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AINUIb Hy] soW7 ,,

THE DAIRYCOM
™

A MONOGRAPH

ON THE

AYRSHIRE BREED OF CATTLE.

BY

E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, M. D.,
—~ AND’
JOSEPH N. STURTEVANT,
OF
WAUSHAKUM FARM, SOUTH FRAMINGHAM, MASS.

WITH AN APPENDIX

AYRSHIRE, JERSEY, AND DUTCH MILKS:

THEIR FORMATION AND PECULIARITIES.

BOSTON:
A. WILLIAMS AND COMPANY,

CoBNER WASHINGTON AND SCHOOL STs.

1875.

COPYRIGHT.
E. Lzwis STURTEVANT, M.D., anD JosEPH N. STURTEVANT.
A. D. 1875.

BOSTON:
ALFRED MUDGE AND 80N, PRINTERS,
$4 SCHOOL STREET.

“BRUTE foster-mother, mild of humankind,
Whether in farm-yard ruminant reclined
At eve, with richest pasturage distent,
Emblem of rural quiet and content ;
From their secretions sweet their udders freed,
Or grazing patiently on hill or mead,
No beast or tame or wild, O gentle cow,
Can sweeter thoughts recall to mind than thou.

“The golden butter is thy produce, and
Thou feedest all the nurseries of the land
With streams nectareous, health-bestowing, sweet,
When iced, a luscious drink in summer’s heat ;
In the old mythic heaven of the North
The cow Adumbla prominent stood forth.
When summer suns extend their farewell beams,
At eve, what pastoral music sweeter seems
Than the cow’s lowings when she hastens home,
While clouds of insects round her sport and hum ;
Her breath is then most odorous indeed,
Full of the scent of hillside and of mead ;
Inhaling it the milkmaid’s cheeks can show
A bloom such as cosmetics can’t bestow.”

CONTENTS.

I. GENERAL AND DESCRIPTIVE.

THE AYRSHIRE Cow IN GENERAL . ‘
As A MILKING ANIMAL

As A BUTTER PRODUCER . ° .
As A CHEESE PRODUCER . 5 4 F 5 F ‘ *
MEaT . . 2 x . * ‘
OPINIONS OF THEIR WORTH ‘
THEIR ADAPTABILITY A i . i
Tue IpeEAL AYRSHIRE Cow .
Tse AYRSHIRE BULL ‘ r * ‘ a
II. HISTORY.
ScorLaND AND Irs PasT . P ‘ 7

WuitE Forest BREED oF CATTLE ‘

CounTy oF AYRSHIRE ‘ : - : . ‘
DocumENTARY History OF ORIGIN OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE
ORIGIN OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE .

PROGRESS OF THEIR IMPROVEMENT . ‘ : ‘ ‘ .
HL LOCAL
IMPORTERS AND IMPORTATIONS s x .

PEDIGREE AND THE HERD BOoK . * 4 . F <
List oF ImpoRTED PRIZE AYRSHIRES . - i

List oF Woop-Cots oF ImporRTED AYRSHIRES . 5 ,
PEDIGREES OF ILLUSTRATED ANIMALS . 3 . ¥

~

APPENDIX.

MILK: Its FoRMATION AND PECULIARITIES, ETC.
AYRSHIRE MILE.
JERSEY MILK.
AMERICAN HousTEIN MILE.

CREAM . r i ‘ ¥ : 3 ‘ *

106

137
145
149

157
182
195
196
199

203

240

I.

GENERAL AND DESCRIPTIVE.

In this portion of our book we propose to present
the Ayrshire cow to the reader in her various appear-
ances and uses.

Our first chapter will tell what the Ayrshire cow
is, presenting extraneous matter only as illustrating
this feature ; in the three following divisions will be
given the statements of her products, so far as is
known to us; our fifth chapter deals with the testi-
mony of her peculiar merits, while the following one
treats the question of adaptability.

In the chapter on the ideal animal which naturally
closes our first section, we have aimed to give the
Ayrshire cow as she may become, founding our
judgment on the teachings of nature and reason,
with the attest of careful observation.

2

AYRSHIRE. ll

AYRSHIRES.

Mr. M’Compie, of Tillvfour, when called upon
to read a paper before the Chamber of Agriculture,
could begin thus: “ My father and grandfather were
dealers in cattle.” Not ours is this preparation, nor
have we “wintered and summered” with the Ayr-
shire, and heard her nightly breathing below our
straw bed in the byre, as happens with many a
Scotch hind. It were rare good fortune that should
strike out dulness from the mind of one so familiar
with his daily care, and unite ideas and the pen in
the single hand.

Not the less have we thought of the Ayrshire cow,
if we have kept less near to her. How many billows
are there, think you, between her home and ours?
Answer this, and we will tell you we have braved
them all, in order to study her in her home.

Our plan is simply to bring to your ear a narra-
tive of what is known and thought respecting this
interesting breed of cattle.

The County of Ayrshire, in the southwest part of
Scotland, has given name to a breed of cattle cele-
brated for their dairy qualities. This county is in
outline nearly of the form of a half moon, concave

12 AYRSHIRE.

towards the sea and convex on the land side. Ayr,
at the joining of river to sea, the most considerable
town, is midway between the northern and southern
extremities, some eighty miles apart. Although the
seat of the origin of the breed, as improved, is
placed to the northwestward of Ayr, the cattle have
been so long since dispersed over the country, and
have been cultivated with such care, that the best may
now be found in a region of which no place is much
above a dozen miles distant from the home of Burns.

To offer a portrait of this breed, that shall be true
to nature, is not so easy a matter as may at first ap-
pear. While the individuals possess that in common
which clearly portrays their kinship, there is withal
much of individuality, as marked by color, form, and
quality ; but none are so different from their type as
to cause a good judge -of the stock to think one a
member of another breed.

When there is a suggestion of a cross, there yet
clings to the Ayrshire an indescribable something,
an air, a style, that sets her apart from all others.
Words have not the nice shades of meaning to give
conveyance to the thought. :

Look at Rosa Bonheur’s group, “A Morning in the
Highlands.” See her brace of shelties resistingly
led by the Highland lad. What freshness! The
very spirit of nature is there.

The serene, mild expression of the Short-horn
comes of breeding ; nature, unassisted, not often
gives it. It is a subdued, perhaps may become a
care-worn look. What a dead look does the ill-bred
native cow turn towards us !

CHARACTER. 13

The Ayrshire possesses something of the spirit
of the English thoroughbred horse. With good
treatment, he shows a docile intelligence, ready to
perform for you all sorts of kindly offices. No horse
can you place such dependence on, none so safe,
when well trained, as the thoroughbred ; but there is
fire enough, enough of nature in him, to outrun a
thousand of the cold-blooded kind, and instincts, too.
that show that domestication has but regulated and
not demeaned him.

With all the high breeding the Ayrshire shows,
she is yet near to nature. Breeding, as in the Short-
horn, has not made a dull thing of the cow and a
harmless thing of the bull. Did you ever see a rab-
bit in the forest, erect and listening, who has not yet
seen your person but has heard your step? There
are instincts and nerves here: enough to supply a
herd of Short-horns.

The Ayrshire has a superabundance of nerves.
She is ready to employ them upon demand, in self-
defence or in self-support; she asks little beyond a
fair chance: yet all this nature in her is in reserve,
and she does not use it wantonly to disqualify her to
be the pet of the household. She can the more
aptly accommodate herself to circumstances and
make them friendly to her.

This wealth of instincts, all alive upon occasion,
adapts her to be appreciative of good treatment, and
appeals to intelligence to accord it to her.

“Tf to her share some trifling errors fall,
Look in her face and you’ll forget them all.”

14 TIEADS.

The head is the scal of character, and bears its
stamp. Breeding does much for it. From seeing
no other part can one infer so much. If, therefore,
you wish to see but one part of the male, study the
head above all; in the female, the head and the
udder furnish a key to the rest.

Upon this point, Mr. Henry Corbet! has written
well. “The shoulder, no doubt, answers very much
for shape and symmetry and frame, but the head
answers for everything. If you go for breed, you
look, above all, to the head; if your aim be style or
fashion, you must seek this in the head, as nine times
in ten that very accommodating phrase known as
‘quality’ should prove itself by a good head. . . .
A scale of points for one or two certain breeds has
already been drawn out, but in none of these is suf-
ficient importance, at least as I am led to think,
attached to the head of an animal as the main index
to his purity of blood, strength of constitution, and
actual fitness for that service for which it is intend-
ed. . . . Early maturity or quick feeding is the
chief recommendation of a Short-horn; and so, when
we look one in the face, we must bear in mind that
what we want is, as Mr. Carr puts it, ‘a placidity and
composure of mind, a phlegmatic disposition sug-
gestive of fattening propensity.’ In fact, a frisky
Short-horn should be something of an anomaly.

“Not so the Devon. I should myself have a fancy
for a certain wildness or boldness in the head of a
pure North Devon; and when Captain Davy says this

1 Bath and West of Eng. Sor. Jour., quoted in Obio Ag. Rept. 1871.

HEADS. 15

should in many points resemble the head of the deer,
he seems to me to have very aptly illustrated his
subject. Says Captain Davy, ‘The head should be
small, with a broad, indented forehead, tapering con-
siderably towards the nostrils; the nose of a creamy
white; the jaws clean and free from fiesh; the eye
bright, lively, and prominent, encircled by a deep
orange-colored ring ; the ears thin, the horns of
the cow long, spreading, and gracefully turned up.

The expression must be gentle and intelli-
gent. . . . The champion Hereford bull of this
day . . . begins with a somewhat mean, small
head ; whereas there should be something very noble
in the head of a White-face, when seen at his best.’

“There is no animal which tells more of high
breeding than an Alderney, or rather Jersey-born
cow. There is a refined air and carriage, a certain
comely ‘presence,’ which would forbid all thoughts
of the butcher, and never carry one’s appetite beyond
a syllabub on thin bread and butter. Beyond a pecu-
liar, wild, wicked eye, there is not much to admire
in the head of an Alderney bull, and even the cows
lose much of their graceful character when bred away
from their native isle.

“In the Jersey scale of thirty-six points for a per-
fect cow or heifer, one each is allowed for the follow-
ing excellences: ‘Head small, fine, and tapering;
cheek small; throat clean; muzzle fine, and encircled
by a light color; nostrils high and open; horns
smooth, crumpled, not too thick at base, and taper-
ing; ears small and thin (one point), of a deep

16 AYRSHIRE HEAD.

orange color within (one point) ; eye full and placid.’
The eye of the bull must be lively, and his horn
tipped with black, but beyond these, the points are
much the same.

“Mr. M‘Combie again, speaking of course of his
much beloved black Polls, says: ‘A perfect breed-
ing or feeding animal should have a fine expression
of countenance; I could point it out, but it is difficult
to describe upon paper. It should be mild, serene,
and expressive. He should have a small, well-put-on
head, prominent eye, with a clean muzzle.’

“Let us,” says Mr. Corbet, “look to another kind
of Scotch cattle, and what would the West Highlander
be without his head? The butcher will say in
answer, ‘The very best beef’; but with his head
all his character is gone. There is a wild grandeur,
I had almost said majesty, about the head of the
Highlander, that should count up very fast in any
scale of his points, as perhaps no other animal shows
in this respect such insignia of nature’s nobility.
You may read of his Highland home in his clear,
bright eye, his magnificent horn, and his rough but
right royal coat.”

The Ayrshire head is not like any of these. In-
deed, in these descriptions the most perfect animals
have been figured, and not the animal typical of the
breed. If many of the Ayrshires hint of the High-
land, of which they may inherit something, it is a
hint only. Though doubtless something of their
unrest and assurance is only half-concealed in her
face, there is a cowy or milky look that comes of the

AYRSHIRE HEAD. 17

use for which she is reserved; there is the look of
domestication, but in general, of a domestication that
has not been carried to the highest pitch. It has not,
as in the Prince Albert Suffolk swine, quite subjected
her to its behests. Of course, the degree to which
this is carried varies in different families. The coun-
tenance should be serene, mild, and expressive, the
latter to be born of motherly instincts. The perfect
animal is being brought to this, but the majority of
the Ayrshires have an earnest liveliness of expres-
sion which is all their own, and which the portrait
artist must recognize.

In form, the head may be long, and of no great
comparative breadth, or it may be short, with consid-
erable breadth.

The short head has come from such breeding as
Theophilus Parton, of Swinley farm, pursued, and it
is known as Swinley stock. This stock differs from
the older stock in having a shorter head, with more
breadth across the eyes, more upright and spreading
horn, more hair, and that of a more mossy character,
and generally better constitution.’

The points for the head, given by the Ayrshire Ag-
ricultural Association in 1853: as indicating superior
quality, are as follows: “Head short, forehead wide ;
nose fine between the muzzle and the eyes; muzzle
moderately large ; eyes full and lively ; horns widely
set on, inclining upwards, and curving slightly in-
wards.”

2 Sandford Howard’s article in W. 8. Dept. an Nii 1863, p. 195.
3 Prize Essays High. and Ag. Soc. 1866-7, p. 106.

2*

18 CARRIAGE.

William Aiton, in the survey of Ayrshire, printed
at Glasgow in 1811, says the shapes most approved
of are, “Head small, but rather long and narrow at
the muzzle. The eyes small, but smart and lively.
The horns small, clear, crooked, and their roots at
considerable distance from each other.”

These aspects, and a compromise of them in vary-
ing degree, are found in the Ayrshire of to-day.

The carriage is what may be inferred from a study
of the head of the animal. Each motion is suggested
by a purpose entertained by her, and her walk is sel-
dom lagging; and if she pauses by the way-side, it is
but for a moment, to move on at a quicker pace.
There is little dilatoriness. Promptness is a char-
acteristic. Her walk is easy, hurried into a trot in
the early morning, and at night, if she expects to find
food in her manger, or to drink there. If you dis-
turb her at rest, in the pasture, she goes to feeding
again.

There is often too much motion for her to be grace-
ful. She steps precisely and long, but when grazing,
no animal can be more pleasing. Her shapes are so
carried as to offer small impediment to motion, and
it comes easier to her than to any other dairy breed in
our acquaintance that carries so much of the pasture
with them.

In the dairy breeds, and in most animals particu-
larly adapted to milk-giving, there is a tendency to-
wards accumulation of a larger part of the weight of
the animal in the rearmost half. In the Ayrshire, this
tendency is much developed, more so than in any

SCALE OF POINTS. 19

other breed whatsoever. As judged by a side view,
or from above, there is a certain wedge form. Al-
though in this breed the shoulders lie close, this wedge
shape is derived less from a deficiency forward than
from the large bulk of the carcass aft. This form
becomes more strongly marked with age, when the
animal has been abundantly supplied with food.
The yearling and two years’ old may have parallel
rather than diverging lines on the side view.

By referring to several descriptions or “ scales of
points” to which it has at various times been judged
that this brecd should conform, we may derive a tol-
erably clear idea of its present appearance.

It must, however, be borne in mind that the pos-
session of these points by an animal is exceptional
rather than common, but the study of them directs
us to what is typical of the breed. They are made
up not from diverse breeds, nor are they ideal, but
have existed either in conjunction in some exception-
ally fine animal of the breed, or have been observed
separately.

1853.4 1829.5 1811.6
Head. Short, forehead 8mall, long and 8ma)l, but rather
wide. narrow towards long and narrow
muzzle. at the muzzle.
Nose. Fine bet. the muz-
zle and eyes.
Muzzle. Moderately large.
Eyes. Full and lively. Not large, but Small, but smart
brisk and lively. and lively.
Horns. Wide set on, in- Small, clear, bent, Small, clear,

clining upwards,

and placed at a

crooked, and their

and curving slight- considerable dis- roots at consider-
ly inwards. tance from each able distance from
other. each other.
4 Prize Essays High and Ag. Soc. 1866-7, p. 106.
5 William Harley, Harleian Diary System, p. 106.
6 Aiton, Survey of Ayrshire. Glasgow, 1811. p. 426.

Sequence changed from the authorities, but substance given with exactness.

20

Neck.

Shoulders.
Brisket.
Forequarters

Hindquarters.
Back.

Spine.

Joints of Spine.
Short Ribs.
Body.

Pelvis.
Buttocks.

Alook Loins.

Thighs.
Tail.

Legs.

Milk Vessel.

T.ats.

SCALE OF POINTS.

Long and straight
from the head to
the tip of the
shoulder; free
frum loose skin on
the under side, fine
atitea junction with
the head, and the
muscles symmet-
rically enlarging
towards the shoul-
ders.

Thin at the top.
Light.

The whole fore-
uarters thin in
ront, and gra tu-

ally increasing in

depth and tbick-
ness backward.

Short and straight.

Well defined, es-
pecially at shoul-
ders.

Arched.
Deep at the flanks.

Long, broad, and
straight.

Wide apart, and
not much overlaid
with fat.

Deep and broad.
Long and slender,
and set on level
with the back.
Short, the bones
fine. and the joints
tirm.

Capacious, and ex-
tendiny well for-
ward, hinder part
broad. and firmly
attached to the
body; the sole or
under surface
nearly level.
From two to two
and a half inches
in length, equal
in thickness, and
hanging perpen-
dicularly; their
distance apart at
the sides should
be equal to about
one third of the
length of the ves-
sel, and across to
about one half of
the breadth,

Slender and long,
tapering towards
the head, and a
little loose skin be-
low.

Thin.
Light

T.arge and broad.
Straight.

Black and open.

Carcass deep in
the rib.

Small and long,
reaching to the
heels.

Small and short,
with firm joints.

Capacious,stretch-
ing forward,
square, but a little
oblong, not low
hung, thin sKin’d.

Small, pointing
outward, and ata
considerable dis.
tance from each
other.

Long and slender,
tapering towards
the head, with no
luose skin below.

Thin.
Light.

Large.
Straight,
behind

broad

Rather loose and
open.

Carcass deep.

Capacious and
wide over hips.
Round and fleshy.

Long and small.

Small and short,
with firm joints.

Capacious,stretch-
ing forward, broad
and square, nei-
ther ne low
hung, nor loose.

Short, all pointing
outward, and at
a considerable dis-
tance from each
other.

Milk Veins.

UDDER.

Well developed.

Capacious and
rominent.

21

Large and promi-
nent.

Skin. Soft and elastic, ouse, thin, and Thin and loose.
soft like a glove.

Hair. Soft, close, woolly. Sue soft, and Soft and woolly.
woo .

Figure. Handeonie and Compact and well
well proportioned. proportioned.

Temper. Quiet and docile.

Color. Preferred ‘ brown,

or brown and
white, the colors
being distinctly
defined.

In nothing does the Ayrshire cow show breeding
more than in the milk-vessel or udder. Nowhere,
we are tempted to say, can the art of breeding show
a greater triumph. Not that all Ayrshires have per-
fection of form in udder, yet very many approach it.
The more skilfully bred indicate the fact here more
broadly than in any other particular. We find here
oftentimes the stamp of the insignia of art when
there is much of naturalness in the surrounding parts.
Here is found the index by which the breeder can, in
a& measure, gauge the degree of removal from the
primitive state.

The udder has been the point towards which the
search after quality has been directed by the careful
Scotchman for a long period of time. Although it
differs in outward shape in individuals, it yet retains
a certain uniformity which may be considered typical.
This is in the gland and the teat. The glands are
rather flatteved, than pointed as in the Alderney, or
elongated as in the Dutch. These are well held up
to the body, and, in the types of the breed, extend
far forward and back, with a broad and level sole.
The teats are small, and of a cylindrical shape rather
than cone-shaped, as seen in the Alderney and other

22 COLOR.

breeds. This udder is admirably fitted, by its elas-
ticity, for the storage of milk, and when the glands
are at rest, occupies but a small space. The eye,
accustomed to seeing the pendent fleshy udder so
often met with in dairy cows, is apt to underrate, in
comparison, the capacity of the small bag of this
breed, with its wrinkled and folded covering, so de-
ceptive to the unskilled, so full of promise of deeds
of worth to the educated observer. Fill out these
wrinkles and expand these folds, and the lusty calf
may well forget his greed at the sight of the stores
at his disposal.

The Scotch having been less intent to secure a par-
ticular color than quality in their herds, although
exercising some taste in the matter, their cattle, as
do those of the Channel Isles, offer much variety to
the eye. There are among them no such mixtures
as red and white, so mixed as to be a roan, or black
and white thus disposed. It is rare for one color to
mingle with another; the line of separation being
generally distinct.

Of 236 animals imported into the United States,
about 70 per cent are described as red, or red and
white. Of 2,852 animals in the United States whose
colors are given, about 78 per cent are called red, or
red and white.

The following table,’ although the descriptions of
color may not be strictly accurate, as there is prob-
ably little preciseness in recording shades, may be
of interest : —

7 Am. and Can. A.H.B.

COLOR. 23

Described as Number of Animals, Percentage
Red, or mostly red.......c.ccceeseseeceesceers «+ 222 7.78
Red and white................00 70.61
Brown, or mostly DrOWD......... cece eeceeeeee 1.64
Brown and white................ fre eeee anes tas 8.45
Mostly black ?
Black and white ?

9

84

2

70

59

6.80

66

?

2

Spotted, flecked, etc. etc. ..... ce cece eee eeeee 40 1.40

Were all the animals here recorded known to be,
without question, of the pure breed, the occurrence of
the few anomalous colors would open a discussion of
great interest. Of the imported animals, in but few
do anomalous colors occur; one is described as bay
and white, and two as brindled.

We have never seen one all white; to find one
seven eighths white, with red or brown ears and cheeks,
is not very rare. Black, or black and white, occur,
but are not common. Some may be brindled in part,
as black and brown mixed. Although this is the re-
sult of our own obsevations in Ayrshire, yet it may
be well to quote from a letter of Robert Wilson, a
most intelligent man and successful breeder. “Colors
of Ayrshires are much the same since I can remem-
ber; different breeders have their particular color.
Light yellow, though common with some breeders,
is not the most common color. Red and white
flecked, though it should incline a little to yellowish

24 MEAT.

or brown, is more a prevailing color of the breed... .
White, if there be not roan mixed with it, I do not
consider a proof of the presence of short-horn blood.
Our favorite colors are white flecked, or red bodies
and white legs. Dark reds and black muzzles are
favorites also. This color is considered the hardiest,
though I incline to think there is somewhat of a
cross in it. Ayrshires are not disqualified as prize-
takers on account of color.”

In Ayrshire, the design all along has been to dis-
courage the growth of those points which, though
perhaps useful in the animal reared for meat, have
no use in the dairy animal. That she yields much
milk, and that she yields it without extravagance of
food, is the end sought. Everything in the economy
of the animal must be subsidiary to this; and if any
one can point out in her figure a pound of flesh that
is not tributary to this purpose, or if there is need-
less weight of bone, then it will fall to the breeder
to lop it off. It is a characteristic of the Ayrshire that
she carries her weight only, and lives only, to serve
dairy interests with the utmost utilization of food.

But her service in this direction does not preclude
her from taking on flesh rapidly when not in milk,
and fed well, nor does it preclude the meat being
of the best quality. Though she does not afford the
butcher meat in as economically-shaped pieces as the
Short-horn, so like a brick, in form of carcass, it is
equally as good, if not superior. In the Ayrshire,
the fat is mixed with the lean, evenly and in thin
streaks. When fed for the butcher, then all her

MILK. 25

energies are directed to meet his demands, the food
that has hitherto gone to milk being directed to an
equalization of flesh over the whole animal. The
aged beast thus fattens readily and economically, and
furnishes a flesh of a juicy texture and high quality.

The Ayrshire cow is a renowned milker through
inheritance ; yet the Scotch have a saying, taught
by experience, that “the cow gives her milk by the
mou’.” It is a fancy of the sculptor that the figure
he is about to cut already exists in the marble, and it
is his work only to expose it to view. So may we,
employing our fancy, see milk lying concealed in the
grasses, which the cow has but to lap in order to fill
the pail.

The food, and the machine for the conversion of
food into milk, are the two elements that, united in
a happy manner in one harmonious design, make the
production of milk a commonplace affair. But who
shall raise it from the commonplace by exposing the
secret springs of action, and prying into the conceal-
ments of nature?

The question of milk, however, deserves a chapter
of itself, where it can be treated in a manner com-
mensurate with its importance.

26 MILK YIELD.

THE AYRSHIRE AS A MILKING ANIMAL.

Tuat the Ayrshire cow is a large milker there can
be little doubt, as the fact is supported by universal
testimony. Yet it may be well to present those state-
ments of yields which we have collected.

Ro. Forsyth,’ writing before 1807, says that
“twelve of these small cows will yield for four or
five months in succession 120 Scotch pints of milk
each day.” As the Scotch pint is 1034, cubic inches,
this would be nearly 18 quarts per cow.

Aiton,’ writing in 1811, says that some of the
dairy cows in Ayrshire may yield for a time from
12 to 14 Scotch pints (21} to 25 wine quarts) per
day, but such returns are rare. Many of them will,
when in their best plight, and duly fed, yield at the
rate of 10 Scotch pints (about 18 quarts) of milk per
day for two or three months, probably about 6 pints
(10} quarts) for other three months, and say 3 pints
(54 quarts) for four months more, making in all dur-
ing the season about 1,700 or 1,800 pints (3,046 to
3,225 quarts). Many cows, however, will not yield
more than the half of that quantity. Probably 1,200
Scotch pints (2,148 quarts) of milk from each cow
in the course of the year, may be about a fair averaze

1 Beauties of Scotland, ili, 8. 2 Aiton’s Survey of Ayrshire, p. 464.

MILE YJELD. 27

of the Ayrshire dairy stock. He had heard of 16
or 18 pints (284 to 32 quarts) being taken from a
cow every day, but had never seen so much.’

In 1829 William Harley states “as the average for
the Harleian dairy, 12 quarts per day.” This is
4,380 quarts a year. It will be remembered, how-
ever, that in this dairy the cattle were kept in very
high condition, and were continually being turned for
the butcher; and these high figures do not represent
the average for a cow, but only for the average num-
ber kept during the year. Mr. Harley bought one
very large fine cow at a high price. This cow gave
tor a considerable time 40 quarts a day. He hada
number of other very fine cows which, when newly
calved and highly fed, produced from 25 to 30 quarts
per day.*

Dr. Voelcker,’ of England, writing in 1863, men-
tions a cow bought by the Duke of Athol from Mr.
Wallace, Kirklandholm, and probably in his Grace’s
dairy at Dunkeld House at the present time, that pro-
duced 13,456 pounds (6,258 quarts) of milk from
the 11th of April, 1860, to the 11th of April,
1861.°

In Morton’s Farmer’s Almanack for 1866, the
average annual yield per cow in five known dairies
is given at 4,992 pints, but which is stated to be
above the average of ordinary grass-fed cows.’

Aiton’s Survey of Ayrshire, p. 428.
Harleian Dairy System, pp 87 and 108.
Jour. of R. A 8. of Eng. 1863, p. 308,
Journ. R. A.S. of Eng. 1863, p. 3u8.
Quoted in Pr. Essays H. Soc. 1860-7, p. 78

28 MILK YIELD.

In Mr. Buttery’s dairy of thirty cows, at Calder
Bank, the average annual produce is 2,941 wine
quarts per cow.

At the competition between milch cows at the show
of the Ayrshire Agricultural Society, the average
milk yield for four milkings was 49! pounds a day,

as follows’ : —
Weight of 4 Milkings

OWNER. during 2 days. Per day. Per milking.
Archibald Wilson.... 96 lbs. 14 oz. 48 lbs. 7 oz. 24 lbs. 34 oz.
James Henilrie....... 5) gee an 48 § 10 ‘ DEAR 25S
William Reid........ Gates ae, ee | eee © 20. gi $8

Wh. week wee 109 “ 6 * 54 6° a 2E SE Be:
R. Wallace........... it’ 3 ay © die 29 "* By *
GOL, scsi veSunys a * 1* 47“ 4“ 23 ‘* 84 ‘

Archibald Sturrock, in 1866, estimates the aver-
age yield for all the cows at about 3,400 imperial
pints from each cow per annum, and apologizes for
his low estimate by complaining of the want of house
feeding by so many, and the great neglect of the cows
in winter."® 3,400 imperial pints is 2,040 wine quarts.

To complete the records of yield in Scotland, we
will quote from statements made us, either in person
or by letter, from Scotch breeders.

Robert Wilson, of Kilbarchan, writes, “I have
known cows in our own stock to give as much as 28
and 32 quarts each, daily, but such are exceptional
cases.”

At Kilmarnock, in 1869, we found the universal
testimony was from 12 to 16 quarts daily, from the
hest cows.

8 Mayne’s How to Choose a Milch Cow, p. 136.
9 Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette, Apr. 8, 1865.
10 Prize Essays H. Suc. 1866-7, p. 73.

MILK YIELD. 29

Mr. Ormsby, near Ayr, states the average yield of
good cows, for three months in succession, as from
7 to 8 pints at a milking; that is, 14 to 16 quarts
daily.

Mr. Robert McKeen, of Bishopbriggs, near Glas-
gow, had, in 1869, a herd of 36 very superior-looking
animals. He gave their yield as 214 quarts for three
months. He was a high feeder, and his nearness
to the breweries of Glasgow gave him the privi-
lege of obtaining brewery draff, which, it is needless
to say, was abundantly availed of.

Professor Wilson, in his report on the Danish Ex-
hibition, says, “Two dairies of Ayrshire cows gave
the annual milk product per cow at 2,600 quarts and
2,528 quarts respectively.” 4

In America we can hardly expect as large an annual
return in milk as obtains in Scotland, on account of the
greater dryness of our climate, and the absence of that
succulency of food, during the summer heats, which
is so desirable. Yet on account of the care exercised
towards cows so highly valued, we have instances of
excellent yields for the year, and in the yields for a
limited period oftentimes statements so remarkable
for their excess as to call for further verifica-
tion. We, however, give our authorities in each
instance.

Of the four cows imported by Mr. Cushing in 1837,
we have the following memoranda of their yields
commencing in that year.!?

11 Trans. N.Y. Ag. Soc. 1869, p». 666,
12 Farmers’ Library, iii, 305.

30 MILK YIELD.

FLORA. JUNO.
From May 17 toJune1.. 608 Ibs. | From May 23 to June1.. 243 lbs.

D402 ** | Te Ditties eniane seo 096: **
1,064 “* |In July ........ daar 145)
S41 | To AUeWStiessieswes ese 600 ‘*
In September......... -- 718 ‘© | In September.... ...... 475 **
In October o..cecceceees 489 “ | In October..... ........ 313 ‘
In November .........-- 409 ‘© | In November..... .... 340 ‘
In December............ 432 “ | In December....... icnee OOE*
In January, 1838..... «.. 442" | In January, 1838........ 401 “
In February......... ..- 888 “ | In February............
In March... 484 ** | In March............06-
Ti APtil. cic meeserccees 419 ‘© | In April............00-
20 days in May.........+ 242“ | 7 days in May
Totals. vaswwvaveaeseve’ 7,728 Total.....-seseeeeeeees
VENUS. CORA,
From June 20 to July1. 2831bs. | From Nov. 17 to Dec. 1.. 388 Ibs.
TODULY. se sixaaieemessay 805 ‘* | InDecember............ 834 **
In August.... ...... ... 693 | InJanuary, 1838.... ... 846 “
In September......... .. 567 “ | In February............ 776 “
In October.......0.0055 493 ‘* | In March......... +» 704“
In November........ ... 819% | In April ......... «+. 670 “
In December........... 403 “ | 21 days in May..... severe 405 “
tat sFaniinys Stenson OG | etal atid sey csuakiay 4,623“
In February........... 4 gol"
In March....
Tn April vise eireaecewnnes

Mr. F. H. Appleton, of West Peabody, Mass., gives
the yield of three of his cows for the year commen-
cing August 26, 1871, and ending August 25, 1872,
at 8,159} Ibs., 7,7283 lbs., and 5,2774 lbs. respec-
tively.

The farm year of Mr. E. T. Miles, of Fitchburg,
Mass., commences on the Ist of July, and we tran-
scribe the records of Maplewood Farm in full."4

13 Trans. of Eetex Co. Ag. Soc 1872, p. 74.
14 Milk Record of Maplewood Herd (Ay rshire), Bitebbines July 1, 1872, also,
do. 1873. Also, MS. communication from Mr. Miles

MAPLEWOOD MILK RECORD. 31

| By. | No. days in milk. Yield of milk in lbs.
bo 4S
emt Sa 1S ob ua S a a 3
ee $Bi EF Ff EY EF |r Ye |e
mst] Ble | a || a |a |) a |e
| ae @2@,o!ln),a a ° = a
deen) dea pee Seay el | Qe Sa Sa OS
1 | il | t
Miller, 2a... .!13 ! 1,110 284 279 288 282|/6,5883 4,797 5,692 58,7645
Beauty .....!11! 985 315 365 298 317||8,011 7.9223 7,5554 7,3043
Emma... .../11' 2,070 284 307 280 247|/5,831 5,950 4,248) 4.4605
Daisy ......! 11 | 1,125 321 278 263 327//6,953 5,951 :5,6113 6,095}
Daisy ......{]10]| 1,028 313 304 302 308//6,618 6,195} 6,300} 6,526}
Myrtle, lst .../ 5 | 995 265 267 288 297//4,819 5,9503 7,017 | 7,267
Cleopatra. ...{ 5 | 1,085 301 309 324 2941/5,178 |6,021} 5,7644 6,9823
Maud Muller ../ 5 | 1,200 ../.. | else. 5,493 |5,8805
Lady Burns. ..} 5/ 1,073 163 307 3, 11024 47852, 5,331}
Ellen Douglas. .| 4 818 .. | 166 281 5,3135 4,9165
Myrtle,2d....) 3 OTe! se a . « . 2,323 5,806
Lady Sampson. .| 2 800 gic | . . oo « ,4,679%
Lady Burns, Ist.| 2 ne 4 a 4,559
Vallonia bea nsed| Us APD ie es lhc ae hae é 4,146}
Gracie... ..../ 2! 8%.. ee 38,3655

SUMMARY FOR TNE ENTIRE HERD.

Year. No.of cows. Av. milk season. Milk per cowin Ibs. In qts.
1869 and’70..... 7 300 days. 6,292 Ibs. 2,926 qts.
1870 “ (71. 2.6 6 ~ 8% 303“ 6,017 << 2,798 **
1871 * 772... . «105 286 “« 5,730 2,665 ‘
1872 ‘73. ....15 283 5,539 ** 2,530 **

Average .. . .10} cows. 293 days. 5,821 lbs. 2,707 qts.

After the above was in press, we received the yield
of this herd for the year 1873-4 : —

Days in Milk. Yield. lbs. Quarts.

Miller, 2d 2... ee eevee 256 4,8483 2,255
Beauty. . 6. es ee eee 322 71,8375 3,655
Emma... scores eseve 290 6,109 2,841
Daisy .. 22 e eee eves 300 7,0864 3,296
DAISY) a ce co Ste 6s 6 oh ve we ete 301 7,358 5 3,422
Myrtle, Ist. 2... ee eee 323 7, 7024 3,582
Cleopatra ...+eeeceee 259 5,6534 2,629
Maud Muller. ....-e+es 215 38,6224 1,685
Lady Burns .....-+se-6 300 5,8825 2,736
Ellen Douglas .....-. ee

Myrtle. 2d... wa wee 238 4,3443 2,021
Lady Sampson... eee 21 3,926 1,826
Lady Burns, lst... . 2. 284 4,3843 2,039
Vallonia . . see eee eee 291 38,2163 1,496
Gracie . 6 we ee ee ee we 295 4,660} 2,167

14Cows... . Average 280 5,475 2,500
Average per cow for five years, 2,642 quarts.

We have now given all the annual yields in our
possession, excepting those of the Ayrshires of
Waushakum Herd, for which records, on account

32 MILK YIELD.

of their completeness, we reserve a separate para-
graph. We will now proceed to give the records
of milkings for a period of time less than the year’s
yield.

First in order comes Ayrshire Lass and Red Rose,
whose owner, Mr. James Brodie, presents at the
New York Fair, and takes oath to the record whose
summary we give.

Ayrshire Lass. 11 years old; calved April 1,
1861. June 10 gave 74 pounds of milk. Com-
menced August with 66 pounds, and closed with 55
pounds; total for the month, 1,902 pounds. Sep-
tember 1, 55} pounds; September 16, 51 pounds;
first sixteen days of September, 844 pounds.

fied Rose. 8 years old; calved May 20, 1861.
June 10 gave 84 pounds of milk. Commenced
August with 74 pounds and closed with 63 pounds.
Total for the month 2,168 pounds. September 1, 62
pounds; September 14, 50 pounds; first fourteen
days of September, 7884 pounds.

Mr. H. H. Peters, in his catalogue for 1865, gives
the yield of his cows, Corslet and Jean Armour, as
follows : —

Corslet averaged from May 2 to September 1, 21%
quarts of milk per day. The greatest yield was 26
quarts.

Jean Armour, in 1862, gave an average of 49
pounds 3 ounces of milk per day for 114 days, com-
mencing June 1. Greatest yield, 58 pounds a day ;

16 Trans. New York Ag. Soc. 1861, p. 125.

MILK YIELD. 33

least yield, 43 pounds. For the month of July she
averaged 51 pounds 13 ounces per day.

One of our neighbors, Mr. Isaac Felch, allows us
to take from his book the following record of the
yield of his cow Mary, eight years old. She dropped
a calf December 2, 1870, and was purchased by him
April 19, 1871.

Week ending May 6, 1871 . , 98 qts. | Week ending July 8, 1871 . . 112 qts.
‘ ‘ “ ‘

a “ « 14, 4 é4 100 4 “ “ 15, ‘ ‘< 105 oe
o ci) “ 21, “ ey es 105 « “a ae “o 22, “ sid 105 “
ct o ae 28, a ‘ec ha 119 “ o “ a 29, «a ae 105 ow
es «June 3, “* ,.123 | “Aug. 6 “ ..100 #
oe Lis ity 10, “se 5 2s 126 ac “a its ae 13, a“ — 98 “
a“ “ “ss 17, a“ faye 123 . “ a “6 20, iis Po 10 a
oe “ “ 24, “or « ~119 a o. “ “a 27, “ ar 63 as
“ “July 1,“ ..li9 « | « “ « 30,3d’ye.. 31 4

Total, 122 days, commencing 149 days from calving, 1,821 quarts.

Mr. Felch milks himself, and records the measure
in his note-book at the time. The cow was in avery
fat condition, as Mr. Felch is not only an extremely
liberal feeder, but a very careful one.

Mr. Charles Shepherd, of Ogdensburg, N. Y.,
writes us that he weighed the milk of several of his
cows in July, 1869, and it would run from 42 to 50
pounds daily.

Messrs. S. M. & D. Wells, of Wethersfield, Conn.,
writes that the yield of one of their cows in April
is 54 pounds per day. Last week, 50 pounds; week
before, 49 pounds.

Mr. J. C. Rutherford, of Waddington, N. Y.,
writes that in 1870 the average of milk per cow
from May 1 to October 1, five months, was 38}

pounds, on grass alone.
3

34 MILK RECORD.

Mr. B. Harrington, of Worcester, Mass., writes
us as the average of seven cows, 183 quarts a day,
and 168 quarts for four months.

Mr. Luke Sweetser, of Amherst, Mass., writes us
that one of his cows, weighing but 860 pounds, six
years old, gave 300 pounds of milk in seven days,
and that his cows have ranged from 30 to 50 pounds
a day.

Mr. J. D. W. French, of North Andover, Mass.,
writes us that his cow Dolly gave 2,471 pounds
of milk from June 18, 1871, to Sept. 4, 1871, when
the record was interrupted by the sending of the cow
to the Fairs.

Mr. A. P. Ball, of Stanstead, P. Q , writes us that
his yield is 16 quarts in summer and 8 quarts per
cow now (October).

Mr. Thomas Miller, of Delaware Co., N. Y., writes
us that one of his cows, thirteen days from calving,
was giving 55 pounds daily, while another in June
averaged 24 quarts.

Mr. J. C. Converse, of Jefferson Co., N. Y.,
writes that one of his cows, as a two-year old, gave
40 pounds daily, and as a cow, was giving 55 pounds
daily in June, and in July, 1871, 45 pounds on
pasture.

In 1873 Gen. S. D. Hungerford, of Adams, Jef-
ferson County, N. Y., exhibited at the New York
State Fair at Albany an Ayrshire’® cow known as
Old Creamer, whose yield of milk has never to our
knowledge been surpassed.

16 Thia account taken from a card appended to her photograph, sent us by
General H. She is probably seven eighths Ayrshire.

CHAMPION COW. 35

Old Creamer is nine years old, and weighs 1,080
pounds. In three days she yielded the enormous
quantity of 302 pounds of milk, as follows: June 11,
1004 pounds; June 12, 100 pounds; June 13, 1013
pounds. She gave 2,820 pounds of milk in the
month of June, an average of over 94 pounds per
day ; 2,4834 pounds in the month of July, an aver-
age of over 80 pounds per day.

This cow attracted so much attention at the Fair
from the statements of Gen. Hungerford, her adimir-
able form, and evident great capacity for milk-giving,
that we annex the following measurements, which we
believe will prove of value and interest.

