Hani ay eS EE: ee r=. ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY AT CORNELL UNIVER UTY CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924080041159 Production Note Cornell University Library produced this volume to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. It was scanned at 600 dots per inch resolution and compressed prior to storage using CCITT/ITU Group 4 compression. The digital data were used to create Cornell's replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Standard Z39.48-1992. The production of this volume was supported by the United States Department of Education, Higher Education Act, Title II-C. Scanned as part of the A. R. Mann Library project to preserve and enhance access to the Core Historical Literature of the Agricultural Sciences. Titles included in this collection are listed in the volumes published by the Cornell University Press in the series The Literature of the Agricultural Sciences, 1991-1996, Wallace C. Olsen, series editor. Several pages were scanned an additional time as centerfolds to preserve their center margins. To avoid confusion, the back of the centerfolds were scanned as blanks. A MANUAL OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD MACMILLAN AND Co., Limirep LONDON « BOMBAY © CALCUTTA » MADRAS MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK - BOSTON + CHICAGO DALLAS + SAN FRANCISCO THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Lrtp. TORONTO A MANUAL OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND USES BY ALEXANDER L. HOWARD TO WHICH IS APPENDED AN ACCOUNT BY S. FITZGERALD OF THE ARTIFICIAL SEASONING OF TIMBER WITH UPWARDS OF too ILLUSTRATIONS MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON 1920 COPYRIGHT PREFACE THE present book is not intended to supersede any of the works on timber hitherto published, but rather to supplement them. It has been put forward to meet a distinct want for a clearly-arranged handbook which shall contain information concerning all the timbers encountered in commerce, including those which have only of recent years appeared in the European market. The aim has been to treat the subject from its commercial, technical, and industrial aspects. In compiling this work I have adduced the practical experience of over forty years’ work in the timber trade. In all cases where I have had experience of the merits and characteristic qualities of the wood, the report is based on this personal knowledge. Where I have lacked this, I ‘have taken extracts from the most recent reports of other authorities, and I am much indebted to them for allowing me to quote from their writings. These are noted in the bibliography. I also wish to express my thanks to those of my friends who have so kindly given me their assistance. Amongst them I would name: Professor Percy Groom, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.H.S., to whom I am indebted for valuable help in the botanical side of the work; Sir Hugh Beevor, Bart.; Colonel James Brown, D.S.O.; Mr. H. J. Elwes, F.R.S.; Mr. J. S. Gamble, M.A., C.1E., F.R.S., F.L.S.; Mr. Arthur Gardner; Mr. Edwin Haynes; Mr. G. S. Hart, I.F.S.; Mr. J. Masters Hillier ; Dr. Charles Hose ; Major-General Sir Newton Moore, K.C.M.G., M.P.; Mr. B. Ohta; Mr. R. S. Pearson, I.F.S., F.L.S.; Mr. Hugh G. Saunders, and Professor R. S. Troup, F.C.H., and Miss Eleanor Rudwick who has greatly assisted me. ALEXANDER L. HOWARD. REGENT’S PARK, august 1919. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . 5 é CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD THE CONVERSION AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER SPECIFICATIONS AND CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT - LASLET1’S TABLES THE ARTIFICIAL SEASONING OF TIMBER CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBERS ACCORDING TO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN BIBLIOGRAPHY NOTES INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES a . GENERAL INDEX ‘ , ‘ : , NO. ILLUSTRATIONS A large Ash burr after digging out The Ash burr ready for carting away Leaves and fruit of Tamo and Sen Some of the Government elephants, Andaman Islands Moulmein Cedar : A group of Deodar trees in the Himalayas Logs of Ebony, South-West India Eng, Theyaung Forest, Katha, Upper Burma Eng, Lower Burma . Central Forest camp, Middle Andaman Islands, showing Gurjun trees Blue Gum plantations of the Nilgiris, India . Hauling a big tree from the forest A Karri forest . Forest railway in the Andaman Islands . A very handsome African Mahogany curl . African Mahogany. Two fine figured logs . Felling a large buttressed Mahogany tree in West Africa African Mahogany. A path through the forest . African Mahogany. A raft on the river . Mahogany. Showing waste in squaring timber . A Mahogany camp in Southern Nigeria . Felling and squaring African Mahogany . African Mahogany. Adzing square Mahogany logs being prepared for hauling and amas A Mahogany tree, Cuba . Single heart. Double heart, showing curl Melanorrhoea usitata, Upper Burma . . Melia composita trees Methods of cutting wainscot oak . American Oak, plain and quarter sawn . Oak in Kyre Park, Worcestershire . Oak tree of the Socna Forest, Slavonia ix PAGE THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD . Oak grove, Kyre Park, Worcestershire . Oak tree of the Socna Forest, Slavonia . The “ Twelve Apostles” Oak on Lord Petre’s estate at Brentwood . A basal burr : . Leaves and acorns of Ohnara and Konara (Japanese Oak) . Part of the Government saw-mill, Port Blair, Andaman Islands . Cross-cutting logs . The beginning of the forest pug Middle ere Islands . Pyinkado, Lower Burma . East Indian Rosewood . East Indian Rosewood log . Forest of Shorea sp., Upper Burma . Sal forest of good quality, Bengal . Satinee panels ‘ . East Indian Satinwood logs, Ceylon . East Indian Satinwood ‘ . A very fine log of figured East Indian Satinwood . Satinwood logs, Ceylon : ; : ‘ . Timber sheds, West India Docks, after the disastrous fire of September, 1903 . . One of the oldest Teak plantations of Burma, made in 1864 . . Elephants moving Teak logs . Teak log being extracted in a buffalo cart . Nilambur Teak plantations . Young Teak trees, Lower Burma . Elephants loading Teak . Teak timber in the forest ‘ ‘ . Young Teak springing up in a bamboo flowered area. . Typical Teak forest, Upper Burma . Teak logs on dragging path, Kontha, mache: Burma . Elephants taking Teak logs on tramway to the Irrawaddy River . Teak logs being pushed over a bank to the Irrawaddy (A) . Teak logs lying waiting for a rise with the rains ‘ . Teak logs placed in upper reaches of floating stream ready for flood . Teak logs, Upper Burma : . The fire line in the Thayetmyo forests . Teak logs being pushed over a bank to the ieee (B) . Teak logs being pushed over a bank to the Irrawaddy (C) . Teak floating in Lower Burma in the dry weather (1) . Teak floating in Lower Burma in the dry weather (2) NO. aad 73- 74. 75. 76, 77- 78. 79. 80, 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. go. gl. 92. 93.- 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99- 100, 1o!, 102. 103. 104. 105. 106, 107, 108. 109. ILLUSTRATIONS Convicts felling a Terminalia procera tree in the Andaman Islands Natives hand-sawing, Ceylon East Indian Walnut in fruit An exceptionally large and fine Yew burr from the Caucasus Hoop iron cleat, fresh nailed Wooden cleat, fresh nailed . Hoop iron cleat, seasoned and sound Hoop iron cleat, seasoned and split . Wooden cleat, seasoned and split Diagram of Smoke Kiln Two-Decker Progressive Kiln Progressive Kiln of A.B.C. Type : Compartment Kiln at Schneider’s Works, France Fan Kiln . Andrews Kiln Tieman Kiln Diagram of Fan-operated Progressive Kiln . Sturtevant Progressive Kiln : Diagram of Thermal Circulation Progressive Kiln Erith Moist Air Progressive Kiln Three Zone Kiln ; Sturtevant Triple Duct Dryer Sturtevant Timber Dryer Sturtevant Multiple Heater Dryer Fans, Heaters, and Air Ducts of Multiple Heater ses Piling truck for timber Diagram of Multiple Heater Dryer . Mercury Thermometer Recording Hygrometer as placed in “Erith or Recording Hygrometer in Sturtevant Dryer Recording Hygrometer and Guide Chart for 1 inch Walnut 1 boards . Thermometers reading equal Big difference between thermometers Timber piling : Ideal—good—bad . Truck loads dressing alternately to right and left Floor piling ' Truck piling in Compartment Dryer Apparatus for determining moisture content in wood INTRODUCTION AO VIANDANTE Tu que passas e ergues para mim o teu brago, antes que me fagas mal, olha-me bem. Eu sou o calor de teu lar nas noites frias do inverno, eu sou a sombra amiga que tu encontras quando caminhas sob o sol de agosto, e os meus frutos sao a frescura apetitosa que te sacia a séde nos caminhos. Eu sol a trave amiga da tua casa, sou a taboa da tua mésa, a cama em que tu descangas e 0 lenho do teu barco. Eu sou o cabo da tua enxada, a porta da tua morada, a madeira do teu bérgo e o conchego do teu caixado. Sou o pao da bondade e a flér da beleza. Tu que passas, olha-me beme. . . nao me facas mal. To THE WAYFARER Ye who pass by and would raise your hand against me, hearken ere you harm me. I am the heat of your hearth on the cold winter nights, the friendly shade screening you from the summer sun, and my fruits are refreshing draughts quenching your thirst as you journey on. I am the beam that holds your house, the board of your table, the bed on which you lie, and the timber that builds your boat. I am the handle of your hoe, the door of your homestead, the wood of your cradle, and the shell of your coffin. I am the bread of kindness and the flower of beauty. Ye who pass by, listen to my prayer: harm me not. So runs an inscription which in Portugal is displayed wherever, in woods, parks and gardens, timber trees are to be found. This notice sets forth in the concentrated vigour of its style an appeal whose necessity is urgent in other lands than Portugal. Apart from its artistic and senti- mental aspect, its aim is threefold. It appeals for due precautions against the misuse of timber trees. It demands that proper and necessary care xii XIV THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD be taken to use timber to the fullest and best advantage. It calls for the recognition of the importance of timber trees in the multitudinous needs of the community. In England these three considerations are but little regarded. The majority of our population show an indifference to the subject which is but the measure of their ignorance of it, while our educational and administrative authorities continue to neglect it in a manner which accounts for the general apathy. This common lack of knowledge leads in many cases not merely to a passive disregard, but often to an active mutilation and disfigurement. Boys particularly, are prone to damage trees simply because they have not been taught to value them. The forests of England have been a source of national safety and national prosperity in the past. A sea-faring nation whose history in the last three hundred years has been one of the imperial expansion of an island race, we owe it largely to our home timber supplies that our ships obtained this supremacy. Again, in the centuries before the general development of our coal deposits, it was the great Forest of the Weald that made the Sussex ironwork industry possible. We see then that our national timber supply has been of the utmost value to us in the past. This is no longer so. The manner of our forest utilisation has been wasteful and without forethought. Whole areas have been denuded of trees which might have continued to give a supply of home-grown timber ; while, as with other commodities, we have relied of late years to a needless extent upon foreign supplies. An educational system which is adequate should rightly include some knowledge of the vital needs of the country, some realisation of the possibilities of our national resources. In our schools there is an almost complete neglect of that necessary function of education which should develop the child as a member of an economic community, giving to him a grasp of the material needs and resources of his country, and opening up before him avenues of industrial interest. Commercial geography does, for instance, claim to fulfil this function, but educational reforms need time before they can justify themselves, and the spread of modern methods of teaching geography upon these lines is all too slow. It is too often thought that disciplinary and humanistic subjects are necessarily divorced from those which are valuable commercially. This is unfortunate. There is no reason why science should not be more often presented in its commercial relations. At present the teaching of science and geography in our schools lays itself open to the old charge levelled against the classical tradition. It was urged that classical education was remote from life. It was said to touch no springs of living or material interest. It had no relation to modern needs. Might not the same be said INTRODUCTION XV with greater truth of much of the teaching of science in our public and secondary schools to-day ? Is it not out of touch with living interests ? Does it show constantly its close connection with industrial and commercial activities ? We have to face facts. Our boys are going out from their schools to earn their own livelihood. The commercial aspect of education is of the utmost importance to them. Then, to take a larger view, and one which is equally vital, they are going out to maintain and to build up a prosperous Empire. They have before them the task of developing our home resources and of supplementing these by an enlightened under- standing of our needs of overseas supplies. Here then we have a subject which in the past has been closely concerned with our national well-being, and which is no less so in the present, and yet it is one which is neglected in the teaching of science and geography in our schools. The subject of timber, its supplies both within and beyond our own Empire, together with its treatment and its possi- bilities is one full of interest in itself, and which might well be introduced, not as an isolated item upon an already over-burdened list of subjects, but in rational correlation with science and geography. We are now faced with a period of wide industrial change and novel development, when the natural resources of the world must be mapped out, and measures taken for their right use and conservation. The forests of five continents hold in themselves a vast portion of the world’s wealth. Much of its value is so far unrealised. Timber has been put to a multitude of uses in the past, but latterly a belief was gradually gaining ground that it might be superseded by steel and concrete. This belief is groundless and mistaken, as we have clearly seen since the war. In many ways it is again being used instead of these substitutes, while further uses are being discovered for it every day. Certain woods essential in industrial develop- ments and the making of engines of war, are finding new commercial values hitherto entirely unsuspected. These considerations, though they may appear to be but generalities, have, however, a close practical application to the subject. If they have shown anything, they have shown that the time has come for the British Government to concern itself with a closer and better effect in the timber trade, both as regards the home supplies and the expansion of foreign trade. In the past it was the policy of the Government to maintain an attitude of Jaissez-faire with regard to industry, but opinion has now swung round to regard it as a normal function of Government to foster and assist all industries and trades necessary to the well-being of the community. The difficulties under which the timber industry labours should be removed. There should be adequate protection for woodlands, where, too frequently, valuable timber is ruined by wanton ill-usage, while XV1 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD the present unreasonable freightage dues need readjustment that the trade be not strangled. It was seen during the European war how effective definite Govern- ment propaganda could be when it was necessary to enlighten the public upon matters which concerned its interest. This weapon, through the schools and in the press, could well be used for the benefit of essential industries. As an illustration of such wise action of the State, might be mentioned the fact that in America, in Australia, in Norway and in Portugal, the school children are taught to plant saplings in order that the timber supplies of these countries may not fail. In addition to protecting the industry and enlightening the public to its true interests in the matter, the Government should take every opportunity to encourage and foster it by providing information and advice in the form of wise forestry regulations. Such a policy has made a model to us of the forestry of France, Germany, Hungary and other countries. We cannot wish to see the number of our woodland areas decrease, when we realise the national and, indeed, the imperial importance of a fully sufficient reserve of timbered land. As far as may be reconciled with economic principles, the denuded areas should be re-planted and fresh trees introduced. So much for the material and economic aspect of the subject of timber. From an esthetic point of view it is full of attraction. The proud tops of the pine and the larch which clothe the northern and the western hills add to their sombre beauty, while the more intimate loveliness of the lowland coppices and stately parks, with their “‘ firs and ashes, oaks and elms, the poplars and the cypresses,” has given the poets inspiration for delicate imagery. To know something of the description and the uses of these familiar trees, as well as of the woods of more exotic beauty from the dark forests of India and Burma, from the sun-drenched islands of the eastern seas, from South America and from Africa :—their marvellous diversity of colour, their exquisite scents, and the strange glamour of their very names, is to gain a new and never-palling interest in a com- paratively little-known portion of the grand heritage of the heirs of this world. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Apry. Poeppigia excelsa, A. Rich. Weight, 50 lbs. 15 0z.1_ San Domingo. This is a small, reddish-coloured wood much resembling mahogany or satinee, though generally perhaps more like the latter. It possesses a firm, hard texture and is of about the same strength as satinee, with the characteristic contrary grain of hard and soft lines found in that wood, though it is generally rather wider. In North America it has some- times been called bay-wood. It is probable that it has been used in the United Kingdom as both satinee and mahogany, especially in old pieces of artistic furniture. It is capable of a fine finish when sharp tools are used. For turnery, mouldings, show-cases, and furniture of all kinds it is very satisfactory, and it stands well under all conditions. The pores are irregular in size and position, and sometimes appear in duplicate and triplicate ; they show on the tangential section a fine mark like chalk, which is similar to the marking of San Domingo and some Cuban mahogany. The medullary rays are clearly defined, parallel, and irregular, and are joined at right angles by sparse and rather faint similar lines. Apey Macuo. Hedwigia balsamifera. The West Indies. Little is known of this wood, though it is possible that it may at times have been mixed with the supplies of abey. Acacia. Robinia Pseudacacia, Linn. Weight, 40-50 Ibs. Europe, America. This species of tree, usually known in Great Britain as the “ locust tree” or “ false acacia,” is a native of North America, whence it was introduced into Europe, over which it is now widely grown. It has also been planted in Japan and in the Himalayas. The timber has not been imported into England commercially, and, strange as it may seem, is not in demand, very few if any of those 1 The weights given are in all cases the weight per cubic foot when dry. 1 B 2 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD customarily using timber asking for it. The heart-wood when fresh and planed is light greenish-yellow, and shows a glossy lustre and a hard, bright surface, but it subsequently darkens to a dull greenish-brown. It is one of the number of valuable woods that we possess at our doors yet use so little ; in France, however, where the economic utilisation of wood is practised, this timber receives the full attention that it merits for various purposes. It vies with, and in some cases surpasses, European oak in strength and durability, is tough and very elastic, and has considerable powers of resisting shock. Its marked durability in contact with the ground renders this timber excellent for all outdoor work, such as posts, rails, trenails, and so forth. On Sir Hugh Beevor’s estate, for instance, a large plank was used as a bridge for forty years, when it was carried away by floods ; and posts for palings have remained sound in the ground during more than thirty years. Elwes and Henry quote cases of posts that were still sound after eighty years. On this same subject of dura- bility Stone quotes several authorities as follows: . . . ‘‘almost incorrupt- ible, stronger and more durable than oak, very elastic and of a vertical resistance one-third greater than oak ; the best wood for spokes,” In recent times the wood has been employed, especially on the Continent, in the manufacture of spokes for the wheels of motor cars. Very carefully selected wood has been found to be excellent for this purpose, but in some cases the employment of defective (so-called “‘dead’’) specimens of acacia wood has resulted in serious accidents. British-grown acacia has been used occasionally in old furniture, and will compare favourably with satin-wood for such work. Exposure to light and air has improved the colour, and it is often mistaken for the latter wood. This was the case with a small bureau owned by Mr. Edgar Taylor, which had been considered to be satin-wood, as it resembled that wood in its beautiful colour and texture. Recent examination, however, has proved it to be acacia. Especially worthy of note is the exceeding narrowness of the sap-wood, which includes only from two to five annual rings. Moreover, during the first twenty-five to forty-five years of its life the tree grows fairly rapidly. The consequence of these two facts is that a comparatively young tree yields serviceable timber. One specimen which I planted thirty-eight years ago is now (1919) large enough to supply wood sufficient to make three sturdy gate-posts or legs for half a dozen chairs. The “false acacia,” with its graceful habit and beautiful pendent tassels of white flowers, deserves to be widely planted for both its beauty and its utility. The pores forming the pore zone are large, but all, except in the sap-wood, are plugged with microscopic cists (thyloses). The medullary rays are fine, but just visible to the naked eye in transverse section. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 3 Acacia Catechu, Willd. Weight, 65 lbs. India, Burma. The native name of the timber is “ khair,” while it is sometimes known as the “cutch tree.” The wood is a bright red mahogany colour, is slightly lustrous, and has a close, firm, hard texture. It is a valuable cabinet wood, possessing the well-known qualities and appearance of Spanish mahogany. Gamble says that it seasons well, takes a fine polish, and is extremely durable. He also includes it in his list of woods which are available in fairly large quantities. The pores, which are generally surrounded by a white halo, are of moderate size. The medullary rays are clear and distinct but vary in fineness. Acacia leucophioea, Willd. Weight, 58 lbs. India, Burma. The wood of this fairly large tree is reddish-brown with lighter and darker streaks. It is hard, strong and tough, and seasons and polishes well. It is obtainable in squares about 20 feet x 10 inches x 10 inches, and is used for posts and beams, carts, wheels and ploughs, and also for smaller work such as turning. Acana. Source unknown. Weight, 65 Ibs. Cuba. In 1915 a few logs, hewn square, ranging from ro to 24 feet in length and 12 to 15 inches in thickness, were imported into Liverpool under the name of “‘acana.’’ The timber is hard and dense, and acquires from the tool a smooth, marble-like surface. It is of a deep, dull, purple-plum colour, and shows a strong resemblance to beef-wood. Some of the logs were well marked with mahogany-like roe and mottle figure. After planing the wood seems inclined to split. A considerable proportion of the logs had been rendered worthless by the attacks of a species of very small “‘ worm ”’ or beetle, which bored more especially along the medullary rays and parallel with the concentric growth-layers. The damaged wood emitted a strong unpleasant odour suggesting putrefaction.1 The pores are small and somewhat obscure. The medullary rays are very fine and closely packed, and are linked at right angles by similar but more strongly marked white lines. AcaPpu. Source unknown. Weight, 63 lbs. Brazil. This most valuable Brazilian timber agrees in general colour and somewhat in appearance with dark teak, but being streaked along its grain with alternate lighter and darker lines, it displays a stronger likeness to partridge wood. It does not split, yields a fine surface from the tool, 1 Three logs of Cuban wood called ‘‘ almique’’ have been imported into London, and the wood appears to be the same as the above-named. 4 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD and stands well. The surface is sticky, which is probably due to oily contents. The wood has a peculiar and unpleasant scent, though Weisner describes his sample as exhaling a fragrant odour recalling that of the cigar-box cedar (Cedrela odorata). This timber could probably be used as an excellent substitute for teak, although it might be heavier and harder to work. The pores are not very open. The exceedingly fine medullary rays in cross-section are invisible to the naked eye, but with the magnifying glass are clearly defined by reason of their light colour; they are linked at right angles by similar light lines. Adenanthera pavonina, Linn. Weight, 56 lbs. India, Burma, the Andaman Islands. A dark, reddish-brown wood, this displays a pretty wavy pattern on the radial section. It would be useful in this country, as it already is in India, for cabinet work. It has not yet been imported commercially, but supplies are likely to be available in the near future. “ Pores small, scanty, in groups or short radial lines. Medullary rays very fine, extremely numerous.” (Gamble.) ADERNO. Astvonium commune, Jacq. Brazil. This timber, which is also known variously as chibatan and ubatan, is described by Baterden as being of a red colour. It is used, according to Brazilan Woods, in building work and for railway sleepers, and the same authority speaks of it as having a very close grain. Adina cordifolia, Hook, f. Weight, 45 lbs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon. The wood, which in India is called haldu, is of a dull yellow colour with a reddish tinge, like a dullsatin-wood. It has a close, firm texture, and it is capable of a very smooth surface. It has been imported to a limited extent, and has been found very useful for brushwork. If a regular supply was established there is no doubt the demand would continually increase, as it is a wood having unusual qualities which fit it for special uses. The evenness of the grain is very pronounced, so that it can be cut either with or across the grain equally well, and on this account it should be a valuable wood for carving. The colour being so flesh-like, would specially fit it for the carving of statues. It stands well under all conditions, and would be very suitable for cabinet work and all decorative purposes. Gamble reports it as ‘‘ Good for turning, and extensively employed in construction for furniture, agricultural imple- ments, opium and cigar-boxes, writing tablets, combs, and numerous other purposes.” It has been found to be an excellent wood for bobbins. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD) 5 This is one of the timbers mentioned on Mr. Gamble’s list of woods which are available in fairly large quantities, and are likely to be worth trial. The exceedingly numerous pores are very small indeed. The medul- lary rays are so fine that it is difficult to see them through the lens. (12 x.) Aglaia Roxburghiana, W. and A. Weight, 58-61 Ibs. India. The colour of this wood is bright red. It is hard, close-grained, and handsomely marked. It is reported as being strong and standing well. “ Pores small, scanty, in narrow rings of whitish tissue which run concentrically and appear on a cross-section as narrow wavy lines. Medullary rays fine, numerous, evenly distributed ; the distance between them equal to or less than the diameter of the pores.” (Gamble.) AILANTHUS. Ailanthus glandulosa, Desf. Weight, 38 Ibs. 9 oz. This tree, familiar under the name of “‘ Tree of Heaven,” is a native of China, from which it has been introduced into England and the continent of Europe. The timber, which is neither well-known nor much used, resembles in colour and grain that of the ash to such an extent that it is often mistaken and substituted for it. Careful tests made by the engineer, G. Lauboeck, showed that his samples of this wood surpassed timber of the ash grown on the Continent in resistance to rupture by bending, and that it possessed a high degree of elasticity and resistance to crushing. In view of published statements opposing these results, and considering the rapid extension of the cultivation of the tree in England, renewed tests as to the properties of its timber are desirable. My experience, however, is that it does not possess the strength of English ash. The annual rings are clearly marked; they are easily identified because of the spring-zone of wide open pores. The wood is easily distinguished from that of the ash, not only, as is usually the case, by the great width of the annual rings, but also by the fact that the medullary rays are easily visible in cross-section to the naked eye. AKEAKE. Olearia aricenniaelobia. New Zealand, South Island. Only a ‘very small quantity of this timber has ever been seen in England, but further shipments would be appreciated. The New Zealand Department of Agriculture reports the wood as “ yellowish, with a satiny lustre, frequently wavy and prettily figured ; obtainable in short lengths and small in size. Used for ornamental cabinet-maker’s work, in- laying, etc.” 6 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Albizzia odoratissima, Benth. Weight, 54 Ibs. India, Burma. This large tree yields squares 30 feet x12 inchesx12 inches. The wood is dark brown in colour ; it is fairly durable, and seasons, works, and polishes well. Professor Unwin recorded the following results of tests : Resistance to shearing along the fibres 5 . 1283 lbs. per sq. inch. Crushing strength. : : F . 4°184 tons Transverse 2 . ‘ “i ; . . 6518 ,, Co-efficient of elasticity . 7 : : 755 The wood is used for building, shafts and axles of carts, wheels, ploughs, and casks, and also for furniture. Albizzia procera, Benth. Weight, 39-40 lbs.; (average of Gamble’s specimens, 46 lbs.). India. The produce of this tree, known in India as white siris, is entirely unknown under this name in the United Kingdom. It is probable that it has been imported, mixed with the produce of A. Lebbek, and called East India walnut. It would certainly deserve the name of walnut better than the latter, as it more nearly resembles the European or American walnut in all respects, and, unlike A. Lebbek, would undoubtedly make a good substitute for them. If any quantity became available, it would soon become known and in demand. The wood is of a brown walnut shade, tinged with red or yellow; it is lustrous and bright and inclined to be streaky, but without the dark lines which are characteristic of European walnut. The sap-wood is not durable. The wood is often straight-grained and mild, although much of it is highly figured, and it stands remarkably well under all conditions. Gamble reports it as “‘ straight and even-grained, seasons well, and the heart-wood is durable.”” It is used in India for a variety of purposes, which include wheels, agricultural implements, bridges, and house-posts. It should, however, be suitable for rifle and gun stocks, as it possesses all the required qualities. The pores are scarce and rather large and open, with smaller ones which are occasionally plugged. The medullary rays are fine, and show very clearly in the radial section, as in sycamore. ALDER. Alnus glutinosa, Gaert. Weight, 26-41 lbs. (Stone). Although this species of tree is widely distributed in temperate Europe, Asia, and North Africa, in an area extending from the British Isles to Japan, the timber used in Great Britain is almost entirely of British growth, an exception being provided by ply-wood, which is imported. The wood is reddish-white, soft and light, and possesses a smooth, fine CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 7 grain. It has a somewhat soft yet tough surface, which is rubber-like and resilient, so that a light blow causes a temporary depression un- accompanied by any considerable permanent indentation. It is used in the manufacture of clogs, soles of shoes, and toys, and also in turnery and the cheaper forms of cabinet work. Being extremely durable when wholly submerged, it has provided the material for drain pipes, sluice- gates, and so forth ; in fact, Holtzapffel states that the piles of the Rialto at Venice were composed of this wood. In America it has been used in the manufacture of combs. Alder charcoal has long been employed in the manufacture of gunpowder. Recently it has been used in large quantities for ply-veneer of all kinds, and especially for trunks, tea-boxes, packing- cases, and the like. Still more recently such ply-veneer has been forth- coming from Japan, where wood of excellent quality, though slightly redder than European alder, is found. Since its utilisation in this con- nection there has been a good demand for alder, which, however, is a serviceable wood for which much profitable employment could be found if its proper uses were more studied. Very handsome card-cases and cigarette cases, for instance, have been made from dark-grained, richly figured, gnarled pieces. The annual rings are distinct in cross-section ; the pores are invisible to the naked eye, as are most of the medullary rays, but some of the latter aggregated form dull-edged ‘‘ false rays.” Pith flecks are present. ALDER, FORMOSAN. Alnus maritima, Nutt., var. formosana, Burhill. Weight, 33 Ibs. Formosa. The wood is of a light-yellow straw colour ; it has a bright sheen, and takes a smooth surface. It is streaked with thin, reddish lines caused by the medullary rays, which show very strongly on the radial section, as in oak. It has a very good texture, and gives every promise of standing well without liability to warp or twist. It has never been imported into England, but would be very useful for a great number of purposes. Mitsui & Co. report that an available supply of one million and a half cubic feet exists. The pores, which are very numerous, are small, and the medullary rays are strong and clearly defined, with a number of secondary smaller rays between the stronger and principal ones. ALERCE. Fitzroya patagonica, Hook. Weight, 28 lbs. South America. This wood has the characteristic grain of the thuya and cypress, and is of about the same weight. In colour, however, it is of a reddish hue, deepening with exposure to light and air to a brilliant rich, warm red, with alternate lighter and darker streaks. It is easy to work, and is capable 8 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD of a smooth surface from the tool, and it stands well in all conditions. It is not known commercially in the United Kingdom, but it would un- doubtedly be in demand for a great variety of decorative and other work, if any regular supply was available, especially as it is reported as being very durable. The concentric layers, which are strongly defined, are very close, giving the appearance of a very slow-growing wood. The pores are variable in size, and the medullary rays are clearly marked, and only show obscurely on the tangential section. ALMOND, EuroPEAN. Prunus Amygdalus, Stokes ; Amygdalus communis, Linn. Weight, 43 Ibs. Europe. The colour of the wood is dull reddish-brown with darker veins. It is of but slight commercial importance, though it finds occasional use in turnery and the fashioning of marquetry. The medullary rays are well marked, and the pores, except in the pore zone, are very small. ALMOND-woop. Source unknown. Weight, 42 lbs. 12 oz. Cuba. In the year 1900 a shipment consisting of a considerable number of large logs hewn square and measuring over 36 inches, arrived in the London Docks from Cuba, and was sold under the name of “ Cuba almond.” In texture, weight, and general character it resembled Cuba mahogany, but differed greatly from this in its colour, which was greyish-brown, irregularly marked with bluish streaks. All the logs displayed a more or less wavy and curly grain, with those forms of rich figure that are commonly known as roe and splash mottle. Some of this marking was so extremely decorative that the wood was in constant demand for fine veneers, which gave a very handsome effect when polished. Most of this was sent to America. Since that date, however, there have been no further supplies. The pores are large and open and somewhat scattered. The medul- lary rays are not very clearly defined. The pores in the tangential section show lustrous contents. Alphonsea ventricosa, Hook, f., and Th. Assam, Chittagong, the Andaman Islands. The wood is a dull yellow with occasional dark streaks. It is close- grained and strong. Gamble, quoting Heinig, says that it is used in boat- building, and squares up to 30 feet by 15 inches. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 9 AMARANT or AMARANTE. This name is sometimes applied to a wood that is certainly identical with true purple and purpleheart (q.v.) obtained from British Guiana (Demerara) and Dutch Guiana (Surinam). In France, however, a dis- tinction is drawn between purple and red amarante, so that the same name is applied to a red wood of unknown origin resembling a padauk (Pterocarpus) or sabicu. AMBOYNA. Source unknown. Weight, 39 lbs. Borneo, the Moluccas. The name Amboyna, or kiabooca wood, is applied to certain burrs imported from the Moluccas (including Amboyna) and Borneo. Whether these are all derived from the same species of tree is unknown ; various writers attribute them to species of Pterocarpus or Pterospermum, or to a member of the mahogany family (Flindersia ?). The wood is brown, tinged with yellow or red, but changes with age to a dull-brown leather colour. It is marked with little twisted curls and knots in a manner similar to but more varied than bird’s-eye maple. With the naked eye it is difficult to distinguish between the burrs of Amboyna-wood and thuya, or even, according to some authorities, of yew ; but though the burr-wood of the yew is similar to that of the other two as regards colour, it nevertheless is unlike them in all other respects. Amboyna-wood has been freely utilised in the manufacture of ornamental furniture, especially during the Empire period (1804-14), but after this time its use gradually declined. Quite recently, however, a revival took place on the Continent, particularly in Paris, where a considerable quantity of fine burrs has been converted into veneers and employed in making up costly furniture and interior decorations in motor-cars. Under the name of “ false Amboyna-wood’”’ there have recently reached Paris some very fine burrs, which measured up to 3 feet in length and 20 inches in width. With the naked eye it is almost impossible to distinguish these from true Amboyna-wood, with which, however, they contrast by their strong and variable, either pleasant or unpleasant, scent. It has not been found possible to trace either the geographical or the botanical source of these burrs. Possibly they may belong to one or more species of Dipterocarps growing in French colonies. Amia-Ka. Phyllanthus Emblica, Linn. Weight, 52 lbs. India, China, Japan. Gamble speaks of this wood as being “‘ red, hard, close-grained, warps and splits in seasoning, no heart-wood. . . . A pretty and ornamental tree, but of not much importance. . . . The wood makes good poles, and is useful for agricultural implements, building, and furniture: it is durable under water and can be used for well-work. Io THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD ‘Annual rings not distinct. Pores smalland moderate-sized, uniformly distributed, often subdivided or in short radial lines. Medullary rays moderately broad, the distance between two rays generally greater than the transverse diameter of the pores ; silver-grain prominent.” ANGELIM-ROSA. Peraltea erythrinaefolia, Mart. Brazil. This is a brown-coloured, porous wood, strong and moderately heavy. It is used for beams in shipbuilding, in carpentry, and in the domestic arts. Brazilian Woods speaks of it as being an excellent wood for building and submerged works owing to its durability. ANGELIQUE. Dicorynia paraensis, Benth. Weight, 53 Ibs. French Guiana. This tree is of a straight growth and yields timber 12 to 22 inches square by 20 to 54 feet in length, clear of branches. The wood is of a reddish-brown colour, clean and even in the grain, moderately hard, tough, strong, elastic, and not difficult to work, although it does not cleave readily. Occasionally a few logs are found with a waviness or figure in the grain, which would make them valuable to the cabinet-maker. There is little sap-wood. The timber is very sound and free from knots, and except that a small percentage of the logs have a slight heart-shake, or perhaps star-shake, at the pith or centre, there are no defects affecting the conversion of it into planks and so forth. It has been said that it does not rot in water, that it is proof against attacks from many insects to which other timber is liable, and that it is durable. Occasionally it is found that in working some of the logs emit an unpleasant odour. For some reason the import cf this timber has now entirely ceased, and supplies have not been seen in England for some years. Beauverie states that the wood finds little use in France because it is supposed to cause nails to rust. Three varieties of angélique, black, red, and white, are distinguishable, but the description here given concerns the brownish-red kind. The wood shows no distinct annual rings. Its pores are large, scattered, and not numerous; they contain a white or reddish, opaque glistening substance. The medullary rays are very fine and are invisible ; they are joined at right angles (in cross-section) by many shorter or longer light, wavy, concentric lines which are just visible to the naked eye, and show independently of the pores, though here and there linking with these. The tangential view reveals, even to the naked eye, beautiful tered structure or ripple marks, which are especially distinct on the lighter coloured wood, and resemble in miniature the ripple marks ona sandy shore or the patterns in finger-prints. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 11 Anaico. Piptadenia rigida, Benth. Weight, 71 lbs. Brazil. This timber is described in Brazilian Woods as being of excellent quality for building and naval architecture. ANJAN. Hardwickia binata, Roxb. Weight, 82 lbs. (Troup). India. This is a very valuable wood which should be imported into the United Kingdom and used for many important purposes. It appears to possess the very durable qualities of pyinkado (Xylia dolabriformis) without the oily or sticky surface which the latter possesses, which quality, while doubtless making it more durable, also renders it less suitable for cabinet and decorative work. Anjan is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool, almost, as R. S. Troup says, making it comparable with African blackwood (Dalbergia Melanoxylon). The same author recommends it for turnery. It would be invaluable in those parts of decorative cabinet work where a hard, smooth surface is required, and where an undoubted good standing wood, which will neither shrink nor warp, is necessary. Its qualities as a decorative wood are further enhanced by its handsome colour and appearance. In colour it varies from brick-red to a dull dark brown with black streaks. It would give much the same appearance in finished work as that which can be obtained in Italian walnut work. Unfortunately, in common with so many valuable Indian timbers, it has no European name, nor has it yet been imported in commercial quantities. One log was sent to the Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington, a few years ago, and can be seen there. The pores are regular and uniform in size and position. The medul- lary rays are very faint and obscure even under the lens (12x). There is a small, faint ripple mark on the radial section. Anogetssus acuminata, Wall. Weight, 50 Ibs. India, Burma. The wood is yellowish, fairly hard, and not particularly easy to season and work. It is, however, quite suitable for rough purposes under cover. It would certainly yield much better timber if it were artificially seasoned. Logs are obtainable 30 feet x 12 inches x 12 inches. Anogeissus latifolia, Wall. Weight, 62 Ibs. (Gamble). India. The colour of this wood is a pale greyish-yellow ; it is very similar to bleached hare-wood, the genuine hare-wood, that is, and not the stained sycamore which commonly passes for it. The wood has a close firm grain, which is somewhat akin to that of satin-wood. A considerable portion of the supplies produce well-figured pieces with what is known as the splash- mottle effect. Although little known hitherto in the commercial world, supplies may I2 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD be expected in the future, when it will probably become highly valued for first-class decorative cabinet work, and particularly for chairs. The pores are numerous and regular, and are joined by wavy belts of light lines forming a very pretty pattern. The medullary rays, which are fine and clear cut, are exceedingly numerous and parallel and are almost equidistant. ApitonG. Dipterocarpus grandiflorus, Blanco. Weight, 44 lbs. I oz. Malay Peninsula, British North Borneo, the Philippines. This timber was first imported into London and Liverpool in 1915, and has been received in the form of sawn planks and boards ro feet and upwards in length, 8 inches and upwards in width, generally fairly wide, and up to 6 inches in thickness. Foxworthy described the wood as being “a pale greyish-red, some- times with a faint purplish tinge.” The imported wood is of a dull reddish-brown colour with resin-plugged pores; it much resembles the timbers of many other dipterocarps. It is, however, lighter in weight, appears to be deficient in elasticity, firmness, and strength, and is liable to warp and twist. As the number of species of the dipterocarpus family yielding timbers reaches more than three hundred, and as they are often very similar in appearance, though of widely different qualities and values, each sample or shipment should be examined with care. The sample examined shows concentric layers marked out by the occurrence of bands containing few pores. The pores are scattered and large, and are easily visible to the naked eye. The medullary rays, just visible in transverse section, produce on the radial section a beautiful silver grain as they stand out from the lighter groundwork in brownish- red glistening bands. APPLE. Pyrus Malus, Linn. Weight, 48 Ibs. 3 oz. Europe. The heart-wood of apple is hard and reddish-brown, while the sap- wood is light red in tint. When thoroughly seasoned it stands well, but is very apt to warp and split during the process. It is used for a variety of purposes, these including cog-wheels and turnery, and it might perhaps be utilised to make the heads of golf clubs. The annual rings are recognisable, though not marked ; both pores and medullary rays are invisible to the naked eye. ARARIBA AMARELLO. Centrolobium robustum, Mart. Brazil. This is a light-coloured wood, with a clean straight grain. It is described in Brazilian Woods as being bright yellow with a gold-tinted grain, and used for building and naval architecture and fancy woodwork. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 13 This authority also notes a wood of the same species, ARARIBA VERMELHO (C. tomentosum, Benth.), which is a bright red wood with a dark grain, and is used for similar purposes. ARAUCARIA. Avaucaria imbricata, Par. Weight, 20 lbs. 1 oz. South America. This tree, familiar in English gardens under the name of ‘‘ monkey puzzle,”’ is a native of Southern Chile. The wood, in colour and grain, resembles a very mild, straight-grained deal (Pinus sylvestris), but shows a smoother surface and has no resin-passages. The timber has not been sufficiently tested in this country to permit of definite statements as to its uses. The trees grown in England would also yield wood with too many faults, due to the rosettes of knots which represent the clusters of branches, so that it could not be used for work requiring strength, or where long lengths free from defect were needed. In other respects the timber would be useful in joiners’ work. Being a coniferous wood the pores and the medullary rays are not distinct in the transverse section, though, especially near the pith, a radiating pattern is observable. ARBOR VITAE. Thuya occidentalis, Linn. Weight, 19 Ibs. (Gibson). North America. This soft coniferous wood is seldom encountered in commerce. Gibson (American Forest Trees, p. 97) says that ‘‘ the wood is soft, brittle, light and weak .. . very inflammable. The fact that it is durable even in contact with the soil permits its use for railway ties, telegraph poles, posts, fencing, shingles, and boats.” AROEIRA DO SERTAO. Astronium urundueva ; Myracrodon urundeuva, Fr. Allem. Weight, 79 Ibs. (Baterden). Brazil. The handbook Brazilian Woods says that this is one of the best woods in Brazil, and that it is used for building and hydraulic works as well as for joinery. Baterden describes it as a tawny-coloured wood with red markings. He adds: “‘ It stands variation of temperature and wet and dry well . . . is valuable for all wearing surfaces such as brake blocks. The logs are small. [It is] one of the first-class sleeper-woods of Bahia, where it has a life of sixteen years.” Artocarpus Lakoocha, Roxb. Weight, 40 lbs. India, Burma, the Andaman Islands. This wood, which is highly prized in the Andamans, is of a golden- yéllow to orange colour. The very large pores somewhat detract from the appearance in the tangential and radial sections. It would be very 14 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD suitable for furniture. Gamble notes that the wood is said to be difficult to saw on account of a resinous substance, but it is easy to plane. AsH, AMERICAN. Fraxinus americana, Linn.; F. sambuctfolia; Lam., etc. Weight, 42 Ibs. America. The wood is derived from a number, up to ten, of different species of ash. The produce of these is mixed together without any attempt at sorting the different kinds, which vary greatly in their qualities. It is thus impossible to secure timber of any standard quality. Occasionally, however, small supplies equal to British or Canadian ash have been imported into England. As a rule the wood is not so white as these two latter. Yet the best kinds rank with, and are difficult to distinguish from, the best English ash. For instance, a frame of American ash remained perfectly sound and was very hard after it had been in continual use for thirty-five years in an old horse-car on the London tramways. Immense quantities of logs, boards, and planks have been imported into England for a number of years, and the timber has found its way into general use for every kind of purpose for which ash is used. Latterly the greatest demand has come from motor-carriage and waggon works. Although a very small percentage of supplies yield wood strong enough, yet during the war it was condemned for use in aeroplane construction. Both the pores and medullary rays are larger and coarser than in the British ash, although in general character the growth is the same. AsH, CANADIAN. Fvraxinus sp. Weight, 41 Ibs. 14 oz. Canada. This wood is perhaps equal to British ash in quality, and some of it may even be stronger. It is in demand for making oars for the Royal Navy. Supplies, however, are daily decreasing. AsH, EuROPEAN. Fraxinus excelsior, Linn. Weight, 46 Ibs. I4 02, Europe. The common ash tree is widely distributed over Europe and supplies the English, French, Hungarian, and Turkish ash timber of commerce. (a) EnciisH AsH. Weight, 47 Ibs—The wood is greyish-white in colour, of moderate weight and hardness, very even and close in the grain, tough, elastic, and easily worked. Owing to its great flexibility it can never be safely used in architectural work. For hoops and all kinds of agricultural implements, however, it is invaluable, since when steamed it can easily be bent into any form of curve required without injury to the fibre. Ash is extremely durable if felled in the winter months and properly seasoned before use ; but where these precautions are neglected few woods are more perishable, Very great advantage will CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 15 be found in reducing the ash logs, soon after they are felled, into planks or boards for seasoning, since, if left for only a short time in the round state, deep shakes open from the surface, which involves a very heavy loss when brought on later for conversion. The advantage of converting A LarGE ASH BURR AFTER DIGGING OUT, ash logs into planks and so forth at the earliest possible moment after felling cannot be overestimated. Among English woods, ash is without equal for toughness and power of withstanding sudden shock. The finest English ash is sought for to make hockey sticks, tennis racquets, gymnasium poles, and other athletic appliances. Since the advent of the automobile it has been 16 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD greatly in demand for framing, pillars, and general construction of bodies of motor-carriages, and also for the general woodwork of the hoods. As a result of the great impetus given to the manufacture of aircraft on account of the war, supplies of English ash for use in this connection became of the greatest importance. The best wood obtainable was, in the early stages, used for spars and langerons. Very soon, however, the employment of ash for spars was largely discontinued, silver spruce and other woods being used in its place. For langerons it retained its position of importance, and nothing has yet been foundso suitable for this purpose. Later, when the construction of aircraft of all kinds and sizes became necessary, it was found to be the best wood for the keel pieces of the gondolas, and for some of the other constructional parts, such as the ribs. An enormous number of pieces were required up to 32 feet in length, with straight and even grain throughout the whole length, and entirely free from the slightest defect. These were forthcoming, and it would perhaps be impossible to overrate the important part which a sufficient supply of this exceptional wood played in our efforts, which subsequently proved successful, to obtain command of the air. At a comparatively early date in the war the Air Board realised the great importance of securing a regular and adequate supply, and large contracts were placed all over the country. Even then it was not considered that sufficient quantities of the right material would be secured, and one of the officials of the Air Board originated a scheme to solve this problem. An organisation known as the “ Aerial League " was formed, one of the functions of which was to approach every landowner throughout the country with the object of securing from him at a moderate price the whole of the ash trees growing on his estate which could be used for aircraft purposes. The immediate result was an almost universal acceptance of the scheme. Accordingly within a short time large numbers of suitable trees were cut down, promptly converted to the required thicknesses, artificially dried, and speedily manufactured into aircraft. It would not be an exaggeration to say that timber which was growing in this country was within a few weeks actually a part of aeroplanes which were then flying over the German lines in Flanders. As has already been said, ash is always a difficult wood to season; nevertheless, under the impulse of necessity and the use of the most scientific methods of artificial seasoning, success was achieved. Indeed the artificially seasoned product showed, on the whole, better results than were obtained from the naturally seasoned wood which previously had alone been obtainable. The effect of the large demand made on the resources of the country in this respect during the war must be felt in the future, and it is to be hoped that such measures will be taken as will CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 17 enable a fresh reserve of the best possible growth of ash to be built up for the future. During the progress of the war a considerable number of trees were cut in France and brought to London and elsewhere, a feat which in itself is worthy of note, as demonstrating the transport resources of this country and its command of the sea. The quality of this ash produced in France under the superior French forestry system, when compared with the quality of that grown in this country, with its lack of any such adequate system, is most detrimental to the English wood. The tree has a very wide sap-wood (about forty annual rings to the inch) which is yellowish or greyish-white, and the heart-wood is light brown. The annual rings are rendered very distinct by the spring zone THE ASH BURR READY FOR CARTING AWAY of large pores. The medullary rays are scarcely recognisable to the naked eye in transverse section. (0) FrENcH AsH.—This wood is similar to English ash, but is generally milder and less strong. (c) Huneartan AsH. Weight, 47 lbs. 13 oz.—Only a limited amount of this brownish-white to pure white wood has been imported inco England, and this chiefly in the form of butts specially selected for their wavy, curly grain. For the sake of the handsome figure this type of wood has been eagerly purchased at high prices in order that it might be converted into veneers for decorative panel work in railway carriages and for furniture. Of late years, however, little of this genuine Hungarian ash has been procurable in England, most of that which is sold under this name being American in origin. A certain quantity of small, tough young trees with Cc 18 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD the bark on have been regularly imported from Transylvania, and used to supplement the supplies of home-grown ash for making billiard cues, for which the Hungarian wood is specially suitable. Although it is almost impossible todistinguish between the Hungarian and English grown timber when first cut, it can generally be identified after long exposure to light and air, as it then assumes a greenish-yellow tint not unlike that of acacia wood. The pores are very numerous and irregular ; they are generally small, and form a ripple pattern in the autumn wood. The medullary rays are very fine and numerous. (2) Soutn Russian and TurxisH Asu.—This timber is nearly white, but almost invariably contains a small black heart. It is difficult to distinguish from the English wood, and is strong and tough. The use of the timber has been restricted by the fact that it has been imported only in sizes smaller than can be readily obtained from other sources. The trees have been imported in the round with the bark on, and ranging in diameter from Io to 20 inches at the butt end and in length from 8 to 21 feet. The wood has proved to be of a fine, strong, elastic quality. ASH, JAPANESE. Fraxinus mandschurica, Rupr. Weight, 34 Ibs. 10 oz. Japan. During the last few years very large quantities of this fine and exceedingly useful timber have been imported into London and Liverpovl. It is known in Japan by the name of ‘‘Tamo.” The first shipments arrived about 1908. Messrs. Mitsui & Co. imported by far the largest quantities, although some shipments came from other sources. The imports of this firm were as follows : 1908, . 13,181 cubic feet. | I9gl3 . ... cubic feet, 1909, . 1,092 , ii 19l4.. . 22,829 ,, ,, Igo , 7 ane os + f 1915 12,525» IQIr , - 387,434 ” 1916. - 53.170 ,, » Igi2 , : rece BD 7 I9l7_. - 62,940 ,, ” This gives a total of over 500,000 feet, or over I1,000 loads. The above figures are conclusive evidence of the popularity of this timber. Sargent (Forest Flora of Japan, p. 52), says: “‘ Fraxinus mand- schurica, which is common in Manchuria, Saghalien, and Corea, is a noble tree in Yezo, where it is exceedingly abundant . . . and where it often rises to the height of one hundred feet, and forms tall, straight stems three or four feet in diameter.” The timber has been imported in square, hewn logs, sawn planks, boards, etc., and selected figured flitches and roots, with a small quantity also of prepared floorings. When first imported it was mixed with a quantity of timber sold as Japanese ash, but which was soon discovered to be quite a different wood. This proved to be the CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 19 product of Acanthopanax ricinifolium, S. and Z., and known in Japan as “Sen,” a timber which, although resembling ash in the grain, possesses none other of its qualities. This timber, being light in weight, having little or no strength and being specially short-grained, gave Japanese ash a very bad name at the outset. As soon as the discovery was made, steps were taken to ensure that shipments of Japanese ash consisted exclusively of the product of Fraxinus mandschurica, and, as has been mentioned, large quantities have since been imported. The wood is generally lighter in weight and browner in colour than British ash. The colour is detrimental to its use for some purposes. As the wood is relatively strong, its weight, which averages about Io per cent less than British, and 6 to 8 per cent less than American, is a great advantage for many purposes. The timber is really stronger than its weight and appearance would suggest. This is partly due to the closeness of the concentric layers, which give nearly three times the number of rings to the inch of circumference. The conditions under which it is shipped make it impossible to select the stronger growth from the milder. The variations in the strength of the British wood are well known, and the workman requiring the strongest and toughest ash would not seek for it among large, park-grown trees, knowing well where to find the growth required. In Japan, however, the produce of all the growths becomes mixed before shipment, and as it is impossible to determine where or how the timber has been grown, selection for toughness becomes difficult. There is undoubtedly a large percentage of exceedingly tough, strong wood. Experiments for the purpose of testing the transverse strength were made with the following results : No. 1 broke at 2,968 lbs. No.2 ,, ,, 2,688 ,, No.3, 5, 3,360 ,, No.4 5» 2,464 ,, (Each piece measured 30 x 2 x 2 inches.) The character of the break in Nos. 1 and 3 was very satisfactory, and showed long and tough fibre. Nos. 2 and 4 were only fair. Several tests for bending strains have been made, giving excellent results, the most difficult and trying turns and strains being accomplished satisfactorily. There is no doubt that, except for bent work, where very white wood is demanded, and which is a condition which Japanese ash cannot fulfil, this timber would satisfy all requirements. Sargent concludes his article in the Forest Flora of Japan as follows: “‘ Here are great supplies of oak and ash of the best quality . . . a storehouse of forest wealth, which, if properly managed, could be drawn upon for all time.” These remarks are of singular importance now (1919) when we consider the gigantic 20 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD demands which have been made upon our own home-grown supplies of ash in only the three years of 1916, 1917, and 1918, and, limited to the knowledge we now possess, it should be considered almost criminal to use any of our own home-grown supplies of ash for any kind of purpose for which such a timber as the Japanese variety could be substituted. The trees are the product of a perfectly natural virgin growth, under the best conditions, and yield clean, straight boles of considerable length and diameter, from which a large amount of sound straight-grained boards and planks clear from knots can be obtained. This quality makes Japanese ash most useful ‘or a great variety of purposes. It has been utilised for cabinet and pianoforte work, both solid and as a groundwork for veneer. The wood takes the glue admirably, and the veneers laid retain a hard, flat surface. For constructional work, excepting where considerable strength is needed, it can be used advantageously, and its comparative lightness of weight increases its value. This same quality, added to the fact that it possesses the requisite strength, makes it an ideal timber for automobile construction, both for carriage body work and for delivery vans and lorries. In many places in Scotland and elsewhere, it has been used for house and club decorative joinery, and furniture. When finished in its own natural light colour, or stained like dark oak, it has produced some very artistic and decorative results. For ships’ fittings, cabins, etc., and furniture, it is especially suitable. Without a very rigid selection, reliable stretcher-poles have been provided. A small quantity has been found strong enough for aeroplane construction, and if more care is taken a considerable supply could undoubtedly be found suitable for this work. At least one aeronautical pilot has selected the wood for use. In Japan it has been largely used for house-building, sleepers, oars (both for the navy and for ordinary use), clogs, and all kinds of wooden ware. It is beyond question that the demand for ply-wood in the future will be almost un- limited, and as Japanese ash is very suitable for veneers, probably the whole available supply from Japan could be used for this purpose alone. The disadvantages of the wood consist in its colour (though that is chiefly because of the rather prejudiced preference for ash which is white in appearance), its liability to brown streaks, which follow the lines of the concentric layers, and its somewhat porous nature. A considerable quantity of hewn pieces and roots containing twisted, curly, and fiddled mottle grain were imported into France, Germany, Belgium, and the United Kingdom for veneers before the war, and these were well received. This popularity will probably revive in the future ex- pansion of trade. A considerable number of sleepers have been imported, which, although they are accepted and used largely in Japan, have not found favour in this country. According to Baterden, such use has been made of the wood on the Chinese and Manchurian railways. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 21 The concentric layers are very clearly defined. The pores are open and numerous in the spring growth, but exceedingly small in the autumn growth. The medullary rays are very small, fine, clear, and parallel. In the accompanying drawing, the figure A represents the leaf and fruit of ash (Fraxinus mandschurica), the Japanese “‘ Tamo,” and B is “Sen ” (Acanthopanax ricinifolium). ASPEN. Populus tremula, Linn. Europe. The colour of the wood is a light yellowish-grey ; it is exceedingly tough and close-grained and somewhat resembles alder. It is a beautiful wood, but is very apt to warp and twist. Its most important use is for match-making, for which purpose it is very valuable. A report appeared in the Timber Trades Journal of October 5, 1918, as follows : “‘ At Bitterne, on the banks of the River Itchen, in clearing the ground for extensions to H. J. Beazley’s shipyard and engineering works, an aspen tree was recently cut down. The trunk was over 35 feet high, its girth 134 feet, and when uprooted the base of it measured over 27 feet round, 22 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD the tree appearing to be about a century old. It is interesting to note that around the roots were found numerous fragments of Roman pottery and a considerable number of other relics of the Roman occupation, and some coins, including one of the period of Constantine I. in an absolutely perfect condition. Bitterne Manor marks the site of the local walled Roman city of Clansentum [sic] (Clausentium), the greater part of which site is now occupied by the timber-yard and wharf of W. W. Howard Bros.” Although I have been on this site on many occasions I regret I never observed the tree until it was cut down. When this was done I secured a specimen for examination. The concentric layers are very indistinct and confused, and it is impossible to count the rings or gain any knowledge of the life of the tree. The timber is of a pale yellow-grey colour, with a close, tough texture, and, although not so hard, is rather more like maple than like any ordinary poplar. In seasoning the wood has warped somewhat, and would appear liable to this defect. Banksia. Banksia littoralis, R. Br. Weight, 432 Ibs. (Stone). Western Australia. This wood, which is also called ‘‘ River Banksia,’’ resembles in colour, grain, and general character the cigar-box cedar (Cedrela odorata), without, however, possessing its aromatic scent. It seasons well and stands under all conditions without warping, twisting, or splitting. It was lately recommended as a suitable wood for aeroplane propeller blades. There is rather a scanty supply, and a difficulty in getting it, as it grows very sparsely over a wide extent of country. It is often well figured and is suitable for furniture and decorative work. BARBERRY. Berberis vulgaris, Linn. North America. The name barberry, or more correctly “ bearberry wood,” is given to the wood of Canadian buckthorn (Rhamnus purshiana) and possibly to common buckthorn (R. cathartica). The former is described by Anderson (quoted by Stone) as “used for ornamental purposes . . . one foot in diameter or slightly smaller.”” The barberry wood of commerce may be any of these, or it may be the produce of Bumelia lanuginosa. Generally the wood is of small size, not exceeding 4 inches in diameter. The heart- wood is streaky, of dark and light colour. The sap-wood is a bright yellow when fresh, and retains this colour for many years when screened from the light (as, for instance, in Nérdlinger’s wood-sections). The wood is hard and dense in texture, and is used in turnery and marquetry. The annual rings and medullary rays are well marked, and there is a distinct porous spring-zone. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD = 23 Barwoop. Péerocarpus santalinoides, L’Hérit., or P. angolensis, DC. Weight, 54 lbs. West Africa. The wood is of a bright and vivid red colour, it has a close, firm texture, and is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool. It is imported in short, round logs ranging from 4 to 12 inches in diameter. It is used for the handles of tools and cutlery and would be suitable for turnery. Barwood is also used as a dyewood, and if water is poured on it, the red colouring comes out. The large pores are very unevenly scattered. The light wavy con- centric lines are very noticeable, but no medullary rays are visible. Basswoop. Tilia americana, Linn., T. heterophylla, Vent., and T. pubescens, Ait. Weight, 30 Ibs. North America. True basswood is the wood of several North American species of lime- tree. The name is often, though erroneously, employed in England and Scotland to designate the wood of Liviodendron tulipifera, which is most commonly known under the name of whitewood or canary wood in this country, and yellow poplar or poplar in America. The consequence is that misunderstandings are liable to arise on the rare occasions on which genuine basswood is ordered from the timber merchant, for the latter assumes that whitewood is wanted. Small quantities are imported into Liverpool and London in the form of logs, and in boards and planks from io to 16 feet in length and from 4 to 24 inches in width. The wood imported varies both in tint, which ranges from white to light or greyish brown, and also in quality, this possibly to some extent because it consists of the product of several different species of lime-tree, but also certainly according to the time and manner of felling and storing the produce of the tree. The wood is soft, light in weight, and by no means strong. “Its lightness makes it serviceable as valves and other parts of bellows for .. . organs (mechanical) and piano-players.... Apiarists find no wood more suitable for the small light frames in which bees build the comb. .. . Its whiteness and freedom from stains and unpleasant odours are likewise important when vessels are to contain food-products.”” (Gibson, American Forest Trees, p. 638.) Indeed, Longfellow mentions the wood in this connection, for at the wedding feast of Hiawatha : All the bowls were made of basswood, White and polished very smoothly. In the United States the wood is largely employed, especially in the pianoforte trade, and its uses are very varied, but in England, although it is inquired for in the same trade to a limited extent, there are other woods available that are equally serviceable yet procurable at lower prices, and which, therefore, have the precedence. For joiners’ work it 24 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD is not so serviceable as whitewood as it is liable to warp. It is not more useful for most purposes than tupelo gum, which is less costly. When pure white it is most valuable, but in this condition it is exceedingly difficult to obtain. The annual rings are recognisable though not sharply marked. The pores are small and scattered. The medullary rays are just visible to the naked eye in cross-section. Bauhinia retusa, Ham. Weight, 58 lbs. (Troup). India, Burma. A log of this wood was sent over to the Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington, in 1914. The wood is of a dull, rather dirty brown colour, with almost black streaks which, however, develop gum cracks and other defects, giving altogether a rather unusual appear- ance, on account of which it would be useful for inlay work for cabinets. Gamble says: “‘ The wood is the best of those of the Bauhinias, but is not much used. . . . [The] wood [is] red, with irregular dark red or black patches and streaks near the centre, hard; having pale bands of soft tissue, which alternate with dark bands of firmer texture.” The pores are very variable in both size and position, and the medullary rays are exceedingly fine and regular. Baywoop. In the United Kingdom “‘ baywood ”’ is still sometimes specified in contracts and demanded. What is required is a plain, straight-grained, mild mahogany. The name seems to have arisen in the following manner. When mahogany was first introduced to Europe it was brought from islands in the West Indies that were owned by Spain: it was therefore termed ‘‘ Spanish mahogany.’’ Subsequently there was discovered in the Bay of Honduras a valuable wood, milder, softer, and straighter in the grain, than the other mahogany : this wood was therefore termed “‘ baywood,” and was identical with Honduras mahogany. BEDARU. Urandra (Lasianthera) sp.1 Weight, 58 lbs. 6 oz. Borneo, the Malay Peninsula. This wood has not yet been imported into England in commercial quantities. It is of a light yellow colour, somewhat resembling satin- wood, shows broken streaks of dark and light colour, and is mottled and speckled. It is dense, heavy, and of close texture. It should serve as a useful furniture wood. Foxworthy mentions its use for piling. 1 There appears to be some doubt as to ‘the origin of bedaru, as it has also been referred to another genus, Apodyies, belonging to the same family (Icacinaceae), also to Sideroxylon malaccense in the Malay Peninsula; the authority for its refer- ence to the genus Urandra, as far as Borneo is concerned, is F. W. Foxworthy in The Philippine Journal of Science, vol. iv. p. 542. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 25 In cross-section concentric zones are marked here and there. The scattered pores are invisible, though their arrangement is marked by a white halo round each: under the lens they are seen to be plugged. The numerous medullary rays, though fine, are just visible. BEECH, EuROPEAN. Fagus sylvatica, Linn. Weight, 43 Ibs. The common beech tree is widely distributed over Europe, extending from Great Britain and Norway to Spain ; it is also found in Asia Minor, and occurs even in Japan. The wood is light reddish-brown, moderately hard and heavy, close and even in texture, with a fine silky grain. The trees after being felled should be sawn into planks, boards, and scantlings as soon as possible. If conversion be delayed, incipient decay is soon indicated by the appear- ance of white specks or brownish or pink streaks. The wood is lacking in durability when exposed to alternate dryness or wetness, so that it is unsuited for outdoor constructional work, or for props or railway-sleepers ; moreover it is sensitive to changes in moisture, for it readily warps and cracks. Yet when felled and at once placed under water, beech is very durable. In partial illustration of this statement may be mentioned the beech logs that formed the original foundation of Winchester Cathedral. These were laid in 1262 in successive layers in peat 1 and water to a depth of from 5 to 15 feet. In 1906 Messrs. J. Thompson & Co. (of Peter- borough) raised these water-covered logs, which were found on the out- side to be soft and spongy to a depth of many inches, but at the core to be hard and sound, varying in colour from light brown to dead black. In the dry air of rooms, beech in the form of furniture lasts indefinitely as far as resistance to decay is concerned, but here it is very liable to attack by ‘‘ worm ’’ [beetle], which sooner or later will excavate and with its fine tunnels destroy the wood. Many costly chairs of the Queen Anne period were made of beech, stained and inlaid in beautiful English and Dutch marquetry work. The framework of some of these is often found to be riddled with the ‘‘ shot holes”? of the “‘ worm,”’ which has thus caused the destruction of the furniture. A valuable violoncello has been lately spoilt owing to the appearance of these ‘“‘ worm” holes, which have perforated the sides and back, in which, unfortunately, beech wood had been used. These beetles also continually spread to other furniture, of whatever wood it may be. If, therefore, any article is to last for any considerable length of time, beech should not be used in its construction. Despite these limitations beech wood is valuable, and is employed for many and very varied purposes, since it is strong, elastic, splits well, takes a good polish, and, when steamed, is readily bent. It is used for tools, planes, keys and cogs of machinery, shoe-lasts, boot-trees, toys, malt 1 Probably the peat aided in the preservation of the logs. 26 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD shovels, brushes, and saddle-trees. Another important use is in the making of wrest-planks for pianos, and of the English beech used for this purpose, it has been said that that which is grown in Devonshire or Essex far excels any other. In welding or fusing glass it is used almost exclusively. According to Messrs. J. Powell & Sons, beech-wood billets are used for supplying great local heat whilst large glass objects are being fashioned. All other wood, except beech, produces a white film (sulphur) on lead- potash glass, which is only removed with some difficulty. In this con- nection some sycamore billets used by mistake caused considerable trouble. One of the chief uses of beech is in chair-making. In addition to the manufacture which is carried on in factories, the industry is also plied in the woods of Buckinghamshire and other districts of England. Here the felled trees are sawn through, cleft, and turned into legs and rails for chairs in the same manner, and by the same primitive kind of pole-lathe, as has been in use for centuries. Beech is extensively employed in the brush industry. Its cohesive qualities, associated with a moderate degree of softness, enable this wood to withstand the strain of the close boring without splitting, as do some stronger and harder woods. It also resists the combined action of soap and water to a greater extent than do most timbers. In Hungary for the brush trade the trees are cut into lengths of from 6 to 8 feet ; the resultant drums are then cleft into four quarters, which are set out to dry, and are finally sawn into the necessary sizes. This method of cleavage is wasteful, but yields exceedingly bright, good- coloured timber. In that country the wood is also used for the manu- facture of complete suites of furniture for domestic rooms and offices. Beech is an excellent firewood, and is largely used for this purpose in France. It is also admirably adapted for the production of acetic acid (and acetone) by its destructive distillation. There seems no reason why English beech should not make very good wood-pavement and flooring, if properly creosoted and carefully laid. Indeed for the former purpose it has already been used with fairly satis- factory results. It possesses the necessary tough, spongy quality, and does not become slippery as do some other hardwoods. Its expansion and contraction is also less. An experiment with a block 7} inches long +¢ inches deep by 3 inches wide showed, after being soaked in water for fifteen hours, no change whatever on the two smaller measurements of the block, and only a bare } inch increase on the wide. Similarly in a smaller size, a piece thoroughly dried, 67, inches long by 4} inches wide by § inch thick, showed 6} inches long by 4,2; inches wide by 48 inch thick. The concentric layers are very strongly marked, the pores are small CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 27 and obscure; the medullary rays, which are sharply marked, are very numerous and vary greatly in strength and size. They are very pronounced on the radial section. BEECH, JAPANESE. Fagus sylvatica, Linn., var. Sieboldi,Maxim. Weight, 26 Ibs. Japan. “‘ Beech in Japan is used for making boats, ploughs, handles of tools, rifle-stocks, clogs, spinning-wheels, lacquer ware, and various utensils. . . . Oil from the seeds is used for lighting as well as for food . . . treated with preservatives it is especially suitable for sleepers and foundations.” (Goto.) The wood is very similar to that grown in England, but it is of a more uniform colour, a light yellow brown, not white, and is rather softer and milder, and keeps its shape very well indeed. Although the wood is very soft, the growth is slow and regular. The annual layers are very narrow and uniform. The pores are very small and indistinct, and the medullary rays strong and prominent. BEECH, TASMANIAN, or EVERGREEN BEECH. Fagus Cunninghamit, Hook. Weight, 47 Ibs. (Baterden). Tasmania. Tasmanian Timbers gives the following account of this timber: “ The wood varies from a greyish-brown to a brown-pink ; when planed it takes a beautiful surface, and, like the European beech, always wears smooth. It is a strong, close-grained timber, and, except for the colour, resembles European beech, but is of considerably greater average strength. If cut from a level of 800 feet above sea-level, and felled in the winter, it is a very durable wood for outside work, but it is apt to ‘ go’ between wind and water. It makes splendid felloes, staves, saddle-trees, gun- stocks, and all kinds of turnery, floors, skirtings, and dados. The pinker tints make handsome furniture. The seasoning and treatment of this timber should be exactly that of European beech, and it must be felled in the winter to get the best results. Although there are such large quantities of Cunninghamit in the Island very little of it has been exported hitherto. The difference between the grey and the pink is hard to account for, as they are botanically identical, and there is no apparent reason for the difference.” BEEFwooD. Mimusops globosa, Gaert. Weight, 59 lbs. 11 oz. British and Dutch Guiana. This * wood is imported in the form of square hewn logs ranging from 15 to 40 feet in length, and from 10 to 18 inches square. That from Surinam (Dutch Guiana) is of the better quality, the Demerara (British 1 Other names of this wood, including “‘ bullettre’’ (Bulétre) and ‘‘ bully-tree,” are doubtless perversions of the native name ‘‘balata,’’ and lead to yet another name, ‘‘ bullet-wood.” 28 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Guiana) timber being rather knotty. In the log on calliper measure it averages about 30 to 32 cubic feet to the ton. The wood is a dull plum-red colour, and in this respect it somewhat resembles raw beef. With the plane it yields a very smooth surface, upon which glisten the minute shining specks of substance contained in the pores. Stone and Freeman give the following account of its other qualities: ‘ Very durable, stands exposure, suffers from teredo and worms, . . . fissile, takes nails badly.”” In England it is only in occa- sional demand, and is used in the manufacture of the best umbrella sticks, which, even when thin, are very strong. On the Continent, however, where there is a constant demand, beefwood (of this and possibly other kinds) is used largely for making violin-bows of a second-class quality, walking-sticks, rollers, and tools. The cross-section is marked by concentric layers of various widths (which may represent annual rings) visible to the naked eye, also by numerous light-coloured concentric lines which, like the similar but finer invisible medullary rays, are almost or quite invisible to the naked eye. The small numerous pores are individually invisible, but are linked in small radial lines by light-coloured tissue, and these light radial groups are visible to the naked eye. The pores have contents that are light yellow or orange in my specimen, which in structure and appearance accords with the description given by Stone and Freeman, except that these authors describe the contents of the pores as red. This may be a casual variation, or may denote that mine is a different species of Mimusops. Beefwood is very similar to messaranduba (Leucuma procera) (q.v.) Under the name of beefwood another timber may be encountered, that of Swartzia tomentosa, DC., which appears (judging from Stone and Freeman’s description) to differ inter alia by the tiered structure shown in the tangential section, as well as by the scattered pores. BENTEAK. Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Wall., syn. L. microcarpa, Wight. Weight, 53 lbs. West Coast of India. The wood is of a warm brown colour similar to that of black walnut (Juglans nigra), and has a smooth, close texture and straight grain. It would be much sought for and command a high price if regular supplies were forthcoming. This should be possible, as Gamble says that large sizes in length and squares are obtainable. It is highly suitable for decorative furniture and fittings, and could be used where black walnut is in request. The pores are numerous and irregular in size and position, largely plugged with shining gum. The medullary rays are very fine and scarcely perceptible even with the lens. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 29 Betis. Illipe betis, Blanco. Weight, 56 lbs. The Philippines. “ Foxworthy describes this as “‘a very hard, heavy, durable wood ; . used for piling, ship and boat building, . . . keels of boats, . . . railway ties and sleepers, . . . posts of houses.”’ Bic TREE. Sequoia gigantea, Decaisne. Weight, 24]bs. North America. While this tree is indigenous to North America, it has been very successfully cultivated in England, where, however, it is known as Wellingtonia. It should not be confused, as it often is, with the sequoia or redwood of America. The wood is light, soft, and spongy. It varies in colour from pale yellow to a warm red, with a very broad white sap edge. The concentric layers are usually wide. The wood is generally of little value, as it is brittle and possesses little strength. It is, however, said to be durable in contact with the ground. BILLIAN. Eusideroxylon Zwagert, T. and B. Weight, 70 lbs. (Baterden). Borneo, Malay Peninsula. This timber varies in colour from dark to light brown when first cut, while it deepens almost to black on exposure to light and air. It is one of the hardest and heaviest of the Borneo and Malay woods. It has occasionally been imported, and has been inquired for from time to time in the United Kingdom for some works of importance. Foxworthy mentions its use in heavy construction, bridges, and telegraph and tele- phone poles, and railway ties and sleepers, and says that it is perhaps the best wood in the world for piling. He adds, “‘ Billian is one of the very few woods of Borneo which is known outside this region. It is exported to Europe in some quantity and has been used for piling at several places in Holland and France. It is deserving of wider use, but a few years vigorous exploiting will exhaust the available supply of it.”’ Bircu. Betiula alba, Linn.; B. lenta, Linn., etc. Weight, 47 lbs. 13 oz. Europe, North America. The wood is of a yellowish-red colour, and is very tough and fairly hard, close in texture, and easy to work. It is imported into this country in logs varying from 6 to 20 feet long and 12 to 30 inches wide, and in sawn square-edged planks and boards mostly from Io to 16 feet long and 4 to 18 or 20 inches wide. For many years it was used extensively for furniture of all kinds, but of late, except for inexpensive chairs, it has largely gone out of fashion. It is, however, in great demand for auto- mobile carriage building, for step-boards and frame-work, carts and vans, desks and office furniture, agricultural implements (Spenser in the Faerie Queen speaks of ‘‘ the birch for shafts”), and general woodwork. Some 30 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD of the wood is beautifully figured with wavy, curly grain, and when stained and well polished is a good substitute for mahogany. In America it is employed in this manner for doors and general trimming for hotels and other buildings. In that country it is also used for floors, for which it is admirably adapted. It is remarkable that it is not used for this purpose in the United Kingdom, as it makes a very fine flooring, both as regards appearance and durability. In America, ply-work has of late years consumed large quantities. Other varieties of birch are also used in the same manner both in this country and in America. Amongst these Holtzapffel mentions the following: ‘‘ Betula excelsa, also called yellow birch, has wood much like Betula lenta, and B. nigra is also much esteemed. B. papyracea, paper or canoe birch, is employed by the North American Indians in constructing their portable canoes. B. bhojputtra is a Hima- layan species of which the bark is used for writing upon, and for making the snakes of hookahs.” “The bark of the paper birch, and, to a less extent, that of other species, is as important to the inhabitants of Canada as that of the common birch is to those of Northern Europe. Canoes and lodges are covered with large sheets of bark ; it is placed on shingled roofs under the shingles, to prevent the water from coming through ; and very ornamental boxes, baskets, and other articles are made from it by the Indians. It also serves as a writing material, and I have a clearly written letter from Professor Elrod, sent me by him when, making an expedition in Montana, he ran out of paper. (Elwes and Henry, Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, p. 994.) There is little doubt that the birch planks and boards from America are the produce of all the different varieties mixed indiscriminately, and it may also be the case with the Canadian, as it is doubtful if even experts can certainly discriminate between the wood of the different sorts. British and Continental grown trees are much smaller than Canadian, American, and Japanese. Most of the former is much lighter in colour, though Holtzapffel says that the Russian wood is of a full yellow colour. Three-ply and other veneer in which this bright-coloured wood has been used has lately been imported. A considerable quantity of birch is received from Sweden and Norway in small sizes and sawn squares for various trades. Perhaps the largest demand is for short pieces, about 3 inches square and 6 feet long, which are used for placing in the brick- work of buildings to support the scaffolding. These are called putlogs and are mostly imported from Cristiansund. All sizes are employed for brush-making, and a moderate supply for staves and box-boards is greatly in demand. Holtzapffel notes that the wood is not very durable, and adds, “ the bark of the birch tree is remarkable for being harder and more durable CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 31 than the wood itself ; amongst the northern nations it is used for tiles of roofs, for shoes, hats, etc. The Russians employ the tan of one of the birch trees to impart the scent to Russia leather, which is thereby rendered remarkably durable. The inner bark is used for making the Russia mats.” During the European war, as the shipments of foreign supplies largely ceased, a considerable quantity of British birch was used, especially in the brush trade. On the whole it was found to be quite useful, although it was reported as being not quite so good as the Norwegian wood. The pores are exceedingly small, somewhat plugged. The medullary rays are fine, close, and parallel; the wood shows dense, close, compact growth. With the American wood the pores are larger and more open. The medullary rays are well defined, parallel, and joined at irregular intervals at right angles by deeper-lined veins. The pores and rays of the Canadian wood are similar in all respects to the American, but the general character of the growth is more dense and compact. BircH, JAPANESE. Betula Maximowiczet, B. ulmifolia, B. alba, Linn., var. vulgaris, DC. Weight, 48 Ibs. During the last few years some considerable quantity of hewn square logs from about 8 to 20 feet long and 12 to 36 inches broad have been imported from Japan. It is there termed Shira-kamba (Betula alba). The logs are clean and very sound, with straight hearts, and are of better quality than any of the Canadian or American wood. The colour is a bright yellowish-red, and the wood is slightly harder, tougher, and more closely grained than is the Canadian. I consider it superior to all the other kinds in commercial use for all purposes for which birch is used, but it is doubtful if it can be brought here at such a price that it will compete with the Canadian. Recently some well-made three-ply veneer faced with Japanese birch has been imported, and should prove useful for many purposes. The pores are smaller than in the Canadian wood, and are almost entirely plugged. The medullary rays are fine but distinct, and are joined at right angles by a thin vein which occurs at close intervals. BiscHoFiA. Bischofia javanica, Blume. Weight, 45 lbs. (Gamble). Formosa, India, Burma. This wood is of a dull reddish-brown colour, of close, firm texture, while in appearance it closely resembles American black walnut, though slightly redder. Much of it displays wavy grain. It stands well, but is apt to be riddled with small holes due to the attacks of a kind of boring beetle. The wood has not yet been commercially imported into England. 32 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD The pores are small and evenly distributed. The medullary rays are numerous, fine, parallel, and equidistant. BLACKBEAN. Castanospermum australe, Cunn. Weight, 40 Ibs. (Baterden). New South Wales, Queensland. The merits of this timber are well known in Australia, but it was comparatively unknown in England until utilised in an exhibition at the White City, where a room was completely furnished and panelled with it. Blackbean has an attractive appearance, showing various shades of brown traversed with black streaks, and is often handsomely mottled, so that it resembles slightly bleached East Indian walnut (Albizzia Lebbek). It is close in texture and with the plane yields a fine surface that looks very well when polished ; it is also well adapted for carving. Blackbean is used for the panelling and general woodwork of the library at Australia House, London. The wood gives a most handsome and effective appearance to the richly decorated and carved work, which was carried out by Messrs. Wylie & Lochhead at a cost of £7000. The panelling in the High Commissioner’s room is also of this wood. The pores are visible, rather large, moderately numerous, and plugged with microscopic cists (thyloses). They are scattered and are either found solitary or grouped in minute radial series, up to five pores in number. They are surrounded by an almost white tissue, which cxtends and tapers in a tangential direction and may link on to the next mass, thus giving rise to concentric light lines. The excessively fine and numerous rays are invisible to the naked eye. Biacxsutt. Eucalyptus pilularis, Sm., E. patens, Benth. Weight, 57 Ibs. 5 oz. Western Australia. This is a close-grained, hard wood of a dull brown colour. In common with all the other Eucalyptus species, it shows a marked inequality of the hard and soft grain in seasoning ; it also warps and twists and is inclined to crack. It has been used in London for wood pavements, but not with very satisfactory results. It expands and contracts continually, and for this reason it often causes trouble. It is tough and durable, and, in common with other Australian timbers, and particularly the Eucalypts, it has strong fire-resisting qualities. Blackbutt is a very useful timber for railway waggon building, and for this large quantities have been used in place of oak, and the results were fairly satisfactory. The pores are numerous and in groups; they are partly plugged. The medullary rays are extremely fine and irregular. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD = 33 BLACKWooD, AFRICAN. Dalbergia Melanoxylon, Guill. and Perr. Weight, 89 Ibs. 4 oz. Tropical Africa. This timber is also called black Botany-Bay wood, although this name is now somewhat out of date. It is a dark purple plum-coloured wood, now imported from Mozambique and the east coast of Africa; for this reason it is also known as Mozambique ebony. Mr. A. E. Gardner says it was formerly known as Ebéne du Portugal, and that it is quite a different growth from the ebony of the west coast or the Madagascar ebony. It is probably the same timber reported by Holtzapffel as being of doubtful origin, but that certainly some had been imported from the Mauritius or the Isle of France. He adds, “‘ it is probable that this wood, in common with many others, may have several localities. . . . It is most admirably suited to excentric turning, as the wood is particularly hard, close, and free from pores, but not destructive to the tools, from which, when they are in proper condition, it receives a brilliant polish. It is also considered to be particularly free from any matter that will cause rust, on which account it is greatly esteemed for the handles of surgeons’ instruments.” These characteristics should recommend this wood to the attention of those who are looking for a high-class, reliable substitute for ivory and other articles, now very much more costly, which have been used for the handles of knives and tools. The chief use of African blackwood, how- ever, is for the making of musical instruments. It is imported in billets, from 5 to Io inches in diameter, of irregular growth and shape, and of a faulty description. The pores and the medullary rays are equally indistinguishable with the lens. The Bombay blackwood, otherwise known as rosewood (q.v.) and well known in the timber trade, is the product of Dalbergia latifolia, Roxb. BLAcKwoop, AUSTRALIAN. Acacia Melanoxylon, R. Br. Weight, 48 and 57 lbs. (other specimens stated to be as low as 36 lbs.). Australia (including Tasmania). In colour the wood varies from rich reddish-brown to nearly black, banded with golden brown; sometimes it is brown and red with dark streaks, and may show metallic lustre. Its grain is close, often curly, and it appears to be somewhat cross-grained, so that the wood often shows pretty figure and mottle. It is easily worked and is susceptible of a fine polish, but must be thoroughly seasoned. Mr. Baker (in his work The Cabinet Woods of Australia) states that blackwood should perhaps be placed second only to Cedrela Toona as an Australian cabinet timber. As a handsome decorative wood it has been used for fittings in banks, railway-cars, passenger steamers; and a mantelpiece made of this wood was exhibited some years ago in the Colonial Exhibition at D 34 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Earl’s Court. It has been successfully used to make gun-stocks. It is, moreover, a strong timber, and Mr. C. Lyne (Minister of Lands and Works) wrote in 1903: “‘ Orders are now being supplied to the Admiralty for use in the construction of gun-carriages in the arsenals, where it has been tested and given satisfaction.” It is not well known, and has not been much used in the United Kingdom, where it might with advantage be employed in decorative and cabinet work. The wood in cross-section shows alternating darker and lighter con- centric bands, which may denote the presence of annual rings ; the pores themselves are invisible (though clear enough in side-view), but their positions and scattered arrangement are revealed by reason of the light haloes surrounding each tiny group; the medullary rays are invisible and so fine as to be only just recognisable with the magnifying glass (12 x ). Boehmeria rugulosa, Wedd. Weight, 41 lbs. India. This timber is unknown in commerce though possessing remarkable qualities : it probably surpasses all other woods for carved work. The colour is a light salmon-red darkening on exposure to the air to a dull red mahogany shade. The sap-wood is an unsightly dirty brown. The trees are liable to the attack of small worms or beetles, and also to a grub which leaves a larger hole. The wood works easily, and the grain is straight and takes a very smooth surface from the tool. Troup says it is ‘‘ apparently not to be obtained in large size... not common in India, being found scattered in the Forests.’’ Gamble mentions that it is used for making bowls, cups, plates, and all kinds of domestic utensils . . . for which its character of being easily cut and carved without splitting or warping, well adapts it.” The Rajah of Nepaul presented a marvellous piece of native carved work in this wood to Mr. H. J. Elwes on his last visit to India. It would be greatly esteemed by the artist craftsman for fine work if it became known and supplies were available. The concentric layers are clearly marked. The pores are scattered irregularly between the rays, mostly plugged with shining specks of solid substance. The numerous medullary rays are thick, parallel, but not regular, Bombax insigne, Wall. Weight, 31 Ibs. Andaman Islands, India, Burma. Like the well-known cotton tree, Bombax malabaricum, this yellowish- white, soft, perishable, and non-durable timber is not likely to find much use in Europe. It is used in India for cheap work such as planking and packing-cases. In structure it is similar to B, malabaricum, except that the pores are smaller and less scanty. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 35 Boxwoop. Sources various. Ordinary genuine boxwood is derived from the evergreen shrub or tree Buxus sempervirens, Linn., which is familiar as a shrub in English gardens, but also occurs in sunny places in this country as a wild plant. Extending over a large part of Europe from Norway to the Mediterranean, thence across Asia as far as Japan and the Himalayas in India, it is mainly a shrub in the northern situations, but attains a tree form in countries bordering the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, the Himalayas and, remarkable to mention, in England at Box Hill in Surrey and other places. While the commercial wood is of all the following kinds, British, Mediter- ranean, Turkish, Abasian, Persian, and Himalayan, yet the main supplies come from the countries bordering on the Black Sea. All these woods will be described under the general heading of European and Asiatic boxwood. How considerable has been the trade in Caucasian and Persian boxwood is seen from the quantities exported to England, France, and Turkey, which are reported in Tvees of Great Britain and Ireland (Elwes and Henry). From the Caucasus between 1883 and 1887 there was a yearly average of 2340 tons, and from Persia in 1906, 1560 tons. Since 1890 the Caucasian trade has diminished, and in 1895 the total export had fallen to 1200 tons. In addition to these European and Asiatic varieties genuine boxwood of another kipd, the product of Buxus Macowani, comes from south-west Africa and is known as African or East London boxwood. This name is also given to the dangerously poisonous wood of another South African tree, Gonioma Kamassi, E. Mey, also known as Knysna boxwood and Kamassi wood. These will be described under the heading of African boxwood, which also includes a third kind. Other so-called boxwoods, which are not products of Buxus and lack some of the qualities of true boxwood, are the West African, West Indian, Ceylon, and Australian box- woods. ‘Of these the West Indian is the only variety which has yet occupied any important place in commercial usage. The wood is light yellow, very hard and heavy, of dense, most uniform texture and very fine grain. This unique homogeneous wood has, when fully seasoned, the further valuable property of resisting splitting, and of yielding a fine surface when turned or planed. It has, therefore, special uses in the manufacture of wood-engraving blocks, rulers, mathe- matical instruments, handles of tools, planes, shuttles, wood wind instru- ments, combs, and inlay work. During the European war, although many other descriptions of wood were tried, boxwood alone was found capable of resisting the great strain of hammering the load into shells, and was so used in the form of what are termed “ punners” or “‘ stemming rods.” These are circular rods 1} inches in diameter, and varying in length from 14 inches to about 3 feet. The rod is struck by hand with a mallet with 36 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD considerable force. Of the different varieties used the British and African (Buxus Macowani) have proved to be the strongest. The West Indian has given fairly satisfactory results, but although less wasteful in con- version, has not proved so strong. In some cases the trees exhibit loose growth, and the wood in drying splits spirally. Exposed to damp, it is very liable to deteriorate, under- going discoloration and a form of decay. During seasoning it is very apt to split. For this reason large logs are sometimes quartered, or the square log is cut down the middle of its four faces. In France, according to Beauverie (Les Bois industruelles; Paris, 1910), special precautions are taken to prevent splitting, the wood being either stored during season- ing in a dark room or cellar until ready for use, or immersed for twenty- four hours in cold water, in which it is afterwards boiled for some time. It is then wiped and dried and protected from light and air by being kept in sand or bran. About a hundred years ago, the workmen in Scottish factories where shuttles were made, kept the wood stored for two years in dry pits slightly below the level of the ground, and covered with dry straw or hay. When they were ready to use it, it was steamed for about twenty- four hours in a steam chest and was then roughed out to what was approximately the size required, after which it was found to stand perfectly. The result of these natural deficiencies is that the trade in boxwood is very speculative. For instance, before the war, if a block of boxwood was split it would sink in value from £60 to £4 per ton. Abasian boxwood for wood engraving purposes for the best work is perhaps the sole kind for which a satisfactory substitute cannot be found. Formerly pieces of boxwood found unsuitable for engraving were utilised in the manufacture of various articles, including shuttles, but the intro- duction from the United States of persimmon and cornel wood, which are adequate substitutes in the weaving trade, has caused a heavy decline in the demand for Abasian and Persian wood. The sawdust is used for cleaning jewellery, and is much in request since the war, realising as much as {9 and more per ton. The transverse grain reveals with the aid of the lens very little structure. The tree grows very slowly,so that the annual rings are narrow and more or less inclined to be sinuous, and though recognisable to the naked eye, are not very sharply marked. The medullary rays are so fine as to be only just visible ; sometimes, indeed, they are invisible to the naked eye in transverse section. The pores are so minute that even with a lens the wood might be mistaken by a novice for a very hard, coniferous wood, CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 37 Boxwoop, AFRIcan. Buxus Macowani, Oliv. Weight, 54 Ibs. 11 oz. South Africa. An alternative name which is sometimes used, is East London box- wood. The colour is a bright yellow, very similar to the Turkish variety, but a little brighter, and with a slight tendency to be flecked with small black marks. The wood is firm, dense, hard, and very strong, and compares favourably with the Turkish. It is imported in logs ranging from 3 to 20 feet in length and 1} to 9 inches in diameter, with a few larger pieces. The timber is available in apparently unlimited quantities. It is slightly more wasteful in conversion than the other kinds, as it develops small faulty places, knots, and wens. It stands well and is not so liable to split in the log as either the Persian or West Indian wood. It is desirable, however, that the same care should be taken with its storage as is necessary with other kinds of boxwoods. The structure of the wood most resembles that of the British, with which it compares favourably. The medullary rays are slightly less noticeable and numerous. Boxwoop, EuroPEAN. Buxus sempervirens, Linn. (I) BritisH. Weight, 70 lbs.—This can be obtained in diameters from I inch to about 4 inches, with a few larger pieces which measure perhaps up to about 7 inches. The intrinsic quality of the wood compares favourably with the best known Abasian, and it seems probable that its present unfavourable reputation is largely due to want of care in the manner in which it is harvested. It is important that it should only be cut down during the month of January. Immediately after the felling of the trees the wood should be placed in a dry pit a little below the level of the ground, and covered with dry straw. If possible it should remain in this position for two years before use. It should then be removed only as required, and in no circumstances should it be taken into a hot work- room and be allowed to remain there for even a few hours. It should then be shaped roughly to the required pattern and placed in a steam box and thoroughly steamed. After this process it can be used for the most difficult work without fear of splitting. It is whiter than the other sorts, and a little more liable to a bluish discoloration. In the early part of the eighteenth century British boxwood was in great demand. Elwes and Henry mention that as much had been cut down at Box Hill within a few years (of 1712 A.D.) as amounted in value to £3000. Now, however, the report says that only {1 per ton can be obtained, and “‘even at that low price no one seems to want it.’’ Since the war it has been more in request, and it is to be hoped that in the future its undoubted value may be recognised once more, and greater care taken in its preservation and use. 38 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Holtzapffel says: “It is more curly in growth than the Turkey box- wood ... preferred by brassfinishers for their lathe-chucks, as it is tougher than the foreign box, and bears rougher usage.” (2) ABASIAN.—This wood is unrivalled for use in the making of engraving blocks, for which purpose the diameters required are 44 inches and upwards (formerly the minimum demanded was 6 inches, but the tendency has been to reduce this). Curiously enough, this most costly boxwood is demanded for printing on the cheap paper used in the thousands of illustrated catalogues now issued so extensively from shops. Cheaper boxwood, such as Persian, would produce a blurred illustration on a cheap paper, and it is found more economical to use poor paper and good boxwood than the reverse. It is imported in clean, straight, round pieces from about 2 inches up to 8 inches, though it is sometimes receivedin larger dimensions: it is generally very sound and free from defects. The price before the war was about £50 to £55 per ton, advancing since to {60 and £65, which is about the same as it was some few years ago. For a wood which is so slowly grown and is of such a close texture, the shrinkage in seasoning is considerable. A test case showed that on the radial growth the shrinkage in drying, measured on a diameter of 1} inches, amounted to 7's inch, but on the tangential growth it was as much as 75 inch. (3) JAPANESE. Buxus sempervirens, Linn., var. japonica.—In Japan boxwood, or asame-tsuge, which is the Japanese name, is used for the best kind of engraving, but cherry (Prunus Pseudo-cerasus, Lindl., var. spontanea), of which the native name is yama-zakura, is also used, as it is more plentiful and less costly than boxwood. Boxwoop, East Inpian. Canthium didymum, Roxb. Weight, 50 to 57 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Ceylon. Gamble says : “ In Ceylon, its resemblance to boxwood has caused it to be called Ceylon boxwood. . . . Wood white (Ceylon) or light brown (India), hard, close- and even-grained.”” It is now rarely seen in England, and indeed has never been procurable except in small quantities. It is well grown ; from 6 to 18 inches in diameter and about 3 feet long. It was used in the past to some extent for engraving, but was not found hard enough to yield good results. On account of its size large shuttles were made of it, particularly those which were used in the manufacture of silk. Boxwoop, Knysna. Gonioma Kamassi, E. Mey. Weight, 52 lbs. 8 oz. Africa, The wood is a reddish-brown, rather deeper in colour than that of other boxwoods ; it is sometimes stained a browner tint towards the sap edges. Of recent years a considerable quantity has been imported, in straight, clean, well-grown logs, in diameters varying from 5 to 12 inches, CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 39 and sometimes a little more, many of the butts being fluted ; it converts into sound, clean pieces of good lengths. It is favourably reported on for many purposes for which other boxwoods are used, but it causes some trouble to those who work it. Either the dust or some other objectionable quality in it inflames the nose and eyes, and causes feverish symptoms. The workmen seem to recover quickly and are not attacked a second time, although there is always a certain tendency to inflammation of the eyes. In growth and characteristics it resembles the West Indian boxwood, except that the medullary rays are straight and not wavy. Boxwoop, West INDIAN. Tecoma pentaphylla, Juss. Weight, 59 Ibs. Ioz. West Indies, Venezuela, Brazil. ’ The colour of the wood is yellowish-white, rather brighter than that of the Turkish or British. The grain is close, firm, and smooth. Itisa beautifully grown wood, often attaining the height of 70 feet, practically free from a single knot throughout its length. At the extreme top the tree branches out into a tuft of foliage. Large supplies are available within easy reach of the shipping ports. It is generally shipped cut into lengths of 7 feet or 2 metres and from about 6 to 14 inches in diameter, while occasionally there are larger pieces. This variety of boxwood is the only one for which the world’s demand is increasing. In France and Germany, besides other uses, it is extensively employed for making small combs. In this country it is used for inlay work and banding in cabinets, and for marquetry ; for handles of all kinds of tools, for brush backs, mathematical instruments and rules, barometer backs, and many kinds of turned work, but it is not sufficiently strong and tough to be satisfactory for shuttles. It is sometimes stained and used for black wood, for which it is very satisfactory. A very large quantity was consumed during the war for making “‘ punners ’ or ramming rods for loading high-explosive shells, for which work it possessed the necessary tensile strength to make it very satisfactory. It is liable to become rather discoloured or blue-stained if kept long in the log. It should be stored, as close piled as possible, in a place that is not too airy and is entirely shielded from all wind and sun, preferably below the level of the ground and in a slightly damp position, as it is very liable to crack and split. It should never be removed from one position to another while seasoning if this can be avoided. The pores are exceedingly small and ill-defined, the growth being very dense. The medullary rays are very fine, close, and parallel, but wavy and ribbed. Brauna Parpa. Melanoxylon brauna, Weight, 66 Ibs. (Beterden). Brazil. According to Brazilian Woods this is “‘ An excellent wood for props and 40 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD railway sleepers owing to its durability. It furnishes a black paint and its sap is medicinal.”’ Baterden speaks of it as being “‘a tawny or grey wood, exceedingly strong, nearly three times as strong transversely as pitch pine, good for uprights and wall-plates of framed houses, stands wet and dry weather, and is much used for timbering in mines. It can be had in logs 60 to 70 feet long and up to 4o inches square. A first-class sleeper wood.”’ Brazil-woop. Caesalpinia echinata, Lam. The West Indies. While the true brazil-wood is, correctly, of the above-named species, SOME OF THE GOVERNMENT E more than one botanical species has been supplied and some confusion has resulted accordingly. Holtzapffel gives brazil-wood as above, sappan wood as C. sappan, and brazilletto as C. braziliensis. Messrs. J. Gardner & Sons, who probably have the best available information at present, say that brazil, brazilletto, and Pernambuco wood have always been regarded as the same. The wood of these varieties is of a rich, bright-red colour, and is mostly used as a dye-wood, while the best pieces are selected for turning and for violin bows. For this last purpose, although many different kinds of timber have been tried, there is nothing that will yield the same result as the Pernambuco or brazil-wood, and many players will use no other kind on account of the peculiar strong, resilient spring only to be found in this CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 41 wood. When planed it has a bright, metallic, lustrous surface, and shows fine, snake-like nipple marks. A fairly satisfactory substitute has been found in tapang, a Borneo wood (q.v.). Although much lighter in colour, it resembles brazil-wood in many respects, even possessing the same ripple marks. Briar-root. Evica arborea, Linn. Southern Europe. This fine hard wood, which is imported from France, is common to Southern Europe and Algeria. It is not, as is often supposed, the root of the rose briar, but of a very large heath. The name is a corruption of EPHANTS, ANDAMAN ISLANDS, the French brwvére (heath). It supplies what 1s probably the only really suitable wood for making tobacco-pipes, in which connection its dark- brown, mottled appearance is familiar. BUCKEYE, Onto. Aesculus octandra, Marsh. Ae. glabra, Willd. Weight, 28 lbs. (Hough). Eastern United States. The timber of this tree, which is very similar to the English horse- chestnut, is probably the mixed product of Aesculus octandra, Ae. glabra, and perhaps also of Ae. octandra hybrida. It is not known commercially in the United Kingdom, but it is in considerable use in America for the same purposes for which horse-chestnut is in demand in this country. Gibson says: ‘‘ Many an Ohio statesman of former times boasted that as 42 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD a baby he was rocked in a buckeye sugar trough for a cradle.” The same authority also mentions the use of this wood by the makers of artificial limbs, who consider it one of their best materials. Bursera serrata, Colebr. Weight, 46 lbs. India. The wood is of a reddish-brown, about midway between the colour of teak and mahogany, with a close, even texture, a straight grain, and rather a shiny surface, which becomes quite smooth from the tool. It should be useful for furniture and general cabinet work, and would make a good substitute for mahogany. The concentric layers are marked by light, thin bands. The pores are very small, numerous, and regular. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine and small, and are only just visible with the lens (12 x). Butternut. Juglans cinerea, Linn. Weight, 25 lbs. North America. This wood, apart from its colour, which is a yellowish-grey, resembles black walnut (Juglans nigra), q.v., in all respects. Some years ago it formed a regular supply in the United Kingdom, but latterly this has been discontinued. It does not appear likely that it will play any important part in the supplies in the future. CaBILMA, CABIRMA. Cedrela angustifolia, Mog and Sesse(?). San Domingo. This little-known timber from San Domingois verysimilar tomahogany from the same region, and resembles it both in weight and texture ; it is however much browner, though not of the same tint as sabicu. It has been and is rarely imported, but would be of use in the manufacture of high-class chairs, for it is strong and durable, and stands well when thoroughly seasoned. (My tentative reference of this wood to the member of the mahogany family, Cedrela angustifolia, rests on the authority of a San Dominican correspondent.) Calophyllum spectabile, Willd. Weight, 38 lbs. The Andaman Islands. Of a light red colour and smooth, shining surface, this wood somewhat resembles cedar in appearance. It is available in squares up to 30 feet long by 18 inches siding. There is a fair quantity which will probably soon be seen in European markets. It is used in the Andamans for rough work such as planks and packing-cases. “Pores large, in scattered groups and wavy lines prominent on a longitudinal section. Medullary rays fine, very numerous, prominent in the silver-grain as long, straight, dark-coloured narrow plates. Concentric lines of soft tissue, interrupted, visible on a vertical section.’’ (Gamble.) CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 43 Calophyllum tomentosum, Wight. Weight, 30 Ibs. India. The wood, which is the produce of the poon-spar tree, is of a light reddish-brown colour with dark gum streaks, and a slightly lustrous appearance. Gamble says : “‘ The tree yields the poon-spars of commerce, but the spars are now in but small demand. . . . The wood is now in use for building and bridge work.”” Pearson says that it has been used in the Naval Dockyard, Bombay, as spars, masts, and crane shafts. It would be appreciated in the United Kingdom as a furniture and cabinet wood, and possesses many qualities that would bring it into favour. The pores are of moderate size, irregular in position in wavy groups. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine and numerous, parallel and equidistant. rT CaMPHOR Woop. True camphor. Cinnamomum Camphora, Nees and Eberm. Laurus Camphora, Linn. Weight, 40 Ibs. 11 oz. China, Formosa, Japan. There is no evidence to show whether the timber which has been imported is the produce of either one sort or the other. Some sawn planks were imported from China in 1911 as true camphor, and were found to consist of 75 per cent of a wood which resembled camphor wood in colour only. This wood has a very strong scent of balsam of aniseed, and it was found to be soft and woolly, and to shrink and warp and twist in seasoning, quite contrary to the true camphor wood, which stands well ; it was altogether unsatisfactory. The remainder was of a yellowish colour with dark red or reddish-brown streaks, and, having a very strong scent of camphor, was, no doubt, genuine camphor wood. In 1912 Mr. H. J. Elwes had a number of planks and some exceedingly fine burrs imported from Formosa. They were of large size, ranging up to 4 feet square ; they were very handsomely marked, nothing ever having been previously seen like them. There were also some planks of Formosan camphor wood in the Japanese Exhibition at the White City. This wood was less streaky and slightly browner in colour, harder in grain and of better quality, with the scent of camphor wood exceedingly pronounced. Camphor wood can hardly be said to be in commercial use in this country ; it is generally seen in seamen’s ship’s trunks. In China it is largely used for boxes, linings of drawers, cupboards, wardrobes and receptacles for storing furs, where it is particularly valued on account of its immunity from the attack of insects or moth, and it is to be regretted that it is not more commonly appreciated in this country for use in such work. Fox- worthy speaks of it as being durable for both interior and exterior work on this account. He says that it is durable in water, and has been valued from ancient times in shipbuilding. The greater part of the available 44 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD supplies are used for the extraction of camphor, which makes the wood difficult and costly to obtain. The pores are irregular in size and position, and are not very well defined. The medullary rays are neither regular nor clearly marked. CaMPHOR Woop, Borneo. Dryobalanops aromatica, Gaert. Borneo, Sumatra. Although Foxworthy refers to some species of Cinnamomum in Borneo and the Philippine Islands, the wood known in the United Kingdom as Borneo camphor wood is considered to be that of Dryobalanops. He says: ‘‘ The Borneo camphor wood is obtained from species of Dryo- balanops, of the family of Dipterocarpeae, and does not have an odour like camphor, except in the neighbourhood of the camphor deposits.’” Dr. Hose, who lived in Borneo for many years, says that the natives call the wood “ padji”; and the name “kapor,” which they pronounce “‘karpaw,”’ was probably introduced by the Malays. He says that the real camphor tree of Borneo and Sumatra is Dryobalanops aromatica, and is known to the Malays as kapor barus, and several species of Dipterocarpeae resembling the camphor tree are usually known as kapor. Kapor-paya and kapor- bukit are distinguished by the locality in which they grow. Kapor-paya is a swamp tree growing in low country on alluvial soil, whilst kapor-bukit is a tree growing on hilly and undulating country, and resembling the swamp variety in every way except durability. He adds that these timbers continue to shrink more than the timber of Dryobalanops, and also that the different varieties of Dipterocarpeae are so numerous and so much alike that they are almost bound to become confused. The timber is of a dull, light, reddish-brown colour and has gummy pores. It has an aromatic scent, but not that of camphor. After exposure to light and air it darkens somewhat to the colour of teak. It has a hard surface, and works with a good finish from the machine plane, in which it resembles yang, eng, and gurjun. It has been said that it will not be used by engineers and builders in this country as the timber is defective, but this cannot be substantiated, as the supplies have, on the contrary, been of faultless quality. It is this, and also the fact that large squares and long lengths can be obtained, which gives it its present important position as a useful and much inquired-for timber. As with the other species of Dipterocarpeae, the principal trouble is the difficulty of seasoning it satisfactorily. Boards 1 inch by 4 inches cut for flooring have shrunk with hot air desiccating, after being seasoned previously for six years. The best results have been obtained by natural seasoning for two years or more and then desiccating with hot air. The wood contains a kind of gum similar to that of gurjun. Any contact of iron or steel, if all moisture is not excluded, causes an unsightly black stain, and it is not CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD $45 safe, therefore, to use iron nails or screws if the work is to be exposed to damp. In England it appears to be durable in exposed work, but so far sufficient time has not been allowed for any reliable test. In such work the grain does not wear to a ridgy surface as with some hard woods, and there is not such a marked difference between the soft and hard grain. In this respect it is excellent for floorings. The grain is not fibrous, and its hard but not too slippery surface withstands the wear of shuffling feet or of nailed boots. It is also a valuable timber for general con- structional work. One or two authorities in Borneo report it as a good wood for all purposes, and it is much valued in its native country, where, if it were not subject to the attack of white ant, it would be much more extensively used. The pores are regular in size and position; the medullary rays are well defined and parallel. CAMPHOR Woop, Formosan. Machilus Thunbergit, S. and Z. Weight, 41 Ibs. Formosa. This wood must not be confused with the true camphor of Formosa (Cinnamomum Camphora), from which it is very different. It is of a rather dirty-brown colour, but with a very bright lustrous surface which, with its lighter and darker marking, gives it a very pleasing appearance. It possesses a slight aromatic scent, though not that of camphor. It would be useful as an attractive cabinet or decorative wood, for in colour and appearance it is quite unusual. Mitsui & Co. give its estimated quantity available as 5,000,000 cubic feet. The pores are small, very regular in size and position, and very clean and clearly defined. The medullary rays are fine, clearly defined, parallel, and equidistant. CANALETE. Source unknown. Weight, 51 lbs. 13 oz. West Indies. This wood is dense and hard, and has been imported in round pieces from 6 to 10 inches in diameter. The heart-wood is of a deep, purplish- lilac colour marked with thin black streaks running with the grain, and having a bright metallic lustre. The sap-wood, which is from ? to 13 inches wide and sometimes more, is bright yellow. The wood is fairly sound-hearted, free from cuppy shakes, stands well, and for some purposes should be a good substitute for lignum vitae. It is also useful for tool and knife handles, turnery and walking sticks, and makes a handsome butt-end for billiard cues. The wood is marked by alternate concentric bands in which pores are more or less numerous. These are invisible, but their positions and scattered arrangement are indicated by a white halo surrounding the groups and slightly linking them tangentially. The numerous fine 46 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD medullary rays are visible to the naked eye by reason of their light colour and sharp lines. CANELLA-PRETA. Nectandva mollis, Nees. Weight, about 50 Ibs. (Baterden). Brazil. Baterden applies this name to the species Cumamodendron oxillare, which he describes as a grey-coloured wood, and as one of the first-class sleeper-woods on the Bahia railways. In Brazilian Woods canella-preta is spoken of as being strong and compact, and very much used for ceilings and panels. CANELLA TAPINHOAN. Source unknown. Weight, 48 lbs. Brazil. The wood is of a pale straw colour, and resembles Indian yellow wood and West African acacia. It is fairly soft and mild, lighter in weight and colour, and more open in grain than another Brazilian timber which is called tapinhoan. It is reported as being used in Brazil for under- water construction. It would form a good substitute for the plainer sorts of mahoganies. The pores are rather uniform and regular and of a fairly even size. The medullary rays are fine and regular. CANGERANA. Cabralea cangerana, Sald. Gam. Weight, 34 Ibs. Brazil. The wood is straight-grained, and of a bright-red mahogany colour, with a wide sap line which is of a bluish-red hue. It resembles the plainer and commoner sorts of South American mahoganies. It is reported as being used in Brazil for doors and windows, and being particularly notable in that it does not shrink, warp, nor bend, which good character is upheld by its appearance and texture. The pores are small and ill-defined. The medullary rays are not traceable even with the aid of the lens (12 x). CaRALLiA Woop. Carallia integerrima, DC. Weight, 46 Ibs. (Troup). India, Burma. There is no regular import to the United Kingdom. The small quantity which arrives here usually consists of pieces nailed together in the shape of a square open tube, of which two sides consist of slats, the pieces being used as ventilation pipes for carrying grain cargoes, which, to clear the ship, are sold on arrival for firewood. Troup thinks there is only a limited supply. The wood is hard, and very similar in texture to British-grown live oak, except that it is of a strong reddish colour. ‘“ [It] is very handsome and useful for furniture and cabinet-making, especially when cut to show the beautiful silver grain to advantage... .’’ (Gamble.) CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 47 The wood seasons well and does not warp, but is somewhat liable to crack. The trees are of medium size, and the timber should always be cut on the quarter; the open pores are very resinous. Carapa moluccensis, Lam. Weight, 43 lbs. India, Burma. Considerable quantities of this wood, in squares of 20 feet x 12 inches x 12 inches, are available. It is red to purple in colour and is hard and durable. It is suitable for furniture, and is also used in Burma for house- and boat-building and for tool handles and wheel-spokes. Careya arborea, Roxb. Weight, 50 lbs. India, Burma. A dark red, even-grained wood, this can be obtained in squares up to 25 feet x 12 inches x 12 inches. It is durable, and seasons and polishes well. It lasts well under water and is said to be teredo-proof. It is used for gun-stocks, building, house-posts, planking, and furniture ; it might be well adapted for paving blocks. It is obtainable in large quantities. Cassia Fistula, Linn. Weight, 61 Ibs. India, Burma. This very hard, heavy, close-grained wood is the produce of the Indian laburnum. It is of a brick-red colour, darkening on exposure to light. According to the reports it is obtainable only in small size, and is rather brittle and apt to split. It would be a useful wood for turning, inlay, and fine cabinet work. The pores and the medullary rays are exceedingly fine and small, with short, light-coloured ripple waves following irregular lines. Castanopsis brevi-spina, Hay. Weight, 41 lbs. Formosa. The wood is of a light nut-brown colour marked with a pretty pattern caused by the pores. It takes a very smooth surface, showing the clash of the medullary ray when cut on the quarter. It has a very nice texture, and has every quality for standing well without shrinking or warping. It has never been imported into England. The pores are rather scarce and irregular. The medullary rays are numerous and fine, and joined at right angles by similar white lines giving the appearance of a fine spider’s web. CEDAR, Under this commercial name a motley of woods is included. In the first place comes the true cedar, a coniferous genus, Cedrus, of which there are three species-or varieties: the cedar of Lebanon, the deodar, and the Mount Atlas cedar. Another coniferous type, the Port Orford cedar (Cupressus Lawsoniana) might more correctly be termed a cypress, for the tree is familiar in gardens under the name of Lawson’s cypress. The 48 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD pencil cedars, being the wood of several American species of Juniperus, are truly junipers and likewise conifers. All these woods possess a very fragrant scent. It is not surprising that the name cedar has popularly, and hence commercially, been attached to the cigar-box cedar, a West Indian wood derived from a tree (Cedrela odorata) which is in no way allied to Cedrus, but is a member of the mahogany family (Melaceae). Other species of Cedrela, including the Indo-Australian C. Toona and C. australis, and the Paraguayan cedar C. braziliensis, are more or less fragrant and receive the name cedar. The wood of Cedvela in many respects resembles mahogany, and is to some extent characteristic, so that the name has been extended to various American, African, etc., woods which more or less resemble in appearance those of Cedrela, though not necessarily possessing any fragrance or strong scent. Some of the woods belong to the mahogany family, some do not, while the sources of still others are unknown. Then again there is in British and Dutch Guiana, the so-called cedar, the product of Protium altissimum. The wood is not a true cedar, nor has it any of the characteristics, and it is entirely without the fragrant scent usually associated with that wood. Further confusion arises owing to the fact that between mahogany and cedar woods of the Cedrela type there exist transitional forms, which are termed mahoganies or cedars according to the will of the vendor. Indeed in some of these mixed species from the West Coast of Africa it has been found that even the produce of one tree, and indeed, one side of an individual tree, has displayed cedar characteristics which were absent in the remainder. (See p. 58, West African Cedar.) Beyond these commercial woods lie others, locally termed cedars, though unfamiliar in the English market : among such are the American conifers, red cedar (Juniperus occidentalis) and white cedar (Libocedrus decurrens and Cupressus thyoides), the red cedar (Cunonia capensis) of Cape Colony, the red cedar (Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Wight) of Sikkim, and the New Zealand cedar pahautea (Libocedrus Bidwillit). CEDAR, AFRICAN PENCIL. Juniperus procera, Hoch. Weight, 4o Ibs. East Africa. During 1910, according to the Kew Bulletin (No. 2193), 31,000 logs of this timber were imported into Germany from East Africa. The wood is of a dark-red or rose colour, harder, more brittle, and slightly heavier than that of J. virginiana. Though it has the fragrance of the latter, perhaps a little fainter, the wood has not been so favourably received in the United Kingdom, but on account of the inferior quality and scarcity of supply from other sources it is probable that its use will largely increase. For such work as panelling, provided that reasonable-sized picces free CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD § 49 from defects were forthcoming, it would be superior to any other pencil cedar yet imported, as it is of acloser texture. The quality is exceedingly good, and it takes a sharp edge for either surface or mouldings. When cut on the quarter the medullary rays are strongly marked, as in beech, and the surface of the wood presents a slightly lustrous appearance. The concentric layers are marked by thin dark lines. The pores are exceedingly small although numerous, and the medullary rays are clearly and strongly marked. CEDAR, CENTRAL AMERICAN. Cedvela odorata, Linn., and probably other species of Cedrela. Weight, 27 lbs. 9 oz. and 33 lbs. oz. Honduras, Mexico, Cuba, West Indies, Panama; Central America generally. The wood is imported in square hewn logs and in the round, ranging from 6 to 40 feet in length and over, and from ro to 40 inches in squares. The timber from the different sources above-mentioned is sufficiently alike to classify it under one description. Logs from Honduras or Tobasco are generally larger and supply the largest dimensions; those from Jamaica and Cuba provide the smallest. The wood is light red in colour, generally straight in the grain, open, porous, soft towards the heart, of light weight and rather brittle. Some logs, however, are beautifully figured, with wavy, curly, and mottled grain, which resembles the roe and mottle and fiddle-mottle figure found in mahogany. It exhales a very fragrant agreeable scent which is remarkably persistent. The wood works easily, shrinks only moderately, and stands exceed- ingly well when seasoned. On account of its reliable nature and light weight it is valuable for veneering on for fitments for yachts, especially when built for racing, where it has been used both for plain or decorative work, the more figured wood, either solid or veneered, giving exceedingly handsome effects. It is also used for pattern-making, modelling, carving, and many kinds of furniture work, especially for the linings and drawers of cabinets, where the fragrant scent is agreeable, and is a protection from the attack of moth or any insect. The longer trees are much sought for to provide boards for planking dingheys, racing and pleasure boats, where the comparative strength and lightness of weight provides all that is required. It is used for wide panels for railway coaches, especially where curved, as it is pliable and can be safely bent for this purpose with- out splitting ; also for the arms of telegraph signals on railways, where this wood appears to be the most suitable to stand the required strain. Formerly the figured wood, and especially the curls or crotches, were much used in veneers for panels for wardrobes, bookcases, and cabinets : in a great many of the panels for tallboy clocks beautifully figured cedar E 50 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD will be found. By far its largest use, however, is for cigar-boxes. It was undoubtedly originally chosen for this purpose to the exclusion of all other woods, partly on account of the scent harmonising with that of the tobacco leaf, but principally because its porous nature, whilst allowing the moisture in the wet cigar to free itself, also admits moisture from without when the cigar is becoming too dry, thus keeping the tobacco in its best condition. The cigar merchant, however, seems to have strangely forgotten this advantage, and having begun by pasting a label on the box, has gradually increased the use of paper and gum, until in many cases the valuable wood is entirely covered with a single or even double lining, rendering the box impervious to moisture from either within or without, and under such conditions almost any other kind of wood would be equally serviceable. Mr. Oakhill, of the Imperial Tobacco Company, says that there is a maggot which in the tobacco-producing States of America will attack a bundle of leaves of tobacco in their dry state and pierce through many layers downwards. This maggot will attack tobacco boxes in other woods, but has not been known to go near tobacco boxed in cedar, and if the maggot is in the leaf of any tobacco in such a box, it will not develop. In transverse section concentric rings are marked by thin, light, concentric lines, within each of which typically is a distinct pore-zone of loosely arranged large pores. These rings may be tolerably even in thickness, or some (in Cuba cedar at least) may be excessively narrow, but even in the latter case the light line is succeeded externally by large pores ; moreover, some of the broader rings may, at least locally, be devoid of a pore-zone. In both these respects these cedars approach, in structure, mahogany from the same regions. In transverse section the pores are instantly visible to the naked eye, by reason of their large size, whereas the medullary rays are fine and only just visible. The medullary rays are not in tiers. CEDAR, Formosan. Chamaecyparis formosensis, Mats. Formosa. This wood is of a light yellow colour, a little deeper in shade than that of Swiss pine (Pinus Cembra, Linn.) or Port Orford cedar (Cupressus Lawsoniana), which woods it resembles in other respects, except that the fragrant scent usual in cedars is absent. It is a straight-grained, mild soft wood, capable of a very smooth surface from the tool, and it should be very suitable for sounding-boards for pianofortes, violins, or other musical instruments. There is no doubt but that this timber would become much in demand if a regular supply could be maintained. Messrs. Mitsui & Co. record that a supply of 40,000,000 feet cube is available. The concentric layers are very clearly defined, and the rings are very close. The pores are exceedingly small, and difficult to distinguish. The CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 51 medullary rays are very fine indeed, yet show clearly on the radial section in a manner similar to but finer than beech. Cepar, GuIana. Protium altissimum, Marsh. Weight, 42 Ibs. 12 02. (fresh). British, Dutch, French Guiana. Twelve logs of this timber, which in France is known as ‘‘ cédre-blanc,”’ were imported from Surinam into London in 1914, being intended either for France or Germany, probably the latter, and divérted to England on account of the war. Although supplies are apparently available from British and Dutch Guiana, this import is the first on record for the United Kingdom, at all events for a great many years. The colour is a light nut-brown with rather a satiny lustre, which darkens considerably on exposure ; it has a close, smooth texture and a straight grain. It is a useful timber and stands well under all conditions ; it should be better known, when its undoubted good qualities would soon bring it into favour. The pores are regular and uniform, and are of moderate size. The medullary rays are numerous, clearly defined and parallel, and are easily discernible with the naked eye. There is a liability for the wood to develop very fine cracks on the line of the medullary ray. The name “ cedar ’’ is also applied to the produce of Icica altissima, Aubl., a timber used in Guiana for making canoes. CeparR, Movuimein. Cedrela Toona, Roxb. Weight, 29-40 Ibs. (Gamble). British India, Australia. This tree, which is of considerable value, is known in most parts of India as toon, and in Burma as thitkado. It is soft, red, and fragrant, and in India is largely used for furniture because it seasons easily, works well, and is ornamental, taking a good polish. It must be well seasoned before use, otherwise it warps badly. In England and Europe generally it resists the action of moths and boring insects. Being scented and open-grained, it is almost indistinguishable from Central American cedar (Cedvela odorata). For general purposes in the domestic arts it might be used in lieu of the better kinds of cedar from Cuba and Mexico, whenever these are scarce in the market. It is also used for cigar-boxes and for packing tobacco. As Laslett found in his time that the supplies were not mild enough for pattern-making, it would appear that later shipments have yielded a milder wood, since many samples have been seen of late which were eminently suited for this purpose. It is subject to heart and star shakes, and in seasoning is very liable to split from the surface if left long in the round or unconverted state. Mr. R. S. Pearson has made some very interesting experiments 52 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD showing the manner in which this timber is affected by atmospheric changes and disturbances.? MouLMEIN CEDAR. Received from U.P. Exhibition, Allahabad Exhibition, rgro-1r. In Australia this wood was, at least formerly, the ‘‘ red cedar ”’ (¢.v.) widely used in building and the manufacture of furniture. The supply 1 Forest Bulletin, No. 15: ‘“‘ Note on the Technical Properties of Timber.” CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 53 from this country has decreased, while as regards India there is no prospect of any large supply in the future unless systematic planting is taken in hand; this work is well justified from the value of the wood and the comparatively fast rate of growth of the tree. The annual rings are clearly marked by bands of wide and numerous pores forming the spring zone, outside of which the more scanty vessels are scattered. There are no concentric light lines meeting the rays at right angles. The large pores and fine medullary rays are visible to the naked eye in cross-section, and the rays produce a pleasing silver grain in the quartered wood. CEDAR, Paracuay. Source unknown; probably Cedvela sp. (C. brazili- ensis?). Weight, 31 lbs. 15 oz. Paraguay. About 1899 there reached London several cargoes of this wood, in the form of square hewn logs, varying in length from 10 to 30 feet, and from 12 to 30 inches wide or more. The logs were very sound and of good quality. In texture and fragrance the wood closely resembles cedar from Central America, but appears to be harder, darker, and redder. It seasons and thereafter stands well, neither shrinking, warping, nor twisting. Trouble was experienced in the sale, however; as if offered as a substitute for cedar its extra weight was the cause of complaint, and when offered in lieu of mahogany the buyer complained that he had been given cedar. Probably its most general use, however, would be as a substitute for mahogany. In transverse section the annual rings are well marked by a zone of large pores, within which is a thin light line (in my specimen the rings are all wide) ; the pores are visible to the naked eye, mostly open, but some contain a glistening dark substance ; the medullary rays are visible and somewhat wavy. CEDAR, PENCIL. Juniperus virginiana, Linn. Weight, 34 lbs. 11 oz. (very variable). United States, especially in the Eastern region ; and Juniperus barbadensis, Linn., J. bermudiana, Linn., Georgia, Florida, Jamaica, and other islands of the West Indies. The woods of the above species are practically identical in appearance and properties, and are used almost entirely for pencil-making. The timber is generally imported in the form of square hewn logs or billets, but sometimes in the round, the sizes and quality of which have deteriorated steadily with time, so that it is now possible to obtain only small-sized faulty wood. Formerly large-sized pieces yielding panels 2 feet wide were procurable. The present supplies come mainly from Jamaica, Alabama, and Georgia. The northern-grown wood is unsuitable 54 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD for pencil-making. This very fragrant timber (heart-wood) varies in colour from yellowish to purplish red, often, recalling the tints of faded rose petals. Under the plane it yields a surface rivalling in smoothness that of marble, and in this possibly surpassing any other commercial wood. As itis soft and easily cut, and has a regular and even grain in all directions, it is eminently fitted also for carving. Pencil cedar has been used for panelling and decorative work, and in times past for many well- appointed buildings. A superb example of work in this wood is to be seen in the Reception Hall of the Skinners’ Company in Dowgate Hill, which was executed shortly after the great fire of London (1666). Its fragrant scent is preserved to the present day, and is noticeable when one enters the Hall. Another old building in Coleman Street, pulled down by Messrs. Colls & Sons about Ig02, contained some handsome panelling in pencil cedar, as well as two very fine carved mantelpieces and overmantels, all in Jacobean style. Some of these panels of sound, clean timber measured 2 feet in width. When used out of doors in contact with the soil, the wood is extremely durable, and was formerly used for posts, shipbuilding, and so forth ; but the southern-grown pencil cedar is now far too costly to be used for purposes other than the making of pencils, and, to a limited extent, for furniture and decorative work, linings of cabinets and cases (in order to keep moths at bay, or for its aromatic scent). The annual rings are distinct,-but the medullary rays are invisible, and the resin passages are lacking. CEDAR, PorT ORFORD. Cupressus Lawsoniana, Murr.; Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana, Sarj. Weight, 33 Ibs. 5 oz. Oregon, California. In England this tree is familiar under the name of Lawson’s cypress. In Oregon and California, as the trees often attain a height of 200 feet and a diameter of 12 feet even above the dilated base of the trunk, timber of large size is obtainable in the form of long boards or planks, free from all defects. The wood is light yellow or nearly white, with a glossy, satiny sheen darkening on exposure, and with a close, compact but rather soft grain. It is difficult, though possible, to produce a smooth surface, on account of a certain gumminess or toughness of the grain. The adhesive contents of the wood clog the tool so that it must be continually sharpened, otherwise the fibres are liable to be torn out. It is very strong for its weight, is straight-grained, stands well under all conditions, and is exceedingly durable. The wood is very fragrant and is stated to keep clothes-moths at bay. I have a wardrobe the linings and drawers of which are made of this cedar, and I regard it as a very great luxury. The delicate and agreeable scent appears as strong as when the wardrobe was first made, about eight years ago (19109). CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 55 It has been imported into England on a commercial basis, in boards and planks since 1911, but has probably never yet been estimated at its real value. Mr. F. R. S. Balfour has used a considerable quantity in fitting and joinery in his house in Scotland. It has been used to a small extent for boat- and shipbuilding, and, since the war, has been imported for aircraft construction, but for this purpose there has not yet been sufficient time to gauge its value. In the Western United States it has been used for buildings (including floorings), fence-posts, boats and ships, but Sarjent states that on the Pacific coast it is employed almost ex- clusively for matches. Durable in all situations, it is particularly so in contact with the soil; and has been used for railway sleepers. Elwes mentions the case of a tree that was perfectly sound though it had fallen more than two hundred years, and had been overgrown by a huge spruce tree, whose trunk was 7} feet in diameter, and whose roots extended like the claws of a parrot around each side of the [cedar]-tree and locked underneath. The annual rings are marked by the contrast between the wide, white spring-wood and the narrower, reddish summer-wood, the former grading gradually into the latter. As this is a coniferous timber no pores are present, nor do resin passages occur, though resin and fragrant essential oil does occur in this wood. The medullary rays are excessively fine and almost invisible, though causing a general indistinct radiating pattern on the cross-section. CEDAR, RED. There are many timbers which are known under this name, chief amongst which are the following : Cunonia capensis, Linn.; Cape Colony. Cedvela Toona, Roxb. ; India. (This is the Moulmein cedar (q.v.).) Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Wight ; Sikkim, Western and Southern India, Burma. Thuja gigantea, Nutt.; Western North America. Juniperus occidentalis, Hook. ; Western North America. Of these, with the exception of Moulmein cedar, little is known in the United Kingdom, nor are they in ordinary commercial use. CEDAR, RED AUSTRALIAN. Source dubious. Weight, 52 Ibs. 4 oz. Australia. The wood is of a red colour, with a brighter hue than that possessed by Central American cedar (Cedvela odorata), which it otherwise strongly resembles in many of its characteristics. It is, however, heavier, harder, and generally more curly in the grain, and more figured, besides being less strongly scented. It has been imported in boards, planks, and logs, and some handsome furniture and fittings have been made of it. 56 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Professor Groom says: ‘‘The red cedar of Australia is usually de- scribed as being derived from the Toon-tree, Cedrela Toona (see Cedar, Moulmein), and it doubtless was so at one time. But the supply of the wood has gravely decreased! and I have no doubt that much of the ‘red cedar’ now supplied is not wholly derived from the Toon-tree. Stone, for instance, was supplied officially with authentic specimens of ‘red cedar,’ and describes them: his description convinces me that the specimens were not the wood of Cedrela Toona. Quite certain it is that our commercial specimen is not from that species. I rather suspect that it may be derived from a Dysoxylum, which belongs to the same family, and may even be D. Muelleri, Benth., the ‘ red bean,’ of which I have not seen authentic specimens.” The wood is somewhat cross-grained, shows no distinct annual rings or growth-rings. In transverse section it reveals to the naked eye innumerable thin, concentric light lines; the pores are just visible, but the medullary rays are invisible. CEDAR, TRUE. Cedrus Libani, Barrel ; C. Deodara, Loudon ; C. atlantica, Manetti. Weight, 36 lbs. 7 0z. Europe, Asia, Africa. There are three different kinds of true cedars belonging to the genus Cedrus. The differences between them are so slight and fluctuating that all three are frequently included under one botanical name, C. Libani ; sometimes, however, each is given a separate name as above. All are mountain trees; the first-named growing on Mount Lebanon, in Cyprus, and the Orient ; the second being Himalayan, and the third African, and growing on the Atlas Mountains. All these are grown in English gardens. The timbers of the three kinds are almost indistin- guishable. An easy way of identifying the three varieties has been mentioned to me, though it should be taken as general and not absolute. L. for Libani, 1. for level (the branches extend from the tree in a more or less horizontal manner) ; D. for Deodar, d. for drooping (the branches generally droop); A. for Atlantica, a. for ascending (the branches generally slope upwards). The sole supplies in England have consisted in those derived from the few fallen trees (of all three kinds) and one shipment of C. atlantica from Algeria in 1909. In a letter R. S. Pearson wrote concerning the deodar: “ This is one of the three most important timbers of India, the other two being teak and sal. This timber is too valuable in India ever to find a market in Europe.” We can thus look for practically no supplies from India. The light yellow timber yields under the tool a beautiful surface rivalling in smoothness that of the pencil cedar. Often, though not 1 Baker's Cabinet Timbers of Australia. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD = 57 always, the wood is fragrant, and the aromatic scent of the burning wood may at times be so potent as to induce dizziness and headache. While the sap-wood is perishable, the heart-wood is remarkably durable. In A Group or DeoDAR TREES IN THE HIMALAyYas. this connection Gamble writes : ‘‘ Deodar wood is very durable, probably, with Cypress, the most durable of Himalayan woods. Stewart mentions the pillars of the Shah Hamaden mosque at Srinagar in Kashmir, which 58 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD date from A.D. 1426 and are now consequently (1901) 475 years old, as having been quite sound at the time he wrote. It resists the wet, also white ants, and apparently does not suffer much from dry rot.” In the Palace at Versailles there is a richly carved gateway, above which is inscribed: “ L’Hé6pital des Chevaliers de St. Jean de Jerusalem dans Vile de Rhodes.” It is made of cedar of Lebanon, and despite its indubitable antiquity is in a state of perfect preservation. The timber also possesses considerable strength, and Pearson mentions that it is used in India to make oars, bridge ladders, frames of parallel bars, axle-beds of transport carts (for the Ordnance Department). With these valuable qualities it is a pity that the wood derived from the fallen trees is in this country generally burned or wasted. Mr. H. J. Elwes, however, mentions one instance in which a cedar blown down on a lawn was most successfully used by the owner to supply the flooring and panelling of a good-sized drawing-room. As Cedrus is a conifer, the wood shows no pores, nor does it possess any resin passages (though in certain specimens spurious resin passages are induced). The annual rings are clearly marked, but the medullary rays are invisible. CEDAR, WEST AFRICAN. Sources various. Weight, 39 Ibs. 11 oz. and 40 lbs. 12 oz. West Coast of Africa. Among the many kinds of woods exported from the African West Coast, and having the scent and some other characteristics of cedar, there is one type that can be distinguished from all the rest by reason of its considerable resemblance to the cedar of Central America. The logs are imported in lengths varying from about 12 to 30 feet or more, and in squares of from 20 to 40 inches or more, either round or hewn square. The wood is of a light reddish-brown colour, rather redder than Cuban cedar, also heavier and “stronger” in character. Being somewhat cross-grained the wood shows a special type of banded figure, and requires a sharp plane to obtain a smooth surface. The logs are liable to star-shakes in the centre, making it difficult to obtain sound wide boards, though they are almost entirely free from the “‘cross- ° breaks ’’ so common in West African mahogany. As this type of cedar stands well without warping or twisting, and has been obtainable at prices lower than that of American cedars, it has been used to a considerable extent as a substitute for the latter, despite its greater weight. A few finely figured veneer logs have realised very high prices, but the wood is not so favourably regarded for this purpose as mahogany, as, after cutting, the veneers of cedar are apt to crack up in drying. The botanical sources of this type of cedar are not known. Professor Groom says: “We may perhaps hazard the guess that species of CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 59 Pseudocedrela are such, for it is known that African cedars are largely derived from this genus. Other genera (see Mahogany) also supply African cedars and mahoganies. To distinguish between the cedars and mahoganies of Africa should not in reality be difficult, though customs of the trade have made it so. Several so-called mahoganies have the same kind of thin, sinuous light lines shown in cross-section ; among them are Sapeli, Warri, Jameson River, Sekondi, and one variety of Bonamba. Of these, the first two are scented ; in fact, Sapeli ‘ mahogany ’ is stated to be derived from Pseudocedrela. “The wood does not show in cross-section any distinctly marked annual rings or similar belts (though certain darker bands divide the surface into ring-like zones) ; but very numerous, fine, concentric sinuous lines are visible to the naked eye and cross the medullary rays at right angles ; the pores are visible but rays invisible to the naked eye.” CEDAR, WHITE. The following, all of which come from the United States, are the timbers known in commerce as white cedar. They are, however, seldom seen in this country, and are of little commercial value : Libocedrus decurrens, Torrey. Cupressus thyoides, Linn. Thuja occidentalis, Linn. (see Arbor-vitae). CEDAR, YELLOW. Cupressus nootkatensis, Hook. Weight, 20 Ibs. (Boulger). Canada, United States. This wood, which should perhaps be more correctly termed a cypress, is of a light yellowish-red, and has sometimes a very handsome grain. It is not known commercially in the United Kingdom, but is generally reported as being exceedingly durable. CHAPLASH. Artocarpus Chaplasha, Roxb. Weight, 34 lbs. India, Burma, the Andaman Islands. This wood has a very attractive golden-brown colour and a satiny lustre. As it is somewhat cross-grained it requires careful planing with a sharp tool. Although suitable for decorative cabinet work on account of its appearance it should not be used in large or unsecured work, as the nature of the grain renders it liable to warp to a certain degree. Gamble says: “It should be seasoned standing by ringing, so as to prevent warping when cut and sawn,” and quotes Chevalier Paganini, who says he “ considers it equal to or superior to teak for houschold furniture.” The pores are rather scarce, not large, and generally plugged, but show prominently on the tangential section rather prettily in a somewhat 60 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD flaky pattern. The medullary rays are well defined, close, parallel, and irregular, and show on the radial section in minute flecks. CHEESEWOOD. Species unknown — probably Erythrina. Central America. The name cheesewood was given to some logs imported into Liver- pool a few years ago. On arrival the timber was found to be exceed- ingly heavy, and as it was impossible to dispose of the logs, they were sent to Messrs. McArthur’s sawmill to be converted into planks, as it was thought that in this form some use might be found for them. Mr. McArthur says that the sawyer was violently ill all night after sawing the logs, and his assistant more or less similarly affected. The planks were stacked in the usual manner for drying, and were found to be exces- sively heavy to handle, measuring only about 25 feet to the ton. Some time afterwards, being ordered to remove the pile, the men, to their great astonishment, found the planks lighter in weight than anything they had previously handled, the change having occurred in the drying. A sample of this wood measuring 2} inches in thickness, 5 inches in width, and 54 inches in length, weighs only 4} oz., and is probably the lightest piece of timber on record. Notwithstanding the light weight, this wood possesses some con- siderable degree of strength, and stands firm under a fair amount of pressure. It might be described as “ the softest timber of commerce.”’ With only light pressure the finger-nail can be inserted to a considerable depth. On account of its strength and softness it should be useful for many purposes, but up to the present time its chief use has been for entomological cases. The concentric layers of annual growth are clearly marked, and measure in places ,3, inch in thickness. The medullary rays can be distinguished by the naked eye as parallel and uneven. There are wide open pores, not very frequent, only situated between the medullary rays, sometimes wide apart, occasionally close together. Bright specks of gum shine out very white only between the pores. CHEESEWOOD, TASMANIAN. Puitosporum bicolor, Hook. Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales. An alternative name is white-wood. “This wood is yellowish-white, very hard, and of uniform texture and colour. It was once used for clubs by the aboriginals of Tasmania. It burns well, and should be tested for wood-engraving ” (Irons, Reports London International Exhibition of 1862). ‘‘It is much esteemed for axe handles, billiard cues, etc. Specific gravity 874 (Mueller); dia. 63 inches; height 20-40 feet” (extract from Useful Native Plants of CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 61 Australia; Maiden). (From private note 22/12/13 from Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.) CHERRY. Prunus Avium, Linn. Weight, 33-49 lbs. (Boulger). Great Britain, Europe, Asia Minor. This wood when first cut is light red or pink, darkening on exposure to a deeper tint. It has a close, firm texture, and is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool. Although little valued for many years, it was growing in favour before the war, and since then has been in great demand for many purposes, particularly for chair-making and for the backs of brushes. According to Holtzapffel: ‘‘ When stained with lime, and oiled and varnished, it closely resembles mahogany; it is much used for common and best furniture and chairs, and is one of the best brown woods of the Tunbridge turners. The wood of the black- heart cherry tree is considered to be the best.’’} Mr. H. J. Elwes has panelled a room with cherry at Rapsgate Park, near Colesborne, which presents in all respects a very good appearance, equal to mahogany. In Trees of Great Britain and Ireland he men- tions ‘‘ that the pews in the church at Gibside, Northumberland, which were made in 1812 of cherry-wood, have not warped or shrunk in the least, the joints being as good as when made,” although, the quotation goes on to say, ‘‘ the sap-wood in some places is worm-eaten, the heart-wood is almost free from this defect,” and this disadvantage of the sap-wood must be borne in mind, The concentric layers are very conspicuous. The pores are exceed- ingly fine and numerous. The medullary rays are very strongly marked, and show clearly on the tangential as well as on the radial section. CHESTNUT. Castanea vulgaris, Lam. Weight, 28 Ibs. 10 oz. Europe. Spanish or sweet chestnut attains large sizes and long lengths. In coppice-grown wood, straight, clean boles are procurable, which would yield good timber for large beams, while in that which is open or park- grown, very large diameters are obtainable. It is only the absence of the medullary rays which distinguishes this wood from oak, its appearance as regards colour, grain, and texture being similar; when chestnut is darkened by age or éxposure it is exceedingly difficult to discriminate between the two woods. English trees, and especially those which are park-grown, are generally more or less unsound, and contain heart, star, and cup shakes, the last being the most common and serious defect. Many trees also develop a spiral growth, consequently the wood is waste- ful in conversion. 1 Holtzapffel gives the source as Prunus Cerasus, but from his description it is probable that he confounded the dwarf cherry with the wild. 62 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Elwes and Henry write: “ The wood when young is as good or better than oak (because it has much less sap-wood) for fencing, gate-posts, piles, and hop-poles.” It is very durable for all forms of constructional work either indoors or exposed to the weather, while only to a small extent is it liable to the attack of insects or boring worms, or subject to fungous growth. Elwes speaks of a park fence composed of oak and chestnut, where after twenty years the oak was found much wasted, while the chestnut remained as sound as when put down. There is every reason to believe that in Northern France, before the sixteenth century, the craftsmen in wood were already aware of the advantages of combining the two woods, as in nearly all the work they executed in cathedrals and churches, chestnut is found mixed with oak. If this occurrence is accidental it is remarkable. The beautiful carved stalls and panels in the choir of the Cathedral at Amiens are certainly of mixed oak and chestnut, as is the woodwork of the church of St. Ouen at Rouen. The wood is very suitable for carved work and has been much used in this connection. Elwes quotes Sir George Birdwood as stating that “the late Mr. T. Blashill, who was architect to the London County Council, pointed out in a letter to the Times that the only instance he knew of chestnut wood in English mediacval carpentry is that of the chancel screen of the church, formerly of the Knights of St. John, at Rodmersham in Kent. The Rev. A. H. J. Massey, Vicar of Rodmersham, tells me, however, that the chancel screen is a modern one of oak, with portions of an ancient screen of chestnut wood worked into it; but the screen separating the Lady Chapel from the chancel is composed entirely of chestnut wood.” The large beam in the common room of Peterhouse, the oldest College .in Cambridge, is generally supposed to be of chestnut, and without cut- ting it out, the utmost examination possible confirms the opinion. The panels taken from the wainscoting of a hall in Ireland were found to be of mixed oak and chestnut throughout, and indistinguishable except on examination with the lens. It seems probable, therefore, that chestnut has often been used intentionally with oak as a preservative. Occasionally trees are found which are affected by the same brown colouring which is to be found in oak. One tree, to which Elwes refers, produced some very beautiful wood. This has been utilised for the doors and overmantel of a room at Rapsgate Park, Colesborne, where it presents a rich decorative appearance, very hard to equal. A large trade is carried on in split chestnut laths for park fencing, for which purpose it provides a very economical as well as an ornamental appearance. It is also used for the backs of all kinds of domestic brushes. The annual layers of growth can be clearly distinguished with the CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 63 naked eye. The wide, open pores are duplicated, and are occasionally seen in rows of three in the spring wood ; they contain small specks of bright shining gum. There are very minute pores in the autumn wood, though they are scarcely visible. The medullary rays can hardly be distinguished even with the lens (12 x). A similar tree, Castanea deniata, provides very large supplies of timber in America. Unfortunately the trees are attacked by fungus and a boring worm, so that of late years very large areas of the timber have been destroyed. The wood, the weight of which Gibson gives as 28 Ibs., resembles in all respects the English chestnut. In America it is used for a great variety of purposes, these including fencing-posts and rails and railway sleepers. Gibson says that ‘‘ the largest use by any single industry is probably by the manufacturers of musical instruments, though the honour may be divided with furniture, interior house finish, and coffins and caskets.” A large quantity of this timber is liable, as previously noted, to be riddled with small worm-holes. It is sold for veneering on, as the holes serve to hold the glue, and therefore secure the veneer more firmly. This wood has been imported to some small extent into London and Liverpool, but it is not much in favour. It has been used for cheap furniture and for coffin boards. Chickrassia tabularis, Juss. Weight, 49 lbs. India, Burma, Andaman and Cocos Islands. The wood, called in India Chittagong wood, is of a rather dark- brown colour, with a lustrous shining surface, a firm, close texture and a contrary hard and soft grain. It very much resembles in all respects the wood of Sapeli mahogany, and it has the same dark gum veins fol- lowing the line of the concentric layers. It evidently stands well under all conditions, and is suitable for furniture and decorative work. This is one of the timbers mentioned in Mr. Gamble’s list of woods which are available in fairly large quantities and likely to be worth trial. The concentric layers are marked generally by thin, pale lines, but occasionally by dark blood or gum veins. The pores are small and regular. The medullary rays are invisible on the transverse grain, but show in very fine flecks on the radial section. CuinGAL. Balanocarpus sp. Weight, 65 lbs. Bornco, Federated Malay States, the Straits Settlements. This very hard, dense timber is of a warm brown colour. The wood takes a good surface from the plane, showing glistening marks of gum in the open pores. It is durable, and is used in its native country for constructional work and many other purposes. 