s ook’s Manual of the Apiary —
ALBERT R. MANN
LIBRARY
AT
CORNELL UNIVERSITY
EVERETT FRANKLIN PHILLIPS
BEEKEEPING LIBRARY
NALA AG
1924 067 980 7
Cornell University
Library
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THE
Bee-Keeper's Guide:
——OR-———
MANUAL OF THE APIARY,
—BY~
A, J. COOK,
Late Professor of Entomology in the Michigan State Agricultural College,
Prof of Zoology P. College, Claremont, California,
AUTHOR OF
"Injurious Insects of Michigan," " Maple Sugar and the
Sugar Bush," and "Silo and Silage.”
NINETEENTH EDITION.
Revised, Enlarged, Re-Written and Beautifully Illustrated.
TWENTY-FIRST THOUSAND,
CHICAGO, ILL.
GEORGE W. YORK & COMPANY,
PUBLISHERS.
1910,
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by
ALBERT J. COOK,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.
TO THE
REVEREND L. L. LANGSTROTH,
THE
INVENTOR OF THE MOVABLE-FRAME HIVE,
THE HUBER OF AMERICA,
AND ONE OF THE GREATEST MASTERS OF PURE AND APPLIED
SCIENCE, AS RELATING TO APICULTURE,
IN THE WORLD,
THIS MANUAL IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED
BY
THE AUTHOR.
PREFACE.
In 1876, in response to a desire frequently expressed by my aplarian
friends, principally my students, I published an edition of 3000 copies of
the little, unpretending ‘‘ Manual of the Apiary.”? This was little more
than the course of lectures which I gave annually at the Michigan Agri-
cultural College. In less than two years this was exhausted, and the
second edition, enlarged, revised, and much more fully illustrated, was
issued. So great was the sale that in less than a year this was followed
by the third and fourth editions, and, in less than two years, the fifth
edition (seventh thousand) was issued.
In each of the two following years, another edition was demanded.
‘In each of these editions the book has been enlarged, changes made, and
illustrations added, that the book might keep pace with our rapidly
advancing art.
So great has been the demand for this work, not only at home and in
Europe, but even in more distant lands, and so great has been the prog-
ress of apiculture—so changed the views and methods of our best bee-
keepers—that the author feels warranted ‘in thoroughly revising and
entirely recasting this eighth edition (tenth thousand). Not only is the
work re-written, but much new matter, and many new and costly illus-
trations, are added.
The above I quote directly from the preface of the eighth edition,
published in 1883. Since then four editions have appeared, each reyised
as the progress of the art required.
In electrotyping the eighth edition, through an accident very poor
work was done, so that the impressions of the last three editions have
been far from satisfactory. This has led me wholly to revise the present,
or thirteenth edition. In doing this Ihave thought it wise to add largely,
especially to the scientific portion, as the intelligence of our bee-keepers
demands the fullest information. JI have thus added one hundred and
fifty pages and more than thirty illustrations. All this has involved so
PREFACE.
much expense that Iam forced, though very reluctantly, to increase the
price of the work.
As our bee-keepers know, I have permitted wide use of the illustra-
tions prepared expressly for this work, believing heartily in the motto,
‘‘ greatest good to the greatest number;’? sol have drawn widely from
others. J am greatly indebted to all these, and have given credit with
the illustration.
Since the above was penned three editions have appeared, the last,
sixteenth, in 1899. Each has been revised. Both the science and prac-
tice have so advanced that I now recast entirely this, the seventeenth
edition.
I wish again to express my thanks and gratitude to our wide-awake
American apiarists, without whose aid it would have peen impossibte to
have written this work. I am under special obligation to Messrs. Cowan,
York and Root, and to my students who have aided me, both in the
apiary and laboratory.
As I stated in the preface tothe eighth edition, it is mysdesi:e and
determination that this work shall continue to be the exponent of the
most improved apiculture; and no pains will be spared, that each suc-
ceeding edition may embody the latest improvements and discoveries
wrought out by the practical man and the scientist, as gleaned from the
excellent home and foreign apiarian and scientific periodicals.
The above was prefaced to the Eighteenth one thousand published
in 1900. This Nineteenth one thousand has been wholly revised, about 80
pages and 75 engravings added. We believe it is now at the frontin
bee-keeping science and practice. A. J. COOK.
Pomona College, Claremont, California, 1902.
CONTENTS.
Introduction.—p. 13.
Who May Keep Bees.
Specialists, Amateurs, Who Should
Not Keep Bees, Inducements to
Bee-Keeping, Recreation, Profits,
Excellence as an Amateur Pursuit,
Adaptation to Women, Improves
the Mind, the Observation and
Heart, Yields Delicious Food,
Brings the Second Blade of Grass,
Adds to the Nation’s Wealth,
What Successful Bee-Keeping Re-
quires, Mental Effort, Experience
Necessary, Learn from Others, Aid
from Conventions, Aid from Bee-
Journals, American Bee Journal,
Gleanings in Bee-Culture, -Bee-
Keepers’ Review, Canadian Bee
Journal, American Bee-Keeper,
Progressive Bee-Keeper, Lone Star
Apiarist, Books for the Apiarist,
Langstroth on the Honey-Bee, A B
C of Bee-Culture, Bees and Honey,
Scientific Queen-Rearing, Advanced
Bee-Culture, Bee-Keeping for Be-
ginners, Foreign _ Publications,
British Bee Journal, Foreign Books,
Promptitude, Enthusiasm.
Part I.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY-
BEE.
CHAPTER I.—p. 31.
The Bee's Place in the Animal King-
dom,
Branch of the Honey-Bee, The
Class of the Honey-Bee, Order of
the Honey-Bee, Family of the
Honey-Bee, The Genus of the
Honey-Bee, Species of Our Honey-
Bees, Races of the Honey-Bee, Ger-
man or Black Bee, Ligurian or Ital-
ian, The Syrian and Cyprian Races,
Other Races, Bibliography, Val-
uable Books for the Student of
Entomology.
CHAPTER II.—p. 64.
Anatomy and Physiology.
Anatomy of Insects, Organs of
the Head, Appendages of the
Thorax, Internal Anatomy of In-
sects, Secretory Organs of Insects,
Sex-Organs of Insects, Transforma-
tion of Insects, The Egg,The Larva
of Insects, The Pupa of Insects,
The Imago Stage, Incomplete Trans-
formation, Anatomy and Physiology
of the Honey-Bee, Three Kinds of
Bees in each Family, The Queen-
Bee, Structure and Natural His-
tory, The Drones, The Neuters or
Workers, Glandular Organs.
CHAPTER III.—p. 165.
Swarming, vr Natural Methods of
Increase,
CHAPTER IV.—p. 171.
Products of Bees, their Origin and
Function.
Honey, Wax, Pollen,or Bee-Bread,
Propolis, Bibliography.
x CONTENTS.
Part II.
THE APIARY, ITS CARE AND MAN-
AGEMENT.
INTRODUCTION.—p. 201.
Starting an Apiary.
Preparation, Read a Good Man-
ual, Visit Some Apiarist, Take a
College Course, Decide on .a Plan,
How to Procure First Colonies,
Kind of Bees to Purchase, In What
Kind of Hives, When to Purchase,
iow Much to Pay, Where to Locate
CHAPTER V-—p. 207,
ITives and Sections.
Box-Hives, Movable-Comb Hives,
Early Frame Hives, The Langstroth
Hive, Character of the Hive, What
Styleto Adopt, The Heddon Sur-
plus-Case, The Cover, Division-
Board, Cloth Covers, The New
Heddon Hive, The Frames, A Block
for Making Frames, Cover for
Frames, the Huber Hive, Observa-
tory Hive, Apparatus for Procuring
Comb Honey, Surplus Comb Honey
in Sections, How to Place Sections
in Position, Sections in Frames,
Crates or Racks, Fences, Separa-
tors, Foot-Power Saw.
CHAPTER VI.—p. 253.
Positionaud drranyement of Apiary
Position, Arrangement of Grounds,
Preparation for Each Colony.
CHAPTER VII.—p. 258.
To Transfer Bees.
The Old Method, Hunting Bee-
Trees.
CHAPTER VIII.—p. 2t4.
Feeding and Feeders,
What to Feed, How to Feed,
Smith Feeder.
CHAPTER IX.—p. 273.
Quecn- Rearing.
How to Rear Queens, Nuclei,
Queen Lamp-Nursery, Shall We
Clip the Queen’s Wing? Laying
Workers, Queen Register, or Api-
ary Register.
CHAPTER X.—p. 293.
Increase of Colonies.
Swarming, Hiving Swarms, To
Prevent Second Swarms, To Pre-
vent Swarming, Artificial Increase,
How to Divide, Capturing Abscond-
ing Swarms.
CHAPTER XI.—p. 306.
Ltalians and Mtalianizing.
The New Races of Bees, What
Bees Shall We Keep ? How to Ital-
ianize, How to Introduce a Queen,
Valentine’s Comb Stand, To Get
Our Italian Queens, To Ship
Queens, The ‘‘ Good’ Candy, Prep-
arations to Ship, To Move Colonies.
CHAPTER XII.—p. 321.
Ratracting, and the Extractor,
Honey-Extractor, Desirable Points
in an Extractor, Use of Extractor,
When _to Use the Extractor, To
Keep Extracted Honey.
CHAPTER XIII.—p. 335.
Working for Comb Honey.
Points to Consider, To Secure
Strong Colonies, To Avoid the
Swarming Fever, Adjustment of
Sections, Getting Bees into Sec-
tions, Removal of Sections.
CONTENTS. xi
CHAPTER XIV.—p. 343.
Handling Bees.
The Best Bee-Veil, To Quiet Bees,
Bellows Smoker, The Quinby
Smoker, To Smoke Bees, Chloro-
form, To Cure Stings, The Sweat
Theory, The Bee-Tent.
CHAPTER XV.—p. 3853.
Comb Foundation.
History, American Foundation,
The Press for Foundation, How
Foundation is Made, To Secure the
Wax-Sheets, Use of Foundation,
Wired Frames, Save the Wax,
Methods, Wax-Press.
CHAPTER XVI.—>p. 373.
Marketing Honey.
How to Invigorate the Market,
Preparation for Market, Extracted
Honey, How to Tempt the Con-
sumer, Comb Honey, Rules to be
Observed, Marketing Bees, Selling
Queens, Selling Bees by the Pound,
Vinegar from Honey, Fairs and the
Market, What Should We Have ?
Effects of Such Exhibits.
CHAPTER XVII.—p. 389.
Honey-Plants.
Real Honey-Dew, Sweet Sap and
Juices, What are the Valuable
Honey-Plants ? Description With
Practical Remarks, March Plants,
April Plants, May Plants, June
Plants, July Plants, August and
September Plants, Books on Botany,
Practical Conclusions.
CHAPTER XVIII.—p. 454.
Wintering Bees.
The Causes of Disastrous Win-
tering, The Requisite to Safe Win-
tering—Good Food, Secure Late
Breeding, To Secure and Maintain
the Proper Temperature, Box for
Packing, Chaff Hives, Rules for
their Use, Wintering in Bee-House,
Wintering in Cellar, Burying Bees
or Clamps, Spring Dwindling.
CHAPTER XIX.—p. 468.
The House-Apiary and Bee-House.
Bee-Houses.
CHAPTER XX.—p. 473.
Evils that Confront the Apiarist.
Robbing, Disease, Foul Brood,
Remedies, To Cure Bee-Paralysis,
To Cure New Bee-Diseases, Ene-
mies of Bees, The Bee-Moth, His-
tory, Remedies, The Wee Bee-Moth,
Remedies, Two Destructive Beetles,
Robber-Flies, The Stinging Bug,
The Bee-Stabber, Bee-Hawk, Tach-
ina-Fly, Bee-Louse, Ants, Florida
Ant, The Cow-Killer, The Praying
Mantis, Blister-Beetles, Wasps, A
Bee-Mite, Remedies, California Bee-
Killer, Spiders, The King-Bird, The
Toads, Mice, Shrews, Skunks.
CHAPTER XXI.—p. 512.
Calendar and Axioms,
Work for Different Months, Jan-
uary, February, March, April, May,
June, July, August, September,
October, November, December,
Axioms, Glossary.
INTRODUCTION.
WHO MAY KEEP BEES.
SPECIALISTS.
Any person who is cautious, observing and prompt, will
succeed in bee-keeping. He must expect to work with full
energy through the busy season, and persist though discour-
agement and misfortune both confront him. I need not men-
tion capital or location, for men of true metal—men whose
energy of body and mind bespeak success in advance—will
solve these questions long before their experience and knowl-
edge warrant their assuming the charge of large apiaries.
AMATEURS.
Bee-keeping is specially to be recommended as an avoca-
tion. Bees are of great value in fertilizing fruits, grains and
vegetables; they also save millions of pounds of most whole-
some food which would otherwise go to waste; and experience
amply proves that they may be kept in city, village and coun-
try at a good profit, and so any person, possessed of the proper
ability, tact and energy, may adopt bee-keeping, and thus do
good, gain pleasure, and often receive profit, as experience has
shown, more than is derived from the regular occupation. The
late Mr. C. F. Muth, of Cincinnati, long kept bees very profit-
ably on his store, in the very heart of the city. Hundreds of
our most successful bee-keepers live in small towns and vil-
lages, and add bee-culture to their work in shop, office, or study,
and receive health, pleasure, and money asa reward. Ladies all
over our country are finding in this pursuit pleasure, and oppor-
tunity to exercise in the pure air, which means health, and
money. Farmers are adding bee-keeping to their farms, to
find not infrequently that the bees are their most profitable
property. Orchardists, especially, need and must have bees to
pollinate the fruit-blossoms, and insure a crop. The time
required willof course depend upon the number of colonies
kept; but with wise management, this time may be given at
14 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
any time of the day or week, and thus not interfere with the
regular business. Thus residents of country, village or city,
male or female, who enjoy the society and study of natural
objects, and wish to add to their income and pleasure, will find
here an ever waiting opportunity.
WHO SHOULD NOT KEEP BEES.
There are occasionally persons to whom the venom of the
bee isa serious poison. If such persons are stung anywhere
their eyes swell so they can not see, the skin blotches, and
serious irritation is felt over the entire body. Such persons
are often overcome with fever for several days. and, though
very rarely, thesting sometimes proves fatal. It goes without
saying that such persons should not keep bees.
It is a well known fact that the sting of the honey-bee
becomes less and less poisonous the more one is stung. The
system becomes inoculated against the poison. My own ex-
perience proves this most conclusively. Every bee-keeper will
receive occasional stings, but these become more and more
rare, and soon occasion neither fear nor anxiety.
INDUCEMENTS TO BEE-KEEPING.
RECREATION.
I name this first, as it was the pleasure in store that led me
to the art of keeping bees, though I was terribly afraid of bees
at the beginning. There is a rare fascination in the study of
nature. Insect life is ever presenting the most pleasurable
surprises to those who study it. Bees, from their wonderful
instincts, curious structure and habits, and the interesting
relations which they sustain to vegetable life, are most fasci-
nating objects of study. The observant and appreciative bee-
keeper is ever the witness of exhibitions that incite wonder
and admiration. ‘This iswhy bee-keepers are always enthusi-
asts. I know of no class of laborers who dwell more fondly on
their work and business than do bee-keepers. A thorough
study of the marvelous economy of the honey-bee must, from
its very nature, bring delight and admiration. A farmer once
said to me, ‘‘ Were it not for the generous profits of the busi-
ness, I would still keep bees for the real pleasure I receive in
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 15
the business.”’ I once asked a hard worked teacher why he
kept bees. I felt like saying amen to his answer: ‘‘ For the
restful pleasure which the work gives.” I have often gone to
the bees tired and nervous, and after an hour’s labor, felt re-
freshed, as by sound sleep. I have been deeply gratified many
times by the letters thanking me for having turned the writers’
attention towards bee-keeping. I often think that if a person
does embark in bee-keeping, commencing in a small way—and
no person should begin in any other way—the knowledge gained
and consequent pleasure received will prove ample remunera-
tion, even should no practical results follow. The man is
broadened by the study, and better fitted to enjoy life.
Some years since my old friend and college classmate, O.
Clute, visited me. Of course, I must show him the bees. He
was delighted, took this ‘‘ Manual’’ home with him, purchased
some bees at once, and became enraptured with the work, and
the result of all this was another first-class bee-keeper and
that most fascinating work of fiction, ‘‘ Blessed Bees.”’
; PROFITS.
The profits in bee-keeping offer strong inducements towards
its adoption asa pursuit. I believe few manual-labor occupa-
tions offer so large returns, if we consider the capital invested.
True, bee-keeping requires hard work, but this is only fora
portion of the year, and in winter there is almost no work,
especially if the bee-keeper buys all his hives, sections, etc.,
which is usually wiser than to make them. The cautious,
prompt and skillful bee-keeper will often be able to securean
annual average of seventy-five pounds per colony, besides
doubling the number of his colonies. This will give $10.00 per
colony at least, which is almost as much as the colony, with
required apparatus, is worth. Of course, poor years will con-
front the bee-keeper. Winter losses will be experienced by the
beginner. Some will fail entirely. The fickle, careless, indo-
lent man will as surely fail in bee-keeping as in any other
calling. Yetif one studies the science and art, and commences
bee-keeping in a small way, as all should, he will be no great
loser, even if he find that he is not suited to the business. He
knows more and isa broader man for this study and experi-
ence. My brother, whois a good farmer, with a fertile and
16 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
well-stocked farm, commenced bee-keeping more to interest
his boys than aught else. He has met very little loss in win-
tering—for years together none at all. For three successive
years his sixty colonies of bees gave him more profits than all
the balance of his farm. As he saidat one of the Michigan
State Conventions: ‘‘I find my bees the pleasantest and most
profitable part of my farm.’’ He added the surprising remark,
“Nothing on my farm bears neglect better than my bees.”’ I
might add that neglect is rarely seen on his farm.
Adam Grimm, James Heddon, G. M. Doolittle, E. J. Oat-
man,and many others, have made much money in this pursuit.
Mr. Hetherington keeps thousands of colonies-of bees, and has
received over $10,000 cash receipts in a single year. Mr. Clute,
an able clergyman, has often received more money from his
bees than from his salary as a preacher. All over our country
men are gaining a livelihood in this industry, and often earn-
ing as much more in other pursuits. The opportunity to make
money, even with hardships and privations, is attractive and
seldom disregarded. What shall we say then of this oppor-
tunity, if the labor which it involves, bririgs in itself healthful
recreation and constant delight? Dr. C. C. Miller gaveupa
$2500 salary to engage in bee-keeping. Though a specialist,
and though his profits some. years, owing to the drouth, are
nothing, yet he is contented with the business, and has no idea
of changing for any other.
EXCEKLLENCE AS AN AMATEUR PURSUIT.
After twenty years of experience, I am persuaded that no
business offers more as an avocation. Indeed, I think bee-
keeping may ofttimes best serve asa second business. We
have already seen that bees are a blessing, and I would have
every person, whatever his leading business, keep a few colo-
nies of bees, unless by taste, nature or temperament, he be
unfitted for the work. Bee-keeping offers additional funds to
the poorly paid; outdoor air to clerk and office-hand ; healthful
exercise to the person of sedentary habits, opportunity for the
poor to reap what would otherwise go to waste, and superior
recreation to the student, teacher and professional man, espe-
cially to him whose life-work is of that dull, hum-drum, rou-
tine order that seems to rob life of all zest.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 17
The labor required in bee-keeping, especially if but few
colonies are kept, can, with thought and management, be so
arranged as not to infringe upon the time demanded by the
regular occupation. Even the farmer, by wise foresight, can
arrange so that his bees will not interfere greatly with his
regular farm work. I have never received more hearty thanks
than from persons whom I had influenced to add the care of
bees to their other duties.
ADAPTATION TO WOMEN.
Apiculture may also bring succor to those whom society
has not been over-ready to favor—our women. Widowed
mothers, dependent girls, the weak and the feeble, all may find
a blessing in the easy, pleasant and profitable labors of the
apiary. Ofcourse, women who lack vigor and health can care
for but very few colonies, and must have sufficient strength to
bend over and lift the small-sized frames of comb when loaded
with honey, and to carry empty hives. With the proper
thought and management, full colonies need never be lifted,
nor work done in the hot sunshine. Yet, right here let me
add, and emphasize the truth, ¢hat only those who will let ener-
getic thought and skillful plan, and above all promptitude and
persistence, make up for physical weakness, should enlist as
apiarists. Usually a stronger body and. improved health, the
result of pure air, sunshine and exercise, will make each suc-
cessive day’s labor more easy, and will permit a corresponding
growth in the size of the apiary for each successive season.
One of the most noted apiarists, not only in America, but in
the world, sought in bee-keeping her health, and found not
only health, but reputation andinfluence. Some of the most
successful apiarists in our country are women. Of these,
many were led to adopt the pursuit because of waning health,
grasping at this as the last and successful weapon with which
to vanquish the grim monster.
That able apiarist, and terse writer on apiculture, Mrs. L.
Harrison, states that the physicians told her that she could not
live; but apiculture did for her what the physicians could not
do-—restored her to health, and gave her such vigor that she
has been able to work a large apiary for years.
Said ‘‘Cyula Linswik ’’—whose excellent and beautifully
18 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
written articles have so often charmed the readers of the bee-
journals, and who has had many years of successful experi-
ence as an apiarist—in a paper read before the Michigan con-
vention in March, 1887: ‘‘I would gladly purchase exemption
from indoor work, on washing-day, by two days’ labor among ,
the bees, and I find two hours’ labor at the ironing-table more
fatiguing than two hours of the severest toil the apiary can
exact.’? I repeat, that apiculture offers to many women not
only pleasure but profit
Mrs. lL. B. Baker, of Lansing, Mich., who had kept bees
very successfully for four years, read an admirable paper be-
fore the same convention, in which she said: ‘‘ But I can say,
having tried both (keeping boarding-house and apiculture), I
give bee-keeping the preference, as more profitable, healthful,
independent and enjoyable. * * * I find the labors of the
apiary more endurable than working over a cook-stove indoors,
and more pleasant and conducive to health, * * * IT be-
lieve that many of our delicate and invalid ladies would find
renewed vigor of body and mind in the labors and recreations
of the apiary. * * * By beginning in the early spring,
when the weather was cool and the work light, I became grad-
ually accustomed to outdoor labor, and by midsummer found
myself as well able to endure the heat of the sun as my hus-
band, who has been accustomed to it all his life. Previously,
to attend an open-air picnic was to return with a headache.
* % * My own experience in the apiary has been a source
of interest and enjoyment far exceeding my anticipations.”
Although Mrs. Baker commenced with but two colonies of
bees, her net profits the first season were over $100; the second
year but a few cents less than $300 ; and the third year about
$250. ‘‘The proof of the pudding is in the eating ;” and such
words as those above show that apiculture offers special in-
ducements to our sisters to become either amateur or profes-
sional apiarists. At the present time almost every State has
women bee-keepers, whose success has won attention. True
it is, that in neatness and delicacy of manipulation, the women
far surpass the men. The nicest honey producedin Michigan,
year after year, comes from the apiary of two ladies whol
believe are peers of any bee-keepers in our country.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 19
IMPROVES THE MIND, THE OBSERVATION, AND THER HEART.
Successful apiculture demands close and accurate obser-
vation, and hard, continuous thought and study, and this, too,
in the wondrous realm of nature. In all this, the apiarist re-
ceives manifold and substantial advantages. In the cultiva-
tion of the habit of observation a person becomes constantly
more able, useful and susceptible to pleasure—results which
also follow as surely on the habit of thought and study. It is
hardly conceivable that the wide-awake apiarist who is so
frequently busy with his wonder-working comrades of the
hive, can ever be lonely, or feel time hanging heavily on his
hands. The mind is occupied, and there is no chance for
ennui, The whole tendency of such thought and study, where
nature is the subject, is to refine the taste, elevate the desires,
and ennoble manhood. Once get our youth, with their sus-
ceptibie natures, engaged in such wholesome study, and we
shall have less reason to fear the vicious tendencies of the
street, or the luring vices and damning influences of the
saloon. Thus apiculture spreads an intellectual feast that
even the old philosophers would have coveted; furnishes the
rarest food for the observing faculties, and, best of all, by
keeping its votaries face to face with the matchless creations
of the All Father, must draw them toward Him ‘‘ who went
about doing good,”’ and ‘‘in whom there was no guile.”
YIELDS DELICIOUS FOOD.
A last inducement of apiculture, certainly not unworthy of
mention, is the offering it brings to ourtables. Health, yea
our very lives, demands that we eat sweets. It is a truth that
our sugars, and especially our commiercial syrups, are so adul-
terated as to be often poisonous. The apiary in lieu of these,
gives us one of the most delicious and wholesome of sweets,
which has received merited praise, as food fit forthe gods,
from the most ancient time to the present day. Ever to have
within reach the beautiful, immaculate comb, or the equally
grateful nectar, right from the extractor, is certainly a bless-
ing of no mean order. We may thus supply our families and
friends with a food element, with no cloud of fear from vile,
poisonous adulterations. We now know that if we eat cane,
20 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
sugar—the common sugar of our tables—it is converted by the
digestive fluids into a glucose-like sugar, which is probably
nearly or quite identical with honey-sugar. The bees do the
same with the nectar, which is dilute cane-sugar, of flowers.
Thus we may reason that honey is our most wholesome sugar,
for here the bees have in part digested our food for us.
BRINGS THE SECOND BLADE OF GRASS.
We now know that bees do most valuable work in pollina-
ting the fruit-blossoms. No orchard will give full fruitage
without the visits of nectar-loving insects. Of these valued
friends, no other is at all comparable to the honey-bee, in the
value of its service. I know of California orchards whose
productiveness has been immensely increased by the introduc-
tion of an apiary. Hjvery orchard should have an apiary in its
near vicinity.
ADDS TO THE NATION’S WEALTH.
An excellent authority placed the number of colonies of
bees in the United States, in 1881, at 3,000,000, and the honey-
production for that year at more than 20,000,000 pounds. The
production for that year was not up to the average, and yet
the cash value of the year’s honey crop exceeded $30,000,000.
We may safely add as much more as the value of the increase
of colonies, and we havea grand total of $60,000,000—nearly
enough to pay the intérest on the national debt, were the bonds
all refunded. Mr. Root, in his excellent ‘‘ A BCof Bee-Cul-
ture,’’? estimates, from sections sold, that 125 million pounds
of honey are produced annually and sold for $10,000,000. And
yet allthis is but gathered nectar, which would go to waste
were it not for the apiarist and his bees. We thus save tothe
country that which would otherwise be a total loss. Apicul-
ture, then, in adding so immensely to the productive capital of
the country, is worthy, as an art, to receive the encouragement
and fostering care of the State. And the thought that he is
performing substantial service to the State, may well add to
the pleasureof the apiarist, as he performs his daily round of
labor. When we add to this the vastly greater indirect benefit
which comes through the agency of bees in fertilizing flowers
—a benefit which can hardly be computed—we then understand
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 21
the immense value which comes from bees. Truly, the bee-
keeper may feel proud of the grand part which his bees per-
form in the economy of that part of nature which most con-
cerns man and most generously ministers to man’s wants.
WHAT SUCCESSFUL BEE-KEEPING REQUIRES.
MENTAL EFFORT.
No one should commence this business who is not willing
to read, think, and study. To be sure, the ignorant and un-
thinking may stumble on success for a time, but sooner or
later failure will set her seal upon their efforts. Those of our
apiarists who have studied the hardest, observed the closest,
and thought the deepest, have even passed the late terrible
winter with but slight loss. Those who fail, often fail because
of just this lack of mental preparation.
Of course the novice will ask, ‘‘How and what shall I
study ?”
EXPERIENCK NECHSSARY.
Nothing will take the place of realexperience. Commence
with a few colonies, even one or two is best, and make the
bees your companions at every possible opportunity. Note
every change, whether of the bees, their development, or work,
and then by earnest thought strive to divine the cause.
LEARN FROM OTHERS.
Great good will also come from visiting and even working
for a time with other bee-keepers. Note their methods, hives,
sections, etc. Strive by conversation to gain new and valuable
ideas, and gratefully adopt whatever is found, by comparison,
to be an improvement upon your own past system and practice.
AID FROM CONVENTIONS.
Attend conventions whenever distance and means render
this possible. Here you will not only be made better by social
intercourse with those whose occupation and study make them
sympathetic and congenial, byt you will find a real conserva-
tory of scientific truths, valuable hints, and improved instru-
ments and methods. And the apt attention—rendered possi-
22 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
ble by your own experience—which you wil! give to essays,
discussions, and private conversations, will so enrich your
mind that you will return to your home encouraged and able
to do better work, and to achieve higher success. I have
attended nearly all the meetings of the Michigan Bee-Keepers’
Association, many of those of Califernia, and several of the
meetings of the National Bee-Keepers’ Association, and never
yet when I was not well paid for all trouble and expense by the
many, often very valuable, suggestions which I received.
AID FROM BEE-PERIODICALS.
Every apiarist should take and read at least one of the
many excellent bee-periodicals that are issued in our country.
It has been suggested that Francis Huber’s blindness was an
advantage to him, as he thus had the assistance of two pairs
of eyes, his wife’s and servant’s, instead of one. So, too, of
the apiarist who reads the bee-publications. He has the aid of
the eyes, and the brains, of hundreds of intelligent and observ-
ing bee-keepers. Who is it that squanders his money on worse
than useless patents and fixtures? He who ‘‘can not afford”’
to take a bee-paper.
It would be invidious and uncalled for to recommend any
one of these valuable papers to the exclusion of the others.
Each has its peculiar excellencies, and all who can may well
call to his aid two or more of them.
AMERICAN BER JOURNAL.—This is the oldest American
bee-paper, and the only weekly journal devoted exclusively to
bee-keeping in the United States. It was founded in 1861, by
the late Samuel Wagner, whose breadth of culture, strength of
judgment, and practical and historical knowledge of bee-
keeping, were remarkable. Even to-day those early volumes of
this paper are very valuable parts of any bee-keeper’s library.
Under the able management of Mr. Thomas G. Newman, the
late editor, the paper made great and continuous advancement.
The contributors to the ‘‘American Bee Journal’’ are the suc-
cessful bee-keepers of America, and so it has a wide influ-
ence. It is now edited by George W. York, whose skill, enter-
prise, and ability, are no whit behind those who founded and
raised this journal to its present proud place. ‘The publishers
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 23
are George W. York & Co., 334 Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill.
Subscription price, $1.00 a year.
GLEANINGS IN BEE-CULTURE.—This semi-monthly journal,
which has just completed its 28th volume, has shown great
vigor and energy from its very birth. Its editor is an active
apiarist, who is constantly experimenting ; a terse, able writer,
and brimful of good-nature and enthusiasm. I am free to say
that in practical apiculture Iam more indebted to Mr. A.I.
Root than to any other one person, except Rev. L. L. Lang-
stroth. I also think that, with few exceptions, he has done
more for the recent advancement of practical apiculture than
any other person in our country or the world. This sprightly
and beautifully illustrated journal is edited by E. R. Root, Me-
dina, Ohio. Price, $1.00 a year.
CANADIAN BEE JOURNAL.—This excellent periodical,
though published across the line, is worthy of high praise and
patronage. Mr. D. A. Jones wasits founder, and his ability,
enterprise, and long and successful experience gave this paper
great prestige. Perhaps no bee-keeper in the world has sacri-
ficed more in the way of time and money, and received less for
it, than has Mr. Jones, This is a monthly journal, and is pub-
lished by the Goold, Shapley & Muir Co., Ltd., Brantford, Ont.,
at $1.00 a year. W.J. Craig is its editor.
BEE-KEEPERS’ REVIEW.—Although the Bee-Keepers’ Re-
view has less of years, it is already away up to the front, and
an indispensable adjunct to every live apiarist. Its success
has been quite phenomenal. The ability, energy, and success-
ful experience of the editor, both as a writer and as a bee-
keeper, fit him most admirably for his work. Not only has he
won success in all departments of bee-keeping, but he has long
been esteemed as one of the most able of our American apicul-
tural writers. Published by W. Z. Hutchinson, Flint, Mich.,
at $1.00 a year.
AMERICAN BEE-KEEPER.—The ability, enterprise and long
and successful experience of Harry E. Hill, editor of this paper,
are all well-known. It is a 20-page monthly magazine, neatly
edited and wellillustrated. It is published by W, T, Falconer
Mfg. Co., Jamestown, N. Y., at 50 cents a year,
24 BEE-KEHPER’S GUIDE;
PROGRESSIVE BRE-KEERPER.—This is one of the later bee-
papers, but it shows wonderful progress and great promise of
usefulness. Its present editor, R. B. Leahy, is noted for his
ability, enterprise, and pushing business ways. It is published
monthly by Leahy Mfg. Co., Higginsville,Mo. Price, 50 cents
a year.
Rocky Mountain BgeEH JouRNAL.—This latest journal is
edited by H. C. Morehouse, and is published monthly by him
at Boulder, Colo. It shows vigor, and gives promise of long
life and great usefulness. Its locality is very fortunate. Price,
$1.00 a year.
BOOKS FOR THE APIARIST.
Having read many of the books treating of apiculture,
American and foreign, Ican freely recommend such a course
to others. Each book has peculiar excellencies, and may be
read with interest and profit.
LANGSTROTH ON THE HonEY-BuE.—This treatise will ever
remain a classic in bee-literature. I can not over-estimate the
benefits which I have received from a study of its pages. The
style of this workis so admirable, the subject-matter so replete
with interest, and the entire book so entertaining, that itisa
desirable addition to any library, and no thoughtful, studious
apiarist can well be without it. Itis especially happy in detail-
ing the work of experimentation, and in showing with what
caution the true scientist establishes principles or deduces con-
clusions. ‘The work is wonderfully free from errors, and had
the science and practice of apiculture remained stationary,
there would have been little need of another work. Weare
happy to state, however, that this work is now revised by no
less able authorities than Chas, Dadant & Son, which places it
high among our bee-books of to-day. Price, $1.20.
A BC oF BEE-CULTURE.—This work is by the editors of
“Gleanings in Bee-Culture.’’ Itis arranged in the convenient
form of our cyclopedias, is printed in fine style, on beautiful
paper, and is very fully illustrated. I need hardly say that the
styleis pleasing and vigorous. The subject matter is fresh,
and embodies the most recent discoveries and inventions per-
taining to bee-keeping. Price, $1.20.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 25
Forty YEARS AMONG THE BgES.—This book is written
by Dr. C. C. Miller, of Marengo, Ill., who is an authority on
practical bee-keeping. It contains 328 pages, with 112 beauti-
ful, original illustrations, taken by the author himself. It
shows in minutest detail just how Dr. Miller does things with
bees and makes a great success with them. Price, $1 00.
ScIENTIFIC QUHEN-REARING.—This work is by that well-
known and thoroughly practical bee-keeper, G. M. Doolittle.
It is invaluable, treating, as it does, of a method by which the
very best queen-bees are reared in accord with nature’s way.
Price, $1.00.
ADVANCED BExR-CULTURE.—This is a full and plain expla-
nation of the successful methods practiced by the author, W.
Z. Hutchinson. Price, 50 cents. :
FOREIGN PUBLICATIONS.
The British BEE JOURNAL, as the exponent of British
methods and practices, is interesting and valuable to Ameri-
can bee-keepers. It shows that in many things, as in the
method of organizing and conducting conventions, so as to
make them highly conducive to apicultural progress, we have
much to learn from our brothers in Britain. The editor is one
of the best informed bee-keepersof the world. The best way
for Americans so secure this journal is through the editors of
our Amevican bee-papers.
FOREIGN BOOKS.
The best of these, indeed one of the best ever published,
is Tae HoNEY-BEE, by Thomas W. Cowan, of London, Eng-
land. Itis the recognized authority in Europe, as it may well
be. Itis not only beautiful, but full, accurate, and scientific.
Asa history of scientific discovery in relation to bees, it is of
special ‘interest. It deserves a place in every bee-keeper’s
library. Price, $1.00.
A more’ pretentious book is BEES AND BEE-KEEPING, by
Frank Cheshire. In workmanship and illustration it is most
admirable. It is a compilation from Schiemenz, Girard, Wollf,
26 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
and others. Many of the pages and many of the finest illus-
trations are taken bodily, and, we are pained to say, with no
credit. As we should expect, the work is not as reliable as the
smaller work of Mr. Cowan. Price, $5.50.
As practical guides, I do not think the foreign works supe-
rior to our own. Indeed, I think the beginner would profit
most by studying our American books. The advanced bee-
keeper will gain much in discipline and knowledge by a care-
ful reading of the foreign works on bee-keeping. Foreign sci-
entists, especially the Germans, are at the head, but no nation
is quicker to discern the practical bearing and utilize the facts
and discoveries in science than are Americans. The Germans
had hardly shown how centrifugal force could be used to sepa-
rate honey from the comb before the Americans had given us
our beautiful extractors. The sameis true of comb-foundation
machines, The Germans pointed out the true nature of ‘ foul
brood,’’ and discovered the germicides forits cure, yet I believe
tén times as many Americans as foreigners profit by this
knowledge.
PROMPTITUDE.
Another absolute requirement of successful bee-keeping is
prompt attention to all its varied duties. Neglect is the rock
on which many bee-keepers, especially farmers, find too often
they have wrecked their success. I have no doubt that more
colonies die from starvation than from all the bee-maladies
known to the bee-keeper. And why is this? Neglect is the
apicide. I feel sure that the loss each season by absconding
colonies is almost incalculable, and what must we blame?
Neglect. The loss every summer by enforced idleness of
queen and workers, just because room is denied them, is very
great. Who is the guilty party? Plainly, Neglect. If we
would be successful, Promptitude must be our motto. Each
colony of bees requires but very little care and attention. Our
every interest requires that this be not denied, nor even
granted grudgingly. The very fact that this attention is
slight, renders it more liable to be neglected; but this neglect
always involves loss—often disaster. True, with thought and
management the time for this care can be arranged at pleasure
and the amount greatly lessened, but the care must never be
neglected,
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 27
ENTHUSIASM.
Enthusiasm, or an ardent love of its duties, is a very desir-
akle, if not an absolute, requisite to successful apiculture. To
be sure, this is a quality whose growth, with only slight oppor-
tunity, is almost sure. It only demands perseverance. The
beginner, without-either experience or knowledge, may meet
with discouragements—unquestionably will. Swarms will be
lost, colonies will fail to winter, and the young apiarist will
become nervous, which fact will be noted by the bees with
great disfavor, and, if opportunity permits, will meet reproof
more sharp than pleasant. Yet, with PERSISTENCH, all these
difficulties quickly vanish. Ejvery contingency will be fore-
seen and provided against, and the myriad of little workers
will become as manageable and may be fondled as safely asa
pet dog or cat, and the apiarist will minister to their needs
with the same fearlessness and self-possession that he does to
his gentlest cow or favorite horse. Persistence, in the face of
all these discouragements which are so sure to confront inea-
perience, will surely triumph. In sooth, he who appreciates
the beautiful and marvelous, will soon grow to love his com-
panions of the hive, and the labor attendant upon their care
andmanagement. Nor will this love abate until if has been
kindled into enthusiasm. '
True, there may be successful apiarists who are impelled
by no warmth of feeling, whose superior intelligence, system
and promptitude, stand in lieu of, and make amends for, absence
of enthusiasm. Yet I believe such are rare, and certainly they
work at great disadvantage.
PART FIRST.
NATURAL HISTORY
OF THE
HONEY- BEE.
Natural History of the Honey-Bee,
CHAPTER L
THE BEE’S PLACE IN THE ANIMAL
KINGDOM.
It is estimated by eminent naturalists that there are more
than 1,000,000 species of living animals. It will be both inter-
esting and profitable to look in upon this vast host, that we
may know the position and relationship of the bee to all this
mighty concourse of life.
BRANCH OF THE HONEY-BEE.
The great French naturalist, Cuvier, a cotemporary of
Napoleon I, grouped all animals which exhibit a ring struc-
ture into one branch, appropriately named Articulates, as this
term indicates the jointed or articulated structure whicl so
obviously characterizes most of the members of this group.
The terms ‘‘joint’’ and ‘“‘articulation,’’ as used here, have
atechnical meaning. ‘They refer not to the hinge or place of
union of two parts, but to the parts themselves. Thus, the
parts of an insect’s legs are styled ‘* joints’ or ‘‘ articulations.”
Allapiarists who have examined carefully the structure of a
bee, will at once pronounce it an Articulate. Not only is its
bedy, even from head to sting, composed of joints, but by close
inspection we find the legs, the antennz, and even the mouth-
parts, likewise jointed.
The worms, too, are Articulates, though in some of these,
as the leech, the joints are very obscure. The bee, then, which
gives us food, is distantly related to the dreaded tape-worm,
with its hundreds of joints, which, mayhaps, robs us of the
same food after we have eatenit; and to the terrible pork-
worm, or trichina, which may consume the very muscles we
have developed in caring for our pets of the apiary.
In classifying animals, the zoologist has regard not only
to the morphology—the gross anatomy—but also to the em-
32 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
bryology, or style of development before birth or hatching.
On both embryological and morphological grounds, Huxley
and other recent authors are more than warranted in separa-
ting the Vermes, or worms, from the Articulates of Cuvier asa
separate phylum. The remaining classes are now included in
the branch Arthropoda. This term, which means jointed feet,
is most appropriate, as all of the insects and their allies have
jointed feet, while the worms are without such members.
The body-rings of these animals form a skeleton, firm, as
in the bee and lobster, or more or less soft, as in most larve.
The hardness of the crust is due to the deposit within it of a
hard substance called chitine, and the firmness of the in-
sect’s body varies simply with the amount of this chitine.
This skeleton, unlike that of Vertebrates, or back-bone ani-
mals, to which man belongs, is outside, and thus serves to pro-
tect the inner. softer parts, as wellas to give them attach-
ment, and to give strength and solidity to the animal.
This ring structure, so beautifully marked in our golden-
banded Italians, usually makes it easy to separate, at sight,
animals of this branch from the Vertebrates, with their usually
bony skeleton ; from the less active Molluscan branch, with
their soft, sack-like bodies, familiar to us in the snail, the
clam, the oyster, and the wonderful cuttle-fish—the devil-fish
of Victor Hugo—with its long, clammy arms, strange ink-bag,
and often prodigious size; from the branch Echinodermata,
with its graceful star-fish and sea-stars, and elegant sea-lilies ;
from the Coelenterata with its delicate but gaudy jelly-fish, and
coral animals, the tiny architects of islands and even conti-
nents; from the lowly Porifera or sponges which seem so little
like an animal; and from the lowest, simplest, Protozoan
branch, which includes animals often so minute that we often
owe our very knowledge of them to the microscope, and so
simple that they have been regarded as the bond which unites
plants with animals.
CLASS OF THE HONEY-BEE.
The honey-bee belongs to the class Hexapoda, or true in-
sects. The first term is appropriate, as all have in the imago,
or last stage, six legs. Nor isthe second term less applicable,
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 33
as the word ‘‘insect’’ comes from the Latin, and means to
cut in, and in no other Arthropod does the ring-structure ap-
pear so marked upon merely a superficial examination. More
than this, the true insects when fully developed have, unlike all
other Arthropods, three well-marked divisions of the body,
Fic. 1.
Respiratory Apparatus of Bee, magnifled—After Duncan.
a Head, b Thorax, c Abdomen, d Antenne, e Compound Eyes, f Air-sacs,
ggg’ Legs, f’ Tracher.
(Fig. 1), namely: the head (Fig. 1, a), which contains the an-
tenne (Fig. 1, d), the horn-like ‘appendages common to all
insects; eyes (Fig. 1, e), and mouth organs; the thorax (Fig.
1,b), which bears the legs (Fig. 1, g), and wings, when they
are present; and lastly, the abdomen (Fig. 1, c), which, though
34 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; °
usually without appendages, contains the ovipositor, and,
when present, the sting. Insects undergo a more striking
metamorphosis than do most other animals. When first
hatched they are worm-like, and called ‘‘larve”’ (Fig. 39, /),
which means masked; afterward they are frequently quies-
cent, and would hardly be supposed to be animals at all. They
are then known as pupa (Fig. 39, g). At last there comes forth
the mature insect or imago (Fig. 1), with compound eyes,
antenne and wings. In some insects the transformations are
said to be incomplete, that is, thelarva, pupa, andimago differ
little except in size, and that the latter possesses wings. The
larve and pupz of such insects are knownasnymphs. We see
in our bugs, lice, locusts and grasshoppers, illustrations of
insects with incomplete transformations. In such cases there
is a marked resemblance from the newly-hatched larva to the
adult.
The other classes of the phylum Arthropoda, are the Crus-
tacea, Myriapoda, and Arachnoidea. The Crustaceans include
the jolly cray-fish and the lobster, so indifferent as to whether
they move forward, backward or sidewise ; the shorter crab, the
sow-bug, lively and plump, even in its dark, damp home under
old boards ; and the barnacles, which fasten to the bottom of
ships, so that vessels are often freighted with life, without, as
well as within.
The myropods are the so-called ‘‘Thousand-Legged Worms.”’
These are wormlike in form. The body is hardly differentiated
at all. The name comes from the numerous legs, which
though never a thousand may reach one-fourth that number.
Myriapods have only simple eyes, and all haveantennz. Of
the Myriapoda the Millipeds have numerous segments, often
as many as sixty, have four legs to each joint, are cylindrical,
and are often pests in the garden, as they are vegetable eaters,
The Centipeds have fewer joints, may be no more than thirty,
only one pair of legs to each segment, and feed on insects, etc.
Their bite is venomous, and the bite of the larger ones may
prove harmful even to man himself.
The Class Arachnida includes the spider group. These
animals all have, when mature, eight legs. They never have
but two parts to the body, the head-thorax and abdomen.
s
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 35
Their eyes are simple, and they are without antenna. The
wee mites belong here. They have hardly any divisions to the
body. The mouth-parts form a mere portico. When first
hatched they haye only six legs. The so-called red spider (red
mite), so destructive in the orchard, belongs here, as do also the
sugar, cheese, flour, and chicken mites. The ticks are but
colossal mites. Of these, the Texas Cattle Tick (Boophilus
bovis) causes the Texas fever in cattle. The cause of the
fever is a protozoan animal, Pyrosoma bigeminum. ‘This is
in the blood of Texas cattle, but is harmless. Carried by the
tick to other cattle, it brings disease and death. The scorpions
are also Arachnids. One of these stings as does the bee, and
the sting is often quite venomous. The whip scorpion of
Florida is named from its caudal appendages. It is entirely
harmless. The Datames, which I call the ‘‘ California bee-
killer’? (Fig. 292), and which is described among the bee-
enemies, belongs here. Grandfather Graybeard also belongs
in the scorpion order. It is only useful in pointing the way to
lost cows, etc. Its legs point every way. The spiders are the
highest Arachnids. They differ from mites in possessing
two well-marked divisions of the body, and in always having
eight legs, and from the scorpions in never having the abdo-
men jointed. Thespiders have a poisonous bite, but rarely
inflict injury to. man. Their silk and spinning habits are
-exceedingly interesting. Spiders are almost as marvelous in
their life history as are the bees. Like the Datames, to be
spoken of asa bee-enemy, spiders often kill our pets of the
hive.
ORDER OF THE HONEY-BEE.
The honey-bee belongs to the order Hymenoptera (from two
Greek words meaning membrane and wing), which also in-
cludes the wasps, ants, ichneumon-flies, gall-flies, and saw-
flies. This group contains insects which possess a tongue by
which they may suck (Figs. 16 and 54), and strong jaws (Fig.
65) for biting. Thus, the bees can sip the honeyed sweets of
flowers, and also gnaw away mutilated comb. They have,
besides, four wings, and undergo complete transformations.
There are among insects strange resemblances. Insects
of one order will show a marked likeness to those of another,
36 THE BEH-KEEPHR’S GUIDE;
This is known as mimicry, and sometimes is wonderfully
striking between very distant groups. Darwin and Wallace
have shown this to be a developed peculiarity, not always pos-
sessed by the ancestors of the animal, and that it comes
through the laws of variation and natural selection to serve
the purpose of protection. Right here we havea fine illustra-
tion of this mimicry. Just the other day I received, through
Mr. A. I. Root, an insect which he and the person sending it
to him supposed to be a bee, and he desired to know whether
it was a malformed honey-bee, or some other species. This
insect, though looking in a general way much like a bee, had
only two wings, had no jaws, and its antenna were close to-
gether in front, and mere stubs. In fact, it was no bee at all,
but belonged to the order Diptera, or two-winged flies. I have
received several similar insects, with like inquiries. Among
Diptera there are several families, as the G¢stridz, or bot-flies,
some of the Asilida, or robber-flies (Fig. 268), which are often
fierceenemies of our bees, the Syrphida—a very useful fam-
ily, as the larve or maggots often live on plant-lice—whose
members are often seen sipping sweets from flowers, or trying
to rob the honey from other bees—the one referred to above
belonged to this family—and the Bombyliidw, which in color,
form, and hairy covering, are strikingly like wild and domes-
ticated bees. The maggots of some of these feed on the larve
of various of our wild bees, and of course the mother fly must
steal into the nests of the latter to lay her eggs. Soin these
cases there is seeming evidence that the mimicry may serve to
protect these fly-tramps as they stealin to pilfer the coveted
sweets, or lay the fatal eggs. Possibly, too, they may havea
protective scent, as they have been seen to enter a hive in
safety, though a bumble-bee essaying todo the same found
the way barricaded with myriad simitars, each with a poisoned
tip.
Some authors have placed Coleoptera, or beetles, as the
highest of insects, others claim for Lepidoptera, or butter-flies
and moths, a first place, while others, and with the best of
reasons, claim for Hymenoptera the highest position. The
larger brain, wondrous habits, and marvelous differentiation
of mouth-organs, legs, etc., more than warrant placing them
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 37
at the head. The moth is admired for the glory of its coloring
andelegance of its form, and the beetle for the luster and
brilliancy of its elytra, or wing-covers; but these insects only
revel in Nature’s wealth, and live and die without labor or pur-
pose. Hymenoptera, usually less gaudy, often quite plain and
unattractive in color, are yet the most highly endowed among
insects. They live with a purpose in view, and are the best
models of industry to be found among animals. Our bees
practice a division of labor; the arfts are still better political
economists, as they have a specially endowed class in the com-
munity which are the soldiers, and thus are the defenders of
each ant-kingdom. Ants also conquer other communities, take
their inhabitants captive, and reduce them to abject slavery—
requiring them to perform a large portion, and sometimes the
whole, of the labor of the community. Ants-tunnel under
streams, and in the tropics some leaf-eating species have been
observed to show no mean order of intelligence, as some ascend
trees to cut off the leafy twigs, while others remain below and
carry these branches through their tunnels to their under-
ground homes. Indeed, the Agricultural ant, of Texas,
actually clears land and grows a special kind of plant on which
it feeds. (See McCook’s Ants.)
The parasitic Hymenoptera are so-called because they lay
their eggs in other insects, that their offspring may have fresh
meat not only at birth, but so long as they need food, as the
insect fed upon generally lives till the young parasite, which
is working to disembowel it, is full-grown; thus this steak is
ever fresh as life itself. These parasitic insects show won-
drous intelligence, or sense-development, in discovering their
prey. I have caught ichneumon-flies—a family of these para-
sites—boring through the bark and a thin layer of solid beech
or maple wood, and upon examination I found the prospective
victim further on in direct line with the insect auger, which
was to intrude the fatalegg. Ihave also watched ichneumon-
flies depositing eggs in leaf-rolling caterpillars, so surrounded
with tough hickory leaves that the fly had to pierce several
thicknesses to place the egg in its snugly-ensconced victim.
Upon putting these leaf-rolling caterpillars in a box, I reared,
of course, the ichneumon-fly and not the moth. Is it instinct
38 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
or reason that enables these flies to gauge the number of their
eggs to the size of the larva which is to receive them, so that
there may be no danger of famine and starvation? For true
itis that while small caterpillars will receive but few eggs,
large ones may receive several. Even the honey-bee some-
times falls victim to such parasites, as I shall show in speak-
ing of enemies of bees. How strange the habits of the saw-
fly, with its wondrous instruments, more perfect than any
saws of human workmanship, and the gall-flies, whose poison-
ous stings, as they fasten their eggs to the oak, rose, or other
leaves, cause the abnormal growth of food for the still un-
hatched young. In the South it is reported that bees often
obtain no small amount of nectar from species of oak-galls.
The providing and caring for their young, which are at
first helpless, is peculiar among insects, with slight exception,
to the Hymenoptera, and among all animals is considered a
mark of high rank. Such marvels of instinct, if we may not
call it intelligence, such acumen of sense perception, such
wonderful habits, all these, no less than the compact structure,
small size and specialized organs of nicest finish, more than
warrant that grand trio of American naturalists—Agassiz,
Dana, and Packard—in placing Hymenoptera first in rank
among insects. As we shall detail the structure and habits of
the highest of the high—the bees—in the following pages, I am
sure no one will think to degrade the rank of these wonders of
the animal kingdom.
FAMILY OF THE HONEY-BEE.
The honey-bee belongs to the family Apide, of Leach,
which includes not only the hive-bee, but all insects which
feed their helpless larve on pollen, pollen or honey, or food
digested by the adult bees.
Many authors separate the lower bees, principally because
of their shorter tongues, from the others, under the family
name, Andrenide. In this case all the bees are grouped as
Mellifera or Anthophila Latr. I shall group all beesin the
one family Apidz, and regard the Andrene and their near
relatives as asub-family. The insects of this family all have
branched or plumose hairs on some portion of the body, broad
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 39
heads, elbowed antennz (Fig. 1, d), which are thirteen jointed
in the males, and only twelve jointed in the females. The
jaws or mandibles (Fig. 65) are strong and usually toothed.
The tongue or ligula is very long andslim in the higher
genera, but short and flattened in the lower ones. The second
jaws or maxille (Fig. 54, m2) are long and prominent, and
ensheath the tongue, with which they are folded back when
not in use, once or more under the head. All the insects of
this family have, on the four anterior legs, a stiff spine on the
end of the tibia (Fig. 69), the fourth joint of the leg from the
body—called the tibial spur, and all except the genus Apis,
which includes the honey-bee, in which the posterior legs are
without tibial spurs, have two tibial spurs on the posterior
legs. Nearly all bees (the parasitic genera are exceptions)
have the first joint of the tarsus of the posterior legs much
broadened (Fig. 71), and this, together with the broad tibia, is
hollowed out (Fig. 70), forming quite a basin or basket—the
corbicula—on the outer side, in the species of Apis and Bom-
bus, which basket is deepened by long, stiff hairs. These re-
ceptacles, or pollen-baskets, are found only in such bees as
gather much pollen. A few of the Apidz—thieves by nature—
cuckoo-like, steal unbidden into the nests of others, and here
lay their eggs. As their young are fed and fostered by
another, such bees gather no pollen, and so, like drone-bees,
need noorgans for collecting it. These parasites illustrate
mimicry, already described, as they look so like the foster-
mothers of their own young that unscientific eyes would often
fail to distinguish them. Probably the bees thus imposed
upon are no sharper, or they would refuse ingress to these
merciless vagrants.
The larve (Fig. 39,7) of all insects of this family are
maggot-like, wrinkled, footless, tapering at both ends, and, as
already stated, have their food prepared for them. They are
helpless, and thus all during their babyhood (the larva state)—
the time when all insects are most ravenous, and the only time
when many insects take food; the time when all growth in size,
except such enlargement as is required by egg-development,
occurs—these infant bees have to be fed by their mothers or
elder sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips, and weak
40 THE BREE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;
jaws, yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken in
at this opening. There is much reason to believe that the
honey-bees especially, like many maggots—such as the Hes+
sian-fly larve—absorb much of their food through the body
walls. From the mouth leads the alimentary canal, which has
no analopening. So there are no excreta other than gas and
vapor, except the small amount which remains in the stomach
and intestine, which are shed with the skin at the time of the
last molt. What commendation for their food, nearly all
capable of nourishment, and thus assimilated !
To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees, Mel-
ipona, of Mexico and South America, which store honey not
only in the hexagonal brood-cells, but in great wax-reservoirs.
They, like the unkept hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They are
exceedingly numerous in each colony, and it has thus been
thought that there was more than one queen. They are also
very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess a prospective com-
mercial importance in these days of comb foundation. In this
genus the basal joint of the tarsus is triangular, and there are
two submarginal cells, not three, to the front wings. They
are also smaller than our common bees, and have wings that
do not reach the tip of their abdomens. Mr. T. F. Bingham,
inventor of the bee-smoker, bought a colony of the stingless
bees from Mexico to Michigan. The climate seemed unfavor-
able to them, as soon the bees all died. Inow have some of
the bees, and their great black honey and pollen cells in our
museum. The corbicule, or pollen-baskets, are specially well
marked, and the posterior tibial spur is wanting in these small
bees.
Another genus of stingless bees, the genus Trigona, have
the wings longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed.
These, unlike the Melipona, are not confined to the New World,
but are met with in Africa, India, and Australasia. These
build their combs in tall trees, fastening them to the branches
much as does the Apis dorsata, soon to be mentioned.
Of course insects of the genus Bombus—our common bum-
ble-bees—belong to this family. Here the tongue is very long,
the bee large, and the sting curved, with the barbs very short
and few. Only the queen survives the winter. In spring she
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 41
forms her nest under some sod or board, often ina deserted
mouse-nest, hollowing out a basin in the earth, and after stor-
ing a mass of bee-bread she deposits several eggs in the mass.
The larve are soon hatched out and develop in large, coarse
cells, not unlike the queen-cells of our hive-bees. When the
bees issue from these cells the latter are strengthened with
wax, Laterin the season, these coarse wax-cells, which con-
tain much pollen, become very numerous, serving both for
brood and honey. At first, in spring, the queen has all to do,
hence the magnificent bumble-bees, the queens, seen about the
lilacs in early spring. Soon the smaller workers become
abundant, and relieve the queen, which then seldom leaves the
nest. Later, the drones and the smaller, because yet unim-
pregnated and non-laying, queens appear. Thus, the bees
correspond with those of the hive. The young queens mate in
late summer, and are probably the only ones that survive the
winter. Mating is performed on the wing. I once saw a
queen Bombus fall to the earth, dragging a male from which
she would have torn loose had I not captured both. The bum-
ble-bee drones are often seen collected about shady places at
the mating season in August.
Bees of the genus Xylocopa much resemble bumble-bees,
though they are usually black, less hairy, and are our largest
bees. They have not the corbicule. These are among our
finest examples of boring insects. With their strong biden-
tate jaws they cut long tunnels, often twoor more feet long,
in sound wood. These burrows are partitioned by chips into
cells, andin each cell is left an egg and bee-bread for the
larva, soon to hatch. These bees do no slight damage by
boring into cornices, window-casings, etc., of houses and out-
buildings. At my suggestion, many people thus annoyed
have plugged these tunnels with a mixture of lard and kero-
sene, and have speedily driven the offending beesaway. These
are the bees which I have discovered piercing the base of long
tubular flowers, like the wild bergamot. I have seen honey-
bees visiting these slitted flowers, the nectar of which was
thus made accessible to them. I have never seen honey-bees
biting flowers. I think they never do it. Kylocopa Califor-
nica is very common here at Claremont. The females are
42 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
black, and the males light yellow. My students told me the
females would not sting. I said that was strange, and picked
oneup. I threw it down very quickly, and have not repeated
the experiment.
The mason-bees—well named—construct cells of earth,
which, by aid of their spittle, they cement so that these cells
are very hard. There are several genera of these bees, the
elegant Osmia, the brilliant Augochlora, the more sober but
very numerous Andrena—the little black bees that often steal
into the hives for honey, etc. Some burrow in sand, some
build in hollowed-out weeds, some build mud cells in crevices,
even small key-holes not being exempt, as I have too good
reason to know. The Yale locks in our museum have thus
suffered. Here the lard and kerosene mixture again comes in
play.
The tailor, or leaf-cutting, bees, of the genus Megachile,
make wonderful cells from variously shaped pieces of leaves.
These are always mathematical in form, usually circular and
oblong, are cut—the insect making scissors of its jaws—from
various leaves, the rose being a favorite. I have found these
cells made almost wholly of the petals or flower-leaves of the
rose. Thecells are made by gluing these leaf-sections in con-
centric layers, letting them overlap. The oblong sections form
the walls of the cylinder, while the circular pieces are crowded
into the tubes as we press circular wads into our shot-guns,
and are used at the ends, or for partitions where several cells
are placed together. When complete, the single cells are in
form and size much like a revolver cartridge. When several
are placed together, which is usually the case, they are
arranged end to end, and in size and form are quite like a small
stick of candy, though not more than one-third as long.
These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the
earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built in
the folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife had
chanced to leave stationary for somie days. These leaf-cutters
often have yellow hairs underneath their bodies, which aid
them in carrying pollen. I have noticed them each summer,
for some years, swarming on the Virginia creeper, often called
woodbine, while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I have
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 43
rarely seen the hive-bee on these vines. The tailor-bees often
cut the foliage of the same vines quite badly. The males of
these bees have curiously modified, and broadly fringed ante-
rior legs. I have found these tailor-bees as common in Califor-
nia as in Michigan.
I have often reared beautiful bees of the genera Osmia
and Augochlora, which, as already stated, are also called
mason-bees. Their glistening colorsof blue and green possess
aluster and reflection unsurpassed even by the metals them-
selves. These rear their young in cells of mud, in mud-cells
lining hollow weeds and shrubs, and in burrows which they
dig in the hardearth. In early summer, during warm days,
these glistening gems of life are frequently seen in walks and
drives intent on gathering earth for mortar, or digging holes,
and will hardly escape identification by the observing apiarist,
as their form is so much like that of our honey-bees. They
are smaller, yet their broad head, prominent eyes, and general
form, are very like those of the equally quick and active, yet
more soberly attired, workers of the apiary. The beautiful—
often beautifully striped—species of Ceratina look much like
those of Osmia, but they nest in hollows in stems of various
plants, which, in some cases, they themselves form. In south-
western Michigan they do no little harm by boring the black-
berry canes. They have simple hind legs.
Other bees—the numerous species of the genus Nomada,
and of Apathus—are the black sheep in the family Apide.
These tramps, already referred to, like the English cuckoo and
our American cow-blackbird, steal in upon the unwary, and,
though all unbidden, lay their eggs; in this way appropriating
food and lodgings for theirown yetunborn. Thus these insect
vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster-mothers in
their violated homes, and these same foster-mothers show by
their tender care of these merciless intruders, that they are
miserably fooled, for they carefully guard and feed infant bees,
which, with age, will in turn practice this same nefarious
trickery. The Apathus species are parasites on the Bombus;
the Nomada species, which are small bees, often beautifully
ringed, on the small black Andrene.
The species of Andrena, Halictus, the red Sphecodes, and
44 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};
others of the Andrenidz of some authors, have short, flat
tongues, with equi-jointed labial palpi. These bees have been
little studied, and there are very numerous undescribed species.
Treluctantly withhold further particulars of this wonder-
ful bee-family. When first I visited Messrs. Townley and
Davis, of Michigan, Iwas struck with the fine collection of
wild-bees which each had made. Yet, unknowingly, they had
incorporated many that were not becs. Of course, many api-
arists will wish to make such collections, and also to study our
wild bees. I hope the above will prove both a stimulus and
aid. I hope, too, that it will stimulate others, especially youth,
to the valuable and intensely interesting study of these won-
ders of nature. Iam glad to open to the readera page from
the book of nature so replete with attractions as is the above.
Nor do I think I have taken too much space in revealing the
strange and marvelous instincts, and wonderfully varied habits,
of this brightest of insect families, at the head of which stand
our own fellow-laborers and companions of the apiary.
I shall be very glad to receive specimens of wild bees from
every State in our country. To send bees or other insects,
kill with gasoline or chloroform, wrap with cotton or tissue
paper, so as to prevent injury, and mailin a strong box.
THE GENUS OF THE HONEY-BEE.
The genus Apis includes all bees that have no tibial spurs
on the posterior legs, and at the same time have three cubital
or sub-costal cells (6, 7, 8, Fig. 2)—the second row from the
costal or anterior edge—on the front or primary wings. The
marginal cell (Fig. 2, 5) is very long. On the inner side of the
posterior basal tarsus, opposite the pollen-baskets, in the
neuters or workers, are rows of hairs (Fig. 71), which are used
in collecting pollen. In the males, which do no work except
to fertilize the queens, the large compound eyes meet above,
crowding the simple eyes below (Fig. 3), while in the workers
(Fig. 4) and queens these simple eyes (called ocelli) are above,
and the compound eyes wide apart. The compound eyes are
in all cases hairy (Figs. 3, 4). The drones and queens have
weak jaws, with a rudimentary tooth (Fig. 65, @ 6), short
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 45
tongues, and no pollen-baskets, though they have the broad
tibia and wide basal tarsus (Fig. 48, ¢, s).