These measurements were taken at noon, Sep-
tember 25, 1873, when she was receiving pails of
“slop” every few hours, and was said to be milking
25 pounds three times daily : —

Length of head...........0. scenes sceceececceceeee 19% inches,
Breadth between eyes ........... cc eceeeeeeeeceee 8 tf
Distance around muzzle........cccee eee eee ceeee 18 =
From base of horn to shoulder.........ee0+8 2, ©
From shoulder along spine, to hip....... srapiemnen ode, |
From hip to tail insertion ...............5- -10 = *
Hip points, apart..........csceceseeeee eee 20 «=
Hip point to hook bone.............eeeeeee - 20 se
Depth of flank 223 =
Girth <c<s cece ‘ oeaa Tbe) SE
Girth about belly, largest part........-.0-scseeees 96, *
Udder oval, broad, extending very far back. Skin

loose upwards, and hanging in folds from the

vulva.
Milk veins large, equal on éither side.
Length of udder ivaioversiéreetenaie LB. ss
Depth of udder, gland portion. ....... ayer aeereren ate 20 ss

Distance along gland from front tu rear........... 293
Circumference.....

CO ery

36 MILK RECORD.

Escutcheon 44 inches broad just beneath vulva,
and correspondingly extensive.

Mirrors large.

Disposition very quiet.

Joints of vertebre loose and open.

Skin medium thick, soft, and easily lifted.

The milk record of Waushakum Farm has now
been kept fora number of years under the same sys-
tem, and we present it with the more confidence as
we are personally cognizant of the general correct-
ness of the facts set forth. Commencing with the
most carefully-selected native cattle, so called, but
for the most part unknown grades, we gradually
worked into an Ayrshire-breeding herd, as our trials
thoroughly convinced us of their worth. In the fol-
lowing tables are given the results for each cow for
each month of her milking, considering only those
animals which were kept throughout the farm year,
and counting the heifers as cows from the time they
came into milk.

37

WAUSHAKUM MILK RECORD.

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G19'F ee eo ee ce?

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O8L'T 01g aby Oo ie vie ae ii 06 Cte | E96 | 9GE | OST

cor'g 9Ib | ote | O19 | FIG | 009 | E99 | O8L | BOB | ETL | LBL | Leg ie

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GLE'O eb | LLE | Sub | sch | StS | UTD | soy | 9FO | Gog | TIS | Y8p | gee 8
998'¢ GFY | O89 | GSO | TE OO€ | 688 | Tus | 489 | FLb | lg | Bue | 609 9
g02LT v0 Be cee ae tee as ann 17 lee | Lop | Gop | ORF g
cenit wins ae rae a one cel 1% ele | Gte | Loe | ete 7
889'T see see iin aus see ee IZ soe | eb | cee | FOP froete eect gon,
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LLYY Lob | £69 gh | 808 FIG | G08 | € LP GEZ [tt sowyeqpvey T
YLF9 61g | LOL 176 | 926 TE9 Sai & lb GIB pots eojang T
LG'S Ste | 0G9 8fB | £E6 666 :< ak T GFE [orcree eee st AA
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“£981

WAUSHAKUM MILK RECORD.

38

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SLT | 9836'S raL | 9 Sag ae me are 9S9E | GUE | CBE | GIS | SHE “**"dRULPOO AA
"7" | 919'p 906 | GLE | 186 | F8S | SEE | G9E | GOT | SOP | 6GF | GOP | YER [oo tots aHqqeypReT T
96 | $99'p ee ae e6l | Fs | Lob | FOG | €O8 | TFS | OGG | FIG | BBG Jove cts ts oAyaNg T
TFL | £Ts'¢ 666 | &lb | 86g | gus vin oe = si L9G | VRE | TRE po TTA
ha
ofp uy POL ‘ood | ‘AON | ‘12920 | Ydog | suv | ‘Arne | tounge | sAepy | pady | cavyy | *qoq | ‘uve “SM0OD JO SARYN
*SOSsT

39

WAUSHAKUM MILK RECORD.

‘BOAIVLU Poy[eVo-o8 year { sortgsidy ino} ‘sfasior¢ OAT, — ‘gq ‘N

GL | GLUED [eter ttt teeter teeter tenet eter eee eeee teense ee Ferree OBL AY
8¢ 8le'F T8¢ T #6 8h 996 | OFF Lop | OLF Lop Log | €19 86h
19 | 69'S cee ea, e9T L&G 816 GIE | GUE | GGP 8hP SSP 89F 2g ;
eg ILUP 96Gb | GES 108 29¢ ae 66 TS GoP Gcg | 96h | Sz9 » elumor
SG BLYE GLE $86 | O€F | CLG $69 | 88h ia ore LPT 82B | OG [tT aaryssdy ‘osoy
Sol | oFu's TG FSS LIb | G22 | €6F ggg ST Mace TP ell POE ‘hosie ‘PS 4009999 [ OT
GOL) GPT | "| TL | ot | 9F% | 682 | LET | LIZ | 69% wrt pores Pores fesess Aopsae ‘Aue
9 8669 G6E | OFF lrg | 0Gh | 9€8 006 | 000'T} 22 F61 QTé LOB fore doryza AA
OL LIG'y O86 | Sch | 199 | €69 | €69 LEB | FEL ae £06 | €S2 Lie | **Quowdo A
GOT | ZFS age aay pay tL C61 TLE OLE | 98F Per | och | ele |° cesses: Ae
“t* 1 68°99 GES OLE | LOF 809 L1g | ose | 809 19 och 0¢L oe 1? "** WORRIED
CIT | L0a'¢ eg | OOF | 8OF Ltg 96 ca tax g LIZ SG | 888 | oe ae WIR oT
#9 | 008'F ele SIF | OL¢ 199 | 90L | Cat nae as HEE 108 GSIp [ort e: ourysny
GIT | 109 90L 902 806 pS aan ree? 861 FEE ese | OT€ ib |* siarente 3
09 L195 $89 €Gb acy Lg c6T | €98 80F | Str OLb | OOF | GEO |" 9 "ON
GL Pela 6 STL G0Z | GIé OF | 689 | £99 GOL ¥68 | ShE wee fe ‘b ON
cP OSL'b €68 | 960 | OFS RPE | EG LeY | OFL C68 06 SPT | ee |* "7" poomMiepu yy)
eg 062'E we las CFL | 9&% ING | hb | OSh | CEP $Ip | O88 | C8 T° verre 1OAIeS) G
OLT | GIL'é hae = in TOL | €€% | GO9 | 029 | OS9 ue IP ard verses Ugg
"* 1 OBT'P 6E¢ Lee | GLE | GOR | SIZ | LES cle Wt 968 | GEE TGb < ** MODIM.
“| Tero TS $96 | 909 $62 | OFF 0€9 199 OGL qal TOL LIE seers gajangd T
skip| ‘aay |
sup ul ‘o0q | ‘Aon’ | 990 | “3dog | “dny | syne | oune | ‘Avupy | ypidw] carey | sqaq | une "BMOOD JO SAWYN
‘ON | 19107,

‘SGNNOd NI ‘HINOW HOVE MTIN JO LHOIDM

‘698T

WAUSHAKUM MILK RECORD.

40

‘erpqsid vy useq sBq HI0}s INO [[v Awad syq} Jo aso[o oY} MOI ‘Aapyay B pz eyauar ‘saapqei hy year OY} ‘saAyjeU OA, —'g 'N

song seeteees QSUIOAW :) ORR CLL

op'g | Teb | 226 | seg | seg | Ton | 299 | Tek | GTB | eLb | GB fl fT YTD Bees
gg0'e | 188 | LK | Teh | cep | ogg | 499 | GOs | fp pte ptt pertrss ay BaOW
QLUL | Soh | 82h | 262 | 229 | $89 | OLL | 288 | O9OT| 890'T| Og | *** 1 “BL0ZO
06'9 | SBE | BGS | ALE | Bce | wud | GOD | SPL | AUR | yes | OVS | 7*" » “eupal
9698 | GU | FO9 | LeEL | BSL | 608 | GB | B96 | I6O'T] EFO'T| COLT) SPT nv , “aaand
poy | 168 | sob | Bo | BIO | Hey | STL | 208 | 9G | G8B | Ges | °° oy RTS
cIv'g | GEE | LOE | OFF | sag | ssa | coo | G49 | AGL | OFL | GE8 | OL » Souutay
she'o | UE | Gob | 96Gb | Feg | G6F | 299 | FEL | 88 | GOB | HOY | *T" » —‘sdO
sig'y | **" | 905 | Sb | tee | 89 | YE | OTE | TOT] ATT'T) 864 fo | re TT a AUWL
gos'9 | gee | too | tet | zzz | ove | cob | cog | 209 | te9 | sez | 999 | E18 |77 7; aw ‘Auue

sive | ope | oes | sep | opr [°° | ot | TAT | 1a | Os | Quo | os | STS |777:AhV ‘De (Auuoe
feeg | Toh | eG | ee | Tes | eee | Woh | OO | Gud | GBI | Tea | OI | GWT Pr Te Auuer
roe'b «| Heb | 6H | IGS | Toy | ob | Tes | os | * |) | Th | GbE | Oe tires y ‘aso
Fe9'F =| YOS | YOO | HL | OBY | *** | SE | 89B | GLE | GOR | 00G | LOP | 96h teres sdoayiur ay
yor, Joo | goo | geo | 66g | 119 | FEL | O00'T| TEO'T| GAVT] L9G | LOR [riiriirrttt tT Aver
ash | *** | Th | 960 | ope | Oe | oe | S6E | 8b | Teg | GL | BOR | OTS |rr""! es urE
gore | LL | 6 | Ste | Gzb | 68h | 86h | Teo | 419° | G9 | RIL | UPS | OOG [ri *** “8° 9 ON
coy'o | OFS | Ble | GLE | Geb | GOI | GIF | BF9 | BG. | 468 | GG | LTO | Po POON
Gf wine soaq | ‘aon | 300 | gydag | ‘Say | -A[ng jaune | Avy | cady | aU | Q9e | “4uer “8M00 40 SANVN

41

MILK RECORD.

M

WAUSHAKU:

‘soaqeiS V ITV — ‘aN

69 120'¢ Pe ey . aoe sale etal Oeaaieie eases Nise cilg OBIGA WT FL’ * [eqoy,
LOT | 62t'9 eee Tt s6g | €FS | FPO | SFO | BBL | 196 | 986 | OSE | -*° PIT fost tts Aomurayy,
“** | 0go'¢ €8 80% | Sle | 68E | LIE | OFD | GBF | 949 | 999 | 199 | GLH | BFE | :

LOT | $98'9 LTQ | ORF | &Z9 | 9% 68 | 606 | O86 | T8E | °°" aes 8 see |°

FOL | 6E9'S 826 | 99% | 9GE | fh | Te9 | GOL | 9I9 | **° cy pti Oot | 08% |"

6I | ZLT'9 e2¢ | Le | Gob | GIG | Bed | EF9 | STO | 689 | 80L | ZEB | T9s | SIs

LL | $GF'¢ eco | LL | ch |G ake EG | ABH | Eo@ | LYQ | 699 | OLG | LED |”

“** | LET'G 60E | B2E | VOb | Sch | Gob | Cob | Feb | OSH | 6S | Sed | OLb | FSP |°

68 | esTt 6g OOT | 9b | FO2 | BBQ | SLI | GAD | BIL | **° ae 88 ie |

GZT | O8L'e eee ue eo ger | Tsf | e8h | Of9 | O84 | S8L | OLE | GEG | Bab [Tt ATUL
€8 | 6PI'e 0146 | ZtE | BIG | G4b | YSe | 16G | 264 | 6t6 | 802 vas eky SPT poorest eres: Bupa
9 | SEL | OFF | coo | Too | #9 | T99 | 2og | 2b2 | O86 | E96 | zZ9 | He | FRE |: ify jo waend
88 | 2909 OIg | 929 | GIL | 499 | FOL | GIL | FOF | °° pee TIT | 866 | o9e |° veesesBuaTag
€2 | 8021's 69 OIL | £¢ GFE | I8t | 60G | 29% | 066 | Lee | GOP | GcE | cee |° “* pz ‘Auuee
98 | 6890's LOT | 9S | L6G | O7E | Eee | QE | LEP | GOS | B69 | Tlp |} °°" me oa vores" BIR69 P
ha

atep at) etn ‘aad | “AON | 190 | “adag | ‘any | ‘Ajog |oune | Ae | tady| ‘asp | ‘qog | ‘uve ‘8400 JO SARVN
‘on :

‘SGNNOd NI ‘HINON HOVS MTIN TO LHDIGM

"TL8T

3*

WAUSHAKUM MILK RECORD.

42

sorqehy UY — "aN

cg 1'0‘9 Cn i eo beeen cereeesere eee ORRIIAY errr ttt '* [eon
. eed aes ashe ds Apert
g6 | ozb'L | 129 | F09 | FEL | 006 | LLL | FEB | 9EO'T og f° SFUTTAL

“+ | org'g | Tob | 6b | 8I9 | ey | GYG | OSY | 69F Tg | 169 | eg "Wondered 30 lepoW
6T | 2cr'L | 209 | P69 | Les | 6ge | 28 | Sos | OIT TLp | Sep | obs [iit anon
ge | ceg'g | spe | ceb | ceo | 20d | 218 | 18 | o** TE Be || Bee | covenouiier atenseuis
“t+ | pep | Lee | S2e | Gye | Ob | YFP | Gkh | 18h Leb | PLE | Be |" Ye cup
eg | scc'9 | cup | 06h | 969 | SF9 | 629 | LOL | S6L 1IZ Ist |" awe
ot | guu‘g | 7° | °** | 68s | sty | Gua | 209 | 969 Gee | TST i. nk ae
26 | 6629 | 699 | OL9 | F68 | YsB | GOG | GEO'T| 26 a a ONG a
16 | tag'a | c49 | FOL | 188 | 646 | 116 | LIZ | °° Tha | pS | MOE] crite Tee ae
le | gIz'b | gse | sop | 989 | GOL | OGL | E8L | GT Te | Ost |"* Mees
Te | ge9'a | +6p | 269 | sIL | Le8 | 906 | eas | °° [tt | 4 goe | Ite | ca |’ SWeee
%g | 9c9°9 | cbt | cop | 129 | Ov9 | 889 | GE9 | TLL | 086 | GLB | Th paeonstons 3 srs
ez | ge'z | stp | Ig6 | cog | eco | to | B19 | st | coe | BhL | 998 | GB | 19 aD,
cf
okup One ‘oad | aon | 900 | ydag | Bay | Aine | aang | Avy ‘dy | ‘av | ‘Gag | ‘avr "BM00D JO SANVN
‘ON pcan

"Sst

43

sfoapjoodses 2 pas TT “3dag peas ‘s1ez}ay] oI 99[O PUL Palg_ Bag oy
6 °G2T PeATUM ‘Aaspoy B Sf [9QOBy] 4,

WAUSHAKUM MILK RECORD.

eeee esv1VAV oer

“TRIOL

I8l'z ¥09¢ fece 999 a6e woe see wee eee eee tee see see TERS SETS SE EOI TC
wee eee see eee eee eoeee **grpalg vag

fo0'9 =| o9e |teop | sep | O22 | Bho | OF2 | 089 | 199 | FLO | COL | 66h | °° sereeeee ny Taqosy
#2U'L | 9F9 | Zb9 | #bS | QOO'T] 9EO'T| OLO'T| Beet] “°° | ‘°° | 9OT | OS [ttt olutq|y Apery
feng lfe19 | 219 | 122 | 296 | Zo0'T| OOO'T] 992 | °°" | *7* F ctt | LIL | BEE : ‘d Jo [Ppow
#609 | QTL | 299 |#agL | OTI'T| 9IL'T] ‘°° | et | OST | Sho | QIb | GOb | ERP [rttttt ttt tt oLss0en
geen fos fee fre fer fore dces | eo | 2b] | ese | 99S | 9S | COE [ott tt ttt BueTag
frlp'9 | 899 lfcz9 | 189 | 8tL | 928 | OL8 | GOTT] FOE | “°° | 06 | FES | L6Z “tify Jo uoand
OI8b |FaTL |fo2L | G98 | TET | #8 ee | cee | Te | oe | Soe | Be | ele [ort VapE
cee'o «|f$zE | zoe |tep | Fo9 | £99 | 209 | LLL | 989 | G09 | 808 | 949 J ver Jrrett ** ATU
fo19'9 | /feon |¥zes |/feco'T| OLT | 88T | 9e8 | 689 | BGP | ZF | OGG | 6E9 | 009 s*sdQ
eos'e form | Too jfee9 | ses | Teh foo Pott ttt] ttt | 6 | OF | OTS suoW
6ce'a_|fFlz | ove lfpop | cab | OLb | P69 | $89 | G99 | 609 | TIeL | *** Bias * sypisniq
$or'9 «| FOP | OP | $09 | H2L | OSL | 008 | E96 | 296 | TOT | FH | OFZ | OFE t+ SOUMIAT,

‘oog | aon | 990 | dog | ‘Bny | dng jaune | -Aeyy | cady | aey_ | ‘qoq | ‘ave ‘SM00 40 SARVN

Uf 18}0.7,

"cist

WAUSHAKUM MILK RECORD,

44

“gt dag paaleg “sosyou & ‘ATIBS ot

6h T99'¢ eee ee ee ee were eee wee mere eoerseeereene ‘esRIIAW fyorrr pepoy,
wee $66e'T Ter ech '6I¢ 9¢3 wee on a ory eee wae oa see sie Sie Murise SSS ge KITES
FL | orem | azo [Fors |foze |f28 0gz | sce | oLb | 68h cp tosh |° rete: pli, Bag
TIL |f96e'> | cop | Feb | FOO | Ges [FA6U'T] “" | |” fole | F99 [7 ** rag y ApeT
“** | pecg =| cp | seb |fl2b |fer9 |_sso | 982 | T6L | 082 fuse |fIse fot tt td JO TOPOL
wo | TZe's «|foco | 9F9 |fo20'T |fece‘T |FztbE | BET |¥z6e [466s F909 | 80L |° i ++ a1d10an)
lb | seve [$298 | goo | '' [fier |fs0e forp | 999 |face frre foro |° cesses ses BUPA
FUL | OFT'e “++ |tez |fzsz | Isp ifcea | 00g | oct |foxs 2 ek ||¢ x ce AULD
se |fost's | o22 | ose |ttsp | coo |fcrg | egg jfoc9 | 9st TOT fees |" ceoees erisnid
“kip| :
ie 49X | woaq | aon | 300 | ade | “Sny | sine | aung | -Soyq | cady | ze | “dad | ‘uee | *8K00 40 SINYN
sont | UF BIOL |

‘P2481

WAUSHAKUM MILK RECORD. 45

The animals whose yields are represented, it will
be remembered, were selected with our best judg-
ment, for the best of natives and for the best of Ayr-
shires. We have, therefore, in these yields, a basis
for ascertaining the comparative value of the natives
and Ayrshires of similar grades and under similar
management, the variation of the same cows in dif-
ferent years, and other matters of interest, in a
reliable form.

The natives were kept for their milk alone, and
none of the calves were raised. The Ayrshires are
a breeding herd, and not only are the calves raised,
but the supply of food is regulated with great care,
in order to avoid the hazard arising from high feeding
for milk.

It is seen that, reducing all the figures to the basis
of one year, we have for the average yield, —

68 Native cows, 4,605 pounds, or 2,141 quarts.
67.9 Ayrshire ‘* 5,550 ‘ 2,581 ‘* (including heifers.)
3Jersey “ 2,506 ‘ 1119 “

Perhaps arranging our results as in the following
table will give a correct showing of the differences
between the native and the Ayrshire in percentages
of the whole number of cows kept, multiplied by the
number of years kept. Thus, a cow kept for three
years would appear in this table as three cows kept
ene year.

46 WAUSHAKUM MILK RECORD.

SUMMARY. PERCENTAGES.

Annual Yield. Native. Ayrshire. Jerseys. Native. Ayrshire.

Under 3,000 lbs. 5 3 1 7.35 4.48

Between 3,000 lbs. and 3,500 Ibs. 5 2 1 7.35 2.98

ey 3,500“ 4,000 “‘ 9 5 1 13.23 7.47

i 4,000“ 4,500 ‘ 10 6 14.70 8.96

eS 4,500 “f 5,000 ‘* 11 4 16.17 5.96

ee 5,000“ 5,500“ 6 8 8.82 11.93

“ 5,500 6,000 ‘* 11 12 16.17 17.92:

* 6,000 ** 6,500 ‘ 3 13 4.41 19.40

«s 6,500 7,000 ‘ 4 6 5.88 8.96

es 7,000 “f 7,500 “ 2 6 2.94 8.96

7,500 8,000 ‘ 1 0 1.47 _
§ 8,000“ 8,500 ‘ 1 1 1.47 ce
es 8,500 9,000 ‘ 0 1 _ 1.49
68 67 3 99.96 99.51
Or, grouping on a larger scale, —

Natives. Per cent. Ayrshires, Per cent.

Under 4,000 lbs. 27.93 | 58.80 14.92 } 29.84
Between 4,000 and 5,000 lbs. 30.87 Ta82

Between 5,000 and 6,000 lbs. 24.99 } 41.16 29.85 } 70.15
Over 6,000 lbs. 16.17 40.30

Or, 68 Native cows’ yields, 34 different cows = 325,023 Ibs. total yield.
67 Ayrshire “ 18 “368,984

As a constant process of selection was continually
in progress with the native herd, let us place side by
side the 34 Natives and 34 Ayrshires yields.

34 best Ayrshire yields, 225,063 lbs. Per cow, 6,620 lbs.

34 best Native «199,877 ** . 5,878 “
34 poorest Ayrshire “‘ 152,822 “ #8 4,494“
34 poorest Native “ 125,146 “ sf 3,680

The average for the three years when Natives were
principally kept was 4,562 lbs.; for the five years
of Ayrshires, 5,588 lbs.

WAUSHAKUM MILK RECORD. 47

Per day per cow while in milk. Per day per cow per year.

1867. All Natives, 16.81 lbs. 12.8 Ibs.
1868. Principally Natives, 16.06 ‘“ 13.24 ‘
1869. #8 o 14.31 ‘ 11.45

Average, 1h72 * m5 *
1870. Ayrshires principally, 19.35 lbs. 15.8 lbs.
1871. a 16.98 ‘ 13.77 ‘
1872. ee 20.59 “* 16.94 ‘
1873. ae 19.12 “ 15.43
1874. ss 19.96 15.51

Average, 19.20 “ 15.49

Thus the “Ayrshire years” show a yield of about
1,200 pounds more per cow in milk than do the
“Native years.”

The “Ayrshire years” also show a yield per cow
for the year of 1,095 pounds more than do the
“Native years.”

These statistics, with every feature in favor of the
native cow, certainly justify claims for high value to
the Ayrshire stock as milkers. —

48 BUTTER.

BUTTER.

AxLtTHouaH the making of cheese has been carried
on in Ayrshire from a remote antiquity, it has not
excluded the practice of using the milk, at least since
the beginning of the present century, for other pur-
poses. The manufacturing industries of this region
have concentrated population and fostered artificial
wants. Previous to the year 1811, and probably
very much earlier, butter was manufactured from the
milk in winter, but in a ruder method than at present.
As early as 1811, Aiton could state that all the milk
made at more than a mile and a half, and not more
than ten miles from Glasgow, was converted into but-
ter and sold in that city.

In 1869 we ourselves found butter made exten-
sively in the dairies throughout the county ; and in
all the cheese dairies that came under our observa-
tion, the Sunday’s milk was reserved for the making
of butter.

In 1864 Mr. R. J. Thomson, of Kilmarnock, tried
a series of experiments on feeding roots to Ayrshire
milch cows. The percentages of cream varied from
123 to 14} in the four animals, as the average of a
six weeks’ trial. In another trial by the same gentle-
man in 1865, with 8 cows, the cream percentage

BUTTER. 49

varied from 9 to 16, and the average was 13} per
cent. In still another trial with four animals, the
result was about 12 per cent. These percentages
were read off after standing 24 hours.’

In America we have but few records of the cream
percentage. Mr. Thomas Miller, of Delaware County,
New York, writes us that his cow, Favorite, gave
25 per cent of cream in 1871.

The result of numerous trials on Waushakum Farm
gives a variation of from 9 to 18} per cent. We
assume the average to be about 143 per cent.

Ro. Forsyth,’ writing in 1807, states that 8 Scottish
pints of milk on the average produce a pound of but-
ter of 22 ounces. This is in the proportion of 1
pound of butter to 22-4, pounds of milk.

Aiton,’ in 1814, states that 2,453 wine quarts of
milk produced 228 pounds of butter, — a proportion
of 1 to 233; pounds.

A farmer in Stirlingshire,* quoted by Mr. Colman,
gives his proportion as a pound of butter to 16
quarts of milk.

Professor J. Wilson® gives the proportion of a trial
as 1 to 20.

In 1830, in Ayrshire,° 12 cows gave during one
week, 1,075 quarts of milk, which produced 84 pounds
of butter. This is in the proportion of 1 to 2775
pounds.

An experiment at the King William’s Town Dairy,

1 Prize Essays High. Soc. 1863-9, p. 52. ? Beauties of Scotland, iii, 77.
3 Sinclair’s Scotland, iii, 65. 4 Farmers’ Lib. iii, 306.
5 Journ. R, A. 8. 2d ser. iv, 320. 6 Prize Essays H. Soc. 2d ser. ii, 253.

50 BUTTER.

in 1839, gaye a pound of butter to each 9} imperial
quarts of new milk.’

In Derbyshire * a cow in pasture, giving 20 quarts
of milk, produced 34 ounces of butter, or in the pro-
portion of 1 pound to 94, quarts.

Magne ® gives a table representing the results of
trials by different farmers in Ayrshire, as follows : —

Mr. Burnet, Gadgirth.......- 25 gallons of milk, give 8 lbs. of butter.
Mr. Alexander, Southtree....224 ‘* ae! ead i
Mr. Rankins...........0006- 69 =“ *e a a

Mr. Buttery, at Calder Bank, 6 Scotch pints of milk give 1 pound
butter.

The proportion as indicated here is 1 pound to
15 quarts, except in the case of Mr. Buttery, where
we have 1 pound of butter to every 234, pounds of
milk.

We have also a few experiments made in America.
The cow Swinley,!° imported in 1839, furnished in 4
days 102 pounds of milk, which made 5 pounds of
butter. This is the proportion of 1 to 20,4, pounds.

Mr. E. P. Prentice! is said to have had a cow which
gave 118 pounds of milk in three days, which pro-
duced 9 pounds 5 ounces of butter, —a proportion
of 1 pound to 12,5.

Mr. H. S. Collins’? gives his proportion as 1 pound
butter to 83 to 10 quarts of milk.

Mr. Allis, in the Report of the Agriculture of
Massachusetts for 1871-2, makes a statement of 60

7 Journ. R. A. 9. i. 443. 8 Johnston's Ag. Chem. p. 537.
9 How to Choose a Milch Cow, pp. 136, 139.
10 Farmers’ Lib. ili, 305. 11 Count. Gent. July 23, 1853.

22 Report of Conn. Bd. of Ag. 18367, p. 146.

BUTTER. 51

ounces of butter from 20 quarts of milk, — a propor-
tion of 1 to 114, pounds. In the same volume is a
statement of a proportion of 1 to 17, pounds.

Mr. F. H. Appleton writes that his cow Maud
yielded butter in the proportion of 1 to 156, pounds.

Four experiments carried on at Waushakum Farm,
by churning small quantities of milk in a bottle,
give a proportion of 1 to 25 to 28. This, however,
does not give a true result except as marking a
limit, for the trials were not designed to obtain an
answer to this question. A portion of excellent.
Jersey milk, churned about,the same time, yielded a
proportion of about 1 to 40. From incomplete exper-
iments we should place the proportion for a fair herd
of Ayrshires at about 1 to 20.

Mr. Colman,” while travelling through Scotland,
was told by a farmer in Stirlingshire of the highest
eminence that his Ayrshire cows, in the best of the
season, averaged one pound of butter per day, and
that he had known two Ayrshire cows to make 2
pounds 2 ounces each per day.

Mr. Caird™ speaks of these cattle being kept in
Norfolk County, England, for the purpose of making
butter for the London market.

Mr. Robert Wilson, of Kilbarchan, writes us that
he had owned a cow that gave 2 pounds 6 ounces
daily, or 16 pounds weekly; and another that did
the same on two trials in two successive years.

In the experiments on the food of animals, made

13 Farmers’ Lib. iii., 306. 14 Caird’s English Agriculture in 1850-1, p. 170.

52 BUTTER.

by Dr. Thomson,’* the two cows experimented on
gave 11} pounds and 8 pounds in two weeks in
June.

Jean Armour,’ the well-known cow of Mr.
Peters, gave 6 pounds 3 ounces of butter in 3 days
in July.

The cow Swinley,!” imported in 1839, gave, in
April, 43 pounds 6 ounces of butter; in May, 42
pounds 4 ounces; in June, 44 pounds 7 ounces;
total in three months, 130 pounds 1 ounce. After
June, her milk was not kept separate from that of
the herd. Largest yield for one week, 14 pounds.

A cow owned by E. P. Prentice,18 of Albany, gave
12 pounds 7 ounces of butter on grass feed.

One of the cows imported by the Massachusetts
Society for Promotion of Agriculture,!® gave in the
winter trial 10 pounds of butter a week.

Mr. Miller, ot Delaware Co., N. Y., writes us of
one ot his cows giving 14 pounds 13 ounces of
butter in one week in June; also of another giv.
ing 14 pounds 11 ounces, and of a third which gave
131 pounds in one week in July, 1865, and 183
‘pounds the same week in 1867.

Mr. Charles Shepard, of Ogdensburg, N. Y., writes
us that one of his heifers yielded 14 pounds butter
in a week, and that one aged cow gave 183; pounds
im one week.

15 Thomson’s Food of Animals, N. Y., p. 55.

16 H. H. Peters’ Cat. 1865.

17 Farmers’ Lib. iii, 305. Trans. N. Y. Ag. Soc. 1842, p. 264.
18 Trans. N. Y. Ag. Soc. 1851, p. 413.

19 Farmers’ Lib. ii, 304.

BUTTER. 53

A cow owned by Mr. A. S. Lewis,” of Framing-
ham, Mass., gave 12} pounds of butter in a week in
September.

Two trials only, on cows at Waushakum Farm,

resulted in 1 pound and 1;, pound a day. This was
in October.

20 Ag of Mass. 1853, p. 299,

54 : CHEESE.

CHEESE.

AutTHouecs the Ayrshire is universally acknowl-
edged to be a large producer of cheese, yet we find
very few exact observations on record.

Ro. Forsyth,! about 1805, states the proportion as’
70 Scotch pints of skimmed milk producing a stone
of marketable cheese, and 53 pints of new milk dur-
ing the season. This is a proportion of 1 to 8$;
pounds, if the Ayrshire stone is the weight referred to.

Aiton,’ in 1811, gives the proportion as from 50 to
55 pints to the stone of 24 pounds of sweet milk
cheese. This is a proportion of about 1 to 8 or 9
pounds.

Again, in 1814, he states that the usual estimate
is that 55 pints of milk give an Ayrshire stone of
cheese. This isa proportion of 1 to 8,8, pounds.

In a reference to Dunlop cheese‘ the proportion is
again stated as 1 to 96; pounds.

Magne’ gives a table of the estimates of various
farmers in Ayrshire, as follows : —

Mr. Alexander, Southbar......... 22} gals. milk give 24 lbs. cheese.
Mr. Sanderson, Blackcastle ...... 264 “ us “3m ef
Mr. Wm. Peats...........06 eee 23 * “ ae” an se
Mr. James Peats ..........00-000- 2385, ** “ eg vs
Mr; Ranburmis ees svieswsvesccvave 2468, “ ah, es

1 Beauties of Scotland, 1ii, 77. > Sinclair’s Scotland, iii, 69.
2 Survey of Ayrshire, p. 466. 4 Journ. of Ag. 1st ser. vol. v, p. 363.
6 How to Choose a Milch Cow, p. 139.

CHEESE. 55

This would establish the proportion as 1 pound of
cheese to each 3.872 quarts of milk, or as 1 to 8} or
10.1 pounds, according as wine or beer measure is
intended.

About Kilmarnock, in 1869, we were informed by
intelligent farmers that 3 pounds of curd a day per
cow was considered a large yield, but 2} pounds per
day was about the usual quantity, taking the aver-
age of all the cows.

Archibald Sturrock,® in 1866, estimates the yield
annually per cow throughout Ayrshire at 432 pounds,
and for the season of six months, 384 pounds in the
best grazing district, and 288 pounds in the poorest.

A writer in 1872’ says that cheese is made in Ayr-
shire from the time the cows go to grass until the
commencement of November, and the quantity each
cow is estimated to produce is from 3 to 4 hundred
weight, or from 336 to 448 pounds.

A letter from Mr. Robert Wilson places the daily
production of cheese as 3 pounds for a good average.
From 3 to 5 hundred weight (336 to 560 pounds)
may be reckoned a cow’s produce of cheese, — the
higher quantity when the pasture is superior being
as possible as the smaller when it is inferior.

The cheese made in Ayrshire is a sweet-milk
cheese, mild-flavored and rich, called the “ Dunlop.”
It was begun to be made by some farmers in the
Bailliary of Cunningham prior to the middle of the
last century, and it has gradually extended over the

6 Prize Essays H. Soc. 4th ser. i, 80.
7 Milk Journal, Jan, 1, 1872, p. 20.

56 DUNLOP CHEESE.

counties of Ayr, Renfrew, and Lanark, and in Gal-
loway.* At the present time there is a considerable
manufacture of the English cheddar in these regions.

Cheeses made in Scotland are neither washed nor
rubbed nor greased, on the outside, nor painted like
some of the Dutch and English cheeses, but merely
laid up to dry on clean boards, in a place neither dry
nor damp, and frequently turned.°

The Dunlop cheese is generally not so acrid in the
taste as most of the English cheese, nor is it so hard
and dry as that of Holland; it is softer and fatter
than either.? Subjoined is an analysis, by Mr. Jones,
of a cheese made in 1845, and analyzed in 1846,"°
expressed in percentages.

WARD Gok Me a =e ce eee 38.46
Caseiné. os «a 6 ewe we eH 25.87
i a ae ae ee a ee oar ae 31.86
ASH = 4% @ & @ # = & @ & = % 3.81

“Somewhere about five o’clock, a. m., the morning
milking of the cows takes place. The milk is carried
direct in the ‘luggies’ as drawn from the cows, and
emptied through a very fine wire-cloth sieve (‘the
mnilsey’), or else through a thin canvas cloth, into
a large ‘milk-boyen’ or tub standing in the contigu-
ous diary-room. .

“The cream of the previous evening’s milk is
skimmed off, and the remainder being warmed in a
vessel in the boiler to about or fully 100°, is then
added through the sieve, along with the cold cream,

8 Journal of Agriculture, 1834-5, p. 358. * Same, p. 362.
10 Journal R. A. B; 1858, p. 420,

DUNLOP CHEESE. 57

to the morning’s meal already in the tub, and raising
the whole when added to an uniform temperature of
from 86° to 88°. Milk, as it comes from the cow,
is about 96°. After stirring in the ‘rennet,’ the milk
takes about thirty minutes — seldom less, sometimes
more —to properly ‘thicken’ or coagulate.
The breaking of the thickened fluid comes next in
course. This is effected, generally, by passing the
arm and outspread palm softly and steadily in all
directions through the coagulated milk after a short
time allowed for the curd to subside, — most assisting
by pressing it gently down with their palms, — the
_ whey is lifted off with a suitable vessel, and poured
through a sieve into some receptacle for the use of
the pigs. The massed curd left in the ‘boyen’ is
then cut into about four-inch cubes, which are tied
into a wet, coarse cloth, spread within a square
wooden box, with perforated bottom and _ sides
(termed a ‘dreeper’ or ‘drainer’), and subjected to
a pressure of about twenty pounds or so. The curd
undergoes this process four to six times, with length-
ening intervals between, and each succeeding time
being cut into still smaller pieces, with increased
pressure, till the whey has been as completely ex-
pressed as the ‘dreeper’ is capable of. . . . The
broad lump of solid curd . . . is first cut into four-
inch cubes or so, and which are then put through the
curd-mil], which fractures or tears, rather than cuts
the bits into fragments.
*Due allowance of salt having been mixed, in the

proportion of 1 to 48, a fit-sized ‘ chessat’ (abbrevi-
4

58 DUNLOP CHEESE.

ation for cheese vat) is selected, and a cheese-cloth
being spread within it, the prepared curd is firmly
pressed in with the hand, the corners of the cloth
being brought up over all, and the contained curd, it
may be, jutting some three to four inches above the
edge of this chessat. By this time it is rather past
noon of the day. Some then place the chessat in
front of the kitchen fire, with the lid weighted, and
standing there for most of the afternoon, frequently
turned so as to equalize the heat, and at evening it is
put in the cheese-press. Others warm the prepared
curd in a vessel before the fire prior to making up
the cheese. During the process of pressing, too, the
chessat is occasionally brought to the kitchen fire.
. A certain degree of heat, tending to improve

the quality as well as facilitate the pressing, must be
kept up within the curd whilst becoming solid. . . .
“The made-up cheese we put to press towards
evening is taken out of the chessat on morning of
second day, and is then — in very many dairies,
though not by all—scalded with the cloth on for
near an hour in hot water fully as hot as can be tholed
with the hand. It is wiped when taken from the hot
bath, wrapped in a dry cloth, and put to press again.
It is removed and dry cloths substituted at noon and
evening of same day, reversing the cheese in chessat
at each remove. Like performance has to be gone
through, — it may be only once in some dairies, per-
haps twice in others, and even three times occasion-
ally, on the third day, by which time the cheese is
perfected. The dairy-woman has thus always three

DUNLOP CHEESE. 59

cheeses in hand. The cheese is then placed, without
more ado, wherever it is to lie, till sold and sent off,
being reversed and rubbed with a dry cloth every
day for a short time at first, and afterwards at length-
ening intervals. None of their inward coloring with
annatto, or outside painting with Spanish brown ;
nor sweating nor greasing nor canvas swaddling at
all. Just the naked, unadulterated truth.”"

11 Archibald Sturrock, in Prize Essays H. Soc. 1866-7, p. 89.

60 MEAT.

MEAT.

In Scotland, the older cows and the steers are used
extensively for the purpose of food. Almost every
reference to the merits of the Ayrshire breed refer to
their grazing qualities. Thus Aiton says that their
beef is better than that of most other breeds on ac-
count of the fat being more evenly mixed with the
lean, and claims that the dry cow fattens faster than
any other breed.! Colman quotes an Ayrshire far-
mer who claims there are no better feeders, and that
when fatted their beef is as good as that of the West
Highland breed.’

A reference in the “ Dumfries and Galloway Cou-
rier” says that there are many instances in which
Ayrshires of the same age and size with Galloways
have attained to a nearness kindred weights. Two-
year-olds of this breed will give the same price as
Galloways of the same age.®

Sinclair says that they fatten faster and to as great
an extent as any of the other breeds in Scotland ;‘
and G. Murray (in Jour. R. A. S. of England) says
that they are of a kindly disposition, and feed readily
when tied up in the stall or put in good pasture.*

1 Survey of Ayrshire, 429,

2 European Ag. ii, 318.

8 July 11, 1842, quoted in Journ. of Ag. xiil, Ist ser. p. 228.
4 Code of Agriculture, p. 19, note 142 of notes.

5 Journ. R. A. 8. 1866, p. 56.

MEAT. 61

H. N. Fraser, on the contrary, denies their value for
feeding purposes, and says that they are of slow
maturity.°

Quotations giving opinions of their value for graz-
ing could be indefinitely multiplied. The truth
seems to be, that the shapes are not those which are
most profitable to the butcher. They cut up with not
such economy as the Short-horn, nor do they arrive
as early at maturity. As feeders they are the equals
of many breeds used for grazing, when rightly treated,
but have not the same aptitudes which have been bred
so especially in the Short-horn.

In quality of meat, they can hardly be excelled ;
our experience in Glasgow and Ayr in 1869, and
with a barren heifer in 1872, justifies us in describing
their meat as fine-grained, high-flavored, juicy, and
marbled with fat.

A few extracts from the catalogue of H. H. Peters,
of Southhboro’, Mass., will illustrate the capabilities
of this breed, among the hills of New England, as
possible beef producers. “The imported cow Ada,
proving barren, was fattened during the winter of
1862-3. About the first of April, 1863, she was
slaughtered. Her dressed weight was 1,009 pounds,
of which the beef weighed 882 pounds, the tallow 111
pounds, and the hide 70 pounds. The quality of her
becf was pronounced, by persons well qualified to
judge, superior. It was fine-grained, and the fat and
lean so well mixed as to produce the marbled appear-

6 Pr. Essays H. Soc. 1868-9, p. 331.

62 MEAT.

ance which is highly prized by epicures. The meat
was also in large quantity in proportion to the bone.

“The imported cow Nannie, nine years of age,
dropped a calf in September, 1862; was milked un-
til July, 1864, when she ran in a short pasture until
November, without extra feeding ; since that time she
has had meal, eating most heartily, and increasing in
weight more rapidly than grade Short-horns which
have been fed with her. She weighed 1,372 pounds
in March, 1865.

