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Titles included in this collection are listed in the volumes published by the Cornell University Press in the series THE LITERATURE OF THE AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, 1991-1995, Wallace C. Olsen, series editor. tl a J New York State College of Agriculture At Gornell University Dthaca, N. B. Library THE SEED GROWER. A Practical Treatise on Growing Vegetable and Flower Seeds and Bulbs for the Market. BY CHARLES JOHNSON, AUTHOR OF THE SEEDSMAN’S ASSISTANT. MARIETTA, PA. 1906, Qo 12534 CoprricHt, 1906, BY CHARLES JOHNSON. WICKERSHAM PRINTING CO., Printers and Binders, LANCASTER, Pa. AUTHOR’S PREFACE. SEED-GROWING properly pertains to an agricultural country, such as is the United States. It is a business in which the profits are large and one which to supply our needs in fuli affords great opportunity for much enlargement in this country. It is also an industry that could be built up here for export trade, which at present amounts to comparatively nothing. In all candor it must be said, we do not stand in the front rank before the world as seed-growers. For, while the past quarter of a century has seen much progress here in seed-growing, the industry with us is still in a stage of infancy and much remains to be done. As evidenced by the following pages, we still depend to a large extent on European growers for the best grown seeds of many varieties, particularly of beet, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, kale, kohl rabi, leek, onion (a few kinds), parsley, parsnip, radish, spinach, turnip, the choicer grades of flower seeds and all our Fall planting bulbs. The exceptions to these, however, namely, peas, beans, celery, cucumber, lettuce, melon, tomato, certain kinds of onion, we no longer import, for we have demonstrated our ability to grow the finest seeds of these ourselves more cheaply than can be done in Europe. Therefore what we are doing with these we can also do in producing commercially all other seeds required for the garden. Why should we not lead the world in the production (3) 4 AUTHOR’S PREFACE. of all kinds of seeds? With agricultural resources and facilities practically unlimited, we lead and excel in farm products generally. We not only produce all the seeds of grains and grasses (introduced here-from abroad) required by ourselves, but also ship great quantities to Foreign countries, owing to our producing them so cheaply. We have cheaper and better land than has Europe, and a greater diversity of climate and soil. And besides all these advantages we have what goes without saying, an abundance of American intelli- gence, energy, application and pride to enable us to produce at lesser cost than in Europe, and at a good profit to ourselves, the very highest grades of all varie- ‘ties of seeds for the vegetable and flower garden, for our own use and the outside world as well. But after all the plain truth of the matter is, what is really required to promote the seed-growing industry in our nation is simply a display of American enterprise and knowing how. In seed-growing as in every other art, it is attention to a particular line—specialization—that insures success. The misfit, the visionary and the ‘‘all-around man”’ are all too likely to fall into the same class when results are under consideration. But the specialist ‘gets there.”’ Bea specialist ! It is to stimulate in our farming community the spirit just named, that this work, believed to be the first published, in any country, treating especially of seed- growing for commercial purposes, has mainly been prompted, and in the hope that it will furnish the infor- mation required for the occasion the volume is launched upon its career. THE AvTHOR. Marietta, Pa., October 1, 19085. THE SEED-GROWER. INTRODUCTORY. Suggestions to Beginners.—The beginner who is without previous experience is advised in growing seed for commercial purposes to proceed slowly and not attempt too much at the outset. It is better to feel your way, with your first year’s operations on a limited scale, rather in the nature of an experiment to see what can be done with profit and with success. Endeavor to make your first customers in nearby towns and cities; strive, by growing only the highest standard seeds, to create a reputation for the quality of what you grow. This latter, naturally, is a matter that must be left to the results of one or two season’s trial of your products by your customers. Once having given satisfaction, the way should be clear thereafter; one satisfied customer is usually the means of securing others. Because your acquaintance with seedsmen in the country at large is limited to the few (enterprising though they be) who make a practice of advertising extensively in magazines, do not imagine that these few comprise the seed trade in its full strength and entirety. The fact of the matter is, there are many hundreds of other large firms dealing in seeds exclusively, located in every town and city of importance in the Union, who sell locally, in a quieter sort of way, large quanti- (5) 6 THE SEED-GROWER. ties of seeds. And, besides these who handle nothing but seeds, there are thousands of merchants in smaller towns who combine seeds with their other lines, all of which constitututes a broad field for exploitation by the seed-grower. The Store-house or Barn of a seed-grower should be a well-constructed, dry, properly ventilated building, containing plenty of loft-room for the drying of seeds, and an apartment for thrashing and cleaning; and this building must be kept free from rats, mice, and vermin, for these will do serious damage to seeds, if allowed to exist where seeds are stored. Stock Seeds.—The preparation of the soil for grow- ing a seed-crop, sowing of seed, and method of cultiva- tion are much the same as in ordinary garden practice. But what is of particular importance at the start, as being very much essential to success, is that the grower should be provided with an ample supply of pure stock, planting, or breeding-seed, of the varieties which are purposed to be grown. This stock-seed should have been grown carefully by the operator or grower him- self, obviously the better plan, or it may sometimes be procured from the seed dealer for whom the crop is to be grown. It must, however, be remembered that by stock-seed is not meant commercial seed, as it is termed, or that seed which is sold by the dealer to his general trade. Stock seed, if the dealer should happen to have it, is seed which has been specially grown for him in the usual course prescribed for raising stock seed, by careful selection, etc., and is kept on hand to supply to growers with whom he makes con- tracts for commercial seed; not every seedsman, though, makes a practice of carrying stock-seeds. Harvesting, etc.—The operations for harvesting INTRODUCTORY. 7 and cleaning will be found given for most varieties as they are severaily treated upon, under their respective headings, but it may further matters to present some of these in a general way, in advance herewith. Threshing.—The operation of threshing most seeds, not of a pulpy character, may be done, either with a flail, a roller drawn by horses, or a threshing machine. One of the most popular threshing machines on the market, designed for many varieties of vegetable seed, is made by the Bidwell Co., at Batavia, N. Y. When threshing is done with a flail, do so lightly to avoid breaking of seed, particularly if it is of a soft, oily nature. By threshing on a cloth, seed is better saved, and is not so liable to get broken as when the work is done on the bare floor. The threshing cloth may be made of canvas or cotton cloth. Cleaning.—After threshing, the stalks and chaff are raked away and seed is run through the machine called a fan-mill or a seed cleaner. This machine is indis- pensable for the proper cleaning of every kind of seed, and may be purchased through any dealer in agricul- tural machinery. It is important here to call attention to the fact that even farm seeds, such as wheat, oats, barley, timothy, clover, millet, ete., should not be sown without having been given a thorough cleaning in a fan-mill, to remove weed-seeds, and light, immature seeds. Tests which were made for a number of years at several of our ex- periment stations, have demonstrated that the removal of small, immature, and damaged seeds, results in better yields, both as to quality and quantity, the in- crease of same amounting to twenty to twenty-five per cent. Some kinds of seed are not always thoroughly cleaned 8 THE SEED-GROWER, by the seed-cleaner, and it may be necessary to finish the operation with a hand-sieve. Hand-sieves will answer for cleaning small quantities in case the grower does not own a machine seed-cleaner. Cleaning by Fermentation.—This is a necessary process for cleansing seeds like egg plant, cucumber, ‘melon, pumpkin, squash and tomato, which are cov- ered with a sticky pulp. The souring loosens this pulp, and then by a rinsing in water, or washing as it is termed, the pulp is removed entirely, and the seed rendered nice and clean. Some judgment must be used in fermentation; the liquid should be given an occasional stirring, and while no injury to seeds will result as far as germination is concerned, so long as they remain in the natural juice, yet if permitted to stay in it longer than is required to loosen the pulp, they are likely to become blackened or discolored. One may know whether fermentation has gone far enough by taking up a handful of the pulp and squeezing it. It on opening the hand the seed is free from pulp, it is ready for washing, but if the pulp still sticks to it, more fermentation is necessary. Washing.—Seeds which have undergone fermenta- tion are washed in clear water in a tank, which is made to allow the pulp to be poured, floated or drawn off. A small quantity may be washed in a bucket, a tub or a tight barrei. Onion seeds will be found directed to be cleaned by washing. This is done simply to relieve them from light, immature seeds and portions of pods, no fermen- tation being necessary. Drying.— After washing, seeds should be drained of surplus water and then spread on screens or drying frames, which are placed in the sun and air to dry. INTRODUCTORY. 9 These screens are three feet wide by twelve to fourteen feet in length, made of burlap or muslin, with frames of three by four scantling. After cleaning, all seeds, as a rule, should be spread thinly on cloth, in the loft or drying room, and allowed to remain till thoroughly dry; while they are thus dry- ing, they should be stirred over frequently by raking. No seeds should be'stored in bulk until in perfectly dry condition. Sugar corn, in particular, holds mois- ture for a long time, and it is likely to mould if piled in bulk or stored in sacks too soon. Marketable Condition.—To be in prime, market- able condition seeds must be bright in appearance, free from discoloration, free from foreign seeds, from dust, chaff, sticks, and light, immature, and broken grains. Labeling.