There is some doubt as to the number of species of this
Fic. 2.
Anterior and Posterior Wings of Bee.—Original.
ht Hooklets much magnified. 1 Costal cell.
a Costal vein. 2 Median cell.
b Sub-costal vein. 3 Sub-median cell.
c Median vein. 4 Anal cell.
d Anal vein. 5 Marginal cell.
q Posterior margin. 6, 7, 8, Sub-marginal cells.
e Fold where how klets catch, 10, 1L and 12, Discoidal cells.
A Hooklets.
46 THE BEE-KEEKPER’S GUIDE ;
genus. It is certain that the Italian bee, the Egyptian bee,
the Cyprian bee, and the bees of Syria, of which Mr. Benton
states that there are at least two distinct races, are only races
of the Apis mellifera, which also includes the Tunisian or
Punic bees, the Carniolan, and the German or black bee.
Mr. F. Smith, an able entomologist of England, considers
Apis dorsata of India and the East Indies, Apis zonata of the
Philippine Islands, Apis indica of India and China, and Apis
Fic. 3.
Head of Drone, magnified.— Original.
Antenne, Compound Eyes, Simple Eyes.
florea of India, Ceylon, China, and Borneo, as distinct species.
He thinks, also, that Apis adonsoni and Apis nigrocincta are
distinct, but states that they may be varieties of Apis indica.
Others think them races of dorsata. Some regard Apis uni-
color as a distinct species, but it is probably a variety of Apis
mellifera. As Apis mellifera has not been found in India, and
is a native of Europe, Western Asia, and Africa, it seems
quite possible, though not probable, that several of the above
may turn out to be only varieties of Apis mellifera. If there
are only color and size to distinguish them, and, indeed, one
may add habits, then we may suspect, with good reason, the
validity of the above arrangement. If there be structural
difference, as Mr. Wallace says there is, in the male dorsata,
then we may call them different species. The Italian certainly
has a longer tongue than the German, yet that is not sufficient
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 47
to separate them as species. Apis zonata of the Kast Indies,
and Apis unicolor, are said to be very black.
I append the following chart, which I think represents
pretty accurately the species, races and varieties of the genus
Apis. (See page 48.)
Where a race is followed by an interrogation point, there
is a question if it should not be considered a variety of the last
preceding race not thus marked. Some of the races, like the
Italian, Cyprian, Greek, etc., Vogel considers had their origin
in across between the yellow and black races. Vogel’s con-
clusion was reached from a long series of experiments, cross-
ing Italian and German bees, and then breeding from such
crosses. It seems likely that through the law of variation
Head of Worker, magnified.—Original.
Antenne, Compound Eyes, Simple Eyes.
each race might have originated independently, or possibly
all, as varieties of the Egyptian bee.
In the autumn of 1879, Mr. D. A. Jones, of Beeton, Ontario,
Canada, inaugurated the grandest enterprise ever undertaken
in the interest of apiculture. This was nothing less than to
visit Cyprus, Syria, and the more distant India and the Kast
Indies, for the purpose of securing and introducing into Amer-
ica such species and races of bees as gave promise of superior
excellence. Mr. Jones procured the services of Mr. Frank
48 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
SPECIES. Races. VARIETIES.
Apis Indica, Fab. A. dorsata nigripennis,
Apis florea, Fab, Latr. '
Apis dorsata, Fab, A. dorsata bicolor,
Klug.
a sa ela ( Carniolan or Kraincr,
* aang Heath.
llungarian.
A. mellifera nigra.
German Bee Dalmatian.
Herzegovinian.
Smyrnian.
Tunisian.
A. mellifera fasciata, Common biacik:
Evyptian Bee.
Syrian (?)
south Palestine (?)
Apis mellifera, Cyprian (7)
Italian (?)
Greek (?)
Bonnut (?)
Caucasian (2)
A. mellifera unicolor
Latr. Madapasear.
A. mellifera adonsoni,
African Bee.
\
Genton, a graduate of the Michigan Agricultural College, a
fine linguist and skilled apiarist, to aid in his undertaking.
After visiting the principal apiaries of Europe, these gentle-
men located at Larnica, in the island of Cyprus, where they
established a large apiary composed of Cyprian and Syrian
bees. The Cyprian bees were purchased on the island, while
the Syrians were procured personally by Mr. Jones in Syria.
The following June Mr. Jones returned to America with sev-
eral hundred queens of these two races. Mr. Benton remained
at Larnica to rear and ship more queens to Europe and Amer-
ica. The following winter Mr. Benton visited Ceylon, Farther
India, and Java, as Mr. Jones was determined to ascertain if
there were better bees than those we already had, and if so to
secure them. Apis dorsata (Figs. 5, 6) was the special object of
the quest, and as this bee was known as the * great bee of
Java,” Mr. Benton visited that island, in hopes to procure
these bees. But to the sore disappointment not only of those
who had the enterprise in charge, but of all progressive api-
arists, the bees in question were not to be found on that island.
Mr. Benton learned ata great cost that this bee is rare in
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 49
Java, but common in the jungles of Ceylon, Hindoostan,
Farther India, Sumatra, Borneo, and Timor. In Ceylon, Mir.
Fic. 5,
A, dorsata Worker, X2.
(From Department of Agriculture.)
Benton saw many colonies, most of which were in inaccessible
places, though he secured, after great labor and hardship, four
colonies. —
A. dorsata Drone, X2.
(From Department of Agriculture.)
These bees usually suspend their great combs, which are
often six feet long and four feet wide, to overhanging rocks, or
50 THE BEE-KEHEPER’S GUIDE;
to horizontal branches of trees. In one case, Mr. Benton found
them in the crevice of a rock, nearly surrounded by the same.
This indicates that they may be kept in hives. The combs
hang side by side, so do those of our common bees, but are one-
half inchapart. Mr. Benton found the tops of the combs,
which contain the honey, from three to six inches thick, while
those where brood is reared, are one and one-half inches thick.
Drones and workers are all reared in the same cells, which are
about the size of the drone brood-cells of our honey-comb, The
worker-bees, some specimens of which I have received from
Fic. 7.
Worker-Cells.—A. indica.
(From Department of Agriculture.)
Mr. Jones, in size and general appearance much resemble our
Italian queens. They have blue-black wings, black bodies,
which are ringed very much asare our Italians, only the yellow
largely predominates. Mr. Benton writes me that in form and
style of flight they much resemble wasps. They are the same
size as the drones, varying from three-fourths to seven-eighths
of an inch in length. They are easily handled by aid of
smoke, and are very clumsy in their attempts to sting. Their
sting is no larger than that of our common bees, while the
pain from their sting, Mr. Benton says,is not so great. The
drones are dark brown, marked with yellow. Strangely
enough, they only fly, unless disturbed, after sundown. This
is unfortunate, as with the same habits we might hope to mate
them with our common bees, and thus procure a valuable
cross. This may be a developed peculiarity, to protect them
from birds, and so might very likely disappear with domesti-
cation. The queens are leather-colored, and smaller, as com-
pared with the workers, than are our common queens. The
queens are more restless than are the workers while being
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 51
handled. While procuring these bees, Mr. Benton was pros-
trated with a fever, and so the bees, during their long voyage
to Syria, were neglected. Strange to say, one colony survived
the long confinement, but perished soon after reaching Syria.
Wecan not call this journey a failure, as we now have the
information that will render a second attempt surely success-
ful. What has been learned will make the enterprising bee-
keeper more desirous than ever to secure these bees. Their
large size, and immense capabilities in the way of wax-secre-
tion, as well as honey-storing, give us reason to hope for sub-
stantial benefits from their importation.
Mr. Benton also found A. indica and A. florea on the
Island of Ceylon. I have received some of the bees and comb
of the former species. The comb is very delicate, the cells
(Fig. 7) being only one-sixth of an inch in diameter. The
workers are less than one-half of an inch long, brown in color,
and their entire abdomens are beautifully ringed with brown
and yellow. The drones are black, and very small. The one
I have measures an eighth of an inch less in length than does
the worker. The queens are leather-colored, and very large as
compared with the workers. They are as large as are our
Fic. 8.
Worker-Cells.—A. Florea,
(From Department of Agriculture.)
common queens. These bees are very quick, and are domesti-
cated on the Island of Ceylon. The workers of A. florea are
also banded, and are more beautiful even than those of A.
indica. ‘They are very small. The combs are not larger than
one’s hand, and so diminutive are the cells (Fig. 8) that 100
52 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
bees are produced to the square inch. The color is blue-black,
with the basal third of the abdomen orange.
The sting of these two species is very small. From the
small amount of stores which they gather, the tendency which
they have to swarm out, and their inability to stand the cold,
these two species promise little of value except from a scientific
point of view. One colony of A. florea was brought by Mr.
Benton to Cyprus, but it swarmed out and was lost.
It seems strange that the genus Apis should not have been
native to: the American continent. The “large brown bee”
which some of our bee-keepers think native to America, is un-
doubtedly but a variety of the common black, or German, bee.
Without doubt there were no bees of this genus here till intro-
duced by the Caucasian race. It seems more strange, as we
tind that all the continents and islands of the Eastern Hemis-
phere abound with representatives. It is one more illustration
of the strange, inextricable puzzles connected with the geo-
graphical distribution of animals.
SPECIES OF OUR HONEY-BEES.
The becs at present domesticated are all of one species—
Apis mellifera. The character of this species will appear in
the next chapter, as we proceed with their anatomy and
physiology. As before stated, this species is native exclusively
to the Eastern Hemisphere, though it has been introduced
wherever civilized man has taken up his abode.
RACES OF THE HONEY-BEE.
German ov Black Bees.
The German or black bee is the race best known, as through
all the ages it has been most widely distributed. The name
‘““German’’ refers to locality, while the name ‘‘ black” isa
misnomer, as the bee is a gray-black. The queen, and, ina
less degree, the drones, are darker, while the legs and under.
surface of the former are brown, or copper-colored, and of the
latter light gray. The tongue of the black worker I have
found, by repeated dissections and comparisons made both by
myself and by my pupils, is shorter than that of the Italian
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 53
worker, and generally less hairy. The bees are more irritable,
and so more likely to sting than the Italians. They are also
wont to keep flying before one’s face in threatening mien for
hours, until killed. The wise apiarist will dispatch such quar-
relsome workers at once. The black bees have been known no
longer than the Italians, as we find the latter were known
both to Aristotle, the fourth century B. C., and to Virgil, the
great Roman poet, who sang of the variegated golden bee, the
first century B. C.; and we can only account for the wider dis-
tribution of the German bee by considering the more vigorous,
pushing habits of the Germanic races, who not only over-ran
and infused life into Southern Europe, but have vitalized all
christendom.
Ligurian or Italian Bee.
The Italian bee is characterized as a race, not only by dif-
ference of color, habits, and activity, but also by possessing
a little longer tongue. These bees were first described as dis-
tinct from the German race by Spinola, in 1805, who gave the
name ‘“‘ Ligurian ’”’ bee, which name prevails in Europe. The
name comes from a province of Northern Italy, north of the
Ligurian Gulf, or Gulf of Genoa. This region is shut off from
Northern Europe by the Alps, and thus these bees were kept
apart from the German bees, and in warmer, more genial Italy,
was developed a distinct race—our beautiful Italians. It seems
to me quite reasonable to suppose from the appearance of the
bees, and also from the migrations of the human race, that the
Italian bee is an off-shoot from the Cyprian, and quite likely
both of these of the Syrian race.
In 1843, Von Baldenstein procured a colony of these bees,
which he had previously observed as peculiar, while stationed
as a military captain in Italy. He published his experience in
1848, which was read by Dzierzon, who became interested, and
through him the Italian became generally introduced into
Germany. In 1859—six years after Dzierzon’s first importa-
tion—the Italian bee was introduced into England by Neigh-
bour. The same year, Messrs. Wagner and Colvin imported
the Italians from Dzierzon’s apiary into America ; and in 1860,
54 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
Mr. S. B. Parsons brought the first colonies that were im-
ported direct from Italy.
The Italian worker-bee is quickly distinguished by the
pright yellow rings at the base of the abdomen. Perhaps
golden would be a better term, as these bands are often bright
orange. If the colony be pure, every bee will show three of
these golden girdles (Fig. 9, A, B. C). The first two segments
Fia. 9
Abdomen of Italian Worker.
(From A. I. Root Co.)
or rings of the abdomen, except at their posterior border, and
also the base or anterior border of the third, will be of this
orange-yellow hue. The rest of the back or dorsal surface will
be much asin the German race. Underneath the abdomen,
except fora greater or less distance at the tip, will also be
yellow, while the same color appears more or less strongly
marked on the legs. The workers have longer ligule or
tongues (Fig. 54) than the German race, permitting them to
gather nectar from long flower-tubes, which is inaccessible to
our common bees, and their tongues are also a little more
hairy than are those of the black bees. They are also more
active, and less inclined to sting. The queen has the entire
base of her abdomen, and sometimes nearly the whole of it,
orange-yellow. Thevariation as to amount of color is quite
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 55
striking. Sometimes very dark queens are imported right
from the Ligurian hills, yet all the workers will wear the
badge of purity—the three golden bands.
The drones are quite variable. Sometimes the rings and
patches of yellow will be very prominent, then, again, quite
indistinct. But the under side of the body is always, so far as
I have observed, mainly yellow.
A variety of our Italian bees, which is very beautiful and
gentle, has the rows of white hairs (Fig. 9,J, K, L, M) un-
usually distinct, and is being sold in the United States under
the name of Albinos. They are not a distinct race. In fact,
I have often noticed among Italians the so-called Albinos sev-
eral times, and have not found them superior, or even equal, I
think, to the average Italian.
THE SYRIAN AND CYPRIAN RACES.
Through the enterprise of Messrs. D. A. Jones and Frank
Benton, we now have these races in our country, and have
proved the truth of the assertion of noted European apiarists,
that the Cyprian is a distinct race of bees.
Mr. Benton, than whom no one is better fitted to express a
correct opinion, thinks that the Cyprian bees are the offspring
-of the Syrian. This opinion is strengthened by the close re-
semblance of the two races, and by the fact that migrations
of all kinds have gone westward. A similar argument would
make it presumable that the Cyprians gave rise to the Italians.
The Cyprian bees resemble the Italians very closely. They
may be distinguished by the bright leather-colored lunule
which tips their thorax posteriorly,and by the fact that the
under side of their bodies is yellow to the tip. They are more
active than are the Italians, and the queens are more prolific.
The good qualities of the Italians seem all to be exagger-
ated in the Cyprians, except the trait of amiability. The
Cyprian bees are second only tothe Egyptian in irritability.
That they will become less cross with handling is to be ex-
pected.
The Syrian bees are from Asiatic Turkey, north of Mount
Carmel, and area very well marked race. The Syrian queens
are remarkably uniform. ‘Their abdomens above are, like the
56 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};
little A. indica, beautifully banded with yellow and black.
They are very quick and remarkably prolific. They do not
cease laying even when the honey-flow ceases. They are often
Fic. 10.
Carniolan Queen.—X2.
(From Department of Agriculture.)
kept prisoners in the cells longer than are queens of other
races, and so may fly out at once upon emerging. They
Fic. 11.
Carniolan Worker.—X2.
(From Department of Agriculture.)
emerge from the cells at about the same time, so that often ail
the queens may emerge from the cells within a few hours, or
even one hour. The workers closely resemble those of the
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 57
Italian race, only that they were more yellow beneath, and
when first from the cells, or newly hatched, they are very
dark, owing to the fact that the body-rings seemed pushed
together. They are admirable in the way they defend their
hives against robbers, the ease with which they are shaken
from the combs, their great activity, their great tendency to
remain in the hive on very windy days, the wonderful fecundity
of the queen, her persistence in laying during a dearth of nec-
tar-secretion, and their great euperiority for queen-rearing.
Fic. 12.
Carniolan Drone.— X2.
(From Department of Agriculture.)
often starting fifty or more good queen-cells. Neither the
Cyprian nor Syrian has found favor in America, and have
largely been given up.
OTHER RACKS.
The Egyptian bees are very yellow, intensely cross, and
frequently have laying workers. These are probably the bees
which are famous in history,as having been moved up and
down the Nile, in rude boats or rafts, as the varying periods of
nectar-secreting bloom seemed to demand.
The heath bees of Northern Germany are much like the
common German bees, of which they are a strain, except that
they are far more inclined to swarm.°
The Carniolan bees (Figs. 10, 11, 12) of Southwestern
58 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;°
Austria, also called Krainer bees, from the mountainous re-
gion of Krain, Austria, are praised as a very hardy variety.
They are black with white rings—a sort of albino—German
bee. They are like the heath variety, but are specially noted
for their very gentle dispositions. Some European bee-keepers
claim that this strain or variety is much superior to the com-
mon German bees. Mr. Benton, I think, holds strongly to
this opinion. After a brief trial Iam pleased with these bees.
The Hungarian bees are longer than the typical German
race, and are covered with gray hairs. During the poor season
of 1875 in Europe, these bees, like the Carniolans, were found
superior even to the Italians.
The beautiful Dalmatian bees are slim, wasp-like, and very
black. The rings of their abdomens are banded with lightish
yellow. Their honey is even more white and beautiful than
that of the German race. Some of the best Kuropean bee-
keepers claim that they are superior to the Italian bees.
Akin to the Dalmatian bees are the Herzegovinian variety,
which comes from the mountainous region of Bosnia, border-
ing on the Adriatic Sea. A better marked variety—the Smyr-
nian bees—from Western Asia, and also much praised by some
of the noted Austrian bee-keepers, as are also the Caucasian,
from the Caucasus Mountains, which are said to be very
active and amiable.
The Tunisian bees, from Tunis in the north of Africa, are
said to be even darker than the black or German bee. They
are described as quite irritable. These were the ‘‘ Punic bees’”’
sold in the United States some years since. They did not keep
in favor. Itis stated that there is a race of bees which are
domesticated in the south of Africa. From the descriptions I
should think them quite like our Albinos in appearance. They
are said to be excellent honey-producers, and to work even by
moonlight. It is quite likely that some of these varieties
might be found to endure our severe winters better than the
pure German type, or the Italians. Now that we are to have
an experimental station in each State, we may expect that all
these races will be imported, that we may prove them and
know which is the best.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 59
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one,
to give in this connection a complete history of entomology so
far as it relates to Apis mellifera. But this would take much
space, and as there is quite a full history in books, that I shall
recommend to those who are eager to know more of this in-
teresting department of natural history, I will not go into
details.
Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B.
C. About three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth
Georgic, gave to the world the views then extant on this sub-
ject, gathered largely from the writings of Aristotle. The
poetry will ever be remarkable for its beauty and elegance—
would that as much might be said for the subject matter,
which, though full of interest, is full of errors. A little later,
Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his observa-
tions, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though much
that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. As Mr.
Langstroth once said to me, Columella wrote as one who had
handled the things of which he wrote; and not like Virgil, as
one who was dealing with second-hand wares. Pliny, the
elder, who wrote in the second century, A. D., helped to con-
tinue the erroneous opinions which previous authors had given,
and not content with this, he added opinions of his own, which
were not only without foundation, but were often the perfec-
tion of absurdity.
After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no prog-
ress in natural history ; even for two centuries after the revival
of learning, we find uothing of note. Swammerdam, a Dutch
entomologist, in the middle of the seventeenth century, wrote
a general history of insects; also, ‘‘ The Natural History of
Bees.”’ He andhis English contemporary, Ray, showed their
ability as naturalists by founding their systems on insect
transformations. They also revived the study and practice of
anatomy, which had slept since its first introduction by Aris-
totle, as the great stepping-stone in zoological progress. I
never open the grand work of Swammerdam, with its admir-
able illustrations, without feelings of the most profound re-
60 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}
spect and admiration. Though a very pioneer in anatomy,
and one of the founders of Natural Science, and possessed of
lenses of very inferior quality, yet he wrote with an accuracy,
and illustrated even minute tissues with a correctness and
elegance that might well put to the blush many a modern
writer. His description of the bee’s tongue is more accurate _
than that even of the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britanica.
Ray also gave special attention to Hymenoptera, and was
much aided by Willoughby and Lister. At this time Harvey,
so justly noted for his discovery of the circulation of the blood,
announced his celebrated dictum, ‘‘Omnia ex oyo’’—all life
from eggs—which was completely established by the noted
Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the middle of the
eighteenth century, the great Linneus—“ the brilliant Star of
the North ’’—published his ‘‘Systema Nature,’’ and threw a
flood of light on the whole subject of natural history. His
division of insects was founded upon presence, or absence, and
characteristics, of wings. This, like Swammerdam’s basis, was
too narrow, yet his conclusions were remarkably correct.
Linneus is noted for his accurate descriptions, and especially
for his gift of the binomial method of naming plants and
animals, giving in the name the genus and species, as Apis
mellifera, which he was first to describe. He was also the
first to introduce classes and orders, as we now understand
them. When we consider the amount and character of the
work of the great Swede, we can but place him among the first,
if not as the first, of naturalists. Contemporary with Lin-
nus (also written Linne) was Geoffroy, who did valuable
work in defining new genera. In the last half of the century
appeared the great work of a master in entomology, DeGeer,
who based his arrangement of insects on the character of wings
and jaws, and thus discovered another of Nature’s keys to aid
him in unlocking her mysteries. Kirby well says, ‘‘ He united
in himself the highest merit of an anatomist, a physiologist
and as the observant historian of the habits and economy
of insects, he is aboveall praise. What a spring of self-im-
provement, enjoyment and public usefulness, is such an ability
to observe as was possessed by the great DeGeer.
Contemporary with Linnzeus and DeGeer was Reaumur, of
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 61
France, whose experiments and researches are of special in-
terest to the apiarists. Perhaps no entomologist has done
more to reveal the natural history of bees. Especially to be
commended are his method of experimenting, his patience in
investigation, the elegance and felicity of his word-pictures,
and, above all, 27s devotion to truth. We shall have occasion
to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable worker in the
great field of insect life frequently in the following pages.
Bonnet, of Geneva, the able correspondent of Reaumur, also
did valuable work, in which the lover of bees hasa special
interest. Bonnet is specially noted for his discovery and
elucidation of parthenogenesis—that anomalous mode of repro-
duction—as it occurs among the Aphides or plant-lice, though
he did not discover that our bees, in the production of drones,
illustrate the same doctrine. Though theauthor of no system,
he gave much aid to Reaumur in his systematic labor.
At this same period systematic entomology received great
aid from Lyonnet’s valuable work. This author dissected and
explained the development of acaterpillar. His descriptions
and illustrations are wonderful, and will proclaim his ability
as long as entomology is studied.
We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius—a
student of Linnzus—who published his works from 1775 to
1798, and thus was revolutionizing systematic entomology at
the same time that we of America were revolutionizing gov-
ernment. He made the mouth organs the basis of his classifi-
cation, and thus followed in the path which DeGeer had marked
out; though it was scarcely beaten by the latter, while Fabri-
cius left it wide and deep. His classes and ordersare no im-
provement on—in fact, are not nearly as correct as—his old
master’s. Jn his description of genera—where he pretended to
follow nature—he has rendered valuable service. In leading
scientists to study parts, before little regarded, and thus to
better establish affinities, he did a most valuable work. His
work is a standard, and should be thoroughly studied by all
entomologists.
Just at the close of the last century appeared the ‘‘ great-
est Roman of them all,’’ the great Latreille, of France, whose
name we have so frequently used in the classification of the
62 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
honey-bee. His is called the Elective System, as he used
wings, mouth-parts, transformations, in fact, all the organs,
the entire structure. He gave usour Family Apide, our Genus
Apis, and, as will be remembered, he described several of the
species of this genus. In our study of this great man’s work,
we constantly marvel at his extensive researches and remark-
able talents. Lamarck, of this time, did very admirable work.
So, too, did Cuvier, of Napoleon’s time, and the learned Dr.
Leach, of England. Since then we have had hosts of workers
in this field, and many worthy of not only mention but praise;
yet the work has been to rub upand garnish rather than to
create. Of late, Mr. F. T. Cresson, of Philadelphia, has given
a synopsis of the Hymenoptera of North America, together
with a list of the described species. Thisis one of the many
valuable publications of the American Entomological Society.
I will close this brief history with a notice of authors who
are very serviceable to such as may desire to glean farther of
the pleasures of systematic entomology; only remarking that
at the end of the next chapter I shall refer to those who have
been particularly serviceable in developing the anatomy and
physiology of insects, especially of bees.
VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.
For mere classification, no work is equal to Westwood on
Insects—two volumes. In this the descriptions and illustra-
tions are very full and perfect, making it easy to study the
families, and even genera, of all the orders. This work and
the following are out of print, butcan be got with little trouble
at second-hand book-stores. Kirby and Spence—‘‘ Introduc-
tion to Entomology ’’—is a very complete work. It treats of
the classification, structure, habits, general economy of insects,
and gives a history of the subject. It is an invaluable work,
and a great acquisition to any library. Dr. Packard’s ‘‘ Guide
to the Study of Insects’’ is a valuable work, and being Ameri-
can is specially to be recommended. His later ‘‘ Text-Book of
Entomology” is invaluable to the student. ‘‘Injurious In-
sects’’ is the title of two valuable books, one by Dr. T. Harris,
and the other by Mary Treat. The Reports of Dr. T. Harris,
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 63
Dr. A. Fitch, and Dr. C. V. Riley, the Illinois Entomological
Reports, and the Entomological Reports of the Departments of
the Interior, and of Agriculture, will also be found of great
value and interest. Cresson’s Synopsis, already referred to,
will be indispensable to every student of bees or other Hyme-
nopterous insects. Smith’s Entomology and Comstock’s En-
tomology are indispensable to every person at all interested in
Entomology. The Reports of the several Experiment Stations,
especially New Jersey and Cornell, are of great value. (See
“ Bibliography ”’ at the close of the first part of this volume.)
@
36
64 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}
CHAPTER II.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY,
In this chapter I shall give first the general anatomy or
insects; then the anatomy, and still more wonderful physi-
ology, of the honey-bee.
ANATOMY OF INSECTS.
In allinsects the body is divided into three well-marked por-
tions (Fig. 1); the head (Figs. 3 and 4), which is strengthened
by cross-pieces or braces (Fig. 13, 14), containing the mouth
Longitudinal Section Bees’ Head (from Cowan.)
a Mentum., e Ligula. k Clypeus. p Brain.
bSub-mentum f,g Labialpalpus. 2 Funnel. r Oceiput.
e Rods. h Head-brace. x Paraglossa. s Duct from glands,
d Lora. i Pharynx. o Ocellus.
t Duct from lower head-glands. t, t Labrum.
#
organs, the eyes, both the compound and, when present, the
simple, and the antennz; the thorax, which is composed of
three rings, and gives support tothe one or two pairs of wings,
when present, and to the three pairs of legs; aad the abdo-
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 65
men, which is composed of a variable number of rings, and
gives support to the external sex-organs, and, when present, to
thesting. Within the thorax (Fig. 25) there are little more than
muscles, as the concentrated strength of insects, which enables
Fic. 15.
Fic. 14.
(AN)
ey
Cross Section of Head Showing
Braces (After Macloskie.)
c,e Chitinous rods, which sup-
port the cardines.
hh Strengthening rods.
Head of Bee much magnified.—Original.
o Epicranium. ce Clypeus.
e,e Compound eyes. i Labrum.
a,a Antenne. m Jaws or mandibles.
maz 2d Jaws or maxille. ¢ Ligula.
kk Labial palpi.
them to fly with such rapidity, dwells in this confined space.
Within the abdomen, on the other hand, are the sex-organs, by
far the greater and more important portions of the alimentary
canal, and other important organs.
66 OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY.
ORGANS OF THE HEAD.
Of these the mouth organs (Fig. 15) are most prominent.
These consist of an upper lip—labrum, and under lip—labium,
andtwo pairs of jaws which move sidewise; the stronger,
horny jaws, called mandibles, and the more membranous, but
usually longer, named maxille. The labrum (Fig. 15,/) is well
described in the name upper lip. It is attached, wsually, bya
movable joint to a similarly shaped piece above it, called the
clypeus (Fig. 15, c), and this latter to the broad epicranium
(Fig. 15, 0), which carries the antenne, the compound, and,
when present, the simple eyes (Fig. 3).
The labium (Fig. 16) is not described by the name under
lip, as its base forms the floor of the mouth, and its tip the
tongue. The base is usually broad, and is called the mentum,
and from this extends the ligula (Fig. 15, ¢), which in bees isa
sucking organ or tongue.
On either side, nearthe junction of theligula and mentum,
arises a jointed organ, rarely absent, called the labial palpus
(Fig. 15, £, 4), or, together, the labial palpi. Just within the
angle formed by these latter and the ligula arise the para-
glossz (Fig. 16, 7, 7,) one on either side. These are often
wanting, though never in bees.
The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 15, 17, m) arise one on either
side just below and at the side of the labrum, or upper lip.
These work sidewise instead of up and down, as in the higher
animals, are frequently very hard and sharp, and sometimes
armed with one or more teeth. A rudimentary tooth (Fig. 65,
a, 6) is visible on the jaws of drone and queen bees.
Beneath the jaws or mandibles, and inserted a little farther
back, are the second jaws, or maxillw (Fig. 15, m.), less dense
and firm than the mandibles, but far more complex. Each
maxilla arises by a small joint (Fig. 16, c), the cardo; next
this is a larger joint (Fig. 16, 4), the stipes; from this extends
on the inside the broad lacinia (Fig. 16, 4, 4,) or blade, usually
fringed with hairs on its inner edge, towards the mouth; while
on the outside of the stripes is inserted the—from one to sev-
eral jointed—maxillary palpus. In the honey-bee the maxil-
lary palpi (Fig. 16,77) are very small, and consist of two joints,
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 67
and in some insects are wholly wanting. Sometimes, as in
some of the beetles, there is a third piece running from the
stipes between the palpus and lacinia, called the galea. The
Tongue of Bee.—From Cowan.
a@ Mentum, J, g Labial palpi. m Funnel of tongue.
b Sub-mentum. h, h L-Lacinia. n, 2, Paraglossa.
c,¢ Cardines. i, i, Maxillary palpi. o Opening of tongue.
d,d Lora. k, k Stipes.
e Ligula hairs. Z Ligula.
maxillz also move sidewise, and probably aid in holding and
turning the food while it is crushed by the harder jaws, though
in some cases they, too, aid in triturating the food.
68 THE BEE-KEEPERS’ GUIDE:
These mouth-parts are very variable in form in different
insects. In butterflies and moths, two-winged flies and bugs,
they are transformed into a tube, which in the last two groups
forms a hard, strong beak or piercer, well exemplified in the
mosquito and bedbug. In all the other insects we find them
much as in the bees, with the separate parts varying greatly
in form, to agree with the habits and character of their posses-
sors. No wonder DeGeer and Fabricius detected these varying
forms as strongly indicative of the nature of the insect, and
no wonder that by their use they were so successful in forming
a natural classification.
If, as seems certain, the ‘“‘ Doctrine of Natural Selection ”’
is well founded, then a change in habit is the precursor of a
Fic. 17.
iil iH)
HANA
Huu
i
Microscope Mounted for Dissecting.—Original.
change in structure. But what organs are so intimately
related to the habits of animals, as the mouth and other organs
that have to do with food-taking and food-getting ?
Every bee-keeper will receive great benefit by dissecting
these parts and studying their form and relations for himself.
By getting his children interested in the same, he will have
conferred upon them one of the rarest of blessings.
To dissect these parts, first remove the head and carefully
pin it toa cork, passing the pin through, well back between
the eyes. Now separate the parts by two needle-points, made
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 69
by inserting a needle for half its length into a wooden pen-
holder, leaving the point projecting for three-fourths of an
inch. With one of these in each hand commence operations.
The head may be either side up. Much may be learned in
dissecting large insects, like our largest locusts, even with no
Antenna of Bee much magnified.—Original.
s Scape. t Trachee.
J Flagellum. 2 Nerves.
glass; but in all cases, and especially in small insects, a good
lens will be of great value. The best lens now in the market
is the Coddington lens, mounted in German silver. These are
imported from England. They can be procured of any optician,
and cost only $1.50. These lenses can be mounted in a con-
venient stand (Fig. 17), which may be made in twenty minutes.
I think one of these more valuable than a large compound
microscope, which costs many times as much. Were I obliged
to part with either, the latter would go.
Irequire my students to do a great deal of dissecting,
which they enjoy very much, and find very valuable. I would
much rather that my boy would become interested in such
study than to have him possessor of infinite gold rings, or even
ahuge gold watch with a tremendous charm. Let such pleas-
ing recreation gain the attention of our boys, and they will
70 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
ever contribute to our delight, and not sadden us with anxiety
and fear.
The antenne (Fig. 15, a, a) are the horn-like jointed
organs situated between, or below and in front of, the large
compound eyes of all insects. They are sometimes short, as
in the house-fly, and sometimes very long, as in crickets and
green grasshoppers. They may be straight, curved, or
elbowed. In form they are very varied, as thread-like, taper-
ing, toothed, knobbed, fringed, feathered, etc. The antennx
of many Hymenopterous insects are elbowed (Fig. 18). The
long first joint inthis case is the scape, the remaining joints
(Fig. 18, #) the flagellum. A large nerve (Fig. 18, 2) anda-
Fic. 19.
Microscopic Structure of Anten-
ne, after Schiemenz,
Antennal Hairs.—Original.
n Nerves. h Tooth hairs. b Hairs of scape.
c Cells, e, p Pits or pori. 6, ¢ Hairs of scape and flagellum.
trachea (Fig. 18, ¢) enter the antenna. The function of the
antenne is now pretty well, if not wholly, understood. That
they often serve as most delicate touch-organs no observing
apiarist can doubt. Tactile nerve-ending hairs are often found
in great numbers. With the higher insects, like most Hyme-
nopterons, this tactile sense of the antennz is doubtless very
important.
It is now fully demonstrated that the sense of smell is
located in the antennz. Sulzer, in the eighteenth century,
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 71
suggested that an unknown sense might exist in the antenne.
Reaumur, Lyonet, Bonnet, etc., thought this might be the
sense of smell. Dumeril, Lehrmann, who said that a nerve
vessel and muscle entered the antenne, and Cuvier, etc.,
thought the sense of smell was located in the spiracles or
breathing-mouths. Huber thought the organ of smell was
located in the mouth. Latreille and Newport, of the last cen-
tury, believed the antennz contained the organs of hearing.
Strauss-Durckheim located them in the spiracles, while Wolff
wrote a beautiful monograph to prove that the sense of smell
was situated in the hypo-pharynx beneath the labrum. Erich-
son, in 1848, discovered pits in the antenna—pori—covered
with a membrane (Fig. 19, 4), which he thought organs of
smell. The next year Burmeister found hairs in these pits in
beetles, which varied according as the beetle ate plant-food or
carrion.
Leydig, in 1855, showed that Erichson was correct, that
there were pits also on the antennz and pegs (Fig. 19, 9), or
tooth-like hairs, perforated at the end—olfactory teeth. It
remained for Hauser (1880) to complete the demonstration.
He experimented with insects by the use of carbolic acid, tur-
‘pentine, etc. He found that this greatly disturbed the insects
when their antennz were intact, and that even after he had
withdrawn the offensive substance the insect would continue
to rub its antennz as if to remove the disturbing odor—a sort
of holding its nose. He then cut off the antennz to find that
the insect was now insensible to the irritant. He next put
food before the insects, which was quickly found and appro-
priated; but after the antennz were cut off the food was found
with difficulty, if at all. Experiment showed that in mating
the same was true. Insects often find their mates when to us
it would seem impossible. Thus, I have known hundreds of
male moths to enter a room by a small opening in a window,
attracted by a female within the room. I have also known
them to swarm outside a closed window lured by a female
within. Maleinsects have even been known to reach their
mates by entering a room through astovepipe. Yet Hauser
found that this ability was gone with the loss of the antennae.
Kraepelin and others have since proved the correctness of
72 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}
Hauser’s conclusions. So that we now know that the antenne,
in most insects at least, contain the organs of smell. Histo-
logically this apparatus is found to consist of nerves (Fig. 18,
n) which run from the brain to the antenne, and at the outer,
sensitive end, contain a cell (Fig. 19) with one or more nuclei.
These nerves may end in perforated, tooth-like hairs on the
antenne (Fig. 19, 2, 6, ¢, d)in pegs which have no chitinous
sheath, which push out from the bottom of pits—pori—which
exist often in great numbers in the antennae (Fig. 19, 7, e, /)
While Erichson first discovered the pits (Fig. 19, p, 2) in the
antennez, Burmeister discovered the sensitive, nerve-ending
hairs (Fig. 19, a, /, m,d,) at their bottom, and Leydig the
perforated pegs, or tooth-like hairs. We may state, then, that
the antennal organ of smell consists of a free or sunken hair-
like body which opens by a pore or canal to a many nucleated
ganglionic mass. We thus understand how the bee finds the
nectar, the fly the meat, and the drone and other male insects
their mates. Similar structures in and about the mouth are
proved by Kraepelin and Lubbock to be organs of taste. Mr.
Cheshire speaks of small pits in the antennz which he regards
as organs of hearing. He gives, however, no proof of this,
and the pits that hedescribes are not at all ear-like in their
structure. Dr. Packard says that there is no proof that any
insects except crickets and locusts have real organs of hearing.
He here refers to the ear-like organs situated onthe sides of
the body of theseinsects. Similar organs on the legs of the
katydid are also probably auditory. Dr. C.S. Minot, in review-
ing Graber’s work, says that it has not been demonstrated that
even these tympanal organs are auditory, and adds that all
attempts to demonstrate the existence of an auditory organ in
insects has failed. There is little doubt but that this is a cor-
rect statement. That insects are conscious of vibrations which
with us cause sound, I think no observing person can doubt.
It is proved by the love-note of the katydid, the cicada and the
cricket. Every apiarist has noticed the effect of various
sounds made by the bees upon their comrades of the hive;
and how contagious is the sharp note of anger, the low hum of
fear, and the pleasant tone of a new swarm as it commences
toenter its new home. Now, whether insects take note of
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 73
these vibrations, as we recognize pitch, or whether they just
distinguish the tremor, I think no one knows. There is some
reason to believe that their delicate touch-organs may enable
them to discriminate between vibrations, even more accurately
than can we by the use of ourears. A slight jar will quickly
awaken acolony of hybrids, while a loud noise will pass un-
noticed. If insects can appreciate with great delicacy the
different vibratory conditions of the air by an excessive devel-
opment of the sense of touch, then undoubtedly the antennz
may be great aids. Dr. Clemens thought that insects could
Fic. 20.
Facets of Compound
Fyes,
after Dujardin. Section of Compound Eye, after Gagenbower.
fF Facets, ¢ Cornea, C Cells,
HT Hairs. A Rods. O Nerve.
only detect atmospheric vibrations. So, too, thought Linnzus
and Bonnet. Mayer has proved that the hairs on the antenne
of mosquitoes vibrate to different sounds. From our present
knowledge, this view seems the most reasonable one, for noth-
ing answering in the least to ears, structurally, has yet been
discovered.
The eyes are of two kinds, the compound, which are
always present in mature insects, and the ocelli or simple
eyes, which may or may not be present. When present there
are usually three of these ocelli (Fig. 3), which, if joined by
lines, will describe a triangle, in the vertices of whose angles
74 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
are the ocelli. Rarely there are but two ocelli, and very rarely
but one.
The simple eyes (Fig. 3, ///) are circular, and possess a
cornea, lens or cone, and retina, which receives the nerve of
sight.
From the experiments of Reaumur and Swammerdam,
which consisted in covering the eyes with varnish, they con-
Seana ys
Sa aa as a
LWUZ
Longitudinal Section Eye.—From Cowan.
c Facet. ce Lenses. m Basilar membrane.
h Hair. P\p2p3 Rods. o Optic nerve.
cluded that vision with these simple eyes is very indistinct,
though by them the insect can distinguish light. Some have
thought that these simple eyes were for vision at slight dis-
tances. lubbock, Forel, and others, are doubtless correct in
the view that the ocelli are for near vision, and for use in dark
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. ‘ 75
places. Larve, like spiders and most myriapods, have only
simple eyes.
The compound eyes (Fig. 3) are simply a cluster of simple
eyes, so crowded that they are hexagonal (Fig. 20). Thecornea
or facet (Fig. 20) is transparent, modified, chitinous skin. Just
Fic, 23.
Retinule of Lye, after Dujardin,
Longitudinal Section of part .
of Hye, after Cowan. Rods much magnified,
after Dujardin.
ce Facet. ce Cones.
n Nuclei. r Retinule.
within each facet is the crystalline lens (Fig. 22, cc) or crystal-
line cone back of which extend the rods (Fig. 21, 2, Fig. 23, cc)
which consist of chitinous threads. Each rod is surrounded
by rounded columns, eight in bees (Fig. 24)—retinule—which
76 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;
are enclosed by pigment membranes. ‘This serves in the black
lining of our own eyes and of optical instruments, to limit or
absorb the rays of light. At the base of the rods is spread the
nervous termination of the great optic nerves (Fig. 21), which
extend from very near the brain, and which, before reaching
the eye, passes through the three ganglionic enlargements
(Fig. 22). Unlike the same in vertebrate eyes, the rods point
forward.
It is thought that the optic nerve is very short, and that
the retina of other higher animals is represented by the three
enlargements (Fig. 22), which, as in higher animals, are fibrous
cellular and ganglionic, and by the central rods of the reti-
nulaw. The sensitive portion is doubtless the end of these rods.
Insects, like bees, have a well-developed crystalline cone (Fig.
23), and such eyes are called eucone ; others have this less de-
veloped, and their eyes are called pseudocone.
The old theory of Leeuwenhoek, Gottsche, and Platean,
that each of the parts of a compound eye, each ommatidium,
forms a distinct image, and these together make a compound
whole, as, do our two eyes, the images overlapping, is now
abandoned for the mosaic theory of Muller. Lubbock argues
strongly for this view, and nearly all now accept it as true.
Each of the ommatidia give a direct, not reverse, image, as do
the ocelli, andeach an image of only a point. Thus, the image
is a true mosaic, as Muller called it. The crystalline cone
covered with black pigment permits only a point to be imag-
ined, and so each of the separate eyes or ommatidia imagesa
separate point of the object seen, and all the entire object.
Lubbock argues that the compound eyes do not determine form,
but only motion, and that is what would be useful to protect the
insect. Delicate trachexe pass into the eyes between the rods.
The color of eyes varies very much, owing to the pigment.
In some of the bees, wasps and Diptera, or two-winged flies,
the coloration is exceedingly beautiful. Girschner thinks that
insects with highly colored eyes do not see as well as others.
Often the irridescence or play of colors, as the angle of vision
changes, is wonderfully rich.
The form, size, and position of eyes vary much, as seen by
noticing the eyes (Fig. 3, +) of drones and workers. Some-
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 77
times, as in bees (Fig. 3, 4), the eyes are hairy, the hairs aris-
ing from between the facets. These hairs are protective, and
very likely tactile. Usually the eyes are naked. The number
of simple eyes which form the compound eye is often pro-
digious. There may be 25,000 in a single compound eye.
There are 4,000 or 5,000 in the worker-bee.
The compound eyes are motionless, but from their size and
sub-spherical shape they give quite a range of vision. It is
not likely that they are capable of adjustment to accord with
different distances, and it has been supposed, from the direct,
darting flight of bees totheir hives, and the awkward work
they make in finding a hive when moved onlya short distance,
that their eyes are best suited to long vision.
Sir John Lubbock has proved, by some interesting experi-
ments with strips of colored paper, that bees can distinguish
colors. Honey was placed on a blue strip, beside several
others of various colors. In the absence of the bees he changed
the position of this strip, and upon their return the bees went
to the blue strip rather than to the old position. Our practical
apiarists have long been aware of this fact,and have con-
formed their practice to this knowledge, in giving a variety of
colors to their hives. Apiarists have frequently noted that
bees have arare faculty of marking positions, but for slight
distances their sense of color will correct mistakes which would
occur if position alone were their guide. Platean argues that
insects are little guided by color, as they find flowers with no
color, or the color obscured. This does not prove that color
is not an aid, but that another sense—evidently of smell—
supplements the sense of sight.
Lubbock’s experiments prove that ants and wasps also
distinguish colors. This is doubtless true of all insects that
love sweets and are attracted by flowers. I have noticed a
curious blunder made by bees in case of two houses which are
just alike, but five rods apart. Honey placed on one porch is
scarce found by bees before the corresponding porch of the
other house will be swarming with bees also, though no honey
is nearit. The bees are simply fooled. This experiment has
been tried several times, so there can be no mistake. It shows
that sight, not mere position, nor yet odor, is. guide, even at
78 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
long distances. This disprovesthe general view that insects
can see but at very short range.
Within the head is the large brain (Fig. 27, 6), which will be
described as we come to speak of the nervous system. There
are also chitinous bars (Fig. 14) and braces within, which serve
greatly to strengthen this portion of the insect.
.
APPENDAGES OF THH THORAX.
The organs of flight are the most noticeable appendages
of the thorax. The wings are usually four, though the Diptera
have but two, and some insects—as the worker-ants—have
none. Thefront or primary wings (Fig. 2) are usually larger
than the secondary or hind wings, and thus the mesothoracic
Fic. 25,
Muscles of Thorax, after Wolff.
ZI Muscles to raise front wing. D Muscles to lower front wing.
A Muscles of hind wing.
or middle ring of the thorax, to which they are attached, is
usually larger than the metathorax or thirdring. The wings
consist of a broad frame-work of veins (Fig. 2), covered bya
thin, tough membrane. The main ribs or veins are variable
in number, while towards the extremity of the wing are more
or less cross-veins, dividing this portion of the wings into more
orless cells. In the higher groups these cells are few, and
quite important in classifying. Especially useful in group-
ing bees into their families and genera are the cells in the
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 79
second row, from the front or costal edge of the primary wings,
called the sub-costal cells. Thus, in the genus Apis there are
three such cells (Fig. 2—6, 7, 8), while in the Melipona there
are only two. The ribs or veins consist of a tube within a
tube, the inner one forming an air-tube, the outer one carrying
blood. On the costal edge of the secondary wings we often
find hooks (Fig. 2, 4) to attach them to the front wings.
The wings are moved by powerful muscles, compactly
located in the thorax (Fig. 25), the strength of which is very
great. The rapidity of the vibrations of the wings when flight
is rapid, is aimost beyond computation. Marey found by his
Fic. 26.
favyl
Hairs of Bees.—Originat.
ingenious and graphic method that they number in the bee 190
in asecond. This may be far from the maximum. Think of
a tiny fly out-stripping the fleetest horse in the chase, and
then marvel at this wondrous mechanism.
The legs (Fig. 1, g, g, g) are six in number in. all mature
insects, two on the lower side of each ring of the thorax.
‘These are long or short, weak or strong, according to the habit
of the insect. Each leg consists of the following joints or
parts: The coxa (Fig. 67,c), which moves like a ball-and-
socket joint in the close-fitting coxal cavities of the body-
rings. Next to this follow in order the broad trochanter (Fig.
67,7,) which is double in several families of Hymenoptera like
the very valuable ichneumon and chalcid flies, the large, broad
femur (Fig. 66, /), the long, slim tibia (Fig. 67, 7), frequently
bearing strong spines at or near its end, called tibial spurs,
and followed by the from one to five jointed tarsi (Fig. 67, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5). All these parts move freely upon each other, and
will vary in form to agree with theiruse. At the end of the
80 THE BERE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
last tarsal joint are two hooked claws (Fig. 68), between which
are the pulvilli, which are not air-pumps as usually described,
but rather glands, which secrete a sticky substance which en-
ables insects to stick to a smooth wall, even though it be
abovethem. ‘The legs, and in fact the whole crust, are more or
less dense and hard, owing to the deposit within the structure
of chitine.
The hairs of insects (Fig. 26) are very various in form,
development and function. Some areshort, others long ; some
simple, others beautifully feathered; some are tactile, like
those of the eyes of the bees, some are protective and for
warmth, and some are used as brushes, combs, and for collect-
ing, transferring and carrying pollen.
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.
The muscles of insects are usually whitish. Sometimes I
have noticed quite a pinkish hue about the muscles of the
thorax. They vary in form and position to accord with their
use. The mechanism of contraction is the same as in higher
animals. The ultimate fibers of the voluntary muscles, when
highly magnified, show the striz or cross-lines, the same as do
the voluntary muscles of vertebrates, and are very beautiful as
microscopic objects. The fibers of each separate muscle are not
bound together by a membrane, asin higher animals. In in-
sects the muscles are widely distributed, though, as we should
expect, they are concentrated in the thorax and head. In insects
of swiftest flight, like the bee, the thorax (Fig. 25) is almost en-
tirely composed of muscles; the cesophagus, which carries the
food to the stomach, being very small. At the base of the
jaws (Fig. 65) the muscles are large and firm. ‘The number of
muscles is astounding. Lyonet counted over 3,000 in a single
caterpillar, nearly eight times as many as are foundin the
human body. The strength, too, of insects is prodigious.
There must be quality in muscles, for muscles as large as those
of the elephant, and as strong as those of the flea, would hardly
need the fulcrum which the old philosopher demanded in order
to move the world. . Fleas have been made to draw miniature
cannon, chains and wagons many hundred times heavier than
themselves.
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 81
The nerves of insects are in no wise peculiar, so far as
known, except in position. Each nerve consists of a bundle of
fibers, some of which are sensitive, and some motor. Asin
Diagram showing Internal ‘Organs of Bee, (modified), from Cowan,
Hf Head. ig Supra esophageal ganglia. hs Honey-stomach.
T Thorax. gg Ganglia on nerve cord. s Stomach.
A Abdomen. as Air sacs. m Stomach-mouth.
b Brain. tt Trachee. i Deum.
# Rectum. : mt Malpighian tubules. r,g Rectal glands.
our bodies, some are knotted, or have ganglia, and some are not.
The main nervous cord is double, and has several enlarge-
ments (Fig. 27, 28) or ganglia. It runs along the under or ven-
82 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
tral side of the body, separates near the head, and after pass-
ing around the cesophagus, enlarges to form the largest of the
ganglia, which serves as a brain (Fig. 27, 28). The uncovered
Fic. 28.
Nervous System of Drone, after Dunean.
brain shows marked convolutions (Fig. 30). Dujardin states
that the brain of the worker-bee is 1-174 of the body ; in the
drone it is relatively much smaller; the ant, 1-286; the ich-
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 83
neumon, 1-400; water beetle, 14200. In man it is 1-40. So
we see that the bee is at the summit of insect intelligence, as
man is of the vertebrate. The convolutions (Fig. 30) add to
the argument.
From the brain many fibers extend on each side to the
compound eyes. The minute nerves extend everywhere, and
in squeezing out the viscera of an insect, are easily visible.
In the larva the nerve cord is much as in the adult insect,
' except the ganglia are more numerous. Girard says, that at
first in the larva of the bee there are seventeen ganglia. The
supra-cesophageal of the brain, three sub-cesophageal, three
thoracic—one for each ring—and ten abdominal. Soon the
three sub-cesophageal merge into one, as doalso the last three
abdominal, when there are in all thirteen (Fig. 31). In the
Fic. 29.
Brain of Insect, after Dujardin.
aa Antenne. ooo Ocelli.
pupa, the last two of the thorax, and the first two abdominal,
unite into the twin-like post-thoracic (Fig. 31), which supplies
the meso, and meta-thoracic legs, and both pairs of wings with
nerves. The fourth and fifth ganglia also unite, so that the
adult worker-bee has nine ganglia in all. The brain or supra-
cesophageal (Fig. 27), supplies nerves to the compound eyes,
ocelli, antennz and labrum; the sub-cesophageal gives off
nerves to the mandibles, maxille, and labium ; the first gan-,
glion of the thorax sends nerves to the anterior legs. There
are only four abdominal ganglia in the drone. The brain
(Fig. 29, 30), like our own, is enclosed in membranes, is com-
posed of white and gray matter, and is undoubtedly the seat of
intelligence. Hence, as we should suppose, the brain of the
84 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE,
worker is much larger than that of either the drone or queen,
The ganglia along the cord are the seat of reflex acts the same
asis the gray matter of our own spinal cord. Indeed, the
beheaded bee uses its members much more naturally than do
the higher animals after they have lost their heads. This may
arise from their more simple organism, or from a higher devel-
opment of the ganglia in question.
The organs of circulation in insects are quite insignificant.
The heart (Fig. 32, 7) isa long tube situated along the back,
to which it is held by large muscles (Fig. 32, 1), and receives
Fic. 31.
Brain of Bee, from Cowan.
Nervous System of Worker Larva,
after Duncan.
the blood at valvular openings (Fig. 32 0, 33 a,) along its sides
which only permit the fluid to pass in, when, by contraction, it
is forced toward the head and emptied into the general cavity.
Valves prevent the blood from flowing back (Fig. 33, 6.) Thus
the heart only serves to keep the blood in motion.
There are no vessels to carry the blood to the various
organs, nor is this necessary, for the nutritive fluid every-
OR, MANUAI, OF THER APIARY. 85
where bathes the digestive canal, and thus easily receives
nutriment, or gives waste by osmosis ; everywhere surrounds
the trachez or air-tubes—the insect’s lungs—and thus receives
that most needful of all food, oxygen, and gives the baneful
carbonic acid; everywhere touches the various organs, and
gives and takes as the vital operations of the animal require.
The heart, like animal vessels, generally, consists of an
outer serous membrane, an inner, epithelial coat, and a middle
muscular layer. Owing to the opaque crust, the pulsations of
the heart can not generally be seen ; but in some transparent
larve, like many maggots, some parasites—those of our com-
mon cabbage butterfly show this admirably—and especially in
aquatic larve, the pulsations are plainly visible, and are most
interesting objects of study.
The heart, as shown by Lyonet, is held to the dorsal wall
by muscles (Fig. 32, m). Beneath the heart are muscles which,
Fic. 32. Fic. 33.
b
}
a oa“
b |]
Portion of Heart of an Insect, after Packard. ? t
Heart. m Muscles. o Openings.
Diagram of Heart, from Cowan.
to quote from Girard, form a sort of horizontal diaphragm (Fig.
34, d), which as Graber shows contract, and thus aid circulation.
The blood is light colored, and entirely destitute of red
discs or corpuscles, which are so numerous in the blood of
higher animals, and which give our bloodits red color. The
function of these red discs is to carry oxygen, and as oxygen is
carried everywhere through the body by the ubiquitous air-
tubes of insects, we see the red discsare not needed. Except
for these semi-fluid discs, which are real organs, and nourished
as are other organs, the blood of higher animalsis entirely
86 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
fluid, in all normal conditions, and contains not the organs
themselves, or any part of them, but only the elements, which
are absorbed by the tissue and converted into the organs, or,
to be scientific, are assimilated. The bloodof insects is nearly
destitute of discs, having only white corpuscles. The white
corpuscles are called leucocytes. They are now known to act
as so many animals, and are powerful for good in destroying
microbes. We thus call them phagocytes. ‘These phagocytes,
in insect trausformations, remove, we may say eat up, the no
longer useful organs. It is this way that a tadpole’s tail is
Fic. 34,
Cross Section of Bee, after Cheshire.
h Heart. Tr. Trachee.
St, Stomach. ga Ganglion.
d Diaphragm.
removed. This process is known as phagocytosis. The leu-
cocytes are also found in the digested food, and like the same
in higher animals, are amoeboid. Schonfeld has shown that
the blood, chyle, the digested food, and larval food, are much
the same.
The respiratory or breathing system of insects consists of
a very complicated system of air-tubes (Fig. 1, 27). These
tubes (Fig. 35), which are constantly branching, and almost
infinite in number, are very peculiar in their structure. They
are composed of a spiral thread, and thus resemble a hollow
cylinder formed by closely winding a fine wire spirally abouta
rod, so as to cover it, and then withdrawing the latter, leaving
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 87
the wire unmoved. This spiral elastic thread, like the rings
of cartilage in our own trachea, serves to make the tubes rigid ;
and like our trachea—wind pipe—so these trachez or air-tubes
in insects are lined within and covered without bya thin
membrane. Nothing is more surprising and interesting than
this labyrinth of beautiful tubes, as seen in dissecting a bee
under the microscope. I have frequently detected myself
taking long pauses, in making dissections of the honey-bee,
as my attention would be fixed in admiration of this beautiful
breathing apparatus. In the bee these tubes expand in large
lung-like sacs (Fig. 1, /), one on each side of the body. Doubt-
less some of my readers have associated the quick movements
and surprising activity of birds and most mammals with their
well developed lungs, so in such animals as the bees, we see
the relation between this intricate system of air-tubes—their
Fic. 35.
A Trachea, magnified.—Original.
lungs—and the quick, busy life which has been proverbial of
them since the earliest time. Along the sides of the body are
the spiracles or breathing-mouths, which vary in number.
The full-grown larva has twenty, while the imago has seven
pairs ; two on the thorax—one on the prothorax, and one on the
metathorax—and five on theabdomen. The drone has one more
on each side of the abdomen. We see, then, that to strangle an
insect we would not close the mouth, but these spiracles along
the sides of the body. We now understand why the bee so
soon dies when the body is daubed with honey. These spiracles
are armed with a complex valvular arrangement which ex-
cludes dust or other noxious particles. From these extends
the labyrinth of air-tubes (Fig. 1, /, f, 27 ¢, ¢), which carries
88 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
vitalizing oxygen into every part of the insect organism. As
shown long ago by Leydig and Weismann, these air-tubes are
but an invagination of the derm of the insect. What is more
curious, these trachez are molted or shed with the skin of the
larve. In the more active insects—as in bees—the main
trachez, one on each side of the abdomen, are expanded into
large air-sacs (Fig. 1,/). Insects often show a respiratory
motion, which in beesis often very marked. Newport has
shown that in bees the rapidity of the respiration, which varies
from twenty to sixty per minute, gauges the heat in the hive,
and thus we see why bees in times of severe cold, which they:
essay to keep at bay by forced respiration, consume much
food, exhale much foulair and moisture, and are liable to
disease. Newport found that in cases of severe cold there
would be quite a rise of mercury in a thermometer which he
suspended in the hive amidst the cluster.
In the larval state, many insects breathe by fringe-like
gills. The larval mosquito has gills in the form of hairy tufts,
while in the larval dragon-fly the gills are inside the rectum,
or last part of the intestine. The insect, by a muscular effort,
draws the water slowly in at the anus, where it bathes these
singularly placed branchie, and then makes it serve a further
turn by forcibly expelling it, when the insect is sent darting
ahead. Thus, this curious apparatus not only furnishes
oxygen, but also aids in locomotion. In the pupe of insects
there is little or no motion, yet important organic changes are
taking place—the worm-like, ignoble, creeping, often repulsive,
larva, is soon to appear as the airy, beautiful, active, almost
setherealimago. So oxygen, the most essential—the sine gua
non—of all animal food is still needed. ‘The bees are too wise
to seal the brood-cell with impervious wax, but rather add the
porous capping, made of wax from old comb and pollen. The
pupe, no less than the larve of some two-winged flies which
live in water, have long tubes which reach far out for the
vivifying air, and are thus called rat-tailed. Even the pupe
of the mosquito, awaiting in its liquid home the glad time
when it shall unfoldits tiny wings and pipe its war-note, has
a similar arrangement to secure the gaseous pabulum.
The digestive apparatus of insects is very interesting, and,
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 89
as in our own class of animals, varies very much in length and
complexity, as the hosts of insects vary in their habits. Asin
mammals and birds, the length, with some striking exceptions,
varies with the food. Carnivorous or flesh-eating insects have
a short alimentary canal, while in those that feed on vegetable
food it is much longer.
The mouth I have already described. Following this (Fig.
27) is the throat or pharynx, then the cesophagus or gullet (Fig.
36, 0), which may expand, as in the bee, to form the honey-
stomach (Fig. 36, 4s), may have an attached crop like the
Fic. 36.
Cross Section of Ileum, after
Schiemenz.
Alimentary Canal of Honey-Bee, modified, from Wolff.
o (Esophagus. sm Stomach-mouth.
hs Honey-stomach. s True stomach.
e Urinary tubes. i Small intestine or ileum.
rg Rectal glands. r Large intestine or rectum.
chicken, or may run as a uniform tube, as in the human body,
to the true stomach (Fig. 36,5). Following this is the intes-
tine—separated by some authors into an ileum (Fig. 36, 7), and
a rectum which ends in the vent or anus.
The entire alimentary canal, except the stomach, is devel-
oped from the ectoderm, or skin derm, and all is shed in
molting. The stomach, often called the mid-stomach, to dis-
tinguish it from the fore and hind, is derived from the endo-
derm, and is not molted. Connected with the mouth are
salivary glands (Fig. 58, 59), which are structurally much like
90 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};
those in higher animals. There is an inner and an outer
chitinous layer, and the intervening cellular or epithelial,
where secretion takes place.
In those larve that form cocoons these are the source of
silk. In the glands this is a viscid fluid, but as it leaves the
duct it changes instantly into the gossamer thread. Bees and
wasps use this saliva in forming their structures. With it and
mud some wasps make mortar; with it and wood, others form
their paper cells; with it and wax, the bee fashions the rib-
bons that are to form the beautiful comb. As will be seen
later, these glands are very complex in bees, and the function
of the secretion very varied in both composition and function.
Lining the entire alimentary canal are mucus glands
which secrete a viscid fluid that keeps the tube soft and pro-
motes the passage of food. These lining cells also absorb, and
may secrete a digestive fluid.
The true stomach (Fig. 36, s; 27 S), is very muscular;
and often a gizzard, as in the crickets, where its interior is
lined with teeth. The interior of the stomach is glandular,
for secreting the gastric juice which is to liquefy the food, that
it may be absorbed, or pass through the walls of the canal into
the blood.
Appended to the anterior end of the stomach are the from
two to eight coeca, or, as in some beetles, very numerous villi
or tubules. These are believed by Plateau and others tobe
pancreatic in function. Theseare not found in bees. Attached
tothe lower portion of the stomach are the urinary or Mal-
pighian tubules (Fig. 27, m, ¢), so named from their discoverer,
Malpighi. There may be two to eight long tubes, or many
short ones as in the bees, where we find 150. The finding in
these of urea, uric acid and the urates settles the matter of their
function. Cuvier and others thought these bile-tubules.
Siebold thinks that some of the mucous glands secrete bile,
and others act as a pancreas.
The intestine, when short, as in larve and most carnivora,
is straight, and but little, if any, longer than the abdomen,
while in most plant-eaters it is long, and thus zigzag in its
course. It isa very interesting fact that the alimentary canal
in the larva may be partly shed at the time of molting,
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 91
Strange as it may seem, the fecal pellets of some insects are
beautiful in form, and of others pleasant to the taste. These
fecal masses under trees or bushes often reveal the presence of
caterpillars. I find my children use them toexcellent purpose
in finding rare specimens. In some caterpillars they are
barrel-shaped, artistically fluted, of brilliant hue, and, if fos-
silized, would be greatly admired, as have been the coprolites—
fossil feces of higher animals—if set as gems in jewelry. As
itis, they would form no mean parlor ornament. In other
insects, as the Aphides, or plant-lice, the excrement, as well
as the fluid that escapes from the general surface of the body,
the anus, or in some species from special tubes called the
nectaries, is very sweet, and in absence of floral nectar will
often be appropriated by bees and conveyed to the hives. In
those insects that suck their food, as bees, butterflies, moths,
two-winged flies and bugs, the feces are liquid, while in case
of solid food the excrement is nearly solid. It is doubtless this
liquid excreta falling from bees that has been referred to often
as a fine mist.
SECRETORY ORGANS OF INSKCTS.
I have already spoken of the salivary glands, which Kirby
describes as distinct from the true silk-secreting tubes, though
Newport thinks them one and the same. In many insects
these seem absent. I have also spoken of the mucus glands,
the urinary tubules, etc. Besides these, there are other secre-
tions which serve for purposes of defense. In the queen and
workers of bees, and in ants and wasps, the poison intruded
with the sting is an example. This is secreted by glands at
the posterior of the abdomen, stored in sacs (Fig. 38, pg), and
extruded through the sting as occasion requires. I know of no
insects that poison while they bite, except mosquitoes, gnats,
and some bugs. Mosquitoes and some flies, in biting, convey,
as do ticks, germs of malaria or noxious protozoans, and so
induce disease.
