ALBER] F. MANN LIBRARY AT . CORNE: intvERSIT* CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY DATE DUE Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www. archive.org/details/cu31924074275821 Production Note Cornell University Library produced this volume to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. It was scanned at 600 dots per inch resolution and compressed prior to storage using CCITT/ITU Group 4 compression. The digital data were used to create Cornell's replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Standard Z39.48- 1992. The production of this volume was supported by the United States Department of Education, Higher Education Act, Title II-C. Scanned as part of the A. R. Mann Library ‘project to preserve and enhance access to the Core Historical Literature of the Agricultural Sciences. Titles included in this collection are listed in the volumes published by the Cornell University Press in the series The Literature of the Agricultural Sciences, 1991-1996, Wallace C. Olsen, series editor. aA 4 E eo ISS cast ar a A i eee 4 4° PICKING APPLES IN A LARGE ORCHARD MODERN FRUIT MARKETING A Complete Treatise Covering Harvesting, Packing, Storing, Transporting and Selling of Fruit BY ats BLISS S. BROWN - _ Professor of Horticulture in University of Maine ILLUSTRATED NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 1916 5B 360 Bg Idloa CopyRIGHT, 1916, BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY Alt Rights Reserved = Gee5oi [Printed in U. S. A.] INTRODUCTION AGRICULTURE is the Science, the Art and the Technique of supplying human wants from the products of the soil. This does not exactly correspond with the old definition, but is a readjustment to meet the needs of its modern application. The Latin word “agrt,”’ meaning field, and ‘‘hortt,’’ garden, have long since-outgrown their use- fulness as a definition for present-day Agriculture or Horticulture. The tendency now is to increase the scope of the word Agriculture to include the Art, the Science, and the Technique of everything pertaining to farm products, and to delimit the meaning of Horticulture within narrower and narrower bounds. Formerly, Agriculture was considered to be the grow- ing of crops. When this was accomplished, the farmer’s results were turned over to another set of people to dis- pose of as they saw fit. Later, along with production, was considered the problems of distribution, and Agri- culture expanded to include this work. Now, the mar- keting of farm products is everywhere considered as a legitimate part of Agriculture. The trend of the present leaders in the profession is to go one step farther and include in modern Agricul- v vi INTRODUCTION ture the converting of the raw products of the farm into manufactured or finished articles, which supply human wants in the nature of Nourishment, Comforts or Pleasure. This is as it should be, for there is no plausible reason why the manufacture of flour from wheat, or the making of bread from flour is not as im- portant to agriculture as the chemistry or histology of the wheat plant itself. It is just as important to know how to make starch from corn, or cloth from cotton fiber, as it is to grow the plants themselves. Tn accordance with this modern interpretation of Agri- culture, the following classification is inserted as a pre- lude to a more extended discussion of the topic. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE (ZOOTECHNY Breeding (Animal Technology).... sseseoee ora oe Bae Management ses, etc. Cereals Grasses Legumes (Agronomy.........0.- pabera Corn Cotton, ete. Tree Fruits Horticulture........6. Small Fruits Herb-like Fruits Olericulture.......... Vegetables AGROTECHNY (Plant Technology).... 4 AGRICULTURE athe, Floriculture.......... Flowers Viticulture........... Grapes Landscape Architecture.Land Decoration . U INTRODUCTION 4s vu CLASSIFICATION OF HORTICULTURE HORTICULTURE 4 f HERB-LIKE FRUITS.. Citraceous. r Rubaceous SMALL FRUITS. Vaccinaceous. . Fragaceous.... (Pomaceous..... Drupaceous.... TREE FRUITS.. 4 Moraceous...... Nuciaceous..... Ebenaceous...- Oleaceous...... Lauraceous.... | Palmaceous.... | Ribaceous..... Banana fee Cherimoyer Pawpaw Apples , | Pears Quinces Peaches Plums Apricots Cherries Almonds Nectarines Oranges Lemons Limes .2 Tangerines Citrons Pomelos Kumquats Shaddocks . § Figs Mulberries Walnuts Pecans Chestnuts Hickories Butternuts Pistachios Hazlenuts Brazilnuts - -Persimmons - Olives Avocadroes Dates Cocoa Nuts Sago Blackberry Raspberry Dewberry Gooseberry Currants Blueberries Huckleberries ***) Cranberries Billberries . . Strawberries ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author is indebted to the following people who have fur- nished the illustrations referred to by the figures opposite their names: A. G. Turney, New Brunswick, Canada C. J. Sinsel, Boise, Idaho bie ge: ise eae, Yeas Experiment Station, Univ. of Me., Orono. .. 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, Extension Department, Univ. of Me., Orono. .. a Harrison’s Nurseries, Berlin, Md.. .. .. .. .. 76, Horticultural Department, Univ. of Me., Orno... 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54, 58, 59, 66, 67, 70, Madison Cooper Co., Calcium, N.Y. .. .. 79, 87, 91, New England Homestead, Springfield, Mass. .. .. .. Price Fruit Sizer Co., North Yakima, Wash... .. .. Prof. J. E. Coit, Berkeley, Cal. Quincy Cold Storage and Market Co., Beaens Mesa San Jose Chamber of Commerce, San Jose, Cal. .. 3, Shotwell & Wilmeroth Co., Wenatchee, Wash. .. os Spokane Chamber of Commerce, Spokane, Wash. 125, 129, The Cutler Fruit Grading Co., Hood River, Ore. The Hinde Dauch Paper Co., Sandusky, Ohio .. The Remington Machine Co., Wilmington, Del. Union Fibre Co., Winona, Minn... .. . 