* A full blood steer, three years old March 5, 1865,
now weighs 1,332 pounds, and girths six feet and ten
inches; had never tasted meal until the middle of
November last, four months ago.”

THEIR WORTH. 63

OPINIONS OF THEIR WORTH.

As early as 1805 the merit of the breed seems to
have been known beyond their home, and Ro. Forsyth!
mentions their presence and estimation in Renfrew-
shire, Perthshire, Dumbartonshire, and Stirlingshire,
and Aiton’ mentions their inroad into Galloway in
1802. In 1842 the “Dumfries and Galloway Cou-
ricr”® speaks of them as “creeping fast over Dum-
friesshire and Galloway.” In 1872 they had been
around distant Inverness for a number of years.‘
Their merits have also been recognized in foreign
countries, as witness their exportation to America,
the Canadas, France, Oldenburg, and Norway.

Sinclair® writes, “The Ayrshires are perhaps the
best milkers of their size in Great Britain, and at the
same time are excellent feeders when dry of milk, for
they fatten faster and to as great an extent as any of

, the other breeds in Scotland.”

The “ Dumfries and Galloway Courier ”* of July 11,
1842, says, “The opinion is becoming more and more
general that the Ayrshire breed of cows is superior
to any other in our island, qua the pasture, the byre,
and the milk-house. In size and weight they suit the

1 Beauties of Scotland, iii, 8, 347, 405; iv, 245.

2Survey of Ayrshire, p. 426.

3 July 11, 1842, quoted in Journ. of Ag. xiii, Ist ser. p. 228.
4 Pr. Essays H. Soc. 1872, iv. 51.

5 Code of Agriculture, p. 19, note 142 of notes.

64 OPINIONS OF THEIR WORTH.

grass enclosures of Scotland, but especially of such
districts as Ayrshire, Lanarkshire, Dumfriesshire, and
Galloway, where such herbage as best suits dairy stock
abounds. They are easily fed, and in proportion to
bulk give more milk than any other. Already, as
milkers, they have supplanted to a great extent all
the other kinds in the county from which they take
their name. . . . Galloways, as beefers, are ex-
cellent stock, but we have known many instances
in which Ayrshires of the same age and size obtained
to a nearness kindred weights. Two-year-olds of
this breed will give the same price as Galloways of
the same age.”

In 1837 Baron Malzahn Sommerstorff, on the part
of an association in Pomerania, imported 185 cows,
and he testifies that he had found no breed that gave
so much milk upon moderate food as the Ayrshires.”

At the Universal Exposition at Paris, “pre-emi-
nently did the Ayrshires and Alderneys stand first in
the first division, and the former received the impress
of the approval of the foreign agriculturist by the
rapidity with which they were bought up, —a rapidity
unequalled by that of any other breed, excepting the,
Bretons. . . . In reference to the division of
the different breeds of cattle we have given above as
milkers, we may state it agrees with the results
whiich have been obtained at the Imperial School of
Grignon, from carefully conducted experiments. The
Ayrshires are proved there to give the largest quan-
tity of milk in proportion to the quantity of food

» Alb. Cult. Jan, 1, 1844.

OPINIONS OF THEIR WORTH. 65

consumed, the Swiss cattle the next, and the Bretons
next.” ’

“M. Bonnemant, fully appreciating the valuable
milking qualities of the Ayrshires, and their suitability
for Brittany, has introduced a considerable number
of first-rate animals of that breed.”*

Mr. Horn, before an English Farmers’ Club, pro-
ceeds, “I next advert to the Ayrshires, and I be-
lieve, taken as a breed, they are the most sclect as to
milking properties. . . . I hesitate not to state
that we have no other class of cows, taken as a breed,
that will produce the quantity of milk for food con-
sumed. Hence the high estimation in which they are
held in cheese-making districts.” °

Dr. Voelcker,” the honored chemist of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, says, “For dairy
purposes in cheese districts, the Ayrshires are justly
celebrated ; indeed, they seein to possess the power
of converting the elements of food more completely
into cheese and butter than any other breed. The
food in their system appears to be made principally
into milk and not into meat.”

G. Murray,'! an English writer, also states that
“this breed stands unsurpassed for the purpose of
the dairy, and has within the last twenty years been
much improved with special reference to its milking
capabilities; they are of a kindly disposition, and
feed readily when tied up in the stall or put on
good pasture.”

7 Journ. of Ag. 1855-7, vii, 417. 9 Gard.Chem.and Ag. Gazette, Sept. 19, 180s.

8 Journ. of Ag. 1857-9, viii, 253. 2° Journ. RK. A. S. of Eng. xxiv, 308,
uJouru. R. A. 8. of Eng. vol. 2, 1866, p. 56.

66 OPINIONS OF THEIR WORTH.

John P. Reynolds,!2 the Commissioner from IIli-
nois to the Universal Exposition at Paris, in 1867,
in reporting upon the horned cattle there exhibited,
writes, “ At the Imperial Model Farm of Vincennes,
where one hundred cows are kept for milking, and
the sale of their product in Paris, the varieties are
Ayrshire, Brittany, Swiss, Normandy, and Flemish,
which, as M. Tisserand informed me, taking into
account the food consumed, rank for quantity of milk
in the order I have named them.”

H. N. Fraser,}* in a prize essay, writes, “ Dairies
being very numerous in Dumfriesshire, Ayrshire cattle
occupy the most prominent place, cows of this useful
and valuable breed being considered the best milkers,
and at the same time easier kept than any other.”

A correspondent of the “Country Gentleman”
from Passaic Co., N. J., writes, under date of
July 8, 1869, “During the last winter I kept over
three Ayrshire cows and three common ones, fed
them all alike, and in the spring the Ayrshires looked
fat, smooth, and nice, while the common cattle were
poor and ragged, —so bad that I was ashamed of
them, while I was proud of the others. Another
thing is, they give a great deal more milk, and the
milk is as rich as any milk.”

Mr. H. 8. Collins, of Connecticut, speaks of this
breed “ being kept on his farm with grades and na-
tives, fed and treated precisely alike winter and sum-
mer; the Ayrshires have proved the most hardy, the

12 Trans. Ill. Ag. Soc. vol. 7, p. 696.
13 Prize Essays High. and Ag. Soc. 1868-9, p. 331.

OPINIONS OF THEIR WORTH. 67

best milkers, both in first yield and in holding out,
have kept in the best condition on the same food,
and have finally superseded the others by their own
merits.”

Mr. Charles Shepard, writing us from Ogdens-
burg, N. Y., says, “It is admitted by all dairymen
in this section, that wherever the Ayrshire blood pre-
vails in the herd, that cow winters best and produces
most on short feed.”

Mr. Edward L. Coy, Washington Co., N. Y.,
writes us: “In fact, I never had my natives keep in
as good condition, both summer and winter, on the
same care and feed as my Ayrshires do.”

Mr. J. D. W. French, of North Andover, Mass.,
writes, “ As compared with grade or native stock, I
find the Ayrshires hardier and easier to keep under
the same treatment”; while Mr. F. H. Appleton, of
West Peabody, states, “By experience I call my
Ayrshires very hardy naturally. But I think that
they can be made tender or hardy according to the
treatment they receive. This is the result of obser-
vation among numerous other herds.”

Mr. A. P. Ball, writing from the Province of
Quebec, testifies, “ They have stood alongside of as
good grade cows as I had, also by thoroughbred Short-
horns ; they are easier kept and come out better in the
spring on the same description of food than either of
the first named. I do not say on the same quantity : of
course, they, being smaller than the others, would not
naturally require as large a quantity, but I state the

68 OPINIONS OF THEIR WORTH.

same quality, giving each breed what they require
and could cleanly consume without waste.”

From H. W. Eddy, Watertown, N. Y., we have
the following: “My Ayrshires are intelligent, ambi-
tious, and industrious feeders universally; will
recognize a stranger instantly ; have never had a sick
one except when hurt or injured in somewise; and
the peculiar fineness of their nature and ambition
will compel them to be upon their feet as long as
strength holds out. They feed rapidly and earnestly
when in pasture; much more of their time is spent
in hunting around fence-corners, stumps, and other
obstructions for green and sweet food, such as is
commonly overlooked by the native cow. In con-
sequence of their intelligence they will resent an
injury and appreciate a kindness, making it very
necessary to treat them justly.”

Aud with the admirable observations of Mr. Eddy
we close our chapter.

ENVIRONMENT. 69

ADAPTABILITY.

Wuew the dairyman is invited to examine a breed
of cattle new to him, and is asked to substitute such
in the place of those with which he has been long
familiar, his inquiries will be directed to two aspects
of the proposition: first, as to the excellence of the
new breed ; and second, as to its adaptability to meet
the requirements of his situation.

The fact should not escape us that all breeds
will not show to equal advantage when brought
into the same locality. In nature we observe a
nice fitness of the animal for its place. In domes-
tication we also observe this predominance of nature,
—the yielding of the animal to more closely fill her
environment. Water not more certainly seeks its
level than do our animals, domesticated and wild,
seek to correspond with the conditions within which
they are placed.

Bring the life of the tropics into our wintry clime,
and how soon is death around! Bring that of the
more temperate zone, there is less of death; but
with the survival of life in the species, there is not a
continuance of the shades of character and resem-
blance to its own. For a while divergence obtains,
until in length of time equilibrium is restored, and
the breed, remoulded, is uniform as before.

70 ENVIRONMENT.

When a breed of cattle is introduced to a locality
to which it is a stranger, the first exertion of its
force is spent in seeking an adaptation to its new
environment. The result may be a retention of its
own traits, or it may be the loss in part or wholly
of certain characters and the acquirement of new
ones.

Suppose the improved Short-horn to be placed upon
the plains of Texas and to be left quite to themselves.
If they survive the change, and you seek them after
the lapse of time, will it be the Short-horn, or even
the old Yorkshire, that you will find? Will you not
find more of born and less of body, a greater length
of leg and a build for travel? Will there not be
more speed and less fat? Will not the type conform
to the conditions within which they are placed ?

The dairyman should consider these things. Yet
the artificial conditions to which his cattle are sub-
jected make the intention of nature less apparent.
The resisting foree is greatest when art is the most
upheld, and nature, its power usurped, only slowly
and perhaps almost imperceptibly intrudes to thwart
her purposes.

The Ayrshire cow, removed to England, is said not
to maintain her dairy qualities at the best; there is
tendency to flesh. The American-bred Jersey shows
more horn, larger bone, and a less deer-like form
than the Jersey-born. Have we not seen the Short-
horn brought from England, cultivated here for a few
generations, and returned, an improvement over the
English-bred ?

ENVIRONMENT. 71

.

Changes induced by change of environment, illus-
trations of which are numerous, ought to teach us
not to expect the Ayrshire to be always, or often,
when taken to new countries, true to her fame. We
believe her to be a smaller milker in New England
in general than she is in Ayrshire. The atmosphere
here carries habitually less water, and there is less
of nutritious food in our pastures, and more wear of
life in obtaining it. Yet she is a larger milker in
New England, we believe, than is any other breed.
Although our climate is unlike that of Ayrshire, and
our feed less milky, the sum of her conditions offers
not as great contrasts as obtains when the Holstein
is sought to be acclimated with us.

The degree of hardiness of a breed may he in-
ferred from the nature of its home. The Ayrshire
is exceptionally hardy. Though you may not expect
to freeze her blood in the yard, and at the succeeding
thaw find her milk flow unimpaired, her coat sleek,
and her back straight, yet she will be as profitable
with those who expect all this from a cow as any
other. But for her sake we should advise such not
to breed Ayrshires. A pump with valves at the bot-
tom of the well will be better property.

Expose her to hard fare and rough winds, she will
not be handsome, but the constitution she carries
with her, and her inherited vigor, will be manifest.
With the bestowal of better feed and reasonable pro-
tection, the dormant forces of her nature are awak-
ened, and in uses she acts, and in appearance she
looks, the beauty of the yard.

72 ADAPTABILITY.

The hardiness of the Ayrshire, her instincts, lend-
ing both boldness and prudence to her character ;
her liveliness of movement; her medium size, and
her character for seeking her food, all adapt her to
be useful, where many breeds would be out of place,
and would be spending their force in contention with
adverse circumstances. The Ayrshires show their
superiority the most where disadvantages are to be
overcome. Scant pasturage, steep hill-sides, sudden
changes of temperature, and transitions from a moist
to a dry atmosphere, are not favorable to dairy in-
terests. But among such conditions, as in New Eng-
land, the cow may be as much a necessity as in more
favored sections of the country. While the Ayrshire
may be as well, or better, adapted to afford profit in
the favored localities than other breeds, we bespeak
specially her superior claims for such half-fertile
localities, where as great work is required of the
animal in the obtaining of food as in the utilization
of it.

We would not be understood to assert that she is
unappreciative of the clover-field, where the feed is
to her eyes; in such her udder swells to large pro-
portions. The Ayrshires of the western portion
of New York State show how kindly she accepts
generous fare. The cheese factory to which many of
this breed are tributary tells the story of their worth.

Upon soils of great agricultural capacity the dairy-
man has more breeds from which to select than he
who cultivates a soil of less fertility. To the former,
the choice is equally open between the larger and the

ADAPTABILITY. 73

smaller breeds; with the latter, the smaller breeds
only can be considered. If a larger animal be adopted
than his lands will carry, nature is ever at work to
reduce the size, and only pampering care can main-
tain it, for the land must eventually determine the
size of the animal. To work against material forces,
rather than with them, is generally most unsuatisfac-
tory.

74 THE IDEAL AYRSHIRE.

THE IDEAL AYRSHIRE.

Tue ideal Ayrshire cow is an animal best designed
to fulfil the uses for which she is intended, and
which at the same time fills the eye as a thing of
beauty, completely in harmony between her shapes
and functions. Generations of honest endeavor to-
wards an ideal more or less perfect have developed her
into her present proportions. In her is united in a
completed whole all of those good points which are
recognized as indicating milk-giving quality, by all
dairymen the world over. The large digestive ca-
pacity, the economy of form and capacity of udder,
are her most striking features, indicating usefulness,
while these are united with a straightness of back,
with openness of vertebral joint and comeliness of
proportion, a brightness of eye, and that intelligence
of expression so attractive to the observer. She has
instincts ; she knows well her wants; and her frame
and her body, her appearance and her functions, are
the happy equilibrium betwecn the powers of nature
and the powers of art.

To follow out the line of development of the Ayr-
shire cow, we must commence with the udder, for it
is here that the effort after productive power in the
milch cow quickly produced a tangible result. As an
obvious feature, this organ early showed its relation

THE MILK VESSEL. 75

to uses, and the recognition of this led the breeder
to seek at first an increase of its size, and at a later
period an economy of its form; and these two united
produce a large part of that condition which we call
quality. The changes produced in the milk-vessel
necessarily occasioned correlative changes in the cow ;
and our plan is to follow in this line of divergence
until we present the completed animal, our ideal of
the perfect dairy cow.

The desired udder (and in the best specimens of a
cow the udder desired is very nearly realized) is com-
posed of four glands, of which the udder is the sling.
These glands are enclosed and separated by a fibrous
tissue, which, reflected from the walls of the abdomen,
forms a septa and support. These glands are flattened
rather than pointed or oval, as in some other breeds,
and these, as well as the septa, are noteworthy for the
elasticity and tone of their tissues, as well as for their
freedom from fat or muscular matter. The udder ac-
cordingly should be close to the body, level and broad,
and should derive its capacity from the extent of its
attachments. The glands being flattened, free from
fat, and possessing a tone or milking habit, make lit-
tle show when not in use, but snugly attached to the
abdomen, are covered and concealed by the soft skin
of the milk-vessel, so wrinkled and creased and
folded as to convey to the unthoughtful observer an
incorrect idea of its capabilities for extension. Yet
the looseness of the skin, when considered in connec-
tion with the distant attachment, the glandular feel
and other well-known signs, afford to the trained ob-
server indications of large usefulness.

76 THE MILK VESSEL.

When filled, the udder should retain its flatness of
form, accompanied with a certain squareness of out-
line. When viewed from behind it should appear
broad and deep, extending far back, its attachments
loose even to the vulva, and presenting to the sight
no hollowness above the glands, no clefts, nor any
vacancy between itself and the twists of the thighs.
As viewed from the side it should extend well for-
ward, and its skin should merge into the swollen and
tortuous milk-veins. No indentation should be seen
between the teats, and the hand passed beneath
should clearly render sensible the great breadth and
flatness, while the eye takes in a levelness of sole
corresponding to a line drawn from a point near the
brisket, to the hindermost part of the vessel.

The signification of this udder is its harmony with
the uses for which it is designed. The breadth of its
attachments not only allows the vessel to have large
cubic contents with little depth, thus allowing the
glunds to be in closer proximity to the channels of
supply and removal, but necessitates other modifica-
tions of structure.

The economy of the position is such as protects
the bag in the largest degree from chance injuries,
and the animal is freed from the annoyance of the sag
in walking on the road, or grazing. As the result of
greater nearness to the heart and the lungs, the blood
has less distance to traverse in its rounds, and thus
the freedom of its circulation is increased. In the
human breast the difference in size in favor of the
left can only be accounted for by its greater nearness

THE TEATS. V7

to the heart, the great agent for supply. Further-
more, the temperature of the close udder is retained
and maintained by a less expenditure of force, that
is, food, than the pendent one, which exposes a larger
surface to the air, and places the obstacle of gravity
to the flow of the blood.

The teats should be equidistant and at a sufficient
distance apart. They are short, apparently from a cor-
relation in structure with the flattened gland. They
should be at some distance apart, as indicating the
extent of gland, and set evenly, as indicating the
evenness of size of the glands; cylindrical, rather
than cone-shaped, as this appears to follow from the
tone of the tissues and type of the gland of this
breed.

The length of the udder is accompanied by length
of quarter, and the breadth of udder by breadth of
hip, for the bony framework determines the distance
of possible attachments. As there seems a correlation
in this breed between the breadth of the hip and the
distance from the hip to the buttock, with the broad
udder, we should expect a long udder. Hence the
broad hip and long quarter so universally admired in
this cow.

The squareness of the udder in its attachments not
only is indicative of capacity, but also of the broad
belly which so almost universally belongs to the cow
which best digests her food. The workshop of the
belly requires abundant room for the storage and
transforming of supplies, and this space, which is fur-
nished by the broad hips, and required and indicated

78 THE BODY.

by the broad udder, requires strength of loin and
back. Hence the Ayrshire cow should excel in this
point. The short ribs should be arched but little,
and their length should be great, so supporting the
skin, as to leave a deep hollow at the flank when the
animal is hungry or thirsty, to be obliterated by re-
pletion. This is indicative of the tendency to milk-
giving as contrasted with the tendency of laying on
flesh ; and such are our requirements.

The looseness of attachment to the udder behind
is always accompanied by openness of vertebral joint,
and this indicates a certain laxity of tissue and
vascularity of system.

The breadth of the udder with its proper accommo-
dation not only requires that there should be breadth
between the thighs, but that these should be thin and
flat at the point which may be technically described
as the twist, for it is preferable to have the pressure
on the udder from within rather than from without.
The round ham and fleshy thigh is more characteristic
of the grazing than of the dairy animal.

It appears to be a physiological law that when
nourishment flows to one organ or part in excess, it
rarely flows in excess elsewhere. We should there-
fore expect that the great development of the udder
in its functional and structural relations would have
an influence in checking excessive development of
other parts. We accordingly find that the Ayrshire
cow when in milk seldom lays on flesh, nay, more a
milk-giver by inheritance, she has failed to develop
her forward parts in correspondence with the develop-

THE HEART. 79

ment of her rearmost half. Through the economy of
forces, the food is sparingly used for the building up
of parts beyond the necessity of the animal, but is
directed to giving largeness to the parts that are
tributary to her services, and to a direct reappear-
ance in her products. The appearance of lightness
forward is caused rather by the absence of unneces-
sary flesh and the comparison with the hips and
flanks, than by any deficiency in the constitutional
functions. The demands of the udder are a large
supply of blood, which can best be supplied by a
healthy heart, not cramped by position, and purified
in lungs of ample power. Hence we seek the appear-
ance of vigor as indicated by the absence of hollow-
ness behind the shoulder, by depth through the
region of the heart, and by the show of abundant
constitution as seen from the front.

As the Ayrshire cow is possessed of these qualities
which are of value, we must look for their perpetua-
tion to the needs of the reproductive system, as indi-
cated by the hook bones being wide apart, and by
the ampleness of the bony covering, which, to cor-
respond to the parts as already given, would be de-
scribed as a pelvis long, broad, and straight.

Heaviness of the neck is a masculine characteristic,
and it therefore follows that a departure from this
type would be desirable in the milch cow. An ex-
tremely thin neck has a cowey look, but may, on the
other hand, indicate too great delicacy of constitution.
The short, thick neck would indicate hardiness, and
if overladen with muscle, would suggest barrenness.

80 THE BONE.

To harmonize with our ideal we would choose the
neck of medium length, clean and round in the
throat, neither too thin nor too thick, and with a
symmetrical taper.

The head should have a look of extreme femininity,
—a soft, intelligent, motherly expression. To attain
this, the nose must be fine and tapering to the ampler
muzzle, and the lower jaw neither heavy nor long,
especially on the broad-faced type of animal. Breadth
of face seems accompanied by a certain refinement of
jaw. The lower jaw is stated to be homologous with
the fore limbs, and under the law governing the de-
velopment of homologues, we should expect the fore
limhs to be varied in an allied manner. As a matter
of fact, the delicate and shapely head is rarely set
upon ill-fushioned limbs.

Fineness and flatness of bone and firmness of joint
are points which experience has shown to be the
accompaniments of thrift in all breeds, and none the
less so in a dairy animal. This partiality for econo-
my influences us also in our desire for the diminution
of the bulk of those portions of the body that we con-
sider useless. Hence all folds and wrinkles, the large
brisket, excessive growth of horn, and all extremes
in non-essential points, are discountenanced by the
breeder.

The animal may possess all desirable points in
detail, and yet be deficient, in that these characters
are not so blended as to form an harmonious whole.
The totality of structure must be sought, and be so
gained, that there be neither unnecessary weight nor

.

os
ae

A Wa

Imported
“GEORGIE.”

THE SKIN. 81

bulk, and such an unison of adjustment, as to make
the cow an exemplar of economy in its highest type.
Tn so far as the Ayrshire cow has not attained to this,
must the breeder strive for it, crowning his art with
this success, the tribute to his genius.

The skin is not only the covering to the animal,
binding together her parts, and protecting the under-
lying parts from exposure, but it gives support to
the hair, and is studded with glands, and may be
considered one of the organs of the animal body, as
through it is eliminated not moisture alone, but car-
bon and other products. Reason as well as experi-
ence teaches that its texture and “feel” may be indic-
ative of certain qualities in the animal. It is here
that we are enabled to detect degrees of vascularity
and thrift; and the hand, taught by experience, can
tell by the touch the good from the bad feeder. The
skta to be desired in the Ayrshire is neither too thick
nor of a papery thinness, but medium. It should be
vascular, that is, soft; and although it must not be
so well underlaid by fat as in the grazing breeds, it
must be loose and easily lifted.

As some of the glands of excretion are homolo-
gous with the glands of the udder, their appearance
may give us an idea of some qualities of the milk.
By experiment we have satisfied ourselves of the re-
lation of the color of the skin secretion as found in
the ear and elsewheie, with the color of the butter
the animal affords; there is a seeming relation be-
tween the glands of the skin and the Jacteal gland,
which suggests a vicarious action, in a measure, be-
tween the two.

o

82 FORM.

The hair is desired to be soft and woolly, on
account of its protecting power, thus acting as an
assistant in economizing the animal heat. It is prob-
able, however, that the texture of the hair and its
fourm is affected by the climate to a large extent. We
doubt whether the woolly hair found on many ani-
mals in humid Scotland can be either retained by an
imported animal or transmitted to progeny in the dry
climate of America. The softness of the hair is
affected by food. The oily, unctuous feel of the hair
aud skin of the animal fed on linseed meal is very
perceptible. The functions of the hair are seemingly
to protect, and the better it fulfils this purpose, the
greater the economy of the animal forces.

The breeder should desire to form the animal in an
attractive mould. To do this is to extend their intro-
duction among those to whom the esthetic is of value.
Therefore, fineness of form, as far as is compatible
with usefulness, is to be praised. The small horn
beautifully curving, the thin ear, the fine tail of good
length and well switched, and the color, each and all
add value.

Although red and white, or brown and white, are
colors towards which many are partial, yet any color
but roan is allowable to the thoroughbred. A strong
mixture of white, as lending style and adding to their
picturesqueness, in our opinion is admirable.

On account of the importance we attach to the
presence of the escutcheon on a dairy animal, we
have preferred to give the subject a paragraph by
itself in this place.

GUENON’S SYSTEM. 83

The following language was used by the Committee
on Agriculture in their report to the French National
Assembly upon “ Guenon’s Theory of the Milk-Giv-
ing Properties of Cows ” : —

“Admitted by our most learned veterinarians of
the Royal College of Alfort and elsewhere, encour-
aged by the Government, confirmed by a thousand
proofs, and sanctioned by your approval, the dis-
covery of M. Guenon may now be considered as
having reached the dignity of a science. It applies
alike to males and females, to calves and full-grown
animals ; and from this last fact we may make this
fruitful deduction: Hereafter the farmer need rear
none but such calves as will make good milkers, hand-
ing over to the butcher such as will not.”

If Francis Guenon could inspire such enthusiasm
and conviction in those appointed to examine into the
merits of his claims, what may not be allowed to him-
self? He says, “It did not suffice to have discovered
signs that were characteristic of different sorts of cows ;
it was necessary to make sure that the same mark
might always be relied upon as a positive and certain
sign of the same perfection or defect. This could
not be effected except by studying a vast number of
individuals, by comparing them together, taking into
consideration the countries from which they came,
their stature, their yield. This was not all; they had
to be classed. Conceive what toil this task involved
for me, a plain child of nature, who had no idea of
such a classification, and found myself under the
necessity of establishing one. The endeavor was one

84 ESCUTCHEON.

to absorb me entirely; I gave up my calling; I
travelled about visiting cattle-markets, fairs, cow-
stables; I questioned and cross-questioned all who
might be expected to know most on the subject, —
husbandmen, dealers in cattle, men of the veterinary
profession; I became convinced that my discovery
had not been anticipated by any one. The marks for
distinguishing a good cow from a bad one varied
according to the notions of each individual. Some
looked to the shape of the horns, others upon that of
the udder; some judged by the shape of the animal
or the color of her hair; others were determined in
their choice by something else: but in these various
modes of judging all was vague and uncertain. I
became confirmed in the belief that I had made the
important discovery of signs that were positive and
certain; and in order the better to satisfy myself of
the solidity of the ground upon which my method
was to rest, I took the precaution to return to the
same localities at different times and seasons, that I
might trace and ascertain the effects which might at-
tend these variations of nature. All my observations
were accurately noted down, and I could at length
flatter myself with having acquired a mass of facts
which gave solidity and consistency to my system,
and imparted the character of positive certainty to
that which at first had been but a probable con-
jecture.”

But what are the claims? The Agricultural
Society of Bordeaux reported that M. Guenon
“has established a natural method by which it is

ESCUTCHEON. 85

easy to recognize and class the different kinds of
milch cows, according to —

“1st. The quantity of milk which they can yield
daily.

“2d. The period during which they will continue
to give milk.

“3d. The quality of their milk.

“By means of these signs, which are all external
and apparent, he has established eight classes or
families, which embrace all the varieties of the
cow that are to be met with in the different parts of
this kingdom. Each of these classes or families is
subdivided into eight orders. It is divided, also,
into three sections, so that each of the sections com-
prehends the eight orders.”

What are the signs? In Guenon’s words, they are
the marks “visible upon the posterior part of every
cow, in the space embraced between the udder and
vulva. They consist of a kind of escutchcons of
various shapes and sizes, formed by the hair growing
in different directions, and bounded by lines where
these different growths of hair meet. The varieties
of these escutcheons mark the different classes and
orders of cows.”

The complete, enthusiastic acceptance accorded the
method of Guenon in France, while the author was
the presiding genius of his own idea, shows that it
has much value. Certain, however, it is, that in
England and in our own country the method has not
been accepted in all its original elaborateness ; and
there is a growing conviction that the author saw in

86 ESCUTCHEON.

the upward-growing hair more than others have
found and more than is justified by trained expe-
rience. That the quality of the cow as a milk-giver is
indicated in the escutcheon to a very considerable
extent we think must be allowed, but we think it
will not answer to read there —as Guenon claim to
read — the number of pints of milk each cow would
give daily, and much less in precise terms, the
quality of the milk.

The internal functions of the cow do not find their
complete expression, their tell-tale, if we regard
the animal in only one of its aspects. In reason, we
ought not to find her record concentrated within
the compass of a few square inches, when appetite,
constitution, size, and breed must each and all
exert an influence in determining yield and qual-
ity.

Yet in the mark of the escutcheon we recognize
much value. We do not remember to have seen a
very good cow that had a small escutcheon, while
never have we seen a cow with a good escutcheon,
and of a dairy aspect otherwise, that was a poor
milker. We believe it will be highly conducive to
the success of the dairyman to regard this mark as
one of chief importance, as it is also to the breeder
in his use of animals.

But in laying much stress upon the escutcheon we
would not advocate the following of Guenon’s classi-
fication in all its minute details. It seems sufficient,
as far as our own observation suggests, that there
should be much of it, symmetrically disposed, and

SCALE OF POINTS. 87

showing on the two rearward lobes of the udder an
oblong mirror of large extent.

Were we asked to present a scale of points for the
guidance in breeding the model Ayrshire cow, it
would take the following form :—

Udder. Capacious, broadly attached, extending far forward and back,
closely held to the budy, the under surface broad and flat, no clefts, no
hollows,

Teats. Shortish, cylindrical, of good texture, and set evenly at con-
siderable distance apart.

Jfilk Veins. Large, tortuous, disappearing into the abdomen by an
ample orifice.

Escutcheon. Large, extending well upwards and on thighs, mirror
marks large.

Belly. Ample, broad, deep, and well held up.

Head. Shortish, forehead wide; well set on neck.

Nose. Fine between muzzle and eyes.

Muzzle. Open and moderately large.

Ears. Thin and orange colored.

Horns. Widely set on and of moderate size.

Neck. Of medium length, and straight from head to the top of the
shoulders, free from loose skin, fine at its junction with head, and taper-

ng by the symmetrical enlarging of the muscles towards the shoulders,

Shoulders, Thin.

Brisket. Light.

Fore-quarter. Appearing thin in front from the contrast with the
hind-quarters and belly, but of sufficient thickness to ensure vigor.

Back. Moderately long and straight.

Spine. Well defined at shoulders, loose jointed, yet level.

Short Ribs. Slightly arched, the concavity in the flank at their ex-
tremities responding quickly to digestive condition.

Body. Deep at the flanks and in rib, broad.

Pelvis. Long, broad, and straight. Zé

Buttocks. Neither pointed, nor round and fleshy.

Hook Bones. Wide apart, not overlaid with fat.

Thighs. Thin and broad.

Tail. Tong and slender, tufted, set on level with back.

Legs. Short, the bones fine, flat, and the joints firm.

Skin. Soft, moderately thick, loose and elastic.

Hair. Soft and woolly, close.

Temper. Quietand docile, with nerves suppressed rather than active.

Color. To please the breeder, but not roan.

88 ORGANIZATION.

It is not merely necessary that the Ayrshire should
conform outwardly to this type: somewhat more is
needed, as will be seen from the following consid-
erations.

Three systems, to which all the organs are directly
or indirectly subsidiary, are united in the plan upon
which the cow is formed. There is the nutritive sys-
tem, composed of stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas,
glands, and vessels hy which food is claborated,
effete matter removed, the blood manufactured, and
the whole organization nourished. This is the com-
missariat. Then there is the nervous system, which
co-ordinates all the organs and functions, and enables
the animal to entertain relations with the world
around it, directing it what to avoid and what to
approach, and without which so much complexity of
structure as finds place in her organization would be
constantly at fault. There is, again, the reproductive
system, by which a succession of animals is secured,
and the hold of the race on earth assured.}

The breed of cow that we should desire must have
these systems, each in health and order. Each and
all should be developed, not alone to pursue their
relations fitly, and to serve their own specific uses,
but all developed in the direction to render the
animal adapted to serve a particular use, viz. in the
dairy cow, the greatest possible utilization of food in
the production of a good quality of milk.

The cow in nature lives to one end, the keeping

1 These remarks are suggested by, and adapted from, Dr. Clarke's Sex in
Education,

ACTIVITY OF ORGANIC LIFE. 89

alive the race, as plants have all their energies con-
centrated to produce seed. The domesticated cow
lives to continue her race and to nourish human
beings, so that every support must be given to what-
soever will tend to develop her whole organism into
the form and activity that conduces to this double
service.

Given the proper organs, perfect in form and
adaptation to ends, the cow may be a poor thing, if
there is sluggish movement throughout her whole
organization. To produce a quart of milk an hour,
or half or quarter this quantity, signifies activity of
organs. This will appear when we consider the waste
and renewal of parts that is a phenomenon of life.

Carpenter, in his Physiology, says the whole struc-
ture originates in a single cell; that this cell gives
rise to others analogous to itself, and these again to
many future generations; and that all the varied tis-
sues of the animal are developed from cells. As fast
as one cell is destroyed another is generated. The
death of one is followed instantly by the birth of its
successor. This continual process of cellular death
and birth, the income and outgo of cells, that follow
each other like the waves of the sea, each different
yet each the same, is metamorphosis of tissue.

Bichat has defined life to be organization in action.
The most productive cow, as the most productive
man in mental or physical labor, lives an intense
life. Life, in the sense of motion, — birth and death
of cells in the organism, — is lived doubly when the

activity is of double measure.
6*

90 QUALITY.

In choosing a milch cow, it may be inferred from
this, her quality will not always find expression in
outward form. It is the outward form, and the en-
gine within the form, and the power of this engine,
that is to be looked to. It may occur that animals
of two breeds may be found of one form, but that
one breed shall carry a quicker life than the other.
This quickened life we conceive to he one of the
marked characteristics of the Ayrshires.

It is the animal that unites this vitality in a form
that. favors most economical production, with parts
adjusted in symmetrical relations and proportions,
that constitutes the perfect cow. When uses are
satisfied, then the possession of artistic excellence,
such as shall make her a thing of beauty, to the
connoisseur as well as the plain farmer, is desired.

STUD AHL 4O ada ,,
poyoduy

THE AYRSHIRE BULL. 91

THE AYRSHIRE BULL.

THE points of the Ayrshire bull should be in many
respects those of the cow, but modified by sex. His
head should be broad, the muzzle good-sized, the
nose small, the under jaw short, and the throat
nearly free from hanging folds; his horns should
have size at the root, as indicating vigor; his ears
thin, and of a golden color within; his eye mild but
intelligent, the expression, a masculine vigor, super-
added to the feminine type.

His neck should be not too short, but arched, as
giving that style which is so attractive. The muscles
strong and large, as being masculine ; symmetrical in
their development, and should not originate from
too limited attachments. By this we do not mean a
heavy neck, but large in those muscles alone which
lie on the sides, well up, and which are so peculiarly
masculine in their character as not to be unduly trans-
mitted to female progeny.

The shoulders should be close to the body and
thin, the back broad, the spine not as well defined
at the shoulders as in the cow, nor the hips quite as
broad. The broader the hip, however, the better ;
yet breadth of hip being more of a female character-
istic, this point means more in a slight variation in
the bull than in the cow. The pelvis should be long,

92 THE AYRSHIRE BULL.

broad, and straight, and the tail set on level with the
back, and without a notch at its insertion. The body
should be well-ribbed, deep, and of good length,
especially deep in the flanks. A hollow space be-
hind the shoulders is extremely objectionable, as
indicating deficiency of constitution. The limbs
should be short, fine-boned, flat-boned, and firm-
jointed. A curve in the hind leg from the hock to
the hoof in front is very objectionable.

In the thigh and the hinder parts must we espe-
cially look for the indications of quality for the trans-
mission of milk-yielding shapes. The thighs should
be thin and flat, and so far apart as to give great
space between. Watch the animal in his walk when
going from you. Should his legs cross, reject him.
Value him, if in standing his hocks are well apart.
The dairy bull should transmit to his female offspring
the space for the lodgment of the udder, for this
is the key to breeding for milk. Look for the
escutcheon, for it is a good feature; and if there is
vascularity to be seen here, prominently indicated
by the skin and the veins, give heed to it. We also
like to see the presence of teats, and the better placed
these are the more valuable the indication.

The dairy bull must conform to the type of the
ideal dairy cow. The points which indicate digestive
ability and space for the lodgment of the udder must
be strongly characterized. Hardly less important is
that feminine appearance joined on to a masculine
vigor, which is shown in part by a noble screnity
of expression.

THE AYRSHIRE BULL. 93

The dairy bull must be especially free from certain
defects and blemishes, such as the fleshy buttock and
rounded ham which is followed by roundness of
thigh. It is a beefy mark. He must not be too
heavy forward. Not that we would have the strongly
developed wedge shape of the cow, but we would
have those points which we value so highly in the
rearmost-half of the cow strongly developed in the
bull.

These characters in the Ayrshire bull must be
united in that peculiarity of shape which is indicative
of the breed, and which is so difficult to put into
words. There should be style, the long, slim tail and
bushy switch, the harmony of proportion, and the
moulding of the lines of his contour, and all else
which constitutes beauty.

The grazier and the dairyman have each for a long
time sought to improve his stock, the one for meat,
the other for milk. The union of the two in an
animal in equal excellence as though they existed in
perfection separately, we believe is never realized ;
so that whenever it is desirable to have milk or meat
in large amount, at very low cost, it is better to cul-
tivate these qualities in separate breeds, and encour-
age in each that particular development conducive to
the quality desired in them.

No one will hesitate to affirm that the meat breeds
have arrived at a greater excellence in the line of
development for meat than have the dairy breeds in
the line of development for milk. The ideal of the
breeder has been nearer realized. Various causes

94 THE AYRSHIRE BULL.

have contributed to this. It is only in place here to
refer to one as having direct relation to the breeding
of Ayrshires, and as directing us to a knowledge of
what we should desire in a bull of the dairy breed.

If we refer to the Short-horn, the Hereford, the
Galloway, and many other races that are acknowl-
edged meat breeds, and observe the type of the male
and the female, we find it essentially the same for
either sex. In the cow and in the bull there is an ap-
proach to one farm, modified only by such differences
as attend upon sex.

With many dairy breeds, perhaps with all, many
persons refuse to accept the principle that directs
the grazicr, and conceive the cow should be of
one type, the bull of quite different type. How
frequently it happens at our agricultural fairs
that we observe a fine dairy herd of cows possessing
the forms that go with the possession of dairy qual-
ities ina high degree, headed by a bull whose out-
lines are those of a meat bread! Inthe one sex the
outline is that of the keystone of an arch, in the
other the brick form pediment. Here is being used
two typical forms of distinct functions, to effect one
form in the female line and another in the male line.

Consider the comparative ease with which the
grazier obtains a bull satisfactory to him with the dif-
ficulty of the dairyman to realize his idea in the bull !

The meat breeds were early taken in hand by mas-
ter breeders and were greatly improved. To these
men we owe most of the maxims and current knowl-
edge of the principles of breeding. One of these

THE AYRSHIRE BULL. 95

maxims is “Like begets like.” The grazicr uses like
in male and female, and gets lzkhe. The dairyman
often uses one form of animal in the female, the form
typical for the females of the breed, a form in the male
animal of a dissimilar type, and expects that wnlike
in each generation will get a unzform progeny.

We know persons who own Jersey and Ayrshire
stock, who have their conception of the male animal so
much fashioned by the model to which a meat breed
should correspond, that they seek far and wide to
place at the head of their herd a bull conforming to
this foreign mould, although they esteem less valua-
ble the female progeny that may conform to it.

Ee:

HISTORY.

In those cases where documentary evidence is ob-
scure, and but few notices concerning the origin of a
breed are attainable, it seems the more philosophical
to first study the condition of the country and the
surroundings from which the breed was evolved.

Our scheme concerns itself first with the earlier
records. After presenting in general terms some
aspects of the Scotland of the past, we shall next
call your attention to the cattle known as the White
Forest Breed. A sketch of the county of Ayr of the
past and present will naturally precede the division
we have devoted to the presentation of the documen-
tary evidence concerning the origin of the Ayrshire
breed; and the history of their origin, as founded
on the preceding chapters, will follow next in course.

SCOTLAND AND ITS PAST.

Horxep cattle are said to be indigenous to Scot-
land. From prehistoric research, Wilson! states, on
evidence no doubt satisfactory, that in these early
times “vast herds of wild cattle of gigantic propor-
tions and fierce aspect roamed through the chace.”

The earliest historical notice of British cattle are
in the “ Commentaries” of Cesar, in which he mentions
their abundance, and that the food of the inhabitants
was milk and flesh, to the neglect of tillage ; and
Strabo’ praises the bountiful supply of milk, but
denies to them the art of making cheese.

Darwin’ states that Bos primigenius existed as a
wild animal at this time, and that Bos longifrons was
domesticated in England during the Roman period,
and supplied food to the Roman legionaries.*

At this early period, the savage time, so to speak,
the same cattle seem to have been found more or
less on both sides of the border; and in considering
the wild cattle of Scotland, it will be useful to re-
view in some measure the cattle of England, and the
state of the country in those days. Fitz Stephen,?