A few exceedingly beautiful caterpillars are covered with
branching spines, which sting about like a nettle. We have
three such species. They are green, and of rare attraction, so
that to capture them is worth the slight inconvenience arising
92 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE,
from their irritating punctures. Some insects, like many
bugs, flies, beetles, and even butterflies, secrete a disgusting
fluid, or gas, which affords protection, as by its stench it
renders these filthy bugs so offensive that even a hungry bird
or half-famished insect passes them by on the other side.
Some insects secrete a gas which is stored in a sac at the pos-
terior end of the body, and shot forth with an explosion in case
danger threatens; thus by noise and smoke it startles its
enemy, which beats a retreat. I have heard the little bom-
bardier beetle at such times, even at considerable distances.
The frightful reports about the terrible horn of the tomato-
worm larva are mere nonsense; a more harmless animal does
not exist. My little boy of four years, and girl of only two,
used to bring them to me in the summer, and regard them as
admiringly as would their father upon receiving them from’
the delighted children.
If we except bees and wasps, there are no true insects that
need be feared; nor need we except them, for with fair usage
even they are seldom provoked to use their cruel weapon. The
so-called ‘‘ kissing bugs,’’ which usually bite on the legs, and
not on the lips, are too rare to be feared. There are two or
three species of these biting bugs.
SEX-ORGANS OF INSECTS.
The male organs consist of the testes (Fig. 37, a), which are
double. These are made up of tubules or vesicles, of which
there may be from one, as in the drone-bee, to several, as in
some beetles, on each side the abdominal cavity. In these
vesicles grow the sperm cells, or spermatozoa (Fig. 50), which,
when liberated, pass through a long convoluted tube, the vas
deferens (Fig. 37, 4, 6), into the seminal sac (Fig. 37, ¢, ¢),
where, in connection with mucus, they are stored. In most
insects there are grandular sacs (Fig. 37, d) joined to these
seminal receptacles, which, in the male bee, are very large.
The sperm cells mingled with these viscid secretions, as they
appear in the seminal receptacle ready for use, form the
seminal fluid. Extending from these seminal receptacles is
the ejaculatory duct (Fig. 37, e, 4g), which, in copulation,
carries the male fluid to the penis (Fig. 37, 2), through which it
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 93
passes to the oviduct of the female. Beside this latter organ
are the sheath, the claspers, when present, and, in the male
’ pee, those large yellow glandular sacs (Fig. 37, 7), which are
often seen to dart forth as the drone is held in the warm hand.
Fic. 37.
Male Organs of Drone, much magnified.
a Testes. e Common duct.
bb Vasa deferentia. Jg Ejaculatory duct.
ce Seminal sacs. hf, Penis.
d Glandular sacs. i Yellow saccules.
The female organs (Fig. 38) consist of the ovaries (Fig.
38, 0, 0), which are situated one on either side of the abdominal
cavity. From these extended the two oviducts (Fig. 38, D),
which unite into the common oviduct (Fig. 38, D), through
which the eggs pass in deposition. In the higher Hymenop-
tera there is beside this oviduct, and connected with it, a sac
94 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}
(Fig. 38, s, 6) called the spermatheca, which receives the male
fluid in copulation, and which, by extruding its contents, must
ever after do the work of impregnation.
This sac was discovered, and its use suggested, by Mal-
Female Organs, magnified, from Leuckart,
O Ovaries. Pg Poison glands,
DD Oviduets. Sy Sting glands,
Sb Spermatheca, & Sting.
Pb Poison sac,
pighi as early as 1686, but its function was not fully demon-
strated until 1792, when the great anatomist, John Hunter,
showed that in copulation this was filled. The ovaries are
multitubular organs. In some insects, as laying workers,
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 95
there are but very few tubes—twoor three; while in the queen-
bee there are more than one hundred. In these tubes the ova
or eggs grow, as do the sperm-cells in the vesicles of the testes.
The number of eggsis variable. Some insects, as the mud-
wasps, produce very few, while the queen white-ant extrudes
millions. The end of the oviduct, called the ovipositor, is
wonderful in its variation. Sometimes it consists of concen-
tric rings, like a spy-glass, which may be pushed out or drawn
in; sometimes of a long tube armed with augers or saws of
wonderful finish, to prepare for eggs; or again of a tube
which may also serveas a sting. ‘The females of all Hymenop-
tera possess a very complex sting, saw, or ovipositor, which
can be said of no other order.
Most authors state that insects copulate only once, or at
least that the female meets the male but once. Many species
like the squash-bug mate several times. In some cases, as we
shall see in the sequel, the male is killed by the copulatory
act. I think this curious fatality is limited to few species.
To study viscera, which of course requires very careful
dissection, we need more apparatus than has been yet
described. Here a good lens is indispensable. A small dis-
secting-knife, a delicate pair of forceps, and some small,
sharp-pointed dissecting scissors—those of the renowned
Swammerdam were so fine at the point that it required a lens
to sharpen them—which may also serve toclip the wings of
queens, are requisite to satisfactory work. Specimens put in
alcohol will be improved, as the oil will be dissolved out, and
the muscles hardened. Formalin is much cheaper, and on
many accounts better than alcohol. It does not evaporate as
readily, and the specimens preserved in it do not smell offen-
sive. Placing specimens in hot water willdo nearly as well,
in which case oil of turpentine will dissolve off the fat. This
may be applied with a camel’s-hair brush. By dissecting
under water the loose portions will float off, and render effect-
ive work more easy, Swammerdam, who had that most
valuable requisite to a naturalist—unlimited patience—not
only dissected out the parts, but with small glass tubes, fine
as a hair, he injected the various vessels, as the alimentary
canal and air-tubes. My reader, why may not you look in
96 TH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}
upon these wondrous beauties and marvels of God’s own
handiwork—Nature’s grand exposition? Father, why would
nota set of dissecting instruments be a most suitable gift to
your son? You might thus sow the seed which would germi-
nate into a Swammerdam, and that on your own hearth-stone.
Messrs. Editors, why do not you keep boxes of these instru-
ments for sale, and thus aid to light the torch of genius, and
hasten apiarian research?
TRANSFORMATION OF INSECTS.
What in all the realm of nature is so worthy to awaken
delight and admiration as the astonishing changes which
insects undergo? Just think of the sluggish, repulsive cater-
pillar, dragging its heavy form over clod or bush, or mining
in dirt and filth, changed, by the wand of Nature’s great
magician, first into the motionless chrysalis, decked with
green and gold, and beautiful as the gem that glitters on the
finger of beauty, then bursting forth as the graceful, gorgeous
butterfly ; which, by its brilliant tints and elegant poise, out-
rivals even the birds among the life-jewels of Nature, and is
made fit to revelin all her decorative wealth. The little fly,
too, with wings dyed in rainbow hues, flitting like a fairy
from leaf to flower, was but yesterday the repulsive maggot,
reveling in the veriest filth of decaying Nature. The grub
to-day drags its slimy shape through the slums of earth, on
which it fattens; to-morrow it will glitter as the brillant set-
ting in the bracelet and ear-drops of the gay and thoughtless
belle.
There are four separate stages in the development of
insects: The egg, the larva, the pupa, and the imago.
THE EGG.
This is not unlike the same in higher animals. It has its
yolk, the real egg, and its surrounding white or albumen, like
the eggs of all mammals, and farther, the delicate shell, which
is familiar in the eggs of birds and reptiles. Eggs of insects
are often beautiful in form and color, and not infrequently
ribbed and fluted (Fig. 41), as by a master hand. The form of
eggs is very various—spherical, oval, cylindrical, oblong,
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 97
straight, and curved (Fig. 39, a, 6). Through the egg is an
opening (Fig. 41, 4, B, m), the micropyle, through which
passes the sperm-cells. All insects seem to be guarded by a
wonderful knowledge, or instinct, or intelligence, in the pla-
cing of eggs on or near the peculiar food of the larva, even
though in many cases such food is no part of the aliment of
theimago. The fly has the refined habits of the epicure, from
whose cup it daintily sips, yet its eggs are placed in the horse-
droppings of stable and pasture.
Inside the egg wonderful changes soon commence, and
their consummation is a tiny larva. Somewhat similar
changes can be easily and most profitably studied by breaking
aud examining a hen’s egg each successive day of incubation.
As with the eggs of our own species, and of all higher ani-
mals, the egg of insects, or the yolk, the essential part—the
white is only food, so to speak—soon segments or divides into
a great many cells—in the morula stage—which soon unite into
three membranes, the blastoderms—blastula stage—which are
the initial animal; these blastoderms soon form a single arch
or sac, and not a double arch, one above the other, as in our
own vertebrate branch. This sac, looking like a miniature
bag of grain, grows by absorption, becomes articulated, and
by budding out is soon provided with the various members.
At first the sixteen or seventeen segments are much alike, and
all bear appendages. From the three segments of the head
come the antenne and mouth organs, from the three thoracic
rings the three pairs of legs, while the remaining abdominal
joints generally soon lose all show of appendages, which are
never present in the imago. The trachez, and fore and hind
intestines, all but the stomach, are but invaginations of the
ectoderm or skin membrane, and so are shed when the skin is
moulted. Asin higher animals, these changes are consequent
upon heat, and usually, not always, upon the incorporation
within the eggs of the sperm-cells from the male, which enter
the egg at an opening called the micropyle. The time it takes
the embryo inside the egg to developis gauged by heat, and
will, therefore, vary with the season and temperature, though
in different species it varies from days to months. The num-
ber of eggs which an insect may produce is subject to wide
98 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
variation. There may be a score of them; there may be
thousands.
THE LARVA OF INSECTS.
From the egg comes the larva, also called grub, maggot,
caterpillar, and very erroneously worm. These are worm-
shaped (Fig. 39), usually have strong jaws, simple eyes, and
the body plainly marked into ring divisions. In some insects
there are fourteen of these rings or segments, or ten besides the
head and three rings of the thorax. In bees, and nearly all
other insects (Fig. 39, /), there is one less abdominal ring.
Often, as in case of some grubs, larval bees, and maggots,
there are no legs. In most grubs there are six legs, two to
each of the three rings succeeding the head. Besides these,
caterpillars have usually ten prop-legs farther back on the
body, though a few—the loopers or measuring caterpillars—
have only four or six, while the larve of the saw-flies have
from twelve to sixteen of the false or prop-legs. The alimen-
tary canal of larval insects is usually short, direct, and quite
simple, while the sex-organs are slightly if at all developed.
The larve of insects are voracious eaters—indeed, their only
work seems to be to eat and grow fat. This rapid growth is
well shown in the larva of the bee, which increases during its
brief period from egg to full-grown larva—less than five days—
from 1200 to 1500 times its weight. As the entire growth
occurs at this stage, their gormandizing habits are the more
excusable. I have often been astonished at the amount of food
that the insects in my breeding cases would consume. The
skin or crust of insects is unyielding, hence growth requires
that it shall be cast. This shedding of the skin is called
moulting. It isa strange fact, already mentioned, that the
treachee and a part of the alimentary canal are cast off with
the skin. Most insects moult from four to six times. That
bees moult was even known to Swammerdam. Vogel speaks
of the thickening of the cells because of these cast-skins. Dr.
Packard observed many years since, that in the thin-skinned
iarve, such as those of bees, wasps, and gall-flies, the mouits
are not apparent; as these larve increase in size, they out-
grow the old skin which comes off in shreds. The length of
.
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 99
time which insects remain as larve is very variable. The
maggot revels in decaying meat but two or three days; the
larval bee eats its rich pabulum for nearly a week; the apple-
tree borer gnaws away for three years ; while the seventeen-
year cicada remains a larva for more than sixteen years,
groping in darkness and feeding on roots, only to come forth
fora few days of hilarity, sunshine, and courtship. Surely,
here is patience exceeding even that of Swammerdam. The
name larva, meaning masked, was given to this stage by Lin-
neus, as the mature form of the insect is hidden, and can not
be even divined by the unlearned.
THE PUPA OF INSKCTS.
In this stage the insect is in profound repose, as if resting
after its meal, the better to enjoy its active, sportive days—
the joyous honeymoon—soontocome. At this time the insect
may look like a seed, as in the coarctate pupa of diptera, so
familiar in the ‘‘ flaxseed’ state of the Hessian-fly, or in the
pupa of the cheese-maggot, or the meat-fly. The form of the
adult insect is very obscurely shown in butterfly pupz, called,
because of their golden spots, chrysalids, and in the pupz of
moths. Other pupz,as in the case of bees (Fig. 39, g) and
beetles, look not unlike the mature insect with its antenne,
legs, and wings closely bound to the body bya thin membrane,
hence the name pupa which Linne gave—referring to this con-
dition—as the insect looks as if wrapped in swaddling clothes,
the old cruel way of torturing the infant, as if it needed hold-
ing together. The pupa, andso of course the imago, has less
segments than has the larva. In the bee, the first ring of the
abdomen becomes the petiole, and the last three are merged
into one, and thus the number of segmentsin the adult are
only six. The dronehas one more. The spiraclesand ganglia
are also reduced in number. Aristotle called pupz ‘‘ nymphs”
—a name stillin use. The word nymph is now used to desig-
nate the immature stages, both larval and pupal, of insects
with incomplete transformations like locusts. Inside the pupa
skin great changes are in progress, for either by modifying
the larval organs or developing parts entirely new by use of
the accumulated material stored by the larva during its pro-
100 THH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
longed banquet, the wonderful transformation from the siug-
gish, worm-like larva, to the active, bird-like imago is accom-
plished. Sometimes the pupa is surrounded by a silken
cocoon, eithersthick, as the cocoon of some moths, or thin and
incomplete as the cocoon of bees. The cocoon is spun by moy-
ing the head back and forth. The liquid thread quickly dries,
andis drawn forth as the head moves. These cocoons are
Fic. 39.
Development of the Bee, after Duncan.
ab Eggs. q Pupa.
ede f Larve. k Caps.
i Queen-cell.
spun by the larve as their last toil before assuming the restful
pupa state. The length of time in the pupa stage varies from
a few days toas many months. Sometimes insects which are
two-brooded remain as pupa but a few days in summer, while
in winter they are moths passing the quiescent period. Our
cabbage-butterfly illustrates this peculiarity. Others, like the
Hessian-fly and coddling-moth, remain through the long, cold
months as larve. How wonderful is this! The first brood of
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 101
larve change to pupe at once, the last brood, though’ the
weather be just as hot, wait over inside the cocoon till the
warm days of coming spring.
THE IMAGO STAGE,
This term refers to the last or winged form (Fig. 40), and
was given by Linnzus because the image of the insect is now
Fic. 41.
Queen-Bee, magnified.—Original.
Bee-Egg.—Original.
A Egg. B Large end.
m Micropyle.
realand not masked as when in the larva state. Now the
insect has its full-formed legs and wings, its compound eyes,
often complex mouth-parts—a few insects, like the bot-flies,
have no mouth organs—and the fully developed sex-organs.
In fact, the whole purpose of the insect now seems to be to
reproduce itself. Many insects do not even eat, only flit in
merry marriage mood for a brief space, when the male flees
this life to be quickly followed by the female, she only wait.
ing to place her eggs where the prospective infants may find
suitable food. Some insects not only place their eggs, but
feed and care for their young, as do ants, wasps and bees.
Again, as in case of some species of ants and bees, abortive
102 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
females perform all, or most, of the labor in cating for the
young. The life of the imago also varies much as to duration.
Some imagos live but for a day. others make merry for several
days, while a few species live formonths. Very few imagos
survive the whole year. The queen-bee may live for five years,
and Lubbock has queen-ants which are fifteen or more years
old.
INCOMPLETE TRANSFORMATION.
Some insects like the bugs, lice, grasshoppers, and locusts,
are quite alike at all stages of growth, after leaving the egg.
The only apparent difference is the smaller size and the absence
or incomplete development of the wings in the larve and pupe.
The larva and pupa are known as nymphs. The habits and
structure from first to last seem to be much the same. Here,
as before, the full development of the sex-corgans occurs only
in the imago.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE
HONEY-BEE.
Witha knowledge of the anatomy and some glimpses of
the physiology of insects in general, we shall now find it easy
tolearn the special anatomy and physiology of the highest
insects of the order.
THREE KINDS OF BEES IN KACH FAMILY.
As we have already seen, a very remarkable feature in the
economy of the honey-bee, described even by Aristotle, which
is true of some other bees, and of ants, is the presence in each
family of three distinct kinds, which differ in form, color,
structure, size, habits and function. Thus, we have the queen
(Lubbock has shown that there are several queens in an ant
colony), a number of drones, and a far greater number of
workers. Huber, Bevan, Munn, and Kirby, also speak of a
fourth kind, blacker than the usual workers. These are
accidental, and are, as conclusively shown by Baron von Ber-
lepsch, ordinary workers, more deeply colored by age, loss of
hair, dampness, or some other atmospheric condition. Ameri-
can apiarists are too familiar with these black bees, for after
our severe winters they prevailin thecolony, and, as remarked
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 103
by the noted Baron, ‘‘They quickly disappear.” Munn also
tells of a fifth kind, with a top-knot, which appears at swarm-
ing seasons. I am ata great loss to know what he refers to,
unless it be the pollen-masses of the asclepias, or milk-weed,
which sometimes fasten to our bees and become a severe
burden.
THE QUHEN-BEE.
The queen (Fig. 40), although referred to as the mother-
bee, was called the king by Virgil, Pliny, and by writers as
late as the last century, though in the ‘‘ Ancient Bee-Master’s
Farewell,’? by John Keyes, published in London in 1796, I find
an admirable description of the queen-bee, with her function
correctly stated. Reaumur, as quoted in ‘‘ Wildman on Bees,”’
published in London in 1770, says, ‘‘ This third sort hasa grave
and sedate walk, is armed with a sting, and is mother of all
others.”’
Huber, to whom every apiarist owes so much, and who,
though blind, through the aid of his devoted wife and intelli-
gent servant, Francis Burnens, developed so many interesting
truths, demonstrated the fact of the queen’s maternity. This
author’s work, second edition, published in Edinburgh in 1808,
gives a full history of his wonderful observations and experi-
ments, and must ever rank with the work of Langstroth asa
classic, worthy of study by all.
The queen, then, is the mother-bee; in other words, a
fully developed female. Her ovaries (Fig. 38, 0,0) are very
large, nearly filling her long abdomen. The tubes, already
described as composing them, are very numerous, there being
more than one hundred, while the spermatheca (Fig. 38, s 6)is
plainly visible. This isa membranous sac, hardly 1-20 of an
inch in diameter. It is fairly covered with interlacing nerves,
which give to it its light, glistening appearance. ‘The sper-
matheca has a short duct, joined to whichis the duct of the
double appendicular glands which closely embrace the sper-
matheca. These are described by Siebold and lLeuckart, who
suppose that they furnish mucus to render the sperm-cells
more mobile, so that they will move more freely. Leuckart
also describes muscles, which connect with the duct of the
104 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE;
spermatheca (Fig. 38), which he thinks act as sphincters or
dilators of this duct, to restrain or permit the passage of the
spermatozoa. When the duct is opened the ever-active sperm-
cells rush out, aided in their course by the secretion from the
appended glands.
The spermatheca, according to Leuckart, may contain
25,000,000 spermatozoa. We see, then, why it does not run
Fic. 43.
Fic. 42.
Labium of Queen.—Oriyinal,
a Ligula.
dd Paraglosse.
b Labial palpi.
Part of Leg of Queen, magnified, after Duncan.
t Tibia. p Broadened tibia and basal tarsus.
ts Tarsal joints.
empty, even though Siebold thought that each of the one and
one-half million of eggs that a queen may lay, receives two or
three sperm-cells. I think it is now proved that but one sperm-
cellenters each egg. The eggs, which, as Girard states, do
not form as early in the ovaries as do the sperm-cells in the
organs of the drone, which are matured while the drone is yet
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. ¢ 105
a pupa, area little more than 1-16 of an inch long, slightly
curved, and rather smaller at the end of attachment to the
comb. The outer membrane (Fig. 41) appears cellular when
magnified, and shows the micropyle at the larger end (Fig. 41,
B,m). The possession of the ovaries and attendant organs is
the chief structural peculiarity which marks the queen, as .
these are the characteristic marks of females among all ani-
mals. But she has other peculiarities worthy of mention: She
is longer than either drones or workers, being more than
Fic. 44.
Diagram of Abdomen of Queen, from Cowan.
F Ovaries. Rectum. St Sting.
M Honey stomach, N sophagus. A Anus.
D Stomach. Ss Sheath, V Oviduct.
seven-eighths of an inch in length, and with her long, tapering
"* abdomen, is not without real grace and beauty. The queen’s
mouth organs are developed to a less degree than are those of
the worker-bees. Her jaws (Fig. 65, 6) or mandibles are weaker,
witha rudimentary tooth, and her tongue or ligula (Fig. 42, u,
and 49), as also the labial palpi (Fig. 42, 6,and 49) and maxille,
are considerably shorter. Of the four pairs of glands (Fig. 59)
so elegantly figured, and so well described by Schiemenz, the
queen has the first pair very rudimentary, and the others well
developed. The fourth pair, or Wolff’s glands, are much larger
than in the worker-bees. Her eyes, though like, yet hardly
as large as the same in the worker-bee (Fig. 4), are smaller
106 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE}
than those of the drones, and do not meet above. So the three
ocelli are situated above and between the compound eyes. The
queen's wings (Fig. 40) are relatively shorter than those of
either the workers or drones, for instead of attaining to the
end of the body, they reach but little beyond the third joint of
‘the Abdomen. The queen, though she has the characteristic
posterior tibia and basal tarsus (Fig. 43, #) in respect to
breadth, has not the cavity and surrounding hairs which form
the pollen-baskets of the workers. The legsof the queen (Fig.
43) are large and strong, but, like her body, they have not the
pollen-gathering hairs which are so well marked in the worker.
The queen possesses a sting which islonger than that of the
worker, and resembles that of the bumble-bee in being curved
(Fig. 44, Ss), and that of the bumble-bees and wasps in having
few and short barbs—the little projections which point back
like the barb of a fish-hook, and which, in case of the workers,
prevent the withdrawing of the instrument, when once fairly
inserted. While there are seven quite prominent barbs on
each shaft of the worker's sting (Fig. 74), there are only three
on those of the queen, and these are very short. As in case of
the barbs of the worker's sting, so here, they are successively
shorter as we recede from the point of the weapon. Even
Aristotle discovered that a queen will rarely use her sting. I
have often tried to get a queen to sting me, but without suc-
cess. Neighbour gives three cases where queens used their
stings, in one of which she was disabled from farther egg-
laying. She stings with slight effect. The use of the queen’s
sting is todispatch a rival queen. The brain of the queen is
relatively small. We should expect this, as the queen’s func-—
tions are vegetative. So the worker, possessed of more intri-
cate functions, is much more highly organized. Figure 44
gives the relation of the viscera of the queen.
Schiemenz and Schonfeld are unquestionably correct in
the belief that the queen, and the drones as well, are fed by
the workers, the same food that the larvze are fed. Thus, the
digestion is performed for both queen and drones.
I have known queens to lay over 3,000eggsaday. These
I find weigh .3900 grams, while the queen only weighs .2299
grams. Thus, the queen may lay daily nearly double her own
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 107
weight of eggs. This, of course, could only be possible as she
was fed highly nutritious food, which was wholly digested for
her. The larval bee fed the same food doubles in weight in a
single day—a further proof of the excellence of this diet.
Schonfeld finds that the queen, like the drones, will soon die
if she be shut away from the workers by a double wire-cage,
even though in the hive and surrounded with honey. The fact
that pollen-husks—cuticula—are never found in the queen’s
stomach, gives added proof of the above fact. The contents
are grayish. I never saw a queen void her feces. Vogel
reports having seen it, and Mr. Cowan reports to me that he
has seen a queen pass a yellowish gray liquid. We also find
the queen’s alimentary canal comparatively small, though the
renal tubules are large and numerous. The queen, like the
worker-bees, is developed from an impregnated egg, which, of
course, could only come from a queen that had previously
mated. These eggs are not placed ina horizontal cell, but in
one specially prepared for their reception (Fig. 39, 7z). The
queen-cells (Fig. 45) are usually built on the edge of the comb,
or around an opening in it, which is necessitated from their
size and form, as usually the combs are too close together to
permit their location elsewhere. These cells extend either
vertically or diagonally downward, are very rough (Fig. 45, c),
and are composed of wax cut from the old combs, mixed with
pollen (Mr. Cheshire says all kinds of refuse is used in con-
structing queen-cells), and in size and form much resemble a
peanut. The eggs must be placed in these cells, either by the
queen or workers. Huber, who, though blind, had wondrous
eyes, witnessed this act of the queen. I have frequently seen
eggs in these cells, and without exception in the exact position
in which the queen always places her eggs in the other cells.
John Keyes, in the old work already referred to, whose descrip-
tions, though penned so long ago, are wonderfully accurate,
and indicate great care, candor, and conscientious truthfulness,
asserts that the queen is five times as long laying a royal egg
as she is the others. From the character of his work, and its
early publication, Ican but think that he had witnessed this
rare sight. Some candid apiarists of our own time and coun-
try—E. Gallup among the rest—claim to have witnessed the
108 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;
same. Theeggs are so well glued, and are so delicate, that,
with Neighbour, I should doubt the possibility of a removal
except that some persons assert that they have positive proof
that it is sometimes done. Possibly the young larvae may at
times be removed from one cell to another. The opponents to
the view that the queen lays eggs in the queen-cells, base their
belief on a supposed discord between the queen and neuters.
The conditions which lead tothe building of queen-cells,
and the peopling of the same are: Loss of queen ; when a
worker-larva from one to four days old will be surrounded by
acell; inability of a queen to lay impregnated eggs, her sper-
matheca having become emptied ; any disability of the queen ;
great number of worker-bees in the hive; restricted quarters,
the queen not having place to deposit eggs, or the workers
little or no room to store honey; or lack of ventilation, so that
the hive bécomes too close. These last three conditions are
most likely to occur at times of great nectar-secretion.
A queen may be developed from an egg, or, as first shown
by Schirach, from a worker-larva less than three days old.
(Mr Doolittle has known queens to be reared from worker-
larve taken at four-and a-half days from hatching.) In such
cases the cells adjacent to the one containing the selected
larva are removed, and the larva surrounded bya royal cell.
The development of the queen-larva is much like that of the
worker, soon to be detailed, except thatit is more rapid, and
the queen-larva is fed richer and more plenteous food, called
royal jelly. Thisis an excellent name for this substance, as
Dr. A. de Planta has shown (B. B. J., 1887, p. 185) that this
royal jelly is different from the food both of the worker and
drone larva. It is doubtless digested pollen, as first suggested
by Dufour, and so ably proved by Schonfeld. I have fed bees
honey with finely pulverized charcoal in it, and found the same
in the royal jelly. This could not be true if the latter were a
secretion, as the carbon is not osmotic. Dr. Planta’s re-
searches show that the royal jelly is richer in fatty elements
and proteids than the larval food either of the drones or
workers; but not as rich in sugar. It contains more albumi-
nous material,and much more fatty matter than the food of
the drone-larve. Quite likely evaporation may change the
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 109
nature of this royal jelly. There is never undigested food fed
to queen or worker larva, but the drone-larva is thus fed, as
the microscope shows the pollen. This peculiar food, as also
its use and abundance in the cell, was first described by
Schirach, aSaxon clergyman, who wrote a work on bees in
1771. It is thick, like rich cream; slightly yéllow, and so
abundant that the queen-larva not only floatsin it during all
its period of growth, but quite a large amount remains after
her queenship vacates the cell. We sometimes find this royal
jelly in incomplete queen-cells, without larve.
What a mysterious circumstance is this: These royal
scions simply receive a more abundant and nutritious diet,
and occupy a more ample habitation—for I have more than
once confirmed the statement of Mr. Quinby, that the direction
of the cell is immaterial—and yet what a marvelous transfor-
mation. Not only are the ovaries developed and filled with
eggs, but the mouth organs, the wings, the legs, the sting,
aye, even the size, form, and habits, are all wondrously
changed. The food stimulates extra development of the
ovaries, and, through the law of compensation, other parts are
less developed. That the development of parts should be
accelerated, and the size increased, is not so surprising—as in
breeding other insectsI have frequently found that kind and
amount of food would hasten or retard growth, and might even
cause a dwarfed imago—but that food should so essentially
modify the structure, is certainly a rare and unique circum-
stance, hardly to be found except here and in related
animals. Bevan has suggested that laying workers, while
larve, have received some of this royal jelly from their posi-
tion near a developing queen. As the workers vary the food
for the several larve, as Dr. Planta has shown, may they not
sometimes make a mistake and feed royal jelly to workers ?
Surely, in caring for so many young, this would be very par-
donable. Langstroth supposes that they receive sone royal
jelly, purposely given by the workers, and I have previously
thought this reasonable and probably true. But these pests
of the apiarist, and especially of the breeder, almost always,
so far as I have observed, make their appearance in colonies
long queenless, and I have noticed a case similar to that given
110 THE BEE-KEREPER’S GUIDE;
by Quinby, where these occurredin a nucleus where no queen
had been developed. May it not be true thata desire for
eggs or unrest stimulates in some worker, which was perhaps
over-ted as a larva, the growth of the ovaries, growth of eggs
in the ovarian tubes, and consequent ability to deposit? The
common high-holder, Colaptes auratus—a bird belonging to the
wood-pecker order, usually lays five eggs, and only five; but
let cruel hands rob her of these promises of future loved ones,
and, wondrous to relate, she continues to lay more than a
score. One thus treated, on the College campus, actually laid
more than thirty eggs. So we see that animal desires may
influence and move organs that are generally independent of
the will. It may be that in queenless colonies the workers
commence to feed some worker or workers, the rich nitrogen-
ous food, and thus their ovaries are stimulated to activity.
The larval queen is longer, and more rapid of development
than the other larve. When developed from the egg—as in
case of normal swarming—the larva feeds for five days, when
the cell is capped by the workers. At any time during this
period the larva can be removed, as first shown by Mr. J. L.
Davis, of Michigan, in 1874, anda newly hatched larva placed
in it instead. This is easily done by use of a quill tooth-
pick. The infant queen then spins her cocoon, which occupies
about one day. The fibrous part of the cocoon, which is also
true of both drone and worker larve, is confined to the outer
end, as is easily seen by microscopic examination. Yet a thin
varnish continues this over the whole interior of the cell. This
latter becomes very thick in worker-cells, as many bees are
reared in each cell, while in the queen-cell it is thin, as but
one bee is reared in each cell. A similar varnish coats the
cocoons of all silk-moths. This may be the contents of the
alimentary canal simply, which, of course, is moulted with the
last larval skin, very likely a special secretion is added. These
cocoons are shown nicely when we melt old combin the solar
wax-extractor. The queen now spends nearly three daysin
absolute repose. Such rest is common to all cocoon-spinning
larve. The spinning, which is done by a rapid motion to-and-
fro of the head, always carrying the delicate thread, much like
the moving shuttle of the weaver, seems to bring exhaustion
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 111
and need of repose. She now assumes the pupa state (Fig.
39,7). At the end of the sixteenth day she comes forth a
queen. Ashort time before the queen emerges the workers
thin off the wax from the end of the cell (Fig. 45, D). The
reason for this is obscure, as the queen could easily come forth
without it. The queen cuts her way out by use of her jaws,
and leaves the cap hanging as a lid to the cell (Fig. 45, C).
wens a5 — cK
Queen-Cells, from A. I. Root Co.
A Queen-cell from modified worker-cell just started.
B Imcomplete cell.
C Cell, after queen has emerged, showing cap hanging.
D Thinned cell, # Cell cut into from side.
While a queen usually comes forth in sixteen days, there may
beadelay. Cold will delay hatching of the egg, and retard
development. Sometimes queens are kept fora time in the
cell, after they are really ready to come forth. Thus, there
may be rarely a delay of even two days. Huber states that
when a queen emerges the bees are thrown into a joyous
excitement, so that he noticed a rise in temperature in the hive
from 92 degrees IF. to 104 degrees F. I have never tested this
matter accurately, but I have failed to notice any marked
112 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE,
demonstration on the natal day of her ladyship the queen, or
extra respect paid her asa virgin. When queens are started
from worker-larve they will issue as imagoes in ten or twelve
days from the date of their new prospects. Mr. Doolittle
writes me that he hasknown them to issue in eight and one-
half days. My own observations sustain the assertion of Mr.
P. Ll. Viallon, that the minimum time is nine and one-half
days.
As the queen’s development is probably due to superior
quality and increased quantity of food, it would stand to
reason that queens started from eggs, or larve just hatched,
are preferable ; the more so as, under normal circumstances,
I believe they are almost always thus started. The best
experience sustains this position. As the proper food and
temperature can best be securedin a full colony—and here
again the natural economy of the hive adds to our argument—
we should infer that the best queens would be reared in strong
colonies, or at least kept in such colonies till the cells were
capped. Experience alsoconfirms this view. As the quantity
and quality of food and the general activity of the bees are
directly connected with the full nourishment of the queen-
larva, and as these are only at the maximum in times of
active gathering—the time when queen-rearing is naturally
started by the bees—we should also conclude that queens
reared at such seasons are superior. My experience—and I
have carefully observed in this connection—most emphatically
sustains this view.
Five or six days after issuing from the cell—Neighbour
says the third day—if the day is pleasant the queen goes forth
on her “‘ marriage flight ;’’ otherwise she will improve the first
pleasant day thereafter for this purpose. Mr. Doolittle says
that mid-summer queens fly out in from four to nine days,
while early spring and fall queens may not mate for from two
to four weeks. Rev. Mr. Mahin has noticed, as have many of
us, that the young queens fly out several times simply to exer-
cise, and then he thinks they often go from two to five miles to
mate; while Mr. Alley thinks the mating is performed within
one-half mile of the hive. I have known queens to be out on
their mating tour for thirty-five minutes, in which case it
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 113
would seem certain that they must have gone more than one-
half mile. It has been reported by reliable persons that the
queens are out from ten minutes to two hours. Sometimes
queens will meet drones, as shown by the white thread tipping
the body, and yet not be impregnated. The spermatozoa did
not reach the spermatheca. In such cases, a second, and per-
haps a third, mating is required. Huber was the first to prove
that impregnation always takes place on the wing. Bonnet
also proved that the same is true of ants, though in this case
millions of queens and drones often swarm out atonce. I
have myself witnessed several of these wholesale matrimonial
excursions among ants. I have also taken bumble-bees that
were copulating while on the wing. I havealso seen both
ants and bumble-bees fall while united, probably borne down
by the expiring males. That butterflies, moths, dragon-fles,
etc., mate on the wing is a matter of common observation. It
has generally been thought impossible for queens in confine-
ment to be impregnated. Prof. Leuckart believes that suc-
cessful mating demands that the large air-sacs (Fig. 1, /) of
the drones shall be filled, which he thinks is only possible
during flight. The demeanor of the drones suggests that the
excitement of flight, like the warmth of the hand, is necessary
to induce the sexual impulse.
Many others, with myself, have followed Huber in clip-
ping the virgin queen’s wing, only to produce a sterile, or
drone-laying queen. One queen, however, whose wing was
clipped just as she came from the cell, and the entrance to
whose hive was guarded by perforated zinc so the queen could
not get out, was impregnated, and proved an excellent queen.
I should doubt this if I could see any other way to explain it.
Yet, from a great number of experiments, I feel sure that
mating in confinement can never be made practical, even if
desirable. And if Leuckart is correctin the above sugges-
tion, which is very probable, it is not desirable. Some bee-
keepers claim to have mated queens by hand. I have tried
this thoroughly, as also mating in boxes, green-houses, etc.,
and from entire lack of successI believe such mating is im-
possible, at least with most bee-keepers. J. S. Davitte, of
Georgia, claims to have mated many queens in a large circu-
114 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
lar tent. The drones are permitted to fly only in the tent, and
so are at home.
If the queen fails to find an admirer the first day, she will
go forth again and again till she succeeds. Huber states that
after twenty-one days the case is hopeless. Bevan states that
if impregnated from the fifteenth to the twenty-first she will
be largely a drone-laying queen. That suchabsolute dates can
be fixed in either of the above cases is very questionable. Yet
all experienced breeders know that queens kept through the
winter as virgins are sure to remain so. It is quite likely that
the long inactivity of the reproductive apparatus, especially of
the oviduct and spermatheca, wholly or in part paralyzes it, so
that queens that are late in mating can not impregnate the
eggs as they desire. This would accord with what we know of
other muscular organs. Berlepsch believed that a queen that
commenced laying as a virgin could never lay impregnated
eggs, even though she afterwards mated. Langstroth thought
that he had observed to the contrary.
If the queen be observed after a successful ‘‘ wedding
tour,’’ she will be seen as first pointed out by Huber, to bear
the marks of success in the pendant drone appendages, which
are still heldin the vulva of the queen.
It is not at all likely that a queen, after she has meta
drone, ever leaves the hive again except when she leaves with
aswarm. It has been stated that an old queen may be im-
pregnated. I feel very certain that this is an error.
If the queen lays eggs before meeting the drone, or if for
any reason she fail to mate, her eggs will only produce male
bees. This strange anomaly—development of the eggs with-
out impregnation—was discovered and proved by Dzierzon, in
1845. Dr. Dzierzon, who, asa student of practical and scien-
tific apiculture, ranks very high, is a Roman Catholic priest of
Carlsmarkt,Germany. This doctrine—called parthenogenesis,
which means produced from a virgin—is still doubted by some
quite able bee-keepers, though the proofs are irrefragable:
Ist. Unmated queens will lay eggs that will develop, but
drones always result.
2d. Old queens often become drone-layers, but examina-
tion shows that the spermatheca is void ofseminal fluid. Such
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 115
an examination was first made by Prof. Siebold, the great
German anatomist, in 1843, and later by Leuckart and Leidy.
I have myself made several such examinations. The sperma-
theca can easily be seen by the unaided vision, and by crush-
ing it on a glass slide, by compressing with a thin glass cover,
the difference between the contained fluid in the virgin and in
the impregnated queen is very patent, even with a low power.
In the latter it is more viscid and yellow, and the vesicle more
distended. By use of a high power, the active spermatozoa or
sperm-cells (Fig. 50) become visible. ‘
3d. Eggs in drone-cells are found by the microscopist to be
void of the sperm-cells, which are always found in all other
fresh-laid eggs. This most convincing and interesting obser-
vation was first made by Von Siebold, at the suggestion of
Berlepsch. It is quite dificult to show this. Leuckart tried
before Von Siebold, at Berlepsch’s apiary, but failed. I have
also tried to discover these sperm-cells in worker-eggs, but as
yet have been unsuccessful. Siebold has noted the same facts
ineggs of wasps.
4th. Dr. Donhoff, of Germany, reports that, in 1855, he
took an egg from a drone-cell, and by artificial impregnation
produced a worker-bee.
Late investigation by Mr. Weismann, of Germany, leaves
no doubt of this fact of parthenogenesis in the production of
drone-bees.
Parthenogenesis, in the production of males, has also been
found by Siebold to be true of other bees and wasps, and of
some of the lower moths in the production of both males and
females. Adler has shown that this agamic reproduction pre-
vails among the Chalcidide, a family of parasitic Hymenop-
tera, and it has long been known to characterize the cynips or
gall-flies ; while the great Bonnet first discovered what may be
noticed on any summer day all about us, even on the house-
plants at our very windows, that parthenogenesis is best illus-
trated by the aphides, or plant lice. In the fall males and
females appear which mate, when the females lay eggs which
in the spring produce only females; these again produce only
females, and thus on for several generations, sometimes fifteen
or twenty, till with the cold of autumn come again the males
116 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}
and females. Any person can easily demonstrate this fact for
himself. The summer plant-lice are hatched within the
mother-louse, or are ovoviviparous. It is easy to capture a
young louse just as it is born, and isolate it on a plant, when
soon we shall find it giving birth to young lice, though it has
never even seen any louse, male or female, since birth. Bon-
net observed seven successive generations of productive vir-
gins. Duval noted nine generations in seven months, while
Kyber observed production exclusively by parthenogenesis in
a heated room for four years. So we see that this strange and
almost incredible method of increase is not rare in the great
insect world.
In two or three days after she is impregnated, the queen,
under normal circumstances, commences to lay, usually
worker-eggs. It is rare not to find eggs by the tenth day
from the birth of the queen. The queens rarely go three
weeks before laying. Such tardiness does not recommend
them. It is reported that giving unhatched brood will start
the queen to laying. If this be true, it is doubtless explained
by her receiving different food from the workers. If the con-
dition of the hive impels to no further swarming that season,
no drones will be required, and so only worker-eggs will be
laid. In many localities, and in certain favorable years in all
localities, however, further swarming will occur.
It is frequently noticed that the young queen at first lays
quite a number of drone-eggs. Queen-breeders often observe
this in their nuclei. This continues for only a few days. This
does not seem strange. The act of freeing the sperm-cells
from the spermatheca is muscular and voluntary, and that
these muscles should not always act promptly at first,is not
strange, nor is it unprecedented. Mr. Wagner suggested that
the size of the cell determined the sex, as in the small cells the
pressure on the abdomen forced the fluid from the sperma-
theca. Mr. Quinby also favored this view. I greatly question
this theory. All observing apiarists have known eggs to be
laid in worker-cells ere they were hardly commenced, when
there could be no pressure. In case of queen-cells, too, if the
queen does lay the eggs—as I believe—these would be unim-
pregnated, as thecellis very large. I know the queen some-
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 117
times passes from drone to worker cells very abruptly while
laying, as Ihave witnessed such a procedure—the same that
so greatly rejoiced the late Baron of Berlepsch, after weary
hours of watching—but that she can thus control at the in-
stant this process of adding or withholding the sperm-cells
certainly seems not so strange as that the spermatheca, hardly
bigger than a pin-head, could supply these cells for months,
yes, and for years. Who that has seen the bot-fly dart against
the horse’s legs, and as surely leave the tiny yellow egg, can
doubt but that insects possess very sensitive oviducts, and can
extrude the minute eggs just at pleasure. That a queen may
force single eggs at will, past the mouth of the spermatheca,
andat the same time add or withhold the sperm-cells, is, I
think, without question true. What gives added force to this
view is the fact that other bees, wasps and ants exercise the
same volition, and can have no aid from cell-pressure, as all
the eggs are laid in receptacles of the same size. As already
remarked, the males and workers of Apis dorsata are developed
in the same sized cells, while the malesof A. indica are smaller
than the workers. The Baron of Berlepsch, worthy to bea
‘friend of Dzierzon, has fully decided the matter. He hasshown
that old drone-cells are as small as new worker-cells, and each
harbors its own brood. Very small queens, too, make no mis-
takes. With no drone-cells, the queen will sometimes lay
drone-eggs in worker-cells, in which drones will then be reared,
and she will, if she must, though with great reluctance, lay
worker-eggs in drone-cells.
Before laying an egg the queen takes a look into the cell,
probably to see if allis right. If the cell contains any honey,
pollen, or an egg, she usually passes it by, though, when
crowded, a queen will sometimes, especially if young, insert
two or three eggs ina cell, and sometimes, when in such cases
she drops them, the bees show their dislike of waste, and
appreciation of good living, by making a breakfast of them.
If the queen find the cell to her liking, she turns about, inserts
her abdomen, and in an instant the tiny egg is glued in posi-
tion (Fig. 39, 6) to the bottom of the cell.
The queen, when considered in relation to the other bees
of the colony, possesses a surprising longevity. It is not un-
118 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
common for her to attain the age of three years in the full
possession of her powers, while queens have been known to do
good work for five years. Lubbock has queen ants in his
nests that are fifteen or more years old, and stiil they are
vigorous layers. Queens, often at the expiration of one, two,
three or four years, depending on their vigor and excellence,
either cease to be fertile, or else become impotent to lay im-
pregnated eggs—the spermatheca having become emptied of
its sperm-cells. In such cases the workers usually supersede
the queen, that is, they rear a new queen before all the worker-
eggs are gone, and then destroy the old one.
It sometimes happens, though rarely, that a fine looking
queen, with the full-formed ovaries and large spermatheca
well filled with male fluid, will deposit freely, but none of the
eggs will hatch. Readers of bee-papers know that I have
frequently received such for dissection. I received one Aug.
12, 1900, from Mr. E. R. Root. The first one I ever got wasa
remarkably fine looking Italian, received from the late Dr.
Hamlin, of Tennessee. All such queens that I have examined
seem perfect, even though scrutinized with a high-power
objective. Wecan only say that the egg is at fault,as fre-
quently transpires with higher animals, even to the highest.
These females are barren; through some fault with the
ovaries, the eggs grown therein are sterile. To detect just
what is the trouble with the egg is a very difficult problem, if
it is capable of solution at all. I have tried to determine the
ultimate cause, but without success. Cases have also been
observed where mated and impregnated queens fail to lay
impregnated eggs. Here the delicate organism of the sperma-
theca and its duct is at fault. Queens that have been chilled,
as shown by Siebold, Leuckart, and our own Langstroth, are
often made drone-layers—that is, they lay only unimpregnated
eggs. Ihave also had one queen that produced many her-
maphroditic bees. These hermaphrodites are not really her-
maphrodites; as, so faras I have examined, they have only
ovaries or testes, but externally they have drone-organs in
part, as, for instance, the appendages of the head and thorax ;
and worker-organs in part, as the abdomen, will be like that of
a drone. Indeed, I now have a very strange hermaphrodite,
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 119
where one side is worker, the other drone. It is very probable
that these peculiarities arise from a diseased condition of the
queen, or else from diseased spermatozoa. I have known one
queen, many of whose bees were thus abnormal. If a queen
is not impregnated for three or four weeks, she often com-
mences to lay without impregnation, and then is a ‘‘ drone-
layer,’’ and, of course, worthless. She may lay as regularly
as if impregnated, though this is not usual. She is, of course,
betrayed by the higher cappings, and exclusive drone-brood.
The function of the queen is simply to lay eggs, and thus
keep the colony populous, and this she does with an energy
that is fairly startling. A good queen in her best estate will
lay two or three thousand eggsa day. I have seen a queen in
my observing hive lay for some time at the rate of four eggs
per minute, and have proved by actual computation of brood-
cells that a queen may lay over three thousand eggsin a day.
Both Langstroth and Berlepsch saw queens lay at the rate of
sixeggsa minute. The latter had a queen that laid three
thousand and twenty-one eggs in twenty-four hours, by actual
count, and in twenty days she laid fifty-seven thousand. This
queen continued prolific for five years, and must have laid,
says the Baron, at a low estimate, more than 1,300,000 eggs.
‘Dzierzon says queens may lay 1,000,000 eggs, and I think these
authors have not exaggerated. As already stated,a queen
may lay nearly double her weight of eggs daily. Yet, with
even these figures as an advertisement, the queen-bee can not
boast of superlative fecundity, as the queen white-ant—an
insect closely related to the bees in habits, though not in struc-
ture, as the white-ants are lace-wings, and belong to the order
Neuroptera (Isoptera), which includes our day-flies, dragon-flies,
etc.—is known to lay over 80,000 eggs daily. Yet this poor,
helpless thing, whose abdomen is the size of a man’s thumb,
and composed almost wholly of eggs, while the rest of her
pody is no larger than the same in our common ants, has no
other amusement; she can not walk; she can not even feed
herself, or care for her eggs. What wonder then that she
should attempt big things in the way of egg-laying ? She has
nothing else to do, or to feel proud of.
Different queens vary as much in fecundity as do different
120 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
kinds of life. Some queens are so prolific that they fairly
demand hives of India rubber to accommodate them, keeping
their hives gushing with bees and profitable activity; while
others are so inferior that the colonies make a poor, sickly
effort tosurvive at all, and usually succumb early, before the
adverse circumstances which are ever waiting to confront all
life on the globe. This lack of fecundity may be due to dis-
ease, improper development, or to special race or strain. This
fact promises rich fruit to the careful, persistent breeder. The
activity of the queen is governed largely by the activity of
the workers. The queen will either lay sparingly, or stop
altogether, in the interims of storing honey, while, on the
other hand, she is stimulated to lay to her utmost capacity
when all is life and activity in the hive. As the worker-bees
feed the laying queen, it is more than probable that with no
nectar to gather, the food is withheld, and so the queen is
unable to produce the eggs which demanda great amount of
nutritious food all ready to be absorbed. Thus, the whole mat-
ter is doubtless controlled by the workers. This refusal to lay
when nectar is wanting does not hold true, apparently, with
the Cyprian and Syrian bees.
The old poetical notion that the queen is the revered and
admired sovereign of the colony, whose pathway is ever lined
by obsequious courtiers, whose person is ever the recipient of
loving caresses, and whose willis law in this bee-hive king-
dom, controlling all the activities inside the hive, and leading
the colony whithersoever it may go, is unquestionably mere
fiction. Inthe hive, as in the world, individuals are valued
for what they are worth. The queen, as the most important
individual, is regarded with solicitude, and her removal or loss
is noted with consternation, as the welfare of the colony is
threatened ; yet, let the queen become useless, and she is dis-
patched with the same absence of emotion that characterizes
the destruction of the drones when they have become super-
numeraries. It is very doubtful if emotion and sentimentality
are ever moving forces among the lower animals. There are
probably certain natural principles that govern in the economy
of the hive, and anything that conspires against, or tends to
intercept, the action of these principles, becomes an enemy to
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 121
the bees. Allare interested, and doubtless more united than
is generally believed, ina desire to promote the free action of
these principles. No doubt the principle of antagonism among
the various bees has been overrated. Even the drones, when
they are being killed off in the autumn, make a sickly show of
defense, as much as to say, the welfare of the colony demands
that such worthless vagrants should be exterminated. How
relentlessly the bees drag out even the worker-bees that have
become loaded with the pollen-masses of milkweed, or other-
wise disabled. Such bees are of no more use, and useless
members are not tolerated in the bee-community. It is most
probable that what tends most for the prosperity of the colony
is well understood by all, and without doubt there is harmo-
nious action among all the denizens of the hive to foster that
which will advance the general welfare, or to make war on
whatever may tend to interfere with it. If the course of any
of the bees seems wavering and inconsistent, we may rest
assured that circumstances have changed, and that could we
perceive the bearing of all the surrounding conditions, all
would appear consistent and harmonious. The holding of
young queens in the cells, and guarding them, seems an
exception.
THE DRONKS.
These are the male bees, and are generally foundin the
hive only from May to November, though they may remain all
winter, and are not infrequently absent during the summer.
Their presence or absence depends upon the present and pros-
pective condition of the colony. If they are needed, or likely
to be needed, then they are present. There are in nature sev-
eral hundred, and often thousands, in each colony. The num-
ber may and should be greatly reduced by the apiarist. The
drones (Figs. 46, 47) are shorter than the queen, being less than
three-fourths of an inch in length, and are more robust and bulky
than either the queen or workers. The drones weigh about
1-2000 of a pound, while the workers only weigh 1-5000. They
are easily recognized, when flying, by their loud, startling
hum. Asin other societies, the least useful make the most
noise. This loud hum would seem to becaused by the less
122 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
rapid vibration of their large, heavy wings. Jandois showed
many years since, that the hum of bees and other insects, was
due first to vibrations of wings, secondly to vibrations of the
abdominal rings, and, thirdly, to what he styled true voice in
the thoracic spiracles, where there are cavities which he
thought were voice cavities. He thought the humming tone of
bees and other insects came from the spiracles. The drone’s
flight is more heavy and lumbering than that of the workers.
Their ligula (Fig. 49), labial palpi and maxille—like the same
Fic. 46. Fic. 48.
(Original.)
Fic. 47.
Ny
TS
a
Part of Leg of Drone, magnified, after Duncan.
Drone-Bees, magnified, from
ewman.
in the queen-bee—are short, while their jaws (Fig. 65, a) pos-
sess the rudimentary tooth, and are much the same in form as
those of the queen, but are heavier, though not so strong as
those of the workers. Their eyes (Figs. 3, 47) are very promi-
nent, meet above, and thus the simple eyes are thrown for-
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 123
ward. The ommatidia, or simple eyes which form the com-
pound eyes of the drone (Figs. 3, 47), are, as shown by Laco-
daire, more than twice as numerous as those of either queen or
worker. The drones also have longer and broader antennae,
with far more of the olfactory cavities, though not so many
tactile hairs as are found in the antennz of the workers.
Entomologists now believe that the better sight and smell, as
also the large wings, are very useful tothe drone. They make
success more probable, as the drone flies forth with hundreds of
other drones in questof a mate. We can alsosee how, through
the law of natural selection, all these peculiarities are con-
Fic. 49.
Heads of Worker, Queen and Drone, showing comparative length of Tongues,
from Cowan.
A Worker. B Queen. C Drone,
stantly strengthened. Their posterior legs are convex on the
outside (Fig. 48), so, like the queens, they have no pollen-
baskets. As we should expect, the branching hairs, both on
the body and legs, are almost absentin drones ; what there are
are coarse, and probably aid in mating. The drones are with-
out the defensive organ, having no sting, while their special
sex-organs (Fig. 37) are very interesting. These have been
fully described and illustrated by Leuckart. The testes are
situated in the abdomen, in an analogous position to that of
the ovaries in the queen. Like these organs in higher ani-
mals, there are in each testis hundreds of tubes in which are
developed the sperm-cellsin bundles. As Leuckart shows, the
124 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
testes are larger in the pupa than in the imago, for even then
the spermatozoa have begun to descend to the versicule semi-
nales (Fig. 37, c, c). Thus, in old drones, the testes have
shrunken. The spermatozoa are very long, with a marked
head (Fig. 50), which, as Mr. Cowan remarked to me, look
like cat-tail flags, as there is a short, small projection beyond
the head. These sperm-cells are so very small, and so long
and slender, that itis difficult to isolate or trace them; hence,
in microscopic preparations they look like one hopeless tangle
(Fig. 50). It is incomprehensible how they can be separated
Fic. 50.
Spermetozva,—Original,
and passed, one, two, or more at a time, by the queen as the
eggs are to be impregnated. Appended to the versicule semi-
nales (Fig. 37, c,c) just where they pass to the ejaculatory duct
are two large glandular sacs (Fig. 37, d), which add mucus to
the seminal fluid. The ejaculatory duct (Fig. 37, e) is rather
long and very muscular. This passes to a pouch (Fig. 37,/),
where the sperm-cells are massed, preparatory to coition.
Leuckart called this mass of spermatozoa the spermatophore.
This is what is passed to the spermatheca of the queen during
coition. Below this is the organ proper. It has, as may be
seen by pressing a drone, three pairs of appendages, somewhat
horn-like, and certain roughness or pleats (Fig. 37, 2, 7), which
serve to make connection more close during coition. These
little barb-like teeth, rough projections and horns, as they are
s
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 125
grasped and firmly pressed by the vulva or enlargement just
at the end of the oviduct of the queen, are held as ina vice;
and so we see why they are torn from the drone during coition.
As Leuckart has so admirably described, the external organs
of the drone are drawn up intothe so-called bean or sac (Fig.
37, /), as the finger of a glove, to use the words of Girard, often
turns in as we draw the glove off the hand. As we pressa
drone, or hold it in our warm hand as it has just returned from
a long flight, when its air sacs are distended; or when it meets
the queen, the sexual act is accomplished wholly or in part,
and the external organ is everted or turned out as we turn the
glove-finger out. Incase of coitus, this eversion is very com-
plete, so that the bean or sac (Fig. 37, /) turns out, and the
spermatophore is passed into the oviduct of the queen, and by
her muscular oviduct pushed into the spermatheca. This
seems a wonderful operation, almost beyond the possible. Yet
the passage of the egg from the ovaries in higher animals is
almost as surprising. Leuckart is undoubtedly correct in sug-
gesting that for full and complete impregnation the drone
needs tense muscles, full air sacs, and thus the vehement
exercise on the wing is very important in the sexualact. If
this be true, then impregnation of the queen in confinement is
as undesirable as it seems to beexceptional. While it may not
be absolutely necessary to have these conditions for impreg-
nation, as I think I have positive proof, it doubtless is better,
and usually necessary, that they exist. At this time the
queen'sovaries are small, and thus her smaller size before
impregnation. Hence, there is lack of high tension within
the abdomen of the queen, which also tends to aid in the sex-
ual act.
The drone has not the wax-glands beneath the abdomen.
On the ventral plates are scattering compound hairs, which
doubtless haveimportance in the sexual act. The drone, like
the queen, is without the lower head or pollen-digesting glands,
and so is largely fed by the workers. Schonfeld has proved
this by caging drones in full colonies. If cagedin a single-
walled cage, soas to be accessible to the workers, they live;
ifin a double-walled cage they all soon die, though all have
abundant honey. While honey is necessary it is not enough.
126 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;
It was discovered by Dzierzon in 1845, that the drones
hatch from unimpregnatedeggs. This strange phenomenon,
seemingly so incredible, is, as has been shown in speaking of
the queen, easily proved and beyond question. These eggs
may come from an unimpregnated queen, a laying worker—
which will soon be described—or an impregnated queen which
may voluntarily prevent impregnation. It isasserted by some
that the workers can change a worker-egg to a drone-egg at
will, When the workers are able to abstract the sperm-cells,
which are so small that we can see them only by using a high-
power microscope, then we may expect to see wheat turn to
chess. Such eggs will usually be placed in the larger horizon-
tal cells (Fig. 78, a), in manner already described.
The drone-cells are one-fourth of an inch in diameter, and
project beyond the worker-cells, so they are alittle more than
one-half aninch long. Very rarely drones are produced in
worker-cells. Such drones are diminutive, and undesirable in
the apiary. As stated by Bevan, the drone feeds six anda
half days as a larva before the cell is capped. As the micro-
scope shows, undigested pollen is given to the drone-larve
after the fourth day, which is not true of either the queen or
worker. The capping of the drone-cells is very convex, and
projects beyond the plane of the same in worker-cells, so that
the drone-brood is easily distinguished from worker, and from
the darker color—the wax being thicker and less pure—the
capping of both drone and worker brood-cells enables us easily
to distinguish them from honey-cells. In twenty-four days
from the laying of the eggs, the drones come forth from the
cells. Of course, variation of temperature and other condi-
tions, as variable amount of diet, may slightly retard or ad-
vance the development of any brood, in the different stages.
The drones—in fact all bees—when they first emerge from the
cells, are gray, and are easily distinguished from the mature
bee.
Just what the longevity of the male bee is, I am unable to
state. It is probable, judging from analogy, that they live
till accident, the worker-bees, or the performance of their
natural function, cause their death. The worker-bees may
kill off the drones at any time, which they do by constantly
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 127
biting and worrying them; though principally, I think, by
withholding their albuminous food. They may also destroy
the drone-brood. It is not very rare to see workers carrying
out immature drones even in midsummer. At the same time
they may destroy inchoate queens. Such action is prompted
by a sudden check in the yield of honey, and in case of drones
is common only at the close of the season. The bees seem
very cautious and far-sighted. If the signs of the times pre-
sage a famine, they stay all proceedings looking to the increase
of colonies. On the other hand, nectar secretion by the
flowers, rapid increase of brood, crowded quarters—whatever
the age of the queen—are sure to bring many of the male bees,
while any circumstances that indicate a need of drones in the
near future, like loss or impotency of the queen, will prevent
their destruction even in late autumn.
The function of the drones is solely to impregnate the
queen, though when present they add to the heat of the hive.
Yet for this they were far better replaced by worker-bees.
That their nutrition is active, is suggested by the fact that,
upon dissection, we usually find their capacious honey-stomachs
filled with honey.
Impregnation of the queen always takes place, as before
stated, while on the wing, outside the hive, usually during the
heat of a warm, sunshiny day. After mating, as before sug-
gested, the drone-organs adhere to the queen, and may be seen
hanging to her for some hours. The copulatory act is fatal to
the drone. By holding a drone just returned from a long
flight in the hand, the ejection of the sex-organs is quickly
produced, and is always followed by immediate death. As the
queen meets only a single drone, and that only once, it might
be asked why nature was so improvident as to decree hundreds
of drones to an apiary or colony, whereas a score would suffice
as well. Nature takes cognizance of the importance of the
queen, and as she goes forth amidst the myriad dangers of the
outer world, it is safest and best that her stay abroad be not
protracted, that the experience be not repeated, and, especially,
that her meeting a drone be not delayed. Hence, the super-
abundance of drones—especially under natural conditions,
isolated in forest homes, where ravenous birds are ever on the
128 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
alert for insect game—is most wise and provident. Nature is
never ‘‘penny wise and pound foolish.’”’ In our apiaries the
need is wanting, and the condition, as it existsin nature, is
not enforced. Again, close impregnation or in-breeding,
which is not conducive to animal vigor, is thus prevented,
where otherwise it would be necessary and always the practice.
The fact that parthenogenesis prevails in the production
of drones, has led to the theory that from a pure queen, how-
ever mated, must ever come a pure drone. My own experience
and observation, which have been very extended,and under
circumstances most favorable for a correct judgment, have
fully and completely confirmed this theory. Yet, if telegony
or the impure mating of our cows, horses, and fowls renders
the females of mixed blood ever afterward, as is believed and
taught by many who would seem most competent to judge—
though I must say I am very skeptical in the matter—then we
must look closely as to our bees, for certainly, if a mammal,
and especially if a fowl, is tainted by impure mating, then we
may expect the same of insects. In fowls such influence, if it
exist, must come simply from the presence in the female
generative organs of the sperm-cells, or spermatozoa, and in
mammals, too, there is little more than this, for though they
are viviporous, so that the union and contact of the offspring
and mother seem very intimate during the fetal development,
yet there is no intermingling of blood, fora membrane ever
separates that of the mother from that of the fetus, and only
the nutritious and waste elements pass from one to the other.
To claim that the mother is tainted through the circulation, is
like claiming that the same result would follow her inhaling
the breath of her progeny after birth. If such taint be pro-
duced, it probably comesthrough the power of a cell to change
those cells contiguous to it. That cells have such power is
proved every day in case of wounds, and the spread of any
disease. Ican only say that I believe this whole matter is
still involved in doubt, and still needs more careful, scientific
and prolonged observation. I have tried very extensive experi-
ments with both chickens and bees, and all the evidence was
against telegony. My brown Leghorn hens ran with light
Brahma roosters all winter, then were removed for three
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 129
weeks, after which they were purely mated, and every one of
the two hundred chickens were without any Brahma marks.
Even the legs were absolutely clean. Likewise, thousands of
drones, reared from pure Syrian queens, but mated to Italian
drones, showed not the slightest Italian taint. I believe teleg-
ony is a very doubtful hypothesis.
THE NEUTERS, OR WORKER-BEES.
These, called ‘‘the bees’’ by Aristotle, and even by Wild-
man and Bevan, are by far the most numerous individuals of
Fie. 51. -
Worker-Bee much magnified, from Newman.
the hive—there being from 15,000 to 40,000 in every good col-
ony. It is possible for a colony to be even much more popu-
lous than this. (Lubbock says that there are often 50,000
worker-ants ina nest.) These are also the smallest bees of
the colony, as they measure but little more than one-half of
an inch in length (Fig. 51.) As already stated, it takes about
130 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE 3
5,000 worker-bees to weigh a pound. Prof. W. R. Lazenby
found the weight of a worker to be .0799 grams, a load of
honey weighed .043 grams. This is maximum. The average
is .022 grams; a load of pollen weighs .006 grams. Prof.
Lazenby is probably correct in the assertion that usually only
honey or pollen is carried by the bees; but I have repeatedly
known of bees carrying both honey and pollen at the same
time. ;
The workers—as taught by Schirach, and proved by Mlle.
Jurine, of Geneva, Switzerland, who, at the request of Huber,
sought for and found, by aid of her microscope, the abortive
Fic. 52.
B
Ovaries of Worker-Bee, from Ovaries of Laying- Worker, from
Leuckart. Leuckart.
ovaries (Fig. 52) are undeveloped females. Rarely, and prob-
ably very rarely except when a colony is long or often queen-
less, as is frequently true of our nuclei, these bees are so far
developed as to produce eggs, which, of course, would always
be drone-eggs. Such workers—known as “fertile ’’—were
first noticed by Riem, while Huber saw one in the act of egg-
aying. Paul L. Viallon and others have seen the same thing
often. Several laying workers, sent me by Mr. Viallon, were
examined, and the eggs and ovaries (Fig. 53) were plainly
visible. Leuckart found, as seen in the figure, the rudiment
of the spermatheca in both the common and the laying worker.
