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Readers are asked to report all cases of books marked or muti- lated. | Do not deface books by marks and writing. QIN i THE AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY FIRESIDE EDITION VOLUME IV—REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS AND FISHES FLORIDA CROCODILE. Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924078916685 THE AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY A FOUNDATION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE OF THE HIGHER ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA BY WILLIAM T. HORNADAY, Sc.D. DIRECTOR OF THE NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK AUTHOR OF “TWO YEARS IN THE JUNGLE,” “‘OUR VANISHING WILD LIFE,” ETC. ILLUSTRATED BY 225 ORIGINAL DRAWINGS BY BEARD, RUNGIUS, SAWYER, AND OTHERS, 151 PHOTOGRAPHS, CHIEFLY BY SANBORN, KELLER, AND UNDERWOOD, AND WITH NUMEROUS CHARTS AND MAPS WITH SIXTEEN PLATES IN COLOR FIRESIDE EDITION VOLUME IV—REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS AND FISHES NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS 1914 f By Copyright, 1904, by WILLIAM T. HORNADAY First Publication, April, 1904 Copyright, 1914, by WILLIAM T. HORNADAY Fireside Edition published September, 1914 SPECIAL NOTICE The publishers hereby give warning that the unauthorized use of illustrations, charts, or maps from this book is expressly forbidden. CONTENTS VOLUME IV—REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS, AND FISHES CHAPTER XXXIX PAGE INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES. .. . 3 ORDERS (OF Livinc REptibeS . . . . .. ... =. 6 CHAPTER XL ORDER OF CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS CROCODILIA 10 SYNOPSIS OF THE CROCODILIANS eet ee. | 10 GROCODILELEAMILY (FE) 55 4a 5 5 4 2 a | 11 AMERICAN SPECIES OF CROCODILIANS . . . . . we 18 CHAPTER XLI ORDER OF TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES CHELONIA = 25 SYNOPSIS OF THE ORDER OF TORTOISES AND TURTLES . . . Q7 Tortoise FAMILY ees ee ore Re ae. ct 28 vi CONTENTS Mup-TerraPin Famity . SMOOTH-SHELLED TERRAPINS SNAPPING TERRAPINS SipE-NECKED TERRAPINS Sorr-SHELLED “TURTLES” Sea TurTLES Harpb-SHELLED SFA TURTLES LEATHERY-SHELLED SEA TURTLES . CHAPTER XLII ORDER OF LIZARDS CHAPTER XLIII ORDER OF SERPENTS GENERAL CHARACTERS Foop or SERPENTS Popular QUESTIONS AND MiIsaPpPREHENSIONS LARGEST SPECIES OF SERPENTS . HarMLess SNAKES OF THE UNITED STATES Poisonous SNAKES oF Nortu AMERICA Species OF RaTTLESNAKES SNAKE POISONS AND THEIR TREATMENT LACERTILIA OPHIDIA PAGE 67 67 70 72 74 83 94 100 116 CONTENTS AMPHIBIANS CHAPTER XLIV INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF AMPHIBIANS Birp’s-Eyr View or tHE Ciass AMPHIBIA GENERAL CHARACTERS CHAPTER XLV ORDER OF FROGS AND TOADS . . . . ECAUDATA Famity oF WaTER FRoGs Tree Froc FamMIty Toap FamiLy . Burrowine Toaps TonGueELess FRocs CHAPTER XLVI ORDER OF TAILED AMPHIBIANS . . . . URODELA FaMILy OF SALAMANDERS Newts, or TRITONS . Famity oF AMPHIUMAS FrRre-GILLED SALAMANDERS Two-LeGGED SALAMANDERS . OrpeER oF WormM-LikE AMPHIBIANS vii PAGE 125 124 127 129 134 136 138 140 140 vill CONTENTS FISHES CHAPTER XLVII PAGE INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF FISHES. . . . . 159 Fisnery Inpustries AND FisH PropacaTIon ee aoe eo DistripuTIoN OF Eccs anp Live Fish . . . . . eS. O166 Tue Orpers or Living FisHes. . . . . . . . (178 CHAPTER XLVIII ORDER OF THE CONNECTING-LINK FISHES SIRENOIDEI 174 CHAPTER XLIX ORDER OF THE SPINY-FINNED FISHES: ACANTHOPTERI 177 BassES AND SUNFISHES . . . . . . «eee Od Sra Bass -FaAMiIny.. 2 2 2 6 @ 5 8 = 5 2 2 ae 186 Percy AND Pike-Percnu Famity . . . . . . . . . 190 MISCELLANEOUS SPINY-FINNED FIisHES . . . . . . . 198 SNAPPER) HAMILY 2. 7" 2 6) 63) al gra ee . . . 206 Opp FIsHES OF THE SPINY-FINNED ORDER... 2 & « 2208 CHAPTER L ORDER OF PIKES... .. . . . . .. HAPLOMI 214 CONTENTS CHAPTER LI ORDER OF TROUT AND SALMON... ISOSPONDYLI SALMON FamiLy SUBDIVISION OF Nortu AMERICAN TROUT AND CHaARRS . THE SatmMon Group . AMERICAN SALMON CHAPTER LII ORDER OF FLYING FISHES . . . SYNENTOGNATHI CHAPTER LIII ORDER OF SOLID-JAW FISHES . . . PLECTOGNATHI CHAPTER LIV ORDER OF SUCKERS, CARP, AND MINNOWS PLECTOSPONDYLI CHAPTER LV ORDER OF HALF-GILLED FISHES . . HEMIBRANCHII CHAPTER LVI ORDER OF CATFISHES . . . . . NEMATOGNATHI CHAPTER LVII ORDER OF FLATFISHES . . . . HETEROSOMATA 1x rhs) Or rks) 254 257 265 268 273 x CONTENTS CHAPTER LVIII ORDER OF FOOT-FISHES CHAPTER LIX ORDER OF EELS CHAPTER LX PEDICULATI . APODES ORDER OF PIPEFISHES AND SEA-HORSES CHAPTER LXI ORDER OF THE DOGFISH CHAPTER LXII ORDER OF GAR FISHES, OR GANOIDS CHAPTER LXIII ORDER OF STURGEONS . PassING OF THE STURGEON CHAPTER LXIV ORDER OF THE PADDLE-FISH CHAPTER LXV ORDER OF THE CHIMERAS CHAPTER LXVI ORDER OF SHARKS LOPHOBRANCHI HALECOMORPHI . GINGLYMODI GLANIOSTOMI . SELACHOSTOMI . CHIMAEROIDEI . SQUALI PAGE Q77 281 286 293 297 300 303, 306 308 CONTENTS x1 CHAPTER LXVII PAGE ORDER OF RAYS AND SKATES. See st RATA 314 CHAPTER LXVIII LOWEST CLASSES OF VERTEBRATES . ._ . a bese pin eal Lampreys i SL aN tM ee fou eal Gs ac ayy) LANCELETS ye Tce ieee rch ie bee ae Ray! vee eye RYO FE RN Nee a ce IS eR, sacl ee ee eee (eae eae ILLUSTRATIONS COLOR PLATES Florida Crocodile. . . . . . . . . .) Frontispiece RetuculatediPythomy Gey =. 5.9 0 eo ee is "80 Remarkable Members of the Order of Solid-Jaw Fishes . . 164 Trigger Fish. Porcupine Fish, inflated. Box Fish. Puffer, with air-sac inflated. The Blue-and-Yellow Angel-Fish . . . . . . . . . . 192 FULL-PAGE PLATES PAGE The Harp Turtle, or Lyre Turtle ©. . . . . . . . . .) 49 Marine Iguanas on Narborough Island, Galapagos Archipelago . . 55 Rhinoceros Iguana Se er ee ae ee eee OO) NellowsAnacondas cour G0 20. ee eens fee the ede: ‘thesBushmaster 2) 2 6 os © ss ee ee ee LOE Water Moccasin and Young . . . .. ... . . . . *‘CWDit From Tadpole to Frog. 2 2 «© «© + = s « | . | = | ISI The Two Lives of the Axolotlh . ©. . ©. . . 2. we 145 The Names of the Fins of a Typical Fish . . . . . . . . 161 Small-Mouthed Black Bass . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Calico Bass . 181 xiii XIV ' JLLUSTRATIONS PAGE Common sunfish) “7 <1 Ae ees) ee re er) 1 Mellow Perch. 2. 0s) Se es Tie’ung 21 20 >, 2 cath, Goeeaaw a eee eee eee MhesAnelers: 9%, (vie Sen Sn es Joe eee aTG Great:Pipe:-Fish) 3 << 3) 4 Ge a eS ee Gee Si MidhesSea-ELOrse2 as 5 See Been eee pn en Mackerel Shark, with Remora Attached . . . . . . . . 809 Hammer-Head Shark . . . . . . . . . 809 TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS Kawial cg 5 oi rout ME a ee cg eh ee ee “Ts Orinoco'Grocodile-.) sR a ee ee eS Elorda:@rocodiles 32 seg a nate ee eae ee LS Indian‘Crocodiles =. 3.93 © 4 7 es) en ee ee LS Mississippi Alligator . . . . . . . . . 2... . . 18 Mississippi Alligator, “Old Mose” . . . . 2. we ee Skeleton of a False Geographic Turtle . . . . . . . . 26 Galapagos Giant Tortoise Praise aan oe ee BoxGortoises:s “5° 2 3 ae se ee Se ee Musks2Durtle 3 Ro v0 =5e se | 2 ses OS, Rainted’| Murtles 2 — wi aye oe oes ee ee RD: Woodss'Durtle sao ye ad eo ee et ee 7) Alligator Terrapin . . 2 2° «© » « © 2,5 4 2 2 ae 740 Matamata’Terrapin. 3. 70 5 3 Ye oe Ee eee el ILLUSTRATIONS Xv martvenelledtaMurtie ya 2) Suede el eran cee 8, er “48 The Hawksbill Turtle, Furnishing Tortoise Shell . . 2. 2. 2.) 47 Command suanage aun eee) yee ee erm 5S Bluc-atedeligard:. a eh oa wre ne ek The Sawfish Pee eee et ren oie Scab ae ees i ae pop Uk ee, eer LOLS ihe Stingaiavarwn cor aicelbt-e et Mien tego os Oana ya eco) whew DevilsWisti) fos se elo sr ee ae es ee OLD REPTILES CHAPTER XXXIX INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES HE Port or View.—In studying or not studying the world of reptiles, everything depends upon the point of view. With persons in middle life, who hold up their hands and shudder at the mention of the word “‘reptile,” there is nothing to be done. They are victims of an unreasoning prejudice that often is deliberately taught to young people, ‘both by precept and example, until at last it becomes bone of their bone and flesh of their flesh. Human children are not born with the inherited fear of reptiles which is so char- acteristic of the apes and monkeys of the jungles; and it is not fair to terrorize their innocent souls with awful “‘snake stories,” any more than with the “ghost stories” which most careful parents forbid. With young people whose minds have not been artificially warped by older persons who abhor all reptilian life, much may be done. Now, come! Let us reason together. Despite electricity and steam, this world is yet a fairly large place. That it has existed through countless ages, and that its animal life has gone through many marvellous trans- formations, no one can deny, without being put to shame by 3 4 INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES the silent and immutable testimony of the rocks. This world, the animals now living upon it and those lying within it, entombed by Nature’s hand, have been millions of years in forming. If you doubt it, go into an Arizona canyon, half a mile in depth, and at the bottom of a mountain-wall of rock, dig out the remains of a fossil; then ask yourself this question: “How long has it taken Nature to pile half a mile of solid rock upon the grave of this creature, and then cut down to again?” In the evolution of the birds of to-day, the reptiles of the past have played an important part; and the study of the Class Reptilia is very much worth while, if for no other reason than to learn the nearness of the relationships between its members and the birds. , Remember, first of all, that the reptiles of to-day are actually insignificant in comparison with those which existed ages ago, the bones of which are now fast coming to light. A 24-foot python or anaconda of to-day, lying beside a 60- foot dinosaur, with a hind leg 10 feet high, would be like a garter-snake beside a kangaroo. In this day of liberal thought and broad reasoning, any person whose knowledge of the world of reptiles is limited to the false notion that all these creatures are either “slimy” or dangerous, is to be pitied. A persistence in that all-too- common estimate is a distinct loss to all those who entertain it. It means the shutting out, with the black curtain of Ignorance, of a whole world of interesting forms and useful facts, and also a lifetime of cringing fear, largely without cause. INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES 5 Young Americans, I exhort you to take a broad and sen- sible view of the reptilian world—as of every other great subject. Many of these creatures are worth knowing, some. because they are wonderfully interesting, some because they are useful and a very few because they are dangerous. None of them, however, are “slimy”! A snake may be cold to the touch, but its skin is as clean and free from slime as a watch? chain. What is more, there is no living creature, not. even a dolphin, dripping from the sea, which possesses a skin dis- playing the beautiful pattern of colors and the rainbow iri- descence of the reticulated python, of the East Indies. In reality there are a great number of reptiles that are undeni- ably beautiful. I would it were possible to touch upon all the Orders of Reptiles, extinct as well as living, and introduce some of the gigantic and wonderful lizards that were like kangaroos, rhi- noceroses and sea-lions, and also like nothing else under the sun; but in this work it is impossible. There is space available only for the four Orders of living Reptiles; the seven that are extinct can be studied elsewhere by those who be- come specially interested in this subject.! Tue Granp Divisions oF Livinc Reptites.—There are, all told, eleven Orders of the Class Reptilia; but seven of them are extinct, and for the present these will be left out of consideration. The four Orders of living reptiles are made up as shown in the following synopsis: 1 American readers are particularly referred to the two very excellent and val- uable books by Raymond L. Ditmars, Curator of Reptiles in the New York Zo- ological Park, entitled ‘‘The Reptile Book’? (Doubleday, Page & Co., New York) and ‘Reptiles of the World” (Sturgis & Walton Co., New York). 6 INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES Tue Orpers or Livinc REpTiLes ORDER PRONUNCIATION GROUPS INCLUDED EXAMPLES Gavials, Crocodiles, | Florida Crocodile, Alligators. Alligator. Box Tortoise, Paint- ed Terrapin, Hawksbill Turtle. Marine Iguana,Glass “Snake,” Blue- Tailed Lizard. Colubrine Snakes, Anaconda, Timber Rattlesnakes, Harle- Rattlesnake, Coral quin Snakes. } Snake. Crocopi.tia. . Croc-o-dil’7-a. . | Cuetonta....Ke-lo'ni-a.... \ J Tortoises, Terrapins and Sea Turtles. | Iguanas, Slow- E . .La-ser-til'i-a. . ‘ Lac RTILIA. . La-ser-til'i-a | Worus Skinie. OpHIDIA..... O-fid’i-a...... GENERAL CHARACTERS OF ReptitEs.—Chiefly through certain extinct species the reptiles lead so directly into the birds that the two Classes overlap each other. In the Berlin Museum are the well-preserved fossil re- mains of a bird called the Ar-chae-op’ter-yx, which had a long, lizard-like tail fully covered with feathers, and lizard- like teeth in its beak. In 1873 Professor Marsh discovered, in the chalk-beds of western Kansas, a low-formed, penguin- like bird, called the Hes-per-or’nis, also provided with teeth. All reptiles are cold-blooded animals, and breathe air by means of lungs. Because of the low temperature of their ’ blood, and their slow heart-action, many of them are able to remain under water for quite lengthy periods—of minutes, not hours. Some turtles and terrapins become so thoroughly dormant at the approach of winter that the vital organs actually suspend their functions, for a period of from one to three months. It is then that these creatures bury them- selves in the mud at the bottom of ponds, and so pass the winter months. INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES 7 The majority of reptiles are covered with scales, or armor of solid bone, and are provided either with teeth for conflict and offence, or with armor for defence. Their means of loco- motion show a wide range of variation, beginning with the clumsy-flippered harp turtle, passing the gila monster, the swift-footed monitor, the kangaroo-like collared lizard (of Arizona), the gliding serpents, and ending with the flying dragon. In their food habits the range of the world’s reptiles is infinitely great, embracing fruit, vegetables, herbage and all forms of flesh, living and dead. Oddly enough, however, no modern reptile has been provided with molar teeth for the mastication of food. The saurians, lizards and serpents have teeth for seizing and holding their living prey. The turtles, however, are quite toothless, and in place of teeth their horny jaws have sharp, cutting edges for clipping up their food into pieces small enough to be swallowed without mastication. The teeth of serpents and crocodilians generally are per- petually renewed, as fast as old teeth are worn out and disappear. By reason of this the lives of these reptiles are indefinitely prolonged. The great majority of reptiles reproduce by laying eggs, which are hatched either by the heat of the sun or by the fermentation of muck-heaps. Many species of serpents hatch their eggs in their own bodies, and bring forth their young alive. Such species are called yiwip’arous. Those which lay eggs are called o’viparous. Some reptiles, notably the crocodiles and tortoises, con- tinue to grow almost as long as they live. Doubtless this is 8 INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES also true of some large species of serpents, such as the great constrictors of India and South America. DistrisuTion.—Reptiles reach their maximum develop- ment in the tropics and the subtropics, between the isother- mals of 32° F. North and south of that zone, reptilian life still is abundantly represented, but chiefly by small species. The largest land serpents are found in the low-lying, moist and hot forests of the equatorial regions; but crocodilians of the largest size are found several hundred miles from the Equator, both north and south. The largest tortoises live close to the Equator. Poisonous Species.