64 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD The medullary rays are fine, clearly marked, and parallel. “It is very much the same as yacal, but may be distinguished from that wood by the fact that the tangential section always shows distinct parallel transverse lines (ripple marks) ’’ (Foxworthy). The pores are numerous and irregular, and are largely filled with a gummy substance which shines brightly. CINNAMON. Source unknown. St. Vincent. A specimen of cinnamon wood, said to have come from St. Vincent, is in my collection. It is of a heavy, dense, hard, close-grained texture, taking a very smooth surface from the tool. It has a faint scent some- what like that of cedar. The colour is a dull brown, resembling beef- wood, and shading generally to a dark walnut tint. The wood would be excellent for turning. Both pores and medullary rays are exceedingly fine and obscure. CocoBoLo. Source unknown. Weight, 85 lbs. 14 oz. Tropical South and Central America (including Nicaragua, Panama, and Costa Rica). The supplies of this wood are imported in the form of short cylindrical logs, half-flitches, and pieces of various shapes and sizes, which are from 1 to 3 feet in length, gnarled and twisted, and include knots, worm-holes, decayed heart, and other defective patches. The striped heart-wood shows alternate bright orange and deep red bands, the latter being often streaked with dark or even black veins. Its rich, handsome appearance sometimes has the effect, both as regards colour and marking, of tortoiseshell. It is hard and heavy, yields a fine surface from the tool, and is especially suited for turnery. When planed or turned, the smooth face is cold to the touch, like fine marble. When well polished this is a brilliant wood, and is used for the backs of brushes and hand glasses, handles of knives, forks, and tools, and in fancy cabinet-work. Cocobolo-wood deserves much wider use, but is insuffi- ciently known. Supplies of good quality are scarce, while the demand is irregular. In transverse section indistinct layers are seen, and may or may not represent annual rings. The pores are large, visible to the naked eye, scattered and not numerous, and have glistening contents. The extremely fine medullary rays are invisible, but with the magnifying glass stand out as light lines which are very numerous (being closer together than the width of the large pores). Linking the rays at right angles are very numerous similar light, thin lines, so that the field is divided into countless minute squares. The tangential section shows CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 65 transverse striped pattern, indicating that some of the constituents are arranged in tiers. Cocus Woop. Brya Ebenus, DC. (?). Weight, 69 lbs. West Indies. Supplies of this wood come in a somewhat irregular manner in round logs from 2 to 8 inches in diameter. There is some confusion as to the source of the supplies, though the probability is that shippers and merchants supply any botanical variety they can find which is sufficiently like to be given the name. Some of the wood known by the name of canalete would have passed for cocus-wood. It is hard and very heavy. The sap-wood is a very light yellow, and the heart-wood of a brown rosewood colour, streaked with markings of all shades to a pale straw yellow. It somewhat resembles a brownish-yellow Coromandel wood. It is used for policemen’s truncheons, flutes, bagpipes, brush backs, handles of knives and tools, and all kinds of turnery and inlay. The pores are very small and obscure; the medullary rays are exceedingly fine and even; they are parallel and so regular that me would almost appear to be artificial. Cordia fragrantissima, Kurz. Weight, 50 Ibs. India, Burma. This is a handsome, dark-coloured, scented wood which seasons, works, and polishes well. It would be very suitable for decorative and ornamental work. It is obtainable in moderate quantities in squares 20 feet x 12 inches x 12 inches. CoROMANDEL Woop. Diospyros sp. Weight, 70 Ibs. 5 02. This name is one by which several different species of ebony .(Diospyros) are known, when they possess a particular kind of marking and colouring. According to Holtzapffel, Coromandel or Calamander wood is Diospyros hirsuta, but Gamble gives it as D. quaesita. The description given by Holtzapffel is as follows: “ The figure is between that of rosewood and zebra-wood ; the colour of the ground is usually of a red hazel-brown, described also as chocolate brown, with black stripes and marks.” He further adds that there are three varieties, “the Calamander or Coromandel, which is the darkest, and the most commonly seen in this country, the Calemberri, which is lighter coloured and striped, and the Omander, the ground of which is as light as English yew, but of a redder cast, with a few slight veins and marks of darker tints.” Certainly of later years it is exceedingly doubtful whether these descriptions are confined to one, two, or even three varieties. Similarly marked and coloured wood has been obtained from several different Sources F 66 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD and varieties, all of which have been described for commercial purposes as ebony when first marketed, and as Coromandel wood when sold in the converted form, either as boards or veneers. Of these the supplies from Macassar have produced the largest sizes and the best colouring. Taking authentic specimens of three different sorts, (1) Macassar ; (2) Diospyros Melanoxylon ; (3) D. Kurzii, the face appearance is so similar that they might all have been taken from the same tree. The Japanese variety D. Kaki is often very similar, but the marking is on a smaller scale, and the light colouring is of a more yellow shade. There is also a slight difference between these three varieties in the transverse grain. Macassay.—The pores are irregular in size and position, and are often filled with a bright, shining gum. The medullary rays are very indistinct ; they are exceedingly fine and are very irregular. Diospyros Melanoxylon.—The pores, which are smaller, are also much less frequent than in the Macassar wood. They are often filled with shining specks of gum ; the medullary rays are stronger and more clearly defined. D. Kurzii.—The pores are minute and very numerous, and the rays very indistinct. Yet another source of supply of so-called Coromandel wood has been found in some occasional trees of Ceylon ebony (probably D. Ebenum, q.v.), which show the same marking and colour. If, therefore, at some much earlier date the name was applied to the produce of a distinct variety, there is little doubt that it has now become the common term for a particular form of marking and colour, which has been produced in several different species of Diospyros. The wood is used for decorative furniture in various fashions. Beautiful tables and cabinets, pianoforte-cases, small ornamental boxes and jewel cases have been made with this wood, which has also been used for shop-front decoration and fitments, In the Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington, is a handsome armchair of Dutch manufacture, dating from the early eighteenth century, which is made of walnut and Calamander wood. For description see Ebony, Diospyros. Cotronwoop. Bombax malabaricum, DC. Weight, 23 lbs. India, Burma, Ceylon. Gamble describes this wood as “ white when fresh cut ; turning dark on exposure, very soft, perishable ; no heart-wood, no annual rings... . The wood is not durable, except under water, when it lasts tolerably well ; it is used for planking, packing-cases and tea-boxes, toys, fishing floats, coffins, and the linings of wells. If allowed to dry in the log the CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 67 wood gets discoloured, so that to ensure white planking the trees should be sawn up at once and the planks dried separately.” This is one of the timbers mentioned in Mr. Gamble’s list of woods which are available ‘in fairly large quantities, and are likely to be worth trial. The pores are scarce, but very large and open. The medullary rays are indistinguishable under the lens (12 x). CRraBwoob. Carapa guianensis, Aubl. Weight, 38-46 Ibs. (Stone and Freeman). British Guiana. This wood has only been imported in small quantities and in boards and planks, although it would appear to be available in long logs up to 60 feet, and of wide squares up to 3 feet in cross-section. It is of a dull, brownish-red mahogany colour, and assumes a glossy, lustrous surface from the tool. It has a hard grain which, running in reverse directions, tears up under the plane so that it is difficult to obtain a smooth surface. As it is inclined to warp, and could only be used as a substitute for cheap mahogany, which can generally be produced from elsewhere at a less cost, it has little to recommend it for general use. It has sometimes been incorrectly termed South American mahogany. A legitimate alternative name is carapa. The pores are small and irregular, and show bright specks of shining gum. The medullary rays are fine, and parallel but irregular. Cupressus torulosa, Don. Weight, 38 Ibs. India. The wood is of a pale salmon to yellow colour, with a straight smooth grain ; it resembles pencil cedar (Juniperus virginiana) but is of a slightly lighter shade. It has a strong and agreeable fragrant scent. As with the timbers of other varieties of cypress, it appears to be very durable, Gamble reporting it as even more “ durable than deodar, as is shown by the results of buried sleepers of the wood at Dehra Dun. These pieces were put down in 1881 and taken out in 1892, and the Cypress wood was found to have resisted best of all . . . is frequently employed for temples in the Himalaya, as well as for images and poles to carry the sacred arks.” The concentric layers are marked by a strong dark vein, which is also conspicuous in the radial and tangential sections. The pores and medullary rays are hardly discernible with the lens (12 x). Curupay. Piptadenia Cebil, Grisebach. Weight, 73 Ibs. 13 oz. South America. In 1894 a cargo of hewn square logs of good length and size was imported into Liverpool from Rosario in the Argentine. The wood 68 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD varies in colour from orange-grey to greyish-brown, with dark streaks and veins; some of it is reddish-brown, while much is handsomely marked with a wavy, curly grain. It has a faint aromatic scent, and the same cold, rather sticky feeling that is found in pyinkado (Xylia dolabriformis), to which wood, in other respects, there is some similarity. The timber has been used satisfactorily as a substitute for African oak for dock work, while some of the finely marked pieces have been con- verted into veneers, which give a beautiful decorative appearance. Baterden says that curupay has “ been a good deal used for piles and jetty work in the Argentine, and in such situations has lasted over thirty years.” It is a valuable wood which ought to be better known and in more general use. The concentric layers are marked by very dark and light wavy bands. The pores are uniform, and the medullary rays parallel and regular. Cusuimucuo. Michelia compresa, Max. Weight, 38 Ibs. Formosa. This wood possesses an unusual and attractive appearance which would demand attention if it were imported under commercial conditions. It is the colour of honey, of a dark variety, though sometimes it is a rich golden-brown, with a bright lustrous sheen. It has a close grain and a firm texture ; it is capable of a smooth surface from the plane, although there is a slight contrary grain of harder and softer growth. It is altogether a unique and interesting wood which should be sought for in decorative and cabinet work. The pores are exceedingly small and numerous, and are generally plugged. The medullary rays are equidistant and parallel, and show very finely on the radial section. CYPRESS. Cupressus sempervirens, Linn. Weight, 20 lbs. (Baterden). Great Britain, Cyprus, Asia Minor. This wood is not known commercially in England at the present time. Elwes says: “‘ The timber is light brown in colour, hard, and close- grained. . . . The wood is easy to work, and gives off a penetrating agreeable odour. It is very durable, lasts indefinitely under water, and longer than oak when used for mine-props. In France and Italy it is considered excellent for furniture; and the doors of St. Peter’s at Rome, which lasted from the time of Constantine to that of Pope Eugene IV., nearly 1000 years, were said to be made of cypress.” He concludes by quoting Shakespeare, in The Taming of the Shrew, II. i. 353: In ivory coffers I have stuffed my crowns ; In cypress chests my arras, counterpoints, Costly apparel, tents, and canopies, CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 69 Cypress, MarsH. Taxodium distichum, Richard. Weight, 33 lbs. 8 oz. Southern United States. This wood is imported in the form of planks and boards of various qualities, but only of late years in any considerable quantity. It is yellowish-red, often nearly salmon-coloured. In the United States it is used so extensively that Gibson writes : ‘‘ The uses are so nearly universal that a list is impossible.’ Another American authority, Hough, gives the following account of this timber: “Its great durability, immunity from the attack of parasites, and non-liability to great shrinking or warping make it one of our most valuable woods for all wood-work exposed to weather, for tank construction, cooperage, etc.” These qualities, combined with a sharp segregation of the hard and soft grain, and with a scantiness of resin, should bring this wood into more general use. It is especially satisfactory for out-houses and green-houses, and where so used will probably outlast any other kind of soft-wood, even when unpainted. One such unpainted building in this country has survived for six years, and the wood, though subject to continual heat and moisture, is quite sound throughout. The English-grown wood appears to possess equally good qualities, and where available should be used for exposed wood-work. It differs from the American-grown timber that reaches this country! in colour, which is light yellow, and in appearance it recalls Lebanon cedar. There is a liability of the hard grain rising and the soft sinking, so that the wood is apt to show a ridgy surface. Gibson has made some remarks which suggest that the remarkable durability of this wood is somewhat doubtful, but there is good reason to question his opinion. Professor Sargent, in a private letter (March 3, I9I5) on this subject, says: “The wood Taxodium distichum is con- sidered to be exceedingly durable, and I do not know on what authority Gibson has made his statement. It is not impossible, of course, that the wood of a diseased tree, or one that had grown under abnormal con- ditions, might be of poor quality.” A very large quantity was purchased by the British Government during the war for aeronautical construction, but it was found to be unsuitable, and led to deplorable results. The wood, being coniferous, has no pores; the annual rings are marked by the alternation of the soft, open-meshed spring-wood and the hard, closer-grained summer-wood. The latter has one uncommon feature ; it is apt to be divided into several concentric zones in each annual ring, by the intervention of narrow lines of wood like the spring- 1 In the United States the timber varies, so that a distinction is drawn between the heavy “ black ’’ and the light “‘ white ’’ cypress. 70 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD wood. The medullary rays are invisible. Resin-ducts are lacking (though resin does occur in the wood). Dalbergia cultrata, Grah. Weight, 70 lbs. (Gamble). Burma. Gamble notes this as “ A splendid wood, resembling ebony at a distance but with a totally different structure. Kurz says it is used for ploughs, bows, and the handles of spears. It has sometimes been used for carving. . . . Wood black with dark purple streaks, very hard. “ Pores moderate-sized, very scanty, in small patches of light tissue with large cells, joined by somewhat wavy concentric narrow belts of the same. These belts make a pretty grain on a tangential section. Medullary rays very fine, very numerous, short.’ Dalbergia Olivert, Gamble. Weight, 66 Ibs. India. This very beautiful wood is unfortunately commercially unknown in England. It is hard and close-grained: the colour is usually a salmon to rose-red, though it is sometimes darker, and almost of as deep a tint as rosewood. It is generally seen with more or less golden streaks, and has a bright, lustrous surface. There is sometimes a small, stripey or roey figure, resembling that of Ceylon satinwood. It would be difficult to imagine a more handsome cabinet wood, especially for work in the Empire or Sheraton styles. The wood stands perfectly well under all conditions. The transverse section shows a pretty grain with light and dark wavy, tipple marks. The much scattered pores are scarce and rather large. The medullary rays are prominent, parallel but uneven, and crossed at right angles by similar white lines, which, with the rays, give the appearance of a spider’s web. Damson. Prunus domestica, Linn. Weight, 32 lbs. 9 oz. Europe. This little known, but beautiful English wood can be used for de- corative work with very effective results, and compares quite favour- ably with tulip or kingwood for banding, marquetry, or general cabinet work. It is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool. It is of a bright yellowish-red colour, streaked with bands of lighter and darker red, the general appearance being very similar to that of bleached or faded tulip wood. The pores, though numerous, are exceedingly small, with one or two layers of slightly larger pores in the spring growth. The medullary rays, which are parallel, are very strongly marked and of a greater thickness than in most woods, they show very clearly on the radial section, as in beech. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 71 Decami-woop. Calycophyllum candidissimum, DC. Weight, 49 lbs. (Boulger). West Indies. This wood is imported in straight, clean logs, with the bark on; ranging from 10 to 20 feet in length and 4 to 8 inches in diameter. The colour is yellowish-red, rather like lance-wood, though not so bright, or like a dull West India boxwood. Itis elastic, bends well without breaking, and bears considerable transverse strain. It is used for a great variety of purposes and as a substitute for lance-wood. Exsony. Mainly species of Diospyros. The term ebony is usually applied to a black wood of great hardness, heaviness, and closeness of texture. The definition of ebony, however, is rendered difficult by several facts. True ebonies all belong to one botanical family, Ebenaceae, but there are black woods that belong to other families and yet vie with ebony in blackness, though differing from it in other characteristics, such as hardness or structure. Among such are African blackwood (g.v.) or Congo-wood, which in Germany is often termed Senegal ebony, though such a custom is unjustifiable as the wood in question is derived from the laburnum family. Incidentally it may be mentioned that certain woods, especially pear, are stained black and used as substitutes for ebony. Again the name ebony is also applied to woods that are not black. Among such the most familiar perhaps is green ebony (q.v.), which is derived from various woods belonging to diverse species. Moreover, woods which are true ebonies, even those from the genus Diospyros, are not necessarily black. A considerable amount of commercial ebony naturally shows a certain brownness of shade, and in order to conceal this, manufacturers of various articles blacken the wood with a stain. In fact it may be said that ebony is not always as black asit is painted. In all species of Diospyros the external wood is light coloured and is termed sap- wood. In a number of the species the central portions of the wood are more or less black. In some cases, such as D. Ebenum and D. Melan- oxylon from India and Ceylon, this black wood forms a solid central core extending for a considerable distance along the trunk, but even in these species the black wood is liable to be arranged.in the form of thick strands interrupted by light-coloured wood. In other ebonies the black wood is always interspersed with patches or bands of lighter coloured— light yellow to brown—wood: thus the marble-wood (D. Kurzit), from the Andamans, which is black and light yellow in patches, deserves its name, while Calamander wood (D. qguaesita), of Ceylon, shows bands or streaks of black and brown. Still farther removed from blackness is the wood of D. Chloroxylon (British India), which is termed “ green ebony ”’ 72 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD and is yellowish-grey in colour. It will be noted, too, that in several cases wood derived from the true ebony genus, Diospyros, are not termed ebonies; two additional cases may be cited: the persimmon-woods of North America (D. virginiana) and of Japan (D. Kaki). Trees belonging to the ebony family but not to the genus Diospyros, also furnish ebony : such is alleged to be the case with Maba Ebenus of the Moluccas, and Euclea Pseudebenus from South Africa. Its hardness, freedom from shrinkage and warping, powers of resisting decay and attacks by insects, as well as the smoothness of surface and finely polished appearance obtainable, cause ebony to be highly esteemed for particular purposes, including the making of piano keys, violin- bridges, flutes, handles of knives, handles and backs of brushes, rulers, mathematical instruments, walking-sticks, picture-frames, furniture, and ornamental cabinet work generally. Piano cases are made of wood which is stained to resemble ebony. The conditions of formation of the black wood in ebony are not identical with those obtaining in regard to the heart-wood of ordinary European trees. This fact is well brought out in Mr. Herbert Wright’s most valuable paper on the ebonies of Ceylon.’ The succeeding informa- tion is culled from this source. “‘ The occurrence of ebony [black wood] within the plant cannot be stated in terms of the age of the tree... . The black heart-wood occurs usually in the stem [trunk], but is often present in young twigs and roots. . . . The occurrence of the central black wood is often erratic, though most usually it decreases in volume from below upwards. . . . In some instances . . . the black heart-wood repeatedly dies away and reappears at different points along a given length [of trunk or branch].’’ The consequence of these facts is that the search for profitable ebony in ebony-trees is by no means a simple one. “ The ebony is obtained by felling the tree and stripping off the peripheral sapwood. It is usual to fell all those trees which have attained or exceeded a breast-height circumference of 2 metres (64 feet), providing the preliminary examination indicates the existence of a good proportion of solid black heart-wood. The preliminary examination usually consists of making an incision and determining the extent to which the discolora- tion [blackening of the wood] has proceeded. . . .” The precise chemical nature of the black or deep brown colouring matters, largely contained in the cavities of ebony, is not finally established. Apart from so-called “ green ebony ”’ (q.v.) the following have been or are the geographical and reputed botanical sources of commercial ebonies. 1, Herbert Wright, ‘‘ The Genus Diospyros in Ceylon : its Morphology, Anatomy, and Taxonomy,” Annals of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, vol. ii. pp. 22-55, 1904. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 73 (a) Black wood (occasionally interspersed with wood of lighter colour). Ceylon and India (‘‘ Bombay ” : D. Ebenum, Koenig., and D. Melan- oxylon, Roxb.) ; in Ceylon the wood of these and other species when interrupted by light bands is sold as “ bastard ebony.” Mauritius: D. Tesselaria, Poir. West Africa (Gaboon, Lagos, Old Calabar, etc.): D. Dendo, Welw., and D. mespiliformis, Hochst. Zanzibar: D. mespiliformis, Hochst. Madagascar: D. Perrieri, Jumelle, mainly, also D. haplostylis, Boiv., and D. microrhombus, Hiern. Philippines (also Indo-Malaya): Maba buxifolia, Pers. The Indo- Malayan D. Ebenaster, Retz., may supply some of the black commercial ebony. (2) Streaked or patchy wood. Ceylon and India: Calamander or Coromandel wood: D. quaesita, Thw., streaked brown and black. (It is highly improbable that either D. hirsuta, Linn., or D. oppositifolia supplies. any ‘‘ Cala- mander ”’ wood ; see Wright, op. cit.) Philippines: ‘bolongata’’ and “ camagoon,” respectively D. pilosanthera, Blanco., and D. discolor, Willd., often very similar to Calamander wood. Andaman Islands: “‘ Marble wood,” D. Kurzit, Hiern., black with very light, often creamy white, stripes or patches. Celebes: Macassar ebony; a wood of unknown botanical origin, varying in appearance, often reddish-brown with black bands, but sometimes variegated with other tints. Japan: Kaki or Japanese persimmon, D. Kaki, Linn. f.; black with varying amounts of light or grey bands or patches. North America: American persimmon wood, D. virginiana, Linn., light in colour with little or no black heart. Esony, AFRICAN. Diospyros Dendo, Welw. Weight, 78 lbs. West Coast of Africa. The imports are from Old Calabar, Cameroon, Gaboon, Cape Lopez, Ogowe, Burutu, and Niger. It is somewhat difficult to determine between the respective merits of the various districts. The shipments vary in quality, conditions, and colour. The wood is sent over in billets and also in short logs with the centres left in ; the billets are from about 5 to ro inches wide, and from about 2 to 7 inches thick, the logs from 2 to 13 inches in diameter. Billets and logs are from 2 feet to perhaps as much as 8 feet. The billets are pieces split and chopped out from 74 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD the main trunk of the tree with the sap and faulty places cut away. The following information was supplied by Mr. T. S. Leadam. OLD CaLABAR.—This was a good black ebony of fine grain, and was much in demand when obtainable, although almost always small in diameter and very short, being about 2 inch in diameter and about 21 feet long. It was well prepared, and trimmed always in billets. The average weight of each piece was about 15 kilos, a piece weighing 20 kilos being rare. It was used for pianoforte keys, and there was a considerable demand for it in Sheffield for knife-handles. For some reason, at present unknown, the import has entirely ceased, but it has been said to be due to some local cause. Before the Old Calabar exports entirely ceased the wood came in larger sizes, and this suggests that it was coming from distant districts through the same port. CAMEROON.—In the absence of Old Calabar this wood seems to take the lead. It is generally of much larger sizes, often averaging from 25 to 30 pieces to the ton. The quality is good and the colour deep black. GABooNn.—This wood is a very deep black, and is usually reliable, but the trimming and sorting has been conducted carelessly. At one time it was customary in Liverpool for the selling brokers to sort the parcels into three classes, which were called ‘‘ flats,” ‘‘ billets,” and “heavy.” The “flat’’ grade consisted of all the faulty wood, and was selected on account of its deep degree of blackness for use in cutlery manufacture at Sheffield. The “billets’’ were the best wood of good sizes without centres. Tne ‘“‘ heavy’ consisted of the large solid pieces, with or without centres, more solid than the “flat ’’ but of any kind of shape. There was at that time a good demand for each class. OcowE.—This quality is the nearest approach to the Gaboon. Gasoon.—A considerable quantity has come from a French source of supply. Cape Lopez. Weight, 78 Ibs. 4 oz.—The quality of this variety is very much like that of Ogowe but has the reputation of containing a greater supply of greyish colour. The pores are very variable in size, and are generally filled with a white gum. The medullary rays are very obscure and hardly discert.ible with a lens. There is a very faint, rather agreeable aromatic scent. Burutu.—This is a coarse ebony, like an inferior quality of Macassar, somewhat long and irregular in shape, and it is very little in demand. NIGER.—A term generally used in America to cover all of the above imports except Burutu. There is, however, one quality known as “Niger” which, though generally good in colour, has a tendency to be streaked with grey. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 75 Epony, Burmese. Diospyros burmanica, Kurz. Weight, 55 lbs. India, Burma. This is an inferior kind of ebony, which possesses such a small black heart and so wide a band of light (sap) wood that for European uses it could only be used for decorative inlay work or for golf club heads. The wood is hard, heavy,.and close-grained, but is generally defective in the heart. The pores and medullary rays are exceedingly fine, and scarcely discernible with the lens (12 x). Epony, CEYLoN.—Supplies have reached England from Ceylon for Photograph by G. R. Keen Locs oF Epony, Soutu-WeEst INDIA. many years, but there has been no export on a commercial basis from India, although it may be expected in the near future. The imports from Ceylon consisted of what was, for ebony, exceptionally large-sized butts, which ranged up to 30 feet in length and 18 inches in diameter. The wood generally is not of such an intense black as is that from Africa, for nearly every piece contains streaks of a lighter or darker brown interspersed with the black. The wood generally is sound and serviceable, and on account of its greater length and size has for many purposes been preferred to the other varieties. This is especially noticeable in such work as shop-front fixtures and cases. It stands well and can be safely used in very small sizes, such as the fine framework for a show- case for jeweller’s ware. The variegated form of this ebony has also been used. It is termed Coromandel wood (q.v.). 76 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD “Epony, GREEN. Source dubious. (Possibly Tecoma Leucoxylon, Mart.) Weight, 72 Ibs. 2 oz. West Indies. This hard, heavy wood is obtainable only in small pieces of round section, varying in diameter from 2} to 6 inches. The sap-wood is yellowish-white, while the heart-wood is brownish-yellow, tinged more or less with bright bronze-green, and traversed with deep brown and yellow stripes. This dense wood, of nearly uniform texture. yields a very smooth bright surface which is cold to the touch. My specimen has no scent whatever. Another specimen, which was sent to me by Dr. Girdwood, is of a much darker and duller green, and possesses a most fragrant scent. It is evidently of a different species. It is used for linings and bandings in cabinet work and inlay, and is well suited for turnery. Holtzapffel, writing of the wood imported in his day from the West Indies, including Jamaica, says: ‘It cleans remarkably well. The dust is very pungent and changes to red when the hands are washed with soap and water. The wood is very much used for dyeing, and it contains so much resinous matter that the negroes in the West Indies employ it in fishing like a torch.” In transverse section the concentric layers are marked by the alternation of light and dark concentric zones. The pores and medullary rays are invisible to the naked eye; with the lens the former, largely plugged, stand out as yellowish-white spots and the latter as thin, light lines. The pores contain a yellowish to dark-red substance. Esony, Macassar. Weight, 69 lbs. 2 oz. This wood is imported in large billets and round logs which generally vary in size, ranging from 10 to 30 inches, with an average of 16 inches in diameter, while good lengths of 6 to 16 feet are procurable. It is fairly sound, and good sizes free from defect can be easily obtained. It is of a fairly dense, close grain, but is not so good in this respect as the ebonies of the West Coast of Africa. The colour ranges from dark brown to black, and a large proportion of the logs are streaked with yellow or yellowish brown, some very handsomely figured pieces being occasionally found. These are generally selected for special omamental work, such as brush backs, mirror handles, and veneers. On the tangential section the gum shines brightly in the slightly open 1 Professor Groom says that ‘‘ The name‘ green ebony ’ is given to several woods. One of these is Brya Ebenus, DC., from the West Indies. Another is Tecoma Leucoxylon, with which the name is specially associated. The sample agrees in many respects, but not perfectly, with the published descriptions of this. It also resembles the Nicaraguan wood known as‘ bois d’or,’ but from this and from Brya it differs in that its medullary rays are not arranged in horizontal series to form tiers. As opposed to greenheart the vessels are so fine that as delicate scratches along the grain they are invisible to the naked eye.” CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 77 pores. These are fairly evenly distributed, but are rather obscure and mostly plugged. The medullary rays are fine and very indistinct. Eitm, AMERICAN AND CANADIAN. Ulmus americana, Linn. U. racemosa, Thomas. U. pubescens, Walt. U. crassifolia, Nuttall. U. alata, Mich., and U. serotina. Weight, 44 Ibs. 10z. United States, Canada. As with all American and some Canadian timbers, the English timber merchant is confronted always with the difficulty of obtaining reliable supplies, on account of the fact that these always consist of the produce of several botanical species mixed indiscriminately. These supplies may vary from the fine, hard, white rock elm (obtainable from Canada twenty- five years ago in large quantities of good size) through less white and less hard transitional types to the soft swamp elm which is possibly derived from U. alata and is little wanted in England. Gibson quotes the respective weights of dry wood as “ 40-54 lbs., 45-26 Ibs., 43-35 Ibs., 45'15 lbs., 46°69 Ibs.,’”’ in the order named above, omitting U. serotina ; but, according to him, U. americana is called rock elm if it grows on “stony uplands,” and swamp elm if on low ground. It is, therefore, not difficult to account for the extraordinary differences found in both colour and density between the different supplies. Gibson states that it would be difficult, if not impossible, to identify the elms or any one of them by the colour of the wood alone. Until a few years ago American and Canadian elm was imported from Quebec in hewn square logs from 20 to 40 feet in length and 11 to 16 inches square and sometimes even larger, and a very small import still continues, but the cost is very high, while the quality deteriorates steadily. Most of that which is now imported comes from America in similar sized logs, in the round with the bark on. The wood is whitish-brown in colour, hard, tough, and flexible, with a fine, smooth, close, silky grain; and as it has only a small quantity of sap-wood it can be worked up closely and economically. It is necessary, however, to remove the sap in the conversion of the log as, unlike that of the English elm, it is of a perishable character. If exposed to a current of dry air it is very liable to split with fine, deep shakes from the surface. Having this serious liability to rend in seasoning, the logs: should never be left a week exposed to the influence of drying winds without some kind of protection. To preserve this timber, therefore, for future use, it should be treated in the same manner as the English common elm, namely by immersing it in water.1 1 It has also been used in aircraft manufacture. During the war the specifica- tions drawn up by the Engineering Standards Committee for the supply of rock elm for aircraft limited this to the produce of Ulmus racemosa, but in practice it is doubtful if it would ever be possible to obtain supplies solely of one botanical species. 78 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD The wood is valuable for shipbuilding, boatbuilding and many uses where toughness and durability under water are required. It is very slow-growing and the annual rings, which are very close, are distinctly marked. The medullary rays are clearly defined and parallel. The pores in the autumn wood, which are exceedingly small, appear like a series of very small, white, wavy bands, making a pattern at right angles to the rays. There is a rather indistinct line of larger pores in the spring-wood. Exim, British. Ulmus campestris, Sm., etc. Weight, 36 lbs. 6 oz. United Kingdom. This wood, although so well known, is not treated with the considera- tion which its merits deserve. There is little doubt but that scientific research could bring to light many more purposes for which it could be employed, than those for which it is at present utilised. It has been used by some for decorative work with very satisfactory results, as the colour and grain lend themselves to artistic effects, and for such purposes it is worth more attention. In Austria and Hungary, for instance, it is highly valued, being used particularly for open timbering work in halls and staircases. There is no evidence to show what botanical variety is used, but Rugen Holtz is often employed, and it is probable, though not certain, that this is the product of Ulmus campestris. The then British Consul at Vienna (1914) had his country house furnished with it, and told me that he considered it as good as oak and perhaps more ornamental. This example of the utilisation of home products rather than those of more exotic growth might well be followed in this country, which gener- ally adopts the bad economic policy of the reverse system. It must be borne in mind, however, that this wood is very apt to warp and twist, though where special measures have been taken, this difficulty has been overcome. As the first cost is very low, it would not be extra- vagant to use a means of protecting the exterior without interfering with the appearance of the wood, which would then be immune from the attacks of boring insects. There is little doubt that with the aid of preservatives it could be made more useful for many kinds of construc- tional work, as it is very durable under water and fairly so underground. During the war it was tested for aeroplane work, though considerable discussion arose as to its suitability, opinion being strongly divided on the subject. The pores in the spring-wood are large and open, and in the autumn- wood form a pretty pattern of complete wavy bands, which are so con- spicuous as to be visible without the aid of the lens. The medullary Tays are so prominent that it is strange that they do not show on the radial section. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 79 Ex, CornisH. Ulmus nitens, var. stricta, Ait. Weight, 33 Ibs. United Kingdom. This tree produces a wood which is superior in quality and texture to either the common English elm or the wych elm, and more nearly resembles the quality of the American rock elm, although not so hard, tough, or white. According to Elwes and Henry, “It produces a remark- ably tough wood, which is used by wheelwrights for naves, felloes, and framework of waggons, ... and also formerly for making boxes in which gunpowder was compressed by an hydraulic press, as no other wood was found to bear great pressure so well.”’ It also stands very well for the framework of lighter carriages and carts. Cornish elm was used for some old carved panelling which is carefully preserved in the church at Lantiglos near Fowey, but displays here its liability to be attacked by a worm or beetle, which has perforated some of the panels with holes. It is harder and of a lighter colour than the other English elms, and is capable of a smoother surface from the tool. There is also some difference in the transverse grain, which is more compact and dense, the pores being smaller and rather less in number. Em, Inpian. Holoptelea integrifolia, Planch. Weight, 40 lbs. (Gamble). India, Burma. This wood bears very little, if any, resemblance to the elms with which we are familiar in this country. The colour is a light, rather bright straw-yellow, while the wood has a clean, smooth, straight grain. Pearson says: “It is easily worked to a smooth surface, seasons well, somewhat cross-grained if cut radially.” In India it has been found to be an excellent wood for brush manufacture, and is in demand for this purpose. The pores are small and regular, not numerous, joined by pale, short, concentric bands. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine, well-defined, equidistant, parallel, and crossed at irregular intervals by continuous pale lines which may denote the concentric layers. Eitm, Wycu. Ulmus montana, Sm. Weight, 33 Ibs. 1 oz. Europe, America. This wood, while very similar to that of the common elm, is more valuable and can be used for many more purposes. It is milder and more straight in the grain, and is not so liable to twist or warp. It is used for boat boards and other shipbuilding requirements. The characteristics are similar to the ordinary elm, but the pores are more open, and decrease in size with an even and regular gradation, through the spring-wood to the outermost layer of autumn-wood. 80 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Empata. Ptevocarpus Rassak. Weight, 54 lbs. Borneo, This timber is close-grained and hard, and much resembles the grain and colour of false acacia (Robinia Pseudacacia), but is of a deeper tint. The wood is durable but somewhat liable to warp. The medullary rays are fine, clearly marked and parallel, but not equidistant. The pores are numerous, uneven, and irregular, and are sometimes partially filled with resin. Enc. Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, Roxb. Weight, 39 lbs. 4 oz. (my sample) ; 50-59 lbs. (Gamble) ; 55 lbs. (Brandis). Burma. In the United Kingdom the name “eng” is most commonly used, while in its native country the term “in” is usually employed to designate this wood. It is a straight tree attaining, according to Troup (“Forest Pamphlet,” No. 13), “the height of 80 to 90 feet with a girth of 8 to ro feet, but it may attain a height of over 120 feet and a girth of 15 feet.” The timber is of a dull reddish-brown colour and has gummy pores. It has a pleasant and aromatic scent, which can pervade a room and is fairly persistent. The wood greatly resembles Borneo camphor-wood, Siamese yang, and Andaman gurjun wood. Concerning this last, Sir D. Prain, in a private note, points out that “ the Gurjun of Chittagong, or Kanyin of Burma, are in botanical characters difficult to separate from D. laevis, and indeed they are generally considered identical. Yet within what is thus treated as one species the natives had two distinct things which they recognized readily as Telia (from tel or teli-oil), the tree that yielded the wood oil, and Denlia, a tree with a good, strong yet light, wood, used among other things in the poles of palanquins (known as Denlis). The wood of this Gurjun or Kanyin tree is very like that of the Eng (D. tuberculatus) which also yields a wood oil, or oleo-resin. The timber of the Eng is very similar in colour and grain to that of the Kapor or Camphor tree of Sumatra and Borneo (Dryobalanops aromatica).’’ Sir D. Prain says that he thinks that this tree “does not contain pockets of camphor, but that it may at times. If there be a timber which habitually shows pockets of camphor I do not know it, and should expect it to be some distinct species, and not Dryobalanops aromatica.” Eng is of hard texture, is straight-grained and works easily. When planed the resinous pores shine brightly. The timber is imported in sawn planks, clean and sound, from ro feet to about 35 feet long, 7 inches to about 18 inches wide, and from 2 to g inches in thickness. As the trees are large and of great height, with clean, straight boles, even larger sizes could be obtained if required. ‘‘ Were it not that Burmah has so many valuable timbers, and especially Teak, Eng would probably be in even greater demand” (Gamble). In India the wood is largely CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 81r used for building construction and for boats. It is not there considered to be a very durable timber for work exposed to the weather, nor, accord- ing to Troup, was it found satisfactory for paving blocks in Rangoon, Photograph by R. S. Troup. ENG (DiPTEROCARPUS TUBERCULATUS), THEYAUNG Forest, KaTHA, UPPER BuRMa. where it was used for this purpose, as it absorbed too much liquid and soon gave_off an offensive odour. Where exposed to the weather, as in sleepers, etc., the white ant has destroyed it, and it has been found G 82 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD to be much improved by Powellising. Sleepers subjected to this process have shown good results up to the present time. In a later private note R. S. Troup says: “ The importance of this timber lies a good deal in its great abundance. There is an enormous demand for the timber in Burma, and in many places the forests have been overworked, as well as wastefully worked. The value of In forests is, however, coming to be appreciated, and adequate steps will, no doubt, be taken to prevent wasteful exploitation and secure regular supplies for the future.” ; This demand, particularly in view of the continually advancing cost of teak, is certain to increase, both for home use in Burma and India, and for the United Kingdom and all other parts of the world, as the supplies of timber grow yearly more restricted. It appears to be useful for both external and internal construction work in the United Kingdom, although perhaps it is yet too early to speak with confidence as to its durability under exposed conditions. If its characteristics were more carefully studied, it might be used to advantage more regularly. Like the product of Dipterocarpeae from Siam and Borneo, it has been improperly described as ‘‘ eng-teak’”’ and “‘ yang-teak,”’ which has given the impression that it was a variety of this wood (Tectona grandis), and being handled accordingly it has sometimes given unfortunate results. Unlike teak, it is exceedingly difficult to season, and indeed, without artificial drying it has perhaps never become properly seasoned. A sample 18 inches long 10 inches wide by 2 inches thick, cut over three years, was found to shrink nearly } inch in thickness, and just over # inch in width, when subject to hot-air drying. If properly dried, eng is very suitable for floorings, as the grain is not too fibrous, nor is it hard enough to cause a slippery surface. The floor at Wigmore Hall, which was laid in 1905, is of this wood. An ugly black stain is caused, as with gurjun and Borneo camphor-wood, if iron or steel nails or screws are used with this wood where it is subject to damp. Mr. Nesbitt, in a recent letter to the Timber Trades Journal, says that the timbers of the Dipterocarps contain an essential oil which is destructive to the timber. He points out that this constitutes the great distinction between teak and eng (which in England are sometimes confounded by the ignorant), as teak contains an essential oil that is a preservative not only to the timber, but to everything with which it comes into contact. Eng, however, appears to be fairly durable when exposed in this country. This may perhaps be explained by the fact that the destructive essential oil, referred to by Mr. Nesbitt, may have exuded. The durability of the timber is not so marked when under or close to the ground, in which situations it soon begins to show deterioration. There is little doubt that CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 83 a scientific means of preserving such a valuable wood could soon be found. Even when it is exposed to wet and dry above ground, it is Photograth by J. H. Lace, C.I.E. ENG (Dierrrocarrus sp.), LOWER BurRMa, quite durable ; for under these conditions work under observation during twelve years gives quite satisfactory results. This is one of the timbers 84 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD mentioned in Mr. Gamble’s list of woods which are available in fairly large quantities, and are likely to be worth trial. The pores are irregular in size and position, and are partially plugged with resin. The medullary rays are irregular and somewhat coarse, showing in flecks on the radial section. Eriolaena Candollei, Wall. Weight, 50 Ibs. India, Burma. This wood yields squares 20 feet x 10 inches x Io inches. In colour it is bright salmon-red with brownish streaks. It is hard and close- grained, and seasons and polishes well. It is valuable for gun-stocks, cart wheels, for building purposes, and also for furniture and all decorative purposes. Fagraea fragrans, Roxb. Weight, 60 Ibs. (Gamble). Burma. This timber, of which the native name is anan, is practically unknown in England, although some few years ago a number of logs described as junglewood were imported, and these have since been identified as being of this species. It is a very handsome, close-grained wood, of a light yellowish-red colour ; it possesses a bright metallic lustre, and is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool. It is described by Gamble as being “‘ one of the most important of the second class trees of Burma. The durability of the wood is attested by bridge-posts . . . said to be over 200 years old, and by posts in the moat of the old city of Tenasserim, 300 years old. . . . The most important quality of the wood is clearly its power of resisting teredo, and its great durability both in fresh and salt water.” If it became known in England, its use as a decorative wood would soon be recognised. It would be particularly prized for the making of chairs and for other work of like character. The pores are very scarce and obscure, and form a pretty ripple appearance on the section grain. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine and numerous, but are not very clearly defined. There is an almost imperceptible ripple mark on the radial section. Filicium decipiens, Thw. Weight, 65-68 lbs. India. This is a very hard wood of a red colour; it is reported by Gamble as being strong and useful. It is probable that it will be exported in the near future. : “ Pores small, in groups or short radial lines. Medullary rays fine, numerous, at unequal distances.” (Gamble.) Fir, SILVER. Abies pectinata, DC. Europe. This wood is similar in appearance to the silver spruce of British Columbia ; in colour and texture it may be described as midway between CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 85 spruce (Picea excelsa) and yellow pine (Pinus Sirobus). The grain is very smooth and silky. The principal use of silver fir in this country before the war was for the sounding boards (belly boards) of pianos and violins. Freijo. Source unknown. Weight, 46 lbs. 4 oz. Brazil. This wood is somewhat like a slightly darker and heavier serayah, and is of a dull brick-red colour. It is very liable to split and would probably not be of sufficient value for export. The medullary rays are very clearly defined and can be seen with the naked eye, very close and parallel, showing on the quarter in strong large, regular, oblong patches unlike any other wood. The pores are irregularly distributed and are not very large. FURNITURE Woop. Species unknown. Weight, 48 lbs. 1 oz. West Coast of Africa. Many very different varieties of hardwoods have from time to time been brought to England, and for want of more accurate information have been called by the term ‘‘ furniture wood.”” There has been such a great divergence of quality and appearance that it is difficult to know exactly the best manner of treating the timbers. Among these supplies, however, has been found one handsome and valuable variety that so nearly re- sembles in all respects Australian blackwood (Acacia Melanoxylon) that it suggests the theory that it is the same tree. The weight of my sample is exactly the same as one of the specimens of blackwood, while the colour and general appearance are also similar. There are the same dark gummy streaks and the same bright metallic lustre. It is only when the section end is examined with a magnifying glass that any apparent difference is manifested. The annual layers of growth are clearly defined by thin light-coloured streaks, and the open pores are so evenly distributed that they would almost give the impression that they were artificial, The medullary rays are fine, parallel, very close and regular. Gancaw. Mesua ferrea, Linn. Weight, 70 lbs. (Troup). India. The above is the native Burmese name of the wood ; it is also called iron-wood, and Indian rose-chestnut. A few logs of good size and quality have come to England. The wood is of a bright rose-red colour. Gamble says: “The timber is very strong, hard and heavy, and it is just its weight and hardness, and the difficulty of extracting it from the forest and converting it that leads to its comparatively little use. It gives good sleepers, as good as those of pyinkado, but the cost of extraction, conversion, and freight is so great as to make its extended use unlikely. 86 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD . .. In the Andamans it has given squares up to 60 feet Jong, 2 feet siding, but more usually they are 30 feet and 1 foot. The wood is very durable. It is used for building, for bridges, gunstocks, and tool handles.” This wood appears to be valuable, and if properly known should be much in demand. It requires to be thoroughly seasoned, when it stands well and possesses a very nice decorative colour and appearance. It is one of the timbers mentioned in Mr. Gamble’s list of woods which are available in fairly large quantities, and are likely to be worth trial. : The pores are scarce and strangely grouped. The medullary rays ar very fine but distinct, and parallel; they are crossed in a peculiarly irregular manner by small, white wavy lines, the whole giving an effect as of a badly damaged spider’s web. Garuga pinnata, Roxb. Weight, 40 lbs. India, Burma. The wood is reddish-brown with a handsome silver grain. It is even- grained and fairly hard. It can be obtained in quantity in squares 30 feet x 12 inches x 12 inches. It is used for such work as planking, canoes, and boxes. Gluta travancorica, Bedd. Weight, 46-58 Ibs. India. The heartwood is dark red, very hard and close-grained, beautifully mottled with light and dark, i.e. black and orange, streaks. Its splendid colour and markings should rapidly bring it to notice as a valuable wood for furniture. It seems to season well and works and polishes admirably, and is distinctly one of the finest and most beautiful woods of India. The pores are moderate-sized, scanty, and filled with resin. The medullary rays are very fine, very numerous, prominent, and visible in the silver grain as narrow bands. There are numerous pale, undu- lating, concentric lines, often interrupted. GoncaLo ALVES. Asironium fraxinifolium, Schott. Weight, 49 lbs. Brazil. The wood is of a straw colour interspersed with streaks of dark reddish-brown. It is of a hard, close-grained texture, and capable of a very smooth surface from the tool. It has a very fragrant scent, especially when being worked. It is reported on as being considered one of the finest of Brazilian hardwoods, and as taking a high polish. It is used for furniture, such work as flooring and wainscoting, and in naval and civil construction. Certainly in wainscoting it would present a very handsome appearance. Shortly before the war a cargo arrived in London which consisted of a large number of logs of this timber which was termed CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 87 Brazilian walnut. It was not sufficiently known to meet with a very good reception, but after some little time the demand increased. The pores are very small and rather scanty, uniformly placed, and generally plugged with a white substance. The medullary rays are very fine and are joined at right angles with fine lines, presenting an appearance as of a spider’s web. GrapPiA-PunHA. Apuleia precox, Mart. Brazil. This is a yellowish-coloured wood, with a clean, free, straight grain, moderately heavy, strong, and one of the most useful woods for planking or timbering. It attains only medium dimensions, but may be turned to account in many ways in the domestic arts. Brazilian Woods speaks of this timber as being of first-rate quality for building and naval architecture. GREENHEART. Nectandra Rodioer, Hook. Weight, 66 lbs. 4 0z. British and Dutch Guiana, the West Indies. The best quality of greenheart is that from British Guiana and the principal supply is from Demerara, whence it is received in hewn logs nearly square, from 24 to 65 feet and even longer, and from 12 to 24 inches square, with waney edges. The logs are generally very straight in the grain, and remarkably free from knots and defects. They contain a considerable thickness of sap-wood, which, however, is not distinguishable from the heart-wood. It has been pointed out that on rare occasions the sap-wood is -attacked by a worm, which does not affect the heart-wood. The strength of this wood exceeds that of most others, whether it be tried by the transverse or tensile strain, or by a crushing force in the direction of the fibres. Tried by the latter process it exhibits a peculiarity unshared probably by any other timber except sabicu. It bears the addition of weight after weight without showing any signs of yielding; and when the crushing force is obtained, it gives way suddenly and completely with a loud report, nothing being left of the pieces but a loose mass of shapeless fibres. Very rarely it is liable, like sabicu, to a cross fracture of the longitudinal fibres. Although not subject to side shakes, it is somewhat liable to end splits, and great care has to be taken in sawing it up. Immediately the saw has entered the wood, and the air is admitted, the log may split with a loud report ; on one occasion this happened, and the log flew upwards through the roof of the mill in which it was being sawn. On this account it is desirable, as soon as the log has passed the saw, to chain it round, securing the chain with strong dogs spiked into the wood, which will hold it sufficiently, so that all that can occur will be a severe split, without the risk of damage to the sawyers or saw frame. 88 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD It is largely used for piles for sea jetties and docks, as, although not entirely immune, the wood is partially proof against the attack of the teredo worm. Stone and Freeman quote W. T. Oldrieve as authority for saying that it resists Limnoria terebrans and teredo, and ranks next to teak in resisting white ants. The grain is smooth and fine, and cold to the touch. It is the general experience that this wood is poisonous, and workmen are very careful not to get splinters into their hands. More than twenty-five years ago, when the Port Elizabeth jetty on the south- A east African coast was being built, sawn timber was imported direct from Demerara, and since this time a certain amount of sawn planks and CENTRAL Forest Camp, M Showing large gurjun trees (Dipterocarpus turbinatus), possibly mo boards has been imported. It was used rather extensively about fifty to sixty years ago for stair treads and other joiners’ work if heavy wear was anticipated, and much of the woodwork in the old Post Office at St. Martin’s-le-Grand was of this wood ; it is difficult to understand why its use in this direction has been discontinued. It forms the best wood used solid for salmon, trout, and other fishing rods. A fine sample of greenheart can be made into an exceedingly small top joint for such a rod, and will bend to an extraordinary extent without breaking. The colour is of a pale yellowish-green, while sometimes it is quite dark with brown and black streaks. The black greenheart is considered to be the best. A shipment of Surinam greenheart, weighing 74 Ibs. 12 oz. per cubic CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 89 foot, was received in 1915, having been intended for Havre, but diverted to England on account of the war. The logs are of the same sizes as the Demerara and quite equal in quality ; indeed, except that it appears to be rather heavier in weight and darker green in colour, there seems to be little difference in the two kinds. The pores are scattered, numerous, and fairly regular. The medullary tays are very fine and close and sharply defined. Grewia tiliaefolia, Vahl. Weight, 48 lbs. (Gamble). India. This timber has hitherto been unknown commercially in the United DDLE ANDAMAN ISLANDS. 2 than 500 in number, of which the value would be about £75,000. Kingdom, but supplies are likely to be available in the future. It is of a brown colour, somewhat resembling walnut, and has a close, firm, hard texture, showing flecks of silver grain on the radial section. Amongst its uses in India, Gamble mentions shafts, masts, golf-clubs, tool-handles, oars, and all purposes for which elasticity, strength, and toughness are required. GuARABU. Terminalia acuminata, Fr. Allem. Weight, 68 lbs. Brazil. The wood is of alight purple colour, with a very hard, close grain and texture, and is capable of an exceedingly smooth surface from the tool. It resembles purpleheart, but is of a finer grain. It has a metallic lustre somewhat like brazilleto, and should be a good substitute for this wood go THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD for violin bows. It is reported as being used in Brazil for furniture, wheel-spokes, beams for civil construction, and flooring decks. It is apparently obtainable in long lengths and large sizes. The pores are numerous and small, and are mostly filled with a gummy substance. The medullary rays are strongly defined, parallel but irregular, and joined at right angles by finer white lines, forming a spider’s web appearance. The medullary rays show as in beech, but rather finer. Guizo. Weight, 50 Ibs. Philippine Islands. This timber has not been imported into the United Kingdom, and is unknown in ordinary commerce. From the limited opportunities available for judgement and reference, it would appear from the specimens sent lately by Mr. A. T. Gillespie, of Manila, to be in all respects similar to the sal (Shorea robusta) of India, and to prove as satisfactory and durable in use. The extreme weight of these timbers, which makes their cost when imported so high, will militate against the use of the wood, but if this difficulty is overcome it should be in great demand for sleepers and important heavy constructional work where hardness, heaviness, and durability are necessary. For description see Sal. Gum, Biue. Eucalyptus Globulus, Labillardiére. Weight, 43-54 Ibs. (Stone). 69 Ibs. (Post Office Compt.) Tasmania, Australia, India. This tree, attaining the height of from 200 to 300 feet, with a diameter of 6 to 25 feet, is named blue gum from the colour of the young growth, which is of a glaucous tint. It has been planted in the Nilgiris in India, where it has grown rapidly, producing trees in thirty years with an average height of 143 feet and an average girth of 3 feet Iz inches, but so far has had the reputation of being but an indifferent timber tree, owing to the tendency of the wood to warp and split. It has been found to be seiviceable and fairly durable, fence-posts having been in the ground for fifteen years. It has been planted in South America, where it has been used for sleepers, but has not given much satisfaction. The timber is of a pale straw colour, hard, heavy, moderately strong and tough, and has a twisted or curled grain. In seasoning deep shakes occur from the surface, and it shrinks and warps considerably. ‘“‘ It is specially esteemed for piles, owing to the large size that it attains and the com- parative immunity it enjoys from the attacks of the teredo ” (Carmichael Lyne, Tasmanian Timbers). This authority also states that the oldest wharf now in use was erected in 1868, and stood till 1902 without renewal, and mentions a sample of bridge-decking which was fifty years under foot traffic and is still hard and sound, while yet another timber formed part of the original Bridgwater Ferry punt built in 1818. The punt had CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD o1 been destroyed by blasting about fifty years before, and the wreck had been lying on the foreshore between high- and low-water mark, exposed to the attacks of teredo ever since. The timber, cut in 1894, showed no BLuE GuM (EvucaLyrrus GLosulus) PLANTATIONS OF THE NItciris, Inp1a, sign of decay. Stone quotes A. Mathieu, Flore forestiéve, as stating “it is the least valuable of the Eucalypti,” but this does not seem to be borne out by the present record. Mr. Chas. Geddes of Fort Pirie prefers 92 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD it to jarrah for girders, beams, and decking, in both strength and wear. He says he constructed 500 feet of wharf nine years ago, and used it in preference to jarrah and karri for cross-heads, girders, walings, sheet piles, and decking (quoted by K. C. Richardson in a report on Tasmanian Timbers). An immense quantity was used in the construction of the Admiralty Harbour Extension Works at Keyham in piles (fender piles and rubbing pieces). It has been used very extensively in England for railway waggon building, where it has given satisfaction. It has also been tried for sleepers, but does not seem generally to find favour for this purpose. The chairs make an almost clean cut through, which is probably due to the hardness and want of elasticity in the wood. The weight of the train passing over the chair compresses the softwood sleeper, which rebounds when the weight is removed, while the blue gum is too hard to compress and therefore crushes. Used as fencing it stands well, and after many years does not seem to decay, even without any protection of creosote or tar. It has been used extensively by the Post Office for telegraph and telephone arms, with satisfactory results, and the Comp- troller, Mr. G. Morgan, provides a table of results of experiments made with various Australian and Tasmanian timbers for this purpose : S1zE OF SAMPLES SELECTED FOR EXPERIMENT 54 INCHES x 5} INCHES x 4 INCHES I F : Name of Timber. Reeve ae Weight in lbs. | Specific Gravity. N.S.W. Ironbark . é ‘ 2 24,750 74 I-19 Spero (Spotted Gum : Eucalyptus maculata) . : z 24,000 54 87 Tallow Wood . ; : 7 . 22,000 64 1025 Blackbutt ; é af 5 3 19,570 57 “O15 White Box. . : 19,500 73 1‘I7 Forest Mahogany . 19,200 59 -946 Turpentine . , : . 16,200 62 997 Blue Gum : F 20,100 69 I‘Il Jarrah. é 14,125 67 1075 Karri . ; si 5 11,600 59 95 British Oak! . ‘ , : : A a 54 87 1 In English Oak, ‘“‘ K ’’=16,800 to 21,000. It is satisfactory for platforms and deckings for wharves, and makes good hard-wearing flooring, although perhaps liable to become somewhat slippery. Blue gum, stringy-bark, and teak are all remarkable for their fire-resisting qualities: it is difficult to say which is the best in this respect. In September 1903, a disastrous fire occurred in the West India Docks, and-sheds containing all manner of soft and hard woods were destroyed, some sleepers of blue gum and stringy-bark being the only timbers which remained ; these showed very little sign of the heat and fire, and were only slightly charred at the edges. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 93 Gum, Rep. Eucalyptus calophylia, R. Br. Weight, 43 lbs. (Gamble). Western Australia. Julius reports: “‘ This tree is widely distributed, and of very handsome appearance, growing to heights of over 100 feet and an average diameter of about 3 feet. The wood is yellowish-red in colour, of lighter weight than the other local eucalyptus, though fairly dense and hard, and splits readily. It is apt to be much intersected with gum veins, which impair its suitability for important or permanent works of construction. The exuding gum has an acknowledged value for medicinal and tanning purposes. . . . The timber is very strong and tough, but not very durable under ground.” Gamble reports: ‘‘ Pores moderate-sized, usually in radial lines of 3 to 6, joined by concentric white bars. Medullary rays fine, numerous.” Gum, Satmon. Eucalyptus salmonophioia, F. v. M. Weight, 66 Ibs. (at 12 per cent moisture). Western Australia. Concerning this timber C. E. Lane-Poole writes: [It is] “an exceed- ingly dense wood, the second strongest in Australia. It is questionable whether the gold mines of Western Australia, which have up to date yielded {80,000,000 of gold, would have been developed had it not been for this tree and its sisters Mulga (Acacia aneura and A. steresophylla) and Gimlet (Eucalyptus salubris).”’ Gum, SPOTTED. Eucalyptus capitellata, Sm. Weight, 58 lbs. 6 oz. Australia, This is so much like tallow wood that it is difficult to distinguish between the two varieties. For conditions and uses it is similar in all respects to tallow wood (g.v.). Gum, York. Eucalyptus Loxophleba, Benth. Weight, 67 lbs. (at I2 per cent moisture) (Lane-Poole). Western Australia. ‘The wood is reddish in colour, is exceedingly hard, heavy, dense, and tough.”” This is the description given by Julius, who also reports that it ““does not grow to heights much above 8o feet or diameters exceeding 3 feet, and the stem is apt to be more or less gnarled... . The principal use of this timber has been in naves, felloes, and all kinds of wheelwrights’ work, its acknowledged peculiar excellence for which is recognised beyond the limits of the State. It is also employed for farming requirements and other local purposes.” It is spoken of as possessing very interlocked grain. 94 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD GUMBAR. Gmelina arborea, Roxb. Weight, 38 lbs. (Gamble). India, Burma. The wood is of a pale yellowish-white and resembles white mahogany or prima vera in colour, texture, and grain, possessing the roe and mottle so well known in mahogany. It would be a very useful and attractive furniture and cabinet wood. Gamble reports it as ‘‘ the chief furniture wood of Chittagong, and is in some demand in Calcutta, where it has been used for making the showcases of the Imperial museum. It has also been used on the Bengal North-Western Railway for the linings of railway carriages.’’ He quotes Captain Baker, writing in 1829 as speaking of its use for ‘‘. . . organ pipes, sounding boards and other such work where shrinkage is to be avoided.” This is one of the timbers mentioned on Mr. Gamble’s list of woods which are available in fairly large quantities, and are likely to be worth trial. GuRJUN. Dztpterocarpus turbinatus, Gaert. f., and other species of Dipterocarpus. Weight, 42-50 lbs. Burma, Chittagong, the Anda- man Islands. This is a magnificent tree 150 to 200 feet in height. The source of the timber which has come to the United Kingdom is probably confined to the Andaman Islands; it has been received in clean, sound, sawn planks of moderate lengths and widths. Gurjun oil, which is extracted from the tree, is much in demand and is used for making torches, and for painting houses and ships. The timber resembles that of eng, but is of a slightly browner colour. It is useful in the same manner for the same purposes. It makes a beautiful flooring which stands well if artificially dried, and gives an agreeable aromatic scent which is noticeable on first entering a room and is fairly persistent even after some years. Parquet flooring of gurjun wood has been very much admired. It stands very well in England when exposed to the weather, and the grain does not rise or wear to a ridgy surface, even when it is not pro- tected by any paint or varnish. It can be used advantageously in all kinds of constructional work in the same manner as eng or in, and yang. As in eng, yang, and Borneo camphor-wood, if exposed to damp, an ugly black stain appears where iron or steel nails or screws are used. The pores, which are very regular in size and character, are evenly distributed. The medullary rays are parallel and even, and are joined at right angles by similar lines, which are light, very fine, and exceedingly numerous, CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 95 HarEwoop. Source unknown. Weight, 54 lbs. San Domingo. This timber, known in London as “ harewood,” and in Liverpool as “concha satinwood,’’ is imported in square-hewn logs, from about 8 to 24 inches square and 8 to 20 or more feet long. In San Domingo it is named ‘‘pino macho”’ (male pine), and so distinguished from satinwood, which is known as “espanello.” At first sight these two woods appear to be very similar in colour, weight, and texture. Harewood, however, though yellow in colour and displaying a beautiful satiny lustre, is more dull and greyer or browner in tint, and is sometimes traversed by black ““gum ”’ streaks; moreover, on exposure to light and air its greyness gradually increases until with age the wood acquires the silver-grey hue characteristic of genuine old harewood and has been imitated by stain- ing sycamore to produce artificial harewood (g.v.). The majority of logs imported show abundant roe and mottle figure, with a preponder- ance of the fiddle mottle effect. Some of these have realised very high prices (£3 or more per cubic foot) for veneers. When used for panelling and banding in cabinet work the wood produces attractive and artistic effects. It might with advantage be used for the backs of brushes of the highest quality. Harewood was employed in the form of marquetry, in a seventeenth-century Flemish and German backgammon board which is exhibited in the South Kensington. Museum. The annual rings (or zones of growth) are sharply marked by narrow light lines at the successive boundaries. The scattered little groups of pores are visible’to the naked eye by reason of the light halo surrounding each. The numerous medullary rays are likewise visible. Though the wood shows a striking resemblance to West Indian satinwood in the structure of the growth-rings and even in the great variation of their width, yet in my specimens of harewood the pores are larger, and they, as well as the medullary rays and boundary lines of the annual rings, stand out in cross-section more sharply from the darker general mass of the wood. It is possible that harewood and West Indian satinwood belong to the same family, if not to the same genus. HAREWOOD, ARTIFICIAL. Stained sycamore or maple. So-called ‘‘harewood’’ has in recent years been obtained by staining sycamore, or sometimes other maple, in such a manner as to produce a beautiful silver-grey wood with a metallic sheen. Several timbers, either white or verging on to white, are capable also of the treatment. The wood can be stained completely through. First practised in Paris, the process remained a secret one until taken up in Germany, and more recently in England. It has been found that the colour is induced by the action of iron salts (ferrous sulphate, for instance), 96 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD which stains drops of tannin already present in the wood, particularly in the medullary rays. The chaste beauty of the treated wood has caused it to be used in the manufacture of handsome suites of furniture, in the panelling and furnishing of rooms in leading hotels and famous steamships, including the Mauretania and Balmoral Castle. Yet the beautiful furniture made of this stained wood cannot vie with the antique specimens in which genuine harewood has been used. Moreover, the pure silvery-grey gradually becomes discoloured with yellowish-brown, or changes to a bronze colour. It is claimed that under competent supervision this deterioration can be avoided, but I doubt it, and certainly up to the present all the work executed in this stained wood has in course of time suffered the change of colour. Heterophragma adenophyllum, Seem. Weight, 47 Ibs. Burma. The wood is orange-yellow in colour, with occasional darker streaks. It is fairly hard, works and seasons well, and does not warp or split. It is extremely strong and elastic, and it seems probable that it will become a good aeroplane wood; it has been tried in India for that purpose. It is good for planking, and makes an excellent material for cabinet work. Gamble says that it is well deserving of being better known. It is obtainable in squares of 20 feet x 10 inches x ro inches. Hickory. Hicoria ovata, Britt.; H. laciniosa, Sarg.; H. glabra, Britt. ; H. alba, Linn. Weight, 46 lbs. 13 oz. Gibson gives the weight as 50-52 lbs. North America. Although there is nearly always a use for which one wood is better fitted than another, this fact is hardly so well proved in any case more than with this timber. For many purposes there is no wood which can compare with hickory. The supplies are drawn from all botanical species of Hicoria, it being impossible to separate them, and the natural result is that there is a wide divergence in the quality of different shipments as regards soundness, toughness, and absence of faulty pieces. One of the worst faults encountered is that of the holes caused by a boring worm or beetle which destroys the value of a large quantity of the timber. It is imported into this country in clean boles with the bark on, but on the Continent before the war a high price was paid for split billets, which were highly valued and much in demand. The logs should be converted as soon as possible after arrival, as if left for any length of time, even though protected from the weather, they split very badly. When fresh the logs are of great weight, and the inexperienced are surprised at the cost of freight, the timber averaging as much as one ton and sometimes more, for 26 feet cube of Hoppus’ measure. The colour varies from almost white through shades of yellow to CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 97 brown, with fine, straight darker lines crossing the surface. The grain is even and straight, and a very smooth surface can be obtained from the tool. On the Continent, as in America, it has been largely used for cart-wheel spokes and felloes, carriage shafts and coachbuilders’ work, all manner of bent work and hoops for casks, handles of picks and axes. In this country it is much in demand for golf shafts, for which purpose, on account of its springy toughness combined with its light weight, no other wood can compete. It is also used for pick and tool handles and bent work. Thenavy demands a considerable amount, and although perhapson account of scarcity of supplies it has not been used to a very large extent in aeroplane work, many consider it for this purpose to be unequalled. It thrives in this country, and many good specimens of trees can be seen in various places ; it should be more widely planted both for its utility and its beauty. The pores are scarce and variable in size, some being very large ; some are partially plugged. The medullary rays are very fine, parallel, and clearly defined. Hinau. Elaeocarpus dentatus, Vahl. Weight, 36 Ibs. New Zealand. The Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, reports that this wood is “light dull-brown colour, heart-wood darker, tough, strong, and durable. Procurable in lengths of 20 feet and up to 12 inches in width. Used for fencing-posts, bridges, and culverts.” Hinoxi, Formosan. Chamaecyparis formosensis, Mats.; C. obtusa, S. and Z. Weight, 28 lbs. Formosa. The wood is of a clean, bright yellow-brown colour, much resembling the appearance of cypress (Taxodium distichum). It is harder and heavier than the Japanese hinoki, and has more marked grain. It gives a strong aromatic scent which is not particularly pleasant, and is quite unlike the fragrant scent of Japanese hinoki. This is one of the useful Formosan woods, which ‘till now has never been imported, but which, if a regular supply could be maintained, would become a very useful timber. Hinoxi, JAPANESE. Cupressus obtusa, Koch. Weight, 22 Ibs. g oz. Japan. The wood is of a pale yellow, straw colour with wavy marks caused by darker streaks, and possesses a lustrous sheen, while the scent is very fragrant and agreeable. Only a few logs have been imported, and commercially it is unknown. Elwes and Henry say: “ No coniferous H 98 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD timber is now so highly valued in Japan for the finest buildings, as well as for interior work . . . and Sargent says that the palaces of the Mikado, as well as the temples, are built of it... . A large slab 3 feet across, brought to England by Elwes, which had been cut from a burr of this tree . . . was quite free from flaws, sound to the centre, and showed a very twisted and wavy grain; in colour resembling satinwood... . Hinoki is one of the five royal trees which were reserved for Imperial and religious uses in ancient times.” The annual rings, which are exceedingly close, are clearly marked by a strong dark layer. The pores and medullary rays are not distinguish- able under the lens (12 x). Hotry. Ilex aquifolium, Linn. Weight, 47 Ibs. (Baterden). Europe. The wood, which is white to grey in shade, is exceedingly close- grained in texture, and capable of a very smooth and hard surface. Generally the degree of whiteness, on the excellence of which its value tests, depends, as in many other cases of white wood, upon the time when it is felled, the manner of its conversion, and the care with which the converted parts are preserved. It should be converted immediately after the tree is felled, and the produce very carefully stored and stacked under cover in a moderately dry and sunless place. Holly is chiefly valued for inlay work. MHoltzapffel says: ‘‘ Holly is the whitest and most costly of those woods used by the Tunbridge- ware manufacturer, who employs it for a variety of his best works, especially those which are to be painted’in water-colours. It is closer in texture than any other of our English woods, and does not readily absorb foreign matters, for which reason it is used for painted screens, etc.” The beautiful Italian sixteenth-century walnut coffer, of which mention is made in the section on walnut, is inlaid with holly, which gives a very fine contrasting effect. Gibson quotes the American varieties for much the same purposes, Ilex opaca, which would appear to be the principal one, and also J. cassine, I. vomitoria, I. monticola, and I. decidua. The pores, which are exceedingly small, are very regular. The very clearly marked medullary rays are parallel and equidistant. They are very distinct on all surfaces but show most strongly on the tangential section, where they are exceedingly regular in their marking. Hopea parviflora, Bedd. Weight, 60 Ibs. India. This wood is sometimes known as the ironwood of Malabar. It is the produce of the irumbogam tree. The wood is of a rather bright reddish-brown colour, with a hard, close, firm texture; it is capable of CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 99 a very smooth surface from the tool. According to Pearson (Forest Economic Products of India), ‘‘The amount which it will probably be possible to procure in future will sooner increase than decrease, as the forests containing this species are brought under regular management.” Gamble says that it gives logs of large size, averaging 25 feet in length, and containing 45 cubic feet. The wood is undoubtedly one which would soon make its good qualities known, if it were brought into more general notice. It possesses all the qualities which would make it stand well for decorative furniture work and turmery under all conditions. The numerous pores are exceedingly small. The medullary rays are very fine and close, equidistant and parallel. Hopea Wightiana, Wall. Weight, 54 Ibs. India. The timber is of a yellowish-brown colour, with a very hard, close, compact grain. My specimen appears a good deal heavier than the weight attributed to it, and is strongly marked with a fiddle mottle figure. It would be valued for brush backs, cabinet-work, inlay, and turnery, and perhaps for some of the purposes for which boxwood is used. The pores are very small and numerous and are largely plugged. The medullary rays also appear in great numbers and are exceedingly fine and clear cut, parallel and equidistant. HornBEAM. Carpinus Betulus, Linn. Weight, 51 Ibs. 13 oz. Great Britain, Continental Europe, America. The wood is yellowish-white in colour, close in the grain, hard, tough, strong, and of moderate weight. There is no distinguishable sap or alburnum ; it may, therefore, be worked up to great advantage. Hence we find it employed for a variety of purposes: it is useful in husbandry, and agricultural implements made of the sound and healthy wood wear well, as it stands exposure without being much affected by it. It is also used by engineers for cogs in machinery, a purpose for which it is well suited. The hornbeam tree, if pollarded, becomes blackish in colour at the centre, owing to the admission of external moisture and parasites. This renders it unfit for many purposes where a clean, bright surface is required, and generally it proves detrimental to the quality and durability of the timber. This wood, when subjected to vertical pressure, cannot be completely destroyed ; its fibres, instead of breaking off short, double up like threads, a conclusive proof of its flexibility and fitness for service in machinery. A considerable trade has been carried on of late years in Continental supplies of hornbeam, from France particularly, for use in pianoforte work; it is used especially for keys, for which it is highly suitable. 