” ” ”
5.57 ? 29 ”
6. 5 ” ” ”
6.14 39 2 ”
6.23 ” » ”
6.30 ” ”? ”
6.40 ” ” ”
6.48 ” ” ”
6.56 ”? ” ”
7. 5 Ppa ” ”
7.12 ”? ” 2?
7.18 ” ” ”?
7.25 ” 2? ”
7.31 5, ” »”

424

A DAY’S WORK.

7.46 a.M., returning at

7.52
8.
8.10
8.18
8.24
8.29
8.36
8.40
8.45
8.56
9. 7
9.14
9.20
9.26
9.37
9.43
9.50
9.57
10. 4
10.10
10.15
10.24
10.29
10.37
10.45
10.50
10.59
11. 6
11.15
11.22
11.30
11.35
11.47
11.55
12. 6
12.14
12,22
12.36

”

”

29

A DAY’S WORK:

12.46 P.m., returning at

12.52

12.56 —

14
1.11
1.20
1.25
1.30
1.35
1.43
1.48
1.53
2.

2.7
2.12
2.23

”

”

”?

445

426 A DAY’S WORK.

5.46 p.m, returning at

5.50 ” abe a
6. 5 2? 9? ”
6.12 33 bed ”
6.20 ” ” ”
6.30 ” or) ”
6.40 bs ” bbs
6.46 ” ” ”
6.55 ” ” ”
7. 7 ” ” ”
TAT ” ” bed
7.30 ” ” »
7.36, » ”
7.46 ” ” ”

This was her last visit for the evening, and she thus
made no less than 116 visits in the day, during which
time only three other wasps found the honey, though it
was lying exposed on a table at an open window. It
will be seen that she worked with the utmost industry.

No doubt, however, if a wasp is put to honey in an
exposed place, other wasps gradually find their way to
it. In the preceding experiments some few, though
but few, did so. I then thought I would try a similar
experiment with concealed honey. Accordingly, on
September 20, I marked a wasp and put her to some
honey, which she visited assiduously. The following
morning I opened my window at 6, and she made her
first visit at 6.27, the temperature being 61° Fahr. I
then placed the honey in a box communicating with
the outside by an india-rubber tube 6 inches long and
i inch in diameter. The wasp, however, soon got. accus-
tomed to it, and went in and out without much loss of
time. The 22nd was finer; and when I opened my
window at 6 in the morning, she was already waiting
outside, the temperature being 61°. The 22rd was
rather colder, and she came first at 6.20, the temperature
being again 61°.

I was not at home during these days ; but, as far as

A DAY’S WORK. 427

I could judge from watching in the mornings and even-
ings, no other wasp found the honey. On the 24th I
had a holiday, and timed her as tollows. It was rather
colder than the preceding days, and she did not come
till 6.40, when the temperature was 58°. She returned
as follows :—

6.49 8.19
6.58 8.26
7.12 8.35
7.22 8.45
7.32 8.52
7.40 9. 2
7.50 9.12
8. 0 9.45
8. 9

I had almost closed the window, so that she had a
difficulty in finding her way.

9.58 10.32
10.10 10.51

The temperature was still only 60°, and it was rain-
ing, scarcely any other wasps about.

11. 1 1.42
11.11 1.53
11.21 2. 0
11.29 2.11
11.40 2.26
11.46 2.35
11.56 2.51
12. 6 2.59
12.14 3. 8
12.25 3.14
12.33 3.23
1.21 3.32
1.32 3.40

428 DESCRIPTION OF

3.48 4.58
3.57 5. 6
4.12 5.17
4,20 5.28
4,29 5.35
4.39 5.42
4.47 5.52

This was her last visit. During the whole day no
other wasp found the honey. I also tried other wasps,
concealing the honey in the same manner, and with a
similar result.

I have no doubt some wasps would make even more
journeys in a day than those recorded above.

The following are descriptions of some new species
referred to in the preceding pages. The first is the
Australian honey ant.

CAMPONOTUS INFLATUS, 1. sp.’ Operaria.—Long.
15 mill. Nigra, tarsis pallidioribus ; subtiliter coriacea,
setis cinereo-testaceis sparcis ; antennis tibiisque haud
pilosis ; tarsis infra hirsutis ; mandibulis punctatis, hir-
sutis, sexdentatis ; clypeo non carinato, antice integro ;
petioli squama modice incrassata, antice convexa, pos-
tice plana emarginata. Had. Australian.

The colour is black, the feet being somewhat paler.
The body is sparsely covered with stiff cinereo-testa-
ceous hairs, especially on the lower and anterior part of
the head, the mandibles, and the posterior edge of the
thorax. The head and thorax are finely coriaceous.

The antennz are of moderate length, twelve-jointed ;
the scape about one-third as long as the terminal por-
tion, and somewhat bent. At the apex of the scape
are a few short spines, bifurcated at the point. At the
apex of each of the succeeding segments are a few
much less conspicuous spines, which decrease in size

1In the Linncean Journ. v. I have given figures of this species.

THE AUSTRALIAN HONEY ANT. 429

from the basal segments outwards. The antenna is also
thickly clothed with short hairs, and especially towards

the apex with leaf-shaped sense hairs. The clypeus is
rounded, with a slightly developed median lobe and a
row of stiff hairs round the anterior bordcr ; it is not
carinated.

The mandibles have six teeth, those on one side be-
ing rather more developed and more pointed than those
on the other. They decrease pretty regularly from the
outside inwards.

The maxille are formed on the usual type. The
maxillary palpi are six-jointed, the third segment Leing
but slightly longer than the second, fourth, or fifth;
while in Myrmecvcystus the third and fourth are greatly
elongated. ‘The segments of the palpi have on the inner
side a number of curious curved blunt hairs besides the
usual shorter ones.

The labial palpi are four-jointed. The eyés are ellip-
tical and of moderate size. The ocelli are not developed.

The thorax is arched, broadest in front, without any
marked incision between the meso- and meta-notum ;
the mesonotum itself is, when seen from above, very
broadly oval, almost circular, rather broader in front
and somewhat flattened behind. The legs are of mod-
erate length, the hinder ones somewhat the longest.
The scale or knot is heart-shaped, flat behind, slightly
arched in front, and with a few stiff, slightly diverging
hairs at the upper angles. The length is about two-
thirds of an inch.

The following refers to a new species of mite which
I have found in nests of Lasius flavus, and of which Mr.
Michael has been good enough to draw up the following
description.

URopoDsa FORMICARIA, sp. Nov.

This species, although it falls strictly within the ge-
uus Uropoda, and not within Kramer’s genus Trachy-
notus as defined by that writer, still in most respects,
except the very distinctions upon which the genus is

430 DESCRIPTION OF A MITE

founded, resembles Zrachynotus pyriformis (Kramer)
more closely than it does any other recorded species. It
is, however, decidedly different, and is characterised by
the squareness of its abdomen, the thickness and rough-
ness of its chitinous dermal skeleton, and especially by
the powerful chitinous ridges or wing-like expansions
on the lateral surface between the second and third pair
of legs.

Length, ¢ and ?, about ‘95 millim.
Breadth 2 Te BBD 22?