—Among our reptiles only one lizard and a few species of serpents are venomous—an exceedingly small proportion of the whole number. Indeed, so few in number are the dangerous species of North America, it is an easy matter for any intelligent person to learn to recognize all of them at sight. In a few hours of diligent and conscien- tious study, aided by a text-book that has been properly designed, any clear-headed person over fourteen years of age can learn to determine almost at a glance whether any fully grown serpent of North America is poisonous or harmless. This is possible from the fact that more than half of the ven- omous species possess rattles, and those which have not are few in number. UsEFUL SpEecies.—Many reptiles are of decided value to mankind, by reason of the rats, mice and other destructive vermin which they destroy. Others diligently devour in- sects. Quite a number furnish useful food, and some yield skins and other commercial products of much value. INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS OF REPTILES 9 Lack or GENERAL KNow.epGce Recarpina REprTitEs.— While birds have been well taken care of in books, museums, zoological gardens and lectures, and mammals are now com- ing in for a small proportion of the attention they deserve, the reptiles have been greatly neglected. Very few zoological institutions contain collections of reptiles worthy of the name, and the books on this Class are mostly to be written. As a result of this well-nigh universal lack of opportunity for study, the great majority of persons possess very little precise and clear information regarding these creatures. The following chapters are offered merely as a foundation on which to build an acquaintance with a world of living creatures concerning which we are assured that a large number of persons sincerely desire information. CHAPTER XL ORDER OF CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS CROCODILIA HE warm regions of the world contain nineteen species of big, burly, bony-armored reptiles, with long tails, power- ful jaws, and tempers as ugly as their own rough backs. These creatures are known collectively as Croc-o-dil’i-ans, and two Families embrace all the gavials, crocodiles, alligators and caimans of both the Old World and the New. So pointed is the need for a clear bird’s-eye view of this important group of large reptiles, it is necessary to set forth a synopsis of the entire Order. The species will be arranged in a regular series according to the width of their heads, be- ginning with the narrowest. A SYNOPSIS OF THE CROCODILIANS The measurements given are believed to represent the maximum size attained by each species. OrDER CROCODILIA GAVIAL FAMILY GENUS SPECIES COMMON NAME LOCALITY pen : Indian Gavial, 20 ; 2 Gav-i-al'is...... .gan-get'i-cus..... | i aii ore \ Northern India. gang | feet TUES eta Bornean Gavial, 15 | Borneo and Su- ees YORE CSR RT fection eeaee matra. 10 SYNOPSIS OF THE CROCODILIANS GENUS Croc-o-di'lus.. . Os-te-o-lae’mus.. . Al'li-ga-tor.... 11 CROCODILE FAMILY SPECIES cat-a-phrac’tus. . . | a-cu'tus......... in-ter-me'di-us . . johns'ton-t rhom'bi-fer a. flor-i-dan'us... | nil-ot't-cus..... po-ro'sus pa-lus’tris te-tras’ pis tri-go-na’tus pal-pe-bro'sus.... scle'rops lat-t-ros’tris st-nen'sts........ miss-is-sip-pi-en'- sis COMMON NAME Sharp-Nosed_ Afri- can Crocodile, 12 feetss teak Orinoco Crocodile, 12 feet Australian Croco- dile, 8 feet Cuban Crocodile, 10 feet LOCALITY | W. Africa. | Venezuela. Australia. Cuba only. Central and South Amer- ica. Florida. American Croco- dile, 14 feet. ... Florida Crocodile, 14 feet 6 inches. . Nile Crocodile, 16 feet Salt-Water Croco- Mal 5 dile, 16 feet. ... ae barat Mugger, 12 feet. ... . India. Broad-Nosed a can Crocodile, 6 Upper Amazon. Africa generally. Equatorial W. fect Africa. Rough-Backed Cai- man, 6 feet Banded Caiman, 8 | South America. Spectacled Cai- man, 8 feet Black Caiman, 20 | feet (Bates). ... J Broad-Nosed_ Cai- man, 8 feet..... Central and South America. Guianas; Brazil. Amazon to Rio de la Plata. Chinese Alligator, Ara comrade China. Common Alligator, Tegadisrares. 16 feet........ 12 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS GENERAL CHARACTERS OF CrocopILians.—A crocodilian is a lizard-like reptile, of very large size, with short, thick legs, a long tail and the most highly developed vascular system to be found among reptiles. Its back and neck are pro- tected by powerful armor consisting of rough, lozenge-shaped plates of solid bone set in a very thick and tough skin, and arranged in rows, both lengthwise and crosswise. Both the tail, the abdomen and throat are covered by a regular arrangement of tough scales. The whole animal is covered by a thin, translucent epidermis which is impervious to water. The tail is long, flattened vertically and fringed along the top with a row of lofty, saw-toothed scales of great use In swimming. The head is a mass of well-nigh solid bone, overlaid by the same thin layer of scaly epidermis which covers the body, of the thinness of writing-paper. The nostrils are placed far forward, near the end of the snout. The jaws pos- sess great strength, and are armed with rows of sharp-pointed, conical teeth, which are shed when worn out, and renewed. The tongue is not free, but is firmly attached to the bot- tom of the mouth. Its color never is red, but usually is yel- lowish-white, and sometimes pinkish. The iris of the eye is dark green, and the pupil is very narrow, and vertical. The eyelids are movable, and the ear-opening closes tightly by a flap of skin controlled by voluntary muscles. Most saurians are voiceless or nearly so; but the alligator emits a very deep bellow, or roar, which in animals over 10 feet in length is much lower on the scale than any fog-horn. “The difference between a crocodile and an alligator” (a GENERAL CHARACTERS | 13 question that has been asked a countless number of times) consists chiefly in the shape of the head, and the manner in which the teeth are placed in the lower jaw. The typical crocodile has a narrow, triangular head, terminating in a rounded point. The head of an alligator is broad, with almost parallel sides, and at the end it is broadly rounded off. 1. GAVIAL. 2. ORINOCO 3. FLORIDA 4. INDIAN 5. MISSISSIPPI CROCODILE. CROCODILE. CROCODILE, ALLIGATOR. The canine tooth in the lower jaw of a crocodile fits on the outside of the upper jaw, in a notch close behind the nostrils; whereas in the alligator the same tooth fits into a pit in the upper jaw, just inside the line of the upper teeth. The heads of living crocodilians show wide but progressive variations in breadth, as the annexed series of figures reveals. The gavial of the Ganges and Jumna, in northern India, has a snout like the handle of a saucepan, set with four rows of long and very sharp teeth. After the gavial of Borneo, its nearest relative is the Orinoco crocodile. At intervals come 14 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS | in the Florida crocodile, the mugger of India, followed by the broad-headed West African crocodile, and ending with the alligator, widest of all. Erroneous Impressions Correctep.—Regarding these reptiles, a number of the erroneous impressions which are now prevailing should be corrected. Some of them are as follows: . The true crocodiles are not confined to the Old World, four species being found in America. Alligators are not wholly confined to America; for a small species exists in China. The ‘“‘movement”’ of a crocodile’s jaws differs in no man- ner whatever from that of an alligator. Only a very few species of crocodilians are dangerous to man. So far as the author is aware, there is no authentic record of the loss of a human life by our common alligator. All crocodilians swim with their tails, not their feet. The skin of a large crocodilian is by no means impervi- ous,.to rifle bullets. A bullet sometimes strikes a bony plate and glances off; but a proper bullet, properly placed, will penetrate the skin or armor of the largest alligator or croco- dile at any point. The author believes that no crocodile or alligator of to-day exceeds 20 feet in length, by actual measurement; and one of that length is one out of ten thousand. Foop.—Crocodilians are not epicures, and some species devour all kinds of vertebrate animals that they can capture, from man to mud-hens. But the supply of obtainable mam- GENERAL CHARACTERS 15 mals and birds is very limited, and fish constitutes by far the greater portion of their daily food. If all the scaly mon- sters of this Order were limited in food to the mammals and aquatic birds which can be seized when drinking at the water’s edge, or swimming in mid-stream, they would indeed go hungry. It is a comparatively easy matter for a large crocodilian to seize a quadruped of medium size, draw it into deep water while struggling and drown it. On St. Vincent Island, Florida, I saw two mules whose hind quarters bore scars a foot long as the result of attacks by alligators in the small fresh-water ponds of the interior of the island. The alliga- tors who made those bold attacks must have been rendered desperate by hunger. In the Reptile House of the Zoological Park, during a fight between two large alligators in the pool, it was discov- ered how an alligator dismembers a bulky victim in order to devour it. An alligator seized a fighting enemy by one leg, and using his tail as a propeller, whirled himself round and round like a revolving shaft, until in about five seconds the leg was twisted off, close up to the body! That deadly rotary movement would have torn a leg from a small elephant. On another occasion a 12-foot alligator named ‘‘Moses”’ became angry at an 8-foot companion, seized it by the body, lifted it clear of the water, and shook it until the tough skin of the back was completely torn in two at the joint immedi- ately in front of the hind legs. In the course of work among the crocodiles of Ceylon I found that some crocodiles will eat the flesh of their own kind, 16 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS and do so with genuine relish. Crocodiles which I skinned and left beside a pool were promptly eaten by their relatives, who in their turn were also killed, dissected and eaten. Man-EatinGc Crocopites.—Out of the nineteen species of crocodiles and alligators (eight of which I have observed in their haunts), so far as I can learn only three are dangerous to man. The most dangerous man-eater is the salt-water crocodile of the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and surrounding re- gions. This reptile attains a size of 16 feet, and in the ter- ritory of Sarawak, Borneo, it devours so many people that the Government has for years paid a cash reward for its destruc- tion. Its method is to take advantage of the murky waters of the rivers, swim up to a village bathing-place, seize any man or woman found bathing in the shallow water, or filling a water-jar, and back off into deep water. The West African crocodiles,! of Angola and other por- tions of West Africa, are the boldest of all crocodilians, some- times attacking. people who are in canoes, and dragging a vic- tim from a boat. (William Harvey Brown.) The gavial and mugger of India are harmless to man, and so are the American crocodiles, and the alligator. I have gone swimming in the home waters of both the gavial and alli- gator—the two extremes in jaw development—and therefore feel sure that both are harmless. Nestinc Hasits.—All the crocodilians reproduce by lay- ing from thirty to sixty oblong, perfectly white eggs, in layers, in a low mound of muck, or vegetable mould, or sand. The female lies in wait to defend her eggs while they hatch through 1This is the Nile crocodile, which is widely distributed throughout Africa. GROWTH AND SIZE 17 the heat of the sun, or by regular fermentation. From the nest of the salt-water crocodile I have taken fifty-five eggs, from the gavial forty-one and forty-four, from the Florida crocodile twenty-six, and from the alligator thirty-eight. The nest of the alligator is about 2 feet high and 4 feet in diameter. At birth young alligators are about 8 inches long. As soon as they are out of the shell, they are wide-eyed and alert, and ready to take to the water. At this period the muzzle is short, abnormally broad, and the arch of the forehead very high. GrRowTH AND S1zE.—In the Reptile House of the New York Zoological Park we have recorded the following facts regarding the rate of growth of our. alligaters: INCHES WEIGHT Iengthtwhenshatchedtasaeec ss: ecctiiicts etre: seer 8 134 oz. Length when one year old..................0...002004. 18 914 o7. Length when 22 months old......................0005. 23 3 Ibs. Length when 29 months old........................... 45 14 Ibs. An alligator when received measured...................- 6 ft. 11in. During the first year it grew 1 ft. 3 in. and measured...... Sift. Qin. During the second year it grew 1 ft. 114 in. and measured.... 9 ft. 31% in. During the third year it grew 1 ft. 7 in. and measured. .... 10 ft. 101 in. Length of “Old Mose,” July, 1899, 12 feet. Length of “Old Mose,” July, 1903, 12 ft. 5 in. Judging by the rate of growth of specimens of all sizes under constant observation in the Zoological Park, where they probably are growing as rapidly as they could in a wild state, I have reached the conclusion that, under ordinary circum- stances, a wild crocodile or alligator is about ten years in 18 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS attaining a length of 12 feet. The average rate of growth up to 12 feet appears to be about 1.4 inches per month. After 12 feet has been attained, the rate is much slower, being (in case of our largest specimen) about 2 inches per year. The secret in securing rapid growth in captive crocodilians lies in giving them a pool, four feet deep, of water warmed to a temperature of between 80° and 90° F. If kept in cold water, and but little of it, they are uncomfortable, they feed sparingly and grow either very slowly or not at all. AMERICAN SPECIES OF CROCODILIANS Tue Fiorma Crocopiez! is the type which represents the midway average between the two extremes of the crocodilian series—narrow-beaked gavial and broad-snouted alligator. ’ It is a subspecies of the so-called “‘American’’ crocodile (Crocodilus acutus), of Central and South America, and is not found elsewhere than in southern Florida. It is the only crocodile which inhabits a country that is visited by killing frosts. The presence of a true crocodile in Florida was not dis- covered until 1875, when a pair of specimens of large size were collected in Arch Creek, at the head of Biscayne Bay, by Mr. C. E. Jackson and the writer. The male measured 14 feet 2 inches (with 4 inches of his tail missing), and the female 10 feet 8 inches. Since that date, at least seventy specimens have been taken between Lake Worth and Cape Sable. Lake Worth is the northern limit of the species, but it is most abundant in the watery labyrinth of low land and 1 Cro-co-di'lus a-cu'tus flor-i-dan'us. AMERICAN SPECIES 19 shallow water where the mainland of Florida reluctantly sinks into the Gulf. The alleged “big ’gator’’ of Arch Creek was very wary, and permitted no boat to approach within rifle shot. Even a boat completely masked by green branches, and innocently floating with the current, was enough to send the old fellow quickly sliding from his basking-place on the bank into deep water. At last, however, we shot him from an ambush in the mangroves opposite his midday lair, and secured him. His mounted skin is now to be seen in the United States National Museum. The adult male Florida Crocodile is very rough, exter- nally, and usually its natural colors have been so far obliter- ated by age and exposure that on its upper surfaces its color is a dull, weatherbeaten gray. The females, and males under 11 feet, are of a clean, grayish-olive color—or dull yellow- ish-green—very different indeed from the funereal black of the alligator. This difference in color between our croco- diles and alligators is so marked it is quite noticeable at a distance of two hundred feet or more. The Florida Crocodile digs burrows in the sandy banks of the Miami River, and other deep streams where the ground is suitable. These lairs are used as hiding-places, resting- places and doubtless also as warm retreats in which to es- cape the cold waves from the north, which about once every five years produce killing frosts as far south as Miami. The entrances to these burrows are either under water, or half-submerged, and they extend into the bank from ten to thirty feet. At their extremity they