1 Prehistoric Annals of Scotland.

2 James Wilson, in Enc. Brit. xiv, 214.

3 Animals and Plants under Domestication, N. Y. 1868, i, 104.

4 British Pleistocene Mammalia. Dawkins and Sandford, p. xv.

100 SCOTLAND AND ITS PAST.

who lived in the twelfth century, speaks of the Uri
Sylvestris, which in his time inhabited great forests
in the neighborhood of London; and in the four-
teenth century King Robert Bruce was nearly slain
by a wild bull which attacked him in the great Cale-
don Wood.°

Boethius,® who was born in 1470, and John Leslie,
Bishop of Ross, who wrote in 1598,’ state that the
wild cattle of Scotland were white with a thick mane ;
and Leslie expressly states were wild and savage,
and formerly abounded in the Caledonian Woods, but
now were confined to the region about Sterling,
Cumbarnauld, and Kincardine.

At this period civilization had made some progress
in the country, the Lowlands at least ; and food, judg-
ing from fragments of history, was bountiful and
cheap. In 1290 the monasteries of Teviotdale had
much pasture land, and the minute and careful ar-
rangement of their mountain pastures, of the folds for
their sheep, and the byres for their cattle, and the
lodges or temporary dwellings for their attendants,
show that they paid the greatest attention to this
part of their extensive farming.® Again in 1300, from
excerpts’ from the reign of Alexander III, we have
it stated that the fields, the mountain pastures, and
the forests were amply stocked with cows, sheep,
and large herds of swine; and even more minutely,”

5 Cosmography and Description of Albion, quoted in Enc. Brit. xiv, 214.
6 Annals and Mag. of a ats Hist., vol. ii, 1839, p- 281; vol. iv, 1849, p. 424.
7 Low’s Animals, p. 23

8 Innea’ Scotland in A Middle Ages, p. 147.

9 Tyler’s Hist. Scotland, ii, 218.

10 Tyler, op. cit. p. 221.

SCOTLAND AND ITS PAST. 101

that in the more cultivated districts cows were kept
in the proportion of ten to every plough, but in the
wilder part of the country the number was infinitely
greater.

It is to be supposed that with such numerous
cattle, and with such indications of the amount of
pasture land, some reference would be made to the
dairy ; and, indeed, from these same excerpts,!! we
find that much cheese was manufactured on the royal
demesne throughout Scotland, and as Tyler remarks,
“It is equally certain that its proper management
and economy was not neglected by the clergy or
the barons.”

This period seems to have been one of plenty even
bordering on luxury, and it is most probable some
attention was given at this time to the improvement of
the domestic breeds. We know from the Cartularies
of Melrose and Kelso that in the fourteenth century,
many of the nobles had breeding studs on their
estates, and from Rotuli Scotiae we learn that Lord
Douglas brings ten “great horses” into Scotland,
July 1, 1352.

King Alexander, who ruled during the last half of
the thirteenth century, showed an interest in hus-
bandry, and caused a great breadth of land to be
brought under the plough; and according to that
quaint chronicler in rbyme, Andrew Wyntoun,
“Corn he gart be aboundant.”

These good old times passed away (all Golden Ages

Tyler, op. cit. p. 221. 12 Tyler’ - cit, ii, 218.
sarsihnli » 13 Cronykil of eelanes pa Sai

102 SCOTLAND AND ITS PAST.

are ancient), and in the history of fightings and
treacheries and murders, and the great ones of the
land, we lose account of the agriculture. It is only
to be gathered that the Age of Iron succeeded this
halcyon age of the thirteenth century.

In 1570 Ortelius“ describes the cattle of the
county of Carrick as being of large size, with tender,
sweet, and juicy flesh; and our references are thus
brought to the earliest mention of the cattle occupy-
ing the county of Ayrshire.

It is thus seen that cattle are natives of the isle.
Their first appearance is neither recorded by history
nor by tradition, and their remains in cairn and cav-
ern place their antiquity beyond our written records.
Thus, in a sense, they are autocthenes, or the product
of the soil. They existed in a wild state as late as
A. D. 1200 in the neighborhood of London, and in
1600 occupied, in a state of freedom, a circumscribed
locality in Scotland. During this whole period do-
mestic races existed in their close vicinity, and the
economy of the dairy in A. D. 1300 seemed to be well
understood.

Our records, it will be perceived, refer to the
Lowlands of Scotland. These were conquered by
Agricola, and his conquest secured by a chain of
forts connecting the Firths of Forth and Clyde, A. D.
85.15 But so courageous and indomitable were the
barbarians, that under the Emperor Hadrian, about
A. D. 120, a fortified rampart was constructed from

14 Theatrum orbis Terrarum. 16 Enc. Brit, xix, 741, 743.

ANCIENT AYRSHIRE. 103

the Tyne to the Solway. In 207 the country north
of the Clyde was savage and uncleared, and the fierce
inhabitants in A. D. 446 are described as bearing all
the stamp of barbarian life.

Upon the abandonment of Britain by the Romans
in 446, the five tribes inhabiting the region about
these fortifications became independent, and under a
union formed a new kingdom termed Regnum Cum-
brense, or more frequently the Kingdom of Strath-
clyde. It appears to have included the present
Liddesdale, Teviotdale, Dumfriesshire, Galloway,
Ayrshire, Renfrew, Strathclyde, the midland and
western parts of Stirlingshire, and the largest por-
tion of Dumbartonshire. The tribes which formed
this community led a pastoral life, living on the milk
of their flocks and the produce of the chase. They
were a race not of different descent from the ruder
tribes of the north, but of improved civilization.'®

This was the region in which civilization first ob-
tained a foothold, and where the labors of agriculture
must first have taken the place of the uncertainties
of the chase. The only early record of dairy prod-
ucts is from within this district,!7 as well as the
breeding of horses. As an evidence of culture exist-
ing here at an early date, it may be well to state that
the immense Abbey of Kelso was begun in 1128,
and the beautiful Melrose Abbey in 1136."7

Until the middle of the eighteenth century there
was scarcely a good road in Scotland.* In 1678 an

16 Enc. Brit. xix, 741, 743. _ 17 Black’s Picturesque Guide to Scotland.
18 Enc. Brit. xix, 807.

104 IMPERFECT ROADS.

agreement was made to run a coach with six horses
between Edinburgh and Glasgow, forty-four miles,
the double journey to be made in six days, and the
common carrier occupied a fortnight in journeying
to and from Selkirk and Edinburgh, a distance of
thirty-eight miles.’? If such were the roads in the
more cultivated districts, communication must have
been exceeding difficult in the Highlands. There,
agriculture was neglected, the circumstances of the
climate, soil, and disposition of the people were
unfavorable ; and in 1787 even, the imperfect infant
state of the agriculture” may be inferred, by the
coast inhabitants or those of the isles obtaining a
greater part of their subsistence by fishing, while
the more inland clans depended chiefly on their cat-
tle and flocks. In 1714, in the island of Stroma, in
Caithness, there was but one small plough.” In
1799 the roads in many places did not pass by a
single village, house, hut, or inhabitant, for fifteen
or twenty miles.”

The influence of these two states of affairs in the
Highlands and Lowlands are seen in the cattle. In
the more nomadic state of the Highlands we find but
one style of cattle, the Highlanders,”* — animals of
strong individuality, varying among themselves ac-
cording to the luxuriance of the pastures and the
effect of climate, from the diminutive Shetland, the
ordinary West Highlander, North Highlander, and
the Runts, to the well-formed Argyleshire.

19 Enc, Brit. xix, 807. 21 Thid. vol. i, p. 128.
20 }'rize Essays H. Soc. lat ser. vol. i, p.129. 2? Ibid., i, exiii.
23 Youatt and Martin on Cattle, passim.

INFLUENCE OF CIVILIZATION. 105

In the Lowlands, on the contrary, on account of
the varied wants superinduced by civilization, we
have a multiplicity of breeds, each best suited to the
exigencies of their locality, either at the present or
some past period. It is sufficient to mention the
Galloway and the Ayrshire. Where the Lowland
characteristics and civilization invade the geographi-
cal Highlands, we find the shapes and uses of the
cattle modified, as in the Aberdeenshire and Angus
breeds.

The most cultivated breed, the highest product of
civilization, occurs in that locality where the civiliza-
tion is the more ancient. We refer to Ayrshire and
the Ayrshires.

Without other information, it is unreasonable to
suppose, with the evidence of wild cattle being
domesticated in England, that the present cattle
of Scotland are derived entirely from importations,
rather than founded on the original stock, modified,
in what way you please, by successive crossings or
systems of breeding.

We are accordingly led to examine into what has
been chronicled of the wild cattle of Scotland, and
to investigate what claims they have to be consid-
ered in the light of a foundation upon which the im-
proved breeds have been builded.

6

THE WILD CATTLE OF SCOTLAND, OR WHITE
FOREST BREED.

Accorptya to our best authorities, two forms of
the ox tribe, the genus Bos, existed in Scotland at an
early period, Bos primigenius and B. longifrons of
Owen. The former was of large size, and according
to all accounts the color was black; it had white
horns with long black points, the hide was covered
with hair shorter and smoother than in the tame ox,
but on the forehead long and curly. From the skel-
etons preserved in our museums, the length of this
gigantic ox must have been from eleven and one half
to twelve feet, and the height of the shoulders about
six or six and one half feet.1 Darwin remarks that
the Pembroke race in England closely resembles this

-ox in essential structure, and that the cattle at pres-
ent existing in the Chillingham Park are degenerate
descendants of this breed.? Bos longifrons, on the
contrary, is described as a distinct species, of small
size, short body, and fine legs. It was domesticated
in England during the Roman period.’ Professor
Owen thinks it probable that the Welsh and Highland
cattle were descended from this species.‘

1 Nilsson, Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. 1849, iv, 258.

2 Anima’s and Plants under Domestication, i, 108. -
3 British Pleistocene Mammalia. p. xv.

4 Animals and Plants under Dum. i, 104.

WILp CATTLE AT CHILLINGHAM.

By Str Epwin Lanpseer, R. A.

WHITE FOREST BREED. 107

In prehistoric times, a continuous range of enor-
mous forests covered the whole extent of the coun-
try, and the gigantic and fierce cattle roaming through
the chase® fed on the tender branches and buds, the
catkins of birch, hazel, sallow, and other species of
willow,® resembling in this matter of feeding the
moose of the Canadian forests. We have reason to
suppose that the ancient islanders introduced the
rudiments of a pastoral life, while yet living in pits
incovered with boughs and skins,’ yet no evidence
leads to the conclusion that the native Britons had
domesticated the great oxen of the country, although
undoubtedly they formed a source of food. In
Switzerland, on the contrary, the lake dwellers had
succeeded in taming these formidable brutes.®

We have it stated by Darwin, that Bos primtgenius
existed as a wild animal in Ceesar’s time.” There is
a record of white cattle in the tenth century, resem-
bling those in the Scottish parks, existing in Wales,
where they were more valued than black cattle.!!
Boethuus, in 1526, mentions them as then existing near
Stirling. “ At this toun began the grit wod of Cal-
idon. This wod of Calidon ran fra Striveling throw
Menteith and Stratherne to Atholl and Lochquabir,
as Ptolome writtis in his first table. In this wod
wes sum time quhit bullis, with crisp and curland
mane, like feirs lionis, and thoucht thay semit meek

5 Prehistoric Scotland, Wilson's.

6 Nilsson. \n. & Mag of Nat. Llist. 1849, iv, 269.
7 Prehistoric Scotl ind, i, 296.

8 Ibid. i, 31.

9 Lyell’s \ntiq. of Man. Phila 1863, p. 24.

10 Animals and Plants under Domestication, i, 104.
11 Low’s animals, 2%.

108 WHITE FOREST BREED.

and tame in the remanent figure, of thair bodyis, thay
wer mair wild than ony uthir beistis, and had sic
hatrent aganis the societe and cumpany of men that
thay come nevir in the wodis, nor lesuris quhair thay
fand ony feit or haind thairof, any mony dayis eftir,
they eit nocht of the herbis that wer twichit or hand-
illit be men. Thir bullis wer sa wild, that thay wer
nevir tane but slight and crafty laubour, and sa im-
pacient that eftir thair taking they deit for importa-
ble doloure. Alse sone as ony man invadit thir bullis,
they ruschit with so terrible preis on him, that they
dang him to the eird, takand na feir of houndis,
scharp lancis. nor uthir maist penetrive wapinnis.”
* And thoucht thir bullis were bred in sindry boundis
of the Calidon wod, now, be continwal hunting and
lust of insolent men, thay are distroyit in all partis of
Scotland, and nane of thaim left bot allanerlie in
Cumarnauld.”!? In a remarkable document, written
about 1570, the writer complains of the aggressions
of the king’s party in the destruction of the deer in
the forest of Cumbernauld, “and the quhit ky and
bullis of the said forest, to the gryt destructione of
policie and hinder of the commonweill. For that
kynd of ky and bullis he bein kepit thir money zeiris
in the said forest, and the like was not mantenit in
ony vther partis of the Ile of Albion.”® In 1598,
John Leslie, Bishop of Ross, speaks of the wild ox
occurring in the woods of Scotland, of a white color,

12 Hector Roscoe, born in 1470. Hist. Scotorum, pub. at Paris, 1526, ed. of
1574, fol. 6, line 63, occurs the passage quoted in An. & Mag. of Nat. Hist. 1839,
ii, 231, and Low’s Anmals, 234.

13 Tlustrations of Scottish History. preserved from manuscripts by Sir John
Grabam Dalyell, Bart., quoted in Low’e Animals, p. 235.

WHITE FOREST BREED. 109

with a thick mane resembling a lion’s, and wild and
savage. He says that it had formerly abounded in
the Sylva Caledonia, but was then only to be found
at Stirling, Cumbernauld, and Kincardine.'* Sand-
ford, in his manuscript history of Cumberland, dated
1675, says around Naworth formerly were “ pleasant
woods and gardens; ground full of fallow dear fied-
ing on all somer-tyme; brawe venison pasties, and
great store of reid dear on the mountains; and white
wild cattle, with black ears, only on the moores.” !5
We find them referred to by Bewick in 1770, and in
1781 Pennant speaks of them as retaining their white
color, but as having lost their manes.!® Conrad
Gesner describes them as “ white oxen, maned about
the neck like a lion. . . . This beast is so
hateful and fearful of mankind, that it will not feed ot
that grasse or those hearbes whereof he savoureth a
man hath touched — no, not for many days together;
and if, by art or policy, they happen to be taken
alive, they will die with very sudden grief. If they
meet a man, presently they make force at him, fear-
ing neither dogs, spears, nor other weapons.” 1”
About 1800 they are spoken of as invariably white,
with the ears internally and externally about one third
down, red; horns white, tipped with black, and the
muzzles black.!® In 1836 we begin to get more par-
ticular descriptions. Color invariably white, muzzle

14 Leslie. De Origine Moribus et Rebus Gestia Scotorum, Rome, 1598, ed. of
1675, 18, quoted in An. & Mag. of Nat. Hist. 1839, ii, 282. Also in Low’s Ani-
mals, 231.

15 Jour. R. A. 8. 1852, xiii, 219.

16 Quadrupedg, 16.

1 16th Century; quoted from Scherer’s Rural Life, p. 627.

18 Complete Grazier, p. i.

110 WHITE FOREST BREED.

black, the whole of the inside of the ear, and about
one third of the outside, from the tip downward,
red. The horns are very fine, white with black tips ;
and the head and legs are slender and elegant.49 The
Earl of Tankerville, the proprietor of Chillingham
Park, describes them in 1839. In form they are
beautifully shaped, with short legs, straight back,
horns of a very fine texture, as also their skin, so
that some of the bulls appear of a cream color.*® In
1845 Low says that the eyelashes and tips of the
horns are black, the muzzle brown, the inside and a
portion of the external parts of the ears are reddish-
brown, and all the rest of the animal white. The
bulls have merely the rudiments of manes, consisting
of a ridge of coarse hair upon the neck." In 1852
William Dickinson says that their bodies are pale
cream color, the ear-tips red, and the muzzle black.”
In 1868 Darwin describes them as white, with the
inside of the ears reddish-brown, eyes rimmed with
black, muzzle brown, hoofs black, and horns white
tipped with black.”> Youatt mentions the existence
of a mane on some of the bulls, one and one half or
two inches in length.*4

As a wild race we hear of their occurrence at rare
intervals. In the time of Edward the Confessor
(1042) we are told by one of the abbots of St. Al-
bans that wild bulls abounded near London, and
Fitz-Stephen, writing about 1174, speaks likewise
of their occurrence in these woods. In 1760 wild

19 Naturalists’ Lib. Jardine, iv, 202. 2 An. & I]. under Dom. 107.

20 An.& Mug. of Nat. Hist.1839, ii, 277. 24 Youatt & Martin on Cattle, 12.

21 Low’s Animals, 237. 25 An, &-Mnag. Nat. Hist. Ist ser. iii, 356.
2 Jour. R. A. 8, 1852, xiii, 249. 26 An. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1849, iv, 423,

WHITE FOREST BREED. 111

white cattle were just extinct in the central High-
lands.” In 1598 their occurrence in Scotland was
confined to a few localities.22 We are thus par-
ticular in tracing the accounts of this breed, as
Wilson maintains that no sufficient evidence has ever
been brought forward to prove that these cattle are
entitled to the character of an aboriginal breed.?9
Of the remnants of this ancient race we have two
herds, at least, existing at the present time, and
records of others whose extinction has been com-
paratively recent. The general descriptions of white
with colored ears apply to all, yet each herd has
had its distinctive features, and we find evidence
of a constant tendency to variation, only repressed
by a rigorous selection.

Chillingham Castle, the seat of the Earl of Tanker-
ville, is situated in Northumberland County, England,
and formerly occupied one end of the Caledonian
Forest, which in former times extended from sea to
sea. The wild cattle have been preserved in this
park with care, and kept free from intermixture with
other breeds. They have been extensively inbred
from necessity, “and are accordingly much subject
to rash, a complaint common to animals bred in and
in.” According to Denholm, they were exterminated
in 1760. “Here (Cadzow Castle) so late as the
year 1760 were a few of those white cattle with black
or brown ears and muzzles, once so common in Scot-
land. Their shyness and ferocity of temper rendered

27 Trans. H. & Ag. Soc. 4th series, v, 294. 28 Low’s Animals, 234.
2 Enc. Brit. xiv, 214.

112 WHITE FOREST BREED.

them troublesome and of little use ; they were there-
fore exterminated in the year above mentioned.”

We find it recorded that the stock-at Chillingham
was at one time left without a bull, from accident and
sterility. Fortunately one of the cows had a bull
calf, and the stock was preserved.*#! In color, they
are invariably white,*? or white® or pale cream color,%4
or creamy white,® or white and cream color.*© Their
horns are white tipped with black; their muzzle
black*’ er brown ;*° their eyelashes black ;*° their eyes
rimmed with black.4° Their ears inwardly and about
one third externally, red, reddish-brown,” or red
or brown.® Their necks have rudimentary manes,*4
or oftentimes a mane from one and a half to two
inches long, or no manes but coarse hair.“ Their
heads slender,*” backs straight. Legs short*® and
slender,*?? and the hoofs black.*®

In 1675, as we have scen, they are described with
black ears.*!_ In 1770, according to Bewick, some

faa The tnatoiy of the City of Glasgow, etc., by James Denholm. Glasgow,
p 52.

31 Kail of Tankerville, Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. 1839, ii, 284. Nat. Lib.
Jardine, iv, 207, note.

32 Nat. Lib., ‘lardine, iv, 292, note.

3% Darwin, An. & Pl., under Dom. i 107.

4 Hindmarsh, An. & Mag. Nat. List, 1839, ii, 279. Dickinson, Jour. R. A. 8.
o Eng. 1852, 249.

$5 Capt. Davy, Milk Journal, Oct. 2, 1871, 225.

86 Earl of Tankerville, Annals of Nat. Hist. 1839, ii, 277.

37 Dickine»n, Nat. Lib. Capt. Davy, op. cit.

38 Low, Darwin, Earl of Tankerville, op cit.

89 Low, Hindmarsh, op. cit.

Hindmarsh, Darwin, op. cit.

41 Dickinson, Nat. Lib., up. cit.

@ Low, Darwin, op. cit.

#3 Karl of ‘Tankerville, Annals of Nat. Hist. 1839, ii, 277.

4 Low's Animals. p. 237.

«5 Youatt and Martin on Cattle, p. 12.

46 Earl of Tankerville, \n. of Nat. Hist. 1839, ii, 277.

“7 Earl of Tankerville, An. of Nat. Hist. 1839, ii, 284.

48 ILarl of ' lankerville, An. of Nat. Hist. 1839, ii, 277.

49 Nat. Lib., Jardine, iv, 202 note.

50 Darwin, An. & Pl! under Dom. i, 107.

51 Jour. ka A. B. 1852, xiii, 24).

WHITE FOREST BREED. 113

calves appeared with black ears, but these were
destroyed, and black ears had not since reappeared.”
Since 1855 about a dozen calves have been born with
brown or blue spots on their cheeks or necks, but
these, with any other defective animals, were imme-
diately destroyed, and Low speaks of the tendency
of the young to be altogether black or altogether
white, or to have black ears.53 In Keux’s “ Natural
History,” published probably in the earlier part of
the present century, these cattle are said to have lost
their manes, but to have retained their color and
fierceness ; to be of a middle size, long legged, with
black muzzles and ears, and their horns to be fine
and to have a bold and elegant bend. The keeper of
those at Chillingham said that the weight of the ox
was thirty-eight stone, of the cow twenty-eight. It
would thus seem as if Keux spoke from personal
observation.

Dr. Knox remarks that the wild white bull of Scot-
land, instead of having large horns like the fossil
breed, has either comparatively short horns, or none
at all; and when present they follow precisely the
direction observed in those of the surrounding do-
mestic breeds. He also says that when calves are
taken from the cow and brought up with the domestic
cattle of the neighboring farms, they grow up quite
gentle, and precisely as other cattle. When the
young are born with red or black spots, or without
tails, or very short ones, they are uniformly de-

52 Darwin, An. & Pl. under Dom. i, 107.
5 Low’s Animals, 238.

114 WHITE FOREST BREED.

stroyed, the noble proprietor considering the white
color to be essential to their purity.°4 Mr. Cole, the
park-keeper for more than forty years, says they
have no mane, but curly hair on their neck and head ;
more so in winter, when the hair is long. Cully
says their color is invariably of a creamy white ;
muzzle black; the whole of the inside of the ear
and about one third of the outside, from the tip
downwards, red; horns white, with black tips, very
fine, and bent upwards; some of the bulls have a
thin, upright mane, about an inch and a half or two
inches long.

The Hamilton Park cattle are often referred to as
the cattle of the Chase of Cadzow, after the castle of
that name, the former seat of the dukes of Hamilton.
Cadzow Castle occupies a site on the banks of the
Avon in Lanarkshire, at one extremity of the ancient
Caledonian Wood. Aiton, in 1814, describes these
cattle as uniformly of a cteamy white color, their
muzzles and the greater part of their ears black or
brown, and some with a few black spots on their
sides. A few are without horns, but the greater
number have handsome white ones, with black tips
bent like a new moon. Some of the bulls have a sort
of mane, four or five inches long. The cattle at Ham-
ilton and Ardrossan are not so fierce and savage as
their ancestors, but at Auchencruive they still retain
much of their natural ferocity. Their backs are high
and not so straight as could be wished ; their chest

54 Jour. of Ag. ix, 372, 376. 55 Vasey on the Ox Tribe, p. 149.
66 Vasey, op. cit. p. 143.

WHITE FOREST BREED. 115

is deep but narrow; and they have much the appear-
ance of the ill-fed native breed of the cattle of Ayr-
shire, Lanarkshire, etc., about fifty years ago.5? In
1845 Low describes them as with the females gen-
erally polled,*® and in 1870 the bulls are credited
with black-tipped horns.*® Their color is given as
dun white,® or dingy white,® their muzzles and hoofs
black,®? as also the inside of the ecars,®? and the
tongue. In the “ Naturalists’ Library” we find it
stated that their bodies are thick and short, their
limbs stouter than the Chillingham breed, and their
heads much rounder, the inside of their mouths
either black or spotted with black, and the fore part
of their legs, from the knee downward, mottled with
black.°4 At one time but thirteen remained alive,
the survivors of the cattle-plague of the few years
previous. The bulls looked as if they might fatten
to eight hundred or eight hundred and fifty pounds.
They had light hind-quarters, but were heavy and
deep in front; all had black muzzles, black ears, and
the older beasts black tips to their horns. We
were told that some years ago the herd numbered
eighty or ninety, but all fell victims to the cattle-
plague except thirteen, of which eleven altogether
escaped and two recovered. When the plague at-
tacked them, they were driven individually between

57 Sinclair's Scotland, iii, 44.

58 Low's \ninals, 236.

69 Gard. Chron and Ag. Gaz., Alig. 6, 1870,

6 Low. Nat L.ib., op. cit.

61 Dickinson, Jour R. A.8., of Eng., 1852, 249,
®& Low, Nat Lib., op. cat.

6 Low's Animals, 235.

64 Nat. Lib., Jardine, iv, 202, note.

65 Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gaz., Aug. 6, 1870.

116 WHITE FOREST BREED.

gradually approaching fences, leading to a large and
strong wagon sunk to the ground level, and so cap-
tured and taken to separate abodes, where they were
confined until all risk was passed. They have now
(in 1870) increased to thirty-seven.

Dr. Knox says of these animals that they differ a
good deal in form from those of the Chillingham
Park. The markings also are different; but still
there is a strong tendency in the young cattle to
cast calves which are said to be “ off the markings,”
and to be either entirely black or entirely white, or
black and white, but never red or brown.”

We have mention of some having been kept at
Ardrossan and Auchencruive, but no further partic-
ulars, except that those at the latter place were very
fierce.° They were also kept at Bishop-Auckland
in 1635.

The cattle preserved at Drumlanrig, the seat of
the Duke of Queensberry, are said by Darwin to
have become extinct in 1780, and are described as
with their ears, muzzle, and orbits of the eyes black.79
Pennant, writing in 1781, speaks of them as still ex-
isting, having lost their manes, but of a white color.”!
Dickinson states that two cows and a bull were liv-
ing in 1821, but the bull and one of the cows died
that year. He describes them as dun or rather flea-
bitten white, polled, with black muzzles and car-tips,

66 Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gaz., Aug. 6, 1870.
6 Jour. of Ag. ix, 376.

68 Sinclair’s Scotland, ili, 44.

69 An. Nat. Hist. vol. iii, ser. 1, p. 241.

7 Darwin, An. and Pl. under Vom. i, 107.
71 Quadrupeds, 16.

WHITE FOREST BREED. 117

with spotted legs.72 Low says they were destroyed
many years ago by order of the late Duke of
Queensberry.

The cattle at Gisburne Park, in Craven, County
of Yorkshire, England, the seat of Lord Ribbesdale,
are mentioned as late as 1852, as being pure white
with brown or red ears and noses.” Low speaks of
their being polled,”4 and Bewick describes them as
perfectly white except the inside of their ears, which
are brown. They are without horns, very strong
boned but not high.” He also states, as Darwin
quotes, that they are sometimes without dark muz-
zles.* They are said to have been originally brought
from Whalley Abbey, in Lancashire, upon its disso-
lution in 1542.77

The herd at Burton Constable, also in Yorkshire,
situated in the District of Holderness, all perished in
the middle of the last century of an epidemic disor-
der. They were of large size, and had the ears,
muzzle, and tip of the tail, black.78

From Garner’s “ National History of Staffordshire,”
we learn that the wild ox formerly roamed over
Needwood Forest, and in the thirteenth century
William de Farrarus caused the park of Chartley to
be separated from the forest ; and the turf of this ex-
tensive enclosure still remains almost in its primitive
state. Here a herd of wild cattle has been preserved

72 Dickinson, Jour. R. A. 8. of Eng., 1852, 249,
73 Dickinson, op. cit.

74 Low's Animals, 238.

75 Bewick’s Quadrupeds, 8th edit. 39, note.

76 An. and Pl. under Dom. i, 108.

77 Bewick’s op. cit.

78 Low's Animals, 238.

118 WHITE FOREST BREED.

down to the present day, and they retain their wild
characteristics like those at Chillingham. They are
cream colored, with black muzzles and ears; their
fine, sharp horns are also tipped with black. They
are not easily approached, but are harmless unless
molested.” Low adds that they frequently tend to
become entirely black, and that they are of a larger
size than those at Chillingham.®

Wild cattle, says Low, have been or are yet pre-
served at Wollaton in Nottinghamshire and at Lime-
hall in Cheshire, England,*! and Bewick states that
the ears and nose of all of them are black.®

These cattle, in the possession of ancestral fam-
ilies, and maintained and protected in parks, un-
doubtedly as a family pride, have with difficulty been
preserved through the epidemics and casualties of a
few centuries. Yet, despite the human care and the
rigorous weeding out of blemishes, we can see they
were unable to retain in their color or form much
more than a resemblance. In the Chillingham cat-
tle the muzzle is described as black or brown, the
ears inwardly, and in part externally, red, reddish-
brown, and red or brown; their manes either short,
or rudimentary, or not existing. We find black ears
and blemishes occurring at different times. In the
Hamilton herd we find them generally with horns at
an early date, but afterwards the females usually
polled. Black spots on sides and legs are noticed.
They are described as possessing manes of from four

79 Vasey on the Ox Tribe, p. 140. 8 Low’s Animals, p. 238.
8 Low’s Animals, 238. 8 Bewick’s Quadrupeds, 8th edit. 39, note.

WHITE FOREST BREED. 119

to five inches long, especially some bulls. Their
limbs have become stouter and their heads shorter
than the Chillingham breed at the other end: of the
ancient wood. Those at Drumlanrig have become
polled, presumably in both sexes. At Gisburne
Park, they are not only hornless, but only the inside
of their ears are colored, and occasionally they lose
their dark muzzle. At Burton Constable, among
their fertile pastures, we see an increase of size, the
effect of the nsbundance of the feed; and the end of
their tails have become black. In Staffordshire, we
observe the tendency to become entirely black.

When even selection finds it so difficult to preserve
the uniformity of the same herd for successive years,
and fails even more glaringly when applied to differ-
ent herds under varied circumstances, we can hardly
be justified in rejecting these white cattle, as the
primitive or foundation stock of existing breeds of
that county on account of their color alone.

The wild state seems peculiarly favorable to
uniformity of coloring, as the causes which have
operated to produce the result on a few, act likewise
upon all, and are constant in their action. Any
deviations from the markings appear to become ab-
sorbed in the multitude, so as to have little oppor-
tunity for preservation. In civilization, on the
contrary, we have the element of human will, a
highly complex and variable possession, which inter-
rupts the apparent harmony of uncultured nature by
rendering new combinations possible and probable.

That a slight interference with a natural state will

120 WHITE FOREST BREED.

produce variability of coloring, is well shown in an
account of the cattle of Paraguay, by Azara, wherein
it is stated that the wild cattle are always a reddish
pard color, and thus differ in color from the domes-
ticated breeds.*? When it is considered how little
tameness is called domestication in these regions, it
is realized upon what obscure causes the fact of color
must depend. Even in our most ancient breeds we
find variations of color, as in the Highland, Galloway,
and Devon.*! The strongest single argument in favor
of these white cattle being the forefathers of our
present stock, is in the occasional cases of reversion,
which occur in many of the breeds, and oftener in
those whose connection with the wild breed seems
probable. In the West Highland breed, usually
black, the white color and the ear markings in many
cases return.®° In the Ayrshire cow we have record of
two cases of reversion, to white with red ears ; and we
can remark, after a most careful examination of Ayr-
shire cattle, that we have never seen white ears, or ears
the tips of which were other than red, brown, or
black. In shape we have the differences inherent to
locality. Mountain breeds are apt to be lighter in
their hindquarters than breeds occupying a plain, as
we are told by Low,* and it is obvious to any ob-
server that semi-domesticated breeds are lighter in
the flanks and loins than those breeds which have
been subjected to systematic breeding. In the Ayr-

83 Nat. Hist. of the Quadrupeds of Paraguay, Edinb., 1838, 73.
§ Low, pussim.
65 Low’s Animals, 301. 86 Low’s Animals, 305,

WHITE FOREST BREED. 121

shire breed, we find the medium horn, often the
direction of the curve with the frequent black tip,
pointing to the wild breed, as also the white face, or
starred forehead, and the “ rigged” back occasionally
or frequently recurring, to direct our attention to the
transition cattle between the original stock, and the
recorded results of breeding, coeval with the ad-
vanced interest in agricultural pursuits at or about
1800.

These cattle in their present state are easily and
readily tamed, and crosses with common stock are
occasionally noted. Such with the forest bull are
said by Bewick to invariably take the color of the
father and to retain some of the fierceness.6’ One
recorded instance of the crossing of a cow of the
white breed by a common bull, gives the color of the
progeny as after the forest pattern, but with mottled
legs.88 Another, between the white bull of the Ham-
ilton herd and a Shetland cow, produced a very
good-looking polled ox, “nearly quite black,” and
greatly superior in weight to the Shetland cow.*?

When we consider the small number of these cat-
tle, and the length of time they have been preserved,
and how narrowly they have escaped utter extinction,
it is difficult to suppose that they have been retained
in their purity; still less when we consider the dis-
turbances of the times, the number of cattle grazing
continually in their vicinity, and the striking resem-
blance which is often shown to them by cattle of

8° Bewick’s Quadrupeds, 41, note.
88 Hindmarsh, Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. 1839, ii, 280.
89 Dr. Knox, Jour. of Ag. ix, 369.

122 WHITE FOREST BREED.

other breeds. According to Low, individuals were
to be met with in 1845, in the county of Pembroke,
in no ways distinguishable from the wild cattle of
the Parks,°° and Aiton speaks of their resemblance to
the common cattle of 1750. We have ourselves seen
in America, cattle which were pure white with red
ears, and even polled.

The only explanation we can offer for the vari-
ations between the herds of forest cattle, and the
tendency towards variation, which seems from our
account to have been ever strong, is that these, as
well as the domestic cattle of this region, are off-
shoots from the same original stock, the wild ox of
the past, but that those races we call domesticated,
as the Ayrshire, the Angus, the Galloway, the High-
land, and others, have been influenced to a greater
extent by the arts of civilization, the conscious or
unconscious breeding for certain uses, and the effects
of crossing, than these inhabitants of the parks.

On this view the White Forest Breed is a wild
animal, a descendant, with now and then a bar sin-
ister, of the wild breed; and the domesticated races
of the country are likewise their descendants, but
with un ancestry hopelessly confused and intermixed
by outside crosses and influences.

9 Animals, 296.

THE COUNTY OF AYRSHIRE.

In the south of Scotland, on the western coast,
lies the County of Ayrshire. The outline of its
boundaries encloses a crescent-shaped area, with the
concavity towards the sea, —its length about eighty
miles, and its breadth varying from a few miles at
the extremities to about twenty-eight miles in the
centre, it contains 1,149 square miles, or 735,262
acres of surface.!_ Generally low adjoining the sea,
the land rises by easy slopes and wavy undulations,
to a ridge of high or hilly country, in part almost
mountainous, which forms its eastern boundaries. No
portion can be termed level, for numerous swells or
rounded hills give variety to the landscape. As the
slope of the land is generally westerly, towards the
shore, or the valleys of the streams flowing thither, it
follows that the principal exposure of the arable
land is westerly and southerly, a fact which is of
importance as explaining in part the moderation of
the climate. The country is well watered by numer-
ous streams, which, rising among the eastern hills,
find their way in a tortuous course to the sea.

+ Jour. R. A. 8. of Eng. 1866, p. 426.

124 AYRSHIRE.

Ayrshire is probably the most densely-wooded
county in Scotland, although most of the wood-
land was planted towards the close of the last
century and beginning of this. The growth is chiefly
of larch and Scotch fir, but generally having hardwood
trees intermixed, — beech, ash, and elm predomin-
ating.? More than one half of the country may be
classed as unimproved, being occupied by hills,
moors, mosses, and lochs.

Historically and statistically the county is divided
into three districts, from north to south. Cunning-
ham comprehends the whole of the county north of
the Irvine. It is much the most populous, and a
larger proportion of its surface is cultivatable than of
the other two, and it is the most fertile; its whole
area is nbout 185,000 acres, of which it is estimated
about fifty-seven per cent is under cultivation. The
land rises from the sea-border by easy declivities,
and terminates in the pastoral and moorland county
of the castern boundaries. Kyle occupies the cen-
tral portion of the county; its boundaries are the
waters of the Irvine and the Doon. Its area is about
270,000 acres, of which about forty per cent are
under cultivation. It is less fertile than the Vale of
Cunningham, and more hilly. Carrick, or the rug-
ged, extends from the Doon Water to the southern
boundary. This division is generally hilly, with a
few fertile and productive valleys. Of its estimated
area of 280,000 acres, but thirty-four per cent are

2 Archibald Sturrock, Pr. Essays High. Soc. 4th ser. i, 24.
3 Archibald Sturrock, op. cit. p. 21.

CLIMATE. 125

under cultivation. Unlike the other districts, Car-
rick is as yet almost exclusively agricultural and
pastoral.*

The climate of Ayrshire is said to be the most
humid in Scotland. The winds blow from the west
and southwest for more than two thirds part of the
year, and the rains from these quarters are frequent,
often copious, and sometimes of long duration.® The
rain does not usually fall in heavy, casual plumps,
but comes down in more continuous succession of
steady, moderate showers, or thick, drizzling smirrs.®
This is well-shown by a series of statistics of the
rain-fall in Kilmarnock, from March to October, dur-
ing the years 1864 and 1865. The average weekly
rain-fall was .63 inch, and in but five weeks of the
sixty was no rain-fall recorded. During the fifteen
years from 1850 to 1865, out of the 214 days from
March to October, on the average, 109 were recorded
as wet.’ This constant moisture is favorable to the
grasses, and is an encouragement to dairy industries.

The temperature is remarkably equable, the colds
of winter being mitigated by the passage of the prev-
alent winds over the adjacent seas, and the extreme
heats of summer, in like manner moderated through
the influence of the water. During the season of
growth, the mean maximum and minimum tempera-
ture of any week seldom varies more than 25°, and
rarely does the mean maximum attain 65°. The

4 Archibald Sturrock, op. cit. p. 21.
5 Aiton’s Survey of avg aie p. 18.
¢ Sturrock, op. cit. p. 2
7 Thomson's Pr. ees High. Soc. 4th ser, 45, 347.

126 SOIL.

mean temperature given for the neighboring city of
Glasgow® for the year is 47°, and this may be as-
sumed for the temperature of Ayrshire.

The soil is mostly clay in the arable portions.
Sturrock estimates more than half of the arable lands
to be clays and heavy loams. The clays on the
higher ridges are thinner and nearer the till, of a
brownish-red color generally, and totally unworkable
for green crops under their climate. That kind of
clay soil hardens into a brick-like substance during
the occasional summer droughts. As for level “ carse
clay land,” there is none in Ayrshire. The light
land is comprised mostly in a strip extending along
the coast, in an almost unbroken line from the north-
ern boundary to the Girvan River, from one to three
miles wide, and perhaps fifty miles long, close to
the coast, uncultivated for the most part, but im-
proving in quality as it extends inland. Consider-
able extent of deep, light loam occurs through Kyle
and Cunningham, on the banks of rivers, and more,
even of a finer quality, in some of the minor vales of
Carrick. Large areas of peat and moor land exist;
and although at times some effort has been made for
its improvement, but little has been done for the
past thirty years.®

The principal crops of the county are grass, oats,
and wheat. Of these, grass occupied about 57 per
cent of the rotation in 1857. About 24 per cent of
the average was in oats, and about 6 per cent in

§ Blodgett’s Climatology, p. 54.
© Sturrock, op. cit. pp. 25 and 26,

STATISTICS. 127

wheat. If we class the products under white crops,
so called, such as wheat, barley, oats, etc., and
green crops, which include turnips, potatoes, beets,
etc., we have about 31 per cent of the average
under rotation for the first, and 11 per cent for the
latter.}°

The dairy is the principal interest, although graz-
ing is carried on to quite a large extent. In 1866
there were 5.7 cows for every hundred acres of area,
and 4.6 of other cattle,— a total of 10.3 per hundred
acres for neat stock. About 35 sheep and 2 pigs are
kept for each hundred acres of area, or a total of
176.9 head of live stock (not including horses) per
hundred acres of area of the county."

It is thus scen that a general description of the
county is a semicircle of arable land, surrounded by
hills suitable for pasturage, there being a natural dis-
tinction between the tillage and pasture land. Owing
to this basin-like character, from certain elevations
more land under culture can be seen at one time than
in any other county in Scotland.

The population of the county in 1861 was 198,971.19
It contains valuable mines of coal and iron, which
give employment to large numbers, and as a manu-
facturing district it stands next in importance to the
contiguous counties of Lanark and Renfrew. It is
accordingly well supplied with home markets, and
its nearness to the city of Glasgow has a favorable
influence on its prosperity.

