Cornell Aniversity Library BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henry W. Sage 1891 oo University Library itiienmuenun arV111 olin. Ps Cornell University The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http :/Awww.archive.org/details/cu31924031489473 NATURE-STUDY A MANUAL FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS Cabbage butterfly, Tiger swallow-tail, Great spangled fritillary, Black swallow-tail, 7 Cosmopolitan, Taste pred Roadside butterfly, 4 Luryoun Red-spotted purple, @ Marx tle ve/ AN VHX Brooklyn.) NATURE-STUDY A MANUAL FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS BY FREDERICK L. HOLTZ, A.M. Head of Department of Nature - Study, Brooklyn Training School for Teachers; New York City. Formerly Head of Department of Biology and Nature- Study, State Normal School, Mankato, Minn. ILLUSTRATED NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS 1908 = Copyright, 1908, by CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS PREFACE Tus book is designed as an aid and guide to the practical teacher, and as a text-book in methods of nature-study for normal and training schools. Part I is devoted to a discussion of underlying principles and methods. A just appreciation of the purpose of nature- study and a good technique in teaching are as essential as a knowledge of subject-matter, especially in a subject like this, which must be taught without text-books. Part II contains appropriate subject-matter of a biological nature, and practical hints and suggestions on the collection and care of material, and the presentation of lessons. I have, however, avoided working out complete lesson-plans for the teacher, believing it far better to allow her to adapt the sub- ject-matter herself to her own conditions, and to give an op- portunity for originality. Emphasis is placed on the teaching of life-histories, life- habits, functions and processes, and not on mere structure study. Of chief importance also in nature-study are the adaptations to function and environment, the interrelations of plants and animals, their economic aspects, and practical bearing on human life. Part III consists of a course of nature-study for the eight grades. It represents a serious effort to organize and im- vi PREFACE prove the present-day courses in this subject, and is based upon an exhaustive, comparative examination of the curricula at the principal nature-study centres in this country. The requirements of both city and rural schools are considered, and enough material is given to permit a rich treatment in either case. In the Appendix is a carefully selected, classified, and an- notated list of reference books and nature readers. A few illustrations have been kindly loaned, for which credit is given in each case. Mrs. Henry Parsons, Director of the Children’s Farm School, New York City, furnished the photograph for figure 97. I acknowledge my indebtedness and express my gratitude to all who have assisted or encouraged me in the preparation of this book, particularly to my wife; to my former colleagues, Mr. John A. Hancock and Miss Martha V. Collins, of the State Normal School, Mankato, Minn.; to Dr. Stuart H. Rowe, of the Training School for Teachers, Brooklyn, N.Y.; and to Mr. Geo. P. Englehardt, Children’s Museum, Brook- lyn, N. Y. FREDERICK L, HOLTZ. TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS, BROOKLYN, N. Y. Feb. 15, 1908. CHAPTER Til. IV. VI. VII. CONTENTS PART I THe MotTIvE IN NATURE-STUDY The social motive. Natural interest. THE EpUcATIONAL VALUE oF NATURE-STUDY Discipline of mental functions: observation, comparison, general reasoning, and imagination. The practical utility of nature-study. THe AlsTHETIC AND ETHICAL VALUE OF NATURE- STUDY ‘ : : ; : Cultural value. Primitive culture. The nature instinct. Enjoyment of nature. Developing sympathetic atti- tude toward nature. The ethical and spiritual value of nature-study. Stupyinc NATURE IN THE GRADES—How AND WHAT. Informal methods. The scientific method. The devel- opment method. The teacher’s preparation. Giving the lesson. Rules for questioning. ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL Function in the lesson. Linds of illustrations and their value: actual objects, models, pictures, diagrams, etc. The experiment. The museum. Live specimens. Outdoor observations. The field lesson. CORRELATION Principles of application—correlation with geography, art study, and literature. PART II ANIMAL STUDY General principles of selection and presentation. Out- lines for study of animals. Emphasis on life habits, adaptations, and life histories. Courses of mammal lessons. : PAGE 14 2I 33 53 71 viii CHAPTER VIII. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. CONTENTS Brrp Stupy Interest in birds. How to observe. Lessons on birds. Bird calendar. Bird habits. Brrps Descriptive of structure and habits of peas Resins, mi- gration, food and economics. PROTECTION AND PRESERVATION OF Birps . ? Natural enemies and dangers, hunting, millinery, etc. Audubon Society and other protective agencies. Bird Day. Attracting the birds. Bird houses. Frocs, Toaps, SALAMANDERS, LizARDs, TURTLES, ETC. Counteracting prejudice and fear for these animals. De- velopment of frog. Economic value of toads, etc. FisHES—AQUARIA . Stocking and care of aquaria. Study of fish. TypricaL INSECTS . Observing and collecting. Moule structure, desidtape ment, habits, and classification of types from the chief orders: Locust, dragon-fly, bug, beetle, butterfly, moth, fly, bee. Insects, HARMFUL AND OTHERWISE Mosquito, household pests, garden and field sriseete, orchard and forest enemies. Insects and pollination; adaptations. Parasitic insects. Silk-worm. Common harmless insects. Butterflies and moths. Protective form and color, and mimicry. SomE LowErR ANIMALS : : Spiders—their structure, habits, webs. | Cray-fish, lob- sters, etc. Snails and bivalves. Earthworm. Coral. Sponge. THE SCHOOL GARDEN . Function as outdoor laboratory. Motel raiding i means of gardening. Value in city. Need of practical agricultural training in the country. How to make a school garden. Indoor gardening. Morticultural and gardening hints. Insecticides and fungicides. Plant lists. PAGE 81 99 132 148 165 175 2Ir 246 258 CONTENTS e CHAPTER PAGE XVII. Lessons wiTH PLants , ; : : : 299 Germination studies. Root function. Biennials. Stem structure and function. Tree trunks. Propagation stems. Buds. Leaves and their functions—transpira- tion and starch-making. Modified leaves. The flower and its function. Pollination. Types of flowers. How to study the whole plant. Movements of plants. Seed dispersal. Grasses and cereals. Useful plants. XVIII. TREEs . 358 Growth and life of a tree. Stem structure. Foliage. Autumn coloration and leaf-fall. Flowers and fruit. Conditions determining forest distribution. Forest con- ditions. Influences and uses of forests. Destructive agencies. Arbor Day—purpose, programmes. Beau- tification of school-grounds. ‘Tree-planting. XIX. FLoweriess PLants . : : 3 : 388 Fern, Equisetum, moss, liverwort, lichen, and mushrooms. PART III GRADED Course OF NATURE-STUDY . ‘ ? ‘ . - 399 APPENDIX REFERENCE Books AND NATURE READERS 3 5 : . SII INDEX . ‘ 3 a 3 5 - 3 : - 539 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Butterflies (Colored) : : : : : Frontispiece PAGE Guinea Pigs e . 5 5 : 5 z 35 School Specimen Cabinet 2 : 44 Nature-Study Class on a Field Lesson ‘ js F ee. O56 Brook at Work Removing a Landslide 3 5 F 56 Blue Jay (Pupil’s Work) ‘ 58 Pupils’ Drawing. Tulips : 63 Good Comrades 5 ‘ 72 Bat with Membranous Wings - 74 A Female Rose-Breasted Grosbeak with Young. 82 Wing of Chicken with Quills and Coverts . 92 Wing of Chicken Showing Attachment of oer 93 Barn Swallow’s Nest . - 94 Nest of Chipping Sparrow 95 Nest of Wood Thrush 5 i : ‘ 97 Chimney Swift ‘ . : : 102 Robin’s Nest. ; ‘ i IIo Oriole’s Nest : 5 II Humming-Bird’s Nest 113 Wren Box, Showing Nest and Young . II4 Young Grosbeaks, just Hatched : : . 116 A Weedy Corn-field, Feeding Ground of Birds 121 Feeding the Chickens 123 Apple Tree spewing Woodpecker’ s Work 125 Red Owl . 