83, United Fruit neeion Co., of Detroit, Deke Mich. 110, Western Fruit ore aiid Mfg. Co., Grand Junction, Col. .. .. oa ba als ZDY W. P. Stark eral Co., Stark City, Mo. .. 2, 18, 105, ix Page 130 CONTENTS Chapter I Fruir HarVESTING OPERATIONS .. .. 1. ., Picking operations—Time to pick various fruits— Stems on or off—Succession of pickings—Receptacles used—Ladders—Disposition of the fruit—Moving the fruit—Managing pickers. Chapter II PREPARING THE FRuIT FoR MaRKET .. The packing house—For the indiv tdwal Central: pack- ing houses—Grades of fruit—Laws of the various states—Assorting fruit into grades—Equipment nec- essary—Grading tables—Mechanical fruit graders or sizers. Chapter III Fruit PacKaGEs.. .. .. gh eh. ahi Packages versus bulk—Gift oaalsages Requirements of fruit packages—Kinds of fruit packages—Standard sizes of packages—Various legal requirements—Fruit package material—Methods of handling—Special packing materials. Chapter IV Fruit PACKING OPERATIONS .. «. «. «sce Packing apples in barrels—Preparing the barrel Facing—Filling in—Racking — Follower — Tailing— Heading—Nailing—Packing apples in boxes—Terms used—Skill required—Filling the box—Wrapping the fruit—Requirements of good pack—Nailing devices— Rules for packing by organizations—Costs compared with barrel—Labeling packages. xi PAGE 22 57 Xil CONTENTS Chapter V PAGE Fruit STORAGE... Se wa oe. Ge BO Objects of storage —Requivements of fruit for storage —KXinds of fruit storages—Cellars—Dugouts—Local— Public—Control of temperature—Construction—Insn- lating materials—Methods of insulation—Mechkanies of cold storage—(Ice—Brine) system—Solutions used —Ammonia system—Compressor—Condensor—Expan- sion coils—Utilizing the cold—Brine system—Direct expansion—Ventilating storage houses—Humidity in storage houses—Cost of storing fruit—Advantages and disadvantages of public storages. Chapter VI THE EFFECTS OF STORAGE ON FRUIT... a ATO Conditions affecting keeping qualities—The effects of freezing on fru:ts—Fruit scald—Shrinkage in storage —Decay in storage—Storage effecting chemical changes. ‘ Chapter VII TRANSPORTATION .. .. a .. 184 Freight dacg—Coiuion—sWenlated- Heated Reine erator—Express companies—Express rates versus freight rates—Private car lines—Parcel post—Pre- cooling fruit—Shipping—Fast freight—Icing stations —Ocean freight—Loading cars—Capacity of cars. Chapter VIII Fruit MaRKETs .. .. .. we ee caw ee 102 Where the markets are Selliae at home—Selling in city markets—Foreign Markets—The markets con- trasted—Factors influencing the markets—Supply— Demand—Price. CONTENTS xiii Chapter IX PAGE SELLING AGENCIES .. .. Sale He See Shen LOT Commission houses—Methods of doing businass—Ad- vantages and disadvantages—Desirability of commis- sion houses—National league of commission mer- chants—Cooperative selling—Cooperation defined— Profit sharing—Non-profit sharing—Organizing ex- changes—Loca]—District—Central — Management of exchanges — Incorporating — Officers — Directors— Powers of exchanges—Collecting information—Dis- tributing information—Aiding growers—Sub-depart- ments of exchanges—Statistical—Legal—Field Or- ganizations— Advertising — Selling — Purchasing de- tails of exchange management—Benefits of coopera- tion. Chapter X SELLING MerHops .. .. .. .. «. «. «- 208 Special salesmen—Track sales—F.0.B. sales—Con- signment—Shipments with sight draft and bill of lading attached—Auctions—Special retail or private markets—Other agencies. Chapter XI SPECIAL FRuIT ORGANIZATIONS... .. .. 228 Fruit distributors—Fruit sobbets—wulional lente of commission merchants—International apple shippers’ association—Apple advertisers of America—Govern- ment reports and statistics. Chapter XII Fruir SHows.. .. . 252 Objects—How held or manaped—Evnibits—Promium list—Securing premiums—Selecting fruit for exhibi- tion—Arranging exhibits—Advertising—Side issues— Feature exhibits—Judging the fruit—Score card— Rules in judging. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Picking Apples in a Large Orchard ..F rontispiece Harvesting Peaches in Georgia... .. A “Drying Floor” for Prunes, Santa Clara Valley, Cal.. , “Knocking Almonds: a “Saenenients Valley: Cal. Fruit Picking Receptacles .. A Fruit Picking Bag... Desirable Fruit Picking Ladders A Convertible Step-Ladder ate A Home-Made Picking Ladder for Low Headed Trees... Type of Picking Ladder Used 3 in 5 the Nortinwestern States .. . sees. at, Eee Field Fruit Box or “Lug Box”... ss Convenient Wagon for Moving the Fruit from the Orchard. . A “Three Decker” Fruit Waser on ‘tone Hanis... A Combined Orchard and Delivery ee fer Small Orchards ‘ a6 ae eS A Band of Apple Pickers in Mathie iV A Packing-House and Storage Cellar Floor Plan of Packing Room .. .. Delivering Peaches to a Private Backine Hiaies in Georgia. . Central Packing-Honses for Oraneas in "Southern California - ae A Corner in a Palluectlouse ae Packing and Grading Table Sizing Board for Fruit Grading sip ake: dg Grading Fruit in a Western Cannery .. ., ., av Page XVI Figure 24 25 26 27 28 29 56 57 58 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS iA Mechanical Fruit Grader that Weighs the Fruit A Mechanical Grader Having a Moveable Webb .. Grading Fruit .. Bos Cigui.« seuee > ae Machine for Grading Penit. ee Gift Fruit Packages .. . oe Standard Orange Box and Biseauole: Crate Pe Grape Baskets, 20 Pound and 8 Pound Sizes.. Fruit Basket Containers Types of Fruit Packages Made trom “Wenede.. A Form for Setting Up Apple Boxes Making Apple Boxes... .. aa Standard Apple Box Constmetin ve Tools for Barrel Making .. ae Set of Truss Hoops Used in Barrel Making hae weren Clea pee 101 Pink Rot Following Aupls ‘Scab hel. see, cand: oe ao. 102 Pasteboard Packages for aa Fruit .. .. 