10 Enc. Brit. xix. 797.
11 Jour. R. A. S. of Eng. 1866, p. 426,

128 EARLY AGRICULTURE.

The first definite reports we have of the agriculture
of Ayrshire embraces the period comprehended be-
tween the years 1750 and 1760. Colonel Fullarton,
writing in 1793, states that at this time there was
hardly a practicable road in the county. The farm-
houses were mere hovels moated with clay. The few
ditches which existed were ill constructed, and the
hedges worse preserved. The land was overrun with
weeds and rushes, and gathered into such high,
broad, and serpentine ridges, interrupted with baulks,
that 2 man was required, armed with a pole hooked
to the beam of the plough, to regulate the width of
the furrow, a device rendered necessary by the extra-
ordinary height of the ridges, some of them being
nearly at an angle of 30°. The soil was collected on
the top of the ridge, and the furrow drowned in
water. There were no fallows, nor green crops nor
sown grass. The ground was scourged with oats
succeeding crops of oats, as long as the harvest
would pay for the seed and labor, and afford a small
surplus of oatmeal for the family ; then after a period
of sterility, or overrun with thistles, it was called
upon for another scanty crop.

The farms were of small size, and occupied by
mixed tenants, and were divided into what were called
the croft or infield, and outfield land. The croft,
which was a chosen piece of land near the house,
received all the dung, which was of small avail, and
which the farmers dragged to the field on cars or
sledges or tumbler-wheels, which turned with the
axle-tree, and were hardly able to draw five hundred

FAMINE. 129

weight. After several crops of oats, a crop of bigg,
or four-rowed barley, was taken. Then remaining
in lay a year, the land was again broken up to un-
dergo the same wretched rotation. The outtield was
kept in a state of absolute reprobation. It was
cropped with oats and grass, without dung or other
manure.

As there were few or no, enclosures, the cattle
were either tethered or herded during the summer
months, and from the end of harvest, till the ensuing
seed-time, were suffered tu poach the fields. Starved
during the winter, they were scarcely able to rise
without aid in the spring, and perpetually harassed
during summer, were never in a fit condition for
market.

The state of the markets was so low, and so little
public credit established, that no tenant could
command money to stock his farm, and few land-
lords could raise the means fur improving their
estates.

The consequences of this mismanagement were de-
plorable. The people, having hardly any substitute
for oatmeal, were entirely at the mercy of the season.
The price of meal fluctuated, and in unfavorable sea-
sons dearth or famine unavoidably ensued. About
the year 1700 there were a succession of bad
seasons, which reduced the county of Ayr to the
lowest gradation ‘of want, and hundreds of families
had to fly for subsistence to the north of Ireland. In
these seasons of misery, the poor people not unfre-
quently have been obliged to subsist by bleeding

7

130 IGNORANCE AND BIGOTRY.

their cattle, and mixing the blood so procured with
what oatmeal they could obtain.”

At this period, the farmers were altogether ignor-
ant of the fundamental principles of agriculture, and
were so much preoccupied with mysterious and ab-
struse points of systematic divinity that they sought
for no other knowledge; and the time which should
have been spent on the farm, was occupied in the labors
of reform, in demolishing churches, and hunting down
the popish clergy, who were the best farmers then in
Scotland. A good crop they imputed to the favor,
and a bad one to the frowns of Heaven, and, know-
ing nothing of the principles of vegetation, sought
their agricultural returns by greater sanctity and
longer prayers, in the place of that labor which
springs from understanding.!? Innovations were
resisted. The introduction of a winnowing machine

vas noticed from the pulpit, and prejudice fostered
against it, even to the extent of calling it the “ De’il’s
wind.” Accidents happening to those seeking agri-
cultural reform were considered special providences,
expressing the disapprobation of Deity.

Aiton, in speaking of the enclosures of the county,
remarks that there were no dykes in Ayrshire till
about the year 1750, and very few till after 1760.
Nine tenths of the fences have been formed since
1766.4

Mr. Robertson, one of the ministers of Kilmar-

12 Quoted in Alton’s Survey of Ayrshire, p. 69. See also a similar account,
Farmers’ Mag. vol. 15, p. 173.

13 Aiton. op. cit.p.74. Read, also, chap. v, vol. 2, of Buckle’s History of
Civilization in England.

14 Op.cit. p. 221. See, also, Farmers’ Mag. vol. 15, 173.

WRETCHEDNESS OF COUNTRY. 131

nock, says that about 1760 no enclosures were to he
seen, except perhaps one or two around a gentle-
man’s seat, in all the wide-extended and beautiful
plain of Cunningham. Here at the end of harvest,
when the crop was carried into the barn-yard from
the fields, the whole county had the appearance of a
wild and dreary common, and nothing was to be seen
but here and there a poor barn and homely hut, where
the farmer and his family were lodged. The cattle
roamed at pleasure and poached all the arable ground,
now saturated with the winter rains, so that it was
spoiled for the crop of the following year.’

Yet there must have been some exceptions to this
account, although it probably describes the general
stute of the county. The parish of Dunlop appears
to have been distinguished agriculturally as early as
1700,'6 and in 1740 a Mr. Boyd purchased a cow at
the then unprecedented price of £2 2s.!7 The fact
of people coming from a considerable distance to
obtain a sight of such a famous animal would indicate
that the seeds of progress were dormant, rather than
dead, in the community, and that occasional improve-
ments or efforts towards change must have been
taking place.

In 1804 we find all the wretchedness changed.
“Were a person now to stand,” says a writer in the
“Farmer’s Magazine” of that year, “upon an emi-
nence, and survey the beautiful plains of Kyle and
Cunningham, with a considerable part of Carrick, he

145 Farmer’s Magazine, 1804, p. 73. 16 Forsyth’s Beauties of Scotland, ii, 439.
W Aiton, op. cit. p. 172.

132 RENTS.

would see the hedges, belts, and clumps of trees
already grown to considerable height, fields brought
into regularity and order, and spirit and activity
everywhere displayed upon something like systematic
principles.”

The change is further seen by the rent and value
of lands at these different periods. The rent of the
whole parish of Ardrossan was about £603 in 1749,
£3,433 in 1795, and £6,098 in 1908.!8 In Grougar
parish, Aiton gives the valuation of one piece of 70
acres at £170 in 1742, and £7,000 in 1811. The
whole arable lands of the parish of Kilmarnock were
placed in 1763 at 24 to 3 shillings per acre; their
rental in 1811 was twenty times that sum. Yet
during this time the price of wheat, taken in average
periods of ten years, had changed but very little;
the price of bear or barley had advanced greatly,
while there was a steady advance in the price of oats
and oatmeal.?° But little wheat could have entered
into the consumption of the people, for until the year
1785 but little was seen beyond the limits of a noble-
man’s farm.?!. The increase in the price of the staple
products of oats and barley could not have justified
the increased rents, were it not for the increased
production.

It may be well to inquire into the causes for this
change. The atrocious religious persecutions had left
the country at the close of the seventeenth century in
a bad state, and had imbued the people of the earlier

13 Aiton, op. ctt. p. 168. 20 Aiton, op. ci/. p. 171.
19 Aiton, op. cit. p. 169, 21 Gazetteer of Scutland, i, 90.

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. 133

portions of the eighteenth century with a religious
fanaticism, which hindered progress, and bordered on
criminality in its interference with the development
of the country. With the revolution of 1688, a
new era commenced in the legislation on corn, and
soon after in the practice of the cultivator in Brit-
ain;*? and the greater attention paid to improve-
ment, as following the tendency of the times, was
not without its effect in Scotland. In 1723 a society
was formed for the Improvement of Agriculture, of
which the Earl of Stair was a most active member ;
but there is reason to believe that the influence of
the example of its numerous members did not extend
to the common tenantry.*4* It is worthy of remark
that farmers are at all times tardy and reluctant in
following the example of those possessing weulth ;
whereas, when a person who depends upon the suc-
cess of his industry for his subsistence, prospers in
his pursuits, his example is quickly followed by
others in his neighborhood.

The County of Ayrshire contained within itself,
however, the elements of reform; and Alexander,
Earl of Eglinton, commenced the improvement of his
large estate about 1730. He spurred the industry of
his tenants by personal appeals, opened quarries, laid
off roads, plantations, and ditches, and introduced an
eminent farmer from another district. John, Earl of
Loudon, also began extensive improvements about
this time, and raised field turnips, cabbages, and car-

2 See Buckle’s Hist. of Civilization in Eng., vol. 2, chap. 6.
ae. Brit. ii, 254. 2 Ene, Brit. ii, 262.

134 IMPROVEMENTS.

rots as early as 1756. But the most fruitful stini-
ulus for improvement were the Acts of Parliament
between the years 1750 and 1760, for collecting tolls
and making roads.2° It is not easy to estimate the
benefit which agriculture has derived from good
roads, and the want of communication was one of the
causes of the sluw progress of the art in former
times.

About this time the Earl of Eglinton established a
Farmers’ Society, and presided over it himself for a
number of years.27. The gradual advance in price
and produce, the consequence of increase of popula-
tion and manufactures, giving a powerful impulse to
rural industry, rendered possible the changes in the
system of leases and the restrictions on cultivation
and rotation. The Fairlie rotation, introduced by
the Earl of Eglinton, was pursued by William Fairlie,
after this nobleman’s death, not only upon the Earl’s
extensive domain, but also on a considerable property
of his own.?® Every farm as it came out of lease
was enclosed, and divided by sufficient fences into
three or more parts, and was allowed to remain in
grass till it recovered from the exhausted course of
evil management already stated. The land was
limed, convenient houses and offices were builded, and
alease granted, usually for eighteen years, under cov-
enant not to plough more than one third of the farm in
any one year, nor to plough the same land more than
three successive years. With the third crop, the land

25 Aiton, op. cif. p.80. 7 Aiton, op. cit. p. 678.
20 Ene. Brit. ii, 262. 28 Warmers’ Mag. 1804, p. 783. Aiton, op. cat. p. 81.

IMPROVEMENTS. 135

was laid down to grass. The fodder was stipulated
to be consumed upon the farm, and all the dung to be
spread upon it.?? Other proprietors followed in these
courses, and the increased rents which such measures
demanded had the tendency to drive out the shiftless
farmers and replace them by men of energy and
force. It is obvious, as Aiton observes, that many
of those who pay the highest rent realize the largest
profits. This proceeds from the increased industry to
which they are roused, by knowing that they have a
higher rent to raise. And many of those whose rents
are extremely moderate, as well as some of the small
proprietors who pay no rent whatever, have by their
indolence been reduced to poverty. Some proprietors
within his knowledge, having gone through bank-
ruptcy and sold their land, occupying it as tenants at
high rents, have gained by industry as tenants double
the sum which they had obtained as the price of their
own property.

In 1786 the Kilmarnock farmers established their
Society, and a few years after others were formed
at Maybole, Galston, Newmills, and other places.”
From 1784 to 1795 the improvements advanced with
steady steps. From 1795 to 1814 the prices of
produce steadily increased under the influence of the
Napoleonic wars. The date of 1754 is that of the
origin of the Highland Society, whose prominent
objects were then stated to be to facilitate communi-
cation and advance agriculture ; and their list for the

29 Aiton, op. cit. p. 85.
30 Aiton, op. cit. p. 680.

136 CHANGES.

year 1789 offers premiums for essays on the manage-
ment of cattle-farms and the dairy, breeding stock,
etc., for the execution of improvements, and the
raising of crops.” 3

It was, therefore, the extension of the activity of
thought following the political measures of this time,
and introduced into the common life of Ayrshire,
which rendered possible these sudden changes. It
is seldom that human agency has effected so much in
the environment of a country, as took place with
such remarkable activity in Scotland: which changed
a waste into a garden; which furnished such con-
trasts between what might have been seen by an
individual in the course of an ordinary life-time.
Although our accounts of the cattle of this district are
few, it cannot be doubted but that the appearance
and properties of the cattle and the dairy shared in
these contrasts, and the changes which were possible
in the tenancy of the land, were possible in a breed ;
and the changes which actually took place in the one,
must have produced a change in the other.

31 Prize Essays, High. Soc. vol. 1.

AYRSHIRE CATTLE: DOCUMENTARY HISTORY
OF THEIR ORIGIN.

BreEeps of cattle attain their excellences and their
; prominence by degrees, and their early history is
difficult to be traced, as each addition to their use-
fulness has either been unrecognized, or has seemed
at the time too insignificant to record.

The history of the Ayrshire breed of cattle is
shrouded in the past. But few efforts have been
made to lift the veil, and the scanty records that
we have, seem little better than personal surmise
or unfounded assertion. Everything beyond what
well-attested accounts reach is obscure, and the more
so here, as few writers have considered the history of
agriculture in its details, or the occurrence of a well-
defined or growing breed, worthy the pen of the
historian.

Of one fact we are certain. About the close of the
last and beginning of the present century, our atten-
tion is called to a breed of dairy cows established in
the County of Ayrshire, and already having a local
celebrity for the quantity and profitableness of their
yield of milk. Their origin was probably influenced
by the general revival of agriculture which took place

T*

138 OBSCURITY OF BEGINNINGS.

in the eighteenth century.! It is a peculiarity of the
human mind to desire to fix a definite origin for a
race or a man in whom there is a strong interest.
The early Greeks recognized the obscurity of begin-
nings, and accordingly derived the origin of their
heroes from a divine progenitor. “In a like manner
writers on cattle have attempted to derive the origin
of their breeds, from imported animals or obscure
crosses. They have attempted to use the divinity of
a recognized breed in support of the breed, which
they fear will seem to their readers comparatively
recent. The literature of the Ayrshire breed abounds
with this error.

Aiton, our principal and almost only authority on
the origin of this breed, understands that the Earl of
Marchmont, about 1750, purchased from the Bishop
of Durham and carried to his seat in Berwickshire,
several cows and a bull of the Teeswater or other
English breed, of a brown and white color, and that
some of this breed were carried to Sombeg, in Kyle,
and crossed with many cows about Cessnock and
Sundrum.? Jobn Dunlop, of Dunlop, is also said to
have introduced cows of a large size from a distance,
probably of the Dutch, Teeswater, or Lincoln breed.?
In a later writing, Aiton, laboring under a seeming
necessity of giving a more definite origin to the
breed, writes that about 1770, or a little earlier, bulls
and cows of the Teeswater or Short-horned breed are
“said to have been introduced into Ayrshire by several

1 Burton’s Scotland, fi, 393.
2 Survey of Ayrshire, p. 424.

ALDERNEY CROSSES. 139

proprietors, and it is from them and their crosses
with the native stock, that the present dairy breed
has been formed.”? When writing in 1811, however,
he says that the Ayrshire dairy breed is “in a great
measure the native indigenous breed of the County of
Ayr, improved in their size, shapes, and qualities,
chiefly by judicious selection, cross coupling, feed-
ing, and treatment, for a long series of time, and
with much judgment and attention ;”4 and this ap-
pears from the context a more correct expression of
his judgment, and the fact, than the other.

When we pass to general statements of their or-
igin, we find the author of the “Complete Grazier”
asserting them a cross of the Alderney cows with
Fifeshire bulls, under the name of Dunlop breed.§
Ro. Forsyth, however, writing in 1805, speaks of the
Dunlop breed as having been established in the parish
of that name for morethan acentury.® Quayle, who
wrote the “Agricultural Survey of Jersey,” states that
the Ayrshire breed was a cross between the Short-horn
and the Alderney,’ and Col. LeCouteur, of the Island
of Jersey, writes’ that Field-Marshal Conway, the
Governor of Jersey, and Lieutenant-General Andrew
Gordon, who succeeded him, nearly half a century
back, both sent some of the best cattle to England
and Scotland. Ro. Forsyth, again, that elegant and
apparently trustworthy writer, says® that the Earl of
Fife, and General Grant, of Banffshire, have spared

3 Sinclair’s Scotland, 1814, iii, 43. 5 Complete Grazier, 3d ed. p. vii.
4 Survey of Ayrshire, p. 422. 6 Beauties of Scotland, ii, 439.

7 Quoted in Jour. R A. 8. of Eng. 1844, p. 47.

8 Beauties of Scotland, iv, 456,

140 BLACK CATTLE.

no expense in introducing from time to time the most
valuable breed of bulls and cows from England and
Germany. As the Duke of Gordon had his family
seat in this shire, and as the dates of the two state-
ments agree, it is possible that they refer to the same
event. John Orr, Esq., of Barrowfield, brought from
Glasgow, or some part of the East County, to Grou-
gar, about 1769, several very fine cows,? which fact
would seem to show an occasional movement of
improved stock from distant districts.

The cattle of this district, at the time we have our
first accounts, were black and white. Indeed, so
common was this color that Cully remarks, that in
aul the accounts of cattle which he had seen in deeds
or statutes, they are called black cattle. Black or
brown with white faces, and white streaks along their
backs, were the prevailing colors in Ayrshire in the
earlier portions of the eighteenth century.!9 Aiton
describes them previous to 1750, as being generally
black, with some white on their face, belly, neck,
back, or tail, and in 1811 as mostly of a dark color,
or black, with the exception of the improved dairy
breed! Again he speaks of them, from his own
recollection, as black, with white on the face, the
back, and the flanks, and few of the cows yielding ‘
more than from one and a half to two gallons of milk
in the day at the height of the season.!2_ Still later
in his writings he states that about 1770, they were
of small size, with high-standing, crooked horns,

* Survey of Ayrshire, p. 424. 1 Survey of Ayrshire, p. 425.
Ww Beauties of Scotland, ii, 439, 12 Quoted in Low’s Animals, p. 342,

DUNLOP BREED. “TAI

narrow on the back, and flat on the ribs, and mostly
of a black color, with white spots on their faces and
other parts.!8 These descriptions show an affinity
with the Highland breed.

The first record of improved cattle that we are able
to find goes back to about the year 1700. Ro. For-
syth, in 1805, states that for the purpose of prepar-
ing cheese in Cunningham, a breed of cattle for more
than a century had been established, remarkable for
the quantity and quality of their milk in proportion
to their size. These had long been denominated the
Dunlop breed, either from the lands of the ancient
family of that name, or from the name of the parish
where the breed was first brought to perfection.
Our only other reference to this breed by name is in
the “Complete Grazier,” an anonymous work, pub-
lished about 1300, where it is stated that the Dunlop
breed, is a cross from Alderney cows with Fifeshire
bulls, and are described as small in size, of a pied or
sandy red color, and with small horns awkwardly
set on.1#

In 1778 and 1780 the color of red and white be-
came fashionable ;° and between 1785 and 1805 the
brown and white mottled cattle became so generally
preferred, as to bring a larger price than others of
equal size and shape, if differently marked ;'° and
Aiton speaks of the red and white being common in
1810.

Color is affected much by varied conditions ; and

13 Sinclair’s Scotland, 1814, iii, 43. 15 Survey of Ayrshire, p. 421.
14 Cumplete Grazier, 3d ed. p. 7. 16 Beauties of Scotland, ii, 439.

142 VARYING COLOR-MARKINGS.

oftentimes a change in environment, although almost
inexpressibly small, as illustrated on the cattle-farms
of the Pampas,!’ will cause the self color of a wild
or semi-wild breed to break; and when the varied
conditions accompanying agricultural improvement
reached the cattle of Ayrshire, we find by our record
a greater change in the colors than had existed under
the less varied circumstances of agricultural stagna-
tion.

As the spirit of travel and improvement reached
the upper class of inhabitants, we find the merits of
foreign breeds recognized, and an introduction of
other breeds, to a sufficient extent, at least, to vary
the color-marks of the cattle; and those colors which
became fashionable, and thus sought after with greater
avidity, would naturally become the most general.
We thus find at the present day the red and white
preponderating over the other colors, and the blacks
and whites far less common than in the past.

Ro. Forsyth, not realizing the quick changes pro-
duced by the directing of general attention to certain
points, as profitable or fashionable, remarks upon the
rapidity of the diffusion of the improved breed, as a
singular circumstance in the history of breeding, and
speaks of the mottled breed as of different origin
from the common stock.!® He describes this variety
in 1805 as being short in the leg, with fine-shaped
head and neck, and small and tapering horns, their
body deep but not so long, nor so full and ample in

17 Azara, Quad. of Paraguay.
18 Beauties of Scotland, ii, 439.

ORIGIN. 143

the carcass and hind-quarters, as some other kinds."
This description has a bearing on the origin of this
breed, as it shows that at this date no change had
been produced which could not be accounted for by
selection and treatment.

19 Beauties of Scotland, ii, 439.

ORIGIN OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE.

WE have seen that cattle abounded in Scotland
before the historical epoch; and throughout the
earlier centuries, the pasturage of herds and the man-
ufacture of cheese are recorded fragmentarily and
concisely, in the charters and excerpts of the monks
and earlier historians. We have it stated by a com-
petent writer that a breed existed in Dunlop, a
parish of Cunningham, as early as the year 1700,
which was noted for quantity of milk in proportion
to size; and the same writer gives it as a veritable
fact that a certain Barbara Gilmour, fleeing the county
to escape the barbarities accompanying the religious
persecutions, under the last princes of the house of
Stuart, introduced upon her return from Ireland the
manufacture of cheese, which since that period has
been the great business of that neighborhood. He
proceeds, “Sensible that their situation was more
favorable for this than for any other purpose, the
people bestowed upon it the greatest care and turned
it to the best advantage.”! In this sentence we have
the key to the origin of the improved breed.

In the region which included this county we have
records of the earliest attempts at civilization ; and in

1 Ro. Forsyth, Beauties of Scotland, li, 441.

DIFFERENTIATION. 145

the differentiation brought about by its consequences,
we find the cattle lacking an uniformity of color, yet
in many respects resembling the breed which for-
merly inhabited the wilds, and which now, degen-
erate, inhabits the parks of certain nobles. These
cattle differ from the wild herds in color, but this, it is
shown, is hardly an important character, as the wild
cattle display a strong tendency to vary among them-
selves. Moreover, the improved breed occasionally
sport into white with red ears, resembling thus the
forest breed.? The breeds of the county have not
the heavy mane, which history and tradition have
ascribed to the forest animal; yet this animal has
lost it wholly or in part.

As ideas of agricultural improvement reached these
regions, there is evidence of increased interest heing
taken in the breeds; the more obvious feature of
color is taken in hand, and brown and white colors
are preferred, and the result is a remarkably rapid
diffusion of these colors throughout the district dur-
ing the years intervening between 1785 and 1805,
the era of the Agricultural Society, and the certain
identification of the improved brecd. The more
spirited of the agricultural improvers, attracted by
the fame of foreign breeds, introduce now and then

2U.8. Pat. Off. Report, Ag. 1851, p. 91, note.

In October, 1872, a white heifer-calf, with ears tipped with red, was dropped,
from Ayrshire parents, at the Massachusetts Agricultural College. In October,
1874, we saw in the farm-yard of Mr. ‘Tilton, at Martha's Vincyard, two cows,
perfectly white, save the inside of the ears, which were brown-red two thirds
down from the tip. These animals were the result uf a cross, an (grade?) Al-
derney bull and grade Ayrshire cow,—a good illustration of reversion brought
about through crossing. Inappcarance these animals resembled Landseccr’s pic-
ture id the White Forest Breed, — prubably the only two white animals on the
island.

146 SELECTION, se

such animals, and rear these, or cross with the native
stock, and during this whole time a process of selec-
tion for uses is going on by all alike,—the cow
giving the most milk being retained, while the poorer
milker finds her place in the shambles. The progeny
of the largest milking animal is reared, in preference
to others whose ancestors are not so well, or unfavor-
ably, known for this quality. The fashion and the
natural eagerness to secure those colors which are
attractive, also come into play; while the improved
system of farming, the enclosing of lands, the winter
protection, and other adjuncts of improved agricul-
ture, aided in bringing the breed to a larger size and
greater excellence.

It is possible that the Guernsey breed may have
transmitted some of her quality to the present Ayr-
shire, as is suggested by the sandy red and pied
Dunlop; but if so, it is scarcely ever shown at pres-
ent in color of skin or hair. Similarity of function
can produce a certain similarity in form; and what-
ever resemblance may exist between the Alderney
and the Ayrshire can well be referred to this law.
We find a correlation between the external parts of
a cow and her physiological functions ; and two sep-
arate peoples, seeking in a breed dairy qualities,
would naturally and unavoidably obtain certain shapes
in common, from whatever breed they may have ori-
ginally started. It is in the point where differentia-
tion occurs that we would look for divergence, and
we see it in the udder: the one breed designed for
butter alone, the shape of the udder is neglected in

CROSSING. 147

the breeding, and we see the pointed, egg-shaped,
and goat udder almost universal; the other breed
designed for milk, and the udder is admired for its
capacity ; and we therefore find it broad, more level
on its sole, and extending far forward and back.

It is possible, even probable, that Short-horn
crosses may have occurred ; for it would be strange
that a breed so well and favorably known could exist
so new the region of Ayrshire, without attracting the
attention of wealthy gentlemen, who were desirous
and eager to advance the capabilities of their heri-
tage.

The Holderness, said to have been introduced into
the north of England and south of Scotland,’ also
may have been used in modifying the breed; and it
is highly probable that the indistinct black spots
which occasionally show through the white hair of
the Ayrshires, may be accounted for under the
laws of reversion. Where so little is known with
certainty of the origin of a breed, and where recorded
instances of the presence of other breeds are given,
the probabilities of a mixture become almost certain-
ties. The presence of cattle from the Irish coast, in
the adjacent island of Arran, and the introduction
of these same cattle into Galloway,‘ would scem to
afford a reasonable presumption of crosses having
occurred with these animals in the region of Ayr-
shire. It is possible that the orange rim to the eye,
occasionally met with among the Ayrshires, is de-
rived from a distant Kerry ancestry.

2 Low’s Animals, p. 380. 4 Youatt on Cattle, p. 75.

148 ORIGIN.

The Ayrshire bree: is undoubtedly the descend
ants of the original wild breed, modified by civiliza-
tion, and more particularly by selection; and the
selection has certainly been aided by the variations
produced by crossing with other and distinct breeds.
Improvement, as thus begun, was probably at first
local, then gradually extended, until the enclosure of
the fields, and the demand for certain produce, in-
creased the number of the areas of local betterment.
These agencies, acting for a long time, but more par-
ticularly within the period comprised in the. last of
the eighteenth and first of the nineteenth centuries,
resulted in an animal of varied markings, but distinct
quality ; and in 1810 we can claim the existence of
an improved race, of remarkable dairy capacities, so
well bred in as to be permanent for the breed.

The origin of the Ayrshire breed is, in a word,
adaptation. The united efforts of the spirit of im-
provement, and the influence of locality, acting on
such materials as were at band, and guided by an
unconscious selection, acted on by a general intelli-
gence, produced an animal which is a determinate
product, of an age characterized by a special activity
in promoting progress. The same agencies which
evolved the steam-engine into usefulness had a part
in evolving the improved Ayrshire cow.

PROGRESS OF IMPROVEMENT SINCE 1805.

Tae Ayrshire cow of 1805, although possessing
some fineness of shape, and credited with a not un-
common yield of from 24 to 34 quarts of milk daily,
and exceptionally as giving as much as 40 quarts,
yet appears to bave been deficient in width and
depth of carcass behind, and no mention is made
of the shape either possessed by, or desired in, the
udder. This breed, however, was very generally
diffused over Cunningham,! and very soon found its
way into other counties of Scotland.?

In 1811, as we judge from the description and
figure given by Aiton,” the shape of the carcass had
somewhat improved, and there seems to have been
gained a lightness forward. At the same time our
attention is called to the shape of the udder, which
is described as broad and square, stretching forward,
neither low-hung nor loose. The same stress is laid
on the perfection of udder in the description given
by William Harley, in 1829,3 and he had cows which
not unfrequently gave from 25 to 30 quarts a day,
and once even attained 40 quarts.

The great breadth and depth of the loins appears

1 Ro. Forsyth, Beauties of Scotland, ii, 439.
2 Survey of Ayrshire, 425. % Harleian Dairy System, p. 106.

150 PROGRESS OF IMPROVEMENT.

to have been gained in 1845,‘ and now, also, we first
find mention of the flatness of thigh, at the inner side
technically called the twist. At this time, the droop-
ing of the haunch towards the rump was common.
This breed had now become the prevailing stock in
Renfrew, Dumbarton, Stirling, and Lanark, and had
been carried to many other more distant localities.

In 1853° we have for the first time a recognized
standard for the breeder, the Scale of Points of the
Ayrshire Agricultural Association. Particular stress
is placed on the wedge-form body, and the develop-
ment of the rear half of the body where the concen-
tration of function takes place. The shapes of the
milk-vessel and its appendages receive greater atten-
tion, and there is demanded an increased fineness of
points.

In 1866 Archibald Sturrock, in a prize essay on
Ayrshire County, writes that “a capacious and well-
set udder is certainly the chief point of excellence.” §

In 1868 the chief point of merit of Ayrshire cattle
is said to be “a capacious and well-set udder, and
these are the principal objects aimed at, although a
straight back, with a sweet head and_ branching
horns, are received with favor in a show-yard.”7

In 1871 a writer in the “Farmer’s Magazine,” in
describing the Ayrshire cow, proceeds: “ The udder
well set on. For a prize-taker this point must be
faultless, as no beauty of form or regularity of other

4 Low’s Animals, p, 343.

5 Pr. Essays H. Soc. 1866-7, p. 106.

6 Pr. Essays H Soc. 1866-7, p. 77.

7H.N. Fraser, Pr. Essays H. Soc. 1868-9, p. 331.

UDDER. 151

points will make up for deficiency in the form or size
of the milk-vessel. If this is in perfection, other and
minor points may be overlooked.” ®

The most noteworthy fact in the above series is the
stress laid upon the form of the udder, and this has
been caused by the educating influence of the many
farmers’ clubs, with which the district has been
sprinkled. This influence was early manifested, and
competition must have had a great influence, in
changing the form of this useful portion of our ani-
mil, into a vessel not alone for use, but for beauty. _

In 1836, a large premium was offered for the
competition of this breed, by the Highland and
Agricultural Society, which long before had offered
encouragement to breeding stock; and the local so-
cieties, some of long antiquity, had so increased, that
in 1866 each parish had its local society, in addition
to “estate clubs,”® while the county society supple-
mented the efforts of the smaller unions by embracing
the whole area and giving more weighty encourage-
ment.

The effect of this interest in the breed, was to incite
the farmers to stronger efforts towards improvement.
The leading type of the breed at one time, is said by
Sandford Howard to be of the Kyloe or Highland
cross, and he vouches for the facts obtained by him-
self, substantially as follows: “Theophilus Parton,
of Swinly Farm, near Dalry, Ayrshire, about forty-
five years ago [1818] took great pains to establish a

8 Quoted in Nat. Live Stock Journal of Chicago, Feb. 1871, p. 183.
° Pr. Essays H. Soc. 1866-7, p. 75.

152 SWINLY TYPE.

herd of what were deemed the best Ayrshire cattle,
into which he infused a strain of the West Highland
blood, the particular degree of which is not publicly
or generally known. The Swinly stock differs from
the older Ayrshire in having a shorter head, with
more breadth across the eyes, more upright and
spreading borns, more hair, and that of a more
mossy character, and generally better constitutions.
They are also somewhat smaller-boned than the old
stock, though from their superior symmetry and
greater tendency to fatten they are fully equal to the
former in weight of carcass when slaughtered.” °

In 1847 the St. Quivox Club attempted to intro-
duce the Short-horn breed more generally among
breeders, but it failed to produce any effect, as we
are told by Sturrock, as now “ Short-horn crosses are
more difficult to procure than formerly.”!! Pro-
fessor Norton, of Yale College, speaks of secing,
during a visit to Scotland in 1848, Short-horn bulls
on every large farm, but leaves the inference that
the crosses were designed for beef.}?

Mr. Wilson, in writing of the agriculture of Lan-
arkshire, states that this cross, although it diminishes
the milk, yet adds increased value for the shambles.
These statements, taken together, seem to indicate
that Short-horn crosses were used only when grazing
was united with dairy farming.

In conversing with the breeding farmers of Ayr-
shire in 1869, we were unable to find any Short-horn

10 U.S. Dept. Ag. Report, 1863, p. 195, 12 Farmers’ Lib. iii, 306.
1 pr, Essays H. Soc. 1860-7, p. 37. 13 Prize Essays H. Soc. 1336-7, p. 365.

CROSSING. 153

crosses, although some Short-horn bulls were found
on farms uniting the business of the grazier with that
of the breeder. The black color was referred by
some to the influence of the Highland race. It would
seem as if parentage would occasionally crop out in
the colors; and although a red might now and then
suggest a Devon, ora brindle or black the Kyloe, and
rarely a pale red the Alderney, yet we saw not a
single roan which would indicate the Durham. Of
the Jersey bull or cow we saw not a trace, and our
inquiries provoked the curiosity which indicated an
unfamiliarity, even, with the appearance of that
breed.

The Highland cross appears to have been frequently
used, especially by those who desired handsome bulls.
A Mr. Horne, in remarks before an agricultural club
in 1867, states, from his own observation, that a
famous prize-taking bull, Geordie, was popularly
accounted to have an eighth of West Highland
blood.'* This cross gives a style to the carriage of
an animal, and increases the tendency towards laying
on flesh or fat.

Perhaps the history of the progress of the Ayrshire
breed since 1810 can be best summarized by an
extract from a letter written by a prominent and care-
ful breeder of more than ordinary intelligence, Robt.
Wilson, of Forehouse, Kilbarchan : —

“Modern Ayrshire cattle have been brought to
their present condition by care and attention on the
part of breeders, —each selecting according to his

14 Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gaz., July 27, 1867,

154 CROSSING.

fancy, and crossing accordingly. There is no doubt
but the majority of Ayrshire cattle have been crossed,
as distinct points of Highland, Short-horn, Devon,
Hereford, etc., are easily discernible, not only in color
but also in style. Jn dairy districts, however, the
pure breed is invariably attempted to be kept, and
crossing, therefore, is more the exception than the
rule.” He adds that the breed has not improved in
some respects within his remembrance, but that “so
far as the fine points are concerned, probably the
number of fine-bred cattle is greater than ever be-
fore.”

ITI.
LOCAL.

In preparing the list of importations and importers,
we had fondly hoped to obtain our information at first
hand, from the parties at interest, —the importers
themselves. We therefore circulated very freely a
printed request for this and other information. We
received some really valuable replies, but the largest
portion of our broadcast circular sowing fell on bar-
ren ground.

Whatever errors, therefore, are found in the list,
may be charged to the indifference of those who, at
first thought, would be supposed to be the most con-
cerned in its accuracy. By presenting our author-
ities in every case, except where we have had private
information, we can avoid the charge of carelessness,
and say we hope to have attained very considerable
accuracy.

In preparing a list of animals that have taken prizes
at Scotch fairs, our intention is to show certain
animals which may be considered as thoroughbred.
Although many animals have been imported which
are as truly thoroughbred as some which have re-
ceived premiums, yet the mere fact of importation

156 LOCAL.

cannot be a guarantee of authenticity. Some true
Ayrshires have been imported from localities far
removed from their own county, and some inferior or
uncertain animals have found their way here under
the impulse of speculation. Prize-taking in Scotland
is one guarantee of authenticity.

We shall have to ask breeders for charity towards
the imperfections of the list. It results through their
own negligence.

The matter of pedigree must be considered one of
the greatest importance. It is the Alpha and Omega
of breeding. It must be sought for continually,
retained pertinaciously, and intensified yearly, in
order to achieve the greatest success. We therefore
present a few thoughts under this heading.

IMPORTERS AND IMPORTATIONS.

As early as 1822, or thereabout, we find record of 1822

the introduction to America of this useful breed.
In that year a bull and a cow are said to have been
brought from Great Britain to New York by Mr.
Henry W. Hills, and sent to the farm of Mr. Heze-
kiah Hills, at Windsor, Conn. The cow was after-
wards sold to Joseph Morgan, of Hartford, and the
bull to Elihu Wolcott, of East Windsor Hill. Two
of the heifers, called Flora Hills and Fanny Hills,
were sold to Mr. Henry Watson, of East Windsor,
“which produced several calves from his Short-horn
bull, Wye Comet.” These calves, half Short-horn
and half Ayrshire, were small animals but very fine,
and several of them “were recorded as Short-horns,
in the American Herd Book.” !

According to the “Turf, Field, and Farm,”? the 1828
Ayrshires were first introduced into this country in
1828. In 1831 we find note of a full-blood Ayrshire
cow being in the possession of a Dr. White, of 1831
Dutchess County, N. Y.; this cow was crossed with
a Durham bull about this time, and then bred in,

1 Samuel Bartlett, in ‘* Homestead,” quoted in Rept. Conv. Board of Agricul-
ture, 1857, p. 151.
3 Quoted in Nat, Live Stock Journ., May, 1871, p. 302.

158 IMPORTATIONS.

with her descendants, for a dozen or fifteen years at
least .3

1837 In 1837, their merits at home having become more
widely known, we learn of two importations: the
one of Mr. J. P. Cushing, of Watertown; the other
by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of
Agriculture.

Mr. Cushing’s importation was made in the spring,
and consisted of four cows, — Flora, Juno, Venus,
and Cora.4 Three heifers appear to have been im-
ported in their dams,°*¢° and perhaps a bull.> Some
dozen years later Mr. Cushing presented one of his
bulls to the Worcester Co. Agricultural Society.7

During this year arrived the first importation of
the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Ag-
riculture, consisting of a bull and three cows, which
were all in calf when they arrived. The bull was
sent to the western part of the State, and was kept ~
near Pittsfield.6 One of the cows was placed in the
care of Hon. P. C. Brooks, in Medford ; another in
the care of Hon. Daniel Webster, at Marshfield ; and
the third of Elias Phinney, of Lexington. This
last, 18 years old, was still living in 1847.9

In 1845 this Society made its second importation,
consisting of a bull, Prince Albert, and four cows,
Flora McDonald, Jennie Deans, Milly, and Charlotte.
These animals were selected by Mr. Alexander Brick-

3U. 8. Pat. Off. Reports, 1851, p. 91. Note.

4 Farmers’ Lib iii, 304.

6 Capt. Randall’s Ms. Herd Book.

6 A.H.B., B. 53, 702; C. 661, 732.

7 Ag. of Mass. 1853, 311.

€U 8. Dept. Ag. Rept. 1863, p. 197. Cultivator, Feb. 1848, p. 42,
Farmers’ Lib. iil, 304.

IMPORTATIONS. 159

ett, of Lowell, who was sent out for that purpose.
They were shipped about the first of September, and
landed in Boston about the first of October in good
condition, and were placed on the farm of Mr. Phin-
ney, in Lexington.’?

In 1858, the Society again sent to Scotland, and
this time, through Mr. Sanford Howard, selected and
imported four bulls and eleven heifers.11 The bulls
appear to have been Tam Sampson, Troon, Albert,
and Irvine. Kilmarnock and Young Cardigan were
imported in their dams. The cows were Daisy,
Gentle, Harriet, Lily, Mavis, Miss Anderson, Miss
Morris 1st, Pansy, Rosa, Ruth, and Star. Buttercup
was imported in her dam.!? These animals were
from the herds of well-known breeders in Ayrshire.
In 1869, while travelling through this county, we
stopped at the farm of Mr. John Ritchie, who remem-
bered Mr. Howard well, and stated that Mr. Howard
was very particular in his choice, and carried away
the best he could buy.

In order to disseminate the blood through the
State, the Society at various times presented bulls
to the Hampshire and Franklin, Worcester County,
Essex, Hampden, Barnstable and Plymouth Agricul-
tural Societies, and in 1849 Jennie Deans was
presented to the Middlesex Society.

In 1838, Capt. George Randall, of New Bedford,
commenced his series of importations with Maggie,

10 Farmers’ Lib. ii, 123. Alb. Cult. 1845, p. 557, etc, 1847, p. 41.

1 Count. Gent., Feb. 18, 1869, p. 140.

2A. H.B., B. 129, 38, 75, 398, C. 32, 40,83, 129, 138, 155, 167, 187, 195, 199, 424,
@i3 Ag. of Mass. 1860, pp. 74, 82. Ag. of Mass. 1853, p. 301, etc.

1838

160 IMPORTATIONS.

who was landed on the 20th day of July. She
unfortunately died the same season. On the second
of December arrived the bull Rob Roy, about two
and a half years old.

In 1839, on the 27th of July, his third importa-
tion arrived, consisting of the yearling bull Roscoe,
the four-year-old cow Swinley, and the yearling
heifer Daisy. The cow Swinley dropped a heifer
calf, Maggie, March 20, 1840, which was sold in 1846
to the Massachusetts Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture. The heifer Daisy died in September, 1841.

His fourth importation arrived May 26, 1°41, con-
sisting of the five-year-old cow Crummie, who
dropped a bull calf Wallace, February 2, 1842, and
the heifer Daisy. This second Daisy was sent to
Capt. Randall as a present by Lawrence Drew, her
breeder, on hearing of the loss of the former Daisy.

In 1844, Capt. Randall made his fifth and last
importation, consisting of the cow Medal, which ar-
rived September 22, and in the following April gave
birth to twins, Sandy and Jeanie.

Capt. Randall’s stock was mostly bred by Law-
rence Drew, a Scotch breeder well known for his
success. They were probably of the best, and the
records of these and their descendants were kept
with great apparent accuracy and neatness, '*

1840 In 1840 Capt. Ezra Nye, of Clinton, N. J., seems
to have imported a cow, Nan, from the Duke of
Portland’s estate, Ayrshire.