Except in the power to produce eggs, they seem not unlike the
other workers. Huber supposed that these were reared in cells
contiguous to royal cells, and thus received royal food by
OR, MANUAL, OF THER APIARY. 132
accident. ‘The fact, as stated by Mr. Quinby, that these occur
in colonies where queen-larve were never reared, is fatal to
the above theory. Langstroth and Berlepsch thought that
these bees, while larve, were fed, though too sparingly, with
the royal aliment, by bees in need of a queen, and hence the
accelerated development. As already stated, the queen-larva
is fed different and more abundant food than is the worker,
and hence her accelerated and varied development. Is it not
possible that these laying workers receive an excessof food
as larve? Again, we have seen that laying workers occur in
hopelessly queenless colonies ; and that queens are fed by the
workers. May it not be that colonies hopelessly queenless
take to feeding some special workers the chyle, and thus arise
the laying workers? These are interesting inquiries that
await solution. The generative organs are very sensitive,
and exceedingly susceptible to impressions, and we may yet
have much to learn as to the delicate forces which will move
them to growth and activity. Though these laying workers
area poor substitute for a queen, as they are incapable of
producing any bees but drones, and are surely the harbingers
of death and extinction to the colony, yet they seem to satisfy
the workers, for often the latter will not brook the presence of
a queen when a laying worker is in the hive, frequently will
not suffer the existencein the hive of a queen-cell, even though
capped. They seem to be satisfied, though they have very
slight reason to be so. These laying workers lay indifferently
in large or small cells—often place several eggsin a single
cell, and show their incapacity in various ways. Laying
workers seem to appear more quickly and in greater abundance
in colonies of Cyprian and Syrian bees, after they become
hopelessly queenless, than in Italian colonies.
The maxille and labium of the worker-bee (Fig. 56) are
much elongated (Fig. 54). The maxille (Fig. 54, 4, mx, mx)
are deeply grooved, and are hinged to the head by strong
chitinous rods (Fig. 54, A, c, c, St, St), to which are attached
the muscles which move these parts. The gutter-like extremi-
ties (Fig. 54, 4,/,2) are stiffened with chitine, and, when
approximated, form a tube which is continued by a membrane
to the mouth-opening of the pharynx, just between the bases
132 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
Fic. 54,
i) pron. fel:
B
Tongue of Worker-Bee, much magnified.—Original,
mx me Maxille. mp, mp Max. palpi. k k Labial palpi.
bb Lora. o Sub-mentum. : ¢ Toneue.
cc Cardines. m Mentum. J Funnel.
St, St Stipes. Pp, Py Paraglossze. # Tubular rod.
i, ¢ Lacinize. B Ligula, with sac ss Colorless membrane.
s Colorless membrane, distended. f Funnel.
& Sheath. A Maxille and labium. (' Cross-section of
£& Tubular rod. ligula.
(The above figure is drawn to the same scale as Fig. 27.)
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 133
of the jaws. This tube forms the largest channel through
which nectar passes to the pharynx. The labium varies in
length from .23 to .27 of an inch. By the sub-men-
tum (Fig. 54, 4, 0) and two chitinous rods, the lora (Fig.
54, A, 6, 6), itis hinged to the maxilla. The base or mentum
is chitinous beneath and membranous above. From the men-
tum extends the tongue or ligula (Fig. 54, 4, ¢), the paraglosse
(Fig. 54, 4, p, p), sac-like organs which connect with the
cavity of the mentum, and so are distended with blood when
the mentum is pressed. They also stand out like leaves or
plates, and aid in directing the nectar which is drawn through
the ligula into the mouth (Fig. 16). The labial palpi (Fig. 54,
A, k, &) are four jointed, and in arrangement, form and func-
tion resemble the maxilla. The tongue or ligula consists of
an annulated sheath (Fig. 54, C, S) which is slitted along its
under side to near the end. This is very hairy. Within this
is a tubular rod (Fig. 54, Band .C, &) which is also slitted
along its under side to near the end, and opens above at its
base between the paraglosse (Fig. 54, C). Each margin of
this slitted rod is united by a thin pubescent membrane to the
corresponding margin of the surrounding sheath (Fig. 54, C, s).
(So far as I know I was the first to discover this membrane.)
Hence any pressure within the annular sheath may throw the
central rod out (Fig. 54, 8, R). This results when we press on
the mentum ; as the blood pushes into the sheath and straight-
eus the folded membrane (Fig. 54, Cs), The bee then can
take nectar in three ways, first rapidly when sipping from
flowers containing much nectar (Figs. 54, 4, 57, 0, 0) by the
large channels formed by approximating its maxille and
labial palpi (Fig. 54, 4, Fig. 57, 0,0); secondly, slowly from
deep tubular flowers, when it sips through the central rod;
and, thirdly, it may lap from a smeared surface because of the
slitted ligula. By use of colored liquids I have demonstrated
that the bee does actually sip in all these ways. At the end of
the ligula there is a funnel (Fig. 54, 4, 7, 56, 4).
Strange to say the structure and physiology of the tongue
of the honey-bee were more correctly explained by old Swam-
merdam, than by most modern writers. Both heand Reaumur
were quite accurate in their descriptions. Wolff, in his ele-
‘
134 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE3
gant monograph from which I have taken several figures,
described with beautiful illustrations the mouth organs of the
honey-bee, but was in doubt as to their physiology. Dr.
Hyatt, of New York, did much to explain the anatomy of the
bee’s tongue; but so faras I knowI was the first to explain
accurately the anatomy and physiology of this organ. Within
the mentum (Fig. 55, C, m) are strong muscles for retracting
Fic. 55.
Tongue bent under Head,
Tongue extended for
sucking.
m Maxille- f Retractor muscles. The
LE Vigula. opening opposite L. at upper
sm Sub-mentum. base of tongue between par-
D Duet from upper aglossiv. All from Wolff.
head and tho-
racic glands. Base of Labium,
the organ. The force of suction is doubtless analogous to the
act of drinking on our own part. The rhythmical motion of
the ligula in sipping honey is thus explained. By the muscles
of the mouth the cavity is enlarged, producing suction, when
by pressure swallowing is accomplished.
When not in use, the tongue with the attendant mouth
organs, are bent back under the head (Fig. 55, A).
GLANDULAR ORGANS.
These important organs, which have been so fully
described by Siebold, Wolff, and especially by Schiemenz, are
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 135
Fic. 56.
Head and Tongue of Bee, magnified twelve times,
(From Department of Agriculture.) -
a Antenna. m2xp Maxillary palpus. ip Labial palpus.
m Mandibles. pg Paraglossa. t Ligula.
g Epipharynx. mx Maxilla. b Funnel of tongue.
136 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
so intimately connected with the mouth organs, are so evi-
dently useful in digestion, and are so well developed in the
worker-bees, that they deserve full consideration. All the
glands have a chitinous inner intivna and outer propria, anda
middle epithelial membrane.
The spinning gland of the larval bee is a simple tubular
glaud, and is well illustrated by Schiemenz (Fig. 58). On
each side within the head of the worker-bee (Fig. 59, uh g) are
large glands, discovered by Meckel in 1846, and fully described
by Siebold in 1870, which are very rudimentary in the queen
and entirely absent in the drone. They are often called the
lower head-glands., These are in form of the meibomian
Fic. 57.
Cross section of Tongue in use, after Cowan.
77 Labial palpi. oo Tube for sucking the nectar.
mm Maxille. p Overlapping maxille.
glands in our own eyelids; that is, a long duct bears many
follicles rich with secreting cells, the whole looking like a
‘compound leaf with small leatlets. Dr. Packard says each
follicle is unicellular. While all the others are acinose. The
ducts empty on the floor of the mouth. ‘hese glands are very
marked in nurse-bees, but smaller in aged bees. Schiemenz
believes that these glands secrete the food for the larval bees
and also for the laying queen. Their large size, their full
development only in the nurse-bees, and their entire absence
in queen and drones, surely seem to give great force to this
view. As already stated, the queen-larva is fed very liberally,
and almost exclusively, of this so-called bee-milk. Berlepsch
says that the little pollen sometimes (?) found in the digestive
tube of the queen-larva is accidental. The worker-larva re-
ceives less of this secretion, and to that fed to the drone is
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 137
added, just at the last, some partially digested pollen which is
shed when the alimentary canal is moulted with the last larval
skin. The fact that undigested pollen is found in the larval
food shows that this food is from the stomach, and is nota
secretion. It has been suggested that the difference which Dr.
Planta and others find in the composition of the larval food of
worker, queen and drone larve is wholly due to this partially
digested pollen which is withheld from the inchoate queen and
workers.
There are also large compound racemose or acinose glands
(Fig. 59, 74 g)in the head, and also a similar pair (Fig. 58, 7 ¢)
Fic. 58.
Spinning Gland of Larva, and cross section of same, after Schiemenz,
C Gland. S Sinus.
IT Duct. D Common duet.
in the thorax, which are by some thought to be the modified
spinning glands of thelarva. These four glands unite intoa
common duct, which passes through the mentum and opens
just at the base of tongue on top in the groove between the
paraglosse (Fig. 55, C, L, and 56). The thoracic glands were
discovered by Ramdohr in 1811, while Meckel also discovered
the second pair of cephalic glands, these are the upper head-
glands; Schiemenz is probably correct in thinking that these
glands, which are present in all bees, are for digesting the
138 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
nectar. The cane-sugar of nectar is certainly digested or
changed into the more osmotic and assimilable glucose-like
sugar of honey. Very likely these compound racemose glands
supply the digestive ferment which accomplishes this part of
Fic. 59.
Gland System of Bee, after Girard.
digestion. We similarly digest all the cane-sugar that we eat.
As honey is not always fully digested, the drones and queens,
as well as the workers, possess these glands.
Wolff’s glands are large follicular glands (Fig. 60), situated
at the base of the mandibles. From their position we might
suppose that their secretion was useful in forming wax into
comb, but their large size in the queens, and the fact that the
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 139
secretion from them is acid, would rather argue that they, like
the racemose glands, were also digestive in their function. I
would suggest that we call the thoracic glands, the glands of
Ramdohr; the racemose glands of the head, the glands of
Meckel, and the other glands of the head-glands of Siebold, in
compliment to the excellent work which has been done in their
study and elucidation; while the glands at the base of the
mandibles may well be called, from their discoverer, Wolff’s
glands. In studying the digestive organism we are greatly
Jaw of Worker showing Wolff's gland, after Wolff.
M Muscles. J Jaws. G Gland.
indebted to Schiemenz and Schonfeld, who ‘have not only ex-
plained by use of beautiful illustrations the detailed anatomy
of the alimentary canal, but have been equally happy in
describing the wonderful physiology of digestion in bees.
Schonfeld, from a very elaborate series of experiments, con-
cludes that the theory of Schiemenz and v. Siebold is not cor-
rect. Hethinks the lower head-glands secrete saliva which
moistens the pollen, and aids in digesting it. The fact that it
is acid adds force to the theory. They empty on the floor of
the mouth just where they should pour out the saliva. As the
queen and drones never eat pollen, but are fed by the workers,
they do not need these glands. Schonfeld thinks the larval
food is digested pollen, and he claims to have found this in the
true stomach of nurse-bees. Partially digested pollen he
terms chyme, which, just before the drone-larve are to be
THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE}
140
Fic. 61.
Diyestive Apparatus
of Bee, X 10.
(From Department of
Agriculture.)
Sarre
TO
Ss
Ss
<
S
‘Bysuey DS ‘oBINgs--(LOUO Py s Y “SpUBLS [Tey y “qauBay JO SuaMFag a a
‘OUTISOJUT BSIVT *?") ‘ssuseyqdossp 0 “AUTISIFUT [TBI 2 Ff “TAVOY_ AO [SSAA [BSLO @ p
‘sarnqn} UBIYSIdyeyy } 9 “XBIOTLTR OTL pps DRIONL LON ‘sofa punodwmoy a
“YoRuloys ONAY, ‘sv XBIOTIRSOTY Dsvre
‘YQNow-ToRurg 7 “XBIOTIOIT pod
oT dad ONT “BUIXB Ve
HB pBar doaoy [ 'OAy “tdyped peiqey 7
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 141
sealed up, is fed to them. The chyle and larval food he finds
to contain blood corpuscles, and he thinks them identical with
the same in the blood of the bee. Schonfeld fed indigestible
material like iron particles to starving bees that had brood.
The chyle, the larval food, but not the blood of the nurse-bees
contained thisiron. This food of the larve then must be chyle
and nota secretion. I confirmed this by feeding bees sugar
syrup in which I mixed finely pulverized charcoal. The char-
coal appeared in the royal jelly in the queen-cells. As the
charcoal is utterly non-osmotic, it could not pass to the blood,
and so could not appearin any secretion, but could and would
be in any regurgitated food. This secretion then appears to
answer to the gastric juice in our own digestion. Again, the
fact that it is acid, makes this conclusion more than war-
ranted. This experiment certainly settles the matter.
Again, these same lower head-glands are foundin some
insects that do not feed their larve at all, as species of Eris-
talis—wasp-colored two-winged flies—and of Nepa, a genus of
water-bugs.
Dr. Planta and others have shown that the chyle fed to
queen-larve is not the same as that fed to drone-larva, nor yet
like that fed to worker-larve. If this is chyle the difference
could be explained, as it would arise from variation of food.
If a secretion, it could not be easily explained. This view is
adopted by Mr. Cowan, the ablest and most learned British
authority on bees.. Bordas has found two other pairs of
glands in both worker and drone bees, which he terms, from
their position, the internal mandibular and sublingual. It
would be interesting but difficult to determine what secretion,
if not all the secretions, aided in kneading the wax.
As in our own development, so in the embryo bee, the mid-
intestine arises from the endoderm or inner layer of the initial
animal. As the ectoderm or outer layer is around this, not
only the mouth and vent, but the fore and hind intestine—all
but the true stomach—arise by absorption at these points, or
from invagination (a turning in) of the outerlayer. Infants
are not infrequently born with an imperforate anus. In such
cases there isan arrest, the absorption’ does not take place,
and the surgeon’s knife comes to Nature’s relief. Strangely
142 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
enough in the bee—this is also true of ants and some wasps—
this condition persists all through the larval period. Thus
bee-larve have no anus or vent, and so void noexcreta. But
as known both to Swammerdam and Newport, when the last
larval skin is moulted the whole canal, with its contents, is
Fic. 62.
Section showing s'ructure of Honey-stomach, Stomach-muuth and Stomach,
after Schiemenz,
H S Honey-stomach, F Epithelial cells.
S Stomach, V Stomach valve.
m Muscles. h Hairs to hold pollen.
S m Stomach-mouth,
moulted with the skin. As already stated, the spinning
glands in the larva become the thoracic, or glands of Ramdohr,
in the adult bee.
The cesophagus or gullet, the fine thread which is pulled
out as we behead a bee, passes from the mouth through the
muscular thorax (Figs. 25 and 27) to the honey-stomach, which
is situated in theabdomen. Often, as every bee-keeper knows,
this honey-stomach (Fig. 36, 2s, 61 4s) comes along with the
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 143
cesophagusas we pull the bee’s head from the body. The
cesophagus (Fig. 61, @) is about .2of an inch long and .02 of
an inchindiameter. In form and function the cesophagus is
not different from the same organin other animals. It is
simply a passageway for the food (Fig. 27, 61 02).
The honey-stomach (Fig. 62, 2, s) or honey-sac is a sort of
a crop or proventriculus. This sac is oval about .1 of an inch
in diameter. While this organ is lined with a cellular layer
(Fig. 62, HS, £), the cells are not large and numerous as in
FIG. 63.
Four pieces forming Stomach-Mouth, after Schiemenz.
e Cells. T m Transverse muscles. Hs Longitudinal muscles.
the true stomach (Fig. 62, S, Z). The muscular layers of this
sac are quite pronounced (Fig. 62, #), as we should expect, as
the honey has to be regurgitated from it to the honey-cells.
This is truly a digestive chamber, as the nectar—cane-sugar—
is here changed to honey—glucose-like sugar—but this is prob-
ably through the ferment received from the glands of Meckel
and Ramdohr, and not from any secretion from the organ
itself. The pollen is also very slightly digested here, as Schon-
feld has shown, through the action of the saliva from the
glands of Siebold, or lower head-glands. At the posterior end
of this honey-stomach is the stomach-mouth (Fig. 36, 62, s, 7,
and 61, f) of Burmeister, which is admirably described by
Schiemenz. It is really a stomach-mouth. Spherical in form,
.02 of an inch in diameter, and, as Schonfeld well says, re-
minds one of a flower-bud. It (Fig. 61%) can be seen by the
144 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
unaided eye, and as Schonfeld suggests, is easily studied with
a low-power microscope. There are four jaw-like plates which
guard this stomach-mouth (Fig. 63),and as Schimenz shows,
open to let food pass to the true stomach. This same author
tells us how by pressing with a needle, while viewing the
stomach-mouth under a microscope, we can see the jaws open
and shut. These plates have fine hairs, pointing down (Fig.
62, 4), which would, if a portion of the honey-containing pollen
were taken by this very muscular stomach-mouth, retain the
pollen-grains, while the honey could be passed back into the
honey-stomach. Hence, Schiemenz very naturally concludes
that this is a sort of strainer, constantly separating the pollen
and honey as the bee is sipping nectar from flower to flower.
Fic. 64,
a a
o
ion
e a e
Stomach-mouth in Honey-Stomach, after Cowan.
A Normal. a @sophagus. d Vales.
B Raised in regurgitation. b Honey,stomach. e True stomach.
As will be seen, this stomach-mouth has not only great longi-
tudinal muscles (Fig. 62, 7), but also circular muscles as well
(Fig. 62, 1). If Schiemenz is correct, then this stomach-mouth
is to separate the honey and pollen. Even with this interest-
ing apparatus, much of our honey has not a few pollen-grains,
as every observing bee-keeper knows. The fact that nectar
has much more pollen in it than does honey, makes Schie-
menz’s view all the more probable.
There is also a long prolongation (Fig. 62, v) from the
stomach-mouth into the true stomach. This is .04 of an inch
long, and is rich in cells, which are held by a very delicate
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 145
membrane which extends on still further. Schiemenz believes
that this is a valve, and certainly unless drawn by the strong
muscles in the walls out of the stomach as Schonfeld believes,
it would act asa most efficient valve. If this does act as a
perfect valve, then of course the nurse-bees can never feed the
larve or queen any digested food from the true stomach. This
is Schiemenz’s view. Pastor Schonfeld, however, still holds,
and seems to have proved, that while this may serve as a
valve it is under the control of the bee, and may be so drawn
up by the very muscular honey-stomach as to permit regurgi-
tation (Fig. 64). In this regurgitation of chyle, the stomach-
mouth closely approximates the stomach end of the cesopha-
gus (Fig. 64, 8); and so the chyle does not pass into the
honey-stomach. This prolongation then isa valve under the
control of the bee, andis another wonderful structure in this
highly organized insect.
The true stomach (Fig. 61, c, s) is curved upon itself, and
is .4of aninch long and .1 of an inch in diameter. It is
rugose, and the circular wrinkles or constrictions are quite
regular. It is richly covered within by secreting cells (Fig.
62, 5,c). The mucous membrane is folded, and hence there
are very numerous gastric cells. Undoubtedly the function of
the gastric juice is the same as in our own stomachs, it aids
to liquify or render osmotic—capable of being absorbed—the
albuminous food, in this case the pollen. This view is con-
firmed by the fact that we almost always find pollenin all
stages of digestion in the true stomach of the bee. We may
not wonder at the varied source of this digestive secretion ;
these gastric cells, the lower head-glands, and possibly Wolff’s
glands. Where among animals is such thorough digestive
work accomplished ? Emptying into the pyloric or posterior
end of the stomach (Fig. 61, d¢) are numerous tubules, the
Malpighian tubules. These are the urinary organs, and re-
move waste elements from the blood. They are really the
bee’s kidneys. Like our own kidneys, they are nothing more
than tubules lined with excreting cells. The small intestine
is often called ileum (Fig. 61,72). This portion of the diges-
tive tube is lined with very minute, sharp chitinous teeth,
which Schiemenz believes are used to further masticate the
146 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}
pollen-grains, that have not yielded to the digestive action of
the stomach. This opinion is sustained by the strongly mus-
cular nature of the tube (Fig. 36, 4). The diameter of the
ileum is hardly .02 of aninch. The rectum, or last portion of
the intestine (Fig. 61, 77), is much larger than the ileum, and
carries on its mucous or inner surface six glands (Fig. 36, 7, g),
which Schiemenz calls rectal glands. It is quite likely that
these may be excretory in function. Their position would
make this view seem probable at the least. Minot claims that
these are not glands nor absorbant organs. Fernald thinks
them valvular, and believes they restrain the injesta.
Before leaving the subject it seems well to remark that it
now seems certain that the old view of Dufour, so ably advo-
cated by Pastor Schonfeld is, despite the arguments and
researches of Schiemenz, the correct one. Our experiments
with charcoal prove this absolutely. The queen, drone and
larve do not get their food asa secretion—a sort of milk—but
it is rather the digested pollen modified, as the bees desire by
varying their own food. In addition to this albuminous food
a Jaw of Drone. b Jaw of Queen. ¢ Jaw of Worker.
(Original.)
the queen and drones also take much honey. Thus they need
the glands which furnish the ferment that changes cane to
reducible sugar, and they have them. If all honey were fully
digested, then the drones and queen would not need any glands
atall. The fact that the pollen that the larve do get is par-
tially digested is further proof that this is chyme, or partially
digested pollen.
The jaws (Fig. 65, c) are very strong, without the rudimen-
tary tooth, while the cutting edge is semi-conical, so that when
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 147
the jaws are closed they form an imperfect cone. Thus these
organs are well formed to cut comb, knead wax, and perform
their various functions. As we should expect, the muscles of
the jaw are very large and powerful (Fig. 60). Wolff’s glands
empty at the base of these, and are doubtless excited by their
action—a proof that their secretion is gastricin nature. The
worker’s eyes (Fig. 4) are like those of the queen, while their
wings, like those of the drones (Fig. 46), attain the end of the
body. These organs (Fig. 2), as in all insects with rapid
flight, are slim and strong, and, by their more or less rapid
vibrations, give the variety of tone which characterizes their
hum. Thus we have the rapid movements and high pitch of
anger, and the slow motion and mellow noteof content and joy.
Landois proved many years since, that aside from the
noise made by the wings, bees have a true voice. Thus he
showed that a bumble-bee without wings, or with wings glued
fast, would still hum. This voice is produced in the spiracles.
Who has not noticed that a bumble-bee imprisoned closely in
a flower still hums? Ihave also heard a carpenter-bee ina
tunnel hardly larger than its body, hum loudly. Landois
found this hum ceased when the spiracles were closed with
wax. Hedescribes quite an intricate voice-box, with a com-
plex folded membrane, the tension of which is controlled
through the action of a muscle and tendon. Thus we see that
bees have a vocal organization not very unlike our own in the
method of its action. The piping of the queen is probably this
true voice. Landois also states that bees and other insects
also make noise by the movement of the abdominal segments,
the one on the other. From the enormous muscles in the
thorax (Fig. 25) we should expect rapid flight in bees. Marked
bees have been known to fly one-half mile, unload and return
in six minutes, and double that distance in eleven minutes.
In thirty minutes they went two and one-half miles, unloaded
and returned. Thus they fly slower when foraging at a dis-
tance. These experiments were tried by my students, and the
time was in the afternoon. I think they are reliable. Pos-
sibly, early in the day the rapidity would be greater. Some-
times swarms go so slowly that one can keep up with them.
At other times they fly so rapidly that one needs a good horse
148 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
to follow them closely. Here the rate doubtless depends upon
the queen.
The legs of worker-bees are very strangely modified. As
they are exceedingly useful in the bee economy, this is not
strange. We findin the progressive development of all ani-
mals, that such organs as are most used are most modified, and
thus we see why the legs and mouth organs of the worker-bees
are so wonderfully developed.
The abundant compound hairs on the first joints of all the
legs are very marked in the worker-bees. These are the pol-
len-gathering hairs, and from their branching, fluffy nature
are well suited to gather the pollen-grains.
On the anterior legs the antenna cleaner (Fig. 66) is well
marked, as it is in all Hymenoptera except the lowest families
where itis nearly or quite absent. In the honey-bee, this is
found in the queen and drone as wellas in the worker. It is
situated at the base of the first tarsus, and consists of a nearly
semi-cylindrical concavity (Fig. 66, c), armed on the outer side
with from seventy-eight to ninety projecting hairs. ‘These
teeth-like hairs projecting as fringe form a very delicate
brush. Extending from the tibia is a blade-like organ—really
Antenna-Cleaner of Worker-Bee.—Original.
C Cavity. S Spur.
the modified tibial spur (Fig. 66, S)—which when the leg is
bent at this joint, comes squarely over the notch in the tarsus.
Near the base on the inside a projecting knob is seen which
perhaps acts asa strengthener. The part of this blade or spur
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 149
that opposes the notch when in use consists of a delicate mem-
brane. In other Hymenoptera this spur is greatly varied.
Often, as in the ants and mud-wasps, it is also delicately
fringed. Sometimes it has a long projecting point, and is
thickly set with spinous hairs.
That this organ is an antenna-cleaner is quickly seen by
watching a bee—preferably a bumble-bee—come from a tubu-
Fic. 67, .
Anterior Leg of Worker-Bee.—Original.
C Coxa. T Trochanter,
F Femur, Ti Tibia.
12345 Tarsal joints in order. Cl Claws.
lar flower, like that of the malva, or by placing a honey-bee,
bumble-bee or wasp on the inside of a window-pane and dust-
ing its antenne with flour or pulverized chalk. The insect
at once draws its antenne, one and then the other, through
these admirable dusters, till the organs are entirely free from
the dust. The bee in turn cleans its antenna-cleaners by
scraping them between the inner brush-like faces of the basal
tarsi of its middle legs, which is done each time after they are
used to clean an antenna. The paper-making wasps, and I
150 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
presume all wasps clean these organs by passing them between
their jaws, much as a child cleans his fingers after eating
candy, except here lips take the place of jaws. Wecan hardly
conceive of a better arrangement for this purpose, a delicate
brush and a soft membrane; even better than the housewife
armed with soft brush anda silk kerchief, for this antenna
cleaner just fits the organs to be dusted. We have seen the
important function of the antennz, as most delicate touch-
Fic. 69,
A Pulvilli in use.
B Claws in use.
c.e, Claws. Ah. Hairs.
p.p. Pulvilli.
t.t. Last joint of Tarsus.
End of Middle Leg of Worker-Bee.—Original.
organs, and as organs of smell, two senses of marvelous devel-
opment inthe bee. Itis as imperative that the bee keeps its
antenne dust-free as that the microscopist keeps his glasses
immaculate. A delicate brush (Figs. 66 and 67) on the end of
the tibia opposite the spur and also the brush of rather spinous
hairs on the tarsus (Fig. 66) are of use to brush the hairs, eyes
and face, as may be seen by careful observation.
The claws and pulvilli—the delicate gland between the
claws—are well marked on all the feet of bees. The claws
(Fig. 67, cl) are toothed, and are very useful in walking up
wooden or other rough surfaces (Fig. 68, 2), as they are used
just asa squirrel uses its claws in climbing a tree. These
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 18%
claws are also used in holding the bees to some object, or
together while clustering. Whata grip they must have. It is
as if we were tograspa limb or branch and then hold hundreds,
yes thousands, of other persons as heavy as ourselves who had
in turn grasped hold of us. When walking up a vertical wall
of glass or other smooth metal, the claws are of no use, and so
are turned back (Fig. 68, 4), and the pulvilli—glandular
organs—are spread out and serve to hold the bee. These
secrete a viscid or adhesive substance which so sticks that the
bee can even walk up a window-pane. This is why bees soon
cloud or befoul glass over which they constantly walk. We
thus understand why a bee finds it laborious and difficult to
walk up a moist or dust-covered glass or metal surface.
The middle legs of the worker-bee are only peculiar in the
prominent tibial spur (Fig. 69), and the brushes or pollen-
combs on the inside of the first tarsus. It has been said that
the spur is useful in prying off the pollen-masses from the
posterior legs, as the bee enters the hive to deposit the pollen
in the cells. This is doubtless an error. Thequeen and drone
have this spur even longer than does the worker; the pollen
comes off easily, and needs nocrow-bar to loosen it. It is com-
mon among insects, and there are often two. The coarse,
projecting hairs on all the feet are doubtless the agents that
push off the loads of pollen.
We have already seen how the brushes or combs on the
inner face of the first tarsus of the middle legs serve to remove
the dust from the antenna cleaner. Thesealso serve ascombs,
like similar but more perfect organs on the posterior legs, to
remove the pollen from the pollen-hairs, and pack itin the
pollen-baskets on the hind legs. Mr. Root speaks of the
tongue as the organ for collecting pollen. Are not these hairs
really the important agents in this important work ?
But the posterior legs are the most interesting, as it is
rare to find organs more varied in their uses, and so as we
should expect, these are strangely modified. The branching
or pollen-gathering hairs (Fig. 71) are very abundant on the
coxa trochanter and femur, and not absent, though much fewer
(Fig. 70) on the broad triangular tibia. The basal tarsus (Fig.
70) is quadurate, and it and the tibia on the outside (Fig. 70)
152 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
Fic. 70.
Outside of Tibia and Tarsi
of Posterior Leg of Worker- Bee,
showing Corbicula,—
Original.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 153
Fic. 71.
: aN
; Mink
Oy
zi )
Inside Posterior Leg of Worker-Bee.—
Original.
154 THE BEK-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
are smooth and concave, especially on the posterior portion,
which shallow cavity forms the corbicula or ‘' pollen-basket.”’
This is deepened by stiff marginal hairs, which stand up like
stakes ina sled. These spinous hairs not only hold the pollen-
mass, as do stakes, but often pierce it,and so bind the soft
pollen to the leg. Opposite the pollen cavity of the first tarsus,
or on the inside (Fig. 71), are about eleven rows of stiff hairs.
They are of golden color, and very beautiful. These may be
called the pollen-combs, for it is they that gather, for the most
part, the pollen from the pollen-gathering hairs of legs and
body, and convey it to and packitin the pollen-baskets. As
we have seen (Fig. 69), there are less perfect combs—similar in
character, position and function—on the middle legs. The
contiguous ends of the tibia and first tarsus or planta are most
curiously modified to form the wax-jaws. The back part of
this joint (Figs. 70, 71) reminds one of a steel trap with teeth,
or of the jaws of an animal, the teeth in this case consisting
of spinous hairs. The teeth onthe tibia, the pecten or comb,
are strong and prominent. These shut against the upper ear-
like auricle of the planta, and thus the function of these wax-
jaws is doubtless to grasp and remove the wax-scales from the
wax-pockets, and carry them to the jaws of the bees. These
wax-jaws are not found in queens or drones, nor in other than
wax-producing bees. They are well developed in Trigona and
Melipona, and less, though plainly marked, in bombus.
Girard gives this explanation in his admirable work Les
Abeilles; and as he is no plagiarist, as he gives fullest credit
to others, he may be the discoverer of these wax-jaws. If he
is not, I know not whois. The genus Apis is peculiar among
our bees, and really exceptional among insects in having no
posterior tibial spurs. They would, of course, be in the way of
action of the wax-jaws. As before stated, there are six seg-
ments to the abdomen, in the queen and worker-bee (Fig.9), and
seven in the male. Each of these abdominal rings consists of
a dorsal piece or plate—tergite or notum and pleurites united—
which bears the spiracle, and which overlaps the ventral plate
or sternite. These plates are strengthened with chitine.
These rings are connected with a membrane, so that they can
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 155
push in and out, something as the sections of a spy-glass are
worked.
The ventral or sternal abdominal plates of the second,
third, fourth and fifth segments of the worker (Fig. 72) are
°
Fic. 72.
An
<
ay
Underside of Abdomen of Worker-Bee.—Original.
w Wax Scales. w.w. Wax Scales.
modified to form the ‘‘ wax-pockets ;”’ though wax-plate would
be amore appropriate name. These wax-plates (Fig. 73) are
smooth, and form the anterior portion of each of these ventral
plates. Each is margined with arim of chitine, which gives
it strength, and makes ‘‘pocket’’ a more appropriate name,
Fic. 73.
wp Wax-Plates. eh Compound Hairs.
especially as the preceding segment shuts over these wax-
plates. The posterior portion—less than half the sternite
(Fig. 73)—bears compound hairs, and shuts over the succeed-
156 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
ing wax-pocket. These wax-pockets are absent, of course, in
queen and drones.
Inside the wax-plates are the glands that secrete the wax.
When the wax leaves these glands it is liquid, and passes by
osmosis through the wax-plateand is molded on its outer face.
The worker-bees possess at theend of the abdomen an
organ of defense, which they are quick to use if occasion
demands. Female wasps, the femalesof the family Mutillide,
and worker and queen ants, also possessa sting. In all other
Hymenoptera, like Chalcid and Ichneumon flies, gall-flies, saw-
flies, horn-tails, etc., while there is no sting, the females
have a long, exserted ovipositor, which, in these families,
replaces the sting, and is useful, not as an organ of defense,
but as an auger or saw, to prepare for egg-laying, or else, asin
case of the gall-flies, to wound and poison the vegetable tissue,
and thus by irritation to cause the galls.
This organ in the worker-bee is straight, and not curved as
is the sting of the queen. The poison whichis emitted in
stinging, and which causes the severe pain, is bothan acid and
an alkaline liquid, which Carlet shows are both necessary for
maximum results. These are secreted by a double tubular
gland (Fig. 38, Pg.) and stored in a sac (Fig. 74, c, and 38, Pd.)
which is about the size of a flax-seed. This sac is connected
by a tube (Fig. 74, 47) with the reservoir of the sting. The
sting isa triple organ consisting of three sharp hollow spears,
which are very smoothandof exquisite polish. If we magnify
the most beautifully wrought steel instrument, it looks rough
and unfinished; while the parts of the sting, however highly
magnified, are smooth and perfect. The true relation of the
three parts of the sting was accurately described by Mr. J. R.
Bledsoe, in the American Bee Journal, Vol. VI, page 29. The
action in stinging, and the method of extruding the poison,
are well described in a beautifully illustrated article by Mr. J.
D. Hyatt, in Vol. I, No. 1, of American Quarterly Microscopical
Journal. The larger of the three awls (Fig. 74, 4) usually,
though incorrectly, styled a sheath, has a large cylindrical
reservoir at its base (Fig. 74, S), whichis entirely shut off from
the hollow (Fig. 74, 7) in the more slender part of the awl,
which latter serves no purpose whatever, except to give
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 157
strength and lightness. Three pairs of minute barbs (Fig. 74)
project like the barbs on a fish-hook, from the end of this awl.
The reservoir connects at its base with the poison-sac and
below, by a slit, with the opening (Fig. 74, V) made by the
Fic. 74,
Sting with Lancets drawn one side, cross-section of Sting, and a Lancet,
much magnified.—Original.
C Poison sac. if Tube from sac to S Reservoir.
A Awl. reservoir. £,E Valves.
U,U Barbs. B,B Lancets. H Hollow in awl.
J, I Hollows in lancets. 0,O Openings from hollow 7,7 Ridges in awl.
T’ Groove in lancet. in lancets.
approximation of the three awls. ‘The other two awls (Fig. 74,
B, B&B), which we call lancets, are also hollow (Fig. 74, Z, /).
They are barbed (Fig. 74, U, UV) much like a fish-hook, except
158 * THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
that there are eight or ten barbs instead of one. Five of the
barbs are large and strong. These barbs catch hold and cause
the extraction of the sting when the organ is used. Near the
base of each lancet is a beautiful valvular organ (Fig. 74, Z, £).
Mr. Hyatt thought these acted like a hydraulic ram, and by
suddenly stopping the current forced the poison through the
hollow lancets. It seeris more probable that the view of Mr.
T. G. Bryant (Hardwick’s Science Gossip, 1875) is the more
correct one. He suggests that these are really suction-valves—
pistons, so to speak—which, as the piston-rods—the lancets—
push out, suck the poison from the sacs. Carlet shows that the
poison-sac is not muscular, so the pumping is necessary. The
hollow inside each lancet (Fig. 74, 7, 7), unlike that of the awl,
is useful. It opens anteriorly in front of the first six barbs
(Fig. 74, 0, 0), as shown by Mr. Hyatt, and posteriorly just
back of the valves into the central tube (Fig. 74, V), and
through it into the reservoir (Fig. 74, S). The poison then can
pass either through the hollow lancets (Fig. 74, /, 7) or through
the central tubes (Fig. 74, VV), between the three spears.
The lancets are held to the central piece by projections
(Fig. 74, 7, 7) from the latter, which fit into corresponding
grooves (Fig. 74, 7) of the lancets. In the figure the lancets
are moved one side to show the barbs and valves; normally
they are held close together, and thus form the tube (Fig.
74, NV, Fig. 44, S¢.)
At the base of the central awl two flexible arms (Fig. 75, 6,6)
run out and up, where they articulate with strong levers (Fig. 75,
D, D). The two lancets are singularly curved and closely
joined to the flexible arms by the same kind of dovetailed
groove and projection already described. These lancets con-
nect at their ends (Fig. 75, c, c) with heavy triangular levers
(Fig. 75, B, B), and these in turn with both Cand Datjands.
Allof these levers, which also serve as fulcra (Fig. 75, B, C
and ), are very broad, and so give great space for muscular
attachment (Fig. 75, ™). ‘These muscles, by action, serve to
compress the poison-sac, also cause the lever (Fig. 75, 2) to
rotate about S as a center, and thus the whole sting is thrown
out something as a knee-joint works, and later the lancets are
pushed alternately further into the wound, till stopped by the
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 159
valves striking against the farther end of the reservoir, in the
central awl (Fig. 74, S). As Hyatt correctly states in his
excellent article, the so-called sheath first cuts or pierces, then
the lancets deepen the wound. Beside the sting are two feeler-
like organs (Fig. 75, Z, E), which doubtless determine where
best to insert the sting, though usually there would seem little
time for consideration. Leuckart discovered a second smaller
gland (Fig. 38, Sg,) mentioned also by Girard and Vogel,
which also has a sac or reservoir where its secretion is stored.
This secretion, as first suggested by Leuckart, is supposed to
act asa lubricant to keep the sting in good condition. The
fact that muscles connect the various parts (Fig. 75) explains
Fic. 75.
Sting of Worker-Bee, modified from Hyatt and Bryant.
how a sting may act, even after the bee is apparently lifeless,
er, what is even more wonderful, after it has been extracted
from the bee. Dr. Miller thinks a sting extracted months
before may still act. The barbs hold one lancet as a fulcrum
for the other, and so long as the muscles are excitable, so long
is a thrust possible. Thus I have known a bee, dead for hours,
to sting. A wasp, dead more than a day, with the abdomen
cut off, made a painful thrust, and stings extracted for several
160 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
minutes could still bring tears by their entering the flesh. In
stinging, the awl first pierces, then the lancets follow. As the
lancets push in, the valves force the poison already crowded
into the reservoir forward, close the central tube, when the
poison is driven through the lancets themselves, and comes
out by the openings near the barbs (Fig. 74,0, 0). The drop
of poison which we see on the sting when the bee is slightly
irritated, as by jarring the hive on acold day, is pushed
through the central opening by muscular contraction attend-
ant upon theelevation of the abdomen and extrusion of the
sting. The young microscopists will find it difficult to see the
barbs, especially of the central awl, as it is not easy to turn
the parts so that they will show. Patience and persistence,
however, will bring success. Owing to the barbs the sting is
often sacrificed by use. As the sting is pulled out, the body is
so lacerated that the bee dies. Sometimes it will live several
hours, and even days, but the loss of the sting is surely fatal,
as my students have often shown by careful experiment. Itis
hardly necessary to say that there is no truth in the statement
that the sting is used to polish the comb; nor doI think there is
any shadow of foundation for the statement that poison from
the sting is dropped into the honey-cells to preserve the honey.
The formic acid of honey doubtless comes from the honey-
stomach. Each is an animal secretion.
The workers hatch from impregnated eggs, which can
only come from a queen that has met a drone, and are always
laid in the small, horizontal cells (Fig. 78, c). It is true that
workers are very rarely reared in drone-cells when the rim is
constricted. Mr. Root found that larger cells of foundation
were likewise narrowed. These eggs are in no wise different,
so far as we can see, from those whichare laid in the drone or
queen cells. All are cylindrical and slightly curved (Fig. 39,
a, 6), and are fastened by one end to the bottom of the cell, and
a little to one side of the center. The eggs will not hatch
unless a little food is added. Is thisabsorbed, or does it soften
the shell so as to make exit possible? Girard says that the
egg on the first day stands oblique to the bottom of the cell, is
more inclined the second day, and is horizontal the third day.
As in other animals, the eggs from different queens vary per-
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 161
ceptibly in size. As already shown, these are voluntarily fer-
tilized by the queen as she extrudes them, preparatory to
fastening them in the cells. These eggs, though small—one-
sixteenth of an inch long—may be easily seen by holding the
comb so that the light will shine into the cells. With experi-
ence they are detected almost at once, but I have often found
it quitt® difficult to make the novice see them, though very
plainly visible to my experienced eye.
The egg hatches in threedays. The larva (Fig. 39, d, e, /),
incorrectly called grub, maggot—and even caterpillar, by Hun-
ter—is white, footless, and lies coiled upin the cell till near
maturity. It is fed a whitish fluid, the chyle already described,
though this seems to be given grudgingly, as the larva never
seems to have more than it wishes toeat,so itis fed quite
frequently by the mature workers. It would seem that the
workers fear an excessive development, which, as we have
seen, is most mischievous and ruinous, and work to prevent the
same by a mean and meager diet. Not only do the worker-
larve receive the chyle grudgingly, but just at the last, before
the cellis sealed, a different diet is given. There are more
albuminoids and fats, and less carbohydrates, as shown by Dr.
de Planta. Itis probable that honey is also given them, and
so Dufour was wholly right in urging that digested food was
fed to the larve, for honey is digested nectar. This added
honey is what probably changes the food. He was also correct
in supposing the food of the larva to beasort of chyle. .M.
Quinby, Doolittle, and others, say water is also an element of
this food. But bees often breed very rapidly when they do not
leave the hive at all, and so water, other than that contained
in the honey, etc.,can not be added. The time when bees
seem to need water, and so repair to the rill and the pond, is
during the heat of spring and summer, when they are the most
busy. May this not be quaffed for the most part to slake their
own thirst? If wateris carried to the hivesit is doubtless
given to the nurse-bees. They may need water when the
weather is hot and brood-rearing at its very height. Thereis
no reason to doubt that bees, like all other active animals, need
water as they do salt, to aid the physiological processes. They
cool by evaporation, and need water to promote the process.
162 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
When they smother, is not the moisture about themin part
the water of respiration rather than exclusive honey ?
At first the larve lie at the bottom of the cells, in the
cream-like ‘‘ bee-milk.’? Later they curl up, and, when fully
grown, are straight (Fig. 39, 7). They now turn head
down and cast their skin and digestive canal, then turn with
their heads towards the mouth of the cell (Fig. 39, 7). Before
this, however, the cell has been capped.
In eight days (Root says nine or ten) from the laying of
the egg, the worker-cell, like the queen-cell, is capped over by
the worker-bees. This cap is composed of pollen and old wax,
so it is darker, more porous, and more easily broken than the
caps of the honey-cells; it is also more convex (Fig. 39, 4).
The larva, now full grown, having lapped up all the food
placed before it, spins its silken cocoon, so excessively thin
that it requires a great number to appreciably reduce the
size of the cell. The silken part of the cocoon extends
down from the cap but a short distance, but like moths and
many other insects, the larval bee, just before it pupates,
spreads a thin glue or varnish over the entire inner part of
the cell. These cocoons, partly of silk and partly of glue, are
well seen when we reduce combs to wax withthe solar wax-
extractor. These always remain inthe cells after the bees
escape, and give to old comb its dark color and great strength.
Yet they aresothin that cells used even for a dozen years,
seem to serve as well for brood as when first used. Indeed, I
have good combs which have been in constant use nineteen
years. As before stated, the larva shedsits skin, and at the
last moults the alimentary canal or digestive tube with its con-
tents as well. These, as stated by Vogel, are pushed to the
bottom of the cell. In three days the insect assumes the pupa
state (Fig. 39, g). In allinsects the spinning of the cocoon
seems an exhaustive process, for so faras I have observed,
and that is quite at length, this act is succeeded by a variable
period of repose. By cutting open cells it is easy to determine
just the date of forming the cocoon, and of changing to the
pupa state. The pupa looks like the mature bee with allits
appendages bound close about it, though the color is still
whitish.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 163
In twenty-one days, it may be twenty with the best condi-
tions, the bees emerge from thecells. Every bee-keeper should
hold in memory these dates: Three days for the egg, six for
the larva, and twelve days after the larva is sealed over. Of
course, there may be slight variations, as the temperature of
the colony is not always just the same.
The old writers were quite mistaken in thinking that the
advent of these was an occasion of joy and excitement among
the bees. All apiarists have noticed how utterly unmoved the
bees are, as they push over and crowd by these new-comers in
the most heedless and discourteous manner imaginable.
Wildman tells of seeing the workers gathering pollen and
honey the same day that they came forth from the cells. This
idea is quickly disproved if we Italianize black bees. We
know that for some days—usually about two weeks if the col-
ony isina normal condition, though if all the bees are very
young it may be only one week—these young bees do not leave
the hive at all, except in case of swarming, when bees even too
young to fly will attempt to go with the crowd. However, the
young bees do fly out for a sort of ‘‘ play spell’’ before they
commence regularly to work in the field. They doubtless wish
to try their wings. These young bees, like young drones and
queens, are much lighter colored when they first leave the cell.
The worker-bees never attain a greatage. Those reared
in autumn may live for eight or nine months, and if in queen-
less colonies, where little labor is performed, even longer ;
while those reared in spring will wear out in three months,
and when most busy will often die in from thirty to forty-five
days. None of these bees survive the year through, so there
is a limit to the number which may existin a colony. Asa
good queen will lay, when in her best estate, three thousand
eggs daily, and as the workers live from one to three months,
it might seem that forty thousand was too smalla figure for
the number of workers. Without doubt a greater number is
possible. That it is rare is not surprising, when we remember
the numerous accidents and vicissitudes that must-ever attend
the individuals of these populous communities. .
The function of the worker-bees is to do all the manual
labor of the hives. They secrete the wax, which, as already
164 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
stated, forms in small scales (Fig. 72, w) under the over-lap-
ping rings under the abdomen. I have found these wax-
scales on both old and young. According to Fritz Muller, the
admirable German observer, so long a traveler in South
America, the bees of the genus Melipona secrete the wax on
the back.
The young bees commence work ina day from the cells.
They build the comb, ventilate the hive, feed the larve, queen
and drones, and cap the cells. The older bees—for, as readily
seen in Italianizing, the young bees do not usually go forth
for the first two weeks—gather the honey, collect the pollen,
or bee-bread as it is generally called, bring in the propolis or
bee-glue, which is used to close openings and as a cement,
supply the hive with water (?), defend the hive from all im-
proper intrusion, destroy drones when their day of graceis
past, kill and arrange for replacing worthless queens, destroy
inchoate queens, drones, or even workers, if circumstances
demand it, and lead forth a portion of the bees when the con-
ditions impel them to swarm.
When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as
housekeepers and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do.
The young bees, on the other hand, will not go forth to glean,
at less than six days of age, even though there are no old bees
to do this necessary part of bee-duties. An indirect function
of all the bees is to supply animal heat, as the very life of the
bees requires that the temperature inside the hive be main-
tained at a rate considerably above freezing. In the chemical
processes attendant upon nutrition, much heat is generated,
which, as first shown by Newport, may be considerably aug-
mented at the pleasure of the bees, by forced respiration. The
bees, by a rapid vibration of their wings, have the power to
ventilate their hives and reduce the temperature when the
weather is hot. Thus they are able to moderate the heat of
summer, and temper the cold of winter.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 165
CHAPTER IIL
SWARMING, OR THE NATURAL METHODS OF
INCREASE.
The natural method by which an increase of colonies
among bees is secured, is of great interest, and though it has
been closely observed, and assiduously studied for a long
period, and has given rise to theories as often absurd as sound,
yet even now it is a fertile field for investigation, and will
repay any who may come with the true spirit of inquiry, for
thereis much concerning it whichis involved in mystery.
Why do bees swarm at unseemly times? Why is the swarm-
ing spirit so excessive at times and so restrained at other sea-
sons? ‘These and other questions we are to apt to refer to
erratic tendencies of the bees, when there is no question but
that they follow naturally upon certain conditions, perhaps
intricate and obscure, which it is the province of the investi-
gator to discover. Who shall be first to unfold the principles
which govern these, as all other actions of the bees ?
In the spring or early summer, when the hive has become
very populous, the queen, asif conscious that a home could be
overcrowded, and foreseeing such danger, commences to deposit
drone-eggs in drone-cells, which the worker-bees, perhaps
moved by like consideration, begin to construct, if they are not
already in existence. Drone-comb is almost sure of construc-
tion at such times. In truth, if possible the workers will
always build drone-comb. No sooner is the drone-brood well
under way, than the large, awkward queen-cells are com-
menced, often tothe number of ten or fifteen, though there
may be not more than three or four. The Cyprian and Syrian
bees often start from fifty to one hundred queen-cells. In
these, eggs are placed, and the rich royal jelly added, and
soon, often before the cells are even capped, and very rarely
166 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
before a cell is built—Mr. Doolittle says the first swarms of
the season never leave until there are capped cells—if the bees
are crowded, the hives unshaded, and the ventilation insuffi-
cient, some bright day, usually about eleven o’clock, after an
unusual disquiet both inside and outside the hive, a large part
of the worker-bees—being off duty for the day, and having
previously loaded their honey-sacs—rush forth from the hive
asif alarmed by thecry of fire. Crowded, unshaded and illy
ventilated hives hasten swarming. Swarming rarely takes
place except on bright, pleasant days, and is most common
from eleven to two o’clock. The bees seem off duty for the
day. They load their honey-stomachs, and amid a great com-
motion inside the hive and out, they push forth with the
queen, though she is never leader, and is frequently late in her
exit. Dr. Miller once hada swarm from a colony from which
he had taken a queen an hour before. Of course, the swarm
returned to the hive.
It is often asserted that bees do no gathering on the day
they swarm, previous to leaving the hive. Thisis not true.
Mr. Doolittle thinks they are just as active as on other days.
The queen, however, is off duty for some time before the swarm
leaves. She even lays scantily for two or three days prior to
this event. This makes the queen lighter, and prepares her
for her long, wearying flight. In her new home she does no
laying for several hours. The assertion that bees always
cluster on the outside preliminary to swarming, is not true.
The crowded hive makes this common, though in a well-man-
aged apiary it is very infrequent. The bees, once started on
their quest for a new home, after many gyrations about the
old one, dart forth to alight upon some bush (Fig. 76), limb, or
fence, though in one case I knew the first swarm of bees to
leave at once for parts unknown, without even waiting to
cluster. After thus meditating for the space of from one to
three hours, upon a future course, they again take wing and
leave for their new home, which they have probably already
sought out, and fixed up.
Some suppose the bees look up a home before leaving the
hive, while others claim that scouts are in search of one while
the bees are clustered. The fact that bees take a right-line to
Fic. 76. .
Yi
E
Hiving a Swarm.—From Department of Agriculture.;
168 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;
their new home, and fly too rapidly to look as they go, would
argue that a home is pre-empted, at least, before the cluster is
Gissolved. The fact that the cluster remains sometimes for
hours—even over night—and at other times for a brief period,
hardly more than fifteen minutes, would lead us to infer that
the bees cluster while waiting for anew home to be found.
Yet, why do bees sometimes alight after flying a long distance,
as dida first swarm one season upon our College grounds?
Was their journey long, so that they must needs stop to rest,
or were they flying at random, not knowing whither they were
going? This matter is no longer a matter of question. I now
know of several cases where bees have been seen to clean out
their new home the day previous to swarming. In each case
the swarm came and took possession of the new home the day
after the house-cleaning. ‘The reason of clustering is no doubt
to give the queen a rest before her long flight. Her muscles
of flight are all ‘‘soft,’? as the horsemen would say. She
must find this a severe ordeal, even after the rest.
If for any reason the queen should fail to join the bees,
and rarely when she is among them, possibly because she finds
she is unfit for the journey, they will, after having clustered,
return to their old home. They may unite with another swarm,
and enter another hive. Many writers speak of clustering as
rare unless the queen is with the swarm. A large experience
convinces me that the reverse is quite the case.
The youngest bees will remain in the old hive, to which
those bees which are abroad in quest of stores will return.
Most of these, however, may be in time to join the emigrants.
The presence of young bees on the ground immediately
after a swarm has issued—those with flight too feeble to join
the rovers—will often mark the previous home of the swarm.
Mr. Doolittle confines a teacupful, or less, of the bees when he
hives the swarm, and after the colonyis hived he throws the
confined bees up in the air, when he says they will at once go
to the hive from which the swarm issued.
Soon, in seven days, often later if Italians—Mr. E. E.
Hasty says in from six to seventeen days—the first queen will
come forth from her cell, and in two or three days she will, or
may, lead a new swarm forth; but before she does this, the
peculiar note, known as the piping of the queen, may be heard.
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 169
This piping sounds like “ peep,” ‘‘ peep,’’ is shrill and clear,
and can be plainly heard by placing the ear ‘to the hive, nor
would it be mistaken. This sound is Landois’ true voice, as it
is made even in the cell, and also by a queen whose wings are
cut off. Cheshire thinks this sound is made by friction of the
segments, one upon the other, as the queet' moves them. The
newly hatched queen pipes in seven or eight hours after com-
ing from the cell. She always pipes if a swarm is to issue,
and if she pipes a second swarm will go unless weather or man
interferes. The second swarm usually goes in from thirty-five
to forty-five hours after the piping is heard. This piping of
the liberated queen is followed by a lower, hoarser note, made
by a queen still within the cell. The queen outside makes a
longer note followed by several shorter ones; the enclosed
queens repeat tones of equallength. This piping is best heard
by placing the ear to the hive in the evening or early morning.
If heard, we may surely expect a ‘swarm the next day but one
following, unless the weather be too unpleasant.
Some have supposed that the cry of the liberated queen
was that of hate, while that by the queen still imprisoned was
either enmity or fear. Never will anafter-swarm leave, unless
preceded by this peculiar note. Queens occasionally pipe at
other times, even in acage. ‘This is probably a note of alarm,
as the attendant bees are always aroused by it.
At successive periods of one or two days, though the third
swarm usually goes two days after the second, one, two, or
even three more swarms may issue from the old home. Mr.
Langstroth knew five after-swarms to issue, and others have
reported eight and ten. The cells are usually guarded by the
worker's in all such cases against the destruction of the queen.
These last swarms, all after the first, will each be heralded by
the piping of the queen. They will be less particular as to the
time of day when they issue, as they have been known to leave
before sunrise, and even after sunset. The well-known api-
arist, Mr. A. F. Moon, once knew a second swarm to issue by
moonlight. They will, as a rule, cluster further from the hive.
The after-swarms are accompanied by the queen, and in case
swarming is delayed, may be attended by a plurality of queens.
I have counted five queens in a second swarm. Berlepsch and
170 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
Langstroth each saw eight queens issue with a swarm, while
others report even more. Mr. Doolittle says the guards leave
the cells when the queen goes out, and then other queens,
which have been fed for days in the cells, rush out and go with
the swarm. Hesays he had known twenty to go with third
swarms. I have seen several young queens liberated in a
colony. How does Mr. Doolittle explain that ? Mr. Root
thinks that a plurality of queens only attends the last after-
swarm, when the bees decide to swarmno more. These virgin
queens fly very rapidiy, so the swarm will seem more active
and definite in its course than will first swarms, and are quite
likely to cluster high upif tall trees are near by. When the
swarming is delayed it is likely that the queens are often fed
by the workers while yet imprisoned in the cells. The view is
generally held that these queens are keptin the cells that the
queen which has already come from the cell may not kill them.
The cutting short of swarming preparations before the sec-
ond, third, or even the first swarm issues, is by no meansa
rare occurrence. This is effected by the bees destroying the
queen-cells, and sometimes by a general extermination of the
drones, and is generally to be explained by a cessation of the
honey-yield. Cells thus destroyed are easily recognized, as
they are torn open from the side (Fig. 45, £) and not cut back
from the end. It is commonly observed that while a moderate
yield of honey is very provocative of swarming, a heavy flow
seems frequently to absorb the entire attention of the bees,
and so destroy the swarming impulse entirely.
Swarming-out at other times, especially in late winter and
spring, is sometimes noticed by apiarists. This is doubtless
due to famine, mice, ants, or some other disturbing circum-
stance which makes the hive intolerable to the bees. In such
cases the swarm is quite likely to join with some other colony
of the apiary.
OR, sMANUAL OF THE APIARY. 171
CHAPTER IV.
PRODUCTS OF BEES; THEIR ORIGIN AND
FUNCTION.
Among all insects, bees stand first in the variety of the
useful products which they give us, and, next to the silk-moths,
in the importance of these products. They seem the more
remarkable and important in that so few insects yield articles
of commercial value. True, the cochineal insect, a species of
bark-louse, gives us an important coloring material; the lac
insect, of the same family, gives us the important element of
our best glue—shellac; another scale insect forms the Chi-
nese wax of commerce; the blister-beetles afford an article
prized by the physician, while we are indebted to oneof the
gall-flies for a valuable element of ink; but the honey-bee
affords not only a delicious article of food, but also another
article of no mean commercial rank, namely, wax. We will
proceed to examine the various products which come from bees.
HONEY.
Of course, the first product of bees, not only to attract
attention, but also in importance, is honey. And what is
honey? It is digested nectar, a sweet, neutral substance
gathered from the flowers. This nectar contains much water,
though the amount is very variable, a mixture of several kinds
of sugar and a small amount of nitrogenous matter in the
form of pollen. Nectar is peculiar in the large amount of
sucrose or cane-sugar which itcontains. Often there is nearly
or quite as much of this as of all the other sugars. We can
not, therefore, give the composition of honey. It will be as
various as the flowers from whichit is gathered. Again, the
thoroughness of the digestion will affect the composition of
honey. This digestion is doubtless accomplished through the
aid of the saliva—that from the racemose glands of the head
and thorax (Fig. 59, /hg, lg, and Fig. 61, No. 2 and No. 3).
172 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
‘The composition of honey is of course very varied. Thus
analyses give water all the way from 15 to 30 percent. The
first would be fully ripe, the last hardly the product we should
like to market.
The reducing sugars—so called because they can reduce the
sulphate of copper when made strongly alkaline by the addition
of caustic potash or soda—include all vegetable sugars but
sucrose of cane-sugar; and consist mainly of dextrose, which
turns the ray of polarization to the right, and levulose, which
turns the ray to the left. Dextrose and levulose are both pro-
ducts of various fruits, as wellas honey. Dextrose and levu-
lose are also called invert sugars ; because, when cane-sugaris
heated with a mineral acid, like hydrochloric acid, it changes
from cane-sugar. which revolves the polarized ray to the right,
to dextrose and levulose; but the latter is most effective, so
now the ray turns to the left, hence the terms inversion, or
invert sugar. Glucose isa term which refers to both dextrose
and levulose, and is synonymous with grape-sugar.
Thé amount of reducing sugars varies largely, as shown
by numerous analyses, usually from 65 to 75 percent; though
a few analyses of what it would seem must have been pure
honeys, have shown less than 60 percent. Butin such cases
there was an excess of cane-sugar. It seems not improbable
that in such cases honey was gathered very rapidly, and the
bees not having far to fly did not fully digest the cane-sugar
of the nectar. Dr. J. Campbell Brown, in a paper before the
British Association, gave as an average of several analyses
73 percent of invert or reducing sugars ; 36 and 45-100 percent
was levulose, and 36 and 57-100 percent was dextrose. Almost
always pure honey givesa left rotation of from two to twelve
degrees. This wide variation is suggestive. Does it not show
that very likely the honey from certain flowers, though pure
honey, may give a right-handed rotation with a large angle
because of a large amount of dexttose and little levulose? It
occurs to me that these two uncertain factors, incomplete
digestion and the possible variation in nectar, make determi-
nation by the analyst either by use of the polariscope or chemi-
cal reagents a matter of doubt. I speak with more confidence,
as our National Chemist pronounced several specimens of
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 173
what I feel sure were pure honey, to be probably adulterated.
Ithink that now he has perfected his methods so that such
mistakes would rarely occur.
While nearly or quite half of the nectar of flowers is cane-
sugar, there is very little of such sugar in honey. While from
one to three percent is most common it not infrequently runs
to five or six percent, and occasionally to twelve or sixteen per-
cent. Quite likely in this last case, imperfect digestion was
the cause. The nectar was not long enough in the stomach to
be changed ; or else for some reason there was too little of the
digestive ferment present. Of course, twelve to fifteen percent
of sucrose would almost surely rotate the plane to the right.
There is a very interesting field for study here. What flowers
yield nectar so rich in cane-sugar that even the honey is rich
in the same element? Honey often contains, we are told, as
much as four percent of dextrine. This, of course, tends to
make it rotate the ray to the right, and further complicates
the matter. Again, it is easy to see that in case flowers
secrete nectar in large quantities the bees would load quickly,
and so proportionately less saliva would be mixed with it, and
digestion would be less thorough.
We see now why drones and queens need salivary glands
to yield the ferment to digest honey. Often the worker-bees
do not thoroughly digest it. We see, too, why honey is such
an excellent food. We have to digest all our cane-sugar. The
honey we eat has been largely digested for us.
Albuminoids—evidently from the pollen—vary from five
to seventy-five hundredths of one percent. These vary largely
according to the flowers. It is quite likely that in case of
bloom like basswood where the honey comes very rapidly—
fifteen pounds per day sometimes for each colony—the stomach-
mouth can not remove all the pollen. Here is an opportunity
for close observation. If we know we have honey that was
gathered very rapidly, we should have a test made for albumi-
nous material to see if its quantity increases with the rapidity
with which the honey is gathered. While there may be quite
an amount of this pollen in honey, usually there will be but
little.
Besides the above substances, there is a little mineral mat-
174 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
ter—fifteen hundredths of one percent—which I suppose to be
mainly malate of lime; a little of the essential oils which pos-
sibly give the characteristic flavor of the different kinds of
honey, and more or less coloring matter, more in buckwheat
honey, less in basswood. Thereis also a little acid—formic
acid—which probabiy aids to digest the nectar, and possibly
with the saliva, may, like the acid gastric juice of our own
stomachs, resist putrefaction, or any kind of fermentation, It
has been urged that this is added to the honey by the bees
dropping poison from the sting. I much doubt thistheory. It
is more reasonable, however, than the absurd view that the
bee uses its sting to polish its cells. If the poison-glands can
secrete formic acid, why can not the glands of the stomach ?
Analogy, no less than common sense, favors this view. The
acid of honey is often recognizable to the taste, as every lover
of honey knows. The acid isalsoshown by use of blue litmus.
The specific gravity varies greatly of course, as we should
expect from the great variation in the amount of water. I
have found very thick honey to have a specific gravity of 1.40
to150. The fact that honey is digested nectar or sucrose,
shows that in eating honey our food is partially digested for
us, the cane-sugar is changed to a sugar that can be readily
absorbed and assimilated.
I have fed bees pure cane-sugar, and, when stored, the
late Prof. R. F. Kedzie found that nearly all of this sugar was
transformed in much the same way that the nectar is changed
which is taken from the flowers.
It is probable that the large compound racemose glands
in the head and thorax of the bees (Fig. 59, dhg, lg, and Fig.
61) secrete an abundant ferment which hastens these transfor-
mations which the sugars undergo while in the honey-stomach
of the bee. I once fed several pounds of cane-sugar syrup at
night to the bees. I extracted some of this the next morning,
and more after it was capped. Bothsamples were analyzed by
three able chemists—Profs. Kedzie, Scovell, and Wiley—and
the sample from the capped honey was found to be much bet-
ter digested. This shows that the digestion continues in the
comb. Much of the water escapes after the honey is stored.
The method of collecting honey has already been described.
OR, MANUAL OF THER APIARY. 175
The principles of lapping and suction are both involved in the
operation.