The abdomen is almost square, but somewhat longer
than broad, and slightly narrowed at its junction with
the cephalothorax, from which it is not plainly dis-
tinguished. The extreme edge is a strong chitinous
ridge bordered with a thick fringe of short, stout,
curved hairs, as in 7. pyriformis. The dorsal surface
of the cephalothorax is also narrowed towards the front,
and has a curved anterior margin bent down so as to
protect the mouth, as in that species ; it bears a few of
the same kind of hairs as the abdomen, and has a chiti-
nous thickening at each side. The abdomen rises almost
perpendicularly from the marginal ridge. There is a
central depression occupying the posterior half, or rather
more than half of the abdomen ; and at the bottom of
this depression are transverse ridges, the hinder ones
nearly straight, and the auterior ones bent in the mid-
dle, the central point being forward ; at the sides of, but
not in, this depression, are two chitinous blocks which
seem to form a starting-point for the ridges. Anterior

_to this depression the central portion of the creature, i.¢.
its longitudinal dorsal axis, is higher in level than in
parts nearer the margin, and forms an irregular triangle
of rough chitine. A broad chitinous plate or ridge pro-
jects on each side above the second leg, and between
that and the third, evidently for their protection ; it is
probably flexible at the will of the creature, as in the
genus Oribates.

PARASITIC ON ANTS. 431

The sternal surface has strongly marked depressions
for the reception of the legs. The coxe of the first pair
of legs are largely developed, flattened, almost touch in
the median line, and nearly conceal the mouth, as in the
typical Uropodas. ‘The genital opening of the male is
rather large, round, and placed centrally between the
cox of the second pair of legs, The female appears
only to be distinguished from the male by being more
strongly chitinised, and by the conspicuous valval plate
which occupies the whole space between the coxe of
the oe and third pairs of legs and extends beyond
both.

The nymph is less square in the abdomen than the
adult, and the border of hairs is absent ; the margin is
somewhat undulated, the concave undulations being so
placed as to give free action to the legs when raised ;
the central depression of the abdomen is far less
marked than in the adult ; a slight ridge runs all round
the dorsal surface a little withia the margin; four
ridges, two anterior and two posterior, run from the
circumscribing ridge to a raised ellipse in the centre ;
there are not any plates for the protection of the legs,
and the coxe of the first pair are not flattened as in the
adult.

This mite lives in the nests of Formica flava.

Description of a New Genus and Species of Phoride
parasitic on Ants. By G. H. Verratt, Esq., Memb.
Entom. Soe.

Sir Joun Lussock has kindly forwarded for my exami-
nation and determination certain specimens of dipterous
insects said to have been found parasitic on species of
ants, which latter he has been studying with care as to
their habits. Having given considerable attention to
the family Phoride, I was agreeably surprised to find

439 DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW

the parasitic specimens to be forms new to science. One
of these is a new species of the genus Phora ; the other
I regard as possessing characters sui generis, and hence
define it under the generic title Platyphora, at the
same time bestowing on the species the name of
the discoverer, who worthily pursues entomological
researches, spite of many pressing public engage-
ments.

The subjoined descriptions embrace the diagnostic
peculiarities of the insects in question.

PHoRA FORMICARUM, n. sp.—Nigro-cinerea, fronte
setosa, caniculata ; antennis mediocribus, cinereis; pal-
pis magnis, flavis; halteribus flavidis; pedibus totis
pallide flavis, inermibus, tibiis intermediis unicalcara-
tis, posticis modice dilatatis ; alis subhyalinis, nervo
secundo simplici, nervulis vix undulatis. Long. vix
$ lin.

Frons broad, grey, bristly, two large bristles being
close to the eye-margin ; down the centre is a deep im-
pressed channel, which at its lower end joins a channel
above the antenne, and at its upper end a channel round
the raised vertical triangle; the space between these
two latter channels (comprising the true frons) is about
once and a half broader than deep; on the vertical
triangle are two bristles; the third joint of the an-
tenn is moderately large, ovate, grey ; the arista short,
somewhat yellowish, almost naked; the palpi con-
spicuous, all pale yellow, with a few short black bris-
tles at the tip; on the cheeks are some short black
bristles.

The thorax is grey or brownish grey, broad, not much
arched, the disk being nearly flat, and on the hinder
part absolutely concave ; on the disk there are no long
bristles, but a dense clothing of rather short black
bristles; along the side of the thorax between the
humeri, the base of the wing, and the scutellum are
some long black bristles, and two on the thorax just
before the scutellum ; on each side of the scutellum are

FLIES PARASITIC ON ANTS, 433

two long bristles ; halteres dirty pale yellow ; abdomen
bare, dull black, with slightly yellowish incisures ; ovi-
positor polished black, long, slightly incurved and
grooved.

Legs pale yellow, including the coxa, clothed with
minute black bristles; all the coxz with two or three
black bristles at the tips, the legs otherwise bare except-
ing the spurs; femora flattened and widened, especial-
ly the hind pair, the hind tibize also slightly flattened
and widened on the apical half; middle tibie with
a long spur inside at the tip, and hind tibiwe with a
small one inside and a very minute one outside ; tarsi
longer than the tibix, joints gradually diminishing in
length.

Wings very slightly smoky, broad; second thick
vein not extending half the length of the wing, thick-
ened, but not forked at its tip; first veinlet with a
steady curve ; second very slightly curved at base, other-
wise straight; third very slightly undulated ; fourth
hardly visible at base, evident towards tip, very slightly
undulated ; vosta bristly up to end of second thick
vein.

This species is readily distinguished by its simple
second thick vein, channelled frons, small size, and by
the absence of bristles on the tibie.

It is parasitic on Lasius niger.

PLATYPHORA, n. gen.

Lata, planx, tota absque setis. Frons latissima.
Thorax transversus. Abdomen parvus. Alarum vena
cubitalis simplex, subacostali parallela ; venule undu-
late ; costa ad basin subciliata.

Distinguished from all the existing genera of Pho-
ride by its flat and broad shape, which resembles
that of the small species of Sphurocera. The ab-
sence of strong bristles on the frons, thorax, and legs
also distinguishes it from all the genera except Gym-
nophora, which, however, is of the usual arched Pho:

434 PLATYPHORA LUBBOCKTI.

ra-shape, and has the cubital vein forked, costa bare,
&e.

Pruatyrnora Luszocxu.—Nigra, nitida ; abdomine
triangulari, segmento tertio parvo ; femoribus posticis.
basi flavidis ; alis apice latis, flavido-hyalinis, costa ad
basin subciliata, vena cubitali ad medium cost ex-
tensa subcostali parallela, venulis undulatis. Long. 2
lin.

Broad, flat, shining; frons very broad, the eyes
scarcely occupying each one-sixth the width of the
head; it is moderately shining, gently arched, and
pretty densely clothed with minute bristles ; the three
ocelli visible slightly luteous ; antenne with the third
joint rather large, somewhat rounded ; thorax broad,
flat, rather broader than the head, angles tolerably
rounded, disk shining (in appearance suggesting a small
Spherocera), beset with very minute bristles, which be-
come rather scarcer towards the hinder part ; scutellum
rather dull, margined, nearly four times as broad as
long: abdomen black, narrower and shorter than the
thorax (again suggestive of Spherocera) ; each segment
after the second successively narrower, the last one be-
ing almost triangular; the third segment is very short,
contracted under the second ; the hind margins form a
curved convex towards the thorax, the first segment be-
ing slightly emarginate in the middle; the sixth (last)
is much the longest. Legs stoutish, blackish, basal two-
thirds of hind femora yellowish ; middle tibie with
two small spines at the tip. Wings considerably over-
lapping the abdomen, yellowish hyaline, darker about
the basal half of the costa, blunt at the tip, cubital vein
extending about half the length of the wing, and the
costa slightly ciliate up to its end, subcostal vein run-
ning parallel to it and ending just before it ; both veins
a little thickened at their ends ; first veinlet curved S-
like, considerably at its base, slightly at its end, vanish-
ing distinctly before the tip of the wing ; second veinlet
also S-like, diverging at its end from the first, and end-
ing distinctly below the tip of the wing; third veinlet

. PLATYPHORA LUB3OCKIL 435

slightly undulated, ending very wide from the second ;
fourth faint, not reaching the end of the wing.