138 103 Apples by Parcel Post eran s e: ss 139 104 A Special Carton... .. .. «- 140 105 Packages of Fruit Ready for ithe Postnian wee Cee EL. 106 Delivering Barreled Apples to the Railroad .. .. 142 107 Transporting Fruit by Auto Truck... .. .. .. 150 108 Catering to the Home Market .. .. .. .. .. 153 109 Diagram of Fruit-Handling Exchanges .. .. .. 179 110 Auction Warehouse .. ee Gee ear 210 111 Sampling Fruit Before Aneten ‘Sales Ho sites cote CEL 112 Catalogs of Auction Companies .. .. .. .. 212 113 Fruit Auction Room, New York City .. .. .. 212 113a Delivering After the Sales .. wii eas les, 14 114 The Free City Market at Boston, Mass. eile 215 115 Peddling Fruit in a Tenement Section of New York 217 116 City Fruit Stands Near Garbage Barrels .. .. 218 117 Buying from Push-Carts, East Side, New York .. 219 118 Sidewalk Fruit Market, New York... .. .. .. 219 119 A New York Push- Cart omer is ee ae 220 120 Using the Sidewalk as a Fruit Shai ae 221 121 Fruit Stand Under Williamsburg Bridge, New York 221 122 A Fruit Stand of the Better Class... .. .. .. 222 123 Roasting Coffee in a Jobbing House .. .. .. 235 124 A Western Fruit Show .. .. .. «2... .. 255 125 hci one Send! oh oars res hemos aro A eas 2.95 EPO 1s: 2-t,corle cs dhe ceetpaie Ae nha eumsra titan t 80 Copper: (i csviiaei so omiay Yee ater oe ae es aides 455. PUGS 2eexee Mee bee atte en eieemees 0.13 WO0d) 4... seas entaet oa had abaya Seas GaN Sera 0.14 to 0.24 WOOL) i wilendae ted cce a Saat eee eet Bee 0.06 Butlding paper oss swseas eevee eeeee ea 0.05 Dead. alr spaces ccewa cannes mee ee ees 0.03 - It will be noted from these figures that dead air or confined air is the best practical insulator against heat or cold. The best known insulator is a vacuum. The principle of the common thermos bottle is simply the insulating from outside temperature by the use of an almost perfect vacuum. Also, the principles of the com- mon fireless cooker is a perfect insulation to keep the heat confined to the inside of the cooker. Wood is the most common of all insulating materials, and perhaps building paper, sheet cork, and sawdust in the order named are of the next in importance. As a rule, the harder mineral substances are poorer insulators than the vegetable substances, and so stone, brick or cement where used, have to be associated with some of the better insu- lating materials. Method of Insulation.—For the most part the outside of cold storage houses is built of either concrete or brick. These are of sufficient strength to support the weight FRUIT STORAGE 99 of the superstructure and to carry the enormous loads of the fruit or material stored. Then inside of these structures are placed the other insulating materials to protect the fruit from fluctuation in temperatures. In some instances dead air spaces are used next to the out- side construction, but in most cases they are filled with sawdust or some other loose substance. Then the use of several layers of matched lumber interspaced with y i Y 4 Fig. 86.—APPLYING INSULATIONS building paper, air spaces or sheet cork gives a poor conducting power for the heat from the outside. The dead air spaces are at the present time being used less than in former years. While their insulating value is beyond question, yet it has been proved by experiment that it is almost impossible to make the dead air spaces tight enougr to prevent leakage or the circulation of air. And where leakage occurs, or moisture obtains en- trance, they rapidly lose in insulating value. Another 100 MODERN FRUIT MARKETING precaution that is necessary to consider is the water- proofing of the outside walls to prevent moisture from getting into the filler or the papers used on the inside. All of the heavy work, stone and cement, is coated with pitch or some substance to make it impervious to moisture. Each set of material inside is also coated. In addition, from the inside many precautions must be taken to prevent the moisture from collecting on the walls in sufficient quantity to wet the insulating ma- terials. Mechanism of Cold Storage.—There are two well- recognized systems for cooling down storage houses: (1) Ice refrigeration, and (2) Mechanical refrigeration. The cheaper and most common used material is ice, espe- cially in the Northern states and the smaller houses. The larger storage houses in the big cities or those of the Southern states use mechanical refrigeration. It is difficult to give any estimate of comparative cost because of the wide variation in conditions, labor, cost of material, ete. As a general rule, for small or local cold storage houses ice is considered the cheaper, especially in the Northern states where ice can be manufactured in the winter at a low cost. Farther south it would be necessary to make the ice artificially and the cost would be much greater than for mechanical refrigeration. In the larger cities of the East where public storages are common, the mechanical system is used almost ex- clusively and by most operators is conceded to be the cheapest and the most economical to operate. Storage houses, up to 5,000-barrel capacity, will probably be cheaper to cool by ice than by mechanical means, and the smaller plants operated by cooperative organizations are FRUIT STORAGE 101 for the most part cooled down by the use of natural ice. The Use of Ice.