When the stomach is full the bee repairs to the hive and
regurgitates its precious load, either giving it tothe bees or
storing itin the cells. This honey remains for some time
uncapped that it may ripen, in which process the water is
partially evaporated, and the honey rendered thicker. If the
honey remains uncapped, or is removed from the cells, it will
generally granulate, if the temperature be reduced below 70
degrees. Like many other substances, most honey, if heated
and sealed while hot, will not crystallize till it is unsealed. In
case of granulation the sucrose and glucose crystallize in the
mellose. Some honey, as that from the South, and some from
California, seems to remain liquid indefinitely. Some kinds
of our own honey crystallize much more readily than others.
I have frequently observed that thick, ripe honey granulates
more slowly than thin honey. The only sure (?) test of the
purity of honey, if there be any, is that of the polariscope.
This, even if decisive, is not practical except in the hands of
the scientist. The most practical test is that of granulation,
though this is not wholly reliable. Granulated honey is almost
certainly pure. Occasionally genuine honey, and of superior
excellence, refuses, even in a zero atmosphere, to crystallize.
When there are no flowers, or when the flowers yield no
sweets, the bees, ever desirous to add to their stores, frequently
essay to rob other colonies, and often visit the refuse of cider-
mills, or suck up the oozing sweets of various plant or bark
lice, thus adding, may be, unwholesome food to their usually
delicious and refined stores. It is a curious fact that the queen
never lays her maximum number of eggs except when storing
is going on. In fact, in the interims of honey-gathering, egg-
laying not infrequently ceases altogether. The queen seems
discreet, gauging the size of her family by the probable means
of support. Oritis quite possible that the workers control
affairs by withholding the chyle, and thus the queen stops per-
force. Syrian bees are much more likely to continue brood-
rearing when no honey is being collected than are either Ger-
man or Italian bees.
Again, in times of extraordinary yields of honey the stor-
176 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
ing is very rapid, and the hive becomes so filled that the queen
is unable to lay her full quota of eggs; in fact, I have seen the
brood very much reduced in this way, which, of course, greatly
depletes the colony. This might be called ruinous prosperity.
The natural use of the honey is to furnish, in part, the
drones and imago worker-bees with food, and also to supply,
in part at least, the queen, especially when she is not laying.
WAX.
The product of the bees second in importance is wax. The
older scientists thought this was a product formed from pollen.
Girard says it was discovered by a peasant of Lusace. Lang-
stroth states that Herman C. Hornbostel discovered the true
source of wax in 1745. Thorley in 1774, and Wildman in 1778,
understood the true source of wax. This is a solid, unctuous
substance, and is, as shown by its chemical composition, a fat-
like material, though not, as some authors assert, the fat of
bees. This is lighter than water, as its specific gravity is .965.
The melting point is never less than 144 degrees F. Thus, it
is easy to detect adulteration, as minera] wax, both paraffine
and ceresin, havea less specific gravity. Paraffine also hasa
much lower melting point. It isimpossible to adulterate wax
with these mineral products for use as foundation. They so
destroy the ductility and tenacity that the combs are almost
sure to break down. Ceresin might be used, but it is distaste-
ful to the bees, and foundation made from wax in which
ceresin is mixed would have novalue. Only pure beeswax is
used in manufacturing foundation in the United States. I
have this on the authority of Mr. A. I. Root, whose dictum in
such matters is conclusive.
As already observed, wax is a secretion from the glands
just within the wax-plates, and is formed in scales, the shape
of an irregular pentagon (Fig. 72, w) underneath the abdomen.
These scales are light-colored, very thin and fragile, and are
secreted by the wax-gland as a liquid, which passes through
the wax-plate by osmosis, and solidifies as thin wax-scales on
the outside of the plates opposite the glands. Neighbour
speaks of wax oozing through pores from the stomach. This
is not the case, but, like the synovial fluid about our own
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 177
joints, itis formed by the secreting membrane, and does not
pass through holes, as water througha sieve. There ‘are, as
already stated, four of these wax-pockets on each side (Fig. 72),
and thus there may be eight wax-scales on a bee ata time.
This wax can be secreted by the bees when fed on pure sugar,
as shown by Huber, whose experiment I have verified. I
removed all honey and comb froma strong colony, left the
bees for twenty-four hours to digest all food which might be
in their stomachs, and then fed pure sugar, which was better
than honey, as Prof. R. F. Kedzie has shown by analysis that
not only filtered honey, but even the nectar which he collected
right from the flowers themselves, contains nitrogen. The
bees commenced at once to build comb, and continued for sev-
eral days, so long as I kept them confined. This is as we
should suppose; sugar contains hydrogen and oxygen in pro-
portion to form water, while the third element, carbon, is in
the same, or about the same, proportion as the oxygen. Now,
the fats usually contain little oxygen and a good deal of car-
bon and hydrogen. Thus the sugar, by losing some of its
oxygen, would contain the requisite elements for fat. It was
found true in the days of slavery in the South that the negroes
of Louisiana, during the gathering of the cane, would become
very fat. They ate much sugar; they gained much fat. Now,
wax isa fat-like substance, not that it is the animal fat of
bees, as often asserted—in fact, it contains much less hydro-
gen, as will be seen by the following formula from Hess:
ORY PCBs scne-siseues seis team Sad thee Zerg aera sees
Carbon......-....-
Hydrogen
—but itis a special secretion fora special purpose, and from
its composition we should conclude that it might be secreted
from a purely saccharine diet, and experiment confirms the
conclusion. Dr. Planta has found that there is a trace of
nitrogen in wax-scales, a little less than .6 of one percent,
while he finds in newly made comb, nearly .9 of one percent.
It has been found that bees require about twenty pounds of
honey to secrete one of wax. The experiments of Mr. P. L.
Viallon show this estimate of Huber to betoo great. Berlepsch
says sixteen to nineteen pounds when fed on sugar without
178 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
pollen, and ten pounds when fed both. My own experiments
would sustain Huber’s statement. In these experiments the
bees are confined, and so the conclusions are to be received
with caution. We can not know how much the results are
changed by the abnormal condition in which the bees are
placed.
For a time nitrogenous food is not necessary to the secre-
tion of wax. Probably the small amount of nitrogen in the
scales and in the saliva may be furnished by the blood. This,
of course, could not continue long; indeed, the general nutri-
tion would be interfered with, and ill health can never do
maximum work.
It is asserted that to secrete wax, bees need to hang in
compact clusters or festoons in absolute repose. Such quiet
would certainly seem conducive to most active secretion. The
food could not go to form wax, and at the same time supply
the waste of tissue which ever follows upon muscular activity.
The cow, put to hard toil, could not give so much milk. ButI
find, upon examination, that the bees, even the oldest ones,
while gathering in the honey season, yield up the wax-scales
the same as those within the hive. During the active storing
of the past season, especially when comb-building was in
rapid progress, I found that nearly every bee taken from the
flowers contained the wax-scales of varying sizes in the wax-
pockets. By the activity of the bees, these are not infre-
quently loosened from their position and fall to the bottom of
the hive, sometimes in astonishing quantities. This explains
why wax is often mentioned as an elementof honey. Its pres-
ence, however, in honey is wholly accidental. It is probable
that wax-secretion is not forced upon the bees, but only takes
place as required. So the bees, unless wax is demanded, may
perform other duties. When we fill the sections and brood-
chamber wholly with foundation, it is often difficult to find
any bees bearing wax-scales. In such cases I have often
looked long, but in vain, to find such scales zz situ to show to
my students. A newly-hived colony, with no combs or foun-
dation, will show these wax-scales on nearly every bee.
Whether this secretion is a matter of the bee’s will, or whether
it is excited by the surrounding conditions without any
OR, MANUAL, OF THH APIARY. 179
thought, are questions yet to be settled. No comb necessitates
quiet. With us and all other higher animals, quiet and heavy
food-taking favors fat deposits. May not the same in bees
conduce to wax-production ?
‘These wax-scales are loosened by the wax-jaws of the pos-
terior legs, carried to their anterior claws, which in turn bear
them to the mouth, where they are mixed with saliva probably
from Wolff’s glands (Fig. 60), or mixed saliva.
After the proper kneading by the jaws, these wax-scales are
fashioned into that wonderful and exquisite structure, the comb.
In this transformation to comb, the wax may become colored.
This is due toaslight admixture of pollen or old wax. It is
almost sure to be colored if the new comb is formed adjacent
to old, dark-colored comb. In such cases chippings from the
old soiled comb are used.
Honey-comb is wonderfully delicate, the base of a new cell
being, according to Prof. C. P. Gillette, in worker-comb, be-
tween .0032 and .0064 of an inch, and the drone between .0048
and .008. The walls are even thinner, varying, he says, from
-0018 to .0028 of an inch. Thecells areso formed as to com-
bine the greatest strength and maximum capacity with the
least expense of material. It need hardly be said that queen-
cells are much thicker, and contain, as before stated, much
that is not wax. In the arch-like pits in queen-cells, we
farther see how strength is conserved and material economized.
Honey-comb has been an object of admiration since the
earliest time. Some claim that the form is a matter of neces-
sity—the result of pressure or reciprocal resistance and not of
bee-skill. The fact that the hexagonal form is sometimes
assumed just as the cell is started, when pressure or resistance
could not aid, has led me to doubt this view; especially as
wasps form their paper nests of soft pulp, and the hexagonal
cells extend to the edge, where no pressure or resistance could
affect the form of the cells. Yet I am not certain that the
mutual resistance of the cells, as they are fashioned from the
soft wax, may not determine the form. Mullenhoff seems to
have proved that mutual resistance of the cells causes the
hexagonal form. ‘The bees certainly carve out the triangular
pyramid at the base. They would need to be no better geome-
180 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
tricians to form the hexagonal cells. The assertion that the
cells of honey-comb are absolutely uniform and perfect is
untrue, as a little inspection will convince any one. The late
Prof. J. Wyman demonstrated that an exact hexagonal cell
does not exist. He alsoshowed that the size varies, so that in
a distance of ten worker-cells there may bea variation of one
cell in diameter, and this in natural, not distorted, cells. Any
one who doubts can easily prove, by a little careful examina-
tion, that Prof. Wyman was correct. This variation of one-
fifth of an inch in ten cells is extreme, but variation of one-
Fic 77.
ww
Irregular Cells, (modified) from Cowan.
tenth of aninchis common. The sides, as also the angles,
are notconstant. The rhombic faces forming the bases of the
cells alsovary. The idea which has come down from the past
that mathematics and measurement exactly agreed upon the
angles of the rhombs, that the two opposite obtuse angles were
each 109° 28’ 16’’ and the acute 70° 31’ and 44’ is without foun-
dation infact. Mr. Cowan figures (Fig. 77) triangular, quad-
rangular, and even cells with seven sides. Of course, such
deformity is very rare.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 181
The bees change from worker (Fig. 78, c) to drone cells
(Fig. 78, a), which are one-fifth larger, and vice versa, not by
any system (Fig. 78, 6), but simply by enlarging or contract-
ing. It usually takes about four rows to complete the transfor-
Fic. 78.
Rhombs, Pyramidal Bases
and cross-sections of cells.
—Illustrated.
Honey-Comb.— after Duncan.
a Drone-cells. ec Worker-cells,
b Deformed cells, dd Queen-cells,
mation, though the number of deformed cells varies from two,
very rarely one, to eight. The perfect drone-cells may be,
often are, contiguous to perfect worker-cells, the irregular cells
being used to fill out the necessary irregularities. AnEnglish
182 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
writer criticises Langstroth’s representation of these irregular
cells, and adds that the angles can never be less than 100
degrees. Thisis far from the truth, as I have found many
cells where an angle was considerably less than this. Mr.
Cowan, in his excellent ‘‘ Honey-Bee,’’ describes and figures
cells where the angle is even acute.
The structure of each cell is quite complex, yet full of
interest. The base is a triangular pyramid (Fig. 78, ¢), whose
three faces are rhombs (Mr. Cowan has found and photo-
graphed cells with four faces), and whose apex forms the very
center of the floor of the cell. From the six free or non-
adjacent edges of the three rhombs extend the lateral walls or
faces of the cell. The apex of this basal pyramid is a
point where the contiguous faces of the three cells on the
opposite side meet, and form the angles of the bases of three
cells on the opposite side of the comb. ‘Thus the base of each
cell forms one-third of the base of three opposite cells. One
side thus braces the other, and adds much to the strength of
the comb. Each cell, then, is in the form of a hexagonal
prism, terminating in a flattened triangular pyramid.
The bees usually build several combs at, once, and carry
forward several cells on each side of each comb, constantly
adding to the number, by additions to the edge. ‘The bees, in
constructing comb, make the base er so-called mid-rib, the
“‘fish-bone ’’ in honey where foundation is used, thick at first,
and thin this as they add to the cells in lengthening them.
Prof. C. P. Gillette demon&Strated this by coloring foundation
black. The color reached nearly tothe end of the cell, and
extended an inch below the foundation. Thus we understand
why bees take so kindly to foundation. To work this out is
not contrary to their instincts, and gives thema lift. Huber
first observed the process of comb-building, noticing the bees
abstract the wax-scales, carry them to the mouth, add the
frothy saliva, and then knead and draw out the yellow ribbons
which were fastened to the top of the hive, or added to the
comb already commenced.
The diameter of the worker-cells (Fig. 78, c) averages little
more than one-fifth of an inch—Reaumur says two and three-
fifths lines, or twelfths of an inch—while the drone-cells (Fig.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 183
78, a) area little more than one-fourth of an inch, or, according
to Reaumur, three and one-third lines. But this distinguished
author was quite wrong when he said: ‘‘ These are the in-
variable dimensions of all cells that ever were or ever will be
made.’’ A recent English author, after stating the diameter
of cells, adds: ‘The statement many times made that
twenty-five and sixteen of these, respectively, cover a square
inch, is erroneous, as they are not square.’’ He says there are
28 13-15 and 18 178-375. I find the worker-cells per square
inch vary from 25 to 29, and the drone-cells from 16 to 19 per
square inch. The drone-cells, I think, vary more in size than
do the worker-cells. The depth of the worker-cells is a little
less than half an inch; the drone-cells are slightly extended,
so as to be a little more than half an inch deep. Thus worker-
comb is seven-eighths and drone-comb one and one-fourth
inches thick. This depth, even of brood-cells, varies, so we:
can not give exact figures. Thecellsare often drawn out so
as to be an inch long, when used solely as honey receptacles.
Such cells are often very irregular at the end, and sometimes
two are joined. The number of cells in a pound of comb will
vary much, of course, as the thickness of the comb is not uni-
form. This number will vary from thirty to fifty thousand.
In capping the honey the bees commence at the outside of
each cell and finish at the center. The capping of the brood-
cells is white and convex. The capping of honey-cells is
made thicker by black bees than by the other races, and so
their comb honey is more beautiful. Another reason for the
whiter color comes from a small air-chamber just beneath the
capping. The inner surface of the capping is, therefore,
usually free from honey. This chamberis usually a little
larger in the honey-comb of black bees. The cappings are
strengthened by tiny braces of wax, which, as we should
expect, are most pronounced in drone-comb.
The strength of comb is something marvelous. I have
known a frame of comb honey eleven inches square to weigh
eleven pounds, and yet to be unsupported at the bottom, and
for not more than one-third of the distance from the top on the
sides, and yet it held securely. The dangerin cold weather,
from breaking, is greater,as then the comb is very brittle.
184 THE BEE-KEEPER'’S GUIDE;
Prof. Gillette has found that comb one inch thick will weigh
only from one-twentieth to one twenty-fifth the weight of the
honey which it may hold.
The character of the cells, as to size, that is, whether they
are drone or worker, seems to be determined by the relative
abundance of beesand honey. If the bees are abundant and
honey needed, or if there is no queen to lay eggs, drone-comb
(Fig. 78, a) is invariably built, while if there are few bees, and
of course little honey needed, then worker-comb (Fig. 78, c) is
Fic. 79
Honey-Comb Coral,—Original.
almost invariably formed. It is also a curious fact that if the
queen keeps along with the comb-builders in the brood-cham-
ber, then no drone-comb is built; but let her fail to keep cells
occupied, and drone-comb is at once formed. It would seem
that the workers reasoned thus: We are going to have comb
for storing, for such we better fashion the large celled or
drone-comb.
All comb, when first formed, is clear and translucent. The
fact that it is often dark and opaque implies that it has been
long used as brood-comb, and the opacity is due to the innu-
merable thin glue-like cocoons which line the cells. This may
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 185
be separated by dissolving the wax; which may be done by
putting it in boiling alcohol, or, better still, by use of the solar
wax-extractor,. Such comb need not be discarded, for if com-
posed of worker-cells it is still very valuable for breeding pur-
poses, and should not be destroyed till the cells are too small
for long service, which will not occur till after many years of
use. The function, then, of the wax, is to make comb and
Fic. 80.
Honey-Comb Coral,—Original.
caps for the honey-cells, and, combined with pollen, to form
queen-cells (Fig. 78, d) and caps for the brood-cells.
A very common fossil found in many parts of the Kastern
and Northern United States is, from its appearance, often
called petrified honey-comb. We have many such specimens
in our museum. In some cases the cells are hardly larger
than a pin-head; in others a quarter of an inch in diameter.
These (Figs. 79, 80) are not fossil honey-comb as many are led
to believe, though the resemblance is so striking that no won-
186 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}
der the public generally are deceived. These specimens are
fossil coral, which the paleontologist places in the genus
Favosites; favosus being a common species in the Northern
United States. They are very abundantin the lime rockin
northern Michigan, and are very properly denominated honey-
comb coral. The animals of which these were once the skele-
tons, so to speak, are not insects at all, though often called so
by men of considerable information.
The species of the genus Favosites first appeared in the
Upper Silurian rocks, culminated in the Devonian, and dis-
appeared in the early Carboniferous. No insects appeared till
the Devonian age, and no Hymenoptera—bees, wasps, etc.—
till after the Carboniferous. So the old-time Favositid reared
its limestone columns and helped to build islands and conti-
nents untold ages—millions upon millions of years—before any
flower bloomed, or any bee sipped the precious nectar. In
some specimens of this honey-comb coral (Fig. 80) there are to
be seen banks of cells, much resembiing the paper-nests of
some of our wasps. This might be called wasp-comb coral,
except that both styles were wrought by the self-same animals.
POLLEN OR BEE-BREAD.
An ancient Greek author states that in Hymettus the bees
tied little pebbles to their legs to hold them down. This fan-
ciful conjecture probably arose from seeing the pollen-balls on
the bees’ legs.
Even such scientists as Reaumur, Bonnet, Swammerdam,
and many apiarists of the last century, thought they saw in
these pollen-balls the sourceof wax. But Huber, John Hunter,
Duchet, Wildman, and others already referred to, noticed the
presence and function of the wax-scales already described, and
were aware that the pollen served a different purpose.
This substance, like mectar, is not secreted nor manufac-
tured by the bees, only collected. The pollen-graius form the
male elementin plants. They are in plants what the sperma-
tozoa or sperm-cells are in animals; and as the sperm-cells are
much more numerous than theeggs or germ-cells, so pollen-
grains are far more numerous in plants than are the ovules or
«
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 187
seeds. In Chinese wistaria, Wistaria sinensis, there are, says
Goodale, about 7,000 pollen-grains to each ovule. The color of
pollen is usually yellow ; but we often find it orange, reddish,
nearly white, andin several Giliasin California it is bright
blue. Pollen-grains are really single cells, and have two
coats; the outer is the extine, which may be smooth, variously
sculptured, or even thickly set with spines (Fig. 81). These
spines, as also the color, often enable us to tell the species of
plant from which the pollen came. Usually the extine is per-
Fic. 81.
Pollen-Grains, from A. I. Root Co.
forated, though the inner wall—intine—is not. These perfora-
tions are also definite in number within the species. These
holes give opportunity for the pollen-tubes (Fig. 252, 7) to push
out after the pollen-grain reaches the stigma of the flower.
Where there are no perforations of the extine, the wall breaks.
In some cases like orchids, pollen-grains are held together by
an adhesive substance. In our milkweeds we notice a similar
grouping of pollen-grains (Fig. 227) which often are very dis-
turbing to bees and other insects.
The composition of pollen, says Goodale, is protoplasmic
188 THE BEE-KEKEPER’S GUIDE;
matter, granular food materials, such as starch and oil and
dissolved food matters, sugar and dextrine.
Dr. A. de Planta gives the following analysis of pollen of
the hazel (B. B. Journal, Vol. XIV, p. 269). He finds proto-
plasm, oils and starch—the important food elements.
Before drying he found :
After drying thoroughly he found :
Nitrogenous Matter
Non-nitrogenous............----..455
AUSH, sane geoiceees shaqcnins sent yr
He found no reducing sugar, but did find 14.70 percent of
cane-sugar.
As will be seen, pollen, like our grains, is rich in the
albuminoids. Like our grains, or even different specimens of
the same grain, the composition of pollen will doubtless vary
to quite an extent. As we note that pollen contains besides an
ash, albuminoids, sugar, starch, and oils, we understand its
excellence as a food; it contains within itself all the impor-
tant food elements. The bees usually obtain it from the
stamens of flowers; but if they gain access to flour when there
is no bloom, they will take this in lieu of pollen, in which case
the former term used above becomes a misnomer, though
usually the bee-bread consists wholly of pollen. I have also
known bees to gather extensively for bee-bread from the com-
mon raspberry rust. Very likely the spores of others of these
fungi or low vegetables help to supply this nutritious sub-
stance. Occasionally there is a drouth of bee-bread alike in
hive and flowers, then bees will seek this kind of food in meal
or flour box or bin. Hence, the wisdom of feeding rye-flour
which the bees will readily take if it is needed. Flour may be
added to candy and fed to bees.
As already intimated, the pollen is conveyed in the pollen-
baskets (Fig. 70) of the posterior legs, to which it is conveyed
by the other legs, as already described, page 154, and com-
pressed into little oval masses. The motionsin this convey-
ance are exceedingly rapid, and are largely performed while
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 189
the bee ison the wing. The bees not infrequently come to
the hives not only with replete pollen-baskets, but with their
whole under-surface thoroughly dusted. Dissection will also
show that the same bee may have her sucking stomach dis-
tended with honey, though this is rare. Thus the bees make
the most of their opportunities. Itisa curious fact, noticed
even by Aristotle, that the bees, during any trip, almost
always gather only a single kind of pollen, or gather ouly
from one species of bloom. Hence, while different bees may
have different colors of pollen, the pellets of bee-bread on any
single bee will be uniform in color throughout. It is possible
that the material is more easily collected and compacted when
homogeneous. It seems more probable that they prefer the
pollen of certain plants, and work on such species so long as
they yield the desired food, though it may bea matter of sim-
ple convenience. From this fact we see why bees cause no
intercrossing of species of plants; they only intermix the
pollen of different plants of the same species.
The pollen is usually deposited in the small or worker
cells, and is unloaded bya scraping motion of the posterior
legs, the pollen-baskets being first lowered into the cells. The
bee thus freed, leaves the wheat-like masses to be packed by
other bees, which is packed by pushing with the head. The
cells, which may or may not have the samecolor of pollen
throughout, are never filled quite to the top, and not infre-
quently the same cell may contain both pollen and honey.
Such a condition is easily ascertained by holding the comb
between the eye andthe sun. Ifthereis no pollen it will be
wholly translucent ; otherwise there will be opaque patches.
A little experience will make this determination easy, even if
the comb is old. Combs in small sections, especially if sep-
arators are used, are not likely to receive pollen or be used for
breeding. It is often stated that queenless colonies gather no
pollen, but itis not true, though they gather less.than they
otherwise would. It is probable that pollen, at least when
honey is added, contains all the essential elements of animal
food. It certainly contains the very important principle
which is not found in pure nectar or honey—nitrogenous
material. I do not think the bee-moth larva will destroy
190 THE BEE-KEEPHR’S GUIDE 3
combs that are entirely destitute of pollen, surely not unless
they have been long used as brood-combs. The intruder must
have proteid food.
The function of bee-bread is to furnish albuminous food
to all the bees, adults no less than larve. As already stated,
brood-rearing is impossible without it. And though it is cer-
tainly not essential to the nourishment of the adult bees when
in repose, it still may be so, and unquestionably is, in time of
activelabor. This point is clearly proved from the fact that
pollen-husks are almost always found in the intestines of bees.
We may say it feedsthe tissues of the imago bees, and is
necessary that the workers may form the food for the queen,
drones and larve. Schonfeld thinks the bees must have it in
winter, and in case no bee-bread is in the combs, he thinks the
bees scrape it from thecells and old combs. I believe bees
often winter better when there is no pollen in the hive.
PROPOLIS OR BEE-GLUE.
This substance, also called bee-glue, is collected as the
bees collect pollen, andis not made or secreted. It is the pro-
duct of various resinous buds,and may be seen to glisten on
the opening buds of the hickory and horse-chestnut, where it
frequently serves the entomologist by capturing small insects.
From. such sources, from the oozing gum of various trees,
from varnished furniture, and from old propolis about unused
hives that have previously seen service, do the bees secure
their glue. Probably the gathering of bees about coffins to
collect the gluefrom the varnish, led to the custom of rap-
ping on the hives to inform the bees, in case of a death in the
family, that they might join as mourners. This custom still
prevails, as I understand, in some parts of the South. Propolis
has great adhesive force, and though soft and pliable when
warm becomes very hard and unyielding when cold.
The use of bee-glue is to cement the combs to their sup-
ports, to fill up all rough places inside the hive, to seal up all
crevices except the place of exit, which the bees often contract
by aidof propolis, and even to cover any foreign substance
that can not be removed. Intruding snails have thus been
imprisoned inside the hive. Reaumur founda snail thus in-
cased ; Maraldi a slug similarly entombed; while I have myself
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 191
observed a Bombus, which had been stripped by the bees of
wings, hair, etc., in their vain attempts at removal, also en-
cased in this unique style of a sarcophagus, fashioned by
the bees. Alcohol, benzine, gasoline, ether, and chloroform are
all ready solvents of bee-glue, and will quickly remove it from
the hands, clothing, etc. Boiling in water with concentrated
lye will remove propolis completely. Even steam and hot
water used as a spray have been found to do the same.
PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
For very full lists of books, etc., see Packard’s Text-Book
of Entomology.
Alley, Henry—Thirty Years Among the Bees, 1880, and Queen-
Rearing, 1883.
Adair, D. L.—Annals of Bee-Keeping, 1872.
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‘¢ Bee-Master,’’—The Times Bee-Keeping, 1864.
Benton, Frank—The Honey-Bee, 1899.
Berger, —.—Untersuchungen uber den Bau des Gehirnes und
der Retina der Arthropoden, 1873.
Berlepsch, A. Baron von—Die Biene und ihre Zucht, 1873.
Bevan, Dr. K.—The Honey-Bee, 1838.
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les Insectes, 1846.
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Insects (in Russian,) 1878. ;
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Linn. Soc.,) 1883. ’
On the Anatomy and Functions of the Tongue of the
Honey-Bee (Jour. Linn. Soc.,) 1884,
Antenne of Honey-Bee (Jour. Linn. Soc.,) 1885.
British Bee Journal—1873 to 1889. Present Editor, T. W.
Cowan, F.L.S., etc.
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Theology,) 1856.
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192 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
Butschli, O.—Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Biene, 1870.
Cameron, P.—On Parthenogenesis in the Hymenoptera (Trans.
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Nat. Hist. Soc. Cincin.,) 1874.
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Claparede, E.—Morphologie des zusammengesetzten Anges
bei den Arthropoden (Zeit. fur Wiss. Zool.,) 1860.
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Cowan, T. W.—The Honey-Bee, 1890. Very accurate and full.
Bee-Keeper’s Guide Book, 1881.
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Dufour, Leon—Memo. pres. par divers savants a 1l’Acad. des
Sci. de 1’Inst. de France. Tome VII.
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1851.
Observations sur les Abeilles, 1852
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_ Abeilles, 1843-1844.
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(Ann des Scien. Nat.,) 1848-1852.
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and Stutterd, 1882.
Erichson—De fabrica et usu antennarum in Insectis, 1847.
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des zusammengesetzten Auges, 1875.
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¥iguier, L.—The Insect World, translated by P. Martin Dun-
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Fischer, G.—Bienenzeitung, 1871.
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vertebres et specialement les Insectes, 1869.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 193
Traite elementaire d’Entomologie, 1873.
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Girdwoyn, M.—Anatomie et physiologie de 1’Abeille, 1876.
Gottsche, C. M.—Beitrag zur Anat. und Physiol. des Auges der
Fliegen, etc. (Mull. Arch. fur Anat.,) 1852.
Graber, Dr. V.—Ueber die Blutkorperchen der Insekten, 1871.
Ueber den propulsatorischen Apparat der Insekten, 1872.
Verlaufiger Bericht uber den propulsatorischen Appa-
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Gundelach, F. W.—Die Naturgeschichte der Honigbiene, 1842.
Hauser, G.—Physiologische und histologische Uatersuchungen
uber das Geruchsorgan der Insekten, 1880.
Haviland, J. D.—The Social Instincts of Bees, their Origin
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194 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
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(z6zd,) 1882.
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Latreille, P. A.—Eclaircissemens reiatifs a l’opinion de M.
Huber fils, sur l’origine et l’issue exterieure de la Cire
(Acad. Roy. des Sciences,) 1821. Cours d’entomologie, 1831.
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Soc. entom. de France,) 1838.
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mehrung, Generationswechsel, 1851.
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des Abeilles, et en particulier sur un minimum minimorum
relatif a cette matiere, 1781.
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(Phil. Trans.,) 1879.
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Lucas, I. G.—Entwurf eines wissenschaftlichen Systems fur-
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OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 195
Lyonet, Pieter—Traite anatomique de la chenille qui ronge Le
bois de saule, etc., 1762.
Macloskie, G.—The Endocranium and Maxillary Suspensorium
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Maraldi, G. F.—Observations sur les Abeilles (Mem. Acad. des
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Marey, E. J.—Animal Mechanism: A Treatise on Terrestrial
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Mayer, Dr. Paolo—Sopra certi Organi di Senso nelle Antenne
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196 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}
Pettigrew, J. Bell—On the Mechanical Appliances by which
Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom (Trans. Linn.
Soc.,) 1870.
Plateau, F.—Palpes des Insectes broyeurs (Bul. de la Soc. Zool.
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Recherches exp. sur la vision chez les Arthropodes
(Comptes Rendus de la Soc. Ent. de Belg.,) 1887, (Bull. de
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Bienenzeitung and Bul. d’Apic. de la Suisse Romande,)
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Ueber die zugammensetzung einiger Nektar Arten (Brit.
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Bienenzeitung,) 1889.
Pollmann, Dr. A.—Die Biene und ihre Zucht, 1875.
Porter, C. J.—American Naturalist, XVII, p. 1238, 1883.
Quinby, M.—-Mysteries of Bee-Keeping, 1885.
Ramdohr, T. C.—Kleine Abhandlungen aus der Anatom. und
Physiol. der Insecten, 1811, 1813.
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Reaumur, R. A. F.—Memoires pour servir a l'histoire des In-
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Gefasse der Insekten, 1878.
Schirach, A. G.—Physikalische Untersuchung der bisher un-
bekannten aber nachher entdeckten Erzeugung d. Bienen-
mutter, 1767.
Schonfeld, Pastor—Bienenzeitung, 1854-1883.
Illustrierte Bienenzeitung, 1885-1890.
The Mouth of the Stomach in the Bee (British Bee
Journ.,) 1883.
Schultze, M.—Untersuch. uber die zusammengesetzten Augen
der Krebsen und Insekten, 1868.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 197
Sedgwick-Minot—Recherches histologique sur les trachees de
V’Hydrophilus piceus (Arch. de Physiol. Paris,) 1876.
Shuckard, W. E..—British Bees, 1866.
Siebold, Dr. C. T. E. von—On a True Parthenogenesis in
Moths and Bees, 1857.
Bienenzeitung, 1872.
Ueber die Stimm und Gehororgane der Krebse und In-
sekten (Arch. fur Mic. Anat.,) 1860.
Simmermacher, G.—Untersuchungen uber Haftapparate an
‘Tarsalgliedern von Insekten, 1884.
Smith, Dr. J. B.—Economic Entomology, 1896.
Straus-Durckheim, H.—L,’Anatomie comparee des animaux
articules, 1828.
Swammerdam, J.—Biblia Naturae, (in Dutch, German and
English,) 1737-1752.
Tegetmeier, W. B.—On the Formation of Cells (Rep. Brit. As-
soc., pp. 132, 133,) 1858.
On the Cells of the Honey-Bee (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.,
p. 34,) 1859.
‘Thorley, J.—Melissologia ; or the Female Monarchy, 1744-1765.
ees eae ae ae of the Silkworm. (In Russian)
1879.
Tinker, G. L.—Bee-Keeping for Profit, 1880.
Treviranus, G. R.—Vermischte Schriften, 1817, and Zeitsch.
fur Physiol., 1829.
Treviranus, L. Ch.—Medizinische Zoologie, 1833.
Viallanes, H.—Recherches sur les terminaisons nerveuses mot-
rices dans les muscles stries des Insectes, 1881.
Vogel, F. W.—Die Honigbiene und die Vermehrung der Bien-
envolker, 1880.
Waterhouse, G. R.—On the Formation of the Cells of Bees and
Wasps, 1864.
Weismann, A.—Zeitschrift f. Wissenschaft. Zool., 1863.
Westwood’s Introduction to the Study of Insects, 1840.
Wolff, Dr. O. J. B.—Das Riechorgan der Biene (Nova acta der
K.L. Arch. Deutsch. Akad. d. Naturf.,) 1875.
Wyman, Dr. J.—Notes on the Cells of the Bee, 1866.
Zoubareff, A.—Concerning an Organ of the Bee not yet de-
scribed, (Brit. Bee Jour.,) 1883.
PART SECOND.
~ THE APIARY:
ITS CARE AND MANAGEMENT.
MOTTO -—" Keep all colonies strong.”
INTRODUCTION TO
PART II.
STARTING AN APIARY.
In apiculture, as in all other pursuits, it is all-important to
make a good beginning. This demands preparation on the
part of the apiarist, the procuring of bees, and location of the
apiary.
PREPARATION.
Before starting in the business, the prospective bee-keeper
should inform himself in the art. :
READ A GOOD MANUAL,
To do this, he should procure some good manual, and
thoroughly study, especially that portion which treats of the
practical part of the business. If accustomed to read, think
and stady, ke should carefully read the whole work, but other-
wise he will avoid confusion by only studying the methods of
practice, leaving the principles and science to strengthen, and
be strengthened by, his experience. Unless a student, he would
better not take a journal tillhe begins the actual work, as so
much unclassified information, without any experience to
correct, arrange and select, will but mystify. For the same
reason he may well be content with reading a single work till
experience, and a thorough study of this one, make him more
able to discriminate ; and the same reasoning will preclude his
taking more than one bee-journal until he has had at feast a
year’s actual experience.
VISIT SOME APIARIST.
In this work of self-preparation, he will find great aid in
visiting the nearest successful andintelligent apiarist. If suc-
cessful, such a one will have a reputation; if intelligent, he
will take the journals, and will show by his conversation that
202 THER BRE-KEHPER'S GUIDE ;
he knows the methods and views of his brother apiarists, and,
above all, he will not thin’: he /nows if all, and that his is the
only way to success. If possible he should spend some weeks
during the active season with such a bee-keeper, and should
learn all he could of such a one, but always let judgment and
common sense sit as umpire, that no plans or decisions may be
made that judgment does not fully sustain.
TAKE A COLLEGH COURSE.
It will be most wise to take a course in some college, if
age makes this practicable, where apiculture is thoroughly
discussed. Here one wili rot only get the best training in his
chosen business, as he will study, see and handle, and thus
will have the very best aids to decide as to methods, system
and apparatus, but will also receive that general culture
which will greatly enhance life’s pleasures and usefulness,
and which ever proves the best capitalin any vocation. At
the Michigan Agricultural College there is a fully equipped
apiary, and the opportunities for special study in bee-keeping
and entomology are peculiarly good. Michigan is not ex-
ceptional.
DECIDE ON A PLAN.
After such a course as suggested above, it will be easy to
decide as to location, hives, style of honey to produce, and:
general system of management. But here, asin all the arts,
all our work should be preceded by a well-digested plan of
operations. As with the farmer and the gardener, only he
who works to a plan can hope for the best success. Of course,
such plans will vary as we grow in wisdom and experience. A
good maxim to govern all plans is, ‘‘Go slow.’’ A good rule
which, will insure the above, ‘‘Pay as you go.’’ Make the api-
ary pay for allimprovements in advance. Demand that each
year’s credits exceed its debits; and that you may surely
accomplish this keep an accurate account of all your receipts
andexpenses. This willbe a great aid in arranging the plans
for each successive year’s operations.
Above all, avoid hobbies, and be slow to adopt sweeping
changes. ‘Prove all things, hold fast that which is good.”
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 203
HOW 10 PROCURE FIRST COLONIES.
To procure colonies from which to form an apiary, as is in
almost all kindred cases, it is always best to get them near at
hand. We thus avoid the shock of transportation, can see the
bees before we purchase, and in case there is any seeming
mistake can easily gain a personal explanation and securea
speedy adjustment of any real wrong.
KIND OF BEES TO PURCHASE.
Atthe same price always take Italians or Carniolans, as
they are certainly best for the beginner. If common black
bees can be secured for three, or even for two dollars less per
colony, by all means take them, as they can be Italianized at
a profit for the difference in cost, and,in the operation, the
young apiarist will gain valuable experience.
Our motto will demand that we purchase only strong colo-
nies. If, as recommended, the purchaser sees the colonies
before the bargain isclosed, it will be easy to know that the
colonies are strong. If the bees, as they come rushing out,
remind you of Vesuvius at her best, or bring to mind the gush
and rush at the nozzle of the fireman’s hose, then buy. In the
hives of such colonies all combs will be covered by the middle
of May with bees, and in the honey season brood will be abun-
dant. Itisalways wisest to begin ina small way. He will
generally succeed best who commences with not more than
four or five colonies.
IN WHAT KIND OF HIVES.
As plans are already made, of course it is settled as to the
style of hive to be used. If bees can be procured in such hives
they will be worth just as much more than though in any
other hive, as it costs to make the hive and transfer the bees.
This will certainly be as muchas two or three dollars. No
apiarist will tolerate, unless for experiment, two styles of hives
in his apiary. Therefore, unless you find bees in such hives
as you are to use, it will be best to buy them in box-hives if
possible and transfer (see Chapter VII) to your own hives, as
bees in box-hives can always be bought at reducedrates. In
case the person from whom you purchase will take the hives
204 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
back at a fair rate, after you have transferred the bees to your
own hives, then purchase in any style of movable-comb hive,
as it is easier to transfer from a movable-comb hive than from
a box-hive. Some bee-keepers, who were willing to wait, have
purchased a queen and bees by the pound, and thus secured
colonies at very slight expense. A single pound of bees with
a queen will develop into a good colony in a single year.
WHEN TO PURCHASE.
It is safe to purchase any time in the summer. In April or
May (of course you purchase only strong colonies) if in the
latitude of New York or Chicago—it will be earlier further
south—you can afford to pay more, as you will secure the
increase both of honey and bees. If you desire to purchase in
autumn, that you may gain bythe experience of wintering,
either demand that the one of whom you purchase insure the
safe wintering of the bees, or else that he reduce the selling
price, at least one-third, from his rates the next April. Other-
wise the novice would better wait and purchase in the spring.
If you are to transfer at once, it is desirable that you buy in
spring, as it is vexatious, especially for the novice, to transfer
when the hives are crowded with brood and honey.
HOW MUCH TO PAY.
Of course the market, which will ever be governed by sup-
ply and demand, must guide you. But to aid you,I will
append what at present would be a reasonable schedule of
spring prices almost anywhere in the United States:
For box-hives, crowded with black bees—lItalians would
rarely be found in such hives—three dollars per colony isa
fair price. For black bees in hives such as you desire to use,
five dollats would be reasonable. For pure Italians in such
hives, seven dollars is not too much.
If the person of whom you purchase will take the movable-
comb hives after you transfer the bees, you can afford to pay
three dollars for black bees, and five dollars for pure Italians.
If you purchase in the fall, require 3314 percent discount on
these rates. The above is, of course, only suggestive.
OR, MANUAL OF THH APIARY. 205
WHERE TO LOCATE.
If apiculture is an avocation, then your location will be
fixed by your principal business or profession. And herelI
may state that, if we may judge from reports which come from
nearly every section of the United States, from Maine to
Texas, and from Florida to Oregon, you can hardly go amiss
anywhere in our goodly land.
If you are to engage as a specialist, then you can select
first with reference to society and climate, after which it will
be well to secure a succession of natural honey-plants (Chap-
ter XVII), by virtue of your locality. This suggestion is im-
portant, even in California, though it has far less weight than
in other sections. If our location is along a river we shall find
our honey harvest much prolonged, as the bloom on the upland
will be early, while along the river flats it will be later. Who
knows how much the many successful bee-keepers along the
Mohawk Valley owe to their excellent location? The same
holds true of the mouth of the canyons in California. The
flowers of both mountain and valley will then contribute of
their sweets. Wealso gain in the prolonged honey-flow, as
the mountain bloom is much the later. It will also be well to
look for reasonable prospects of a good home market, as good
home markets are, and must ever be, the most desirable. It
will be important, also, that your neighborhood is not over-
stocked with bees. Itis a well-established fact, that apiarists
with few colonies receive relatively larger profits, especially
in rather poor seasons, than those with large apiaries. While
this may be owing in part to better care, much doubtless
depends upon the fact that there is not an undue proportion of
bees to the number of honey-plants, and consequent secretion
of nectar. To have the undisputed monopoly of an area reach-
ing at least two and one-half miles in every direction from
your apiary, is unquestionably a great advantage.
If you desire to begin two kinds of business, so that your
dangers from possible misfortune may be lessened, then a
small farm—especially a fruit-farm—in some locality where
fruit-raising is successfully practiced, will be very desirable.
You thus add others of the luxuries of life to the products of
206 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}
your business, and at the same time may create additiona!
pasturage for your bees by simply attending to your other
basiness. In this case, your location becomes a more complex
matter, and will demand still greater thought and attention.
Some of America’s most successful apiarists are also noted as
successful pomologists. A dairy farm, especially where win-
ter dairying is carried on, would combine well with bee-keep-
ing. Thealsike clover would please alike the cattle and the
bees. This is equally true in sections of California and
Arizona, etc., only alfalfa takes the place of alsike clover.
Bees are often taken *‘on shares.’’ It is usual for one
party to furnish the bees, the other to perform all the labor.
The expenses are shared equally, as are the proceeds, both of
bees and honey. Where one has more colonies of bees than
will do well in one place—more than 100 East, more than 250
in California—then ‘‘out-apiaries’’ are often desirable. Such
men as Dr. Miller, Messrs. Manum, France, Dadant, Elwood,
Mendleson, and Hetherington, find these very profitable. Of
course, this is like running a railroad, and success will only
mate with brains, gumption and pluck. The out-apiaries
should be as convenient as bee-forage, roads and location will
permit. If possible, it is wise to locateon some farm, and
arrange so the farmer will have an interest that will insure
some oversight when the apiarist is away. A fruit-grower
may be wise enough to covet the presence of the bees, and so
give service to secure it.
Of course, convenient hives for moving, and a wagon
arranged with suitable rack, are very desirable. Great pains
must be taken that the bees are allsecure. Horses stung may
mean great loss and harm. Mr. Manum makes assurance
doubly sure by covering his horses entirely with cotton blan-
kets. One enterprising and energetic enough to found out-
apiaries will have the gumption to success, and fully meet
every emergency.
For position and arrangement of apiary see Chapter VI.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 207
CHAPTER V.
HIVES AND SECTIONS.
An early choice among the innumerable hives is of course
demanded ; and here let me state with emphasis, that none of
the standard hives are now covered by patents, so let no one buy
rights. Itis in nearly all sections of our country, happily,
unnecessary to decry patent hives. Our excellent bee-periodi-
cals have driven from among us, forthe most part, that excres-
cence—the patent-hive man. His wares were usually worth-
less, and his life too often a lie,as his representations wer2
not infrequently false to the letter. As our bee-men so gen-
erally read the bee-papers, the patent-hive vendor will grow
less and less, and willsoon exist only in the past. It will be
a blessed riddance.
Success dy the skillful apiarist with almost any hive, is
possible. Yet, without question, some hives are far superior
to others, and for certain uses, and with certain persons, some
hives are far preferable to others, though all may be meritori-
ous. Asachange in hives, after one is once engaged in api-
culture, involves much time, labor and expense, this becomes
an important question, and one worthy of earnest considera-
tion by the prospective apiarist. I shall give it a first place,
and a thorough consideration, in this discussion of practical
apiculture.
BOX-HIVES.
I feel free to say that no person who reads, thinks and
studies—and success in apiculture can be promised to no other
—will ever be content to use the old box-hives. In fact,
thought and intelligence, which imply an eagerness to investi-
gate, are essential elements in the apiarist’s character, and to
such a one a box-hive would be valued just in proportion to the
amount of kindling-wood it contained. I shall entirely ignore
box-hives in the following discussions, for I believe no sensi-
ble, intelligent apiarists, such as read books, will tolerate
them, and that, supposing they should, it would be an expen-
208 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
sive mistake which I have no right to encourage, in fact, am
bound to discourage, not only for the benefit of individuals,
but also for the art itself.
To be sure of success, the apiarist must be able to inspect
the whole interior of the hive at his pleasure, must be able to
Fic. 82.
The Munn Hive, after Munn.
exchange combs from one hive to another, and to regulate the
movements of the bees—by destroying queen-cells, by giving
or withholding drone-comb, by extracting the honey, by intro-
ducing queens, and by many other manipulations to be ex-
plained, which are only practicable with a movable-comb hive.
MOVABLEH-COMB HIVES.
There are, at present, two types of the movable-comb hive
in use among us, each of which is unquestionably valuable, as
each has advocates ainong our most intelligent, successful, and
extensive apiarists. Each, too, has been superseded by the
other, to the satisfaction of the person making the change.
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 209
The kind most used consists of a box,in which hang the
frames which hold the combs. ‘The adjacent frames are so far
separated that the combs, which just fill them, shall be the
proper distance apart. In the other kind, the ends of the
frames are wider than the comb,and when in position are
close together, and of themselves form two sides of a box.
Whenin use these frames are surrounded bya second box,
without a bottom, which, with them, rests on a bottom-board.
Each of these kinds is represented by various forms, sizes,
Fic. 83.
Munn’s Improved Hive, after Munn.
etc., where the details are varied to suit the apiarist’s notion.
Yet, I believe thatall hives in present use, worthy of recom-
mendation, fall within one or the other of the above-named
types.
EARLY FRAME HIVES.
In 1843, Mr. Augustus Munn, of England, invented a mov-
able-comb hive (Fig. 82), which I need hardly say was not the
Langstroth hive, nora practical one. In 1851 this hive (Fig. 83)
210 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
was improved (?). Well does Neighbour say in his valu-
able hand-book, ‘‘ This invention was of no avail to apiarists.”’
M. DeBeauvoys, of France, in 1847, and Schmidt, of Ger-
many, in 1851, invented movable-comb hives. The frames
were tight-fitting, and, of course, not practical. Dzierzon
adopted the bar hive in 1838. In this hive each comb had to
be cut loose as it was removed. It isstrangethat Mr. Cheshire
speaks of Dzierzon’s hive in connection with the Langstroth.
It was a different type of hive entirely.
THE LANGSTROTH HIVE.
In 1851 our own Langstroth, without any knowledge of
what foreign apiarian inventors had done, save what he could
findin Huber, and edition 1838 of Bevan, invented the hive
(Fig. 84) now in common use among the advanced apiarists of
Two-story Langstroth Hive.—From A. I. Root-Co.
America. Itis this hive, the greatest apiarian inventivy evet
made, that has placed American apiculture in advance or that
of all other countries. What practical bee-keeper of America
could agree with H. Hamet, edition 1861, p. 166, who, in speak-
ing of the DeBeauvoys’ hive, says that the improved hives
were without value except to the amateur, and inferior for
practical purposes? Our apiarists not native to our shores,
like the late Adam Grimm, Mr. C. F. Muth and Mr. Charles
Dadant, always conceded that Mr. Langstroth was the inven-
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 211
tor of this hive, and always proclaimed its usefulness. Well
did the late Mr. S. Wagner, the honest, fearless, scholarly,
truth-loving editor of the early volumes of the American Bee
Journal, himself of German origin, say: ‘‘ When Mr. Lang-
stroth took up this subject, he well knew what Huber had done,
and saw wherein he had failed—failing, possibly, only because
he aimed at nothing more than constructing an observatory
hive suitable for his purposes. Mr. Langstroth’s object was
other and higher. He aimed at making frames movable, inter-
changeable, and practically serviceable in bee-culture.’’ And
how true what follows: ‘‘ Vobody before Mr. Langstroth ever
succeeded in devising a mode of making and using a movable
frame that was of any practical value in bee-culture.’? No
man in the world, besides Mr. Langstroth, was so conversant
with this whole subject as was Mr. Wagner. His extensive
library and thorough knowledge made hima competent judge.
Mr. Langstroth, though he knew of no previous invention
of frames contained in a case, when he made his invention, in
1851, does not profess to have been the first to have invented
them. Every page of his book shows his transparent honesty,
and his desire to give all due credit to other writers and inven-
tors. He does claim, and very justly, to have invented the
first practical frame hive, the one described in his patent,
applied for in January, 1851, and in all three editions of his
book.
For this great invention, as well as his able researches in
apiculture, as given in his invaluable book, ‘‘ The Honey-Bee,”’
he has conferred a benefit upon our art which can not be over-
estimated, and for which we, asapiarists, can not be too grate-
ful. It was his book—one of my old teachers, for which I have
no word of chiding—that led me to some of the most delightful
investigations of my life. It was his invention—the Lang-
stroth hive—that enabled me to make those investigations.
Fox one, Ishall always revere the name of Langstroth, as a
great leader in scientific apiculture, both in America and
throughout the world. His name must ever stand beside those
of Dzierzon and the elder Huber. Surely this hive, which left
the hands of the great master in so perfect a form that even
the details remain practically unchanged by many, I think
212 THE BEE-KEEPHR'S GUIDE;
most, of our first bee-keepers, should ever bear his name.
Thus, though many use square frames like the Gallup, or deep
frames, yet all are Langstroth hives.
CHARACTER OF THE HIVE.
The main feature of the hive should be simplicity, thereby
excluding drawers and traps of all kinds. The hive should be
made of good pine or whitewood lumber, thoroughly seasoned,
Fig1
x |
Principle of Warping.—From A. I. Root Co.
planed on both sides, and painted white on the outside. In
making the Live nail the heart side of the board out, so as to
prevent warping. To understand why see Fig. 85. Figure 84
Fic. 86.
One-story Langstroth Hive.—From A. I. Root Co.
represents a two-story Langstroth hive. As will be seen, this
has a portico, and a bottom-board firmly nailed to the hive.
Although Mr. Langstroth desired both these features, and
many now are like-minded, many others omit both features.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 213
This hive holds eight frames, which are as many as such bee-
keepers as Messrs. Heddon, Taylor and Hutchinson desire.
Figure 86 represents the Simplicity one-story Langstroth
hive as made by A. I. Root. This contains 10 frames, which,
unfortunately, were slightly modified so that they are 175
instead of 173% inches long. Thus, this is not the Langstroth
Fic. 87.
Two-story Langstroth Hive (Gallup Frame.) —Original.
a Cover hinged to hive. b Upper story.
e Brood-chamber. ad Bottom-board.
e Alighting-board. i Wide section-frames,
Brood-frames. h, h Frames outside hive.
214 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
frame, but the Simplicity-Langstroth. This style, one-story,
is designed for securing comb honey, while the two-story (Fig.
84) is intended for use in obtaining extracted honey. Figure
87 represents a two-story Simplicity-Langstroth hive with
Gallup frame; which is 114 inches square. This hive is pre-
ferred by G. M. Doolittle. I have used it more than any other,
andit has much to recommend it. The Simplicity feature
invented by A. I. Root, I think, consists of a bevel union of
hive with cover and bottom-board (Fig. 87). I think Mr. Root
prefers this style no longer. Any Langstroth hive, with what-
Fic. 88.
i TU TL
jill i
i
a i
a i Ce
il i
i ae
Jones’ Chaff-Hive, Frame. Frame for Sections, Division- Board and Perfor-
ated-Zine Division- Board.—From D, A. Jones.
ever frame, with these bevel connections is a Simplicity hive.
This hive can be used to secure either comb or extracted
honey. The bottom-board, d, and the alighting-board, e, may
be separate from each other and from the hive; the opening
may be made by cutting a V-shaped space in the bottom-board,
while the cover, a, mayor may not be hinged to the upper
story. Mr. Root, inthe original Simplicity, used the cover as
a bottom-board, and formed an entrance by pushing the hive a
little toone side. Many prefer to have the cover with a gable
(Fig. 88), so madeas to join the hive with a rabbet (Fig. 86 and
88), or to shut over the hive and rest on shoulders formed by
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 215
nailing cleats about the hive near the top. These are heavy
andcostly. Imuch prefer a flat cover, and, if necessary to
keep out water, we can follow Mr. Doolittle’s plan and sheet
with tin or zinc, though I think this unnecessary.
Figure 88 represents the Jones chaff hive. This takes a
deep frame, and has double walls for chaff packing. ‘These
chaff hives are expensive, hard to handle and awkward to man-
age. After years of experience I discarded the chaff hives as
no better in summer than the single-walled hives, and not so
safe in winter as a good cellar. I have disposed of all of mine
except three, which I keep for examples. Many, however,
prefer such hives, and in some sections, and with some bee-
keepers, they may be desirable.
WHAT STYLE TO ADOPT.
For many yearsI have used the Heddon-Langstroth, and
like it so much that I recommend it above all others that I have
tried. It is not only the simplest hive I have ever seen, but
possesses many substantial advantages that are not possessed
by any other hive so farasI know. It can be used with any
size frame desired. I have it in use both with Langstroth and
Gallup frames. I am free to express my preference for the
Langstroth hive, with Langstroth frames. Its excellence
warrants me in doing so, and the fact that it is by far the most
used of any hive in the country, gives great advantage when
one wishes to buy or sell bees. No beginner can make a mis-
take in adopting this hive. I will describe the hive for Lang-
stroth frame, but would advise any one to get a good hive asa
pattern, if he is to adopt them, as much depends upon perfect
exactness.
The bottom-board and alighting-board (Fig. 87) may be
separateif preferred, or not nailed tothe hive. Mr. Heddon
nails the bottom-board fast, and lets it project at one end, as
seen in the figure (Fig. 89). A hive-stand is made by taking
two boards (Fig. 89, /) six inches wide, and nearly as long as
the bottom-board. Connect these at one end by a board 4%
inches wide, and as long as the hive is wide, nailed firmly at the
bottom, and into the ends, and at the other end by a like board
nailed the same way. We see (Fig. 94) this end-piece at the
216 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
front of the hive nailed at the bottom so it rests on the ground.
At the opposite end a like piece is nailed in the same way, so
that all is even on the bottom. Figure 89 explains this better.
The bottom of the hive (Fig. 89, 4) is 13x19% inches, outside
measure, the sides made of six-eighths inch, bottom and cover of
five-eighths, and ends of seven-eighths inch lumber. The
height of this piain box is just 10 inches ; that is, it is made of
Fie. 89
Heddon-Langstroth Hive.—From James Heddon.
‘
F Bottom-board. A Brood-chamber.
C Honey-board. D Case with sections.
E Cover.
boards 10 inches wide. The side boards are 19% inches long,
so that they nail to the ends of the end-boards. If the corners
are rabbeted, or, better, dovetailed (Fig. 90), they will be
stronger, and less apt to separate with age anduse. When
used with the Gallup frame the ends of the hive project, and
are nailed into the ends of the side-boards. The end-boards
are rabbeted on top. This rabbet is cut three-eighths of an
inch deeper than the thickness of the top-bar of the frame.
With the Gallup frame (Fig. 96) we rabbet the side-boards. If
the top-bar is three-eighths of an inch thick this rabbet should
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 217
be six-eighths precisely. This is very important, as we must
have a three-eighths space exactly between the top-bar and the
top of the hive. If we make the hive ten and one-eighth (101%)
inches high we give a space of half-inch between the bottom
of the frame and bottom of hive. I like this wide space, and
there is no objection toit. Near the top of the hive we will
nail narrow cleats entirely around it; these strengthen the
hive, and are convenient supports by which to lift the hive.
Hand grooves (Fig. 90) can also be cut in end and side-boards
for convenience in handling, if desired. Mr. Root favors these
hand-holes always. They are easily cut, and are surely a
convenience.
The entrance iscut in the end of the hive (Fig. 89), and
the size is easily regulated by use of the Langstroth triangular
Fie. 90.
Dovetailed Hive.—From A, I. Root Co.
blocks (Fig. 89, 8, 2). Thus we may gauge the size to our
liking. I would have the entrance the whole width of the
hive, and seven-eighths of an inch high. This may aid to
prevent the bees hanging out of the hive, and likewise may
restrain the swarming impulse. The opening in the bottom-
board (Fig. 87) is preferred by many. This is enlarged or
restricted by simply pushing the hive forward or back, and, of
218 THE BKE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
course, can only be used with loose bottom-boards. The fact
that most bee-keepers nail the bottom-board firmly and cut the
opening from the hive, argues that this on the whole is the
better style. For shipping and moving bees, which, with
‘‘out-apiaries ’’ and change of location to secure better pastur-
age, promises to be more and more the practice, the nailed
Fic. 91.
Queen-Excludiny Honey-Boar@.—From D, A. Jones,
bottom-boards are very desirable; for quick cleaning of the
hives when spring opens, the movable bottoms are preferable.
There should never be but this one opening. Auger-holes
above, and openings opposite the entrance, are worse than
useless.
Except in very damp locations the hive should not rest
more than five or six inches from the ground. Tired and
neavily laden bees, especially on windy days, may fail to gain
the hive, if it is high up, as they return from the field.
For extracted honey, we use a second story precisely like
the body of the hive, exceptit is a half-inch lessin depth;
that is, the sides are 914 instead of 10 inches wide. Mr. Dadant
prefers half-story hives for the extracting frames, but he uses
the large Quinby frame (Fig. 95). If we wish we can follow Da-
dant, and use two or more of these upper stories, and tier up, in
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 219
which case we would not need to extract until the close of the
harvest, when the honey would be ripened in the hive.
Upon the body of the hive rests the slatted honey-board
(Fig. 91). It is seen in place (Figs. 89 and 93), This is also 13
by 19% inches. The outer rim of this valuable invention and
the slats are in one plane on the under surface, and the slats
are three-eighths of an inch apart, leaving passages that width
for the bees to pass through. On the upper surface the
rim projects three-eighths of an inch above the slats, so that if
a board be laid on the honey-board its lower surface will be
three-eighths of an inch above the slats. When the honey-
board is placed on the hive, the spaces between the slats must
rest exactly over the center of the top-bars of the brood-frames
below. In using hives with the Gallup or American frames
the slats of course will run crosswise of the honey-board, and
as before must break joints with the top-bars of the frames.
Fic, 92.
STAT TT
——— 1 ee
Plain Division-Board. Perforated-Zine Division-Board.
From D, A. Jones.
The use of this prevents the bees from building brace-combs
above the brood-frames, and keeps the sections very neat. No
one after using this will do without it, lamsure. By tacking
a piece of perforated-zinc (Fig. 92) on the under side of this
honey-board it also becomes a queen-excluder. The grooves
in the zinc must be very exact. They are .165 of an inch wide.
It is cheaper, and so better, simply to place a narrow strip of
the perforated-zinc between the slats of the honey-board (Fig.
220 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
91). By grooving the edges of the slats it is easy to insert the
zinc strips when making the honey-board. ‘The honey-board
may be wholly of zinc with a wooden rim. The objection to
this is the fact that the zinc is likely to sag and bend. Mr.
Heddon suggests that a V-shaped piece of tin be soldered across
the middle to strengthen the zinc and prevent sagging. The
tin should be so placed as not to touch the frames below, but
come between them. Mr. Heddon also suggests that the
wooden rim be replaced by a narrow margin of the zinc itself,
bent at right angles to the plane of the metal.
THE HEDDON SURPLUS-CASE.
As this admirable case is also a part of this hive, I will
‘describe it right here, though it properly belongs to the sub-
ject of case for surplus honey. This caseis just as long and
broad as the hive, and three-eighths of an inch deeper than the
height of the section to be used. (See Fig. 89, D.) Thus, on
the hive described it will be 13 by 19% inches, and if we use
common 1-pound sections, which are 41% inches square, it will
be 45% inches deep. Partitions are fastened in by use of
screws or nails just far enough apart to receive the sections;
thus, in the 1-pound sections, 44 inches apart. These parti-
tions are as wide as the crate or case is deep. Narrow strips
of tin are nailed to the bottom of these partitions and to the
bottom of the ends of the case, projecting enough to sustain
the sections when they are placed in the case. It will be seen
that when in place the sections reach to within three-eighths of
an inch of the top of the case. This must be just three-eighths
of an inch. It keeps the sections all clean, but will not if not
Just this bee-space.
THE COVER.
‘
The cover of the hive (Fig. 89, Z) is a plain board, a little
wider and longer than the hive. The ends of this are fitted
into a grooved cross-piece about twice as thickas the board,
and firmly nailed. These cross-pieces prevent the top from
warping and splitting. If preferred, the cover need be no
longer or wider than the hive. In thiscase cross-pieces should
be firmly nailed on the upperside to prevent warping or split-
ting. It will be seen that we have here no telescoping, and no
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 221
beveling—simply one board rests upon another. At first I
was much prejudiced against this simple arrangement. After
giving it a thorough trial I wish nothing else. The only criti-
cism I have for this hive after several years’ experience is,
that if the board coveris used in spring, the protection is in-
sufficient. We break the propolis or glue in examining the
bees, and then as the bees can not glue all close at this early
season, the brood is apt to chill, and the bees to suffer, espe-
cially if the sides of the hives have shrunken, or the cover
warped. By use of a quilt or warm woolen cloth just the size
of the hive placed above, and a crate filled with dry sawdust
above this, allis made snug and comfortable, and even this
objection disappears. To adopt this style of hive is not ex-
pensive. Wecan use the same frames as before, and can make
all new hives of this simple, plain pattern, and in time we will
have only these hives.
To shade the hive nothing is so good as a shade-board
made considerably wider than the hive, and nailed to two
cleats five inches wide. Thus, when resting on the hive this
shade-board will be five inches above the top of the hive. This
has never blown off of my hives. Should it do so a brick
could easily be fastened to the under side, out of sight, and
thus make it entirely safe against winds.
Thus I have described the Heddon-Langstroth hive
minutely, as with W. Z. Hutchinson, R. lL. Taylor, and many
others of our most able and intelligent apiarists, I find it, upon
trial, as excellent as it is simple. Surely, when we can har-
ness excellence and simplicity together we have a most desir-
able team. The simple union of parts by mere plain contact
of the edges, or the cover simply lying on the hive, while it is
just as acceptable to the bees, makes the hive far more simple
of construction, and easy of manipulation. The honey-board
and bee-spaces keep all so neat, that as one bee-keeper well
says, their extra expense is very soon savedin the saving of
time which their use insures. Auy who may think of trying
this hive better do as I did, try two or three at first, and see if
in their judgment the ‘‘ game is worth the candle.”
All hives should be well painted with white paint. This
color makes the heat less trying to the combs and bees. While
222 THI BIKE-KEEPER'S GUIDE;
it may not be profitable to paint, yet when neatness and dura-
bility are both considered, surely painting pays well. For
paint I would use white lead, zinc and oil—avout one-third as
much zinc as lead. Mr. Doolittle, whose opinion justly ranks
very high among American bee-keepers, thinks that white
paint makes shade unnecessary.
DIVISION-BOARD.
A close-fitting division-board (Fig. 92) is very important,
and no Langstroth hive is complete without it. Mr. Heddon,
in his excellent book, follows the English, and calls this a
dummy. Itis especially useful in autumn, winter and spring
in contracting the hive, and thus economizing heat, and at
the harvest seasons in contracting the brood-chamber, so as to
secure the honey in the sections whereit is desired. It is
made the same formas the frames, but is alittle larger so
that it is close-fitting in the hive. It iseasily made by nailing
a top-bar of the usual frame on top of a board that will just fit
in the hive, and reach to the top of the rabbet. If desired the
board may be beveled at the edges. When the division-board
is inserted in the hive it separates the brood-chamber into two
parts by a close partition. Many bee-keepers make them like
a close-fitting frame and cover with cloth, which is stuffed
with chaff. Others groove the edges and insert a strip of cloth
orrubber. Thechaff board is for greater warmth, the rubber
to make the Loard fit closely, and yet give enough to make it
easy to withdraw the division-board when it swells from
dampness. Mr. Jones prefers that the division-board should
not reach quite to the bottom of the hive (Fig. 88). This en-
ables the bees to pass under, and as heat rises there is very
little objection to this bee-space under the division-board.