are widened out suf- 20 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS ficiently to permit the owner to turn around. Usually the banks are so low that the top of a burrow is only about two feet below the surface. This burrowing habit of the Florida Crocodile has led to a very droll and uncommon industry. A man named “Alli- gator Joe,” of Palm Beach and Miami, knows his game so thoroughly that he has become very expert in making cap- tures. For fifty dollars he will at any time take out a party of “tourists,” go to a crocodile’s burrow, and with a noose capture the reptile alive and unhurt. In each case he guar- antees that the crocodile shall exceed 9 feet in length. He locates the burrows in advance, by probing for them in the sand with a sharp-pointed iron rod. With this iron rod the reptile is driven out of its lair, and rarely does Joe fail to make a capture “‘as advertised.” Many other persons in Florida have captured crocodiles and alligators in their burrows, by means of a long pole of tough wood with a strong and very sharp iron hook lashed on one end. When this pole is thrust into a burrow the rep- tile bites it viciously, and holds on stubbornly. But even if inclined to let go the sharp hook engages the tongue or other portions of the mouth, and thus the creature is dragged by sheer force into the hands of his captors, and bound with ropes. Tue CuBpan CrocopiLe! has a narrower head than the preceding, and two more rows (six in all) of bony plates along its back. For a long time this has been regarded as one of the smallest species of crocodiles, but now it is reported 1 Croc-o-di'lus rhom’bi-fer. THE CAIMANS 21 from Cuba that it attains a maximum length of about 10 feet. It is olive-green in color, slender in form, quick as lightning in some of its movements and much given to roaming over- land, or following up tiny watercourses, in search of new hunting-grounds. I once shot a full-grown specimen in a very small brook, near the geographical centre of the Isle of Pines, Cuba, and saw others in a salt-water lagoon on the north shore of that island. So far as known, it is not found elsewhere than in Cuba. Tue AmeERICAN CrocopILeE inhabits the northern coast of South America, and the Gulf coast of Central America, up to Mexico. In the lagoons along the coast of Colombia, a short distance eastward from the mouth of the Magdalena River, there are small bays so thickly infested with reptiles of this species, and of such great size, that very courageous men of my acquaintance have not dared to enter in a small boat. Tue Orrvoco CrocopiLe! is marked by a very narrow snout, by which character it is but two places removed from the slender-beaked gavials of India and Borneo. In 1876 I found this species abundant in the Orinoco River, seven miles below Ciudad Bolivar, and killed a 12-foot male speci- men which was undoubtedly very old. Of the Cai/mans, there are five species, all of which strongly resemble our alligator, and inhabit Central and South America, and portions of the West Indies. The Eyebrowed Caiman has the widest distribution, and is found from south- ern Mexico to the Argentine Republic. The Black Caiman, 1 Croc-o-di'lus in-ter-me'di-us. 22 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS of the Guianas and Brazil, is the largest, and is said to at- tain a length of 20 feet. (Bates.) The Rough-Backed Cai- man, of the upper Amazon, is said to be quite small—only 6 feet in length. (H. Gadow.) Tue ALLIGATOR! is so well known it needs no particular description. In individuals over eight years of age, and 10 feet in length, the eight yellow bands around the tail prac- tically though not wholly disappear, and from that time on the animal is of a uniform dull black color above, and dirty yellow or white below. I never saw a living specimen larger than “Old Mose” (12 ft. 5 in.), and only one mounted skin which exceeded 14 feet. That one measured 16 feet 3 inches, and is believed to be in a museum in Louisiana. The Alligator finds its northern limit in southeastern North Carolina. From thence its range extends southward along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts to Cape Sable, the south- ern point of Florida, and westward through the Gulf states to the Rio Grande in southern Texas. Thirty-five years ago this reptile existed in certain portions of its range, especially Florida, in great abundance; but about that time Alligator leather became fashionable, and the demand thus created has reduced the visible supply of Alligators by about 98 per cent. To-day you may travel from Jacksonville to Miami without once seeing the black line upon the water which be- tokens the existence of an Alligator; and an experienced Flor- ida hunter has declared his belief that there is not now living in that state a specimen 12 feet in length. The habits of this reptile are quite similar to those of 1 Al-li-ga'tor miss-is-sip-pi-en’sis. THE ALLIGATORS 23 crocodilians generally. In Florida it burrows in sand-banks precisely like the Florida crocodile, and builds a mound of E. F. Keller, Photo. N. Y. Zoological Park. MISSISSIPPI ALLIGATOR, “OLD MOSE.” Captured in Indian River, Florida. Length, 12 feet 5 inches. earth, moss and grass about two feet high, in which it lays from twenty to forty eggs. The Alligator is the only crocodilian I ever heard utter a vocal sound of any kind. The bellow of this animal, how- ever, is well known. Every day, regularly when the whistles Q4 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS blow, the five Alligators in our Reptile House lift their heads out of the water at an angle of 45°, and bellow, or roar, in concert four or five times, making a truly unearthly noise. “Old Mose”’ was an excellent living understudy of “‘ Pfafner,”’ the bellowing dragon of Wagner’s ‘‘Siegfried.”’ THe CHINESE ALLIGATOR was discovered in 1870 by Swinhoe, and described by Fauvel in 1879. It is quite strange that the nearest living relative of our alligator should live in the Yang-tse-Kiang River, in China; but it appears to be true. It is a small species, only about 6 feet in length, of a greenish-black color, dotted with yellow. A specimen in the author’s possession so closely resembles our American species that specific differences are difficult to point out. CHAPTER XLI ORDER OF TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES CHELONIA (\URELY there are few intelligent persons to whom a live turtle does not appeal. From the impregnable box tor- toise to the grim alligator terrapin, the giant tortoise of Galapagos, and the marine monsters of the Gulf Stream, the diversity in form and habit is very great. Fortunately, however, a fixed knowledge of twelve species will give a very good foundation on which to build up this Order. GENERAL CHARACTERS.—A member of the Order of Tur- tles is a reptile which has its skeleton on the outside of its body, and its vital organs completely incased in a box of bone, called a shell. The top half of the shell is called the carapace, and it is formed by the widening of the ribs until they grow together and firmly unite wherever their edges meet. The lower portion of the shell is called the plas'tron. The carapace of a male tortoise is hollowed out underneath, but that of the female is flat. The shell has an opening at the front end to receive the head, neck and fore legs, and the rear is open to afford space for the hind legs and tail. The shell of a turtle is a citadel of reftige, into which its owner withdraws its head and feet whenever threatened by ene- 25 26 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES mies. In some species the shell is a remarkably perfect means of defence. These reptiles have no teeth, but the edges of their strong, horny jaws are sufficiently sharp and chisel-like to enable them to cut up vegetable food. The head and neck move SKELETON OF A FALSE GEOGRAPHIC TURTLE. (Graptemys pseudogeographicus.) P, plastron, Ul, ulna, Fib, fibula, €, carapace, Hu, humerus, Fe, femur, Ra, radius, Tib, tibia, Se, scapula. freely, in and out. The skin is very tough and leathery. Like other reptiles, the members of this Order reproduce by laying eggs and burying them, to be hatched by the sun. Some of the large tortoises live to the greatest age attained by any living creatures now on the earth. In the original classification of the land-going tortoises, and the water-loving turtles and terrapins, it was an unfor- SYNOPSIS OF TORTOISES AND TURTLES Q7 tunate mistake that the name “tortoise” was not limited to the dry-land species, ‘“‘terrapin’’ to the hard-shelled spe- cles inhabiting fresh water and “turtle” to the species with flippers which inhabit the sea. To-day the names “tortoise” and “turtle” are applied so indiscriminately through all three of the groups mentioned that they are useless as distinctive titles, and the mixture is mischievously confusing. In the interest of common sense I therefore propose the following revised system of these common names: 1. All Chelonians of the land only shall be called........... Tortoises. 2. All Chelonians of fresh water shall be called............. Terrapins. 3. All Chelonians of the sea shall be called................ Turtles. To this at least one person will henceforth try to adhere. The following is a common-sense grouping of the members of the Order Chelonia, as found in North America and the seas adjacent: SYNOPSIS OF THE ORDER OF TORTOISES AND TURTLES CHELONIA SUBORDER OF LAND TORTOISES FAMILIES EXAMPLES Giant Tortoise. Gopher Tortoise. M TORTOISES alee Sor ; | Tes-tu-din'i-dae.... Common Box Tortoise. Box Tortoises... 1By some authorities on the classification of reptiles, the Box Tortoises are placed in the Family Kinosternidae, one of the divisions of the Fresh-Water Terra- pins. If this arrangement should be followed, it would take the Box Tortoises out of the group of Land Tortoises, where they really belong. With this explanation the author elects to preserve the very useful arrangement into land, fresh-water and marine groups, as set forth above, and leave the Box Tortoises in the Family Testudinidae. 28 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES SUBORDER OF FRESH-WATER TERRAPINS FAMILIES EXAMPLES Kin-o-ster'ni-dae......Musk Terrapin. Smooru-SHELLED Painted Terrapin. TERRAPINS....... E-myd't-dae........ } Wood Terrapin. | Diamond-Back. . Alligator Terrapin. SNAPPING TERRAPINS. .Che-ly’dri-dae...... f ics ae \ Snapping Terrapin. Sort-SHELLED TER- : : : i ; | Tri-o-nych'i-dae..... .Soft-Shelled Terrapin. RABING. ia. ccge J SUBORDER OF SEA TURTLES a . Hawksbill. Harp-Suetiep........Che-lon'i-dae....... { Ha | Green Turtle. LEATHERY-SHELLED.. . . Der-mo-che-lyd’i-dae.. . Harp Turtle. THE TORTOISE. FAMILY Testudinidae The group of tortoises contains many species that are either beautiful, or curious, or remarkable for their size and age. Quite a number of species are handsomely colored, but the majority are perfectly plain. Two distinct types have been developed. The ordinary, thick-shelled, uncolored tortoises, some of them of great size, constitute the majority of the species. The smaller section is made up of small tortoises, some of which have a prac- tical hinge in the centre of the lower shell. These are strictly land-going animals, and some of them even burrow in the earth, in sandy situations where digging is easy. Tue Grant Tortoise! is a good species to lead this entire Order. If there be aught in the theory of “the survival of the fittest,” then this creature is clearly entitled to the lead- 1 Tes-tu'do vi-ci'na. GIANT TORTOISE 29 ing position. A specimen at the New York Zoological Park, which weighed 310 pounds, and whose shell measured on its curves 4 feet 714 inches by 4 feet 3 inches, with a height of shell of 20 inches, was probably one hundred years old. By ry “ * GALAPAGOS GIANT TORTOISE. some authorities the age of Giant Tortoises similar to the one described has been estimated at four hundred years! This wonderful creature lived all save the last two years of its life on the Galapagos Islands, a group of burnt-out voleanoes, and mountains of rock covered with brush, cacti and lava, directly on the Equator, five hundred miles west of Ecuador. Six species of Giant Tortoises inhabit that archipelago, living chiefly upon cacti and coarse grass, but all of them are now being exterminated at a very rapid rate, 30 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES either for the paltry amount of oil they contain or a few pounds of meat from each. An ignorant cattle-herder thinks nothing of killing a tortoise one hundred years old for three pounds of meat, nothing more! In the interests of science and her own reputation, Ecuador should prohibit henceforth the wanton and wasteful killing of those remarkable crea- tures. With the exception of the crocodilians, the Giant Tor- toises inhabiting the Galapagos Islands, and two islands in the Indian Ocean, are the only survivors of the famous rep- tilian age when a warm atmosphere heavily charged with moisture called forth luxuriant vegetation, which nourished a marvellous series of gigantic reptilian forms. Beside some of these extinct creatures our largest reptiles are mere pyg- mies, and to-day they are equalled in bulk only by the rhi- noceros, hippopotamus, elephant and whale. The great Brontosaurus, whose fossil remains were found in the bad lands of Wyoming, was 60 feet long, and some of the great Dinosaurs, or kangaroo-like lizards, stood over 30 feet in height! Beside the Giant Tortoises, our GopHer Tortoise," the largest allied species of tortoise we possess, seems insignifi- cantly small. The largest specimens weigh only 15 pounds. This species is found from South Carolina to Florida, and westward to Texas. It has a very thick and strong shell, and burrows in the earth of the sandy pine forests in which it lives. Its shell is smooth and unmarked by bright colors, and its flesh is palatable food. 1 Tes-tu'do pol-y-phe'mus. THE BOX TORTOISE 31 Tue Box Tortoise! is, to my mind, one of the small wonders of Nature, the special purpose of which is to point out how far “specialization” can go in fitting an animal to survive. After all, the most interesting things about animals BOX TORTOISES. are the lessons they teach bearing upon the development of the world and its inhabitants. Excepting these and similar forms, the small Chelonians find refuge from danger in the watery depths of the ponds and streams they inhabit. The Box Tortoise, however, formed for life on land, is so small it has required a special invention for its protection. Its shell is high, and contains sufficient room to permit the head, legs and tail to be fully withdrawn within it. Across the centre of the lower shell, or plastron, a practical double hinge has been provided. Thus, in time of danger, the ani- 1 Cts-tu'do carolina. 