128 Hunting Grouse _ 3 é - 134 Young Grosbeaks Fe : : 141 Bird’s Drinking Trough e 144 Bird Houses and Robin a 146 Frog’s Eggs 5 : : 2 . 149 Toad’s Eggs : : c 150 Development of Frog A . : : 4 UGE The Toad . 2 : : + 1Esy Protective Coloration of the Toad. : 158 Aquaria 5 : : - 166 Aquarium with Sunfish F i 3 . 168 The Gill of a Fish 17 Pond for Collecting Aquatic Creatures 178 Decaying ns Pane Insects - 179 Insect Net . ‘ 180 xil LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Cyanide Bottle Mounted Beetle Spreading Board : Young and Old Locust : Compound Eye of Dragon-Fly Mouth Parts of Locust Breathing Pore of a Cockroach Dragon-Fly : Dragon-Fly Emerging from Nymph C Case . Some Aquatic Insects < 3 Wing of a Bug . 4 Head and Beak of a Bug : Cage of Luna Moths . Insect Cage é Eggs and Young Caterpillars of ‘Cabbage Butterfly Milkweed Caterpillar on Milkweed Leaf Milkweed Caterpillar Getting Ready to Pupate Chrysalis of Milkweed Butterfly Milkweed or Monarch Butterfly i Out of Chrysalis Scales on the Wing of a Moth Cecropia Moth Just Out of Cocoon . Caterpillar Spinning Cocoon and Finished Cocoon A Beetle Head and Mouth Parts of Predaceous Beetle House Fly . ; : Honey Bees: Drone, Queen, and Worker Head of Honey Bee . Sting and Poison Bladder of Honey Bee Hornet’s Nest Brood Comb Inside a Hornet’s Nest Mosquito, Male and Female Development of Mosquito . Plant-Lice . : Tent of Webworms Butterflies and Bumble- Bees on Clover Sphinx Moth puonive: Flower Ant Cage Cricket é Cricket’s Sounding Wing Ear of Cricket Katydid Cicada Molted Skin of Cicada ‘ . Monarch Butterfly Sipping Nectar from Clover Comma Butterfly Just Out of Chrysalis Sphinx Moth with Extended Proboscis Cecropia Caterpillar Luna Moth Walking Stick : Protective Coloration of Bark Moth PAGE 180 181 182 184 185 186 187 189 190 IQI 192 193 194 195 196 197 197 198 198 199 200 201 202 202 203 204 205 2006 208 209 212 213 217 220 225 226 231 233 234 234 235 235 230 237 237 238 240 242 244 245 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Orb Spider : Funnelweb Spider Dewy Web of an Orb Spider Spinneret Crayfish Land Snails F Children’s Farm School, New York City The Children’s School Garden . Plan for Border Planting Plan for School Garden Plan of Individual Bed Bulb-Planting Diagram Plants Growing in a School-Room Grafting , . Budding Germinators for Observing Seedlings Oak Seedling. Experiment: Removal of Cotyledon of Bean Germinating Corn Fibrovascular Strands in Plantain Leaf Section of Corn Stalk, Showing Fibrovascular Bundles Trunk of White Elm Trunk of White Birch Cross-Section of Elm, Showing Annual Rings, E Ete. Rootstalk of Solomon’s Seal Development of Buds into Branches . Cottonwood and Butternut Twigs with Buds Transpiration é Diagram of Cross- Section of a Leaf . Diagram of Longitudinal Section of a Plant Showing Flow of SEP: etc. Aquatic Plants sania) Off Gayeen Wake Robin Pasque Flower Staminate and Pistillate Flowers of Squash Sweet-Pea A ‘ i e : i Pollination of Sweet- Pea Development of Sweet-Pea into Fruit Pistillate and Staminate Flowers of Boxelder Jack-in-the-Pulpit ‘ Staminate Catkin of Cottonwood Pistillate Flowers of Cottonwood ‘ : . : Pussy- Willows ‘ : Sunflower , Section through Sunflower, ‘Showing Composite Structure . Thistle : Squash Seedling _ Plants Turning Toward the Light Sensitive Plant Closing its Leaves Seed Dispersal in Neglected Corner . : Pretty Seed Pods of “Butterprint” Weed xiii PAGE 247 248 249 250 252 253 259 263 204 268 271 280 285 289 291 300 301 302 393 395 306 397 308 399 310 312 313 315 316 317 319 322 323 325 326 327 328 329 33° 331 332 333 334 335 336 339 340 © 343 344 345 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Russian “Thistle” Wing Fruit of Elm Dandelion Gone to Seed Cocklebur_ . ‘ Waahoo Bush Displaying Fruit After Leaf-Fall . Explosive Fruits a Timothy Grass in Flower Grass Flower Indian Corn Plant. Staminate Flower of Indian Corn Ear of Corn or Pistillate Flowers The Forest ‘ Trunk of Red Oak White Elm in Flower . Cottonwood Trees by a River Shelf Pore-Fungus Grove of Hard Maples : Denuded Hill Showing Erosion Unshaded School-Grounds . Farm Homestead Surrounded e Trees A Wounded Tree Healing A Street Beautified by Shade Trees Trees and Vines Improve a House Spore Dots on a Fern Leaf Moss-Covered Boulder Liverwort Encrusting a Cliff Agaricus Campestris . Development of Mushroom Poisonous Toadstool, Amanita . Wood-Destroying Toadstool PART I GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF NATURE-STUDY CHAPTER I THE MOTIVE THERE are two powerful instincts inborn in every child that may be utilized by the school in directing his efforts. These are innate curiosity and the social instinct. Through the social instinct the child identifies himself with those about him and feels his relationship to them. All his acts and thoughts have more or less a social bearing. He is greatly influenced, often compelled, in his mental development by the judgment of his associates, by public opinion. He wishes to conform to society. In its broad application this instinct leads not only to the wish to know and do what others know and do, but to the desire to harmonize with society and sympathize with it, to be useful and to serve it. Every age is reflected in its schools. The ideals of the school are largely the ideals of contemporary society. The practical and scientific character of our age has necessarily influenced education. So we find that the physical basis and the scientific aspects of human society, and the in- dustrial conditions and processes demand and attract the attention of the schools. And one function of the school is to fit the child for the social and natural environment in which he is placed. This is often construed to apply simply as a preparation for adult life. But the child leads a present life of his own, during which he should 3 4 NATURE-STUDY be in an intelligent relation with man and nature, just as much as in adult years. The child wants to know about the social and industrial life around him, and the origin, working, and use of the manifold devices and processes on every hand. He not only wants to know these things for himself, but that he may explain them to others; to entertain, to be helpful and useful to others. Later comes the desire to share in the world’s work as a self-supporting member of society. When studies are presented with this social consideration the pupils appreciate the motive themselves—perhaps not fully—but enough to make them feel it worth their while to study. A real interest is infused into their work, a real object to be gained is perceived. They feel that they are studying not merely for the sake of learning, but for the bear- ing it has upon their own lives. The reality of the studies and their connection with life are made very evident when they are drawn from the child’s immediate home, the surrounding fields and hills, the school- house itself, and the industries of his community. House- hold articles, the kitchen processes, the hygienic measures of the school, the plants and animals of the garden, farm, and forest, the varied occupations of the community, and the in- numerable machines and processes by which these are carried on—all claim attention and demand investigation. A study of the fundamental industries of man, especially in their primitive form, leading up to their present development, affords not only an intelligent grasp of the social industries, but gives an historic insight into their development which increases the social value of the information. Moreover, a rational basis is laid for the study of history and geography. THE MOTIVE 5 Geography proper furnishes many suggestions for nature lessons and also provides the social motive again. Numerous topics of human interest referred to in this subject can be explained by nature-study, and their bearing upon life emphasized. The two subjects should be closely correlated. Manual training and domestic science, two other great socializing studies of the school, are dependent upon nature- study