We use the division-board to contract the chamber in winter,
to vary tt so as to keep all combs covered with bees in spring, to
contract the brood-chamber when we wish to securea full
force of bees in the sections, to convert our hives into nucleus
hives for queen-rearing, and in case we secure comb honey in
two-story hives, which, however, we do not practice now, to
contract the upper chamber when the season first opens.
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. mes
CLOTH COVERS.
After the season is over, and the weather becomes cold,
about the 20th of September, it is well to remove the honey-
board, and to cover above the bees with a piece of heavy factory
cloth, which thus forms the immediate cover for the bees in
winter. The section-case full of dry, fine sawdust has now
this cloth for its bottom, while the cover of the hive rests on
the section-case.
It will be noted that I have made no mention in the above
of metal rabbets, or, more correctly, metal supports. I have
tried these for some years, and have usually recommended
them, but for the past several yearsI have omitted them, and
think I shall have no further use for them in my hives. If we
wish them we have only to cut the rabbeta little deeper and
tack inside the hive, just below the rabbet, a narrow strip of
heavy tin, which shall projecta little above the wooden rabbet,
just enough to raise the top of the frame to within three-
eighths of an inch of the top of the hive. Theadvantages of
these are that they make a very narrow rest or support for the
frames, and so the latter are more easily loosened, and in care-
less hands are less apt to kill bees when put into the hives. It
is always easy, however, by meansof a chisel to loosen frames,
and if we are often manipulating our bees, as when extracting
in summer, the frames are easily loosened without the metal
supports. Some apiarists make hives without rabbets, making
the frames to rest on the topof the hive. I have tried such
hives thoroughly, and wish no more of them. Of course, with
such hives the valuable honey-board and bee-spaces are im-
possible.
THE NEW HEDDON HIVE.
Mr. Heddon has patented and offered to the public a new
hive which combines in principle the Langstroth and the
Huber. Ihave tried this hive only for a short time, and so,
guided by the rule I have always adopted, I do not recommend
it. Yet the experienced bee-keeper can often judge correctly
of what he has never tried, and I will add that I fully believe
this hive and the method Mr. Heddon gives of manipulation in
his valuable book, are well worth our attention. Mr. Heddon
224 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
isso able that he rarely recommends what is not valuable.
Several others have tried this hive, and speak in the highest
terms of its value. Among these are no less authorities than
R. L. Taylor and W. Z. Hutchinson. At the beginning of this
chapter I caution all against patent hives. This is necessary,
as so many frauds have been committed under this guise; but
if Mr. Heddon has given us something as valuable as it is
unique and original, he well deserves a patent, which should
be thoroughly respected, as should all worthy inventive effort.
From my brief experience I fear the hive is too complicated
for the average bee-keeper. With a much longer experience
(1900) Ican not recommend it. It works admirably if every-
thing is perfectly exact; otherwise it isa vexation. Absolute
exactness is rare in our day and world.
I shall describe the hive only in brief, advising all who
wish to investigate this newcomer, to procure Mr. Heddon’s
work, ‘‘ Success in Bee-Culture,’’ as this will bean excellent
investment aside from the matter of the hive.
This hive (Fig. 93) has close-fitting frames fastened ina
case by use of wooden thumb-screws. The efhd-bars of the
frames are wide like those of the Huber hives, and rest on tin
supports. The top and bottom bars of the hives are only as
wide as the natural comb, seven-eighths of an inch. The
frames are only five and three-eighths (534) inches deep, and
this with the wide spaces between them makes it possible to do
much without removing the frames. There is a three-eighths
inch space above the frames, and a honey-board as in the
Heddon-Langstroth hive.
Thus, one or two shallow hives can be used, and to con-
tract the brood-chamber at any time we have only to remove
one of them. Figure 93 shows the hive, which, with two
brood-chambers, gives about the capacity of a 10-frame Lang-
stroth hive. As all frames are securely held by the screws,
any brood-chamber can be reversed, or any two can change
places at the pleasure of the bee-keeper. I have found the
screws to swell and work with extreme difficulty. I think Mr.
Taylor excludes the screws, and wedgesthe frames instead.
As the combs will all be firmly attached on all sides to the
frames, there is no space for hiding, and the queen can gen-
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 225
erally be found without removing the frames. I haveseen Mr.
Taylor find several queens with these hives in a few minutes
time.
Fic. 93,
The New Heddon Hive.— From James Heddon.
a Stand. D E Section-cases. #H Thumb-screw.
BC Two sections. «Wf Slatted honey-board. F Cover.
226 THE BEE-KEHPER’S GUIDE;
The bottom-board (Fig, 94) has a raised rim. Thus the
frames are one-half inch from the bottom. Of course, the
bottom-board is loose. Mr. Heddon recommends single-story
wide-frames with separators for the sections. These are alsc
secured by the screws, and so any frame or the whole case can
be reversed at will.
Of course, the old Heddon case without separators could be
used, but could not be reversed. The points of excellence
claimed for this hive,and I know from my experience that
they are real, are easy contraction of brood-chamber, quick
inversion of the brood-chamber or section-case, ease and quick-
Fic. 94.
Heddon Bottom-Board.—From James Heddon.
ness of manipulation, and the interchangeableness of the
brood-chambers forming the hive,and the power we have by
quick and easy contraction of the brood-chamber to get all
light-colored honey in the sections if we so desire.
Mr. J. M. Shuck has also patenteda hive for which he
claims the same advantages gained in the new Heddon hive. I
have not worked with it enough to recommend it. I fear the
hives are too complex for the general bee-keeper. The fact,
too, that perfection of work and measurements despite our best
care are very rare, urges against this hive, as it must be very
accurate or itis a sore vexation. I advise all to go slowin
adopting them, as we know the old, tried ones are excellent. |
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 227
fear that in the hands of the general bee-keepers these new
hives will not prove satisfactory.
THE FRAMES.
The form and size of frames, though not quite as various
as the persons whouse them, are still very different (Fig. 95).
Some prefer large frames. I first tried the Quinby frame, and
afterward the Langstroth (Fig. 95). The advantage claimed
Fic. 95.
12
183¢ or
nw
= AMEBICAN.
QUINBY. x
ny
175%
x GALLUP.
Lanestrorg. * RK
*
139% 19%
ADAIR. jt
OLOSED BND QUINBY. [2
Brood- Frames.—From A. I. Root Co.
for large frames is that there are less to handle, and time is
saved; yet may not smaller frames be handled so much more
dextrously, especially if they are to be handled through all the
long day, as to compensate, in partat least, for the number?
The advantage of the shallow frame is, as claimed, that the
bees will gointo boxes more readily; yet they are not consid-
ered by some bee-keepers as safe for out-door wintering. This
is the style recommended and used by Mr. Langstroth, which
fact may account for its popularity in the United States.
228 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
Another frame in common use, is one about one foot square. I
have long used one 114% inches square, and still think that this
frame has much to commend it. It is light, easily handled,
convenient for nucleus hives, and perhaps the best form for
forming a compact winter cluster; and yet upon mature re-
flection I have decided to use in future, as already stated, the
Langstroth frame, and advise all others to do so.
It is very desirable to have beesin hives suchas others
will wish in case we sell bees, as every bee-keeper is almost
Fic. 96,
Gallup Frame.—vriyinal.
a Top-bar. ec Comb-guide.
b, b Side-bars or uprights. d@ Bottom-bar.
sure to do more or less each year. The Langstroth hive is used
much more generally than any other, and thatit is excellent
is shown in the fact that most of our successful bee-keepers,
from Canada to the Gulf, use it, andI am free tosay that,
taking the whole country through, it is doubtfulif a better
style or form exists than the regular Langstroth. The chief
objection urged against its use, that it is not the best form
to secure safe wintering, lacks force in view of the fact that
many who have been most successful use this frame. Indeed,
with thorough protection this frame is as good as any, and
most bee-keepers are learning that in our Northern States pro-
tection is absolutely essential to success.
That we shall ever have a uniform frame used by all api-
arists, though exceedingly desirable, is too much to be hoped.
Ido not think there is sufficient advantage in any form to war-
rant us in holding to it, if by yielding we could secure this
uniformity. Nor doI think the form and size so material as
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 229
to make it generally desirable for the apiarist tochange all his
hives, to secure a different style of frame.
To make a Langstroth frame I would use a top-bar (Fig.
96)—the figure illustrates a Gallup frame which is square, and
will serve to make this explanation clearer, eighteen and seven-
eighths (187%) inches long, seven-eighths (7%) of an inch wide,
and one-fourth (14) of an inch thick. The end-bars (Fig. 96,
6, 6) should be eight and five-eighths (854) inches long, and as
wide and thick as the top-bar. The top-bar is fastened to the
end-bars, as shown in the figure, by nailing through it into
Fic. 97,
Reversible Frame, Upper one hung in the Hive, Lower one partly reversed.
—From James Heddon,
the ends of the end-bars, so as to leave the top-bar projecting
three-fourths (34) of an inch. The bottom-bar is seventeen and
three-eighths (173%) inches long, and as wide and thick as the
other parts—though it may be only one-half as thick if pre-
ferred. It is also nailed to the ends of the end-bars, so that it
is as long as the frame. The parts when made at the factory
are often dovetailed so as to be more securely united.
For some years I have used the reversible frame (Fig. 97),
which has valuable features which would warrant its use were
230 THE BRE-KHEPER’S GUIDE;
it not for its complexity. With this frame there is no danger
of the top-bar sagging, which is sure to enlarge the bee-space
above and create mischief, and by inverting we secure the firm
attachment of the comb to the frame along all its edges,
and it helps to force our bees into the sections, simply
by inverting the combs. This may not always Succeed with
the unskillful—some bee-keepers report failure—and it re-
quires some time and attention. Figure 97 shows the charac-
ter of the reversible frame as made by Mr. Heddon, and which
T have found to work the best of any that I have used. As
will be seen, the reversible part is a rectangle, pivoted in the
center to the bottom of the short end-bars. These short end-
bars at the top come within one-fourth ('{) inch of the side of
the hive, and thin a little as they run down, so that the lower
end is three-eighths (3g) of an inch from the side of the hive.
The botiom of the frame, indeed all below the short end-bar,
is three-tourths (3;) of an inch from the side of the hive. This
makes it easy to put in the frames without crushing the bees.
It might be supposed that the bees would build combs between
the lower end of the frame and the hive, but I have never seen
a case of the kind, andI have used such frames now quite
extensively for several years. These frames reverse very
easily, and I do not know a single person who has thoroughly
tried them, whe does not value them highly. Here again let
me suggest that in making changes, a few be tried first, and
not all till we know we wish them.
As the use of comb foundation secures straight combs,
with no drone-cells, it is very desirable. When this is fastened
by merely pressing or sticking it to the top-bar, it is apt to
say and warp, hence it is becoming quite the custom to wire
the frames (Fig.97). This insures perfect safety if we wish to
ship our bees, and secures against sagging or bulging of the
foundation. If the foundation is put on with the Given press
as the foundation is made, No. 36 wire is used; if pressed on
by hand No. 30 wire is better.
The timber for frame should be thoroughly seasoned, and
of the best pine or white wood. Care should be taken that the
frame be made so as to hang vertically, when suspended on
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 231
the rabbets of the hive. To secure this very important point—
true frames that will always hang true—they should always
be made around a guide.
A BLOCK FOR MAKING FRAMES.
This may be made as follows: Take a rectangular board
(Fig. 98) eleven and one-eighth by thirteen and a quarter
inches. On both ends of one face of this, nail hard-wood
pieces (Fig. 98, ¢, ¢) one inch square and ten and three-fourths
inches long, so that one end (Fig. 98, g, g) shall lack three-
eighths inch of reaching the edge of the board. On the other
face of the board, nail a strip (Fig. 98, c) four inches wide and
eleven and three-eighths inches long, at right angles to it, and
in such position that the ends shall just reach to the edges of
Fic. 98.
Block for making Gallup Frames,—Original.
the board. Midway between the one-inch-square pieces, screw
on another hard-wood strip (Fig. 98, d@) one inch square and
four inches long, parallel with and three-fourths of an inch
from the edge. To the bottom of this, screw a semi-oval piece
of hoop-steel (Fig. 98, 5, 6), which shall bend around and press
against the square strips. The ends of this should not reach
quite to the bottom of the board. Near the ends of this spring
fasten, by rivets, a leather strap an inch wide (Fig. 98, a),
232 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};
which shall be straight when thus riveted. ‘These dimensions
are for frames eleven and one-fourth inches square, outside
measure, and must be varied for other sizes. Instead of the
iron and strap, some use two pieces of wood with a central
pivot. The upper ends of these levers are united by a strong
elastic cord, so that the lower ends are constantly pressed
against the side-pieces of the block. Recently we have used
in such blocks, both for frame and section-making, a single
hard-wood strip, a little shorter than the distance between the
stripseande. Thisis pivoted at the center to the center of
the block. This isa very simple way to hold the side-pieces
firmly against the strips ce, ¢. We have only to turn this lever.
To use this block, we crowd the end-bars of our frames
between the steel springs (Fig. 98, 6, 6) and the square strips
(Fig. 98, ¢, e); then lay on our top-barand nail, after which we
invert the block and nail the bottom-bar, as we did the top-bar.
Now press down on the strap (Fig. 98, a), which will loosen
the frame, when it may be removed all complete and true.
Such a gauge not only insures perfect frames, but demands
that every piece shall be cut with great accuracy, and some
such arrangement should always be used in making the
frames.
The above description and Fig. 98 are for Gallup frames.
For Langstroth frames the hard-wood strips would be eight
and five-eighths (85g) inches long, and the distance between
them would be sixteen and seven-eighths (16%) inches, that is,
if the frames are made of pieces one-fourth of an inch thick.
‘To make reversible frames we use two such guides. Wire nails
are very excellent for making frames, and just the thing for
the pivots in reversible frames.
When the frames are in the hive there should be at leasta
one-fourth or three-eighths inch space between the end of the
frame and side of the hive. As before stated, the space below
the frame may be one-half inch. A much wider space on the
sides than that given above is likely to be filled with comb,
and so prove vexatious. The wide space below gives no such
trouble,and in winter it is desirable, as also in case the hive
shrinks. It is very undesirable to have the frames reach to
the bottom of the hive.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 233
‘The distance between the frames may be one-half of an
inch, or best one and three-eighths inches from center to cen-
ter of the frames. This is better than one and one-half, as
the brood is kept warmer, and worker-brood is more likely to
be reared. A slight variation either way does noharm. Some
men, of very precise habits, prefer nails or wire staples in the
side and bottom of the frames. Mr. Cheshire calls these his
suggestions, though Mr. Langstroth used them over twenty
years ago, which, if I am correctly informed, was before Mr.
Cheshire kept bees at all. These are to insure equal spacing
of the frames. Mr. Jones prolongs the sides and bottom of
the frame (Fig. 88) for the same purpose. These projections
extend just a quarter of aninch, so as to maintain this un-
varying distance. Some bee-keepers use frames with wide,
close-fitting end-bars, or with top-bars wide and close-fitting
Fic. 99.
Hoffman Frames.—From A, L. Root Co.
at theends. Mr. Root now favors the Hoffman frame (Fig.
99), as he calls it, which has the top-bar and upper ends of the
end-bars wide and close-fitting. He claims more rapid hand-
ling, as the frames, he says, can be handled in groups. I
have tried all these styles, and do not like them. It is easy for
any bee-keeper to try them. ‘‘ Prove all things; hold fast
that which is good,”’ or that which pleases you.
COVER FOR FRAMES.
As before stated, a board covers the hive all through the
honey season. This rests upon the upper story of the hive, or
upon the upper section-case. From September to June, in the
234 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE;
cold Northern climate, a piece of thick factory cloth should
rest on the frames as before stated. This is just the size of
the hive, and when properly adjusted no beecan pass above it.
By cutting on three sides of an inch square, we form a flap in
this cloth which may be turned back to permit the bees to enter
the feeder, when feeding isdesired. In fall, winterand spring,
a section-case left on the hive and filled with fine sawdust or
chaff is a most desirable substitute for a heavy, awkward chaff
hive. Dr. Miller covers the year through with a cloth cover.
THE HUBER HIVE.
The other type of hives originated when Huber hinged
several of his leaf or unicomb hives together so that the frames
would open like the leaves of a book. In August, 1779, Huber
wrote to Bonnet as follows: ‘I took several small fir-boxes, a
foot square and fifteen lines wide, and joined them togther
by hinges, so that they could be opened and shut like the
leaves of a book. When using a hive of this description, we
took care to fix a comb in each frame, and then introduced all
the bees,’”’ (Edinburgh edition of Huber, p. 4.) Although
Morlot and others attempted to improve the hive, it never
gained favor with practical apiarists.
In 1866, Mr. T. F. Bingham, then of New York, improved
upon the Huber hive, securing a patent on his triangular-frame
hive. This, sofaras Ican judge, was the Huber hive made
practical. Mr. Bingham now uses a modification of this hive
(Fig. 101).
In 1868, Mr. M. S. Snow, then of New York, now of Minne-
sota, procured a patent on his hive, which was essentially the
same asthe hives now known as the Quinby and Bingham
hives.
Soon after, the late Mr. Quinby brought forth his hive,
which is essentially the same as the above, only differing in
details. No patent was obtained by Mr. Quinby, whose great
heart and boundless generosity endeared him to all acquaint-
ances. Those who knew him best never tire of praising the
unselfish acts and life of this noble man. If we except Mr.
Langstroth, no other man, especially in the early days, did so
much to promote the interest and growth of improved apicul-
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 235
ture in the United States. His hive, his book, his views of win-
tering, and foul brood, his introduction of the bellows-smoker—
a gift to apiarists—all speak his praise asa man andan api-
arist.
The facts that the Bingham hive, as now made, is a great
favorite with those that have used it, that Mr. Quinby pre-
ferred this style or type of hive, that the Quinby form is used
by the Hetherington brothers—Capt. J. E., the prince of Ameri-
can apiarists, with his thousands of colonies, and O. J., whose
neatness, precision, and mechanical skill are enougp to
awaken envy—are surely sufficient to excite curiosity and be-
speak a description.
The Quinby hive (Fig. 100) as used by the Hetherington
brothers, consists of a series of rectangular frames (Fig. 100)
Fic. 100.
Frame, Bottom-Board and Frame-Support, of Quinby Hive.—Original.
twelve by seventeen inches, outside measure. The end-bars
of these frames are one and one-half inches wide, and half an
inch thick. The top and bottom one inch wide and half an
inch thick. The outer halves of the end-bar project one-fourth
of an inch beyond the top and bottom bars. This projectiou
is lined on the inside with sheet-iron, which is inserted in a
groove which runs one inch into each end of the end-pieces,
and is tacked by the same nails that fasten the end-bars to the
top and bottom bars. This iron at the end of the bar bends in
at right-angles (Fig. 100, a), and extends one-fourth of an inch
parallel with the top and bottom bars. Thus, when these
236 THE BEE-KKEPER’S GUIDE}
frames stand side by side, the ends are close, while half-inch
openings extend between the top and bottom bars of adjacent
frames. The bottom-bars, too, are one-fourth of an inch from
the bottom-board. ‘Tacked to the bottom-board, in line with
the position of the back end-bars of the frames, is an inch
strip of sheet-iron (Fig. 100, 6, 5) sixteen inches in length.
One-third of this strip, from the front edge back, is bent over
so it lies not quite in contact with the second third, while the
posterior third receives the tacks which hold it to the bottom-
board. Now, when in use, this iron flange receives the hooks
on the corners of the frames, so that the frames are held
firmly, and can be moved only back and sidewise. In looking
at the bees we can separate the combs at once, at any place.
The chamber can be enlarged or diminished simply by adding
or withdrawing frames. As the hooks are on all four corners
of the frames, the frames can be either end back, or either side
up. This arrangement, which permits the inversion of the
frames, is greatly praised by those who have triedit. It was
claimed by the Hetheringtons years ago that by turning these
‘frames bottom up the comb would be fastened above and
below, and the bees, in their haste to carry the honey from the
bottom of the frames, would rush at once into the sections.
Boards with iron hooks close the side of the brood cavity,
while a cloth covers the frames.
The entrance (Fig. 100, ¢)is cut in the bottom-board, as
already explained, except that the lateral edges are kept
parallel. A strip of sheet-iron (Fig. 100, d)is tacked across
this, on which rest the ends of the front end-bars of the frames
which stand above, and underneath which pass the bees as
they come to and go fromthe hive. A box, without bottom
and with movable top, covers all, leaving a space from four
to six inches above and on all sides between it and the frames.
This gives chance to pack with chaff in winter, and for side
and top storing in sections in summer.
The Bingham hive (Fig. 101) is not only remarkably sim-
ple, but is as remarkable for its shallow depth, the frames
being only five inches high. These have no bottom-bar. The
end-bars are one and a half inches wide, and the top-bar
square. The nails that hold the end-bars pass into the end of
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 237
the top-bar, which is usually placed diagonally, so that an
edge, not a face, is below; though some are made with a face
below (Fig. 101, *), to be used when comb is transferred. The
frames are held together by two wires, one at eachend. Each
wire (Fig. 101, a) is a little longer than twice the width of the
hive when the maximum number of frames are used. The
ends of each wire are united and placed about nails (Fig. 101,
6,6) in the ends of the boards (Fig. 101 ¢c,c) which form the sides
of the brood-chamber. A small stick (Fig. 101, a) spreads
Fic. 101.
Frames and Bottom-Board of the Bingham Hive.—From A. I. Root Co.
these wires, and brings the frames close together. A box
without bottom and with movable cover, is placed about the
frames. Thisis large and high enough to permit of chaff
packing in winter and spring. The bottom-board may be
made like the one already described. Mr. Bingham does not
bevel the bottom-board, but places lath under three sides of
the brood-chamber, the lath being nailed to the bottom-board.
He uses the Langstroth blocks to contract the entrance (Fig.
101, g).
The advantages of this hive are simplicity, great space
above for surplus frames or boxes, capability of being placed
one hive above another to any height desired, while the frames
may be reversed, end for end, or bottom for top, or the whole
brood-chamber turned upside down. Thus, by doubling, we
may have a depth of ten inches for winter. It will be seen at
oncc that this hive possesses all the advantages claimed for
the new Heddon and Shuck hives, except the frames are not
held so securely. Yetit is far more simple, which is greatly
in its favor.
238 THE BEE-KEEPHR’S GUIDE;
The objections which I have found in the use of such hives
are the fact that so few use them, and danger of killing bees.
in rapid handling. They can be manipulated with rapidity if
we care not how many bees we crush. It hurts meto killa
bee, and sol find the Langstroth style more quickly manipu-
lated. Mr. Snow, too, who was the first to make the above
style of hive, has discarded it in favor of the Langstroth. His
objection to the above, is the fact that the various combs are
not sure to be so built as tobe interchangeable. Yet that such
apiarists as those above named prefer these Huber hives, after
long use of the other style, is certainly not without significance.
OBSERVATORY HIVE.
To study bees while they are at work, requires a hive so
constructed that we can look in upon all the bees of the hive
Fic. 102.
Observatory Hive.—Original.
at pleasure. For this purpose I have used a small Langstroth
hive (Fig. 102) containing one frame. Glass is used each side
of the frame, and this is shaded by doors hung on hinges. We
are able to look at the bees or make all dark inside at pleasure.
To prevent the hive from becoming’too crowded, we must every
twenty-three or twenty-four days shake the bees from the
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 239
frame, and replace the latter with another frame, which shall
contain no brood. From sucha hive, in my study window, I
have received much pleasure and information.
APPARATUS FOR PROCURING COMB HONEY.
Although I feel sure that extracted honey will grow more
and more in favor, yet it will never supersede the beautiful
comb, which, from its exquisite flavor and attractive appear-
ance, has always been, and always will be, admired and
desired. So, nohive is complete without its arrangement of
section frames and cases, all constructed with the view of
securing this delectable comb honey in the form that will be
most tempting to the eye and palate.
SURPLUS COMB HONEY IN SECTIONS.
Honey in several-pound boxes is no longer marketable,
and is now almost wholly replaced by comb honey in sections.
In fact, there is no apparatus for securing comb honey that
promises so well as these sections. That they are just the
thing to enable us to tickle the market is shown by their rapid
growth in popular favor. Some years ago I predicted, at one
of our State conventions, that they would soon replace boxes,
and was laughed at. Nearly all who then laughed, new use
these sections. They are cheap, and with their use we can get
more honey, and in a form that will make it irresistible.
The wood should be white, the size small—two-pound sec-
tions are as large as the market wlll tolerate. One-pound
sections are more salable, andin some markets even one-half
pound sections are best of all. Of late, Mr. W. Harmer, of
Manistee, Mich., is making and using successfully a two-
ounce section. Thisis very neat and cheap. It is made of a
shaving, andis glued. Such sections would be the thing to
sell at fairs. The size of the sections has nothing to do with
the amount of honey secured, and so the market and extra cost
should guide the apiarist in this matter.
As early as 1877 I used veneer sections, which were essen-
tially the same as the one-piece sections now so popular.
After this I used nailed sections. At present only the very
neatest sections can catch the market, and so we must buy our
240 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
sections of those who can make them by machinery neater and
cheaper than we possibly can by hand.
Dr. C. C. Miller, James Heddon, and many others, prefer
sections made as are children’s toy blocks—the sides fastened
by a sort of mortise and tenon arrangement (Fig. 103). These
are preferred, as they do not have the shoulder of the one-
Fic. 103.
Dovetailed Section.—From A. I. Root Co.
piece section. They are objected to from the longer time re-
quired to put the pieces together, and their lack of rigidity
when together, so that they are likely to get out of shape.
The Wheeler section—invented and patented by Mr. Geo.
T. Wheeler, of Mexico, N. Y., in 1870—isremarkable for being
Fic. 104,
a a
One-Pound Section.—From A. I. Root Co.
Fic. 105.
Prize Section.—From A. I. Root Co.
the first to be used with tinseparators. Instead of making the
bottoms narrower for a passage, Mr. Wheeler made an open-
ing in the bottom.
Another style of section, termed the one-piece section (Fig.
104), is, as its name implies, made of a single piece of wood,
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 241
f
with three cross cuts so that it can be easily bent into a square.
The fourth angle unites by notches and projections, as before
described. These one-piece sections are now, I think, the
favorites among bee-keepers. I prefer these to the dovetailed.
They are quickly and safely bent, if dampened slightly before
bending, and are firm when in shape foruse. Dr. Miller wets
these quickly by pouring hot water at the to be corners while
they are yet in the package. They must be even in the pack.
If, as argued by Messrs. Dadant, Foster and Tinker, the sec-
tions opeu on all sides are superior, then we must perforce use
these one-piece sections, rather than the dovetailed.
This last desirable feature is best secured in the plain.
section (Fig. 106), so-called in distinction from the bee-space
Fic. 106.
Plain Sections in Super, Showing Frame-Holders and Fence.
—From A, I, Root Co.
er bee-way sections just described. These are like the ends of
the one-piece section.all around (Fig. 106); that is, the bottom
and top are not cut out to form bee-spaces. These plain sec-
tions give free communication, and thus are more readily
filled, and as the honey projects to the very edge they look
neater (Fig. 108). Of course, there _is less wood than in the
bee-space sections, and all edges are even. They are more
easily and quickly scraped to remove propolis, etc. They are
242 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
rapidly growing in favor. These are used with ‘‘fences,”’ to
be described, and in the ordinary supers (Fig. 106).
Heretofore there have been two prevailing sizes of sec-
tions in use in the United States—the prize section (Fig. 105),
which is five and one-fourth by six and one-fourth inches, and
the one-pound section (Fig. 104), which is four and one-fourth
inches square. The latter is coming rapidly to the front, as
Fic. 107.
af,
Jf,
4
Plain Sections in Super, Showing Fence.—From A. I. Root Co.
honey in it sells more readily than if in a larger section. Even
half-pound sections have taken the lead in the Boston and
Chicago markets. It is barely possible that these small sections
will rule generally in the markets of the future. They would
often sell more readily, and are far better to ship, as the combs
will seldom if ever break from the sections. If, in arranging
our sections, we desire to have them oblong, we would better
make them so that they will be longestup and down. Mr. D.
A. Jones finds that if so made they are filled and capped much
sooner (Fig. 108). Captain J. EK. Hetherington prefers the
oblong section, being one which is three and seven-eighths by
five inches. Mr. Danzenbaker uses one which is four by five
inches. He thinks honey in such sections (Fig. 108) sells for a
higher price. In the depth of the section, which fixes the
thickness of the comb, a change from the common style seems
to be desirable. Heretofore they have been generally made
two inches deep. With such sections we must use separators
to secure perfect combs. Dr. Miller uses separators, and pre-
fers a depth of one and five-sevenths, or two inches. By
reducing the depth to from one and three-eighths to one and
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 243
three-fourths inches, the expense of separators is found by
some to be unnecessary. In feeding back to have sections
completed, or where each section is removed as soon as capped,
separators are indispensable. While I have never succeeded
satisfactorily without separators—as the sections of comb
would not be regular enough to ship well—yet I prefer the
depth of my sections to be one and five-sevenths inches, or
seven to the foot. These hold about three-fourths of a pound.
I now believe that the best section for to-day is one four and
one-quarter inches square and one and five-sevenths inches in
Fic. 108.
A ek ae
Oblong and Square Sections.—From A. I, Root Co.
depth. We secure nicer comb for the table, with the thinner
combs, and more bees are able to work on a super or frame of
sections, so that the foundation is more speedily drawn out.
While a little more honey might be secured in two-pound sec-
tions, the market would, I think, make their use undesirable.
Of course, any decided change in the form and size of our sec-
tions involves no small expense, as it requires that the supers
244 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
or frames for holding the sections should also he changed.
Often, however, by a little planning we can vary the form so
as to reduce the size, without necessitating this expense.
HOW TO PLACK SECTIONS IN POSITION.
There are two methods, each of which is excellent, and
has, as it well may, earnest advocates—one by use of frames,
the other by supers.
SECTIONS IN FRAMES.
Frames for holding sections (Fig. 109) are made the same
size as the frames in the brood-chamber. The depth of the
Fic. 109.
Gallup Section-Frame.—Original.
frame, however, is the same as the depth of the sections. The
bottom-bar is three-eighths of an inch narrower than the
remainder of the frame, so that when two frames are side by
side, there is three-eighths of an inch space between the bot-
tom-bars, though the top and side pieces are close together.
In case sections are used that are open on all sides, then the
ends of the section-frames must also be narrow. I should fear
such an arrangement would be objectionable from the amount
of propolis that would be used by the bees to make all secure.
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 245
The sections are of such a size (Fig. 110) that four, six or
nine, etc., will just fill one of the large frames. Nailed to one
side of each large frame are two tin, or thin wooden, strips
(Fig. 110, ¢, ¢) in case separators are to be used, as long as the
frame, and as wide into one inch as are the sections. These
are tacked half aninch fromthe top and the bottom of the
Fic. 110.
u il!
il
vill
Gallup Frame with Sections,—Original.
large frames, and so are opposite the sections, thus permitting
the bees to pass readily from one tier of sections to another,
as do the narrower top and bottom bars of the sections, from
those below to those above. Captain Hetherington tells me
that Mr. Quinby used these many years ago. It is more
trouble to make these frames if we have the tins set in soas
just to come flush with the edge of the end-bars of the frames,
but then the frames would hang close together, and would not
be so stuck together with propolis. These may be hung in the
second story of a two-story hive, and just enough to fill the
same—my hives will take nine—or they can be put below,
beside the brood-combs. Mr. Doolittle, in case he hangs these
below, inserts a perforated division-board, so that the queen
will not enter the sections and lay eggs.
’
246 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
The perforated-zinc division-board (Fig. 92) would serve
admirably for this purpose. A honey-board (Fig. 91) of the
same material keeps sections, either in supers or frames, that
are above the hive, neat, and also keeps the queen from enter-
ing them. The workers enter just as freely.
In long hives, the ‘* New Idea’’—which, though I would
not use, nor advise any one else to use, I have found quite sat-
isfactory, after several years’ trial, especially for extracted
honey—I have used these frames of sections, and with good
success. The Italians enter them at once, and fill them even
more quickly than other bees fill the sections in the upper
story. In fact, one great advantage of these sections in the
frames is the obvious and ample passageways, inviting the
Fic. 111.
Langstroth Frame with One-Pound Sections.—From A, I, Root Co.
bees toenter them. But in our desire to make ample and invit-
ing openings, caution is required that wedo not overdo the
matter, and invite the queen to injurious intrusion. So we
have Charybdis and Scylla, and must, by study, learn so to
steer between as to avoid both dangers.
Mr. Jones finds that by using the division-board made of
perforated-zinc (Fig 92), the queenis kept from the sections,
and they can be safely placed in one end of the body of the
hive.
Figure 111 shows a Langstroth frame full of one-pound
sections. As already stated, Mr. Heddon recommends the use
of one-story wide-frames, with separators, and so made as to
admit of inversion (Fig. 93). At first I used these deep frames
exclusively. The great objection to them is the daubing with
propolis, and difficulty of removing the sections from the wide
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 247
frames. This has led me to replace the wide frames by the
more convenient and desirable section-case or crate.
CRATES OR RACKS.
These (Fig. 112) are to be usedin lieu of large frames, to
hold sections, and are very convenient, as we can use one tier
Fic. 112.
mT) @
‘ B| h |
NUT G
H
Fs:
Crate for Sections.—Original.
at first, and asthe harvest advances tier up, or ‘ storify,” as
our British friends would say, until we may use three, or even
Fic. 113.
L Super.—From A. I. Root Co.
four, tiers of sections ona single hive. I think this far the
best arrangement for securing comb honey.
Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, have long used a
very neat rack, as seen in Fig. 112.
248 THE BEEH-KERPHR’S GUIDE;
It will be seen that the Heddon case (Fig. 93), already
described (page 225) asa part of the Heddon-Langstroth hive,
is only a modification of the Southard crate. This crate does
not permit the use of separators,
The case or super preferred and used by Dr. C. C. Miller
(Fig. 113) is one with 1 shaped tin supports, on which rest the
sections. This is just like the Heddon case, except the parti-
tions are omitted. Projecting tin strips are tacked on the bot-
tom of the sides as wellas ends. These strips on the ends
help hold the end rows of sections, while those on the sides
hold the 4 shaped tins, which in turn support the sections. As
the vertical part of the | supports the separator, it should not
be more than one-half inch high. As most of us use—must
use—separators, this is probably one of the best section-honey
Fic. 114.
Hilton T Super.—From A. I. Root Co.
cases for us, and so one of the best arrangements for securing
comb honey. Mr. Hilton (Fig. 114), of Michigan, does not like
the movable 1 supports, and so he omits the projecting tin
pieces, and tacks the 4 tins at the ends to the bottom of the
side of the case.
Mr. Heddon has a case (Fig. 93) which permits inversion,
through the use of wide frames and thumb-screws. Still
another method to support sections (Fig. 115) has many advo-
cates. The case is like the one used with the _ tins, but has
projecting tin supports tacked to the ends only. On these rest
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 249
plain frames with no top-bar (Fig. 115), which in turn support
the sections. If bee-space sections are used, then the bottom-
bar of these frame-supports must have bee-ways or spaces cut
Fic. 115.
Dovetailed Super with Frames and Section-holders.—From A. I. Root Co.
D Wooden Separator.
£ Sections with Foundation Starters.
in them. ‘These are also used to hold the plain sections (Fig.
106), in which case, as the fence (Fig. 116) always used with
these sections furnishes a bee-way, the frames, like the sec-
tions, are entirely plain. Of course, separators can be used
with these supports, in case we use the bee-space sections.
Fic. 116,
Fence for Plain Sections,—From A. I. Root Co.
FENCES.
The fenceis simply a slatted separator made by nailing
three boards (Fig. 116) three-sixteenths of an inch apart to end
posts, which project three-eighths of an inch below the lowest
250 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
board; cross-pieces of the same thickness as the corner posts,
three-sixteenths of an inch, are like the corner posts nailed on
each side connecting the boards of the fence. They do not
reach below the lowest board. Thus, these fences permit very
free communication (Figs. 106, 107). The whole distance at
the bottom of the sections has a wide bee-way which also
reaches part way up the ends. Of course, the cross-pieces are
exactly opposite the ends of the sections which they separate.
As these separators have spaces, they give ample connection
between sections, and favor rapid comb-building and honey-
storing. Fences are also placed outside the last row of sec-
tions. They secure added warmth by the double wall of bees,
and so better filled sections. No wonder that these plain sec-
tions and fences are rapidly coming into use. Their use, of
course, necessitates the use of cases with frames having no
top-bars to hold the sections and fences (Fig. 106).
If we discard separators the old Heddon case is excellent;
if we must use separators then the case with | shaped tin
supports is perhaps the best in the market. Theplain sections
are so admirable that they will be largely used; then the frame
supports must be used. In any casea follower (Fig. 115, D)
should be used to crowd the sections with separators close
together. This may be pushed by use of a thumb-screw (Fig.
114), wedge, or steel spring.
Mr. Adam Grimm once wrote that boxes above the hive
should not be closely covered. As already stated, Mr. Heddon
puts no close cover over his sections. Mr. Hasty is pleased
with simply a cloth, cheap muslin, above his sections, anda
board cover to protect from rains. Such ventilation of the
sections is scientific as well as practical.
All apiarists who desire to work for comb honey that will
sell, will certainly use the sections, and adjust them by use of
either frames or cases. Each method has its friends, though
I think cases or supers are justly taking the lead.
SEPARATORS.
These may be of woodor tin. While the tin were first
used, and do work well, the wood seem to be growing in favor,
and seem likely wholly to replace the tin. The wood are poorer
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 251
conductors of heat, and also give a foothold for the bees, both
of which are desirable qualities.
FOOT-POWER SAW.
Every apiarist, who keeps only a few bees, will find, if he
makes his own hives. a foot-power saw very valuable. I have
used, with great satisfaction, the admirably combined foot-
power saw of W. F. & John BarnesCo. It permits rapid work,
Fic. 117.
NT
Ti
Weieaig iy
Ysgrme h
Horse-Power.—From A, I. Root Co.
ANNA
insures uniformity, and enables the apiarist to give a finish to
his work that would rival that of the cabinet-maker.
Those who procure such a machine should learn to file and
set the saw,and should mever run the machine when not in
perfect order.
When just beginning the business it will generally be
wise to secure a fully equipped hive of some bee-keeper or
dealer in supplies. If thereis a hive factory near at hand, it
may pay to buy all hives ready made ; otherwise high freights
may make this unprofitable, If a person wishes to manufacture
252 THE BEE-KEEPHR’S GUIDE;
hives by the score, either for himself or others, even the foot-
power saw will soon become too slow and wearying. In this
case some use wind-power, which is too uncertain to give full
satisfaction ; others use horse-power, and still others procure
a small steam-engine.
Mr. M. H. Hunt, a very thoughtful apiarist, uses a very con-
venient horse-power (Fig. 117). The large wheel is fifteen feet
in diameter, the horse is inside the rim, and the band consists
Fic. 118.
Saw-Table.—From A, I, Root Co.
of a chain, that it may not slip. To get the horse in position,
the wheel is simply lowered.
I have used a tread-power which pleases me much. It is
safe, can be used under shelter, and if one has colts or young
horses it serves well to quiet them. As gasoline engines are
now so cheap, and convenient; and as crude oil for steam en-
gines is so cheap, such engines will generally be preferred
when one’s business is at all extensive. In case we use other
than foot or hand power, our saw-table must be firm and heavy.
The one illustrated here (Fig. 118) is recommended by Mr. A.
I. Root.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 253
CHAPTER VI.
POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF APIARY.
As it is desirable to have our apiary grounds so fixed as to
give the best results, and as this costs some money and more
labor, it should be done once for all. As plan and execution
in this direction must needs precede even the purchase of bees,
this subject deserves an early consideration. Hence, we will
proceed to consider position, arrangement of grounds, and
preparation for each individual colony.
POSITION,
Of course, it is of the first importance that the apiary be
nearathand. In city or village this is imperative. In the
country, or at suburban homes, we have more choice, but close
proximity to the house is of much importance. In a city it
may be necessary to follow Mr. Muth’s example, and locate on
the house-tops, where, despite the inconvenience, we may
achieve success. The lay of the ground is not important,
though, if a hill, it should not be very steep. It may slope in
any direction, but better any way than toward the north. Of
course, each hive should stand perfectly level.
ARRANGEMENT OF GROUNDS.
Unless sandy, these should be well drained. If a grove
offers inviting shade, accept it, but trim high to avoid damp.
Such a grove could soon be formed of basswood and tulip
trees, which, as we shall see, are very desirable, as their bloom
offers plenteous and most delicious honey. Even Virgil urged
shade of palm and olive, also that we screen the bees from
winds. Wind-screens are very desirable, especially on the
windward side. Such ascreen may be formed of a tall board
fence, which, if it surrounds the grounds, will also serve to
protect against thieves. Yet theseare gloomy and forbidding,
254 THH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
and will be eschewed by the apiarist who has an eye to
esthetics. Evergreen screens, either of Norway spruce,
Austrian or other pine, or arbor vite, each or all are not only
very effective, but are quickly grown, inexpensive, and add
greatly to the beauty of the grounds. In California eucalyp-
tus is very desirable shade. The species grow vigorously,
stand drouth, and if wisely selected afford much honey. Such
a fence or hedge is also very desirable if the bees are neara
street or highway. It not only shuts the bees away, as it
were, but it so directs their flight upward that they will not
trouble passers-by. If the apiary is large, a small, neat, inex-
pensive house in the center of the apiary grounds is indispen-
sable. ‘This will serve in winter as a shop for making hives,
frames, etc., and as a store-house for honey, while in summer
it will be used for extracting, transferring, storing, bottling,
etc. In building this, it will be well to construct a frost-proof,
thoroughly drained, dark and well-ventilated cellar. (See
Chapters XVIII and XIX.)
PREPARATION FOR KACH COLONY.
Virgil was right in recommending shade for each colony.
Bees are forced to cluster outside the hive, if the bees are sub-
jected to the full force of the sun’s rays. By the intense heat
the temperature inside becomes like that of an oven, and the
wonder is that they do not desert entirely. I have known
hives, thus unprotected, to be covered with bees, idling outside,
when, by simply shading the hives, all would go merrily to
work. The combs, too, and foundation especially, are liable,
in unshaded hives, to melt and fall down, which is very dam-
aging to the bees, and very vexatious to the apiarist. The
remedy for all this is always to have the hives so situated that
they will be entirely shaded all through the heat of the day.
This might be done, as in the olden time, by constructing a
shed or house, but these are expensive and very inconvenient,
and, therefore, to be discarded.
If the aiarist has a convenient grove this may be trimmed
high, so as not to be damp, and will fulfill every requirement.
So arrange the hives that while they are shaded through all
the heat of the day, they will receive the sun’s rays early ard
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 255
late, and thus the bees will work more hours. I always face
my hives to the east. Sucha grove is also very agreeable to
the apiarist who often must work all the day in the hottest
Fic. 119.
Nucleus and Simplicity Hive Shaded by Grape-vine.—From A. I. Root Co.
sunshine. If no grove is at command, the hives may be placed
on the north of a Concord grape-vine (Fig. 119), or other vig-
orous variety, as the apiarist may prefer. This should be
256 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
trained toa trellis, which may be made by setting two posts,
either of cedar or oak. Let these extend four or five feet above
the ground, and be three or four feet apart. Two or three
supporting arms of narrow boards can be nailed at right
angles to a single post on which to train the vines, or we may
connect them at intervals of eighteen inches with three gal-
vanized wires, the last one being at thetop of the posts. Thus
we can have shade and grapes, and can see for ourselves that
bees do not injure grapes. These should be at least six feet
apart. A. I. Root’s idea of having the vine of each succeeding
row divide the spaces of the previous row, in quincunx order
(Fig. 120), is very good ; though I should prefer the rows in this
case to be four instead of three feet apart. I have tried grape-
vines and evergreens to shade hives, and do not like them.
They are too much in the way. UnlessI can have a grove
trimmed high up I much prefer a simple shade-board as already
suggested. ‘This is simply a wide board nailed to the edge of
two cross-boards, which are about fourinches wide. I make
these eighteen inches wide by two feet long. I have some
even larger. If one cross-board is a little narrower it givesa
slant that insures a rapid removalof the waterin arain. I
have never known these shade-boards to blow off. Should
they do so a second board parallel to the shade-board could be
nailed to the cross-boards. A brick placed on this would make
all secure. This shade-board is inexpensive, always out of
the way, and ready for service.
Many apiarists economize by using fruit-trees for shade,
which, from their spreading tops, serve well, though often
from their low branches they are not pleasant to work under.
Mr. Doolittle thinks if hives are painted white shade is unneces-
sary. Mr. A. I. Root’s idea of having sawdust under and
about the hives has much to recommend it. The objection to
sawdust is the danger from fire. I have used sawdust, cement,
asphalt, etc. I think on the whole a tine grass lawn kept
closely and smoothly mown is as convenient as any plan, and
it certainly has taste and beauty to recommend it. If closely
mown, one will rarely lose a queen. While ashes or sawdust
make a queen walking upon them more conspicuous, I much
prefer the beautiful grass plat.
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 257
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Fie. 120. Grape-Vine Apiary.—From A. I. Root Co.
258 THE BRE-KEHPER'S GUIDE;
CHAPTER VIL
TO TRANSFER BEES.
As the prospective bee-keeper may have purchased his
bees in box-hives, barrels, or hollow logs, and so, of course,
will desire to transfer them immediately into movable-frame
hives, or, as already suggested, may wish to transfer from one
movable-frame to another, I will now proceed to describe the
process.
Among the many valuable methods which Mr. Heddon has
given to the bee-keeping public, not the least valuable is that of
transferring. This method should be used only at or just before
the swarming season—the best time to transfer. After blow-
ing a little smoke into the hive, sufficient to alarm the bees,
we set it a little aside, and put in its place the new hive full of
wired foundation. We now turn the old hive, whatever it may
be, bottom side up, and place a box over it. If the bees are
sufficiently smoked, it will make no difference even if the box
is not close-fitting to the old hive. Yet the beginner will feel
safer to have it so; and in this case no stinging can take
place. We then witha stick or hammer rap onthe hive for
from ten to twenty minutes. The bees will fill with honey
and go with the queen into the upper box and cluster. If
towards the last we carefully set the box off once or twice, and
vigorously shake the hive, and then replace the box, we will
hasten the emigration of the bees, and make it more complete.
I got this last suggestion from Mr. Baldridge. A few young
bees will still remain in the old hive, but these will do no harm.
We next take the box, which contains the queen and nearly
all the bees, and shake the bees all out in front of the hive
already placed on the old stand. The bees willat once take
possession, draw out, or better, build out, the foundation ina
surprisingly short time, and will give us a set of combs which
will surpass in beauty those’ procured in any other way.
Should the bees be unable to gather any honey for some days,
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 259
which at this season is not likely to occur, of course we must
feed them.
We set the old hive aside for twenty-one days, when the
young bees will all come from the cells. Should the weather
be cold, it might be wellto put thisin a warm room, so the
brood will not chill. At the time of swarming this will rarely
be necessary. We now drum out these bees as before, kill the
queen, which has been reared, and unite the bees with the
others, or form a separate colony as before, as the number of
bees determines. We can now split out the corners of the
old hive, split the gum, or separate the staves of the barrel,
so as not to break the comb. This should be carefully cut
loose, and the honey extracted by use of the wire comb-holder
(Fig. 150), and the comb melted into wax for foundation. The
only loss in this method is the time which the bees require to
build out the foundation, and this is far more than made up in
the superior combs which are secured. I think the time
expended in melting up the combs, etc., is more than made up
by the time saved in transferring.
THE OLD METHOD.
If one has no foundation, or desires to give the bees the
comb'and honey at once, even at. the cost of less shapely
combs, he then should drum the bees out as before, on a warm
day when they are busy at work, and put the box containing
the bees on the old stand, leaving the edge raised so that the
bees which are out may enter, and so all the bees can get air.
This method is difficult, except in early spring, and is best
done about noon, when the bees are busy on the fruit-bloom.
It is not safe to transfer on a hot day, when the bees are idle,
as the risks from robbing are too great. If other bees do not
trouble, as they usually will not if busily gathering, we can
proceed in the open air. If theydo, we must go into some
room. I have frequently transferred the comb in my kitchen,
and often in a barn.
Now knock the old hive apart, as already described, cut
the combs from the sides, and get the combsout of the old
hive with just as little breakage as possible. Mr. Baldridge,
if transferring in spring, saws the combs and cross-sticks
2600 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
loose from the sides, turns the hive into the natural position,
then strikes against the top of the hive with a hammer till the
fastenings are broken loose, when he lifts the hive, and the
combs are all free and in convenient shape for rapid work.
We now need a barrel, set on end, on which we placea
board fifteen to twenty inches square, covered with several
thicknesses of cloth. Some apiarists think the cioth useless,
but it serves, I think, to prevent injury to comb, brood or
honey. We now place a comb on this cloth, and seta frame
on the comb, and cut out a piece of the combthe size of the
inside of the frame, taking pains to save all the worker-brood.
Now crowd the frame over the comb, so that the latter will be
in the same position that it was when in the oid hive ; that is,
so the honey will be above—the position is not very important
—then fasten the comb in the frame, by winding about all one
or two small wires, or pieces of wrapping-twine. To raise the
frame and comb before fastening, raise the board beneath till
Fic. 121. Fic, 122.
Transferring-Clasp.—
From American Bee Journal,
Transferred Comb.—From American Bee Journal.
the frame is vertical. Set this frame in the new hive, and
proceed with the others in the same way till we have all the
worker-comb—that with small cells—fastened in. To secure
the pieces, which we shall find abundant at the end, take thin
pieces of wood, one-half inch wide, and a trifle longer than the
frame is deep, place these in pairs either side the comb,
extending up and down, and enough to hold the pieces secure
till the bees shall fasten them (Fig. 121), and secure the strips
by winding with small wire, just below the frame (Fig. 122),
or by use of small rubber bands, or else tack them to the frame
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 261
with small tacks. Some bee-keepers use U-shaped pieces of
wire or tin to hold the comb in the frame.
Captain Hetherington has invented and practices a very
neat method of fastening comb into frames. In constructing
his frames, he bores small holes through the top, side and
bottom bars of his frames, about two inches apart ; these holes
are just large enough to permit the passage of the long spines
of the hawthorn. Now, in transferring comb, he has but to
stick these thorns through into the comb to hold it securely.
He can also use all the pieces, and still make a neat and secure
frame of comb. He finds this arrangement convenient, too,
in strengthening insecure combs. In answer to my inquiry,
this gentleman said it paid well to bore such holesin all his
frames, which are eleven by sixteen inches, inside measure.
I discarded such frames because of the liability of the comb
to fall ont.
Having fastened all the nice worker-comb into the frames
—of course, all other comb will be melted into wax—we place
all the frames containing brood together in the center of our
new hive, especially if the colony is weak, or the weather cool,
and confine the space by use of the division-board, adding the
other frames as the bees may need them. We now place the
new hive on the stand, opening the entrance wide, so that the
bees can enter anywhere along the alighting-board. We then
shake all the bees from the box, and any young bees that may
have clustered on any part of the old hive, or on the floor or
ground, where we transferred the comb, immediately in front
of the hive. They will enter at once and soon be at work, all
the busier for having passed ‘“‘from the old house into the
new.”’ Intwo or three days remove the wires, or strings or
sticks, when we shall find the combs all fastened and smoothed
off, and the bees as busily engaged as though their present
home had always been the seat of their labors.
In practicing this method, many proceed at once to trans-
fer without drumming out the bees. Inthis case the bees
should be well smoked, should be driven, by the use of the
smoker, away from the side of the old hive where the combs
are being cut loose, and may be brushed direct from the old
combs into the new hive. This method will only be preferred
262 a THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
by the experienced. The beginner will find it more easy and
pleasant first to drum out all the bees before he commences to
cut out the combs. i
Of course, in transferring from one frame to another, the
matter is much simplified. In this case, after thoroughly
smoking the bees, we have but to lift the frames and shake or
brush the bees into the new hive. Fora brush, a chicken or
turkey wing, a large wing or tail feather from a turkey, goose
or peacock, or atwig of pine or bunch of asparagus twigs
serves admirably. Cheap and excellent brushes (Fig. 154) are
now for sale by all supply-dealers. Now cut out the comb in
the best form to accommodate the new frames, and fasten as
already suggested. After the combs are all transferred, shake
all remaining bees in front of the new hive, which has already
been placed on the stand previously occupied by the old hive.
Sometimes bees from trees in the forest are transferred to
hives and the apiary.
HUNTING BEE-TREES.
Except for recreation, this is seldom profitable. It is
slow and uncertain work. The tree, when found, is not our
own, and though the owner may consent to our cutting it, he
may dislike to do so. The bees, when found, are difficult to
get alive; itis even more difficult to get the honey in good
condition, and, when secured, the honey and bees are often
almost worthless.
The principle upon which bees are “‘lined’’ is this: That
after filling with honey, a bee always takes a direct course—
‘*a bee-line ’’—to its hive. To hunt the bee-trees we needa
bottle of sweetened water, a little honey-comb, unless the bees
are gathering freely from forest flowers, and a small bottom-
less box with a sliding glass cover, and a small shelf attached
to the middle of one side on the inside of the box. A shallow
tray, or piece of honey-comb, is to be fastened to this shelf.
If the bees are not found on flowers, we can attract them by
burning a piece of honey-comb. If on a flower, set the box
over them after turning a little of the sweetened water in the
comb or tray on the shelf. It is easy to get them to sipping
this sweet. Then slide the glass, and, when they fly, watch
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 263
closely and see the direction they take. By following this
line we come to the bee-tree, or more likely to some neighbor’s
apiary. By getting two lines, if the bees are from the same
tree, the tree will be where the lines meet. We should be care-
ful not to be led to neighboring apiaries, and should look very
closely when the bees fly, to be sureof the line. Experience
makes a person quite skillful. It need hardly be said that in
warm days in winter, when there is snow on the ground, we
may often find bee-trees by noting dead bees on the snow, as
also the spotting of the snow, as the bees void their feces.
When a tree is found, we must use all possible ingenuity to
get the combs whole if we wish to transfer the bees. We may
cut in and remove the comb; may cut out the section of tree
containing the bees and lower this by use of a rope; or we
may fellthe tree. In this last case we may make the destruc-
tion less complete if we fall the tree on other smaller trees to
lessen the jar. ;
264 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
CHAPTER VIII
FEEDING AND FEEDERS.
As already stated, it is only when the worker-bees are
storing that the queen deposits to the full extent of her capa-
bility, and that brood-rearing is at its height. In fact, when
storing ceases, general indolence characterizes the hive. This
is peculiarly true of the German and Italian races of bees.
Hence, if we would achieve the best success, we must keep the
workers active, even before gathering commences, as also in
the interims of honey-secretion by the flowers; and to do this
we must feed sparingly before the advent of bloom in the
spring, and whenever the workersare forced to idleness during
any part of the season, by the absence of honey-producing
flowers. For a number of years I have tried experiments in
this direction by feeding a portion of my colonies early in the
season, and in the intervals of honey-gathering, and always
with marked results in favor of the practice. Ofcourse it is
not well to feed unless we expect a honey harvest the same
season. Thus, I would not feed after clover or basswood
bloom unless I expected a fall harvest. The fact that honey
seasons are uncertain, makes the policy of feeding merely
to stimulate questionable.
Mr. D. A. Jones has truly said that if feeeding in the
autumn be deferred too long, till the queen ceases laying, it
often takes much time to get her to resume, and not infre-
quently we fail entirely.
Every apiarist, whether novice or veteran, will often
receive ample reward by practicing stimulative feeding early
in the season; then his hive at the dawn of the white clover
era will be redundant with bees, well filled with brood, and in
just the trim to receive a bountiful harvest of this most
delicious nectar.
Feeding is often necessary to secure sufficient stores for
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 265
winter—for no apiarist, worthy of the name, will suffer his
faithful, willing subjects to starve, when so little care and
expense will prevent it. This is peculiarly true in Southern
California, where severe drouths often prevent any harvest,
and these may occur on two successive years.
If we only wish to stimulate, the amount fed need not be
great. A half pounda day, or even less, will be all that is
necessary to encourage the bees to active preparation for the
good time coming. For information in regard to supplying
stores for winter, see Chapter XVIII.
Bees, when very active, especially in very warm weather,
like most higher animals, need water. ‘This very likely is to
permit evaporation in respiration, and the necessary cooling
of the body. At such times bees repair to pool, stream or
watering-trough. As with other animals, the addition of salt
makes the water more appetizing, and doubtless more valuable.
Unless water is near, it always ought to be furnished to bees.
Any vessel containing chipsor small pieces of boards to secure
against drowning will serve for giving water. In case bees
trouble about watering-troughs, a little carbolic acid or kero-
sene-oil on the edge of the trough will often send them away.
WHAT TO FEED.
For this purpose I would feed granulated sugar, reduced to
the consistency of honey, or else extracted honey kept over
from the previous year. If we use two-thirds syrup and one-
third good honey we save all danger of crystallization or
granulation. We add the honey when the syrup is hot, and
stir. The price of the honey will decide which is the more
profitable. The careful experiments of R. lL. Taylor show
that nearly three times as much honey as syrup will be con-
sumed. This argues strongly for the syrup. Dark, inferior
honey often serves well for stimulative feeding, and as it is
not salable, may well be used in this way. To make the
syrup, I use one quart of water to two of sugar, and heat till
the sugar is dissolved. Mr. R. l. Taylor first boils the water,
hen stirs in the sugar till all boils, when ke says it will not
granulate even with no acid added. This also removes all
danger of burning the syrup, which must never be done. By
266 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
stirring till allthe sugar is dissolved we may make the syrup
without any heat. We use equal parts of sugar and water,
and may easily stir by using the honey extractor. We putin
the water and add the sugar as we turn the machine. A little
tartaric acid—an even teaspoonful to fifteen pounds of syrup—
or evena little extracted honey, will also prevent crystalliza-
tion. If fed warm in early spring it is all the better.
Many advise feedin the poorer grades of sugar in spring.
My own experience makes me question the policy of ever using
such feed for bees. The feeding of glucose or grape sugar is
even worse policy. It is bad food for the bees, and its use is
dangerous to the bee-keeper’s reputation, and injurious to our
brother bee-keepers. Glucose is so coupled with fraud and
adulteration that he who would ‘‘avoid the appearance of
evil’’ must let it severely alone.
In all feeding, unless extracted honey is what we are
using, we can not exercise too great care that such feed is not
carried to the surplus boxes. Only let our customers once
taste sugar in their comb honey, and not only is our own repu-
tation gone, but the whole fraternity is injured. In case we
wish to have our combs in the sections filled or capped, we
must feed extracted honey, which may often be done with
gredt advantage. I have often fed extracted honey back to
the bees, after the honey-flow ceased, when it would be quickly
stored in the sections. More frequently, however, I have
utterly failed of success.
HOW TO FEED.
The requisites of a good feeder are: Cheapness, a form to
admit quick feeding, to permit no loss of heat, and so arranged
that we can feed at all seasons without in any way disturbing
the bees. The feeder (Fig. 123), which Ihave used with good
satisfaction, isa modified division-board, the top-bar of which
(Fig. 123, 6) is two inches wide. From the upper central por-
tion, beneath the top-bar, a rectangular piece the size of an
oyster-can is replaced with an oyster-can (Fig. 123, g), after
the top of the latter has been removed. A vertical piece of
wood (Fig. 123, d)is fitted into the can so asto separate a
space about one inch square, on one side, from the balance of
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY, 267
the chamber. This piece does not reach quite to the bottom
of the can, there being a one-eighth inch space beneath. In
the top-bar there is an opening (Fig. 123, ¢) just above the
smaller space below. In the larger space is a wooden float
(Fig. 123, /) full of holes. On one side opposite the larger
chamber of the can, a half-inch piece of the top (Fig. 123, e) is
cut off, so that the bees can pass between the can and top-bar
on to the float, where they can sip the feed. The feed is
turned into the hole in the top-bar (Fig. 123, 2), and without
touching a bee, passes down under the vertical strip (Fig. 123,
d) and raises the float (Fig. 123, 7). The can may be tacked to
Fic. 123.
Division- Board Feeder.—Original.
Lower part of the face of the can removed, to show float, ete.
—Original.
the board at the ends near the top. Two or three tacks
through the can into the vertical piece (Fig. 123, d) will hold
the latter firmly in place; or the top-bar may press on the
vertical piece so that it can not move. Crowding a narrow
piece of woolen cloth between the can and board, and nailing
a similar strip around the beveled edge of the division-board,
makes all snug. ‘The objection to this feeder is that it can not
be placed just above the cluster of bees. On very cold days in
spring the bees can not reach their food in any other position.
The feeder is placed at the end of the brood-chamber, and the
268 THE BEK-KKEPER’S GUIDE;
top-bar covered by the quilt. To feed, we have only to fold
the quilt over, when with a tea-pot we pour the feed into the
hole in the top-bar. Ifa honey-board is used, there must bea
hole in this just above the hole in the division-board feeder.
In either case no bees can escape, the heat is confined, and our
division-board feeder is but little more expensive than a
division-board alone.
Some apiarists prefer a quart can set on a block (Fig.
124), or it may be used with a finely perforated cover. This is
Fic. 124.
,
Fruit-Jar Ieeder.—From A. I, Root Co.
filled with liquid, the cover put on, andthe whole quickly
inverted and set above a hole in the cover just above the bees.
Owing to the pressure of the air, the liquid will not descend so
rapidly that the bees can not sipit up. ‘The objections to this
feeder are, that it is awkward, raises the cushions so as to per-
mit the escape of heat, and must be removed to receive the
feed. Mr. A. I. Root recommends the little butter-trays sold
at the groceries, for feeding. These cost only one-third of a
cent. ‘‘Need no float, and work admirably.’’ I have tried
these, and think they have only their cheapness to recom-
mend them. They raise the cover, can not be filled without
disturbing the bees, leak, and daub the bees. Even paper
sacks of good quality, with small holes in them, have been
used. They are laidon the frames, and cost very little. As
feeders last fora lifetime, I prefer to pay more and get good
ones.
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 269
The Simplicity feeder (Fig. 125), invented by A. I. Root,
is shown on its side in the illustration. This is used at the
entrance, and sois not good for cold weather. As the feed is
Fic. 125.
Simplicity Bee-Feeder.—From A. I. Root Co.
exposed it can only be used at night, when the bees are not
flying. Itis never, I think, desirable to feed outside the hive.
The Shuck feeder (Fig. 126) is a modification of the Sim-
plicity, anda great improvement. This is used at the en-
trance of the hive, or by nailing two together, so that the sides
marked D will face each other, we can use it above the bees.
We then would place the opening D above a hole in the cloth
Fic. 126,
Shuck’s Boss Bee-Feeder.—From American Bee Journal.
cover, or honey-board, turn the feed in at C,and the bees
would come up at D, pass under the cover, and down into the
saw-cuts (Fig. 126, 4, A), when they would sip the feed, and
then crawl up on the partitions. This feeder works admirably.
but it is patented, costs too much, and is improved in the
270 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
SMITH FEEDER.
This feeder (Fig. 127) is larger than the Shuck—I make
them eight by twelve inches—and is covered all over with wire
gauze (Fig. 127, a), which is raised by the wooden rim so that
the bees can pass readily over the partitions (Fig. 127). The
central saw-cuts (Fig. 127) do not reach the end of the feeder,
sothereisa platform left (Fig. 127, 6) through which a hole
(Fig. 127, c) is made. This rests above a hole in the cloth
Fic. 127,
Smith Bee-Feeder.—Origina?.
below, and is the door through which the bees reach the feed.