—To give the early history of the cold storage industry would be simply to recall the trying out of a great many different methods of using ice. The entire business of cold storage is not over 60 years old and hence its evolution has been very rapid. The first attempt to cool down fruit or vegetables by means of ice, was to place the ice upon the floor of the storage room. It was soon discovered that this method would not be practicable because of the undue amount of moisture in the air resulting from the melting of the ice. Later, various ways were tried, such as placing the ice at the side or above the room to be cooled allowing the air to be first cooled down by flowing over the ice and later circulating through the storage room. This same principle is still employed in the small re frigerators so commonly used in residences for keeping foods. The ice being placed in the top of the refrigerat- ing box, the air as it flows over it becomes cool and settles to the bottom. The warmed air rising again passes over the ice at the opposite side. This method is not practical for stored fruit or, in fact, is any method applicable where the air is cooled by coming directly into contact with the ice and then distributed through the storage room; the reasons for the failure of this method being due to the fact that the humidity cannot be controlled. Ice Brine System.—The method used almost exclu- sively at the present time is what is known as the ‘‘Ice Brine System.’’ In this arrangement, the air does not come in contact with the ice nor with the fruit; but coils of pipes in which liquids circulate are first cooled Steel track P Att cutenee Carrier PENT [Hevea Salt Space Ice bucks! Insuleled trap deor W tea ]bod salt HI ourreunk - ¥ ta f Some des 4 pers! wy A ca Z PI % Rrra ITP TITTLE LLY LLL LLL Wl mmm) alin " \ u u - Ladder ICE | |ROOM ereund moines , - \ goats iis @ PACKING \ 4 pvcictht anoom Hy i i a: Calevum ‘putters Fae acany oe Drain coils: ll Ul a ‘eacendery cole CoOoLInG | 1 aco} STORAGE ROOM 1 . oo” rans _ fenned denned (need geen LONGITUDINAL SECTION RMA AMAAA SSS omy SSS SEILLILELELLI ESOP OU IE EE N NNAAAAAAAAARAAAAAAAARAAANAANAAA AA AARAAD AAD ARAAARANAN N ASE Vikklco gig SSAAAAANANANANANARAARNNNNY ET le First FLloork PLAN Fig. 87—PLAN OF A SMALL COLD STORAGE PLANT In this plant the ice-brine system of cvoling is used. 102 FRUIT STORAGE 103 down and then by passing through the storage room take up the heat given off by the fruit. In such an arrange- ment, it is necessary to have two independent coils of pipes. The one that comes in contact with the ice and in which the cooling down is done is known as the primary coil, and the one that circulates through the storage room as the secondary coil. The principle of this circulation is just the reverse of the hot water system for heating buildings. The primary coil is the one highest up and as the brine in the cireu- latory system is cooled down it becomes heavier and settles to the bottom. As it circulates through the stor- age room it absorbs the heat from the room and expand- ing becomes lighter and rises again, until it reaches the primary coil. In this way a constant flow of the liquid through the pipes keeps the air in the storage room at the desired temperature without the bad effect of the moisture-ladened air coming into direct contact with the fruit itself. In most of these types of storage houses, the ice is harvested during the winter and stored in an annex to the regular plant. Then from this supply the ice is crushed as needed, elevated to the tank enclosing the primary coils, and fed in as desired. If the natural melting of the ice does not keep the temperature sufficiently low, salt is added to hasten the melting, the theory of the whole operation being that the ice in melting takes up the heat by absorption from the primary coil, thus cooling down the brine inside. The addition of the salt to the crushed ice only increases the rapidity of the melting; hence, increasing the absorb- ing power of beat from the surrounding atmosphere. Therefore, the more rapidly the ice melts the more rap- 104 MODERN FRUIT MARKETING idly is the heat taken up, and a lower temperature can be maintained in the storage room. The cost of maintaining a low temperature for the storage of fruit is difficult to estimate, owing to the vary- ing local conditions, but for properly constructed and insulated storage houses using the ice-brine system, the cost should not exceed $10 per 1,000 cubic feet per month. A thousand cubic feet will accommodate one earload of produce. Cooling Solutions Used.—It is obvious that in such a system some liquid would have to be used which would not freeze at the ordinary temperature. For this pur- pose two different substances have been used. One is the common solution of salt brine; the other is a solu- tion of calcium chloride in water. Salt solution was the one most used in the earlier development of this system, but it is now largely superseded by the calcium chloride. A saturated solution of salt and water will freeze at a temperature of about —7 degrees F.,=below zero, while a similar solution of calcium chloride will not crystallize under —50 degrees F.; hence the latter is better adapted for maintaining a lower temperature. In addition to this, the salt very quickly corrodes the pipes which need to be replaced every four or five years, while with the calcium chloride solution replacing once in ten years is sufficient. For determining the proper density of the solution a common hydrometer similar to the one used in testing lime sulphur solution could be used. For a salt brine solution a 25-degree reading on the hydro- meter would be about right, while for the calcium chlo- ride 20 degrees or a little less could be used. FRUIT STORAGE 105 Mechanical Refrigeration.