for many explanations of materials and methods. There is a need to know the properties of the materials and the way of making things. The value of nature-study in this case is apparent. Here the knowledge is recognized not as an end, but as a means to accomplish something to be desired. Simple biology, chemistry, and physics, thus correlated with manual training and domestic economy, are seen to have much to do with human affairs. The simple application of nature-study in this way in school leads to an appreciation of the scientific basis of our sanitary and economic methods of the home, school, and community, and our complex industrial life generally. By such a correlation these ‘‘making” subjects are enriched, and their intellectual content is increased. Nature-study has a satisfactory raison d’étre for the child, if presented in the manner suggested. The school life in a measure reflects the community life and enables him to live in that community intelligently. But the child is interested in nature-study in another way. The social interest is, perhaps, the dominant one; but another more purely intellectual impulse prevails. This is the out- come of curiosity, wonder—and is the complement of the social interest in bringing him into right relationship with the world. 6 NATURE-STUDY The child wonders about the objects and phenomena of nature; he is curious about them, perhaps for no reason except that they attract his attention. He feels that he must know what and why these things are, and this irrespective of any consideration of the usefulness or applicability of the knowledge to himself or to society. In much the same way the adult scientist craves a satisfying explanation of, or insight into, many facts of nature. I believe this powerful impulse should not be neglected in education, though it may be carried too far and lead to mere book learning, with a disre- gard for the fact that, in general, knowledge should be a means and not an end initself. Nevertheless, this knowledge gained through mere curiosity, though not always practical, affords much satisfaction and pleasure. It is the basis for our esthetic and spiritual view of nature. It creates a certain pleasant familiarity with nature, and on one’s rambles in the park or in the country makes one feel en rapport with it. Through this curiosity we learn of many interesting and beautiful relations in the natural world. We find that a unity pre- vails and we discern a plan more or less clearly. In short, this impulse arising from curiosity finally places the indi- vidual in harmony with the natural world and adds in a great measure to general culture. This harmonizing of man and nature is an essential ele- ment in education. It must not be forgotten, however, that much of this knowledge gained from curiosity or—to use another expression—in the search for truth may later be found to be of great, perhaps the highest, practical value. Through this everlasting spirit of inquiry many important facts and principles have been discovered, and the field of human vision widened. THE MOTIVE 4 The child should be allowed to investigate freely in nature whatever his interest suggests. This sympathy with birds, insects, plants, and even inanimate nature is one of the most desirable things he can get from nature-study. If nothing more it ought to make him happier in this wonderful and beautiful world. If we utilize as we should these natural interests or innate impulses of the child, we have enough of stimulus or motive to vitalize nature-study. CHAPTER II THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF NATURE-STUDY Tue child should be given such educational material as suits his childhood interests and needs. ‘This does not mean to let him learn simply what he likes and in his own way. He may like what is not good for him. ‘The experience and wisdom of his parents and teachers must be used in shaping his education. The child’s and the adult’s view of education need not be incompatible. The child should be so educated as to live as completely as possible his transient childhood years, but by the foresight and experience of his elders he may also receive discipline of mind and character, and be supplied with the knowledge necessary for adult life as well. When the mind is applied to the study of natural objects and phenomena all its powers receive some discipline. In the first place there is the power of observation, perhaps not the highest faculty, and yet a very necessary and fundamental one. For through the power of perception we learn of things outside of ourselves. An infant devoid of this power could not develop mentally. But this is the first faculty exercised by the normal child. He begins in the cradle to observe things by touching, hearing, seeing, tasting, and smelling them. ‘This is his first education. It is a well-known fact that any of these senses can be made keener and more accurate by practice. Contrariwise it is true that they become dulled 8 THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF NATURE-STUDY 9 by disuse. Since the senses are the gateway for our knowl- edge of the outer world, it is necessary to train them well. We must learn to perceive things as they really are. Clear and truthful perceptions are the basis of sound thinking. But observation should lead to thought. The mind should be receptive, should take in the newly observed facts and connect them with what is already known. That is, there should be what is pedagogically called apperception, as well as perception, in order to make intellectual progress, to increase the sum of individual knowledge. Now, nature-study is especially suitable for stimulating and training the power of observation. There are hosts of ani- mate and inanimate things to be observed and thought about. In such thinking there is something tangible and concrete. The object can be seen and handled, perhaps. Children are not mature enough for much abstract thinking. Hence object-study is more suitable for them. Bya proper selection of material and proper guidance, the child may be made more observant of natural things around him, to his lasting benefit and pleasure. In the education of our children we seem to neglect the hint that nature herself has given us. Before school-days begin education is chiefly through observation. The founders of the kindergarten taught that this method should be con- tinued in the school, and not set aside by the use of books, as is so generally the case. Books have a very great value, but they give their information at second hand. A book tells ‘ what some one else thinks about something, and no reader of such a book can get as vivid or perfect a knowledge of the thing as had the author, who learned the fact first hand. “Seeing is believing” is a maxim full of truth. We should bx) NATURE-STUDY keep up the spirit of personal observation and investigation. If this is not done the child is too apt to be satisfied with mere statements in books or by teachers, and too ready to accept another’s opinion as his own. A little healthy scepticism in studying is a good thing, especially where one can find out for himself the actual facts. Nature-study aims to keep alive the inquiring spirit. It has been said that the child is a young savage. This is true in several respects. Science tells us that an animal or a plant in its physical development passes in general through the stages through which the race to which it belongs has passed in its development. For example, in the embryology of the frog there is a stage that is like the fish—the tadpole stage. Other facts prove the origin of frogs from fish-like ancestors. Every frog repeats this fish-like stage. It has become an educational maxim that the mental evolution of a child corresponds in a measure to the mental evolution of the race to which he belongs. That is, the child exhibits mental traits that were once characteristic of his race when in the primitive state. In pedagogy we hear this spoken of as the Culture Epoch Theory, and though it is not fully worked out in its