—In storing, great care must be taken to label varieties properly. A tag or a label bearing the name of the variety, and the year of the crop, should be attached to the outside of the sack, and a duplicate of same placed inside. The worst kinds of errors are likely to ensue if some system of labeling is not adopted. An instance in point may be related of a certain éstablishment, the proprietor of which was an unmethodical person who trusted everything to his memory. The hundreds of sacks of various kinds of seed as they lay piled in view in his warehouse, did not bear a single outside label, nor any mark to denote their con- tents. The proprietor in question (one of those who know everything) would say that he knew the contents of every sack, its particular location, and could lay his hands at once on a sack containing any special vari- ety wanted. His few employees were obliged to run to him for consultation (at a loss of their time; he did 10 THE SEED-GROWER. not consider this) when they would desire a certain variety. We all are aware what tricks memory will play, if we depend upon it entirely. And no one was surprised when this individual one day had to encoun- ter a heavy law-suit for damages, resulting from a mis- take which was made in giving the wrong variety, and which would have been prevented by labeling. The moral point desired to be impressed is, you can- not be too methodical, too particular, in the care of seeds in warehouse or store. Contract Forms.—Some forms of contracts as differently made by growers with dealers, which will be found given, will render aid to the novice in form- ulating a contract. No seed-grower should under- take a crop for any one without first securing a written contract at the time arrangements are concluded. A signed contract affords protection against possible con- tingencies, and it is now a custom that is closely fol- lowed by all established growers in this and other coun- tries. Synonyms.—In the description of varieties, there will be found, properly arranged, the various synonyms in vogue up to date, which it is hoped will render ser- vice not only to the seed-grower, but to both the family and the market gardener. Explanation of the origin of this multiplicity of new names for many staple varieties is to be found in the chapter on ‘‘ Origination of new Varieties,’’ in what is said relating to the seed trade offering the greatest stimulus for production of new sorts. Trial Grounds.—While every seedsman or dealer should have a trial grounds in which to test for himself all seeds sold by him, so should every seed-grower have one in which to test all novelties as they are pre- INTRODUCTORY. li sented from time to time by the different seedsmen. The few suggestions therefore for detail work in trial grounds are deemed not inappropriate. Cultural Directions, Time of Maturity, etc.— These should prove convenient for reference, not only by the grower, but more especially by all seed dealers, as an aid to their salespeople in supplying information to inquiring customers. Growers’ Prices.—The prices which have been given in these pages are those obtained by the principal or main grower, who, however, frequently sublets por- tions of his contracts at lower figures. In cases of importation, duty and freight to New York have been included. SEED-SAVING METHODS, WITH YIELDS PER ACRE, GROWERS’ PRICES, MARKET STATUS. ARTICHOKE. Artichoke proper is hereof treated, the sort cultivated in the kitchen garden for its flower-heads or buds as well as for portions of the leaf-stalk. It is a perennial of hardy nature, which gives in the first year but few flower-heads or seed, a growth of two years being necessary for the production of a full seed crop. To insure the finest and purest seeds, the better plan is to plant slips or suckers taken from established plants which have borne flower-heads possessing the character- istics of the variety. These slips should be taken off late in spring, or in extreme southern sections in Octo- ber, when they are of a height of six inches or so, and transplanted about four inches deep, in rows four feet apart, two feet in the row. Cultivate the crop and keep the soil loose and free from weeds. But when suckers are not to be had, then plants must be obtained from seed, which is sown early in spring, in drills one foot apart, seeds being covered one inch deep. When plants are several inches high, transplant in rows same as directed for slips. These plants in the second year should be gone over carefully, and only those which have given large flower-heads true to variety must be allowed to remain for seed. (18) 14 THE SEED-GROWER. In the rigorous winters of the Northern States, arti- choke requires protection with a covering of straw or stable litter, but in the warmer climates of the Southern and Pacific Coast sections this is not necessary. Seed may be shelled by hand, or thrashed out on a floor, with a flail, running seed through a fan mill for cleaning. Market.—While the more general cultivation of this vegetable in the United States is confined to the South and to the Pacific Coast, it is also grown with success, but on a lesser scale, in Northern sections. All seedsmen have a moderate demand for artichoke seed; it is mostly imported from Europe, at price laid down in New York of about $1.00 per pound. In a favorable season, a yield is about 300 pounds per acre. J ASPARAGUS. Asparagus reaches full growth generally in the second year. On its numerous branches there are borne a great profusion of bright-scarlet berries, which contain the seeds, several in each berry. When these berries are soft-ripe seeds are sufficiently matured for saving. The stalks are then cut and taken to the barn or shed for extraction of seed. Extracting and Drying Seed.—The first operation is to separate the berries from the stalks, which may be done by stripping them off by hand, or by threshing them out on a cloth spread on the floor. Then to extract the seed, the berries are first mashed or crushed in a tub ora barrel, using for the purpose a wooden pounder; next, they are washed to clean the shells from the seed, which may be done in the same tub or barrel. The vessel used is filled two-thirds with water, the berries are poured in, and then the whole ig ASPARAGUS—BEAN., 15 vigorously stirred, which motion will cause the seeds to become loosened and fall to the bottom, while the shells will float and are slowly poured off with the water. In fresh water the seeds are given another washing, and if this does not render them thoroughly clean, it should be repeated. Seeds are then spread on smooth boards or on cloth screens and set in the sun foraday to dry. This is hastened and more properly done by giving the seeds an occasional stirring or turning over while they are thus spread out. They are then removed to a drying loft or room and spread thinly on a cloth and left to remain until they have become thoroughly dry, when they may be cleaned in the seed-cleaner and afterwards stoted in sacks. Saving Seeds for Private Use.—Select the largest and finest berries, dry and preserve them. In their dried shells, seeds keep better and retain their vitality longer. Market.—Asparagus seed is handled by all seed dealers, its aggregate yearly consumption in the United States being upwards of 75,000 pounds, nearly all of which is produced here. In a favorable season, a yield ranges from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds per acre, at a price usually of ten cents per pound to the grower. BEAN. For a seed crop of beans, either a good clay loam or a fertile sandy loam is desirable; the richer the land, the better and bigger the crop; stable manure when to be had is the best fertilizer. Beans do not readily cross, and different varieties may be planted near each other without mixture, but 16 THE SEED-GROWER. the seed used for planting must be pure and true to variety. Planting is usually made in northern latitudes about June 1st, at the rate of one bushel per acre, in single rows three feet apart, beans being dropped two to three inches apart in the row. Some few growers plant in hills ten inches apart, two or three beans in a hill; but the former is the preferable way. Cultivation should be begun two or three days after seeding, and should be kept up continuously through- out the season. The early cultivation destroys the weeds that first start before the seeds are up. A drag- tooth cultivator with five teeth is generally used for this purpose, so that the earth is thrown against the rows. Sometimes, when grass is starting in the crop, a point that presents a cutting edge in front, is attached to the cultivator, but this is only used in case the grass has obtained quite a start. In the Middle West harvest begins about September 1st, varying, according to the season, from September Ist to 15th. A bean crop is expected to mature in about one hundred days. Except that a rain, which may damage the color or brightness of the seed, must be avoided on the crop after it is gathered, there is no waiting for favorable weather; when the crop is suffi- ciently matured it must be takenin. This is known when the bulk of the pods are ripe. If it is awaited until all are ripe, loss by shelling in handling would be too great. The method of taking out the crop is to pull up the plants with a machine called a bean puller. Several such machines are on the market; one that is, perhaps, the most popular is the Bidwell, made at Batavia, N. Y. When the bean-puller has pulled several rows, the beans are forked into one row and allowed to lie in the large row until quite dry, when they are hauled to the BEAN, 17 barn and stacked up loosely, to become more thoroughly dry, and await threshing. In hauling, they are loaded up on wagons like hay. Threshing and Cleaning.—In the drier climate of California, threshing is performed in the open field. But it is rarely, if ever, when this may be done in the variable climate of the Atlantic section, the practice there being to do the threshing in the barn. The best bean thresher in present use is the Bidwell (Batavia, N. Y.); an ordinary threshing machine is too hard on beans, causing too great a loss by splitting. After threshing, it is not usual to clean at once, but the beans are generally stored in sacks or in bins, for clean- ing later on. Should the beans not be well enough dried after threshing, they may be dried more thoroughly by being spread on the floor an inch or two deep, and raking them over from time to time. A fan-mill or a seed-cleaner is used for cleaning. One cleaning usually suffices; though sometimes two or three are necessary, depending on the amount of im- purities to be removed. The beans then undergo pick- ing, either by hand or on a bean-picking machine. The latter apparatus is about the size of an ordinary sewing machine. The beans pass through a hopper and drop on an endless belt that carries them to the girl or boy doing the picking; as the impure beans are picked out, the perfect ones are conveyed along and fall into a tub or bin. After being hand-picked, the stock will be in marketable condition. To Save Finest Seed for Private Use.—To have the finest, plumpest, and best matured seed, leave on the plants all pods which are the earliest to mature, and which present the most perfect shape and size, and are true to type; pick off all other pods as they show themselves. 2 18 THE SEED-GROWER. By preserving seeds in their dry pods instead of shelling, vitality is retained longer, and by growing a sufficiency at the time, it will be unnecessary to save seeds of the same variety every year. Market.