—Space and time will not permit going into this subject in detail, but it seems best to give a general idea of how cold storages are oper- ated under the mechanical systems. Of these there are two general types: the first and older one is known as the air compression system. This was originally installed on ocean steamships where large quantities of stored food products had to be carried. It consisted simply of compressing the air under pressure until the heat was re- moved and then discharging it direct into the storage room. As the air expands, heat is taken up from the room, thereby keeping the temperature lowered. This method is still in use in some places but has largely been discarded because of the high cost of oper- ation. The other method, and the one now in most common use, is the ammonia compression system. In this an ammonia solution is used because it will liquify under much lower pressure than air. Large costly ma- chinery of special make is required to operate such a system. Ammonia Compression System'.—‘‘The production of cold by this system is accomplished by the expansion or evaporation of liquid anhydrous ammonia. The sys- tem consists of three essential parts, the compressor, the condenser, and the expansion coils. The Compressor.— ‘The compressor is a pumping engine especially designed to compress the ammonia gas and force it through the pipes of the condenser, under a pressure, varying according to the temperature of the condensing water from 150 to 185 pounds per square inch, 1 Remington Machine Company, Wilmington, Del. 2 106 MODERN FRUIT MARKETING The Condenser.—‘‘The condenser is a series of pipes through which the ammonia gas is forced by the com- pressor, and cooled by a constant supply of cold water. The heat acquired during both the expansion and com- pression of the ammonia gas is absorbed by the cold water surrounding the pipes, and by the combined effect of the cooling water and pressure exerted by the compressor, the gas becomes liquified, and is then in proper condi- tion to do the actual work of refrigeration. The Expansion Coils——‘‘The expansion coils are placed either in a brine bath or directly in the room to be cooled, and the liquified ammonia gas from the con- denser is fed into these coils by a sensitive valve reduc- ing the pressure to 5 to 25 pounds per square inch, where it rapidly re-expands into a gaseous state, and by so doing, absorbs the heat from the surrounding brine or air, producing an intense cold. ‘‘The expansion coils are connected with the suction pipes of the compressor, and after the gas has per- formed its refrigerating work, it is drawn into the cylinder of the compressor and is again driven on its round of operation, the same gas being used continu- ously. . Utilizing the Cold—‘‘The methods in practice for utilizing the cold produced in this way are the brine system, and the direct expansion system. The Brine System.—‘‘In the brine system a tank is used containing a strong solution of brine, which is cooled to a low temperature by submerging the ammonia expansion coils in the brine or by means of a double pipe brine cooler, the chilled brine being circulated through a series of pipes placed in the rooms to be cooled FRUIT STORAGE 107 by means of a force pump. For making ice, galvanized ice cans filled with fresh water are immersed in the brine tank to freeze. “‘The pipe system for brine circulation can be made up of standard pipe with open return bends, the prac- tice being to use pipes varying in size from 1 to 2 inches in diameter. The pipe system should be divided into sections containing not more than 400 feet of 1-inch pipe or equivalent, provided with valves or cocks and connected to the mains, so that each section can be shut off independently when desired. “‘The location of the pipes in the cold storage room may either be overhead or on the sides of the room, the former position being preferable when sufficient height of ceiling will permit. When rooms have been con- structed for using ice, the pipe system can be conveni- ently placed in the ice bunkers overhead. ‘‘The quantity of pipe required for brine circulation in cold storage rooms to produce the desired temperature depends on the class of goods to be cooled, the quantity cooled each day, the size of the room, the character of the insulation, the frequency with which the doors are opened, the temperature of the atmosphere outside, ete. As these conditions vary in almost every case, no fixed rule can be laid down, but it is a good practice to make a liberal allowance of pipe surface for the duty required when the conditions are known, based on practical ex- perience embracing almost every line of work to which mechanical refrigeration is applied. “The brine used is ordinarily made from common salt, about 234 pounds of salt per gallon of water will make a brine registering 100 degrees density on a 103 MODERN FRUIT MARKETING salinometer,” and which will not freeze at zero. If a temperature below zero is required, chloride of calcium brine is used, a mixture of three pounds per gallon will not freeze at 8 degrees below zero. ‘In the brine system the large body of chilled brine contained in the brine tank and pipe coils is a storage for cold, and is a reserve that can be used to maintain the temperature desired in the rooms for a considerable length of time, by merely operating the brine circulat- ing pump. It frequently being only necessary to oper- ate the compressor during the day to maintain the tem- perature during the entire 24 hours. The ease with which the temperature is controlled, and the absence of any danger from escaping ammonia in the rooms are the principal features that commend this system. Direct Expansion System.