applications, this theory is already useful in education. We cannot safely change the course of nature in the development of mind or body. It is better to take a suggestion from nature and to work with, rather than against, her. A young child, though he may not show his savagery in cruelty, nevertheless shows his interests to be chiefly in ob- jective things—in people, human activities, and natural objects. Children are proverbially inquisitive regarding natural objects. In childhood are formed the attachments THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF NATURE-STUDY 11 to pets. Boys are interested in hunting, fishing, and outdoor sports, and like to play Indians. Children also like birds and plants. Their nature-love seems to be in- stinctive, and is probably an inheritance from their savage, nature-loving ancestry. — Then let us give the child opportunity to taste nature as much as possible, and use this inherent interest to teach him about his natural environment. Repeat the old story. Teach him the good things he can use and enjoy and the bad things that he should avoid. ‘ Mathematics gives the mind excellent training in abstract thinking and familiarizes the mind with logical processes. But nature-study also trains the reasoning powers. The reasoning afforded by science in general is not abstract, but more concrete and more like the reasoning of every-day life. In nature-study a child observes a number of facts, or a series of phenomena, and from them makes a generalization or conclusion. He learns the principle of cause and effect. He sees that things are not left to chance, but that the rule of cause and effect governs all action. He learns to apply this rule in other fields of thought, in literature, history, civics, politics, and personal conduct. The comparison and classi- fication of natural objects give an excellent training in systematic thought. The derivation of laws from experi- ments or observations affords the best of practice in induc- tive reasoning, while deduction is employed in every application of these laws. By imagination the facts once learned are recalled and rought into new relations. In this new relation they com- bine to form new ideas or to suggest new thoughts. By un- restricted exercise of the power of imagination mental prod- 12 NATURE-STUDY ucts can be formed that have no counterpart in reality. The result may be pure fancy. Although this may be legiti- mate in literature and art, it has no place in science. In the search for truth the imagination should be watched lest it lead astray. In science-study there is abundant opportunity for the exercise and also, which is important, the control of the imagination. “Of all the powers of the mind it is cer- tainly that which is most important in giving originality to the results of thought,” say Hall and Smith." “But in pro- portion to its value and activity is the difficulty of controlling its operations. The imagination is a good servant but a bad master. The opportunity which is offered in experi- mental science to test the results of imagination by com- parison, again and again renewed, with the concrete materials with which it has been dealing, furnishes an unrivalled opportunity to practise and control it.” While the above applies especially to the maturer study of the sciences it also applies in nature-study. Children love to theorize if given the chance, and they should be taught to check their imagina- tion with the facts before them. Many people cannot appreciate the value of mental training merely for the sake of sharpening the wits, and decry all education that cannot be applied directly to the earning of dollars and cents. “What is the use of such learning?” they ask. This is a practical generation, and education must meet the practical test of every-day life. If any subject has practical value it is natural science, for through it we become better acquainted with our environment. Man will never be free from the natural conditions that now affect his life. He will always need food, clothing, and shelter; he 1 Teaching of Physics and Chemistry,” p. 11. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF NATURE-STUDY 13 will need to make implements and tools to furnish thesc; he will want conveniences and pleasures above his animal needs; he will be subject to disease and physical, accidents, _and will need to prevent or remedy them. These stern neces- sities he can meet only if he knows how to do so. The better he understands the laws of nature, the better knowledge he has of the properties and uses of plants and animals and the products of nature, the better he can distinguish between the good and the bad natural agencies, so much better will he be able to live without cold, hunger, pain, and fear. As long as he acts in accordance with natural laws, all is well; but he is punished for the slightest transgres- sions. This is seen most obviously in the matter of hygiene. More people die through ignorance of the laws of health than are destroyed in wars. CHAPTER III THE ASSTHETIC AND ETHICAL VALUE OF NATURE-STUDY KNOWLEDGE is power. It is also pleasure or affords pleasure. Many students learn for the mere pleasure of learning. This is the case of the scientist who discovers the laws of nature or proves a theory, without a thought of their practical application. Even a child in the satisfaction of his curiosity has a similar feeling. But we can get sweet and helpful pleasure also from the sensuous enjoyment of the beauty of nature’s forms and colors, the songs of birds and the sound of running waters, the fragrance of the flowers and the smell of the earth and sea, the delicious flavor of fruit, the warmth of the genial sunshine, the touch of our feet on the ground, or the feel of the earth as we lie upon it. These pleasures of the senses, though not the higher kind, should not be neglected. With- out them life would be much more matter-of-fact and un- interesting. Just as it is right to enjoy sensuously good music or the lines and coloring of a beautiful work of art, and as it is right to train the ear for music and the eye to discriminate beauty in art, just so is it right for us to enjoy nature through the senses, and to cultivate them so that we may enjoy more fully and intelligently. These animal sensa- tions of the charms of nature add immensely to the pleasure of living, and, directly or indirectly, affect our views of life. 14 AESTHETIC AND ETHICAL VALUE 15 Nature-study has perhaps been the chicf factor in the culture development of the human race. At first man was the fearful slave of nature, seeking a precarious existence, struggling blindly with natural forces. Then he became nature’s pupil. By observation of the creatures about him and by personal experience he learned to adapt himself better to his environment. The more he learned the better fitted he became for life, and the more his mind expanded. Simple inventions of tools, the domestication of animals, and the cultivation of plants soon made the slave the master, so that to-day man takes advantage of his environment, utilizes the resources of nature, and even directs her course very largely for his own ends. As children of to-day personify, so primitive man attempted to explain the wonderful phenomena of nature about him by personifying the mysterious forces that so powerfully affected his life. Thus mythology and religion had their origin. The ideas awakened by, and the pleasures derived from, nature have had very much to do with the development of poetry, music, painting, and sculpture. Our relations with nature are of long standing. The de- pendence of our forefathers on the forest, the sea, the wild animals, and the elements has been deeply impressed upon the human race, so that even many generations of artificial urban life have not entirely obliterated our nature instinct,— the impulse that leads us back to nature. In many this instinct is very pronounced and needs but little encourage- ment. In others it is less developed and may entirely disap- peaf’from persistent disuse. It should, however, be developed into the habit of active and discriminating observation and the correct interpretation of nature. 