—Seed beans form an important item in all seedsmen’s transactions; this has reference only to gar- den varieties. Made up in numerous small sales, many of the larger seed-houses will handle car-loads of seed- beans in course of a single season. Some idea of the consumption in the country may be formed when it is stated that one locality in Michigan alone produces from 50,000 to 75,000 bushels of seed garden-beans annually, mostly bush varieties. Western New York and Central Michigan constitute at present the principal garden bean-growing sections of the United States, for bush varieties; California for pole or climbing sorts. But seed-beans are also grown to a more or less extent in other States, and may be grown to advantage in almost every part of the country. Owing to cheapness of production in California, due to running varieties doing well in that dry climate without the necessity of poles, as is required for grow- ing them successfully in the east, almost all seed of Lima varieties now handled by the trade, is grown in that State; this may also be said of most other climbing sorts. In fact, before California took up production, growers’ prices for Lima Beans ranged usually from six to eight dollars per bushel. Then most of the crop was grown in New Jersey. Now, California Lima bean seed, equal to the New Jersey grown, is laid down in New York at prices averaging from $2.50 to $3.00 per bushel. The yield of seed beans for all varieties ranges, ac- cording to the season, from 15 to 30 bushels per acre; BEAN—BEET. 19 in California as high as 40 bushels of bush sorts have been known. Growers’ prices for beans fluctuate with the season. During the past few years, owing to unfavorable previous seasons, prices asked by growers before undertaking a crop, have ruled higher than for a long time, ranging from $1.50 to $2.50 per bushel for the green-pod bush varieties; $2.00 to $2.75 for wax-pod; $1.75 to $2.50 (in California) for Lima and other pole varieties. The cheaper prices have been for staple varieties, such as Red Valentine, Mohawk, Refugee, Yellow Six Weeks, Black Wax, Golden Wax, Lima, Kentucky Wonder, White Dutch, Crease Back, etc. The newer the variety, the higher the price; though, as a rule, a grower does not charge much or any difference for growing a new variety unless it happens to be the first season for it, and conditions warrant a higher charge. It is the seed-dealer proper who usually secures the high prices we see asked from the consumer for seed of a new variety. BEET, The soil in which beet succeeds best is a deep, light, well-enriched, sandy loam. Two seasons from sowing are necessary for the production of marketable beet seed. First, are grown the roots which are wintered over in pits or silos or in cellars; these, being planted out the next spring, yield the seed. Beet seed should not be gathered from plants which run to flower the first season. Sowing for a commercial seed crop is made in.the usual manner as for garden culture, but should be made somewhat later than when the roots are intended for table use. The growing crop of roots should be rogued 20 THE SEED-GROWER. as far as possible by the aid of the foliage, pulling up _and destroying all plants which are not true to type. ~The dark-red varieties possess dark-red leaves; the pink sorts pale-red or mixed red and green leaves; the white-fleshed kinds, pale-green ieaves. And before “Storing for winter, complete the roguing by sorting the roots carefully, throwing out all which show the least impurity as to type; to ascertain color of flesh, cut the root slightly with a knife and lift a small portion of the skin. European Method of Production.—In Europe for production of beet seed on a large scale, more especially of Sugar beet, crops are usually grown from small roots which measure 4 inch to 14 inches in diameter. Seed so produced gives the very best results, and there is an economical advantage in it by the sav- ing that is obtained, not only in the area necessary for the production of a great quantity of roots to plant large acreages for seeds, but in the lesser room that is also secured in silos or pits for wintering over small roots weighing but a few ounces, as compared with the space that would be required for large roots weighing several pounds or more. Moreover, the small roots which are obtained by the special method applied for their production, ripen earlier and become hardened before frost, so that they keep better over winter than do full-grown roots. One acre of small roots will be sufficient to plant ten acres for commercial seed. Seed used for production of small roots is carefully saved in the usual manner from full-grown roots which were true to variety. It is sown in spring, very thinly, in broad rows, 12 to 18 inches apart, at the rate of 20 BEET. 21 to 25 pounds of seed per acre. By broad rows there is a greater crop of roots per acre, as two or three roots may be grown side by side. The seedlings are thinned to 1 inch apart in the row; this close thinning dwarfs the roots and causes the earlier ripening and hardening before frost previously alluded to. When taken up for winter storage, the small roots are carefully sorted over, all being rejected which dis- play any impurity as to type. These small roots are planted out the same distance apart as for large roots. In growing small roots of Sugar beet seed, the course is in the first year to select for seed a dozen large roots which have best stood a test made from a great number of large roots by chemical analysis of the properties of each root. These roots are planted next Spring and should yield about one pound of seed to each root. The seed from each root is then saved separately, each lot being numbered 1, 2, 8, 4, &c. The next spring these seeds are sown in separate fields to produce small roots (sowing thinly, etc., as directed above), the fields being numbered to correspond respectively with the various lots of seed. A small sample of each lot of seed is also sown in separate rows to produce large roots for chemical test as before. Then in accordance with the result of the tests made from these large roots, the different lots of small roots produced in the fields are accepted or rejected, those lots of course being re- jected whose large roots failed to stand the test. The small roots in the fields accepted are then dug up and wintered over in silos, to be planted out in due course next spring for production of commercial seed. Wintering Roots.—Storing of roots over winter is done in pits or silos, made 12 feet or more long, 18 inches deep, 3 feet wide, being covered with six 22 THE SEED-GROWER. inches or so of straw, and then six inches of earth, in- creased to eighteen as winter sets in, packed firmly and ridged so as to turn off water. Roots may also be kept in a cool cellar, piled in heaps and covered with turf. When storing in pits, the tops of the large roots should be cut off, doing it carefully so as not to injure the centre germ; but in the case of small roots it is cus- tomary to allow the tops and leaves to remain on. The small roots may be placed in hollow, tapering piles, with an air chamber about one foot wide at the bottom, made extending the length of the pit. This is formed by piling the roots with the tops the same distance apart on the floor of the pit and drawing them together as other roots are laid in. Planting Roots.—The roots should be planted out in spring as soon as all danger from frost is past. Set them in rows three feet apart, eighteen inches in the row. Exercise care not to break the main or tap root, nor the young sprouts which grew during winter. Holes for planting large roots may be made for the round varieties with a dibble, for the long sorts with a crowbar. Press earth firmly around the tap root, and cover evenly with the surface of the ground. Cultivate thoroughly; keep free and clean from weeds; hoe the earth to the roots. Harvesting.—Seeds are produced along the stem, pinching the tips of which as seed begins to develop, will improve its size, but this may be omitted in grow- ing seed on a large scale. Seed ripening is indicated by fruit turning brown, and when bulk of the crop is at this stage, harvest may be begun, with an ordinary sickle or reaping-hook. Seed is always fully matured before the stalks have become dry, but if they are allowed to become too BEET. 23 dry before cutting, a great deal of seed may be lost. The stalks may be laid in rows, the heads one way, or they may be tied into bundles and stacked vertically on the field and left to dry. Harvesting should be done in dry weather, and the cutting should not be permitted to get wet. ; Threshing, Cleaning.—Threshing may be done with a flail, on a cloth spread on the floor. In Europe the method is to draw the stalks through two jaws with saw-like teeth, prior to which the stalks are usually given a preliminary threshing on the floor. Another method in Europe is to separate seed from the stems by the use of an endless oscillating apron from a hopper. The seeds roll off, while the other matter adheres to the apron, and is thrown out at the other end of the machine. After seed has been threshed, it should be spread thinly and allowed to remain until it has become thoroughly dry, which may take several weeks; then it may be run through the fan-mill or seed-cleaner one or more times. Pieces of sticks that remain may be hand- picked. After cleaning, seed may be stored in barrels. Before shipping, run through the seed-cleaner again to remove the dust. To Save the Finest Seed for Private Use.— Select the finest and handsomest roots, true to,variety, and save only the larger and earliest matured seeds which form on their plants at the base of the branches on the main stalk, clipping off the remainder. Take up the stalks with the roots attached and hang in a loft or garret to dry, spreading a cloth beneath for seeds to drop to. Vegetation keeps up for quite a while, and will ripen the immature seed. Seed in such small quantity may be shaken out, or stripped between the hands, and cleaned in a hand sieve. 24 THE SEED-GROWER. Market.—Beet seed is handled extensively by the trade. Some estimate of its consumption in the entire country may be formed when it is stated that upwards of 150,000 pounds of seed of the staple table varieties are now sold annually by the combined trade in the four large cities of New York, Chicago, Philadelphia and Detroit; considerable quantities are also handled by seed houses in other large centres, such as Boston, Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, San Francisco, etc. The greater portion of the beet seed used in the United States comes from Europe. Not that the cli- mate and soil over there are better suited for its pro- duction than is the case in this country, but because there are comparatively few growing establishments here as yet and their operations are not extensive. This European beet seed is of high standard, but seed equally as good is produced in the United States, and there should be no occasion for importation of a single pound. Wherever its production has been undertaken in such sections as the Connecticut valley, Eastern Washington, and Northern California, most excellent seed, fully up to the standard of European production, has been obtained; and it has cost no more to grow than it does in Europe. In a favorable season, a yield of table varieties of beet seed is from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds per acre; in Europe, for the field sorts, namely, Sugar beet and Mangold Wurtzel, from 2,000 to 2,500 pounds per acre have been produced. In prices, European grown seed of table varieties, such as Egyptian, Blood Turnip, Long Blood, is laid down in New York at eleven to thirteen cents per pound; field varieties, at five to eight cents per pound, BORECOLE OR KALE. 25 BORECOLE OR KALE. This is a member of the cabbage family and method of cultivation is similar to that for cabbage. The differ- ent varieties of borecole readily mix and care must be exercised in growing a seed-crop to keep them far apart from each other. In fact, even cabbage itself or any of its sub-varieties, should not be permitted to flower in the vicinity of a crop of borecole, as mixture may re- sult from pollen being carried from one variety to an- other by bees, flies or the wind. Stock-seed, or seed used for growing the main seed- crop, should be perfectly true. While this is impor- tant, the careful grower does not depend altogether on his stock-seed, but examines the growing crop and rogues it carefully before blossoming time, removing all plants which show impurity; also pulling up and de- stroying all which display single leaves, for the best kale should have leaves which are as curled as possible. Make sowing of seed late in the summer or about August 20th, according to climate or latitude. The rows should be made three to four feet apart, plants being thinned to two feet apart. As borecole is hardy, the crop is allowed to remain over winter in the field where it is grown. In spring the soil about the plants should be loosened with a hoe or a cultivator, which will be about all the cultivation necessary. Harvest when the bulk of the seed-pods have turned yellow, but they should not be allowed to become too dry, or seed may spill out. The cutting should be done on a clear, dry day, early in the forenoon, or when the dew is on; it should be done by hand, using a long, heavy-bladed knife for the purpose. The stalks are gathered in small heaps, the heads laid one way; they 26 THE SEED-GROWER. are left to remain for a week or so to become dry. A cloth to catch loose seeds should be placed in the wagon used for hauling to the barn. Threshing, Cleaning.