—‘‘In the direct expansion system the ammonia expansion coils are placed directly in the rooms to be cooled, the heat being absorbed by the evaporation of the ammonia in its passage through the pipe coils to the compressor, only one system of pipes being required. The expense of the outfit being very materially reduced, as compared with the brine system, the brine tank, the brine pump and the secondary system of pipes for brine circulation being dispensed with and a somewhat greater efficiency is obtained. “‘The arrangement of the pipe coils in the cold stor- age rooms is the same for direct expansion as for brine circulation, but the valves and fittings must all be of special construction, and the pipes are put up with the greatest care so as to be absolutely tight to avoid the 2A salinometer is a hydrometer graduated to show the percentage of salt in a solution, : FRUIT STORAGE 109 possibility of the escape of ammonia in the cold storage rooms. ““Owing to the lower temperature and greater rapidity of the circulation of the ammonia gas, only about two- thirds the pipe surface is required to produce the same effect, as is necessary for brine circulation. “In the direct expansion system the refrigerating effect ceases upon the stoppage of the compressor. In small plants where this system is used it is not desired to operate the machinery but a portion of each day. One or more brine storage tanks can be placed in the cold storage room, in which a portion of the expansion coils are placed. The brine being cooled to a low tem- perature while the machine is in operation, this body of cold brine will help maintain the temperature during the time the machine is shut down. When brine storage tanks are used, they are placed overhead in the room to be cooled, when sufficient height permits, and arranged so as to create a proper circulation of air. The cost of installing a mechanical plant is much greater than for an ice system, but after once installed, especially for large houses, the operation would be much less. And in most places it is considered the most economical sys- tem to operate.”’ Ventilation—All fruit storage houses need to be constructed with a view to ventilation. This is neces- sary: (1) To remove the gases given off by the various products stored; (2) To remove the decay organisms that occasionally appear in storage rooms; and (3) To control, to some extent, the humidity required for the best keeping condition of the fruit. In the case of small ‘‘dug-outs’”’ or storage cellars on the farm, little 110 MODERN FRUIT MARKETING attention need be paid to ventilation, because the open- ing of the doors and windows to control the tempera- ture will give sufficient fresh air for practically all purposes. In large storage houses ventilation is attended to regularly and considerable care must be exercised to get the right kind of air and at the right temperature and humidity. For fruit storages, ventilation is pre- ferably given at least twice a week. And certain pre- cautions must be taken. First, the temperature of the outside air needs to be almost the same as that inside of the building. If it is impossible to do this, air is first introduced into the cooling chamber and the proper temperature secured before bringing it into contact with the stored fruit. Second, the humidity of the air introduced must not vary materially from the humidity in the storage room. For this purpose, certain tests are made to determine moisture content of the air and if care is taken it is usually possible to get an atmospheric condition outside the storage room which will be about the same as the requirements of the humidity inside. Then by rapidly introducing the air this moisture content can be main- tained. Humidity of Cold Storage Houses.—By humidity is meant the amount of water vapor in a given space, and this is usually calculated by weight in grains per cubic foot of air space. In all storage houses, considerable attention must necessarily be given to the amount of moisture in the atmosphere surrounding the stored products. This is especially true in the case of fruit. If the humidity runs lower than required, the fruit will FRUIT STORAGE 111 lose weight by evaporation and will also shrivel. On the other hand, if there is too much moisture the fruit will be likely to decay. The amount of water vapor that can exist in any given space depends entirely upon the temperature. The higher the temperature the more moisture in a given space. When it reaches its maximum or point of satura- tion, it is then deposited on the fruit or packages and on the walls of the room and furnishes ideal conditions for the growth and spread of decay organisms. At one degree Fahrenheit the saturation point for air would be about 0.457 grains to one cubic foot. As the temperature rises, the holding capacity increases until, at 100 degrees, it will hold as high as 19.77 grains to one cubic foot of air space. At a temperature of 31 or 32 degrees, the point at which most of the fruit is held in storage houses, the humidity would be about two grains to the cubic foot of air space. No very careful figures have ever been worked out for the best humidity for the different fruits, but in a general way they are carried at the same humidity as the percentage of water contained in the fruit. For example, apples will run from 80 to 86% water, and under such conditions the percentage of moisture in the air should be from 80 to 85 in the storage rooms. The percent of humidity represents only a relative condition. The exact weight of water in a cubic foot of air when the humidity is 85% and the temperature 31 degrees, would be quite different from that for 70 de- grees. For calculating the exact quantity of water in a given space, a chart put out by the United States Weather Bureau should be secured. 112 MODERN FRUIT MARKETING To determine the relative humidity in the storage rooms two methods can be employed. The first and most common one is the use of the whorl psychrometer (Fig. 88). This consists of a wet and dry bulb thermometer similar to the ones used in the observation stations of the Government. These are arranged so a whirling motion can be given them, and then by noting the different temperatures between the two bulbs, and referring to a table, the amount of moisture can be calculated. Such an instrument costs about $5, and has to be used carefully and skillfully to give satisfaction. The other method is to use a self-recording machine known as the hydrograph. The principle of this instru- Fig. 88.