13 We desire to express here our thanks to Mr. Haskell, of New Bedford, for
being yen: to take a copy of Capt. Kandall’s herd book.
. H.B., C. 101, 483, 570. Also Ist Rept. N. E. Ag. Soc. p. 57.

IMPORTATIONS. 161

In 1845, Capt. Nye appears to have made an addi-
tional importation of the bull Duke,!5 and probably
the cows Marion, Lily, and Beauty in calf with Scot-
land.1¢ One heifer, Bessie, and four bulls, Antarctic,
Leopard, Juniper, and Pacific, are said to have been
imported by him, but we find no clew to the date.
Our references are certainly misleading unless there
were other importations at a later date than these
given.”

The importation of Capt. George Randall for this
year will be found noticed under date of 1838.

In July, 1841, Capt. J. C. Delano brought to New 1841
Bedford a cow named Jennie Deans, and about three
years old. She was probably purchased partly as a
speculation, and in part to supply the ship with milk.
She was called pure, but Capt. Randall, into whose
possession she afterwards came, had his doubts.

About this year it is said that some Ayrshire cat-
tle were imported by George Longley, of Maitland,
Canada.

In 1842, Mr. E. P. Préntice, of Albany, N. Y., 1842
imported a cow, Ayr by name. She dropped a heifer
calf on the passage, which was called Ayr 2d.!8
The cow is figured in the “ Albany Cultivator,” of
July, 1846.

About this time an importation of animals, selected
and forwarded by Allen J. Davie, arrived in Balti-

15 A. 1. B., B. 6, C. 70, 101, 570.
1° A.H.B., 0. 70, 162; C. 685; C. 2523, 738; B. 59, 874,925; ©. 14, 113, 131,

192, ag ee
+, C. 1,382; B. 173, 468; C. 738, 902, 1372, 1443, 1483, 1643; C.685;
Cc. 16+ = oe
1s Alb. Cult. 1845, p.14; do. July, 1846; do. Feb. 1848, p. 41,

*8

1846

1848

162 IMPORTATIONS.

more. These passed into the hands of John Ridgley,
and were sent to the celebrated Hampton Estate.
This importation was probably kept with but little
attention to preserving the breed intact.'

For the Randall importation of this year, see the
notice under the year 1838.

For the notice of the importation of the Massachu-
setts Society for Promotion of Agriculture during
this year, see under 1837.

For Capt. Nye’s importation of this year, see
under date of 1840.

Some years previous to 1847 Dr. Hoffman made
an importation into Maryland. These passed, some
of them at least, into the hands of Mr. McHenry, of
Hartford County.”° Some of this importation ap-
pears to be found in the cows Jenny Deans and Mary
Queen of Scots.”

In June of 1846, R. L. Colt, Esq., of Paterson,
N. J., imported a bull and a cow in the ship
“Europe.” The bull Geordie was a descendant of a
famous bull of that name in Scotland, and was him-
self a prize-taker. He cost £40 in Ayr. The cow
Bessy cost £19.”

Samuel Ward, Esq., then of North Stockbridge,
afterwards of Lenox, Mass., imported a bull and
heifer this year.2? The bull Dandy appears to have
gone into the possession of E. P. Prentice.

In 1848, according to a reference in the Ayrshire

19 Farmers’ Lib. iii, 1848, p. 286. 2 Tbid.

21 A. EL. B., C. 1787, 1923.

22 Farmers’ Lib. ii, 385, where the bull is figured; do. lii, 289, for the cow.
8 Alb Cult., July, 1851,

: IMPORTATIONS. 163

Herd Book, R. Jardine imported a cow into St. John, 1848
New Brunswick, and according to other references in
1849. This cow was probably named Gowan.™

In 1849, an Ayrshire farmer of the name of R. 1849
Gray emigrated to New Brunswick, bringing with
him his cattle. These seem to have consisted of the
bull, Jock the Laird, and four cows, Helen, Peerless,
Mary, and Jenny Willet. The descendants of these
cattle occasionally find their way across the border,
and are referred to as being imported from New
Brunswick.

Mr. James Brodie, of Rural Hill, New York, has
been the active agent in importing for a number of
firms, among which occur Hungerford, Brodie & Co.,
Hungerford & Brodie, Brodie, Campbell & Co.,
Brodie & Campbell, James Brodie & Son, Brodie
Son & Converse, and Walcott & Campbell. The
importations of Mr. G. C. Bradley can also be re-
ferred to him.

In 1852 arrived Kilburn and Mary Gray.” These 1852
were exhibited at the New York State Fair of that
year by Mr. Brodie. Afterwards they came into the
possession of Messrs. Walcott & Campbell, New York
Mills, N. Y.

In 1853 were imported Ayrshire Lass and White
Lilly.27. The latter was exhibited’ by Hungerford &
Brodie the same year, but some time afterward went
to New York Mills.

24 A. H. B., C. 43, 880, 881, 1012.

25 A.M. B., B. 32, 234, C. 90, 94, 102, 103, 139, 241, 327, 667, 1166, 1228, 1516,
1553, 1554. A130 MS. information.

26 ALU. B., B. 22, C. 592.

37 A. H. B., C. 238, B11.

164 IMPORTATIONS.

In 1854 a larger importation, —Lady Ayr, Red
Rose, Challenge, Cherry Blossom, and Kate.28 The
two last were in the possession of Messrs. Hunger-
ford & Brodie the year of importation, but Lady
Ayr and Red Rose shortly after went to New York
Mills, and Challenge has become the ancestral cow
of a long line of progeny on the farm of S. D. Hun-
gerford, at Adams, N.Y.

In 1861 arrived Dr. Hornbook, Handsome Nell.
Helen Douglas in dam Lady Douglas, and Tibbie.™
In the fall of 1862 these were still owned by Brodie,
Campbell & Co., but afterwards they all were added
to the New York Mills herd. At the same time a
cow and a calf appear to have been imported for a
Mr. Miller.

In 1864, Baldy, John Gilpin, and Tarbolton.*°
John Gilpin was retained by Mr. Brodie, the other
two went to Messrs. Walcott & Campbell.

In July, 1870, arrived Lady Clyde and Lady Glas-
gow; the latter dropped a calf, Neptune, on the
ocean, and the former a bull calf after arrival, named
Lord Clyde.*! These were all for Messrs. Walcott
& Campbell.

In 1871, in the ship “ Eumenides,” which left Glas-
gow April 6, 1871, Mr. Brodie had a large number.
Of these, John of Ayr and Peerless were for Mr.
G. C. Bradley, of Watertown, N. Y.; Duke of Ham-

28 Alb. Cult., March, 1863. A. H.B., B. 10, C. 82, 523, 726,979. Trans. N.Y.
Ag Soc. 1854, 898.

2» Count. Gent., June 13, 1861. A. H.B., CO. 149, 423, 438, 526, 791.

ao A. H. B., B. 90, 222, 372.

81 A. H.B., O. 1408, 1414, B. 684.

IMPORTATIONS. 165

ilton, Woodville Chief, Beulah, Bessie Belle, Ayr-
shire Lass, Lady Ayr, Lady Rogers, Lady Mary,
Lady Houston, Lady Pender, Lady Kilbirnie, Kil-
birnie Maid, Ocean Belle, and Kempsey Maid were
retained by Mr. Brodie. In this importation may
also be included Kilbirnie Lass in her dam, and pos-
sibly a Peerless imported in the womb.”

It is to be regretted that Mr. Brodie has so dupli-
cated the names of animals, either imported or owned
by him, as to render somewhat difficult, in the future,
the task of identifying pedigrees.

For information concerning the importations of
Mr. Brodie, etc., in 1853, see under 1852.

In 1853, James Logan, of Montreal, seems to have
imported the cow Buttery and the bull Baldy.**

The Hochelaga Agricultural Society may also have
imported a bull of the same name about this time,
which was used in Mr. Logan’s herd, and perhaps
the two animals are identical.**

In 1857, Mr. Logan imported the cow Stately in
calf with Sir Colin, Greig in calf with Sonsie, Jean,
and probably Heather Belle, Beauty, White Cherry,
Red Rose, and others.*5

In the year 1853 the Montreal Agricultural Society
imported the bull Rob Roy. This importation was
made through a Mr. Gilmore, and the bull appears to
have been sold to the County of Leeds Society, and

82 Entry Cat. N.Y. Ag. Soc. 1872 and 1873. Other references for Mr. Brodie’s
mupere euiene are “Walcott & Campbell's Catalogue.
H. B., C. 110, 394, 1773, and C. 62, 85, 87, 125, 186,
re H. B., C. 773, Ti3k, 174, 810.
3A H B., C. 200, B 67, 354, 385, C. 489, 463, 661, 724, 764, 289, 510, 949, 1383,
B. 805, C. 86, 394, 214, "125.

1853

166 IMPORTATIONS.

afterwards to George Morton. In 1861 owned by
Thomas Anthony and exhibited at New York State
Fair.*° This Society imported in all five bulls, of
which the importations of 1855, 1856, and 1857 were
used in the herd of Messrs. Dawes.

In this year, 1853, we find mention of the im-
portation of a cow, Advice, by J. W. Duncombe, of
Quebec.”

1854 Anaccount of the 1854 importation of Mr. Brodie
will be found under the date of 1852.

William Watson, of Westchester, N. Y., probably
made an importation in 1854. The cow Beith, the
two-year-olds Anna and Maria, were exhibited at the
New York State Agricultural Fair of this year.
Julia was probably imported in the womb, as was
perhaps Margaret. Oswald and Sarah were possibly
of this importation.*®

There seems to have been another importation by
Mr. Watson, in 1858, of the cow Kate. Taurus was
imported, if at all, before 1861, and the cow Emily
before 1859, and perhaps all these muy be referred
to this year.*®

In 1862 Mr. Watson appears to have brought over
the bull Angus.*°

In 1868 the bull Kilbirnie.*

Mr. Watson selected and forwarded the animals
which comprised the Sweetser importation of 1855.

8 A. H. B.C. Be 734, 737, T41, 472, B. 328.

a7 ALTILB,C.

188 A.H.B.,C. a, 7, 851, 1658; 722; B. 50, 51, C. 19, 61, 76, 168, 122, 971; 206,
608, B. 627. ‘Trans. N. Y. Ag. Soc. J 854,

3) A H.B.,C 1424; 329; 7754, 1125. B. 630.

4 A.H.B., ©. 851, 1014, 1168, 1424, 1474, 1544, 1658, 1833.

a A.H. B. B. 662; C. 1083, 1382.

IMPORTATIONS. 167

In August, 1855, Mr. R. A. Alexander, of Ken- 1855
tucky, is said to have brought over some Ayrshires,
in the ship “ Olive Jordan,” from Liverpool to Phila-
delphia.?

In September, 1855, Mr. Luke Sweetser, of Am-
herst, Mass., selected and imported through Mr.
William Watson, of N. Y., four cows, Rose, Bessie,
Beauty, and Tulip. Of these, Rose proved barren ;
aud Beauty, now twenty years old, is the property
of the Massachusetts Agricultural College.

During this same year, 1855, Mr. John Dods, of
Montreal, imported the cow Ann. He seems to have
made other importations as follows: Previous to
1859, Pailey ; to 1860, Baldy and Bonnie Scott; to
1862, Jane; to 1863, Annie and Del, or Delavan;
to 1864, Blackie and Cherry 1st, and previous to
1866, Lord Eglinton and Maggie *

In 1856, James Gibb, of Canada, imported a bull, 1856
Major, and a cow, Fairy.“4

Mr. Wm. Chambers, of St. Laurient, near Mon-
treal, is said to have imported a cow in 1857, 1857
which perhaps was named Rose.“

For particulars of Mr. James Logan’s importation
of this year, see under date of 1853.

For the importation of the Massachusetts Society
for Promotion of Agriculture of this date, see under

42 Count. Gent., Sept. 13, 1855.

4 A.H.B., C. 230; C. 1279, 1693; C. 998, 1279, 1698; B. 70, C. 3, 121, 142, B.
643; C. 1279, 1405; B. 539, 482, C. 1803, 1881; B. 879, C. 1422, 1488; C. 992,
1308; C. 1716; B. 574, 771.

G 4 \. H. B., C. 1156, 1433, 1489}. C.C. Abbott’s Sale Cat. 1870. J. L. Gibb’s
lat. 187U.

46 A. H.B., B. 247, C. 705.

«© A.H.B., C. 512, 540, 854,

168 IMPORTATIONS.

the year 1837. For that of Mr. Watson, see under
date of 1854.

1858 In 1858, Messrs. Dawes, of Lachine, P. Q., com-
menced their series of importations with the bull
Rob Roy.”

In 1860 they imported a bull, Prince, and the cow
Queen of Scots, in calf with Duchess.48

In 1868, the bull Samson.*9

In 1869, the cows Picture, in calf with Lily, and
Portrait.°°

In 1870, the cows Empress, Marchioness, Miss
Henry, and Miss Kennedy. These all were with
calf, and produced the heifer calves Medora, Basay,
a third heifer, and a bull.*?

In 1871, the bull Nicholas and the females Snow-
drop, Turnlow, Beauty, Pride of Avon, Lady Bird,
and Drumbowie. With these were brought over five
heifer calves in their dams.

In 1858, Mr. H. H. Peters, of Southborough,
Mass., made his first importation. He authorized
Mr. Sanford Howard, who was going to Scotland, to
procure stock for the Massachusetts Society for Pro-
motion of Agriculture, to purchase for him four Ayr-
shire heifers,53 which are those which were named
Jean Armour, Miss Morton, Miss Miller, in calf with
Miller 2d, and Miss Betty.

In 1859, being well pleased with the cattle of the

-, C. 413, 492, 975, 1043, 1132, 1139, 1267, 1613; B. 404.
» Be 354, 425, 589, 821, "ei6; ; Cc. 910, 975, 986, "1007, 1132, 1185, etc.
“Os 896, 939, 1033, 1036, 1070, 1159, 1229, ete.
4. 1720, 1437, 1733.

«, C. 1135; 1535; 1598; 1599; 1572; 867.

, B. 7555 C. 1843 : 1908 ; 878; 1737; 1396; 1088.

ters’ Cat. U. 8. Dept. Ag. Rept. 1863, p. "198.

SBegesses
EPP b>

IMPORTATIONS. 169

previous year, he engaged Mr. Howard to go to 1858
Scotland expressly on his account to select and pur-
chase. In August, 1859, there arrived two bulls,
Eglinton and King Coil, and twenty-one cows and
heifers. Ada, who proved barren, Alice, Beauty,
Brenda in calf with Brenda 2d, Corslet, Duchess 2d,
Flora, Jane, Maggie, Mary 3d, Minna, Miss Drew,
Mistress 2d, Nannie, Pink in calf with Oswald,
Queen 2d in calf with Empress, Queen 3d, Rosa,
Ruth, Susan in calf with Susan 2d, and Young Mer-
ryton in calf with Merryton 3d.4

While Mr. Howard was in Scotland he appears to
have selected cattle for others. Such was the case
with the cow Effie, imported by Mr. Rufus Carter,
of Worcester, in 1858;55 and probably the cow
Margery, imported by Mr. J. S. Cabot, of Salem, in
1858 ;5° the cow Jessie, imported by Dr. George
B. Loring, of Salem, the same year ;*” and the impor-
tations of Mr. Lyman were of his selection. Geo.
W. Lyman, of Waltham, appears to have received
the bull Comet, possibly two cows, one to calve with
the bull calf Scotland.*®

In 1858 also, Mr. John Brooks, of Princeton,
Mass., imported a bull, Dr. Hornbrook.*

Capt. Peel, of Canada, is said to have brought
over in this year a bull, Roxborough, and a cow.®

The importation of Mr. C. M. Pond, of Hartford,
Conn., made this year, appears to have consisted of

% HH. Peters’ Cat. Hee H.B,C. He
55 A. H.B., C. 358. 7A. H.B., C. 107.
6 A, H. B., B. 124, ils 132, 133, 316. c 240, 374, 419, 437, 476, 606, 742, 782,
8065, Tae: Cc. 132, 133; C. 357.
A. HB. ,B. 16.’ H. H. Peters’ Cat. © A. H.B., C. 1569, 1245.

170 IMPORTATIONS.

the yearling bull Robert Burns, and the two-year-olds
Jennie, Jessie, and Rose of Brown Hill.

His importation of 1859 was Ayrshire Lassie,
Lily of Smithfield in calf with Cardigan, and a heifer,
Bella.®!

For an account of the importation of Mr. H. H.
Peters for this year, see under date of 1858, as well
as that of Mr. Pond.

In 1859, a Robert Gray, of Fredericton, New
Brunswick, is said to have imported a bull, Geordie.

Mr. Gardner Brewer, of Boston, imported a cow,
Flora, in calf with Robert Fulton, during this year.63

Three two-year-old heifers, Fanny Ellsler, Fiorena,
and Lady Ellen, were imported in 1859 by Mr. H.
E. Day, of Hartford, Conn.

Mr. Eben S. Poor, of South Danvers, Mass., im-
ported this year two cows, Lily in calf with Duke,
and Rosa in calf with Bessie,®> and possibly a bull.6

About the year 1859, or previously, there seems
to have been imported the animals known as the
Cuthbert bull and cow, by Mrs. Cuthbert, of Lano-
raie, P. Q.; or perhaps this importation is the same
with that of Mr. Cuthbert, of Berthier, who seems to
be credited with some about the same time. One of
these animals is apparently Maggie Lauder.”
isco. ‘Lhe importation of Messrs. “Dawes; for 1860, has

been noticed under date of 1858.

1859

6 A.H.B., B. ai C. 98, 111, 190, 4, nye B. 265; C. vie os 1651.
@2A.H.B., B. 23 .H.B.,'C. 72, 23.
63 A. H. B., C. 383, B. 318. oc AWB. Bab

6 Count. Gent., Feb. 2,1861. Alb. Cult , Apr. "1860, p. 130.

67 A. H.B., C. 1026, 1020, 601, 1027, ete. Abbott's Sale Cat. 1873, A. H. B.
B. 197, 638, 549; C. 1064, 992, 1027, 1405, 1624, 81. Whitney's Cat. 1871.

IMPORTATIONS. 171

In 1860, Mr. John Chambers, residing near Mont-
real, appears to have imported a three-year-old
heifer, Strawberry.®

The account of the importation of Brodie, etc., for
this year, will be found under date of 1852.

In 1861, S. Beattie, of Canada, imported in ship
* Helen Douglas,” at the port of Quebec, an Ayrshire
cow.59

Mr. Beattie appears to have imported a cow, Moun-
tain Maid, which possibly is the animal referred to
above, and at a later date a bull, Carrick Farmer.”

It was in this year that a Mr. Miller is said to
have imported a cow and a calf on the ship “ Helen
Douglas,” at Quebec.” These importations being on
the same vessel with Brodie and Campbell’s, were
possibly of their selection.

The importation of Mr. Watson for 1861 has been
noticed under date of 1854.

In the spring of 1863, J. M. Browning, of Beau-
harnois, P. Q., seems to have imported the cow Effie
in calf with Daisy.7! It is possible that the bull
Marquis, said to have been brought over by the
Beauharnois Agricultural Society, was imported at
this time.”

The importation of Brodie & Co. for 1864 has
already been noticed under date of 1852.

In June, 1864, J. L. Gibb, Esq., of Compton, P.
Q., commenced his series of importations with the

68 A. H.B., C. 1866.

69 Count. Gent., June 13, 1861.

70 A. H. B., B. 883; C. 825, 845, 894, 1092, 1098, 1267.
71 A. H. B., C. 1104, 1046,

7 A. H.B., B. 709.

1861

1863

1864

172 IMPORTATIONS.

five-year-old cows Quess and Lily, the yearling heifer
Gypsey, and the bull Marquis.” :

In August, 1868, he brought over the two-year-
olds Princess Alice and Princess Royal,’ with Flor-
ence and Hebe in their wombs, and the yearling bull
Mars.

In 1870 two importations. The one in June con-
sisted of the five-year-old Annie; the four-year-olds,
Medora in calf with Medora 2d; Lina in calf with
Merryton Lass, and Flora; the three-year-old Em-
ma, who dropped the ‘heifer Atlanta on shipboard ;
the two-year-olds Lily 2d, Park 2d, Rossie, Rough-
head 2d, Blackhouse 2d, Gartnoad 2d, and Alice.”-

In September, 1870, the yearling bull Glenluce,
and the four-year-old Lady Avondale, in calf with
Lord Avondale; the two-year-old Mary in calf with
‘Earl of Lorne, and Beauty; the yearling heifers
Blooming Daisy, Mary Belle, Miss Meikle, Heather
Belle, and Lass o’ Gowrie.”®

In September, 1871, the two-year heifers Verbena
and Crocus.

In August, 1873, in the steamship “ Hibernian,” at
Quebec, Mr. Gibb imported the cows Clarinda,
Heather Bloom, and Heather Bell, Derby, and the
two-year beifer May Morn.”

13865 Mr. Thomas Miller, of Brushland, Delaware Co.,
N. Y., made his importation of the cow Daisy in

73 A. H.B., C. 1769, 1234, Bes 1237.
4A. A. B., C. 1749, 1750, 1741
1 A.H. B.C. 318, 1573, 1374, 1578, 1897, 1200, 1130, 856, 1464, 1702, 1810,
1813, 935, 1222, 831.
GA. ‘H. B., C. 144. B. 682, 537. Count. Gent., Nov. 3, 1870.
n Count. Gent., Aug. 28, 1873,

IMPORTATIONS. 173

calf with Favorite, and the bull Duke of Hamilton, 1865
in the ship “John Phyfe,” which arrived at New
York, May 1, 1865.

At the same time was imported Rosy or Scotch
Rosy, who was afterwards purchased by Mr. Miller.

For the details of James Logan’s importation of
this year, see under 1853.

For the details of J. L. Gibb’s importation for
1868, see under date of 1864, and that of Dawes 1868
under 1858.

For that of Mr. Watson, see under date of 1854.

In November of this year, per steamship “ Java,”
at the port of New York, Mr. G. D. Cragin, of Rye,
imported the cows Rowena in calf with Hero, Edith,
Duchess of Hamilton, Queen Bess, Queen Mary, and
a bull, Duke of Hamilton.78

In the barque “ Melbourne” from Ardrossan, in De-
cember, 1868, Mr. H. W. Tilton, of Walpole, Mass.,
received a pair of Ayrshire cattle, Earl af Holderness
and Lady Harmonie.”

William Semper, of Allegheny City, Penn., is
stated to have imported Clydesdale and Lily in
1868.6

In 1868, or thereabout, an importation of a bull,
Robbie Burns, is claimed for Thomas Irving, of
Rockfield, near Montreal .®!

For the impoitation of Messrs. Dawes in 1869, see 1869
under date of 1858.

78 Count. Gent, Oct. 7, 1869. A. H.B, B. 612, C. 1099, 1759, 1762,
79 Count. Gent., Dec. 24, 1868. A H.B., B 536; C. 1421.
8 AH B., B. 780. 1 A. H, B., B. 804,

174 IMPORTATIONS.

iscg In July, 1869, arrived the first of Mr. N. S. Whit-
ney’s importations at Montreal, the yearling bull
Jock, and the two-year-old Bessie Bell.*

In June, 1870, Mr. Whitney received, per ship
“Geneva,” the four-year cow Clara, who dropped on
shipboard the bull calf Pride of Geneva; Kelso,
three years old, also dropped a bull calf, Sailor,
while on shipboard ; Maggie, in calf with Marquis of
Bute, and the two-year-olds Netty and Dow 2d.

On the 14th of September, 1870, arrived Barro-
chan Maid, and Bonnie Lassie in calf with Bonnie
Lassie 2d.%8

In 1871 still another importation by Mr. Whitney.
Eleven head arrived in September, in the ship
“Abeona.” These were Daisy, in calf with the bull
Fleetwood; Rosie, who dropped a bull calf, Nep-
tune, while on the water; Flora in calf with Flora
2d; Stately, and Beauty who dropped Beauty 2d,
on shipboard.®

igs9 In 1869, Mr. M. P. Cochrane, of Canada, imported
two Ayrshire heifers, probably Lady of the Lake
and Maggie.®

In 1871, or thereabout, Mr. Cochrane seems to
have imported the bull Champion, and the cows
Daisy, Cocksey, Village Maid, and Mary Gray.*

On the 9th December, 1869, arrived on the steam-
ship “Nova Scotian,” at Portland, the importation of

82 N.S. Whitney's Cat., Jan. 1870. A.H.B., B. 641, C. 926.

83N. 8. Whitney's Cat., Jan. 1871.

8 N.S. Whitney’s Cat., May, 1872. Count. Gent., Oct. 5, 1871.

85 Count. Gent., Bept. 2, 1869. Entry Cat, N. Y. Ag. Soc. Fair, 1872,
86 Entry Cat., N. Y. State Ag. Boc. Fair, 1872.

IMPORTATIONS. 175

Sturtevant Brothers, Waushakum Farm, South Fra-
mingham, Mass. It consisted of eight cows, Edna
in calf with Glengarry; Ozora in calf with Ocena;
Drusilla in calf with Domine, whose name was after-
wards changed to Shotto-Douglas; Queen of Ayr,
in calf with bull Mains; Ops in calf with Eos;
Twinney in calf with Euona, whose name was after-
wards changed to Alice Brand; Mona in calf with
Banquo; and Selena, in calf with Asmodeus.

The importations of Mr. Gibb for this year have
already been noticed under date of 1864; those of
Mr. Whitney under date of 1869; that of Messrs.
Dawes under date of 1858; and under date of 1852
that of Brodie & Co.

In July, 1870, Mr. William Gibson, of Morrisburg,
P. O., imported six cows and a bull in ship “ Thomas
Hamlin.” These appear to have been Ranting Robin,
Jennie, Rosa, Maggie, Edith, Princess in calf with
Thomas Hamlin, mod a Maggie, in calf with Robert
Burns.®”

Maggie ‘and Edith appear to have gone to J. T,
Rutherford, Waddington, N. Y., and are referred to
as of his importation.®®

In July, 1870, per ship “ Abeona,” Mr. J. J.C.
Abbott, of St. Anne’s, near Montreal, seems to have
imported the cow Lilias and the bull Sir Roger,
Young Primrose, Young Mary, Young Dandy, Young
Beauty, and the bull Yellow-Haired Laddie may also
be credited to this arrival. Mr. Abbott had also in

A.H.B, B. 791}; C. 1316, 1313, 1781, 1519, 1097, 17465; B. 888,
A. H, B., OC. 1519, 1097,

1870

176 IMPORTATIONS.

1870 his possession, and probably imported Alison, Anna-
bel, and Abeona, imported in dam Annabel.®9

It is possible that Darling 3d, and Geneva with
her calf Sir Hugh, were imported by Mr. Abbott,
although we have found references to Mr. C. C. Ab-
bott as their importer in the ship “ Abeona.” %°

In 1873 Mr. Abbott again imports,— this time two
cows, Viola and Elsie.%

In 1870, William H. T. Hughes, agent for L. P.
Fowler, of England, an importer by business, intro-
duced eight cows in calf per ship “Rhine,” in his
first invoice, and nine cows and a bull per ship
“Plymouth Rock,” from London, in his second.

Of his first importation were the cows Betty Burke
and Scotia.

Of his second importation the cows Beauty, Cozie,
Buttercup, Cowslip, Ayrshire, and Ayrshire Bell.

In July, 1870, on ship “ Thomas Hamlin,” at Mont-
real, Mr. J. H. Morgan, of Ogdensburg, N. Y.,
brought over his first importation, the bull Habbie
Simpson, and the cows Model of Perfection, Minnie,
and Nancy. Minnie passed into the possession of D.
Magone, Jr., and Nancy, of Z. B. Bridges, Esq.,
both of Ogdensburg ; and Model of Perfection at a
later date was sold to Sturtevant Bros, for $1,000,
the highest price known to have been paid for an
animal of this breed.

In April, 1871, Mr. Morgan made his second im-
portation in the ship “ Eumenides.” It consisted of

8 A. H. B..C. 1455; B. 868, Count. Gent., July 14,1870. C. 836, 844, 822,
9 C.C Abbott’s Sale Cat
91 Count. Gent., July 31, 1873. Abbott's Bale Cat.

IMPORTATIONS. 177

the bull Adino, and the cows Annie, Bessie in calf 1870
with Sea King, and Georgie, in calf with the heifer
Sea Bird. Annie was transferred to D. Magone, Jr.,
while Georgie and Sea Bird went to Sturtevant Bros.

Having perused the entire correspondence between
Mr. Morgan and his agent abroad, we think there is
little doubt but that these importations were of the
best stock in Scotland; and to the rivalry induced
by this first importation may be ascribed the excep-
tional quality of the importations of this and the
following years.

In September, 1870, Thomas Thompson & Son, of
Williamsburg, P. O., brought over an importation of
eight, selected personally. These were the two-year-
old bull Crown Prince, and the yearling bull Highland
Chief, the cow Diamond in calf with Hansom, and
the heifers, Annie in calf with Queen of Beauty, Ras-
sie 2d in calf with Rose of Carron, Rassie 3d in calf
with Queen of Scots, and the calves Duchess and
Bonnie Jean.%

In October, 1870, Mr. Thomas Paterson, of Gou-
verneur, N. ¥., imported per steamship “Sweden,”
at Quebec, a pair of yearlings, Lord Raglan and
Beauty.

In the same vessel, at the same time, Mr. Andrew
Allan, of Montreal, brought over the two-year-old
bull Boydstone, and the cows Susan, Fleckie, Rogers,
and Kate.

In June, 1871, per steamships “ European” and

®2 Thompson’s Catalogue, 1871.

178 IMPORTATIONS.

“ Nova Scotian,” the cows Belle of Straven, Barbara
Allan, Fairy Queen, Straven Maid, and Straven
Queen.

In September, 1871, per ship “ Abeona,” the bull
Conquer.

1871 For a notice of the importation of Mr. Allan for
1871, see under date of 1870; for that of Mr. Coch-
rane, see under date of 1869; of Mr. Morgan, under
date of 1870; of Mr. Whitney, under date of 1869;
of Messrs. Dawes, under date of 1858; of Brodie &
Co., under date of 1852; and Gibbs, under 1864.

July 31, 1871, per ship “Gluco,” at Montreal,
Mr. James McNee imported the yearling bull Robert
Burns, and the two-year-old heifers, Highland Mary
and Ayrshire Maid.

October 81, 1871, Mr. Charles H. Peckham, of
Providence, R.I., imported, in barque “J. B. Duf-
fries,” three heifers, Highland Maid, Village Belle,
and Sally.

1873. For the importation of Mr. Abbott for 1873, see
under date of 1870. For that of Mr. Gibb, see
under date of 1864.

In October, 1873, Irving Moyer, of Fort Plain,
N. Y., imported the two-year-old bull Sir John
Moore, and the cows Lady Martha and Lady Mari-
am. The calves Heather Jock and Damsel were
imported in these cows.

In a list by themselves we place those importations
which we are unable to identify by a certain date.

% Count. Gent., Oct. 15, 1874, p. 666.

IMPORTATIONS. 179

Mr. R. 8S. Griswold is said to have imported a
bull, Juba, and cow, Whitey, some time previous to
1849.94

Mr. Nicholas Biddle, of Philadelphia, seems to
have made an importation previous to the year 1850.

Between 1850 and 1854, Mr. Peter Lawson, of
Lowell, appears to have imported a bull, McDuff.%

A Capt. Smith is credited with having imported
a cow, Cherry, which must have been within the
decade, 1850 and 1860.9%

Sir George Simpson is said to have imported a
cow, Lady Simpson, somewhere about this time.%7

Previous to 1855 Col. Beatson appears to have im-
ported a cow, Lady Betty.%

Previous to 1858 the Hochelaga Agricultural
Society, of Montreal, imported the bull Bauldie, and
afterwards the bull Buchanan, and another without
name.°?

Previous to 1858 the Montreal Agricultural So-
ciety is credited with having imported a bull, Bauldie,
and previous to 1860 a cow, Queen of Scots.10

Somewhere near 1860, Mr. Thomas Richardson,
of West Farms, New York, appears to have imported
a pair, Eric and Norna, and possibly Norval, in
dam. 10

A cow named Sally appears to have been imported
by a Mr. Hutchinson previous to 1860.1

4 A.H.B., C. 105. 96 A. H. B., C. 1808, 1940.

2 A.H. B,C. 100, 127, 141. 97 C. C. Abbott’s Sale Cat. 1870.
8 A.H.B., C. 593%, 705; B. 304.

9 ALH.B.,C. 773, 774, 810, 1469. Bae none 1872.

10 A. HH. B., C. 447, 1132, 1446, 1729; Bb.

101 A, H. B., B. 630; Ce 673%, 676, 75h, 1135, 1147, 1021, 1050, 1691, 1692.
102 A. H. B., BR. 785; C. 893, ‘938,

180 IMPORTATIONS.

A bull was imported by a Mr. Burstall, of Quebec,
before 1860.

Mr. R D. Shepherd, of Va., is said to have im-
ported a bull, Brutus, previous to 1859.1%

Mr. Charles Jones, of Brockville, Canada, is
credited with the importation of a cow, Bonnie
Lass.14

J. Gilmore, of Quebec, is credited with having
imported a cow named Buttercup previous to 1865.
lle is also said to have imported Rob Roy for the
Montreal Agricultural Society. Is the Rob Roy
of the 1853 importation of this Society the same
bull ? 1°

Before 1864 the bull Ayr 2d was imported by
Mr. Perreault of the “ Canada Agriculturist.”

Some time in 186- it is claimed that Mr. Wm. E.
Lockwood, of Penn., imported a pair, Zero and
Kate.1¥6

About 1867, Mr. W. Rodden, of Montreal, P. Q.,
appears to have imported Scotch Mary, Suow Drop,
and Nancy of Ayr.!

Some time later than 1867, Mr. J. Lauric, of
Scarboro’, P. O., is said to have imported Avondale
Farmer and Dutchy.1%

Mr. Patrick B. Wright. of Coburg, Canada, is
said to have imported Young Percy and Buttercup
before 1868.1°9

10 ALA. B., C. 99. ia A. H.B., C. 1941.
13 A, H. B., C. Tu6, 737.

10 Entry Cat. N. Y. State Ag. Soc. Fair, 1872.
wi AL H. B., C. 1644, 1831, 1842.

mm AH B, B. 422,C.1 94.

lw Thomas Thompson & Son’s Cat. 1871.

IMPORTATIONS. 181

Between 1870 and 1872, Mr. Simon Beattie ap-
parently imported the bull Young Prince and heifer
Straven Callen.!!°

The Hamilton Agricultural Society of Canada
seems to have imported a bull through Hon. Michael
Cameron; this bull afterwards came into the posses-
sion of a Col. Astley.

110 Entry Cat. N. Y. State Ag. Soc. 1872, p. 18.
211C, UC. Abbott’s Sale Cat.

PEDIGREE.

TuHosEe who are at the expense of introducing a
foreign breed of cattle, are generally desirous of
preserving it untainted from interbreeding with the
cattle by which they are surrounded. They desire
also to preserve some memoranda of each individual
of the foreign breed, both for present use and future
reference. They are thus enabled to breed them
more understandingly, for they know whether the
animals mited are akin or not, as also whether a
particular animal has originated from ancestry of a
particular or desirable type. If there be one herd
only of the new stock in the country, the owner must
have notes either written, or preserved in memory,
or the stock is likely to deteriorate. If he trusts to
memory, and upon his death the stock passes into
the hands of strangers, without further knowledge of
the animals than comes of seeing them, much of the
value of the animals have departed with the demise
of their owner. When the new breed is somewhat
disseminated, and there are many herds, breeders
find it advisable to seck occasionally an interchange
of blood. But no breeder will do this without the
fullest assurance of the stock he secks being pure
bred, and without knowing, if possible, from what
parentage the animal has come.

HERD BOOK. 183

The breeder’s object being first to produce good
animals, and second to secure remuneration from
their sale, it is important to have a regular and
systematic plan for making his efforts known both to
those engaged with the new breed, and others who
may be desirous of adopting it. By such a plan, not
only will higher prices be realized, but the breed will
become more disseminated.

To effect these several objects, — the preservation
of a breed in its purity, the maintenance of the
excellence already attained, the securement of a
progressive improvement, the advertising and thus
facilitating sales, the guaranteeing of the expected
purchasers against fraud to a large extent, —all
those interested in‘ common breed unite in the sup-
port of what is known as a herd book.

This is, or should be, a printed volume. Tt should
contain the name, with a number attached, of cach
animal of the breed imported, from whence imported,
by whom bred, for and by whom imported, ship, port
of entry, and date of arrival, —a description of the
animal sufficiently minute for identification, with the
age and sex.

Starting with imported animals as a foundation
stock, their descendants alone should be entered,
with description of each, date of birth, by whom
bred, by whom owned, and names and numbers of
sires and dams to importation.

The value of a herd book, in every case, depends
upon its fulness, completeness, and reliability. If it
is found easy to enter a grade animal in a book de-

184 HERD BOOK.

signed only for the imported stock, and the progeny
of imported stock, it is far from impossible that some
persons will take this cheap course of fraud, herald
their grade animals as pure, and obtain for them a
place in this choice company. The necd, then, is
manifest of adopting some rigid conditions, conform-
able to certain principles of utility, and the abiding
by them persistently. For not only does the fraud
of entering grade animals producé a lowering of the
quality of the breed, but by producing an abundance
of low-cost stock, prevents the more careful and
exemplary breeder from selling a stock, costing
higher and of more value, at remunerative prices. A
herd book which will allow of this, acts to discourage
the honorable breeder, and tends to drive him from
the field in despair.

The incorrectness of a herd book, known at first
perhaps only to a few persons, imposes obstacles for
a while upon the many ; but afterwards, by becoming
known to many, induces a want of confidence in
pedigrees, faith in which is so conducive to success
in breeding stock to a high degree of excellence.

It is a cause for regret that the earlicr importers
of Ayrshire cattle did not foresee the advantages
that were to be derived from a herd book, and the
disadvantages that would attend its absence. When
the attempt was made at the late date of 1863, there
were herds of cattle in the country, thought by their
owners to be too valuable to be excluded from such
a work, — cattle undoubtedly Ayrshire, but of ances-
try so ill-defined and uncertain, that their admission

HERD BOOK. 185

to registration precluded the rejection of animals
far more objectionable. The volume of this year
records the names of 79 males and 216 females. Of
the males, the number stated to have been imported
is 11; the number whose ancestry is traced unbroken
to importation is 50; others, 18. Of the females,
the number entered as imported is 57; traced un-
broken to importation, 109; others, 50. There are
thus 68 animals recorded “on the assurances of well-
known breeders that the animals in question are
thoroughbred Ayrshires.” These assurances are not
founded upon definite information as to their breed-
ing; they may be true, but there appears to be no
evidence presented that the assurances are anything
more than selfish opinions.

With the appearance of the second volume in
1868, the number of Ayrshires, the pedigrees of
which are presented complete or unbroken, is near
1,300. Of the bulls in Volumes I and II, about 280
appear to be traced to importation; about 120 are
not so traced. Of the females traced to importation
there are about 530; not so traced, about 228.

Each of these volumes bears the title, “ Herd
Record of the Association of Breeders of Thorough-
bred Stock, Ayrshire.” The second has a recognized
editor, J. N. Bagge, of West Springfield, Mass.

In 1871, Volume II appeared, with Mr. Bagg for
editor, but with a new title, “The American and
Canadian Ayrshire Herd Record.” The Canadian
portion is of Canadian editorship, over which it ap-

pears the American editor exercised no supervision.
g*

186 HERD BOOK.

In this volume the number of bulls registered is
brought to number 931, of females to number 1,951.
We have thus far recorded 59 imported bulls, and
192 imported cows. Of the total pedigrees to date,
1,354 are traced to importation, and 1,321 are not
traced to importation.

We will place the result of our analysis of the
*Bage” Herd Book in the form of a table.

Number of animals recorded : —

Vols Ls iste wans 79 Bulls, 216 Cows. Total weve vas 295
age CORReNREa Bt 617“ Mh oucaie ses 959
Ties a7 1,145 econ ee 1,672

948 1,978 2,926
Number of imported animals recorded : —
11 Bulls, 57 Cows.
10 ot 18 4c
33 OC 7“
59 192
Number of animals recorded properly : —

Vols Davwadaives 50 Bulls, 109 Cows. Potahi sae sve 159
fl LD gaia 230 421 O oalcla sa 651
tC Wages 202 342“ Me esusaie Bad

482 872 1,354
Number of animals improperly recorded : —
18 Bulls, 50 Cows. Total .s.. seis 68
102 178 a en 280
287 686 Smee 973
407 gl4 1,321
Percentage of poor pedigrees! in Vol. I, 23
66 66 6 66 II, 29
73 73 66 66 Il, 58
Average for all, 45 per ct.

1 By poor pedigrees is meant, Recorded improperly. Some few classed here
are correct. but not shown so by the record; others prescut no claims fur cor-
rectness other tuan the fact of admissivn to the record.

HERD BOOK. 187

In the index to Volume I, we find the names of
129 owners; in Volume II, this number has increased
to 206; in Volume III, to 322.