16 NATURE-STUDY Children generally display this nature instinct more than adults, though not as much as many adults. The child likes the pretty colored insects, leaves, and birds. He likes to play in the earth, and to frolic with pets and wild animals. The sympathy for pets and, through them, for other creatures is one of the finest things we can teach through nature-study. The child is greatly interested in the animals of the farm, in their uses and care. He likes flowers and fruit, and can be readily taught to care for growing plants. There is an esthetic and a moral as well as an educational element in the cultivation of potted plants, trees, gardens, etc. Children love to roam about in the fields and forests and enjoy the mystery of their numberless discoveries. They like to be on the water, or init. They like to fish, hunt, and camp. They like to play the primitive life of the Indian or the pioneer. Later, as imagination and knowledge develop, comes the enjoyment of scenery, the landscape, the sea, and sky effects ; later, also, the appreciation of the beautiful adaptations and interrelations in nature. Then, too, come the perception and admiration of natural forces and the laws according to which they act, and the attempts to see a unity and a guidance in the universe. Enjoyment of nature becomes more and more conscious. Personal applications are made of nature’s principles. We try to fit into the world-scheme —and our religious and philosophical interests develop. Much may be done to cultivate in children a love for nature. Bring the child often in contact with nature, and let her silent influences work. Tet him be taken on field trips to enjoy the beauty of the flowers, the birds, etc. Point out these things to the children who fail to see for themselves. AESTHETIC AND ETHICAL VALUE 17 Call attention to the changing beauty of the landscape. Let the children tell what they enjoy in it. Point out more, if they are old enough to appreciate it. Show them the play of light and shade, the harmony of the colors, the sub- dued hues, the neutral tints of forest and meadow, of moun- tain and fading perspectives. The sky, with its varying cloud effects and changing light and color from sunrise to sunset, in calm and in storm, should appeal to all. The teacher should be careful not to go into rhapsodies over these beautiful phenomena, but should simply seek to remind the child of them, and to point out those features missed by the children themselves. It is well to remember in this appreciation of nature that much depends upon the attitude and mood of the observer. The teacher should try first to bring herself and her pupils into the proper receptive or sym- pathetic attitude. Poets of all ages have felt the influences of nature, and have interpreted it for others, or have shown them its gran- deur, beauty, and mystery. Their works are especially enjoyed by those who love nature themselves and have had similar. experiences. Others learn from them what to look for and enjoy. There is a great wealth of prose and poetry that may be used judiciously in developing in children an appreciative spirit toward nature. Thus, occasionally, interest may be aroused in a nature lesson by first reading some selection’ suitable for the occasion. Or, perhaps better, after the nature lesson such selections used in the reading lesson would bring out a human aspect, or an esthetic or spiritual element. The poems of Wordsworth, Bryant, Longfellow, Celia Thaxter, and F. D. Sherman, and the prose of Emerson, 18 NATURE-STUDY Warner, Burroughs, Torrey, VanDyke, E. T. Seton, W. J. Long, and many others, if read by the pupils cannot fail to develop somewhat the appreciation of nature. The Ethical and Spiritual Side of Nature-Study There is an ethical element in nature-study. The search for and recognition of truth in nature-study has a definite moral tendency. All great scientists have a high ideal of truth. Nature-study, by constantly checking the thought by the actual facts, tends toward intellectual honesty. Again, the rule of cause and effect exemplified so concretely in nature-study, when applied to personal and social relations, tends strongly toward moral improvement. It is customary to teach children about animal wisdom, providence, care and love for the young, etc. These things, no doubt, are interesting to children as reflecting their own home life, and some moral benefit is derived therefrom; but one of the best things they get from nature-study is a sympathy and love for the lower animals. The care for pets is good nature-study and also good moral training, for it teaches us to consider the wants of these animals. _ Chil- dren, however, should be taught to be kind also to the birds, the squirrels, frogs and toads, instead of cruel as they so often are. They should be taught to recognize the right of all harmless creatures to live. They should be made to feel that we and the animals are kin. The raising of plants and the cultivation of a garden also may teach regularity, watchfulness, patience, and persistence. Lovers of plants show an almost affectionate interest in their development. Flower culture develops a gentleness of spirit in the children who practise it. Many believe a boy cannot ESTHETIC AND ETHICAL VALUE 19 become a vagabond and criminal if he has been taught to love the cultivation of plants. The study of nature has another very important moral aspect. Ignorance is a kind of immorality, especially where people ought to, or could, have known better. Through ignorance and, perhaps, absolute disregard for simple natural laws there result much loss and trouble. Farmers try to raise crops and cattle on unsuitable land and in unsuitable climate, or they fail because of improper or ignorant treatment. A vast amount of fuel is lost in smoke, in radiation, and in friction, which should be saved. Through improvident and ruthless lumbering methods, our country is being denuded of its forests, and our timber supply is being exhausted. Through the wanton and cruel destruction of beneficial birds, insect pests are multiplying to the injury of our gardens and fields. There is a waste in the household economy in the choice and the cooking of food. Devastating fires and appalling accidents occur with great consequent loss of life and property. In all these cases a proper study of, and regard for, the laws of nature would do much to prevent or remedy the evil. Sanitation and disease are matters of such social concern that in every enlightened community general laws are passed respecting them. The individual must submit to society in these matters, for he may spread disease far and wide. So we have quarantine and sanitary laws by which contagious diseases are kept in check. Much disease is caused through pure ignorance. Bacteria are allowed to develop among filth, and to contaminate food, to infect persons, and to cause epi- demic disease. In India pilgrims, some of them diseased, per- haps with cholera, come to bathe in and drink of the water of 20 NATURE-STUDY the sacred pools, and then go home carrying with them the germs of disease to many regions. A scourge of cholera is the result. And what is the cause of all this? Pure ignorance. Such ignorance in an enlightened country is not only wrong, but immoral. Statutes even make it criminal to violate the rules of the boards of health. All this goes to show that there is a great social interest in nature-study that will teach people how to live a self-supporting, safe, and healthy life. For people who cannot do this become public charges or menace the public welfare. The study of the wonderful things of the world, their beautiful fitness for their existence and functions, the re- markable progressive tendency of all organic life, and the unity that prevails in it create admiration in the beholder and tend to his spiritual uplifting. He feels a greater reverence for the wonderful universe and its mysterious forces. He is