—SLING OR WHORL PSYCHROMETER ment is to make a continuous record on a revolving disk, recording during the day the humidity at any given time. The principle of the marker is the expansion of horse hairs due to the amount of moisture in the air. An instrument of this type would cost about $60, and where temperatures run below zero would be of no value. Controlling Humidity—It is not always easy to control the humidity in storage houses. If it runs too high certain absorbents are used to take up the surplus moisture. The most common of these are lime and cal- cium chloride. This is the same form of calcium chloride as is used in the pipes for the ice-brine cooling system, FRUIT STORAGE 113 Where lime is used it is the freshly burned lime or calcium oxide. This is taken into the storage rooms and placed around over the floor in small, open re- ceptacles. It absorbs moisture from the surrounding atmosphere and gradually slakes down, changing to the hydrated form of calcium. This must be carefully watched or its action will be unsteady and a too radical change produced. A better way is to use the calcium chloride. A few lumps of the raw material are placed on a frame in the upper part of the storage room—they absorb the mois- ture from the air. Often water will drop from the material in which case it can be caught on a drip-board in the lower part of the support. When this iaterial has absorbed all the moisture it will, it can by simply heating expell the moisture and be used over again. While the raw material is much more expensive than lime it is enough more efficient to make it well worth the extra price. On the other hand, if the humidity runs too low, it is easy to add moisture by simply setting pails of water in the room or by sprinkling it on the floor. On the whole, storages that are above the level of the ground are more likely to have too little than too much moisture. Cost of Cold Storage.—There are several different methods in use by cold storage companies for the storage of fruit. Most of the eastern companies offer a double rate system, one by the month and the other by the season. The season storage is, of course, cheaper when time ‘is considered than by the month. Most storage companies run the season from November 1st to May 1st. Some of them make a distinction between boxed 114 MODERN FRUIT MARKETING and barreled goods. The end of the season, in case of barrels, is April Ist, while the box goods continue to May Ist. Some storage companies offer a flat rate for the entire season, regardless of whether the fruit is stored for a short or long period of time. Occasionally large stor- age companies will contract or sub-lease certain space to small concerns or for the use of other growers or cooperative organizations. Where such organizations need considerable space they can usually secure a more satisfactory rate for the individual than where each grower has to deal direct with the cold storage company. The prices of storage in the eastern cities do not vary materially from those of the Central states, while most of these are materially cheaper than those of the south- ern and warmer parts of the United States. The rates of a New England fruit storage company, which follow, give an idea of the different prices charged for both the month and season: RATE OF STORAGE Barrels of Apples Boxes of Apples AN i ae i ~*~ Under 300 Over 300 Under 500 Over 500 1 month 20 cents 15 cents 10 cents 8 cents 2 months 30 ‘¢‘ 2 12, 68 Io. ¢ 3 months 35 ‘¢ 30 <6 14 ~=« Ty. 4 months 40 ‘ 35 CSS 16 << oe Ae 5 months 45 ‘‘ 40 < 18 <‘ 4 =“ G months 50 ‘‘ 45“ 20 0¢% 15 “<< The above rates include insurance to the cost value of the apples at the date stored, for the benefit of the party for whom the apples are held. Also the average prices from several cold storage companies in Chicago is added. These vary to some FRUIT STORAGE 115 extent for the different companies, but the following will give a fair average for the more important storage companies: AVERAGE CHARGES IN CHICAGO STORAGE Per month Per season Eggs, per 30 doz. case........... 15 cents 60 cents Butter, per 100 Ibs.............. 25> -48 1.00 Cheese, per 100 Ibs.............. 20 Tp of Apples, per barrel............... 15‘ 50. Apples, per box...............55 10. 8 35 «f Lemons, per box................ 10° 4 40 ‘ Oranges, per box..............-. tas 30 Dried fruit, per 100 Ibs......... 8 « 35," Dried nuts, per 100 lbs........... 10“ 40 << Advantages of Public Storage.—There are certain well-understood and well-recognized advantages to be gained from the storing of fruit. Some of these are of primary importance to the producer, while others are more or less in the interest of the consumer. These may be listed as follows: (1) To prevent the fluctuation of prices by offering too much fruit at any one time. (2) To give a large variety for the consumer by lengthening the keeping season of any one kind of fruit. (3) To keep the fruit for a much longer period, thus giving an opportunity to lengthen or even up the supply. (4) To permit the use of more perishable kinds of fruit. These reasons are so obvious, and have been commented upon so much that little need be added. It is worth while to emphasize the fact that people living in the large cities of the Eastern and Central states would have a very meager supply of fresh fruit during the greater part of the year were it not for the public 116 MODERN FRUIT MARKETING cold storage plant. Practically all the fruit in transi- tion from the warmer states must be kept in storage. All the meat, eggs, and other