The average number of animals recorded to each
name was 2.45 in Volume I, 4.65 in Volume II, and
5.06 in Volume ITI.

The distribution by States in Volume III is as
follows : —

Alabama ...ceceevesee ene 1 New Jersey...... ... 13
Connecticut 22 Mew Worle scan siy eves 76
BOTA. 4.4 scenarios cow de © i ess ces dae 11
TiO isias « seas Pee Sd Stats 4 Pennsylvania ........ 8
THdiAwe 4s caxe a Ghee Mises 1 Rhode Island ........ 13
LOW 8s cisco s Seva esta een a 1 “Verniont’ veccccwkcs van 20
FOAISAS ican i eioraverd eerwtace t Wired a wtaveava nan 1
SIME sete cue eeacia yee 7 Wisconsin............ 1
Massachusetts ..........- 90 New Brunswick...... 2
MICHIGQAD: 005 4005 do deena 6 Canada...........6-. 30
Mississippi.......eseeee- - 1 —
AVISSOUTL «oe cie nvees sees 1 Total ..... ...322 owners,
New Hampshire......... 11

It seems the less necessary to enter upon a full
explanation of the attempt to furnish a herd record
for the breed, from the circumstance that the work is
wholly unsatisfactory to breeders and purchasers, who
have examined it, and the volumes are only awaiting
the action of some responsible person, or association,
to start a register upon sounder principles, when the
present work will be ignored.

After this arraignment of the present Herd Book,
it seems right that we sbould point out a few of the
errors, in order to justify ourselves in the position
we have taken.

188 ERRORS OF HERD BOOK.

Misprints. — The wrong number occurs to Sachem
Chicf, in C. 474; Star of the North, in B. 759,
should be 8763. After 321 in C. 849, should be
221; Jethro in Diva 1081 should be 638 and not 628,
etc. Andover, not Adams, in Moss Rose 1620;
Maggie 161 in Lotty 1495 should be Maggie 1564 ;
Daisy 1043 in C. 1175 should be 1045, ete.

There are frequent errors in names, as Allan for
Allen, Graig for Greig, in 1333; in names of places,
as Stathaver instead of Strathaven, in Geordie 573,
and Lannarkshire instead of Lanarkshire, ete.

Omission of Numbers, —as 250, 473, 515; also;
488, 489, 503, 505, 521, 565, 744, 767, 1332, cte. ete.

Carelessness. —Sea Bird 8475, and Vashti 901,
among the bulls, should be recorded among the
females. Robert Bruce 314 and 808 are the same
animal; as are also, in all probability, John Gilpin
652 and 653; Robert Burns 810 and 811; Thomas
Hamlin 888 and 889; Belle 256 and 899; Bonnie
Jean 289 and 969; Lady Ayr 523 and 1394; Maggie
1319 and 1521, ete. etc.

Pride of Geneva is entered among bulls, No. 779,
and also among the cows, No. 1739.

Lady Bruce 1397 has no pedigree given what-
soever. The same remark applies to Lady Prentice
124, and others.

Lack of Hditorial Supervision. — Lady of the
Lake, in Prince Arthur 783, was calved same year
as her granddam.

Star of the North 8764 calved May 7, 1866;
dam, Duchess 1090.

ERRORS OF HERD BOOK. 189

Lanark 670 calved March 24, 1866, dam, Duch
ess 1090.

How could Victor 904 be bred by Thomas Dawes
& Son, Lachine, P. Q., when her dam was a thor-
oughbred cow in Scotland ?

Tam o’ Shanter, in Buttercup 970, was imported
from New Brunswick, not from Scotland.

Dew Drop 338 and Dew Drop 1062 are the same
animal, with a difference of ten days in birth.

Heather Bell 1267 and 1268 are the same ani-
mal. In one entry the dam Florence is by an im-
ported bull, in the second entry she is imported.

Spotty (148) in Juno 1366 is not by McKenzie,
imported.

Maggie Morton 1528 and Effie Morton °C4 have
same parents, —calved in 1868, one in February,
the other in January. i

Snilor 835 is credited with Kelso 1385 for a :

mother. Jelso was calved 1870; Sailor the same
year.

Medora 2d 1574 was calved in July on board
ship; her dam Medora 1573 was imported in June,
1870.

Ayrshire Mary 864 could not be “ bred by Mr. Rod-
den,” when sired by a bull in Scotland.

In some cases we have very serious errors. For
example: John o’ Groat, dam and sire both imported
by R. S. Colt, as we are informed under Jock 648.
Under St. Andrew 874 the sire is said to have been
imported by Capt. Nye. Under Young America 925
the dam comes from an imported bull and cow, im-

190 ERRORS OF HERD BOOK.

ported by Capt. Nye. In still another place, under
Fairie 1153, we have an entirely different account.
Under Kate 1369 John o’ Groat is said to be “ im-
ported.” Under Lady Geraldine 1416 this name
again appears.

Another class of errors is when the same cow has
two calves at periods much closer together than
usual. For instance: Lady Mary 536 and Sir Colin
Jr. 68 were both calved by Heather Bell 86, — the
one in March, the other in April, 1860. They are
recorded as half-sisters.

Cornelia 35, Belle 256, Belle 899, Logan 45, were
all born from Heather Bell between April 8 and Feb-
ruary 14, 1862.

Jessie 6th 497 and Dick 147 were also born of
different fathers, same mothers, and yet within five
days of each other.

Suegat 363 and Flora 386 are hardly better off.

Cowslip 2d, Lassie, and Cowslip 3d were all born
from the same mother but different fathers, in the
same year, 1864.

Highland Lassie 2d and Daddy Auld were born
within a month of each other, but had the same
father. Peverel and Daisie afford another instance,
as well as Flora Temple and Rosa, Highland Mary
and Queen Mary (possibly twins), Lady Gowan and
Kilburn, and others.

In truth, the errors in this Herd Book are too nu-
merous to mention. We do not think a half-dozen
pages can be selected from Volume III which shall
be entirely free from error. Opening at random, we

SIGNIFICANCE OF PEDIGREE. 191

examine page 72: but one correctly recorded ped-
igree. (Sea Bird 8473 is a heifer.) The following
page is no better, nor is page 75 an improvement.
Page 76, again, contains six poor to one good pedi-
gree, etc. etc. Are the cows any better recorded
in this volume? We examine page 110, and do not
find a single perfect pedigree. Page 111 is scarcely
better: but one pedigree, outside of the imported
animals, that can be pronounced good. A little
search shows page 136 witbout a single perfect ped-
igree, and we find many others with but one each ;
and not yet have we found one perfect page in this
volume.!

Having now briefly noticed the deficiencies of the
American and Canadian Ayrshire Herd Book, a few
reflections concerning the significance of pedigree
may be in place.

A pedigree is more or less complete according as
the animals are traced backward through several
generations, with or without omission of any of the
ancestry. If we know the earlier parents, and are
unable to trace the connective link that ties them in
relationship to the animal under consideration, then
the missing links are so much out of our knowledge of
the animal; we come just so far short of acquaintance
with the antecedents of our animal. The importance
of knowledge of the antecedents of animals from
which we desire a succession, depends on the cireum-
stance, in great part, that all animals are what they

1 Since these strictures were penned, the authors of the present book have in-
augurated, at the request of breeders. the ‘North Amcrican Ayrshire Register,”
which is already far advanced on an apparently successful course,

192 INFLUENCE OF REMOTE ANCESTRY.

are in form, in mind, in capacity for useful services
to man, because particular individuals rather than
others are related to.them. The mating of male and
female not only ensures offspring, but offspring im-
pressed with the individual stamp of the parentage,
more or less disguised. A change of mating is fol-
lowed by a changed character of the fruit, and each
parent contributes to form the general mould in
which the offspring is cast.

The influence of near ancestry is commonly more
obvious than of ancestry lying at three or four or a
dozen removes. Peculiarities we are apt to ascribe
to the moulding force of near kindred ; but we should
not forget that this moulding force passes from gen-
eration to generation, and that the animal before us is
the outcome of successive steps, of which ncither the
sequence, nor the character, could have been differ-
ent without occasioning an animal different in some
particulars.

Improvement is not readily fixed in a family by
two or three or a half-dozen sucecssive judicious
matings. No existing breed of cattle, of marked
value, is less than a hundred years. old, though
it is a little less time since the value of the stock
became widely recognized and the record of marked
improvement begins. We know what value is
attached to Short-horn cattle whose lineage can
be traced to famous animals living in the latter
half of the last century. The best Devons descend
froin animals of local fume living in the early part of
the present century. The fountain-head of the breed

PAST AS INFLUENCING PRESENT. 193

was with one family, the Quartlys, who gave them
reputation, and who have kept the lead since; and
in 1850 two neighhors had kept up this breed in their
families for more tit hundred years.? A large
number of the Devon breed in America have traceable
lineage to well-known animals, prize-takers wherever
shown. The history of this stock bespeaks the value
of antiquity of pedigree, but it is the same with every
breed that has had as full opportunities of develop-
ment. Commonly the most valued Ayrshires in Scot-
land have most length of traceable pedigree. It is
not always the last mating, but often a mating sev-
eral removes back, that the Scotch breeders refer to ;
and he who remembers this and subsequent matings,
is likely to be among the winners at the fairs so
much in favor with them; and if one looks over the
premium lists for many years, the chances are he
will find that of the careful breeders, the oldest win
most frequently when the competition lies between
animals bred by the owners.

These statements and considerations are calculated
to impress upon us, appreciation of the importance of
a knowledge of pedigree. It matters little whether
we have a mixed breed, common cattle, or the thor-
ough-bred. The same need of regarding the ances-
try exists. If we would have much assurance of
what nature of cattle we may have from our breed-
ing herd ten years hence, we require to know much
of thé ancestry of the animals that formed the herd
for the ten years past. For we rely on the past, with

2 Jour. R. A. 8. of Eng. 1850, p. 681.

194 IMPORTANCE OF PEDIGREE.

the present, to guide us to the future. To desire to
build upon the present alone, regardless of the past,
is as wise as it would be for the architect to build his
stone house without attending to the nature of the
foundation upon which it is placed.

We think the lack of knowledge of the ancestry
of choice animals imported from abroad, occasions
the frequent observation, that their progeny is inferior
to themselves. The young, with which they often
come laden, may be superior to the mother, and not
uncommonly are of fine quality, but the produce of
the American breeding is a disappointment. The
valuable imported animal is thus shorn of a part
of his value when put into strangers’ hands. It is
therefore rarely the case that the much-praised for-
eign animal quite fulfils expectations, when moved
from his native neighborhood and put to breeding.
At home, acquaintance with its pedigree, the animals
that enter into it, with their merits, defects, and
tendency to the cropping out of particular traits, is
put tu practical use.

To realize, in its fulness, the idea of a pedigree,
would he to bring into array before us the living
animals, and sun-portraits of the deceased ancestry.
To realize the idea of a Herd Book in its fulness,
would require that there be introduced in the volume
the sun-portrait of every animal named; and the
naming of all animals without any omission for many
generations. It is well to carry this ideal in our
minds, and, rejecting what is manifestly impractica-
ble, realize all we can.

IMPORTED PRIZE AYRSHIRES.

+ PRIZE-TAKING IN SCOTLAND A GU\RANYEE OF AUTHENTICITY OF BREED.

Abbott's
Allan’s

Brodie’s
Gibb’s

Gibson’s

Huagerford, Brodi
fF Cos

Logan’s

Morgan’s

Miller's
Paterson's
Pe‘kham’'s
Peters’

Sturtevant’s

Thompson’s

IPhitney’s

Watcott § Campbell’ s

Alison,

Darling,
Barbara Allan,
Belle of Straven.
Lady Douglas,
Annie,
Blooming Daisy,
Clarinda,
Derby,

Heather Belle,
Heather Bloom,
Lady Avendale.
Edith.

Ayrshire Lass,

Greig.

Adino,

Annie,

Daisy,

Beauty,

Highland Maid,

Brenda,

Duchess 2d,

Harold (formerly
Dr. IIornbook),

Domine,

Drurilla,

Edna,

Annie,

Crown Prince,

Diamond.

Barrochan Maid,

Bessie Belle,

Bonnie Lassie.

Lady Clyde,

Lady Glasgow.

Elsie,
Lilias,
Boydstone,

Lady Kilburnie.

Lily 2d,
Medora,
May Morn,
May Belle,
Miss Meikle,

Mara,

Lady Ayr,

Georgie,

Viola,
Yellow-haired Laddie.
Conquer,

Princess Alice,
Princess Royal,
Park 2d,
Rossie,

Red Rose.

Model of Perfect on,

Habbie Simpson, Seca Bird.

Favorite.
Lord Raglan,
Sally,

Jean Armour,
King Coil,
Merryton 3d,

Eos,
Glengarry,
Mains,
Duchess,

Geordie.

Village Belle.
Queen 2d,

Tosa,

Young Merryton 2d.

Mona,
Ops,
Selena,
Raasie 2d,

Highland Chief, Rassie 3d,

Flora,
Jock,

Rob Roy,

Nettie,
Rassie,

White Lily,

1 This list includes animals imported in dam from prize-taking parents. Prob-
ably a large proportion of imported Ayrshires have taken prizes at some of the

numerous Scotch fairs.

WOOD-CUTS OF IMPORTED ANIMALS.

AxtnouasH the ordinary wood-cut of this animal
usually conceals defective parts, and brings into
undue prominence those forms which are deemed
desirable, yet a study of these pictures brings to
the mind an accurate idea of the shapes considered
Ayrshire, by the artist at least, and a series of the
same artist’s pictures are accurate enough to be com-
parable with each other. The distribution of color is
accurate, and this is something. These figures, then,
if wooden in their look, and showing the animal in
the best position, and under the most favorable cir-
cumstances, and if even exaggerated in parts, are of
assistance to the breeder who brings to his work the
preparation of study and reflection.

The following table of cuts of imported animals,
although far from complete, yet may be of service.

Albert. Ag. of Mass. 1861, p. 21.

Ayr. Trans. N. Y. Ag. Soc. 1849, p. 84.

Baldy. Trans. N. Y. Ag. Soc. 1867, Part I, p. 35. Trans. Vt. Dai-
ryman’s Association, 1869-70.

Barrochan Maid. A.H. B. p. 89. Trans. Vt. Dairyman’s Associ-
ation, 1870-1.

Bonnie Lassie. A. H. B. p. 100.

Champion. Count. Gent., Sept. 12, 1872.

Cocksey. Count. Gent., Oct. 3, 1873.

Daisy. Count. Gent., Nov. 14, 1872.
Dandy. Trans. N. Y. Ag. Soc. 1849, p, 86.

WOOD-CUTS. 197

Flora. Count. Gent, June 11, 1874.

Geordie. Farmer’s Lib. ii, 385.

Georyie. Ag. of Mass. 1873-4. Ag. of Me. 1873.

Habhbie Simpson. A. H. B. p. 41.

Harold. Dept. Ag. Rept. 1863, p. 194.

Handsome Nell. Trans. N. Y. Ag. Soc. 1868, p. 182.

Jean Armour, Ag. of Me. 1862, p. 61.

Jessie. Ag. of Mass. 1861, p. 15.

Jock. A. H. B., bet. Vols. II and ITI.

Ludy Aur. Trans. N. Y. Ag. Soc. 1860, p. 143.

Lady Kilbirnie. Trans. Vt. Dairyman’s Association, 1871-2.
Mars. A. H. B. p. 56.

Medora. A.H. B. p. 177.

Miss Miller. Dept. Ag. Rept. 1863, p. 196.

Model of Perfection, Trans. Vt. Dairyman’s Association, 1871-2.

. H. B. p. 181.

Netti.

Robbie Burns. A. H. B. p. 67.
Rosie.

Rossie. A. H. B. p. 204.
Tibbie. Trans. Vt. Dairyman’s Association, 1869-70.
Village Muid. Count. Gent., June 19, 1873.

PEDIGREES OF IMPORTED ANIMALS.

(HELIOTYPE. )
PRIDE OF TITE HILLS.

Calved May 7,1871. Owned by John 8. Holden,
Belleville, Ont.

Imported in dam Barrochan Maid by N. S. Whit-
ney, Montreal, P. Q., in September, 1870.

Barrochan Maid was bred by J. Holme, Japstone,
Neilston, Scotland.

She gained the Silver Challenge Cup, valued at
£25, at Srieviye, open to all Scotland, as the best
Ayrshire, and the first prize at Ktrprrpe, and Silver
Medal for the best cow of all the prize cows.

(IIELIOTYPE. PHOTOGRAPII OF A PHOTOGRAPH.)
LADY KILBIRNIE.
Owned by Sturtevant Bros., S. Framingham, Mass.
Bred by Robert Orr, Kilbirnie, Scotland ; imported
by James Brodie, Rural Hill, N. Y., in May, 1871.

GEORGIE.
Calved spring of 1866.
Owned by Sturtevant Bros., S$. Framingham, Mass.
Bred by James Wilson, Boghall, Houston, Ren-
frewshire, Scotland.

200 PEDIGREES OF ILLUSTRATED ANIMALS.

Imported by J. N. Morgan, Ogdensburg, N. Y.,
in April, 1871.

Georgie, when a two-year-old, was first at Hous-
TON ; likewise gained medal for best cow in the yard,
beating Barrochan Maid. When four, gained first
prize at Houston, likewise medal for best cow in
the yard, and at RENFREWSHIRE County Snow, she
was aguin first, again beating Barrochan Maid.

MODEL OF PERFECTION.

Calyed in spring of 1865.

Bred by Robert Wilson, Kilbarchan, Scotland.

Imported by J. H. Morgan, Ogdensburg, N.Y.,
in July, 1870.

Owned by Sturtevant Bros., South Framingham,
Mass.

In 1869, after calving, she carried two first prizes
at GLasgow, amounting to £20, and a silver medal ;
likewise carried East Kitpripg, first prize, and when
nearly three months calved, was third at HicHtanp
Society. Before calving she was second at May-
HILL, first at BarRHEAD, and first at Hamitton. The
previous year, when three years old, she stood sec-
ond at GLascow for cows of any age; at Easr Kii-
BRIDE she stood first as a three-years-old in milk,
etc. etc.

Imported

“MopEL OF PERFECTION.”

APPENDIX.

MILK:

Its FORMATION AND PECULIARITIES,

THE AYRSHIRE, JERSEY, AND DUTCH Cow.

BY

E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, M.D,

AYRSHIRE, JERSEY, AND DUTCH MILKS:

THEIR FORMATION AND PECULIARITIES.

Tue philosophy of breeding teaches that every
observed effect must have been preceded by an ade-
quate cause, and that intelligence and skilled ob-
servation may enable our reason to trace out the
sequences which connect the one with the other with
such exactitude as is permissible to our knowledge.
It also teaches that inheritance is a form of force as
uniform in its action, and as invariable, as is the force
of gravity. Like gravity, its action is modified and
interfered with by opposing forces, which disguise
oftentimes its phenomena. As gravity acts alike on
the feather and the bullet, so does inheritance act
alike on all animals. In vitality we have such a
complexity of phenomena, that a right interpretation
is oftentimes difficult, if not impossible; yet the
grand law of inheritance, the transmissal of qualities
possessed by ancestors, may be disguised in indi-
viduals, but cannot be denied to the race.

It is to this universal law of inheritance, as modi-
fied by other laws, — the resultant of whose forces is
the animal form, —that we are to seck the explana-
tion of the variations that occur between members of
the same species, breed, families, and individuals.

204 INHERITANCE.

Those features of animal form that are readily
cognizable, are usually more changed through the
breeder’s art, than other features which are not so
readily noted. Consequently, the grazing breeds
have been brought to a greater uniformity and per-
fection, than have the dairy breeds, as the changes
to be desired have been more clearly indicated in
the beginning, and recognized in the achievement.
Changes in the dairy breeds are to be understand-
ingly brought about by breeders and farmers, who
have a practical belief in the universality of law, —
that inheritance of form is not more important in
modifying the shape of body than it is in determining
the product from the animal.

Whether a cow’s milk is better fitted for the mak-
ing of butter or cheese, or for any other purpose, is
largely determined by inheritance; as is also the
amount she will give, the manner in which she will
give it, the economy with which she will produce it
from her food, and the effect of the production upon
the health of the animal.

Milk is the product of the mammary gland, and is
a fluid intended for the nourishment of the infant
animal. It contains, therefore, all the elements
needed for development and growth, and, chemi-
cally, is thus a perfect food.

The milk-glands, whose mamme or teats furnish
the name to the class Mammalia of naturalists, are
four in number, in the cow, and, united by envelop-
ing tissues, form the vessel called the udder. This
organ occupies the posterior portion of the abdomen,

UDDER GLANDS. 205

bounded laterally by the thighs, and varies somewhat
in shape, according to the breed or individual dif-
ference.

In the Ayrshire cow the glands of the udder are
flattened, and held close to the body by a fibrous, and
in part elastic tissue. The teats are small, cylindri-
cal, and set wide apart. The teats are prolongation
of the gland structure, in order to form an outlet for
the secretion. As the gland is flattened, the affinity
seemingly required by structure is, that the teat
should be rather short and flattened, that is, cylindri-
cal rather than cone-shaped. In the Jersey breed
the glands of the udder are pointed and the teats
are cone-shaped. They partake in form of the elon-
gation of the gland. The glands are not held as
close to the body as in the Ayrshire, but are pendent.
The glands are seldom of equal size, the anterior ones
often displaying a tendency towards extreme diminu-
tion, and the teats hang closely together. The Ameri-
can Holstein cattle — those large black and white cat-
tle from Holland — have an elongated udder. There
seems a hereditary want of tone in the tissues, as it
is usually quite pendent. The glands are elongated,
and in turn the teats are elongated cones.

The outer covering of the udder is composed of
skin similar to that covering the body, but more thin
and pliable, and is covered more or less with a fine
hair of considerable length. Its interior structure
comprises areolar tissue, and white fibrous and yel-
low fibrous tissue, which not only form septa between
the glands, and connect the lobes, but also envelop

206 UDDER GLANDS.

the glands, holding them in position, and, by their
elasticity and firmness, acting an important part in an
organ subject to such violent changes of size. Fatty
tissue occurs near the surface of the glands, and
between their interstices, to a greater or less extent ;
and in the virgin heifer largely determines the form -
and size of the bag.

The teats, usually projecting slightly forward in
the heifer, are likewise covered with a skin similar to
that of the udder, but uncovered with hair, pliant,
flexible, and creased. Their number corresponds to
that of the glands, and they are interesting as form-
ing the outlet for the secretion, as well as their
mechanical adaptation to the needs of the calf. Their
structure is an areolar and fibrous tissue beneath the
skin, which, by its elasticity, closes the outlet and
prevents the escape of the milk. Sebaceous glands
are present, particularly at the base, and their
secretion renders the surface soft, and less subject
to injury.

The gland portion consists of ducts, reservoirs,
elandules, and connective matter. The reservoirs
are situated mostly at the periphery and apex of the
gland, and more particularly adjacent to the sides
covered by the skin of the animal. It is the reser-
voirs which cause the lobulated feel of the surface
of the udder, in large part, and they serve to enclose
the secreting surface, which principally occupics the
centre. The glandules or vesicles, in their arrange-
ment, form groups, and each group has its duct,
which connects with the ducts from other groups,

HISTOLOGY. 207

and thus the secretion is passed towards the main
ducts, which serve to store and transmit what they
receive. There is this peculiarity about the lactif-
erous ducts: they are not strictly uniform in size
throughout, nor do they lessen or increase in size by
regular gradation, but, slightly contracted at their
inlet and outlet, have a bulge between, — thus, in
form, a series of saccular cavities. The ducts and
reservoirs are thus, in one sense, the same. The
constricted portion of the reservoirs is formed of
elastic tissue, which underlies the mucous mem-
brane of the ducts. Thus, by the retardation of the
milk, as it passes from the vesicles, where it is man-
ufactured, towards the teat, its outlet, the pressure
of the accumulated quantity is equalized to a cer-
tain extent throughout the gland. These ducts and
pouches are lined by a vascular mucous membrane.
On the exposed surface of the mucous membrane is
a thin covering of tessellated epithelium to defend it
from injury. As we reach the coecal extremity of
the system we are describing, we obscrve the epi-
thelium changing its character on the edge of the
glandules or vesicles. The vesicle itself is lined
with cells, which differ in size. These cells are the
secreting portion of the gland, and by their own
increase and casting off are themselves the morpho-
logical portion of the milk, the fat globule. These
acini are surrounded by a net-work of capillaries,
which form a refe or net on their surface, and furnish
the blood for the use of these organs. Under the
stimulus of abundant supply of force from this blood,

208 FORMATION OF MILK GLOBULE.

these cells grow, and by a species of budding or pro-
liferation, accompanied, it may be, by a species of
fatty degeneration in their contents, the old cell is
cast off to appear as the milk globule, while the new
cell takes its place.

The milk globule is consequently formed from the
animal; nay more, was, up to the moment of sepa-
ration, a portion of the animal, subject to whatever
changes may have been impressed upon it by its
position, and formed through, and subject to, what-
soever changes may have affected it through its rela-
tion with the animal, as those arising from inheri-
tance and environment. There is this difference,
however, between these cells and the milk globule:
In the one case, a portion of the animal, they are
subject to changes impressed by the animal; in the
other case, free from the animal, simply stored in
the udder, they can receive none of these changes ;
they are as independent of their parent cells as
when they are placed in the milk-pail.

According to Striker, fat globules may be detected
in the acini of women who have died from puerperal
fever. From careful observations on the acini from
the gland of the cow’s udder, we have been unable
to detect separate fat globules in any one instance.
We can say, however, with considerable confidence,
that the cells from the acin?, when detached, can in
nowise be distinguished from the globule of milk
from the same udder.

We will now allude to the uniformity of the plan
observed in nature, the production of different re-

STRUCTURAL AFFINITIES. 209

sults, rather by modifying parts already formed than’
by creating anew.

The mucous membranes may be considered as in-
ternal prolongations of the skin. The cells of the
cuticle of the skin are colorless and flattened, often
wrinkled and folded, and correspond to the pave-
ment or tessellated epithelium of the mucous mem-
brane. Subjacent to the epithelium or epidermis,
there occurs a structureless basement membrane,
which can rarely be demonstrated on account of its
extreme tenuity. The third layer of the mucous
membrane, corresponding to the culis vera of the
skin, is also composed of areolar and elastic tissues,
and in both is highly vascular, and furnished with
papille or villi. These three structures in both are
supported by a layer of lax tissue, in which the
areole frequently contain fat.

Glands themselves are of an epithelial nature, and
are but adjuncts of the skin. As Virchow explains
it, an epithelial cell begins to divide, and goes on
dividing again and again, until by degrees a little
process composed of cells grows inward, and spread-
ing out laterally gives rise to the development of
a gland, which thus straightway constitutes a body
continuous with layers of cells originally external.
Thus arise the glands of the surface of the body, the
sudoriferous and sebaceous glands of the skin, and
“the mammary gland.

If, then, we could unravel the milk-glands, so as to
present the interior surface flat, but little change ex-

cept that of adaptation would be required to identify
10*

210 MILK.

‘their structure with that of the skin. This is an im-

portant observation, as indicating the simplicity of
method by which the purposes of nature are accom-
plished; and as a corollary to this simplicity, the
effect of any agency, whether external or otherwise,
onan animal, cannot be limited in its effect to one
part only, but its influences must be more or less
general in their nature.

We are now prepared to examine more particularly
into the structure and reactions of milk, as we have
seen that, through its method of formation, these
must be influenced largely by the structure of the
animal from which it is obtained.

Milk is one of the animal fluids which contains a
morphological element, which in the form of myriads
of minute globules of mixed fats, enclosed each in an
enveloping substance, floats at will in a fluid com-
posed of sugar of milk, caseine, etc., in solution.
In this paper we shall consider only this globule,
from which the milk derives its color and capacity,
and which has sufficiency of form and character to be
influenced by variation in breed and environment,
and to influence itself in turn the character of those
important dairy products, butter and cheese.

These globules are of varying size, some so small
as to appear as granules under a magnifying power
of 800 diameters, others occasionally attaining a size
of 1-1500 of an inch. The small globules, for an
increased power has invariably defined them as such,
J shall for convenience term granules. As 1-27000
inch is, with my micrometer, a convenient division,

MILK GLOBULE. 211

I shall speak of all globules less than this figure as
granules, and all above as globules. Every sample
of milk I have yet examined has shown these gran-
ules,! yet in some milks much more abundant than
in others. In the skim-milk the granule has always
been readily found, even in those milks where it was
nearly absent in the cream. These globules being
composed of various fats, surrounded by a pellicle,
are intimately mixed with the milk as it comes from
the cow; but their position soon becomes changed as
they come under the influence of gravity, and they
rise to the surface of the milk to form cream. As
the weight to the covering of the fat globules, which
is heavier than water, increases proportionately to
the volume of fat as the sphere is diminished in
diameter, the various globules show difference in
physical action. When the weight of the covering
is just or nearly sufficient to balance the low specific
gravity of the fats, the globules remain nearly sta-
tionary in the fluid; when, however, the globule is
large, the specific gravity of the mass is so much
less than that of the fluid in which it occurs that it
speedily reaches the surface. It therefore follows
that the upper layer of the cream is composed of
larger globules than the lower layer; or, giving
expression to a general fact, the further you go from
the surface of milk which has been at rest, the
smaller the milk globule.

1 That my conclusions may not seem to have been derived without study, I
wish to say h-re that January 21, 1873. I found recorded in my note-book consid.
erations involving the recognition of 9423 milk globules; and since that date
many addiiional observations have been made. E. L. S., October 15, 1874.

212 MILK GLOBULE AS AFFECTED BY GRAVITY.

EXPERIMENT I.

Three drops of milk were taken from a vessel con-

taining milk which had been undisturbed for fourteen
hours ; ? —

1st drop. Top layer cream............. Average size of giobule, 6120”.
2d“ Lower layer cream.......... Average size of globule, 6640”.
3d Six inches below surface .... Average size of globule, 8260".

Should the globules which occur at these different
depths be churned, it would be found that the differ-
ent layers would require a greater or less exposure
to the churning action to produce butter, and the
butter would vary somewhat in quality in each churn-
ing. This may be readily veritied by skimming a
vessel of milk at intervals, and churning the cream
of each skimming Ly itself.

The process of churning consists in breaking the
covering of the milk globule and collecting the re-
leased fut into lumps. This breakage scems usually
to occur through friction; and the ease with which
it occurs is determined in part by the toughness
of the investment, and in part by the size of the
globules.

In general, the time required for churning milk or
cream from the same breed, into butter, has a close
relation to the size of the globule.

EXPERIMENT II.

ree Jersey cows, on similar feed, yielding same
Three Jersey , ,J 2
amount of milk. The milk of the same milking, set

The sign " significs ths of an inch To illustra‘'e: these figures are to be
read 1-612uth of an inch, 1-6640th of an inch, etc.

GLOBULE VERSUS CHURNING. 213

on the same shelf, and the cream churned as nearly
as possible at the same sime, by stirring in a pitcher
with a spoon : —

Name of Cow. Average size of globule. Time of churning.
Desdemona..............0-- PA ei lavanttstovaes deisays 13 minutes.
IGAZOLIOs 9:5 sige vi eiies 4's selasiers 200 sve acess avai s 30 ee
BeMtHiee voaicisemsnwecataatees DOLO sceccre sgeis a xasetaele 3F

EXvrERIMENT III.

The milk, except when otherwise stated, was in
this experiment fresh from the cow, and cooled to
60° by immersing the Florence flask, used as a
churn, in cold water : —

Average size of globule. Time churned. Butter first showed.
SUSO” VOBUNI) wesc seeteanrckaveas 3 minutes...... -
SOLU! sepaseatawesa aes eiaiets eter’ * 8 Cv seees 5 minutes.
GIS” seas snewras SANGO sig idk: E- Sev aae 25 BN ties 15 i.
8252" (churned with egg-beater) . .50 BC ieleed tie 36 ”
BB20" ce sauik s ewan veins ae ieee Rea 60 a Cs —

Having established the fact that the size of the
globules determine some of the reactions in the
churn, we will consider the effect of churning milk
containing globules of widely different sizes. When-
ever such trials have been made and the results care-
fully noted, I have found that the larger globules
become divested of their covering first; and often-
times, I suspect, being overchurned, hinder the same
process going on with the same facility for the rup-
turing of the smaller globules. The overchurning
of butter destroys the grain, or the natural form in
which the butter is contained in its investing cover-
ing, and pressing out the oleine, as I conjecture,
furnishes to the fluid this oil in emulsion, which

214 GLOBULE VERSUS CHURNING.

decreases the friction to which the globules are sub-
jected in the process of separating butter. The but-
ter product is thus, theoretically at least, diminished,
and its churning retarded.

EXPERIMENT IV.

Carefully measured 16 fluid ounces of milk fresh
from the cow and cooled to 60°. After twenty min-
utes’ churning, the butter was collected by straining
the fluid through fine linen. The amount, 57 grains,
or 4 proportion of one pound of butter to about 60
quarts of milk. The next day churned the butter-
milk. After an hour and a quarter’s agitation, 211
grains of butter were collected.

This milk threw up twelve per cent of cream, and
was therefore of good average quality, as was also
indicated by the butter proportion of one pound of
butter to about thirteen quarts of milk.

We must seek an explanation of this experiment
in the physical reaction of the globules.

Average of ten measurements of the globules oc-
curring in a line 1-100 inch in length : —

Top layer of Cream. Lower layer of Cream.
CHS” enone SABA aah SAE Ode ie meee F 8180"
G30" sassvere-aniiaace s eoliss ainiarave eierelein's +. 6390!
G2aSt Ecsta ai euler cease se »» 8505"
GABON siaces are: tvecoecann Sn wivina.a vince aho'eiars .. 8100"
COLO Veins saeaie nes ve K aes ¥ owe tae a5 7155"

The granules in the lower layer were very numer=
ous, but not considered in forming our averages.

The impression gained on observing this milk
microscopically was a great variation in sizes of

GLOBULE AS AFFECTED BY CALVING. 215

globules, so much so as to suggest a division into
two classes, as if two different globuled milks had
been mixed.

If the measurement of 100 globules of the cream
may be taken as giving an indication of an average,
we had 24 globules larger than 6750”, and 76
globules of that size and smaller, —a proportion of
about 1 to 3. The proportion of butter in the re-
sults of the two churnings was about 1 to 3}, a cor-
respondence sufficiently close to be suggestive, and,
taken in consideration along with the microscopic
investigation of the butter-milk, offers the explana-
tion that the larger globules principally furnished
the butter of the first churning, while the smaller
globules were the principal factors in producing the
butter in the second churning.

The experiment can be verified in a very simple
way by shaking some milk in a clean white glass
bottle. After a short time specks of butter will be
seen adhering to the glass, the product of the break-
ing of the large globules, while it may be a long
time before the butter will appear in the ordinary
acceptance of practice.

Another consideration in the study of the globule
is the effect of the distance of the cow from calving,
on the size. Asa constant result with me, the fur-
ther from calving the smaller the globule, and I
think the more uniform the sizes.

EXPERIMENT V.

The milk of the same cow at various periods from
calving : —

216 GLOBULE AS AFFECTED BY CALVING.

Days from calving....14 Average size of globule... .4400”
“c “c 46 ae eh 6c “c “cc oe 0 4666"
A WM oa % 6 w ,,.2ea00"

EXPreRiMent VI.

Three cows of the same herd, and under the same
treatment. The trial was made with milk of the
same milking, treated alike : —

No.1. Days from calving, 15. Average size of globules, 4440”
a3 9. 4c ae ‘OF. iT7 a3 “ 5260"
“et 3. “ee ee 40. oe a “ 5520"

No. 3 had a great uniformity of globule, and very
few granules. Except for the granules, No. 1 had
been as uniform. That the “feed” did not probably
affect the experiment unfavorably in this case, I give
below not only the food but the proportion of butter

to milk.
Butter to Milk.

. 1. Pasture and } qt. oil meal, about 2 or 3 qts. shorts, 1 1b. 23.23 lbs.
‘© 2. Pasture and 3 qts. oil meal, 3qts. shorts, Lqt. oats, 1 “$ 23.27 *
3. Pasture and 4 qt. oil meal, about 2 to 3 qts.shorts, 1 17.77 “

EXxpPerRIMenT VII.

Milk of different cows, but of the same breed.
Measurements taken at different times, and under
varying conditions of food, ete. The sequences are
not therefore as regular as in the Experiments V
and VI.

Digs from: Calving, dvi sexes ease ceases sie 4935"
“ “ Ceres eta ce eta 4718
ee us Des ore aie nreceseseWorene. de isigraseioyavene's\-aee 5580"
oa OS: Sale Hawise sages suas 89 6384"
- ‘as GF isnsasnas ade aecedetee asain 5400"

.GLOBULE VERSUS GRAIN OF BUTTER. 217

By including some measurements which were taken
from the lower layer of cream, and not incorporated
in the above table, we have additional illustration.

Days from calving, 14............ woneniozeewes 4580"
as a DOr Wore Sinn ai sie piatanalaypiavetareiors eeee 6200"
= ee 69 ecioamerisi tiernamieaes sone 6750"
” TSB: aioe heb sieieie Of alecdinte Sinte Sig were Se 6720”
id af DUG win oc anibis tie Qle/ase ilar asa: eiacore rete 7660"

The size and appearance of these globules is varied,
as I believe, by the feed of the cow, and certainly,
to a considerable extent, by her condition. That
their size has a connection with the grain of the but-
ter, it is in the power of any one to convince himself
by direct experiment. The larger-globuled breeds
furnish butter of a stronger grain than do the smaller-
globuled breeds, and the first rising from the milk-
pan yields also a stronger-grained butter than does
the succeeding risings.

When a cow gets out of condition she oftentimes
falls away in her milk very rapidly, and a microscopic
examination of her milk may show the presence of
colostrum corpuscles. In order to understand the
signification of this fact, it is necessary to know what
colostrum is.

Writers upon milk have made statements of wide
discrepancy. Dr. Bird? states that the colostrum of
the cow is yellow, mucilaginous, and occasionally
mixed with blood; it contains but mere traces of
butter or other fat, and appears to contain albumen
as one of its ingredients. This secretion does not

8 Cooper, Anat. of the Breast, p. 124.

218 COLOSTRUM.

turn sour like milk, but readily putrefies. According
to Stiptrian, Luiscius, and Boudt,* however, the
colostrum from the cow yields 11.7 per cent of cream,
3 of butter, and 18.75 of cheese. Thomson states
that colostrum when churned gives a very yellow but-
ter, which, when heated, emits a smell similar to the
white of an egg. Heine and Chevalier® give 15.1
per cent of casein, 2.6 of butter, and 2.0 of mucus.
According to Lehman,’ the colostrum is richer in fat
than the corresponding milk. In the analysis by
Boussinganlt,* mention is made of 3.6 per cent of
sugar of imilk,—a substance entirely unmentioned
by Heine and Chevalier, and the other authorities
we have quoted above.

According to Beale,® colostrum contains many large
cells, consisting of an investing membrane filled with
oil globules resembling those which are floating free
in the surrounding fluid. Donne?! states the colos-
trum corpuscle to be made up of small granules,
united together or enclosed in a transparent envelop.
He says they disappear in ether, and that he traced
these globules in milk secreted twenty days after par-
turition. M. Guterbock!® has also observed these
compound globules, and says he could detect the
transparent membrane after the ether had dissolved
the enclosed granules. M. Mandl! has not been
able to detect these compound globules, and believes
them to be made up of agglomerated milk-globules.

4Cyc. Anat. and Phys. iii, 360. 7 Phys. Chem. li, 64.

6 An. Chem. p. 435. 8 Journ. R. A. 8. of Eng. xxiv, 301.

6 Jobnston’s Chem, p. 535. ° The Microscope in Medicine, p. 267.
Cyc, Anat, and Phys, iii, 361.

COLOSTRUM. 219

Kolliker! thinks the formation of colostrum the
introduction to that of milk. He also thinks that the
colostrum may be the product of a degeneration, and
thinks that is in part derived from the internal cells
of the originally solid rudiments, which are removed.
Virchow! states that it is the still coherent ¢lobule,
which results from the fatty degeneration of an
epithelial cell. According to Reinhardt! they are
transformations of the epithelial cells of the mam-
mary ducts, the result of a sort of fatty degeneration
or regressive metamorphosis, consequent upon the
peculiar activity of the mammary gland during preg-
nancy.

When we consider the physiological formation of
the milk-globule, as set forth in this paper and else-
where! by the writer, the relations of the colostrum
corpuscle to the milk will be readily noted. In the
earlicr stages of lactation, and before parturition, the
process of the casting forth of these milk-cells is
not perhaps so complete as at a later stage. We
have at first a tardiness or lack of co-ordination of
action between the different cells; action stimulated
by the uterine function is with cells which have been
for a long time stationary or in partial rest. There-
fore, through an imperfection of process, groups of
cells from the same vesicle are forced off in mass be-
fore they are ready to become milk-globules. When
lactation commences the whole structure of the udder

11 Human Histology, ii, 279.

12 Cellular Pathology, p. 376.

13 Carpenter’s Human Phys. p_ 818.

14 8ce the forthcoming Prize Essay of the New York State Ag. Soc. of 1873,
“Milk.” Also, Ag. of Mass. 1873-4, p. 376.