This description having been made from a specimen
gummed down on card, though in very good condition,
I am unable to decide on the sex, or to examine the
face, palpi, base of antennz, or coxe.

INDEX.

ABD

{| BDOMEN of ant described, 10,
(\ 13; of the Mexican honey
ant, 19, 47
Acucia with ho!low thorns jin-
habited by ants, 57
Affection less powerful than
hatred among ants, 106 ; absence
of, among bees, 286
Agricultural ants, 6], 92
Aldrovandus quoted as to ants, 61
Amazon ants, see Polyergus ru-
Sescens
Amber, an intermediate form of
ant preserved in, 68
Analogies between ant societies
and human, 91
André quoted as to Platyarthrus,
75; as to the slaves of F. san-
guinea, 80
Anergates, 85 ; no workers among
them, 86; degraded condition
of, 89
Animal food, queens hatched in
an artificial nest supplied with,
40
A ugrecum sesquipedale, length of
dowers of, 52
dnomma arcens, the Driver ant,
described, 20, 63; their blind-
Dess, 65
Ants, three families of, 1; four
perioils «f life in, 65 duration of
life among, 8, 38, 40 ; structure

AFH

of, 10; different classes of indi.
viduals aiong, 18 ; communities
of, 24; games of, 28; their rela-
tion to plants, 50; often insecti-
vorous, 59; their relations to
other animals generally hostile,
63 ; their enemies, 26, 67; their
domestic animals, 67-78; pro-
gress among, 90; their beha-
viour towards each other, 94,
&c.; mental powers of, 181;
tleir sense of vision, 11, 182-
220, 258; of smell, 127, 238,
258; of hearing, 221, 226; stri-
dulating apparatus among, 230
their intelligence, 236

‘Ant eggs,’ 7

‘ Ant-rice,’ 61

Antenna of ant described, 10;
serse organ in terminal portion
of, illustrated, 227

Antenne as means of communica
tion among ants, 153; as organs
of hearing, 221, 226; of smell,
94, 234

Antirrhinum fertilised by humble
bees, 54

Aphides made use of by ants, 25,
67 ; different species of, utilised
by different ants, 68; thei
honey, 69; their eggs tended by
ants, 70; not aomesticated by
F. fusca, 91

£38

ARI

Aristida oligantha, ‘ant-rice,’ 61

Artificial nests for ants, 3, 164

Ateuchus pilularius, anecdote of,
154

Atrophy of the imaginal discs of
the ant-workers, 12; of the
sting in Wormica, 16; of the
eyesof Platyarthrus and Bechia,
15

Atta barbara, the eye in, 113
variety of workers among, 19

— structor, its treatment of col-
lected grain, 61

-— testaceo-pilosa, experiment with,
as to power of communication,
177

Attachment among ants, 94

Auditory organs, structures in ant-
antennz probably serve as, 226

Australian honey ant, 49; de-
scribed, 428

ATES, Mr., quoted as to the
tive kinds of workers in
Saiiba, 22; as to ant-play, 29;
as to the use made by ants of
leaves, 57; as to the armies of
Eciton, 65; as to leaf-cutting
by Satiba, 237
Batrisus, rarely more than one
specimen of, found in an ants’
nest, 78
Beckia, one of the ant-guests, 74
Bees, occasional fertility of
workers among, 36; means of
recognition among, 126; their
sense of hearing, 221, 290; ob-
servations with, 274; difficulty
in finding their way, 278; their
behaviour in a strange hive, 281;
their recklessness, 285; their
want of mutual affection, 286;
‘heir influence on the develop-
ment of flowers, 61, 29. , their
colour sense, 291; their prefer-
ence for blue, 294.310; experi-
ments on communication among
them, 276, 401

INDEX.

CAR
Beetles kept in ants’ nests, 74, 76,
90

Belt, Mr. Thomas, quoted as to
floral defences against ants, 51;
as to defence against leaf-cut-
ting ants, 57; on the raids of

Eeiton, 66; on an _ ant-like
spider, 66

Bert, Prof, Paul, as to the limits
of vision, 219

Bichromate of potash, experiments
with, 211

Bisulphide of carbon, experiments
with, 208 ;

Blanchard, M., quoted as to the
origin of nests, 30

Blindness of Anomma and Eciton
65 ; of Platyarthrus and Beckia.
75

Blue, the favourite colour of hees,
294, 304, 310; flowers, their late
origin, 308

Bonnet, M., on aphis eggs, 70

Bonnier, M., on indifference to
colour among bees, 302

Bothriomyrmez meridionalis, the
eye in, 11

Brazil, blind hunting ants of, 65 ;
use made by the Indians in, of
the tenacity of an ant-bite, 96

Buchle dactyloides, seed of, col-
lected by ants, 61

Biichner, Dr., as to Texan harvest-
ing ants, 62

Burmeister, on the power of recog-
nition among insects, 126

Butterfly, ants seen licking the
larva of, 68

C4 fonorus inflatus, de

scribed, 428

-- ligniperdus, the eye in, 11,
communication among 158

Captivity, mode of keeping ants
in, 2,3; a wasp in, 315

Caterpillars killed by ants, 59, 66

Caryophyllacee, correlation of
form and colour in, 309

INDEX.

CHE

vhennium, rarely more than one
specimen of, in an ants’ nest, 78

Christ, M., on the length of life of
queen ants, 9; on ant roads, 25

Chrome alum, experiments as to
ant vision with, 217

Chromium chloride, experiments
with, 217

Olaparéde, M, as to insect-vision,
183

Clark, Rev. Hamlet, as to an ant-
tunnel in S. America, 25

Claviger,a blind beetle, a guest
in ants’ nests, 75, 76; experi-
ments with, by M. Lespés, 90

Cleanliness of ants, 29

Coccida, their use to ants, 68

Cocoons spun by some larve of
ants, 7

Colobopsis truncata and C. fusipes,
two forms of the same species,
20

Colour-sense of ants, 186, &c.; of
bees, 291, &c.; of wasps, 316;
less developed among wasps
than bees, 321

Colours of flowers, evolution of,
308

Communication, power of, among
ants, 153, &c.; among bees,
156; experiments as to, with
ants, 160, 344, 376; with bees,
276, 401; with wasps, 311, 415

Communities of ants, 24; power
of mutual recognition among
members of, 119, 333

Compassion among ants, instances
of, 106, 108; absence of, among
bees, 286

O9-operation, experiments as to,
among ants, 365-376

‘orrelation of form of knot with
stinging power in ants, 13; of
colour in flowers with specialisa-
tion of form, 308

vourage of ants, 27; of wasps,
314

trematogaster lineolata, adoption
of a queen by, 34

439

DUI

Crematogaster seutellaris, their
neglect of friends in trouble,
98; experiments as to percep-
tion of colour among, 192

— sordidula, threatening attitude
of, 16

Cross-fertilisation effected by in-
sects, 50

DAHA, limits of vision in,
219

Darkness, education of young
ants conducted in, 5; effect of,
on the eyes of Platyarthrus and
Bechia, 75

Darwin, on the sound produced
by Mutilla, 229

— Francis, on the use of the leaf-
cups of teazle, 52

Dead, treatment of the, among
bees, 287

Defences of flowers against un-
bidden guests, 52-7

Degradation of Stvongylognathus,
85; caused by slaveholding, 89

Dewitz, Dr., on the non-develop-
ment of the sting in the For-
micide, 14; on eggs laid by
fertile workers, 36, 40

Dinarda dentata in ants’ nests,
76, 77

Dipsacus sylvestris, leaf-cups of, 52

Direction, sense of, among ants,
260; guided by the position of
the light, 268; sense of, among
bees, 278; among wasps, 321
420

Discs, atrophy of imaginal, i»
worker ants, 12; cleared by
harvesting ants, 61; experi-
ments as to sense of direction
with rotating, 261, &c.