compelled to think of the Why and the Wherefore of it all, and he must think of the Great First Cause. The contemplation of nature, the works of God, naturally tends to make one believe in an all-planning and all-guiding Influence. The all-pervading and controlling Force in nature is seen in the star, in the work of the elements, in the pearly nautilus, in the flower. If we knew the ultimate meaning of all or each we might have the key to existence. That is what Tennyson meant when he wrote Flower in the crannied wall, I pluck you out of the crannies;— Hold you here, root and all, in my hand, Little flower; but if I could understand What you are, root and all, and all in all, I should know what God and man is. CHAPTER IV STUDYING NATURE IN THE GRADES—HOW AND WHAT THERE is no hard and fast rule for studying nature in the grades. It would be better not to have any set lessons at all, if the formal lessons only tired the children and de- stroyed their interest. This does not mean that a formal lesson in nature-study may not be highly interesting and inspiring in the hands of an able and enthusiastic teacher. It can, and more lasting results in the way of definite knowl- edge and training in thinking can be given by such formal lessons than by the informal. A teacher of nature-study should ever be observant of nature, and should call the attention of the children to such things as they are prepared to grasp. If a teacher sees the first robin in spring, let her speak of it in school and ask the children to be on the watch. If she finds an interesting flower, a stone, or insect, let her show it to the pupils and tell them about it. This can often be done at recess or before or after school, or a few moments may be taken daily or occa- sionally in the general period for such informal observations of nature. In this way call attention to the changing pictures of the seasons, the return of the birds, the spring flowers, the brook, the insect life, the rain and the snow flake, the eclipse, the stars, etc. Name for the children the plantsand the animals they see. Let them bring in “specimens” of all kinds and use 2r 22 NATURE-STUDY them as texts in nature lessons. In these informal lessons let the pupils talk as much as they can or will about the object. In the primary grades the nature material is chiefly studied from a different motive than in the higher. Here its main purpose is to develop expression and to cultivate the observ- ing powers. Oral and written language and art are largely taught with it. The informational side is mainly iden- tification and getting introduced to nature. Structural details and functions should be minimized, though not en- tirely omitted. For these reasons the method of presenting nature lessons in these grades is much more informal than in upper grades. It is more conversational, and more sponta- neous or unsolicited expression is expected from the children. Let them tell in their own way what they see or know about the object. Habits and uses appeal more to the little children than descriptions of structure and appearance. And, yet, enough for identification should be done with these. As the children are allowed more freedom to express them- selves, the plan of a lesson should not be so systematically carried out as would be the case in higher grades. The teacher will have to be governed largely by the turn taken by the interests of the children. Still, there can be consider- able guidance in the observations, by asking questions or showing points. As the children get older more system can be demanded. Frequently things need not be studied with any formality whatever. Children gain a good deal by just looking at a fish in an aquarium, or a butterfly on a flower, without any directions or questions from the teacher. Many things on a field-trip may thus be observed in this very in- formal manner. Perhaps this is especially good where the beauty of nature is the chief item of interest. Sometimes STUDYING NATURE IN THE GRADES 23 an object may simply be shown to the children, and a story, anecdote, or poem read or told by the teacher about it. Such informal methods are interesting variations of the usual method of presentation. In general, however, the half informal, conversational development method is better —the pupil as well as the teacher asking questions. As the children grow stronger the teacher should tell less and ask more. She should direct observation along more definite lines, and see more to the relations and the unity of the lesson. A definite course of instruction, however, requires a little more system and formality, and so does the usual drill work. Hence, where the time can be afforded, and it should be everywhere, daily, semi-weekly, or weekly formal lessons should be given on nature subjects.! In the regular lessons the development plan is generally followed. This method is the application of the rule: “ Don’t tell a child what he can find out for himself.” A lesson should stimulate thought. The teacher by skilful question- ing directs the attention of the child to the facts he can easily observe and then asks him to make his own conclusion. This method, known as the Development Method, is espe- cially suitable for nature-study. In this we have, or should have, the actual object or phenomenon before the pupil. It is true that too many nature lessons, or so-called object lessons, are given without the object present. The scientific method of study is: Do not take things for granted, but find out for yourself. This method trains pupils to think for themselves. Too much talking by the teacher allows the pupils’ minds to lie idle and passive. Exercise strengthens them. 1See page 397 for course of study. 24 NATURE-STUDY As a general rule pupils need not be told beforehand what a certain nature lesson is to be about, for it is gener- ally studied in class and not before. The recitation is really a study period, and all the children should partake in the work. All should get the facts brought out. This will require more or less drill and summarizing, as in other lessons. Occasionally pupils may be asked to make certain preliminary observations which are to be utilized in the suc- ceeding development lesson. Nature-study requires no text-book for the pupils except the great book of nature herself. The lessons in school may, however, be supplemented with outside reading. The Development Lesson THE PREPARATION OF THE TEACHER FOR THE LESSON. It is not well to rely entirely on the inspiration of the moment in teaching nature lessons, any more than in any other subject, such as geography and arithmetic. Of course the teacher should possess adaptability and be able to change her plan of recitation quickly and easily if the occasion so requires. But a nature lesson requires preparation, just as the above-men- tioned subjects. One chief reason for the failure of so much nature-study is the lack of thorough preparation by the teacher. We will assume that the subject of the lesson is well chosen, that it is not some trivial matter, but is adapted to the grade for which it is intended, and that there is some definite purpose in presenting it. The subject being decided upon, the teacher must then think of what she wishes to teach about it—whether it is to be merely a description of the qualities of the object, its classification, or a discussion of its uses, etc. STUDYING NATURE IN THE GRADES 25 She must plan this out more or less fully. Beginners had better write out such descriptions, or the steps of a classifica- tion, or whatever the matter of the lesson is to be. This matter must be logically arranged and not thrown together without any connection. More proficient teachers may be satisfied with simply thinking out the matter and jotting down an outline memorandum of it. It is well also to put into this lesson plan or guide such points on the method of presenting the matter as will seem useful, special forms of questions, hints on the best explana- tions, and reference to the use of the illustrative material. The subject-matter should be