32 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES mal completely withdraws its head, legs and tail; at both ends it draws the lower shell tightly against the upper, and all the soft parts are entirely out of reach, behind strong walls of bone. The box of bone is as tightly closed at all points as a strongly made cigar-box with the cover nailed down. ; The Box Tortoise is an illustration of the fact that sev- eral species of tortoises are quite handsomely colored, in geo- metric patterns of black or red lines, on lighter ground-colors. A representative specimen of this species is covered with an open fretwork of black bands laid in a mechanical pattern on a lemon-yellow ground-color.. North of the range of the gopher tortoise, the Box Tortoise is our only genuine tor- toise—living only upon land, and never inhabiting water. It is common all around New York City, and is found even in the large northern parks, where it inhabits the well-shaded forests in situations as remote as possible from the paths of men. The moist valleys of the Zoological Park have yielded many fine specimens to the Reptile House collections, where they live contentedly. The Carolina Box Tortoise is found throughout the eastern United States from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River, and in the South is called the Pine- Barren “Terrapin.” THE MUD-TERRAPIN FAMILY _ Kinosternidae The Family. Kinosternidae was invented for the special accommodation of the box tortoises, with plastrons hinged across the middle; but in an unguarded moment the Mud THE MUSK TURTLE 33 “Turtle,” Musk “Turtle” and similar terrapins with fixed plastrons were included. To-day, oddly enough, there is a decided inclination to leave the Box Tortoise in the Tortoise Family—where they belong—and leave the Musk Turtle and his nearest relatives in possession of the abandoned Order. But to the general reader, all this is of but momentary interest. Tue Musk “Tur- TLE, ! or STinK-Por, has been loaded down with names in two languages which pro- claim a smelly charac- ter. It is a common- MUSK “TURTLE.” place little terrapin about 6 inches long, inhabiting quiet ponds or sluggish streams, basking in the sun when it is safe to linger above high- water mark. Occasionally it so far forgets itself as to swallow a worm-baited hook and bring on trouble of two or three kinds. Its regular food is aquatic insects, minnows, fish- eggs, worms and, in fact, any fleshy creature slow enough to be caught and small enough to be eaten. The Musk ‘Turtle,’ or Terrapin, is possessed of a very noticeable musky. odor, which serves better as a distinguish- ing character in the living specimen than its very dull color and general commonplacedness of external appearance. Some- times it shows a few spots; and the neck bears two stripes, 1 Ar-o-mo-chel'ys o-dor-a’tus. 34 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES one starting above the eye, the other below it. The plastron shows a slight tendency toward a practicable hinge, but it is only a suggestion, for the shell is practically rigid, and in- capable of closing. This species, like all the terrapins of the North, burrows into the mud of pond-bottoms at the ap- proach of winter weather, and lies dormant, with the func- tions of Nature suspended, until spring. It is found abun- dantly in the eastern United States, and ranges westward into Illinois. SMOOTH-SHELLED TERRAPINS Emydidae * Numerous indeed is the company composing the group of pond and river Chelonians, which live half in and half out of the water. They vary in size from the little musk terrapin, no larger than the palm of your hand, to the big alligator terrapin, of Louisiana, with a shell 23 inches long, and a gross weight of 115 pounds, or more. ‘There are many species that are valuable as food, and one which is now ac- cepted as the symbol of epicurean luxury. As usual, only the types of greatest importance and widest distribution will be mentioned here. If it were necessary to choose a single species to repre- sent the many species of North American Terrapins, that choice might well fall upon the Rep-BreLtiiep TrerRaPtn,' or Suiper. This is a species above the average size. The lar- gest specimen in our collection weighs 10 pounds, and its shell is 13 inches long by 9 inches wide, axial measurement. It 1 Pseu'de-mys ru-bri-ven'tris, SMOOTH-SHELLED TERRAPINS 35 is handsomely and plainly marked by its back of umber brown, and reddish-white under surface. It is alert and active, its distribution is wide and its flesh is excellent. When you go to a restaurant and order diamond-backed terrapin, at a dollar a plate, you may know to a certainty what you are eating and paying for. Nine times out of ten it is Slider, no more, no less; and a very good dish it makes, too. Of the genus to which this animal be- longs, there are in North America at least six other species, all of | o3iy es them habitants of the yee southern half of our PAINTED “TURTLE.” A good example of the Smooth-Shelled Terrapins. country. The Slider ranges northward only as far as Delaware, and the Susque- hanna River in Pennsylvania, but is frequently seen in the New York markets. Of the terrapins that are in the habit of sunning themselves on logs within diving distance of rivers, creeks or ponds, this species is, I think, the largest we are accustomed to see. Even at quite a distance it can be rec- ognized by the height and narrowness of its shell, as com- pared with species of other genera. Tue Parwtep Terrapin,' hitherto called at random the Parntepo “Turtite” and Ponp “Torrtoiss,” is perhaps the most widely distributed species, and the one available to the 1 Chrys-em'ys pic’ta. 36 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES greatest number of schoolrooms, in the United States. It inhabits the whole region east of the Mississippi River except the extreme southeastern states, or about one-half of the entire country. Its shell is from 6 to 8 inches in length, and its contour is rather flat. The plates of the carapace are greenish black, edged with yellow, and those around the margin are marked with bright red. The under shell (plas- tron) is yellow with brown markings; and the Jegs and tail are dark brown, marked with bright-red lines. The upper jaw is notched in front. This small boy’s favorite is a very common species, and nine times out of ten when a nice, well-behaved little Ter- rapin is seen sunning itself on the hurricane-deck of a dere- lict log, ready to drop into the water with a gentle plash when Small Boy approaches dangerously near, that is It. It is called the Pond Terrapin because it dislikes the nerve- wrecking hilarity of a river which rushes past at two or three miles per hour, but prefers a nice, quiet little 4x 5 pond, where it can vegetate quite unmolested. In captivity its food consists of chopped fish and meat and angle-worms. Tue Exvacuick,' of the Pacific slope, from the Sierra Nevadas to the coast, and from southern California to Van- couver, is the most important species in that region. It is good for food, and is frequently seen in the markets of the large cities on or near the coast. It is about the size of the painted terrapin. Tue DriamMonp-BackED TERRAPIN?’ of the salt marshes is, most unfortunately, famous for the flavor of its flesh, and 1 Chel'o-pus mar-mo-ra'tus. 2 Mal-a-co-clem’mys pa-lus'tris. DIAMOND-BACKED TERRAPIN 37 its association with champagne. From the unlucky day when the epicures of Maryland pronounced terrapin stew a partic- ularly delicious dish, the doom of this species has been sealed. Its price has risen from the original twenty-five WOOD “TURTLE” (Chelopus insculptus). Back rugose. An exception to the rule of Smooth- Shelled Terrapins. cents each for large ones to seventy dollars per dozen for small ones, and the supply is rapidly dwindling to nothing. It is now a difficult matter for a zoologist to procure for exhibi- tion a specimen that is more than half grown. In appearance the Diamond-Back is neither beautiful nor striking, and in flavor I think it has been greatly over- 38 TORTOISES, TERRAPINS, AND TURTLES praised. At the same time, as reptiles go (for human food), its flesh is really very good; but, with all the good things that go into a terrapin stew, and champagne for sauce at four-fifty a bottle, almost any animal would taste good. The Diamond-Back Terrapin is a habitant of salt water, and at one time was found in the shallow bays and salt marshes along our Atlantic and Gulf coast from Massachusetts to Texas. Chesapeake Bay has always been a sort of centre of abundance of this species, and when it flourished the markets were supplied chiefly from the region lying between New York and Pamlico Sound. This Terrapin is small, rather flat, rounded in outline, and its scales are marked by independent black patterns com- posed of many geometric figures, placed one within another. A specimen with a plastron 7 inches long, and weighing a pound is a large one. Formerly the great majority meas- ured between 4 and 5 inches; but now it is difficult to find ¢ one large enough to make a “count” by the old standard. A “count”’.Terrapin must measure 5 inches (in some markets it is 6 inches) in the length of the lower shell. Beyond reasonable doubt, the continual destruction of the largest specimens will ere long render the species unpro- ductive, and it will cease to exist. The persistent destruc- tion of fathers and mothers will soon wipe out the strongest species in existence. It is reported, however, that in the South there are several terrapin “‘farms”’ on which this spe- cies is being bred and reared for the markets in large numbers. ALLIGATOR TERRAPIN 39 THE SNAPPING TERRAPINS Chelydridae Tue ALLIGATOR TERRAPIN,! of Louisiana, and other states bordering on the Gulf between Florida and Texas, is, when adult, a huge, rough-backed, big-headed creature, weighing from 100 to 125 pounds, and even attaining on rare occasions to 150 pounds. This is the largest terrapin in North America, and also the ugliest. The broad and rather flat table of its upper surface rises in a series of brown hillocks, earthy- looking, and often actually covered with moss. The head is of huge proportions, and the strength of the jaws is very great. The tail is very long and fleshy—which is rather unusual in Chelonians. Notwithstanding the rough exterior of this creature, its flesh is eaten by many persons who share its habitat. This remarkable reptile is found only in the semi-tropical fresh-water bayous and streams of the South. “$1,701,498 A falling off of 21,000,000 pounds in the annual supply of our finest food fish between 1904 and 1914 is a serious mat- ter. Where will we go for Shad ten years from now? In the Chesapeake Basin, says the report of the Fish Commissioner for 1913, the catch of Shad for that year was DISAPPEARANCE OF SHADS 249 “the poorest in many years,” with no prospect of improve- ment five years hence. In the Potomac River, conditions were the worst in forty years.: Shad culture is deprived of its life-blood by the capture of fish in salt water, before they could THE COMMON SHAD. reach their spawning-grounds. “The remote cause of the present condition is excessive fishing in former years and the lack of even the minimum amount of protection that is demanded by regard for most elementary principles of fishery conservation. Fish entering the Chesapeake Bay have to run through such a maze of nets that the wonder is that any are able to reach their spawning-grounds and deposit their eggs.” 250 TROUT AND SALMON If any one imagines that the Fisheries Bureau can procure each year enough Shad eggs to maintain the supply of Shad, that idea should be abandoned, for it is wholly fallacious. The Shad fishermen have the alternative of giving the Shad a semblance of a square deal or else seeing the supply rapidly dwindle away from unfair and excessive fishing. Originally, the Shad was not a habitant of Pacific waters; but in 1871, Mr. Seth Green, of Rochester, made for the Cali- fornia State Fish Commission the initial experiment of trans- porting 10,000 young Shad across the continent, and planting them in the Sacramento River. From that year up to 1880, about 60,000 more fry were deposited in that stream by the United States Bureau of Fisheries. In 1885 and 1886, 910,000 Shad fry were planted in the Columbia and Wil- lamette Rivers. To-day, on the Pacific coast, the Shad ranges from south- ern California to southern Alaska, and is one of the most valuable food fishes of that region. In 1899 the fish-dealers of California alone handled 1,137,801 pounds, worth $14,303. The average length of the Shad is from 24 to 30 inches, and its weight is from 3 to 4 pounds. The color of the fish is a soft, silvery white, all over, but the scales are easily de- tached, and an immaculate specimen is rarely seen in a fish- market. To landlocked Americans of the upper Mississippi Valley and the shores of the Great Lakes the Common WuiteErtsH! is an undisguised blessing. To them it is all that the shad is to the East, or the salmon to the Pacific coast. Whenever 1 Co-re-go'nus clu-pe-i-for'mis. THE WHITEFISH Q51 the traveller between Cleveland and Omaha discovers before him a large fish of excellent flavor, he may be sure that it is either a Whitefish or a lake trout, from one of the Great Lakes, and worthy of profound respect. But for the fact that this fish is so well and so widely known, many pages might be written of it without exhausting the subject. Dr. Jordan considers the Whitefishes the most important group of fresh-water fishes of North America, and probably of the world. The home of this group extends from Niagara to Chicago and Duluth. The average weight of a typical fish is about 4 pounds, but specimens weighing 20 pounds have been taken. In 1899 the catch of Whitefish (all species) amounted to 6,862,094 pounds, worth $345,640. In 1898 the catch in Cana- dian waters, say Jordan and Evermann, amounted to about 18,000,000 pounds, worth $877,000. The latest returns from our Whitefish industry are as follows: The Great Lakes (1903), 7,519,615 pounds, worth $337,866 Interior waters (1900-1903), 209,146 “ oa 12,320 7,728,761 e “$350,186 In winter, the Whitefish retires to the deepest portions of the Great Lakes, and is beyond the reach of fishermen. In the’ spring, it frequents the shallower waters, near shore, where it spawns, and lingers to fall a prey to the gill-net fishermen, even until late in the autumn. CHAPTER LILI ORDER OF FLYING FISHES SYNENTOGNATHI Tur Common FiyinG FisH! is as necessary to a perfect ocean voyage as a whale and a school of “‘dolphins.”” Sud- denly and unexpectedly it breaks out of the side of a wave, and with a tremulous flutter of wing-like pectoral fins— that from the ship’s forecastle seem to be ultramarine blue —it feebly guides its course away from the disturbing moun- tain of throbbing steel. The flight of a Flying Fish is usually from 4 to 6 feet above the water, and is sustained for from 50 to 100 feet. The greatly enlarged pectoral fins act as wings and furnish the motive power. Some one has raised the question, “Does a Flying Fish move its wings in flight?’? Of course it does. On all up grades it gives a stiff wing-stroke about every 3 feet, rises to overtop each advancing wave, and drops as the wave rolls on, like a stormy petrel. This is distinctly a mid-ocean fish, but it swims in schools so near to the island of Barbados that the fishermen cap- ture it in great quantities for the markets. It is not unusual to see 2,000 in the market at one time. I have heard much 1 Wx-o-cae'tus vol'i-tans. 252 FLYING FISH 253 of the pursuit of the Flying Fish by the “dolphin” (Cory- phaena hippurus), but have seen nothing of it. Tue Frying Gurnarp, or Sea Rosin (Dac-ty-lop’ter-us vol’-i-tans), is a wonderful pink fish, 8 inches long, that is THE COMMON FLYING FISH. found from Cape Cod to Brazil. It is often picked up on the sea-shore near pound-nets, because fishermen throw it away as unmarketable; but as fish become more scarce, i will be eaten. Its pectoral fins are of enormous size, but use- less for flight. This fish is not closely related to the flying fish, but belongs in the Order of Spiny-Finned Fishes. It is the only representative of its Family in the New World, and only one other species exists elsewhere. CHAPTER LIII ORDER OF SOLID-JAW FISHES PLECTOGNATHI HE characters on which the members of this Order have been brought together are, for the general reader, rather obscure. They are strictly anatomical, and relate to the manner in which the teeth and bones of the jaw are grown together and solidified. On the whole, it will be about as easy to become acquainted with the various groups of fishes composing the Order as to learn fully and correctly the precise anatomical characters which are common to all. This Order contains some very odd and _ picturesque forms; and, fortunately for the student, good examples of them are fairly common along the Atlantic coast. Tue Triccer-Fisu,' or FILEFISH, is a very good species to represent this entire group. It derives one of its names from the large, movable spine of solid bone (a fin-ray of the front dorsal fin), which stands upon the foremost point of its back, with a smaller trigger behind it, like that upon an old-fashioned hair-trigger rifle. The large spine can be set quite rigidly by a neat interlocking device supplied by the second spine. This fish is a thin-bodied creature, and its skin has the 1 Ba-lis’tes ca-pris’cus. 254 THE BOX-FISH 255 toughness, the rigidity and even the external appearance of stamped leather, with the roughness of fine sand-paper. It is a fine fish for the first efforts of the amateur taxidermist, for it has ingrowing scales that cannot possibly come off, and its colors are equally fast. All the Trigger-Fishes are habitants of tropical and sub- tropical waters, and feed chiefly upon small shell-fishes (mollusks) which their strong jaws and teeth enable them to masticate successfully. Some of them, like the Orange File- Fish, are brilliantly colored. In the tropics they are con- sidered edible, but the few that exist along our Atlantic coast are not ranked as food fishes. The species shown in the illustration is the one most widely known along our Gulf coast, and also the Atlantic coast up to the mouth of the Potomac. In the Bahamas and the Bermudas, the skins of Trigger-Fishes are extensively used by carpenters in place of sand-paper for smoothing the surface of wood previous to polishing. Tue Box-Fisu, or TRUNKFISH,! is one of the curiosities of the tropic seas, and of curio-shops generally. Its skin is a rigid, triangular box, shaped in cross-section like an isosceles triangle, and consists of large hexagonal plates of thin bone joined firmly together by the regular integument. Of these fishes we have four species on our Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and one off California. According to Dr. G. Brown Goode, all the species of Box-Fishes were so thoroughly and correctly studied by the fathers of natural history two hundred years ago, that their classification of the group has 1 Qs-trac’i-on quad-ri-cor'nis. See illustration on page 374. 