Division of labour among ants,
23, 44; tabular view of experi-
ments on, 324

Domestic animals of ants, 68-78

Driver ants, see Anomma arcent

Dujardin, M., as to the power of

44C INDEX,

EBR

communica‘ion among bees, 156,
313

,) BRARD, M., his observations
as to the origin of ants’ nests,
31
Eciton, the eye in, 11
— drepanophora, their order in
marching, 21
— erratica, soldiers among, 21;
their covered galleries, 65
— legionis at play, 29
— vastator, scldiers among, 21;
their covered galleries, 65
Economy of labour among ants,
experiments as to, 240, &c.
Eggs of ants described, 6; laid
occasionally by worker ants, 35 ;
by worker bees and wasps, 36 ;
these always produce males, 37 ;
as to dijerence of sex in, 40;
of aphis, tended by ants, 69;
and hatched in captivity, 71
Electric light, experiments on ants
with, 200
Emery’s observationson Colobopsis,
20

Enemies of ants, 26, 67

Evolution of colour in flowers, 308

Experiments, as to the adoption of
a queen by ants, 32; as to di-
vision of labour among ants, 23,
44, 324; as to their care of
aphis-eggs, 70; on Claviger, 90;
as to the treatment by ants of
injured companions, 94, 107;
with chloroformed ants, 98,
108-111; with drowned ants,
%9; with buried an's, 102; as
to treatment of stranger ants,
1:1, 119, 124 333; as to mode
of recognition, 108; with in-
toxicated ants, 111 118; as to
power of recognition among
ants, 119, 333; and among bees,
126; with ant-pupz removed
from nest, 129-147; on sister-
ants brought up separately, 147-

FOO

152, as to power of communi
cation among ants, 160-181,
344-376 ; among bees, 274, 401;
among wasps, 311, 415; as to
perception of colour, 186; with
coloured solutions, 194; with
spectrum, 198 ; with the electric
light, 201; as to ultra-violet
rays, 200-220; with magnesium
spark, 207 ; as to sense of hear-
iug among ants, 222; among
bees, 290; as to sense of smell
among ants, 233, 258; among
bees, 288 ; as to ant intelligence,
237; as to economy of labour,
241; as to ingenuity among
ants, 243-6; as to their power
of finding their way, 250; as
to means of tracking. 168, 383,
387; as to sense of direction
among ants, 260; among bees,
278; and among wasps, 321; as
to guidance of ants by sight,
266; as to the belav‘our of
bees in a strange hive, 281; as
to their compassion, 286 ; as to
their colour sense, 291; and
their preference of certain
colours, 302; as to colour sense
among wasps, 316

Expulsion of ant from nest, 98

Eyes of two kinds in ants, 10;
compound, 182; various de-
velopments of, 183

'ACETS of the eye in ants,

number of, 11; described, 182

Feeding, loss of instinct of, 76, 83,
87

Fertilisa‘ion of plants by insects,
60, 291

Fighting among ants, different
modes of, 17

Flowers, their defences against
unprofitatle insects, 51-55; in-
tluence of bees on their develop-
ment, 291; paucity of blue, 3U8

Food of ants, 25, 63; its effect in

INDEX, 441

FOR

determining the sex in ants and
bees, 40; individual ants in
certain species serve as recep-
tacles of, 47

Foragers, certain ants of a nest
told off as, 45, 47

Forel, Dr., referred to as to the
emergence of pupz of ants, 8;
as to their compound eyes, 10;
as to the position of spiracles,
14; as to the offices of young
ants, 23; asto F. rufa, 27; as
to ant-games, 28, 29; as to
origin of nests. 31; as to eggs
laid by workers, 35; on the
honey ant, 40; on the germina-
tion of grain in ant-stores, 61;
as to beetles in ant nests, 78;
as to the slaves of F. sanguinea,
80; as to the slave-making of
Strongylognathus, 85; on Aner-
gates, 86; on the behaviour of
ants to each other, 94; on re-
cognition among ants, 120; as
to power of communication
among ants, 158; as to their
insensibibility to sound, 221 ; as
to special organs in their an-
tenn, 227 7

Formica bispinosa, its nest, 24

— cinerea, 16; character of, 27;
eggs laid by workers among, 37,
39; duration of life of, 42

— congerens, Thiasophila in nests
of, 77

-— exsecta, mode of attack of, 17;
extent of nest of, 24; Thiaso-
phila in nests of, 77

— flava, Uropoda in nests of, 431

~ fusca, occasionally spins a
cocoon, 7; its timidity, 27; in-
troduction of a queen among,
84; ergs laid by workers
among, 38, 39 ; queens produced
in captivity, 40; longevity of,
42; division of labour among,
45; occasionally found’ in the
nests of F. rua, 79; enslaved
by FL sanguinea, 80; Platy-

30

FOR

arthrus received in nests of, 90;
their condition analogous to
that of the hunting races of
men, 91; their neglect of friewlz
in trouble, 96; expulsion of a
member from the nest, 98; mite
aitached to the head of a queen
of, 98; their neglect of im-
prisoned companions, 103 ; hos-
tility towards imprisoned
strangers, 104; instances of
their kindness to crippled com-
panions, 106; experiments as
to recognition among, 122, 130,
134, 233; on power of commu-
nication among, 161, 180; as to
perception of colour among, 188,
193, 201

Formica gagates enslaved by F.
sanguinea, 80

— ligniperda, experiments as to
sense of hearing among, 223 ; as
to sense of smell among, 234

— nigra, experiment as to power
of communication among, 363

— pratensis, eye of, 10, 184; at-
tacked by /. exsecta, 18; its
treatment of slain enemies, 27;
Stenamma in nests of, 78; large
communities of, 119

— rufa, its power of ejecting poi-
son, 15; its mode of attack, 17,
27; nests of, 23; large number
of insects kept in nests of, 74,
75; Stenamma in nests of, 78

— rufibarbis perhaps a variety of
F. fusca, 80

— sanguinea, its mode of attack,
17; duration of life of, 41, 42;
Dinarda in nests of, 77; their
periodical attack on neighbour-
ing nests, 79; slaves made by,
80; not yet degraded by slave
holding, 88; they apparently
understand the signals of Pra-
tensis, 159

Formicidae, one of the three fami-
lies of ants, 1; power of sting:
ing absent in them, 13

442

FRA

Frank.jn, Dr, as te power of com-
munication among ants, 155

Friends, behaviour of ants to, 97,
101; recognition of, 119, 333

ei ALLERIES, covered, made by
Eciton, 65

Galton, Mr. Francis, on domestic
animals kept as pets, 77

Games among ants, 28

Gélieu, M., on means of recogni-
tion among bees, 126

Gentians, colours of, 310

Glasses, experiments on ants with
coloured, 186, &c.

Gould, Mr., on the emergence of
the imago, 8; on ant-games,
28; on the eggs of aphides, 69

Goureau, M., on the sound pro-
duced by Mutilla, 229

Graber, Dr. von, on the sense
organs in the legs of Gryllus,
231

Grain collected and stored by ants,
26,60; germination of, prevented
by ants, 61

Gredler, Dr., anecdote of ant-intel-
ligence told by, 237

Grimm’s observations on Dinarda,
76

Grote, Mr., quoted as to the ne-
cessity of morality in societies,
93

Growth of insects takes place
during the larval stage, 8

Guests of ants, 74

Gryllus,sense organs in tibise of,231

| ABITATIONS of ants, 24
Hagens, von, quoted as to

myrmecophilous beetles, 77;
on the slave-making of Strongy-
lagnathus, 85 ; on Anergates, 86;
his suggestions as to Strongy-
dognathus, 87

Hairs of plants as defences against
insects, 55

Harvesting ants, —9, 92; in the
South ot Europe and Texas, 61

INDEX.