—Threshing may be done in the threshing machine, or with a flail on a cloth spread on the floor. In using the machine, it should be pre- viously examined to see if free from seeds, which may have lodged in cracks, shelves, etc., from previous crops. Clean by running through the fan-mill; after which spread seed on a cloth in the drying-room, and leave for several weeks or longer to become thoroughly dry. It may then be run through the seed-cleaner again for final cleaning, and afterwards stored in sacks. Market.—The demand for kale seed is extremely heavy, more especially among those seed-dealers located in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Richmond, Norfolk, and Charleston, who supply truckers or farm gardeners in-the South, where this vegetable is grown extensively as a farm crop for Northern markets. Up- wards of 200,000 pounds of seed are used annually by the trade, most of which is imported from Europe; the balance is produced mainly on Long Island, New York, of quality equal to best European. There is no neces- sity for importation whatever, as all the kale seed in demand in the United States may be grown at home at as low cost of production as foreign seed. In good seasons, a seed-crop is from 750 to 1,000 pounds per acre. European seed is laid down in New York at from fifteen to twenty cents per pound. BROCCOLI. The same cultivation answers for broccoli as is neces- sary for cabbage, it being a member of the same family. broccoli is hardier than cauliflower, which it closely BRUSSELS SPROUTS. 27 resembles in form, appearance and flavor, and seems to require a moist, cool climate to meet with success. For a seed crop, the plants are not allowed to form full heads, but sowing is made later than when such is the purpose, usually in northern latitudes in July. Tendency to head may be retarded when it shows by transplanting at once in fresh soil. On approach of winter, the plant with the root entire is taken up and stored in a trench, after the manner hereafter described for wintering over cabbage. If but a small quantity of seed is to be saved, plants may be kept over winter in a cold frame, or in a cellar. As soon as the ground can be worked in spring, plants are set out in rows three feet apart, two feet in the row. Draw up earth well about plants, repeating as they advance in growth. Cultivate thoroughly and keep down weeds. Rogue by pulling up those plants which produce large, coarse and wavy leaves, and manifest impurity as respects color of flower. Harvesting, threshing and cleaning are similar to borecole. Market.—Every seedsman keeps broccoli in stock, although sale of seed is somewhat limited as compared with many other varieties. But little seed is grown here, importation from Europe being depended upon. In a good season, seed yield is 250 to 800 pounds per acre; imported seed is laid down in New York at from $1.50 to $2.00 per pound. BRUSSELS SPROUTS. Also a member of the cabbage family, diminutive sprouts or heads being formed along the stalks in the axils of the leaves. It is hardier than ordinary cab- bage. 28 THE SEED-GROWER. For a seed-crop, seed is sown in northern States in August, the plant not being allowed to become fully developed. In latitudes where the climate is not too rigorous, plants may be left in the field undisturbed over winter, but where it is too severe as in the northern Atlantic States, they should be dug up entire and stored either in a trench or in a sheltered place, covered lightly with coarse litter, or in a cellar, the plants being packed closely with soil. In spring they should be set out two feet apart, in rows three feet apart. Cultivation, harvesting, threshing, cleaning, etc., are similar to what has been given in preceding pages for borecole. Market.—The quantity of Brussels sprouts seed con- sumed in the United States is upwards of 10,000 pounds annually. The greater portion of this is imported from Europe, from whence it is laid down in New York at about fifty cents per pound; the remainder is raised mostly on Long Island, New York, and is equal to the imported in quality. A yield of seed in a favcrable season is from 400 to 500 pounds per acre. CABBAGE. While this vegetable thrives best in a cool, moist atmosphere, or where the nights are uniformly cool, it succeeds well in almost any section of the United States. It will grow in any soil from a light sandy to a heavy loam, but is a gross feeder and requires heavy manur- ing, either well-rotted stable manure or a commercial fertilizer made up to contain about seven parts of nitro- gen to eight of available phosphoric acid and about six of potash. The soil should be well harrowed and made into fine tilth. For the seed bed, the soil should not be too rich; CABBAGE, 29 while it should be well prepared, no manure of any kind should be used; it induces weakling plants. Some sow seed directly in the field where the plants are to remain, considering it more expeditious and satisfac- tory, as there is no check in growth as in transplanting. By sowing with a drill to drop seed about as far apart as plants should stand, but little thinning will be neces- sary. In thinning, pull the rankest growing plants, reserving those possessing fine mid-ribs and general sturdiness. Good cultivation is necessary for a full crop of cabbage seed from the time of sowing till final stage of seeding. Cabbage for seed should not be grown oftener than twice in the same ground without rotation of crops, one season for production of plants and one for seed. Cabbage seed may be produced by three methods, from solid or perfectly developed heads, from partially or half-formed heads, and from stumps from which solid heads have been removed for use. By either process, excellent seed answering for all practical gar- dening purposes may be obtained. The First Method: From Solid Heads.—This is practiced for obtaining extra-selected stock-seed, or seed to be used for growing a commercial or field crop. It enables roguing to be critically performed, as only extra- choice heads must be selected to produce stock seed. Second Method.—With stock seed produced as above for starting the crop, a crop of commercial seed may be raised by the second method, from partially developed heads, although the experienced grower con- tinues roguing with this crop, as mixtures and inferior plants are readily detected by him in a field of half- formed heads; and providing care is thus observed in throwing out all impure plants, seed produced by the 30 THE SEED-GROWER. second method gives the best results and is otherwise satisfactory. This is the method pursued by the lead- ing commercial seed-growers; the economical advan- tage of it being later sowing, and such plants winter better than do solid heads; while the older and more experienced growers contend that there is a bigger scope for selection of plants for stock-seed in a large field of partial heads, than there is in a small field of solid ones. Sowing of seed for this crop is to be timed so that the plants will be just coming to a partial heading stage when it will be necessary either to take them up for winter storage or to cover them up in the field in such climates where they can safely remain in the field over winter. : On Long Island, New York, this sowing is done for Early Jersey Wakefield about July 5th; for Early Flat Dutch and such varieties about June 20th; for Late Flat Dutch and other late varieties, about June 5th, transplanting early varieties from August 15th to August 30th; late sorts, from July 15th to July 81st. In this locality, cabbage seed is usually harvested during the last week in July of the following year. Along the Puget Sound in Washington, sowing is done of early varieties about June 20th; late kinds about May 20th; transplanting of the former to the field is done about July 25th; the latter about July 5th. Medium early varieties are sown about ten days later than the late sorts. : Sowing is first made in seed-bed, in rows ten inches apart, and when plants are of sufficient size, they are transferred to rows two feet apart, sixteen inches in the row; about November 10th (on Long Island) they are taken up for winter storage. In Washington the plants are transplanted from seed CABBAGE. 31 bed to rows 4 feet apart, 18 inches in the row for extra early varieties, 3 feet for later kinds. In that climate plants are not removed in the fall for winter storage, but are simply covered with earth where they stand in the field, a plow being used for the purpose. Stock-seeds.—When the purpose is to raise well- formed heads for stock-seed, seed is sown at the usual time in spring for table use, or much earlier than for the main crop of half-formed heads. Prior to being stored for winter, these heads undergo critical selection. Only those are selected and preserved, which, besides being true to variety, are also uniform as to shape, hav- ing a short stem, thick, smooth and handsome outside leaves but not too leafy, and with the body of the plant in general looking vigorous and healthy. Enough should be taken to secure sufficient stock-seed to last for several years’ seeding. In fact, it is known by all exper- ienced gardeners that cabbage seed three years’ old pro- duces better-formed heads than does perfectly fresh seed. In the case of solid heads, the seed shoots may be as- sisted to come through by carefully separating the outer leaves; some make two cross cuts carefully with a knife to open the head, so as to let the seed stalk break through. When dependence has to be placed on stock-seed obtained from a seed-dealer, or other outside source, the safer plan is to sow a small quantity of same in advance of sowing of the main crop, which will enable the grower to judge of the purity of seed from solid heads so produced. Wintering Plants in Trenches.