256 SOLID-JAW FISHES stood the test of time, and come down even into these troub- lous times unchanged and unimproved. Tue Betiows Fisu,' or Raspit Fisu, is possessed of many local names, such as Globe, Bottle, Blower, and even Eggfish. When taken from the water, and scratched smartly on the abdomen against the grain of the small spines which cover that region, it begins to pump air into its interior, the skin expands like india-rubber, and in a moment it assumes balloon-like proportions. If the fish is then thrown into the water, it floats belly upward for a moment, then suddenly the air is expelled, the fish collapses, instantly turns right side up and disappears. This species ranges from Cape Cod to the Gulf of Mexico, and may be looked for with confidence in the pound-nets at nearly all our seaside resorts. Tue Porcupine Fisu,’ also known as Puffer, Ballfish, Swellfish and Toadfish, is another seaside “curio,” although usually it is stuffed not wisely, but too swell. A tow-filled balloon of fish-skin, with spines upon it, is not necessarily a Porcupine Fish; and the seaside taxidermist should sometimes put a curb upon his zeal for expansion. Like the bellows fish, this species can expand itself with air to about twice its normal size. Its back is covered with strong, bony spines, which in some species are an inch in length. It is a fish of tropical waters, and in Cuba is con- sidered a food fish. The species figured is one of four which in summer visit our Atlantic coast, while two others are found on the coast of California. 1 Lag-o-ceph'a-lus lae-vi-ga'tus. 2 Chi-lo-myc’te-rus ge-o-met’ri-cus. CHAPTER LIV ORDER OF SUCKERS, CARP, AND MINNOWS PLECTOSPONDYLI THE SUCKER FAMILY Cat-os-tom'i-dae HIS huge Order contains 60 genera and 311 species, divided into 4 Families. Of these Families, the Sucker Family is the most important. It contains about 70 species, all of which save two are habitants of North America. Be- sides the Suckers themselves the Family includes the buffalo- fish, the red-horse, and fresh-water ‘“‘mullet.’’ These fishes have the mouth placed underneath the head, and fitted with very fleshy, tubular lips, well adapted for sucking food from the bottom. They have been specially formed to live upon mud bottoms and in murky water—precisely the conditions that high-class fishes abhor. There are times when a sucker (or a carp) seems like a good fish for the table; and that is when one is very fish- hungry, and there is no other kind of fish to be had. To my mind, the flavor of the flesh is either barely tolerable, or verging closely upon disagreeable. The very numerous and wholly unnecessary bones seem like a positive affront. Al- though these fishes are seldom eaten by choice, by the land- locked dwellers in the interior of our great continent, to 257 258 SUCKERS, CARP, AND MINNOWS whom clear streams and good fishes are only long-distance memories, the sucker, carp and bull-head are eaten with real relish, and a feeling of thankfulness that they are no worse. And, after all, men who can eat musky squirrels, and call them “‘game,”’ ought to be pleased with suckers and carp. Tue Common Sucker,! Brook or WHITE SUCKER, is qualified to represent a large section of this Family. In the home of this fish, acquaintance with it nearly always begins in the month of June, when, if ever, come perfect days, and the annual spring “run” of Suckers, up river and creek to their spawning-beds, brings them prominently into notice. I remember one wildly hilarious day of boyhood, when a great run of Suckers came up Eagle Creek, Indiana, from the Ohio, via White River. Now, Eagle Creek is a very beautiful stream, flowing over a fine bed of clear gravel and sand. Its waters are as clear as the sea, and the big sycamores that reach their long white arms across them are truly grand. All the young men and small boys turned out en masse, and rushed to a shallow, rock- bound channel above a big “drift.” Each able-bodied “angler”? was armed with a snare of soft brass wire loaded with enough lead to kill an elephant, and a pole that would have driven a real angler to a madhouse. The Suckers moved about restlessly in the swift current, and occasionally paused, head up-stream. That was the snarer’s only opportunity, for the fish refused all baits. The heavily loaded snare was set as a hoop five inches in diameter, gently lowered ahead of the fish, and with a very 1 Ca-tos'to-mus com'mer-son-t. SNARING SUCKERS 259 steady hand and correct eye steered downward over the vic- tim until it passed his pectoral fins. Then, at precisely the proper instant, steam was turned on, the erstwhile quiet fisherman became a raging demon of activity, and if the snare held just “so,” a 16-inch Sucker weighing 3 pounds would be yanked high in air by a human derrick, amid the shouts of a delighted and strong-lunged populace. The THE COMMON SUCKER. string of fish caught on that haleyon day by my tall brother reached from my shoulders to the ground, and for three days the cooks of that countryside had Suckers galore. This Sucker is perhaps the most widely distributed and the most common fish species inhabiting the United States. It ranges ‘from Quebec and Massachusetts westward to Montana and Colorado, and southward to Missouri and Georgia.” (Jordan.) It is one of the best of its Family for the table, it is universally eaten, and is much superior to any carp the writer has ever encountered. In one year (1899-1900) the catch of Suckers in twenty-three states yielded 655,637 pounds, worth $115,512. . 260 SUCKERS, CARP, AND MINNOWS Tue Rep-Horse,' or so-called ‘‘Mullet,’> which makes Ohio the centre of its distribution, is an abundant and well- known fish in the region west of the Alleghanies. It is rather handsome in colors, and, although its flesh is coarse and insipid, it is really an important food fish in its region. , Tue Burravo FIsHEs’ comprise three species, all big and burly, ranging in maximum weight from 35 to 50 pounds, and from 2 to 3% feet in length. They inhabit the Missis- sippi and its tributaries, and in the spawning season push their way even into the larger lakes and flooded marshes of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota. I have seen specimens weighing between 30 and 40 pounds caught in the Mississippi, at Burlington, Iowa, by -hand-line fishing between lumber rafts, with about as much interest and enthusiasm on the part of the fisherman as usually attends the capture of a rs good strawberry bass. One fat and fearless “angler” sat on a chair and baited his hook with cheese. But let no one underrate the economic importance of the Buffalo Fish. The catch of 1899, chiefly in Illinois, Arkansas, Mississippi and Missouri, in the order named, amounted to 14,221,988 pounds, worth $350,026. Since 1899 the Buffalo-Fish has held its own remarkably well. The Mississippi River and tributaries yielded (1903).............. 11,491,633 pounds, worth $312,303 The Great Lakes (1903) yielded... . 2,002 < ne 45 The interior waters (1900-03) yielded) ctacanseeier: wore cscs anaes 33,866 pe cc 1,493 11,527,501 $313,841 1 Mox-os-to’ma au-re-o'lum. 2 The common Buffalo Fish is Ic-ti’o-bus cyp-ri-nel’la. THE GERMAN CARP __. 261 THe GerMAN Carp! was introduced into the United States by Mr. R. Poppe in 1872, and in 1877 by the United States Bureau of Fisheries, because of the fact that in Ger- many it is considered a good food fish, and can live and GERMAN SEALED CARP. thrive in. muddy ponds and streams. By thousands of prairie dwellers it was received gladly, especially throughout the Great Plains, where any fish with scales is welcomed. The free distribution of young Carp led a great many per- sons to apply for them, and plant them in ponds, from which they afterward found their way into streams that contained fishes infinitely their superior. 1 Cy-pri’nus car'pi-o. 262 SUCKERS, CARP, AND MINNOWS Between the years 1877 and 1885 the streams of very nearly the whole Pacific coast of the United States were stocked with Carp. At first they were placed in ponds, but through “moving accident, by flood and field,” they reached the rivers, and impregnated them and all their tributaries. At first they were highly esteemed, and sometimes greatly overpraised. It was claimed that they were hardy, prolific, harmless to other fishes, rapid in growth, persistent under adverse conditions and acceptable on the table. Beyond question, under certain conditions nearly all these claims are justified by the facts! But when the novelty wore off the Carp, the cold-blooded critic began to say things. By him it was pointed out that Carp stir up the mud in all mud-bottomed ponds inhabited by them, and keep the water murky. This is quite true; and to keep the mud-loving Carp from perpetually soiling and disfiguring the once clear and beautiful waters of the Merced Lakes, in California, first sea-lions, and then muskallunge, were introduced to exterminate the Carp. In California the Carp is now ranked with the intro- duced catfish, as an unwelcome guest. It is claimed that Carp consume to a serious extent the wild celery and grasses on which wild ducks feed, and the duck supply is diminished thereby; but this charge remains to be proven. The chances are as ninety-nine to one that the choke-bore shotgun is the real and the only cause of the decrease in wild ducks. It is also claimed that Carp eat the eggs of other fishes; which is extremely probable, for very many fishes do that. Whatever may be said for or against the desirability of MINNOWS 263 the Carp in America, one important fact remains unassailed. That fish is now thoroughly established in our waters, and is here to stay. It is now in demand as a market fish. The annual catch about ten years ago was as follows: POUNDS WORTH The Mississippi River and tributaries (1903) 12,270,346 $278,565 The Great Lakes (1903)............... 4,237,643 71,285 Interior waters (1900-03) .............. 1,016,129 12,029 17,524,118 $361,879 To-day the testimony of the United States Fish Com- missioner is as follows (1914): “While fly fishermen still have no words of praise for the Carp, the fish consumer has a different attitude, in view of the fact that the Carp imported from Germany has become the most widely distributed and most important fish in the interior waters of the United States. The catch at this time probably exceeds 50,000,000 pounds annually. A great deal more has been expected of the Carp than was ever claimed for it by Professor Baird, and, as you know, the fish was planted in waters to which it was entirely unadapted. For the warm, sluggish, turbid waters of the great central sec- tion of the country, where the Carp has taken firmest hold and become most abundant, this fish has few superiors.” (Hugh M. Smith.) ~ Miynows.—No common fishes of our country, it is safe to say, are so little understood, or so generally misunderstood, as those classed under the above name. To most persons, a “Minnow” is a tiny young fish, from 1 to 3 inches in length, useful only as bait for bass and other fishes. 264 SUCKERS, CARP, AND MINNOWS The Minnow Family contains (says ““American Food and Game Fishes’’) 200 genera, and more than 1,000 species, of which about 225 are found in our waters. Many a Minnow only 2 inches in length is a fully grown fish; but some species of Minnows attain a length of from 1 to 2 feet. One of the Pacific coast species (the Squaw-Fish) sometimes reaches a length of 4 feet. For obvious reasons, it is impracticable to attempt to set forth even the leading species of this extensive Family, but it is proper to mention that to it belong the Hornyhead, of the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys, the Fallfish of the northern Atlantic states, the Common Chub of the northeastern states, the Columbia Chub of the far northwestern states, and the Utah Lake Chub of Utah and northwestern Wyoming. CHAPTER LV ORDER OF HALF-GILLED FISHES HEMIBRANCHILI ECAUSE of the fact that a few very small fishes have less than their rightful number of gill-arches, and shoulder-girdles with one bone only instead of two, the Order of Half-Gilled Fishes has been created. THE STICKLEBACKS are very small fishes, only a few inches in length, and derive their name from the formidable dorsal spines that stand upon the back in front of the dorsal fin. We have Two-Spined, Four-Spined, and Ten-Spined Sticklebacks, all three being found in brackish water along the Atlantic coast from Cape Ann to New Jersey. All the Sticklebacks are celebrated for their nest-building habits. The abdomen of the male fish has been provided with a large gland which is “filled with a clear secretion which coagulates into threads” when it comes in contact with water. At first the fluid is colorless, but after contact with water it becomes whitish, and its many fibres hang together like strings of spaghetti. (Ryder.) The entire work of nest-building is performed by the male Stickleback. It begins by selecting a bottom situation, in a gentle current, wherein the nest can be attached to two 265 266 HALF-GILLED FISHES or more stems of growing vegetation, and anchored fast. Some observers say that the fish first brings a few stems and bits of vegetation, and by means of his gelatinous secretion practically ties them fast to the upright stalks, to use as a foundation. The fish then proceeds to exude its secretion and dispose it in commingling rings, vertically, around a space sufficiently TWO-SPINED STICKLEBACK. large for the female Stickleback to pass through. In a man- ner nothing short of marvellous, a hood-like nest is spun, of the fish’s own secretion, which well retains its shape for some weeks. In this the female deposits her eggs, all the time jealously watched by the male, to prevent her from eating them! The male guards the eggs until they are hatched, and it is said that if the current flowing through the nest does not meet his views as to strength, the fish in- creases the volume of it by moving its pectoral fins to and fro. Sticklebacks are sometimes kept in aquaria in order that they may show their wonderful intelligence in nest- building. THE STICKLEBACK 267 Tue Two-Spinep STICKLEBACK! will serve as a type for the whole Order. It is only about 7 inches long, and has no commercial value. It is said to occur in quiet brackish waters along our coast, but is seldom brought into notice outside of aquaria. 