INS

Hatred a stronger passion with
ants than affection, 106

Head of ant described, 10; large
size of, in workers of certain
species, 20, 22

Hearing, sense of, among irsects,
221; possibly present in ants,
226; among bees, 290; among
wasps, 313

Hetearius sesquicornis,
nests, 77

Hicks, Dr. J. Braxton, on the
antenne of insects, 227

Hildebrand on the variations of
blue flowers, 310

Honey, love of ants for, 51; of
aphis, 69; experiments on ants
entangled in, 98 ;

Honey ants, 19, 47 ; independently
originated in Mexico and Texas,
49; of Australia described, 428

Hope, Mr., quoted as to harvest-
ing ants, 60

Horse ant, see F. rufa

Huber, as to ants playing, 28; as
to the formation of a nest, 30;
on the care taken by ants of
aphis eggs, 70; as to slavery
among ants, 81; as to their re-
cognition of friends, 120; as to
their deafness, 221

Hunting ants, 59, 63, 91

Hydnophytum formicarum, its 4s-
sociation with ants, 68

Hymenoptera, common origin of
the sting in the, 15; the social,
means of communication be
tween, 153

in ants’

NDIVIDUAL differences be-
tween ants, 95, 101; between
bees, 279
Indusiry of ants, 27: of wasps,
321, 421
Insects, their metamorphoses, 8;
their agency in fertilisation of
flowers, 50, 291; mimicking ante,
66; kept by ants, 73; recogni-
tion among, 126; their vision,

INDEX.

INg

182; their hearing, 221; pos-
sibly possess seuses inconceiva-
ble to ourselves, 225

fnsensible ants, experiments with,
99-108

Intelligence among ants, 181, 236;
experiments as to, 240

‘ntoxicated ants, experiments on,
1ll; tabular view of experi-
ments, 118; experiments re-
ferred to, 128

ERNER on floral defences, 52 ;
on the uses of nectaries, 56
Knot in ants, specific characters
offered by forra of, 13
Kirby and Spence, Messrs., as to
power of communication among
ants, 156 ; on the power of sound
in Mutilla, 229

ABOUR, division of, among
i ants, 23, 44; experiments as
to economising, 240; tabular
view of experiments on, 324-332

Landois, on the sound emitted by
Mutilla, 229; on stridulating ap-
paratus in ants, 230

Langstroth, Dr., as to recognition
by smell among bees, 281; on
their recklessness, 285

Uarve of ants described, 6; of
stranger nests carefully tended.
129

Casius brunneus prefers the aphides
of the bark of trees, 68

— flarus, period of larval life in,
7; the eye in, 11; will not
adopt a strange queen, 32 ; mites
in the nest of, 67; keeps flocks
of the root-feeding aphis, 68 ;
keeps four or five species of
aphis in i's nests, 73; Platy-
arthrus a guest of, 75, 90; they
have arrived at the ‘pastoral
stage’ of progress, 91; their
behaviour to a dead queen, 108;
to chloroformed friends and
strangers, 108-111; to intoxi-

443

LEP

cated friends and strangers, 111;
their treatment of strangers,
123; perception of colour among.
190, 193, 195; experiments a
to sense of hearing among, 228 ;
stridulating apparatus in, 231;
structure in tibia of, 232; want
of ingenuity among, 248 ; earth-
works constructed by, 249; ex-
periments with, as to power of
communication, 365; as to co-
operation, 372; new species of
mite found in nests of, 429

Lasius niger, workers among, 19;
fed by aphides, 25; eggs laid
by workers among, 37; longe-
vity of, 42; typical nest. of, illus-
trated, 42; and described, 44;
they carry seeds of violet into
their nests, 59; their choice
among aphides, 68; Piaty-
arthrus a guest of, 75; Heterius
found in nests of, 77; experi-
ments as to Claviger in nests of,
90; observations on a wounded
worker among, 95; experiments
with buried individuals of, 102;
with pupe as to recognition
among, 131; as to power of
communication among, 160, 163,
172, 175, 356-362, 377; as to
perception of colour among, 191,
201; as to their intelligence,
240; their want of ingenuity,
242, 246; as to scent, 258; as
to sense of direction among,
260; Phora formicarum para-
sitic on, 433

— JSuliginesus, the eye in, 11;
stridulating apparatus in, 230

Latreille quoted as to compassion
shown by ants, 94

Leaf-cutting ants, 57

Legs of ants described, 12

Leptothsrax aecervorum, Platy-
arthrus a guest of, 75; Teme-
gnathus in nests of, 87 note

— muscorum, Tomognathua io
nests of, 87 note

144

LES

Legpés, M., on eggs laid by work-
ers, 35; on grain stored by ants,
61; on the feeding of Zome-
chusa by ants, 76; on ‘the
domestic arimals of ants, 90

Leuckart, his experiments on ant-
intelligence, 238

Life, duration of, among ants, 8

Tight, dislike of ants to, 2, 186;
as aid to sense of direction
among ants, 268; bees attracted
by, 284

Ligurian queen bee, introduction
of a, 287

Limits of vision with ants, experi-
ments as to, 199-206; in Daph-
nia, 219

Lincecum, Dr., as to Texan har-
vesting ants, 62

Linnzeus quoted as to aphides, 67

Locust, ants apparently deceived
by a leaf-like, 66

Lomechusa fed by ants, 76

Long, Col., as to the sense of
hearing among certain ants, 226

Longevity of workers of Zasius
niger, 38, 42; of queen ants, 9, 40

Lowne, Mr., quoted as to the func-
tions of ocelli, 183

Lund, M., quoted as to the intel-
ligence of ants, 236

Lycena pseudargiolus, ants seen
licking the larva of, 68

CCOOK, Mr., quoted as to
the adoption of a queen by
Crematogaster, 34; as to honey-
ants, 48; as to the grain-fields
of the Texan harvesting ant, 62;
as to ants licking the larva of a
butterfly, 68; on recognition by
smell among ants, 127
Markel quoted as to insects kept
by F. rufa, 74
Maizaonides as to the ownership of
ant-stores of grain, 59
Males only produced by eggs laid
oy workers among bees, wasps,
end ants, 36, 37; of Axergates

INDEX.

MYR

wingless, 86; of Tomognathus
wingless, 87 note

Mandibles of ants, 11; pointed ir
Polyergus. 18; but toothless
82; sabre-like in 8. Hubert, 84

Marking ants, bees, and wasps
methods of, 5

Meer Hassan Ali, as to harvesting
ants, 60

Mental powers of ants differ from
those of men in degree rather
than in kind, 181

Metamorphoses undergone by in-
sects, 8

‘Metamorphoses of
quoted, 30

Mexico, honey-pot ants in, 19, 47

Michael, Mr., description of U7o-
poda by, 429

Microphone, experiment with, 225

Mimicry, protective, instances of,
66

Insects,

Mischna, rules in, respecting ant-
hoards of grain, 59

Mites, ants infésted by, 26, 98;
new species in nests of Lasius
flavus, 429

Mocquerys, M., on the tenacity of
the bite of the ant, 96

Mogeridge, Mr., on harvesting
ants, 61

Morality among ants, question as
to, 93; among bees, 285

Mosaic theory of the vision of com-
pound eyes, 184

Moseley, Mr. H. N., quoted as to
the connection between ants
and certain epiphytés, 58

Mouth of ant described, 11

Miiller, his observations on Cla.
viger, 76; on the mosaic theory
of vision, 184; on the colou
sense in bees, 307; on blue
flowers, 310

Mushrooms grown by ants, 57

Myrmecina Latreillii, the eye in,
11; their mode of defence, 16;
said to be phlegmatic in disposi
tion, 27

INDEX.