—In the northern Atlantic cabbage-growing sections, the winters are too severe to allow cabbage plants to remain safely in the open over winter. The general practice in these local- ities is to dig up the plants entire on the approach of 32 THE SEED-GROWER. winter and store them in trenches made by a plow going and returning in the same place. The manner of this is, a cabbage plow is run close to the edge of a row of plants, loosening and lifting them. The plants are laid in the spaces between the rows. Every eighth or tenth vacant row is then made into a trench to receive the plants which were taken out of eight or ten rows. The trench is made wide and deep enough for plants to be packed in two or three rows closely therein, roots down, slightly slanting; the tops of the heads being but a trifle above the level of the ground when placed in the trench. These trenches are covered with about one foot of earth, formed by a large plow throwing large furrows on each side; this covering then by use of an asparagus ridger is dressed up to a sharp ridge to keep water off and prevent too hard freezing. The trenches are uncovered in spring by running a plow as closely as possible to the buried plants, the furrow being turned away so that only the earth is left that is over the plants. This remaining earth is now removed with a large, wide hoe, and plants are then ready to be taken out. Setting Out in Spring.—In spring, as soon as the soil can be worked, the plants are set out in rows or furrows, which may be made in the same field, plowing and harrowing for the purpose the spaces between the trenches and then marking out thefurrows. These fur- rows are made with a medium-sized plow, going and returning in the same place, making a clean smooth furrow the width of the plow and as deep as you would commonly plow; the furrows are made four feet apart for early varieties, five feet for late. The plants are laid two feet apart, flat in the rows, the CABBAGE. . 88 roots parallel with the row; the head will raise the plant so that it will be on an angle of about 45 degrees. The soil is drawn up well about the stalk, and for support this is kept up as the plants advance in growth. In sections of Europe like England, where cabbage withstands the winter in the open, the method prac- ticed for raising cabbage seed is similar to the usage on the northern Pacific Coast. The plants are allowed to remain over winter where they are grown; transplant- ing being done in autumn so as to toughen the tissues and enable the plants to withstand the rigor of winter, but this is not done in Oregon or Washington. Wintering Plants in the Open in Northern At- lantic States.—Those who care to take the risk of wintering plants in the field may do so after the follow- ing method. Sometimes nearly all the plants will winter through safely, but then again, as most frequently happens, but fifty to seventy-five per cent. of them will survive. It will hardly answer for crops on a large scale, owing to leaving so many open spaces for weeds to grow, but may do for market gardeners who save their own seeds. The plants are transplanted late in the fall, say about November 1st, to the place in the field in which they are to produce seed. As has been directed for setting out in spring, this is done by plowing deep furrows four feet apart for early varieties, five feet for late, and lay- ing the plants therein two feet apart, with the roots parallel with the furrow. The earth is then thrown in and pressed over the root and stalk; the leaves are par- tially covered, these being gathered about and over the head. Toward the end of the month, or on approach of winter, with plow and hoe, the plants are covered completely with earth, sufficiently to protect the heads 3 34 THE SEED-GROWER. from alternate freezing and thawing, the soil being pressed firmly thereon. As soon as the ground can be worked in spring, the covering is removed with plow and hoe, and the outer leaves are separated to allow the seed shoots to come through. Seed from Stumps.—In England, in raising seed from stumps, the practice is to sow seed for the crop in May or June; the plants thus forming heads in early autumn. These heads are then cut and the stumps after being permitted to produce some new growth, are transplanted or allowed to remain where they are. The following spring, the growths produce flower stems and seed in due course. Another method in England which is practiced by some market gardeners who grow the heads for market, is to sow in August, the plants being left in the field where they stand over winter and heading in spring; the heads are then cut and the stumps produce side growths immediately, and subsequently flower stems and seed. In the United States the stumps are wintered over in the same manner as has been directed for plants with heads. This practice of raising seed from stumps will an- swer particularly for private use, especially when the heads that are cut are extra choice. Harvesting, Threshing, Cleaning.—As has been given for borecole, the operations for harvesting, threshing, and cleaning cabbage, are similarly per- formed. Market.—The consumption of cabbage seed in the United States is exceedingly large, approximating 1,- 000,000 pounds yearly; as besides being found in every _CABBAGE—CARROT, 85 private garden, this vegetable is grown extensively by market gardeners. Less than one-half of this seed is im- ported from Europe, consisting mostly of early kinds; the remainder (equal to the best of Europe) is grown in this country, being produced on Long Island, New York, in Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Eastern Virginia, Washington, and in some few of the Middle Western States. It is an industry that has made con- siderable progress in recent years along the Puget Sound in northwestern Washington, the production of cabbage seed there now reaching 150,000 pounds annually. The climate of that locality suits cabbage for seed; win- ters being milder and moister, while summers are cooler and drier than in the same latitude on the Atlantic side. However, with care and proper attention, no one need fear failure in growing excellent cabbage seed almost anywhere in the United States. In Europe, a yield of seed ranges from 600 to 1,000 pounds per acre, at from thirty to forty cents per pound, laid down in New York; on Long Island, from 400 to 500 pounds per acre, at from thirty-five to forty cents per pound; in Washington, from 700 to 1,000 pounds per acre, at from twenty-five to thirty cents per pound; occasionally 1,500 pounds per acre have resulted in the latter section. : CARROT, For a crop of carrot seed, the same general directions will apply that have been given for beet, to which refer, Wild carrot will mix and ruin seed if allowed in the vicinity of a seed crop. In sorting over roots to be planted, select only the handsomest shaped specimens, which show no impurity as to variety. These are topped and wintered over same 36 THE SEED-GROWER. as for beets, and are set out as soon as heavy frost is over in the spring, being placed with the crowns even with the surface, in rows three feet apart, six inches in the row. As required with all planting, the earth should be pressed firmly about the roots. Cultivate thoroughly and keep down weeds. In California, wintering of roots.is done somewhat differently from the practice on the Atlantic side as above stated. There the roots which are ploughed up in the fall, instead of being stored in pits as in the East, are topped, and then put into sacks, which are simply kept stored in sheds or out of doors until wanted for planting in January or February. Carrot seed forms in umbels or clusters, and when bulk of the crop is ripe, indicated by the. stalks becom- ing dry, and the umbels turning brown, harvest is in order. Cutting is usually done by hand. Threshing and Cleaning.—When seed is thor- oughly dry, thresh lightly with a flail on a cloth spread on the floor, for if the stalks are broken too much, it will render seed more difficult to clean. In Europe, cleaning is done in a special machine made with a wooden cylinder having steel teeth, for the purpose of taking out the beard and small splinters. Without this machine, seed is cleaned with hand sieves, using first, one with a coarse mesh to remove the pieces of stalks; next, one with a finer mesh, in which seed is rubbed by hand to remove the beard. Seed is then spread on a cloth and left in the sun for a day or so to dry. It is again cleaned in the sieve, hand rubbing being repeated and sticks picked out. The next day, another cleaning is given, and finally seed is passed through the fan mill. It will then be ready for storing in sacks. CARROT—CAULIFLOWER. 37 To Save Seed for Private Use.—Select a few of the finest roots and hang same with plant entire to a rafter, in a loft, and when seeds are wanted, they may be rubbed out between the hands. Market.—Carrot seed follows beet in order of con- sumption. The bulk of seed used in this country is imported from France and Germany; European grow- ers having created a high standard for the quality of their carrot seed, due to painstaking methods. In some of the New England States carrot seed is grown equal to the best European seed. There is also a considerable production of carrot seed in Central California, but for some reason or other, most of it so far, has not proved to be as satisfactory as New England or European seed. This is properly considered to be due to faultiness in method, and not owing to climatic conditions in that State affecting the nature of the car- rot, as is by some thought to be the cause. In a favorable season, a yield of seed is from 500 to 600 pounds per acre; prices paid to growers range from sixteen to twenty cents per pound. CAULIFLOWER. This vegetable is successfully grown in our country, more especially in the sections bordering on the coast, both on the Atlantic and the Pacific. In the former section, however, there has been some difficulty hereto- fore in raising seed, owing to rot affecting the seed stalk at a certain stage in its growth, and the plant sometimes being attacked by an insect which injures the fertilizing part of the seed flower; these difficulties have not been met with in seed production on the Northern Pacific Coast. Cauliflower does well in either a heavy loam or a 88 THE SEED-GROWER. light, sandy soil, but a moist, saline atmosphere ap- pears to be necessary for the successful development of the flower or head. This statement, however, will bear contradiction, when it is considered that cauliflower superior to most of what is produced on the Atlantic side, is successfully grown in the dry atmosphere of California. For a seed-crop, being provided with choice stock- seed, make sowing, in the northern Atlantic section, in July, and in autumn store the partially formed heads with their roots entire, over winter in a trench, a vacant cold frame, or in a cellar packed closely together with soil. In spring, set them out and cultivate, harvest, etc., same as for a crop of cabbage. On: the Pacific coast, along Puget Sound, there are two methods in practice. Some growers sow seed in hotbeds early in February; then as soon as plants are large enough they are transferred to cold frames, in which they are allowed to remain until about May 1st, or until plants are large enough and the weather is favorable, when they are transplanted to open field, in rows 4 feet apart, 3 feet in the row. Other growers sow seed in the fall, about September 1st, wintering their plants in cold frames; and as soon as weather con- ditions will warrant it next spring, say April 1st, plants are set out in the open field. By either method, seed ripens in October. In northern Europe the practice is to sow seed for a seed-crop in cold frame early in September. Early in the following spring the plants are transferred to hot beds for the purpose of starting them into growth. As spring advances, they are again transplanted, this time to the open field, in rich, loose soil. Seed ripens early in fall, when the stalks are cut and hung up in an airy CAULIFLOWER—CELERY. 