1 Gas-ter-os’te-us a-cu-le-a'tus. CHAPTER LVI ORDER OF CATFISHES NEMATOGNATHI CQUAINTANCE with this numerous Family usually begins with the bullhead, which is merely a pygmy catfish. Even when a lad in prairie-land, thirsting for open water and aquatics, and looking upon every mile of running water as an enchanted realm, the bullhead did not appeal to me as © a genuine fish. Even when most eager to “quit, and go ’ a-fishing, and call it half a day,” we drew the line at that ill-shaped, skinny body, ugly head and wide-gaping mouth with barbels that suggest dripping saliva. To me it was, and still is, a repulsive creature, and its only feature worthy of respect is the outfit of sharp and dangerous spines with which its dorsal and pectoral fins are furnished. Excepting the big Mississippi catfish, it is the most unat- tractive fish inhabiting our fresh waters, and as an angler’s proposition, it is worse than an eel. It is easily taken on a trot-line; and the “‘trot-line,” set for all night across a stream, and hung with about twenty short lines and hooks, represents the lowest depths of depravity in fishing with hook and line. It is even lower than fishing with four poles. With a tenacity of purpose worthy of a better species, the bullhead ramifies throughout the muddiest rivers and 268 THE BULLHEAD 269 creeks. of the United States, and in the heat of midsummer holds on whence all but him have fled. He was built for mud bottoms and murky waters, and so long as the mud is thin enough to swim in, and deep enough to float him, he remains. Drawn by J. Carter Beard. COMMON BULLHEAD. When removed from his native element, the tenacity of life of this creature is astonishing. A bullhead will lie on the bank in midsummer sunshine and breathe hot air for an hour without giving up. The species of catfishes found in the United States num- ber about thirty, but it is recorded that elsewhere there are about 970 more, representing in all about 100 genera. Of 270 CATFISHES our series, all save four are confined to the eastern half of the United States. Tue Mississreppr Catrisy,! or Buue Cart, of the Mis- sippi River and Gulf states is the giant of its genus. Even when alive and in good health, it is a very ugly fish—heavy- paunched and mud-colored. It looks like a fish modelled out of river mud. I saw a specimen taken at Burlington, Iowa, which weighed 93 pounds, and have heard of others exceed- ing 100 pounds. Jordan and Evermann say the “record specimen weighed 150 pounds,” and was caught at St. Louis; but the mischievous evenness of the figure casts doubt upon the reliability of the record. Very naturally, the tons of edible flesh annually contrib- uted by this fish to our national food supply are not wasted. Thousands of persons like the flesh of Catfish and bullheads, and in twelve months of 1899-1901, twenty-six states and six great lakes yielded twelve and a half million pounds, worth $503,562. Illinois headed the list with 1,569,615 pounds, worth $68,535. Tue CHANNEL CatrisH? is the large Catfish of the North, and also the Mississippi Valley, which so closely resembles the preceding species that it is at best very difficult—and sometimes impossible—to distinguish them. It is, however, much smaller than the blue cat, and instead of frequenting sluggish waters, it displays a decided preference for river channels and clear water when it can be found. Naturally enough, its flesh is said to be of better flavor than the more sluggish, mud-inhabiting blue cat. . 1 Tc-tu-lu'rus fur-ca’tus. ? Tc-tu-lu’rus punc-ta’tus. THE CATFISH PRODUCT Q71 The latest complete record of an annual catch of the Catfishes throughout the United States is as follows: Northeastern states (1905).... 104,265 pounds, worth $1,459 Middle Atlantic states (1904) . 1,422,886 oi ‘ 62,676 South Atlantic states (1902). . 1,310,392 “ ns 30,976 Gulf states (1902)........... 2,415,315 ee oe 72,991 Pacific coast (1904)........0. 923,144 ra a 27,292 6,176,002 ab “$195,394 Tue Common ButiHeap,! or Hornep Pout, is merely a small, cheap catfish, whose room is better than his com- pany. It ranges from the Atlantic well into the eastern edge of the Great Plains, and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. Much to the displeasure of many persons in California, three species of catfish have been introduced into many streams on the Pacific coast. Concerning them, the San Francisco Evening Bulletin has thus recorded the facts, and its views thereon: “Then the fish commissioners made another unfortunate experiment, against the strongest protests that could be put forth. They introduced the hated and almost worth- less Catfish to the waters of California. These fish, like the carp, have multiplied rapidly. It was reported, in answer to protests made at the time, that only a superior kind of Catfish would be introduced, against which there could be no objection. But they turned out to be the same old toughs that have occupied western rivers and bayous to the exclu- sion of better fish. These Catfish are voracious feeders on 1 4-met'u-rus neb-u-lo’sus. 272 CATFISHES young trout and salmon. Their value is so low that very few seek them. The Chinese sell them occasionally, as they do carp, if they can find a customer. But most consumers turn away from these fish in disgust.” CHAPTER LVI ORDER OF FLATFISHES HETEROSOMATA HE flounders, halibuts, soles, plaice and turbots make up the very desirable and important Order of Flat- fishes. When in doubt about an English or continental breakfast, order a fried sole and you are safe; for so trust- worthy is this fish that only the most bungling cook can spoil it. In England the sole is almost a national institution, but on our side its counterpart, the small flounder, is not so plentiful that it attains equal importance on the daily bill of fare. The Order of Flatfishes, all the world over, is very large, “containing about fifty-five genera and nearly five hundred species.” Among its members some of the halibuts attain great size. Almost any member of this Order is recognizable at one glance, by its broad, oval form, almost completely encircled by the fringe-like dorsal and anal fins, and the pres- ence of both eyes on the upper side of the body. The body is so thin that “flat as a flounder” is a standard comparison wherever the English language is spoken. The Flatfishes are good examples of protective coloring. All these fishes swim and rest with their bodies in a hori- zontal position. The upper surface, or back, is always dark- est, and in many instances it is so skilfully colored and 273 274 FLATFISHES mottled in imitation of the sandy bottom on which it lives, that when at rest on the floor of the ocean or aquarium the fish is almost invisible. On the other hand, the under side of the fish is white, or cream color, in order that to enemies below it, looking upward, it will match the light of the upper world. As food fishes, the majority of the Flatfishes are very desirable. Their flesh is excellent, and their bones are few and far between. The flesh of the halibut is very white and firm, and, whether fresh or smoked, it is highly palatable. The common flounders are so well known they require no special notice. The species most common on our coast is the Winter FLounpeER,' which is caught in great numbers, and of all our Flatfishes is next in value to the great halibut. It is a small species, with an average weight of about 3 pounds, and a maximum of 5 pounds, or thereabouts. It has been extensively propagated by the United States Bureau of Fisheries. THe Common Hatipur’ is a cold-water fish of com- manding importance. It is widely dispersed throughout both the North Atlantic, North Pacific and circumpolar waters, not only in shallow waters and the offshore banks, but also on the sides of the sea-bottom slopes down to 1,500 feet. In the Atlantic, fishermen say, the species stops at the latitude of the Delaware River. The fisheries along the west coast of Greenland are so important that regularly every year a number of schooners from Connecticut and Massa- chusetts go north, sometimes beyond the Arctic Circle, and 1 Pseu'do-pleu'ro-nec'tes americanus. 2 Hip-po-glos'sus hip-po-glos'sus. P ‘P-po-g: HALIBUT Qs return loaded with Halibut to within three feet of their deck-beams. On the Pacific coast, according to Dr. T. H. Bean, the Common Halibut ranges from the Farallone Islands, oppo- site San Francisco, to Bering Strait, its centre of abundance = iss ‘ a THE COMMON HALIBUT. being found in the Gulf of Alaska, near Kadiak. In 1913 the catch of Alaskan Halibut amounted to 13,687,784 pounds, valued at $671,314. In point of size this fish is surpassed in our waters by no other good food fish, the 500-pound jewfishes being out of that class. A large Halibut is one which weighs 250 pounds or more. The largest of reliable record (at least from our waters) was observed by Captain Atwood, at Provincetown, Massachusetts. It weighed 401 pounds gross (we are thank- ful for that odd one pound!) and 322 pounds dressed. Dr. G. Brown Goode states that a Halibut weighing 350 pounds is from 7 to 8 feet long, by nearly 4 feet wide. | 276 FLATFISHES The roe of a fish weighing nearly 200 pounds, which was caught at a depth of 200 fathoms, in water only 4° above freezing-point, weighed 17 pounds, 2 ounces. tigris, IV, 100. Crotaphytus collaris, IV, 61. Crow, Clarke’s, II, 327. “Common, II, 328. Crowley, J. B., I, 129. Cryptobranchus alleghaniensis, IV, 150. maximus, IV, 151. Cuckoo, Black-Billed, III, 23. 3 Yellow-Billed, III, 22. “Culebra de Agua” (anaconda), IV, 79. Curlew, Eskimo, III, 284. “ Long-Billed, III, 136. Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus, II, 325. Cyanocitta cristata, II, 323. in stelleri, II, 324. Cyanospiza cyanea, II, 310. Cynomys ludovicianus, I, 201. Cyprinus carpio, IV, 261. Cyrtonyx montezumae mearnsi, III, 105. Cystophora cristata, I, 138. “Dabchick”’ (grebe), III, 261. Dactylopterus volitans, IV, 253. Dafila acuta, III, 179. Darter, III, 225. Dasyprocta agouti, I, 258. Dasypus tricinctus, I, 170. Dasyures, II, 185. Deer, Arizona White-Tailed, II, 80. “breeding, II, 222. 334 Deer, Columbian Black-Tailed, I, 77, 224. damages by, II, 86. dangerous, II, 61, 65. Family, II, 4, 55. “Florida White-Tailed, II, 80. “Jumping,” IT, 76. “Mule or ‘ Black-Tailed,” II, 72, 223. “Sitka, II, 78. “ White-Tailed, or Virginia, IT, 78. Delphinapterus leucas, II, 146. Delphinus delphis, I, 154. Dendragapus obscurus, III, 109. Dendrocygna fulva, III, 172. Dendroica aestiva, II, 283. Desmognathus fusca, IV, 147. Devil-Fish, IV, 318. De Weese, Dall, II, 120. Diana Monkey, IJ, 10, 27. Dickerson, Mrs. E. N., IV, 199. Dicrostonyx hudsonius, I, 221. Didelphis virginiana, II, 190. Diedipper (grebe), III, 261. Diemyctylus viridescens, IV, 148. Diggers, Order of the, I, 180. Dill, Homer R., III, 246. Dimock, A. W. and J. A., IV, 247. Diomedea albatrus, III, 238. a chinensis, III, 238. = exulans, III, 234. x nigripes, III, 237. Dipodomys merriami, I, 222. Dipper, II, 278. Ditmars, Raymond L., IV, 5, 80, 82, 86, 131. Diver, Great Northern, ITI, 262. Divers, Order of Flightless, III, 273. “Order of Weak-Winged, III, 259. Dixon, Senator J. M., I, 135. Dog Family, I, 40, 53. Dogfish, IV, 290. Dolichonyx oryzivorus, II, 310. Dolichotis patachonica, I, 261. “Dolphin,” IV, 208. Dolphin, Common, II, 154. Dolphin and Porpoise Family, II, 152. Doroucoulis, I, 33. Dove, Mourning, III, 91. Dromaeus novaehollandae, III, 278. Dryobates villosus, III, 19. Duck, American Scoter, II, 173. “American Widgeon, III, 172. “ Barrow’s Golden-Eye, III, 173. INDEX Duck, Black, III, 172. Blue-Winged Teal, III, 176. “ Buffle-Head or Butter-Ball, III, 189. “ Canvasback, III, 187. ‘© Cinnamon Teal, III, 177. “Eider, III, 193. “* Fulvus Tree, IIT, 172. “Gray, III, 172. “ Green-Winged Teal, III, 177. “Harlequin, III, 173. “© Hooded Merganser, III, 199, 201. “Labrador, II, 283. “Mallard, III, 169, 174. “Merganser, III, 201. “Old Squaw, III, 173. “ Pintail or Sprigtail, III, 181. ‘* Red-Breasted Merganser, III, 196. * Red-Head, III, 185. “ Ring-Necked, II, 173. “Ruddy, HI, 201. “ Scaup, III, 172. “* Shoveller or Spoonbill, III, 177. “* Spectacled Eider, III, 195. “*$teller’s, III, 201. “Surf Scoter, IIL, 173. “ White-Winged Scoter, III, 195. “Wood, III, 180. Duck-Bill, II, 196. Ducks, Geese, and Swans, Order of, III, 167. Dugong, II, 159, 163. Dutcher, William, II, 261; III, 254. Dyche, Prof. L. L., I, 56, 117, 118, 146, 267; II, 69; IV, 167. Eagle, Bald, III, 35, 60. “Golden, III, 63. Ecaudata, Order, IV, 129. Echidnas, II, 196. Ectopistes migratorius, III, 84. Edentata, Order, I, 4; II, 165. Education, Bureau of, II, 107. Eel, Common, IV, 282. “Electric, IV, 283. “ Lamper, IV, 285. Effodientia, Order, I, 4; II, 180. Egg-collecting, II, 245. Egret, American, III, 157, 303. “Snowy, ITI, 154, 303. Egretta candidissima, III, 154. Eider, American, III, 193. “King, III, 201. Eider, Spectacled, ITI, 195, 201. Eigenmann, Dr. C. H., I, 161. Elanoides forficatus, III, 72. Elaps euryxanthus, IV, 115. “* fulvius, IV, 114. Elephants, Order of, II, 129. ss African, II, 134. oe Indian, II, 137. ry Pygmy, II, 137. Elephas columbi, IT, 132. imperator, II, 132. “indicus, II, 137. os oxyotis, I, 134. primigenius, II, 129. BS pumilio, II, 137. Elk, or Wapiti, II, 4, 66, 218. Elk’s Calendar, II, 60. Ellachick, IV, 36. Elliot, D. G., I, 180; III, 211. Elliott, Henry W., I, 88, 124, 127, 136. 7 William, IV, 319. Emu, III, 278. Eniconetta stelleri, III, 201. Epomophorus, I, 178. Erethizon dorsatus, I, 252. oe epixanthus, I, 253. Ereunetes pusillus, III, 134. Erignathus barbatus, I, 137. Erismatura jamaicensis, III, 201. Eschricht, D. F., II, 151. Esox lucius, IV, 215. “ masquinongy, IV, 215. “ ohiensis, IV, 216. “ reticulatus, IV, 216. Eumeces quinquelineatus, IV, 58. Eumetopias stelleri, I, 120. Eunectes murinus, IV, 76. «© notaeus, IV, 77. Eupotomis gibbosus, IV, 185. Eutaenia sirtalis, IV, 90. Eutamias quadrivittatus, I, 194. th speciosus, I, 193. INDEX 335 Extermination of Elk, II, 218. of Grouse, II, 242. re of Mammals, II, 199. S of Mtn. Sheep, II, 209. os of Musk-Ox, II, 231. Falco columbarius, ITI, 59. peregrinus anatum, III, 59. sparverius, III, 58. Felis concolor, I, 44. “onea, I, 40. “ pardalis, I, 48. Ferae, Order, I, 4, 40. Fer-de-Lance, or Lance-Head Snalces IV, 115. Ferret, Black-Footed, I, 71. Fiber zibethicus, I, 220, 245. Fighting Deer, II, 65. Finches, II, 299. Fish, Angel, IV, 193. Angler, or Goose, IV, 277. “Bellows, or Rabbit, IV, 256. “Blue Cat-, IV, 270. “Box, or Trunk, IV, 255. “Buffalo, IV, 260. “Channel Cat-, IV, 270. “Devil, IV, 318. “Eggs, IV, 166. “File, IV, 254. “Flying, IV, 252. ** Gar, or Bill, IV, 294. “Grunt, IV, 161. “Hag, IV, 323. ‘Hatcheries, IV, 167. “Lung, IV, 174. “ Mud-, IV, 176. “Paddle, IV, 303. “Porcupine, IV, 256. “Sucking, IV, 212. “Trigger, or File, IV, 254. “White, IV, 250. Fish Commission, U. S. (see Fisheries Bu- reau), IV, 165. “ec Evermann, Dr. Barton W., IV, 159, 225, 231. _ Fisher, Dr. A. K., III, 38. Evotomys gapperi, I, 228. a rutilus, I, 228. Exocaetus volitans, IV, 252. Extermination defined, III, 281. methods of, III, 290. ss of Antelope, II, 206. oe of Bear, II, 232. st I, 74. Fisheries, U. S. Bureau of, IV, 165. Fishery Industries of the United States, IV, 164. Fishes, Class of, IV, 159, 172, 173. “© Game, of North America, IV, 208. Order of Flat-, IV, 173, 273. ss of Birds, IT, 240; III, 283-289. “Order of Foot-, IV, 173, 277. 