food products which must be shipped long distances could not possibly be supplied fresh were it not for the advantages of cold storage. In fact, in most every case the consumer in large cities uses daily either meat or fruit products which have been kept fresh in cold storage plant. The volume of business done would run far into the millions of dollars per annum and while creating a good income from the money invested in storage plants they also add largely to the comfort of the consumer who is forced to make the larger cities his home. Disadvantages of Cold Storage——There are also cer- tain disadvantages in the use of cold storage and these refer more particularly to the producer or to the person who wishes to store the fruit. First, it is not always easy to foresee conditions and if the producer stores his fruit he must do so at his own risk, hoping that at the proper time the market will rise sufficiently so as to move his goods at a fair profit. The individual producer is at a decided disadvantage in this case because he is not in a position to make a study of the market require- ments. On the other hand, operators of the fruit stor- age houses are themselves in the center of the consuming district and ean accurately forecast what may be ex- pected. In some cases, they are willing to advise the storer of these conditions, but this can hardly be ex- pected as a general rule. The second disadvantage is that the producer has - little or no protection. The fruit is often shipped across two or three states, and placed in storage. After FRUIT STORAGE 117 it leaves the home town the grower seldom sees it again and must rely upon the word of the storage people as to its condition. Much dissatisfaction and complaint has been heaped upon the storage companies for taking undue liberties with the goods stored by producers. In such cases cooperative organizations, by being able to have an agent at the centers of consumption, can better protect the interests of the producers. In the third place, the storage of fruit often causes an extension of credit. This in itself is not a great disadvantage, yet ultimately it cannot but react against the producer. For example, the grower places a large quantity of fruit in storage; he then asks the storage company to advance a certain percent of the value. This the companies are usually willing to do, but in turn charge an interest for the money advanced. Cold storage companies are willing to advance about half the sum to which the prospective sales will amount, charging from 6 to 8% interest until such time as the sales can be made. This enables the producer to pay for his help in preparing the fruit for market, to carry on his own business interests and live until the fruit is sold. On the other hand, he is not only paying storage for the keeping of the fruit but is also paying interest on the advance of money which rightly belongs to him. While this is considered legitimate business it is al- ways to the disadvantage of the producer in favor of the storage company. Another disadvantage is that the storage companies are often asked to act as salesmen, and this results not infrequently in certain questionable speculations on the part of the storage houses. The manager of a storage house may receive a bid on a part 118 MODERN FRUIT MARKETING of some particular good lot of fruit stored. He im- mediately wires to the owner offering him a somewhat lower price for the immediate sale of the fruit. The owner not knowing the exact market, conditions, and as the price seems good, accepts the offer and is ‘‘buncoed’”’ out of his extra legitimate profit. CHAPTER VI THE EFFECTS OF STORAGE ON FRUIT Keeping Qualities ——There are several well-recognized conditions associated with the keeping quality of fruit in cold storage. Other than the storing of first-class fruit, free from blemishes, etc., probably the maturity of the fruit is of the most importance. Various experi- ments have been conducted along this line and the re- sults show plainly that well-matured specimens keep much better in storage than where they are not fully grown or developed. Apples intended for storage are in better condition if allowed to remain on the trees as long as possible, in order to insure good maturity for storage. It has also been found that the color of the fruit has con- siderable to do with its duration in cold storage. There is ap- parently no difference between the keeping qualities of green varieties and of the highly col- ored varieties so long as the same degree of maturity is maintained. On the other hand, fruit low in Highly colored, wellgradea C10 does not keep as well under ‘fruit in closed packages keeps normal storage conditions. Usu- best in storage. 119 Fig. 89. 120 MODERN FRUIT MARKETING ally, fruit that is not well colored is grown in the shade, or some quality of soil or fertilizer is lacking to develop the color, and that usually means a lack of maturity. Therefore, in selecting for good keeping qualities the highly colored fruits or the well developed color of any variety seems to be important. Fruit that is overgrown or unduly large for the Fig. 90—A POOR WAY TO STORE FRUIT EVEN FOR A SHORT TIME More handling is required, and more shrinkage and decay results. variety is not good for long keeping in cold storage. It is due, probably, to the fact that the first fruit on young trees do not develop as strong a cellular struc- ture as fruit from older trees, and this is also ap- parently true of overgrown or over-sized fruit. Thus, for storage as well as for sale, the average or medium- THE EFFECTS OF STORAGE ON FRUITS 121 sized fruit is selected in preference to the unusually large. Various cultural methods in orchard management have their influence on the keeping qualities of fruit.