When in position just above the bees it may be covered by a
shingle or piece of pasteboard, to prevent daubing the cloth or
cushion, and all by the chaff cushion. To feed, we have only
to raise the cushion and the pasteboard, and turn the food
through the gauze. No bees can get out, there is no disturb-
ance, no danger from the robbers, and we can feed at any
time, and can feed very rapidly if desired. I like this feeder
the best of any I have ever tried. I make them outof two-inch
Plane ,
e Heddon feeder (Fig. 128) is much the same in princi-
ple as the Smith, and has all the advantages. It is the size of
a section-crate, and soholds many pounds. The figure makes
it plain. The spaces in this are not saw-cuts, but are formed
by thin boards nailed in a box vertically, anda space on one
or both sides (Fig. 128) does not connect with the food reser-
voir, but serves as a passage-way for the bees from hive to
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 271
feeder. In the center is a passage (Fig. 128, c) which connects
with the food reservoir, but is not accessible to the bees. In
this the food is poured when feeding, which makes it unneces-
sary to have the wire gauze above, or tosmear the top when
feeding, asin case of the Smith feeder, yet this feeder does
not retain the heat in spring. ‘The center of the cover slides
back, so the whole cover need not be removed when feeding is
done. The vertical partitions, except the one next to the space
(Fig. 128) where the foodis added, do not run quite to the
board which covers the feeder, and so the bees can pass into
Fic. 128.
Heddon Bee-Feeder.—From James Heddon.
all the spaces except where we pour in the food. No partition
except the one next to the space where the bees pass to and
from the hive runs quite to the bottom, so the food will pass
readily from one space to the other, and will always be equally
nigh in all. .
Mr. D. A. Jones and many others having tight bottom-
ooards to their hives use no feeder, but turn the feed right
into the hive. Dr. C.C. Miller, like L. C. Root, prefers to
feed by filling frames of empty comb with the syrup or honey.
The empty combs are laid flat, in a deep box or tub, under a
colander or finely perforated pan. The syrup, as it falls, fills
the cellsof comb. After the comb is filled on both sides, we
have only to hang it in the hive. I have found that by use of
a fine spray-nozzle and force-pum'p we can fill frames very fast.
‘The best time to feed is just at nightfall. In this case the
272 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
feed will be carried away before the next day, and the danger
to weak colonies from robbing is avoided.
In feeding during the cold days of April, all should be
close above the bees to economize heat. In all feeding, care is
requisite that we may not spillthe feed about the apiary, as
this may, and very generally will, induce robbing.
If, through neglect, the bees are found to be destitute of
stores in mid-winter, it is not best to feed liquid food, but solid
food, like the Viallon candy or the Good mixture of honey and
sugar, which will be described under the head of shipping
queens. Cakes of either of these should be placed on the
frames above the cluster of bees. Mr. Root has had excellent
success in feeding cakes of hard candy made as follows:
Granulated sugar is put in a pan and a very little water
added. Thisis heated by placing on a stove, but never in
direct contact with the fire. In the lattercase it may be
burned, as shown by the taste, odor, or from the fact that it
kills the bees. If the pan is placed on the stove, the contents
will never be burned. It must be boiled untilif dropped ona
saucer in cold water, or if the finger is wet in cold water, then
dipped in the hot sugar, and again in water, the hard sugar is
brittle. It must be boiled until the hardened product is brittle,
or else it will be too soft and will drip. It can now be stirred
untilit begins to thicken and then molded in dishes, or in the
regular comb frames. In this last case we lay the frame close
on a board covered with thin paper, and turn the thickening
sugar intoit. By adding one-fourth rye-meal we havea good
substitute for pollen, which may be used in case of a scarcity
of the latter. Of course, frames of this hard candy may be
hung right in the hive. Inacellar or on warm days outside
frames of honey may be given to the bees.
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 273
CHAPTER IX,
QUEEN-REARING.
Suppose the queen is laying two thousand eggs a day, and
that the full number of bees is forty thousand, or even more—
though as the bees are liable to so many accidents, and as the
queen does not always lay to her full capacity, it is quite
probable that this is about an average number—it will be seen
that each day that a colony is without a queen there is a loss
equal to about one-twentieth of the working force of the colony,
and this a compound loss, as the aggregate loss of any day is
its special loss augmented by the several losses of the previous
days. Now, as queens are liable to die or to become impotent,
and as the work of increasing colonies demands the absence of
queens, unless the apiarist has extra ones at his command, it
is imperative, would we secure the best results, ever to have at
hand extra queens. Queen-rearing for the marketis often
very remunerative, and often may well engage the apiarist’s
exclusive attention. So the young apiarist must learn early
HOW TO REAR QUEENS.
As queens may be needed early in the spring, preparations
looking to the rearing of queens must commence early. As
soon as the bees are able to fly regularly, we must see that
they have a supply of bee-bread. If there isnot a supply from
the past season, and the locality of the bee-keeper does not
furnish an early supply, then place unbolted flour (that of rye
or oats is best) in shallow troughs near the hives. It may be
well to give the whole apiary the benefit of such feeding before
the flowers yield pollen. If the bees are not attracted to this
we need not add honey, etc., to induce them totakeit. This
isa sure sign thatitis not needed. I found that in Central
Michigan bees can usually gather pollen by the first week of
April, which, I think, is as early as they should be allowed to
fly, and, in fact, as early as they will fly with sufficient
274 THE BER-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
regularity to make it pay to feed the meal. I much question,
after some years of experiment, if it is ever necessary at this
place to give the bees a substitute for pollen. In case of long
storms, the bee-bread may be exhausted. I have never known
such a case, when the hard candy frames with rye meal
described at the close of the last chapter may be hung in the
hive.
The best colony in the apiary—or if there are several colo-
nies of equal merit, one of these—should be stimulated to the
utmost, by daily feeding with warm syrup, and by increase of
brood taken from other colonies. As this colony becomes
strong, a comb containing drone-cells should be placed in the
center of the brood-nest. Very soon drone-eggs will be laid.
I have often had drones flying early in May. As soon as the
drones commence to appear, remove the queen and all eggs
and uncapped brood from some good, strong colony, and re-
place it with eggs or brood just hatched from the colony con-
taining the queen from which itis desired to breed. By hav-
ing placed one or two bright, new, empty combs in the midst
of the brood-nest of this colony four days beforehand, we shall
have in these combs just such eggs and newly hatching brood
as we desire, with no brood that is too old.
If we have more than one colony whose excellence war-
rants their use to breed from, then these eggs should be taken
from some other than the one which has produced our drones.
This will prevent the close in-breeding which would neces-
sarily occur if both queens and drones were reared in the same
colony; and which, though regarded as deleterious in the
breeding of all animals, should be practiced in case one single
queen is of decided superiority to all others of the apiary. The
queen and the brood that have been removed may be used in
making a new colony, in a manner soon to be described under
“Dividing or Increasing the Number of Colonies.’’ This
queenless colony will immediately commence forming queen-
cells (Fig. 93). Sometimes these are formed to the number of
fifteen or twenty, and in case of the Syrian and Cyprian races
fifty or sixty, andthey are started in a full, vigorous colony ;
in fact, under the most favorable conditions. Cutting off
edges of the comb, or cutting holesin the same where there
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 275
are eggs or larve just hatched, will almost always insure the
starting of queen-cells in such places. It will be noticed that
our queens are started from eggs, or from larve but just
hatched, as we have given the bees no other, and so they are
fed the royal pabulum from the first. Thus we have met every
possible requisite to secure the most superior queens. As we
removed all the brood the nurse-bees will have plenty of time,
and be sure to care well for these young queens. By removal
of the queen we also secure a large number of cells, while if
we waited for the bees to start the cells preparatory to natural
swarming, in which case we secure the two desirable condi-
tions named above, we shall probably fail to secure so many
cells, and may have to wait longer than we can afford.
Even the apiarist who keeps black bees and desires no
others, or who has only pure Italians, will still find that it
pays to practice this selection, for, as with the poultry fancier,
or the breeder of our larger domestic animals, the apiarist is
ever observing some individuals of marked superiority, and he
who carefully selects such queens to breed from, will be the
one whose profits will make him rejoice, and whose apiary will
be worthy of all commendation. It occursto me that in this
matter of careful selection and improvement of our bees by
breeding, rests our greatest opportunity to advance the art of
bee-keeping. As will be patent to all, by the above process we
exercise a care in breeding which is not surpassed by the best
breeders of horses and cattlg,'and which no wise apiarist will
ever neglect. Nor do I believe that Vogel can be correct in
thinking that drones give invariably one set of character and
the queens the others. This is contrary to all experience in
breeding larger animals.
It is often urged, and I think with truth, that we shall
secure better queens if we wait for the queen-cells to be started
naturally by the bees, under the swarming impulse; and by
early feeding and adding brood from other colonies we can
hasten this period; yet, if we feed to stimulate, whenever the
bees are not storing, and keep the colony redundant in bees
of all ages by adding plenty of capped brood from other colo-
nies, we shall find that our queens are little, if any, inferior,
even if their production is hastened by removal of a queen
276 THER BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
from the hive. If these directions are closely followed, there
will be little brood for the beesto feed, and the queen-cells
will not suffer neglect. Mr. Quinby not only advised this
course, but he recommended starting queen-cells in nuclei;
but he emphasized the importance of giving but very little
brood, so nearly all the strength of the nurse-bees would be
expended on the queen-cells.
After we have removed all the queen-cells. in a manner
soon to be described, we can again supply eggs, or newly-
hatched larve—always from those queens which close obser-
vation has shown to be the most vigorous and prolific in the
apiary—and thus keep the same queenless colony or colonies
engaged in starting queen-cells till we have all we desire.
Yet we must not fail to keep this colony strong by the addition
of capped brood, which we may take from any colony as most
convenient. It is well also to feed a little each day in case the
bees are not gathering. We must be cautious that our cells
are started from only such brood as we take from the choicest
queen. I have good reason to believe that queen-cells should
not be started after the first of September, as I have observed
that late qnecus are not only less prolific, but shorter lived.
In nature, lute queens are rarely produced, andif it is true
that they are inferior, it might be explainedin the fact that
their ovaries remain so long inactive. As queens that are so
long unmated are utterly worthless, so, too, freshly mated
queens long inactive may become enfeebled. However, some
of our queen-breeders think late queens just as good. Possibly
they may be, if reared with the proper cautions.
In eight or ten days the cells are capped, and the apiarist
is ready to form his nuclei. For the rearing of a small num-
ber of queens, the above is very satisfactory. If, however, we
are rearing queens forthe market, in which we must have
numerous cells at our command, and to ayoidcutting comb and
to secure better spacing better methods have been devised.
Mr. Henry Alley cut narrow single-celled strips of worker-
‘comb with newly-hatched larve, fastened these to the top-bar
of his frame, or to bars inserted parallel to the top-bar, and by
inserting the brimstone end of a match and turning it destroys
each alternate larva. These put in a colony dequeened, but
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 277
with many young bees and much hatching brood, gave him
good cells rightly spaced. Others have used drone comb cut
in the same way, and in each alternate cell have inserted a
little royal jelly from a queen-cell about ready to be capped,
and then added a worker-larva. This accomplishes the same
purpose, and mutilates no worker-comb.
Mr. Doolittle, who has given much time to research in this
line, first used the partially built queen-cells always to be
found in every hive. These could be fixed to comb or cross-
bars at pleasure, and by placing in eacha particle of royal
jelly and a newly-hatched larva, he secured good queen-cells.
If these were in a queenless colony with abundant young bees,
the best of queens were reared. Mr. Doolittle found, what I
am sure is true, that the best queens, bred naturally, were
those reared before the natural swarm issued, or were always
started as queens very early, if not from the egg itself, were
reared with plenty of nurse or young bees in the hive, and in
times, usually, of rapid gathering of honey. Mr. Doolittle
found that he could not always get his queen-cups or incipient
queen-cells when needed, and soon invented the valuable
Fic. 129.
Form for making Cups.—From A. I. Root Co.
method of dipping and producing artificial cups at pleasure.
He describes the whole method of discovery in his valuable
and very interesting book. The mould, or dipping-stick (Fig.
129), is like a rake-tooth with one end fashioned so as just to
fit into a good, normal queen-cell. This is immersed first in
water, then for nine-sixteenths of an inch into melted wax
which is kept melted by use of alamp. It is inserted seven or
eight times alternately in the water and in the wax, but fora
less and less distance each time in the latter. This makes the
cup heavy and thick at the bottom andthin at the top. A
twirling motion, when held at various angles, makes the walls
278 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};
of the cup uniform. At leasta little pressure loosens the cell
from the stick, when it is dipped once more and stuck to the
strip (Fig. 130), which will hold itin the frame. Usually there
are twelve or fourteen to one strip. This can be fastened
close below the comb in a partly filled frame. A little royal
jelly from a queen-cell just ready to be capped is now inserted
in each cup, anda larva less than one day old, always with
e,
Fic. 130.
Doolittle Cell-Cups.—From George W. York & Co.
food about it, is transferred to this in precisely the same posi-
tion it had in the worker-cell. Au ear-spoon or quill toothpick,
cut and bent into a spoon-like form, or hard-wood stick of
similar shape, is excellent to transfer the jelly and larve.
One queen-cell will furnish enough jelly for from eight to
twelve or fourteen cells. Of course, the larvz will be taken
from the best queen in the apiary. To get these cells cared
for, the frame is put in an upper story of a strong colony with
a queen-excluding honey-board (Fig. 91) between two frames
full of brood in all stages. They can be built out and finished
below by using a perforated-zinc division-board (Fig. 88, 92),
which will surely keep the queen away. It should be placed
between the same kind of frames as when put above. In ten
or twelve days we have probably twelve very fine capped
queen-cells which can be easily removed.
Mr. W. H. Pridgen, of North Carolina, has improved Mr.
Doolittle’s scheme by a wholesale method of forming the cups.
He fastens twelve or more of the dipping-sticks to a strip of
OR, MANUAL OF THER APIARY. 279
wood and dips all of them at once. He even suggests that
these may be mounted on the circumference of a wheel which
carries them alternately through the water and wax and auto-
matically raises so as to preserve the right depth in the melted
waxeachtime. They may be inserted in close-filling holes in
a narrow board so as to be quite easily moved up and
down. ‘These are dipped till the cups are satisfactory, then all
dipped once more at the end, touched to a narrow board (Fig.
131) to which they will adhere. Then by wetting the tips and
Fic. 131,
Pridgen Cell-Cups.—From George W. York & Co.
board, the dipping-sticks are easily removed one at a time
(Fig. 131). Each dipping-stick is five-eighths of an inch in
diameter. It commences to taper five-sixteenths of an inch
from the end, tapers strongly one-eighth of an inch, then grad-
wally tothe end. The strips with cells adhering are one-half
inch square, and are fastened in frames by a single wire nail
at each end passing through the side of the frame and into the
énd of the square piece. Comb may be close above them. As
already explained, each worker brood-cellis lined with a sec-
ond cell consisting of many cocoons. By cutting off the walls
280 THE BRE-KEREPER’S GUIDE;
of old dark comb to within an eighth of an inch of the base by
use of a sharp, warmed knife, these inner cells, which Mr.
Pridgen and others call cocoons, may be easily loosened by
bending the comb. These were first used by the Atchleys.
He loosens them in this way, when they contain larve about a
day old, from his pest queen. By pushing into these a trans-
ferring stick, concave at the end (Fig. 132), he can raise the
inner cell-larva, food and all, and insert them into a cup. This
isa quick way to people the cells with larve. Mr. Pridgen
often bores small five-sixteenth inch holes nearly through the
stick to receive the cups, waxes the stick, and then presses the
newly-formed cups into these. In this case he pushes them in
with a stick much like the dipping-sticks, only longer andi
trifle smaller. In these may be placed a little jelly and the
larve as already described. Mr. Pridgen places these fora
Fic. 132.
_ Pridgen Transferring-Stick (full length and size.)
—From Grorge W. York & Co.
few hours in a hive which was filled with brood twelve days
before, and placed with a queen-excluder on another colony.
When he wishes to give the cups and larve, he removes the
upper hive, shakes the bees that they may soon find that they
are queenless, shuts them in over a broadly ventilated bottom-
board, and in a few hours gives them the cups. They accept
the care of these at once. He has had thirty-six received and
fed in this way. Hesoon removes these to an upper story over
a colony, with the queen-excluder, of course, between them.
In from ten to twelve days he has a fine lot of cells for the:
nuclei. Mr. Pridgen puts a comb partly-filled with water in
the hive that is shut up. As we have seen, this would bea
time when water would be very essential. The bees are con-
fined and worried. While some queen-breeders still use the
Alley method, most now use the Doolittle, and most will soon
adopt the Pridgen improvement, as many have done already.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 281
NUCLEI.
A nucleus is simply a miniature colony of bees—a hive
and colony on a small scale—for the purpose of rearing and
keeping queens. We want the queens, but can afford to each
nucleus only a few bees. ‘The nucleus hive, if we use frames
not more then one foot square, need be nothing more than an
ordinary hive, with chamber confined bya division-board to
the capacity of three frames. If our frames are large, then it
may be thought best to construct special nucleus hives. These
are small hives, which need not be more than six inches each
way, that is, in length, breadth and thickness, and made to
contain from four to six frames of corresponding size. These
frames are filled with comb. I have for many years used the
first-named style of nucleus hive, and have found it advanta-
geous to have a few long hives made, each to contain five
chambers ; while each chamber is entirely separate from the
one next to it, is five inches wide, and is covered by a separate,
close-fitting board, and the whole by acommon cover. The
entrances to the twoend chambers are at the ends near the
same side of the hive. The middle chamber has its entrance
at the middle of the side near which are the end entrances,
while the other two chambers open on the opposite side, as far
apart as possible. The outside might be painted different col-
ors to correspond with the divisions, if thought necessary,
especially on the side with two openings. Yet I have never
taken this precaution, nor have I been troubled much by losing
queens. They have almost invariably entered their own
apartments when returning from their wedding-tour. It seems
from observation that the queen is more influenced by position
than by color of hive in returning to it from mating. Who
that has watched his bees after moving a hive a little one side
of its previous position—even if only a few inches—can doubt
but that the same is true of the worker-bees. These hives I
use to keep queens in during thesummer. Except the apiarist
engage in queen-rearing extensively as a business, I doubt the
propriety of building such special nucleus hives. The usual
hives are good property to have in the apiary, will soon be
needed, and may be economically used for all nuclei. In
282 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
spring I make use of my hives which are prepared for pro-
spective summer use, for my nuclei.
Mr. E. M. Hayhurst, one of our best queen-breeders, uses
the full-size Langstroth frame, in full-sized hives, for queen-
rearing, while Mr. Root uses the same frames in small special
hives which hold three frames. These (Fig. 119) he fastens
high up on his grape-vine trellises, just back of his other hives,
which can be used for seats as he works with the nuclei.
We now goto different hives of the apiary, and take out
three frames for each nucleus, at least one of which has brood,
and so on, tillthere are as many nuclei prepared as we have
queen-cells to dispose of. The bees should be left adhering to
the frames of comb, only we must be certain that the queen is
not among them, as this would take the queen from where she
is most needed, and would lead to the sure destruction of one
queen-cell. To be sure of this, we never take such frames till
we have seen the queen, that we may be sure she is left behind.
It is well to close the nucleus for at least twenty-four hours,
so that enough bees will surely remain to cover the combs,
and so prevent the brood from becoming chilled. Another
good way to form nuclei, is to remove the queen from a full
colony, and as soon as she is missed use all the frames and
bees for nuclei. We form them as already described. In this
way we are not troubled to find but one queen. If any desire
the nuclei with smaller frames, these frames must of course
be filled with comb, and then we can shake bees immediately
into the nuclei, till they have sufficient to preserve a proper
temperature. Such special articles about the apiary are costly
and inconvenient. I believe that I should use hives even with
the largest frames for nuclei. L. C. Root, who uses the large
Quinby frame, uses the same for his nuclei. In this case we
should need to give more bees. Twenty-four hours after we
have formed this nucleus, we are ready to insert the queen-cell.
We may do it sooner, even at once, but always at the risk of
having the cell destroyed. To insert the queen-cell—for we
are now to give one to each nucleus, so we can never form
more nuclei than we have capped queen-cells—the old way was
to cut it out, using a sharp thin-bladed knife, commencing to
cut on either side the base of the cell, at least one-half inch
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 283
distant, for we must notin the least compress the cell, then cut-
ting up and out for two inches, then across opposite the cell.
This leaves the cell attached to a wedge-shaped piece of comb
(Fig. 133), whose apexis next tothe cell. If we get our cells
by the Doolittle or other improved methods, we can easily cut
down and pry each cell off. A similar cut in the middle frame
of the nucleus, which, in case of the regular frames, is the one
containing brood, will furnish an opening to receive the wedge
containing the cell. The comb should also be cut away
Fie. 133.
Grafted Queen-Cell.—_ From A. I, Root Co, Queen-Cell with Hinged Cap.
From A. I. Root Co.
beneath (Fig. 133), so that the cell can not be compressed. Mr.
Root advises a circular cut (Fig. 133). Of late I have just
placed the cell between two frames, and succeed just as weli.
If two or more fine cells are so close together that separation
is impossible, then all may be insertedin a nucleus. By close
watching afterward we may save allthe queens. If we have
used bright new comb as advised above, we can see the queen
movein the cell if she is ready to come out, by holding it
between us and the sun, and may uncap such cells, and let the
284 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
queen run in at the entrance of any queenless hive or nucleus
atonce. In selecting combs for queen-cells, we should reject
any that have drone-comb. Bees sometimes start queen-cells
over drone-larve. Such cells are smoother than the others,
and of course are worthless.
After all the nuclei have received their cells and bees, they
have only to be set in a shady place and watched to see that
Fic. 134.
Eutrance-Guard,
sufficient bees remain. Should too many leave, give them
more by removing the cover and shaking a frame loaded with
bees over the nucleus; keep the opening nearly closed, and
cover the bees so as to preserve the heat. The main caution
Fic. 135.
leita ee ee he es
ee eee ee
Drone-Trap.—From A. I. Root Co.
in this zs fo be sure not to get any old queen in a nucleus. In
two or three days the queens will appear, and in a week longer
will have become fecundated, and that, too, in case of the first
queens, by selected drones, for as yet there are no others in
the apiary. Ican not over-estimate the advantage of always
having extra queens. To secure mating from selected drones,
later, we must cut alt drone-comb from inferior colonies, so
that they shall rear no drones. If drone-larve are in uncapped
cells, they may be killed by sprinkling the comb with cold
water. By giving the jet of water some force, as may be easily
done by use of a fountain pump, they may be washed out, or
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 285
we may throw them ont with the extractor, and then use the
comb for starters in our sections.
It is very important that those who rear queens to sell
shall have no near neighbors who keep bees, and shall keep
only very superior bees, that undesirable mating may be
prevented. If one has neighbors who keep bees, he can see
that they keep only the best, or possibly he can rear his queens
before others have drones flying. He can also get his neigh-
bor to use the Alley drone-trap (Fig. 135). If drones are flying
from undesirable colonies, they can be kept from leaving the
hive by use of the entrance-guards (Fig. 134), or may be cap-
tured or destroyed by use of the Alley drone-trap (Fig. 135).
These are made of the perforated-zinc, and while they permit
the passage of the workers, they restrain the queen and drones.
Fic. 136.
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
s
N
Ss
N
N
AN
Queen-Cage.—From A. I. Root Co,
The spaces in these are .165. In England they make them .180
of an inch, but small queens may pass through these larger
spaces. By shaking all the bees in front of the hive, we can,
by use of these, soon weed out all the drones. With these in
front of hive, we can keep the queen from leaving witha
swarm. Occasionally, however, a queen will pass through
unless the smaller spaced zinc is used. By keeping empty
286 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
frames and empty cells in the nuclei, the bees may be kept
active; yet with so few bees one can not expect very much
from the nuclei. After cutting all the queen-cells from our
old hive, we can again insert eggs, as above sug@ested, and
obtain another lot of cells, or, if we have a:sufficient number,
we can leave a single queen-cell, and this colony will soon be
the happy possessor of a queen, and just as flourishing as if
the even tenor of its ways had not been disturbed. If it is
preferred, the bees of this colony may be used in forming the
nuclei, in which case there is no danger of getting a queen in
any nucleus thus formed, or of having the queen-cells destroyed.
We can thus start seven or eight nuclei very quickly. Mr.
Doolittle forms nuclei by disturbing the bees—jarring the
hive—till they fill with honey, then shakes them intoa hive or
box and sets them in a dark room or cellar for twenty-four
hours. Then they will always, he says, accept a queen-cell or
a virgin queen of any age at once. A full colony may be
usually re-queened in the same way.
QUEEN LAMP-NURSERY.
This aid to bee-keeping was first used by F. R. Shaw, of
Chatham, Ohio. The double wall enclosing water was the
invention of A.I. Root. It is substantially a tin hive, with
two walls enclosing a water-tight space an inch wide, which,
when in use, is filled with water through a hole at the top.
Each nursery may hold from six toeight frames. Some pre-
fer to have special frames for this nursery,each of which
contains several close chambers. The queen-cells are cut out
and put in these chambers.
By use of a common kerosene lamp placed under this nur-
sery, the temperature must be kept from 80 degrees F. to 100
degrees F. By placing the frames with capped queen-cells in
this, the queens develop as well asif ina hive or nucleus. If
the young queens, just from the ceil, are introduced intoa
queenless colony or nucleus, as first shown by Mr. Langstroth,
they are usually well received. Uuless one is rearing a great
many queens, this lamp-nursery is not desirable, as we still
have to use the nucleus to get the young queens fecundated,
have to watch carefully to get the young queens as soon as
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 287
they appear, must guard it carefully as moths are apt to get
in, and, finally, unless great pains are taken, this method will
give us inferior queens. Mr. W. Z. Hutchinson, one of our
best queen-breeders, thinks very highly of the lamp-nursery.
Some bee-keepers use a cage (Fig. 136) with projecting
pins which are pushed into the comb, so that they hold the
cage. Acellis put into each of these, and then they may be
put into any hive. Of course the bees can not destroy the cell,
as they can not get at it. Dr. Jewell Davis’ queen-nursery
Fic. 137.
QUEEN CELL een
=
SS
Foop *
"and Good GRY 3dVIS9,
HOLDER
(mal
West Cell-Protector.—From A. I. Root Co.
consists of a frame filled with such cages, which can be hung
in any hive. I have tried both, and prefer this to the lamp-
nursery. The West cell-protector (Fig. 137) is excellent. The
cell can not be destroyed, and as the protector is open at the
end the queen comes forth into the nucleus, and is almost sure
to be well received. This is an excellent way to insert queen-
cells. Mr. Root recommends putting a little honey at the end
of the cell, so the queen will get this at once. Mr. Doolittle,
to introduce virgins, puts them in a cage with candy, and
covers the opening with paper, as well as candy, so as to delay
her egress. Rarely they fail to eat through this, when they
must be liberated.
288 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
SHALL WE CLIP THE QUEEN’S WING ?
In the above operation, as in many other manipulations
of the hive, we shall often gain sight of the queen, and
can, if we desire, clip her wing, 7f she has met the drone; but
never before, that in no case she shall lead the colony away to
parts unknown. Thisis an old practice, for Virgil speaks of
retaining the bees by tearing off the wings of ‘the king.”’
This does not injure the queen, as some have claimed. General
Adair once stated that such treatment’ injured the queen, as it
cut off some of the air-tubes, which view was approved by so
excellent a naturalist as Dr. Packard. Yet Iam sure that this
is alla mistake. The air-tube and blood-vessel, as we have
seen, go to the wings to carry nourishment to these members.
With the wing goes the necessity of nourishment and the need
of the tubes. Aswellsay that the amputation of the human
leg or arm would enfeeble the constitution, as it would cut off
the supply of blood.
Many of our best apiarists have practiced this clipping of
the queen’s wing for years. Yet these queens show no diminu-
tion of vigor; we should suppose they would be even more
vigorous, as useless organs are always nourished at the
expense of the organism, and, if entirely useless, are seldom
long continued by nature. The ants set us an example in this
matter, as they bite the wings off their queens, after mating
has transpired. They mean that the queen shall remain at
home, zolen volens, and why shall not we require the same of
the queen-bee? Were it not forthe necessity of swarming in
nature, we should doubtless have been anticipated in this mat-
ter by Nature herself.
Some of our first apiarists think that queens with wings
clipped are not as acceptable to the other bees. I have now
had experience for thirty years in this practice, and have yet
to see the first indication that the aboveistrue. Still, if the
queen essays to go with the swarm, and if the apiarist is not
at hand, she will sometimes be lost, never regaining the hive;
but in this case the bees will be saved, as ¢hey will return with-
out fail. Many of our farmers are now keeping bees with
marked success and large profits, who could not continue at
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 289
all except for this practice. Mr. GecrgeGrimm kept about
eighty colonies of bees, and said he worked only ten days in
the year. But he clipped the queens’ wings, and his wife did
the hiving.
Some apiarists clip one primary wing the first year, the
secondary the second year, the other primary the third, and, if
age of the queen permits,’the remaining wing the fourth year.
Yet, such data, with other matters of interest and importance,
better be kept on a slate or card, and firmly attached to the
hive, or else kept in a record opposite the number of the hive.
The time required to find the queen is sufficient argument
against the ‘‘queen-wing record.’’ Thisis not an argument
against the once clipping of the queen’s wings, for, in the
nucleus hives, queens are readily found, and even in full colo-
nies this is not very difficult, especially if we keep Italians or
any other races of yellow bees. It will be best, even though
we have to look up black queens in full colonies. The loss of
one good colony, or the vexatious trouble of separating two or
three swarms which had clustered together, and finding each
queen, or the hiving of a colony perched high up on some
towering tree, would soon vanquish this argument of time.
To clip the queen’s wing, which we must never do until
she commences to lay eggs, take hold of her wings with the
right thumb and index finger—never grasp her body, especially
her abdomen, as this will be very apt to injure her—raise her
off the comb, then turn from the bees, place her gently on the
left hand, and press on her feet with the left thumb sufficiently
to hold her. Now with the right hand, by use of a small,
delicate. pair of scissors, cut off about one-half of one of the
front or primary wings. ‘This method prevents any movement
of legs or wings, and is easy and quick. I think Mr. Root
advises grasping the queen bythe thorax. I preferthe method
given here.
Some bee-keepers—inexperienced they must be—complain
that queens thus handled often receive a foreign scent, and
are destroyed by the worker-bees. I have clipped hundreds
and never lost one.
LAYING WORKERS.
We have already described laying workers, As these can
290 THH BEEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
only produce unimpreginated eggs, they are, of course, value-
less, and unless superseded by a queen will soon cause the
destruction of the colony. As their presence often prevents
the acceptance of cells or a queen, by the common workers,
they areaserious pest. The absence of worker-brood, and
the abundant and careless deposition of eggs—some cells being
skipped, while others have received several eggs—are pretty
sure indications of their presence. The condition that favors
Fic. 138.
Hive-Scraper.—Original.
these pests, is continued absence of a queen or means to pro-
duce one; thus they are very likely to appear in nuclei. They
seem more common with the Cyprian and Syrian bees.
To rid a colony of these, unite it with some colony witha
good queen, after which the colony may be divided if very
strong. Simply exchanging places of a colony with a laying
worker, and a good, strong colony will often cause the destruc-
tion of the wrong-doer. In this case, brood should be given to
the colony which had the laying worker, that they may reara
queen ; or better, a queen-cell or queen should be given them.
Caging a queen in a hive, with a laying worker, for thirty-six
hours, wili almost always cause the bees to accept her. We
may also use the Doolittle candy cage with the opening covered
with paper. Her escape is so tardy that she will be safe.
Shaking the bees off the frames two rods from the hive, will
often rid them of the counterfeit queen, after which they will
receive a queen-cell or a queen. But prevention is best of all.
We should never have a colony or nucleus without eithera
queen or means to rear one. It is well to keep young brood in
our nucleiat all times. Queens reared from brood four days
from the egg are often drone-layers, and never desirable.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 291
In all manipulation ‘with the bees we need something to
loosen the frames. Many use a chiselor smallironclaw. I
have found an iron scraper (Fig. 138), which I had made by a
blacksmith, very convenient. It serves to loosen the frames,
draw tacks, and scrape off propolis. It would be easy to add
the hammer.
QUEBEN-REGISTER OR APIARY REGISTER.
With more than a half dozen colonies it is not easy to
know just the condition of each colony.
Something to mark
the date of each examination, and the condition of the colony
Fie. 139.
QUEEN REGISTER. got Mag,
EGGS. RY 2
No. S oe
MISSING. BROOD. & ° =
& fs
NOT APPROVED. o CELL. Ce, ¢
lb gry yS°
Sra \
APPROVED. HACTHED. MARCH.
ocT. APRIL.
LAYING.
DIRECTIONS.— Tack the card ona enor evens pee or SEPT. 0 MAY.
A aye OT inte the center et each incle, oher it isben, AUC JUNE
in such a manner that the head will press securely on any
figure or word. These Cards mailed free, at 6c. per doz. JULY.
or 40c. per hundred. : 4
Use tinned or galvanized tacks; they will stand rain, &.
A. I, Root, MEDINA, O.
at that time is very desirabic. Mr. Root furnishes the Queen-
Register (Fig. 139). With this it is very easy to mark the date
of examination of each hive, and the condition of the colony at
the time. Mr. Hutchinson prefers this. Mr. Newman fur-
nished an Apiary Register which served admirably for the
same purpose. Each hive is numbered. Dr. Miller tacks a
small square piece of tin bearing the number in black paint to
292 THE BHH-KERPER’S GUIDE:
each hive. A corresponding number in the Register gives us
all desired facts. We have only to note down at the time the
condition of each colony and date of examination in the Regis-
ter. Mr. Root prefers a slate whose position on the cover of
the hive shows the condition of colony, and dates can be writ-
ten on it.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 293
CHAPTER X.
INCREASE OF COLONIES.
No subject will be of more interest to the beginner than
that of increasing colonies. He has one or two, he desires as
many more, or, if very aspiring, as many hundred, and if a
Jones, a Hetherington, or a Harbison, as many thousand. This
isa subject, too, that may well engage the thought and study
of men of no inconsiderable experience. I believe that many
veterans are not practicing the best methods in obtaining an
increase of colonies.
Before proceeding to name the ways, or to detail the
methods, let me state and enforce that it is always safest, and
generally wisest, especially for the heginner, to be content
with doubling, or certainly with tripling, his number of colo-
nies each season Especially let all remember the motto:
‘“ Keep all colonies strong.”
There are two ways to increase: The natural, known as
swarming, already described under natural history of the bee ;
and the artificial, improperly styled artificial swarming. This
is also called, and more properly, ‘‘ dividing.”’
SWARMING.
In case of the specialist, or in case some one can be near
by to watch the bees, swarming is without doubt the best way
to increase. Therefore, the apiarist should be always ready
with both means and knowledge for immediate action. Of
course, necessary hives were all secured the previous winter,
and will never be wanting. Neglect to provide hives before
the swarming season is convincing proof that the wrong pur-
suit has been chosen.
If, as I have advised, the queen has her wing clipped, the
matter becomes very simple, in fact, so much simplified that
were there no other argument, this would be sufficient to
294 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
recommend the practice of clipping the queen’s wing. Now,
if several swarms cluster together, we have not to separate
them ; they will usually separate of themselves and return to
their old homes. To migrate without the queen means death,
and life is sweet even to bees. and is not willingly to be given
up except for home and kindred. Even if they all enter
one hive, the queens are not with them, and it is very easy to
divide them as desired. Neither has the apiarist to climb
trees, to secure his bees from bushy trunks, from off the lattice-
work or pickets of his fence, from the very top of a tall, slen-
der, fragile fruit-tree, or other most inconvenient places. Nor
will he even be tempted to pay his money for patent non-
swarming hivers or patent swarm-catchers, He knows his
bees will return to their old quarters, so he is not perturbed by
the fear of loss or plans to capture the unapproachable. It
requires no effort ‘‘to possess his soul in patience.’’ If he
wishes to increase, he steps out, takes the queen by the
remaining wings, as she emerges from the hive, soon after the
bees commence their hilarious leave-taking, puts her in a
cage, opens the hive, destroys, or, if he wishes to use them,
cuts out the queen-cells as already described, gives more room
—either by adding a super of sections or taking out some of
the frames of brood, as they may well be spared—places the
cage enclosing the queen under the quilt, and leaves the bees
to return at their pleasure. At nightfall the queen is liber-
ated, the hive may be removed to another place, and very
likely the swarming-fever is subdued for the season.
If it is desired to unite the swarm with a nucleus, exchange
the places of the old hive with the caged queen, as soon as the
swarm is out, and the nucleus hive, to which, of course, the
swarm will now come. The queen-cells should be removed at
once from the old hive, and the queen liberated. The nucleus
colony, now strongly enforced, should have empty frames, but
always with starters, added, making five in all; and a super of
sections with thin foundation added at once. ‘lhe five frames
Langstroth size, more if smaller—are put on one side and the
rest of the space filled by division-boards. Here the nucleus is
at once transformed into a large, strong colony.
If it is desired to hive the swarm separately—and usually
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 295
this gives the best results, even if we do not care for increase
—we remove the old hive to one side, and turn it entirely
around, so that the entrance that was eastis now west. We
now place a new hive with five or six empty frames, which
have narrow starters, right where the old hive previously
stood, in which the caged queen is put. We fill the extra
space in this hive with division-boards, and set on it the super
of sections previously placed on the old hive; or in case this
colony that just swarmed had not previously received a super
of sections, we place a super witha queen-excluding honey-
board on the hive where the new swarm is now to enter.
As this colony has no comb in the brood-chamber, only
foundation starters, and has sections with comb or thin foun-
dation, the bees will commence to work vigorously in the sec-
tions, especially as the brood-chamber is so restricted. This
idea originated with Messrs. Doolittle and Hutchinson, and is
fully explained in ‘‘ Advanced Bee-Culture,’’ Mr. Hutchinson’s
excellent book, which should be in the hands of every comb-
honey producer. .
The hive from which the swarm issued—now close besid
the hive with the new colony—should be turned a little each
day so that by the eighth day the entrance will be as before to
the east, or close to that of the other hive. On the eighth day
this hive is carried to some distant part of the bee-yard. Of
course all the bees that are gathering—and by this time they
are numerous—will go to the other hive, which will so weaken
the still queenless colony that they will not care to send out
another or second swarm, and so will destroy all remaining
queen-cells and queens after the first queen comes forth. This
isa quick, easy way to prevent after, or second, swarms. It
originated with Mr. James Heddon, andI find that, with rare
exception, it works well. I believe where one is with his bees,
this last-described plan is the most profitable that the bee-
keeper can adopt. Sometimes the mere introducing of a new
queen into the old hive will prevent any further swarming.
The queen at once destroys the queen-cells.
Some extensive apiarists, who desire to prevent increase
of colonies, when a colony swarms, cage the old queen, destroy
all queen-cells, and exchange this hive—after taking out three
‘3
296 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
or four frames of brood to strengthen nuclei, replacing these
with frames with starters of foundation—with one that recently
swarmed, which was previously treated the same way. Thus
acolony that recently sent out a swarm, but retained their
queen, has probably, from the decrease of bees, loss of brood,
and removal of queen-cells, lost the swarming-fever, and if we
give them plenty of room and ventilation, they will accept the
bees froma new swarm, and spend their future energies in
storing honey. If the swarming-fever is not broken up, we
shall only have to repeat the operation again in a few days.
Still another modification, in case no increase of bees but
rather comb honey is desired, is recommended by such apia-
rists as Doolittle, Davis, and others. The queen is caged seven
days, the queen-cells in the hive are then destroyed, the queen
liberated, and everything is arranged for immense yields of
comb honey. In this case the queen is idle, but the bees seem
to have lost not one jot of theirenergy. I tried this plan many
years ago with great success, and recommended it to Mrs. L.
B. Baker, who prized it highly. Dr. C. C. Miller, instead of
caging the queen, places her with a nucleus on top of the old
hive, thus keeping her at work, by exchange of frames. After
seven days he destroys the queen-cells in the old hive and
unites the nucleus with it. Here the queenis kept at work,
the swarming impulse subdued, and a mighty colony made
ready for business. This plan slightly modified has the sanc-
tion of such admirable apiarists as Messrs. Elwood and
Hetherington.
‘Two objections are sometimes raised right here. Suppose
several swarms issue at once, one of which is a second swarm,
which’of course has a virgin queen, then all will go off
together, and our lossis grevous indeed. I answer that sec-
ond swarms are unprofitable, and should never be permitted.
We should be so vigilant that this fate would never befall us.
If we will not give this close attention without such stimulus,
then it were well to have this threatening danger hanging over
us. Again, suppose we are not right at hand when the swarm
issues, the queen wanders away and is lost. Yes, but if
unclipped the whole colony would go, now it is only the queen.
Usually the queen gets back. If not,a little looking will
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 297
generally find her not far away within a ball of friendly
workers. At nightfall smoke these bees, and by watching we
learn the colony which swarmed, as the bees about the queen
will repair at once to it. Mr. Doolittle suggests that we may
always find what colony swarmed when a swarm is out. If
we take a portion of the bees from the cluster into a pail and
swing them around lively, then throw them out, they will at
once, he says, fly to the old home. When aswarm first issues,
young bees, too young to fly, crawling about the hive, will
often reveal the colony that swarmed.
HIVING SWARMS.
But in clipping wings, some queens may be omitted, or,
from taste, or other motive, some bee-keepers may not desire
to ‘‘deform her royal highness.’”” Then the apiarist must
possess the means to save the would-be rovers. The means
are: good hives in readiness ; some kind of a brush—a turkey-
wing will do; a basket with open top, which should be at least
eighteen inches in diameter, and so made that it may be
attached to the end of the pole; and two poles, one very long
and the other of medium length.
Now, let us attend to the method: As soon as the cluster
commences to form, place the hive in position where we wish
the colony to remain, leaving the entrance wide open. As
soon as the bees are fully clustered, we must manage as best
we can to empty the whole cluster in front of the hive. As the
bees are full of honey they are not likely to sting, but will
sometimes. JI have known bees, when clustered in a swarm, to
be very cross. This, however, is not usual. Should the bees
be on a twig that could be sacrificed, this might be easily cut
off with either a knife or saw (Fig. 140), and so carefully as
hardly to disturb the bees, then carry (Fig. 76) and shake the
bees in front of the hive, when with joyful hum they will at
once proceed to enter. If the twig must not be cut, shake
them all into the basket, and empty before the hive. Should
they be on a tree trunk, or a fence, then brush them with the
wing into the basket, and proceed as before. If they are high
up on a tree, take the pole and basket, and perhaps a ladder
will also be necessary. Many devices like a bag on a hoop,a
298 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
Fic. 140,
Whitman's
Fountain Pump.
—From
A. I, Loot Co.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 299
suspended wire-basket, with a tripod to sustain it, etc., are
often recommended. These are not much seen in the apiaries
of our best bee-keepers. Always let ingenuity have its perfect
work, not forgetting that the object to be gained is to get just
as many of the bees as is possible on the alighting-board in
front of the hive. Carelessness as to the quantity might
involve the loss of the queen, which would be serious. The
bees wi// not remain unless the queen enters the hive. Should
a cluster form where it is impossible to brush or shake them
off, they can be driven into a basket, or hive, by holding it
above them and blowing smoke among them. All washes for
the hive are more than useless. It is better that it be clean
and pure. With such, if they are shaded, bees will generally
be satisfied. But assurance will be made doubly sure by
giving them a frame of brood, in all stages of growth, from
an old hive. This may be inserted before the work of hiving
is commenced. Mr. Doolittle thinks this does little or no good,
and tends to induce the building of drone-comb. Mr. Bet-
singer says they are even more apt to gooff ; but I think he will
not be sustained by the experience of other apiarists. He
certainly is not by mine. I never knew but one colony to
leave uncapped brood ; I have often known them to swarm out
of an empty hive once or twice, and to be returned, after brood
had been placed in the hive, when they accepted the changed
conditions, and went at once to work. We should expect this,
in view of the attachment of bees for their nest of brood, as
also from analogy. How eager the ant to convey her larve
and pupze—the so-called eggs—to a place of safety, when the
nest has been invaded and danger threatens. Bees doubtless
have the same desire to protect their young, and as they can
not carry them away to a new home, they remain to care for
them in one that may not be quite to their taste. Of course if
swarming is permitted either with or without clipped queens,
the bees must be closely watched at the swarming season. Dr.
Miller secures a bright, active girlor boy to watch. Hesays
the watcher can sit in the shade and go and look once in every
four or five minutes. For 100 colonies it takes the whole time
of one person, as the noise made by somany flying bees makes
actual inspection of all hives necessary. This watching is
300 THE BEE-KEERPER’S GUIDE;
necessary from 8 a.m. till 2 p.m.; or in very best weather from
6a.m.to4p.m., or even later. Of course there is relief on
rainy days.
Farmers can keep many colonies and attend to their farm
work as usual. They have only to have a boy or girl to catch
and cage the queens—the ‘‘ gude wife’’ may do this—and
inform at noon or night what colonies have swarmed. When
acolony swarms, the impulse seems to be general, and often a
half dozen colonies will be on the wing in atrice. ‘These will
very often—generally, in truth—cluster together. In this
case, to find the queens is well nigh impossible, and we can
only divide up the bees into suitable colonies, and as soon as
we find any starting queen-cells, givethem a queen. Of course
we may lose every queen but one. In view of this trouble,
and the expense and doubtful practicality of the various
swarm-catchers in vogue, I would say, Clip the queen's
wing.
If no more colonies are desired, the swarm may be given
to acolony which has previously swarmed, after removing
from the latter all queen-cells, and adding to the room by
putting on the sections, and removing some frames of . brood
to strengthen nuclei. These frames may be replaced with
empty combs, foundation, or frames with starters. We may
even return the bees to their old home, by taking the same
precautionary measures, with a good hope that storing and
not swarming will engage their attention in future ; and if we
change their position, or better, exchange their position with
that of a nucleus, we shall be still more likely to succeed in
overcoming the desire toswarm. A swarm may be given toa
colony that was hived as a swarm a day or two before with
great safety, by shaking all the bees of bothin front of the
hive. Some seasons, usually when honey is being gathered
each day for long intervals, but not in large quantities, the
desire and determination of some colonies to swarm is im-
placable. Room, ventilation, changed position of hive, each
and all will fail. Then we can do no better than to gratify
the propensity by giving the swarm a new home, and make
an effort.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 301
TO PREVENT SKCOND SWARMS.
The Heddon method of preventing second swarms has
already been explained. This method is valuable because it
requires no looking up of queen-cells, and thus saves time.
As already stated, the wise apiarist will always have on
hand extra queens. Now, if he does not desire to form nuclei
(as already explained), and thus use these queen-cells, he will
at once give the old colony a fertile queen. At the same time
this practice secures only carefully reared queens from his best
colonies. As the queen usually destroys all queen-cells,
farther swarming is prevented. The method of introduction
will be given hereafter, though in such cases there is very
little danger incurred by giving them a queen at once. If
desired, the queen-cells can be used in forming nuclei, in man-
ner before described. If extra queens are wanting, we have
only to look carefully—very carefully, as it is easy to missa
small, worthless cell in some cranny or corner of the comb—
through the old hive and remove all but one of the queen-cells.
A little care will certainly make sure work, as after swarming
the old hive is so thinned of bees that only carelessness will
overlook queen-cells in such a quest. Mr. Doolittle waits till
the eighth day, or till he hears the piping of the young
queen ; then cuts out all queen-cells, when, of course, he cer-
tainly inhibits second swarms. When this practice fails, as
it very rarely does, it is because two cells were left.
TO PREVENT SWARMING.
As yet wecan only partly avert it. Mr. Quinby offered
a large reward for a perfect non-swarming hive, and never had
tomake the payment. Mr. Hazen attempted it, and partially
succeeded, by granting much space tothe bees, so that they
should not be impelled to vacatefor lack of room. The Quinby
hive, already described, by the large capacity of the brood-
chamber, and ample opportunity for top and side storing,
looks to the same end. Mr. Simmins, of England, thinks he
can prevent swarming by keeping unoccupied cells between
the brood-nest and entrance to the hive. Mr. Muth says if we
always have empty cells in the brood-nest swarming will sel-
302 THER BEE-KEHPER’S GUIDE;
dom occur. Yet he says ‘‘seldom.’’ We may safely say that
a perfect non-swarming hive or system is not yet before the
bee-keeping public. The best aids toward non-swarming arc
shade, ventilation, and roomy hives. Butas we shall seein
the sequel, much room in the brood-chamber, unless we work
for extracted honey—by which means we may greatly repress
the swarming fever—prevents our obtaining honey in a desir-
ablestyle. If we add sections, unless the connection is quite
free—in which case the queen is apt to enter them and greatly
vex us—we must crowd some to send the bees into the sections.
Such crowding is almost sure to lead to swarming. I have, by
uncapping the combs of honey in the brood-chamber, as sug-
gested tome years ago by Mr. M. M. Baldridge—causing the
honey to run down from the combs—sent the bees crowding to
the sections, and thus deferred or prevented swarming. Those
who have frames that can be turned upside down, or invertible
hives, may often secure the same results by simple inversion.
By placing the sections in the brood-chamber till the bees
commence to work on them, and then removing them above,
or by carrying brood up beside the sections, the bees are gen-
erally induced to commence working in sections. Some sec-
tions with combs in them often aids much. ‘This requires too
much manipulation, and so is not practical with the general
bee-keeper.
It is possible that by extracting freely when storing is
very rapid, and then by freely feeding the extracted honey in
the interims of honey-secretion, we might prevent swarming,
secure very rapid breeding, and still get our honey in sections.
My experiments in this direction have not been as successful
as I had hoped, and I can not recommend the practice, though
some apiarists claim to have succeeded. Even if this could be
made to work it involves too much labor to make it advisable.
The keeping of colonies queenless, in order to secure
honey without increase, is practiced and advised by some even
of our distinguished apiarists. As already stated, I have done
this with excellent results. Dr. C. C. Miller’s method, already
described, accomplishes the same object, and keeps all the
queens at work all the time.
OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 303
ARTIFICIAL INCREASE.
While, as already remarked, there is no better way than to
. allow swarming as just described, when one’s circumstances
make it possible todo so, yet itis true that some of our best
bee-keepers prefer to divide. In somecases the bee-keeper can
be with his bees only at certain times—often early in the
morning, late in the afternoon, or perchance at the noontide
hour; then, of course, artificial dividing becomes necessary.
It is practiced to secure any desired increase of colonies, also to
prevent loss from swarming when no one is by. This requires
more time than swarming, as detailed above, and may not—
probably often doos not—secure quite as good results. Yet I
am very sure, from a long experience, that, with sufficient care,
artificial colonies may be formed that will fully equal natural
swarms in the profits they bring to their owners. Iam sure I
could get ten colenies from one in a season, and if I had combs
and should feed I think I could nearly double these figures.
HOW TO DIVIDE.
Mr. Cheshire argues against natural swarming and in
favor of dividing, as the former tends, through selection, to
develop the swarming habit. I do not accept his reasoning, as,
unless we permit swarming, we can not tell what colonies to
breed from, as we have no way to know their tendencies.
Often, too, swarming only indicates great prolificness. By
the process already described, we have secured a goodly num-
ber of fine queens, which will be in readiness at the needed
time. Now, as soon asthe white clover harvest is well com-
menced, early in June, we may commence operations. If we
have but one colony to divide, it is well to wait till they become
pretty populous, but not untilthey swarm. Take one of our
waiting hives, which now holdsa nucleus with laying queen,
and place the same close alongside the colony we wish to
divide. This must be done on a warm day, when the bees are
active, and better be done while the bees are busy, in the mid-
dle of the day. Remove the division-board of the new hive,
and then remove five combs well loaded with brood, and. of
course, containing some honey, from the wld colony, bees and
all, tothe new hive. Also take the remaining frames and
304 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};
shake the bees into the new hive; only be sure that the queen
still remains in the old hive. Fill both the hives with empty
frames—if the frames are filled with empty comb it will be
still better; if not, it will always pay to give at least starters
of comb or foundation—and return the new hive to its former
position. The old bees will return to the old colony, while the
young ones will remain peaceably with the new queen. The
old colony will now possess at least seven frames of brood,
honey, etc., the old queen, and plenty of bees, so that they
will work on as though naught had transpired, though perhaps
moved to a little harder effort, by the added space and five
empty combs or frames with starters or full sheets of founda-
tion. These last may all be placed at one end, or placed
between the others, though not so as greatly to divide brood.
The new colony will have eight frames of brood, comb, etc.,
three from the nucleus and five from the old colony, a young
laying queen, plenty of bees(those of the previous nucleus and
the young bees from the old colony), and will work with a sur-
prising vigor, often even eclipsing the old colony.
If the apiarist has several colonies, it is better to make the
new colony-from several old colonies, as follows: Take one
frame of brood-comb from each of six old colonies, or two
from each of three. and carry them, bees and all, and place
with the nucleus. Be sure that no queen is removed. Fillall
the hives with empty combs, or frames with starters of foun-
dation, as before. In this way we increase without in the’
least disturbing any of the colonies, and may add a colony
every day or two, or perhaps several, depending on the size of
our apiary, and can thus almost always, so experience says,
prevent swarming.
By taking only brood that is allcapped, we can safely add
one or two frames to each nucleus every week, without adding
any bees, asthere would be no danger of loss by chilling the
brood. In this way, as we remove no bees, we have to spend
no time in looking for the queen, and may build up our nuclei
into full colonies, and keep back the swarming impulse with
great facility.
These are unquestionably the best methods to divide, and
so I will not complicate the subject by detailing others. The
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 305
only objection that can be urged against them—and even this
does not apply to the last—is that we must seek out the queen
in each hive, or at least be sure that we do not remove her,
though this is by no means so tedious if we have Italians or
other races of yellow bees, as, of course, we all will. I might
give other methods which would render unnecessary this cau-
tion, but, to my mind, they are inferior, and not to be recom-
mended. If we proceed as above described, the bees will sel-
dom prepare to swarm at all, and, if they do, they will be dis-
covered in the act, by such frequent examinations, and the
work may be cut short by at once dividing such colonies, as
first explained, and destroying their queen-cells, or, if desired,
using them for forming new nuclei.
CAPTURING ABSCONDING SWARMS.
Sometimes swarms break cluster and take wing for their
prospective home before the bee-keeper has hived them.
Throwing dirt among them will sometimes cause them to
alight again. ‘Throwing water among them in the form of a
fine spray (Fig. 140) will almost alwaysdo this. For such pur-
pose some hand pump is very desirable. Whitman’s fountain
pump is one of the most convenient. It costs about $7.00.
Another important use for such a pumpin the apiary is this:
If a swarm, when clustered, is sprinkled occasionally, it will
remain clustered indefinitely. This permits us to retain a
swarm in case it is more convenient to hive it later. While
most customs have a reasonable basis, the common one of
horns and bells and beating of pans to stop a swarm is a nota-
ble exception. It does not do the least good.
306 THH BEE-KEEPHR’S GUIDE}
CHAPTER XI
ITALIANS AND ITALIANIZING.
The history and description of Italian bees have already
been considered, so it only remains to discuss the subject ina
practical light.
The superiority of the Italians seems no longer a mooted
question. I now know of no one among the able apiarists in
our country who takes the ground that a thorough balancing
of qualities will make as favorable a showing for the German
as for the Italian bees, though I think that the late Baron of
Berlepsch held to this view.
I think Iam capable of acting as judge on this subject. I
have never sold a dozen queens in my life, and so have not
been unconsciously influenced by self-interest. In fact, I have
never had, if I except six years, any direct interest in bees at
all, and all my work and experiments had only the promotion
and spread of truth as the ultimatum. Again, I have kept
both blacks and Italians side by side, and carefully observed
and noted results during eight years of my experience. I have
carefully collected data as to increase of brood, rapidity of
storing, early and late habits in the day and season, kinds of
flowers visited, amiability, etc., and Iam more than persuaded
that the general verdict, that they are superior to the German
race, is entirely correct. The Italians are far superior to the
German bees in many respects, and, though I am acquainted
with all the works on apiculture printed in our language, and
have an extensive acquaintance with the leading apiarists of
our country from Maine to California, yet I know hardly a man
that has opportunity to form a correct judgment, does not
give strong preference to the Italians. The black bees are in
some respects superior to the Italians, and if a bee-keeper’s
methods cause him to give these points undue importance, in
forming his judgments, then his conclusions may be wrong.
Faulty management, too, may lead to wrong conclusions.
f
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 307
The Italians certainly possess the following points of
superiority :
first. They possess longer tongues, and so can gather
from flowers which are useless to the black bee. This point
has already been sufficiently considered. How much value
hangs upon this structural peculiarity Iam unable to state. I
have frequently seen Italians working on redclover. I never
saw a black bee thus employed. It is easy to see that this
might be, at certain times and certain seasons, a very material
aid. How much of thesuperior storing qualities of the Italians
is due to this lengthened ligula, Iam unable tosay. Mr. J.
H. Martin hasa very ingenious tongue measurer by which the
length of the tongues of beesin the several hives can be
quickly and accurately compared. I have made a very simple
and convenient instrument to accomplish the same end; two
rectangular pieces, one of glass and the other of wire gauze,
are so set in a frame that the glass inclines to the gauze. At
one end they touch; at the other they are separated three-
fourths of aninch. Honey is spread onthe glassand all set
in the hive. The bees can only sip the honey through the
gauze. The bees that clean the farthest from the end where
it touches the gauze have the longest tongues. This gives
only relative lengths, while Mr. Martin’s register tells the
absolute length.
Second. They are more active, and, with the same oppor-
tunities, will collect a good deal more honey. This is a matter
of observation, which I have tested over and over again. Yet
I will give the figures of another: Mr. Doolittle secured from
two colonies 309 pounds and 301 pounds, respectively, of comb
honey, during the one season. These surprising figures, the
best he could give, were from his best Italian colonies.
Similar testimony comes from Klein and Dzierzon over the
sea, and from hosts of our own apiarists.
Third. They work earlier and later. This is not only true
of the day, but of the season. Oncool days in spring I have
seen the dandelions swarming with Italians, while not a black
bee was to be seen. On May 7, 1877, I walked less than half a
mile, and counted sixty-eight bees gathering from dandelions,
yet only two were black bees. This might be considered an
308 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
undesirable feature. Yet, from careful observation covering
thirty years, I think that Italian bees are quite as apt to win-
ter well and pass the spring months without harm as are black
bees.
Fourth. They are far better to protect their hives against
robber-bees. Robbers that attempt to plunder Italians of their
hard-earned stores soon find that they have ‘‘dared to beard
the lion in his den.’ This is so patent that even the advo-
cates of black bees are ready to concede it.
Fifth. They are proof against the ravages of the bee-
moth’slarve. Thisis also universally conceded. This is no
very great advantage, as no respectable bee-keeper would
dread moths, even with the black bees.
Sixth. The queens are decidedly more prolific. This is
probably in part due to the greater and more constant activity
of the workers. This is observable at all seasons, but more
especially when building upin the spring. Noone who will
take the pains to note the increase of brood will long remain
in doubt on this point.
Seventh. They are less apt to breed in winter, when it is
desirable to have the bees very quiet.
Eighth. 'The queen is more readily found, which is a great
advantage. In the various manipulations of the apiary, it is
frequently desirable to findthe queen. In fullcolonies I would
rather find three Italian queens than one black one. Where
time is money this becomes a matter of much importance.
Ninth. The bees are more disposed to adhere to the comb
while being handled, which some might regarda doubtful
compliment, though I consider it a desirable quality.
Tenth. They are, in my judgment, less liable to rob other
bees. ‘They will find honey when the blacks gather none, and
the time for robbing is when there is no gathering. This may
explain the above peculiarity.
Eleventh. In my estimation, a sufficient ground for pref-
erence, did it stand alone, is that the Italian bees are far more
amiable. Years agol got rid of my black bees because they
were socross.
3 Cellar, 7 feet high, Ws
1B grouved on the bot- na
2 tom, and plastered yo
2 with water-lime or ry
me ceiled above.
i
\
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\
a
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\ Stairs
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I
DaRae er ageerea ee eee eT | |
3v tect, outside measure, w
Diagram of Cellar,
w 8Y-ft. vs w
g 30 ft., outside measure.
3
3
3
PONS Ceiling 8 ft. Bis
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344-ft. Stairs
se Chimney uD
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2 ¢ This Room
o
w Hard-wood Floor. i) Lathed and w
i , Plastered.
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a Door-double,
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oe
Diagram of First Floor.—Original.
lar, and four doors beside the slanting one, twoto the inner
one or bee-cellar, and two tothe outeror vestibule. I should
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 471
have the entrance an inclined plane, which, especially if the
apiary is large, should be so gradual in its descent that acar
could pass down it into the cellar on a temporary track. The
cellar should be well drained, or if water be permitted to pass
through it, this should be kept in prescribed channels. In our
cellar we have a large cistern. This is mostly in the outer
cellar, but partly in the inner or bee-cellar. A tight partition
separates the two rooms except at bottom of the cistern. In
case of large apiaries the track and car make the removal of
the bees to and from the cellar an easy matter. The first floor
I should have, if my apiary was large, ona level with the
ground. This (Fig. 258) should contain three rooms, one on
the north for a shop, one on the southeast for comb honey, and
one on the southwest for extracting, and storing extracted
honey and brood-combs. For 100 colonies of bees, this build-
ing need not be more than 20x24 feet. A chimney should pass
from the attic at the common angle of these three rooms
through the roof. Wide doors on the south, if the apiary is
large, should permit the car to enter either of the rooms on
an extemporized track, whenever extracting or taking off comb
honey isin operation.
The house should be so constructed as to be always free
from rats and mice. In summer, wire-gauze docrs should be
used, also wire-gauze window-screens made to swing out like
common window-blinds. Ours are single, not double, light,
and so hung that when opened they remain so till shut. At
the top the gauze extends outside the upper piece of the frame,
and is separated from it by a bee-space width. At the topa
few three-eighths inch round holes are made. This permits
all bees to leave the house, while the character of the opening
precludes outside bees from entering. Inside doors should per-
mit our passing directly from any of these rooms to the others.
The position of the chimney makes it easy to havea fire in
any of the rooms. This would be desirable in the shop, in
winter, when hive-making, etc., is in operation, or when visit-
‘ng with other bee-keepers is in progress. The ripening of
honey or late extracting make it often desirable to have a fire
in the extracting-room. If comb honey is kept in the desig-
nated room late in the season, it is desirable to warm that
472 HE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
room. Of course, alarge stove in the shop might be made to
heat any or all of the rooms. I would have the comb-honey
room very tight, and ventilated by an easily regulated slide
into the chimney for the purpose of easy fumigation.
The extractor-room should have close, moth-proof cup-
boards for receiving brood-combs. Those in our house are
high enough for three rows of frames, and wide enough just
to receive the top-bar of a frame crosswise. Cleats nailed on
to the inside hold the frames, which are turned diagonally a
little to pass them to the lower tier. This room ought also to
have a table for work, uncapping-box (Fig. 156), and large open
tanks, open barrels, or extractor-cans, to hold the honey while
itripens. If the building is painted dark, this room will be
warmer in summer. The warmer it becomes the more rapidly
the honey thickens.
A chamber above costs but little, and serves admirably as
a place for storage. This may be entered by stairs from the
shop.
A neat bench and sharp tools, all conveniently placed,
make the shop a very desirable fixture to every apiary.
I have spoken of a car and track in large apiaries; such
an arrangement, which costs but little, is exceedingly desir-
able. The tracks run close to the rows of hives, and by means
of simple switches, the car can be run anywhere in the apiary.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 473
CHAPTER XX,
EVILS THAT CONFRONT THE APIARIST.
There are various dangers that are likely to vex the api-
arist, and even to stand in the way of successful apiculture.
Yet, with knowledge, most, if not all, of these evils may be
wholly vanquished. Among these are: Robbing among the
bees, disease, and depredations from other animals.
ROBBING.
This is a trouble that often very greatly annoys the inex-
perienced. Whenever bees leave the hives, except at a time of
swarming, with the honey-stomach full, we may be sure rob-
bing is in the air. Bees only rob at such times as the general
scarcity of nectar forbids honest gains. Whenthe question
comes: Famine or theft? like many another, they are not
slow to choose the latter. Itis often induced by working with
the bees at such times, especially if honey is scattered about or
left lying around the apiary. It is especially to be feared in
spring, when colonies are apt to be weak in both honey and
bees, and thus are unable to protect their own meager stores.