336 INDEX Fur Seal, I, 123-136. Fur-Bearers, The Small, I, 66. Fishes, Order of Gar or Ganoid, IV, 173. = Order of Half-Gilled, [V, 172. re Order of Solid-Jaw, IV, 172. - Order of Spiny-Finned, IV, 172, 177. - Pipe-, and Sea-Horses, IV, 173. Fishes,” “Descriptive Catalogue of, IV, 159. “Fishes of North and Middle America,” IV, 323. Gadwall, ITI, 172. Galeocerdo tigrinus, IV, 312. Galeoscoptes carolinensis, II, 276. Gallinae, Order, III, 96. Gallinago delicata, III, 133. Fish-Hawk, III, 54. Gallinula galeata, III, 145. Flamingo, American, III, 164. Gallinule, Florida, III, 145. Flicker, II, 15. ee Purple, III, 145. Flounder, Winter, IV, 274. Game Birds, Order of Upland, III, 96. Flycatchers, IH, 331. Game for revenue, II, 84. Flying Fish, IV, 252. Game-hog, III, 291. Flying Gurnard, IV, 253. Gannet, III, 228. Food and Game Fishes,” ‘‘ American, IV, 303. Ganoids, Order of, IV, 293. Fool Hen, III, 110. Gar, Alligator, IV, 295. Fox, Arctic, I, 63. Gar Pike, Long-Nosed, IV, 294. Black, I, 61. s Short-Nosed, IV, 295. “Blue, I, 64. Gardiner’s Island, Ospreys on, III, 56. “Coast Gray, I, 59. Cross, I, 60. Florida Gray, I, 59. Flying, I, 177. Gray, I, 65. Hall Island, I, 58. Kadiak, I, 58. Kit, I, 63. Large-Eared, I, 58. Newfoundland, I, 58. Red, I, 59. Scott’s Gray, I, 59. Silver, I, 61. Swift, I, 63. Texas Gray, I, 59. Townsend’s Gray, I, 59. Garrupa nigrita, IV, 188. Gasterosteus aculeatus, IV, 267. Gavia imber, III, 262. Gavial, Indian, IV, 13. Gavialis gangeticus, IV, 10, 13. Geese, Ducks, and Swans, III, 167. Gelada Baboon, I, 10, 28. Geococcyx californianus, IIT, 24. Geomys bursarius, I, 180, 245. Gibbons, I, 10, 22, 25. Gila Monster, IV, 62. Gilfort, Robert, IT, 136. Glass “Snake,” IV, 65. Glires, I, 4, 180. Globicephala melas, II, 147. Glutton, I, 74. Fratercula arctica, III, 270. Fregata aquila, III, 231. Frigate-Bird, ITI, 231. Fringillidae, II, 299. Frog, Bull, IV, 135. Common, IV, 131, 134. “Leopard, IV, 133. “Northern Tree, IV, 138. “Smith, IV, 137. “Tongueless, IV, 140. “Tree, IV, 136. “Wood, IV, 136. “Brant, ITI, 205. Frogs and Toads, Order of, IV, 129. “ Cackling, III, 205. Fulica americana, III, 146. “Canada, III, 200. Fulmar Family, III, 239. “ Hutchins’s, III, 205. Glyptodon, II, 166. Glyptotherium texanum, IT, 166. Gnawing Animals, Order of, I, 180. Goat, Rocky Mountain, or White, II, 41, 216. Goatsuckers, III, 4. Goldfinch, American, II, 300. “Gonies”’ (Albatross), III, 237. Goode, G. Brown, II, 146, 147; IV, 188, 197, 207, 221. Goose, American White-Fronted, ITI, 206. Black Brant, III, 205. , INDEX 337 Goose, Snow, III, 206. “ White-Cheeked, ITI, 205. Goosefish, IV, 277. Gopher Family, Pocket, I, 180, 245, 269. “* Red Pocket, I, 245. Hallock, Charles, IV, 291. Hamilton, Maj. J. Stevenson-, IT, 233. Hang-Nest, I, 316. Hare and Rabbit Family, I, 181, 262. Hare, Jack, I, 267. Gorilla, I, 10, 12, 13. “Little Chief, or Crying, I, 261. Goshawk, American, ITI, 70. “Northern Varying, I, 263. Grackle, Purple, IT, 318. “Polar, I, 266. Grampus, IT, 147. “Prairie, I, 266. se griseus, Ii, 147. Grant, Madison, JI, 105. Graptemys pseudogeographicus, IV, 26. Gray Duck, IT, 172. Grebe, Pied-Billed, or Carolina, II, 260. Greely, Gen. A. W., II, 19. Grinnell, George B., IV, 233. Harelda hyemalis, III, 173. Harlequin Snake, IV, 114. Harporhynchus rufus, II, 275. “Haven of Refuge,” for Ducks, III, 191. Hawk and Eagle Family, III, 53. Hawk, Chicken, III, 64. Cooper’s, III, 68. = Joseph, III, 78. “Duck, III, 59. Grosbeak, Cardinal, II, 307. “Fish, IIL, 54. ee Rose-Breasted, II, 308. ** Forked-Tailed, III, 72. Ground-“ Hog,” I, 208. “Hen, III, 64. Grouper, Black, IV, 188. «© Marsh, III, 70. Grouse, Blue, III, 109. “Pigeon, III, 59. Canada Spruce, III, 110. “© Red-Shouldered, III, 66. “Canadian Ruffed, III, 109. * Red-Tailed, ITI, 64 “Dusky, III, 109. “* Sharp-Shinned, III, 67. “Family, ITI, 97. “Sparrow, III, 58. “Franklin, III, 110. “ Gray Ruffed, II, 109. “Oregon, or Sabine’s, II, 109. “Pine, III, 109. “« Pinnated, III, 111. ‘Prairie Sharp-Tailed, III, 117. Heath Hen, III, 115. Hellbender, IV, 150. Hell-Diver (grebe), III, 260. Heloderma suspectum, IV, 62. Herodias egretta, III, 157. Herodiones, Order, III, 148. “ Ruffed, ITI, 106. = Black-Crowned Night, III, 152. “Sage, III, 117. Heron Family, III, 150. “Sooty, IIT, 110. “Great Blue, III, 150. Gruber, Peter, IV, 121. «Little Blue. IIT, 152. Grunt, Black, IV, 161. “Little Green, III, 150. “Snowy, III, 154. Herring Gull, ITI, 249. Hesperornis, IV, 6. Grus americana, III, 139. “mexicana, III, 142. Guara alba, III, 160. “rubra, III, 160. Guillemots, III, 264. Gull, Herring, III, 249. Gulo luscus, I, 74. Gurnard, Flying, IV, 253. Gymnogyps californianus, III, 76. Gymnotus electricus, IV, 283. Haemulon plumieri, IV, 161. Hagenbeck’s Sons, Carl, I, 90. Haliaeetus leucocephalus, III, 60. Halibut, Common, IV, 274. Heterodon platyrhinus, IV, 93. Heteromyidae, Family, I, 222. Heterosomata, IV, 273. Hippocampus heptagonus, IV, 289. Hippoglossus hippoglossus, IV, 274. Hirundo erythrogastra, II, 297. Histrionicus histrionicus, III, 190, Histriophoca fasciata, I, 138. Holacanthus ciliaris, IV, 193. Holder, C. F., IV, 198. Holland, W. J., II, 277. Homo sapiens, I, 13. 338 INDEX Hoofed Animals, Order of, II, 3. Hornaday, W. T., II, 13, 240. Horned “Toad,” IV, 63. Horns, Mountain Sheep, II, 38. ““ Prong-Horned Antelope, I, 49. Jumping Mouse Family, I, 243. Hoy, Dr. P. R., I, 198. Junco hyemalis, II, 302. Humming- birds, II, 7-10. ** Slate-Colored, II, 302. Ruby-Throated, IIL 8. Hunting-grounds for big game, H, 204. Jones, J. Walter, I, 71. Jordan, Dr. David S., IV, 159, 219, 221, 231. Judd, Sylvester D., III, 102. Jumbo, IT, 133, 135. Kangaroo, II, 187-189. Hutias, I, 181, 249. Gray, II, 187. Hydrodamalis, IJ, 159. oe Old Man, II, 187. Hyla faber, IV, 137. es Rat, II, 187. “versicolor, IV, 138. se Red, II, 187. Hylobates leuciscus, I, 10, 22. be Tree, II, 187. Hylocichla mustelina, II, 264. Kangaroo Rat, I, 241. Hyracoidea, I, 4. Kea, III, 29. Hyrax, Cape, II, 126. Kermode, Francis, I, 105. Hyrax capensis, II, 126. Killer Whale, IT, 148. Kingbird, II, 331. Kingfisher, Belted, III, 26. Kinglets, II, 268. Kite, Swallow-Tailed, III, 72. Kiwi, ITI, 279. Kogia, II, 145. Ibis Family, II, 160. “Glossy, III, 161. “ Scarlet, III, 160. * White, III, 160. “ Wood, III, 159. Icteria virens, II, 284. Icterus galbula, II, 316. Lacertilia, Order, IV, 52. . . Lachesis mutus, IV, 106. bus ¢ lla, TV, 26C. ene Tespbus eyes) Lagocephalus laevigatus, IV, 256. Ictulurus furcatus, IV, 270. 7a a Lagopus lagopus, III, 123. status, IV, 270. Se icy tea eee punciatis, TY s leucurus, III, 123. I a, C , IV, 54. 3 oo Meee 5A Lamna cornubica, IV, 313. “ Rhinoceros, IV, 57 Lamper “Eel,” IV, 285, 321. Impennes, Order, I, 255; III, 167, 273. Lamprey, Brook, IV, 323. In-breeding, II, 222. Sea, IV, 322. Insectivora, Order, I, 148. Lancelets, The, IV, 324. Tonornis martinica, III, 145. Lanius borealis, IT, 288. Italians, IL, 240. ludovicianus, II, 288. Re Laridae, III, 249. Lark, Horned, II, 330. Jackson, Chester E., IV, 18. “Meadow, II, 314, 316. Jaeger, Parasitic, III, 257. “Shore, II, 330. Jaegers and Skuas, IT], 257. Jaguar, I, 40. Larus argentatus, III, 249. Lasiurus borealis, I, 171. Japanese pelagic sealers, I, 131, 132. Latax lutris, I. 68. “* Red-Faced Monkey, I, 26 Latham, Mrs. C. F., I, 231; IV, 48, 103. Javelina Peccary, I, 122. Laysan Island, III, 241. Jay, Blue, II, 323. Leek, S. N., II, 67, 220. “Canada, II, 327. Lemming, is 221. “Pinon, II, 325. False, I, 226. “ Steller’s, II, 324. es Hudson Bay, I, 221. Jewfish, IV, 186. a Mouse, Cooper’s, I, 226. Jones, C. J., I, 55. re Mouse, or False Lemming, I, 226. INDEX Lemur varius, I, 37. Lemurs, I, 11, 37. cs Ruffed, or Black and White, I, 37. oe Suborder of, I, 11, 37. Lepidosiren, IV, 176. Lepidosteus osseus, IV, 294. - platystomus, IV, 295. = spatula, IV, 295. Lepomis pallidus, IV, 185. Leporidae, I, 181, 262. Leptocardii, IV, 324. Lepus americanus, I, 265. ** arcticus, I, 266. “campestris, I, 266. “ sylvaticus, I, 267. “* texianus, I, 267. Licenses, Hunting, III, 291. Light-House Board, III, 266. Limicolae, Order, III, 127. Lizard, Blue-Tailed, or Skink, IV, 58. ae Horned, IV, 63. fa Ring-Necked, or Kangaroo, IV, 61. x Sea, IV, 54. Lizards, Order of, IV, 52. Lodge, Senator H. C., II, 220. Longipennes, Order, III, 167, 249. Loon, or Great Northern Diver, III, 262. “Lopez,” I, 44. Lophius piscatorius, IV, 277. Lophodytes cucullatus, III, 199, 201. Lophortyx californicus, III, 104. Loring, J. Alden, I, 92; III, 66. Loxia curvirostra minor, II, 300. Lucas, Frederic A., I, 130; III, 229, 272. Lumpy-Jaw, II, 53. Lunda cirrata, ITI, 270. Lung-Fish, Australian, IV, 174. Lutianus aya, IV, 206. Lutra canadensis, I, 67. Lutreola vison, I, 70. Lynx, Bay, or Red, I, 50, 52. “Canada, I, 49. Lynxes, I, 48. Macacus speciosus, I, 10, 26. McAtee, W. L., III, 127. Macaw, Blue and Yellow, III, 32. Macaws exterminated, III, 287-288. MacDougall, Dr. D. T., II, 121. Mackerel, Horse, IV, 197. ce Spanish, IV, 195. 339 Macrochelys temmincki, IV, 39. Macrochires, Order, III, 3. Macropus giganteus, II, 188. * rufus, II, 187. Magpie, American, II, 320. Malacoclemmys palustris, IV, 36. Mammals, Chart of, I, 7. em Order of Egg-Laying, II, 196. ‘i Order of Flesh-Eating, I, 40. 2 Order of Pouched, II, 185. SF Order of Toothless, II, 165. oS Orders of, I, 4. Mammoth, Columbian, II, 132. y Imperial, II, 132. Man, I, 12, 21. Manatee, or Sea-Cow, II, 159. | Mandrill, I, 29. Manis pentadactyla, II, 181. Man-o’-War Birds, III, 231. Ss “Hawk,” III, 231. Manta birostris, IV, 318. Mareca americana, III, 172. Market-hunting, III, 294. Marmosa murina, II, 195. Marmoset, Common, I, 36. & Pinche, I, 35. se Silky, I, 36. Marmot, I, 200. oe Gray, or Whistler, I, 208. dy Olympic, I, 210. ve Yellow-Bellied, I, 209. Marmota flaviventer, I, 209. pc monax, I, 208. pruinosus, I, 208. Marsupialia, Order, I, 4; II, 185. Marten Family, I, 40, 66. ie Pennant’s, I, 74. os Pine, I, 73. Martin, Bee, II, 331. “Purple, IT, 293. Massasauga, IV, 109. a Edward’s, IV, 100. Mastodon, II, 130. ws americanus, IT, 130. Matamata, IV, 41. Meadow-Lark, II, 314. cs Western, II, 316. Megaderma lyra, I, 162. Megaptera nodosa, II, 144. Megascops asio, ITI, 42. Megatherium, II, 179. “ 340 Melanerpes erythrocephalus, III, 15. < formicivorus, III, 18. Meleagris gallopavo, III, 125. Mi ocellata, III, 126. Melospiza fasciata, II, 303. Menobranchus, IV, 154. Menopoma alleghaniensis, IV, 150. Mephitis mephitica, I, 77. Merganser americanus, III, 201. ai Hooded, III, 199, 201. oe Red-Breasted, III, 196. if serrator, ITI, 196. Merriam, Dr. C. Hart, I, 91, 203, 270; III, 20. Merula migratoria, II, 260. Metopoceros cornutus, IV, 57. Mexico, II, 216. Mice and Rats, Cheek-Pouched, I, 240. Family of, I, 180, 218. Typical North American, “ I, 222. Micropterus dolomieu, IV, 179. og salmoides, IV, 179. Microtus (Arvicola) pennsylvanicus, I, 226. Midas aedipus, I, 35. “ rosalia, I, 36. Millinery, Bird-slaughter for, ITI, 302. Mimus polyglottos, I, 276. Mink, I, 67. Minnows, IV, 263. Missing Link, I, 21. Moccasin, Water, or Cotton-Mouth, IV, 110. Mockingbird, II, 276. Mole, Common, I, 150, 151. “ Hairy-Tailed, I, 153. “Prairie, or Silver, I, 153. “ Star-Nosed, I, 154. Monkey, Black Saki, I, 34. Black-Faced Spider, I, 32. 4 Capuchin, I, 30. a Diana, I, 10, 27. ve Golden Howler, I, 34. ee Japanese Red-Faced, I, 10, 26. Marmoset, I, 35. es Mexican Spider, J, 32. ee Owl, I, 32. oe Saki, I, 33. Sapajou, I, 30. ee Spider, I, 30. = Squirrel, I, 33. eS Teetee, I, 33. a Uakari, I, 34. “ Yarkee, I, 34. INDEX Monkeys, New World, I, 11, 30. te Old World, I, 10, 26. ‘ Short-Tailed, I, 28. Monodon monoceros, II, 157. Monotremata, I, 4. oe Order, IT, 196. Montana Bison Range, II, 13. Moose, II, 108, 228. - Alaskan, II, 118. Moose-Bird, II, 327. Morehouse, Col. C. P., IV, 201. Mormoops blainvillii, I, 164. Morris, Dr. Robt. T., IV, 241. “Mother Carey’s Chickens,” ITI, 239. Mountain “Beaver,” I, 212. ss Lion, I, 44. ce Sheep, II, 3, 25. ne Big-Horn, II, 28. . “Black, II, 34. ee “* California, or Nelson’s, II, 32. Fannin’s, IT, 37. Marco Polo’s, II, 38. Mexican, II, 32, 38. Pinacate, II, 31, 38. Siar, IT, 38. White, or Dall’s, II, 32, 38. Mouse, Cooper’s Lemming, I, 226. Field, I, 226. “ Gapper’s Field, I, 229. “Grasshopper, I, 238. “Harvest, I, 232. “Jumping, I, 243. “Lemming, I, 225. “Little Harvest, I, 232. “Meadow, I, 226. “Missouri, or Mole, I, 239. ie Pocket, I, 240, 244. “ Red-Backed, I, 228. “ Rice-Field, I, 233. “ White-Footed, I, 234. Mouse and Rat Family, I, 218, 222. he Cheek-Pouched, I, 222, 240. Moxostoma aureolum, IV, 260. Mud “Fel,” IV, 155. “Hen, ITI, 146. “Puppy, IV, 153. Mugger Crocodile, IV, 11. Mugil brasiliensis, IV, 203. Mullet, White, or Silver, IV, 203. Muridae, I, 222. Murre, Brunnich’s, IIT, 266. “California, ITI, 266. “~~ Common, III, 266. Mus rufescens, I, 245. Muskallunge, IV, 215. Musk-Ox, II, 14, 231. Muskrat, I, 220, 245. Mustela americana, I, 73. “ pennanti, I, 74. Mustelidae, I, 40, 67. Myocastor coypus, I, 244. Myopotamus coypu, I, 250. Myrmecophaga jubata, II, 171. Naja bungarus, IV, 98. tripudians, IV, 96. Nansen, F., III, 273. Narwhal, II, 157. Nathorst, Prof. A. G., II, 20. Natrix fasciata, IV, 92. Neanderthal Man, I, 22. Necturus maculatus, IV, 153. Nelson, E. W., II, 208. Neotoma floridana, I, 232. Nettion carolinensis, III, 177. Newts, IV, 148. cd Crimson-Spotted, IV, 148. Nice, Margaret M., III, 102. Nighthawk, III, 4. Night-Heron, Black-Crowned, ITI, 152. Niles, O. E., III, 46. Niobrara Bison Range, IT, 13. North American Commercial Co., I, 128. Nucifrega columbiana, II, 325. Numenius longirostris, III, 136. Nut-Cracker, Clarke’s, II, 325. Nuthatch, II, 270. Nyctala acadica, III, 42. Nyctea nyctea, III, 49. Nycticorax nycticorax naevius, III, 152. Ocelot, I, 48, 51. Ochotona princeps, I, 261. Odobenus obesus, I, 141. se rosmarus, I, 146. Odocoileus columbianus, II, 77, 224. oe hemionus, II, 72, 223. sa sitkensis, II, 78. virginianus, II, 78. Odontoglossae, Order, III, 164. Oidemia americana, III, 173. INDEX Oidemia deglandi, TIT, 195. = perspicillata, III, 173. Olds, C. S., IV, 319. Olor buccinator, III, 207. “ columbianus, III, 212. Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, IV, 238. keta, IV, 238. ss kisutch, IV, 237. < nerka, IV, 236. sf tschawytscha, IV, 235. Onychomys leucogaster, I, 238. Ophibolus getulus, IV, 83. Ophidia, Order, IV, 6. Ophiosaurus ventralis, IV, 65. Opossum, Murine, II, 195. i Virginia, II, 190. Orang-Utan, I. 10, 17. Orca, II, 148. Orcinus orca, II, 146. Oreamnos montanus, II, 41. Oreortyx pictus, III, 104. Oriole, Baltimore, II, 316. Ornithorhynchus anatinus, IT, 196. Orycteropus afer, I, 184. Oryzomys palustris, I, 233. Osborn, Prof. Henry F., I, 4; II, 166. Osgood, W. H., I, 205. Osprey, American, III, 54. Osteolaemus tetraspis, IV, 11. Ostracion quadricornis, IV, 255. Ostrich, African, III, 276. @ South American, III, 277. Otocoris alpestris, II, 330. Otopterus, californicus, I, 164. Otter, I, 67. “Sea, I, 68. Ouananiche, IV, 242. “Outdoor Life” (magazine), I, 45. Ouzel, Water, II, 278. Ovibos moschatus, II, 14. 2 wardi, II, 18. Ovis ammon, II, 38. “canadensis, II, 28, 38. “ dalli, II, 32, 36. ee ** fannini, II, 37. mexicanus, II, 32, 38. * nelsoni, II, 32. * poli, II, 38. siarensis, II, 38. ** stonei, II, 34, 38. Owl, Barn, III, 34, 37. 341 342 Owl, Barred, III, 40. “Burrowing, III, 50. “Great Gray, III, 42. “Great Horned, III, 46. “Horned, Family, III, 39. “ Long-Eared, III, 39. ““ Monkey-Faced, III, 34. “ Saw-Whet, III, 42. “Screech, III, 42. “* Short-Eared, III, 40. “Snowy, III, 49. Owl Monkey, I, 32. Oxyechus vocifera, III, 130. Paca, I, 259. Paddle-Fish, IV, 303. Palmer, Dr. T. S., I, 269; II, 207. Paludicolae, Order, III, 138. Pan troglodytes, I, 10, 15. Pandion haliaeetus carolinensis, III, 54. Pangolin, Giant, II, 181. oe Indian, II, 181. Parrakeet, Carolina, III, 29. ie exterminated, III, 288. Parrots exterminated, III, 288. Parrots and Macaws, Order of, III, 28. “Partridge,” Black, III, 110. Parus atricapillus, I, 269. Paschen, H., I, 14. Passer domesticus, ITI, 305. Passeres, Order, II, 255. Passerina nivalis, II, 301. Peary, Commander Robt. E., I, 146; II, 14. Peccary, Collared, II, 121. oe Family, II, 4, 121. “ White-Lipped, II, 123. Pedioecetes phasianellus campestris, III, 117. Pelagic sealing, I, 128, 131, 132. Pelecanus californicus, III, 218. “ erythrorhynchos, III, 218. a fuscus, III, 213. Pelican, Brown, ITI, 213. re California Brown, III, 218. = Great White, III, 218. oF Island, III, 214. Penguin, Black-Footed, III, 274. a Emperor, III, 273. ee Pack, III, 274. Perca flavescens, IV, 191. Perch, Pike-, IV, 192. «Yellow, IV, 191. INDEX Perisoreus canadensis, II, 327. Perissodactyla, I, 4. Perodipus richardsoni, I, 241. Perognathus fasciatus, I, 240. ae flavus, I, 245. Peromyscus leucopus, I, 234. Petrel, Stormy, III, 239. Petrochelidon lunifrons, II, 297. Petrogale penicillata, II, 188. Petromyzon marinus, IV, 322. Pewee, II, 332. Phalacrocorax carbo, III, 222. oe dilophus, III, 225. oe pelagicus, III, 225. Phalangers, II, 185. Phasianus torquatus, III, 124. Pheasant Family, III, 97. i Golden, III, 125. a Ring-Necked, III, 124. ce Silver, III, 125. Phenacomys orophilus, I, 230. Phillips, John M., II, 217. Philohela minor, III, 132. Phoca foetida, I, 137. “ groenlandica, I, 137. ** vitulina, I, 137. Phocaena communis, II, 154. Phoebe Bird, II, 332. Phoenicopterus ruber, III, 166. Phrynosoma cornutum, IV, 63. Phyllostoma hastatum, I, 166. Physeter macrocephalus, II, 144. Pica pica hudsonica, II, 320. Pici, Order, III, 11. Pickerel, Chain, IV, 216. Picus pubescens medianus, III, 18. Pigeon, Banded-Tailed, III, 89. “Passenger, III, 84. Pigeons and Doves, Order of, III, 84. Pika Family, I, 181, 261. Pike, IV, 214. “ Wall-Eyed, IV, 192. Pike, Mr. Warburton, II, 102. Pike-Perch, Yellow, IV, 192. Piltdown Skull, I, 21. Pine-Hen, III, 109. Pinnated Grouse, III, 111. Pinnipedia, Order, I, 4, 112, 114. Pipa americana, IV, 140. Pipefishes, Order of, IV, 286. Piranga erythromelas, II, 298. INDEX Pithecia satanas, I, 34. Pityophis melanoleucus, IV, 87. Platypus, or Duck-Bill, II, 196. Plautus impennis, III, 283. Plegadis autumnalis, III, 161. Plethodon glutinosus, IV, 147. Plover, American Golden, III, 131. ss Green, III, 131. - kill-Deer, III, 130. Pocket Gopher Family, I, 245. Podilymbus podiceps, III, 260. Polyodon spathula, IV, 303. Pomatomus saltatrix, IV, 193. Pomoxis annularis, IV, 184. @ sparoides, IV, 180. Pompano, Common, IV, 203. Poor Will, III, 6. Porcupine, Canada, I, 252. ae Family, I, 181, 252. oe Prehensile-Tailed, I, 252. Me Yellow-Haired, I, 253. Porpoise, Common, II, 154. “* - Sperm Whale, II, 145. Porpoises and Whales, Order of, II, 138. Porzana carolina, III, 144. Prairie-Chicken, III, 112. Prairie~“ Dog,’ > J, 201. and Burrowing Owl, III, 51. ce Burrow, I, 205. se Hunter, I, 71. ns pamphlet on the, I, 270. Prairie Wolf, I, 56. . Pribilof Islands, I, 123. Primates, I, 4, 9. Pristis pectinatus, IV, 315. Proboscidea, I, 4. Procellaria glacialis, III, 273. af pelagica, III, 239. Procyon lotor, I, 109. Procyonidae, I, 40, 109. Progne subis, II, 293. Promops californicus, I, 167, 169. Protean, subterranean, IV, 154. Protection of Birds, II, 244. Se of Mammals, IT, 199. Proteus anguineus, IV, 153. Protopterus, IV, 176. Pseudemys rubriventris, IV, 34. Pseudopleuronectes americanus, IV, 274. Psittaci, Order, III, 28. Ptarmigan, III, 120. 