389 room until the seeds are thoroughly matured and dry enough for threshing. For stock-seed, sowing should be made in north- em latitudes in spring or earlier than when partially formed heads are wanted, and late in autumn selections are made of those plants having short, thick stalks, with firm heads of a fine, white color, and particularly the earliest formed heads which show no indication of shooting to seed. These selected plants are taken up and stored over winter in the same way as given on the preceding page for partially headed plants. Market.—Upwards of 10,000 pounds is considered the present annual consumption of cauliflower seed in the United States. The best of this seed is imported from Denmark; in fact, nearly all used here at present is imported from Europe. Danish seed is notably preferred throughout Europe. Perhaps the most suitable climate in America, approaching nearest to that of Denmark, for the growing of cauliflower seed, is that previously spoken of in the chapter on cabbage, namely, along the Puget Sound, in Washington. Cauliflower seed which has given most excellent satisfaction, is now grown in that quarter, but the industry there is, as yet, practically in its infancy. Considering the soil and climatic conditions of this Puget Sound country, it is regarded safe to predict that that section will, in time, be headquarters for the best cauliflower seed for the entire country. In Denmark, in a favorable season, a yield of seed is about 250 pounds per acre, at prices to the grower of $2.50 to $5.00 per pound, according to variety. CELERY. For raising celery seed, the course to be pursued is AO THE SEED-GROWER. same as for a garden crop for culinary use, observing that plants destined for seed must undergo critical selection when they are taken up in the fall for winter storage. That is, only those plants are to be chosen which possess all the distinctness of their variety; if the variety be dwarf, those plants that are dwarfest, and so on; furthermore, only those are to be selected which are perfectly solid in the stems, and have an abundance of solid heart-leaves. In fact, this matter of selection re- garding solidity is important to be kept in mind when raising high-grade celery seed. In the usual manner as practiced in the Northern States for storing celery for table use, plants for seed are wintered over in trenches, care being taken that it is so done that they will be kept as dry as possible until time to set out in spring; in the mild climate of Cali- fornia, where considerable celery seed is raised, winter- ing over of plants in this manner is not necessary. About May 1st, depending on the climate and lati- tude, these plants are set out in rows four feet apart, eighteen inches in the row, with the heart of plant left exposed. Cultivate and keep free from weeds, drawing earth up about the plants as they progress in growth. Seed is produced in clusters and ripens unevenly. When bulk of it is well browned, stalks should be cut at the base or root, and laid on cloths, to be left ex- posed to the sun for a few days if the weather be dry and clear, or are taken at once to the barn or shed, to undergo drying. When seed has become dry, threshing may be done either in a threshing machine or with a flail on a cloth on the floor. Seed is then spread on a cloth and allowed to remain for several weeks to become perfectly dry. For final cleaning, seed is run twice through the fan mill. CELERY— CORN. 41 Market.—Celery is an important item in the seed trade. At present, most of the seed used in the United States is grown here; nine-tenths of it being produced more cheaply in central California than elsewhere, though seed of first quality is also grown in the Atlantic Coast section. The annual California production approximates 25,- 000 pounds. In a favorable season, aseed yield is from 400 to 500 pounds per acre; prices paid to growers range from twenty to thirty cents per pound. Seed of certain sorts is imported from Europe; this applies particularly to the variety known as Paris Golden Self-Blanching. French growers are paid from fifty to sixty cents per pound for this seed. Even Cali- fornia market growers of celery of this variety prefer French seed; the crop resulting therefrom proving more satisfactory than when grown from domestic seed. CORN. That which is of first importance when growing seed corn is, to exercise the greatest care to avoid mixture of crop. Sugar corn must not be grown near field corn, and to keep a variety strictly pure, one kind of sugar or field corn must not be planted near another kind, nor in an adjoining field. Neither should corn be planted on land upon which any variety of corn was raised the year previous, to prevent mixture from ‘‘ volunteer plants.”’ Stock-seed should have been carefully selected from stalks whose habit of growth was characteristic of the variety, and from the earliest, largest, and finest ears, which in their shape and size, color and formation of grain, and time of maturity, were distinctly true to variety. This method is also particularly recom- mended when saving seed for private use. 42 THE SEED-GROWER. General culture for seed corn is the same as for a crop of corn for ordinary purposes. In northern Atlantic latitudes, early sugar corn is sown from May 10th to 30th; late varieties, from May 1st to 15th; field sorts from May Ist to 20th. Sugar corn should not be planted over one-half to two-thirds the depth required for field corn. In harvesting both sugar and field corn, the cut stalks are bound in small shocks. But it is not really necessary to do this with sugar corn, unless shocks are made very smaJl with an open space in the. centre, formed by tying the tops of four hills together and then shocking around them. It is better not to cut sugar corn too green, but ears should be allowed to mature fully on the stalk. Sorting should be done carefully at time of husking, rejecting ears which are imperfect or impure. Drying and Shelling.—Drying should be done naturally, never artificially. The usual manner is on barn scaffolds, which are made of narrow boards placed as far apart as possible; these scaffolds being arranged in tiers, one above another, with as much air as possi- ble given through open doors and windows. With some growers the practice is to bring the corn from the field in one-bushel crates; a rope with two hooks being let down to the wagon and the crate drawn up to the scaffold by men. The time required for divine varies much, as in some seasons stalks are greener than in others; some autumns being damper than others. Shelling is not done until corn is dry enough to store and keep in bulk. Those who grow for commercial trade shell the ears without taking any grains from butt or tip; shelling by machine just as grown, except that black CORN. 43 kernels are previously taken out by hand witha husk- ing peg. The shelled product is run through a fanning mill, which blows out all light and chaffy stuff, and screens out the small kernels; the quantity that is thus blown and screened out being about one bushel in fifty. Sugar corn must not be stored in sacks too soon, nor kept in them too long, as it retains moisture a consider- able time and is likely to mould. Neither should it be piled in bulk until thoroughly dry, but should be spread out thinly and raked over from time to time. To Save for Private Use.—The best way to save sugar corn for one’s own use, is to break off the finest ears, leaving the outer husk attached. Hang up the unhusked ears, several tied together, until they are wanted for use, in a dry, airy room or garret where they will become perfectly dry. Market.— Seed-corn, both field and sugar, is handled in enormous quantities by all seed dealers. Not so many years ago the bulk of seed sugar corn used by the trade was produced in Connecticut. In fact, Connecticut seed-corn was for a long time considered the standard in the market, and it was generally sup- posed that no other so good could be raised else- where. But all this has greatly changed, and to-day Connecticut supplies but a small portion of the seed sugar corn that the country consumes. Seed-corn fully equal to Connecticut grown, is now produced elsewhere, especially in Ohio, Iowa, and Nebraska, where there are quite a number of well-established, large, reputable growers, who, competing with Connecticut, supply the trade from the Atlantic to the Pacific. A brief narration of the operations of one prominent grower in Huron County, Ohio, will suffice for them all. 44 THE SEED-GROWER. This grower began in an humble way in 1878, at the age of eighteen, on one acre of rented land and a capital of five dollars, which went for the purchase of stock-seed. His first year’s crop of sugar corn realized the small sum of eighteen dollars, and was shelled by hand and cleaned by dropping the seed from a hog-house door to a blanket spread upon the ground beneath. Now to such proportions has his business grown that in a single season his shipments will amount to about 175,- 000 bushels of shelled seed corn and 3,000 barrels on ears, requiring four large power shellers and cleaners, besides acres of floor space, and thousands of feet of bin room for storage. His main warehouse is one hun- dred and sixty feet long by thirty feet wide, and two stories in height. None of his output is sold at retail, all being disposed of to seedsmen or seed-dealers. A crop of sugar corn in a favorable season is from 40 to 50 bushels of shelled seed per acre, for the early dwarf varieties; from 50 to 60 bushels for the tall, late sorts. Prices paid to growers range from $1.00 to $1.25 per bushel; the cheaper price being for Stowell’s Ever- green and other late sorts; prices to sub-growers range from 65 to 80 cents per bushel for sugar corn. For field corn prices rule from 45 to 60 cents per bushel, according to variety. CORN SALAD. A seed-crop is matured quickly in one season. Seed is sown early in spring, in rows two feet apart, plants being thinned to four inches apart. Ripening of seed occurs unevenly; but when the bulk has ripened, the crop may be mowed, or plants may be pulled and laid on cloths, and left to dry in the sunafew days. In the barn or drying room stalks should be spread out CORN SALAD—CRESS—CUCUMBER. 45 on cloths, as seed sheds easily. Seed should not be threshed until it is thoroughly dry; it may be done with a flail or in the machine. Clean in a fan mill and store in sacks. To Save for Private Use.—Select the best-looking plants, mark them by driving a stake alongside and allow to run to seed. Spread a cloth under plants as seeds ripen, and as the seed successively matures, shake plants repeatedly. Market.