MYR

Myrmecocystus mexicanus, honey-
holding individuals among, 19;
foragers bring supplies of honey
to them, 47

Vyrmecodia armata, its associa-
tion with ants, 538

Vyrmecophilous insects, 68- 78

Myrmica ruginodis, period of lar-
val life in, 7; length of tife of
males of, 9; origin of a nest of,
82; observations on a wounded
specimen of, 96; experiments as
to recognition among, 121; as
to communication among. 164,
348; illustration of terminal
portion of antenna of, 227;
sense-organ in tibia of, 233;
their unwillingness to face a fall,
245

— scabrinodis, cowardly nature
of, 27; Platyarthrus a guest of,
76

Myrmicida, one of the three fa-
milies of ants, 1; correlation of
form of knot with power of
sti.,ing in the, 13

ECTARIES, uses of, 56
Nests for ants, artificial, de-
scribed, 3, 164; of ants classified
and described, 23, &c.; three
modes of formation. of, sug-
gested, 30; of Lasius niger de-
scribed and illustrated, 42
Neuters among ants, preduction
of different forms of, 22
Normann, M. de, honey ants
brought from Mexico by, 47

CQCELI US, or simple eye in

ants, 10; absent in the work-
ers of some species, 11; origin
of, 182

Wer lema cephalotes, the Saiiba
ant, five kinds of individuals
among, 21; extent of nest of,
24; leaf-cutting among, 237;
intelligence of, 239

445

PoG

Geophylia, sting in, 13
Organ of sense in antenna of ant,
226; in tibia of Gryllus, 231;
in tibia of ant, 232
Ormerod, Mr., as to the sense of
- hearing among wasps, 221
Ova of aphis described, 71 note

ARASITES of ants, 26, 67, 74,
431, 433; of bees, 26

Pass-word, experiments as to,
among ants, 108; supposed use
of, among bees and ants, 126;
experiments as to, with pups,
129; existence of, apparently
disproved, 147

Pets, domestic animals kept as, by
savages, 77

Phases of life among men and
ants, analogy between, 91

Pheidole megacephala, pugnacity
of small workers of, 20; experi-
ment as to power vf communi-
cation among, 180; sense-organ
in tibia of, 233

— pallidula, the eye in, 11; com-
munication among, 158

-- providens, its s'orage of grass
seeds, 60

Phora formicarum, its attacks
on ants, 26, 74; described, 432

Phoridz parasitic on ants, 67, 74;
new genus and species of, 431

Pigs kept as pets by savages, 77

Plagiolepis pygmea, the eye in, 11

Plants, relation of ants to, 50;
their different modes of defence
against unprofitable insects, 51;
benefited by the action of in
sectivorous ants, 59 ;

Plato, epigram by, quoted, 185

Platyarthrus Hoffmanseggii,aguest
of the ants, 75; experiments
with, 90

PlatyphoraLubbochii,67; described
434

Pogonomyrmex barbatus, stores
‘ant-rice,’ 61

446

Pol

Peison ejected oy Formica rufa, 16

Polistes, robbery among, 286; P.
gallica, a specimen of, kept for
nine months, 315

Polyergus rufescens, the eye in, 11;
its mode of combat, 18; indi-
vidual courage of, 27; males
produced from eggs laid by
workers among, 39, 45: greatly
dependent.on its slaves, 80, 83;
slave-making expedition of, de-
scribed, 81; degrading effect of
slave-holding on, 89; imprisoned
friends and strangers equally
neglected, 105; power of com-

_ munication among, 158, 180

Polygonum amphibium, glandular
hairs absent from specimens
growing in water, 56

Ponera contracta, the eye in, 11

Ponerida, one of the three families
of ants, 1; form of knot in, 13;
stridulating apparatus in, 230

Primulace@, evolution of colour
in, 809

Protective mimicry, 66

Pupz of ants, 7; experimented on
as to power of recognition
among ants, 129

Python said to have been de-
stroyed by the Driver ants, 64

UEEN ants, longevity of, 9,
41; their wings, 12; several
in anest, 19; reluctance of ants
to adopt a new, 32; never pro-
duced from workers’ eggs, 36;
seldom produced in captivity,
40; treatment of a dead, 108
Queen bees, limited nature of de-
votion of subjects to, 287

ANUNCULACEH, correla-
tion of colour with speciali-
sation of form in, 308
Recognition of friends by ants,
experiments on, 108, &c., 119,

INDEX.

SIE

&ec.; after long separation, 123
233, 333 ; means of, 125 ; among
bees, 126; experiments as to,
with pup,129-147 ; as to sister
ants brought up separately, 147 ;
proved to be communal, not per-
sonal, 152

Relations, behaviour of ants to, 93

Retrogression of organs: of sting,
14; of wings, 15; of eyes, 75

Roads made by ants, 25

Robbery among bees, 285

Rufescent ants on a slave-making
expedition, 81

Nie FARGEAU, Lepeletier de,

\) on the origin of ants’ nests,
31; on the benevolence of ants,
94; as to hearing among insects,
221

Saiiba ant, see @codoma cephalotes

Sauvages, Abbé Boisier de, on the
connection between ants and
aphides, 68

Savage, Rev. T. §., ‘ On the Habits
of Driver Ants,’ quoted, 20, 63,
64

Scavengers, some ant-guests may
serve as, 75

Scent, power among ants of track-
ing by, 124, 171; experiments
with different kinds of, 233;
importance of, to ants, 258

Schenk, Anergates discovered Ly,
86

Sceretion of aphis retained till re-
quired by ants, 69; of Clawiger
and Dinarda as food for ants
75, 76

Seeds of violet collected by arits,
26; stored by ants, 60; anc
prevented from sprouting, 6)

Senses of ants, 182; organs of,
226, 232

Sentinels among bees, 288

Sex of eggs determined by treat-
ment, 40, 41

Siebold, von. on sense-organs in

INDEX.

SIG

Gryllus, 231; on robbery among
Polistes, 286

Sight, how far ants are guided by,
251, 258, 266, 270

Signals given by ants, 158

3lave-holding, structural changes
induced by, 82; degradation
caused by, 89

Slave-making ants, 18 ; expedition
of, 81

Slavery among ants, origin of, 79;
degrading tendency of, 82-89

Smell of Myrmecina possibly pro-
tective, 17; on recognition
among ants by, 127; sense of,
among ants, 233; the probable
means of recognition among
bees, 281 ; sense of, keen among
bees, 288

Snake killed by Driver ants, 64

Soldiers among ants, 20; those of
Saiiba do not fight, 22; their
origin, 22

Solenopsis fugaz, the eye in, 11;
the enemy of its hosts, 78

Solomon on the foresight of the
ant, 59, 60

Sound, apparent insensibility of
ants to, 222; possible existence
of, beyond human auditory
range, 223, 233; how produced
by Mutilla, 229; apparent in-
sensibility of bees to, 290

Specialisation of form in flowers
correlated with colour, 308

Spectrum, experiments as to per-
ception of, by ants, 198

Spiders, their intelligence in es-
caping the Ecitons, 66 ; mimick-
ing ants, 66

spiracles of ant, position of, 12, 14

Stenamma Woodwardii, the eye in,
11; found exclusively in nests
of Formica, 78

3tethoscope-like organs in antenna
of ant, 228

Sting in ants, possible correlation
of, with form of knot, 13; pro-
bable common origin of, in ants,

447

. TYN

bees, and wasps, 14; atrophied
condition of, in Formica, 15; the
loss of, fatal to bees, 283