100 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD These supplies have been of a quality rather milder than most of the British wood, and of an exceedingly white appearance. The concentric layers are clearly marked. The pores, which are very small and rather obscure, are very regular. The medullary rays are not very clearly marked, but show on the tangential section as fine, rather dark lines of uneven length. HoroEKa. Pseudopanax crassifolium. New Zealand. This wood, commonly called lancewood, is reported by the Board of * Agriculture of New Zealand as follows: The colour is “ lightish-brown, sometimes of a satiny lustre ; dense, even, and compact. Procurable in short lengths and up to 4 inches wide. Used for wheelwrights’ work.” HorseE-Cuestnut. Aesculus Hippocastanum, Linn. Weight, 36 Ibs. Great Britain, Europe. The timber is white. If the tree be cut down in early winter, then sawn into boards and so forth, and carefully stored thereafter, wood of extreme whiteness may be obtained. If, however, the trunks are felled later in winter or are allowed to lie for any length of time, the wood assumes a yellowish-brown tint. It is of moderate weight, soft, fine- grained, but perishable. The timber has occasionally been used for veneers. In southern Europe it is said to have been used for fruit store shelves ; the porous nature of the wood absorbs the moisture from the fruit, the preservation of which is thereby helped. The annual rings are marked by a thin boundary line ; the pores are invisible and scattered ; and the medullary rays are so fine as to be invisible to the naked eye. Horsk-CHESTNUT, JAPANESE. Aesculus turbinata, Bl. Japan. This wood so nearly resembles the English horse-chestnut that it is unnecessary to give any further description. Some proportion of this Japanese species contains wavy, curly figure and is often mottled. On this account it is highly valued in Japan for decorative woodwork. IcHiI-GasHI. Quercus Gilva, Bl. Formosa. This is a hard, heavy wood of a brick-red colour, with a firm, close texture capable of a very smooth surface from the tool. It has never been imported on a commercial basis, but according to Goto “is valued in the making of agricultural and other tools and implements ; also in making wheels and rudders.” It resembles in its qualities English live oak, from which it only differs in colour. The pores are very scarce and rather less than moderate size. In between the strong, bright, principal medullary rays are innumerable CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD or exceedingly fine, secondary rays which are only visible with the lens (12 x). Incyin. Pentacme suavis, DC. Weight, 54 lbs. (Troup). India, Cochin China. This is one of the timbers of which a specimen log was sent a few years ago to the Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington. It is a very valuable wood for which many uses could be found in the United Kingdom if its good qualities were recognised. It possesses a very pleasing nut-brown colour, resembling teak, though it is a little lighter. It is capable of a smooth surface. On this point, however, Gamble says : ‘‘ It resembles Sal in the peculiarity that on the vertical section it has alternate belts in which the grain changes, so that a very sharp plane indeed is required to smooth it. It is used in India for house-building and bows’’; also, according to Troup, for ‘‘ bridge construction, piles, telegraph poles, boat-building, carts, shafts, strong articles of furniture, and bows; suitable for trial for paving blocks.” It is mentioned in both these authorities for its durability, while Fox- worthy notes that it is indestructible in water. The pores are arranged in belts which are made more clear by the halo surrounding them. The numerous fine, clear, equidistant medullary rays, Which also show on the radial section as in beech but rather smaller, are crossed at right angles by similar irregular, fine white lines. Ief Preto or Ip& Una. Tecoma curialis, Fr. Allem. Brazil. This wood is especially excellent for piles, booms, and harbour works. Another species, [pé tabaco, described as one of the best woods of Brazil, is also used for timber and pile work. IroKo. Chlorophora excelsa, Benth. and Hook. Weight, 41 lbs. 14 oz. West Coast of Africa. This timber has been imported from several districts on the coast, but the best quality has come from Benin, in logs hewn square, ranging from 15 to 48 inches, and in lengths varying from 12 to more than 26 feet. It is described when sold as “‘ iroko (African teak),”’ but it possesses little resemblance to teak (Tectona grandis) even in appearance, while in quality and texture it is quite dissimilar. It has also been sold under the name of “ African oak ” and not identified as iroko. When first cut it is of a light-brown colour, which is inclined to bleach to a lighter shade after exposure to the air. As it is cross-grained, the wood does not leave the tool with a very smooth surface. It is sound and does not readily split, but the central wood is often faulty and therefore a little wasteful in conversion. 102 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Troko is described by Mr. H. N. Thompson as “ the best all-round timber in tropical Africa—(and)—the most useful wood in West Africa.’’ It is stated to be durable and to resist well the attacks of white ants (termites). Apart from its use in houses, it has recently been most successfully utilised to make heavy felloes for gun-carriages ; apparently the wood is thus exceptionally strong. It has also been found a splendid wood for the heads of golf clubs. There is little doubt that iroko will grow in favour and find new uses. This most useful timber can, however, in no way be regarded as a substitute for teak. In transverse section concentric layers are formed by the occurrence at intervals of thin, concentric light lines of soft tissue. The pores are visible, and are linked together by shorter or longer light wavy lines that stand out well in the section. The medullary rays are invisible. The wood is cross-grained ; moreover, the grain is apt to be slightly wavy. The coarse vessels (pores) imbedded in soft, light tissue, score the surface with their furrows. IRONBARK. Eucalyptus largiflorens, F. v. M. Weight, 74 Ibs. 12 oz. Australia. This is one of the most durable of Australian timbers. It is of a reddish-brown colour, and is rather liable to split. TRonwoop, East AFRICAN. Source unknown. East Africa. This timber has not yet been imported commercially into the United Kingdom, but in common with some other East African woods it is now being exploited with energy, and the next few years will probably see a considerable development in export business. The timber is of a hard, dense, compact grain and is apparently selected into two sorts, which are described as “ ordinary ” and “ figury,”’ although the distinguishing features between the two descriptions are hardly sufficient to make such a grading appear important. The wood is inclined to warp and twist, even in small sizes, to an extent which renders it doubtful whether it could be used for any important work. The texture is hard, with a marked difference between the soft and hard grain, so that a very sharp tool would be required to obtain even a fairly smooth surface. The colour is of a light brownish-yellow with dark streaks, and so strongly resembles the appearance of olive-wood that it would be practically impossible to distinguish between the two woods in any made article. The pores are very numerous and regularly placed, and are blocked with a light-coloured substance. The medullary rays, which are parallel and regular, are exceedingly fine and clearly marked. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 103 JacKwoop. Artocarpus integrifolia, Linn, f. Weight, 40 lbs. (Gamble). India. The wood is of a brilliant orange or gamboge colour, not unlike that of the ossage-orange (Maclura aurantiaca, Nutt), with a strongly-marked contrary hard and soft grain which requires a very sharp tool to obtain a smooth surface. It is not much used in the United Kingdom, but is largely utilised in India for all decorative and carpenters’ work, for turning and inlay, and also for brush backs. It is reported as darkening to a mahogany colour with age and exposure to light. The pores, which are numerous and rather large, are grouped in wavy bands, and are generally filled with a bright, sparkling gum. The medul- lary rays are very bright and well defined, parallel but not regular. On the tangential section they show strongly in numerous straight, light lines at right angles to the longitudinal grain. jJamBa. Xylia xylocarpa, Gamble gives the weight as varying from 57 to 61 Ibs. The Indian Peninsula. This is the Indian species of Xylia, which until recently was regarded as identical with the Burmese pyinkado (X. dolabriformis, Benth.). Jamba is found in many parts of the Indian peninsula, being commonest on the west coast. The tree does not reach so large a size as Burmese pyinkado, and the timber is superior in quality to that species, but it tends to split in seasoning. JARANA PRETA. Source unknown. Weight, 69 lbs. 7 oz. Brazil. This hard, heavy wood is very liable to split ; it has somewhat the grain of greenheart. ‘The colour is yellow-brown, alternating with a salmon shade in light and dark streaks. It takes a very smooth surface from the tool, and its qualities suggest that it would be useful for fishing-rods, walking and umbrella sticks. The transverse grain shows like a dark- coloured pine (Pinus sylvestris). The wood has a distinctly unpleasant smell. The pores are irregular, small, and mostly filled with gum or oil. The medullary rays are clear and strongly defined, joined at right angles by very distinct and fine, similarly coloured lines making a kind of honey- comb pattern. JARRAH. Eucalyptus marginata, Sm. Weight, 57 lbs. Western Australia, New Zealand. é The wood is of a bright brick-red colour and of close texture, with interwoven grain occasionally figured like mahogany. In general appearance it very much resembles karri, and great difficulty has been experienced in distinguishing between them. A simple means of achieving 104 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD this is to burn a small piece of the wood. Jarrah will leave a black ash and karn a white. The State Royal Commission on Forestry, reporting in 1904 on the available supplies, stated that virgin jarrah forest to the north of Black- wood River, which is suitable for milling, is estimated at 2,000,000 acres. To the south of this river there are also considerable supplies of this timber, while in addition to these ,areas there are several millions of acres of jarrah country not of sufficient commercial value for milling purposes, but which will afford immense scope for sleeper hewing. HAvLING A BiG TREE FROM THE FOREST, Photograph by the kind permission of C. E. Lane-Poole, Esq., Forest Department, Perth, Western Australia. Quoting the report of the late Mr. O’Connor, Engincer-in-chief of the State of Western Australia, Julius says: ‘‘ For durability and general construction work of all classes, jarrah is undoubtedly one of the best of all State timbers. In buildings where there is much traffic, and also in private houses, jarrah planks furnish a durable, cleanly floor capable, if desired, of high polish. Skirtings, dadoes, rails, architraves, door frames, transoms, mullions, doorsteps, staircases, more particularly in public buildings and large houses, have been and are being increasingly made of this wood with very handsome results.”’ CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 105 Jarrah is eminently suitable for high-class cabinet work, but care must be exercised in order to get it thoroughly seasoned before use. Some very handsome furniture and panelling has been on view at the London office of the Agent-General for Western Australia, and this can still be seen by appointment. It has been used in England for railway waggon and platform construction, and is in the third highest class for shipbuilding purposes at Lloyds. According to a report from the Chief Engineer of the North Eastern Railway Company, jarrah piles driven about ten or twelve years ago (IgI9) are still in good condition, and have proved quite satisfactory for wharf work. At Hartlepool, where the same wood was used for piles, there is only slight indication of attack by sea worms. Concerning other uses to which it may be applied, Julius says that it ‘has been employed for telegraph and telephone poles and signal posts and has been found exceedingly suitable and durable ; while its miscellaneous uses in the State generally, for almost every purpose and requirement of all the industries, are innumerabDle.”’ Contrary to general practice in the case of other chief timbers of the world, the heart-wood core of the Eucalypts is to be avoided, and specifica- tions for cut jarrah timber should therefore require freedom from heart-wood, except in the case of piles, which are better round than squared. Sap-wood, on the other hand, rarely measures above an inch in thickness, and being often almost as hard as the inner wood, hardly needs to be particularly excluded, except in cases of special importance. The British Fire Prevention Committee made some careful inflamma- bility trials with jarrah timber a few years ago, with a view of obtaining reliable data as to its fire-resistance capabilities, when severe tests were applied. The results were regarded as generally satisfactory and as indicating that a building constructed of jarrah would be unusually resistant to fire, especially in the case of floors and floor-beams. Quoting other State authorities with regard to the durability of this timber, Julius writes: “‘ Its suitability for piles and any works requiring immersion in salt or fresh water has been practically noted. ‘Specimens obtained from piles and girders sixty years old, and used in local harbours and bridges, appear to be perfectly sound and free from any signs of decay. If anything, the wood seems to be harder; more solid, and apparently more durable than freshly-cut timber. . . . It is destined to supply one of the most lasting of hard-wood timbers for a long time to come, at the least costly rate, to very many parts of the world.” He adds: “ Not- withstanding the superiority of this timber over so many other kinds, it has not been found to give altogether satisfactory results for scantlings for railway waggon building (for which karri has been found so good [A.L.H.]). Probably the nature and grain of the wood render it unsuitable.” Jarrah has been used very extensively in England for wood-block 106 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD pavement with varying results, some being unsurpassed in excellence, while others were somewhat discouraging. The causes for these variations can, however, in most cases be ascertained. Perhaps the most important factor is the question of the pavement foundation, while the time which is allowed for carrying out the work has also some bearing on the result. Unfortunately the laying of pavement is in most cases much too hurried, and probably too little time is allowed both for making a proper foundation and for seeing that this is sufficiently settled before proceeding with the work. It is also doubtful if engineers have even yet specified either sufficient solidity, or enough regularity for the foundation of a hardwood pavement. The force which the jarrah block has to sustain from the heavy weights continually striking the surface, is transferred to the foundation in a quite different manner from that which takes place with a softwood block, which is much more resilient and consequently acts as a kind of buffer. Possibly a medium between the concrete and the block to take this strain would make a considerable difference. As it is, any weakness which develops causes the foundation to give way and brings about the beginning of the ‘“‘holey’’ places which characterises hardwood pavements. Immediately one block sinks even a little below the level of those surrounding it, every wheel bumps on the edges and increases the strain enormously, and this again enlarges the area and deepens the hole. Again, if the foundation be carelessly laid, or on account of urgency an insufficient time is allowed for it to set completely, the same trouble ensues. A careful inquiry into the question of founda- tions for hardwood pavements should be instituted, as there is no doubt that, as the cost of labour is nearly as much for laying the softwood as for the hardwood, a great saving of expense could be assured if this difficulty was overcome. Even in the present circumstances a 5-inch jarrah block pavement has, since 1906, withstood the exceedingly heavy traffic in the Euston Road, London, with fairly good results, and has therefore now (1919) sustained thirteen years of continual use. Some of these blocks were taken up for repairs this year, and appeared as sound and hard as when they were laid. I had one sawn into t-inch thicknesses and planed, and not only is the wood in splendid condition, but neither manure nor other deposits which it has had to withstand have impregnated the pores, as is so generally found with softwood blocks after a much less time. Again, the ‘variation of hardness in individual jarrah blocks is much greater than in the case of softwood, so that if only one of the softer kind is surrounded by harder, the same result referred to above occurs. It has been noted that the outer growth of jarrah trees is very much harder and closer than the heart growth, and there is also, of course, a variation in the trees themselves. To guard against this danger it is generally specified that only the harder wood CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 107 should be used, but in practice sufficient care has not been taken either by the shipper, merchant, or contractor. Probably the most prevalent cause for this, and also for doubtful foundations, is the system of com- petitive tendering and the endeavour to get work carried out at the lowest cost. These difficulties have militated against the use of jarrah for block pavement, and it is not so eagerly sought for as it was a few years ago ; but considering the cost of labour and the inconveniences of more frequent stoppage of traffic, jarrah pavement should be much more largely used in the future. In 1899 Hornsey Road northward from Shaftesbury Road was paved with samples of jarrah, white oak, creosoted deal, and red gum blocks. The white oak and red gum mostly failed, but the jarrah and creosoted deal were in good condition, practically nothing having been spent in repair, after over six years’ traffic. According to a report of Mr. W. N. Blair, Surveyor for the Borough of St. Pancras : Park Street was paved with jarrah in June 1893, and in 1907 was in good condition, very little having been spent in repair. Pancras Road, in front of the Town Hall and round into Great College Street, was paved with jarrah in-1892, and, excepting the tramway tracks and margins, was in good condition in 1907, very little having been spent in repair. Mr. Blair speaks of the life of jarrah blocks under very heavy traffic as nearly four years and considers it satisfactory, and also that the life is about 50 per cent longer than that of creosoted deal. In his report he makes this very significant statement, which should receive the very greatest attention of all pavement engineers: ‘“‘It was not until some of our earliest laid jarrah pavement had worn into holes that the cause of the holes was discerned to be due to the presence of blocks with certain characteristics in their grain, which for several years past we have been rejecting, with the result that more recent work will wear more evenly, and, therefore, will have longer life than the earlier work. ... The following may be taken as conditions characteristic of the two timbers : «« JARRAH.—Easily cleansed; very durable; good foothold generally ; becomes noisy by wear on edges of blocks. “‘ CREOSOTED DEAL.—Holds the dirt, and becomes greasy ; less secure foothold ; takes frost readily, therefore slippery; wears evenly, but quickly ; more silent under traffic. Exudes an oily film, causing slipperi- ness, and an unpleasant odour for some time. The effect of creosoting at first reduces porosity, but this protection diminishes.’’ He con- cludes by saying that all the motor omnibus companies were unanimous in favour of jarrah paving for safe travelling for rubber-tyred vehicles. In a later note in 1914 he thinks that “ having regard to their relative prices and life and to certain characteristics attaching to each, such, for 108 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD instance, as the greater smoothness of surface and as causing less noise under traffic, I think preference must now be given to creosoted deal if it be selected from the most suitable class of timber.” In reference to this last report it is not improbable that the relative costs may change to the advantage of hardwoods and that greater care with foundations and selection of timber may improve the hardwood pavements. For sleepers it is probable that nothing can be obtained which surpasses jarrah for durability and fire resistance, if indeed there is any timber to equal it in this respect. Every year fresh reports come to hand increasing its reputation ; its use is therefore specially justified in this country, which, on account of the damp climate, calls for particular consideration, although the termite-proof qualities of the wood are‘not called into question. The pores are very large and open and are plugged with gum. The numerous medullary rays can be seen very faintly under the lens. JaruL. Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae, Retz. Weight, 43 lbs. (Troup). India, Burma, Ceylon. The wood is of a red-brown colour, with a rather shining surface, caused by specks of bright gum. The grain is straight and even, but not very smooth. Gamble reports it as ‘‘ The chief timber tree of Assam, Eastern Bengal, and Chittagong, and one of the most important of the trees of Burma. . . . It is very handsome when covered with its large lilac flowers.”’ This is one of the timbers mentioned in Gamble’s list of woods which are available in fairly large quantities and are likely to be worth trial. The pores are variable in size, and somewhat plugged. The medullary rays are exceedingly small and fine, and are very difficult to identify with the lens (12 x). Kaki. Diospyros Kaki, Linn., f. Weight, 48 Ibs. 10 oz. Japan. This beautiful decorative wood shares with African blackwood the distinction of being capable of almost the smoothest surface obtainable in any timber; it has a marble-like coldness to the touch. The grain is very close and even, although it is much lighter in weight than any of the other ebonies. The ground colour is a dense black, with beautiful streaks of orange-yellow, grey, brown, or salmon colour imposed upon it ; occasionally all these shades are seen together. It is highly valued in Japan, where it is used for ornamental decorative work in boxes, desks, and in mosaics. It possesses a slightly disagreeable scent. The pores are fine and scarce, and are generally plugged. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine, though irregular; they appear in parallel lines. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD og KARAWE. Cinnamomum inunctum, Meissn. Weight, 42 Ibs. (Troup). India. There is no European name for this wood, which has not yet been imported on a commercial basis. Karawe or karaway is the Burmese vernacular name. It has the same general appearance as real camphor- wood (C. Camphora), with similar black streaks, but it is of an orange- red colour and has a bright sheen. It possesses all the necessary characteristics of a first-rate wood which will stand well under any conditions, without warping or twisting. A few logs were imported some years ago, but as it was unknown it was unnoticed at the time and its undoubted value was quite unrecognised. Gamble reports it as being used in India for house-building and for shingles, and Troup speaks of it as being suitable for cabinet-making. It possesses a slight, pleasant aromatic scent which would make it attractive for the linings of cabinets and bedroom furniture. It is alto- gether a very desirable and useful wood. The pores, which are not very clearly defined, are irregular in size and are partially plugged with bright, shining gum (?). The medullary rays are rather ill-defined, although regular and clearly apparent. According to Gamble the rays give a good silver grain. This, however, is not seen in my specimen. Karri. Eucalyptus diversicolor, F. v. M. Weight, 53 Ibs. Western Australia. We are probably only just beginning to realise the value of this important timber, the product of a magnificent tree which grows to an immense height and of which this part of the British Empire possesses such a princely supply. Julius speaks of it as ‘“‘ one of the finest and most graceful trees in the forests of Australia,” and as occasionally reach- ing the wonderful height of ‘‘ 300 feet . . . over 180 feet to the first limb and from 20 to 30 feet in circumference at the base.” The timber is red in colour, heavy, tough, dense, elastic, and closely similar to jarrah in appearance. This similarity, however, is actually harmful, and the absence of due investigation and comparison of the two woods has led to the same deplorable results as have been noticed with the Indian timbers, eng and gurjun, which have suffered by their similarity to teak. Karri is a much stronger wood than jarrah but is not so durable in the ground, and is not termite-proof. It has been largely used in England for railway waggon scantlings and telegraph arms, and has given most satisfactory results ; it is doubtful, indeed, whether it has not been proved to be better for these purposes than any other timbers available. For sleepers and paving blocks, however, it has not yet given good results, SE Forest. KARRI A , Western Australia. Photograph by the kind aired Te of C. E. Lane-Poole, Esq., Forest Department, Perth T10 CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 111 although it is confidently expected that the new process of Powellising, which has proved so satisfactory in Australia, will enhance the reputation of the wood in England. C. E. Lane-Poole says: “It is on Lloyd’s list of shipbuilding timbers, and is suitable for all purposes where large sections of great strength are necessary. It has been found very satisfactory for wooden pipes and it makes a good waggon spoke.” Julius reports that ‘‘ Piles of unusual straightness and regular taper, of either ordinary or exceptional lengths, can be obtained with facility and in large quantities, and have been not a little used in water not infested with marine pests. Karri also readily affords baulks of exceptional section and planks of great width.” Although karri has not given satisfactory results when used for sleepers in those countries where the white ant abounds, and perhaps also in our own country in contact with the ground, yet under the Powellising system, a wide prospect of usefulness opens up for this requirement, and perhaps also for wood paving and all those works where the wood has to be in contact with the soil. In regard to its immunity from the attack of the white ant when so processed, there is now abundant proof from many sources in Australia. Numerous good reports come from engineers over a large area, and are the result of experiments made on alarge scale. They are also now strongly confirmed by similar reports from India. These are of the utmost importance, in consideration of the future development of the trade in this wood. For the durability of karri in contact with the ground when processed there is not so much evidence yet available, but there is good reason to anticipate that in course of time, and when sufficient trials have been made, the results will prove satisfactory. Perhaps the most important consideration from our point of view, having in mind its size and abundance, is its employment in fireproof construction, for in a marvellous degree it is able to withstand the ravages of fire, and is therefore of very great value. In a disastrous fire that occurred in the West India Docks, the logs and planks of Australian hardwoods were found afterwards to have received only very slight damage, little more than a thin charring on the outsides. Logs of this wood should be stored in the water, as otherwise they are liable to split and crack up badly. Planks, boards, and blocks should be stowed entirely under cover, as closely packed as is consistent with a sufficient admission of air to prevent fungus growth or other harm. The place chosen should also be entirely free from sun and rough winds, preferably below the level of the ground and in a slightly damp, rather than very dry, situation. The pores are large and numerous, and are usually filled with gum. The medullary rays are not discernible even with the lens. 112 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Katsura. Cercidiphyllum japonicum, S.andZ. Weight,22lbs. Japans A large quantity of this timber has been imported into London and Liverpool during the last few years, in logs, boards, and planks. At first it was not sought for, but its good qualities were soon realised and a considerable demand has since existed. It excels all other such soft and light hardwoods, in its extraordinary smoothness of grain and the sharpness of the edge which can be obtained from either machine or hand tool. This renders it very suitable for mouldings, however intricate the pattern. In these respects it will compare favourably with pencil cedar (Juniperus virginiana), which wood, however, can never be obtained in such long lengths and wide widths free from defect. It is of a light nut-brown colour, and is very similar to kauri pine. It has been used for a great many decorative purposes, such as cabinet-making, shop-fitting, and panelling. It has also been largely employed in place of American whitewood (Liriodendron tulipifera). While perhaps it does not stand in unfixed work as well as this wood, as it is a little liable to warp if used in widths, it far surpasses it in its very fine, smooth, silky grain and hard surface. It is reported by Goto (Forestry of Japan) as being used for wood-engraving in that country. The pores, which are very fine and obscure, are largely filled with a bright, glistening gum which sparkles on all sections. The medullary rays are hardly visible under a lens (12 x). KEyakl. Zelkowa acuminata, Pl. Weight, 39 Ibs. g oz. Japan. This is a very handsome, hard, fine-grained, reddish-brown decorative wood, somewhat resembling English elm in colour, but with a much finer quality of texture, which after finishing from the tool displays a bright metallic Iustre. It stands well, does not warp or twist, and if imported commercially into the United Kingdom would, when known, make a very handsome timber for decorative purposes, panelling, and furniture. Professor C. S. Sargent (Forest Flora of Japan) describes it as Zelkova Keaki, and says: ‘‘ The wood is more esteemed by the Japanese than that of any of their other trees. It is noted for its toughness, elasticity, and durability, both in the ground and when exposed to the air. It is considered the best building material in Japan, although it has become so scarce and expensive that Keaki is not now used for this purpose except in temples, where the large, light brown, highly polished columns which support the roof are always made of this wood.” He also says that it surpasses American oak in “ compactness, durability, and lightness ; for Keaki, in comparison with its strength, is remarkably light.” Elwes and Henry say: “‘ The most beautiful trays and cabinets which come from Japan are made of dark, irregularly-grained and wavy- lined wood of the Zelkova.” CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 113 The annual layers are very clearly marked, close and numerous ; the medullary rays are strong and well defined. The pores are single, very. large and open in the spring-wood, but very small and scattered in the autumn growth. KinGwoop. Source unknown. Weight, 75 Ibs. 13 oz. South America. For a number of years the wood which for commercial purposes has been called ‘‘ kingwood,”’ has been the produce of a number of different varieties which have possessed in a greater or lesser degree the character- istics of the original wood. MHoltzapffel speaks of it as being “ called violet-wood—imported from the Brazils in trimmed logs from 2 to 3 inches diameter.’’ He calls it one of the most beautiful hardwoods in appearance. Foxworthy says that kingwood or violet-wood is ‘‘ probably [derived] from species of Dalbergia and best known under these names from Madagascar and South America.”’ I have a specimen of sissoo (Dalbergia Sissoo) which, although not quite the same, would pass for kingwood. Old cabinets, especially of French manufacture, display a wood which possesses a very transparent surface and a strong metallic sheen. The beautiful effect of the wood when so used can be seen in an English cabinet of the early eighteenth century, which is veneered with kingwood and is exhibited in the South Kensington Museum. The wood is of a rich violet-brown, shading sometimes almost to black, and streaked with varying lighter and darker markings of golden yellow ; it has a bright lustre, and a very smooth surface is obtainable. Always a beautiful cabinet wood, it is still more so when it has become toned with age. The wood in cross-section shows concentric marking, prevailing dark, and marked by thin, light lines at irregular intervals. The cross pores are Jarge enough to be visible to the naked eye. Tne medullary rays are invisible, though on very smooth sections a hazy pattern may be seen. The fine light-coloured rays stand out, and are crossed at right angles by similar concentric lines, either single or several close together. With the lens the pores seem to be plugged with a red substance. Kirt. Paulownia tomentosa, Thunb. H. Br., P. imperialis, S. and Z. Weight, 20 Ibs. Japan. The wood is extremely light in weight, being scarcely more than half as heavy as poplar. Of a very light nut-brown or reddish-brown colour, it somewhat resembles light-coloured wych elm. In Japan it is used for making musical instruments, bookcases, clogs, and floats for nets. Its charcoal is employed for polishing, and is reported to be indispens- able in the manufacture of gunpowder. The Japanese excel in high- I II4 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD class cabinet work, and select this wood in preference to all others for. linings and drawers of small cabinets because its shrinkage and swelling are infinitesimal. Such cabinets are not considered to be well made unless the drawers run easily with the slightest pressure, and the pushing in of one drawer causes the opening of another. The wood is very costly in Japan. The annual rings, marked by the very distinct spring-zone of numerous large pores, are often very wide. Outside this zone the small pores are grouped in short, peripheral lines and thus produce a pattern reminiscent of plum. The pores are all plugged. The medullary rays are fine and just visible or invisible, though in the radial section they stand out as light shallow bands. Koa. Acacia Koa. Weight, 52 lbs. Hawaii. A few logs of this wood have been imported into Liverpool of late years. They are of good size and length. According to Baterden it is “related botanically to the blackwood of Australia and Tasmania, A. Melanoxylon, (and) is the one fairly abundant Hawaiian tree which is valuable for its timber. It is a highly prized cabinet wood a good deal used on the island.”” It is of a red mahogany colour, capable of a very smooth surface which shows a glossy sheen. The texture is fine and close. The pores are scarce and regular and show singly and in pairs. The medullary rays are parallel, very fine and rather faint, showing on the tangential section through the lens (12 x). Koxan. Duabanga sonneratioides, Ham. Weight, 32 lbs. (Troup). India. The wood, of which an alternative name is lampatia, is of a light nut-brown colour resembling a pale variety of teak. The grain is straight, but rough and soft, and does not take a nice finish. It is not suitable for requirements in the United Kingdom, and would not repay the expense of shipment. The pores are rather large and are generally in groups of two or three, with a slight halo of light-coloured tissue surrounding them. The medullary rays are irregular, and rather scarce and coarse. Kowunal. Sophora tetraptera, Ait. Weight, 48 lbs. New Zealand. This wood, according to the Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, is pale brown in colour, heavy and compact, and possesses great strength, toughness, and elasticity. It is procurable in short lengths and up to 6 inches in width. It is used for shafts and machinery, agricultural implements, and for cabinet work. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 115 Kranji. Dialium indum, Linn. Weight, 67 Ibs. Borneo. Kranji was mentioned by Laslett as being ‘‘ imported in 1860-61, and sent to Woolwich Dockyard to be employed for naval purposes. The wood is red in colour, hard, heavy, exceedingly tough, and is one of the strongest with which we are acquainted, every one of the specimens, when tried transversely, taking a very heavy strain. The grain is close and somewhat resembles Cuba or Spanish mahogany, but is very plain. It would take a high polish, and except for the almost total absence of ‘figure ’ to give it beauty, it would be valuable for the manufacture of furniture, or any ornamental purposes.”’ The wood, however, under the above name, has not been known in commerce in the United Kingdom. K’RuNTUM. Source unknown. (?) Helicia sp. (Foxworthy). Weight, 51 Ibs. 13 oz. Borneo. This is a hard, moderately heavy wood, light brownish-red in colour, and resembling she-oak (g.v.). Foxworthy describes the wood as durable and as being used in the building of houses. He tentatively attributes it as a species of Helicia (Proteaceae). Professor Groom says that although it does recall certain proteaceous woods that have broad medullary rays, it is probable that it is equally possibly derived from a species of Casuarina ; for it shares with species of this genus the posses- sion of numerous fine (invisible) rays and thin lines of broken tangential (concentric) soft tissue, as well as the remarkable broad rays that often locally divide and become reunited. No distinct annual rings are visible, but very striking are the numerous, very thick, often dividing medullary rays that cover half any surface of the wood and produce the boldest silver grain. The pores being large, by their openness somewhat spoil the appearance of the surface, and often have light coloured contents that cause chalky lines along the grain. Kuren. Melia japonica, Don. Weight, 66 lbs. Formosa. This is a light-brown, very open-grained timber, which in general appearance resembles wych elm. It is an inferior wood, and is not likely to be useful for anything but the commonest purposes. It has never yet been commercially imported into England. It has large open pores showing marked gum streaks. Many of these pores appear to wear away, so that the surface becomes irregular. Kydia calycina, Roxb. Weight, 36 lbs. India, Burma. The wood is of a whitish-yellow colour, with a straight soft grain ; on the radial section it shows the medullary rays in flecks, in a manner 116 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD resembling beech. Its qualities would not recommend it for export, and it does not appear to be reported on very favourably in India. The pores, though not large, are numerous. The medullary rays are broad and conspicuous. LapurnuM. Laburnum vulgare, Berchtold and Presl.; Cytisus Laburnum, Linn. Weight, 53 Ibs. (Elwes). Europe. A beautiful greenish-brown wood used for turnery, inlay, and cabinet work, laburnum is, in common with many English timbers, hardly ever seen or used. Elwes and Henry describe the colour ‘‘ when exposed to light, becoming dark olive or red-brown, showing small medullary rays.” Sang is quoted “ that in his time (1812) it was the most valuable timber grown in Scotland, and .. . sold at ros. 6d. per foot.” It was then used for cabinet-making, musical instruments, handles, and chairs. Lagerstroemia hypoleuca, Kurz. Weight, 44 Ibs. The Andaman Islands. The wood is of a pale reddish colour showing a minute ripple marking on the radial section. It is hard and durable, and is used in the Andamans for house-building, and spokes and felloes of wheels ; as it swells when wet it is unsuited for boat-building. Gamble says that it squares up to 50 feet in length with a siding of 2} feet. It will be found to be a useful wood in this country when it becomes better known. The pores vary in size; they are very frequent. The fine medullary rays are distinctly visible. LALONE. Source unknown. Weight, 69 lbs. Cuba. In 1892 some hewn logs of about 15 to 18 inches square to which this name was given, were imported into London. The wood is of a red plum-colour, similar in density and texture to Spanish mahogany. It is capable of a fine, smooth surface from the tool. The pores are scattered and filled with a bright shining gum. The medullary rays are fine, uneven, and somewhat irregular. The tangential surface shows the pores also shining brightly, with minute specks of gum. LANCEWOOD. Gwuatteria virgata, Dun. Honduras, The West Indies. The colour of the wood is a pale yellow, resembling a dull satinwood ; it has a very close, smooth grain which splits or rends freely. On account of its special elasticity and springiness it is the best timber for shafts for carts. It is also used in a great number of different works, amongst which are bows and measuring rods, though these latter are generally supposed to be made of boxwood, CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS: OF THE WORLD 117 LANCEWOOD, MouLMEIN. Homalium tomentosum, Bth. Weight, 59 lbs. (Pearson). India, Burma. Pearson describes this wood as “‘ brown to dark brown, hard, durable, cross-grained, elastic, heavy. The difficulty is in seasoning this valuable, timber sufficiently slowly to prevent it splitting. . .. [Its] strength and elasticity render it suitable for shafts of timber carts. Samples of this timber were sent to a well-known firm of fishing-rod manufacturers in England, who reported on it as follows: ‘ It is a promising wood for fishing rods, but the specimen sent was badly shaken throughout.’ Fairly large supplies of this timber can be procured in Chittagong, where . the tree is common, and found growing to a large size.’’ Larcu. Larix europaea, DC. Weight, 47 lbs. 13 0z. United Kingdom, Europe. This, one of the most valuable of trees, grows over a vast expanse of country throughout the United Kingdom and the temperate and colder regions of the northern hemisphere. So far as England is concerned, larch was, although growing at our door, despised and little cared for before the war. This is the more remarkable when it is realised that after their occupation of Britain the Romans carried away larch from these shores in order to build with it cathedrals, churches, and houses in their own country. The colour of the wood varies from a light, bright red to a warm brick colour, always with lighter and darker streaks similar to the well-known marking of pitch pine, to which it bears a strong resemblance. There is a great diversity of thickness in the growth of the concentric layers, which vary according to the climatic conditions under which the tree grows. The annual rings in some cases are very regular, and measure only 4; inch, while in others, of exceedingly wide growth, they increase up to ? inch or more. This same divergence is also to be observed in individual trees, which range through nearly as great a latitude. The wood requires care after conversion. To get the best results it should be taken direct from the saw, and carefully stored under cover, with sticks evenly and regularly distributed between the planks. The wood is apt to discolour while fresh, and, more than is the case with ordinary soft timbers, is inclined to warp and twist. It is exceedingly durable under all conditions. Perhaps this quality is best demonstrated in its use in the form of piles, or for wharfing timbers. It is stated on good authority that the greater number of the houses in Venice are built upon piles of this timber, particularly those of which the supports are alternately exposed to wetting and drying; many of these piles after being in place for ages are said not to have the least appearance of decay. Elwes mentions that ‘‘ churches and manor 118 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD houses (in Poland) built 300 to 500 years ago of larch wood are still standing.” A specimen piece of a pile driven in 1854-55 in the river Nene was taken up in 1904, when it was found to be in a perfect state of preservation. Part of the wood was subjected during this period to the action of wind and weather, and alternate wetting and drying. Many notable Italian pictures have been painted on panels of larch. It makes excellent flooring, and if creosoted would be suitable for wood paving, as it is hard enough to resist the wear of traffic, while also giving a good foothold for horses. Used as sleepers larch is superior to other softwoods which can be produced in England, and its greater value in general, com- pared with them, is shown by the fact that the controlled price of larch during the war was 30 per cent higher than that of any other softwood grown in England. It is one of the most profitable timbers which can be planted in this country, though the prevalence of larch disease has of late years stimulated the planting of Douglas fir in its place. It is to be hoped, however, that as this disease has practically disappeared, larch will again take the premier position which it deserves. A plantation of this wood, when only thirty-nine years old, yielded timber more than ro inches in diameter at breast height. Before the war the use of larch was confined to such class of work as park and other fencing, but consequent upon the restricted import of foreign timbers it began to receive honour in its own country, and its utility for a variety of purposes has become widely realised, and its continued demand in preference to other British softwoods proves its value. Amongst other purposes it has taken the place of pitch pine in the framing of bed springs. The pores are numerous, and vary in size. The medullary rays, invisible to the naked eye, are fine, whitc, and numerous. The annual rings are very clearly defined, showing the light and dark wood of the spring and autumn growth. LavaN. Source unknown. Weight, 41 lbs. Philippine Islands. The wood is of a pale yellowish-red mahogany colour, much like serayah in appearance but of better grain and texture. It has not been imported except perhaps in very small quantities during the last few years. Father Gaspard of St. Augustine says, in his manuscript History of the Philippine Islands, that the outside planks of the old Manilla and Acapulco galleons were of lauan wood, and that it was chosen because it does not split with shot. According to Foxworthy, who mentions also “White Lauan,” “ Almon,” etc., these are all the product of several species of shorea or of Parashorea plicata and Pentacme contorta, and possibly of Hopea. As will be seen elsewhere, the produce of the diptero- CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 119 carps is much confused, and it is probable that a common name is given to timbers whose source is comprised of many varieties. It is a wood which stands well, is of good quality, and could be used in many important industries. The pores are uniform and regular. The medullary rays are parallel, but rather irregular. LAUREL, ALEXANDRIAN. Calophyllum Inophyllum, Linn. Weight, 42 lbs. India, Burma, Ceylon. This is a dark, reddish-brown wood, with a handsome wavy grain. Gamble notes that “‘ the wood is said by Beddome to be ‘ valuable for some purposes in shipbuilding,’ and by Kurz to be ‘ good for masts, spars, tailway sleepers, machinery, etc... . It is a magnificent wood for cabinet-makers’ work.’”’ Pearson writes: ‘‘ The timber is cross-grained, fairly durable, and very elastic, working to a smooth surface and taking a good polish.” This is one of the timbers mentioned by Gamble as being available in fairly large quantities and likely to be worth trial. The pores are small, and irregular in disposition ; many are plugged. The medullary rays are scarcely visible under the lens. The concentric lines are dark and wavy in pattern. Leza Woop. Lagerstroemia tomentosa, Presl. Weight, 50 Ibs. (Troup). India, Burma. This wood is of a light grey-brown colour and a close, firm, but not very hard texture, and it has a very straight grain, capable of a smooth surface. The pores are regular and rather small, connected by a network of short, fine, light concentric bands. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine and numerous, parallel and equidistant, and show in a kind of fine ripple-ray on the radial and tangential sections. LicNuM VITAE. Guiacum officinale, Linn., etc. Weight, 88 lbs. 9 oz. The West Indies, Central America. The commercial supplies of lignum vitae are the produce of more than one species. The best quality, however, is shipped from San Domingo. This is received in lengths of 12 to 18 feet and 8 to 12 inches diameter. From Maracaibo it is imported in lengths of 5 to 12 feet, and from 6 inches to 2 feet in diameter. This variety is very liable to cup shakes. The wood is also imported from Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamas. The lignum vitae received from this last source is that which contains 120 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD the largest sap-ring. It has been customary to divide all the shipments into two sorts, these being described respectively as “‘ thick sap’”’ and ‘thin sap.” In the former the sap rings vary from anything between one inch to more than two-thirds of the tree, but in the latter generally from not more than half an inch to an inch. The heart-wood is of a greenish- black colour, and upon being exposed to light and air grows darker. The sap-wood is a bright light yellow, in colour very similar to East Indian satinwood. Lignum vitae is one of the hardest and heaviest, as it is one of the most useful of timbers, and for a great many purposes it has been found impossible to produce a substitute. The maintenance of a sufficient store of supply may indeed be said to be a question of Forest RaIltw national importance, for during the war the great demand practically exhausted all the available supplies. There is nothing equal to it for the making of sheaves for blocks, and when employed in this way it wears well and seems almost imperishable. Laslett said that he had examined some sheaves after they had been in use for fifty to seventy years, and found them perfectly good and fit for further service. Perhaps the most important of the many uses to which it is put is for the bushing of the stern tubes for propeller shafts in all, even the largest ships. In a private note Mr. S. Woodrow says: ‘‘ Lignum vitae has been found by long experience to be the best material for this purpose, as, owing to the silky nature of the wood and the oil contained in it acting in conjunction with the water, a natural lubricant is formed.” CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD iat The life of the material when used in this manner is extraordinary, and varies from three to seven years, the shortest period being the life of the wood for a fast ship like the Mauretania. It is also used for making bowls, for which purpose no other wood is so suitable, and for the packings between saws in machine saw frames. Holtzapffel says that ‘“‘ When first cut it is soft and easily worked, but it becomes much harder on exposure to the air. The wood is cross- grained, covered with a smooth yellow sap-like box, almost as hard as the wood, which is of a dull brownish-green, and contains a large quantity of the gum guiacum, which is extracted for the purposes of medicine. . . . The fibrous structure of this wood is very remarkable ; the fibres cross IN THE ANDAMANS. each other sometimes as obliquely as at an angle of 30 degrees with the axis, as if one group of the annual layers wound to the right, the next to the left, and so on, but without much apparent exactitude.” In the Museum at Kew there is a remarkable specimen of a piece which was taken from a parcel, the whole of which, consisting of many tons, was attacked by a form of rot which spread from the centre to the. circumference along the medullary rays in a continuation of perforations, which appeared as though attacked by a worm. The whole parcel was rendered valueless by this extraordinary condition of decay, which, strangely, was confined to the heart-wood and stopped abruptly short of the sap-wood, which was apparently entirely unaffected. Lignum vitae was used in the form of marquetry for the decoration 122 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD of a Dutch table of the late seventeenth century, which is to be seen in the South Kensington Museum. The pores are exceedingly small and scarce. The medullary rays are hardly visible with the aid of the lens (12 x). My specimen displays on the transverse grain extending at right angles to the concentric layers, a very pretty marking which has an effect like moiré silk. Nothing can be seen under the lens to explain this appearance. Lirac TREE. Syringa vulgaris. The British Isles. Mr. E. N. Kent, of Letchmore Heath, has had an auctioneer’s or chairman’s table hammer made from a lilac tree growing in his grounds. The wood is very firm and hard, and of excellent texture; it much resembles a slightly bleached tulip wood, or the more highly figured and coloured pieces of real camphor-wood. It is rather darker than olive wood, with brighter mauve-coloured streaks, and is altogether a very beautiful medium for inlay or turnery. The want of general knowledge of native-grown timbers is much to be deplored, and this, in common with many other cases, illustrates how little we know or value them. Lime. Tilia cordata, Miller. Weight, 37 lbs. 8 oz. Europe. “The wood is very light-coloured, fine and close in the grain, and when properly seasoned it is not liable to split or warp. It is nearly or quite as soft as deal, and is used in the construction of pianofortes, harps, and other musical instruments, and for the cutting-boards for curriers, shoemakers, etc., as it does not draw or bias the knife in any direction of the grain, nor injure its edges ; it turns very cleanly’ (Holtzapffel). Limewood is well suited for carving; its smooth and even texture makes it a good medium for this art. A fine example may be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, where are two beautifully carved oval plaques of the period of Henri IV., of the late sixteenth or early seventeenth century. A thin, light concentric band may or may not mark the annual layer of growth. The pores are very smal] and obscure. The numerous parallel medullary rays are fine and are clearly marked. Locust. (Possibly) Hymenoe Courbaril, Linn. Weight, 33-57 lbs. (Stone and Freeman). St. Vincent. The authentic specimen of a wood of this name in my collection is of a bright colour with lighter streaks, of hard texture and close grain, and resembles many specimens of so-called “‘satinee’ seen in France. It takes a beautiful smooth surface from the tool, and has a glossy, lustrous sheen. In appearance it is quite different from the supposed specimen CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 123 of the same timber imported from Dutch Guiana which was called either Surinam teak or locust. The pores are scarce and small, the medullary rays well defined and parallel. Locwoop. Haematoxylon canapectianum, Linn. Weight, 50-60 Ibs. Central America. This is only a dye wood, and is not used for timber purposes. LuMBAYAO. Tarrietia javanica, Bl. Weight, 36 lbs. Java, Cochin- China, the Philippines. This timber was imported into London and Liverpool in 1914 in sawn planks from Io to 25 feet long, 8 to 14 inches wide, and r to 6 inches thick. It is of a light reddish-brown colour, with open pores showing the medullary rays on the surface, as in the plane tree; they are well defined on the transverse grain. Otherwise the appearance and texture is similar to that of East India cedar (Cedrela), but it is without any aromatic scent. It is straight-grained and easily worked, but it appears liable to warp and twist, and can only be used as a substitute for cheap mahogany or cedar. The pores are large and regular, with clearly defined edges. The medullary rays are indistinct and of darker colour than the other growth. Machilus Blumeai, Hay. Weight, 39 Ibs. Formosa. The wood is of a light brick-red colour, and in this, as well as in its grain and general character, it resembles the plainer and commoner descriptions of mahoganies from the southern districts of America. The grain is firm and straight, and a very smooth surface can be obtained, though the wood shows a liability to warp. The concentric layers are clearly defined. The pores are very numerous, small, and even-sized. The medullary rays are very fine and sharp and are parallel. They are joined at right angles by a great number of similar lines, which vary greatly in size and strength. Macnouia. Magnolia acuminata, Linn. Weight, 36 lbs. 6 oz. North America. This tree, a native of America, was introduced into England in 1736 by Peter Collinson, an arboriculturist of Mill Hill. The wood has been imported in square sawn boards of various lengths, thicknesses, and widths, but not on a large scale. If supplies were forthcoming in the future they would be very much welcomed for many useful purposes. The wood is of a creamy-white colour, resembling American maple in appearance, though much softer and lighter in weight. It will take a fine surface 124 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD from the tool, and has a bright, satiny lustre. A proportion of the trees yield wood with dark purple, black, or blue-black streaks. Where uni- formity of colour is required this portion would have to be separated, although the quality of such boards or planks is as good as the creamy- coloured pieces. It would be useful in pianoforte and all kinds of cabinet and joiners’ work. The pores are very small and indistinct, the concentric layers clearly defined, and the fine medullary rays are clear and distinct. Manor, Brus. Hibiscus elatus, Sw. Weight, 48 Ibs. Cuba, Central America. This timber is imported in the form of logs, both hewn square and round, from 8 to 20 feet long, and about 10 to 20 inches square. The supply is small and intermittent. The wood is of a grey-blue colour, sometimes having dark-blue streaks. The character, texture, and grain are similar to Cuba mahogany. It has an agreeable aromatic scent, and when worked the wood has a transparent, lustrous appearance. It is strong, flexible, and elastic, and “ does not corrode nails.’’ (Leman, Hortus Jamaicensis.) Weisner says that it has all the character of the best European ash, but is more durable and longer in the fibre. It is surprising that such a beautiful wood should never have been used for decorative work. It combines quality of surface with a very artistic colour, and a room trimmed with it would have the same appear- ance in shade as genuine harewood (not the artificially coloured so-called harewood), and would be much more lasting and require less delicate treatment. It might also be used for inlay work, and would be excellent for billiard cues. It is very durable when exposed to weather, or in contact with the ground, under both of which conditions the wood seems to harden and improve. The pores are irregular and rather scarce, and are partially plugged with a bright shining gum. The medullary rays are very clear and distinct, parallel and nearly equidistant. MauwoGany. Central America, the West Indies, West Africa. The name mahogany has been applied, properly and improperly, to many kinds of wood. In judging as to the legitimate use of the name it must be remembered that originally mahogany was obtained solely from the West Indies and subsequently the mainland of America, and that it gained its unique reputation not only because of its decorative qualities, such as colour, figure, lustre, and capability of taking a high polish, but also because of its mechanical characteristics, which include relative hardness, remarkably slight shrinkage so that the wood stands well, and also because of its considerable powers of repelling the attacks of beetles CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 125 responsible for ‘‘ worm-holes."’ Therefore, to give the name mahogany to other woods that are merely reminiscent of it as regards colour and general appearance is quite unjustifi- able. Yet the name has locally or even more widely been applied to numbers of woods having little agree- ment with mahogany in appearance or _ properties: for instance, in Australia, the woods of several kinds of gum trees (Eucalyptus), in- cluding jarrah, and in the United States even a com- mon birch (Betula lenta). The woods deserving the name of mahogany are now procured from Central America, the West Indies, and tropical West Africa. The American woods are said to be the products of a genus Swietenia which belongs to the family Meliaceae, which might be termed the mahog- any family. The Swietenia trees themselves have leaves recalling those of ash or laburnum in design, though not in shape. The flowers, seed-cases, and seeds are also characteristic. The genuine African mahogany tree wou'd be recognised as such by persons familiar with Swue- tenia, for in foliage, flowers, seed-cases and seeds, as well as in wood, they closely resemble the American trees. A very HanpsoME AFRICAN MAHoGANy CURL. They belong to the same family, Meliaceae, and even to the same sub- division of that family, but to different genera, namely, in the main, 126 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Khaya and Entandrophragma.t To distinguish between these genera and Swietenia requires the trained eye and experience of a botanist ; indeed so close is the resemblance that the botanist first describing an African species of the Entandrophragma named it Swietenia angolense. The mahoganies of America differ among themselves, and from the African mahoganies, yet certain American and African kinds agree so closely that even experienced practical men often find it difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish between them. As a matter of fact, however, it is possible for the expert, especially when aided by the lens, to recognise the American or African source of any sample. So far, then, the woods of both continents are entitled to the name mahogany. AFRICAN ManoGany. Two FINE FIGURED LoGs. Other genera of the same family, Meliaceae, provide woods more or less closely agreeing with mahogany, for instance: Carapa in Africa and America, Disoxylum fraserianum, the Australian mahogany or pencil cedar, Sovinida febrifuga, the red-wood or mahogany of India. Other members of the Meliaceae supply so-called mahoganies or cedar-wood : such are species of Guarea or Pseudocedrela in Africa (for instance, Sapeli mahogany is truly a scented cedar-wood derived from a Pseudocedrela).} The meliaceous Cedrela is the source of cedar-woods in tropical America and Asia, and in Australia. Farther removed from mahogany are still 1 According to H. N. Thompson. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 127 other woods yielded by members of the same family: namely the Chittagong wood (Chickrassia) of India, and East Indian satinwood (Chloroxylon). It is therefore evident that the woods of only certain members of the Meliaceae deserve the name mahogany. MawoGany, AFRICAN.—Tropical Africa now supplies the greater part of the enormous quantity of mahogany which of late years has been imported into England. It is a wood of such beautiful appearance and fine qualities that it has found a ready market, and has indeed been employed all over the civilised world. The total imports into Liverpool alone, during 1913, amounted to 64,579 logs, out of which 33 million feet were sold in Liverpool; apart from this, 20,000 odd logs were tran- shipped. To this has to be added over 21,000 tons, approximately over io million feet, imported into London, making the total for London and Liverpool amount to over 43 million feet. The increase to Liverpool is shown as follows : Million Feet. | Million Feet, 1894 ‘ ‘ 9 1903 eer 1897 ; : Eg 1905 é Pee 2) 1900 3 . 18 i 1913 - 33 Perhaps it is hardly realised from what a vast arca these supplies are obtained. From Senegal to the present known limit in Angola, the timber is available throughout a country extending along a coast-line of approximately 5000 miles, and from nearly 10 degrees south of the equator to nearly 15 degrees north. Having this in mind, very much more emphasis should be laid upon the names of the districts whence the timber is obtained, and which to some extent regulate its character. No one would confuse, for instance, the produce of Honduras with that of Cuba. Yet in practice, as far as the public is concerned, the supplies from this immense tract of country are grouped together under the one inclusive term of ‘‘ African mahogany.”’ In some specifications the terms ‘‘ Lagos ’”’ or “‘ Benin’ are used, but in many more cases no such precise designation is found. Yet the distinction in character and quality is very great, and in tendering for a supply which merely stipulates “ African mahogany,” a wide field is open for conjecture as to what class and how far down in the scale of quality the buyer will accept. One of the advantages of these African supplies is that they furnish an abundance of wood of greater length and width than any other kind of mahogany. The greatest fault is the prevalence of heart-shakes, cross-breaks, wind-shakes, and thunder-shakes, which are the various names given to cross fractures. These are liable to occur at intervals ranging from 6 inches to Io feet apart, and extend across the longitudinal grain more or less extensively, so that actually in some cases the log 128 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD has broken in half. In all cases these fractures mar the appearance and scope of the timber, and occasionally render it entirely valueless. Much speculation has arisen as to the cause of this defect. Some have TELLING A LARGE ButTREssED MAHOGANY TREE IN WEST AFRICA, said that it is caused by lightning or thunder, hence one of the names ; but the general opinion is that it is caused by the swaying of the trees to and fro in the wind. I do not, however, agree with this theory, nor do I see how it can be sustained. In logs of close, firm texture from CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 129 circumference to heart the defect is little found, but in those trees where the heart-wood is soft and spongy, or, as it is termed in America, “ punky,” the cross-breaks abound. In these trees the annual layers or rings are much closer and compact in later life, so that the portion of the tree which is likely to be cross-broken can often be very nearly estimated by the expert from the appearance of the butt, which will show approxi- mately the point where the tree began to make slow growth. In such case the difference between the strength of the outer and inner layers must be very considerable. It seems, therefore, quite possible that in later life the inner portion dries up and shrinks, and, being bound in by the close, strong outer layers, a strain is caused which snaps the fibres of the soft and weaker parts. This theory is supported by an observation of other varieties, where the heart-wood is found to be more regular, and almost, if not quite, as strong and compact as the outer wood, and in which heart-breaks are rarely found. Whatever the reason may be, this fault has caused many a disappointment to the over-sanguine purchaser, who finds his £500 log stricken with this com- plaint. There is no doubt that the figured wood is more liable to the defect than the mild, straight-grained plain logs. The varieties known as “ Sapeli’”’ and ‘‘ cherry’ mahogany are not liable to soft hearts, as the character of the annual layers is uniform throughout the life of the tree, and in these kinds cross-breaks are rarely found. It has now been seen that of the several varieties of mahoganies and other hard-woods shipped from the different ports on the West Coast, the larger proportion are offered and sold under the general term ‘‘ African mahogany.” Many of these are not true mahoganies, and others, though bearing some resemblance, yet vary to such an extent that the difference is easily recognisable. Those shipments which are recognised by the trade as being true mahogany are the varieties which are now to be described. BENIN. Weight, 38 lbs. 9 oz.—This mahogany must now be con- sidered the best obtainable from the coast. Benin, Grand Bassam, and Lagos wood most nearly resemble the supplies from Honduras. The colour is the true bright mahogany-red, though slightly browner than other varieties; the wood works well under either hand or machine plane, for it possesses the quality which is termed “a good bottom.” It stands well without shrinking, warping, or twisting, and‘the large sizes in which it can be obtained add to its value. It is especially good for panels, for which it is superior to most other mahoganies. The grain, although not liable to twist or buckle, is more tough and inter- woven, which renders it less liable to split or fly in pinning. The more figured wood, which is unsuitable for panels, proves attractive for K ’ 130 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD decorative work on account of its colour and the variety of the grain. The logs, which are of solid, firm growth, are generally free from cross- breaks, and yield a large percentage of clean, sound wood of a reliable character. There is little doubt that this timber would yield as good material for aeroplane propellers as anything that could be obtained. Indeed, African mahogany of Benin quality was found to have been used in the propeller-blades of the Zeppelins brought down in England during the war (1916). The pores are rather small but exceedingly numerous, and many are plugged. The numerous pronounced medullary rays are wavy and form a pretty ripple marking on the radial section. Rather indistinct con- centric lines cross the rays at irregular intervals. Lacos. Weight, 31 Ibs. 15 oz.—The timber shipped from this port held the first place for quality for a long time. Since 1892 the ship- ments have contained a large proportion of finely figured timber of a beautiful, bright clean quality, a standard which has not been main- tained in the later deliveries. The former kinds are now more rarely seen, and although there is still a certain quantity of good wood being imported, it is doubtful whether the supplies now occupy even a second place in the shipments from the West Coast of Africa. The logs are well squared and manufactured, but a large proportion now contain soft hearts, which have a greater prevalence of cross-breaks: the logs have weathered badly and display side-shakes and splits. This may be due to the timber being felled and shipped at the wrong season, as I am informed that felling proceeds throughout the year. In colour and quality it is very similar to the Honduras wood, and it is often difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish between them. A little more care would be required in selecting this timber for aircraft propellers than would be the case with the Benin wood. The medullary rays are even more pronounced than in Benin mahogany, and the pores are slightly larger and more open; in all other respects it is similar. GranD Bassam. Weight, 31 Ibs. 15 0z.—Shipments from this port have greatly increased during the last few years, and the quality has much improved. The average sizes are exceptionally large and long, ranging up to 30 feet in length, and often 4 feet square, while even larger sizes are sometimes obtained. A large proportion of the trees yield richly figured logs, and many fine specimens have been seen of recent years. Amongst these was a tree shipped to Mr. J. J. Richardson, of which three pieces were sold in Liverpool and one in London: these four realised the record price of £4228. The butt cut of this tree contained about 5000 feet of measure, that is, 417 cubic feet, and weighed CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 131 gz tons. It required two days for 300 men to haul this log to the river for shipment, and the one piece was sold for £2518. The timber from Grand Bassam is generally shipped with a larger amount of wane on the sides than is the case with other African mahoganies. This is an economical way of manufacturing the timber, but causes a considerable loss. Not only does the heavy wane reduce the width obtainable in conversion, but it is measured almost as if it were square, and the sawing bill has to be paid for the widest part of AFRICAN MaHnoGany. A PaTH THROUGH THE FoREST. the log. An additional loss is also experienced, as the outside of the log generally carries about an inch of sap and has a large number of small worm-holes. This timber would probably yield a greater proportion suitable for use in propellers for aircraft than anything else except Benin. In structure it resembles the Benin wood, except that the pores are slightly larger. SASSANDRA. Weight, 27 lbs. g oz.—This wood is harder, closer in the grain, and of a darker colour than any other African mahogany except 132 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Bathurst. A certain number of logs coming from other districts, and especially from Axim, are of the same variety as what is generally known as Sassandra wood. Nearly all these logs contain dark gum veins which are more or less pronounced. The surface of the wood when planed is very smooth and lustrous, but it is liable to crack and will sometimes split in parallel longitudinal lines. Some very finely figured logs have been seen which realised exceptionally high prices ; one log was sold for over 10s. per foot superficial of one inch, which is equal to £6 per cubic foot. As these figured logs, however, are always required for veneers, and Sassandra wood has been found to crack when converted, it is not now very favourably received. This variety was also found in the propeller-blades of the destroyed Zeppelins. It is probably the best kind of wood for this purpose, especially if used in alternate layers with cherry mahogany. Batuurst. Weight, 48 lbs.—Between the years 1894 and 1897 some of the finest mahogany which has been seen from the West Coast of Africa arrived from this port. The shipments then suddenly ceased, and this class of mahogany has not since been seen. During the year 1913 a small shipment was sold in Liverpool which was catalogued as having been shipped from Bathurst, but the quality was not comparable with the original supply, or even at all similar to it. For firmness of grain and texture, richness of colour and depth of quality, even good specimens of Cuba and San Domingo would not surpass it. Slightly heavier than these in weight, it was of a rich, red-brown colour, and a few logs were obtained large enough to yield 28 inches, or even a little more, cut clear of the heart, which contained the richest broken roe and mottle. The pores are very large and are sparse. The medullary rays, which are exceptionally thick, are parallel and irregular. ASSINEE. Weight, 28 lbs. 9 0z—Supplies of mahogany from Assinee are remarkable on account of the extraordinary number of finely figured trees which are obtained, many of which have realised almost fabulous prices. Except in this respect, the wood is not on the whole so satis- factory as the other kinds. In general character it is softer and lighter in weight, and the defect of cross-breaks is perhaps found in Assinee wood to the greatest extent of any, many large trees being entirely spoilt by this fault. There is a noticeable scarcity of mild, straight-grained wood, and a large proportion is of a poor colour. The pores are less abundant and more scattered than in the Lagos wood, but in other respects it is similar. Axim. Weight, 30 Ibs. 1 0z.—This quality is rather mixed ; a con- siderable proportion yields bright, excellently coloured wood of good texture, some of which is as fine as the best of any sorts, while on the CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 133 other hand there is a certain amount of defective, soft, punky wood containing cross-breaks. The logs suffer badly on account of the necessity of shipping them in the surf of the sea over a rocky coast, which rubs the sides so that they present a torn and bruised appearance, while AFRICAN ManoGany. A Rarrt ON THE RIVER. the fact that they are usually shipped in short lengths is a further disadvantage. The numerous pores vary largely both in size and position ; some are plugged. The medullary rays are fine but very distinct, and show in small flecks on the radial section. SECONDI. Weight, 47 lbs. 13 0z—This wood is generally harder and 134 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD heavier than the other varieties. A proportion is sufficiently hard to be a good imitation of the Cuba wood, but there is an absence of the white chalk marks in the grain. The logs are shipped well squared, but are liable to splits and to side and end shakes. The quality of the wood makes it more suitable for decorative work and furniture than for panels, especially as the rich red colour is very good. A large percentage, if not all, of this wood should be quite suitable for aircraft propeller-blades. The annual layers of growth are well defined ; the pores are decidedly less numerous, and the irregular and broken medullary rays are less distinct than in the Benin wood. The radial section shows bright shining gum in the small pores. Warr. Weight, 38 lbs. 9 oz.—This is a very hard timber with a ManoGany. SHOWING WASTE IN SQUARING TIMBER, grain which is often much interwoven and is of a roey character. The colour is a light reddish-yellow which darkens slightly on exposure to the air. The logs are liable to star-shake in the heart, and generally show a good deal of fault on conversion. It is a useful timber for decora- tive fittings, and if properly finished (not french polished) the appearance is pleasing and unusual. It would undoubtedly be suitable for use for aeroplane propellers. The pores are very regular in size, and are often filled with gum. The medullary rays are strong, irregular, and not equidistant ; they are joined at right angles with similar white lincs. The tangential grain shows bright spots and streaks of shining gum, and there is a slight, pleasantly aromatic scent, somewhat resembling that of African cedar. CHERRY. Weight, 40 Ibs. 12 0z.—There is no distinctive name by ‘VINADIN) NUAHLINOS N I dNVvO ANVOOHVV V 136 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD which this variety can be recognised. The name “ Cherry ” is one given by Americans on account of its colour, which somewhat resembles that of the American cherry wood. Although specimens have been found among the mahogany imports from nearly all the ports on the coast, the largest quantity has been imported from Lagos and Cape Lopez. The logs are of the usual dimensions of the African mahoganies, and range up to 6 feet in diameter in round trees and 50 to 56 inches square in the hewn logs. The wood is hard, strong, comparatively heavy, has a close texture, and is liable to warp and twist if used in an unseasoned condition, though it stands well if properly seasoned. It varies’ considerably in colour, part being of a light mahogany red, while some is a very dull brown; the finest, a warm, bright red, closely resembles the matured colour which is assumed by the Cuban or Spanish woods. The logs are inclined to split on the ends and sides, and do not weather so well as the ordinary sorts. The splits also generally extend throughout the length of the whole piece, and recur at intervals of a few inches over the hewn or sawn surface of the outside of the log in parallel lines. This wood should therefore be converted into planks, boards, scantlings, or veneers immediately on arrival. It is exceedingly difficult to cut with the saw on account of a kind of gum which it contains, which clogs the saw and blunts the tool. An ordinary bandsaw such as is used in Europe will not, however ingeniously prepared, enter the wood beyond a few inches. The majority of the logs are also impossible to saw with either veneer or ground-off saws. A horizontal reciprocating saw specially set and prepared can be used successfully if a continuous stream of soapy water is poured on it as it is working. Without these preparations the saw will run and produce irregular thicknesses, or parts of the board will have the grain torn out, and the saw will generally be jammed so that it is only extracted with the greatest difficulty. To the inexperienced eye this is the more surprising as the appearance of the timber would give the impression that it is the easiest kind of African mahogany to saw. These dis- advantages militate against its use, although when they are overcome it provides a valuable cabinet, furniture, and decorative wood, especially suited for counter-tops, hand-rails, and chair wood. Many of the logs are richly figured. Some of them retain their first brilliant appearance, and will provide panels quite equal in effect, if not occasionally superior, to that produced by the Cuban wood. Sometimes, however, the figure sinks or dulls somewhat after polishing, and does not show brilliantly except under particularly strong natural or artificial lighting. The surface is much spoilt by the french polishing which is customary in England. The American and Continental custom of using a coach-maker’s flat varnish is preferable. This variety of African mahogany was found in the propeller-blades of the destroyed Zeppelins. It was used in alternate CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 137 layers with ordinary African mahogany, or Honduras or Sapeli. The Germans seemed to consider that it was immaterial which of the three was used, but evidently the cherry mahogany was purposely introduced on account of its strength and reliability. FELLING AND SQUARING AFRICAN MAHOGANY. The pores are small and are generally filled with a bright gum; the medullary rays are fine and parallel, occasionally showing slightly on the radial section. SAPELI. Source unknown. (A species of Entandrophragma ?)1 Weight, 44 lbs. 1 oz.—A very large quantity has been imported into 1 Mr. J. M. Hillier, Kew Bulletin No. 2, 1913, p. 82. 138 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Liverpool and London since the general introduction of West Coast wood. The logs are of unusually large size and length, even up to as much as 7 feet square. The principal deliveries have come from Lagos and Benin, but this variety is found in the supplies from all the ports, and especially in the so-called “‘ Bonamba ’”’ mahogany imported from Duala. It has been customary to name this wood Sapeli mahogany when it was imported from Lagos and Benin, but if received from other ports it is described and sold as mahogany without special classification, excepting that occasionally the timber is called ‘“‘ scented.”’ A few logs possess very strong characteristics of cedar, with its pungent aromatic scent ; others have only a faint scent and a corresponding absence of cedar texture, while a few have cedar characteristics and scent on one side of the tree, while being the pure mahogany type on the other side, which is devoid of any scent. The wood is generally heavier and harder than the African mahogany, and almost invariably contains a roey or contrary parallel grain, which is often broken in character and interspersed with more of less strongly pronounced mottle. These logs produce very handsome figured and coloured wood, which is used either in veneer, or solid for panels or other decorative work. A _ straight- grained log is very rare. The principal fault consists in its liability to splits, which are generally ring or cup-shakes following the line of the concentric layers. These show as actual splits on the butt end of the tree, but they are also liable to develop along a gum streak after the wood is sawn up, and, unlike the other kinds of African mahogany, generally extend throughout the length of the tree, occasionally repeating in circular layers at intervals of a few inches. Another of the disadvantages of this wood is that after finishing and polishing the soft grain will sink slightly and the hard grain will rise, showing rather an uneven surface. This difficulty can, however, be overcome by careful finishing. The wood is almost entirely free from cross-breaks, so prevalent in all other West Coast varieties. The general colour of the timber is much browner than the other mahoganies, and on this account the use of the ordinary wood has been condemned in America, where the practice of sawing up different logs and mixing the produce results in a variety of colour in individual boards. There also the finely figured logs are not liked for veneers on account of their liability, due to the exceedingly hot, dry climate, to split badly after conversion. Before the war the principal demand was from Germany, where this wood seemed to be very favourably received, as it was well suited to the design of decorative cabinet work peculiar to that country. Sapeli mahogany was found in the propeller-blades of the aon Zeppelins, and is undoubtedly a very fine material for such work. The pores are rather large and irregular, and are interspersed with ‘a uvnos ONIzay “ANY DOHVIY NVolIay 140 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD bands of smaller pores which make a wavy pattern somewhat as in elm. The medullary rays are strongly marked and are parallel; they show on the radial grain as in maple. JAMESON RIVER. Weight, 40 lbs. 12 0z.—Most of the timber shipped from this source is of a lighter colour and closer grain than any of the other kinds. A larger proportion of the wood is of a very pronounced cedar character and some is scented. The logs are sound, and the wood is of a good, firm, useful texture. GaBoon. Boswellia Klaineana. Weight, 25 lbs.—This extremely useful wood deserves a name of its own, since it certainly fills a place of importance which justifies a title which would give it individuality, though it should not be called mahogany. This fact is recognised on the Continent, where it is known by the name of Okumé. Although used for many of the purposes for which mahogany is required, it is certainly not considered a mahogany. Pale in colour, soft and light in weight, and yet strong, it meets the special requirements of many classes of work, and at the price at which it has been obtainable for a long period it probably provides the best value for money of any known timber. By some authorities it has been claimed that it is a cedar, but there is no evidence to support this assumption, and the scent of cedar is entirely absent. For the making of cigar-boxes, however, so long as cigar manufacturers paste nearly, if not actually the whole of their boxes over with paper labels, this wood should prove equally suitable. It is largely used in automobile carriage construction both in England and abroad, and also for ship’s fittings, and on the Clyde and elsewhere it has superseded pine for this purpose. Its appearance is much improved by either a light carriage varnish or polish, without the use of stain; french polish or stain generally causes a muddy, and therefore an unsatisfactory, surface. One of the handsomest show-windows in a large store in New York is furnished with finely figured wood of this species, which, besides looking very bright and showy, makes an excellent background for the display of wares of all sorts. It needs a good finish, when it will present a very fine appearance. Gaboon has been tried for the purpose of making aeroplane propellers, but has been found to be entirely unsuitable. The transverse grain shows that it has great similarity to Honduras mahogany, although the marked appearance of the annual layers is absent ; the pores are irregular, as in Honduras; the medullary rays are strongly marked, and are parallel but not equidistant. Cape Lopez. Weight, 38 Ibs. 9 0z.