neither too trivial nor too abstruse for the class. The previous knowledge that the chil- dren may have of the thing to be studied should also be taken into account in making out the plan of the lesson. Again, the amount of matter or the number of points to be brought out should be proportioned to the length of the period for the lesson. If there is too little matter, time will be wasted in useless repetition, and if there is too much matter the whole of it cannot be completed, or all or parts of it must be slighted, and the lesson is not well fixed. Another point should be remembered in teaching nature-study: Do not think you are teaching nature-study when the lesson is simply about scientific definitions, such as veins, midrib, petiole, dentate, crenate, etc. That is simply word-study, not nature-study. Teach facts, not words. A very necessary part of the teacher’s preparation is the selection and getting together of the illustrative material for the lesson, such as the object itself, or parts of it, pictures, ex- periments, and stories. They should be chosen with reference to their fitness to illustrate the lesson. The matter should be 26 NATURE-STUDY planned as if derived from a study of the illustrative material, for that is what the children must do in the recitation. GIVING THE DEVELOPMENT LESSON. ‘The teacher is fore- armed with a well thought out lesson plan. If the lesson is not particularly related to preceding ones, it may be introduced by a few bright remarks about the object to be studied, to awaken the interest and direct the attention of the children. Perhaps it may be well to refer to some experiences of the pupils with the object. It is always well to form a basis of previous knowledge for the new facts to be acquired. If this is done, and the new knowledge properly related or connected with the old, it is more apt to stay with the learners. If there have been previous related lessons, then quickly and briefly call to mind some of the essential facts of those lessons, such as are to be made use of in the new lesson or are needed as a basis. The basis having been established, the new lesson is then presented. In the development method this is done by showing the ob- ject or other illustrations, and by means of questions directing the observation of the pupils in such a way that they see for themselves, or reason out for themselves from these observa- tions, all the points the teacher had planned to bring out. This questioning is an art. Hit or miss questions without any definite order will leave the knowledge gained by the pupil in a chaotic state, from which he cannot see many relations or make the generalizations he should. Therefore, follow the outline of the lesson-plan and thus ask the questions and direct the observations in an orderly fashion, and then from their logical order the pupils can easily make the inferences required. Of course the information could be imparted more quickly STUDYING NATURE IN THE GRADES 27 and easily by the lecture method. But a nature lesson should be a mental discipline. In a lecture the listener is more or less passive mentally, and often fails to absorb fully and to retain the facts heard. But facts acquired through personal effort are apt to be remembered longer, chiefly because they are better understood. Furthermore, the practice simply in observing, comparing, and reasoning out laws and classifica- tions is a good thing. If the development method is properly applied it stimulates individual mental effort in the pupils and tends to accurate observation and logical reasoning. But there is a danger in’ using this method of instruction that it may be so mechani- cally applied that it sets the pupils’ minds going only for a thought or so, and then they sit and wait for another mental jog in the form of a question from the teacher. Do not destroy in the children the power of initiative in thought. Counteract, if necessary, by requiring more extended description or more extended reasoning from the pupils without prompting questions, and also by varying the method of presenta- tion; for it need by no means always be the development method. Frequently in nature lessons it is necessary to classify objects. The comparison of different objects, and the finding of likenesses and differences by means of which the objects are grouped is excellent mental practice for the children. This comparison may be made at the close of the study of the new object, or it may be made all along during the pres- entation, point for point. The first method better empha- sizes the comparison and tends to make the classification more effective. Even primary children should do more or less of this. 28 NATURE-STUDY They can easily see that the fox is like the dog, both in struct- ure and in habits, and they will naturally group them to- gether. But have them also note the essential differences that make one animal a dog and the other a fox. The more common type, the dog, should be studied first. Then, in studying the fox, compare his head with that of the dog; then the teeth, the feet, and the habits, as these points are brought out in the developed description of the fox. Or wait until the fox description is finished and then compare. Sometimes a superficial resemblance of two objects resolves itself after comparison into wide differences. For instance, most people call the chimney-swift a swallow. But a careful comparison shows that the birds belong to different groups. The comparison of physical phenomena, such as conduction and convection, is good practice and leads to clearer reason- ing. Comparison is a necessary step where classification is desired. Sometimes all the facts developed in a nature lesson are considered together, and some generalization is derived from them. Comparison of several objects or facts leads to classi- fication, a kind of generalization. But sometimes a general principle is involved in a number of illustrations or experi- ments, and this the children are to think out. Thus, a number of experiments in heat may all lead to the conclusion that heat causes expansion. When such generalizations have been made, the pupils should be required to think of applications of the principle in new cases. Thus, after deriving the principle of expansion by heat, let the pupils apply this principle to such cases as the setting of wagon tires, the gap between the rails, the thermometer, etc. This fixes the principle better in the STUDYING NATURE IN THE GRADES 29 pupils’ minds and shows the practical bearing of the sub- ject. The permanency of the knowledge acquired depends partly upon the interest in the subject, and also upon the repetition of the act of learning—that is, upon drill. This is as true of nature-study as it is of the multiplication table. And a nature lesson is not thoroughly finished when the facts have been brought out only once. It is necessary to drill on the separate facts of the lesson as they are developed, and there should be a summary at the close of the lesson. The summary is often very necessary, to fit together in a unified whole the facts that were acquired in an isolated order. This summary of what was learned in the lesson should generally be made by the pupils themselves, if they are old enough, and with only enough guidance to make it orderly. A black-board outline is useful in summarizing. This may be copied by the older pupils and used as a basis of a home task or written account of the lesson. The pupils’ answers should receive some attention. Do not accept careless, abbreviated, and ungrammatical answers. It would be pedantic to require complete statements in all answers, but, wherever proper, demand more complete ex- pression. Pupils and teachers alike should avoid all book- ishness and technicality in language. Such simple scientific words as calyx, corolla, stamen, pistil, pollen, etc., are short and have been popularized and should be used. Rules for Questioning In theory the development lesson strengthens the mind of the child, for he must by his own energies discover facts, make