—Handled by all seedsmen, but is usually imported, comparatively little seed being produced in America, Average yield in a favorable season is up- wards of 1,000 pounds per acre, at price to the grower of about ten cents per pound. CRESS. This is a quick-growing annual, and seed-crop is easily raised. Apply same directions as given for corn salad; harvesting, threshing, and cleaning are likewise similar as for that variety. Demand for seed is quite large, being sold by all seed dealers; it is partly imported and partly produced here. Yield and prices are about the same as for corn salad. CUCUMBER. In growing a seed-crop of cucumber, care must be exercised to avoid mixture of varieties. No two kinds should be planted near each other, but they must be kept widely separated, at least forty rods apart. If Kaffir corn is planted between, distance may be short- ened to twenty rods, but not less. Cucumber also mixes with Vegetable peach, West India gherkin, Snake cucumber, and pomegranate. Care must be used to destroy any stray plant that may appear within mixing distance. 46 THE SEED-GROWER. Any soil considered good for corn will answer for cucumber. In the Middle and Western States, seed is sown about June Ist. It is planted in hills three feet apart each way, ten to fifteen seeds to a hill, thinning to three or four plants in a hill when they are about six inches in height. Cultivate continuously and keep free from weeds. The hoe may be used for this purpose after the vines run out. To Save Seeds for Private Use or Stock-Seed — Select the earliest and handsomest fruit possessing dis- tinctness of variety. Harvest and Cleaning.—Harvest is dependent upon maturity of the crop and time of frost. The usual period in northern sections is from September 15th to October Ist. In case a severe frost occurs, the crop must be gathered at once, otherwise fruit may rot from effect of the frost. Seed is considered fully ripe when fruit has changed color entirely, showing not even a tinge of green; when gathering, reject fruit which is not characteristic of the variety. Taking out seed: in simple practice, the cucumbers may be sliced lengthwise and seeds scraped out into a bucket or a tub, and then poured into a tight barrel, to undergo fermentation, which is to release the mucil- Jaginous covering from the seeds. When the field is two or three acres in extent, slicing may be done by using an upright knife set in the bot- tom of a small wooden trough held in place by a cross- piece, This trough may be mounted ona bench. The cucumbers are laid in it one at a time, and sliced open by being forced against the knife by a wooden plunger fitted to the inside of the trough. The split fruit is allowed to fall into a tuborabox. Seed is then removed by using a small circular iron knife sharpened on one CUCUMBER. 47 edge; with one sweep of the hand the knife performs the operation, the cut pulp passing into a pail, from which it is emptied into a barrel placed conveniently in the field, to undergo fermentation. For larger fields, it will be necessary to expedite the removal of the seed pulp by the use of a machine. There are two kinds in general use, both constructed specially for extracting cucumber, melon and tomato seeds. One, run by horse-power, is fashioned so that fruit being poured into a hopper, is crushed between a revolving wooden roller and an adjustable crushing board, and then is passed into a long reet made of wire netting, which revolves and separates the seed. The other machine, which is run by steam power or by a gasoline motor, is called a Cucumber, Melon and Tomato Seed-separator. It is six feet long, and is operated by a crank on each side. The fruit is con- veyed by an elevator into a hopper, and thence to two revolving rollers, which crush it and pass it to a re- volving screen, four feet in length, having two canes on the end of a shaft forming a beater, which separates the seed. Under the screen, a pan is set to receive the seed as it falls. This latter machine will extract 1,000 pounds of cucumber seed ina day. When in use, it is mounted on a low wagon built with a platform. A two-horse steam engine is placed facing it at the front end. Drawn by two horses, the wagon makes the round of the field. Fourteen rows are taken ata time, six on one side, six on the other, the wagon going through the two rows between. These two rows are picked ahead of the wagon, far enough to bring the elevator of the machine even with the pickers on either side. Large tin pails are used for picking. Twelve men are kept 48 THE SEED-GROWER. busy picking the ripe fruit and emptying on the ele- vator. As the fruit is crushed, the skins or rinds are ejected at the rear end, and left in the field in rows as the wagon is drawn through, and are afterwards scat- tered as fertilizer. Following this wagon is another loaded with barrels which are distributed, and to which the seed is transferred from the receiving pan. These barrels are filled two-thirds, and are hauled six at a time in another wagon to the fermenting house. If more than one variety is grown, it is very import- ant that the machine used for mashing fruit or for washing, ‘and the fermenting tank or barrel should be carefully washed immediately after use, so as to remove any seeds which may have lodged in same, and thereby prevent mixture of seed when using the apparatus or vessel for another variety. Fermentation or Souring.—This process is neces- sary with all kinds of vine seeds, excepting winter squash and pumpkin, in order to separate the seeds from the surrounding pulp. The time required for fermentation varies from several days to a week, accord- ing to weather. On a small scale, tight barrels will answer for fer- mentation; but for large acreages, it is better to build a tank, which may be erected either in the-field or in the seed house; this must be made perfectly tight. The pulp is poured into the barrel or tank, but not filled quite full to allow for expansion in bulk from fermentation. The liquor must be stirred thoroughly every day, to keep seed in contact with it, and to pre- vent the seed on top from becoming blackened. Pro- vided it is thus constantly stirred, seed may remain in it for several weeks without injury. One may deter- mine whether seed has undergone sufficient fermenta- CUCUMBER. 49 tion by taking up a handful and squeezing it. If on opening the hand seed appears entirely free of pulp, it is ready for washing. Washing.—This may be done in a tub, a barrel, a large box, or ina machine. When using a tub or a barrel, pour in a quantity of the seed pulp, and add several pails of water. The liquor is then stirred violently with a stick until the pulp is loosened. More water is now poured in, and stirring is again done, this time with a circular motion, which will cause the water to run around in the vessel. This motion holds the separated pulp suspended, while seed sinks to the bottom. The water is then poured off, which will carry the pulp with it, and leave seed at the bottom. The operation is to be repeated several times, with clear water, until seed is considered clean. The box method, as performed by some growers, is practicable only where there is a stream of water. A box is made with the sides and ends about eighteen inches in height, and six or seven feet in length. The bottom is fitted with heavy wire screen, eight meshes to the inch. A platform is built on the bank, extend- ing out into the stream several feet to where a swift current may be reached. Four posts are driven, one at each corner of the washing box, and cross-pieces nailed between each pair of end posts. One end of the box is then fastened to one of these cross-pieces, at such height as to keep the top of that end above water. The other end is made fast to the other two posts by means of an adjustable strap or rope, in such manner as to allow it to be raised or lowered at will. Then the down-stream end of the box is carefully lowered into the water, until about three-fourths of the entire box is submerged. The action of the.water in going through the meshes of 4 50 THE SEED-GROWER. the screen serves to wash the pulp from the seed and carry it away. The operation is assisted by stirring seed with a stick or a rake. As the force of the water will carry seed towards the end of the box, seed must constantly be put back to the upper end. When seed is considered clean, it is scooped out into barrels pre- paratory to drying. Seed may also be washed in a machine, which may be readily made by a carpenter. One that is used by a large grower is made out of a disused fanning-mill. This has been covered with zinc and punched full of holes. At one side, opposite the crank, is the spout; from which the washed seed passes into a box fitted with handles on each side. Four large pails of pulp are poured into the washer at atime. While one per- son turns the crank, another pours in clear water; six or eight pails of clear water usually cleans the seed, and a second washing is not necessary. Never use lye for cleaning, it will discolor the seed. Drying.—The barrels or boxes to receive the washed seeds should have holes punched around the bottom to drain the surplus water. Drying is done on screens or drying frames. These are made of three by four scantling, three feet in width by fourteen in length; burlap is used for the screen. Seed is spread on the screen very thinly at first, several seeds deep. The screens are then set in the sun and air for drying, either on benches or supported by posts driven into the ground with cross-pieces nailed on. After the first moisture is drained or dried out, seed is transferred to fresh, dry screens. In the evening the screens must be carried indoors and racked up, as seed should not be allowed to become damp even from dew. , CUCUMBER. 51 Seed is allowed to remain on the drying frame until it is reasonably dry, and then it is removed therefrom and spread out thinly on the floor of a dry, airy room, where it is watched until it is thoroughly dry, being stirred and turned over occasionally. Another way of drying after being taken off the screens, is to place the seed in sacks, filled about one- third full, and these are thrown across a fence or other convenient place in the air during the day, till the seeds have become thoroughly dry. Cucumber seed should not be stored or packed for shipment until perfectly dry, known by seed breaking crisply without bending. Market.—Besides being grown in all private gardens, cucumbers are planted extensively for market by truckers, and also by farmers as a field crop for com- mercial picklers. The consumption of seed, therefore, in this country is very large, and runs up to many hundreds of thousands of pounds annually. It is all produced here, the most of it in Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Michigan, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, but as is shown by these localities, almost any section in the United States is adapted for its culture. In a favorable season a yield of cucumber seed will average 250 pounds per acre, though at times it has been known to greatly exceed this, having reached as high as 750 pounds. Up to within the past few years, growers’ prices have ruled from twelve to fifteen cents per pound, but since the disastrous crop failures in the seasons of 1902 and 1908, due to ravages of plant lice, prices have gone higher, ranging now from twenty-five to thirty-five cents per pound. When the market returns to its nor- 52 THE SEED-GROWER. mal equilibrium, the former lower prices are likely to prevail again. EGGPLANT. This vegetable delights in a light, warm, rich soil. About one month after fruit is in edible condition is required for seed to ripen. It is therefore necessary that a crop for seed should be started as soon as pos- sible. In the Middle and Western States this is begun about March 10th, by sowing seed in a hotbed. When the second leaves have formed, the young plants are transferred to another or larger hotbed, where with fresh heat they should become large, strong plants about the 20th of May, when they may be set out in the open ground. Cultivation should be thorough and weeds kept down. Eggplant should not be attempted oftener than once in the same field, neither should it be grown in a field in which tomato was raised the year before, otherwise a poor crop will be the result; tomato seems to extract from the soil what is needful for eggplant. Ripening of seed is indicated by changing of color of the egg from a bright to a duller shade, or even some- what yellow, also by the appearance of specks. A crop is harvested early in October, only the finest-looking eggs being selected. After gathering, the stem end is cut away for several inches, seed being contained in the other end and fruit is then left in a pile for several days until a sufficient number has been gathered to extract seed. Fruit should not be allowed to become rotten as this will injure the seed. Extracting Seed.