—Logs from this port consist of excellent wood which is generally mild in quality and straight in grain ; CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 141 it is of a bright colour and is easy to work. This mahogany is one of the most valuable woods which come from the coast, and is specially suitable for panels ; unfortunately the logs arrive badly star-shaken in the heart, or contain other shakes or splits, which would suggest that they are either felled carelessly or suffer damage in transit. It is possible that this may be caused by the logs being hurled by the currents against rocks in their passage down the rivers to the sea coast. They are also more or less damaged by teredo worm-borings. Worm-holes, either of large or small size, on the outside of logs from other ports, do not generally prove to be a serious matter, as they rarely penetrate far. In the Cape Lopez wood it is quite different, for the boring of the teredo worm is found to penetrate into the entire log, sometimes even reducing it to a mere honeycomb so that it is of little value. It is not possible always to see the indications on the outside of the log, and even a careful search will fail to disclose the slightest sign of the damage, which is only discovered after it is sawn up. On one occasion such a log was found to contain many hundreds of these teredo worms alive and hard at work. The sawyer obtained some and left them in the mill overnight, but by next morning they had been devoured by rats. He afterwards secured alive a worm measuring 22 inches in length, and upwards of ? inch in diameter, which is now preserved in spirits of wine. The piece of the log from which it was taken contains the end of the hole which has been bored, and which measures exactly { inch in the largest part. One board 6 feet long by 20 inches wide contained over 70 of these holes, many of which were more than ? inch in diameter. The worms work surrounded by a slimy solution which probably acts as a lubricant to the teeth or jaw, working like a tool commonly employed in a centre-bit. The hole made in this manner is at first bright and clean, as cut by an ordinary tool, but after the body of the worm, surrounded by solution, has passed through, it is left as though polished, with an almost black covering. The body of the teredo worm which was found was full of sawdust. It is desirable that this damage should be stopped. Many people would be glad to have an opportunity of using Cape Lopez wood, but are unable to do so on account of this fault. The quality of the timber is so good that it would well repay the extra price which would be obtained, whatever expenditure was necessary. A large quantity of Gaboon mahogany or “ Okumé” (Boswellia Klaineana) has also been imported from Cape Lopez. Whether this timber comes from the same district as the ordinary Cape Lopez wood, or is transhipped from another port, is unknown, but it is certain that the wood is identical’with that which is known as Gaboon. The general quality has been better than that shipped from Gaboon itself, and the logs have been more sound and serviceable, but the claim that it is ”» 142 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD different in character is incorrect. There is a slight variation in both supplies, a proportion of the logs from both ports being of a slightly different character and quality, as well as of a superior texture. This, however, is only a variation without distinctive difference. For a fuller description reference should be made to the account of Gaboon mahogany. The appearance of the tangential grain of regular Cape Lopez mahogany (not Okumé) resembles that of Grand Lahou, but the average weight is less. The pores are scattered and scanty. There is a light, ill- defined concentric ring, which may or may not mark the annual growth. The medullary rays are very fine and parallel ; they are rather indistinct, and are joined at nght angles by similar white lines of parenchyma: all these characteristics are very similar to the Grand Lahou wood. GRAND Lanou. Weight, 30 lbs. 12 oz.—This timber is very similar to Lagos, but the logs in general are not so sound or so good in quality. When carefully selected this wood makes excellent panels. The ports of Twin Rivers, Benin River, and others yield similar supplies to the above, but are generally more varied in character and quality. The medullary rays are rather indistinct and irregular; the pores are scattered and irregular in size and position; the concentric layers are indistinct. BonamBa. Weight, 35 lbs. 4 oz.—Of recent years a large quantity of timber has been imported almost entirely in round logs, but a few have arrived hewn square. The shippers have sent a miscellaneous collection of all kinds of timbers without discrimination. These are found to consist of about eight widely different varieties, several of which in no way resemble mahogany. Great difficulty has been experienced in selecting the logs of true mahogany before the timber has been sawn, as it is all covered with discolouring matter. It is evident that all the trees of the forest have been cut without any selection, but the experiment must have been found very unprofitable, as the uncer- tainty regarding the nature of the wood has been reflected in the ex- ceedingly low prices realised for the shipments. The true mahogany which is found is of fine quality, colour, and texture, is generally straight-grained, and mild, and is suitable for panels. Among the unknown varieties of logs some develop a bluc mould which clings to the outer skin on the circumference and on the ends of the logs, and produces after sawing a white mould or fungus which fills all the pores, and the wood appears to possess no virtue or strength and becomes quite valueless. Some of the logs are perforated with worm-holes. Another variety is similar to the description known as Sapeli, and is almost indistinguishable from it. Still another kind produces a wood of a dark CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 143 dull brown colour, with a closer texture and a harder grain ; this, though quite unlike mahogany, is uscful as it is suitable for many kinds of cabinet work, and especially for counter-tops. The transverse grain of true mahogany is generally similar to that of Benin but has slightly larger pores ; the colour is a deeper red and the medullary rays are less distinct. Mahogany is also shipped from the following ports: Coco Beach, Echinda, Princes, Acquidad, Pontadoon, Dixcove, Forcados, Duala, p pec r MaunoGany. LoGsS BEING PREPARED FOR HAULING AND SHIPPING. Degama, Beniot, Fresco, Ovenda, Quillo, Boutry, Mundah River, Trepow, Beyin, Sinoe. These, however, are in general similar to the foregoing varieties. MAHOGANY, COLOMBIAN. Cariniana pyriformis. Weight, 42 Ibs. Col- ombia (South America). The name mahogany is incorrectly applied to this wood, for it does not belong to the mahogany family. The timber, however, is so similar that commercially the name will probably continue on account of its suitability. . The supplies are shipped from Cartagena, a port on the Atlantic coast 144 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD of the State of Colombia. Formerly they were only imported to Havre, but latterly London and Liverpool have received supplies. The logs are mostly in the round, but occasionally are hewn with waney edges, in large squares, ranging from 18 to 48 inches. The wood is always very much split and damaged, which is possibly due to the logs being dashed with some force against rocks or other obstacles in their journey down the rivers to the coast, for they are usually cut from one to two hundred miles inland. As has been said, the timber greatly resembles mahogany in colour and is often beautifully figured. It works well, takes polish readily, and when well seasoned neither shrinks, warps, nor cracks. The wood can be distinguished from genuine mahogany by the numerous thin, light lines joining the rays at right angles, and thus forming a close network with rectangular meshes. Mauocany, Costa Rica. Weight, 42 Ibs. 15 oz. Costa Rica. The timber from this zone is imported in straight, short, hewn square logs of about 8 to 20 feet and over; they are generally short in length and are Io to 30 inches square. It is of a bright red colour, has a firm texture, and is hard and close-grained ; the pores are often filled with a white chalky substance. In character it is like the Cuban wood, but is generally more straight-grained. The logs are very liable to heart-shakes and galls, while rotten and defective places, in which burrowing worms are found, are prevalent. The uses are the same as those of the Cuban wood. Mauocany, CuBa. Weight, 39 Ibs. 11 oz. Cuba. This is imported in round logs with the bark on, also in hewn square logs which are mostly straight, though some are bent and crooked, and in sawn boards and planks. The logs are from 8 to 36 inches square, and from 6 to 30 feet in length, though some are considerably larger. The imported sawn timber is of small size and indifferent quality. The wood is generally of a hard, close texture, and is heavier than any other mahogany except some of the Spanish wood. When first cut it is of a light-red colour, but on exposure it rapidly darkens to a rich deep red, which, with its glossy, transparent, and satiny surface, has a most handsome appearance. A small proportion of the trees contain black, gummy veins which, although not injurious to the wood, as in some cases where the veins crack, yet appear unsightly. Others, again, develop white chalky marks in the pores like the San Domingo wood. Many of the logs are beautifully figured or marked with wavy and curly grain, which is variously termed splash mottle, roe and mottle, fiddle-back, plum, snail, blister and cross-bar. Good well-figured logs command very high prices for veneers, the CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 145 record during the last twenty-five years being one which realised £13 : ros. A ManoGany TREE, CUBA. per foot cube. Probably the finest log imported during this period was one sold at Liverpool in 1go01 by Messrs. Farnworth & Jardine for £750. i 146 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD The wood from Cuba has largely taken the place of the old supplies from San Domingo. It is of the same character, though occasionally it surpasses it, for while the colour of the latter darkens with age, the Cuban wood retains its brightness and transparency. It shrinks very little in seasoning, does not warp or twist, and is very durable. The colour of Cuban mahogany when first worked is very light, even lighter than some of the other sorts, but an impression prevails that it should be as dark as the old work which has matured with age. In order to comply with the somewhat unreasonable demand for this darker wood, it is customary to stain the new to the shade of the old. Thisis an unfortunate practice as it entirely spoils the transparency and beauty of the wood. Originally all the polishing was done by hand, without the use of polish ; this produces the best results. Staining and heavy french polishing ruin the colour, which otherwise would continue to improve with the lapse of time. Very beautifully marked wood is obtained by cutting through the fork of the main trunk, or of two large limbs, thus: Ness) iN Single heart. Double heart, showing curl. Sometimes the main trunk itself consists of twin trees which have grown together. This peculiarity occurs more-often in Cuba mahogany than in any other. When this growth has taken place without the formation of ny bark the wood presents a rich and agreeable appearance. These pieces when converted are known in the United Kingdom by the term “ curls ’’ and in America as “‘ crotches.” They are used extensively for panels and other decorative work. The pores are irregular in position and size, and are more or less plugged with gum (?). The medullary rays are rough and irregular, showing rather obscurely in small flecks on the radial section, joined at right angles by rough similar light-coloured lines at irregular intervals. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 147 MAHOGANY, GUATEMALAN. Weight, 38 Ibs. 9 0z. Guatemala. This mahogany is of a brighter red colour than Honduras, and in character and texture more resembles Cuban, and is, indeed, often in- distinguishable from it. It finishes with an exceedingly smooth surface from the tool, and stands very well. It is obtainable in large to very large squares, ranging even up to 4 feet, but it is generally exported in rather short lengths, rarely over 14 feet long, the average being not more than 11 to 12 feet. The logs are somewhat faulty, often much shaken, and liable to wormy and decayed centres. Occasionally very sound fine trees are found, and a few are beautifully figured. The white chalky grain which is a feature of Cuban and San Domingo mahogany is very prevalent in Guatemalan, and it is largely used as a substitute for these varieties. The concentric layers are sharp and defined to the naked eye; the medullary rays are distinct, regular, and nearly parallel; the pores are irregular in size and position. Manocany, Honpuras. Weight, 29 lbs. 12 oz. Central Amcrica (Honduras). Large quantities of mahogany have for many years been imported from Honduras; probably the best in quality of which has been shipped from Belize. It is received in hewn square logs and in the round, and also, of later years, in square sawn boards and planks. This, however, has been exported first from Honduras to North America, where it was sawn and thence re-exported in the various grades and qualities of the National Hardwood Lumber Association. The wood is similar to the other mahoganies of Central America,. though for a great many purposes it is superior to all. It is lighter in weight and milder in texture than the Spanish or Cuban. The dimensions in which it has been produced are larger than any other kind obtainable from Central America. In common with all other mahoganies, the forests yield a small proportion of highly figured pieces which are in great demand. Unlike the Spanish or Cuban wood, which darkens with exposure, that from Honduras bleaches, and when exposed to exception- ally strong rays from the sun, the colour inclines to a beautiful go'den brown or even greyish shade. Although very occasionally a tree will be found to possess the white, chalky substance so common in the Spanish wood, yet it is unusual, and Honduras mahogany generally has a more or less black marking in the pores, some trees containing both the black marking and the white. This timber has at times been called “ baywood”’ (g.v.), the term referring to the Bay of Honduras, from which the wood was obtained. The pores are irregular both in size and position, and are not very 148 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD numerous. The pronounced medullary rays are parallel but irregular ; they are crossed at intervals by similar lines. The rays show very strongly on the radial section as in sycamore. Manocany, Panama (probably Cedrela). Weight, 35 lbs. 9 oz. Central America. Mr. Bradley says that there are two varieties of true mahogany in Panama, the light and the dark. The dark is, with some variations, similar to the mahogany of Central America, and bears a conical-shaped pod. The light variety is of the same family, but differs in leaf, seed, bark, grain, and colour, the seed being nearly round. The light mahogany grows on the wet land near the creeks in an accessible position. The timber of these two varieties may be classed together, as it has been found impossible to distinguish any material difference in the supplies of true mahogany which have come to the English markets. The quality and colour is very good, and resembles that of Honduras mahogany so nearly that it often passes for it. It has been imported in the round, and in hewn square logs of small and large sizes. The majority of these, however, have arrived in such a split condition that the wood has not been favourably received, and until some means can be found to bring the logs here in a more sound condition, little commercial development will ensue. Its uses have been the same as those for Honduras mahogany. Besides these supplies, a large quantity of so-called mahogany has been exported to the United States and to this country. The correct term for this timber is ‘‘ esparvie,”’ and the name mahogany is improperly applied. There are also two sorts of esparvie—the light and the dark, the light being inferior, with small heart-wood and much sap-wood. It is subject to beetle attack, especially if cut in the wrong season. Generally speaking. the tree is a native of the lowlands, but occasionally it is seen even on the tops of the hills. It is used but little locally. Its lasting qualities are greatly improved by creosoting. The dark variety is more ‘often found in a dry situation, although it can occasionally be seen at the water’s edge. It is much superior in quality, containing a greater proportion of heart-wood and much less sap-wood. It resists beetle attack better, and the heart-wood is in fact practically insect-proof. It is used along the coast as the chief timber for canoes and boats, an excellent recommendation in itself. About Ig1o a cargo of what was probably esparvie was sent to Astoria near New York, where it was attacked by a beetle (possibly a weevil), which did an enormous amount of damage and spread to the other mahogany stored there. The resulting loss led to a law-suit in the American courts, and the judgment given by Judge Blackmore on that occasion is published in full here, as it deals with an important point regarding the liability of owners of timber in their CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 149 relation as storage contractors. It is not known whether the cargo consisted of the light or dark varieties, but it is possible that it contained both. Notwithstanding this unfortunate incident, the dark variety is a valuable timber and is a good substitute for mahogany. Care should be taken to see that it is cut in the proper season and that measures are adopted to prevent the attack of beetles. The wood is straight-grained and is capable of a good finish from the tool. It is a yellowish-green colour, though occasionally this seems to vary, and some specimens are more of the red mahogany colour. It stands well and does not shrink unduly or warp or twist. In the true Panama mahogany the concentric layers show sharply defined to the naked eye. The pores are open and irregular; the medullary rays are clear and regular, and are in all respects similar to Honduras mahogany. With esparvie the fibres of the wood are of a soft, pithy nature and are not strong. The transverse grain does not cut clean from the tool. The pores are of variable size and often show in duplicate with a single shred of fibre between. The medullary rays are weak and obscure. New York Law Journal, February 26, 1913 DECISION BY JUDGE BLACKMORE ASTORIA VENEER MILLS AND Dock Co. v. Horsrty & Son The following propositions suffice for the disposition of this case : 1st. A contract for the storage of goods, wares, and merchandise which does not provide for any definite time of continuance may be terminated by either party on notice. and. The contract in the present case provides no definite time of storage. The provision that if the logs are not withdrawn within a year the ware- houseman may sell or store them elsewhere is not equivalent to an agreement on the part of the warehouseman to keep them in storage for the period of one year. 3rd. Even if the storage was for a definite period of time the development of the pest in the logs, which rendered their continued storage destructive of the property both of the warehouseman and the lumber of others in its care, justified it in terminating the contract of storage. 4th. Upon the refusal of the bailer to remove the logs, pursuant to notice and request, the warehouseman was justified in removing them and storing them in some other place for the account and at the risk of the owner. 5th. As it was the duty of the owner to remove the logs when notified by the warehouseman, he is liable for the charges and expenses incurred in effecting their removal, and also for such charges and expenses as had already accrued up to that time. 6th. Neither the plaintiff nor the defendant knew at the time when the logs were placed in storage that the insect pest was likely to develop, and neither of them was negligent so as to give a right of action to the other. 7th. The defendant neither created nor maintained a nuisance, and therefore is not liable upon that theory. 150 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD It follows that judgment should be rendered for the plaintiff to the effect that the storage contract was terminated and ceased to exist between the parties on August 16, 1912; that the plaintiff is released and discharged from all further responsibility to the defendant as warehouseman ; that the defendant should be enjoined from further negotiations of the warehouse receipts, and that the defendant should pay to the plaintiff the charges incurred up to the time of the removal of the logs and its expenses incurred in the removal, and that the counterclaim of the defendant be dismissed. MAHOGANY, SPANISH. Swietenia Mahogani, Linn. Weight, 48 Ibs. San Domingo, etc. The name ‘‘ Spanish ’’ mahogany has been applied to the wood which from the earliest date of the importation of mahogany came from Spanish possessions in the West Indies, and not, as some have erroneously imagined, from Spain. It is interesting to note that the origin of what has subsequently developed into an active trade was the bringing to England of a few planks and butts of mahogany as ballast by the captains _ of English vessels trading in the West Indies. According to report it was first heard of in 1597, but only began to arrive in England in marketable quantities towards the end of the seventeenth century. A cabinet-maker named Wollaston first introduced it in an important manner, and nearly, if not quite all the very beautiful and celebrated pieces of Chippendale made about 1750 were of this wood. Its unusually attractive qualities gave it the premier position, which it still retains, amongst decorative cabinet woods, and a considerable development in the trade ensued. The imports, however, were of a desultory character, and when the trees which were growing within easy access of the seaports were cleared, the trade in large pieces nearly ceased, as the country is very rugged and mountainous, and no means of transport except that of oxen and mules were available. Towards the end of the eighteenth century a very considerable demand arose for that form of mahogany known as curls or crotches. These pieces are obtained from that portion of the tree which contains a fork, either of the main trunk or secondary branches. (See Mahogany, Cuba.) To meet this demand great numbers of trees were cut down and all the forks carefully hewn out, placed on the backs of oxen, and carried down to the seaport. These pieces were in oblong hewn slabs, varying in size from about 9 inches by 5 inches to 36 inches by 24 inches, or as large as the animal could carry. Meanwhile the main trunks, which were too heavy to be transported, were left lying on the ground, where many remained for half a century and more. During all this time an intermittent trade was being carried on, mostly, however, in smaller squares generally not excceding about 16 inches by 9 or Io inches in short lengths. The trade received a very considerable impetus as the result of the activity both in exploiting in Liverpool and elsewhere, and the writing abroad privately and publicly CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 151 of Mr. Edward Chaloner, whose firm still occupies a leading position as mahogany brokers in Liverpool. A short pamphlet was published by him early in 1800, which must have been a great assistance to the trade at that time. At a later date a very enterprising engineer, M. Juan Bautista Nufiez, a native of the island, having studied engineering in America, was employed in carrying a railway system throughout the country. He very soon saw the advantages of collecting the large trunks of trees left on the ground, and accordingly carried on for many years a brisk trade in these squares, most of which were sent to Liverpool and sold at good prices. Many were of a beautiful colour and con- tained a very handsome figure, although often as much as 3 inches or even more of the outside wood was decayed through lying on the ground for so many years. San Domingo mahogany, or “ City wood” as it was called, had, and still has, a peculiar attraction for many, and a few have been found so affected by their admiration for the wood that they may be said to have become mahogany misers. One cabinet-maker especially thought so much of some logs which he had purchased that he absolutely refused either to sell them or have them used for about fifty years. During all this time the logs with a saw-cut through were kept in his warehouse, where I was assured he used to go and dust them with a silk handkerchief. They were probably purchased by him in 1854, which dock rotation date, clearly painted, was easily read after his death in rg00, when I bought them. They were finely figured and of a beautiful colour and quality. Most of them were sent to America, some being used to decorate the house of Dr. Weld at Boston. The panelling around the Wigmore Hall in Wigmore Street is made of some of the richest old San Domingo mahogany that could be obtained, which was provided from some thick planks which had been lying in a cellar in Osnaburgh Street, London, for fully fifty years, and were so dirty and thick with dust that it was impossible to tell what wood it was until they were fully examined. The somewhat uncertain import of Spanish mahogany and the advent of a large trade from Cuba which supplied wood of magnificent texture and quality, which was in some respects superior to it, has resulted in Cuba wood being generally accepted as Spanish and used in its place. While the quality of individual Cuba trees has equalled if not surpassed that of San Domingo, yet in general the intrinsic quality of the latter excels all others. The trees have been found, however, to be more or less faulty in the heart, and generally do not yield such wide widths or long lengths as can be obtained from Cuba. The wood is of a deep rich red colour, always darkening with exposure to light and air, although blazing sunlight does not give this result. It is almost, if not entirely, free from the dark gum streaks so preva- lent in Cuba wood, and it nearly always shows a deposit of a white 152 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD chalky substance in the pores. It has-an exceedingly hard yet smooth surface, with a very bright transparent sheen, which gives a beautiful effect whether polished solely by hand, as it was originally, or by the method adopted later of french polishing. Although as in other cases the general shipments consist of plain wood, yet some trees provide the most beautiful figure which can be seen in any kind, and undoubtedly places the figured wood of Spanish mahogany in the highest category. The pores are very irregular in size and position, while the white chalky substance with which they are plugged is peculiarly characteristic of the wood. The medullary rays are rather coarse ; they are parallel and uneven, and are joined at irregular intervals by similar light- coloured lines. Mauwa. Bassia latifolia, Roxb. Weight, 62 lbs. (Troup). India. This timber is of a very bright, rich rose-red colour. The texture is hard and close, and much resembles that of pyinkado (Xylta dolabriformis), without, however, possessing any of the sticky feeling of this wood. Although there is a strong contrary grain it is capable of a smooth surface. Gamble says that it is used for house-building, furniture, and the naves of wheels. It would be useful for many purposes where a hard wearing, smooth wood is required. It would also be suitable for turnery, and it evidently stands well in all conditions. A few logs of this timber reached London several years ago. They were described as Indian junglc- wood ; a ready sale was found for the wood at satisfactory prices. The pores are neither large nor numerous. Gamble describes them as being “in short, radial wavy lines more or less in echelon.” The medullary rays, which are exceedingly numerous, are very fine indeed. Marre, Brack. Olea Cunninghamii, Hook. Weight, 72 lbs. (Baterden). New Zealand. Of this wood the New Zealand Board of Agriculture says: ‘“‘ Deep brown in colour, often streaked with black and highly ornamcntal, durable, even in grain, and takes a good polish. Procurable up to 20 feet in length and 12 inches in width. Used for framing for machinery, mill- wrights’ work, and ornamental cabinet work of all descriptions.”’ Bater- den says that the timber makes good durable sleepers, piles, and fence posts, and it is said to make capital wood for large engraving blocks if properly seasoned, as it does not wear and bears high pressures. He adds that it takes a long time to season. MANGEAO. Litsaea calicaris, Benth. and Hook. Weight, 38-48 lbs. New Zealand. “White, firm, strong, and of great elasticity, and is suitable for a great variety of purposes requiring strength, toughness, and elasticity CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 153 with light weight. Procurable in lengths up to 25 fcet and up to 18 inches wide. Used for ships’ blocks, coopers’ ware, wheelwrights’ bent stuff.” (Board of Agriculture, New Zealand.) Manuka. Leptospermum ericoides, A. Rich. New Zealand. This timber, the produce of the tea tree, is, according to the Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, red in colour, dense, straight-grained, and elastic. It is only procurable in short lengths which are small in size. It is used for wheelwrights’ work and for inlaying. Marie. Acer saccharinum, Wang.; A. saccharum, Marsh.; A. macro- phyllum, etc. Weight, 37 Ibs. 2 oz. Canada, United States. This very important timber is drawn from a wide expanse of country and is obtained from many species. It has, therefore, an extensive range of quality, from the best hard, tough-grained white maple, through many stages to a soft, often bluish or reddish medium-textured wood. The best is always asked for and sometimes obtained ; it is termed in specifications ‘‘ hard, white, rock maple.’’ A considerable quantity is found with a curly, twisted grain, and is known as “ curly ”’ or “‘ bird’s-eye ’’ maple. This variety is much in demand for decorative work, and is generally used in the form of veneers. The whiter the wood in which this description is found, the more highly it is valued. It is used for trimmings of buildings, cabinet work, furniture, and general decorative purposes, especially in the saloons and state-rooms of yachts and steamers, and for railway coaches. A particular variety of wavy, curly grain without bird’s-eye marking has been called ‘‘ Papapsco wood ”’ (g.v.). Other uses for maple are very varied, and include rollers for several kinds of machines, agricultural implements, presses for heavy machinery, and for general furniture. A finely carved German coffer of maple, dating from the fourteenth century, can be seen at the Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington. It has also been used for the backs of violins. The violin of the musician in Longfellow’s ‘‘ Wayside Inn’’ was Fashioned of maple and of pine, That in Tyrolean forests vast Had rocked and wrestled with the blast. Perhaps one of the most important uses for maple is for floorings. For public buildings, schoolrooms, warehouses, and factories it is almost impossible to find its equal. The texture being of a tough, substantial nature, without any long or fibrous grain, the surface is not torn or flaked and withstands the hardest wear. Mr. John Collard says that the continual dragging of heavy pianofortes over the floor of the workshops (obviously a most trying test), makes little impression on a maple floor. 154 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD This timber is particularly susceptible to damp, and great care must be exercised in laying the floor to see that no swelling takes place. The pores are exceedingly small and very regular. The medullary rays are strong and parallel, showing very distinctly, though finely, on the radial section. Maple, JAPANESE. Acer palmatum, Thunb. and others. Japan. It is impossible to say which, or of how many species the commercial supplies of Japanese maple consist, nor is it probable that at present it would be possible to ascertain. Goto names A. palmatum as being “ abundant in Hokkaidé and the northern part of the main island.” It is therefore probable that this species predominates in supplies. Fifteen different species are named by this authority. The character, general quality, and size of the shipments which have already arrived in England give the impression that it is all of one species. In appearance it is white, and the texture and grain of the wood are very good indeed, and compare to advantage with the best Canadian. For all purposes for which hard rock maple excels (see Maple) the Japanese is equally good, if not more satisfactory. MARBLEWOOD, ANDAMAN. Diospyros Kurztit, Hiern. Weight, 66 Ibs. (average of three specimens, Gamble). Andaman Islands, the Nicobars, Coco Islands. This name is well chosen, as it would be difficult to find in nature anything more closely resembling marble. An alternative name is zebra-wood. The wood is of a dense, ebony black, with stripes of golden-yellow and whitish-yellow, and it has a very close, hard, firm texture which is rather cold to the touch and is capable of a very smooth surface. All authorities seem to agree as to its liability to split and warp during seasoning. This is, however, a common difficulty with all timbers of this character, and, as in the case of boxwood particularly, the subject needs to be studied carefully in order to determine the most suitable time for the felling of the trees as well as the manner of their preservation afterwards. Probably screening from light and air for some time after felling, and very slow drying, would accomplish much in the desired direction. If regular supplies were forthcoming, this timber would be much sought after for ornamental cabinet work and inlay. The rather numerous pores are very small. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine, close, parallel, and equidistant. Mata-Mata. Weight, 68 Ibs. 6 oz. Brazil. This wood is of a dull nut-brown colour, and is capable of a smooth surface from the tool. It is, however, inclined to warp and twist to a CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 155 more than ordinary degree, and also to split longitudinally with the growth, in numbers of straight, small lines. It could only be used, there- fore, in small sections and for a limited number of purposes. The pores are very regular and uniform, and are rendered apparent by a whitish halo. The medullary rays are very fine and clear, and show a stronger wavy mark at right angles, the whole making a beautiful pattern on the transverse section. Matat. Podocarpus spicata, R. Br. Weight, 40 Ibs. New Zealand. This wood, alternatively known as black pine, has not been imported on a commercial scale. The Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, reports Photograph by A. Rodger. MIELANORRHOEA USITATA, UPPER BuRMA. it as being from light to deep brown in colour, -very smooth and even in texture, strong and durable. It is used for general building purposes, especially flooring and weather-boarding, joinery and cabinet-making. Obtainable in long lengths and up to 24 inches in width. Melanorrhoea usitata, Wall. Weight, 60 lbs. Burma. This wood, which can be obtained in large quantities, yields squares up to 30 feet x16 inchesx16 inches. The wood is dark-red with yellowish streaks ; it is heavy, dense, hard, and durable. It is used for 156 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD building and bridges as well as for smaller work such as tool handles. It would be a handsome panelling wood. Melia composita, Willd. Weight, 26-33 lbs. (Gamble). India, Ceylon. This soft, reddish - white wood, which is identical with M. dubia, Hiern., shows a smooth glossy surface from the tool. Gamble says that “the structure resembles that of toon (Cedvela Toona), but all the pores are of the same size, and the wood is softer. . . . In Ceylon the outriggers of native boats are made of this wood, which is highly esteemed also for various other purposes.”’ . The same authority includes this timber in his list of woods which are available in fairly large quantities and are likely to be worth trial. In the spring zone there is a narrow band of large and open pores, the later growth showing small pores in a manner resembling English ash. The medullary rays are very fine. Melia indica, Brandis. Weight, 50-52 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon. ““A very important Indian tree. . . . The wood is durable; it is used for the construction of carts, in shipbuilding and for making agricultural implements, and in South India for furniture. . . . The use of it in furniture is believed to keep off moths and other insccts. “ Annual rings doubtful; the wood shows alternating bands with numerous and with fewer pores; also pale concentric lines, but whether these are annual rings is doubtful. Pores scanty, moderatc-sized, and large, often oval and subdivided; visible on a vertical section. Medullary rays fine, numerous, white, prominent, bent outwards where they touch the pores; the distance between the rays less than the transverse diameter of the pores,’’ (Gamble.) MERANTI. Hopea sp. Borneo, the Malay States. This timber has occasionally been imported in sawn planks and sold under the name either of meranti or mahogany. It is of a light reddish colour and has been used for those purposes for which common mahogany is generally employed. Foxworthy states that the wood is identical with the lauan of the Philippines (q.v.) MESSARANDUBA. Leucuma procera, Mart.; Mimusops elata, Fr. Allcm. Weight, 71 lbs. 9 oz. Brazil. It is not clear whether this wood is produced by either or both of the varieties above named. The same Brazilian name is commonly given to both, according to Brazilian Woods, which also mentions that in the State of Bahia it is named “ apraiu.” CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 157 The wood is bright brick-red in colour and has an exceedingly close, Photograph by G. R. Keen. MELIA COMPOSITA TREES. firm, hard texture, yielding a very smooth surface from the tool, and possessing a bright metallic lustre. It is mentioned in the above-named 158 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD book as an excellent wood for piles and submerged work as well as for hydraulic work. It would be useful for chair and table legs, or any de- corative furniture work where a very hard, smooth, durable wood is required, though it would perhaps be found too hard and heavy for ordinary cabinet work. The pores are very scarce and are generally arranged in short wavy bands or groups; in some cases they are plugged. The medullary rays are exceedingly numerous, clearly defined and parallel, but irregular. At intervals they are crossed at right angles by similar light wavy bands, presenting a very pretty pattern. Michelia Champaca, Linn. Weight, 28-42 lbs. (Gamble). India. This wood, which, though hitherto unknown in European commerce, is likely to be imported in the near future, possesses, in common with most Indian timbers, a great variety of vernacular names. Many of these appear to be some variant of the generic name. The wood is of a canary colour and is very similar in all respects to Michelia excelsa (q.v.), particularly in its resemblance to American whitewood (Lirtodendron tulipifera). Michelta excelsa, Bl. Weight, 33 Ibs. (Gamble). India. This wood might well be named Indian ‘“‘ canary-wood,” the resem- blance to American whitewood (Liriodendron tulipifera) or canary-wood being so strong that it is very doubtful if one could be distinguished from the other. Gamble says it is ‘‘ the most important building tree of the Upper Darjeeling forests, formerly used largely for planking, door and window frames, and furniture, but now scarce. The wood is very durable.” The pores are exceedingly small and obscure. The medullary rays cannot be seen on the transverse section with the lens (12 x). but show in numerous fine, small flecks on the radial section. Millettia pendula, Bth. Weight, 66 lbs. India, Burma. This is a very beautiful wood possessing a rare figure, and it would be much sought for if a regular supply were established.. It is of a dark chocolate colour, with black and reddish streaks, and somewhat resembles a rich dark partridge wood. It is capable of a smooth surface, but requires a sharp tool. It finishes with a bright metallic lustre. It would be valuable for cabinet work and inlay, and for walking sticks and turned articles of a decorative nature. The pores are scarce, and generally plugged with gum. The medullary rays are very fine indeed, although clear cut; they are parallel and exceedingly numerous, and crossed by pretty, wavy lines of light ripples following the concentric layers. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 159 Mimusops Elengi, Linn. Weight, 54-87 lbs. (Gamble). India, the Andaman Islands. This timber, which is only obtainable in very small quantities, is exceedingly rare and has never yet been seen in commerce in the United Kingdom. Gamble speaks of it as being “ very hard, close, and even- grained ; sap-wood reddish brown, heart-wood dark red . . . used for house-building, carts, and cabinet work. “Pores small, in short lines, which are generally radial but often irregular and oblique. Medullary rays very fine, very numerous, uniform and equidistant. Many parallel, wavy, concentric bands, narrow but conspicuous.” Mimusops littoralis, Kurz. Weight, 66 Ibs. The Andaman Islands. This is a handsome wood, sometimes known as bullet-wood, and greatly resembling M. Elengi, but it is of a lighter red and has a more wavy grain. It is smooth, and takes a good polish. Gamble says that it is apt to split. ‘‘ The timber is extracted in squares up to 50 feet long with a siding of 2 feet. It is difficult to cut and saw or to drive nails into... . ‘«« Pores very small, elongated, subdivided, in radial or oblique lines. Medullary rays very fine, very numerous, uniform, and equidistant.” MincRis. Koompassia Beccariana, Taub. Weight, 52 lbs. 14 oz. Borneo. This timber is hard, and is of a dull, brick-red colour. In Borneo it is not considered durable, and it seems liable to twist and warp. It very much resembles the somewhat inferior varieties of Dipterocarpus. The numerous open pores are filled with gum. The very fine medullary rays are parallel, but not quite equidistant. Mirasow or Mrrasoo. Inisia Bakeri, Prain; Afzelia palembanica, Baker, and possibly Intzia (Afzelia) trijuga, Colebr. Weight, 60 Ibs. 10 oz. Malay Peninsula, Borneo, India, the Philippines. Intsia Bakeri occurs in the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Sumatra ; no such narrow limits mark the coastal species, I. tvijuga, which is widely distributed over the tropics of the old world from Madagascar and the Seychelles to India, Malaya, and over the Pacific Ocean as far as the Sandwich Isles. According to Foxworthy the woods of the two species are named respectively “ miraboo” and “ipil’’ or “ miraboo laut,” but are so similar in appearance that he could detect no structural difference between them. It is possible that the wood of commerce may be derived from both species. It has been imported in sawn planks and boards of various sizes. The timber is so hard and heavy that it is sometimes numbered among 160 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD the “ iron-woods.”’ It is of a warmer or colder brown colour that darkens almost to blackness with age and exposure. The Borneo wood is one of the most valuable in that island and has been imported into England under the name of ‘‘ Borneo teak’ or ‘‘ Borneo No. I teak,’ but it has none of the qualities of teak, and on account of its heaviness did not find favour as a substitute for that wood. The wood from New Guinea (probably J. ¢vijuga) imported into Germany was also recom- mended as a substitute for teak. Mirabow takes a good polish and has been extensively used in the Tar East in the manufacture of furniture ; one fine piece possessed by Dr. Hose in Borneo formed the circular top of a dining table (8) feet in diameter, and 23 inches in thickness) and had been hewn from the trunk, moulded, and completely finished by natives solely with the aid of axes. Being very resistant to decay and to the attacks of insects (including ‘‘ worms ”’), the timber has been successfully used in Borneo, etc., for constructional purposes such as bridges, houses, and posts. In transverse section the wood shows many thin, sharp, light con- centric lines dividing it into concentric zones which are of very uneven widths. The same section also reveals numerous light dots, evenly scattered ; each dot has a light-coloured fringe and includes one or more pores, which are mostly visible to the naked eye. The coarse vessels (pores) contain substance that is sulphur-yellow or glistening red to reddish-black. The light-coloured medullary rays are fine and numerous. Miro. Podocarpus ferruginea, Don. Weight, 46 Ibs. (Baterden). New Zealand. The wood varies from light to dark brown in colour, is close in grain, moderately hard and heavy, planes up well, and takes a good polish. Some logs are nicely figured ; it is, therefore, very suitable for cabinet- makers’ work. It would also be useful for the turner, and for any ornamental work, and as it yields timber 10 to 18 inches square, and 20 to 30 feet in length, it would doubtless be fit for civil architecture. MoeERr. Weight, 51 lbs. East Africa. This timber has not yet been imported commercially into the United Kingdom, but in common with other East African timbers it is now being exploited with energy, and the next few years will probably see a con- siderable development in export business. The colour is light brick-red, the wood taking only a comparatively smooth surface from the tool. It is of a hard nature and inclined to warp a little. The pores are regular in both size and position, and are often scen in twin and triple formation. The medullary rays are parallel, often exceedingly close together, and comparatively strong. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 161 Motave. Vitex geniculata, Blanco; V. littoralis, Dene. The Philippines. This wood is yellowish or straw-colourcd, hard, heavy, strong, and close in the grain, and possesses a figure or waviness that somewhat resembles satinwood ; hence it may be found useful not only in building, but for cabinet purposes. Molave timber appears to be of good quality, and has the property of seasoning without much shrinkage or splitting ; it also stands long exposure to the weather without showing any signs of deterioration. In the Philippines it is considered very durable. Foxworthy says that for many purposes it seems to be fully the equal of teak. Amongst its many uses he mentions house- and shipbuild- ing, cabinet-making, doors, flooring, sleepers, and paving blocks. Mora. Dimorphandra Mora, Bth. and Hook.; D. excelsa, Baill., or Mora excelsa, Baill. Weight, 76 Ibs. 14 oz. (fresh cut). British and Dutch Guiana. Notwithstanding the fact that as early as 1875 Laslett gave a good report of this wood it has never been seen in commerce to any extent, though of late years it has had some popularity for use as sleepers. Stone and Freeman give a very complete account in which they say that it is more durable than teak. They mention three varieties: the red, the white, and mora-bucquia; this last, however, is not considered to be durable. ‘‘ Mora can be met with in logs 18 to 35 feet in length, 12 to 20 inches square ’’; these are the same sizes reported by Laslett. Fourteen logs of this wood were received in London during the war, having been diverted from Havre. They were imported from Surinam, and were straight and clean and of good quality. The wood is a yellowish- brown colour, and contains an oily and glutinous substance in its pores, which is probably conducive to its durability. It is of close texture, and has occasionally a twist or waviness in the fibre which imparts to the logs possessing it a beautifully figured appearance, and incidentally adding considerably to their value. The pores are conspicuous and numerous, and are generally in dupli- cate or triplicate, more or less filled with gum. The medullary rays are strongly defined, irregular, frequent, scarcely parallel, and show clearly on the radial section. MorreELl. Eucalyptus longicornis, F. v. M. Weight, 64 lbs. Western Australia. “It is a strong, dense, hard wood, and has an interlocked grain. It is of a dark brown colour and is used for wheelwrights’ work, tool handles, etc. It is also used for mining timber. . . . Transverse strength, 16,900 Ibs. per square inch. Tensile strength, 18,000 lbs. per square inch’”’ (Lane-Poole). M 162 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Morus laevigata, Wall. Weight, 45 Ibs. India, Burma. This handsome wood is yellowish in colour, is hard and close-grained, and polishes well. It darkens on exposure. It is suitable for carving and turnery, and deserves to be better known and more widely used for decorative cabinet work. A large quantity is available in squares measuring 40 feet x 14 inches x 14 inches. MuLBERRY. Morus alba and M. nigra, Linn. Europe. Of this timber, Elwes and Henry say: ‘“‘ The wood of the [black] mulberry is very like that of Robinia in texture, colour, and useful properties ; but yellow when fresh, it acquires in the course of time a brownish-red tint. It takes a good polish, and is often used for making furniture.”’ Holtzapffel says that ‘‘ Bergerou very strongly recommends the white mulberry, which he describes as similar to elm, but very close in the grain and suitable for furniture.”” This wood should be highly valued for cabinet work or inlay, as it is quite equal to, and in some respects sur- passes, those timbers which are imported from abroad often at consider- able cost, and which are not in any way superior. Myatt. Acacia pendula, A. Cunn. Weight, 76 Ibs. Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria. It is possible that some confusion has arisen from time to time between the produce of Acacia pendula and A. acuminata. There is a considerable resemblance between the two species. : Stone describes the wood as “‘ very dark brown with light-coloured lines, few, if any, black bands.” He adds that as an ornamental wood it is much prized by cabinet-makers and turners. Baterden says that myall and other acacias have been recently selected by the Ordnance Depart- ment of Great Britain for the manufacture of spokes for gun-carriage wheels. Nirt. Xylocarpus borneensis, Becc. Weight, 40 lbs. 4 0z. Borneo, the Philippines. This is a hard timber, close and fine-grained, and of a dull coffee- coloured or reddish-tinted brown with darker brown gum streaks. It is rather liable to warp, but will take a fine smooth surface from the tool. Foxworthy mentions that a similar product from East Africa and the Fiji Islands, which is used for fine furniture, sandals, piling, etc., is obtained from .\. oboratus, A. Juss, and X. granatum. The annual rings are slightly apparent. The pores are numerous, evenly distributed, and generally filled with gum or resin. The medullary rays are fine, close, and parallel. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 163 Nutwoop. Dicorynia Maraensis, Bth. Weight, 49 Ibs. 3 oz. (fresh undried sample). Dutch Guiana. Fifteen logs of a timber to which this name was given were received in London during rg14. According to information received, this wood is called “locus ’”’ in British Guiana. The logs are hewn square, and in shape and size bear a strong likeness to greenheart logs. The wood is of a light nut-brown colour, and is capable of a smooth surface from the tool, with rather a shiny or lustrous gloss. The tangential grain is inter- spersed with short darker brown lines formed by the pores. The grain and texture might be compared to a mild African mahogany, which in these respects it much resembles. It gives all indications of being likely to stand well without warping or shrinking. The pores are scattered and irregular in size and position, some being rather large and open. The medullary rays are fine, close, and parallel, but irregular. They are rather obscure, and are joined at uneven intervals by similar white lines. The concentric layers are quite distinctly marked. OaK. Quercus spp. There are many different species of oaks, all belonging to the genus Quercus, and confined to the northern hemisphere: thus the “ she-oaks ”’ of Australia, “‘ African oak,” and others from the southern hemisphere are not oaks, nor even allied to them. In Great Britain grow two native species and their hybrids, and both of these are deciduous, that is to say, they annually shed all their foliage inautumn. These extend widely over Europe, through France, Germany, Austria, and Russia, and supply the British, Austrian, and Russian oak. Going southwards to the Mediterranean region the deciduous specics are more numerous, and are reinforced by evergreen oaks (holm oak, cork oak) which are never leafless. Passing on to India the number of kinds, both deciduous and evergreen, is still greater, but none yields timber that is exported to any extent. Again, in Japan quite a number of kinds of oaks grow, and among them are two deciduous species that supply to England and Europe generally, the well-known Japanese oak. Crossing the Pacific to Canada other species of deciduous oaks are encountered, and again on going south to the United States they are increased in numbers and supplemented by evergreen species ; from this wealth of species are derived the medley of timbers known as American oak and (from ever- green species) “‘ live oak.”’ The commercial oaks may be ranged under three main headings. 1. EUROPEAN: (a) British ; (b) Russian; (c) Austrian ; all, or nearly all, derived from two closely-allied species. 2. AMERICAN: (a) deciduous, derived from a mixture of species ; (0) “ live oak,” derived from one or more evergreen species. 164 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 3. JAPANESE: derived from two closely-allied species. For decorative purposes commercial oak is supplied in the form of boards and so forth of two kinds: wainscot or quartered oak, and plain or bastard sawn oak. As plain oak is sometimes supplied in fulfilling contracts demanding wainscot oak, it is necessary to have a clear know- ledge of the meaning of the latter description. This can be acquired by a consideration of the history of its manufacture and the origin of the term ‘‘ wainscot.” Oak and other straight-grained European timbers cleave most readily along the grain in the direction of the medullary rays, and this is particularly true when these are broad and deep. In such a case the splitting takes place along the deep rays which are thus exposed, and produces the “silver grain’? familiar in oak. When oak is thus split into thin boards these are wedge-shaped (being thinner towards the middle), and such are termed “ clap-boards,”’ and are still so known in the United States. Their shape particularly adapted them for use as shingles for roofs. The word “ clap-board’”’ itself denotes the mode of preparation, as it means a board produced by cleavage (cf. German word kjaffen, to split asunder). For panelling, such boards were worked on the face side, so that ancient oak panelling shows the clash or silver grain broadly spread over the surface to an extent unobtainable by means of the saw, except in isolated cases. Wainscot boards thus prepared by cleavage were imported into England at a very early date. According to Professor Joseph Wright, the word ‘‘ wainscot’”’ is of Dutch origin. The early Dutch form of the word is waeghe-schot, in which weaghe (Old English, waeg ; German, Wege) means a wave, and schot, a partition, a closure of boards. Thus, according to Professor Wright, the ““ wave ”’ refers to the wavy pattern on the wood (the silver grain caused by the medullary rays). ‘‘ Schot’” may refer to the mode of preparation, by which the wood was cleft or partitioned into boards, or to the purposes fulfilled by these in the construction of partitions in a house. Professor Wright states that in the seventeenth century, or possibly earlier, waeghe-schot became wagenschot, as the first element of the word was popularly associated with wagen (a waggon, a wain). This verdict is of significance from two points of view : (1) It shows that the word wainscot was applied to a wood showing silver grain, the oak, and that this was necessarily divided along the medullary rays. (2) It denotes that the application of the word wainscot to any kind of wood not cut on the quarter, is illegitimate. Professor Skeat, however, says that the word is a corruption of the Old Dutch waeghe-schot, wall-hoarding, from the Old Dutch waeg, a wall, and schot, a partition. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 165 It has also been said that it is derived from the Dutch wagen (waggon) or wen and schot (partition), which might refer to the sides of a waggon or to a division within it. In former days, waggons when journeying long distances had divisions for sleeping accommodation. This kind of partition was introduced into the house, the rooms of which were wagenschoted—wainscoted. Much of the panelling of early date was carried out in so-called deal, the produce of Pinus sylvestris, but wealthier people were able to gratify their taste by using oak. As at that time saws were not used, the only possible method of conversion was that of splitting, and as oak splits on the medullary ray, the whole of the wood used showed a maximum display of clash or figure. It will thus be seen that whichever of the theories of the origin of the term be accepted as the most probable, there is no question that for a room to be trimmed in wainscot oak the wood used must show figure or clash on the face, and that the term ‘‘ wainscot ” used in con- nection with oak means figured oak. While the meaning of the term wainscot as applied to oak wood is beyond doubt, the architectural meaning of the term has wandered from the original so far that it denotes a wooden boarding, sometimes panelling, of the walls of aroom. The consequence is that there might be ambiguity in a specification demanding that a room shall be wainscoted with oak panelling, but there should be no misunderstanding when the demand is that a room shall be panelled with wainscot oak. Yet to avoid all possibility of litigation it would be well to use the term “ quartered ” when wainscot oak is wanted, and possibly even supplement this term by “ (well, boldly, best) figured.” Boards obtained by cleavage are necessarily wedge-shaped. With the advent of the saw it was possible rapidly to cut flat boards, but obviously if such boards were sawn exactly along the medullary rays the waste of material would be very great. It was therefore necessary to adopt some practicable and economic approximation to the results obtained by cleavage. The following are among such methods of sawing : The trunk is sawn down the middle (Fig. 1) ; the marginal pieces of the two halves are sawn off and there result two billets, termed wainscot billets. If these are cut in the manner shown in Fig. 2, that is, at right angles to the broad flat face and parallel to the two flat sides, the cut a-b is parallel to the mcdullary rays and the board yielded will be the most highly figured. A cut along c-d or e-f will traverse the medullary rays most obliquely and therefore show some figure, but the silver grain will be smaller and less marked. In fact, the nearer. the board is to a-b the larger and bolder will be the figure ; the ncarer to c-d or e-f the smaller and less bold wil! it be. 166 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Yet when wainscot billets are cut sufficiently narrow (Fig. 3) all the boards show sufficient figure to be termed wainscot oak. If the billets, however, are cut wider (Fig. 4), it is evident that the boards cut from the outside will be plain oak, or approximate to it, so that a board g-/ will actually be plain oak. Hence if the wainscot billets be too wide not every board cut is wainscot oak. This mode of producing wainscot billets has been adopted during ian y late years with oak from Riga, Libau, and, to a limited extent, from Japan. The butts are sawn or hewn as shown in Fig. 5. Another method of sawing which is possible if the trunks are of considerable diameter, is pursued in the case of Austrian (Hungarian) oak (Fig. 6). Each butt yields two wainscot billets, A and B, and two wainscot planks, C and D, 3 to 8 inches in thickness. The centre and the remaining marginal pieces E, F, G, H, are not used to produce wainscot oak. The two billets are cut in the manner already described. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 167 These considerations of the mode of cutting, lead to the conclusion that not every board cut from a wainscot log or wainscot billet is neces- sarily wainscot oak, for the marginal boards will be plain oak if the billet or log be too wide in relation to the original thickness of the butt. So far the matter has been discussed solely from the point of view of history and decorative effect, but there is another important aspect of the question. Shrinking and warping during drying are very much less along the medullary rays than in a direction at right angles to these. The result is that true wainscot panels will shrink, warp, or crack less than plain oak panels under the same conditions. Hence, even did oak possess no silver grain, true wainscot panels (cut in the quarter) would be more valuable than plain panels. From all points of view then it must be rigidly insisted that wainscot is that cut on the quarter and showing very considerable silver grain in the form of transverse bands. It will be seen, therefore, that the original panelling in oak, or, as it was termed, “ wainscoting,” consisted necessarily (since the whole of the wood was reft or split) of highly figured timber showing the “ clash ” or ‘‘ flower ’”’ to the greatest extent, but that at a later date, with the advent of the use of the saw, a change gradually took place. According to an account by “ W. 5%.’ published by the Timber Trades Journal, August 7, 1915: “‘ The wainscot oak in the old houses in the country was mostly English oak ; there was not much Dutch or Riga wainscot before the reign of William the Third (1689-1702). I think Sir Christopher Wren introduced a great deal of it into this country ; he was building for a Dutch king, therefore it was natural that he should use it.’””, John Armstrong (1835) says : “‘ Most of the timber was cut by windmills at Westzaam and Zaandam and others near Rotterdam, and shipped either from Ostend or the Holland ports.” He also reports that George the Fourth (1820-1830) sent his representative over to Holland to purchase wainscot oak for Gothic fittings in Windsor Castle, but although he obtained the wood he does not seem to have been very pleased with the quality, partly because he could not select billets for figure, but had to accept them as they came. George the Fourth has not been the only disappointed man. Complaints and disputes leading to law-suits and arbitraments have been continually recurring. It would therefore be desirable that, to prevent further disappointments and disputes, there should be a general agreement that where work is specified to be executed in wainscot oak, it should be generally understood that the wood should show a preponderance of good figure or clash, and especially so in the panels. At the same time, having regard to the altered conditions since the age when “ split ’’ wood was used, reasonable regard should be paid to the economical conversion of the material. For instance, the appearance of the finished work would not suffer if a 168 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD reasonably wide latitude were allowed in the use of plain wood in mouldings, styles, and rails. A brief consideration of the foregoing remarks on conversion will conclusively show the loss or waste of attempt- ing to produce all the timber dead on the quarter, as it appears when split. Oak, AFRICAN. Lophira alata, Banks. Weight, 70 lbs. Tropical Africa. The produce of this timber is not often seen in our markets, although J. M. Hillier in the Kew Bulletin No. 2, 1913, mentions that some was brought to Liverpool from the Gold Coast, where it is known as Karkoo. He adds that ‘it is the favourite wood for railway sleepers and heavy constructional work generally . . . [and] owing to its great weight and the difficulties of shipment it has not yet received the notice which its merits deserve.” In a list of forest trees of the West Coast of Africa, prepared by Sir Walter Egerton, it is stated that this timber is known in Yoruba as “ Tonhon ” and in Benin as ‘‘ Uqbeberi.’’ Laslett speaks of African oak, but from his description it is not clear that the wood to which he refers is the same ; in fact, he names the wood as the produce of Swietenia senegalensis or S. Khaya from Sierra Leone, and as I have seen at least five different hard-woods from the coast, all of which have been termed “ African oak,” and which, although all possessing similar qualities of heaviness and hardness, differed materially in all other respects, it seems impossible to be sure of the identity of the different varieties. Oak, AMERICAN. Quercus alba, Linn., and other Quercus spp. Weight, 41 lbs. 14 oz. North America. The very important part which this wood plays in the timber supply of this country is shown by the immense quantity imported every year. The value in money has approximated to a million pounds yearly, ranging from £675,000 during 1909, to over a million in 1913. Its use far exceeds that of any other oak, and constitutes more than five-eighths of the whole supply from abroad. This remarkable result is not due to its superiority over other supplies so much as to the enterprise and energy of the American merchant in providing it in a suitable manner and at a moderate price, while its transport is facilitated by advantageous railway and steamer freights. The timber so provided is the produce of a great many species mixed indiscriminately. The sources of supply have been continually extended as the available forests disappeared under the woodman’s axe, and the once famous Indiana white oak is now no longer obtainable, at least for export. The result, so far as that part of the shipments which is used for constructional work is concerned, is not of consequence, as the present supplies are suitable, but for cabinet and decorative work the mixture of the variety of grain and colour is CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 169 disadvantageous. The colour varies from a pale yellow brown through various shades to a light brick-red. The wood of Q. alba “ is of a pale reddish-brown, straight-grained, moderately hard and compact, tough, strong, and of fair durability. Being remarkable for its elasticity, planks cut from it may, when steamed, be bent into almost any form of curve, no matter how difficult, without danger of breaking or splintering. This characteristic renders it especially valuable for shipbuilding purposes. The wood opens very sound; and as it shrinks but little, and almost without splitting, during the process of seasoning, there is nothing to prevent its extensive use in railway carriage-building, civil architecture, and generally in the domestic arts. . . . In the experiments that were made, it was found white oak compared very favourably with all the foreign oaks, but proved to be slightly inferior in strength to the English oak ”’ (see tables of experiments, p. 350 et seg.). So wrote Laslett in 1875, and it would be impossible to give a better description. Of late years the logs have occupied a very important place, as they yield strong timber of long length up to over 60 feet, and large squares, up to 2 feet 6 inches, perhaps more, of clean, straight grain and good quality. This, however, is neither of the same character nor of so high a standard as the old shipments. It is used mostly in railway carriage and waggon building. The timber is not very durable and should not be used in England in those places where it is required to remain sound for a great number of years, although much can be done to increase its durability by a wise system of ventilation around those parts which are built into walls. Unfortunate results with American oak beams were experienced in its use for the roof and other places in the museum at Barnard Castle. The especial qualities of toughness and elasticity, together with a plentiful supply of long lengths of straight grain which can be easily obtained free from knots, give the planks and waggon scantlings a very justifiable popularity. An enormous quantity has been used for sills for windows, this being principally due to the low price at which it has been provided, as for such purpose it is doubtful if it is sufficiently durable. Planks and boards for decorative work are obtainable in what is termed “‘ plain” or ‘‘ quarter sawn.’’ The plain boards are sawn so that the surface shows the tangential section, while the quarter sawn displays the radial (see diagram, p. 170). A boxed heart square is generally taken from the heart. It will be seen that quarter sawing entails greater cost and more waste, which consequently makes it more expensive. Immense quantities of these descriptions have been used in every kind of cabinet, building, and decorative work. The product of the log is handled as it comes from the saw and is selected into grades according to an inspection regulation decided by the National Hardwood Lumber Association. 170 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD This authority regulates the different qualities by rule, the product being divided into what are called ‘firsts and seconds,’ ‘‘ No. I common,” “No. 2 common,” and “culls.”” A very large quantity of floorings is imported ready prepared. All flooring strips in America are of a much narrower width than that which has been commonly adopted in the United Kingdom ; the usual widths of imported American floorings are nominal 3 and 3} inches. The wood is always plain sawn, quarter sawn floor- ings being unknown. It is tongued and grooved, and generally bored rd rm Mh =I yy, aS y | \ Ae. ) [ ae) E XU J NU VY SS mI ae A. Plain sawn. B. Quarter sawn. A C. Quarter sawn. for secret nailing: the ends also are tongued and grooved, so that they can be joined without cross-cutting to fit the joists. The lengths are much shorter than those commonly used in English prepared floorings, ranging as the wood falls from the saw, from 18 inches to 16 feet, the average being about 8 feet. A very excellent plan of hollowing the under side is adopted in order to provide for a free current of air, and the consequent ventilation of the floor to prevent the attack of dry rot. According to the Pioneer Western Lumberman, San Francisco, CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 171 November I, 1915, the largest oak tree in the world is to be found in San Benito. “ This lordly tree measures thirty-seven feet six inches in circumference. The natives, who declare that it produces a ton of acorns every year, take great pride in it.” The note remarks that this tree surpasses that which previously was supposed to be the largest and which was known as the famous Hooker oak of Chico, California, named in 1872, which rises to a height of 105 feet, but is only 21 feet 8 inches in circumference. The pores in the spring-wood are large and regular. The medullary rays, which are larger and bolder than in any other oak, are very numerous and continue, more so than in other varieties, in a direct line from the heart to the circumference. The converted wood displays, therefore, when quarter sawn, a larger and bolder figure or clash than it is possible to produce from any other variety of oak. Oak, AUSTRIAN. Quercus pedunculata, Ehrh., and Q. sessiliflora, Sm. Croatia, Slavonia. Austrian oak is mainly yielded by the forests of Slavonia and Croatia, and therefore would be more correctly termed Hungarian oak; it is conveyed by rail to Fiume and shipped thence. Trees of large dimensions, straight and clean in growth, and possessing lofty branchless boles, are obtained from these forests. A number of the latter, whether owned by the State, by public bodies, or by private persons, are administered by the State, which ensures proper manage- ment, including regulation of the felling and due regeneration of the stock. The result of this enlightened system, which is followed by a number of Continental countries, but not, unhappily, by this, is that there will be a considerable maintenance of the supply of Hungarian oak. Trees of large size will decrease in number in the future, and are not expected to be available twenty years hence. The cause of the depletion of these large trees is twofold. On the one hand, such trees are of great age, and therefore cannot be replaced by others in a few years. On the other hand, modern German methods of forestry determine that the trees shall be felled at the moment when they re- present the maximum profit (as measured by interest on capital, and condition of the remaining forest) ; and this moment is reached in all European timber trees long before they have obtained impressive dimensions. Yet at present very large oak trees are still found in Slavonian forests, which also include a wealth of fine old ash, elm, lime, and hornbeam trees, and are so old as to have some claims to be regarded as truly primeval. Trees of such outstanding quality as regards height, girth, and clean- ness of stem are not, however, confined to such areas as these Slavonian 172 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Photograph by kind permission of H. J. Elwes Esq. Oak IN KyrE Park WORCESTERSHIRE. forests. Yet with that curious attitude in which the average Englishman ignores the value of the pro- ducts of his own country and utilises instead those of foreign lands, such trees as these become well known, whilst others in England, of equal quality and as large dimensions, remain unnoticed. For instance, in Kyre Park, Worcester- shire, the property of Mrs. Baldwin Childe, is an oak grove con- taining over one hun- dred trees, whose clean, straight stems are of a wonderful height. H. J. Elwes, writing of them, says y . they are not so remarkable for their girth as for the way in which they run up with clear stems to a great height. The two tallest are cer- tainly over 130 feet by my own measure- ments in 1907. The largest . . . has a stem 83 feet long by 17 feet 8 inches in girth at 5 feet, and contains I03I cubic feet of timber. Four- een of them contain B.—Oak TREE OF THE Socna FOREST, SLAVONIA, 174 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD over 600 feet, and the smallest tree in the grove has 97 feet, which is considered a big oak in many districts. . . . There is an oak of remarkable size in another part of the Kyre estate. . . . It is 113 feet in total height, with a trunk nearly straight to about go feet high, where the head begins, and 15 feet Io inches in girth ’’ (see page 172). Thus it will be seen that as against a diameter of 4 feet 2 inches and 4 feet 6 inches in the case of the two exceptional trees in Slavonia, among sixteen trees at Kyre Park, the four largest have perhaps a larger diameter, while the height of the lowest branch exceeds that of the Slavonian. The value of the British-grown tree exceeds that of the Continental, yet in the spring of 1914 princely oaks were sold within fifty miles of London at less than 1s. gd. per foot cube, whereas I was told that in Slavonia an equivalent of 7s. 6d. per foot cube had been paid for similar trees for the English market. The accompanying illustrations! (pp. 173, 176) represent two oak trees which grew in the Socna forest in Slavonia. The following were the dimensions of the two main trunks : Tree A, Tree B. Complete height . . 130 feet (circa) 130 feet (circa) Height to lowest branch . 2 42 feet 3 inches 35 feet 9 inches Diameter at height of 5 feet ‘ : 4 feet 2 inches 4 feet 6 inches Diameter at height of 22 feet 9 inches . 3 feet 6 inches Diameter at height of 35 feet 9 inches . Over 4 feet The wood of such venerable oak trees is often “‘ over-ripe ’’ or otherwise faulty ; it is, in other words, more or less infected by wood-destroying fungi, which are freely seen in similar reputedly virgin forests of Bohemia. If the timber be only slightly affected it can be used in the manufacture of furniture, but is not sufficiently good in quality for export. Large sound trunks from Slavonia are dispatched mainly to Holland and Germany. The method of cutting Austrian oak into billets and wainscot wood has already been described (see page 166). In this respect also the English merchant shows a short-sighted policy with regard to the conversion of the native timber. With the foreign oak the best methods to suit the particular requirements of this country have been found and acted upon, but there have been no such wise methods employed with the home-grown product. The cost of conversion in this manner is naturally greater than in the ordinary way, yet what is allowed to one timber is denied to the other. Even where some one has had sufficient enterprise to adopt this process with British oak he has received neither support nor encouragement. The considerable demand in England for Austrian oak, which depends to a large extent on the automatic repetition of specifica- tions, arose for the following reasons. Many years ago it was found 1 For these photographs and the accompanying information I am indebted to the Photographic Studio “‘ Etienne.” CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 175 possible to secure large butts of Austrain oak capable of yielding billets particularly clean and free from defects, and of a width exceeding that procurable elsewhere. Moreover, the wood is mild in quality, and shows own Photograph by kind permission of H. J. Elwes, Esq. Oak GROVE, KYRE PaRK, WORCESTERSHIRE, bold silver-grain. In colour it is of a uniform yellow-brown, and in this respect, as well as in its grain, is often indistinguishable from Russian oak. Apart from these features it is probably slightly inferior to the timber obtainable from the more northern forests of South Russia. A.—Oak TREE OF THE SOCNA FOREST, SLAVONIA, CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 177 In addition to the supplies of Austrian oak cut in the manner already indicated, a certain amount is exported in the form of round bark-covered butts, or these sawn into planks or boards, also in the form of square- edged planks (both plain and figured) and boards. The last-named serve for flooring and parquetry, but the trade in these for such purposes is limited by their high cost, as it is possible to procure equally suitable oak from other sources at a lower cost. In Hungary, however, an extensive industry in oak parquetry is conducted. In the autumn of 1914, after the war had broken out, H.M. Office of Works issued a specification demanding the use of “ Austrian oak” for the panelling of ‘‘ armament buildings,” then intended to provide the office for the Board of Agriculture. Following a letter of remonstrance addressed to the Times by “ Man in the Street” H.M. Office of Works altered the specification to a demand for British oak, and this was therefore used for trimming two rooms, which, beautiful in design and execution, have a very handsome effect. The work was carried out by Messrs. Cleaver, and a brass plate has been affixed which notes the botani- cal variety of the wood and the places whence the oak trees came. Oak, BRITISH. Quercus pedunculata, Ehth., and Q. sessiliflora, Sm. Weight, 52 Ibs. 14 oz. The British Isles. The two kinds of British oak timbers hardly differ, if they differ at all, in their general qualities. On the whole, it is possible that the product of Q. pedunculata is slightly stronger and harder than that of Q. sessiliflora, although, as the proportion of supplies of the latter is so much less than that of the former, I have been unable after close observation over many years to detect any real difference, and it appears to me that the quality of both varieties either as regards mildness or strength, is dependent upon the soil and the situation in which they have been grown. There is no doubt that there is a much more marked differ-' ence in the qualities supplied from Continental sources. Laslett says: “Tt is the prevailing opinion that the wood of the Quercus Robur pedunculata is the best in quality, and that the Quercus Robur sessili- flora is slightly inferior to it’; but while agreeing generally in this opinion, I feel bound to admit that during a long experience in working them, I have not been able to discover any important difference between them. We find indeed the wood of the two species so closely resembling each other that few surveyors are able to speak positively as to the identity of either. It is only by tracing the log from the felling of the tree to the hands of the convertor that we are able to say that the timber of the sessiliflora is a little less dense and compact in texture than that of the pedunculata.” With the knowledge of Laslett’s experience in mind I have never N 178 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD allowed a single specimen of sessiliflora, many of which have come under my notice, to pass by unexamined. I believe it would be impossible to prove that there is any difference. There is no oak in the world comparable to British oak. Pre-eminent among British timbers it stands unchallenged for its strength and durability, which have become proverbial, and emblematic indeed of the nation which owes the foundations of its greatness to the ‘ wooden walls ’’ of oak which in past centuries compassed the waters of the globe, and gave this land the title of ‘‘ Mistress of the Seas.” The unsurpassed strength of British oak is universally admitted, although to provide statistics of comparison is impossible, since the experiments made have not been sufficiently numerous, nor have those which have been made taken into account various factors, such as the amount of moisture in the wood. Evidence of its great durability has been provided in the report on European oak (q.v.), but interesting additional examples are cited by Laslett in connection with his discussion on the relative merits of winter-felled and spring-felled oak. Among these cases are those of certain ships built for the Royal Navy, the wood used being winter-felled oak. The Sovereign of the Seas, built 1635, was pulled to pieces forty-seven years later and rebuilt, ‘‘ and the greater part of the materials were found to be in sufficiently good condition for re-employment.”” The Royal William, built in 1715-19, was finally taken to pieces after a service of ninety-four years. The Montague, launched in 1779, was in active service and good condition in 1815. Opposed to these examples is that of the Hawke sloop, of whose oak timber one-half was winter-felled and the other half spring-felled. “ She was built in 1793, and ten years later was in such a general condition of decay that she was taken to pieces, no difference being then observable in the condition of her several timbers.’ This does not imply that winter-felled and spring-felled timber are equally liable to decay. In this case the winter-felled timber ‘‘ was barked standing in the spring of 1787, and not felled until the autumn of 1790.” In considering the meaning of these facts relating to the Hawke it is important to remember that wood-destroying fungi often require a starting-point opposing slight resistance to them, but after that stage is passed, having acquired full vigour, they can attack timber that would have successfully resisted their opening onslaught. In any case, the general consensus of opinion among Government authorities in England, France, and other countries, is that winter-felled oak is the more durable. Ordinary British oak timber is procurable in two extreme and various transitional forms. The general characters of the two extremes were well described by Laslett as follows: “ The English oak tree, if grown in sheltered situations or in forests, frequently reaches a height of 70 to CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 179 100 feet with a clear, straight stem of from 30 to 40 feet [I think it would be more correct to put this figure at 30 to 60 feet —A. L. H.] anda circum- ference of 8 to ro feet, and much larger specimens (though now only rarely to be met with) were formerly common. If grown in open and exposed situations, it is generally shorter, and frequently takes strange Tue “ Twetve Apostles” Oak ON LORD PETRE’S ESTATE AT BRENTWOOD, 14 feet high to the big branch; girth, 27 feet 1} inches; diameter, 11 feet. and eccentric forms, assuming a somewhat curved and crooked shape ; this, however, is one of its most valuable characteristics, as naturally curved timber is almost indispensable for wood shipbuilding. It is when grown under these conditions that it appears to attain its maximum of hardness, and is often found so gnarled and knotty that it is difficult to work.” Grown in appropriately shaded forest the tree casts off its 180 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD lower branches as the trunk elongates, so that knots are lacking on the long bole; and the trunk produces straight-grained wood arranged in annual rings of more or less even width. In these respects it resembles the typical forest-grown Russian, Austrian, and Japanese oak. When, how- ever, grown out in the open, or in well-lighted woodlands, the trunk retains its old branches, which develop into low pitched boughs and produce huge knots. Moreover, the energy of the tree is diverted to producing a thick stumpy trunk with wide fibrous annual rings and broad medul- lary rays. The annual rings are, however, apt to be very unequal in thickness, so that the grain is uneven and far removed from the straight by the intervention of numerous larger and smaller knots. The result is that this wild-grained timber is not so strong as the pre- ceding kind, but has a much more varied, decorative effect, which is enhanced by bold silver grain, unsurpassed by any other European commercial oak. It is strange to note that although British oak is generally admired and highly valued when it bears the stamp of antiquity, yet at the present time foreign varieties are more often used in preference to it. When, however, it is so employed, there is the assurance that not only is it beautiful and ornamental, but it is capable of enduring sound and excellent for future ages, and thus preserve a record of the art and craft of the period in which the work was executed. The foreign oak which is more commonly used results in work which differs little in its spiritless uniformity from any ordinary stained and varnished wood. An illustration of the enduring qualities of British oak can be found in the hammer-beam roof of Westminster Hall, which, erected in 1399, lasted for over 500 years and has only recently been repaired. In contrast to these may be mentioned the elaborate fifteenth-century carved work in the Frari Church and the Church of S. Stefano in Venice (alluded to elsewhere), which, executed in Italian walnut, is now perforated with worm holes and is crumbling to dust. Other examples of the superior effect resulting from the use of British oak can be seen in the Court of Criminal Appeal at the Royal Courts of Justice, London; the sub- committee room at Lloyd’s Registry in Fenchurch Street, E.C.; in the benches and ends of the seats in Lanteglos Church, near Fowey, in Cornwall, and the following places : The Thistle Chapel in St. Giles’ Cathedral, Edinburgh, designed by Sir Robert Lorimer and built by Mr. N. Grieve. The British oak used in this building was sawn and sticked for over fifty years and was grown in Essex. Liverpool Cathedral, designed by Mr. Gilbert Scott, the oak for which work came from the same source as the above. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 181 The dining-room of a house at Hyde Park, executed by Messrs. Holland & Hannen, which is a reduced copy of the Brewers’ Hall. The offices of the P. and O. Company in Leadenhall Street ; many of the steamers of the company are also trimmed with British oak. Mr. G. T. Wills’ house at Sunningdale, built by Messrs. J. Bentley & Sons, Waltham Abbey. The timber used in this instance was mostly grown on Lord Chesham’s estate at Latimer. Mr. T. E. Collcutt’s house at Totteridge, Hertfordshire; Mr. Alfred B. Smith’s house, The Crossways, Totteridge; and Highwood, High- wood Hill, all possess beautiful woodwork entirely executed in British oak. Much of the charm of this work depends not only on the varied colouring of the wood, but upon its very irregularities and faultiness, yet architects often reject such wood on account of its knots and uneven grain. Fortunately of late years its use for decorative purposes has increased, and as its beauty has become more appreciated, the difficulties attendant upon an irregular and uncertain demand tend to diminish. The present inadequate supplies will doubtless be augmented: as the craftsman learns that he can execute his work as easily and economically as with the foreign oak. It is customary to consider British oak as difficult to work and incapable of standing well after completion—an erroneous and wholly groundless opinion. Much of the modern work mentioned above was executed by O. Ayton and his sons, who, originally country carpenters, were artists in this work, all of which is in perfect condition without shrinkages or any other fault. For constructive work the strength and durability of oak are well recognised. It would be difficult to estimate its life when used sub- merged. The beech piles which formed the foundation, laid in 1202, of Winchester Cathedral were held together by oak spikes, which, a rich black, were found perfectly hard and sound when they were taken out after 700 years. James Thomson & Co. of Peterborough found perfectly sound English oak in the foundations of Holy Trinity Church at Hull, built civyca 1270, and said that in their long experience they had never found any other buried woodwork in as sound a condition. Large-sized logs and beams up to 35 feet in length, and 20 inches square were used for the lock-gates for the London Docks. These were taken up for repair and renewal in rg15, having then been in position for periods ranging from 60 to 200 years ; they were found to be hard, in splendid preserva- tion, and nearly black. The oak which replaced the damaged portions was obtained from the Duke of Wellington’s park at Strathfieldsaye and measured 35 feet in length, squaring 184 by 194 inches. A tablet giving particulars of the wood and date of submersion was affixed to these logs 182 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD before putting them down. Elwes refers thus to a prehistoric boat which was dug up at Brigg in Lincolnshire in 1884.1 “ This wonderfully preserved dug-out was hollowed out of one huge oak log 484 feet long, and approximately 6 feet in diameter, which showed no signs of branches, a log which must have contained nearly 1000 feet of timber, and which could not be matched now in England, or, so far as we know, in Europe or North America... . The boat was found embedded in the blue and brown clay which underlies the peat, and is considered on geological evidence . . . to be from 2600 to 3000 years old.”’ Oak is not unique, however, in its durability when totally submerged or completely buried in soil, for other timbers share this quality with it, but it does excel other woods in remaining sound for long periods when exposed to air and weather. The beams and uprights of the half-timbered Savoy Farm at Denham, Buckinghamshire, 500 to 600 years old, were in 1915, still in a wonderful state of preservation. Yet oak timber is by no means immune from decay, especially if used without thought or care. For window sills it would be difficult to find a better timber, and it is therefore generally specified, yet the wood is continually being used in an entirely unseasoned state, and even before fixing is generally painted. The wet and the sap within the wood are consequently sealed up, and decay probably begins immediately the sill is fixed. Under such conditions the commonest description of Scots pine would last for a longer time. A short time ago the oak beams in the roof of Bowes Museum, Barnard Castle, were found to be in a very bad state of decay, and had to be taken out and replaced with new. It is not certain whether these were all British or all American oak, but Professor Annan of Armstrong College, Newcastle, in his report attributes the dry rot of the beams to the fact that they were placed in position while unseasoned, then thickly varnished, and the ends built into the walls so that no evaporation was possible, all ventilation having been stopped.” When used for pit-props and railway sleepers the life of oak is probably never more than, if as long as twenty-four years, for when unventilated or exposed to alternate wet and dry, it readily succumbs to the attacks of dry rot (Merulius lacrymans). In contracts, engineers and architects sometimes demand that the oak timber shall be from trees which have been felled for from two to seven years (generally not less than five years) prior to use. This matter is generally discussed elsewhere (see p. 317), but it may here be reiterated that any such condition is actually harmful. f Described in a lecture by the Rev. D. Cary Elwes, and published in 1903— A Prehistoric Boat. Stanton & Son, Northampton. * Private note. O. S. Scott, Curator, Bowes Museum, 19/2/14. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 183 Being easily cleft, oak is excellently adapted for the manufacture of palings, staves, barrels, wheel-spokes and the like, and is largely so employed. It would also be well adapted for shingles for roofs, though its use for this purpose is not now required. When steamed it is readily compressed, and in this form supplies keys and trenails for fixing railway lines. The presence of a considerable amount of tannin in oak should exclude its use in contact with iron. When so used discoloration ensues, and ultimately results in the disintegration of the wood and the corrosion of the nails, fastening, and other iron work. Copper is therefore preferably used, otherwise the iron work should be galvanised. English oak is sometimes attacked by a fungus (Chlorosplenium aeruginosum) which stains the wood a brilliant vivid green. When so affected it is used for inlay work in Tunbridge ware. In Great Britain and Europe generally the tree is peculiarly liable to lightning strokes, which seriously damage, and often destroy, the whole value of the wood. The timber is attacked by various wood-destroying fungi, and is liable to many defects. The seasoning and conversion of oak is of the utmost importance ; too little attention has been paid to this in the past. Excepting where large timber is required for beams, dock-gates, and the like, the best results are obtained by cutting the timber into planks and boards of the sizes likely to be required, at the earliest possible moment after the tree has been felled. The trees should never be sawn through and through, but on the quarter. For all joiners’ work, and especially where ventilation is restricted, the seasoning should be complete before use. Even after thorough seasoning, where the best work is desired, the wood should first be roughly worked, then kept for a short time in a warm chamber as near as possible of the temperature of the room in which it will finally be placed, and not until after this should it be fixed together and finished. It is desirable that a period of about forty-eight hours should elapse before fixing the wood, after breaking the skin by fresh planing, as on each occasion when this has to be done a further change and shrinkage will occur, even if the wood is 200 or more years old. Oak, Brown. Quercus Robur, Linn. Weight, 47 Ibs. 13 oz. The British Isles. When certain individual British oak trees (Quercus Robur) are felled, their ordinary heart-wood is found to be partially or wholly changed into a richer toned reddish-brown wood which is known as ‘‘ brown oak.” It was formerly, and indeed it is occasionally even now, among English timber merchants and others in this country, called “red oak.” The colour is much like that of polished crocodile leather, very variable in character, depth, and richness. It may be uniformly of a comparatively 184 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD light brown, or again a deep, rich brown, having in some cases lighter streaks ; while in some portions from one to two inches wide, the ordinary colour does not appear to have been affected at all; again, the warm brown may be spotted and streaked with almost.black veins, presenting a rich appearance. This last form is called ‘‘ tortoise-shell ’’ pattern. It is a strange fact that one single tree may be affected without others near or around it showing the slightest trace. Thus, out of a group of trees in Farming Woods Park, one large tree was found to be of a fine rich colour, although some five or six other similar ones quite close to it were of the ordinary colour. On the other hand, it sometimes happens that in a group of trees all are found to be more or less affected. This was specially noticeable in a small wood on the golf course at Stanmore in Middlesex, where a large proportion of the trees which were cut down proved to be all brown, while some were slightly affected and others not at all. One or two very old and large specimens of undoubted American red oak (Quercus rubra, Linn.) growing in England were found to have this peculiarity. In the trunk the brown wood occurs either at the base, extending upwards to a variable height, or extending downwards from the crown towards the base to a variable depth, and it appears probable that in a few cases it may start from a large knot below the crown and extend somewhat downwards, but in such cases the proportion of the tree affected is slight. The trunk may be wholly of a rich brown from the base to the crown ; it may taper brown to a point, or prove to be brown on one side only. An example of this was noticed in a tree grown at Radlett, Hertfordshire, where the brown wood at the base of the trunk extended apparently completely across the heart-wood, then tapered very sharply in an. upward direction, becoming at the same time confined to one side of the trunk, and continued thus upwards, gradually tapering to extinction at an approximate height of 15 feet. In connection with partially unilateral distribution may be mentioned the case of an oak tree which grew near astream. The bole, when only x8 inches in height, gave way to two erect stems, each of which was about 18 inches in thick- ness over a length of 12 to 15 feet. The stumpy bole showed “ brown oak” on one side only, and the erect leader topping that side was also characterised by brown wood, whereas the leader springing from the other side of the bole possessed quite normal wood. The brown wood extending up the trunk is often arrested by an extensive knot, and in any case a large knot acts as an obstacle. In the case of trees which have been pollarded, the trunk may be found to be all brown up to the crown, but it is rarely, if ever, found that all the leaders are also brown, although in some cases the greater number are. A very large tree obtained from Danbury Palace, near Chelmsford, Essex, had five CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 185 secondary trunks growing out of the butt, all of which were of a very rich brown colour. (After the tree was sold, a man was idly pulling out the decayed wood from a hollow in the side of the trunk when he felt some- thing hard, which he discovered was a small coin, afterwards found to be of Roman origin.) Much more often, however, in the case of pollarded trees, only one or possibly two of the secondary trunks carry brown colour through, and in most of these cases it is noticeable that the secondary trunk or trunks which are affected occur on that side of the main trunk which has displayed the stronger and richer colour. In considering the origin of this wood it must be emphasised that “Drown oak’’ is the product of the ordinary species of British oaks (presumably Q. pedunculata and Q. sessiliflora). The cause of the phenomenon was unknown until recently, when it was investigated by Professor Percy Groom! The following are the results obtained. The heart-wood is laid down as perfectly normal heart-wood, which is sub- sequently converted by the action of a particular kind of fungus into brown oak. The scientific name of the fungus is not absolutely estab- lished, though in all of three specimens, coming from different parts of Great Britain, it was one and the same in species. The fungus causes the wood to assume first a yellow colour, then a richer brown, culminating in a deep reddish-brown or sometimes blackish-brown. It advances most rapidly along the grain of the wood, often at first being distributed along certain strands of the wood and causing these to assume a colour darker than that of the remainder. This usually temporary condition explains the origin of the tortoise-shell variety. The fungus advances more slowly along the medullary rays. These two methods of progression explain how the wood may become thoroughly infected by the fungus, which, however, grows very slowly and incompletely in a tangential direction. Artificial infections of boards or ordinary heart-wood of the oak led to the artificial production of brown oak. The fungus is of a somewhat exceptional type among wood-inhabiting fungi, for it shows only the feeblest power of attacking the actual wood substance ; while it is converting ordinary heart-wood into brown oak, it feeds on other substances in the wood (probably tannin among others). This fact is of importance in appraising the connection between the fungus and the decay exhibited in certain brown oak trees. It is widely known that “ brown oak ” trees when standing sometimes undergo decay. I have observed many cases in which the trunks of oak trees showed the butt in a complete condition of white-rot up to the height of from 3 to 6 feet, but above this the heart-wood was firm, hard brown oak. This was specially noticeable with some fine butts which 1 Percy Groom, ‘‘‘ Brown Oak’ and its Origin,” Annals of Botany, 1919, vol. xxix. pp. 393-408. 186 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD were cut down on Lord Chesham’s estate at Latimer, Buckinghamshire. One of these trees, measuring about 36 inches in diameter, appeared when felled to be valueless on account of the white fluffy, decayed wood which completely covered the trunk within a distance of an inch or two of the bark. Upon cross-cutting from 3 to 4 feet through the tree was perfectly sound, and of a very dark brown colour. Moreover, “ brown oak” trees sometimes show signs of ill-health as evinced in stag-headedness. Do these facts indicate that the browning process is one of incipient decay caused by the fungus responsible for ‘that browning? Stag-headedness is a symptom of various kinds of diseases of the oak tree, some associated with wood-destroying fungi and others not so, and it is very apt to occur on ordinary oak trees occupy- ing light soils which are apparently unfavourable to the development of “brown oak.” Again, Professor Groom thinks that the fact that large brown oak trees occur without showing any traces of decay in their hard, firm ‘‘ brown oak,’’ accords with the feeble powers of attacking wood substance shown by the browning fungus. On the other hand, there are many kinds of wood-attacking fungi that cause decay in the sap-wood and heart-wood of the oak tree. A number of them gain admittance through wounds, and several can simultaneously attack heart-wood at the same point. One or more of these may be responsible for the rotting of ‘‘ brown oak,” and at present there is not the slightest reason for believing that the fungus causing the production of “‘ brown oak ” is responsible for such rotting, or that ‘‘brown oak” is wood in a condition of incipient decay. The matter requires further investigation. As only the heart-wood of the tree is affected, and the sap flows up to the leaves exclusively in the sap-wood, it is not surprising that trees containing ‘brown oak” show no external signs of its posses- sion. The fact that ‘‘ brown oak” owes its origin to a fungus, and therefore arises only when the tree is infected, gives some explanation of the distribution of “ brown oak” trees and of ‘“ brown oak” in the individual tree. Such trees are found in Great Britain in regions extending from the south up to Scotland. A large number of old oaks in the northern vicinity of London are infected. This has been particularly noticed at Stanmore, Wembley, Edgware, Mill Hill, Totteridge, Enfield, Finchley, Golders Green; also at Radlett and Stoke Park. Many handsome trees which developed the tortoise-shell pattern, and also the uniform brown colour, were found in Stoke Park, Stoke Poges, and were all shipped to America, some having since been utilised to form the panelling and furniture in the City Hall, Chicago. It is significant that in Cassiobury Park, close to several of the above-named places, where the soil is light, no “brown oak” has been found. Light soil in general seems to be CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 187 inimical to its development. The peculiarity occurs in trees varying from very old ones to those which are perhaps as young as twenty years. As no evidence exists as to the date of infection, it is quite impossible to draw any conclusions as to the rate of production of ‘“ brown oak.” A remarkable fact about this beautiful form of English oak is that although it is found at our doors few people in England are even aware of its existence ; yet it is known in America as one of the finest decorative woods ; indeed, in general, Americans appear to think that it is the only form of oak which grows in England. There it is called simply ‘‘ English oak,” the term “ brown oak” being seldom used. H. J. Elwes, Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, quoting Mr. C. M‘Kimm, a distinguished American architect, says : ‘‘ We regard it as the most beautiful oak in the world . . . preferred to all others for its finer quality, richer colour, and endurance.”’ The hall and staircase at The Lynch House, Totteridge, Hertfordshire, is entirely panelled and furnished in ‘‘ brown oak,” from trees which grew on the Totteridge Park estate, and which provide a fine example of this wood. The trees were cut down some twenty years ago, and their roots can still be traced. Elwes says: “‘ The best example that I have seen of fine brown oak work in England is at Rockhurst, the residence of the late Sir Richard Tarrant, in Sussex. This was done by Messrs. Marsh, Cribb & Co. of Leeds, with brown pollard oak, showing very varied figure”’; and since the date when he wrote this the same firm has completed some equally fine panelling in the dining-room of Mr. H. J. Elwes’ house at Colesborne. Indeed, it is doubtful if this is not on the whole a still finer example. In my experience no such timber has ever been found either in France or elsewhere on the Continent. Professor Groom, however, says that he has examined the French chéne rouge, derived from the same species of tree (Quercus Robur) and has found the wood so similar that with the naked eye he cannot distinguish it from “‘ brown oak,” but the microscope revealed considerable differences between the British and French woods, thus indicating that the causes of the anomaly in the’ two cases are different. The question of seasoning is of more than ordinary importance in connection with the use of English oak, and especially with the brown variety under discussion. Excepting in the case of burry logs, they should always be cut as nearly as possible on the quarter. After cutting, the planks and boards should be stowed in a position entirely sheltered from sun, wind, or rain, and preferably in a place where drying will proceed slowly. This last precaution is specially necessary with curly, twisted, or burry grain. When first cut, the wood is unusually strong, and is liable to split and warp, although when seasoned it stands very well. A plan adopted by some has been to place the saw-dust of the 188 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD wood thickly in between the planks, but this practice may result in fermentation and formation of fungi, and it is very doubtful if it is effective. Elwes, writing of some magnificent specimens of panelling and wain- scoting executed in brown oak for Dr. Weld, of Boston, U.S.A., by Messrs. Noyes & Whitcomb, thus describes the method of seasoning employed by this firm. ‘Dry white fine boards fresh from the hot-air kiln are laid on each side of the oak boards, and properly stripped [sticked] in an open covered shed. When the moisture has been partially absorbed, they are all turned over and again sandwiched between fresh dry fine boards ; thus saving a great deal of time, which is rarely given to season timber properly in America, and preparing the wood to stand the condi- tions of dryness, which are more trying to furniture in American than in English houses.”’ Veneers cut from “ brown oak” (especially from burr-wood) require very special care in drying in order to avoid splitting, and to keep them flat. They should be stored in a cool place, a basement for preference, packed as tightly as possible, covered with tarpaulin, and loaded above with weights. After a time they should be carefully turned over, wiped with a cloth, and re-packed with the reverse side uppermost. Oak, Burr, and Pottarp. Quercus pedunculata, Ehth., and Q. sessiliflora, Sm. Great Britain. Burr-wood shows the grain of the wood running in all directions, so that the cut surface is marked by small twists, curls, or bird’s-eye specks, and often has scraps of enclosed bark (“ gaul”’). As is always the case with burr-wood, that of the oak is particularly liable to warp, twist, and even crack during drying, and especially so when used in thick pieces; it is therefore invariably cut into veneers. When well chosen, burr-wood of “ brown oak” produces a variegated decorative effect which is unrivalled of its kind; while the burr of ordinary oak yields veneered panels whose ornamental qualities will be regarded by many as superior to those of certain more costly woods, including bird’s- eye maple. Burr-wood is produced by pollard as well as other oak trees. A pollard tree is one whose poll (head) has been cut off when the tree has reached a considerable age ; pollard willows, cultivated to produce osiers for basket work, provide a familiar example. The results of such decapitation are: first, that the growth in length of the main trunk is permanently arrested ; and secondly, that a number of branches shoot forth from the top of the headless bole and develop into more or less vigorous boughs. Pollard oaks are abundant in England, and include most of the old CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 189 oak trees in Epping Forest, as well as many in Sherwood Forest. All the old oaks in Moor Park, Rickmansworth, were and are of this type, and according to tradition owe their state to very human motives. It is stated that in 1685 the Duchess of Monmouth, desirous of revenging the beheading of her husband, caused all the oaks in this park to be pollarded and thus rendered for ever incapable of supplying timber for the Navy of the hated English. The more or less numerous branches ultimately springing from the A BasaL Burr. head of the pollard tree gradually produce at the summit of the trunk a thick mass of burr-wood. Moreover, the rest of the trunk thickens, and from it there may burst forth countless young shoots, clusters of which produce at their bases large swollen humps, known as burrs. Elwes describes a good example of the result of this mode of growth: the trunk that he investigated was “‘ ten feet high and nine feet in girth. . . . Its wood, when cut into veneer, was throughout the whole thickness of the Igo THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD tree more like that of bird’s-eye maple than oak, and has served to make the front of a very handsome bookcase.” Yet burrs are by no means confined to pollard trees, for they frequently arise on ordinary oak trees at various heights up the trunk. The causes responsible for the production of burrs are often unknown. In the oak, they appear to arise sometimes as a consequence of attack by rabbits, which gnaw the bark at the base of young trees and thus stimulate the trunk to abnormal growth. This is localised and gives rise to a burr, which may extend completely round the base of the trunk. A basal burr of this extreme type is shown in the foregoing illustration, which depicts a transported rootless trunk standing on a flat bed of concrete. The tree originally grew in Stoke Park. It is thus evident that the terms “ burr’’ and “ pollard ’’ should not be employed as synonyms. Still less correct is it to confine the term “ pollard oak ’’ to. burr-wood of the “‘ brown oak tree,’’ as was formerly the custom among timber merchants. This burr-wood of “ brown oak ”’ was much admired and used from fifty to a hundred years ago, when it was known as “ pollard oak.’’1_ It was more appreciated in the north of England, though some fine examples of Victorian cabinet work, made by Gillow and others, are to be found in the south (a handsome round table of that period veneered with this wood stands in the Savile Club, London). Oak, CorK. Quercus Suber, Linn. Spain, Portugal. This oak supplies the cork which is used for commercial purposes. It is the produce of the extraordinarily developed corky layer of the bark. Pliny mentions the use of cork for stopping bottles and casks, and also for nets and lifebelts. The general employment of corks for glass bottles, however, appears to date only from the fifteenth century. Oak, Formosan. Quercus pseudo-myrsineaefolia, Hay. Weight, 75 lbs. Formosa. This wood resembles that of Q. Morii, Hay, in weight, texturc, and general characteristics. It is, however, of a brighter colour, almost of a rose shade, while, lacking the darker streaks of this wood, the effect is more uniform. It is a very beautiful wood, and should be highly valued for cabinet and decorative work. The transverse grain has a very pretty appearance. The pores are scarce and small. The principal medullary rays are very strong, and running parallel between them are numerous equidistant secondary 1 So far as can be ascertained, at that time “ maiden ” “ brown oak ” (i.e. wood having the ordinary straight grain) was never sought for, and was used merely when accidentally secured. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 1o1 rays, with similar fine white lines at right angles; the beautiful effect thus given resembles delicate lace, or a fine spider’s web. Oak, Formosan. Quercus sp. Weight, 66-72 lbs. Formosa. Two specimens of Formosan oak have been submitted to me, about which nothing further is known but that they are a species of Quercus. It is therefore impossible to describe them by separate names, although the timber differs widely. They closely resemble the product of the live oak, being hard and heavy, and having a close grain, while they are also capable of a very smooth surface—more so indeed than is any other oak. The colour of one is the beautiful greyish brown, which only after many years is assumed by old English oak panelling. With the broad strong clash or figure of the pronounced medullary rays and its pleasing colour, this wood should be in great demand, and would make beautiful panelling and furniture. The pores are very small and not numerous. The principal medullary rays are strong and broad, with numerous fine secondary rays between, parallel and regular. There is a pretty wavy or ripple-like appearance of a small white marking at right angles to the medullary rays. Another variety is of a bright uniform biscuit yellow colour. This wood possesses very unusual markings caused by the pores and the rays. In the combined result much of the wood is almost like the marking of a leopard, and would give a very pretty effect in decorative work of all kinds. The pores are scarce and very small. The principal medullary rays are broad and strong, with innumerable very fine secondary rays running parallel between them. These are joined at right angles by fine markings, and give the appearance of delicate lace. Oak, HIMALAYAN. Quercus spicata, Smith. Weight, 58 lbs. India. The wood is of a rather dirty reddish-brown colour, showing little of the general characteristics of Quercus, while it has a rather rough and fibrous grain. Troup recommends it as being durable and not inclined to warp. He mentions it as being used for ‘‘ building (Assam) well construction, ploughs, mortars, helms of boats.”’ There are singular, short dark wavy ripples, following the lines of the concentric layers. The pores are very small and scarce. The medullary rays are strong, wide, and conspicuous. . Oak, HoLity. Quercus Mort, Hay. Weight, 67 lbs. Formosa. The wood is of a bright salmon-red colour, streaked with wide dark reddish-brown markings, and is of a very hard texture which is capable of a smooth surface. The colour and the pretty marking of the pores, 192 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD which make a pleasing pattern on the radial section, and the strong wide clash or flower caused by the medullary rays, render the wood very valuable for ornamental, cabinet, or decorative work. It has never been imported into this country, but would undoubtedly be much sought for if available when known. It is one of the most beautiful of all the oaks. According to the report of Mitsui & Company there is an estimated supply of about 30 million cubic feet. The pores are very small and scarce. Besides the strong, broadly marked principal medullary rays there are, evenly distributed between them, smaller secondary rays which are numerous, very fine, and parallel. QUERCUS CRISPULA, ‘‘ OHNARA.” Q. GLANDULIFERA, ‘* KONARA.” Oak, JAPANESE. Quercus grosseserrata, Bl.; Q. crispula, Bl.; Q. glan- dulifera, Bl. ; and Q. dentata, Thunb. Weight, 40 Ibs. 12 0z.-47 Ibs. 13 0z. Japan. Quercus grosseserrata and Q. crispula are known in Japan by the name of ‘ Ohnara,” Q. glandulifera by the name of ‘‘ Konara,” and Q. dentata as ‘‘ Kashiwa.” There have-been imported from Japan into the United Kingdom during the last few years very large quantitics of oak logs hewn square, in lengths of from 8 to 26 feet, and in widths of from 14 to 36 inches, and a small number of round logs with the bark on as felled, also boards, CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 193 planks, and staves. The first shipment was in 1905, and, as is often the case with fresh timber supplies, through lack of experience in dealing with it, a great quantity was found to be very defective. By degrees, however, producers have learnt the best methods of handling it, and discounting the errors of those who have not yet learnt by experience, the quality now obtainable is of a high class. The shipments to the Continent have now reached the enormous total of 50,000 loads per annum. This timber comes from the North Island of Hokkaido, and is shipped from the ports of Otaru, Muroran, and Kushiro. The trees are felled between the months of November and March by men who take their supplies and camp in the forests. When the logs are hewn they are pulled by horses over the snow to the nearest railway; the frozen surface enables them to be transported over the hills and rough places. The product of virgin forests of great age, the timber is remarkable for its extreme regularity of growth and freedom from faults. In no other oak, with the exception of the ‘‘ Spessart’’ oak, are the yearly layers so uniform throughout the whole life of the tree from heart to bark. As the annual rings are very narrow, growth being exceedingly slow, any scantling sawn out represents a much greater age for its size than in British or other commercial oaks. For instance, in two pieces 4 inches wide, taken at random, the British showed 28 layers or annual rings, whilst the Japanese showed 81. A further examination of five more pieces of the same size gave a variation of from 62 to 93 years ; it thus took 28 years to put on 4 inches of British growth in thickness, against 81 years for the same size in the Japanese wood. Many specimens of British, Continental, and American oak could be found, produced in even less time, perhaps only five or six years for the same size, whilst it would be very hard to find any of the imported Japanese oak that varied very much. The wood is of uniformly good colour and texture, and is of slightly milder quality than the European. The trees also yield a much greater percentage of clean timber, free from knots and other defects, and the hearts are extraordinarily straight and sound. These features constitute its great commercial value. Notwithstanding its mild nature, the wood appears to be very durable both for inside and outdoor work, either exposed to weather, as in half timbers in buildings, or on the ground as sleepers. There has not yet been sufficient time to test it thoroughly for durability out of doors, but there is reason to believe that it will compare favourably with other oaks. Used for posts, half timbers, weather boards, gates and joinery, in a building that has been under observation for about seven years, all the timber is in good condition, having indeed worn better than some other oO 194 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD kinds exposed during the same period. Sleepers of Japanese oak laid on the Metropolitan Railway, between King’s Cross and Farringdon Street, were taken up quite sound after many years, with the portion of the sleeper in contact with the ground not decayed or injured, not- withstanding the special strain of this portion of the line, where the steam and the continual change from wet to dry tell heavily on the timber. Where there was a previous indication of decay it became a little extended internally, but the general result is favourable to the durability of the wood in contact with the ground. One of the defects of the oak of all countries is its liability to brown streaky stains running through the wood, and this is perhaps the worst defect of Japanese timber, and is no doubt due to some of it being over- ripe. The wood shrinks a little more than some kinds of oak, but seasons more quickly, and is easier to work and fume or stain, and has a good appearance. This oak is particularly suitable for floorings, either in parquet or long boards. As the wood is mild and clean it holds its shape after planing, and being closely grained as well as elastic, the fibres are not so cut by the wear of the rough tread ; and as its cost is moderate, the best and most mature timber can be used for the purpose. In Austrian or other European or American oak, on the contrary, the well-grown trees can all be utilised for making wide boards for wainscoting, and consequently realise a much higher price than is paid for floorings, with the result that immature wood and large branches are often converted for this purpose. It is possible to obtain quite satisfactory results by seasoning Japanese oak by artificial processes. On more than one occasion perfectly fresh logs have been sawn up, artificially seasoned, and worked into panelling and fittings, which have been fixed and the whole process completed within three months, while the work executed has afterwards shown no sign of shrinkage or other fault. It is doubtful if such a proceeding could be carried out with any other kind of commercial oak with the same satisfactory results. Panelling, church seats and roofs, ship’s fittings and all kinds of high-class cabinet and joiner’s work, when finished, give very pleasing results, hardly, if at all, distinguishable from work in European oak (British excepted). Many very important buildings, both in the United Kingdom and on the Continent, have been completed in Japanese oak, and the wood grows more in favour and demand every day. While relatively strong, it has not the strength of the British or some kinds of American oak, and on this account is not in favour for heavy railway waggon planks, though apart from this fact the cost of transport would prevent its competition with the kinds obtainable. Neither has it found much favour yet for CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 195 staves, as Quercus crispula is somewhat too porous to be used for this pur- pose, and Q. glandulifera has been shipped only in very small quantities. In addition to the timber supplied from Hokkaidé, there is an unim- portant source of supply in the central district of the Main Island, on which stands the mountain of Kiso. From this source a small quantity of boards and planks was sent to London in 1914. The species is the same as that of the North Island, but in appearance it is of a pinker shade. The wood also is a little harder, and the medullary rays are bolder and larger. This wood was found to be pierced by small holes slightly wider than the head of a pin, which had been made by insects boring through the trunks of the trees. These worm-holes are seldom, if ever, to be found in the timber from the North Island, and recall those so prevalent in American oaks, though rarely seen in others. The timber of this oak, esteemed more highly in Japan than that of the North Island, is unlikely to be shipped to the United Kingdom in any quantity. The pores are very regular and uniform, appearing only in the spring wood, generally in duplicate in each concentric layer. The medullary rays are very strongly defined, but inclined to form curved lines from the centre to the circumference of the tree, rather than to radiate in straight lines. There is a fine secondary medullary ray strongly defined, which is also common to most, if not all, of the Indian oaks. The following figures illustrate the increasing demand for this wood during recent years : Exports OF OaK FROM JAPAN | 1907. 1908, 1 Ig09. IgI0. | III. | 1912. 1913. I ' UniTED KincGpoo (in loads) 4,349 , 2,933, 1,928 4,745 4.245 GERMANY (in tons) 2,168 | 2,275 | 7,236 | 12,883 | FRANCE (in loads)— Sleepers . . . be tlh Pars 58 | 675 | 379 47 eo 3hinchesandup . | .. | 1,525 | 1,413 | 3,301 877 | 5,800 1} inches and up oe, 1 190 102 427 338 | 1,134 Less than rf inches . 76 42 170 452 952 BExc1uM ? (in tons)— Logs and/or not sawn 4,600 ae -. | 4,618 | 11,685 ie Sawn 2298) || 3% ++ | 1,250) 4,707 | 12,708 1 t 1 The figures for Belgium include walnut, which, however, does not consist of more than 5 per cent. [TABLE 196 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Torat Imports oF OAK INTO UNITED KINGDOM Quantity in Loads 1908. 1909. 1910 1gi1. | Igt2, 1913. ee Ns = ake 6 — ere Russia and Germany 50,935 26,247] 35,008 | 35,004 43,011 Austria-Hungary . 5,935 4,842 4,716 5,226 7,082 Japan 4.349! 2,933 | 1,928 | 4,745 4.245 | Canada 6,932 5,104 8,077 7,306 | 9,222 : i U.S.A. 148,068 ; 117,090 | 126,574 | 144,716 | 161,407 | Other Foreign . 744 | 239 794 1,164 924 | - Australia i 561 ) 41 208 | 5 | 8 British Possessions 72 | 44 16 | 4 Total . ‘ ~ 217.596 | 156,540 | 177,321 | 198,166 | 225,903 | Value in Pounds (Sterling) | 1908. = | 1910. TgTT. | fe | crs. | : pe _— elm een GN = | Russia and Germany 298,862 | 157,406 | 224,866] 244,141 | 301,745 | Austria~-Hungary 92,683 | 76,836 75,089 83,819) 123,576 Japan 20,524, 10,640 7,148 34,208 27,091 Canada ¥ 56,580] 39,877 60,729 60,773 | 80,257 | U.S.A. 2 P 874,849} 675,407 | 731,396 840,880 , 967,702 Other Foreign . | 4,770 880 3,258 cae 5,545 Australia 3,517 249 1,491 56 ; 42 | British Possessions 419 268 100 10 Total 1,352,204 | 961,563 | 1,104,077 1,269,324 | 1,505,968 Oak, Live. — Quercus virens, Ait. Weight, 59 Ibs. (Hough). North America. Although the close observer has found planks of live oak included in the general shipments of American oak, yet so far as can be ascertained no regular supplies of the wood have been seen in this country. This is unfortunate, as the timber undoubtedly contains qualities of strength and durability, and its exceptional value should make it sought after. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 1097 It is stronger than any other known oak. Mv specimen is verv hard ° it is of a nut-brown colour, and is close and smooth-grained. Gibson refers to the former great use of this oak in the American navy, and says further: ‘‘ In strength and stiffness it rates higher than the white oak. . . . It takes a smooth polish. When the wood is worked into spindles and small articles and brightly polished, its appearance suggests dark polished granite. . . . Its value as a cabinet material has not been appreciated in the past, nor have its possibilities been suspected.” The pores are not numerous; they are very smooth and clear-cut. The medullary rays are clearly defined, showing with beautiful marking on the radial section. Oak, RUSSIAN. Quercus pedunculata, Ehrh., and Q. sessiliflora, Sm. Russian oak is very similar to British and Austrian oak. In strength it compares rather with the former than the latter, but the detailed tests so far made give no really reliable basis on which to compare the strengths of British and Russian oak, while as a constructional timber Austrian oak does not come into question in Great Britain. Russian wainscot oak on the whole may show slightly less bold silver grain than Austrian, yet the best qualities of the former vie with those of the latter in decorative effect. Russian oak 1s exported from Danzig, Libau, Memel, Odessa, Riga, and Stettin. (4) Danzic OaK. Weight, 47 lbs. 7 0z.—A large quantity is imported in the form of (r) Logs hewn nearly square, from 8 to 30 feet long and from 10 to 20 inches square. (2) Plangons—hewn logs with very large wanes. (3) Planks of various lengths. (4) ‘‘ Deck-deals,’’ which are planks varying in length from 24 feet upwards (but averaging about 32 feet), in breadth from 9 to 15 inches, and in thickness from 2 to 6 inches. (5) Staves, which are imported only in comparatively small quantities, and are used for making casks and barrels. The wood is rather brownish in colour, and is slightly harder and heavier than other Continental European oak. (6) Wainscots. The import of wainscots from Danzig, at one time considerable, has now almost ceased, and the quality of the few ship- ments which have been made has much deteriorated. In earlier times there is little doubt that a large trade was carried on in oak brought from Danzig. Mr. E. Haynes quotes from the sub- sidy rolls of the second year of King Henry Fourth a.D. 1400, 519 years ago (I9I9), an early reference to the import of ‘‘ wainscots, clapholtz 198 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD (barrel staves), tonholtz (wood for tuns), bow staves (arrow shafts), righoltz (rails or spars), bords (planks), delles (deals), renus (oars), plyning bords (folding boards), masts, spars de firr (firewood spars).” There would be a roll for London, and others for principal ports. The one for the ports of the Humber—Hull, Grimsby, etc.—was in the Augmen- tation Office, London, a century ago, and may now be in the Record Office. In 1827 Charles First, F.S.A., published “ notices relative to the early history of the town and port of Hull,” in which as an appendix he printed this Hull and Grimsby subsidy roll, saying: ‘‘ It is a document of singular interest as a mercantile record.”” The enrolment is in the Latin of the period. ‘‘ The number of wainscots landed is amazing, which, with the low values, even with the then high value of money, suggest they were small in size.’ Elwes and Henry (of. cit. p. 342) quote thus from a note in Holinshed’s Chronicles (vol. i. p. 357, ed. 1807): ‘‘ According to Mr. J. C. Shenstone, Harrison of Redwinter in Essex, who lived in the reign of Henry VIII., was the author of this note: ‘ Of all oke growing in England the parke oke is the softest, and far more spalt and prickle than the hedge oke. And of all in Essex that growing in Bardfield Parke is the finest for joiners craft; for oftentimes have I seene of their workes made of that oke so fine and faire as most of the wanescot that is brought out of Danske, for our wanescot is not made in England. Yet diverse have assaied to deal with our okes to that end, but not with so good successe as they have hoped, because the ab or juice will not so soone be removed and cleane drawne out, which some attribute to want of time in the salt water.’’’ It is therefore clear that at these very early dates oak wainscot was imported into England. Elwes is in some doubt about the meaning of “ Danske,’’ but there is little doubt surely that it meant “ Danzig.’’ What the words “ spalt ’’ and “‘ prickle ”’ meant is doubtful, but it is likely that they relate to the kinder nature of the timber. Of Danzig oak Laslett wrote: “‘ It is of fair durability and is largely used in the construction of the mercantile ships of this country, but only sparingly for our ships of war, except for their decks, for which purpose it is regarded as a specialité, as it stands well the wear and tear of gun- carriages. For planking it is much esteemed, as the grain is straight, clean, and almost free from knots. Further, it is so pliable and elastic, when boiled or heated by steam, that it may be bent into the most difficult of curved forms without showing any signs of fracture.’’ The use of this timber for shipbuilding has now, however, entirely ceased. Moreover, it becomes each year increasingly difficult to obtain satisfactory supplies, for the quality has deteriorated. The timber is now largely used in the building of railway carriages and railway waggons. (6) Lipau Oax. See Riga oak. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 199 (c) MemEL Oax.—The timber is similar in all respects to Danzig oak and is derived from the same regions. (d) ODESSA OAK.—This wood is brought from Volhynia, Kieff, and the southernmost provinces of Russia, and is imported in the same manner in all respects as the Riga and Libau. During later years a very large quantity of high-class oak logs, hewn nearly square, and others, both hewn and sawn into octagonal shapes, have been imported, which have been used for railway-carriage and waggon-building and constructional purposes, as well as to a certain extent for joiners’ work. A very large quantity also of wainscots of good size and high-class quality has been regularly imported. The quality of the wood is similar in colour and texture to the other Russian oak, but a little milder and softer, more nearly than the others approaching to the quality of Austrian. (e) Rica Oak.—The oak shipped from Riga and Libau is derived from forests in the interior of Russian Baltic provinces and of Russian Poland. It is shipped as wainscot logs or billets, hewn logs (only in small quantities), and logs sawn octagonally, and also, to a limited extent, as planks, boards, and floorings. The principal trade, however, has been in wainscot billets. About twenty-five or thirty years ago Riga logs were the best obtainable, and realised the highest prices, although their sizes were small, the billets each averaging scarcely more than 18 cubic feet. The quality of these old shipments, and especially the Kieff logs, was the highest yet attained. The wood was bright, of uniform colour, close-grained, hard | and firm in texture, and very durable. Laslett wrote: “It is charac- teristic of this oak timber that the medullary rays are very numerous and more distinctly marked than is the case with Danzig oak’’; and the same authority says that ‘‘it was customary to select the logs into ‘ Riga,’ ‘English,’ or ‘Dutch’ ‘crown’ qualities; or the ‘ brack’ quality, at prices varying with the market rates. In 1875 these prices respectively were 100, 90, 80, and 60 shillings per 18 foot cube, in the order named.” Kieff logs from about 1885 to 1890 cost about 120 shillings per 18 feet cube. This method of selection and of selling has long since been abandoned, although the term “ crown” applied to the quality is still quoted, though more often than not incorrectly, and the logs are now sold always at so much per foot cube. Although the best modern shipments are not of the former superlative quality, it is doubtful if any other European oak, excepting British, equals this in quality or texture. Riga and Libau wainscot logs do not command so high a price as do Austrian, since their smaller size and mode of conversion involve greater waste. The square hewn logs are used for constructional purposes in buildings, for window-sills, and in the making of railway carriages ; while the planks and boards are utilised for joinery and floorings. The boards are too often cut from small immature wood or secondary trunks and branches, 200 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD with the result that they are strong and inclined to warp and twist, and are not very satisfactory. (f) STETTIN OaKk.—The timber agrees with that exported from Danzig and Memel, since it is derived trom the same regions. In recent years there has been an increased export from Stettin of hewn logs and logs sawn octagonally. This timber is mainly used in the construction of railway carriages and railway waggons. Oak, SILKY. Grevillea robusta, A. Cunn. Weight, 37 lbs. Australia. This very beautiful decorative wood is light brown in colour, and owes PART OF THE GOVERNMENT SAWM)} its name to the smooth and lustrous sheen of the figured surface. When cut on the quarter the medullary rays show in numberless flecks, displaying that figure which is known as “ clash.” This resembles the figure shown in live oak rather than the well-known clash shown on the radial cut in ordinary oak. A specimen made up into parquet flooring displays an admirable manner of using this wood, which would probably be highly popular if it were more generally known. The medullary rays are broad and very clearly defined. The pores are large but not very numerous ; some are plugged. Odina Wodier, Roxb. Weight, 50 lbs. India. The wood is of a light yellow-brown colour, with a straight, even grain, CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 201 somewhat resembling cigar-box cedar (Cedrela odorata). It appears to stand well without warping or shrinking. It should be useful as a substitute for plain mahogany or cedar. The pores are small and rather scarce, and regular in position. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine and rather obscure. OLEO VERMELHO. Myrospermum Erythroxylon, Fr. Allem. Weight, 54 lbs. Brazil. This beautiful decorative hardwoud is of a bright red colour, and has a most delicate and agreeable scent. It has a contrary grain, consisting » Port Bratr, ANDAMAN ISLANDs. of hard and soft lines, and requires a sharp tool to secure a smooth surface. It strongly resembles the French satinee, and is in all respects as good, and perhaps even better. It would be very suitable for cabinet work of the Empire style, and for decorative furniture generally it would be hard to equal. The pores are small and numerous, and are generally plugged with a white glistening substance. The medullary rays are apparent, but are not very clearly or sharply defined. OLIVE. Olea europoea, Linn. Weight, 58 lbs. 6 oz. Southern Europe. Olive is imported in round logs varying from 4 to 12 inches in diameter, though occasionally a few pieces are somewhat larger. It is of a 202 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD yellowish-brown colour streaked with darker markings of all shades some- times verging almost on to black. A very smooth marble-like surface can be made with the tool, when the wood somewhat resembles the sur- face of boxwood. It is used for inlay and for small work of a decorative nature, such as the ink-stands, paper knives, and table ornaments which are commonly brought from the East as mementoes of a visit. The pores are scarce and obscure. The medullary rays, which are very small and exceedingly fine, are clearly marked. OrHAM-Woopv. Ulmus sp. Weight, 32 lbs. Canada, United States. The name ‘“ Orham”’ is undoubtedly a corruption of the French orme,”’ elm. The wood which is commonly known under this name is a very nice quality elm, though it is neither hard nor tough enough to be useful for the purposes for which Canadian or American rock elm is usually employed. It might be described as being half-way between this and English wych elm, though it is whiter and much more mild in character. It has been used extensively in the United Kingdom for many purposes, particularly in the making of coffins. It is deserving of a better reputation than it already possesses, for it would certainly provide excellent material for decorative work, in which its low price would be a consideration. “ce OssSAGE ORANGE. Toxylon pomiferum, Raf.; Maclura aurantiaca, Nutt. Weight, 48 lbs. (Hough). North America. The wood, which is imported in lengths of from 6 to 8 feet and 12 to 18 inches in diameter, is of a bright orange colour, deepening with exposure to air and light. It is rather lustrous, and very pliable and elastic. It has been used for walking-sticks and golf-shafts, though for the latter purpose it is too pliable in these days when stiff shafts are in demand. In Texas and other American states it is largely used and valued for posts, agricultural implements and waggons. There is a strong contrast of dark and light rings in the annual growth. The pores vary considerably in size, and are filled with a bright, shining gum. The medullary rays are fine and distinct and rather irregular. PADAUK, AFRICAN. Species unknown—probably Pterocarpus santal- anoides, L’Hérit., or P. angolensis, DC. Weight, 60 Ibs. 11 oz. West Coast of Tropical Africa. A quantity of this timber was imported some years ago for ship- ment to America, where there was then a large demand. Of late, however, only a few odd logs mixed with consignments of other timber have arrived. With the exception of a few which were hewn square, they were round, and ranged from 16 to 36 inches in diameter. Some CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 203 had the bark on, but with others this was removed. The wood is a brilliant crimson when first cut; even brighter than the Andaman species, which in other respects it closely resembles. When exposed to strong light it bleaches to golden-brown, but when the light is only moderate the wood becomes a dull plum-red shade. The difference between the Andaman and the African is then most apparent. It possesses some of the qualities of a dye-wood, and water poured upon it is quickly stained red. It is an effective decorative wood, stands well, and takes a very smooth surface from the tool. It forms a handsome flooring, and has been used for decorative panelling and furniture in America. It should be useful for the bodies as well as for the felloes of the wheels of gun-carriages, as it is strong, durable, and reliable. The salient features of its construction are similar to those of the Andaman wood, but it does not possess the strength of the latter. The colour is slightly brighter, and the pores sometimes glisten with streaks of gum. There is also little doubt that the barwood which is imported from Africa is the same timber, though this is usually obtained from much smaller trees. The pores are exceedingly variable in size, and are very unevenly distributed ; they are plainly visible to the naked eye, and are sometimes sparsely filled with gum. The medullary rays are very fine, close and obscure, while, much more strongly marked, are seen irregular bands of white lines which follow the lines of the concentric layers. PaDAuK, ANDAMAN. Ptevocarpus dalbergioides, Roxb. Weight, 48 Ibs. (Osmaston, Indian Forest Records, vol. i. pt. ili. No. 1), 61 Ibs., and 61 Ibs. 11 0z. (my specimens). Andaman Islands. For correct pronunciation see Burma padauk. This name is Burmese, for Burmese convicts in the Andamans seeing a tree resembling the padauk of their own country, gave it the same name, which strictly does not belong toit. Hitherto all the supplies have been provided by convict labour, and the future development of the export will depend on the labour available. (From private note of R. S. Troup.) The colour varies from ‘‘a deep crimson, through cherry red, pink, and reddish-brown to brown” (Osmaston, op. cit.). If not heavily polished it bleaches to a rich golden-brown on exposure to light and air. When exposed to moderate light and well polished it retains almost its original rich crimson colour. Gamble says that it fades to much the same colour as teak. This must refer to its habit in India, where the heat is greater and the sun morc fierce, as it is not found to bleach in this way in England or America. In the Andamans it is separated and classified into two sorts, consisting of what are termed “ on-coloured ” and “ off- coloured,” producing 70 per cent of the former and 30 per cent of the 204 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD latter. Only about 5 per cent of the “ on-coloured,’’ however, is found to have the finest crimson colour. In both sorts the quality in strength and durability is equal. It is generally straight-grained, although containing alternate grains running different ways, which necessitates the use of a sharp tool to produce a smooth surface. A small percentage of the trees yield wood with beautiful figure, generally consisting of a narrow stripe or roe, often broken and interspersed with mottle, and presenting a handsome appearance when well polished. On this account, as well as for its rich colour, its chief value is for ornamental decorative work, furniture, and panelling. It has a very handsome appearance when used in parquet flooring. It is very strong and durable, both in exposed positions and in the ground, and is consequently valuable for constructive work. In India, besides being used for planks and beams, it is considered the best wood for gun-carriages and wheels, and is also used for most kinds of ornamental and decorative work. Until recently the Burma species (P. macrocarpus) was considered to be the stronger and more durable, but Mr. Pearson says that tests carried out have shown conclusively that the Andamar wood is the stronger, and consequently the more suitable for gun-carriage and wheel work. Notwithstanding some considerable effort to bring it into favour in England, it has never until quite recently been in demand. Messrs. Jackson & Graham exhibited furniture made of Andaman padauk at Paris in 1878. The fittings in the office at 38 Trinity Square, London, as well as a handsome desk, are made of this wood and present a very attractive appearance. The offices of Messrs. Ellis & Sons, surveyors, in Fenchurch Street, are trimmed with it also, but in most places the building is so dark and the wood has been stained so much in polishing that it does not show to advantage. Messrs. Burroughes & Watts have used a considerable quantity at different times for such work as billiard-table construction, where its reliable qualities have proved it to be quite satisfactory. The seats and partitions of a few dining cars on the London and North-Western Railway have been furnished in Andaman padauk, but few people recognise it, as the wood has not been used for panels or decorative work, and the arms of the seats have become so dull and discoloured that except to the expert it is hardly distinguishable from mahogany. Planks 30 and occasionally 40 inches wide are obtainable from different logs, but the finest broad slabs are yielded by the buttresses, which not intrequently disfigure the lower portions of the stems. . Osmaston (Indian Forest Records) mentions the case of one such buttress which yielded wood for an oval table 12 feet 9 inches by 7 feet, which was formerly in the possession of the late Lord Kitchener. During the war, large quantities of the timber lying in the London CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 205 docks, waiting for a demand from America, were used for saddle-trees, mine- sweepers, mauls, and felloes for gun-carriage wheels. For these purposes padauk is perhaps better than any other wood available. Very strong and durable, hard and firm, it does not split, shrink, or expand with any climatic change. Immense quantities of it have been used in America for decorative panelling and furniture work. The greater part of the vast Marshall Field store in Chicago is trimmed with it, while it forms the panelling and furniture of many large public buildings, clubs, and private houses. It provides the handsome cases for a great number of piano- fortes and organs, but perhaps the largest consumers have been the Pullman Car Company, who have used it for trimming dining and sleeping cars. The dull kind of polish (not french polish) used in America, or perhaps a flat coachbuilder’s varnish, suits the appearance of this wood much better than the usual sticky, heavy french polish used in England. Padauk has been called by one or two different names in America, such as “ vermilion wood” and “‘ East Indian mahogany,” probably to obscure its origin. It is shipped from Port Blair in the Andamans, in large hewn logs from 10 to about 24 feet long, and about 22 to 48 inches square. The hearts are somewhat faulty, and do not generally carry the bright-coloured wood ; the logs have sometimes a heavy wane. The pores are irregular in size and position, and are occasionally seen in duplicate and triplicate. The medullary rays are very fine, rather obscure and numerous, mostly parallel and joined at right angles by wide irregular, light-coloured bands. The structure is very similar to that of the padauk found on the West Coast of Africa. PapauxK, Burma. Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Kurz. Weight, 53-59 lbs. (Troup). Burma. oe ” In England this wood is commonly pronounced padook, the “ au as ‘“‘oo”’ in “hook.” The correct pronunciation is padawzk, the ‘‘au”’ as “ou” in “gout.” This wood is the product of the true forest padauk tree. “‘ Trees are obtainable which will give clear pieces ranging in length from 16 to 28 feet with a centre girth of from 6 feet to 8 feet 3 inches, but larger logs are obtainable, although the difficulties of transport pre- vent their extraction.” The timber varies in colour from a bright yellowish-red to a dark brick-red, and is sometimes streaked with brown ; its brilliancy of colour is not, however, so marked as is that of the Andaman padauk. After exposure to the air it bleaches to a dull yellowish-brown. It possesses a hard, firm texture and, like the Andaman wood, its close, contrary grain causes some difficulty in producing a smooth surface. It seasons well, but in the early stages it should not be exposed to extremes of heat and cold, or left unprotected from the wind, as this is likely to cause it to crack. 206 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD For many years, and indeed until quite recently, it has been supposed that it was stronger and more durable than that from the Andamans, but although it does possess qualities of strength and durability above most timbers, either under ground or exposed to wet and dry, Mr. R. S. Pearson says that the Andaman padauk (Prerocarpus dalbergioides) is now con- sidered to be better in all respects. It is stronger than teak, but it is not particularly elastic, and according to Troup is especially suitable for 2s Photograph by G. R. Keen. CROSS-CUTTING LoGs. “naves, spokes, and felloes of cart and carriage wheels, solid cart wheels, axles, carriage building, furniture, ploughs, harrows, and Burmese harps.”’ It has also been used in Rangoon for paving blocks ; for which purpose it is doubtful, however, if it would be suitable in England, as it is too hard and would probably prove too slippery. In England it has been used for gun-carriages, but its real value has never been fully recognised. The pores are very irregular in size and position ; they are generally plugged with a white gum. The fine, medullary rays are rather obscure CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 207 and very irregular. At intervals they are crossed at right angles by similar light markings which appear round the concentric layers in fine, narrow, wavy lines. PAGATPAT. Sonneratia Pagatpat, Blanco, and S. alba, Smith. Weight 53 lbs. The Philippines. Foxworthy says that these two species are very much alike and may be identical. The wood is hard, dense, and fine-grained. In appearance it much resembles guizo, but the grain is finer. It has never yet been imported on a commercial basis. If the difficulties and expense attending the export of such a heavy wood could be overcome, there is every reason to believe that the timber would meet with a good reception. Foxworthy reports it as “ working readily, but contains quite a large amount of salt, and consequently is said to cause nails or spikes to rust quickly. . . . Air-dried wood sometimes contains as much as I per cent of its weight in salt.” The pores are small and irregular, sparkling somewhat on the tangential section. The medullary rays are not very strongly defined, and the texture and growth are very close. PauAUTEA. Libocedrus Bidwillii, Hook. Weight, 28 Ibs. (Boulger). New Zealand. The Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, says that this wood is of a “red colour, remarkably straight in grain, and durable. Procurable in lengths up to 30 feet and up to 12 inches wide. Used for bridge-building, telegraph posts, fencing-posts, and rails.” PAo-Rosa. Physocalymma floridum, Pohl. Weight, 50-60 lbs. Brazil. This timber is, according to Brazilian Woods, of a yellowish colour, with parallel rose-coloured grain. It is said also to be one of the most beautiful fancy hardwoods, but it is practically unknown in the commerce of the United Kingdom. Parashorea stellata, Kurz. Weight, 50 lbs. India, Burma. This handsome yellowish-brown, fairly hard wood can be obtained in squares 50 feet x 20 inches x 20 inches. It works and polishes well, and would probably be suitable for panelling. It has been used in Burma mostly for boat-building, and could be exported in quantity. PARTRIDGE-wWooD. Andira sp. Weight, 85 lbs. 15 oz. Brazil. Holtzapffel says that this wood is ‘‘ sent in large planks or in round or square logs, called from their tints, red, brown, and black, and also 208 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD sweet partridge. The wood is close, heavy, and generally straight in the grain. The colours are variously mingled, and most frequently disposed in fine hair streaks of two or three shades, which in some of the curly specimens cut plank-wise resemble the feathers of a bird. The partridge- woods are very porous ; cut horizontally the annual rings appear almost as two distinct layers; the one hard, woody fibre, the other a much softer substance thickly interspersed with pores; this circumstance gives rise to its peculiar figure, which often resembles that of the palm- tree woods. Partridge-wood was often formerly employed in the Brazils for shipbuilding, and is also known in our dockyards as cabbage-wood. It is now principally used for walking-sticks, umbrella and parasol sticks ; in cabinet work and turning; and . . . also for fans.” The very small pores are regularly distributed in groups, and are generally plugged more or less with gum. The medullary rays are hardly discernible on the transverse section, but show plainly to the naked eye on the radial, finer than, though somewhat resembling, the rays in beech. PasaNnia or Pasinia. Quercus Junghuhuii, Mig. Weight, 41 lbs. Formosa. In appearance this remarkable wood resembles a veritable cross between the English sweet chestnut and English oak. The colour is similar to that of the chestnut, from which it is only distinguished by the presence of strong medullary rays. The pores show on the radial section. in a series of pretty, uneven lines, and improve the effect. It should be a valuable decorative cabinet and trimming wood. The annual layers are very strongly marked, there being a very wide and distinct difference between the spring and the autumn growth. The pores are scarce and small. The medullary rays are very sparse, uneven, and irregular. 4 PaTAPsco or PAPAPSCO. For some reason which remains unexplained, this is a name given to a particular form of figured maple (g.v). The figure is a curly, wavy mottle with a blister, or indications of blister, without any bird’s-eye being apparent. Pau AMARELLO. Source unknown. Weight, 56 lbs. 3 0z. Brazil, Para. This wood has a grain like a fine Spanish mahogany, but is of a bright rich, warm golden-yellow colour. The tint is not that of satinwood, but is more like a bright prima vera. It is used in Para for decorative cabinet work and for flooring. It has never been imported on a commer- cial basis, although it is such a handsome wood that it would be much CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 209 sought for in furniture and decorative cabinet work of all sorts if it were known and obtainable. The pores are very small, showing singly or grouped in pairs between very strongly marked medullary rays. PEAR, Native. Xylomelwm occidentale, R. Br. Weight (at 12 per cent moisture), 46 lbs. Western Australia. “ A tree yielding a most ornamental dark-brown wood with a beautiful figure. It is light, and makes up into very fine furniture wood ; finished with a wax surface it resembles moiré silk” (C. E. Lane-Poole). PEAR-TREE. Pyrus communis, Linn. Weight, 47 lbs. 13 oz. Europe. This wood is remarkable for its extraordinary smoothness and evenness of texture, which renders it excellent for carving, as it can be cut easily and with a sharp edge in any direction. It is a pale yellowish-red, resembling flesh colour more nearly than any other timber. Thus, if a statue were made of pear-wood it would probably be the closest resemblance to the human figure that could be produced. It is used for mathematical and drawing instruments and rules. Elwes and Henry mention its use for cogs, wood-screws, and tool handles. It has also been used for furniture. A recent addition to the Victoria and Albert Museum is a seventeenth-century table of pear-wood from Boughton House, Northamptonshire. It is also to be seen in the form of marquetry, together with sycamore, ash, and maple, in a cabinet of pine, which, dating from the second half of the sixteenth century, is carved on the base with the rose and portcullis, emblems of the Tudor sovereigns of England. A large trade is carried on in France and Germany in pear-wood stained black to resemble ebony, which is used extensively in the piano- forte and cabinet trades. The pores are exceedingly fine and numerous. The medullary rays are hardly discernible with the aid of a lens (12 x). Pentace Griffithti, King. Weight, 50 lbs. India, Burma. This is a light red, hard and close-grained wood, which is obtainable in quantity in squares 40 feet x 16 inches x16 inches. It works well, and is suitable for cabinet work. In Burma it is used for boats, planking, masts, oars, and boxes. PEROBA BRANCA. Weight, 50 lbs. Brazil. The wood is light greyish-yellow in colour, close and fine in the grain, and not difficult to work, although possessing wide patches of contrary P 210 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD grain. It attains large dimensions, and is fit for employment in architec- ture, for furniture, and generally in the domestic arts. The tree is of straight growth, is stronger than teak (Tectona grandis), agrees well with iron, and is very durable. Brazilian ironclads are built with it. Its specific gravity is about the same as that of pitch pine. This is a valuable timber which should find many important uses. The pores are very numerous and small. The medullary rays are exceedingly small and fine, but clearly marked. Peropa-Rosa. Aspidosperma Peroba, Fr. Allem. Weight, 59 Ibs. Brazil. This wood is of a pale rose colour with some darker streaks. It has a very hard, firm, close-grained texture. In appearance it much resembles the East African pencil cedar, but is very much harder. It is capable of a smooth surface from the tool. It is reported as being largely used in Brazil for sleepers, and also for furniture and floorings. It is possible that it might be well adapted for pencil-making. The pores are exceedingly small and are scarcely discernible. The medullary rays are very fine and slight. PERSIMMON-WooD. Diospyros virginiana, Linn. Weight, 49 Ibs. (Gibson). North America. This is the ebony of America. Gibson describes it thus: ‘‘ The wood is hard, strong and compact, and is susceptible of a high polish. . . . The value of persimmon depends largely on the proportion of sap-wood to heart-wood. That was the case formerly more than it is now; for until recent years the heart-wood of persimmon was generally thrown away, and the sap-wood only was wanted; but demand for the heart has recently increased. The demand for persimmon in a serious way began with its use as shuttles in textile factories. Weavers had made shuttles of it for home use on hand looms for many years before the demand came for power looms. . . . Persimmon-wood is suitable for shuttles because it wears smooth, is hard, strong, tough, and of proper weight. Most woods that have been tried for this article fail on account of splintering, splitting, quickly working out, or wearing rough. The shuttle is not regarded as satisfactory unless it stands 1000 hours of actual work. Some woods which are satisfactory for many other purposes will not last one hour as a shuttle.” Its use in Great Britain for golf heads has been continually growing, and it is hard to find a better, or even as good a wood for the purpose. Very rarely a few pieces are found that have such a handsome marking of light yellow, brown, and almost black streaks that the wood has been CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 11 of great value asa veneer. In New York a table has been made of such a piece which is as remarkable as it is unique, and is the admiration of all who see it. This particular piece surpasses in its beauty any similar wood ; the nearest resemblance would be found in a selection of very highly striped ebony or Coromandel wood. A fine whitish ring which may mark the concentric growth is clearly visible. The pores are somewhat irregular in size, not large, but very uniform in position. The rays are very fine and distinct, parallel, regular, and almost equidistant. A similar persimmon-wood of equally good quality is obtainable in Japan, but it is not imported commercially into this country. PimENTO. Pimenta officinalis, Linn. Weight, 68 lbs. The West Indies. The timber is of a dark to light salmon colour, with a very firm, hard, close texture and a smooth surface. It is inclined to warp unless used in very narrow widths. It is principally employed for the making of walking- sticks. The pores are exceedingly small and numerous. The medullary rays are very fine, and are indeed hardly discernible with the aid of a lens (12 x). PINE AND Fir. Sources various. The softwoods of commerce consist chiefly of the following : Pinus sylvestris . ; ; . Redwood or red Baltic pine. Picea excelsa : . : . Whitewood or spruce. Larix europoea . 3 . Larch. Pinus Strobus. ; : . Yellow pine. Pinus resinosa. : : . Red pine. Pinus rigida or P. palustris. . Pitch pine. Pseudotsuga Douglasti . : . Douglas fir or Oregon pine. Abies pectinata . j ; . Silver spruce or silver fir. The subject is one which is somewhat difficult of comprehension, both on account of the many different sources and consequent variety of the wood itself, and also of the perplexing nomenclature. Names which are in common use in England differ from those on the Continent, and even within the confines of this country vary according to locality ; different names are applied to the same wood ; names change with the lapse of time; and finally, names which are botanically quite incorrect are very generally employed, so that these jarring elements result in continual confusion and dispute. To simplify these matters to some extent, reference will be made to 212 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD the commonly accepted terms, which will then be referred to the name which is botanically correct. The produce of Pinus sylvestris when imported as logs is called in England “ fir timber” and abroad “red fir.’’ If imported in the form of boards, scantlings, battens, deals, or planks it is called “ yellow” or “‘ yellow deal’ in London and “ red ”’ or ‘“‘ red deal” in the provinces, while abroad it is known as “‘ red” or “ redwood.” Picea excelsa in logs is also called “‘ fir’’ in England and “ fir timber ”’ or ‘‘ white fir’’ abroad. When sawn it is known as “ white’ or “ white deal” in England and “ white ”’ abroad. These two woods are the most commonly used. The trade in them has been carried on for hundreds of years, for the northern countries of Europe abound in vast forests of these trees, which, having a free natural regeneration, have been able to meet the enormous demand of successive generations. There is proof that the timber was familiar in England in the seven- teenth century, for Milton wrote in Paradise Lost : His spear, to equal which the tallest pine Hewn on Norwegian hills to be the mast Of some tall Ammira], was but a wand. Most of the carved work in pine of the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, many fine examples of which can be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington, was executed in this wood. Nor- wegian, Swedish, and Danzig pine were probably used indiscriminately. An interesting record of the early use of the wood is provided by the following accounts for the building of a partition in Glasgow Cathedral in 1713. They are quoted in a recent letter of A. M. C. to the Timber Trades Journal: To five long hundred daills and ane short hundred daillsandten ff s. d. daills at 15 shill. the peice . . 523 0 0 To sawing 210 of the said daills at 9 pound per hundred - «815 0 To 130 foot firr timber to the said use 14 shill. 6d. perfootis . 94 5 0 To sawing six draught long trees 125 shill. per draught is : 3 12 0 To sawing 18 draught trees at 6 shill. 8d. per draught is : 6 0 0 To Francis Stevenson, wright, for himself and servitors for wright work wrought be him in the outer and inner kirks, putting up the partition wall betwixt the outer kirk and queir (choir) and making up a broken pend and purple wall behind the wistloft, and scaffolds to the work, and sarking and lyning the spars, and taking off the lead and putting on new, and to pleasterers conforme to particularaccompt 220 0 o Documentary evidence is available to show that in 1798 the following imports were made : Timber é ; + 31,302 Deals. ‘ » 21,503 Wainscot 3 5 » 21,072 CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 213 The list of timber imports at the beginning of the last century is of interest. Russia, | Prussia, Norway. 1807 - 6,501 | 3,645 441329 1808 517 | II4 784\ In Petersburgh 1809 433 | 1,480 12,606 standards. 1810 1,340 | 2,419 57,041 To-day the supply, though not illimitable, is still assured, largely through the economic forestry systems of these countries. The quality of all timber from the Baltic has, however, gradually deteriorated, a state which, it is considered, is bound to continue. Twenty-five years ago it was possible to obtain from the Baltic 75 per cent of sizes 3 ins. x g ins. and 3 ins. x 11 ins., the remaining 25 per cent only being of the smaller sizes, while in 1919 the produce of the forests was not of sufficiently large size to yield more than 25 per cent of the 3 xg and 3x II size, and 75 per cent of the smaller. There is now hardly any 3x11 from the Swedish forests. With regard to the question of the size produced, it must be remembered that shippers would always cut the largest possible sizes from the trees, as the price increases in proportion to the dimensions. The trade in Swedish and Finnish timber has gradually developed during the last fifty years, so that now practically every port in the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Finland round to Gothenburg in the North Sea exports all manner of timbering, floorings, joinery, and general woodwork. The trade is so varied, and the qualities and descriptions of the wood range through such a wide field, that to attempt to describe it would require a whole book; only a brief reference to it can here be made. As has been stated elsewhere, every district produces wood containing its own peculiar characteristics. For instance, supplies from one port will excel in respect to freedom from shakes, while those from another, in the absence of sap, and the best quality from one port will hardly equal the worst from another. Generally speaking, the highest standard of quality is obtained from Bjorneborg and Kemi on the Finnish coast, and from Gefle to Sundswall on the Swedish. The wood exported from North Russia, particularly that from Archangel, Onega, Kem, and Petrograd, and latterly from Siberia, excels all other supplies both in quality and size. The imports from Archangel and Petrograd generally have a hammer stamp on the butt ends of the planks, deals, battens, and boards; those from the Finnish ports are stencilled. It is customary to brand with a coloured stencil mark the produce from Sweden and Norway, while various other methods are adopted at the remaining sources of supply. Unless, 214 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD however, all these matters are studied and continually kept under observation, such brands and markings are of little use, as that which is described as the first quality of one might not be so good as the third quality of another, while each is liable to continual variation according to changing circumstances. PINE, BiruE. Pinus excelsa, Wall. Weight, 20-33 Ibs. (Gamble). India. This wood, which is also called Bhutan pine, very closely resembles yellow pine (Pinus Strobus), except that it has rather a reddish tint instead of the well-known yellow of that wood. The grain is straight, soft, and mild, and the timber would be suitable for all those purposes for which yellow pine is required. It is mentioned in Mr. Gamble’s list as one of the woods which are available in fairly large quantities. “The annual rings are marked by the denser autumn wood with more compressed trachoids and much smaller lumina. The medullary rays are fine, numerous, rather irregular, causing a silver-grain on a radial section. The resin ducts are scattered, fairly numerous, and prominent in all sections.”” (Gamble.) PINE, CELERY Top. Phyllocladus rhomboidalis, Rich. Weight, 40 lbs. (Baterden). Tasmania. Tasmanian Timbers describes this wood as ‘‘a heavy, strong pine, of a clear yellow colour, useful for boards, internal fittings, or implements. It is very tough, and the shrinkage is so small that the general belief is that it will not shrink at all. The smaller trees furnish masts for small vessels.” PiInE, Danzic. Pinus sylvestris, Linn. Northern Europe. This is generally known abroad as redwood. It is imported in square hewn logs of 8 to 20 inches in width and ro to 30 feet in length, though these figures may at times be exceeded. It is also received in what are termed “ deck deals.’’ The specifications for these require thicknesses of 2 to 4 inches, with an average width of 84 inches and a length of 20 to 40 feet. The following is the Admiralty specification for ‘‘ deck deals ”’ : Deck Deals.