comparisons, and deduce principles. In practice, 30 NATURE-STUDY however, a development lesson often becomes a sort of mental prop that weakens the child because he is not incited to spontaneous effort. Fora teacher may by suggestive, alterna- tive, and direct questions herself give the whole matter of the lesson to the pupils without their exerting themselves in the least. The lesson becomes simply a lecture in the interroga- tive form. Such teaching is wholly bad. Questions serve as a means to reveal defects in knowledge, or to sound the extent of knowledge, or, incidentally, to secure wandering attention. But there is still another and most important use of the question, and that is to encourage and direct thought, as in the process of eliciting in a development lesson. Much of the success of the lesson depends upon the way in which these questions are worded. The following rules should be observed in nature-study, as in any develop- ment lesson: I. QUESTIONS SHOULD BE CLEAR AND CONCISE. A vague and lengthy question cannot be understood or followed by the pupils. This question was taken from a pupil teacher’s lesson plan in a nature lesson: ‘On a coral island in the Pacific Ocean there are a few flowers and some trees. How did they get here, since this island has only recently reached above the water after having been so long submerged?” Such a question would only bewilder the children. 2. QUESTIONS SHOULD BE DEFINITE, ADMITTING OF BUT ONE ANSWER. “Why is the lamp burning?” “‘What are we always doing?” are questions that may be answered correctly several times before the desired answer is ob- tained. 3. Do NOT, AS A RULE, ASK DIRECT QUESTIONS, ANSWER- ABLE BY YES OR NO. The pupil should study out for him- STUDYING NATURE IN THE GRADES 31 self the point referred to. “Is the heron’s bill short?” “Does this animal have thick fur to keep it warm?” are questions that require little if any original thought. Often, however, direct questions are permissible when employed simply to call attention to some obvious fact of which further use is then made in the development. ‘Can the dog climb a tree?” “Why not?” (Referring to the nature of the claws.) To avoid the direct question here would be pedantic and beating about the bush. 4. Do NOT ASK ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS THAT ADMIT OF BUT TWO ANSWERS. “Is this bird’s bill long or short?” “Has this plant entire or serrate leaves?” Such questions are easy to answer correctly perhaps the first time, certainly the second. 5. Do NOT ASK QUESTIONS THAT ENCOURAGE GUESSING MERELY. Children are apt to theorize about things in nature- study. Hold them to the facts. 6. AN ELLIPSIS at the end of a sentence to be filled out by the pupils is a form of question sometimes used to save time, to drill, or to make the work easy. It is legitimate to use this occasionally for the first two reasons, but the ellipsis should be carefully treated. It should still require effort from the pupil. ‘The motion of the earth on its axis causes day and ” and ‘Molecules are held together by the force of co———” are bad ellipses and simply prompt the pupil. 7. NATURE-STUDY teachers frequently fail in attempting to bring out comparisons by using direct and suggestive questions. ‘Are the hoofs of the cow like those of the horse?” “Does the hen have webbed feet like the duck?” are wrong forms of questions to bring out correspondence and differ- 32 NATURE-STUDY ences. Instead, ask the pupils directly to ‘compare the hoofs of the horse and the cow,” and “tell how the feet of the hen differ from those of the duck.” Ask them how and - compare, and how they are alike or un- like, ete., and then the pupil must work out the comparison for himself. CHAPTER V ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL One of the chief functions of nature-study is to cultivate the power and the habit of observation. This is possible only when there is something to observe. The object or thing studied should be actually present before the children if . possible. If it is not, then the lesson is not an object lesson, and as a lesson on nature it will lose much of its effectiveness. If there is no illustrative material for the lesson there can be no real perceptions of the thing. Reference can only be made to the pupil’s previous knowledge of, or experience with, the object, and that may be vague, little, or nothing. The reasoning based upon such facts will necessarily be imaginative, and conclusions cannot be immediately tested and verified. We very properly decry the old-fashioned text-book method, pure and simple, in teaching physics and geology, without experiments, specimens, and field observa- tions. And yet many teachers attempt to give nature lessons in this unscientific and unpedagogical way. ‘This is because they fail to realize that the illustrations are the very foundation of the lesson, and not merely an entertaining and ornamental feature. It is customary to teach nature-study by the development, method—the method of individual observation and reasoning from the object before the pupils. Thus is seen the great 33 34 NATURE-STUDY usefulness and purpose of the illustrations. They are the starting point, the basis of the lesson. The teacher should, therefore, make every effort to secure ample and suitable objects and experiments to bring out the facts of the lesson. Small insects, minerals, plants, etc., should be collected in quantity, so as to provide each pupil with a specimen, that he may be able to examine it carefully. I recall one teacher who gave a lesson on the fish. She had some small boys go out the day before and catch a lot of min- nows. These she put into a number of fruit jars which she placed on the pupils’ desks, so that they could easily see the structure of the fish, the breathing, the use of fins and tail, etc. The lesson was vastly more successful than if she had had only a single fish in a jar in front of the class, or had passed it around among the pupils. A single small specimen held up before a class cannot be accurately seen, and it takes ex- tra time and repetition of directions to pass it around. This, however, must be done if only a limited number of specimens can be obtained. If the illustration is large enough it may be placed in front of the class, but in an elevated position and in good light. The other senses besides that of sight should be employed by the pupils in making their observations, where anything is to be gained thereby. Sometimes the teacher forgets to use her illustrations, though she has prepared them and has them in class, because she gets so interested in the subject-matter of the lesson. Sometimes the illustrations are used only in a perfunctory and superficial way. The object might just as well be absent, as far as its being the basis of the lesson is concerned. The teacher should not forget that the lesson is to be developed by means of the illustrations. ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL 35 Since so much depends upon them, it behooves the teacher to select and prepare good and sufficient illustra- tions. Nothing shows more the diligence and ability of a nature-study teacher than the material prepared for illustrat- ing the matter of the lesson. It is an index of the teacher. Fitting and enough illustrations show forethought and under- standing; scanty or poorly adapted material or the entire lack of it indicate shiftlessness, want of providence, or an uninventive mind. Various kinds of illus- trations should be used in nature lessons. The ideal way to teach nature- study would be to take the class out into the meadows and woods, to the brook or the lake, to the orchard or the flower garden, or to the farm fields, and there study nature un- adulterated and under natural conditions. Field lessons will be referred to in a later chapter. The point emphasized at present is that the natural object under natural conditions is generally the ideal illustration for a nature lesson. School- room lessons should be illustrated by the actual object when- ever possible or desirable.