The remedies for this evil are not far to seek:
First.—Strong colonies are very rarely molested, and are
almost sure to defend themselves against marauders; hence,
it is only the weaklings of the apiarist’s flock that are in dan-
ger. Therefore, regard for our motto, ‘‘Keep all colonies
strong,’’ will secure against harm from this cause.
Second.—Italians—the Cyprians and Syrians are even
more spirited in this work of defense than.are the Italians—as
before stated, are fully able, and quite as ready, to protect
their rights against neighboring tramps. Woe be to the
thieving bee that dares to violate the sacred rig *ts of the home
of our beautiful Italians, for such temerity is almost sure to
cost the intruder its life.
But weak colonies, like our nuclei, and black bees, are still
474 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
easily kept from harm. Usually, the closing of the entrance,
so that but a single bee can pass through, is all sufficient. Mr.
Jones closes the entrance by use of wet grass, straw, or shav-
ings. Mr. Hayhurst places a frame six inches by eighteen
inches covered by wire-gauze over the entrance. This keeps
the robbers out, and still affords ventilation.
Another way to secure such colonies against robbing is to
move them into the cellar for afew days. Thisis a further
advantage, as less food is eaten, and the strength of the indi-
vidual bees is conserved by the quiet, and as there is no nectar
in the fields no lossis suffered. Mr. Root recommends ‘‘ quiet ’’
robbing at such times to cure robbing. He places hives con-
taining honey near by, with the entrances so contracted that
only one beecan enter at a time. The bees seem to prefer
this quiet, unresisted robbing, and cease from the other. This,
of course, would be expensive in case other apiaries were near
by. Itisa good way to get partially filled sections or combs
emptied. It works very well in case we give them access to a
larger quantity of honey, else robbing may still be kept up.
In all the work of the apiary at times of no honey-gather-
ing, we can not be too careful to keep all honey from the bees
unless placed in the hives. The hives, too, should not be kept
open long at atime. Neat, quick work should be the watch-
word. Mr. Root does necessary work at such times by night,
using alantern. I do not like night work; the bees crawl
about one’s clothes, and often reach quite objectionable places.
During times when robbers are essaying to practice their
nefarious designs, the bees are likely to be more than usually
irritable, and likely to resent intrusion; hence, the impor-
tance of more than usual caution, if itis desired to introduce a
queen. Working under the bee-tent (Figs. 158 and 166) prevents
all danger of inciting the bees to rob. Dr. Miller inserts a
funnel-shaped (Fig. 159) bee-escapein the top of the tent. Such
atent might be placed over the colony being robbed. Mr.
Doolittle prizes highly a common sheet in the apiary. In case
of robbing he covers the entire hive being robbed with this
sheet.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 475
DISEASE.
The common dysentery—indicated by the bees soiling
their hives, as they void their feces within instead of without
—which so frequently works havoc in our apiaries, is, without
doubt, I think, consequent upon wrong management on the
part of the apiarist, poor honey, like cider, rotten apple-juice,
rank honey-dew, or burnt sugar, or bad wintering, usually the
result of severe weather, as already suggested in Chapter
XVIII. As the methods to prevent this have already been
sufficiently considered, we pass to the terrible
FOUL BROOD.
This disease, said to have been known to Aristotle—
though this is doubtful, as a stench attends common dysen-
tery—though it has occurred in our State as well as in States
about us, is not very familiar to me. Of late I receive many
samples of this affected brood each season. It’is causing sad
havoc in many regions of our country. No bee-malady can
compare with this in malignancy. By it Dzierzon once lost
his whole apiary of 500 colonies. Mr. E. Rood, first President
of the Michigan Association, lost all his bees two or three
times by this terrible plague.
The symptoms areas follows: Decline in the prosperity
of the colony, because of failure to rear brood. The brood
seems to putrefy, becomes ‘‘ brown and salvy,” and gives off
a stench which is by no means agreeable. With a slight
attack, the bad smell is not apparent. In aclose box very
little of the brood gives the characteristic odor. I often detect
it in boxes received by mail before I open them. Later the
caps are concave instead of convex, and many will have little
holes through them. Holes will often be found in healthy
brood-cells. As the cappings were never completed, such holes
are smooth at the margins, while those of foul brood are jag-
ged. The most decided symptom is the salvy, elastic mass in
the brood-cell. With a pin-head we never draw fortha larva
or pupa, but this brown, stringy mass which afterwards dries
down in the cell, when it lets go of the pin-head, because of
its elasticity, it flies or-springs back. This is sometimes less
marked.
476 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE$
Fic. 259.
<6
can:
ot
5 %
De
Foul Brood Photographed.—From A, I. Root Co,
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 477
There is no longer any doubt as to the cause of this fearful
plague. Like the fell ‘‘Pebrine,’’ which came so near exter-
minating the silk-worm, anda most lucrative and extensive
industry in Europe, it, as conclusively shown by Drs. Preusz
and Schonfeld, of Germany, is the result of minute parasitic
organisms. Schonfeld not only infected healthy bee-larve,
but those of other insects, both by means of the putrescent
foul brood and by taking the spores. Professor Cohn discov-
Fic. 260.
Healthy Stage. Early Stage.
Foul Brood—From A. I. Root Co.
ered, in 1874, that the cause of foul brood was a microbe,
Bacillus alveolaris. Mr. Hilbert, the following year, showed
that these micro-organisms existed in the mature bees as well
as in the brood. Later Mr. Cheshire gave the microbe the
name of Bacillus alvei.
Fungoid growths are very minute, and the spores are so
infinitesimally small as often to elude the sharp detection of
the expert microscopist. Most of the terrible contagious dis-
eases that human flesh is heir to—like typhus, diphtheria,
478 THH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
cholera, smallpox, etc.—are now known to be due to micro-
scopic germs, and hence to be spread from home to home, and
from hamlet to hamlet, it is only necessary that the germs or
the contained spores, the minute seeds, either by contact or by
some sustaining air current, be brought to new soil of flesh,
blood, or other tissue—their garden-spot—when they at once
spring into growth, and thus lick up the very vitality of their
victims. The huge mushroom will growina night. So, too,
these other plants—the disease-germs—will develop with mar-
Fie. 261.
Middle Stage. Late Stage.
Foul Brood.—From A. I, Root Co.
velous rapidity; and, hence, the horrorsof yellow fever, scar-
letina and cholera. The foul-brood Bacillus, like all bacilli,
is rod-shaped (Fig. 261). The spore develops in one end, which
becomes slightly enlarged.
To cure such diseases the microbes must be killed. To
prevent their spread they must be destroyed, or else confined.
But as these are so small, so light,and so invisible—easily
borne and wafted by the slightest zephyr of summer—this is
often a matter of the utmost difficulty.
OR, MANUAL OF THER APIARY. 479
In ‘‘foul brood’? these germs feed on the larve of the
bees, and thus convert life and vigor into death and decay. If
we can kill this miniature forest of the hive, and destroy the
spores, we shall extirpate the terrible plague. The spores
resist heat, are more tenacious of life, and more difficult to
kill than are the bacilli themselves.
Some of the facts connected with ‘foul brood’? would
lead us to think that the germs or spores of this fungus are
only conveyed in the honey. This supposition, alone, enables
us to understand one of the remedies which some of our ablest
apiarists hold to be entirely sure.
REMEDIES.
“Prevention is better than cure.’’ In case foul brood,
black brood, or any suspected germ malady is in the neighbor-
hood or apiary, it will always be wise to feed medicated syrup.
Beta naptholis now preferred, as it is non-odorous, and not
offensive to the bees. Mr. Thos. W. Cowan uses this success-
fully as follows: One ounce of the powder is put into a half-
pint bottle ; just enough wood alcohol is added to dissolve it
fully, when the bottle is filled with water. This will medicate
280 pounds of syrup, made by mixing 140 pounds each of water
and granulated sugar. The solution and mixing can best be
performed by use of the extractor. Gentle turning soon dis-
solves the sugar, and thoroughly mixesthe beta napthol. Thus
we use no heat. (See page 266.)
TO CURE.
No doubt Mr. Hilbert, of Germany, cured foul brood by
use of salicylic acid. Mr. Muth did the same, and rendered
the solution more easy by adding borax. That this extract of
the willow is a powerful germicide is well known. In the cure
of foul brood it has so often proved a partial or complete fail-
ure, that no one, except for experiment, can afford to use it
in this warfare at all.
In 1874, Bontleroff, of Russia, suggested the use of car-
bolic acid or phenol asa cure of foul brood. Dr. Preusz also
thought very highly of it. There is no doubt that this is also
avery excellent bacillicide. Only the purest crystals of the
acid should be used. To use this to medicate the syrup—one-
480 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
fortieth of an ounce to a pound of syrup—would be wise as a
prevention except that, as stated above, beta napthol is pref-
erable. But, like salicylic acid, these carbolic acid derivatives
are too uncertain. So many have failed to cure with these
remedies.
Solong as we have a safe, sure remedy which works in
the hands of all, we can illy afford to risk our success with
remedies that so generally fail.
Mr. D. A. Jones, and scores of others, are successful with
what is termed the starvation method: ‘The bees are drummed
into an empty hive, placed in a cellar, and given no food
for three or four days, till they have digested all honey in their
stomachs. They are then given foundation and food, and the
combs melted for wax, the honey scalded, and the hives
scalded thoroughly before being again used. It would seem
that the spores are in the honey—we know surely that they
are in the chyle, though Schonfeld finds that they are not in
the blood of the bee—and by taking that, the contagion is
administered to the young bees. The honey may be purified
from these noxious germs by subjecting it to the boiling tem-
perature, which is generally, if not always, fatal to the spores
of fungoid life. The microbe is killed surely by a tempera-
ture even less than the usual boiling, 212 degrees F. The
spores, however, are only killed by prolonged boiling. So we
better add water to the honey and then boil for an hour to
make it safe, after which the honey may be safely fed. Some
of wide experience say that it is safe to use the hives, even
though they have not been boiled. Mr. McEvoy, of Ontario,
after his very extensive experience, urges this. The combs
are melted for wax. ‘The disease is probably spread by robber-
bees visiting affected hives, and carrying with them in the
honey the fatal germs. Mr. Doolittle, after some experience,
agrees with the lamented Quinby, that it is not necessary to
cause the bees to fast asdescribed by Mr. Jones. They can at
once be hived safely on foundation, In this case, all honey is
used up before any brood is present to be fed. ‘To secure this,
they are after four days changed again on to new foundation.
We must in all this be most careful not to scatter honey, or to
permit a single robber-bee to get at it. Great care, and the
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 481
wisest exercise of judgment, is allimportant. A wee blunder,
or little carelessness, may spread the evil rather than effect a
cure.
From this remedy it would seem certain that the germs are
in the honey.
It should be remembered that it is easy to scatter these
fatal germs, and whatever cure is adopted, too great care can
not be exercised. Mr. R. L. Taylor tells me that after an
experience of two years he does not greatly fear this malady.
He finds it easy, by means of the fasting cure, and free use of
carbolic acid, to hold it in check or tocureit. Yet he admits
that without much care and judgment it might work fearful
havoc.
(I have found that a paste made of gum tragacanth and
water is very superior, andI much prefer it for either general
or special use to gum arabic. Yet it soon sours—which means
that it is nourishing these fungoid plants—and thus becomes
disagreeable. I have found that a very little salicylic acid
will render it sterile, and thus preserve it indefinitely.)
BEE-PARALYSIS.
This isa.common malady, more serious, it is claimed, in
the warmer parts of the country. The bees become black,
show a curious trembling motion, and are often dragged from
the hive. Often so many die that the colony is seriously
depleted. Change of queenis often a cure. Spraying with
salt water has been thought to be of service. I believe this to
be a fungoid disease, and, if so, feeding the medicated syrup
(page 479) will be a wise practice. I have often seen this
trouble in my apiary, but it always disappeared with no serious
harm.
NEW BEE-DISEASE.
In California and some other sections, the brood dies with-
out losing its form. We use the pin-head, and we draw forth
alarva much discolored, often black, but not at all like the
salvy mass that we see in foul brood. This is doubtless a
germ disease, which I have greatly mitigated by simply feed-
ing. Ibelieve with this and the similar, if not identical black
brood, and all kindred maladies, we should feed freely with
482 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
the medicated syrup. The removal of old combs and honey,
forcing the bees to build new, thus to remove germs would also
abet the cure. :
Black brood is not ropy like foul brood, and the brood
shows affection earlier. It is serious in New York, and is
treated precisely as is foul brood. The bees are transferred
to other hives on starters of foundation, and this repeated in
four days.
ENEMIES OF BEES.
Swift was no mean entomologist, as is shown in the fol-
lowing stanza:
“ The little fleas that do us tease,
Have lesser fleas to bite them,
And these again have lesser fleas,
And so ad infinitum.”
Bees are no exception to this law, as they have to brave
the attacks of reptiles, birds, and other insects. In fact, they
are beset with perils at home and perils abroad, perils by night
and perils by day.
THE BHE-MOTH—GALLERIA MELLONELLA.
This insect, formerly known as G. cereana, belongs to the
family of snout-moths, Pyralide. This snout is not the
tongue, but the palpi, which fact was not known by Mr. Lang-
stroth, who was usually so accurate,as he essayed to correct
Dr. Harris, who stated correctly that the tongue was ‘very
short and hardly visible.’? This family includes the destruc-
tive hop-moth, and the noxious meal and clover moths, and its
members are very readily recognized by their usually long
palpi, the so-called snouts. The family is now more restricted,
and named Galleriide.
The eggs of the bee-moth are white, globular, and very
small. These are usually pushed into crevices by the female
moth as she extrudes them, which she can easily do by aid of
her spy-glass-like ovipositor. They may be laid in the hive,
in the crevice underneath it, or about the entrance. Soon
these eggs hatch, when the gray, dirty-looking caterpillars,
with brown heads, seek the comb on which they feed. To pro-
tect themselves better from the bees, they wrap themselves in
OR, MANUAL OF THER APIARY. 483
a silken tube (Fig. 262), which they have power to spin. They
remain in this tunnel of silk during all their growth, enlarg-
ing it as they eat. The noise, as they eat, can be heard
plainly by holding the comb to the ear. As they tunnel
Fic. 262, Fic. 263.
Tunnel of Bee-Moth Larva.—-Original. Tunnel in Comb.—Original.
among the larve in brood-combs, the larvz are destroyed, and
will be removed from the hives. Thus, the presence of dead
larve in front of the hiveis often asign of the presence of
insects in the hive. By looking closely, the presence of these
Fic, 264.
Larve of Bee-Moth.—Original.
larve may be known by this robe of glistening silk, as it
extends in branching outlines (Fig. 263) along the surface of
thecomb. A more speedy detection, even, than the defaced
comb, comes from the particles of comb, intermingled with
484 THE BEHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
the powder-like droppings of the caterpillars, which will
always be seen onthe bottom-board in case the moth-larve
are at work. Soon,in three or four weeks, the larve are full
grown (Fig. 264). Now the six-jointed and the ten prop-legs—
making sixteen in all, the usual number possessed by cater-
pillars—are plainly visible. These larve are about aninch
long, and show by their plump appearance that fhey at least
can digest comb. However, though these are styled wax-
moths they must have either pollen or dead bees to mingle
with their wax. While it is true that therc is a little nitrogen-
ous material in wax, there is not enough so that even the wax-
Fie. 265. Fic. 266.
Bee--Moth.—Original.
Cocoons.—Original.
moth larva could thrive on it alone. They now spin their
cocoons, either in some crevice about the hive, or, if very
numerous, singly (Fig. 265, a) or in clusters (Fig. 265, 5) on the
comb, or even in the drone-cells (Fig. 265, c),in which they
become pupz, and in two weeks, even less sometimes, during
the extreme heat of summer, the moths again appear. In
winter they may remain as pupa for months. The moths or
millers—sometimes incorrectly called moth-millers—are of an
obscure gray color, and thus so mimic old boards that they are
very readily passed unobserved by the apiarist. They are
about three-fourths of an inch long, and expand (Fig. 266)
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 485
nearly one and one-fourth inches. The females are darker
than the males, possess a longer snout, and are usually a little
larger. The wings, when the moths are quiet, are flat on the
back for a narrow space, then slope.very abruptly. They rest
by day, yet, when disturbed, will dart forth with great swift-
ness, so Reaumur styled them ‘‘nimble-footed.’”? They are
active by night, when they essay to enter the hive and deposit
‘their one or two hundred eggs. If the females are held in the
hand they will often extrude their eggs; in fact, they have
been known to do this even after the head and thorax were
severed from the abdomen, and, still more strange, while the
latter was being dissected.
It is generally stated that these are two-brooded, the first
moths occurring in May, the second in August. Yet, as I have
seen these moths in every month from May to September, and
as I have proved by actual observation that they may pass
from egg to moth in less than six weeks, I think under favor-
able conditions there may be eventhreebroods a year. It is
true that the varied conditions of temperature—as the moth-
larve may grow in a deserted hive, in one with few bees, or
one crowded with bee-life—will have much todo with the
rapidity of development. Circumstances may so retard growth
and development that there may be, not more than two, and pos-
sibly, in extreme cases, not more than one brood in a season.
It is stated by Mr. Quinby that a freezing temperature
will kill these insects in all stages, while Mr. Betsinger thinks
that a deserted hive is safe; neither of which assertions is
entirely correct. Still, I believe exposure of combs to cold the
winter through would kill most,if notall, of the bee-moth
larve. I believe, in very mild winters, the moth and the
chrysalids might be so protected as to escape unharmed, even
outside the hive. It is probable, too, that the insects may pass
the winter in any one of the various stages, though they gen-
erally exist as pupz during the cold season.
HISTORY.
These moths were known to writers of antiquity, as even
Aristotle tells of their injuries. They are wholly of Oriental
origin, and are often referred to by European writers as a
486 THE BHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
terrible pest. The late Dr. Kirtland, the able scientist, and
first president of our American bee-association, once saidin a
letter to Mr. Langstroth, that the moth was first introduced
into America in 1805, though bees had been introduced long
before. They first seemed to be very destructive. It is quite
probable, as has been suggested, that the bees had to learn to
fear and repel them ; for, unquestionably, the bees do grow in
wisdom. In fact, may not the whole of instinct be inherited
knowledge, which once had to be acquired by the animal?
Surely bees and other animals learn to battle new enemies,
and vary their habits with changed conditions, and they also
transmit this knowledge and their acquired habits to their
offspring, as illustrated by setter and pointer dogs. In time,
may not this account for all those varied actions, usually
ascribed to instinct? At least I believe the bee to bea créa-
ture of no small intelligence.
REMEDIES.
In Europe, late writers give very little space to this moth.
Once a serious pest, it has now ceased to alarm, or even to
disquiet the intelligent apiarist. In fact, we may almost call
it a blessed evil, as it will destroy the bees of the heedless, and
thus prevent injury to the markets by their unsalable honey,
while to the attentive bee-keeper it will work no injury at all.
Neglect and ignorance are the moth-breeders.
As already stated, Italian bees are rarely injured by
moths, and strong colonies never. As the enterprising api-
arist will possess only these, it is clear that he is free from
danger. Theintelligent apiarist will also provide not only
against weak but queenless colonies as well, which, from their
abject discouragement, are the surest victims to moth inva-
sion. Knowing that destruction is sure, they seem, if not to
court death, to make no effort to delay it.
As my friend, Judge W. H. Andrews, asserts, no bees,
black or Italian, will be troubled with these insects so long as
all the combs are covered with bees.
In working with bees an occasional web will be seen glis-
tening in the comb, which should be picked out with a knife
till the manufacturer—the ruthless larva—is found, when it
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 487
should be crushed. Any larva seen about the bottom-board,
seeking place to spin its cocoon, or any pupz, either on comb
orin crack, should also be killed. If, through carelessness, a
colony has become thoroughly victimized by these filthy wax-
devourers, then the bees and any combs not attacked should
be transferred to another hive, after which the old hive should
be sulphured by use of the smoker, as before described; then
by giving one or twoeach of the remaining combs to strong
colonies, after killing any pupze that may be on them, they
will be cleaned and used, while by giving the enfeebled colony
brood, and if necessary a good queen, if it has any vigor
remaining it will soon be rejoicing in strength and prosperity.
We have already spoken of caution as to comb honey and
frames of comb (page 380), and so need not speak further of
them.
THE WEE BEE-MOTH.
In 1887 another smaller moth attacked comb in New York
and Michigan. Mr. W. J. Ellison, of South Carolina, wrote
me that this insect does much harm in his State. It is Ephestia
Fic. 267.
Wee Bee-Moth.—Original. Wing.—Original.
interpunctella, Hub., and belongs to the same family of moths,
Pyralidz, or snout-moths, that contains the old bee-moth. I
shall call this (Fig. 267) the Wee bee-moth. The moths lay
eggsin Julyand August, upon thecomb. The larvz feed in
August, September and October upon the pollen, and do mis-
chief by spreading a thin layer of silk over thecombs. Mr.
Ellison says the web on the comb honey is no small injury.
Very likely there is an early summer brood.
REMEDIES.
The only suggestion I can offer at present is that the
combs shall not be exposed. Fumigation, of course, either
488 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
with the bisulphide of carbon or sulphur fumes, will destroy
these also, and might be desirable in case comb honey is
injured.
TWO DESTRUCTIVE BEETLES.
There are two destructive beetles that often work on the
comb, more, however, for the pollen and dead bees than for
the wax. One of these, Tenebrio molitor, Linn., is the
common flour or meal beetle. It is dark brown in color, and
five-eighths of an inch (16 mm.) long. The larva or grubis of
a lighter color, and when fully developed is one inch (25 mm.)
long. It resembles very closely the larva of our Elater beetles
—the wire-worms. The other is the bacon beetle, Dermestes
lardarius, Linn, (Fig. 268), which is a sore pest in museums,
Fic. 268.
i
D, Lardarius.—Original.
as it feeds on all kinds of dried animal tissues. The beetle is
black, while nearly one-half of the wing-covers, next to the
thorax, are yellowish-gray, lined in the middle with black.
The beetle is three-eighths of an inch(10mm.) long. The
larva is some longer, very hairy, and ringed with brown and
black bands. These beetles are not very troublesome in the
apiary, and can be readily destroyed by use of bisulphide of
carbon. Care is necessary, however, in the use of this very
inflammable and explosive liquid. It is no more to be feared
than would be gasoline. We have only to keep the match or
lighted cigar away. There are other beetles and moths of
similar habits, which are likely at any time to invade the
apiary.
ROBBER-FLIES.
There are several of these flies that prey upon bees. The
most common is Asilus missouriensis, Riley. This is a two-
winged fly, of the predacious family Asilide, which attacks
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 489
and takes captive the bee and then feeds upon its fluids. It is
more common in the southern part of our country. The fly
(Fig. 269) has a long, pointed abdomen, strong wings, and is
very powerful. I have seen an allied species attack and over-
come the powerful tiger-beetle, whereupon I took them both
with my net, and now they are pinned, as they were captured,
in the college cabinet. These flies delight in the warm sun-
shine, are very quick on the wing, and so are not easily cap-
tured. It is to be hoped that they will not become very numer-
Fic. 269,
Robber-Fly.—Original.
ous. If they should, I hardly know how they could be kept
from their evil work. Frightening them or catching witha
net might be tried, yet these methods would irritate the bees,
and need to be tried before they are recommended. I have
received specimens of this fly from nearly every Southern
State. During the summer-time these flies are usually well
employed in Michigan. They have been observed to kill the
cabbage butterfly by scores. The Asilids are very common in
California, yet Iam persuaded that they do far more good than
harm.
Ihave also a fly of the same family, with the same bee-
490 . THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE;
destroying habits, a species of Erax (Fig. 270). In form it
resembles the one referred to above. The wing (Fig. 269), as
will be seen, is quite different in its venation. I received this
Fic. 270. Fic. 271.
Robber-Fly and Wing.—Original.
species from Louisiana. Fig. 272 shows the antennz magni-
fied. The Nebraska bee-killer, Promachus bastardi, is the
Fic. 272. Fic. 273.
Head and Tarsus of Robber-Fly.—Original.
same in general appearance as the above. The second vein of
the primary wing, not the third, asin thecase of Asilus, forks.
In Erax, as seen in Fig. 271, this branch is disconnected.
’
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 491
There are two other insects of this family, Mallophora
orcina and Mallophora bomboides, which differ greatly in
form from those mentioned above; they look more like bum-
ble-bees, for which they have been mistaken.
I have received these insects from several of our enterpris-
ing bee-keepers of the South—Tennessee, Georgia, and Florida
—with the information that they dart forth from some conven-
ient perch, and with swift and sure aim graspa bee, and bear.
it to some bush, when they leisurely suck ont all but the mere
crust, and cast away the remains. ,
The insects in question, which in form, size, and color
much resemble bumble-bees, belong to Loew’s third group,
Fic. 274.
Wing of Mallophora.—Original.
Asilina, as the antenne end in a bristle (Fig. 272), while the
second longitudinal vein of the wing (Fig. 274, 6) runs into
the first (Fig. 274, a).
The genus is Mallophora. The venation of the wings
much resembles that of the genus Promachus, though the
form of these insects is very different.
In Mallophora and Promachus the venation is as repre-
sented in Fig. 274, where, as will be seen, the second vein (Fig.
274, b) forks, while in the genus Asilus (Fig. 269) the third
vein is forked, though in all three genera the third joint of the
antennz (Fig. 272) ends in a prolonged bristle.
One of the most common of these pests, which I am
informed by Dr. Hagen, is Mallaphora orcina, Weid., is one
inch long, and expands oneand three-fourths inches (Fig. 275).
The head (Fig. 272) is broad, the eyes black and prominent,
the antennz three-jointed, the last joint terminating in a
bristle, while the beak is very large, strong, and, like the eyes
492 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}
and antenna, coal-black. This is mostly concealed by the
light yellow hairs, which are crowded thick about the mouth
and between the eyes.
The thorax is prominent and thickly set with light yellow
hairs. The abdomen is narrow, tapering, and covered with
yellow hairs, except the tip, which is black, though there are
scattering hairs of a grayish yellow color on the black legs.
The pulvilli, or feet-pads (Fig. 273, 6), are two in number,
‘bright yellow in color, surmounted by strong, black claws
(Fig. 273, a), while below and between is the sharp spine (Fig.
273, c), technically known as the empodium.
The habits of the flies are interesting, if not to our liking.
Their flight is like the wind, and, perched near the hive, they
Fic. 275.
M. oricina.—Original,
rush upon the unwary bee returning to the hive with its full
load of nectar, and grasping it with their hard, strong legs,
they bear it to some perch near by, when they pierce the crust,
suck out the blood, and drop the carcass, and are then ready
to repeat the operation. A hole in the bee shows the cause of
its sudden taking off. The eviscerated bee is not always killed
at once by this rude onslaught, but often can crawl some dis-
tance away from where it falls, before it expires.
Another insect nearly as common is Mallophora bomboides,
Weid. This fly might be called a larger edition of the one
just described, as in form, habits, and appearance it closely
resembles the other. It belongs to the same genus, possessing
all the generic characters already pointed out. It is very diffi-
cult to capture this one, as it is so quick and active.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 493
This fly is one and five-sixteenths inches long, and
expands two anda half inches. The head and thorax are much
as in the other species. The wings are very long and strong,
and, asin other species, are of a smoky brown color. The
abdomen is short, pointed, concave from side to side on the
under surface, while the grayish yellow hairs are abundant on
the legs and whole under portion of the body. The coloris a
lighter yellow than in the other species. These insects are
powerfully built, and if they become numerous must prove a
formidable enemy to the bees. I believe all of the robber-flies
are our friends. They destroy few bees, comparatively, and
hosts of our insect enemies.
Another insect very common and destructive in Georgia,
though it closely resembles the two just described, is of a
different genus. It is the Laphria thoracica, of Fabricius. In
this genus the third vein is forked, and the third joint of the
antenna is without the bristle, though it is elongated and
tapering. Theinsect is black, with yellow hair covering the
upper surface of the thorax. The abdomen is wholly black,
both above and below, though the legs have yellow hairs on
the femurs and tibiz. This insect belongs to the same family
as the others, and has the same habits. It is found North as
well as South.
THE STINGING BUG—PHYMATA EROSA, FABR.
This insect is very widely distributed throughout the
United States. I have received it from Maryland to Missouri
on the South, and from Michigan to Minnesota on the North.
The insect will lie concealed among the flowers, and upon
occasion will grasp a bee, hold it off at arm’s length, and suck
out its blood and life.
This is a Hemipteron, or true bug, and belongs to the
family Phymatide, Uhler. It is the Phymata erosa, Fabr.,
the specific name erosa referring to its jagged appearance. It
is also called the ‘‘ stinging bug,’’ in reference to its habit of
repelling intrusion by a painful thrust with its sharp, strong
beak.
The ‘‘stinging bug’? is somewhat jagged in appearance,
about three-eighths of an inch long, and generally of a yellow
494 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
color, though this latter seems quite variable. Frequently
there is a distinct greenish hue. Beneath the abdomen, and
on the back of the head, thorax, and abdomen, it is more or
less specked with brown ; while across the dorsal aspect of the
broadened abdomen is a marked stripe of brown (Fig. 277, d, d).
Sometimes this stripe is almost wanting, sometimes a mere
patch, while rarely the whole abdomen is very slightly marked,
and as often we find it almost wholly brown above and below.
The legs (Fig. 277, 6), beak and antennz (Fig. 278, a) are
greenish yellow. The beak has threé joints (Fig. 278, a, 6, c),
anda sharp point (Fig. 278, d). This beak is not only the
great weapon of offense, but also the organ through which the
Fic. 276. Fic. 277. Fic. 278,
2 5 =
c' i?) » \
i a
Side view, natural size. Magnified twice. Beak much magnified.
—Original. —Original. —Original.
food is sucked. By the use of this, the insect has gained the
sobriquet of ‘‘stinging bug.’’ This compact, jointed beak is
peculiar to all true bugs, and by observing it alone we are able
to distinguish all the very varied forms of this group. The
antenna is four-jointed. The first joint (Fig. 279, a) is short,
the second and third (Fig, 279, band c) are long and slim, while
the terminal one (Fig. 279, d)is muchenlarged. This enlarged
joint is one of the characteristics of the genus Phymata, as
described by Latreille. But the most curious structural pecu-
liarity of this insect, and the chief character of the genus
Phymata, are the enlarged anterior legs (Figs. 280 and 281).
These, were they only to aid in locomotion, would seem like
awkward, clumsy organs, but when we learn that they are
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 495
used to grasp and hold their prey, then we can but appreciate
and admire their modified form. The femur (Fig. 281, 6) and
the tarsus (Fig. 281, @) are toothed, while the latter is greatly
Fic. 279.
Fic. 280. Fic. 281.
&
‘ 6
°°
» Interior view. Exterior view.
Antenna, much magnified. Anterior Leg, magnified.—Original.
enlarged. From the interior lower aspect of the femur (Fig.
282) is the small tibia, while on the lower end of the tarsus
(Fig. 281, @) is a cavity in which rests the single claw. The
other four legs (Fig. 283) are much as usual.
Fic. 282. F Fic. 283.
Claw, entarged.—Original. Middle Leg, much magnified.— Original.
This insect, as already intimated, is very predaceous,
lying in wait, often almost concealed, among flowers, ready to
capture and destroy unwary plant-lice, caterpillars, beetles,
butterflies, moths, and even bees andwasps. We have already
496 THE BERE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
noticed how well prepared it is for this work by its jaw-like
anterior legs, and its sharp, strong, sword-like beak.
It is often caught on the golden-rod. This plant, from its
color, tends to conceal the bug, and from the character of the
plant—being attractive as a honey-plant to bees—the slow bug
is enabled to catch the spry and active honey-bee.
As Prof. Uhler well says of the ‘‘stinging bug’’: ‘‘It is
very useful in destroying caterpillars and other vegetable-
feeding insects, but is not very discriminating inits tastes, and
would as soon seize the useful honey-beeas the pernicious saw-
fly.” And he might have added that it is equally indifferent
Fic. 284.
Bee-Stabber, and Beak.—Original.
tothe virtues of our friendly insects, like the parasitic and
predaceous species.
We note, then, that this bug is not wholly evil, and as its
destruction would be well-nigh impossible, for it is as widely
scattered as are the flowers in which it lurks, we may well rest
its case, at least until its destructiveness becomes more serious
than at present.
THE BEE-STABBER.
In the Southern States there is another bug, Euthyrhyn-
chus floridanus, Linn. (Fig. 284), which I have named the
bee-stabber. This bug places itself at the entrance of the
hive and stabs and sucks the bees till they are bloodless. As
will be seen, its powerful four-jointed beak fits it well for this
purpose. This bug is purplish or greenish blue, with dull,
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 497
yellowish markings, as seen in the figure. It is also yellowish
beneath. It is one-half of an inch long. Other similar bugs
may also learn that bees with their ample honey-sac full of
nectar are most toothsome.
BEE-HAWK—LIBELLULA.
These large, fine, lace-wings (Fig. 285) are Neuropterous
insects. They work harm to the bees mostly in the Southern
States, and are called mosquito-hawks. Insects of this genus
are called dragon-flies, devil’s darning-needles, etc. They are
Fic. 285.
Bee-Hawk.—Original.
exceedingly predaceous. Infact, the whole order is insectivo-
rous. From its four netted veined wings, we can tell it at once
from the Asilids, before mentioned, which have but two wings.
The bee or mosquito hawks are resplendent with metallic hues,
while the bee-killers are of sober gray. The mosquito-hawks
are not inaptly named, as they not only prey upon other
insects, swooping down upon them with the dexterity of a
hawk, but their graceful gyrations, as they sport in the warm
sunshine at noonday, are not unlike those of our graceful
hawks and falcons. These insects are found most abundant
near water, as they lay their eggs in water, where the larve
498 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
live and feed upon other animals. The larve are peculiar in
breathing by gills in the rectum. The same water that bathes
these organs and furnishes oxygen, is sent out ina jet, and
thus sends the insect darting along. The larve also possess
enormous jaws, which formidable weapons are masked till it
is desired to use them, when the dipper-shaped mask is dropped
or unhinged, and the terrible jaws open and close upon the
unsuspecting victim, which has buta brief time to bewail its
temerity.
A writer from Georgia, in Gleanings in Bee-Culture, Vol.
IV, page 35, states that these destroyers are easily scared
away, or brought down by boys with whips, who soon beconie
as expert in capturing the insects as are the latter in seizing
Fic. 286.
Tachina-Fly.—Original.
the bees. One of the largest and most beautiful of these (Fig.
285) is Anax junius. It has a wide range in the United States
(North and South), and everywhere preys upon the honey-bee.
TACHINA-FLY.
From descriptions which I have received, I feel certain
that there is a two-winged fly, probably of the genus Tachina
(Fig. 286), that works on bees. I have never seen these,
though Ihave repeatedly requested those who have to send
them tome. My friend, J. Ll. Davis, put some sick-looking
bees into a cage and hatched the flies, which, he told me,
looked not unlike a small house-fly. It is the habit of these
flies, which are closely related to our house-flies, which they
much resemble, to lay their eggs on other insects. Their
young, upon hatching, burrow into the insect that is being
victimized, and grow by eating it. It would be difficult to cope
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 499
with this evil, should it become of great magnitude. We may
well hope that this habit of eating bees is an exceptional one
with it. The affected bees will be found dead at early dawn in
front of the hives.
BEE-LOUSE—BRAULA CGICA, NITSCH.
This louse (Fig. 287) is a wingless Dipteron, and one of
the uniques among insects. It is a blind, spider-like parasite,
and serves as a very good connecting link between insects and
spiders, or, still better, between the Diptera, where it belongs,
and the Hemiptera, which contains the bugs and most of the
lice. It assumes the semi-pupa state almost as soon as
ms Fic. 287.
Larva.
B, ceca.— Original.
hatched, and, strangest of all, is, considering the size of the
bee on which it lives, and from which it sucks its nourishment,
enormously large. Twoor three, and sometimes as many as
ten, are found ona single bee. When we consider their great
size, we cannot wonder that they soon devitalize the bees.
These have done little damage, except in the south of Con-
tinental Europe, Cyprus, and other parts of the Orient. The
reason that they have not been naturalized in other parts of
Europeand America may be owing to climate, though I think
more likely it is due to improved apiculture. Mr. Frank Ben-
ton, who has had much experience with these bee-lice in
Cyprus, writes me that the Braula is no serious pest if the bees
500 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};
are properly cared for. ‘‘In fact, if hives are kept clean inside,
and colonies supplied with young queens and kept strong, the
damage done by the Braula is very slight, if anything. In
old, immovable-comb hives, where the combs are black and
thickened, and in case the queens are old; or where through
some extraneous cause the colonies have become weak, these
lice are numerous on queens and workers. I have not noticed
them onthe drones. Since they are found on workers as well
as the queen, their removal from the latter will bring tem-
porary relief. About tenis the greatest number that I have
seen on one queen. I have only thought it necessary to
remove them in case there were three or more on a queen. The
only way to remove them isto pick them off with a knife,
scissors, forceps or similarinstrument. They are quick-footed,
and glide from one place to another like the wax-moth. I hold
the queen between the thumb and first finger of the left hand,
and with pocket-knife or clipping scissors shave off the para-
site. It is no easy matter to get them the first time, as when
you attempt their removal they glide around to the other side
of the queen so adroitly that you have to turn the queen over
to try again.’’ Mr. Benton says that it is not practicable to
remove these lice by lessening the size of the entrance to the
hive. He thinks that, with the attention given to bees in
America, the Braula will never become a serious pest, if intro-
duced here. While these lice have been imported to America
several times, they seem to disappear almost at once, which
verifies Mr. Benton’s prophecy.
ANTS.
These cluster about the hives in spring for warmth, and
seldom, if ever, I think, do any harm in our cold climates,
though in California and the South they do much harm.
Should the apiarist feel nervous, he can very readily brush
them away, or destroy them by use of any of the fly-poisons
which are kept in the markets. As these poisons are made
attractive by adding sweets, we must be careful to preclude
the bees from gaining access to them. As we should use them
in spring, and as we then need to keep the quilt or honey-board
close above the bees, and as the ants cluster above the brood-
OR, MANUAL OF THER APIARY. 501
chamber, it is not difficult to practice poisoning. One year I
tried Paris-green with success. There are several reports of
ants entering the hives and killing the bees; even the queen
is said to have been thus destroyed.
Tlearn from Mr. H. E. Hill, of Florida, of a large, red ant
peculiar to that section (Fig. 288), which is a terror to bees. It
has destroyed nineteen nuclei in one week, and hundreds of
dollars worth of bees, for Mr. Hill. It hides and burrowsin
rotten wood, above and below ground, in hive-covers, in parts
of hives separated by the division-boards—anywhere where
Fic. 288.
Florida Ant, in all stages.—Original.
concealment is possible. So numerous are they that Mr. Hill
thinks there may be thousands in a colony, and he has
destroyed hundreds of colonies within the past two years.
Weak and queenless colonies suffer most, but none are exempt.
Scouts are sent out to locate the preyin the early twilight.
Later the chosen victims are stormed by the ant army and
routed, though many ants diein the conflict. This ant (Fig.
288) is known as the bull-dog ant in Florida. It isknown to
science as Camponotus esuriens. (See American Bee Journal,
Vol XLI, page 72.) Mr. Hill finds only one way—burning—to
destroy them, and only one to keep them at bay. The legs of
the hive stands are cut with a basin (Fig. 289), which is waxed
and kept filled with carbolic acid. This is not satisfactory, as
it evaporates quickly. I would suggest mixing kerosene and
lard, both of which are very obnoxious to insects, and fill the
502 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE};
basins with this. Ants in California are killed by saturating
the runs with gasoline, and then burning all. Itisa quick
remedy, but hard for the ants.
This ant is red except the eyes and abdomen, which may
be nearly all black, large soldiers, or tipped with black—com-
mon workers. There are many hairs on the abdomen.
In such cases, if they occur, it is best to put a sweet poi-
sonous mixture in a box and permit the ants toenter through
Fic. 289.
Leg of Hive-Stand.—Original.
an opening too small to admit bees, and thus poison the ants.
Or we may find the ant’s nest, and, with a crowbar, make a
hole init, turnin this an ounce of bisulphide of carbon, and
quickly plug it up by packing clay in the hole and on the nest.
The liquid will kill the ants. This better be done when the
ants are mostly in their nest.
THE COW-KILLER.
This ant-like insect, Mutilla coccinea (Fig. 290), has been
sent me from Illinois and the South as faras Texas. Itis a
formidable enemy of the bees. The male has wings and no
sting. ‘The female has no wings, but is possessed of a power-
ful sting. She is an inch (25 mm.) long, very hairy, and black,
except the top of her head and thorax, and a broad basal band
and the tip of the upper part of herabdomen, which are bright
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 503
red. Acentral band of black divides the red spaces of the
abdomen. The entire under part of the body and all the mem-
bers are black. There are several species of varying size and
color in California. Grayish white species are nearly as com-
mon as the red and black ones. Some are as large as a
worker-bee. .
So hard and dense is the chitinous crust of these insects
that they enter the hives fearlessly, and, unmindful of stings,
Fic. 290.
Cow-Killer,—Original.
deliberately kill the bees and feed on the young. The males
are said tosting. ‘This is certainly a mistake. The sting isa
modified ovipositor—an organ not possessed by males. These
insects belong to the family Mutillidz, so called because the
females are wingless. They are closely allied in structure to
the ants, which they much resemble.
THE PRAYING MANTIS.
This strange insect I have received from Indiana and other
Southern and Western States. Its scientific name is Mantis
carolina, Linn. A similar species I often take in Los Angeles
County, Calif. It is very predaceous, and the female has been
known toeat up her mate immediately after the sexual act.
No wonder that they make our friends of the hive contribute
to their support. This insect (Fig. 291)is a sort of nonde-
script. In the South it is known as devil’s race-horse. Itis a
corpulent ‘“ walking-stick’’ with wings. In fact, is closely
related to the ‘‘ walking-sticks’’ of the North. Its anterior
legs are very curious. Asit rests upon them, it appears asif
in the attitude of devotion, hence the name, praying mantis.
It also raises these anterior legsin a supplicativs attitude,
504 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
which would also suggest the name. It might well be preying
mantis. These peculiar anterior legs, like the same in Phy-
mata erosa, are used to grasp its victims. It is reported to
move with surprising rapidity, as it grasps its prey.
Fic, 291.
Mantis.—Original,
Its eggs (Fig. 292) are glued to some twig, in a scale-lixe
mass, and covered with a sort of varnish. Some of these
hatched out in one of my boxes, and the depravity of these
insects was manifest in the fact that those first hatched fell to
Fic. 292.
Eggs of Mantis.— Original.
and ate the others. They do much good in destroying our
insect enemies.
BLISTER-BEETLES.
I have received from Mr. Rainbow, of San Diego Co.,
Calif., the larvz (Fig. 293, a) of some blister-beetles, probably
Meloe barbarus, Lec., as that is a common species in Califor-
nia. Mr. Rainbow took as many as seven from one worker-
bee. Fig. 293, &, represents the female of Meloe angusticollis,
acommon species in Michigan and the Kast. I have also
,
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 505
received larve from Mr. Hammond, of New York, who took
them from his bees. He says they make the bees uncomfort-
able. These are likely M. angusticollis. As will be seen, the
wing-covers are short, and the beetle’s abdomen fairly drags
with its weight ofeggs. The eggsare laidin the earth. The
larve, when first hatched, crawl upon some flower, and, as
occasion permits, crawl upon a bee and thus are borne to the
hive, where they feast on eggs, honey and pollen. These
Fic. 293.
Blister-Beetle and Larve.—Original,
insects undergo what M. Faher styles hyper-metamorphosis,
asthe larva appears in four different forms instead of one.
Two of these forms show in the figure. The Spanish-fly—
Cantharides of the shops—is an allied insect. Some of our
common blister-beeties are very destructive to plants. Girard,
in his excellent work on bees, gives illustrations of all the
forms of this insect.
WASPS.
I have never seen bees injured by wasps. In the South, as
in Europe, we hear of such depredations. I have received
wasps, sent by our Southern brothers, which were caught
destroying bees. The wasp sent me is the large, handsome
Stizus speciosus, Drury. It is black, with its abdomen imper-
fectly ringed with yellow. The wasps are very predaceous,
and do immense benefit by capturing and eating our insect
pests. I have seen wasps carry off ‘‘currant worms”’ witha
celerity that was most refreshing.
506 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
As the solitary wasps are too few in numbers to do much
damage—even if they ever do any—any great damage which
may occur would doubtless come from the social paper-makers.
In this case, we have only to find the nests and apply the torch,
or hold the muzzle of a shot-gun tothe nest and shoot. This
should be done at nightfall, when the wasps have all gathered
home. Let us not forget that the wasps do much good, and so
not practice wholesale slaughter unless we have strong evi-
dence against them.
A BEE-MITE.
It has long been known to chicken fanciers that our poul-
try often suffer serious injury from a small mite. These little
arachnids often enter houses in countless thousands, much to
the annoyance of the owners. Kerosene may be used to repel
them. Other mites attack the cow, thehorse, the sheep, etc.
Fic. 294,
Mite.—Original.
The Texas cattle-tick—Boophalus bovis—which so often wor-
ries horses and cattle, and which carries the minute protozoan
(Pyrosoma bigeminum) that causes the terrible Texas fever, is
a colossal mite.
One spring a lady bee-keeper of Connecticut discovered
these mites in her hives while investigating to learn the cause
of their rapid depletion. She had noticed that the colonies
were greatly reduced in number of bees, and upon close obser-
vation she found that the diseased or failing colonies were
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 507
covered with these mites. A celebrated queen-breeder of New
York State sent me these same mites in 1887, with the report
that they killed his queens while yet in the cell. I found great
numbers in a cell sent by this gentleman. The strong and
prosperous colonies were exempt from the annoyance. So
small are these little pests that a score could take possession of
a single bee, and not be near neighbors, either. The lady
states that the bees roll and scratch in their vain attempts to
rid themselves of these annoying stick-tights, and, finally,
worried out, either fall to the bottom of the hive or go forth
to die outside.
The bee-mite (Fig. 294) is very small, hardly more than
five mm. (1-50 ofan inch) long. The female is slightly larger
than the male, and somewhat transparent. The color is black,
though the legs and more transparent areas of the females
appear yellowish.
REMEDIES.
The fact that what would be poison to the mite would
probably be death to the bees, makes this question of remedy
quite a difficult one. I can only suggest what Mrs. Squire has
tried—frequent changing of the bees from one hive to another,
after which the hive can be freed from the mites by scalding.
Of course, the more frequent the transfer the more thorough
the remedy.
I would suggest placing pieces of fresh meat, greased or
sugared paper, etc., in the hives, in hopes to attract the pests,
which, when massed on these decoys, could easily be killed.
CALIFORNIA BEE-KILLER.
Mr. J. D. Enas, of Napa Co., Calif., sent me specimens of
a curious bee-enemy (Fig. 295), which he finds quite a serious
enemy of bees. I havetaken many of these here at Claremont,
but have not known of their disturbing bees.
This is a Datames, possibly D. Californicus, Simon, though
it does not quite agree with the description of that species. It,
like the mites just described, belongs to the sub-class Arachnida
or spiders, and is related to the scorpions. The group of ani-
mals is known as the family Solpulgide. As will be seen, the
head and thorax are not separate, asthey are in true insects,
508 THER BEE-KEEPHR’S GUIDE};
The abdomen is long and segmented, a shield-like plate covers
the head, andthe eyes are far forward, small and globular.
The most peculiar organs are the jaws or falces, which are
immense, and armed with formidable teeth, spines, hairs, etc.
The family is small, little known, and, except in one case,
California Bee- Killer.—Original.
(Jaws and falces, and posterior leg.)
Datames pallipes, Say., which is said to live in houses in Colo-
rado, and to feed on bed-bugs; the habits have not been
described.
Mr. Enas finds this species in his hives, killing and eating
the bees. The remedy must be hand-picking, which will not
be very difficult.
SPIDERS.
These sometimes spread their nets so as to capture bees.
If porticos—which are, I think, worse than a useless expense—
are omitted, there will very seldom be an} cause for complaint
against the spiders, which, on the whole, are friends. As the
bee-keeper who would permit spiders to worry his bees would
not read books, I will discuss this subject no further.
THE KING-BIRD—TYRANNUS CAROLINENSIS.
This bird, often called the bee-martin, is one of the fly-
catchers, a very valuable family of birds, as they are wholly
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 509
insectivorous, and do immense good by destroying our insect
pests. The king-birds are the only onesin the United States
that deserve censure. The species in California is Tyrannus
..verticalis, or Western king-bird; that of the East, Tyrannus
tyrannus. Another, the chimney swallow of Europe, has the
same evil habit. Our chimney swallow has no evil ways. I
am sure, from personal observation, that these birds capture
aud eat the workers, as wellas drones, as I have taken worker-
bees from their stomachs ; and, I dare say, they would pay no
more respect to the finest Italian queen. They perch ona tree
or post and dart with the speed of an arrow as their poor victim
comes heavily laden towards the hives. How is it that the
bird is not stung ? Some say that they pullthe bees apart and
simply eat the honey-stomach. Do they handle the bee so as
to avoid the stings? Whowill determine this point? King-
birds killed close by an apiary hereat Claremont had only rob-
ber-flies in their stomachs; thusit was befriending the bees.
Yet, in view of the good that these birds do, unless they are
far more numerous and troublesome than I have ever observed
them to be, I should certainly be slow to recommend the death
warrant.
TOADS.
The same may be said of toads, which may often be seen
sitting demurely at the entrance of the hives, and lapping up
the full-laden bees with the lightning-like movement of their
tongues, in a manner which can but be regarded with interest,
even by him who suffers loss. Mr. Moon, the well-known api-
arist, made this an objection to low hives; yet, the advantage
of such hives far more than compensates, and with a bottom-
board, such as described in the chapter on hives, we shall find
that the toads do very littledamage., In case of toads, the bees
sting their throats, asI have taken, on several occasions, the
stings from the throats of the toads, after seeing the latter
capture the bees. As the toads make no fuss, it seems prob-
able that their throats are callous against the stings.
MICH.
These little pests are a consummate nuisance about the
apiary. They enter the hives in winter, mutilate the combs,
510 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}
especially those with pollen or old combs that have been long
used for breeding, irritate, perhaps destroy, the bees, and
create a very offensive stench. They often greatly injure
comb which is outside the hive, destroy smokers, by eating the
leather off the bellows, and, if they get at the seeds of honey-
plants, they never retreat till they make complete the work of
destruction.
In the house and cellar, unless they are made as they
should always be—mouse-proof—these plagues should be, by
use of cat or trap, completely exterminated. If we winter bees
on the summer stands, the hive-entrance should be socon-
tracted that mice can not enter the hive. Incase of packing,
as I have recommended, I should prefer a more ample opening,
which may be safely secured by taking a piece of wire-cloth or
perforated tin or zinc, and, tacking it over the entrance, letting
it come within one-fourth of an inch of the bottom-board. This
will give more air, and still preclude the entrance of these
miserable vermin.
SHREWS.
These are mole-like animals (Fig. 295), and look not unlike
amouse. They havea long, pointed nose like the moles, to
which they are closely related. They are insectivorous, and
Fic. 295.
Shrew.— Original,
have needle-shaped teeth, quite unlike those of the Rodentia,
which includes the true mice. I have received from Illinois
and Missouri species of the short-tailed shrews—Blarina—
which enter the hives in winter and eat the bees, only refusing
the head and wings. They injure the combs but little. As
they will pass through a space three-eighths of an inch wide,
itis not easy to keep them out of hives where the bees are
wintering on their summer stands. I have received a short-
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 511
tailed shrew—Blarina brevicauda, Gray—which was taken in
the hives by Mr. Little, of Illinois.
SKUNKS.
Skunks sometimes annoy bee-keepers. They disturb the
bees at nightfall, and as the bees come out of the hive they
gulp them down. Of course, they can be poisoned or trapped.
But as insect-destroyers they do great good, and I doubtif we
can ever afford to kill the skunks. The small, striped skunk
in Southern California depredates on our poultry. Yet I would
use wire-netting and keep them out of the poultry-house, and
not kill them.
LTR,
512 THE BEH-KEEHPER’S GUIDE;
CHAPTER XXI.
CALENDAR AND AXIOMS.
WORK FOR DIFFERENT MONTHS.
Though every apiarist will take one, at least, of the sev-
eral excellent journals relating to this art, printed in our coun-
try, in which the necessary work of each month will be detailed,
yet it may be well to give some brief hints in this place.
These dates are arranged for the Northern States, where
the fruit-trees blossom about the middle of May. By noting
these flowers, the dates can be easily changed to suit any
locality. sec
J RY.
During this month the bees will need little attention.
Should the bees in the cellar or depository become uneasy,
which will not happen if the requisite precautions are taken,
and there comes a warm day, it were well to set them on their
summer stands, that they may enjoy a purifying flight. At
night, when all are again quiet, return them to the cellar.
While out I would clean the bottom-boards, especially if there
are many dead bees. This is the time, to read, visit, study,
and plan for the ensuing season’s work.
FEBRUARY.
No advice is necessary further than that given for Jan-
uary, though if the bees havea good flightin January, they
will scarcely need attention in this month. The presence of
snow on the ground need not deter the apiarist from giving
his bees a flight, providing the day is warm and still. It is
better to let them alone if they are quiet, as they should and
will be if allis right. In California we must be sure the stores
are sufficient.
MARCH.
Bees should be kept housed, and those outside still retain
about them the packing of straw, shavings, etc. Frequent
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 513
flights do no good, and wear out the bees. Colonies that are
uneasy and besmear their hives are not wintering well, and
may be set out and allowed a good flight and then returned.
In California we do the April work of the Kast.
APRIL.
Early in this month the bees may all be put out. It will
be best to feed all, and give all access to flour, when they will
work at it, though usually they can get pollen as soon as they
can fly out to advantage. Keep the brood-chamber contracted
so that the frames will all be covered, and cover well above
the bees to economize heat.
The colony or colonies from which we desire to rear queens
and drones should now be fed to stimulate breeding. By care-
ful pruning, too, we may and should prevent the rearing of
drones in any but the best colonies. If from lack of care the
previous autumn any of our colonies are short of stores, now
is when it will be felt. In suchcases feed either honey, sugar,
or syrup, or place candy on top of the frames beneath the oil-
cloth cover. Remember that plenty of stores insures rapid
breeding. In California we will do the May work of the East
in April.
MAY.
Prepare nuclei to start extra queens. Feed sparingly till
bloom appears. Give room for storing. Extract if necessary,
and keep close watch for swarms. Now, too, is the best time
to transfer.
JUNE.
Keep all colonies supplied with vigorous, prolific queens.
Divide the colonies or allow swarming as may be desired.
Extract if necessary, or best, adjust frames or sections, if comb
honey is desired, and be sure to keep all the white clover honey,
in whatever form taken, separate from all other. Now is the
best time to Italianize.
JULY.
The work this monthis about the sameas that of June.
Keep the basswood honey by itself, and tier up sections as
514 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
soon as the bees are wellat work inthem. Be sure that queens
and workers have plenty of room to do their best, and do not
suffer the hot sun to strike the hives.
AUGUST.
Do not fail to supersede impotent queens. Between bass-
wood and fall bloom it may pay to feed sparingly. Give
plenty of room for queen and workers, as fall storing com-
miences.
SEPTEMBER.
Remove all surplus boxes and frames as soon as storing
ceases, which usually occurs about the middle of this month.
See that all colonies have enough stores for winter. If neces-
sary to feed honey or sugar for winter, it should be done at this
time.
OCTOBER.
If not already done, prepare colonies for winter. See that
all have at least 30 pounds, by weight, of good, capped stores,
and that all are strong in bees. If the bees are to be packed,
it should be done early in October.
NOVEMBER.
Before the cold days come, remove the bees to the cellar or
depository.
DECEMBER.
Now isthe time to make hives, honey-boxes, etc., for the
coming year. Also labels for hives. These may contain just
the name of the colony, in which case the full record will be
keptin a book; or the label may be made to contain a full
register as to time of formation, age of queen, etc. Slates are
also used for the same purpose.
I know from experience that any who heed all of the above
may succeed in bee-keeping—may win a double success-—
receive pleasure and make money. I feel sure that many
experienced apiarists will find advice that it may pay to follow.
It is probable that errors abound, and certain that much
remains unsaid, for of all apiarists it is true that what they do
not know is greatly in excess of what they do know.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 515
AXIOMS.
The following axioms, given by Mr. Langstroth, are just
as true to-day as they were when written by that noted author:
There are a few jirst principles in bee-keeping which ought
to be as familiar tothe apiaristas the letters of the alphabet.
First.—Bees gorged with honey never volunteer an attack.
Second.—Bees may always be made peaceable by inducing
them to accept of liquid sweets.
Third.—Bees, when frightened by smoke or by drumming
on their hives, fill themselves with honey and lose all disposi-
tion to sting, unless they are hurt.
_ Fourth.—Bees dislike any guick movements about their
hives, especially any motion which jars their combs.
Fifth.—In districts where forage is abundant only fora
short period, the largest yield of honey will be secured bya
very moderate increase of colonies.
Sixth.—A moderate increase of colonies in any oneseason
will, in the long run, prove to be the easist, safest, and cheapest
mode of managing bees.
Seventh.—A queenless colony, unless supplied with a queen,
will inevitably dwindle away, or be destroyed by the bee-moth
or by robber-bees.
Eighth.—The formation of new colonies should ordinarily
be confined to the season when bees are accumulating honey;
and if this or any other operation must be performed when
forage is scarce, the greatest precaution should be used to
prevent robbing.
The essence of all profitable bee-keeping is contained in
Oettl’s Golden Rule: KEEP YOUR COLONIES STRONG. If you
can not succeed in doing this, the more money you invest in
bees the heavier will be your losses; while, if your colonies
are strong, you will show that you are a dce-master as well as
a bee-keeper, and may safely calculate on generous returns
from your industrious subjects,
“ Keep all colonies strong.”’
GLOSSARY.
Abdomen—The third or last part of bee’s body, p. 54, 65.
Absconding Swarm—Swarm that has separated ean cluster and is going
to its new home, p. 305.
Adulteration—Making i impure, as mixing glucose with honey, p. 175.
After-Swarms—Swarms that issue within a few days after the tirst swarms,
p. 168.
Air-Tubes—Tracheze; Lungs of insects, p. 86.
Albino—Usually applied to animals with no pigment in skin, hair, ete. In
bee-culture it refers to a variety of Italians with white rings, p. 55.
Alighting-Board—Board in front of entrance, on which bees alight as they
return to their hives, p. 214.
American Hive—Langstroth hive with frames one foot square.
Antenne—Horn-like organs of insects, p. 70.
Antenna Cleaner—Organ on anterior leg of bees, wasps, etc., to dust an-
tenn, p. 148.
Apiarian—Adjective, as apiarian implements; incorrectly used as a noun
for apiarist.
Apiarist—One who keeps bees.
Apiary—Place where bees are kept, including bees and all.
Apiculture—Art of bee-keeping.
Apide—Family of bees, p. 38.
Aphis—Plant-lice, p. 390.
Apis—Genus of the honey-bee, p. 44.
Arthropada—Branch or phylum of insects, “4 a1.
Articulata—Old name for branch containing insects, p. 31.
Artificial Fecundation or Impregnation—Fecundation in confinement (?).
Artificial Heat, Swarms, Pasturage, etc.—Furnished by man; not natural.
Atavism—Inheriting from a remote ancestor,
Balling of Queen—Bees gathering snugly about the queen in form of a
sphere, p. 312.
Bar-Hives—Hives with bars across the top to which the combs are at-
tached, p. 210.
Barren—Sterile; not able to produce eggs or young, p. 118.
Bees—Insects of the Family-Apide, p. 38.
Bee-Bird or Bee-Martin—aA fly-catcher that captures bees, p. 508.
Bee-Bread—The albuminous food of bees, usually pollen, p. 186.
Bee-Culture—Keeping bees.
Bee-Dress—Special suit worn by apiarist while working with bees, p. 345.
Bee-Escape—Device for clearing upper story of hive or section-case of
bees, pp. 330, 341, 469.
Bee-Glue—Propolis, p. 190.
518 GLOSSARY.
Bee-Gum— Section of hollow tree used as a bee-hive.
Bee-Hat—Hat so arranged as to prevent bees from stinging the face, p. 344.
Bee-Hawk—Dragon fly, p. 497.
Bee-Hive—Box for bees. See bee-gum and skep, p. 207.
Bee-House—House where bees are kept, where bee-work is done, or bees
wintered, p. 468.
Bee-Keeper—One who keeps bees; apiarist.
Bee-Line—Straight line, like the route of bee from field to hive, p. 262.
Bee-Louse—Braula Cuca, p. 499.
Bee-Martin—King or bee bird, p. 508.
Bee-Master—English, bee-keeper.
Bee-Moth—Galleria mellonella, formerly G. cereana, moth that feeds on
wax, etc., p. 482.
Bee-Pasturage—Honey-plants, p. 389.
Bee-Plants—Plants which secrete nectar, and so are visited by bees, p. 389.
Bee-Space—Space that will just allow a bee to pass: it is three-sixteenths
of aninch. srerete 380
Marriage-fight.. 0.46 cv. esss ae 112
Mason bees..........-.....50 2
Mating Of queet., : .a.5 6 cans ad 112
Matrimony-vine .... ......... 430
Mature insects................
DES R oie omine g gig a ob iag dete s
Meal
feeding of .
Meal-beetle.... 4
Megtenile: oss 52 cock cusaareess
COBOL sisiss.dghecascereinewr Hoa
MICO voi aac vienna isis niente Seabee
Bieropg le. oases ey gonna exe
MICROSCOPE oe caees cena de ead
figurocofas ss xuces vay ns yese
Mignonette ......5.:s005sa0004
ROOT ON ics Cine atavsinas
Mile weed | cscs paae egies sean
538 INDEX.
Milkweed— (Continued) : figure Of pisces acacia sees 422
DOOD: OF ssc sinc sce sine wiv wees 424 | Open sections....,............ 240
figure of.. ... 424 | Order of honey-bee.. a5
Miller, Dr. C. C. aoe 16 | OBMIDs eee os oe 43
MANNDCNS « «004s dames vases toad EN ABER he oye taney seh ee ara 93
DUMICTY 4 2 5 volun ss Mane ess ssi 8D Hwure Ofni4s4sseeas sade 94
MGS vcni cease cieee aoee ... 422 of laying workers......... 130
ABUT SH OL sistas cuscy W asnice ne 5auseeds 422 figure of.............. 130
MULES), bins czin eg oikewe auideaacate @ 506 of Worker..............005 130
fIZUPO OF 0. asics vara oowne =e 506 figure of.............. 130
Moth (see bee-moth).......... 482. | -Oviduet: ss caus «sensi cone esas as 95
Motherwort......... .. 422
PLUTO OL aie occ scags sxsrscanens ionsden 6 423 | Packing-box.................. 458
Moulting............... 89, 98, 184 figure of.......... Spiele the 458
Mountain-laurel .............. 441 | Pails for honey ............... 377
figure of............. seven 44L Hgure. Of: s weae wes esas se 377
Mountain-mint ..... ......... 443 | Palestine bees ................ 55
Mouth organs.............. 66, 13l, | Palmetto: oo o5 cic. asus odie ee 445
BOUL OF sy wes enies 6 vices a4 67, 182 figure Of... cee ceunis ese Fx 448
Movable-frame hives.......... QOS | PAIRS, kee odaawn been .oteed 412, 446
BIRIGUR Oly oye des ex ees er 209 | Papers (see bee- Papers) twee 45a 22
Moving bees.................. 206 | Paraglossa..... . ..... . 67
Moving colonies .............. B19 | Parasites os4 csciseisate caiae . of
Munn hive.................... Parker foundation fastener.... 361
figure of AISLES: Ole. igi didsinovuans ¢ gasiong ave 361
Muscles of insects Parthenogenesis .............. 114
MUERTE: sce cates caéss cee one Partridge-pea ..............045 429
figure of figure Oly « css ssaxsuscex os 429
Muth, 6 Biescscesuscsedie avai w ote PaBLUTAZE. sce ieiis psacsey ogee ace
Muth bottles Peet-cage..... ccc cece e ee ees
figure of... ‘ figure of
MPTIOWOE: 35 au ncond ncaa ooo Pepper ......
figure of
INGCHAR sO cacis wamenstiney sume . 171 | Perforated zinc ............... 219
digestion .... ............ 171 | Periodicals (see papers)....... 22
Nervous system of insects..... Bl | Persimmon o4 oiscie iene cence