—On a small scale, the eggs are first pared and then cut into small pieces, say eighths; to do which a dull knife is used to ayoid cutting seed. EGGPLANT. 53 These pieces are then mashed or crushed in a barrel, a wooden pounder being used for the purpose; or if at hand, a wine press or a cider mill will answer for crush- ing. Fermentation is not permitted with eggplant, as it will make seed harder to clean and also causes seed to be darker in color. In fact, it is considered better not to allow.the pulp to stand longer than three hours be- fore cleaning. One grower whose annual crop amounts to several thousand pounds crushes the fruit by horse- power, in a large mill which is fixed not quite breast- high on the edge of a large wooden platform. The crushed pulp drops from the mill on to this platform, from which it is loaded on wagons and hauled to a creek for washing. He does not pare the fruit or cut it into pieces, but dumps the eggs whole into the hopper of the mill, the stem ends having previously been cut off in the field at time of gathering. Washing and Cleaning.—This is done by using sieves in a tub ora barrel of water. The pulp is poured on a wide-meshed sieve at first. By working the sieve about in the water, it causes seed to separate from the pulp and pass through the sieve to the bottom of the vessel used. The water and floating pulp are then poured off, seed is taken out and washed again in clear water, this time using a finer-meshed sieve to screen out seed from the remaining pulp. If this does not render seed thoroughly clean, washing is repeated. The large grower mentioned above does his washing in a stream which runs by his farm. He uses a box screen, which is 4 feet long, 24 feet wide, 18 inches deep. It has long handles at each end. The screen has a mesh of four to the inch. This screen box fits into an outside box made about 15 inches deeper, the 54 THE SEED-GROWER. handles affording a means of rest at the top of the out- side box. The bottom of this outside box is made of wire bronze, mosquito netting mesh, for water to drain through. To support this bronze netting strips are nailed across. The bottom also has legs at each corner for support in the water. The legs at one end are longer than the other two, to allow for the slope of the beach when standing in the water. Three men operate this apparatus. They stand in the water in rubber boots. One man at each end takes a pair of handles and lifts and shakes the screen, while the third man pours in three buckets of pulp at atime. The shaking separates seed from pulp, seed sinks through and falls to the bot- tom of the outside box. The pulp is then dumped out of the screen box, fresh pulp is poured in and the operation is repeated until the space in the outside box is full. Seed is then taken out, and a final cleaning is given with a sieve in a tub of water. Drying.—This is done on screens in the same man- ner as given for cucumbers. But it should be hastened as much as possible, so as to have the seeds as dry as can be before night; to facilitate which the work should be begun early in the morning of a clear, dry day. While drying on the screens, stir or turn the seeds over from time to time. As eggplant seed sprouts more easily than seed of any other vegetable, when first taken out of the fruit, it is sometimes lost by sprouting over night when not as dry as it should be. The large grower, whose operations of extracting and washing seed have been described, does not dry his seed out-doors. He prefers, owing to depredations by birds, to dry seed on the floor of a dry, airy room. He spreads the seed thinly, less than quarter of an inch EGGPLANT— ENDIVE. 55 deep and allows it to remain in that state for a day or two, stirring it frequently. He then masses the seed in greater depth, say six to eight inches, and leaves it remain thus spread out for a month or so to become thoroughly dry, which will be indicated by seed rattling. It will then be in condition for storing or shipment. When storing, a covering of oil paper will keep out atmospheric moisture and prevent moulding. Before shipping, run through the fan-mill or seed-cleaner. Market.—Eggplant seed is sold by all seedsmen. The principal market for it at present is in Florida, where this vegetable is grown extensively as a field crop by truckers for shipment to Northern markets. While there is some importation, most of the seed used by the trade is grown here, mainly in New Jersey, Towa, and in the South. In a favorable season, an average yield is about 200 pounds per acre, at from $1.00 to $1.25 per pound to the grower. ENDIVE. This is an annual, and for a seed-crop sowing is made in the Northern States early in April; in California in February and March, in rows two feet apart, thinning plants to eighteen inches in the row. Rogue carefully, pulling up and destroying all plants which are not true to variety. When bulk of the crop is ripe, cut the stalks and lay upon cloths, and leave exposed to the sun to dry for the remainder of the day, or longer, if the weather be dry and clear. Seed should be allowed to lay in the drying loft to become thoroughly dry before threshing. Thresh with a flail or in the machine, and clean in the fan-mill. 56 THE SEED-GROWER. After seed has become thoroughly dry, it may be stored in sacks. Market.—The demand for seed here is considerable, as endive is consumed freely for flavoring soups and making salad, especially where citizens of French or Ger- man extraction predominate. Part of the seed used is imported from Europe; balance is nearly all grown in California, which State produces about 20,000 pounds annually. It can be grown with success in almost any part of our country. In a favorable season, an average yield of seed is about 500 pounds per acre, at from thirty to thirty-five cents per pound to the grower. HORSE RADISH. The original or correct name for this is said to be harsh radish. It is handled by the seed trade in the shape of sets, which are prepared by cutting off the straggling lateral or side shoots that form on the main root. These are trimmed to about six inches in length, their tops made square, and the bottom ends slanting, to prevent their being planted upside down. They are preserved over winter by storing in pits, or by keeping in a cool cellar buried in a box of dry sand or seed. KALE. (See Borecole, page 25.) KOHLRABI. Treatment for a seed crop is about the same as for cabbage and turnip, though kohlrabi is hardier than either. Sow seed later than is customary for table use, in the Northern States in July or August. On the Pacific Coast and in Europe plants are transplanted in KOHLRABI—LEEK. 57 the fall, and left to remain in the open over winter, but in our northern sections, while plants will often winter well outdoors, the winters usually are too severe, and after the manner given for storing cabbage, plants are there taken up in autumn and stored in trenches or ina cool cellar. In early spring they are set out in rows four feet apart, two feet in the row. Those plants which were transplanted in the preceding autumn and left in the field over winter, are not disturbed in spring. Take care of the crop, harvest, clean, etc., after the manner as given for borecole and cabbage, to which refer. Market.—Kohlrabi seed for the kitchen and market garden is sold in moderate quantities by all American dealers, while in Europe the vegetable is grown exten- sively for cattle-feeding, being considered there, for that purpose, equal, if not superior, to the best ruta baga. At present, practically all the seed used by the American trade is imported from Europe, but there is no necessity for any importation, as it could all be grown here. ‘Yield of seed and prices range about the same as for cabbage. LEEK. This vegetable is a hardy member of the onion fam- ily. Seed is sown first in seed bed in spring and later transplanted into rows 15 inches apart, 6 inches be- tween the plants; or seed may be sown in drills same distance apart, thinning plants afterwards to 6 inches apart without transplanting. It stands winter without protection, and seed is produced in the second year. Treatment, harvesting and cleaning are very similar to onion, and attention is, therefore, directed for particu- lars for such matters as they will be found given here- 58 THE SEED-GROWER. after for onion, under its heading; as they will apply for leek. Market.—Seed is handled largely by all seedsmen; the most of it used here is at present imported from Europe; what is produced in this country, which is of fine quality, is grown in Central California. Excellent. seed can be produced in any part of the Northern and Western States. Yield of seed in a favorable season runs from 500 to 600 pounds per acre; prices paid to growers rule from twenty-five to thirty cents per pound. LETTUCE. This quick-growing annual delights in a cool atmos- phere and an open, loose soil. In the Eastern United States, seed for a seed-crop is sown in northern latitudes early in April; in California, in February or March. The practice is in rows twenty inches apart, thinning the plants to fifteen inches apart, or at a distance to allow for their complete development. Transplanting is only done for stock-seed, not for a commercial crop. Like all other crops, lettuce responds to careful culti- vation. When plants are in head, or are otherwise far enough advanced to determine the character of the variety, pull up all which show the slightest impurity and shoot too quickly to seed before they have headed or hearted preperly; and in case of a heading variety, throw out all which do not head well. Ripening of seed heads is indicated by their swelling and turning yellow. Cut the stalks by hand as they ripen, and lay upon cloths, and if the weather be clear and dry leave exposed to the sun and air to become thoroughly dry before threshing. It is a crop that must be handled carefully. LETTUCE. 59 For Stock Seeds and Seeds for Private Use.— Select. the finest specimens which show faithful correct- ness as to type. These are transplanted, the plants tied to stakes for support, and only seeds which ripen first on the plant are saved. A good plan, when the opera- tion is on a small scale, is to pull up plants as seeds are ripening, place them against a fence with a cloth under them, and allow them to remain in that position until seeds are thoroughly matured. Threshing.—Seed must be thoroughly dry before threshing, which may be done in a threshing machine, or with a roller on acloth on a floor. Seed is then run through a fan mill.