220 SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

glands is in a state of wondrous activity. We have
such an excess of action that cells are cast off from
the vesicles prematurely, and tear off the adjoining
cetls while contact still exist. The colostrum cor-
puscle is theoretically but a portion of the lining of
the milk-vesicle, detached before the cells have
arrived at the stage of the milk-globule. It is but a
stage of development of milk-globules. It may be
caused by excess or defect in nutrition, through any
cause which may produce an imperfect develop-
ment of the cells of the acin?. Hence, when sick-
ness overtakes a cow, even at a long period from
calving, colostrum corpuscles may appear in her
milk.

By careful microscopic observation, I have been
able to detect no difference between the globules
present in the colostrum and the milk-globule pres-
ent in the milk. The action of ether, in my hands,
does not cause the globules to disappear, although it
may have some action on the granules. I sometimes
have noticed a change produced, without my being
able to define exactly what the change was.

The specific gravity of cream must be subject to
considerable variation, according as the globules vary
in size and the thickness of the investing coating.
As writers have experimented with milk from differ-
ent breeds of cows, and under different circum-
stances, it is no wonder that their results are dis-
cordant, but it is unfortunate that we do not have
sufficient particulars to enable us to place the reason
in the right place.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CREAM. 221

The specific gravity of cow’s milk is said to be
lighter than milk but denser than water, by Dr.
Voelcker,!® who gives the following as the result of
his trial, and Willard! accepts these results.

From milk after standing 15 hours........ +1019.4 at 62°
= Be ne AS) OU easrelneea an 1012.7 * 62°
a6 ae Bs Ct eee terres 1012.9 ‘* 62°

Letheby, in his Lectures on Food," states the spe-
cific gravity at 1013, while Berzelius!® places the
specific gravity of cream at 1024.4, the figures which
are accepted by Dr. Golding Bird.!9 L. B. Arnold,”
of Rochester, N. Y., states that cream has the specific
gravity of 985.

In my own experiments I have usually found that
a drop of cream, carefully dropped on rain-water,
would float. It even floats when dropped into the
water from a height, so that the force of the impact
carries the drop below the surface or spreads it on
the surface. In one instance only have I known the
cream to sink when carefully placed on the surface of
rain-water.

EXPERIMENT VIII.

Tn one carefully-conducted experiment made with
the cream from the surface of a large cream-jar,
I found the specific gravity to be 983 at 62° by
weighing.

15 Journ. R.A.8. of Eng. 1863, pp. 298, 317.
1¢ Dairy Husbandry, p. 168.

17 Ibid. p. 34.

18 Johnson’s Farmers’ Enc. pp. 240, 814.

19 Cooper's Anat. of the Breast, p 119.

20 Am, Dairyman’s Ass. Trans. 1870, p. 160.

222 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CREAM.

EXPERIMENT IX.

A microscopic investigation would seem to settle
the question that some cream may be lighter, other
cream heavier than water. 1 added some miik to
water in a tall glass tube. The milk all fell rapidly
to the bottom, in a smoky cloud, leaving the upper
third of the tube absolutely clear. In half an hour
the density at the bottom had diffused itself upwards,
in a regular gradation of opacity, even to the top.
Upon examining a drop from the surface of the water,
uuder the microscope, globules showed of quite even
sizes, ranging generally from 6750” to 4500” in diam-
eter. A like examination of the bottom layer scarcely
showed a globule larger than 9000” in diameter, yet
two globules were seen as large as 6750”.

Having now considered the formation of milk in
respect to one of its constituents, and treated the
subject in a general manner, we are now prepared to
examine into the peculiarities which come of breed
and are consequent thereto.

My opportunities have been limited to three breeds,
——the Ayrshire, the Jersey, and the Dutch, those
large black and white cattle from Holland, the Amer-
ican “Holsteins.” Although such differences as are
to be discussed are probably of universal application,
yet here my conclusions will be confined to the result
of my own examinations, which have been fairly
complete with reference to the Ayrshire and Jersey
milks, but more limited with the Dutch.

AYRSHIRE MILK. 223

The breed of the Ayrshire cow furnishes a globule
intermediate in size between the Jersey and the
Dutch. The prominent feature of this milk is the
numerous granules.

x813

Upon a careful examination of Ayrshire milk, we
find an indication of a division of the breed into two
classes, according as they have been bred for butter
or cheese purposes. When we examine the milk
which characterizes the type of the two classes, the
differences are manifest and the peculiarities are
readily noted; but these two types shade into cach
other so imperceptibly and gradually — like two
separate, overlapping clouds—that the division line
is obscured. Those cows which appear the nearest
to such a line may be grouped as a third class.

The typical butter family of Ayrshires furnishes
milk possessing a globule scarcely inferior to the Jer-
sey globule in size, yet the sizes are more varied, and
granules present in abundance. The skim-milk is
not as blue as Jersey skim-milk on account of the
presence of the granule. The envelep to the globule
seems tougher than in the Jersey globule, and the

224 AYRSHIRE MILK.

milk takes a somewhat longer time to churn. The
effect of the acids developed in the milk by keeping
also appe:rs to affect the churning qualities of the
milk to a less degree. Therefore, although the
Jersey milk may be skimmed, certainly not later
than when the milk commences to thicken or “ lob-
ber” at the bottom of the pan, the Ayrshire milk
should pass considerably beyond this point, and
develop somewhat more acidity, before the cream is
removed.

EXPERIMENT X.

Average size of globules. Cream. Churning. Butter came.
Ayrshire........ 4666" 3$ days old. 20 minutes.
Jersey .......00. 5630" Old. 3. CS —
Ayrshire........ 6000" New milk. 25 e 15 minutes.
Jersey .......0.- 5940" se e 8 ee 5 Ke

In the new-milk churning, when the globules of
the two breeds were about of a size, the Jersey milk
churned much the quicker, probably on account of
the thinness of the enveloping membrane of the
globules. In the Jersey cream we also have a sim-
ilar result, although the globule is smaller than in
the Ayrshire cream, with which it is compared.

The butter from the Ayrshire cow is of good tex-
ture; is yellow, often a deep yellow, but, as far as
I have observed, not possessing the peculiar orange
tinge of the Jersey.

The typical cheese family of Ayrshires furnishes a
milk of much smaller globules and more numerous
granules than the butter type of Ayrshire milk. The
milk throws up a small percentage of cream, and is

MILK FOR CHEESE. 225

specially fitted for the manufacture of cheese, as the
theoretical essential for the best result in cheese-
making is, that the butter should be retained in, and
evenly distributed through the cheese. When cream
rises, in the ordinary process of manufacture, it does
not again readily mix with the milk, but much of it
passes off in the whey. When, therefore, the milk
is rick to analysis, but the cream percentage is small,
on account of the butter-globules being too minute
to rise very rapidly, or at all, through the fluid, then
we have milk conditioned for the most favorable
results. I do not question but that, by the means of
the microscope, milk could be selected which would
endure reasonable skimming, or that amount of skim-
ming which could take place in ordinary cheese-
making, and yet make a richer cheese than another
selected milk, which might contain fully as much fat,
and be used unskimmed.

In order that this statement may be rendered
clearer, let us see upon what conditions, in part, the
character of cheese depends. It must be borne in
mind that, if these observations of mine are correct,
as they surely are, the dairyman deals not alone with

-composition of milk, but also with structure, in the
processes of either butter or cheese making.

During the ripening of cheese a portion of the
caseine or curd suffers decomposition, and is par-
tially changed into ammonia; the latter, however,
does not escape, but combines with fatty acids pro-
duced in course of time from the butter. The pecul-

iar mellow appearance of good cheese, though due to
ll

226 MILK FOR CHEESE.

some extent to the butter which it contains, depends
in a higher degree upon a gradual transformation
which the caseine or curd undergoes in ripening.

Such being the process, it is quite evident that an
even distribution of the fatty matter through the curd,
is desirable, in order that each particle of ammonia,
as set free, may at the moment be in contact with
the fatty acid which is supplied from the fat globule.
Consequently that milk which contains the cream in
a state of equilibrium throughout the fluid, and yet
which is rich by analysis, fulfils best the desired
conditions.

That the facts of dairying are in accordance with
these views, witness a few statements. Dr. Voelcker
writes that one of the chief tests of the skill of the
dairy-maid, is the production of a rich tasting and
looking, fine-flavored, mellow cheese from milk not
particularly rich in cream. That this can be done is
abundantly proved by the practice of good makers.
In the accounts of cheese-making that come to us
through the Transactions of the Cheese-Makers’ As-
sociations, we find both concordant and conflicting
testimony, which can only be rendered concordant
by the supposition that the parties reporting, of equal
repute, used milk of different characters. Thus some
makers advocate taking the cream of one milking for
the purpose of butter-making, and deny any injurious
influence therefrom on the cheese, while others dep-
recate this course. Many others think the cream
may be profitably removed in the fall, but not at
other times. When we consider that the cows which

AYRSHIRE MILK FOR CHEESE. 227

furnish the milk to a factory usually calve in the
spring, and that the milk-globule diminishes in di-
ameter with the time from calving (see Experiments
VI and VII), the reason underlying this cause may
be seen to reside in the character of the milk differ-
ing with the season.

Mr. Gardner B. Weeks has sold from his creamery
skim-milk cheeses in quantity at a price within a cent
and a half a pound, of the highest quotations of whole-
milk cheeses. All writers unite in testifying to a
loss of butter in the whey, and processes are patented
for the extraction of this waste butter for family use.
These considerations concerning the milk-globule,
peint out the way to prevent waste, and to obtain
full price, by regulating the character of the milk
supplied, or manufacturing in accordance with the
character of milk supplied, rather than other more
wasteful alternatives.

The milk of the Ayrshire cow, which holds a mid-
dle position between these extremes, is well fitted by
its structure for either butter or cheese without being
equal to the animal of the typal extremes for either
product alone. The figure given illustrates the milk
of cow of this third class, as I have called it. This
class of milk is perhaps the most predominant, and
is perhaps of the most value for the majority of farm-
ers. It furnishes an excellent percentage of cream,
—from 12 to 19 per cent, in our experience, —a
good quality of butter, and a skim-milk of excellent
quality. The skim-milk is neither as blue as in the
butter type nor as white as in the cheese type of

228 JERSEY MILE.

cow, but occupies a medium position, — the practical
differences between these three types of milk being
the greater uniformity of constitution of the milk,
after standing, in one case than the other; the differ-
ence in the rapidity and completeness of separation
of the butter-globule, or cream; the greater or less
occurrence of the granules, or extremely small glob-
ules.

The milk-globule of the Jersey breed is larger
than is the corresponding globule of the other breeds
here considered, and there are fewer granules.

x813

The envelope to this globule seems weaker than
the corresponding envelope in the other breeds, and
more readily ruptured in the churn. (See Experi-
ment X.) It is also more readily acted upon by the
chemical changes induced in the milk by time. When
the old cream of these breeds is examined micro-
scopically, it is found that the Jersey globule is
more readily broken or distorted by pressure than
the others. Practically, therefore, this milk should
be skimmed at an earlier period of the souring
change than should the other milks. I feel assured,

JERSEY MILK FOR BUTTER. 229

from impressions gained from my own experiments,
that the Jersey milk should be skimmed certainly not
later than when the milk commences to thicken or
“Jobber” at the bottom of the pan, while the other
milks may pass considerably beyond this point with
advantage.

From the large size of the Jersey globule, and the
comparatively small number of granules, the Jersey
cream rises with considerable rapidity, and so com-
pletely as to leave a very blue skim-milk. I have
known the whole of the cream, in one sample of
Jersey milk, to rise to the surface in four hours,
but such rapidity is exceptional.

As the variations between the time occupied in
churning, are determined largely by the milk-globule,
we find that the cream with the largest globule takes
less time to churn, than does a small-globuled cream.
The size of the globule also determines the grain of
the butter, while the breed determines to a large
extent the composition. We hence find in the Jersey
milk an aptitude to churn very quickly, under favor-
able conditions, and the butter produced to be of a
waxy and strong-grained appearance. The butter
is usually, perhaps always, colored by an orange
pigment, which seems characteristic to the breed.
Owing to this orange tinge of the pats, and the
character of the substance investing the globule, the
Jersey cream oftentimes appears yellow, especially
after standing. This color to the cream is not pe-
culiar to the Jersey breed, but seems more usually
present, or more prominent in this breed than in the
others.

230 JERSEY MILK.

When Jersey butter is shaken with boiling water,
and the nitrogenous matter enclosed washed out and
collected, it is found to be much more abundant than
in Ayrshire butter, and of a somewhat more floccu-
lent character. Hence, theoretically at least, Jersey
butter should not possess “ keeping quality” to such
an extent as the other butters. (See Experiment
XIV.)

The conclusions to be gleaned in reference to the
Jersey milk are: First, that it is unfitted for the re-
tail dealer on account of the rapidity with which the
cream rises, and the difficulty of again mixing this
cream with the milk (see Experiment XIII), and,
on account of the absence of granules, the inferior
quality of the skim-milk. Second, that on account of
the completeness of the separation of the cream, it is
an excellent milk for the butter-maker, exhibiting
but little waste, and, with quick churning capacity,
supplies a butter of excellent appearance and quality.
Third, that on account of the physical qualities de-
scribed, it is not an economical milk for the cheese-
maker. Fourth, from the presence of nitrogenous
matter in intimate mixture with the butter, the indi-
cations are that this butter is better fitted for the
daily sending to market, than for the purpose of win-
ter packing.

As an interesting observation, I would say that
from the following and other experiments I have
come to the conclusion that a judgment can be formed
of the depth of color the cow will give to her butter
by the examination of the wax secretion in her ear.

EAR COLOR VERSUS BUTTER COLOR. 231

There is a striking resemblance between the various
glands in the plan of their formation; and here, if
anywhere, we should, @ priori, expect to find correla-
tions. It must be remembered, however, thut the
wax in the cow’s ear changes color by exposure to
the air, and consequently a freshly-exposed surface
must be examined in the use of this indication. So
great is the resemblance between the ear-gland and
the milk-gland, that in one case at least I have found
a similarity in the size of the fat-globule in either.

EXpEerRIMentT XI.

No.1. Very yellow in skin

Bit CATS. cewr ae co8s ca ees oes Guernsey.. 2d highest colored butter,
No. 2. Skin of udder not as

yellow as No. 1. Ears as

FEO a irrsigiee ind Cada onions Jersey. ...Highest colored butter.
No. 3. Skin middling yellow,

UG. CAFS ss akweeee nes eee ....Good color to butter.
No.4. Skin vaihan light col-

CL eee er ra ee er s .. Rather light colored butter.

No. 5. Skin and ears yellow.. Keichive. - Yellow butter.
No. 6. Skin and ears scarcely
showing COlor.......eeeeeeee “ .. White butter.

Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 were on similar feed, and the
experimental butter was made from the same milking,
at the same time. Nos. 5 and 6 were on similar feed,
and the cows were selected on account of the varia-
tion in the color of the skin. The effect of the char-
acter of the food on the color of the secretions was
well illustrated by cow No. 6, which usually has
possessed more color of skin than at this trial.

The melting point of Jersey butter, as obtained by

232 MELTING POINT OF BUTTER.

me, has varied from 93° to 98°, from different herds
at the same season of the year.

EXPERIMENT XII.

BIN Oe POR ia isin ye cy otc snus oe Sisco Siena eleveys Bios eioe @ busters eStats 98°
NG: 2) sass yeas sewbaw eatre enijet este ee. ie aS ietde' 96°
NGS cuiceygaeo cece shade eheks dvemeiwaeedawwes 94°
IN G54 8S acct aioe cerca tiaie Se ecinnies BE Rate ae Cnet 93°

In order to obtain the melting point of butter, the
best process that [ have yet found, is by the use of
mercury. Heat a small plant-pot of sand to about
120°, and set in the sand a small cup of mercury,
with the bulb of a thermometer immersed therein,
and supported by a cross-bar. Having previously
filled a section of a quill or a cylinder of paper, open
at both ends, with butter, impale on a needle so that
the point of the needle shall extend through a quar-
ter of an inch. By immersing the quill or cylinder
in the mercury, the projecting needle keeps the ap-
paratus always at the same distance below the sur-
face of the mercury, and the butter enclosed in the
cylinder is subject to a uniform pressure of say three
eighths of an inch of mercury. The moment the melt-
ing point of the butter is reached, the warm mercury
forces it out; it immediately jumps to the surface,
and at the same instant the observer reads off the
height of the immersed thermometer.

Of the three breeds we are considering, the Ameri-
can Holstein presents the smallest globule to its milk.
The globules are more uniform in their size than in
the Ayrshire milk, and there are fewer granules.

MILK OF THE AMERICAN HOLSTEIN cow. 233

The cream, on account of the uniformity of size of
the globule, rises completely, and on account of their
small size mixes again with the skim-milk with consid-
erable readiness. The absence of granules as a pre-

x813
dominant feature makes the skim-milk appear blue,

and renders this milk less fitted for the cheese-maker
than Ayrshire milk. The quality it possesses of the
cream and skim-milk being readily miscible may
offset in some degree the absence of the granules.

The butter made from this milk, so far as deter-
mined by a single experiment, was fine in grain,
light in color, and displayed remarkable keeping
quality. Perhaps the “ keeping” power is the direc-
tion of the usefulness of this breed. My experi-
ments with the milk of this cow have, however, been
of too limited a nature to allow me to dwell very
particularly on my results.

We will now compare the milk of the three breeds,
and summarize in part our preceding showings.

Experiment XIII.

Milk from each of the three breeds was placed in
bottles and the cream allowed to rise, the bottles
11*

234 KEEPING QUALITIES OF BUTTER.

being kept corked, to prevent evaporation from taking
place to an extent sufficient to harden the surface of .
the cream. By shaking the bottle it was found that
the Dutch cream mixed again with the milk with the
greatest facility; the Ayrshire cream, less readily ;
the Jersey cream, with difficulty and imperfectly.

EXpEerImMent XIV.

One sample of Dutch butter, one of Guernsey
butter, seven of Jersey butters, and three of Ayr-
shire butters, were placed in a cupboard adjoining a
steam-heater. A few days later another pat of Ayr-
shire butter was added.

The Guernsey butter was very high-colored, melt-
ing point 99°, had an oily rather than a waxy look,
but was very attractive. It moulded in spots in
about a month.

In seven weeks the Jersey butters were all rancid,
and one had lost its color in spots, the white spots
reminding of tallow, — no butter flavor.

The Ayrshire butters were not rancid, but had lost
flavor and were poor. The last specimen placed in
the same cupboard, but on an upper shelf, was for-
gotten. When examined three and a half months
later, it still retained its butter flavor and taste, but
was not strictly first-class.

The Dutch butter was well preserved, being neither
rancid nor flavorless.

The butter from cows of the same breed and on
similar feed, and giving the same quantity of milk,

MILK DIFFERENCES. 235

made from the same milking and at the same time,
does not necessarily present the same color. The
color for the Jersey breed, I think, is yellow, more
or less deep, and tinted with orange. That from the
Ayrshire cow is yellow, often a deep yellow, yet, so
far as I have observed, the orange tinge is lacking.
The Dutch butter, speaking from several samples
only, is light yellow, or a darker yellow, of attractive
clearness.

The predominant feature of the Ayrshire milk,
from whatsoever class it may be taken, is the pres-
ence of numerous granules or extremely small glob-
ules, which give a white rather than a blue appear-
ance to the skim-milk.

The predominant feature of the Jersey milk is the
size of the globules, the tenderness of their investing
membrane, and the small quantity of granules. The
skim-milk is hence blue, and does not readily remix
with the cream upon agitation.

The Dutch milk has for a predominant feature the
uniform yet small size of the globules, and the com-
parative absence of the granule. The skim-milk is
blue, yet the cream can be readily mixed with it by
shaking.

A curious feature brought out by experiment is,
that the mixed milk from two breeds did not produce
as much butter as would the same milk churned sep-
arately. When a large-globuled milk and a small-
globuled milk are churned together, the larger glob-
ules separate first into butter, and the breaking of the
smaller globules appears to be retarded. Moreover,

236 CHURNING MIXED MILKS.

the covering to the globules being of different char
acter, those of one breed are ruptured more readily
than those of the other, and over-churning of a por-
tion of the product is inevitable. Think of churning
Jersey milk, which will make butter in eight minutes
(see Experiment X), mixed with Dutch milk which
requires an agitation during sixty minutes (see Ex-
periment III) for the same produce.

EXPERIMENT XV.

Two samples of milk were selected which showed
considerable variation in the size of the globules.
Twenty fluid ounces of the Jersey milk were divided
into two parts; the like quantity of Ayrshire milk
was similarly treated.

Jersey milk. Average size of globules........ 5852"
Ayrshire milk. ee re Shs Weatatiated 7080"

These milks were then cooled to 60°, and churned
by shaking in a Florence flask.

Ten ounces Jersey milk. Butter came in five min-
utes; churned eighteen minutes. Product, one hun-
dred and thirty-six grains of butter.

Ten ounces of Ayrshire milk. Butter came in
twenty minutes; churned thirty minutes. Product,
76 grains of butter.

Thus the 20 ounces of milk churned separately
produced 212 grains of butter, or a proportion of one
pound of butter to 44.75 pounds of milk.

Ten ounces of Jersey milk plus ten ounces of the
Ayrshire milk mixed and churned in like manner.

LOSS OF PRODUCT. 237

Butter came in thirteen minutes; churned twenty
minutes. Product, 179 grains of butter. After this
butter was removed the buttermilk was churned ten
minutes longer, without producing any change in
the result. The proportion in the mixed milks is,
therefore, one pound of butter to 48.88 pounds of
milk.

Difference in favor of churning each milk separ-
ately, 33 grains, or 4.13 pounds in the proportion.

When, therefore, a Jersey cow is kept in an Ayr-
shire or Dutch herd for the purpose of influencing
the color of the butter, it is probable, in churn-
ing the produce of the herd, that the large globules
of the Jersey milk are broken first in the churn;
and while the smaller globules are being broken, the
butter which first came is being over-churned, and
theoretically at least the quality of the result is im-
paired, if not the quantity lessened.

When a few Ayrshire or Dutch cows are kept
among a herd of Jerseys, and the milk churned
together, we should expect, both theoretically and
practically, a large portion of the butter of the small-
globuled milks to be left in the buttermilk in the
form of globules.

A like application may be made to herds of native
or grade cows. Unless there be uniformity within
certain limits, in the milk-globule, there is a loss of
product. When uniformity is so seldom found in
external shapes, as in a herd of natives, it is not
probable that any greater uniformity exists between
their functional productions.

238 SETTING FOR CREAM.

The bearing of these facts of the physical construc-
tion of the milks, on practical questions, such as the
depth of setting milk for cream, etc., are obvious.
It is unsafe to arrive at empirical conclusions, and
enunciate such as a law, when scientific conclusions,
which give the reasons, are to be attained. Thus in
reference to deep cans for the butter dairy: with
Jersey milk, when the cream rises rapidly, they may
be the best; but with other milks coagulation may
occur before the smaller globules have reached the
surface. Again, the quality of the cream of the dif-
ferent risings is widely different in the churn. The
one method may furnish more cream, yet no more
butter than the other.

It is thus seen how both those who claim and
those who deny the benefits of deep setting of milk
may be equally right from the standpoint of their
own practice, while both may be equally wrong in
applying their conclusions to other people’s prac-
tices, for the results are largely brought about by
the physical conformation of the milk, —a sufficient
cause for differing conclusions, and a cause whose
influence has thus far been entirely overlooked, in
dealing with such apparently simple, yet really com-
plex problems as arise in dairy practice.

As the milk-globule is determined as to size and
quality in great part by inheritance, it is thus seen
that there is a close connection between the breeders’
effort to improve stock and the manufacturers’ effort
to improve the make of his cheese or butter. Minute
differences often produce appreciable results ; and he

.

MILK REQUIREMENT AND FULFILMENT. 239

who has the knowledge and disposition to select and
accumulate these differences in his own favor is the
better farmer and the more prosperous man.

Fivate. — Mitk REQUIREMENTS.

For Butter. — That the globule should be of good
size, of uniform size, and should be in abundance;
z. é. a large percentage of cream.

Requirement best fulfiled by the Jersey, Ayrshire,
and Dutch, in the order given.

For Cheese. — That the globule should be so small
as to remain mixed with the milk under all circum-
stances; @. e. a white and not a blue skim-milk.

Requirement best fulfilled by the Ayrshire.

That the globules should easily remix with the
milk after separation.

Requirement best fulfilled by the Dutch and the
Ayrshire.

For the Milk Retailer. —That the globule shall
remain for a sufficient period mixed with the milk,
so that an evenness of quality may occur during de-
livery to customers.

Requirement best fulfilled by the Ayrshire and
Dutch.

Farmer's Requirement. — An abundance of yield
under given circumstances.?!

Requirement fulfilled in the order Ayrshire, Dutch,
and Jersey.

21 Note that this application is that which is shown under the circumstances
of same locality and known treatment,

CREAM.

Wuew milk as drawn from the cow is allowed to
stand, there is immediately a change in the relative
position of the milk-globules in the fluid. These
globules, so fine as to be in a state of equilibrium in
the fluid, or whose specific gravity differs so slightly
from the fluid in which they are suspended that their
position remains practically unchanged, retain their
distribution, and, after a time, become a constituent
of the skim-milk. The remainder of the globules
seek the surface of the milk to form cream, with
a rapidity proportional to their separate specific
gravities.

On account of the differences in the size and spe-
cific gravity of these globules, there is a tendency
towards an arrangement of the cream in layers, the
largest spheroids being at or near the surface, the
smallest against the under side of the cream. In
consequence of this arrangement, we find in cream
an uneven product, as it is formed on the milk, each
layer presenting a different-sized globule, and conse-

A paper read at the American Dairymen’s Convention, Utica, N. Y., January
12-14, 1875, by E. Lewis STURTEVANT, Waushbakum Farm, South Framingham,
Mass.

CREAM. 241

quently, as I have elsewhere shown in my writings,
presenting a different reaction in the churn.

Now, each layer of the cream being different and
producing a different character of butter, it is evident
that one layer must be better for butter-making than
another. It has been so determined by a series of
microscopic and practical experiments combined,
through which it may be stated as a rule, that the
larger the milk-globule the quicker the churning
and the better the butter, other things being equal.
Hence, in practice, the first cream that rises on any
milk is the richest; that is, it produces the best
butter, and this butter churns the quickest. The
second skimming furnishes cream poorer for manu-
facture, and the last skimmings may be worthless for
high-class butter. Hence, in practice, a dairyman
may obtain too much butter from his milk, the in-
crease in quantity not sufficiently compensating for
the decrease in quality, brought about through the
churning of globules which should have been left in
the buttermilk.

We recognize a liability in any butter to vary in
manufacture from week to week, or possibly from
churning to churning. There is often great faith
pinned to special churns and to special modes of
practice. Did it ever occur, that cream is a complex
substance, scarcely alike in any two specimens, and
is affected not only by the circumstances affecting its
rising, but also by the food and condition of the
cow ?

242 CREAM.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CREAM.

What is the specific weight of cream ?

Berzelius,'’ an established authority on chemistry,
says, 1024.4. Dr. Voelcker* says, 1012, 1019.
Letheby*® 1013, and Dr. Hanneberg,* of Stockholm,
1004.9 and 1005.5. It is an-American authority,
Prof. L. B. Arnold,’ who obtains a result as low as
985.

In my own experiments, using cream from the top
of a cream jar, I have obtained a specific gravity of
983 by weight; and on the other hand, I have found
cream which would sink in water. It must seem ex-
ceptional and strange that such an apparently simple
product as cream should show such wide discrep-
ancies. If authorities are right, then cream is not as
simple a substance as it is ordinarily described.

We will now examine some analyses of cream, and
observe what the results teach us.

ANALYSES OF CREAM.
Water. Solids. Butter. Caseine, etc. Sugar. Ash. Ete.

Mixed Creams. . . 59.25 40.75 35.06 2.20 3.05 50
Country Cream? . . 49.00 51.00 42.00 4.20 3.80 60
Jersey Cream’?. . . 36.40 63.60 56.80 3.80 2.80 220
No.l 2. 0 6 oe 6 T4.46 25.54 18.18 2.69 4.08 59
a emma
No.2... 2+ + » - 64.80 35.20 25.40 7.61 2.19
NOs3 3.4) a eee ee 56.50 43.50 31.57 8.44 3.49
; a
Noi Sco ee 6 ea 61 67 38.33 33.43 2.62 1.56 72
Cream®., «6... - 63.28 36.72 29.40 4.22 2.08 -40 -56
1 Johnston’s Ag. Chem. p. 548. 3 Lectures on Food, p 34.

2 Journ. Rk A. 8. 1863, pp. 317, 298. 4 Quoted in Ag of U, 1838, p. 281.
5 Sixth Rept. Am. Dairymen’s Association, 1870, p. 160.

6 Prot. Muller, quoted, Trans. Vt. Dairymen’s Association, 1872, p. 150.
7 Dr. Percy, Trans. Med. Soc. of state of N. Y. 1860, p. 47.

8 Dr. Voelcker, Journ. R. A. 8. xxiv, p 298.

®9 Dr. Hann. berg, quoted, Ag. of O., 1853, p. 282.

CREAM PERCENTAGE. 243

We find, from these analyses, that some creams
may yield three times as much butter as other
creams. In other words, that a milk yielding ten
per cent of cream may furnish more butter than
another milk indicating thirty per cent of cream.
As the form in which the butter is held in the milk
has much to do with the practical process of churn-
ing, and as it may be said that cream cannot vary to
any very great extent in practice, it may be useful
to quote the result obtained by Mr. Horsfall, in
England, where a quart of cream yielded 16 ounces
of butter at one time, and 22 to 24 ounces, and even
25 ounces at another. At the time that he obtained
the largest result the indicated cream was but 63
per cent.

Tn order that our conclusions may be justified, we
will offer some more figures. Prof. Caldwell "° re-
ports that Baumhauer, in Amsterdam, examined 20
different samples of milk in this manner. Nos. 1
and 3 were found by chemical analyses to have re-
spectively 2.7 and 3.5 per cent of fat, while the
cream-gauge indicated no difference between them.
Nos. 5, 10, 15, 18, and 20 were found by the ac-
curate chemical method to contain 3.3, 3.0, 3.9,
2.3, and 2.7 per cent of fat, but the thickness of
the layer of cream formed by all of them was the
same.

We have still another illustration derived from
four cows’ milk examined at different periods.”

10 7th Report Am. Dairymen’s Association, 1871, p. 44.
11 Prize Essay H. Soc. 1868-9, pp. 69, 70.

244 NOT BUTTER PERCENTAGE.

APRIL 23, May 28,
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent
Cream. Butter. Cream. Butter.
2.386 12.0 2.404
2.766 10.75 2.290
2.153 13.0 2.661
2.796 11.75 2.596

We are now prepared to assert that there is not
necessarily any connection between the cream per-
centages and the butter yield. The holding forth of
the large cream percentage yield of favored breeds
or favored cows has no experimental relation what-
ever with their butter product. The modest cow,
with a small cream percentage to her milk, may
make more butter than the vaunted cow which is
supposed to average 25 or 30 per cent of cream.

The whole system of claiming surpassing merit for
a breed, through any one superficial feature, is an
erroneous one. Of what practical use is a large
cream percentage, if the relation of this statement
to the butter product is not established ?

A DIGRESSION.

Allow me to digress in order to call attention to a
few errors. The first I shall take up is that the
Jersey cow is a superior butter cow, because she
yields a large percentage of cream. We have had
no evidence offered for or against this point. An-
other error is in the statement that there is more of
the chemical constituent caseine in the milk of the
Ayrshire cow than in that from the Jersey cow. We
have no evidence furnished to substantiate any pre-
dominance of caseine in Ayrshire milk. A grievous

DAIRY TYPES OF COW. 245

error for the dairymen is that of considering all cows
alike which give milk, and either placing the native
cow far ahead of thorough-breds for his use, or,
rarely, the corresponding error of claiming that a
thorough-bred, as a thorough-bred, is superior to the
native. Now, when we consider that the thorough-
bred and the native are of value only as they serve
the uses of man, we must have a higher definition
than simply purity of lineage. The thorough-bred
derives its fame on account of being bred for a cer-
tain use, and hence is considered as a type for that
use. We desire, therefore, to breed to perpetuate
this type, which must be a useful one. The butter
dairyman must seek the butter type of cow, and the
cheese dairyman the cheese type, whether this seek-
ing carries him towards the Ayrshire, the Jersey,
the American Holstein, or the Short-horn. Let the
dairyman discard prejudice as to the name of a cow,
whether native or thorough-bred, and seek the sub-
stance in a type which is to be most useful to him.
In doing this, those who breed their own calves will
naturally make much use of the thorough-bred, and
utility, not fancy, will settle the question as to which
type or breed you shall seek. The importance of
this digression consists in the fact that different
milks have different qualities; and that in large
herds, very often one or more particular cow’s milk
is adding but little towards the profit of the butter-
maker, and might be withdrawn from the herd with
a real advantage. The dairyman, if this be true,
should seek a uniform type of cows. Is it not the

246 WHAT IS CREAM?

want of uniformity in herds which can lead us to ask,
Why is it that such good average results are as sel-
dom obtained from the milk of a large herd as from
a smaller one, except this matter of difference in the
quality of milk, which in the larger herd has not
been so readily perceived ?

Coming back to our subject, we will again inquire,

WHAT IS CREAM?

It is the lighter portion. of the milk, which is col-
lected from the surface after standing. What more?
It contains butter, some caseous matter, a little sugar
of milk, some few salts, etc. We can give no pro-
portional or more exact definition, on account of the
great variations which may and do occur. This
cream is affected differently by the souring changes
which occur in it before it is placed in the churn.
The cream from one class of cows may have its
“churning time” hastened more by twenty-four
hours’ standing than another specimen of cream,
from other cows, after having stood thirty-six hours,
or even forty-eight. One cream will leave more
waste in the buttermilk than will another cream. In
other words, the analysis of the churn is not as com-
plete, in every case, apart from the fat in the cream.
One cream may churn “all in alump.” That is, the
butter seems to “come” at about the same time
throughout the whole mass of the cream. On the
other hand, another cream will show specks of butter
long before the general mass is churned. The expla-

CHURNING. 247

nation of these last two statements is the difference
in the size of the globules. The more uniform their -
size, and the more uniform the strength or weakness
of their membrane, the more accurately will they all
rupture at one time, and allow the butter to collect.
Again, as only the globules above a certain size are
broken in the ordinary process of churning, the
cream with the fewer granules (7. e. very small
globules) would be expected to produce the most
economical results.

CHURNING.

In the churn, cream also presents differences. One
cream can be easily and quickly churned by a regular
and even motion, while another may he benefited by,
may even require, a more violent agitation. The
dash churn, the barrel churn, the Blanchard or the
Bullard, may each and all be the best churn possible
under some circumstances. There is more difference
between creams than between the best specimens of
our churning machinery.

DEEP OR SHALLOW SETTING.

We now approach the disputed ground of deep or
shallow setting of milk. Perhaps, pursuing our in-
quiries without prejudice and without prepossession,
for we have experimented with neither, we may be
able to determine the question theoretically, in a
manner which may deserve the contidence of practice.

The form-element of the cream is the globule.
This varies in size, and varies in specific gravity.

248 BUTTER ANALYSIS.

Being lighter than the fluid in which it occurs, the
tendency of each globule is to seek the surface. The
butter which we are striving to obtain is the pure fat
of these globules, as free from foreign matter as may
be, although in practice we find other substances in
butter, as below : —

Butter. Caseine. Water, Sugar. Ash.

84.75 5025 13.695 71 .095 Prof. Mueler.12
86.27 94 12.79 on ee Thompson.13
82.70 2.45 14.85 oe oe Prof. Way.14
TU.67 3 38 16.95 ae ey do, 15

70.42 3.37 17.51 oo Be do.16

94.4 3 5.3 a Pr 16

93.0 3 6.7 ot bi do. 16

87.5 1.0 11.5 ake St do. 16

78.5 3 21.2 ies oe do. 16

Let us see what would be the effect on mixing
artificially, different sized bodies in water, and then,
after well shaking, leaving the vessel containing the
lot at rest. We will use sand for an illustration,
because the principles being the same which underlie
the process of acquiring an equilibrium, whether of
lighter or heavier material, we have in this substance
a handy one to study, and our conclusions can be
readily verified.

EXPERIMENTS WITH SAND.

Suppose a handful of sand, of widely different
sizes, to be violently shaken or stirred in a shallow,
and also in a deep dish of water. What effect will

12 Quoted in Trans. Vt. Dairymen’s Association, 1872, p. 150.

13 (On Food of Animals, p. 63,

14 Journ. KR. A. B., xi. p. 735.

15 Sculded Cream, Devonshire method, Journ. R. A. 8. xi, p. 735,
16 Wagner’s Handbook of Chem, Tech. p. 559.

DEEP OR SHALLOW SETTING. 249

the depth of the dish have on the arrangement of the
sand? It will be found that the particles of sand
will arrange themselves according to their gravity or
size as soon as the vessel comes to a rest. In the
shallow dish the strata of sand thrown down will be
somewhat mixed. If the other dish be sufficiently.
deep, the sand will be exactly graded and arranged
with the heavier particles, or those which sink first,
placed accurately at the bottom and the lighter par-
ticles at the top.

In deep setting of milk we have similar conditions,
only reversed. The globules acted on by gravity
arrange themselves in order, and the deeper the jar
in which the milk is set, the more regularly will the
globules arrange themselves according to size, from
above down. In the shallow setting we have a
greater mixture of the different sizes of globules in
the same space than in the deeper setting, and the
deeper the setting, the more completely would the
globules be arranged in order according to size.
Such being the physical effect, the question now
arises, What effect will occur in practice from having
cream of such different churning quality at different
depths? for it will be remembered that the size of
the globule has a strong influence on the churning.

Let us seek another illustration in the form of
various sizes of shot. If we place a gill of coarse
shot in a bowl, we can add a considerable quantity
of fine shot without any increasing of bulk, as the
fine shot will occupy the interstices between the
larger pellets. So with the globules of the cream:

12

250 DEEP OR SHALLOW SETTING.

when there is considerable difference in their sizes as
they accumulate together in rising, there must neces-
sarily be more butter or fat, in a given bulk of cream,
than when the globules are nearer of one size. As
the globules are more completely mingled in the
shallow setting than in the deeper, the cream of the
shallow setting, bulk for bulk, should contain more
butter than the cream from the same quality of milk
that has had the use of a greater depth of fluid to
urrange itself in.

In the arrangement of the globules in the deep
setting, we have the larger globules and those which
are easier churned at the top, and the smaller glob-
ules, which are churned with greater difficulty, at
the bottom. That is, there is more difference be-
tween the upper and lower half of this cream than in
the cream of the shallow set milk. In the cream, as
placed in the churn, we have a more complete mix-
ture of the various sized globules in the cream of the
shallow setting than in the cream of the deep setting.
With creams of the same elementary and physical
composition, and of the same mechanical mixture,
we should expect like results in an experimental
trial. When, however, we sec we have not the like
mechanical mixture in these two methods of setting
milk, we cannot expect equivalent results. Either
the one or the other method must experimentally
prove the better, according to the composition of the
milk used. In order to illustrate the difficulty of
obtaining cream or of dividing a sample of cream for
the purpose of such experiments, let us refer to the

VARIATIONS IN CREAM. 251

writings of Mr. Horsfall,!7 who records that he took
five quarts of cream in succession from a cream-pail
and churned each batch separately.

The first 5 quarts churned .......... 127 ounces of butter.
The second 5 quarts ‘ .....eeeee 125 he se
The third 5 quarts “ .......0.. 1203“ es

At a subsequent churning of 14 quarts of cream,
the first 7 quarts gave 175 ounces of butter; the
second 7, 177 ounces of butter.

Oftentimes, nay usually, when there is such a dis-
crepancy of result between the two churnings from
one pail of cream, but the operation carried on in
churns of different makes, the difference which hap-
pens to be in favor of one churn is unhesitatingly
ascribed to the superiority of the churn, and not to
the superiority of the cream that the churn acts
upon.

To carry on a series of experiments which should
conclusively prove one method of setting milk pref-
erable to another, in quantity and quality of butter,
would consume much time and labor, and would be
beyond the means of an ordinary dairyman. If,
however, these principles as enunciated here are
accurate, we have a foundation for a judgment which
should be correct.

The known effect of gravity in arranging particles
of differing sizes and weight, and the known influ-
ence of the globules of the milk in churning, lead
me to assert, from a theoretical standpoint, that we

17 Journ. R. A. S. 1856, p. 269,

252 CONCLUSIONS.

should expect a larger proportion of butter from
shallow setting than deep setting; but if there was
any difference in quality, it would be in favor of the
deep setting, provided there was neither over-setting
nor over-churning.

The gist of my paper, and whatever importance it
may deserve, is, that it attempts to show that cream
is uniform neither in chemical, practical, nor physical
composition ; that, accordingly, the dairyman must
treat each sample, or the average of that which
comes under his care, through knowledge — that is,
by science rather than routine; that dairy prac-
tices, in cases of difficulty, must be governed by
reasoning rather than by guess-work. These re-
marks apply to milk as well as cream, — in fact, to
the handling of all dairy products.