Strangers, behaviour of -ants to-
wards, 104, 109, 119, 333

Stridulating apparatus in Mutilca,
229; in ants, 230

Strongylognathus Huberi, its mode
of slave-making, 84

— testaceus, the eye in, 11; s'ave-
holders in spite of their feedle-
ness, 84; their degradation, 87,
89

Sulphate of quinine, experiment
with, as to ant vision, 216

Surgical use of ant heads in Bra
zil, 96

Sykes, Mr., quoted as to seed-
collecting ants, 60

‘AME wasp, behaviour of 3, 315
Tapinoma, length of period of

larval life in, 7

— erraticum, the eye in, 11; sheir
agility, 24; Heterius in nests
of, 77

Teazle, possible uses of leaf-cup
in, 52

Tetramorium cespitum, the eye in,
1L; feigns death as a defence,
17; alleged greediness of, 27;
enslaved by Strongylognathus,
84; entire dependence of Aner.
gates upon, 85

Texas, harvesting ants in, 61

Thiasophila angulata in ants’ nests,
T7

Thorax of ant described, 12

Tibia of Gryllus, sense organ in,
231; of Lasius, 232; of Locus-
tide, 233

Tomognathus sublevis, only
workers of, known, 87 note

Tracks of ants illustrated, 251-257

Tuning-forks, experiments with,
222

Tunnels formed by ants, 25

Tyndall, Professor, experiment

448

TYP

with sensitive flames, 225; as to
sense organs in antenna, 228
Typhlopone, absence of eyes in, 11

LTRA-RED rays, ants not sen-
sitive to, 206

Ultra-violet rays, sensitiveness of
ants to, 201-220

Uropoda formicaria described, 429

ARIETIES produced in beetles
frequenting nests of various

ants, 77

Verrall, G. H., Esq., description of
a new genus of Phorida, 26, 431

Vespa germanica, experiment
with, as to communication, 415

-— vulgaris, experiment as to
colour with, 316

Vibrations producing sensations
of sound and colour, 225

Violet light, avoidance of, by ants,
189

Violets, colours of, 309: seeds of,
carried into nests by Lasius, 26,
59

Viscidity of plants, a de‘ence
against insects, 55, 56

Vision among ants, 182; of the

INDEX.

WOR
ocelli, 183: of compound eyes,
184; limits of, 199, 206, 219

ALKER, Mr., honey ant sent
from Aastralia by, 48
Wasps, occasional fertility of
workers among, 36; sense of
hearing among, 221; experi-
ments with, 311, 415; more
clever than bees in finding their
way, 313; their courage, 314;
account of a tame one, 315;
their colour sense, 316; their
industry, 421

Water, ants’ visits prevented by,
52

Wesmael, M., describes Myrmeco-
cystus, 47

Westwood, Mr., on the production
of neuters, 22; on the sourd
produced of Mutilla, 229

Wirgs of ants, atrophy of, among
the workers, 12; pulled off after
flight by the queen ants, 12, 19

Winter, aphis eggs tended by ants
through the, 70

Workers among ants always wing-
less, 12; varieties of form
among, 19-22; occasional fer-
tility of, 35 ; longevity of, 87, 88

(3)

Plate 2.

Atta barbara ¥ major. 3. Pheidole megacephala ¥ major.
“ 6s “ minor. 4. & as “ minor.
5. Formica rufa.

Plate 3.

4

3. Stenamma Westwoodii %.
it

1. CEcodoma cephalotes % major.
a fe “ minor. 4. Solenopsis fugax

2.

Plate 4.

1. Camponotus inflatus %.
2. Tetramorium czespitum “

3. Strongylognathus testaceus ¥.
4. Anergates atratulus 9.

Plate 6.

Sue

. Lasius flavus ¢@. 5. Beckia albinos.
= 6. Aphis.
“« Larva. 7. Platyarthrus Hoffmanseggii.

“ Pupa. 8. Claviger foveolatus.

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By Sypney J. Hickson, M.A., Fellow of Downing College,
Cambridge. With 23 Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $1.00.

“That realm of mystery and wonders at the bottom of the great waters is gradually
being mapped and explored and studied until its secrets seem no longer secrets. . . .
This eecnliene book has a score of illustrations .and a careful index to add to its
value, and in every way is to be commended for its interest and its scientific merit.’
—Chicago Times.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

BOTANY.

A Contribution to Our Knowledge of Seedlings.

By Sir Joun Luszock, Bart. 684 illustrations. 2 vols.
8vo. Cloth, $10.00.

The germination of plants is certainly not the least interesting
portion of their life history, but it has not as yet attracted the attention
it deserves. It seems surperfluous to say that the subject has received a
thorough and careful treatment by Mr. Lubbock, who has contributed a
most valuable work to the world of science.

The Origin of Cultivated Plants.

By ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE. 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.

The knowledge of the origin of cultivated plants is interesting to
agriculturists, to botanists, and even to historians and philosophers con-
cerned with the dawnings of civilization. This book treats of the origin
of almost double the number of species belonging to the tropics and the
temperate zones that were treated of in the author’s first work on
geographical botany. It includes almost all plants that are cultivated,
either on a large scale for economic purposes or in orchards and kitchen
gardens.

“ Though a fact familiar to botanists, it is not generally known how
great is the uncertainty as to the origin of many of the most important
cultivated plants... . . In endeavoring to unravel the matter a knowl-
edge of botany, of geography, of geology, of history, and of philosophy
is required. By a combination of testimony derived from these sources
M. de Candolle has been enabled to determine the botanical origin
and geographical source of the large proportion of species he deals
with."— Zhe Atheneum.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

BOOKS FOR NATURE LOVERS.

Insect Life. (New Edition in Colors.)

By Joun Henry Comsrock, Professor of Entomology
in Cornell University. With r2 full-page plates reproducing
Butterflies and various Insects in their natural colors, and
with many wood-engravings by Anna Botsford Comstock,
Member of the Society of American Wood-Engravers.
8vo. Cloth, $1.75 net; postage, 20 cents additional.

“ The arrangement of the lessons and experiments and the advice
on collection and manipulation are only some of the very admirable

features of a work that must take first place in the class to which it
belongs.”—Philadelphia Press.

“Any one who will go through the work with fidelity will be
rewarded by a knowledge of insect life which will be of pleasure and
benefit to him at all seasons, and will give an increased charm to the
days or weeks spent each summer outside of the great cities. It is the
best book of its class which has yet appeared.”—A‘ew York Mail and
Lxpress.

The Art of Taxidermy.

By Joun Row tey, Chief of the Department of Taxi-
dermy in the American Museum of Natural History. Finely
illustrated. 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.

ConTEentTs.—Collecting. Tools and Materials. Casting.
Birds. Mammals. Fish, Reptiles, and Crustaceans. Skele-
tons. The Reproduction of Foliage for Groups.

“Mr. Rowley will long be gratefully remembered by taxidermists,
amateurs, and others, for the care he has used in thus meeting a long.
felt want.”— Bangor (Me.) Sportsman.

“ The book is not an elaborate treatise upon the abstract principles
which lie at the foundation of artistic taxidermy, but is rather a com-
pendium full of practical hints and suggestions, recipes, and formulas
for the working taxidermist.”— The Dial.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

“A BUTTERFLY BOOK OF BEAUTY.”

How to Know the Butterflies.

By Joun Henry Comstock, Professor of Ento-
mology in Cornell University, and ANNA BOTSFORD
Comstock, Lecturer in Nature Study in Cornell
University. With 45 full-page colored plates, and
many illustrations in the text. 8vo. Cloth, $2.25
net; postage additional.