343 Ptarmigan, slaughter, III, 301. ee White-Tailed, III, 123. s Willow, III, 123. Pteropus edwardsi, I, 177. Puffin, Common, or “Sea Parrot,” III, 270. “Tufted, III, 270. Puma, I, 44. Putorius erminea, I, 73. or nigripes, I, 71. rixosus, I, 72. Pygopodes, Order, III, 167, 259. Python molurus, IV, 81. “~~ reticulatus, IV, 79. “< Quail, III, 97. Bob-White, III, 98. “California Mountain, III, 104. “© Common, III, 98. “Mearns, III, 105. “Valley, III, 104. Querquedula cyanoptera, III, 176. discors, III, 176. Quiscalus quiscula, II, 318. Rabbit, Gray, I, 267. “Jack, I, 267, 269. Rabbit and Hare Family, I, 262. Raccoon Family, I, 40, 109. Racer, Blue, IV, 88. “Green, IV, 88. “Red, IV, 90. Rachianectes glaucus, IT, 144. Raiae, IV, 314. Rail Family, III, 143. “Sora, III, 144. “Virginia. III, 143. Rain-Crow, III, 22. Rainey, Paul J., II, 24. Rallus virginianus, III, 143. Rana catesbiana, IV, 135. “ clamata, IV, 134. “sylvatica, IV, 136. “virescens, IV, 133. Rangifer arcticus, II, 97, 99. caribou, II, 90. granti, II, 99. groenlandicus, II, 96. & osborni, II, 94. pearyi, II, 94. we stonei, II, 95. 344 Raptores, Order, III, 34. Rat, Cotton, or Marsh, I, 233. Coypu, I, 244, 250. “Domestic, I, 245. “Kangaroo, I, 180, 241, 245. “Pack, or Trading, I, 230, 245. “Tree, I, 249. “Wood, I, 222, 232. Rat and Mouse Family, I, 180. Ratitae, Order, III, 276. Rats and Rat-like Animals, I, 222, 244. Rattlesnake, IV, 100. INDEX Roccus lineatus, IV, 188. Rockfish, IV, 188. Rodentia, I, 4, 180. Roosevelt, Theodore, I, 47; III, 248. Rule for calculating weight, II, 70. Rungius, Carl, II, 119. Rutter, Cloudsley, IV, 231. Rynchops nigra, ITI, 256. Sage-Grouse, III, 117. Saimiri sciurea, I, 33. Saki, Black, I, 34. Diamond, IV, 103. Dog-Faced, IV, 100. Edwards’, IV, 100. Green, IV, 100. Ground, IV, 100. Horned, IV, 106. Massasauga, IV, 100. Pacific, IV, 100. Prairie, IV, 100, 102. Texas, IV, 103. Timber, or Banded, IV, 104. White, IV, 100. Raven, American, II, 329. Ray, Beaked, IV, 314. “ Devil-Fish, IV, 318. “ Shark-, IV, 314. “Sting, IV, 317. Red Horse, IV, 260. Redstart, American, IT, 285. Reed Bird, I, 311. Regulus calendula, II, 268. Reindeer, in Alaska, II, 105. Reithrodontomys lecontii, I, 233. Remora, IV, 212. Reptile House, IV, 71. Reptiles, Food Consumed by, IV, 71. “ “ “ Introduction to the Class of, IV, 3. Orders of, IV, 6. Poisonous Species of, IV, 8. “Reptiles of the World,” IV, 80. Rhamphobatis ancylostomus, IV, 314. Rhea americana, III, 277. Rhinobatis lentiginosus, IV, 314. Salamander, Free-Gilled, IV, 153. 6c “ Giant, IV, 151. Siren, or Mud-“ Eel, Salamanders, Eel-like, IV, 152. “ce “ “ Family of, IV, 143. Spotted, IV, 144, 147. Two-Legged, IV, 155. clarkii, IV, 220. gairdneri, IV, 223. irideus, IV, 221. ouananiche, IV, 242. salar, IV, 239. sebago, IV, 243. Salmon, Atlantic, IV, 239. Blueback, or Sockeye, IV, 236. destruction of, IV, 233. Dog, IV, 238. Family of the, IV, 228. Groups of American, IV, 229. Humpback, IV, 238. Ouananiche, IV, 242. Quinnat, IV, 235. Sebago, IV, 243. Silver, IV, 237. Salmon and Trout, Order of, IV, 218. Salvelinus fontinalis, IV, 226. Sand-Piper, Least, III, 134. “ Semi-Palmated, III, 134. Sapajou, White-Throated, I, 11, 30. Sapsucker, Yellow-Bellied, III, 20. Sarcorhampus gryphus, II, 83. Sawfish, IV, 315. Scalops aquaticus, I, 151. Scammon, Capt. C. M., II, 140, 148. ” IV, 155. Rhinodon typicus, IV, 313. Rhytina gigas, II, 159, 164. Rice Bird, II, 311. Ring-Tail Monkey, I, 11, 30. Road-Runner, III, 24. Robin, II, 260. Scaphiopus holbrooki, IV, 140. Sciuridae, I, 180. Sciuropterus volans, I, 210. Sciurus carolinensis, I, 184. “ douglasi, I, 188. INDEX. Sciurus erythrogaster, I, 189. fremonti, I, 189. griseus, I, 186. hudsonicus, I, 187. ludovicianus, I, 187. malabaricus, I, 189. “niger, I, 186. prevosti, I, 190. Scomberomorus maculatus, IV, 195. Scoter, American, III, 173. “Surf, III, 173. “ White-Winged, III, 195. Scotiaptex nebulosa, ITI, 42. Sea-Bass, Black, IV, 186. ay Family of the, IV, 186. Sea-Cow, Rhytina, or Arctic, II, 164. Sea-Cows, Order of, IT, 158. Sea-Horse, IV, 289. Sea-Lions, California, I, 115. oe Steller, I, 120. ““Sea-Parrot” (puffin), III, 270. “Sea-Swallow”’ (tern), ITI, 254. Seal, Bearded, I, 137. Family, I, 137. “Fur, I, 123-136. “* Greenland, I, 138. “Harbor, I, 137. “Harp, I, 137. “Hooded, I, 138. “Ribbon, or Harlequin, I, 138. “Ringed, I, 137. “ Saddle-Back, I, 138. Seals and Sea-Lions, Order of, I, 112, 114. Seiurus motacilla, II, 286. s noveboracensis, II, 286. Selous, Percy, killed by moccasin, IV, 113. Serpents, Order of, IV, 67. Serum, Anti-venomous, IV, 120. Seton, Ernest T., III, 106. Setophaga ruticilla, II, 285. Sewellel, I, 180, 212. Shad, Common, IV, 247. Shark, Basking, IV, 313. Blue, IV, 313. “Bone, IV, 313. “Great Tiger, IV, 313. “ _Hammer-Head, IV, 313. “Mackerel, IV, 313. “ Man-Eater, or White, IV, 313. “Thresher, IV, 313. “ — Tiger, IV, 311, 312. Shark-Ray, IV, 314. Sharks, Order of, IV, 308. Sharp-Tailed Grouse, III, 117. Shearwaters, III, 239. Sheep, Argali, II, 38. Big-Horn, ITI, 25, 28, 209. “Black, II, 34. “* Fannin’s, II, 37. “* ~~ Karelin, II, 38. : ‘Mexican, IT, 32. “*Nelson’s. or California, IT, 32. “ Polo’s, II, 38. «* Siar, II, 38. “White, II, 32. Sheep and Cattle Family, II, 4. Shields, G. O.. I, 98; III, 291. Shore-Birds, Order of, III, 127. Showt'l, I, 212. Shrew, Common, I, 154. “Family, I, 154. “ Short-Tailed, I, 155. Shrikes, II, 288. Sialia sialis, II, 265. Siamang, I, 25. Side-Winder Rattlesnake, IV, 106. Sigmodon hispidus, I, 233. Simia satyrus, I, 10, 17. Simorhynchus pusillus, IIT, 271. Siren lacertina, IV, 155. Sirenia, Order, I, 4; II, 158. Sirens, Family of, IV, 155. Sistrurus catenatus, IV, 109. ae edwardsi, IV, 100. Ay mniliarius, IV, 100. Sitta carolinensis, II, 270. Skeleton of American Bison, II, 6. “of Bald Eagle, III, 35. “of Gorilla, I, 12. Skimmer, Black, III, 256. Skink, IV, 58. Skuas and Jaegers, III, 257. Skunk, Badger, I, 81. “ Common, I, 77. “Farming, I, 78. “Little Spotted, I, 78. Slaughter for millinery, III, 302. ie of birds, III, 281. < of wild life, III, 300-302. “Slider” Terrapin, IV, 34. Sloth, Three-Toed, II, 177. “ — Two-Toed, II, 178. 345 346 Smith, Hugh M., IV, 169, 299. Snake, Black, IV, 88. Blue, or Green Racer, IV, 88. “ Boyle’s, IV, 85. “Coach, Whip or Red Racer, IV, 90. “Copperhead, IV, 110. re Corn, Red Racer or Rat, IV, 85. “ Fer-de-Lance, or Lance-Head, IV,115. a Garter, IV, 90. “* Gopher, Black, or Indigo, IV, 86. - Harlequin, IV, 114. “ Hog-Nosed, IV, 93. “Hoop,” IV, 73. = King, Chain or Thunder, IV, 83. ““ Massasauga, IV, 100, 109. te Pine, IV, 87. is Poisons, IV, 116. “Rat, IV, 86. i Rattle-, IV, 100. “ Red-Bellied Water, IV, 91. ne Sonoran Coral, IV, 115. “Water, IV, 92. “© Water-Moccasin, IV, 110. “Snake,” Glass, IV, 65. Snake-Bird, III, 225. Snake-bites, Treatment of, IV, 116. Snakes, captive, Food of, IV, 71. Harmless, of the United States, IV, 83. “* Oviparous, IV, 70. “Poisonous, of North Amenica, IV, 94. ““ Viviparous, IV, 70. Snapper, Red, IV, 206. Snipe, Wilson’s, or Jack, III, 133. Snow Bird, IT, 302. Snow Bunting, I, yee Snyder, Keeper Chas. E., IV, 82, 131. Somateria dresseri, ill, 193. oe spectabilis, III, 201. Sorex personatus, I, 154. Sparrow, English, II, 305. ‘7 Song, II, 303. Md Tree, II, 303. = White-Throated, II, 304. Spatula clypeata, III, 177. Speotito cunicularia hypogea, III, 50. Spermophile, or Ground Squirrel, I, 195. Franklin’s, I, 198. es Richardson’s, I, 200. of Say’s, I, 194. INDEX Spermophile, Thirteen-Lined, or Leopard, I, 197. Sphargis coriacea, IV, 51. Spheniscus demersus, III, 274. Sphyrapicus varius, III, 20. Sphyrna zygaena, IV, 313. Spilogale, I, 78 Spilotes corais couperii, IV, 86. Spizella monticola, II, 303. Spoonbill Family, III, 161. ie Roseate, III, 161. Squali, IV, 308. Squirrel, Antelope, I, 194. California Gray, I, 186. of Douglas, I, 188. il Family, I, 180, 181. Wi Fremont’s, I, 189. y Gray, I, 184. < Malabar, I, 189. we Northern Fox, or Cat, I, 187. * Prevost’s, I, 190. = Red, or Chickaree, I, 187. os Southern Fox, I, 186. Squirrels, Flying, I, 210. Be Fox, I, 186. Gs Ground, I, 195, 270. oe Rock, or Chipmunks, I, 190. ee Tree, I, 183. Stake-Driver (bittern), III, 158. Starling, II, 312. Steganopodes, Order, II, 255; III, 167, 213. Stegastoma tigrinum, IV, 311. Stejneger, Dr. Leonhard, IV, 118. Stercorarius parasiticus, III, 257. Stereolepis gigas, IV, 186. Sterna hirundo, ITI, 254. Stickleback, Two-Spined, IV, 265. Sting Ray, or “‘Stingaree,” IV, 317. Stizostedion vitreum, IV, 192. Stork Family, III, 159. Strigidae, Family, III, 34. Strix pratincola, III, 37. Struthio camelus, III, 276. Sturgeon, Common, IV, 298. Industry, extinction of, IV, 299. on Lake, IV, 298. ae Short-Nosed, IV, 298. o Shovel-Nosed, IV, 303. me White, IV, 298. Sturnella magna, IT, 314. a neglecta, II, 316. INDEX Sturnus Vulgaris, IT, 312. Sucker, Common Brook, or White, IV, 258. “ Red-Horse, IV, 260. Suckers, Carp, and Minnows, Order of, IV, 257. Sucking-Fish, IV, 212. Sula bassana, ITI, 228. Sun-Fish, Black-Gill, or Blue-Gill, IV, 185. oe Common, IV, 185. Swallow Family, II, 293. Swallows, II, 297-298. oe Barn, II, 298. 2 Chimney, III, 6. ss Cliff, II, 297. : Eave, II, 297. Swan, Trumpeter, III, 207. “Whistling, III, 212. Swans, Ducks, and Geese, Order of, III, 167. Swift Family, IIT, 6. Swifts, Chimney, III, 6. Swimmers, Diving, III, 167. w Flying, III, 167. iy Long-Winged, III, 167, 249. ie Order of Tube-Nosed, III, 167, 233. Swimming-Birds, Orders of, IV, 167. Swordfish, IV, 209. Sylvidae, Family, II, 266. Symphalangus syndactylus, I, 25. Synaptomys cooperi, I, 226. Syngnathus acus, IV, 286. Syrnium varium, III, 40. Tamandua tetradactyla, II, 175. Tamias striatus, I, 191. Tanager, Scarlet, II, 298. Tantalus loculator, III,. 159. Tapir Family, II, 4, 124. Tapirus dowi, II, 124. “terrestris, II, 124. Tarpon, IV, 244. ; ie atlanticus, IV, 244. Tarpon,” “Book of the, IV, 247. Tarsier, I, 11. Tatu novemcinctum, II, 170. Tayassu albirostre, II, 123. “* tajacu, IT, 121. Teal, Blue-Winged, III, 176. “Cinnamon, III, 176. “ — Green-Winged, III, 172. 347 Teetee, I, 33. Tern, Common, III, 254. Terrapin, Alligator, IV, 39. ss Diamond-Back, IV, 36. sf Ellachick, IV, 36. si Matamata, IV, 41. “ Painted, IV, 35. oe Pine-Barren, IV, 32. oe Pond, IV, 35. Red-Bellied, or “Slider,” IV, 34. Snapping, IV, 40. Terrapins, Fresh-Water, IV, 28. ss Smooth-Shelled, IV, 28, 34. Testudo polyphemus, IV, 30. ey vicina, IV, 28. Tetraonidae, III, 98. Thalarctos maritimus, I, 87. Thallassochelys caretta, IV, 47. Theropithecus gelada, I, 10, 29. Thrasher, Brown, II, 275. Thrushes, Water, II, 286. ae Wood, II, 264. Thrushes, II, 260. Thunder-Pumper (bittern), III, 158. Thunnous thynnus, IV, 197. Tiger-Cat, I, 48, 51. Titmouse, Black-Capped, II, 269. Toad, Common, IV, 138. “Horned, IV, 63. “ Spade-Foot, IV, 140. “Surinam, IV, 140. Toads and Frogs, Order of, IV, 129. Tolypeutes sexcinctus, II, 167. Tomistoma schlegeli, IV, 10. Tortoise, Box, IV, 31. si Giant, IV, 28. 2 Gopher, IV, 30. ss Pond, IV, 35. Tortoises and Turtles, Order of, IV, 25, 27. Townsend, Chas. C., III, 191. vs Chas. H., II, 104, 105. Trachinotus carolinus, IV, 203. se goodei, IV, 203. Tree Frogs, Family of, IV, 136. Tree-Creepers, II, 272. Trichechus americanus, II, 159. ee latirostris, II, 159. ae senegalensis, II, 159. Trigger-Fish, IV, 254. Triton torosus, IV, 149. “« viridescens, IV, 149. 348 INDEX Trochilus colubris, TIT, 8. Ursus dalli gyas, I, 87. Troglodytes aedon, II, 274. emmonsi, I, 87, 102. Trout, Brook, or Speckled, IV, 226. “* eulophus, I, 87. “Lake, or Mackinaw, IV, 224. “ horribilis, I, 87, 93. “Mountain, or Black-Spotted, IV, 220. ss e alascensis, I, 87. “Rainbow, IV, 221. te a horriaeus, I, 87. “© Steelhead, or Salmon, IV, 223. “*kermodei, I, 87, 105, 107. Trout and Salmon, Order of, IV, 218. “ Juteolus, I, 87. Trygon sabina, IV, 317. “* merriami, I, 87. Tubinares, Order, III, 167, 233. “* middendorffi, I, 87, 91. Tuna, or Tunny, IV, 197. “ richardsoni, I, 87. “Club, IV, 201, 211. “ sitkensis, I, 87. Turkey, Ocellated, II, 126. 3 Wild, III, 125. Vampyrus spectrum, I, 168. Turtle, Green, IV, 45. Vanishing Wild Life,”’ “Our (book), II, 87; Hard-Shelled Sea, IV, 45. IIT, 78, 303. “Harp, or Lyre, IV, 51. Vertebrates, Lowest Classes of, IV, 321. ay Hawksbill or Tortoise-Shell, IV, 46. Vespertilionidae, I, 163. “ Leather-Backed, IV, 51. “Viper,” Blowing, IV, 93. “* Leathery-Shelled Sea, IV, 51, Vireo olivaceus, II, 287. ss Loggerhead, IV, 47. “ noveboracensis, II, 287. oe Mud, IV, 32. Vireos, II, 287. a Musk, or Stink-Pot, IV, 33. Viscacha, I, 254, 256. “Snapping, IV, 40. Viscacia viscacia, I, 256. “ Soft-Shelled, IV, 42. Vole, I, 229. “© Wood, IV, 37. “* Northwestern, I, 230. Tympanuchus americanus, III, 111. Vulpes deletrix, I, 58. se cupido, III, 115. “ fulvus, I, 59. Typhlomolge rathbuni, IV, 154. es “argentatus, I, 58. Typtilonectes compressicauda, IV, 124. ie “ decussatus, I, 58. Tyrannus tyrannus, II, 331. “ hallensis, I, 58. Tyrrell, J. B., II, 95, 101, 102. “ harrimani, I, 58. “~~ lagopus, I, 63. Uakaria calva, I, 34. “~~ macrotis, I, 58. Ungulata, Order, II, 3. “macrourus, I, 58. Upland Game Birds, III, 96. “velox, I, 63. Uria lomvia, ITI, 266. Vulture, Black, III, 75. “ troile, III, 266. MY California, III, 76. a “californica, III, 266. = Common Turkey, III, 74. Urocyon californicus, I, 59. Vultures, Family of, III, 74. cinereoargenteus, I, 66. ie floridanus, I, 59. Wallabies, II, 187-189. e scottii, I, 59. Wallihan, A. G., II, 73. se texensis, I, 59. Walrus, I, 114, 141. = townsendi, I, 59. ee Atlantic, I, 146. Urodela, Order, IV, 124, 142. i Pacific, I, 141. Ursidae, I, 40, 82. Wapiti, II, 3, 55, 66, 218. Ursus americanus, I, 85, 87, 101. Warbler, Yellow, II, 283. wa sornborgeri, I, 87. Warblers, II, 280. “ earlottae, I, 87. Ward, Henry A., II, 166. “ dalli, I, 87, 93. Water-Frogs, Family of, IV, 134. Waxwings, IT, 290. Weasel, Common, I, 72. a Least, I, 72. Webb, A. C., IT, 285. Webster, Frederic S., IV, 296. Whale, Bowhead, Greenland or Polar, IT, 142. “e California Gray, II, 144. Pygmy Sperm, II, 145. Sulphur-Bottom, II, 140. ss White, IT, 146. Whales, Family of Baleen, II, 140. Be Family of Sperm, II, 144. various species, II, 144. Whales and Porpoises, Order of, II, 138. Wharton, W. P., II, 13. Whippoorwill, ITI, 5. Whiskey-Jack, II, 327. Whitefish, Common, IV, 250. Wichita National Bison Range, II, 13. Widgeon, III, 172. Wilderness Areas in N. A., II, 201. Williams, A. Bryan, II, 234. Willson, Minnie Moore, III, 30. ““ “< “ Wind Cave National Bison Range, II, 13. Wingless Land Birds, Order of, III, 276. Wolcott, F. C., I, 95. Wolf, Gray or Timber, I, 54. «* Prairie, I, 56. Wolverine, I, 74. Woodchuck, I, 208. INDEX 349 Woodcock, American, III, 132. Woodpecker, Ant-Eating, III, 18. = Downy, III, 18. ce Golden- Winged, III, 14. = Hairy, III, 19. of Red-Headed, III, 15. Woodpeckers, Order of, III, 11. Wrens, II, 274. Wright, Mrs. Mabel Osgood, II, 284, 310. Wyoming, II, 220. Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus, II. 314. Xiphias gladius, IV, 209. Yellow-Bird, Summer, IT, 283. Yellowstone Park Bison, II, 13. Zalophus californianus, I, 115. Zamelodia ludoviciana, II, 308. Zamenis constrictor, IV, 88. = flagellum, IV, 90. Se = frenatum, IV, 90. Zapodidae, I, 222. Zapus hudsonius, I, 243. Zenaidura macroura, III, 91. Zonotrichia albicollis, II, 304. Zoological Park, New York, I, 15, 83, 89, 93, 145, 215, 216, 220; II, 8, 23, 24. Zoological Society, New York, I, 14; II, 8, 12. eee Ze ae oak : 2 x 2 zt er Saeny SSeS a ie : : 3 ; Sens 5 ae See eee SSeS serene eee : pecs oe =e RAs Wer,