This book is designed as a general treatise on butterflies
and a manual of the species of the United States east of the
Rocky Mountains. It is intended especially for beginners
and for students of nature; but it will also serve as an in-
troduction to a serious study of this group of insects. This
book is richly illustrated, without a confusing array of figures
of species from remote parts of our country; it contains
brief descriptions of species, but sufficiently full that the
reader can definitely determine the species studied ; and it
gives the more important facts of the lives of our butterflies,

“‘ This book gives the unscientific reader a direct acquaintance with a
large number of species, in such simple terms that classification is not
difficult, and with the aid of profuse colored illustrations that excite the
admiration of those who have contented themselves heretofore with view-
ing these beautiful creatures on the wing. Butterfly catching is regarded
by many as a cruel pastime, but there are ways of capturing these ephem-
erals which may rightly be regarded as humane and decent, and the
authors, filled with an abounding love of nature, recommend nothing that
is not compatible with their beliefs. Notes of the habitat of each species
and the facts of butterfly life are given abundantly, and, with the pictures,
form an unusually important book, which is certain to widen the circle of
those who know the joys of butterfly collecting.” — The Washington Star,

“Such blending of tints would seem to be a task fit for the painter
only instead of the printer. Investigation reveals the fact that the work
is a veritable treasure-house of information—perhaps the most carefully
prepared volume yet placed before the public dealing with the subject in
hand.”— St. Louis Globe-Democrat.

“One of the most interesting, valuable, and beautiful of all the nature
books published this spring.”"—Bvooklyn Standard-Union.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

TWENTIETH CENTURY ZOOLOGY.

Animal Life.

A First Book of Zotiogy. By President Davip STARR
Jorpan and VeRNon L. Kettoce, M.S., Professor of
Entomology in Leland Stanford Junior University. 12mo.
Cloth, $1.20.

“*T believe it is an excellent thing, filling a gap that has long been
apparent in our nature work in this country."—Prof. Lawrence
Bruner, University of Nebraska.

“Your boos is certainly an admirable discussion of biological
problems up to date. It is interesting, and stimulative of thought and
observation.” —L/tiott R. Downing, University of Chicago.

“The ecological treatment of zodlogy here finds a truly successful
exhibition, and it is certainly very satisfactory and ahead of all
previous attempts at a similar exposition for beginners in zodlogy.”—
Prof. Julius Nelson, Rutgers College.

“Tt is by far the best text-book on zodlogy yet published for the
use of high-school students. It breathes the freshness of nature.
Fortunate is the school that is permitted to use it."—Principal W.N.
Bush, Polytechnic High School, San Francisco, Cal.

Animal Forms.

By President Davip Starr JorDAN and HaxKoip
Hearty, Ph.D., Professor of Zodlogy in Leland Stanford
Junior University. 12mo, Cloth, $1.10.

“ Animal Forms” deals similarly with animal morphology, structure
and life processes, from the lowest, simplest, one-celled creations to tke
highest and most complex. The two complete a full year’s work in
zoology. :

The first chapter defines zoélogy, and explains minutely the
morphology of a typical animal. The second chapter discusses cells
and protoplasm, and prepares the pupil for an intelligent and logical
study of the general subject.

In simplicity of style, in correctness of scientific statement, in pro-
fuseness and perfectness of illustration, these books are without a peer.
A Laboratory Manual is in preparation. Teachers’ Manuals free.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS.

TEXT-BOOKS OF ZOOLOGY.

By Davip Starr JorpDAN, President of Leland Stan-
ford Jr. University; VERNON LyMAN KELLOGG, Professor
of Entomology; Harotp HeEatu, Assistant Professor of
Invertebrate Zoology; and GrorcEe C. Pricer, Associate
Professor of Zoology in Leland Stanford Jr. University.

Animal Studies.

A compact but complete treatment of elementary zoology, especialiy
prepared for institutions of learning that prefer to find in a single book
an ecological as well as morphological survey of the animal world. 12mo.
Cloth, $1.25.

Animal Life.

An elementary account of animal ecology—that is, of the relations
of animals to their surroundings. It treats of animals from the stand-
point of the observer, and shows why the present conditions and habits
of animal life are as we find them. It explains how the infinite variety
of form and nature is the inevitable outcome of the struggle for existence.
Izmo. Cloth, $1.20.-

Animal Forms.

This book deals in an elementary way with animal morphology. It
describes the structure and life processes of animals, from the lowest,
simplest, one-celled creations to the highest and most complex, discussing
therewith the important subject of division of labor, 12mo, Cloth, $1.10,

Animals.

This consists of “Animal Life” and ‘Animal Forms” bound in one
volume, and groups the entire body of material needed for an elementary
course in zoology in a handy and compact volume. 12mo. Cloth, $1.80.

Ld

Animal Structures.

A laboratory guide in the teaching of elementary zoology. 12mo.
Cloth, 50 cents.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
NEW YORK. BOSTON. CHICAGO. LONDON

FOR NATURE-LOVERS AND ANGLERS.

Familiar Fish: Their Habits and
Capture.

A Practical Book on Fresh-Water Game Fish.
By Evcens McCartuy. With an Introduction
by Dr. David Starr Jordan, President of Leland
Stanford Junior University, and numerous IIlus-
trations. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

This informing and practical book describes in a most inter-.
esting fashion the habits and environment of our familiar fresh-
water game fish, including anadromous fish like the salmon and
sea trout. The life of a fish is traced in a manner very interest-
ing to nature-lovers, while the simple and useful explanations of
the methods of angling for different fish will be appreciated by
fishermen old and young. As one of the most experienced of
American fishermen, Mr. McCarthy is able to speak with au-
thority regarding salmon, trout, ouananiche, bass, pike, and pick-
erel, and other fish which are the object of the angler’s pursuit.
The book is profusely illustrated with pictures and serviceable
diagrams. :

“¢ The book compresses into a moderate space a larger amount of interesting

knowledge about fish and fishing than any other volume that has appeared this
season.”’—Chicago Tribune.

‘Tt gives, in simple language and illustrations, much that it will be profit-
able for our boys to know before they begin to lay out their money, and much
,information that will be useful to them when they begin to go farther afield
than their own immediate local waters.’’— Outing.

“€One of the handsomest, most practical, most informing books that we
know. The author treats his subject with scientific thoroughness, but with a
light touch that makes the book easy reading. . . . The book should be the
companion of all who go a-fishing.’’"—New York Mail and Express.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

BOOKS BY CHARLES DARWIN, LL.D., F.R.S.

Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection; or, The
Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. From
sixth and last London edition. 2 vols. 12mo. Cloth, $4 00.

Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. Many
Illustrations. A new edition. r12mo. Cloth, $3.00.

A Naturalist’s Voyage around the World. Journal of Researches
into the Natural History and Geology of Countries visited during
the Voyage of H. M. S. “ Beagle.” Maps and 100 Views, chiefly
from sketches, by R. T. PRITCHETT. 8vo. Cloth, $5.00. Also
popular edition. r12mo. Cloth, $2.00.

The Structure ani Distribution of Coral Ree’s. Based on
Observations made during the Voyage of the “ Beagle.” Charts
and Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $2 00.

‘Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands and Parts of
, South America visited during the Voyage of the “ Beagle.” Maps
and Illustrations. 12m». Cloth, $2.50.

Emotional Expressions of Man and the Lower Animals,
1zmo. Cloth, $3.50.

The Variations of Animals ani Plants under Domestication.
Preface by Prof. AsA Gaay. 2vols. Illustrations, Cloth, $5.00.

“Insectivorous Plants. 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.

Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants. [llustrations.
12mo, Cloth, $1.25.

The Various Contrivances by which Orchids are Fertilized
by Insects. Revised edition. Illustrations. r2mo. Cloth, $1.75.

The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable
Kingdom. 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.

Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the same Species.
Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

The Power of Movement in Plants. Assisted by FRANCIS
Darwin. Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.

The Formatioa of Vegetable Mould through the Action of
Worms, with Observations on their Habits. Illustrations.
12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.