—The Dantzic deals for decks of 4 inches thick shall be cut 8 inches in breadth, and shall be 8 inches clear of sap for the greater part of their length and nowhere less than 7} inches clear of sap, and shall be 26 to 40 feet in length, averaging not less than 33 feet. The deals of 3} and 3 inches thick shall be cut 8 inches in breadth and shall be 7} inches clear of sap for the greater part of their length, and nowhere less than 7 inches clear of sap, and shall be 25 to 35 feet in length, averaging not less than 30 feet. The deals of 2} inches thick shall be cut 73 inches in breadth, and shall be 7} inches - clear of sap for the greater part of their length, and nowhere less than 7 inches CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 215 clear of sap, and shall be 25 to 35 feet in length, averaging not less than 30 feet. The deals of 2 inches thick shall be cut 7} inches in breadth, and shall be 74 inches clear of sap for the greater part of their length, and nowhere less than 7 inches clear of sap, and shall be 20 to 35 feet in length, averaging not less than 28 feet. Longer deals of each thickness may be supplied, but only 10 per cent over the greater lengths shall be considered in ascertaining the required averages. The deals of each thickness shall be delivered at each Dockyard in the proportion of not less than 7o per cent Crown quality, and the remainder Crown Brack quality. The whole shall be bright, clean, sound, yellow wood, converted in the country, of an equal thickness and square edged, and shall be clear of unsound sap, shakes, injurious knots and defects, according to their respective brands, and thoroughly air-dried before inspection. In colour it is similar to the other pines. It is even and straight in the grain, tough, elastic, and easily worked, and moderately hard in texture as well as of light weight. It is employed for heavy timbering and general constructional work. Used as piles for piers in fresh tidal water, its life is about 16 years, while pitch pine, for instance, lasts for 25 to 30 years. Pine, Huon. Dacrydium Franklinit, Hook., f. Weight, 33 Ibs. Tasmania. ‘The Huon pine, so called from the Huon River, where first found, is a pine which grows to a great size in the river-bottoms of the West Coast; it has a diameter of 8 to ro feet, but the ordinary size of the tree will give a plank of from 14 to 30 inches in width and up to zo feet in length. The wood is straight grained and heavy for a pine, of a bright yellow straw colour, and very full of an essential oil, which causes it to be almost rot-proof. When made into furniture, the oil slowly oxidises, and the wood turns to a smoky fawn colour with age. It is a splendid joiners’ wood, and is especially useful for boat-planking, as the teredo objects to the essential oil. “The supply is little more than sufficient for the local demand, but it is a timber that is well worth systematic cultivation, Huon pine being one of the most durable timbers known. It is not a tough wood, having rather a short fracture, but it steams and bends well. Some trees will cut very handsome figured panels. It has a strong and, to some people, rather a sickly odour” (Tasmanian Timbers). PINE, JAPANESE RED. Pinus densiflora, S. and Z. Weight, 24 Ibs. Japan. This wood is known in Japan by the name of akamatsu. According to Goto there are two species of pine, which the Japanese distinguish by the names “ akamatsu ” or red pine, and “ kuromatsu ” or black pine. The former “is the most widely distributed of all the coniferous trees in 216 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Japan, being found from the southern extremity of Kyushu to the southern portion of Hokkaid6.” It is used in Japan for building purposes. The wood is softer and lighter in weight than Baltic pine, and has the characteristic mildness of Canadian yellow pine (Pinus Sirobus), while the grain is also similar to that wood ; it is, in fact, something between the two. It is milder and softer than the Siberian pine (Pinus mand- schurica, Rupr.). There is apparently a very large supply, but it is exceedingly difficult to obtain in clean lengths free from knots. It has been found to yield good results when used for the sounding-boards of violins. Supplies of this wood have reached England mixed with white pine, and it has been found difficult to discriminate between the two. The pores are very close indeed and ill-defined. The annual rings are close and regular. Pine, Kauri, or CowpizE PINE. Agathis australis, Salisb.; Dammara australis, Lamb. Weight, 30-39 lbs. (Baterden). New Zealand. The kauri or cowdie pine is a native of, and is found only in New Zealand. It is most plentiful about the middle part of the northern island, where there are very extensive forests of it, but it is only mode- rately abundant a little farther south, and towards Wellington and in the Middle Island it is only occasionally seen. Kauri pine, when uscd for masts, yards, etc., is unrivalled in excellence, as it not only possesses the requisite dimensions, lightness, elasticity, and strength, but is much more durable than any other pine, and will stand a very large amount of work before it is thoroughly worn out. The duramen, or heart-wood, is of a yellowish-white or straw colour, moderately hard for pine, strong, clean, fine, close, and straight in the grain. It has a very pleasant and agreeable odour when worked, planes up well and leaves a beautiful silky lustre upon the surface, resembling in some degree the plainest satinwood. It shrinks very little, and stands well after seasoning ; further, it takes a good polish. It is therefore valuable for conversion into planks and boards, and is very suitable for cabin and other fitments in ships, for joiners’ work generally, and for ornamental purposes. It is also employed for the decks of yachts, as, from the regularity of its grain and the absence of knots, it has a better appearance than the Danzig pine that is commonly used. It also wears more evenly, and does not require the reconciling or planing over which is frequently found necessary if other woods are worked. The kauri pine is generally sound and free from the defects common to many other descriptions of timber; it very rarely has more than a slight heart-shake, even in old trees; the star- and cup-shakes are also very rare. It is therefore a remarkably solid timber, and may be con- CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 217 sidered one of the best woods that the carpenter can take in hand. It will be seen also from the results of tests (see p. 361) that the wood possesses an exceptional strength in proportion to its weight and character. The demand has increased very considerably during the last few years, and it is much to be regretted that general reports seem to anticipate a short supply in the future. It is very difficult to season this wood in the United Kingdom, and the customary calculations of time which apply to ordinary woods will be found all too little for this. Dark rings mark clearly the concentric layers. The pores are not visible under the lens (12 x). The medullary rays, which are only noticeable in some specimens, cause a fine, mottled appearance on the radial section. Pine, Kinc Wititam. Athrotaxis selaginoides, Don., and A. cupressoides, Don. Weight, 22 lbs. (Baterden). Tasmania. “The wood varies in colour from pinkish-yellow to pink. It is extremely light, and has a scent like cedar, from which it is called the * pencil cedar’ locally. After it is planed up there is a slight exudation of the resin. It is used for cabinet and joiners’ purposes, and for making sculls for racing-boats. Notwithstanding its extreme lightness, it has considerable toughness and strength, and is very durable in the weather, being second only to Huon pine in this respect ” (Tasmanian Timbers). Pine, LONG-LEAFED. Pinus longifolia, Roxb. Weight, 40 Ibs. for North-West wood; 40-43 Ibs. for Sikkim wood (Gamble). Northern India, the Himalayas. The wood is very similar in all respects to that of yellow pine (Pinus Strobus), except that it is a little harder and possesses more “ pitchy”’ layers. It would be highly suitable for most of the uses to which yellow pine 1s put. As will be seen, Gamble and Pearson regard it mainly from the standpoint of its usefulness for sleepers in India. We should consider it in England far too valuable for such use, and as there is evidence that a considerable quantity can be expected, every effort should be made to supply the required sleepers in India from timbers of less value. The world’s supply of pine is steadily decreasing, and for many purposes of great importance it is the only suitable timber. Gamble says: “In his hints on arboriculture in the Punjaub Ribbentrop says: ‘ I am convinced that this tree will yield the greatest net money return when once we begin to impregnate’; and I am disposed to endorse this, and to express the opinion that when the convenient situation of the forests, the easy reproduction of the tree, and the easy extraction of the timber are taken into consideration, it ought to be from properly creosoted 218 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD long-leafed pine wood that the Indian railways should be chiefly supplied with sleepers. . . .” “ The wood is used in building houses and boats, for making tea-boxes, shingles,etc. The wood of the Sikkim trees is heavier, harder and stronger, more durable and of better general quality, than that of the north-west.”’ Pearson also deals with this timber in relation to its use for sleepers, and adds: “ The co-efficient of transverse strength, according to tests quoted by Gamble, gave 5-09 tons per square inch, while figures of other tests gave an average of 7:43 tons per square inch. It floats fairly well.” Its real value, however, should be found in its suitability for joiners’, cabinet, and other high-class work for which yellow pine is used in this country. This wood is one of the timbers mentioned in Gamble’s list of woods which are available in fairly large quantities, and are likely to be worth tnial. The concentric layers are strongly marked. The pores and medullary rays are indistinct and obscure, the latter showing, however, through the lens (12 x) on the radial section in a faint, almost imperceptible, ripple ray. Pine, NEw ZEALAND. Podocarpus dacrydioides, A. Rich. Weight, 31 Ibs. 15 oz. New Zealand. The tree yields clean timber of long lengths and wide widths. It is of a light whitish-yellow colour in appearance, much resembling yellow pine (Pinus Strobus). The native name is “‘ kahikatea.”” It is soft and straight-grained, and is largely used in New Zealand and Australia for butter-boxes. It is reported as not being durable for exposed work, and in its own country is liable to attack from boring insects. A very large quantity was imported a few years ago (1919) into the United Kingdom, but has given disappointing results, as it shrinks, warps, and twists to a considerable extent even after many years of seasoning. Although used _ experimentally for many purposes as a substitute for yellow pine and American whitewood (Liriodendron tulipifera), it has generally been condemned. The concentric layers are clearly defined. The pores and medullary rays are confused and indistinct. The fibres are so soft and pulpy that it is exceedingly difficult to make a clean cut on the transverse grain sufficiently smooth to display the construction of the wood. PINE, OREGON. Pseudotsuga Douglasii, Carr. Weight, 34 Ibs. 2 oz. British Columbia, North-West United States. The name “ Oregon pine” is doubly inappropriate, for this tree is not a true pine (being more allied to a hemlock fir) and is by no means confined to Oregon, as it occurs also in other American States and in CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 219 British Columbia. The name has probably been given to it by those who originally wished to introduce it as a competitor with pitch pine, or, in other words, for trade purposes, a motive which is responsible for many of the incorrect names which are given to different timbers. According to Elwes and Henry, “it is known in the European, South African, and Australian markets as Oregon pine or Oregon fir, on the Pacific Coast of North America as red or yellow fir, in Utah, Idaho, and Colorado as red pine, and in California is sometimes incorrectly called spruce or hemlock.” It would therefore be preferable to use the term “ Douglas fir,”’ under which name it is cultivated in Great Britain. The discovery has been made that two American species were known under the name of Douglas fir, and to both these, new specific names have been given. However, inasmuch as the commercial timber may be derived from one or both of these, the original specific name has been retained here: viz. Pseudotsuga Douglasit. In its native American forests the Douglas fir is one of the most magnificent of the trees of the world. Writing in The Hardwood Record with reference to Douglas firs in the United States, Gibson makes the following statement: ‘‘ The largest are 300 feet high, occasionally more, and from 8 to ro feet in diameter. The average among the Rocky Mountains is from 80 to roo feet high and 2 to 4 in diameter. The amount of timber yielded by one tree may be realised from the experience of Dr. Watney (of ‘ Buckholt,’ Pangbourne), who was present at the felling of one in Washington Territory, U.S.A. The height of the trunk was 250 feet and that to the lowest bough was 157 feet. The following were the diameters at different heights above the ground: 83 inches at 7 feet, 65 inches at 37 feet, 52 inches at 107 feet, and 32 at Ior feet. The trunk was sawn off at a height of 7 feet above the ground (where it showed 420 annual rings) and 184 feet of its length yielded 21,905 feet of boards, and with the slabs and planks 23,503 feet converted, equalling 1958,7, feet cube. It took nine railway trucks to convey the timber from London to Pangbourne. The timber contained practically no sap, very few shakes, but some of the planks contained dead knots. Large sections of the trunks (exceeding 7 feet in diameter) are familiar in England to those who visit Kew Gardens and the Natural History Museum, South Kensington.”” The Douglas fir flagstaff formerly at Kew Gardens, which was presented by the Government of British Columbia in 1861, was well known. It was 159 feet in length, and measured 1 foot 8 inches in diameter at the base and 5 inches in diameter at the small end. This is now surpassed by the new flagstaff which has been erected this year (1919). It was, like the former one, presented by the Government of 1 In North America the timber is known under a great multiplicity of Jocal names. 220 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD British Columbia. The gigantic trunk towers to the height of 214 feet. The width at the base is 2 feet 9 inches, and it measures 1 foot across at the small end. The timber occupies one of the most important positions in the timber world, and is known and used in nearly every civilised country. “No other single species in the United States or in the world equals the annual cut of Douglas fir. . . . In 1910 the lumber cut from this fir amounted to 5,203,644,000 feet”? (Gibson). With the ever-decreasing number of large trees of Scots pine or Baltic pine (Pinus sylvestris) and pitch pine, this timber comes increasingly to the fore as the remaining source of big coniferous constructional timber, especially so in virtue of its great strength. Itis imported into the United Kingdom from British Columbia and the United States, in the form of sawn logs, planks, and boards. The wood is of a reddish-yellow colour, usually midway between yellow pine (P. Strobus) and pitch pine (P. palustris) in tint and general appearance. Americans distinguish two kinds of wood, accord- ing to whether the colour is more red or yellow, and prefer wood of the light red colour. Both kinds of wood can be obtained from one and the same trunk. In England no notice is taken of these differences. The resinous grain of Douglas fir is milder and less pronounced than that of pitch pine, but some specimens of the former are difficult to distinguish from those of the latter or of Canadian red pine (P. restnosa). The uses of the timber are manifold, and as Gibson (dealing with America) wrote, “it would be easier to list industries that do not use it than those that do.” When used for constructional work indoors it possesses sufficient durability for reasonable requirements. For exposed work, however, it cannot be said to compete with Baltic pine or pitch pine. The principal practical value of Douglas fir lies in the fact that it is a timber obtainable in large sizes, logs, scantlings, and planks, free from sap-wood, objectionable knots, or other defects. The facility with which wide widths of the timber clean and free from sap-wood can be obtained, renders it valuable for internal woodwork. Yet as a joiners’ wood it is not entirely free from deficiencies. The marked difference between the hard and soft grain is associated with a ridgy surface when the wood is worked. The grain is apt to rise after either polishing or painting, and this increases the expense of finishing. The wood does not require very long to season, and, after the process, is reliable and does not warp nor twist. For floors and decks the timber should be “ rift-sawn’”’ in such a manner that the broad faces of the boards or planks are at right angles to the annual rings ; for when the boards are cut with their broad faces tangential to the annual rings the grain is liable to flake out and a rough CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 221 surface results. For decorative work, where variety of figure is desired, the latter type of sawing should, however, be followed. Among many other uses the timber has been employed extensively in various countries in the making of masts and spars. In England, pitch pine or Baltic pine is preferred, but the latter cannot compete with Douglas fir in dimensions, while the former is sometimes too heavy. Douglas fir is also used in the manufacture of railway sleepers and paving-blocks. The sawn wood opposes very considerable resistance to the penetration of creosote, and therefore requires high pressures to inject quantities sufficient to satisfy engineers accustomed to deal with Baltic pine. Baterden, in Timber (p. 80), points out that Oregon pine, although “apparently more open in the grain . . . will nevertheless take in much less creosote than either pitch pine or Baltic timber, and that is rather - against its use for sea work. On one occasion some Oregon logs were tanked with Baltic redwood logs; the latter took in nearly 11 Ibs. of creosote per cubic foot, whilst the maximum for the Oregon was only 23 lbs., and the same thing applies to thin planks. On several occasions the author has made careful comparisons in creosoting this timber, and he has got 7 to g lbs. of creosote per cubic foot into pitch pine which has been air-drying for about three months, whilst Oregon logs dried under the same conditions and for the same period, and subjected to the same pressure in the cylinders along with the pitch pine, rarely took in more than 3 Ibs. and many of them not 3 lbs. per cubic foot, and retanking and repressing made no appreciable difference in the quantity injected.” Douglas fir grows rapidly and well in suitable sites in England ; magnificent specimens are to be seen, for instance, in Dropmore Gardens. Professor Groom says that though its young twigs are liable to attack by a special kind of fungal mildew, the species at present suffers from no serious attacks by either fungus or insect. In view, however, of the variability of the timber, even in its American home, far-reaching assump- tions as to the quality of British-grown timber would be premature. The annual rings are well marked, the medullary rays invisible, but the resin ducts are recognisable. Pine, Pitcu. Pinus palustris, Mill., and other spp. of Pinus. Weight, average 45°8 lbs. (Baterden). United States of America. The timber known as pitch pine has been exported from the Southern States of America for the last fifty years and has consisted of the mixed produce of several botanical species of pine. The best of these is produced by P. palustris. What proportion of other sorts is included has varied according to the convenience and circumstances of the shipper. Gibson, in American Forest Trees (p. 43), says: ‘‘ There is no precise agree- 222 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD ment as to what should be included in the group of hard pines in the United States, but the following twenty-two are usually placed in that class.’” He then names twenty-one species other than P. palustris, among which, as far as the export to the United Kingdom and abroad is concerned, are included P. echinata; loblolly pine, P. taeda; P. hetero- phylla; P. rigida, and perhaps others. Laslett in 1875 gave P. rigida as the only source. The practice adopted in America of indiscriminately mixing supplies which are the produce of many different species in one delivery, which has been referred to elsewhere, seems unfortunate. One consignment may be quite satisfactory and contain only a small percentage of the timber which is not desirable, another may consist entirely of unsatis- factory timber. This method is to be regretted, as it is only possible to separate the high-class article at the time of conversion. Fortu- nately some of the shippers do succeed in maintaining a high standard of quality in all their shipments, and have been repaid by the excellent reputation they have gained in the trade; nevertheless there have been many occasions when the buyer, who hoped to receive the high- class timber which is yielded by the produce of P. palustris, has found the majority of his timber to consist of the extremely inferior quality which is generally attributed to the produce of the loblolly pine (P. taeda). Pitch pine is a wood which is so well known that it is unneces- sary tc describe its appearance. Of a similar grain, much harder in texture and with strong pitchy growth, in other respects it resembles in appearance that of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). Laslett in 1875 wrote: “ The principal defects in pitch pine are the heart and cup shake.”” The latter often extends a long way up the tree, and it would be impossible to better this description of its defects if the timber referred to is the product of the true pitch pine (P. palusiris). Unfortunately, since the date when this account was written, shipments have greatly deteriorated in quality and, as mentioned above, have often included the product of other species ; consequently to Laslett’s list must be added other defects which include open grain, coarse, sour-grown wood, large knots, and a far too great preponderance of sap, which latter is often seriously discoloured. The cutting during the last thirty years has been on such a vast scale that the forests will now no longer produce so much of the large-sized and better quality timber, which every year becomes therefore more difficult to obtain. The demand for this valuable timber has been regular and continuous and still remains so. For decorative work for churches, public buildings, and private houses it was greatly in vogue during the early Victorian era. The good qualities of the wood suffered, in common with other material, from the ugly and ungainly style then general, and although, to a limited CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 223 extent, the timber is still used for decorative purposes in public buildings, it no longer is sought for for such work. For floorings, however, it still maintains a considerable reputation, although its use is somewhat curtailed as such wood is generally required to be all rift sawn. Wood so converted is wasteful and costly, and on this account floorings in- tended to be laid in pitch pine are often superseded by other woods. The wood is very durable, and on this account and also because of its large size and long length, it is in great demand for constructional work, for which it is admirably suited in all respects. Used for piles on tidal water, where timber is subjected to continuous wet and dry, its life is from ten to fifteen years longer than that of Danzig or Memel pine. It would be difficult to estimate its length of life for interior construction ; but provided that good material is used and the timber is well ventilated, it probably equals in durability that of any other soft wood. It is very important, however, to take every precaution to see that the timber is in good dry condition and, as far as may be possible, thoroughly ventilated. There is at least one case on record where the joists which composed the flat roof of a costly building, which was unfortunately improperly ventilated, were reduced to powder within two years of the completion of the building. There is evidence that under certain conditions pitch pine readily falls a prey to the attack of dry rot. Among the supplies a very small proportion is occasionally found containing very finely figured wood, the logs yielding a curly and twisted grain which produces a very pleasant effect. This class of figured wood was much sought for about thirty years ago, but only for a short period, and although it is still occasionally asked for and used for these purposes, the demand has now ceased. The timber is imported hewn and sawn square, generally without description of quality; also in planks which are described as ‘‘ prime,” ‘rio prime,” “‘ merchantable,” and ‘“‘ square edged and sound.” Deals, planks, scantlings, and boards are imported under the terms of “prime” or “rio prime,” and a small quantity, which is shipped under the description of ‘‘ merchantable.’’ Consequently the buyer of logs has to depend entirely upon his knowledge regarding the port of shipment and the reputation of the shipper, to determine what kind of quality he may receive. In supplies of deals, planks, scantlings, and boards he is also somewhat in the hands of the shipper, inasmuch as, notwith- standing the naming of qualities, a certain amount of uncertainty exists, as inferior shipments sometimes occur. D2 66 PINE, RED. Pinus resinosa, Sol. North America. In America this is known as Norway pine. It is hard, relatively strong, and is very similar to Baltic pine, though of a slightly redder 224 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD tint. It contains a considerable quantity of sap-wood which is usually more or less discoloured, probably due to the manner in which the timber is handled after being sawn, or to shipment being made before the wood is satisfactorily dried. It is usually shipped in lengths of from 10 to 16 feet. The timber would probably be more in demand if it could be obtained in longer lengths, as the purposes for which it is employed in the United Kingdom generally call for wood of greater length. Pine, RED Batic. Pinus sylvestris, Linn. Northern Europe. From early times it has been customary to describe Baltic pine by the terms “red,” or “ yellow,” or ‘‘timber.”’ This last term is limited to square-hewn baulks from 7 inches up to as much as 18 inches and more square, which has been received intermittently from the Baltic for upwards of 200 years. The timber was generally used for construc- tional work of all kinds, but particularly for beams of heavy roof timbers, for piles and general wharf construction and, to a limited extent, for shipbuilding. Judging from specimens which have been taken from very old buildings, this timber has been found to be exceedingly durable. Originally it was only imported in hewn squares, and in deals and planks ; by degrees, however, this developed into a general import of boards, battens, deals, planks, and scantlings of all kinds and sizes. Laslett gives the figures of import in 1874 as about 3,500,000 Swedish deals, 7,000 loads of timber and 18,000 fathoms of firewood, besides a large quantity of boards for floorings. Tn earlier days also there was a considerable import of Norwegian timber of the same description. The deals and planks then imported from Christiania were considered to be the finest material obtainable for joiners’ work, and to the present day specifications name “ joiners’ work to be of the best Christiania deal.’’ The larger proportion of this was hewn out by hand without the use of the saw. The last shipments of Christiania deals were seen in London more than forty years ago. Since this time the import from Norway has gradually become restricted to small-sized scantlings and battens, which were generally of very inferior quality. In addition to these, large quantities of prepared floorings and matchings of all sizes and qualities, including the highest class material, have been shipped from Christiania, Frederikstad, Drammen, and else- where. In this there is still a considerable trade. Pine, Rica. Pinus sylvestris, Linn. The supply of this wood is similar in all respects to that of red Baltic pine. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 225 PINE, SILVER. Dacrydium Westlandicum, T. Kirk. Weight, 41 Ibs. (Baterden). New Zealand. This timber has not been imported on a commercial scale. The Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, ‘‘ reports it as yellowish-white in colour, sometimes mottled, straight and even in grain, dense, firm and compact, of great strength and toughness. Procurable up to 20 feet in length and 15 inches in width. Used for bridges, wharves, sleepers, mining-timbers, cabinet-making ; also in building and joinery generally.” PINE, TONAWANDA. Source unknown. North America. A considerable quantity of timber called by this name has been obtainable in London through Government agencics since the war began, though such a name was previously unknown in commercial usage. The timber resembles that of yellow pine (Pinus Strobus), or that which is known in America as white pine. PINE, YELLOw.! Pinus Strobus, Linn. Weight, 27 Ibs. 9 oz. Canada, North-Eastern United States. The tree, known in America and Scotland as the ‘‘ white pine,”’ and cultivated in England under the name of “‘ Weymouth pine,’ is in- digenous only in a restricted region; the north-eastern parts of the United States and adjoining Canada, extending from Winnipeg to Newfoundland, and down the Atlantic States to Virginia. Formerly vast forests of this species abounded, and trees over 200 feet in height and 7 feet in diameter at the base of the trunk were obtainable. The ruthless felling operations of the American lumbermen, however, un- accompanied by adequate afforestation, have gravely reduced the supplies of this most valuable timber. Of later years the quality also has deteriorated, and it becomes increasingly difficult to obtain it free from knots and sap-wood. However, a considerable quantity free from defects is still available. The timber has steadily advanced in price, which eventually reached the figure of 6s. per cubic foot for the best quality. As the result of the large import of Siberian pine, the price slightly declined towards the year 1914. During the war the Timber, Controller fixed the maximum price at gs. 8d. per foot cube. An extremely interesting handbook \A History of the Lumber Industry in the State of New York, by Wm. F. Fox), which was published in 1902 by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, informs us that “in 1614, the year when the first houses were built at Albany and on Manhattan Island (now the city of New York), the territory which now constitutes the State of New York was forest covered throughout. .. . New York was not 1 The name “ yellow pine ’’ in the United States is not given to this wood, but to entirely different kinds of pine timbers. Q 226 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD only a forest State but essentially a white pine State. This valuable species was plentiful throughout the territory. ... Many New York lumbermen still living recall giant white pines that measured 7 feet or more across the stumps and over 220 feet in height. . . . Dr. Torrey wrote in 1843: ‘ The white pine is found in most parts of the State. . . Our chief extensive forests of this noble and most valuable tree are on the headwaters of the Hudson and on the rivers which empty into the St. Lawrence.’ . . . The Adirondack tourist of to-day can still see in the tall trees at Paul Smith’s or in the noble colonnade of white pine along the shores of Forked Lake further evidence of its extensive habitat.”’ A quotation given in the same book from the Ulster County Gazette of November 13, 1799, reads: For sale. The one-half of a Sawmill. With a convenient place for building in the town of Rochester. By the mill, there is an inexhaustible quantity of Pinewood. It is imported in the form of sawn boards and planks of various sizes and thicknesses, also in wide planks, with square sawn edges, some- times termed “ sidings’’; also in long logs hewn square but showing waney edges. From these logs deck planks and other exceptional sizes are sawn out. The wood is a pale straw colour, and contrasts with other commercial pines and firs by the very thin, dark, parallel lines (resin ducts) running with the grain. Strong in comparison with its weight, and very durable, it is perfectly reliable. Being a “soft pine’ (as opposed to the hard pines, represented by the Scots pine and pitch pine), it is soft and easy to work, for it is also straight grained. For various indoor uses it is admirably fitted, since although it requires a longer time to season than do the majority of soft timbers, yet when properly seasoned it undergoes remarkably slight shrinkage, warping, or twisting. On this account it is favoured by engineers for pattern making. For the decks of ships this is a favourite wood, and in yielding clean, white flooring for pleasure yachts it has no rival. Yellow pine was formerly used largely for signboards, but is now sometimes replaced in this relation by less costly woods. Immense quantities are used in the manufacture of matches (‘‘ white pine” or ‘‘cork pine’ matches), for which purpose it is un- surpassed, The annual rings are clearly marked, but in contrast with the Scots pine and pitch pine the spring wood merges very gradually into the summer wood. The medullary rays are invisible. Prguia. Source unknown. Weight, 49 lbs. 13 oz. Brazil. The colour of this wood is a yellowish-brown with a tinge of red. It gives a rough, scratchy surface from the tool, showing a wide, double CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 227 grain running different ways. The open pores show with rough edges, almost as in the end (transverse) grain, which latter has a beautiful appearance. There is nothing to recommend this wood for commercial use. The pores are not very numerous, and appear like blotches of openings filled with gum. The medullary rays are exceedingly numerous, and very fine and close. Planchonia Andamanica. Weight, 65 lbs. The Andaman Islands, The wood, which is sometimes known as red bombwe, is brownish-red, hard, and durable, and takes a smooth surface from the tool. It is said to be suited for sleepers, for which purpose it is being tested by several Indian railways. There are fair quantities available, which will probably soon be seen in the European markets. PLANE. Platanus orientalis, Linn., P. acerifolia, Willd. Weight, 30- 42 lbs. Europe. (Sometimes known as Lace-wood). The plane tree, so familiar to Londoners, in whose city it thrives so well despite the smoky atmosphere, produces a wood of a very pale yellow, though it may vary to light red or a greyish-blue, while at times it presents the variegated effect of a mixture of all these tints. Probably these differences in the colour are affected by the time of year in which the tree has been felled, though they may be due in some way to the soil in which it grows. The wood has an exceedingly close, tough, hard grain, much resembling maple. It is difficult to understand why it is not more largely used. There is little doubt that, if its qualities were more studied, the merits of the timber would commend it for many purposes. It could be used to advantage as a substitute for maple for floorings, as well as for other uses where maple is in demand. The Church of St. Sepulchre, Holborn, had formerly some beautiful panels of carved plane wood, dating from the seventeenth century. One of these is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington. A fine plane tree can now be seen flourishing by the side of the Grand Junction Canal in London, close to the north gate of Regent’s Park leading to Avenue Road. It has an interesting history. In 1874 a barge containing petroleum, while passing up the canal, exploded with a report which was heard ten miles away. The bridge and the keeper’s cottage which then existed were blown away, and the plane tree was practically destroyed. Fifteen years ago the only remains of the old trunk was a dead, charred, pointed piece, which could be seen protruding through the new and vigorous growth around it. The old trunk has now disappeared and there is no longer any sign of the damage which was sustained. 228 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Prum. Prunus domestica, Linn. Weight, 54 Ibs. Europe. There are many wild species of plum, but it is probable that the timber is more or less similar in each, and only differs according to variation of environment. It is a very handsome wood, which is not valued as highly as its undoubted qualities deserve. It is reddish-brown, with darker and lighter streaks of the same colour, and is occasionally varied by some yellow. It is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool, and has a close, firm, hard texture. For cabinet work, inlay, and turning it would be difficult to surpass. Laslett says it has been used for pipes. It was also one of the decorative woods used in Tunbridge ware. No tree trunk should ever be wasted or burned, as it too frequently is in this country. The pores are very small and obscure. The principal medullary rays are very clearly defined and vigorous, interspersed with numerous secondary rays of very varying size. These show in small and numerous flecks on the radial section. Pium, Brack. Eugenia Jambolana, Lam. Weight, 48 lbs. (Troup). India. Of this timber Gamble wnites : “‘ Wood, reddish grey, rough, moderately hard, darker near the centre, no distinct heart-wood. . . . Five sleepers laid down on the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway in 1870, and taken up in 1875, were found to be fairly sound and not touched by white ants. It is largely used for native building purposes, posts, beams, and rafters of houses, for agricultural implements, and for well-work, as it resists the action of water well... . “« Annual rings, generally marked by a line with few or no pores. Pores moderate-sized and small, numerous, frequently oval, elongated, and sub-divided, joined together in wavy concentric belts of loose pale tissue. Medullary rays fine, numerous; the interval between the rays less than the diameter of the pores, round which they bend.’’ Podocarpus nervifolia, Don. Weight, 42 Ibs. India, Burma, Andaman Islands. . This is a soft, light, straw-yellow coloured wood, with a faint lustre after planing. Its vernacular name of ‘“‘thitmin’’ means “prince of woods,” an index of its qualities. Gamble says ‘‘ it is justly esteemed in Burma, and is of considerable importance in the Andamans... . The wood is used in general carpentry, and is excellent to work: it is employed for oars, spars, masts, and to make tea-boxes. It seasons well and does not warp or shrink.” Pearson says that it is fairly suitable for the manufacture of pencils. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 229 The pores are very small and somewhat obscure. The medullary rays, though numerous, are so faint as to be scarcely visible with the lens (12 x). PoHuTUKAWA. Metrosideros tomentosa, A. Cunn. Weight, 54-64 Ibs. New Zealand. According to the Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, the wood is “deep red in colour, heavy and compact and of great strength, exhibits great power of resistance to the teredo. Procurable in short lengths and up to 24 inches in width. Used for piles, stringers, bridge and wharf planking, and mining-timbers.” Poprar, Enciisu. Populus alba and P. nigra, Linn. Weight, 35 lbs. 40z. United Kingdom. This is a valuable timber, which is far too little used or appreciated in this country. The colour ranges from a whitish-yellow to grey; in some cases it is nearly pure white and compares favourably with rock maple. It is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool, and possesses a fine, close, hard, tough texture which especially fits it for a great many important purposes. It is easy to work, and according to Holtzapffel it is ‘‘ suited for carving, common turnery, and works not exposed to much wear.’’ It has also been used largely by toy-makers, and to a certain extent for cabinet work, and for brake blocks for rail- way waggons. The famous “ Inlaid room ”’ at Sizergh Castle, Westmoreland, which dates from the sixteenth century, is of oak inlaid with poplar and bog oak. The white poplar wood against the contrasting black of the bog oak has a most effective appearance, set as it is in a groundwork of English oak. A reproduction of the room can be seen in the South Kensington Museum. During and since the war this wood has been used somewhat exten- sively for the spars and ribs of aeroplanes and for other purposés in aeronautical construction, one pilot at least considering it as good as, if not better than, any other timber. It has also been used as ply-wood in the same kind of work. Both pores and medullary rays are so exceedingly fine that thry are difficult to sce even with the lens (12 x). PopLaR, GREY. Populus canescens, Sm. Weight, 31 Ibs. Europe. This is a very fine timber of much more value than it is popularly supposed to possess. The colour is a light yellow with some dark streaks. It takes a very smooth surface from the tool and possesses a tough, close texture comparable to the medium varieties of maple. Its uses might 230 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD be much more general if it were better known. For floorings it should be little inferior to maple, and it is one of the best woods for ply-veneer work. Elwes and Henry quote Smith, English Flora (iv. 244) : ‘‘The wood is much finer than that of any other British poplar, making as good floors as the best Norway fir [pine] in appearance, and having moreover the valuable property that it will not, like any resinous wood, take fire.”’ The pores are very small and obscure, and the medullary rays exceed- ingly fine and difficult to detect even with the aid of the lens (12 x). Prima VERA. Source unknown. Weight, 36 lbs. 6 0z. Central America. This wood is so little known in the United Kingdom that it is practically never named, nor is it reported upon in books of reference. It has, however, been used very freely in the United States for furniture, panelling, and general decorative work, and for railway-car trimming. As a result a small supply has come to London and Liverpool, and although apparently not identified, it has been occasionally used in the panels of some railway coaches on the principal railways. It is sometimes known in the United States as “‘ white mahogany,” which is perhaps a better name than prima vera, as in everything but colour it resembles mahogany. When first cut, it is of a pale straw appearance, darkening with exposure to light and air, to a warm yellowish-rose and much resembling satinwood. The trees are generally more or less figured, that is with a mottled or roey grain, some being very strongly marked with splash mottle of the best description. The wood stands well under all conditions and takes a high finish from the tool. For a light room, prima vera may be said to present, in general tone and colouring, a more artistic effect than satinwood, although the wood itself is not of so fine a grain. The principal defect is that nearly all the logs contain small pin-holes caused by a boring insect. These can, however, be remedied by a competent polisher. The pores, which are small, are rather obscure, but are marked by a light ring or halo. The medullary rays are fine and not very distinct, showing very faintly and sparsely on the tangential section. A very similar wood is supplied by a variety from the West Coast of Africa, which perhaps is identical with that called in France ‘ white mahogany,” the source of which is unknown. This wood is so similar that, as far as the general appearance is concerned, it is impossible to detect any difference. There is reason to suppose that a different form of polishing may be necessary, as is the case with all the mahoganies from the West Coast of Africa (see notes on polishing West Coast of Africa mahogany). In different specimens which present the same general appearance there is a very marked distinction in the construc- tion. Thus in one the pores are small and scarce and the medullary rays clear and defined, while in another the pores are rather large and more CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 231 numerous and the medullary rays very obscure and faint. On both, however, they show in much the same degree on the tangential section. Pterocarpus Marsupium, Roxb. Weight, 53 lbs. Central and Southern India, Ceylon. The chief native names of this species are vengai and bijasal. The wood is a golden-brown colour with lighter streaks, like a brown-stained satinwood, and it has a satiny lustre. The grain is smooth, firm, and close. Although it has established its reputation in Madras and at the Gun- Carriage Factory at Jubbulpore, where it has been used for gun-carriage wheels, its proper sphere is employment as a delicate furniture and cabinet wood. Warmer in tone and less obtrusive in character than satinwood, it would appeal with peculiar force to the artistic decorative artist in wood, and it is a matter of surprise that it has never yet been exported on a commercial basis. This is one of the timbers mentioned in Gamble’s list as being available in fairly large quantities. “‘ Pores moderate sized and large, often subdivided, scanty, resinous, uniformly distributed in pale patches, which are joined by fine, white, wavy, often interrupted concentric lines ; marked on a vertical section. Medullary rays very fine, numerous, short, uniform, and equi-distant.” (Gamble.) Pterospermum acerifolium, Willd. Weight, 45 lbs. India, Burma. The wood, which can be obtained in squares 20 feet x ro inches x Io inches, is reddish in colour and moderately hard. It works and polishes well, and is used for planking ; it also makes good matches and match-boxes. PuKATEA. Laurelia Novae Zelandiae, A. Cunn. New Zealand. The Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, reports that this wood is of “‘a pale brown colour streaked with deeper shades, often very ornamental. Procurable in long lengths and up to 12 inches in width. Excellent for furniture and also for boat-building.” Puriri. Vitex littoralis, Dene. Weight, 62-76 Ibs. (Baterden). New Zealand. This wood, called also New Zealand teak, is of a dark brown colour, and is very hard, dense, and heavy. Some experimental shipments were made on a small scale, and efforts made to introduce it for decorative, cabinet, and pianoforte work in London a few years ago, without, however, apparently very much success. It is obtainable in lengths up to 20 feet and 15 inches in width. Sir William Schlich, K.C.1.E., F.R.S., says that 2 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 22 “<3- “puriri is the strongest and most durable of the broad-leaved trees of New Zealand.” PURPLEHEART. Peltogyne paniculata, Benth. Weight, 64 lbs. 2 oz. (fresh undried sample) ; 66 Ibs. 4 oz. (my dried sample, Demerara). British, French, and Dutch Guiana, Brazil. This beautiful wood is not sufficiently appreciated in England. It is of a dense, close texture, and after planing is very smooth to the touch ; it is brown to salmon-red when cut, but after exposure to air and light it rapidly becomes purple in colour. The Surinam produces a more brilliant colour than that from Demerara. It is very strong and durable, and stands exceptionally well under difficult strains. On this account it has been used by French motor-carriage builders for the frames of window-sashes and like purposes. For this it is probably better than any other wood, as it is not injured by damp or the continual washing, while the fine, smooth grain assists the sliding up and down of the windows. It is used for ramrods, marquetry, and inlay and lining work, especially in French furniture, in which connection it bears a variety of names, these including ‘‘ amaranthe’’ and “ palisandre.”” A sample piece of this wood, labelled by this latter name, was sent to me for identification, confusion having arisen by the fact that in France the name “‘ palisandre ’’ usually indicates rosewood. The pores, which are rather small, are evenly distributed, and largely CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 233 filled with gum. The medullary rays are even and regular, parallel and very distinct. The pores in the Surinam wood are larger and have scarcely any gum filling, but otherwise the structure is similar to the Demerara variety. Pytnxapbo. Xylia dolabriformis, Benth. Weight, 81 lbs. (my specimen). According to Gamble the weights per foot cube range from 60 to 83 lbs. Burma. This wood is also known as ironwood. It has recently been determined that the Indian species (X. xylocarpa), known as jamba (g.v.) or irul, is distinct from the Burmese species. It is exceedingly hard, heavy, as: : gir: y i ey ey a ILWAY, MIDDLE ANDAMAN ISLANDS. strong, and durable. The logs are too heavy to float even after ringing, which makes the transport difficult and costly. When the tree is fresh cut the saw or tool will work it, though with some difficulty, but after long exposure to light and air it is said to be impossible to work. It has been used extensively in India and Burma for sleepers and constructional work with excellent results. It has indeed been suggested that the Burma railways placed obstacles in the way of exporting this timber by charging impossible rates in order to keep the supplies for their own use. A few logs and some planks and boards have been brought to London during the past few years and have found a ready market. The logs were, however, only imported at a heavy loss, as the transport was so very excessive ; they were apparently mistaken for a parcel of teak logs. 234 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD The wood is of a reddish-brown colour, hard, heavy, tough, strong, and rigid, and it frequently possesses some figure in the grain, which has Photograph vy J. H. Lace. Pyinkapo, Lower Burma. the appearance of being both waved and twisted; the pores are filled with a thick, glutinous, oily substance which oozes out upon the surface CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 235 after the wood has been worked, leaving a clamminess which cannot be completely got rid of even when the piece is thoroughly seasoned. This oily substance has probably a-preservative property about it and may be conducive to the durability of the timber. On the other hand, this may have certain disadvantages. The wood has been known to swell after seasoning, and on one occasion when used for thin parquet flooring great difficulty was experienced in getting the wood to hold the glue. It was considered that this was possibly due to this oily substance. If, however, an exceptionally strong glue is used, the flooring is quite satis- factory and has a particularly handsome and attractive appearance. Gamble says that it is ‘‘ after teak the most important timber tree of Burma. . . . The wood is very durable, a property which it doubtless owes in great measure to the resinous substances contained in it. The resin is more apparent in the Burmese than in that grown in S. India. The chief use of the wood is for railway sleepers, large numbers of which are now cut in Burma and exported to India. It is the chief wood used on the Burma railways. It is also eminently suited for paving-blocks, and has been successfully tried for the purpose in Rangoon. Good blocks were exhibited in Paris in 1900. It is excellent for telegraph posts. The local uses are for boat-building, agricultural implements, carts, and tool handles. It isa valuable building wood, especially for piles and beams of bridges, but it has the disadvantage of being heavy and difficult to cut.” Mr. G. R. Keen tells me, however, that a new saw which is now being used in India cuts the wood satisfactorily in an incredibly short time. Laslett, writing in 1875, quoted a note by Lieut. Col. H. W. Blake, the Commissioner at Moulmein, who wrote that the wood was “ heavier than water, and more indestructible than iron.”’ He added: “‘ There is a piece of this wood which supported a teak figure of Godama, taken from Rangoon in 1826, standing in a lake near. The teak figure has long since mouldered away into dust, but at the pillar I fired a rifle shot at 20 yards distance ; the ball was thrown back, making no penetration whatever. The wood seems hardened by time and exposure, and it is also a fact that the teredo will not touch it. The Burmans do not girdle and kill this tree as they do the teak, but fell and saw it up at once, and refuse to work it in a dry state.” This wood is one of the timbers mentioned in Gamble’s list of those which are available in fairly large quantities and are likely to be worth trial. The pores, which are few in number, are rather small, and are plugged with a bright shining gum or resin. The medullary rays are numerous, parallel, visible, and very fine. QuassiA. Picraena excelsa, Lol. Weight, 35 lbs. 40z. Central America. This timber is imported in small round logs, yielding boards of ro to 11 236 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD inches in width. It is yellowish-white with a grecn tint, generally with more or less shade and mottle figure ; the grain is fine, close, and smooth. The wood has an exceedingly bitter taste, but an agreeable scent. The pores are rather small and not very numerous. The medullary rays are fine and somewhat indistinct. QUEBRACHO. Source unknown. Weight, 77 lbs. (Baterden). The Argentine. This wood, which is very hard and heavy, has an exceedingly dense, close grain, and is of adeep red colour. It is principally used for sleepers, immense quantities of which are exported. RasPBERRY JAM-woop. Acacia acuminata, Benth. Weight (at 12 per cent moisture), 62 Ibs. Western Australia. This wood possesses a rich colour, varying from violet to crimson, with a very hard, close, lustrous grain. It has also been called “ violet- wood,” probably on account of its very pleasing and strongly persistent scent of violets. From a billet of this wood I turned a small ornamental box nearly forty years ago, and the scent is still apparent on opening the lid. The fragrance also at times resembles that of crushed raspberries ; this fact accounts for the name given above. It is probable that when in a fresher condition the wood possesses a stronger and different scent. It is a valuable wood for turnery and inlay, and should be more gener- ally known. According to some authorities it is very durable and has been said to withstand seventy years in the ground as posts, though it is to be regretted that a wood of such value should ever be used for such a purpose. Rata. Metrosideros robusta, A. Cunn. Weight, 45 Ibs. (Baterden). New Zealand. The New Zealand Board of Agriculture describes this wood as being red in colour, straight in grain, hard, dense, heavy, and of great strength and durability. It is procurable in long lengths and up to 48 inches in width. Amongst, its uses are mentioned wheelwrights’ work, the frame- work of railway waggons and carriages, and also machine beds and bearings. RED SANDERS. Plerocarpus santalinus, Linn., f. Weight, 75 Ibs. (Gamble). The East Indies, the South of India. This wood, also known as ‘‘ red sandalwood” and “ ruby wood,”’ is not so often seen now as formerly. Gamble says that the wood is “extremely hard; the sapwood white, heart-wood dark claret-red to almost black, but always with a deep red tinge, orange-red when first CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 237 cut.” It is imported in small round logs from about 14 inches to as much as 8 or g inches in diameter, with an occasional larger piece. It is used for red dyes, turnery, and inlay. It has a strongly marked contrary grain of hard and soft texture, but is capable of a very smooth surface if thoroughly worked with a sharp tool, and when finished shows a fine, glossy, lustrous surface. The pores are small, uneven, and generally plugged with resin or gum. The very fine medullary rays are numerous, parallel, and nearly equidistant. They are joined at right angles by very fine white bands in pairs following the lines of concentric lavers. Rewa-REwa. Knightia excelsa, R. Br. Weight, 46-50 lbs. (Stone). New Zealand. The timber is sometimes known as New Zealand honeysuckle. The Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, reports of it that it is ‘‘ deep red in colour, and beautifully mottled in silver grain. Procurable up to 20 feet in length and 15 inches in width. Used for house-blocks, piles, railway sleepers, machine beds, and for ornamental cabinet-making.”’ Baterden says that ‘‘ It is often used for mantelpieces owing to its incombustible nature. It is durable when used for interior work, but will not stand exposure to variations of weather. All oily substances should be avoided when polishing New Zealand honeysuckle, as it absorbs grease and oil to the detriment of the finely-marked grain; and, moreover, varnishing is said to be a disadvantage.” Rimvu. Dacrydium cupressinum, Soland. Weight, 34-40 Ibs. (Baterden). New Zealand. The tree is of straight growth and attains a height of from 80 to 100 feet, with a circumference of from 6 to g feet. It varies in shade from light yellow to chestnut-brown, with some streaks of lighter and darker colour, much resembling the so-called satin-walnut (Liquidambar styraciflua, Linn.), but with a much finer, closer texture. Unlike this wood, however, it stands well under all conditions, although it requires a long time to season properly. It is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool, and is excellent for mouldings and carved work, as a fine edge and finish is easily obtained with either hand or machine tool. A large quantity was imported in logs, planks, and boards about twenty years ago (1919), and remained in the docks for a long time, as it was entircly unknown and its merits were not realised. When at last it was used it was soon appreciated, and subsequently inquired for, but no further shipments have arrived. Besides its many uses for cabinet and joiners’ work, it was found to be one of the best woods for the framing of showcases for shop-fittings. 238 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Rincas. Melanorrhoea sp. Weight, 42 lbs. 2 oz. Borneo. This is the rosewood of Borneo. The wood is a deep reddish colour, having lighter and darker streaks, which give it a very pleasing appear- ance. It is of a fairly hard substance and close texture. It takes a beautiful smooth surface from the tool, and would have a handsome effect in decorative furniture. According to Foxworthy, ringas has poisonous properties, so that in its native country it is said to be going out of general use; the poison is said to affect a person even after the wood is made up into furniture. The annual layers are clearly marked with wide, uneven medullary rays and open pores equally distributed, showing a marked difference between the spring and autumn growth. RiuGan. Pametia pinnata, Forst. Weight, 55 lbs. Formosa. The wood is very heavy, dense, and close-grained, and is largely marked with a wavy grain. It is of a light cherry colour similar to English cherry-wood. It would be a useful timber for many purposes if regular supplies could be maintained, but so far it has not been imported commercially into the United Kingdom. The pores are fine and glisten with bright spots of gum. The exceed- ingly numerous medullary rays are very fine and clean cut; they are parallel and nearly equidistant. RosEwoop, BauiA, and RosEwoop, Rio. Also known as Jacaranda- wood and Palisander-wood. Source unknown. Weight, 54 lbs. Brazil. According to most authorities the wood is produced from many botanical species. Amongst these Baterden mentions Dalbergia nigra, Machoerium tncorruptibile, and M. legale. Brazilian Woods notes that rosewood is furnished from the three following sorts: Dalbergia nigra, Fr. Allem. ; Machoerium allemant, Benth. ; and M. violaceum, Fr. Allem. An entirely distinct wood, known in Brazil as rosewood or Pao rosa (q.v.), is the product of Physocalymma floridum. It should not, however, be confounded with any of the above species. The wood is so exceedingly well known that it seems almost super- fluous to describe it. Its popularity has, however, considerably diminished during the last twenty years. Indeed, except in the manufacture of pianos, it has hardly been used, though this is surprising in view of its undoubtedly high qualities. The trees produce many varying descriptions of colour and figure. The grain has a very firm, hard, and close texture ; it is capable of an exceedingly smooth surface. The colour fades some- what on exposure to light. This is not necessarily a disadvantage, “(PITOLILVT FIONTIIVG) GOOMASOY NVIGN[ ISvy “uae YD Aq yqvasopoyg os SELL Aeon 239 240 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD although perhaps an appreciation of the bleached wood is a matter of opinion. Brazilian rosewood has been familiar as a decorative wood throughout the last century. Its popularity probably commenced with the Empire period, and in the early days of Queen Victoria’s reign rosewood, used both solid and in veneer, was employed in the best cabinet work. The Bahia timber stood first for quality, while that from Rio, though less well marked and figured, produced both larger and wider pieces free from defect. It has remained in favour more in France and America than in the United Kingdom. In the course of the last twenty years the quality of the shipments has greatly deteriorated, and a growing difficulty has been experienced in obtaining goud, sound wood of a sufficiently large size to yield good veneer or panels. To this fact may be attributed some of its waning popularity. The very agreeable aromatic scent of the wood is well known. The pores are exceedingly irregular both in size and position. They apparently vary both in numbers and size in the different concentric layers. There are irregular belts of darker coloured lines of varying widths which follow the concentric growth. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine and numerous ; they are generally crossed at right angles by somewhat similar fine white lines, thereby forming a network pattern. The radial section presents an exceedingly fine ripple ray. RosEwoop, East Inpian. Dalbergia latifolia, Roxb. Weight, 53 lbs. Iz oz. India. This wood, which is already well known in England, France, America, and Germany, is probably not yet as sufficiently appreciated as its un- doubted merits deserve. It is generally known as East Indian rosewood, or as Malabar or Bombay rosewood, in contradistinction to the older Bahia or Rio wood, which it very closely resembles. It is also occasion- ally termed Bombay blackwood. The logs obtainable are, however, larger and more free from defects than are the Brazilian, and are consequently of more value. The colour is very variable, ranging from a light red to a deep rich purple, and streaked with every shade from golden yellow almost to black. The texture is close and firm, but it is generally found with a contrary hard and soft grain, which requires a sharp tool to obtain a smooth surface. It is a good wood for turnery, and stands well under all conditions. Gamble says that the chief use of the wood in India is for furniture. Rosewood gives a very handsome appearance when used for parquet floorings. In Europe and America it has been chiefly employed in the pianoforte trade, both in solid work and in veneer. The logs for CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 241 veneers are either sawn or cut. They are sometimes cut through and sometimes round the logs, which are usually of such large size and good quality that the produce is very fine. The wood possesses the same agreeable scent, although not quite so pronounced, which is noticed with the Brazilian rosewood. It is possible that the produce of Terminalia tomentosa (see Sain) has sometimes been confused in commercial use with Dalbergia latifolia and sold as East Indian rosewood. The pores are scarce and irregular, with long fringes of very small pores in wavy lines, at right angles to the numerous exceedingly fine, parallel medullary rays. Photograph by G. R. Keen. East INDIAN RosEWwoopD Loc. Sapicu. Lysiloma Sabicu, Benth. Weight, 60 Ibs. 10 oz. The West Indies. The wood is generally imported in square hewn logs, in all lengths from 8 feet and upwards, ranging from about Io to 28 inches, but secasionally larger logs have been procurable. A cargo was landed at the West India Docks about fifteen years ago (1919), which consisted entirely of square logs of from Io to 36 inches, and which was all most beautifully figured. The best of this was sold and transhipped to America. The wood is of a dull brown colour, and has an exceedingly close, firm, smooth grain. A large proportion of the supplies are very highly figured, and contain both straight and broken roe, which resembles that of Spanish R 242 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD mahogany. The wood is tough and comparatively strong, although, according to Laslett, it is unsuitable for the beams of heavy guns lest it should contain some hidden defect, which he refers to as a cross fracture of a very remarkable kind. This is the cross break which is found to exist so largely in the mahogany of the West Coast of Africa (see p. 127). My own experience of shipments during the last twenty years, however, is that this defect is now rarely found. Sabicu exhibits a peculiarity which is shared by greenheart, in that, when tested for crushing force in the direction of its fibres, it bears the addition of weight after weight without showing any signs of yielding ; but when the crush- ing force is obtained, it gives way suddenly and completely, nothing being left of the pieces but a loose mass of shapeless fibres. Sabicu has very little sap and is a remarkably solid wood. It is characteristic of it that there is an almost complete absence of the heart-, star-, and cup-shakes. It seasons slowly, shrinks but little, and does not split, as do most other woods, while undergoing that process. It also bears exposure to the weather without being in any but the slightest degree affected, even if left without paint or varnish to protect it ; further, it works up well and there is only a trifling loss in its conversion. It therefore has much to recommend it to the favourable notice of the manufacturer. Formerly it was much employed in shipbuilding, where its good qualities gained for it a high reputation ; to this may be attributed the fact that it is frequently specified for purposes where other and possibly less expensive woods would be equally suitable. It has also been used to a very considerable extent by the Ordnance Department for gun carriages and similar work. Till the outbreak of the European war it was considered to be the best wood for saddle-trees, but supplies then failing, substitutes were perforce employed. Amongst these was padauk, and it is doubtful as to whether this is not the more suitable wood of the two. A certain demand exists for the use of sabicu in fine cabinet work, for which the exceeding smoothness of the grain makes it particularly suitable. It is likely that some early work which is supposed to be mahogany is of this wood. Sabicu curls or crotches, although somewhat difficult to obtain, have a very beautiful effect, particularly when employed in conjunction with satinwood, for decorative panels in the Adams and Sheraton styles. Such a combination is often found in the work of these artists. Used thus it has a most artistic appearance, for the lapse of time imparts an attractive and mellow tone to the wood. The pores are scarce and very irregular in size and position; they generally appear in groups, and some are plugged with a bright shining gum (?). The medullary rays are exceedingly fine and numerous; they CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 243 are parallel and equidistant, and are crossed at right angles by thin white lines. All the sections show pretty and delicately marked ripple rays. SaBicu, AFRICAN. Source unknown. West Coast of Africa. A cargo of so-called sabicu was landed in Liverpool about the year 1900. The logs were all hewn square and were of large size, ranging from 18 to 40 inches square, and from 10 to 30 feet in length. Since that date a few odd logs, both square and in the round, have been received at various times. The colour and texture of the wood much resembles that of the West Indian variety, though the grain is more open. The timber is suitable for the same purposes as those to which West Indian sabicu has been applied, and has been so used by the Ordnance Department. Saccopetalum tomentosum, Hook., f., and Th. Weight, 40 Ibs. India. This is a very nice wood, of a light olive-yellow or brown colour, with a very close, firm, hard texture ; it takes a smooth surface from the tool. The radial section is covered with tiny flecks of silver grain caused by the medullary rays. It should be a valuable cabinet wood, as it undoubtedly stands well under all conditions. Troup mentions it as being used for carving, for which it is eminently suitable. The pores are exceedingly small; the medullary rays very strong, broad, and numerous, parallel though not equidistant. Sain. Terminalia tomentosa, W. and A. Weight, 48-71 lbs. (Gamble). India. The colour is dark brown, rather darker than that of American walnut, and bleaches to a greyer tint on exposure; it is often beautifully streaked, and is very handsome when well polished. The grain is close, firm, and hard, rather difficult to saw and plane, but capable of a smooth surface from the tool. The wood has to be seasoned carefully. It is obtainable in large quantities, and “ trees with a clean bole of 50 feet and up to 80 to 100 feet with a girth of 8 to 10 feet are common” (Pearson). This wood has never been imported into the United Kingdom on a com- mercial basis, but supplies on a large scale may now be expected. It is a strong timber, and can be used for all kinds of decorative and furniture work, and especially for panelling and chairs. Mr. R. S. Pearson thinks that burrs are often formed by the rubbing of trees together, and says that this is common to many Indian timbers, but is specially noticeable in T. tomentosa. 244 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Sat. Shorea robusta, Gaert., f. Weight, 55 lbs. (Gamble). Northern and Central India. This very valuable wood, though little known in England, is in very general use in India. The timber is hard and rather cross-grained, of a close texture and light brown colour, with small whitish sap-wood which isnot durable. Gamble writes: ‘ The fibres of alternate belts in the wood on a vertical section running in opposite directions, so that when the wood is dressed a very sharp plane is necessary or it will not get smooth ; does not season well.’’ Quoting Brandis, he continues: ‘‘ The trees Photograph by A, Rodge. Forest OF SHorE4 SP., Upper BurMaA, attain the height of 100 to 150 feet with a clear stem to the first branch of 60 to 8o feet, and a girth of 20 to 25 feet. . . . Asarule it attains to 60 to 8o feet . . . anda girth of 6 to 8 feet.”” In drying, superficial flaws appear and great care is needed, but when thoroughly seasoned it stands almost without a rival for strength, elasticity, and durability. Great difficulty is experienced in getting the timber out of the forests, as it will not float. It is largely used in India for all purposes where durability and elasticity are required, and especially for sleepers. Pearson gives the life of a good sal sleeper as 20 years as compared with 17 to 28 years for teak (Tectona grandis), 20 years for pyinkado (Nyla dolabriformis) CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 245 from Burma, and § months to 64 years for jamba (Xylia dolabriformis) } from Bombay and Madras. The rail does not cut into the sal sleepers even after long use. The spike holes corrode and the spike shakes loose after continual wear. They also rust or corrode, but apparently not more than in the case of teak sleepers, though worse than jarrah. This wood holds the spikes longer and better than others. The wood somewhat resembles the so-called camphor-wood of Borneo (Dryoba- lanops aromatica), but it is harder and heavier, and would give more satisfactory results for strength and durability. It would be a very 7 ae Photo.-Mechl, Dept. Thomason College, Roorkee. SAL ForEsT OF GOOD QuaLity, BENGAL. useful constructive wood in England, and if it could be obtained in regular supplies at a moderate cost its use should be encouraged. For sleepers or longitudinals for railway work it should be most valuable, as its durability is very marked, and the great difficulty experienced in the use of hardwood sleepers—-that of the rail or chair cutting into the wood ——appears, from Pearson’s experience, to be overcome. The pores are of moderate size and are plugged with gum; they often appear in patches. The medullary rays are very fine and clear cut, parallel, and joined at irregular intervals at night angles by faint white lines. 1 Since determined to be a separate species, X. xylocarpa (see Jamba) 246 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD SANDALWoop. Santalum album, Linn. Weight, 55 lbs. India. S. cygnorum, Mig. Western Australia. The wood is of a dull yellow colour, which, exposed to light and air, darkens almost to brown. It has a very close, firm texture, and has a sticky feeling to the touch. The fragrant and aromatic persistent scent is well known, being familiar in the small ornamental fancy-work which has for a long time been imported from India. Troup says that this is ‘the most valuable wood in India, which grows as a parasite on the roots of other plants. [It is] commonest in the native State of Mysore. Thevalue lies in the scented oil contained in the heart-wood. ... There is a considerable industry in the distillation of sandalwood oil from raspings of the heart-wood.’’ He adds that it is a beautiful wood for ornamental turnery. In Australia the extraction of sandalwood is very largely carried on. At present the wood is chiefly obtained from the roots of trees which, many years ago, were destroyed by forest fires. The Honble. J. D. Connolly, now Agent-General for Western Australia, wrote in IgII: ‘ The export of sandalwood to the Far East, where it is used for carving images and for ornamental work, has long been a substantial industry, and in the early days the sandalwood getter was the pioneer of civilisation in many districts.” Dealing with the year 1910-11, he adds that sandal- wood of a value of £69,141 was exported. The pores are exceedingly small and very numerous. The medullary rays also are very fine, and both pores and medullary rays are difficult to distinguish even with the lens (12 x). SANDAN. Ougeinia dalbergioides, Benth. Weight, 55 lbs. (Troup). India. The wood is grey-brown and is often mottled. It is of a hard, close texture and smooth grain, and takes a good polish. It is durable and tough. Gamble says: ‘‘ This very pretty and useful tree is a valuable one in India. . . . It makes excellent furniture. Roxburgh mention’ that the pillars of Maharaja Sindhia’s palace at Oujein are made of it.” The pores are very regular, and form a pretty pattern. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine, well defined, very numerous, parallel and equidistant. SANTA Maria. Calophyllum Calaba, Jacq. Weight, 53 lbs. Central America, This wood is a pale reddish colour. It is moderately hard and has a fine, straight grain; it is somewhat porous. It is generally free from injurious heart- or star-shakes, has few knots, does not shrink much, and scarcely splits at all in seasoning. It is easily worked, and may there- fore be considered a very fair substitute for the plainest Honduras or CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 247 Mexican mahogany. The wood stands exposure to the weather re- markably well. It was at one time used in the royal dockyards in this country, but it has not been seen in commerce for many years. The specific gravity is about the same as Honduras or Mexican mahogany. Sarcocephalus cordatus, Mig. Weight, 35 lbs. India, Burma, Ceylon. The wood is of a light grey-brown, with a soft punky grain. It could not be recommended for works of any importance. The pores, which are not large, are numerous and regular in size and position. The medullary rays are not visible with the lens (12 x). SATINEE. Perhaps Ferolia guianensis, Aubl., or F. variegata, Lam. Weight, 54 Ibs. French Guiana. This valuable highly decorative wood is insufficiently known or appreciated in England, although it was mentioned by Laslett in 1875. In France, however, it has been extensively used, and is highly valued for its unusual qualities. The colour is light red, which bleaches a little and assumes a very bright lustre or sheen, especially when treated with a thin transparent polish in the attractive manner peculiar to the French artist. There is no other wood comparable to it for work in the French Empire style. The nearest approach is perhaps the San Domingo abey (Poeppigia excelsa), but this wood is browner in colour and does not possess the lustre in the same degree. There is always a slightly marked, very narrow shade or roe (caused by the contrary soft and hard grain), which when laid alternate ways adds greatly to the appearance of the panel or cabinet ; thus: The pores are irregular in size and position. The medullary rays, which are very fine, are exceedingly numerous and sharply defined. SATINWOOD, AFRICAN. West Coast of Africa. Under the above name or the names of “ yellow-wood ’’ or “ green- heart ’’ there have been imported from several ports on the West Coast of 248 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Africa a number of logs of varying sizes up to 3 feet square. As to the source of the wood I am incompletely informed. Mr. J. J. Richardson submitted specimen leaves and wood of the tree to the authorities at Kew, who attributed them to a species of Acacia. Mr. Richardson was un- acquainted with the native name of the tree. The wood is greenish-yellow in colour and has a hard, smooth surface. Some is beautifully figured, so that it is valuable for furniture, cabinet work, panelling, brush-backs and the like. The timber should also be useful where strength and a certain amount of elasticity are required. Mr. George Miller has furnished and panelled a handsome room in it at Newberries, Radlett, Hertfordshire. The statement has been made that the wood endangers the health of those who work it, but up to the pre- sent (1919) only one case of illness that could be possibly associated with this timber has been reported, and even in this instance the connection is doubtful. The concentric layers are marked by indistinct dark lines. The pores are regularly distributed, both singly and in pairs. The medullary rays are very fine and close, parallel and irregular; they show on the tangential section. SATINWOOD, ANDAMAN. Murraya exotica, Linn. Weight, 62 lbs. South and West India, Burma, the Andaman Islands. The wood is light yellow, with occasionally greyish streaks. It has been compared to boxwood, but my specimen is quite dissimilar, lacking as it does the even regularity of the colour in that wood. It is sometimes prettily figured, and would be suitable for cabinet work and for walking- sticks, and would be appreciated if it became known in this country. Gamble says that it has been tried for wood-engraving, for which it seems suitable if well seasoned. “Pores very small, sometimes in short radial lines of 2 or 3. Medullary rays very fine, very numerous. Sharp, white, concentric lines, which frequently run into each other, unevenly spaced, roughly about 40 to 50 per inch.’’ (Gamble.) SATINWOOD, East Inp1AN. Chloroxylon Swietenia, DC. Weight, 59 lbs. 8 oz. Ceylon. This timber is indigenous to India, but the East Indian satinwood of commerce is obtained only from Ceylon, the quality and size being superior to the Indian wood. It is imported in round logs from 6 inches in diameter to occasionally as much as 3 feet, and in lengths from 6 to 25 feet, or even longer, the principal imports, however, being about 15 inches and up in diameter. There is a considerable similarity also between the East Indian satinwood and the West Indian (Zanthoxylum), CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 249 but the latter is much the better wood. The East Indian is obtainable in larger widths and longer lengths, and there is a much greater prevalence of figured wood ; and the cost also is less. The logs are very liable to -cup-shakes and gum rings, which show in the butt ends as a thin dark- coloured line following the layer of annual growth, either partly or completely round the tree. These dark gum streaks continue through the log, and wherever they exist there is a liability, and in course of time almost a certainty, that a crack will develop. The logs are also subject to the borings of large grubs which leave holes of from } inch to as much as I inch in size. These occur on the outside of the tree under the bark, and extend from 1 to 3 inches into the log, and reduce the proportion of Pholograph by G. R. East INDIAN SATINWOOD LoGs, CEYLON. convertible wood. It is exceptional to find a plain log, for nearly all yield figured wood—from a simple light and dark coloured streak or stripe, or a broken stripe or roe, to a light and dark coloured broken roe with strong mottle. Some logs are full of brilliantly marked figure, generally of small character. R. S. Troup in some private notes on satinwood, C. Swietenia, says: “ The trade in satinwood is not nearly so important in India as in Ceylon. The tree is very common in parts of the Indian peninsula, the largest out-turn being from the Godaveri district of Madras ; apparently, however, it does not reach such large dimensions asin Ceylon. According to Gamble the cause of ‘ figury ’ wood has been somewhat discussed. Mr. H.S. Hansard in Ceylon Forester (11. 253) main- tains that it is caused by irregular growth from the cambium ; Mr. Armitage in the same paper, that it is caused by the irregular healing 250 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD of wounds in the bark made by the Sambhar deer. I have noticed that where the satinwood grows, the deer tend to rub their antlers more on this tree than on almost any other, owing no doubt to the fact that the bark is highly aromatic.’’ Mr. Troup concludes by doubting whether these are causes of the figury satinwood of commerce. The timber stands well, but its use is more adapted for veneering than for solid work. In India it has been used for many purposes, including wharf piles, agricultural implements, brush-backs, carving and turning, naves and felloes of wheels, anda great variety of different work. The bridge at Peradeniya, near Kandy, in Ceylon, was con- Photograph by G. R. Keen. East InpD1IAN SATINWOOD. structed entirely of this wood. It contained a single arch of over 200 feet span, which has now been taken down. In England its uses have been confined to brush- and mirror-backs, small and large cabinets, and furniture and panelling. For brush-backs it is not comparable with the West Indian, as the wood does not stand the continual washing. A very handsome example of fine East Indian satinwood panelling can be seen at Lyons’ Popular Restaurant, Piccadilly. In very many of the fine examples of satinwood furniture, East Indian wood has been used for linings and cross-banding, for which it is specially suitable. In some cases where it has been introduced for entire panels or table-tops in old furniture, the whole surface will be found to be one series of parallel cracks. Certain specimens of the wood are, however, quite free from this defect, and of late years it has become customary to use it more than the West Indian. It varies in colour more than the last-named, being of CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 251 all shades from a bright yellow to a dark brown, sometimes of a warm golden colour, with a satiny lustre. The wood possesses the same scent as the West Indian though in a diminished degree. The concentric layers show in 2 similar manner to the West Indian (Zanthoxylum), except that there is a greater variety in the lighter and darker streaks. The pores are very regular and evenly distributed and the medullary rays Clearly defined, parallel, and joined at irregular intervals by similar white lines running at right angles. In all respects except colouring it is remarkably similar to, and has all the characteristics of, the West Indian wood. erties aos Photograph by G. R. Keen. A VERY FINE LoG oF FiGuRED East INDIAN SATINWOOD, 18 FEET BY 9 FEET IN GIRTH. The figure can be clearly seen on the butt end. SATINWOOD, WEST INDIAN. Zanthoxylum sp. Weight, 51 lbs. 13 02. The West Indies. The finest satinwood, both in quality and colour, has been imported from Porto Rico, but supplies of good-sized logs have almost ceased, and most of the best wood of late has come from San Domingo. A small number of logs of good quality and colour have come from another island recently, the origin being kept secret for trade reasons. Small-sized wood of good quality and colour has been obtained from Jamaica in limited quantities. This very beautiful, decorative cabinet wood was appreciated at an early date by the most artistic furniture designers and makers, who have left to posterity a great many magnificent specimens of their art executed 252 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD mostly, if not wholly, in West Indian satinwood. Adams, Sheraton, and Hepplewhite have all stamped this wood with their art and their art with this wood. The work has sometimes been varied by the use of band- ings or linings and, in a few instances, with whole panels of other de- corative woods. Satinwood and sabicu produce a happy combination of colour which particularly suits this type of furniture. Probably even these great artists never imagined that the colour of the wood that they used would mature to such a lovely tint as that assumed by satinwood after 100 or 150 years. This is a golden-yellow rose colour with a bright, satiny sheen which cannot be obtained by any artificial means, or equalled by any other wood. The logs range in size from about 7 inches to 24 inches in diameter, and are generally manufactured in oblong pieces with nearly square edges. Occasionally some are found even larger, but anything over 18 inches is now very rare. I have a beautifully figured piece composing a table top, which measures 284 inches wide by 4 feet long, and is all cut on the quarter, entirely free from heart. This was probably from a log grown all on one side, but which even then must have been fully 4 feet in diameter and probably more. The plainer logs are used for such work as sides, rails, styles, and mouldings, and for legs of cabinets ; while a very small number of figured logs are also used for ornamental brush- and mirror-backs. Nearly all the figured wood is converted into veneers for highly decorative furniture and panelling. Such logs command very high prices indeed, the record being about {18 per cubic foot for a squared log, and {150 per ton for a root of Porto Rico wood. Of late years a considerable number of roots of trees have been brought from Porto Rico, most of which have been used for ornamental brush- and mirror- backs; a few, however, have provided some magnificently figured specimens of veneers, about 20 to 30 inches long, and ranging from about 8 inches in the narrower to 15 inches in the broader parts. These irregularly shaped pieces, when matched up, form very handsome table tops and panels. The colour of the Porto Rico wood is usually richer than that of other varieties, although some of the logs imported from the unknown source have equalled the best Porto Rico wood. Generally, however, all other varieties are of a paler shade. The colour continues to deepen and improve with exposure. There is a strong and pleasant scent in the wood which resembles that of coconut-oil. Logs kept for a considerable time are liable to split with heavy side shakes, but when converted this risk disappears, and in this respect the wood shows a marked superiority over East Indian satinwood (Chloroxylon Swietenia). The medullary rays are strongly marked, and are uneven and irregular, showing slightly on the radial section as in sycamore. They are joined “May MD hq ydvsSop04cI "NOTA D *sS0T GOOMNILYS isa) ia 254 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD at right angles by somewhat similar white lines, making an uneven oblong pattern of various sizes. The pores are scattered, numerous, and fairly regular ; they are generally filled with gum. Schima Wallichit, Choisy. Weight, 44 lbs. India, Burma. This wood is reddish, fairly hard and tough, durable but apt to shrink and split unless carefully seasoned. The tree is fairly common, and a good quantity of timber can be obtained in squares 25 feet x Io inches x Io inches. It is suitable for such work as bridges, building, and planking. Schrebera swietenioides, Roxb. Weight, 57 lbs. (Gamble). India. This wood is described by Troup as “ brownish-grey, hard, close- grained, no definite heart-wood, but irregular masses of purple or claret- coloured wood in the centre, and scattered throughout the tree; durable and of good quality. Used for ploughs, weavers’ looms, utensils ; possible substitute for boxwood for engraving.” My specimen, taken from a trunk sent over specially, is, however, a uniform yellowish-brown colour, like a rather dull satinwood (Chloroxylon Swietenia). There is no trace in the log of any other colour. The wood is smooth and close-grained, but it is not, however, according to the specimen to which I have referred, suitable for engraving, as Troup suggests. It should rather be employed for cabinet and decorative work, for which its artistic appearance would recommend it. The pores are regular and small. The medullary rays are also regular, parallel, and unusually thick, showing plainly to the naked eye on the transverse section. SEQUOIA. Seguota sempervirens, Endl. Weight, 25 Ibs. 5 oz. Southern Oregon to Central California. This timber is called sequoia in England and redwood in America. It should not be confounded with the timber of the big tree (Sequoia gigantea), which is not generally known in commerce. The trees are of immense size, and yield exceedingly wide planks, which if necessary can be obtained up to, or possibly over, 6 feet in width. When the merits of this wood are considered, it seems strange that the demand is not more general. It can be obtained free from defect in larger sizes than any other timber, is easily worked, capable of a smooth surface from the tool, stands exceedingly well, is of an agreeable colour, and very durable both indoors and where exposed to the weather, and it can be procured at low cost. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 255 The colour is a dull brick-red, deepening and improving in tone with age and exposure. The timber is generally straight-grained, and similar in its style of marking to that of most pines, but it is possible to find trees possessing curly and wavy figure, and sometimes having burrs. Some of the colour can be washed out of the wood if it is exposed to the rain and wet, as with African padauk; and Gibson says: ‘‘ This colouring matter, when washed out in large amounts in the process of paper-making, has been manufactured into fuel gas.” Although soft, the timber dulls the edge of the tool, and its uses are those in which hardwoods are usually employed. It splits easily, but so does the hardest oak. It makes very good and handsome panelling, and is not too soft for this purpose. It is strong enough to be used in America for shingles, all sorts of joinery work, sleepers for railways, and paving blocks. In all these it is satisfactory, and the wood is so strong and durable that, according to Gibson, when the sleepers are worn out the rejected worn ties (sleepers) are gathered up by thousands and used for fence posts. It is deceptive in regard to its qualities of seasoning. However long it may have been drying, the wood, when cut, gives the impression that it is not properly seasoned, yet with less period allowed for drying than might be expected to be necessary it has been found to stand in places where other timbers would have failed. A short time ago some work was required to be carried out in sequoia, and it was found that wood seasoned for any length of time was unobtainable. The work had to be completed with wood which the workmen did not consider to be seasoned, yet it was found that no shrinkage occurred, although part of the work included a mantelpiece and overmantel of a fireplace, where even thoroughly seasoned wood of other sorts will sometimes fail. It has been used extensively for shipbuilding work, for fittings and pattern- making. The late Mr. Wilberforce Bryant had a much-admired room at Stoke Poges panelled with sequoia. As it is not liable to shrink, and is obtainable in very wide widths, it is very suitable for signboards and panels of all sorts. Reference is made elsewhere to the common idea that all timbers, if used for decorative work, should be french polished, and perhaps the fact that this wood does not take kindly to polish is one of the reasons that it has not been more commonly used. If, however, the work is treated instead in a way suitable to its appear- ance, very satisfactory results can be obtained. The wood has been recommended for pencil-making. There is no evidence to show whether it has given satisfactory results, but it would be desirable to make experiments, as a substitute for pencil cedar (Juniperus virginiana) is much required. The annual rings are clearly marked by a dark band of stronger grain, and are very irregular. The tree generally makes large growth in 256 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD early life, growing more slowly at a later period; the annual growth in both early and later life varying considerably from year to year. The medullary rays are clearly marked, and are parallel on the transverse section. They stand out from the soft grain, giving, with the concentric layer, somewhat the appearance of a miniature honeycomb. When cut on the quarter, these concentric rings appear like thin red stripes, much darker than the general colour, and the medullary rays are strongly marked, as in the plane tree. The open pores shine brightly all over the surface with specks of gum. SERAYAH. Hopea sp., or Shorea leprosula, Miq., or S. parvifolia, Dyer. Weight, 22 lbs. 2 0z. Malay Peninsula, Borneo. The product of this tree has been imported from the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and from Singapore, mostly in sawn square planks and boards, and a few logs hewn square. The converted pieces have been cut out free from all defect, and the wood has been called by a variety of names such as East Indian mahogany and East Indian cedar, as well as by its proper name of serayah. It is light in weight, and so similar in colour and appearance to Gaboon mahogany (Boswellia Klaineana) that individual pieces when planed can hardly be distin- guished from it by the naked eye. The section end, however, shows some degree of difference. A considerable variation has been found in different shipments in texture, quality, and weight, but it is all very liable to warp and twist, and this timber should never be used in any position where it is not fixed and tied down. It is a good substitute for mahogany in cheap work, or for cheap cigar-boxes, but the grain is of a woolly, spongy nature, and it is difficult and costly to obtain a smooth finish from the tool. The annual layers are strongly defined, the pores are irregularly placed and uneven in size. The medullary rays are confused and ill-defined, but show very strongly on the radial section as in sycamore and beech. SERVICE-TREE. Pyrus torminalis, Ehrh. Weight, 39 lbs. 13 oz. Europe, North America. The wood is hard and close-grained, with a smooth texture, and is of a yellowish-red with lighter coloured streaks. Elwes and Henry say it ‘is unknown as a timber tree in the trade, owing to its scarcity. Evelyn says that ‘ the timber of the sorb is useful to the joiner, of which I have seen a room curiously wainscotted ; also to the engraver of wood- cuts, and for most that the wild pear tree serves.’ ” The numerous pores, which are very small, are quite regular. The medullary rays are hardly discernible even with the aid of the magnify- ing lens (12 x). CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 257 SHE-OAK. Casuarina Fraseriana, Miq. Weight, 52 lbs. Western Australia. ; The colour of this wood is a light reddish-yellow ; it has a smooth, hard texture which is somewhat comparable with live oak. The medullary rays show very strongly in a series of large-sized flecks or splashes. It is a handsome wood for decorative cabinet work, and was so used rather extensively in this country during the latter part of the nineteenth century. For many years, however, there has been no import on a commercial basis. Lane-Poole says that “‘ it splits well and was used almost exclusively in the early days of the colony [sic] for roofing shingles. A shingle taken from one of the first erected houses in Perth (after eighty-three years’ use) was found to be in a splendid state of preservation.” SHIRA-GASHI. Quercus Vibrayeana, Fr. and Sav. Japan, Formosa. According to Goto “ the several varieties of kashi (oak) are the most widely distributed of the broad-leaved evergreens.’”’ Ubame-gashi (Quercus phyllireoides, A. Gr.) ‘‘ is white with a shade of yellow, and the hardest and heaviest of all timbers produced in Japan. Is used in house-building where hardness and strength are required, but the chief use is in charcoal-making.”” The same author classes Ichii-gashi (Quercus gilva, Bl.), Shira-gashi (Q. Vibrayeana, Fr. and Sav.), Aka-gashi (Q. acuta, Thunb.), in the same category with Ubame-gashi. The European supply of Japanese oak is produced almost exclusively from Q. grosseserrata and Q. crispula (see page 192), with a very small supplement of Q. glandultfera, Bl. Shira-gashi is a hard, very dense,’ close-grained timber. The colour is a warm brick-red with dark streaks, not unlike the rich red colour of some British brown oak. It is somewhat like American red oak (Q. rubra), though browner and of a more pleasing tone. The texture of grain and appearance of the medullary rays are exactly similar to the European evergreen oak, as also is the characteristic liability to diagonal splits. The wood resembles that of Q. gilva, except that it is even harder and heavier. None of the above species named—that is, of evergreen oaks— has ever been imported on a commercial basis. The pores are small and very scarce, nearly always following an irregular single line. The medullary rays are very numerous, and stand out thick and conspicuous to the naked eye. They are crossed at right angles by exceedingly fine parallel lines (? of parenchyma). SICUPIRA AMARELLA. Bowdichia nitida. Brazil. This is described in Brazilian Woods as ‘“‘ a wood of the first quality for framework and building.” Ss 258 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Sissoo. Dalbergia Sissoo, Roxb. Weight, 48 lbs. India. The timber of sissoo is probably unknown to any but those possessing an intimate knowledge of India and its forest wealth. Yet sissoo is one of the most valuable of timbers, and in its qualities practically unique. The grain is so remarkable that the native craftsman can work the most delicate and intricate carving to a depth which the European would probably believe to be impossible of achievement in any wood. The native princes in India possess works of this character which would astonish the craftsmen of this country who have not previously been familiar with the wood and the native workmanship. The colour is a rich warm brown, sometimes having golden or deeper brown streaks, and darkening on exposure. The texture is firm, hard, and compact. It is very strong and durable, and seasons well without warping, twisting, or splitting, while it takes a beautiful polish. It is extensively used in India for a variety of purposes. Gamble says: ‘‘ As a furniture wood and for carving, it is probably the finest wood in India ; while with regard to its durability and strength as a wood for wheels, Clifford says: ‘ The wheels of our ordnance carriages have never failed, however arduous or lengthened the service has been on which they have been employed, of which no more striking example can be furnished than the campaign in Afghanistan, about the most trying country in the world for wheels. Some of our batteries served throughout the campaign, went to Bameean and even to the Hindoo Koosh, and came back again to India without a breakdown, while Royal Artillery wheels, built of the very best materials Woolwich could produce, specially for Indian service, almost fell to pieces after a few months’ exposure and service on the plains of India.’”’ Sissoo gives a very handsome appear- ance when used for parquet flooring. If a regular supply of this timber were forthcoming it would become an assured success. The pores are scarce, the larger connecting with a ring of smaller, and making a handsome ripple pattern on the transverse grain. The medullary rays are very fine, numerous, and parallel, and are crossed at right angles by similar white lines. SNAKEWOOD. Brosimum Aubleti, Sw. Weight, 77-83 lbs. (Stone and Freeman). British Guiana. This is also called letter-wood. It is imported in short round logs from about 3 to 6 feet long and about 3 to 7 inches in diameter with the sap-wood cut off. The wood is very hard, dense, and close-grained, and is rather brittle ; it is generally of a faulty description, and supplies are growing more scarce. The colour of the heart-wood is a deep bright red, which darkens on exposure. It is more or less marked with dark or black CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 259 rings and spots, which, resembling the marking of a snake, accounts for its name. It is principally valued for use for walking-sticks, well- marked pieces suitable for this purpose realising, especially in Paris and New York, very high prices. It is also used for handles of umbrellas and parasols, for inlay work, bows for archery, and fiddle bows. The sap-wood is of a bright light yellow colour, and Stone (Timbers of Commerce), suggests that it might be used as a substitute for boxwood. So far, however, the sap-wood has not been imported. In a private note B. Bradley speaks of letter-wood as being a different species, ‘‘ not so good.” The pores are very scarce and exceedingly small. The medullary rays are numerous and variable; some which are very sharp and pro- minent have fine, small secondary rays running between them. SNAKEWOOD, INDIAN. Sirychnos colubrina, Linn., and S. Nux-vomica, Linn. India. These woods are not important, and are not encountered in ordinary commerce in the United Kingdom. SNEEZEWOOD. FPteroxylon utile, Eck. and Z. Weight, 65-75 Ibs. South Africa. This wood, valuable as it is for its great durability, is so fully appreciated and utilised in its native country that it is unlikely ever to have much commercial importance in the United Kingdom. In common with some other timbers, though in sneezewood probably in a greater degree than any, the dust from the wood causes sneezing, which is, of course, the origin of the name. SopHora. Sophora japonica, Linn. China, Japan. This wood is known in Japan as yen-ju or en-ju, and has a close, firm, hard texture with a somewhat interlocked grain. Elwes and Henry say that “‘ the wood, according to Shirasawa, differs remarkably in the colour of the heart-wood and sap-wood. It is tough and durable, though light and coarse-grained ; and the annual layers are marked by broad bands of open cells. In Japan it is used for the pillars and frames of their wooden houses.” Spondias mangifera, Pers. The Hog Plum. Weight, 26 Ibs. India, Burma, Ceylon, Andaman Islands. This is a soft and spongy greyish-white wood, of which one of the vernacular names is ‘‘tongrong.’’ The timber is of little, if any, com- mercial value. 260 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Spruce. Picea excelsa, Link. Weight, 36 lbs. 6 oz. Europe, Canada, United States. This timber, if imported from the Baltic, is called ‘‘ white fir,” “ white deal,’”’ or ‘“‘ white,”” but if from Canada or the United States, the name “spruce” is used. It would be preferable to use the correct term “spruce ” for the produce of all these countries. The wood is white, and straight and even in the grain; it is tough, elastic, and light, and more difficult to work than pine, chiefly owing to the excessive hardness of the small knots which are frequently found in it. These are generally blackish, or they are surrounded by a black ring, and often form the only means of distinguishing the wood from the so-called ‘‘ yellow deal’ (Pinus sylvestris). The Baltic spruce is milder and easier to work than the Canadian or American ; some of the latter is exceedingly tough and hard to saw and plane. When cut into deals it is somewhat disposed to warp, unless it is carefully stacked in the places where it is stored during the process of seasoning. The shrinkage is inconsiderable and the sap-wood, though generally only of moderate thickness, is rarely noticeable, while if it is distinguishable, the reason generally is that the timber has been allowed to get rain-wet before drying. ‘The trees are generally straight, and being strong, as well as elastic, they are admirably suited for making the small spars required for ships and boats. They are also in great request for ladders and scaffold poles. The timber is useful for all kinds of interior joiners’ work, and in‘ the simpler forms of furniture and articles of domestic offices, such as cup- boards and tables. For these purposes the only objection is that, not- withstanding the use of the best varnish or paint, the mark of the hand- or machine-plane shows through more than in the yellow deal, or other similar woods. For timbering work indoors its life is probably slightly less than that of yellow deal. In this connection it may be remarked that it is strange that whereas architects and engineers will not allow its use for this work in London or the south of England, it is common to specify and use it in Liverpool, the north-west districts, and in Scotland. For constructive work out of doors, however, or where strength is re- quired, it should not be used, as when exposed to the variations of the weather it soon decays ; on one occasion the collapse of a large staging, constructed in this wood, formed to seat people to witness a ceremony, resulted in considerable casualties. Used as sleepers, spruce has proved to be quite satisfactory.. A letter from Mr. E. Trench, of the London & North Western Railway, dated July 23, 1919, reads: “... the sleepers... were laid in the Ingleton 1 Branch in 1886 and 1887, and the great majority of them are 1 Yorkshire. CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 261 still on the road. These sleepers were invoiced as “‘ spruce,” and prob- ably many of them were spruce, but I am not in a position to say that they all were, and it is difficult now to identify the timber. They were purchased from the Duke of Buccleuch, and were grown in Dumfriesshire.” The concentric layers are clearly marked by a dark ring. It is impos- sible to see either pores or medullary rays under the lens (12 x), but the rays show very finely as faint flecks on the radial section. Spruce, HEMLocK. Tsuga canadensis, Carr. Weight, 36 lbs. Eastern North America. Gibson describes the wood as follows: ‘‘ The wood of hemlock is soft, light, not strong, coarse and crooked grained, difficult to work, liable to windshake, splinters badly, not durable. The colour of hemlock heart-wood is light brown, tinged with red, often nearly white. The sap-wood is darker. . . . The physical characteristics of hemlock are nearly all unfavourable, yet it has become a useful and widely used wood. It is largely manufactured into coarse lumber and used for outside work— railway ties, joists, rafters, laths, etc. It is rarely used for inside finishing owing to its brittle and splintery character. Clean boards made into panels or similar work, and finished in the natural colour, often present a very handsome appearance, owing to the peculiar pinkish tint of the wood ripening and improving with age. With the growing scarcity of white and Norway pine, hemlock has become the natural substitute for these woods for many purposes. . . . In 1910 hemlock lumber was cut in twenty-one States, the total output exceeding 2,500,000,000 feet. “‘Hemlock possesses remarkable holding power on nails and spikes, and that is one reason for its large use for railway ties. It does not easily split, and there is no likelihood that spikes will work loose ; but the wood decays quickly in damp situations, and unless given preservative treat- ment, hemlock ties do not ‘last long. Manufacturers of boxes and crates use much hemlock. The wood is also employed by car builders, manu- facturers of refrigerators and farm implements, but the largest demand comes from those who use the rough lumber. ‘‘The summer wood of the annual ring is conspicuous, and the thin medullary rays are numerous.” Spruce, HIMALAYAN. Picea Morinda, Link. Weight, 31 lbs. India. The wood of this tree greatly resembles that of the European spruce, and contains the same well-known black knots. While its commercial value is not at the present time very great, yet the Indian supplies fill an important place in the reserves for the future needs of the Empire. The concentric layers form a grain which is comparable with that of the cedar, though this wood is probably of a milder nature. 262 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD SPRUCE, JAPANESE. Abies Mariesii, Mast.; and Picea ajanensis, Fisch. Japan. There are two varieties of wood which have been described as Japanese spruce. According to information which has been received, all the shipments landed in England have consisted of two varieties only. These are ‘‘ Todo Matsu”’ (Abies Marvtesii, Mast.), and ‘‘ Yezo Matsu ”’ (Picea ajanensis, Fisch.). Both of these are considered to be spruce, and to correspond with the European spruce. There has nevertheless been found mixed with these shipments a variety which bears a closer resemblance to red Baltic pine—the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), but which it is possible may be Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora, 5, and Z.). The confusion which has arisen was caused by the fact that the information regarding these shipments stated that they did not include any red pine. It is estimated that theré is an annual supply of 750,000 tons of this Japanese spruce; that is, 500,000 tons of ‘‘ Todo Matsu”’ and 250,000 tons of “‘ Yezo Matsu.” SPRUCE, SILVER. Picea sitchensis, Carr. Western Canada, United States. This timber is produced from enormous trees of great length and girth, which rank high amongst the giants of the forest, comparing even with the lofty eucalypts of Australia. Notwithstanding the fact that the timber is close-grained, remarkably free from knots and, relatively to its weight, stronger. than any other timber procurable, yet before the European war it was scarcely known outside its own country. Indeed the only use to which it was put in the United Kingdom was the limited quantity purchased annually by the navy for making long oars, a pur- pose which required a timber of this character free from knots. During the war a dramatic change occurred, for owing to the sudden demand for great quantities for the manufacture of aircraft, the value suddenly rose to ten times, or even more, that of its pre-war price. It was subsequently discovered that the supplies were the product of a number of different botanical species, including even Oregon pine (Pseudotsuga Douglasii). Enquiry ensued, which resulted in the estab- lishment of the British Engineering Standards Association. Under this Association a committee was appointed which decided the specifica- tions for all the timber required for aircraft material. The silver spruce used was to be of the above species, while the first qualities of any of the following woods were admitted as approved substitutes : Quebec spruce (Picea alba and P. ingra, Link.). White Sea white deal (P. excelsa, Link.). White Sea red deal (Pinus sylvestris, Linn.). CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 263 West Virginia spruce (Picea rubens, Sarg.). Port Orford cedar (Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana, Murr.). New Zealand kauri (Agathis [Dammara] Australis, Salisb.). Canadian white pine (Pinus Strobus, Linn.). Oregon pine (Pseudotsuga Douglasii, Carr.). Since the war, however, the Association has, by a concensus of opinion decided that in future no substitutes shall be allowed, and silver spruce (Picea sitchensis) only is to be employed. Stephegyne parvifolia, Korth. Weight, 45 lbs. India, Burma, Ceylon. Gamble reports this wood as being a light pinkish-brown, hard and even-grained, and very similar to Adina cordifolia. In India it is used for building and furniture, but it has not yet been seen in European commerce. Stereospermum chelonoides, DC. Weight, 40-59 lbs. . India. This is a hard wood of a grey colour, though it has been described as an orange yellow. It is moderately durable, elastic, and easy to work, and is suitable for furniture. ’ , _ “ Pores moderately sized and large, joined by narrow, irregular, wavy, interrupted belts and lines of soft tissue. Pores frequently filled with a white substance of a resinous nature, which is prominent on a vertical section. Medullary rays short, wavy, moderately broad, numerous, pro- minent on a radial section as long, narrow, horizontal bands ”’ (Gamble). Stereospermum xylocarpum. Weight, 36-47 lbs. (Gamble). India. The colour of this wood is nut-brown with a glint of orange in it. The grain is close and firm. It would be suitable for decorative and cabinet work. Gamble says: ‘‘ The wood is good and handsome; it is tough and elastic and takes a good polish . . . and deserves to be better known, and to be in more general use.” The pores are regular and numerous. The medullary rays are very fine, regular, parallel, and equidistant. STRINGY-BARK. Eucalyptus obliqua, L’Hérit. Weight, 63 Ibs. Tas- mania. This timber is of a light brown colour, much resembling English oak. It is strong, and capable of a good surface from the tool, and is used in constructional work of all kinds. It has been employed in England for a close park fence, with post and rails, and has stood the weather for twenty-one years (1919) above ground certainly as well as, and perhaps better than, English oak. Its condition is as good and sound as when first erected, and the wood is much harder. The posts in the ground, however, as well as a portion of the gravel board, have all become rotten. It does not seem, therefore, to be very durable under ground. Great 264 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD difficulty was experienced in the erection, for, as it was found impossible to drive nails, the holes had first to be bored in the wood. Stringy-bark is exceedingly difficult to season, and shrinks unevenly, the heart-wood apparently contracting more than the outer growth. For example, a plank sawn to an exact thickness of 3 x II inches has, when thoroughly dried, been found to be nearly 4 inch less on one edge than on the other. Photograph by permission of Messrs. J. Bartram & Son, Melbourne. PHOTOGRAPH OF THE TIMBER SHEDS, WeEsT InNDrIa Docks, ON SEPTEMBER 1903. Showing the stacks of Tasmanian Hardwoods ex ‘‘Runic,” after the disastrous fire there that destroyed eleven acres of stacked timber. These hardwoods were the only woods that resisted the fire. The view shows them lying in the ashes of other timbers. Kk. C. Richardson, in his report on Tasmanian Timbers (p. 10) says: “ After twenty-six years’ experience I have found stringy-bark to be admirably adapted for piles, some of which have been in the wharves for thirty years, and are in very fair condition.’” Quoting Mr. J. Fincham, M Inst.C.E., he continues, ‘‘ Tasmanian blue gum and stringy- bark are the standard timbers for all Government works—blue gum is the heavier and stronger, but stringy-bark is generally preferred as being more free in working and more easily obtainable. . . . The usual life of this timber in bridges is from twenty to twenty-five years ’ CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 265 sleepers average about fourteen years, and none of the Government railway buildings, some of which were built twenty-seven years ago (1903) chiefly of this timber, has yet been renewed. .. . It is specially suited for wood paving. It is preferable to jarrah, being quite as durable, gives a better surface, and is also lighter in weight. Given equal conditions, stringy-bark blocks will wear out.two sets of the deal or beech [?] blocks which are largely used in European cities. Stringy- bark blocks do not polish under traffic, but give a good foothold for horses. Paving in this wood of the roadways of the Hobart Market building, laid in 1853, are still doing duty.” The pores are variable in size, and are arranged in groups, some are plugged with gum. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine, parallel and close together, generally equidistant ; they are irregularly joined at right angles by very faint lines of a similar character. Suci. Cryptomeria japonica, Don. Weight, 30 lbs. Japan, Formosa. This is a strong reliable timber, having the characteristic marking found in Oregon pine, pitch pine, cypress, and sequoia, of which timbers it most resembles the last named—though it is much harder and firmer in the grain, and is of a dull nut-brown colour. The dark and light streaks of brown and yellow form a wavy pattern, and the bright spots of gum sparkle and give the wood a slightly lustrous gloss. A certain quantity of this wood has been buried and, according to Goto, undergone carboni- fication, making the colour a still deeper brown. It possesses all the qualities requisite for making good and durable work of all sorts. It has not yet been imported into the United Kingdom on a commercial basis. The concentric layers are strongly marked by light and dark rings, the growth being very slow and layers small. The pores are very scarce and small, and although plugged, do not show the gum on the grain end. On the tangential section they show as an abundance of-exceedingly fine parallel lines. The medullary rays are very fine but clearly marked. SunpRi. Heritiera minor, Roxb. Weight, 67 lbs. (Troup). India. This wood is brownish to dark-red in colour; very hard and close grained, elastic, strong, and durable. It is one of the timbers mentioned in Mr. Gamble’s list as being likely to be available in fair quantities. In connection with its durability Mr. F. I. Dalton, extra-assistant Conservator of Forests, cites instances (in India) of rough trimmed posts placed in water-logged soil, within reach of the tide, having lasted thirteen years, and of posts placed in a somewhat more elevated, though very damp situation, having lasted for eighteen years. The timber is 266 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD extensively used in boat-building. There is a standard market for it in Calcutta, where it is in demand. SycaMoRE. Acer Pseudoplatanus, Linn. Weight, 38 lbs. 9 oz. Europe. The name sycamore is the term used in England for the wood of the maple, to which in Scotland the name plane tree is applied. The term sycamore is strangely misused in England for the produce of Acer Pseudo- platanus, which should correctly be described as maple, whereas the produce of Acet campestre, Linn., which should be called sycamore, is named maple. The reverse method, which is correct, is employed in America. The wood, which has a close, firm, tough grain, is a pale whitish- yellow. After exposure to the air it becomes whiter, but when this exposure is continued the wood again inclines to its original yellow shade. Although its qualities should have recommended it for more general use, yet it has of late years been chiefly in demand for veneers. Some of these have been of the wood in its natural condition, especially when the tree has displayed a figury nature. More generally, however, the wood has been stained a silver-grey colour, by the process described in the section on artificial harewood (qg.v.). Another important use for syca- more is for the manufacture of large rollers for washing and other machines of various kinds. It has also been effectively used for flooring. The State staircase or main gangway for State occasions, for the use of the King and Queen on His late Majesty King Edward’s steam yacht, was made of sycamore. It was much used in marquetry in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Although perhaps it may be said that every kind of tree has its proper time for being felled, and no other is so good, yet this is especially applic- able to sycamore. The reason is that the colour is of so great importance in this wood, and it is only possible to obtain the desired result by felling immediately the sap has ceased to flow. It is also essential that the tree should be converted as soon as possible after felling. The pores are fairly numerous, and irregularly placed. The medullary rays show as distinct white lines. The concentric circles are clearly visible with the naked eye. TaLLow Woop. Eucalyptus microcorys, F. v. M. Weight, 59 lbs. 8 oz. Australia. The wood of this tree is hard in texture and has a rough grain running in different ways, and it therefore requires a very sharp tool to produce asmooth surface. It is a dull yellow-brown colour, with rather a golden tint, and sometimes presents a pretty figured appearance. When cut, CATALOGUE OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 267 it has a somewhat greasy, clammy feeling to the hand. It is very liable to split and crack in seasoning, developing a number of shakes or fractures across the grain, which never permanently close. In this country it is exceedingly difficult to season, and during the process it displays uneven shrinkage, inclining to twist, so that the surface will have hollow places where one part of the grain has shrunk more than another. In Australia it is used for many purposes, including spokes, felloes, and flooring, and it is said to be durable under all conditions. It has been used largely for wood pavements in Australia, and is reported upon by the Hon. H. B. Lefroy (Western Australian Hard-woods), as being one of the numerous woods which are eminently suited for wood paving. It has not, however, shown satisfactory results for the same purpose in London, as the grain is too hard and irregular. Only a limited supply has been available in England, and there is not yet much prospect of further development. The pores are numerous and irregular, and are generally plugged. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine and close, parallel and irregu- larly placed. Tamarack. Larix americana, Mich. Weight, 38 Ibs. (Hough). North America. This, the American larch, somewhat resembles the European wood in colour and texture, though it is perhaps tougher and harder. It is used in that country for much the same purposes as those for which European larch is valued. Hough describes the wood as being of a light orange-brown colour, with thin lighter sap-wood, and says that it is valued for railway ties, posts, planks, and lumber for interior finishing. In addition to these uses, Gibson mentions that ‘“‘ boat-builders use tamarack for floors, keels, stringers, and knees. Fence posts and telegraph poles come in large numbers from tamarack forests. . . . [The wood is] also made into boxes, pails, tanks, tubs, and windmills.” Tapanc. Koompassia excelsa (Becc.), Taub. Weight, 76 lbs. 14 oz. Borneo. This is a very dense, hard, heavy wood, strong but brittle. The colour ranges from bright to dark red, becoming almost black with age and exposure to light and air. It is often marked with a dark and light grain with some mottle, and shows the medullary rays on the tangential section as in beech, but finer. In Borneo, the large pieces are used in solid planks of from 2 to 24 inches thick for tables and bedsteads, also for paddles, and pans for washing gold. Beccari, in Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo (p. 269), writes: “The most valuable things in this house 268 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD were immense planks of beautiful wood used for squatting on by chiefs holding councils, and also as beds. They were of a very hard, close- grained wood of a deep red colour, taking a beautiful polish, and to my thinking, finer and superior in quality to the best mahogany. The plank on which I laid my ‘ tilang’ or bedding was over 2 inches thick, 8 feet in Jength, and 6 in width.” These huge planks—he also quotes Mr. St. John as speaking of two planks 10 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 6 inches, and 15 feet by 9 feet—are hewn out with axes, without the use of any saws, from the huge buttresses of these enormous trees, which, in a fluted manner, or, as Beccari describes it, in “ great laminar projec- tions,’ soar upwards from the butt. They are hewn out of the trunk as if it were a rock, without cutting the tree down, and apparently without doing it any injury. Dr. Hose brought back from Borneo many such tapang planks, and some which had been shaped by the natives, with the axe only, to a beautiful smooth polished surface which the European finds it hard to believe has been worked with no other tool. This handsome wood has, till recently, been unknown commercially in England. It has been used lately for violin bows, so far with good results. The pores are scarce, rather large, and plugged with a bright glistening gum. The medullary rays are clear and fine, but very irregular and unusually rounded. They are joined at right angles by somewhat similar light lines strongly defined, and giving, especially on the tangential surface, a marked likeness to a spider’s web. There is also a beautiful ripple mark on all sections, which, coupled with the somewhat metallic lustre of the wood, gives, when finely worked, a very good appearance. TAPINHOAN. Silvia navalium, Fr. Allem. Weight, 55 Ibs. Brazil. This is a light straw-coloured wood with a firm, hard, even texture and close grain. A feature of this wood is its uniform regularity of colour. It resembles the canella tapinhoan, also of Brazil, but is of a better character, and is likely to find more uses. It is reported as being used in Brazil for building canoes and boats, and largely in cooperage works for barrel staves, as well as for naval and civil construction. There are many uses to which it could be advantageously put in the United Kingdom, and particularly it might be employed in the brush trade. The pores are numerous, but very small. The medullary rays are very obscure, and can only just be discerned with a magnifying glass (12x). TARAIRE. Betlschmiedia Tarairi, Benth. and Hook. f. New Zealand. The New Zealand Board of Agriculture describes this as of a ‘‘ reddish- brown colour, remarkably straight in the grain, close, but rather brittle, 269 TI Photograph by A. Rodger, ONE OF THE OLDEST TEAK PLANTATIONS IN BURMA, MADE IN 1864 ELEPHANTS MOVI TEAK LoG BEING EXTRAC’ 270 Photograph by A, Boyd. NG TEAK Loos, Photograph by A. Boyd. ED IN A BUFFALO CaRT. Photograph by R. S. Troup. NILAMBUR TEAK PLANTATIONS. Tree with man at base, 7 feet 8 inches in girth. 272 “4aspoy “py Aq ydvadojoyg ‘VNNNG YIMOT ‘saaNL NVAT ONNOR T2 273 ELEPHANTS L TEAK TIMBER 274 Photograph by A. Boyd. IADING TEAK. Photograph by A. Boyd. N THE Forest. 275 Rodger Photcgraph by < & < fa) a & z Pas 3 st i | | | ae - | TaBLE XII. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. ip iro. \ No. ro. | No. rr. | No. 12. | No. 13. | No. 14. No. 15. Total. Average. Ditto on | = rsquare | Tons. | Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. ' Tons. | inch. | Z 1 \ t IO°I25 10°00 : 10°75 | 10°50 10°25 | 10°375 | 62°00 | 107333 27583 | cries i = wale Tere ie Scie F=250820. S=1032. LASLETT’S TABLES 333 TaBLeE XIII.—GREENHEART (DEMERARA). Transverse Experiments. Deflections. “ Weight Weight Number Total weight reduced to required of the With the | After the At ea ce poe be ort nie sper ; A isi u * vity square pecimen, pores meen the i each piece. a I : le 390 Ibs. | removed. | breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 215 "05 5'00 1235 1180 1047 308°75 2 2°00 ‘00 4°75 1656 1193 1388 414°00 3 2°25 15 4°60 1305 1079 1209 326'25 4 2°00 "00 5°00 1212 1152 1052 303700 5 2°25 15 4°15 1258 I172 1073 314°50 6 2°25 “05. 4°25 1329 I122 1184 332°25 Total 12°90 “40 27°75 7995 6898 6953 | 1,998°75 Average . 215 066 4°625 1332°5 1149°6| 11588} 333°125 . Remarks.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 6 broke with splintery fractures 12 to 15 inches in length; 4 and 5 with similar fractures, but only 10 to 12 inches in length. | Number of the TaBLE XIV. Tensile Experiments. i Number of the Dimensions of Specific bebe ine Direct acoheston specimen. the pieces. gravity. with. 1 square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 1152 31,920 7,980 8 f 2 e230 1079 36,400 9,100 9 1193 37,520 * 9,380 1 Total | 3424 105,840 26,460 Average . | 114 35,280 8,820 \ : i TABLE XV. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— | 1 Inch. . 2 Inches. 4 Inches. | t | . 3 Inches. i) { specimen. 5 ‘ Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with { Tons. ‘Tons. Tons. Tons. | | 10-13 7°00 27°000 577125 93°150 | 14-17 6°75 27°362 58-000 92°875 18-21 6°75 \ 27°750 | 57°250 92°625 | 22-25 650 | «= 277000 | 56875 93°500 Total 27°00 | 10Q'112 229'25 372°150 Average . 6°75 27°278 57°312 93°037 Do. per inch 6°75 : 6°819 6°368 5814 ens THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 334 TaBLeE XVI.—Gum, BLUE (AUSTRALIA). Transverse Experiments. Deflections. | ; ’ Weight | Weight Number ‘ asd — ———| Total weight : reduced to; required of the | With the | After the | at | Tequizedito | Specific specs | fonts cures: |appataiee | WoERt | the casi | cach ploce ei ae 390 lbs. | removed. | breaking. i Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 125 15 4°50 767 1079 7II 19175 2 75 20 3°75 602 997 604 150°50 3 1°35 “10 5°75 710 1037 684 177°5° 4 I'0o "00 3°75 767 1108 692 IQI°75 5 25 | "15 3°50 684 1026 666 171‘00 6 Iroo =|) *00 4°00 741 924 801 185°25 t Total 7°60 | 6:0 25°25 4271 6171 4158 | 1067775 Average . 1°26 | ‘10 4°21 712 1029 693 177°96 REMARKS.—Each piece broke with a short fracture. TaBLE XVII. Tensile Experiments. , F A Weight the Direct cohesion Number of the Dimensions of Specific ; " apecitien each piece. Eavity. aa I squ et inal: Inches. Tbs. Ibs. 7 997 14,560 3,640 8 1079 26,600 6,650 9 22k 30 1037 24,360 6,090 10 | 1108 26,600 6,650 II 1026 28,840 7,210 Total 5247 120,960 30,240 Average . , 1049 24,192 6,048 TaBLeE XVIII. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 12. | No. 13. | No. 14. | No. 15. | No. 16. | No. 37. Total. Average. Ditto on I square Tons. Tons. Tons. | Tons, Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. inch. 12°875 | 13'000 | 12°750 | 11°125 | 10°500 | 13°625 73°875 12°312 3°078 E=778300. S=1869. LASLETT’S TABLES 335 TaBLeE XIX.—HOoRNBEAM. Tensile Experiments. | - é F Weight the Direct cohesion Number of the © Dimensions of Specific 4 | specimen. : each piece. | gravity. ase eats ‘ isanure inch. Ibs. Ibs. I | f 808 28,560 7,140 2 a 815 27,440 6,860 3 | Sere | 815 23,520 5,880 4 836 22,960 5+740 Total 3274 102,480 25,260 Average . ; 819 25,620 6,405 TABLE XX. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. | No. 8. Total. Average. | pitto on I square Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons, Tons. Tons, inch. 14°25 T57O9r || L52S E5109 59°375 | 14°844 | 3°71 TaBLE XXI.—IrRon-BarkK (AUSTRALIA). Transverse Experiments. Defiections. ‘ Weick wake ( ? ei ight | Number (7 = Total weight x veduced to required | ofthe With the | After the At ae | eee specific | to break : imen. , i isi u ‘avil I OR eommenies | veut | ieee | san ee. | a 4 | 390 Ibs. | removed breaking. |! i : Inches. Inch. Taches. Ibs. Ibs. | I 85 me) 3°75 1460 T163 1255 365°0 2 1°00 re) 3°50 1370 1146 1195 342°5 : 3 “90 zo) 4700 , 1400 1142 1226 350°0 4 | 1°00 sre) 4°00 | 1400 II16 1254 350°0 | Total 3°75 0 | 15°25 | 5630 4567 | 4930 | 14075 : Average "04 ire) 3°812 1407°5 1142 1232 351°9 ReMARKS.—No. 1, wiry fracture, 16 inches in length; No. 2, wiry fracture, 12 inches in length; No. 3, wiry fracture, ro inches in length ; No. 4, broke short to one-third depth, then splintery fracture, 10 inches in length, 336 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLE XXII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the Dimensions of Specific oe ck Dine SoBe specimen. each piece. gravity. with. 1 square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 5 | | 1142 34,160 8,540 6 2x2x30 | 1146 26,880 6,720 a J \ 1163 39,480 9,870 | Total | 3451 100,520 25,130 Average . 1150 33,507 8,377 TaBLe XXIII. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 8 No. 9. | No. 10 No. 11. Total. Average. | Ditto on 1 square Tons. Tons. | Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. inch. 18500 | 17°625 | 18500 | Ig°000 | 73°625 | 18°'406 | 4°60I XY { dovrsnsn 2. vt Wied, J E=960740. S=3695. TaBLE XXIV.—JaRRAH (AUSTRALIA). Transverse Experiments. Deflections. . 0 a ight Weight Number 7 Total weight : reduced to sequined of the | With the , After the At required to | Specific | specific | to break specimen. | apparatus’ weight the crisis break gravity. gravity 1 square weighing © was of each piece. 1000. inch. 390 Ibs. | removed. | breaking. | Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 2°85 "10 4°50 743 987 753 185°75 2 3°25 15 4°50 638 1049 608 159°50 3 3°25 15 5°00 661 977 677 165°25 4 3°50 15 5°00 661 1039 636 165°25 5 3°15 ‘10 4°50 726 1006 722 181°50 6 3°25 15 4°75 685 1002 684 17°25 Total 19°25 *80 28°25 4114 6060 4080 1028°50 Average 3°21 133 4°71 685°66 IoIo 680 171°416 Remarxs.—Each piece ‘broke short. LASLETT’S TABLES 337 TABLE XXV. Tensile Experiments. | Weight the Direct cohesio: Number of the | Dimensions of Specific v ele. aEee esion specimen. each piece. gravity. piers eke 1 square inch. | Inches. Ibs. Ibs. | 7 il f 987 10,080 2,520 8 SERIO N| g006 13,440 3,360 Total é | _ 1993 23,520 5,880 Average... | 996 11,760 2,940 | i TABLE XXVI. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 9. No. to. No. 11. | No. 12. | No. 13. | No. 14. Total. Average. Ditto on . 1 square Tons. Tons. i Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. inch. , 12°875 | 13°000 12°625 | 12°750 | 12°750 | 12°750 76°75 12°792 3°198 | = xl E= 296810. S=1800. TaBLe XXVII.—Kapor or Campuor (BorNEo).? Transverse Experiments. | Deflections. j / Weight Weight | Number ~-—-—| Total weight 4 reduced to; required of the | With the | After the | At Re ge | eee kee specimen. ! apparatus weight the crisi i ‘ gravity I square | Weighing fee of 1818) each piece. 1000. inch. | 390 Ibs. removed. | breaking. J Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I “75 “08 3°75 1213 910 1333 303°25 2 “60 ‘09 3°50 I123 965 1149 280°75 3 i 975 "05 3°75 1168 1053 T10g 29200 4 | *50 05 4°00 1236 977 1265 309°00 5 "65 ‘Io 4.10 1238 936 1323 309°50 6 "65 ‘00 3°5¢ 1127 895 1260 281°75 ‘Total .| 3:90 28 | 2260 | 7105 5736 | 7439 | 1776°25 ' Average . 65 ‘046 | 3°766 | 1184716 956 | 1239°83| 296704 Remarks.—All broke with splinters 4 to 8 inches in length. 1 There is little doubt that this test refers to the product of a species of Dipterocarpus, which strongly resembles yang, Zz 338 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLE XXVIII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the Dimensions of Specific viaee roe | Direct iechesen specimen. each piece. gravity. with: 1 square inch. | Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 \ f 965 25,7600 | 6,440 8 sf 2x2 x 30 UY 977 28,560 7,140 Total 1942 54,320 ' 13,580 Average . 971 27,160 f 6,790 TaBLE XXIX. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. we ee, gat Sect ated No. 9. No. ro. | No.1. | No. 12. | Total. | Average. | Diftocon | ; ly square | Tons. Tons. Tons. | Tons. | Tons. Tons. ; inch. 21°75 21°25 21°00 | 21°25 | 85°25 21°31 | 5°33 et pies E=1463000. S=3108. TaBLE XXX.—Karri (AuSTRALIA). Transverse Experiments. Deflections. , i: Number Total weight : Be Pelco) of the | With the | After the At required to | Specific | specific | to break specimen. | apparatus | weight the crisis break gravity. gravity I square weighing was 0! each piece. 1000. inch. 390 Ibs. removed. | breaking. Inches. Inch, Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I “75 ‘00 5°00 820 957 855 205°00 2 1°25 ‘oo 6°25 725 885 { 819 18125 3 135 “10 4°60 955 1023, | 934 238°75 4 “75 05 7°50 840 987 851 210°00 5 1°00 05 6°50 920 IOI3 908 230°00 6 T'00 *05 6"50 915 1023 903 228°75 Total . 6'I0 25 36°35 5175 5888 5270 1293°75 Average . I‘or ‘04 6°06 862°5 | 981°33 | 878-33 215°625 Remarks.—Each piece broke with scarph-like fracture, 8 to 10 inches in length. LASLETT’S TABLES 339 TaBLE XXXI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the Dimensions of Specific Aa ear pier ernest specimen, each piece. gravity. Pp witb. 1 square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 ( 31,080 7.770 8 30,800 7,700 9 | 2x2x30 | is 31,360 7,840 Io te 31,360 7,840 II | a 22,120 5,530 12 : 28 22,960 5,740 Total F 26 49 169,680 42,420 Average . 2 is 981 28,280 7,070 TaBLeE XXXII. Vertical oy Crushing Strain on cubes of 6 inches. No. 13. No. 14. | Total. Average. Ditto a ; I square inch, Tons, Tons. i Tons. Tons. 175 195 | 370 185 5°14 E=930950. S=2264. TaBLE XXXIII.—Kranji (Borneo). Transverse Experiments. | Deflections. wank Weick A ei ight | Number : Total weight . meduced to required | _ of the With the ' After the At Beha to pare specific to, break specimen. I i isk rae 2 avi I square | ; 390 lhs. | removed. | breaking. | Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 75 "05 4°50 |- 1531 1058 | 1447 382°75 2 “60 709 4°75 1519 1067 1424 379°75 | 3 "50 ele) 3°25 1382 IO5I 1315 345°50 ; 4 i ee 4700 | 1347 956 1409 336°75 5 65°} 05 5°00 | 1657 1046 1584 414°25 ; 6 "50 05 | 2°75 1460 998 1463 365°00 Total .| 3°75 I5 24°25 8896 6176 8642 2224°00 Average . "625 "025 4°04 1482°6 1029°3 | 1440°3 370°66 l Remarks.—Nos. 1, 5, and 6 broke with very long fracture; 2, 3, and 4 much shorter, and scarph-like. 340 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLE XXXIV.—Larcu (Russian). Transverse Experiments. 4 | fiections. | iene ; Weight | Weight | Number= fs [ -——~-_ | Total ae Specific reduced to required . Tequire 0 : i ‘ ; __of the With the | After the | At eeak gain: ee ee , Specimen. apparatus weight ‘ the cries each piece. : oe y ay Boa ibe | fenowed | breaking: i | Inches. | Inch. Inches. Ibs. ; Ibs. ae 125 | 'I5 45 743 | 688 648 | 185°75 2 hs $ 15 i 5°0 714 607 615 | 178°50 i 3 I'5 | ‘00 4°75 708 , 645 658 {| 177700 | 4 I°75 "250 | 3°85 504 ' 618, 489 | 126°00 | 5 , 175 I5 4°15 568 | 647° | 527, -142°00 6 | 165 °35 ; 3°75 519 583 | 934 129°75 Total .} "40 1°05 | 26°00 3756 | 3878 | 347% ; 939700 | : Average . 1°566 | “175 | 4°33 626 | 646°3 | 578 . 156°5 i : — RemMarRKS.—All broke with a moderate length of fracture. TABLE XXXV. Tensile Experiments. i | ' | Number of the Dimensions of Specific | Weight the Direct cohesion ; vapeciinen each piece. Baile: | pists meee 1 squ as inch. Inches. | Ibs. Ibs. 7 i ‘i 618 14,000 | 3,500 8 2x2 x30 | 645 | 13,440 | 3,360 9 647 | 19,936 4,984 10 688 19,880 4,970 Total 2. | ss 2598 | 67,256 16,814 Average . : a 649 16,814 | 4,203 TaBLE XXXVI. Vertical Experiments on Cubes of— | : Inch, jee | Number of the suai | 2Inches. | 3 Inches. 4 Inches. | SPs Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with | Crushed with. | Tons. | Tons. Tons. : Tons. ' 1I-14 2°875 ' 10°750 19°625 42°75 i 15-18 | 2°750 | 10°83 75 197500 42°50 ; Tg, 20 | 2°875 | 10'750 ve oe } BI, 2a 37000: 10°375 San \ Total , Im5 42°75 39°125 85°25 ; a. Average . sete 2°875 10°687 19°562 42°62 Do. perinch . 2°875 | 2°672 2174 2°663 | E = 649130. S= 1643. LASLETT’S TABLES TaBLE XXXVII.—Lavan. 341 Arc of flexion produced by | a constant weight of pie st wae Wiebe pened Distance between the 2204 lbs. pe arom the place. Of the aics supporters of the wood. i | | Inch. | Inches. Ibs. Inches. 3°15 14°99 23°62 and 26°77 0°43 | TABLE XXXVIII. ! Resistance Resist: ortecti - esistance to tortion a =F mae | aeisnk co-efficient Weight To pressure. tobe | ibe Strength of fracture ‘I, of the bos re allowed in | sponding f el specimen. Sa Penis ot construc- { to this ticity.” 1 ' Wi i chee tion of ici : : eee re cohesion. | buildings. | elasticity. Absolute Applicable ' the fibre. | dicularly. | strength. strength. i Ibs. Tbs. Ibs. Ibs. Inch. ; Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. | Ibs. 948 498°24 19841 | 1529°99) ‘038 | 152°99 | 158°16 | 168°43 | 16°84 1 | Remarks.—Weight producing fracture at the bend, 1°32 Ib. T co-efficient of fracture by bending, or of maximum bend. TaBLE XXXIX.—Manocany (CuBa, or SPANtsH). Transverse Experiments. | | Di : ' | | imensions. i | \ i i Weight Weight | Number | —~ = Total weight . ' reduced to racuitved i | ofthe | With the After the At al to Bay _ Specific to break specimen. * ieee noe the a each piece. aed I ae i | 390 Ibs. ‘| removed. | breaking. | : 1 ‘ | Inches. Inch. ; Inches. Ibs, Ibs. I | 1°50 700} 3°50 767 720 746 IQI'75 | 2 "1°50 “oo =| 3°50 883 817 757 220°75 | 3 1°25 05 3°59 817 789 725 20425 4 6 985 00 3°85 956 752 890 239°00 . 5 els “05 3°35 883 765 809 220°75 | 6 1°00 05 3°00 831 771 763 + 207°75 | i i Total | 7°25 *I5 20°70 5137 4614 4090 ‘| 1284°25 | aejoas Wh ae EES Average .! 1°208 "025 3°45 856°16 769 +, 781°66 214'04 t | 4 i Remarks.—Nos, 1 and 4 broke with moderate length of fracture, and splintery ; 3, 5, and 6—each broke very short. 342 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TABLE XL. Tensile si cabal Number of th Di ioastot Specific 7) Weight the Direct cohesion vepeciinetl: each plese. avity. | visee pee ¥ seunre inch. Inches. | Ibs. | Ibs. 7 ‘| 752 | ~~ 19,040 | 4,760 8 J) 765 | 19,824 | 4,956 9 2x2x 30 8171 15,120 | 3,780 10 | | 720 | 11,200 | 2,800 TI ; 771 | ~~ 10,640 2,660 Total 3825 75,824 | 18,956 | Average . 765 15,165 | 3,791 TaBLeE XLI. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— 1 Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches, 4 Inches. Number of the eRscinen Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Tons. ” Tons, Tons. Tons. 12-15 2°500 12°750 27°250 38°750 16-19 2°750 11°875 27°375 39°150 20-23 2°875 13°625 : 26°800 38°625 24-27 2875, =: 13°750 27°425 39°100 Total I1‘000 52°000 | 108°85 I15°625 Average . 2°750 13°000 27°212 38°906 Do. per inch 2°75 3°25 | 37024 2°431 Nos. 28 To 36.—Four more pieces—each 2 x 2x 2 inches—tried under the vertical pressure, took, on the average, 13-937 tons, or 3-484 tons to the square inch, to crush them. Two pieces, each 3 x3—the one 11 inches, the other 16 inches in length—bore 27 tons and 25:5 tons. Two other pieces, each 4x4 inches—the one being 8 inches, the other 13 inches in length—bore respectively 47-75 tons and 38-5 tons; and one piece—12x 12x15 inches in length—bore 481 tons, or 3:34 tons per square inch of base. E=771030. S=2247. LASLETT’S TABLES 343 TaBLE XLII.—Manuocany (Honpuras). Transverse Experiments. : ] Deflections. oe nee ; ieht i 1 Number ( —-| Total weight 7. seduced to required of the | With the | After the | At sorts a eae specific | to break y e ‘ was u . oe square specimen. ae wee the cael each piece. rhe j y r ck 390 Ibs. | removed. | breaking. Inches. | Inch. | Inches. Ibs. i Ibs. I 2°00 "10 4°50 811 644 881 202°75 2 1°75 ‘00 3°75 821 684 840 205°25 3 2°25 Io 3°75 750 650 808 187°50 4 2°00 "05 3°55 756 662 799 189°00 5 1°65 10 4°15 823 650 887 205°75 6 1°85 | "15 4°65 851 666 894 212°75 Total 11*50 | "50! 24°35 4812 3956 5109 | I1203'00 i J Average . I'gi6 083 4'058 802 659°3 851°5 200°5 REMARKS.—Each piece broke 1 with moderate length of fracture, and splintery. TaBLe XLIII. Tensile Experiments. . 5 . Weight the Direct cohesion Number of the Dimensions of Specific : "Specials each piece. gravity. Biers Broke E suaere inch. |. | Inches. Ibs. Tbs. 7 | 662 10,920 2,730 8 | 650 12,040 3,010 9 J 644 9,940 2,485 10 | anor. 666 14,280 3,570 II | 684 12,740 3,185 12 I? 650 12,040 3,010 Total 3956 71,960 17,990 Average . 659 11,993 2,998 TaBLE XLIV. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on cubes of— 1 Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Number of the SES Crushed with | Crushed with | Crushed with | Crushed with Tons. Tons. Tons. 4 Tons, 13-16 2°075 II‘00 27°75 45°000 17-20 37000 II‘0o0 27°00 45°500 21-24 2°675 I1'25 26°875 44°875 25-28 2875, = 10°75 27°875 45°125 Total Ir'225 | 44°00 109'500 180'500 | Average . . 2°806 I1"00 27°375 45°125 | Do. per inch 2°806 | 2°75 3°042 2°820 344 One piece, 97°5 x 95 X15”, os Nos. 29 and 30. Crushed with the weight of 307 +'tons 95x95 x18", 3368, = 3°833 E=492550. S=2105. TaBLE XLV.—Manocany (MExIcan). Transverse Experiments. THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD = 3°493 tons per square inch, ” Defiections. . Weight Weight Number Total weight ss reduced to| required of the | With the | After the At regal te a speuee ||| - toe specimen. | apparatus | weit | the Gls | a0 oe | ae 390 lbs. removed. | breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 1°25 mete) 3°50 720 790 638 180-00 2 1°25 IO 4°25 700 612 801 175°00 3 r'00 "05 4°25 920 715 gol 230°00 4 1'00 mere) 3°65 785 665 841 196°25 5 1°25 ‘15 3°75 880 660 933 220°00 6 I'00 "05 4°15 690 625 733 172°50 Total 6°75 "35 23°55 | 4695 4067 | 4847 1173°75 Average. | 1'125 7058 3°925 | 782°5 677°83 | 807°83 195°625 . REMARKS.—Each piece | broke short. TaBLeE XLVI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the Dimensions of Specific vo Direct cohesion specimen. each piece. * gravity. with, as ate inch: Inches, Ibs. Ibs. 7 > 665 15,680 3,920 8 | 660 15,120 3,780 9 2x2 x 30 625 10,640 2,660 Io | 612 10,304 2,576 II 715 16,800 4,200 Total 3277 68,544 | 17,136 i Average , 655 13,709 | = 3,427 LASLETT’S TABLES 345 TaBLeE XLVII. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— Number of the 1 Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. ae , Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 12-15 2°875 II*500 22°500 38°500 16-19 2°375 9"500 24°000 38°125 20-23 2°250 10°625 22°125 37°500 24-27 2°250 10°500 23°125 39°I25 Total 9°750 42°125 91°750 153°25 Average . 2°437 10°531 22'937 38°312 Do. per inch 2°437 2°633 2°549 2°394 Nos. 28 and 29. Inches. Tons. ‘Tons. One piece, 8°5 x 10x 12, crushed with the weight of 279°2= 3°285 per sq. in. Pe 8°5 x IO x 21, es is is 245°5=2°887 55 E= 846100. S=2054. TaBLE XLVIII.—Mo.avé (PHILIPPINE ISLANDs). Transverse Experiments. | Deflections. a Weight Weight Number Total weigbt reduced to} required ofthe : With the | After the | At a | gene | speeise | to break A i 3 abe : avii specimen. pri is ol the va each piece. aa I cae 390 Ibs. removed. ‘ breaking. | | ‘Inches. , Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I | 1°25 Be) 5°00 1,200 972 1235 300°0 2 | 25 25 5°75 1,320 987 1337 330°0 3 1°25 15) 4°75 I,210 1080 1120 302°5 , Total 3°75 "50 15°50 3,730 3039 3692 932°5 Average 1°25 *166 5°166 1,243°3 1013 1231 310°83 Remarxs.—Each piece broke with a long scarph-like fracture. 346 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLE XLIX. Tensile Experimenis. Number of the Dimensions of Specific Weert pe Direct coheston a . . piece Droke on specimen. each piece. gravity. with. 1 square inch. Inches, Ibs. Ibs. 4 987 30,240 7,560 5 972 29,120 7,280 6 2x2 x30 1080 34,720 8,680 7 954 20,160 5,040 8 TII5 42,000 10,500 Total . : 5108 156,240 39,060 Average . . a 1021°6 31,248 7,812 E= 832990. S=3264. TaBLE L.—Mora (DEMERARA AND TRINIDAD). Transverse Experiments. Deflections. west Total weight seduced to he Number required t Specific i required of the With the | After the x At pea euvite are to break specimen. apparatus | weigbt e crisis f g I square E Weighing pees ©: each piece. T1000. inch, 390 lbs. removed, | breaking. Inches. | Inch. | Inches. Ibs. Ibs. x 2°00 IO 4°75 1353 1075 1258 338°25° 2 2°00 || *I0 5°00 1363 1088 1253 340°75 3 215 | ‘15 5°00 1304 1094 I1g2 326°00 4 2°00 | 05 5°00 | 1284 1090 1178 321°00 Total. | 815 | “40 | 19°75 | 5304 | 4347 4881 | 1326°00 Average .| 2°037 ‘10 4°94 1326 1086°75 | 1220°25 3315 Remarxs.—Each piece broke with about 12 inches length of fracture. = TaBLE LI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the Dimensions of Specific Weight the Direct cohesion : . A piece broke on specimen, each piece. gravity. with. 1 square inch. Inches, : Ibs. Tbs. 5 1094 | 37,800 9.450 6 \ 2x28 40 { 1090 : 37,240 9,310 7 1075 35,840 8,960 Total te a8 3259 110,880 27,720 Average... | ae 1086 | 36,960 9,240 LASLETT’S TABLES 347 TaBLeE LII. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 8. No. 9. | No. 10. No. 11. No. 12. No. 13. Total. | Average.| Ditto on ! z I square Tons. | Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. | Tons. | saa ; 14°875 | 14°750 | 14°875 | 15°750 | 15°750 | 15°500 | 91°50 | 15°25 | 3°812 \ E= 466570. S=3481. TaBLeE LIIJ.—Oaxk, AFRICAN.? Transverse Experiments. Deflections. | ssicit | ae ae . elg: Weight | : as --| Total weight duced to 5 ( Numb ‘. . Te d of the | With the Atria | ae | | See pedis to break specimen. weehing welgnt the sass | each piece. tae: I oe 390 lbs. « removed. | breaking. j | Inches. Inch. Inches. ! Tbs. Ibs. I 2°25; ‘Io 5°50 | 1301 982 1325 325725 | 2 2°50 | *05 425 | 971 1086 894 242°75 | 3 2°50 , ‘05 5°75 1231 1008 1221 307°75 | 4 2°00 | ‘oo 5°35 1086 988 1099 271°50 | 3 I'75 , 00 ; 4°75 1014 934 1085 253°50 6 2°50 . ‘IO 5°25 1046 962 1087 261°50 | Total 13°50; *30 30°85 6649 5960 6711 | 1662°25 | Average . 2°25 | 05 5142 | 1108°16 993°3 | T1185 277°04 | | Remarks.—Nos. 4,3, and 4 broke with a long fracture; TaB_Le LIV. Tensile Experiments. 2, 5, and 6, short, but fibrous. | F : eae of the | Dimensions of Specific Ee ici Direct oe hesion specimen. each piece. gravity. with. 1 square inch. | | Inches. | Ibs. | Ibs. 7 f ] ( 982 30,800 7,700 ' 8 i ‘1008 43,400 10,850 9 Ierrnvee | 934 19,040 | 4,760 10 962 19,600 4,900 | 1 ! Total : | 3886 112,840 28,210 | ; Average . | 971'5 28,210 7,052 | | 1 Probably Lophira alata, Banks. 348 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLe LV. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— : \ Number of the 1 Inch. 2 Inches. \ 3 Inches. 4 Inches. a acre Crushed with Crushed with | Crushed with Crushed with Tons. Tons. Tons. : Tons. II-14 5°013 18°625 39°5 i 64°0 15, 16 4°875 17875 | oe oe 17, 18 4°875 18500: 19, 20 4°937 18-000 | 21, 22 4°875 18°500 . 23, 24 4°875 18°250 | Total 29°450 109°75 Average 4°908 18292, | 39°5 i 64°0 | Do. perinch . 4°90 4°573 | 47388 470 ; | TaBLe LVI. Vertical Experiments. Numb i “specimen, " | Dimensions ofthe pies. | avi, | Crushed with | OO, 2.06 ee ee ee ee i Inches. pent Tons. Tons. 25 I 177000! 4°250 26 | 2 \ f 18°2 : . . 92 47573 a IS) eT) aaah ae 28 4 18125. 4°531 29. | ( 7 39°500 | —4°390 30 ee 8 38500, | 4277 32 J | e 35°500 | 3944 32 12 36°000 47000 33 4x 4 17 63000 | 3938 34 9xIo, 24 433°200 | 4811 | E=410430. S=2909. LASLETT’S TABLES 349 TaBLeE LVII.—Oak, AMERICAN. Transverse Experiments. : Defiections. f | ‘wiaidk | NeenE sche : Number ; Total weight ? reduced to pequived of the With the | After the At a er na ee specific . to break i ; i isi : it are specimen. pag | eee the erie each piece. i aatihe 4 | Tt ih 390 Ibs. | removed. | breaking. Inches. | Inch. | Inches. Ibs. | Ibs. I , 25: ‘00 5°00 651 820 | 794 162°75 2 1°25 15 7°50 837 695 | 1200 | = 209°25 3 | 35 | ‘25 | 8:25 769 738 | 1042 j =: 192°25 4 | 1°50 "I5 715 729 736 + 990 | 182°25 5 | 1°85 "25 765 627 734 854 = -156°75 6 j O65 | °35 7°25 723 758 967 180°75 Total. 8°85 Itl5 42°80 4336 4481 5847 1084°00 Average . 1°475; ‘Ig 7133 722°66 746°83 974'5 180°66 | i REMARKS: = NOS 1, 3, and 6 broke quite short; 2, 4, and 5 with a scarph-like fracture, about 8 inches in length. TaBLe LVIII. Tensile Experiments. 5 7 3 Weight the Direct cohesion Numb: f th Dimensions of S fi i "apecinen: 5 each piece. patity. ne nS uae inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 | 758 19,600 4,900 8 2%2X30 736 19,052 4,763 9 | 734 11,748 2,937 10 738 10,920 2,730 Total : a 1 2966 61,320 15,330 Average . . Bs J4uU'5 15,330 3,832 TaBLe LIX. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 11. | No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. | No. 15. No. 16. | Total, Average. | Ditto on : I square | 10°5 10’5 | 10°5 | 10°I25 | 63°125 | 10°521 | 2°630 Tons. | Tons. | Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. inch,’ | | | 10°75 | 10°75 E= 703230. S=1897. 350 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLE LX.—Oak, AMERICAN WHITE. Transverse Experiments. Deffections. | Grache ee [-) Number Total weight r veduced to required of the | With the | Afterthe | At required to | Specific | specific | to break specimen. | apparatus| weight the crisis | Peak each | gravity, gravity I square weighing ras of piece. | 1000. inch 390 Ibs. | removed. | breaking. | Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. ; Ibs. I 1°65 I5 9°00 836 | 960 871 209°00 2 I'50 ‘00 8°50 826 988 836 206'°50 3 1°75 "25 9°25 839 | 950 ieee 209°75 4 1°75 ‘IO IO°I5 882 | ro1o =| 873 220°50 | 5 2°35 “35 9°35 744 ; 935 | 795 186°00 6 2°50 35 6°75 696 1054 { 660 174°00 } Total . II‘50 1'20 53°00 4823 5897 | 4918 1205°75 Average I°g16 +208 8°833 803°83 982°8 | 819" ee 200°96 | REMARKS.—Nos. I, 2, 5, and 6 broke with a splintery fracture, 10 to 12 inches in length ; 3 and 4, although splintered like the others, were not completely broken asunder. TaBLe LXI. Tensile Experiments. " i Weight the Direct cohesion Number of th D f Specifi ’ ‘specimen. each piece. | ara | ee a Inches. ' Ibs. lbs, uh 988 28,004 7,001 8 [ 960 31,076 7,769 9 2x2x30 - 935 26,600 6,650 Io | IOIO 31,228 7,807 II 950 23,512 | 5,878 Total ‘ F es | 4843 140,420 | 35,105 Average . - te | 969 28,084 7,021 351 ‘OlIz=S ‘oSogzS=7 LASLETT’S TABLES i ! of.z 00.gf€ 2 | sie see | #8 “2 eae 000.g€€ of x fzix zr ze £6.z oo.Lbz 2 ae ae a oe ens o000.2bz | bzx #6 x $6 1é L6.z 00.2bz es | ae | tks ae ae = | oo0.Zbz C1 x46 x $6 of 90.z 00.€€ a | as one i ee ne 000. €€ PxXbxyT 6z 0$.z 0S.zz ae a8 me a a a 008.zz ExExe gz 2% ae ad ve ie oSz.o1 0S2.6 90.6 0Sl.6 | VEZ xX EXT Lz-bz 6or1.€ LEv.Z1 Cz9.bL 00S.z1 oSZ.z1 | Sener o00S.zI CL.z1 000.Z1 SRORZ €z-gI ggI.£ gg1.€ 000.61 o0S.€ ofz.€ 000.€ Sz1.€ 00.€ Cz1.€ IXIXI L£1-z1 srenbe I :SUOL ‘SuOL *suOL, *suOy, | “suoy, “suOL *suoL *suol, *suoIsuaUIT ‘SON area: asereay roy ; i “SIUIUMADGKT, FULYSNAD AO 10I4AAA ‘IIXT @TaVL THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 352 TasLe LXIII.—Oax, Danmzic. Transverse Experiments. ” Deflections. i ers 7 Weight elg ‘ -_— Total weight , r ed Numb e c reduced to equir of the | With the | After the | At a aaa Pe specific one i fi t ight t isi . : avi s aries rae mae | Sere | ae ee | ey) 390 Ibs, removed. | breaking. i Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 4°30 "I5 5°25 474 850 558 118°50 2 4°35 "25 5°25 466 812 573 I16°50 3 5°55 “30 6°85 449 . 817 549 1I2°25 4 5°75 °25 7°00 456 , 768 592 I14°00 5 5°20 "25 7°85 508 _ 897 566 127°00 6 4°85 "25 6°55 488 | 872 559 122°00 Total 30°00 1°45 38°75 2841 | 5016 | 3397 710°25 Average 5700 "24 6458 473°5 | 836 | 566°16 118°37 lesen hilary! stn salle a's nota eee TaBLe LXIV. Tensile Experiments. Number of the Dimensions of Specific Weight the Direct cohesion specimen. each piece. gravity. Naa i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 \ f 812 13,444 3,361 . 2x2x30 J 817 14,276 3,569 9 | 850 17,920 4,480 Io 872 21,840 5,460 Total . . 3351 67,480 16,870 Average. au 838 16,870 4,217 353 ‘Ebz1=S ‘ogg6gi=q Sz. Gz. Sz. | Gz. | giz. Zg1. 999.01 | Cz. Sz. obi. L€60. zgo. zZ1fo, ues oS. g1/b me a * eae a id g1/¥ o1/— | gifz gt/t ze/i Sz.€1 g1/¥ g1/¢ g1/¥ g1/¥ 91/8 zejl o1/€ ze/s g1/z {| z&/z g1/t Ze/1 Sz.11 g1/¥ oe ve g1/F g1/F zej/lZ | ot /€ ze/¢ g1/e , ze/e g1/1 ze/1 “qoul “youl “youl “youl *youy “youl | *youy “your *youy | “qoul “our “your *SuO] Ul ‘aanjdni | uleq}S Sutpasaid ‘suoy €1 ; ‘suoy z1 | ‘suoy 11 “suoy, OI “suoy 6 *suOL g *suoy, 2 ‘suol.9 | ‘suoy $ *suoy, + “suoy, & moyyesu0[y Suryearg “sayoul gr Aq z Aq z Suleq saoald ay3 Jo SuolsuaUlp a43 ‘sujesys SholeA JopuN aye} ‘joaz € Jo 4ISUgT e Ul SeIqY ay3 JO UOIeSUCTa 9g} UlezJovse 07 ‘TE pue fof ‘6z "SON ‘yvOQ Izjuvg fo suautzads uo sjuamsaguay ‘IAXT STaVL LASLETT’S TABLES z6b.€ 0696.€1 CLg.0¢ os me _ OStFr 000.41 o0S.€1 Sz1.F1 w¥,E,T,1 % yo X ,z gz—Sz zg0.€ 0000.64 oe ae i i 8 as a8 000.6% a¥ Xb x,¥ tz 9QI.€ 000S.gz 8 aes oe ere | si oa 00S.gz aE X of XE €z GLEE o000$.€1 0000.1g oSz.€1 oSZg.€1 , oSZ.€1 | SLEEr oSz.€1 ooS.€1 eX {Xz zz-Li EZLE 6zZL.€ GLEQ.zz CLg.€ | CLEG.E oSZ.€ | Szg.€ | SLg.€ CLS.E al X,TX% yl gI~I1 | 1 ane *su0} *suo} | | I “suo, | "suo, *suo. “suoy, " “stl “suo! ULE *! a na aSerAy Ie10L L | L tL | i. suoy suo], SUOISUSUIICT SON “squaIIAagx Ty SULYSHAD AO 10914484 “AXT FTaVL 2A 354 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLE LXVII.—Oak, ENGLISH. Transverse Experiments. Deflections. A Weight Weight Number Total ue oe Specifi saree to required of the With the | After the At | pg here ° Biss specific to break specimen. cis weet the Pees each piece. Brevity I slurs 390 lbs. | removed. | breaking. Inches. Inch. Inch. Ibs. Ibs. [ 3°500 *200 5°250 590 905 652 = 147750 2 37125 *312 8-500 825 682 1209 | 206°25 3 3°250 "125 II*000 1002 708 1415 250°50 4 3°250 "125 67500 797 725 1099 199°25 5 3°500 | *250 77000 804 720 III6 201°00 6 3625 "125 5°875 637 670 936 | 159°25 Total .| 20°250 | I°l37 | 44°125 4655 4410 6427 | 1163°75 Average. | 3°375 “189 7354 776 735 1071 193°96 E= 283410. S=2037. Remarxs.—Nos. 1 and 4 broke with a moderate length of fracture; 2, 5, and 6 with 9 to 15 inches and splinters in fracture. No. 3 was not completely broken asunder. TaBLeE LXVIII.—Oak, ENGLISH. Transverse Experiments.—Second Example. Deflection. | | “ , ' Total weight F | Weight Weight NURS esin tie] ate | ag | Teped | Specs PL | oe specimen. | apparatus | weight the crisis aoe ' gravity. | gravity I square weighing was fo) | CBC PIECES 1000, inch, 390 Ibs. | removed. | breaking. ‘ | | Inches. Inch. Inches, | Ibs. | Ibs. 7 1625 | "125 47125 | 674 » 780 |! 864 168°50 8 1°625 "250 5°250 ; 837 | 753. «r1I2 209°25 9 I'500 "187 5°000 824 770 1070 206°00 10 1'°625 "125 9500 977 , 1005 | 972 244°25 Il | 1°750 ‘000 9°250 882 1003, ~—s 879 220°50 12 1°500 “000 8°750 | 827. + 1002 825 206°75 Total ‘ 9°625 "687 41°875 5021 | 5313 5722 1255°25 | Average. | 1°604 | ‘114 6979 837. | 886 954 | 209°21 E=605950. S=2197. REMARKS.—No. 7 broke short; 8 and 12 with 7 to 13 inches length of fracture; i inches scarph-like splintery fracture. oe Sr eceoeigysione STy LASLETT’S TABLES 355 TaBLeE LXIX. Transverse Experiments.—Third Example. | | Deflection. g P 3 a a 3 > ad 2 3 a : 25 | 2 - a £3 | fo | #5 | 22a | & Bee Ho | de ao an oa abd 2 23 ag =A ze) 8 ba | 323 | € | SB2 ) $2 | % | 5° of os 238 A eRe oo HS oe a g a zn | 8 |4 i , 38 = a 5 | ewe ' The mean of 1’ to Inches, | Inches. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs, 6’ : | 3°25 | 3°95 407 | 867 101"75 1 13 | 3°75 | 3°75 390 | 836 | 97°5 6’ 14 3°75 3°75 400 | 866 ! r00°0 l 5’ I5 |; +s 3°50 | 390 |868 | 97°5 4 16; «. ae | 390 | 865 | 97°5 3° i 17} se 3°75 390 | 860 | 97°5 2 i ENGLISH 18 | 2°25 5700 ; 480 | 910 {| I20°0 ie 1’ i Oak. 1g ,; 2°00 700 ; 740 |g00 , 185°0 5320 I | 20 . 2°00 4°50 | 630 |g00 | 157°5 4400 , 2 | | 21 | 2°25 5°00 620 | 854 | I55'0 4200 ; 3 22 3°50 | 4°50 = 470 | 864 «| 1175 | 4340 | 4 23 | 3°75 5700 | 480 | 838 120°0 2520 | 5 24 | 4°00 4°50 | 430 | 791 | 107°5 2240 | 6 The mean of r to6 . | 2°916 | 5°I0 562 | 858 | 140°5 3837 | } | The mean of the whole | 3°083 | 4°525 484 | 862°5 | I2I | REMARKS.—Nos. 13 to 17 inclusive broke very short; 18 and r9 were nearly alike, and had scarph-shaped fractures ro inches in length ; 20 and zr had long splintery fractures; 22 to 24 inclusive broke short to 4th the depth, then long fractures. TABLE LXX. DEFLECTIONS: ENGLISH Oak. Specimens: depth, 14 inch; breadth, 2 inches; length, 84 inches; weighted with 300 Ibs. eet ED a ae Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. | 5 Feet | 6 Feet. No. | Sp. gr. Inches. | Inches. | Inches | Inches. 25 . 795 375 =| = *750 1'187 2°500 26 | 785 | ‘s00 | 875 | 1°750 2°750 2 782 = | 375 *750 1625 2°500 28 | 775 B15. “75 | 1*500 2625 Total | 3137 ; 1°625 | 3°125 6:062 10°375 Average | 784 | +406 | +781 1515 2°593 i 356 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLE LXXI. Specimens as in Table LXX., weighted with 400 Ibs, Supports, apart. | 3 Feet. 4 Feet. | 5 Feet. 6 Feet. i eS 1 po No. ee Spree | Inches. Inches. Inches. | Inches. ! 29 795; 625 1°00 2°00 37625 30 785 | 687 1125 a25 0 | 31037 31 782 ' 437 1*000 2725 | 3°562 \ 32 775 625 1000 ; 2°00 3°250 | : i | Total... 3137 2°374 4°125 8-50 | 14°374 Average. 784 i "593 I'O31 2°125 3°593 | TaBLE LXXII. ie F; Specimens: depth, 2 inches; breadth, 14 inch; length, 84 inches; weighted with 300 lbs. Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. 5 Feet. 6 Feet. No. Sp. gr. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. 33 795 "312 625 1063 1°625 34 785 "250 "500 875 I*500 | 35 782 “187 "563 "937 15620 36 775 "250 "437 875 1'562 Total 3137 1°000 2°125 3°750 6°249 | Average. 784 *25 "531 937 1°562 | TaBLE LXXIII. Specimens as in Table LXXII., weighted with 400 Ibs. Supports, apart. | 3 Feet. 4 Feet, 5 Feet. | 6 Feet. == "No. Sp. er. Inches, Inches, Inches. Inches, 37 795 “375: "625 1'250 2°125 38 785 "312 "625 I‘l25 2°000 39 782 "250 "750 1'187 2125 40 | 775 °437 625 1°312 2°000 Total Z | 3137 1°374 2°625 4°874 8:250 Average. | 784 "343 "656 T2178 2°062 LASLEIT’S TABLES 357 TABLE LXXIV. Weighted with 300 Ibs. Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. 5 Feet. 6 Feet. No. Inches. Inches. Inches Inches. 41 125 375 625 75 TaBLE LXXV. Weighted with 400 lbs. Supports, apart. | 3 Feet. | 4 Feet. 5 Feet, 6 Feet. Ne. Inches. Inches, Inches. Inches. 42 *250 *500 875 I'l25 TaBLE LXXVI. Tensile Experiments. . ; eis So Weight the Direct cohesion Number of th D ns of Pp A Ne epeciien: . each piece, gravity. eee ene oa quare inch. x Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 43 1003 35,560 8,890 44 1005 31,360 7,840 45 1002 33,600 8,400 46 ae ase 905 33,040 8,260 47 720 24,640 6,160 48 725 23,520 5,880 Total 5360 181,720 45,430 Average . 893 30,287 7,571 358 38 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLE LXXVII. Cubes of Unseasoned British Oak. Vertical or crushing experiments. Specific gravily, 960. 4 Inches. sii henvok tie 1 Inch. | 2 Inches. 3 Inches. specimen. | : i : 4 : Crushed with | Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with | Tons. | Tons. Tons. Tons. 49-52 \ 2°750— | 7°000 20°000 33°750 53-56 | 2500 | 8000 19°375 31°875 1 57-60 ; 2°000 9°500 i 20°125 33125 ' 61-64 2°500- | 8-500 19°625 32°875 65-68 | 2°250 | 8125 20°500 33°125 69-72 2°375 | 9°250 20°125 33°500 : Total 14°375 50°375 I19°750 198'250 Average . | 2°396 8°396 19958 33°041 Do. perin. . | 2°396 | 2°099 B217 2°064 | Cubes of Seasoned British Oak. TaBLE LXXVIII. Vertical or crushing experiments. Specific gravity, 740. | 1 Inch. | 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Number of the specimen. ; 2 a ‘: Crushed with | Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Tons. Tons. ! Tons, Tons. 73-76 3°750 137000 | = 28"750 50°875 77-80 3°500 12°500 t 29°750 50°25 81-84 3°375 14°375 29°125 49°875 85-88 3°625 I4'000 28°500 50°625 89-92 37500 | 13°875 29°125 49°875 | 93-96 3°625 14°25 28°875 51125 Total : | 21°375 | 81°875 174°125 302°500 Average . 3°562 | 13°646 29'021 50°417 Do. perin. . 3°562 | 3°411 3°225 37141 LASLETT’S TABLES TaBLeE LXXIX. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, with 4 square inches of base. 359 mari ek ue ee us the ae Crushed with Do. me pnesder Inches. Tons. I Tons. 97 2x2x I 740 13°500 | 3°375 98 one 9 SS 13°625 | 3°406 99 ie 3 % 13°875 37469 Ioo Wont, OF e 14000 | 3°500 IOI wiocas. 5 5 15°750 | 3°937 To2 non 6 » 14°875 | 3°719 103 » 7 ” 14°750 3°687 104 ix ur 8 7 147500 | 3°625 105 rn) Z 15"000 : 3°75° 106 eee ae 4 EO xp | slipped — 107 acon EE i i 14°750 | 3°687 108 oie 2 720 13°750 : 3°437 109 i av ES A II*000 | 2°750 IIo re an Sm ae 10'500 : 2°625 11 a 30 734 | 9°750 2°437 ' | Norr.—Nos. 97 to 107 (inclusive) were cut from one piece of timber; Nos. 108 to rro were cut from another and No. 111 from a third piece. TaBLE LXXX. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, with 9 square inches of base. Number of the Dimensions of the Specific | specimen. pieces. gravity. Crushed,with ae si Aaa | , ! Inches. Tons. Tons. | 112 3x3x 8 g12 15°50 I°722 | Pe | es °| 981 16125 17oQ2 : 14 $5 ay LO 960 16°00 1°777 | II5 eo aie OEE 943 16°50 i 1°833 : 116 tee ge OL | 928 14°75 | 17639 I17 ae 13 gol 13°50 I°500 | 118 way 4 891 14°00 1°555 i 119g ise IES 883 I5'00 1°666 120 ee goo 15°00 1°666 I2I ree ae i) 768 23°50 2°OIL 123 be ap 789 22°00 2°444 Note.—Nos. 112 to 120 (inclusive) were cut from a piece of oak timber that had been four years in store—it was not even then well seasoned ; Nos. 121 and 122 werc of better seasoned timber. 36 360 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLe LXXXI. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, with 16 square inches of base. T } i i i crate Do. on the square Numberaf the | Dimension ofthe | Specie | Cruse with) PO-on th 8 | Inches. ' Tons. | Tons. 123 | 4x4xI15 958 | 25°50 1'600 124 i a 726 | 972 S| 25°25 | 1°578 125 ee ne ©; | 934: 27°00 ; 1°687 126 oe ae 2S i 930, 27°50 \ I°719 127 ; se eee ED | 932 — 28°25 1°762 128 ik ap 20 | 972,— 28:25 | 1°762 129 ps. ify. OIE 946 28°00 | 1°750 130 4os (35 eae 932 26°00 ! 1°625 131 | te ag g21 23°50 I*470 132 | i en 24 | Ioo3 Ss! 30°00 | 1°875 TaBLeE LXXXII. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, with 9 square inches of base. Number of the Dimensions of the | Specific . Do. on the square specimen. Pieces. | gravity. Crushed with | inch, Inches. | Tons. Tons. 133 3x3x 8 | 696 25°25 2°805 134 oo 9 597 21°00 2°333 135 » 4 TO | 742 20°25 | 2°250 | Note.—These were respectively Nos. 115, 118, and 121 of Table LK XX., shortened and further seasoned. TaBLeE LXXXIII. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, with 16 square inches of base. 4 ee | ' rei sei oe of the | eee Crushed with Do. on Sheer ' | | Inches. ! Tons. Tons. | 136 4%4x 10 | 713 34°875 ' 2°179 | 137 ee ’ 658 33'°750 | 2110 138 oe a \ 639 32°000 2'000 | 139 i A | 665 29°500 | 1°843 | 140 my on 14 | 752 31°250 ' 1°953 141 mow 15 742 28°500 | 1781 | 142 Seca 16) 688 40°750 | 2°517 | i NorE.—These were respectively Nos. 132, 123, 125, 124, 127, 129; and 130 of Table LXXXL, shortened after the first experiments upon them, and further seasoned before the second trial. LASLETT’'S TABLES TABLE LXXXIV. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak ; sundry scantlings. 361 toa as as | as the as Crushed with | Do. om ane: square | | { Inches. Tons. i Tons. | 143 i 3X 3x 2 820 32°125 | 3°569 : 144 | 4% 4x 2 822 53°125 | 3°320 | 145 6x 6 x12 864 131000 3°640 i 146 es » 18 926 154°000 4°277 : 147 : ” » = 24 822 122°206 | 3°394 : 148 | ne » 36 888 r22-200 : 3°394 ' 149 | 9x 9 x12 1024 223°600 2°760 150 1 9’x 9/xI5 918 247°800 2°898 151 ite » 18 889 244°800 2°860 152 s wo «SE 883 247°000 i 2°887 153 9’ x 10’ x 15 904 397°000 4°175 154 1o’x Ir x18 794 307°000 2°722 155 mo BT 819 327°800 2°907 | 156 9’ x 10’ x 24 905 307°000 3°239 | TaBL—E LXXXV.—Pinz, Kauri (NEW ZEALAND). Transverse Experiments. i Defiections. | : Total weight 5 , Weight Weight Numb: i 5 ofthe | With the | After the | at | Fequlzed'to | Specific recuerdo! required SPLCImen: eae. weet the a SIS_| each piece. | ed I ue 390 lbs. removed. breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches, Ibs. | Ibs. rd T'25 *oo =| (3°75 818 "525 934 131'25 2¢ 1°25 15 | 4°25 875 529, 992° 132°25 36 1l5 ‘I0 | 4"20 820 529 | 930 132°25 4a 1°05 ‘00 i 3°75 750 520 | 865 130°00 5a’ Ils "10 3°40 760 515 885 128'75 6D’ I°50 15 4°15 870 562 929 140°50 Total 7°35 o | 23°50 4893 3180 5535 795°00 Average I'225 "083 = | 3°916 815°5 | 530 917 132°50 ! " : RemMarks.—These specimens broke with a moderate length of fracture. E= 790810. S=214!. 3622 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLE LXXXVI. Tensile Experiments. \ Number of th Di ry ri Specific | Weight the | Direct cohesion | “specimen, Rape | geen | RR eat | | ‘ Inches. i Ibs. | Ibs. | 74 ( 525 | 16,244 4,001 | 8 2x2x30 4, 529 | 20,449 | pps 96 | 529 17,920 4,480 | 10 uw l 520 | 18,080 | 4,520 | Total | 2103 | 72,684 | 18,171 Average . 526 | 18,1712 | 4,543 1 1 TaBLeE LXXXVII. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— 1 ) aes i Te ea ee 1 Inch. 2 Inches. | 3 Inches. 4 Inches. | specimen. r p f , ! i i Crushed with Crushed with | Crushed with Crushed with {. | Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. II-14 3°125 10°75 , 245 45°75 | 15-18 3°500 T0"00 24°5 48°00 19, 20 37125 10°50 on ae 21, 22 37000 10°75 ; | Total 12°75 42°00 | 49°90 93°75 | Average . 3°19 10°50 24°5 46°875 | Do. perinch . 3°19 2°625 | 2°722 2°929 \ 3 | LASLETT’S TABLES 363 TaBLE LXXXVIII. Transverse Experiments.—Top length. Defiections. ai ; ere a : cr) E : = eh. | @ | ge da oI iv -) wo oe oP 38 ae | Sy | © | See | & | 2s , Feels al z 3-5 sme | SE | Be | Te 9 eh | Sa | #8 &] oe ee [apf | ca | 82 az, 2 | 28 | asi |e.e| =: g* | ao | 2h | og | sas | 2 | Ze | B2F | Bee! ws se e88 | ya 1 88 | PR Oo ge iB "(2 Bi 28 cits] 2 o B a | o a! a ae Sa il ieee |. Inches. | Inch. | Inches. ; Ibs. | tbs. | Ibs. 23 ¢’ 1°50 15 3°50 | 660 534.| 741 | 16570 | .. 24 b 1°65 20 3°50 630 560 675 | 1575 | 25a 1°60 “oo 2°25 490 580 507 | E225 aw rs 26a 140 | "00 | 3°75 ; 690 595 | 696 '172°5 | 3412| 4t 27 b 1°50 I5 4°25 660 540 733, 16570 | 3220: 42 28 ¢ 1'60 "00 4°75 700 545 771 | 175°0 | 2485: 43 Total .. 9°25 | *50 | 22°0 | 3830 3354 4123 | 957°5 | | Average . : '1°541 | *083 | 3°666 6383 | 559 | 687 159°58 | | \ | | ; 1 Remarks.—These specimens broke with a moderate length of fracture. E= 636440. S=1676. TaBLE LXXXIX. Transverse Experiments.—-Mid length. | Deflections. os Tensile | : 2 ae s , 88 | gy , | Experiments. | eee ee ee eee ee gag | & | Be' 3,2 | | gf | 62, | S21 2, | #22) & | gh | EBs [242 d 8 Sie i 25 1 GP | og 2 Pa ag Be Sag i 2g ot2 2; 6 a08 a S B68 aan, 3g i ao ae 26 2 £58 3 Seo | B85 | Saw! oe | i “oo | =e | 2s a2? 3 ‘eg ies oon) BB | a a34 o..68d & a 30 =" lg 2128) =e gg: oA cs Oo) ee 13 oe) Eo | BE | oP 7 ate Inches Inch. Inches. Ibs. | | Ibs. Ibs. | 29 ¢” 1°50 25; 4°75 | 655 498 | 788 | 163°75 ap | 30 bY 1°65 25 | 4°25 680 528 | 773 | 170°00 po 314 E40 20 | 5°00 695 553 oe) EUS AS kath 4 32-4 1°25 ‘I5. | 4°50 | 740 560 | 793 | 185°00 | 3290 44 | 33 6 1°35 I5 4°25, | :~680 545! 749 | 170700 3045} 45 34 ¢ 1°35 *25, =, «+4700 795 556 | 701 | 176°25 , 3045 46 Total 850 | 1°25 26°75 | 4155 3240 4618 1038°75 ! Average .} 1°416 | *208! 47458) 692°5| 540 769 | 173°125 1 | RemArKs.—These specimens broke with a moderate length of fracture. E= 735920. S=1818. 364 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLe XC. Transverse Expeviments.—Butt length. at aa pe re ay Uae i j a Tensil Deflections. 3 : | 2s % apes v oO . a. Bene ae “ "! Bey 2 ZS 5 tat oe uh | a? 1 Sy | S| Bef | 6) Se | BS ls ale Phe Soy Be | #8 | 2 712 pes aan eee a Pew sy of gee be | 2 | eze | go | o8 | ge 122 | 5: EI RD ae 3s me” a BS ees | 253 a3 = 22° wg | 2s zg ose) 2S 8 ei ee Be SF | 2 f ja ~ | 2 Inches. Inch. ‘ Inches Ibs. ‘tps. | Ibs. 35 ¢" 1°50 15 i 4°00 760 550; 829! Igo00! .. 7 36 BD’ | 140015} 3°75 | 7T0 580 ; 734 | 77°50 : 37 a’ 1°50 ‘20, | «4°00 705 560 | 755 | 176°25 7 me 38 a 1°25 ‘oo || 3°75 | 765 595 | 771 91°25 | 3325 | 47 39 5 1°25 "15 | 3°00 640 580 | 662 | 160700 : 3080 48 40 ¢ 1°35 "Io | («5°25 810 555 | 876 202°50 | 3920 | 49 Total 8°25 "75 23°75 | 4390 3420 | 4627 | 1097750 Average . | 1°375 125 3°958 | 731°66| 570] 771 | 182-91 ie acer cil ete pec ee IY cee all, al = Remarks.—These specimens broke with a moderate length of fracture. E=722360. S=1922. The mean of the whole being E=698240. S=1805. TasLe XCI.—PineE, Pitcu (AMERICAN). Transverse Experiments. [ y 7 a | i (Coe | Say Defiections. ' H 1 | Esch areas chee B iat lets T : | Weight ' Weight | Numb. otal weight : duced | “ofthe | With the | After the | at | Fequired to Buea "pene noel | specimen. renin | weeot the crisis each piece. ; orevity! i I square : | 390 Ibs. | removed. | breaking. | | | | Inches. Inch. Inches. | Ibs. | Ibs. Ir } 125 1 95 5°05 1068 | 651 « 984 207°00 2 » 125 j ES 3°75 go2 | 630 = 859 225°50 3 | too t00 |S 500 1145 * 693 got = 286°25, 4 | 100 ‘00 | 4°65 1005 | 662 9II 25125 5 | 1°25 "15 5°15 968 620 937. 1 242°00 6 : 1'00 ‘00 5°15 1207 698 1038 | 301°75 | t i t | | sical Weick es 2875 | 6295 | 3954 | 5720 73°75 | | Average | 1°125 075 | 4°79 104916 659 953°3 | 262°29 | : ; ReMARKS.—AI! the specimens broke with a short fracture. E= 859950. S= 2754. LASLETT’S TABLES 365 TaBLe XCII. Transverse Experiments.—Second Example. (Butt to top, inner part of the tree.) Deflections. ‘ Weight Weight Number [| 2 Aaa a det ene Beg seduces to poquired of the With the | After the At fs aah tO Specie specific to break specimen. | apparatus| weight | the crisis hai gravity. | gravity i square weighing was of Cechepieee 600. inch. 390 lbs. removed. | breaking. Inches, Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. a 125 “Io 9°75 860 932 554 215°00 8 25 "00 5°00 1020 764 801 25500 9 r25 ‘00 4°50 990 682 871 247°50 10 1°35 ‘oo 4°25 874 652 804 218'50 II 1°25 15 4°50 876 632 833 + 219°00 12 I°4 “00 3°25 715 586 732 178°75 1 Total 775 | °25 3125 5335 4248 4595 1333°75 Average I'291 "0416 |; 5°208 889°16 708 766 222°29 ! REMARKS.—No. 7 fractured but not broken asunder, highly resinous; Nos. 8, 9, 10, and 11 broke a little short ; 12 broke with a long splintery fracture. (Butt to top, outer part of the tree.) E= 722360. TaBLE XCIII. S= 2334. Transverse Experiments.—Third Example. | Deflections. Ritts caeenctes oa gee ; Weight Weight Total weight 6 ee ae el required fo | Specie |*eaueed to] required | _ specimen. appatstus weight the crisis . ane gravity. gravity I square | 390 Ibs. | removed. | breaking. : | Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 13 115 “00 3°75 1035 840 740 258°75 ; 14 1'l5 "15 2°95 985 788 725 221°25 i 15 I‘00 00 5°00 ITIo 760 876 277°50 ; 16 1°25 "I5 3°75 920 655 843 230°00 : 17 1°25 00 475 1 925 613 905 231°25 | 18 | 1°35 20 475 j 845 610 831 21125 }. i: i | DOtal s 715 "50 24°75 | 5820 4266 | 4920 1430°00 Average I‘Igi 0833 4°125 970 qu 820 238°33 Remarks.—No. 13 broke short and split; 14, curl in the grain and broke short; 15 and 16 broke short and split; 17 and 18 broke with short fracture. E= 815070. S=2546. 366 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TABLE XCIV. Transverse Experiments.—Fourth Example. (Butt to top, inner part of the tree.) | Deflections. | pen: Weight | Weight Number ieatant eine se total. a Specifi seated to feauired of the With the | After ane At a era 7 e Savitye oe to break i 4 t ight t isi : i are specimen. ae lec er each piece. rae ‘ nek 390 Ibs. removed. | breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. | Ibs. 19 I'25 “00 4°50 760 583 782 + 190°00 20 T'50 “T5 5°00 778 55° 849 | 194°50 21 I'25 “00 95 752 531 850 ' 188-00 22 1°50 "25 4°75 795 505 837 176°25 23 T'50 25 4°75 695 501 832 | 173°75 24 I'50 "10 4°50 710 498 855 | 177°50 Total 8°50 “75 27°25 4400 3168 5005 I100°00 Average | 1°416 "125 4°541 733°33 528 834 183°33 REMARKS.—Specimens all broke with fracture of a few inches in length. : E= 701530. S=1925. TaBLe XCV. Transverse Experiments.—Fifth Example. (Butt to top, outer part of the tree.) j pale = | | Defiections. ; ‘ Weight Weight ( “Numb I Total weight ; duced fs “ofthe, Withihe | Affetie | At Peay | bce vyeaae | to wee ' Specimen. apparatus | weight the crisis ea) ke bie gravity. |. gravity I square i | weighing was | of Piece. 600, inch, 390 Ibs. | removed, _ breaking. | Inches, i Inch. ; Inches. lbs. Ibs. 25 , 1°50 | +10 4°75 805 601 803 201°25 26 S25 le 5: 5°00 778 572 816 194°50 27 | 1125 "05 4°25 742 533 835 185°50 28 , 1°50 15 4°00 725 530 821 18125 29 1750 | ‘05 | 4700 739 528 839 184°75 30 150 | ‘oo 3°75 741 518 858 185°25 ( Total 8°50 | "50,0, 25°75 4530 3282 4972 1132°50 Average. 1'416 083 4°291 755 547 829 188°75 4 Remarxs.—Specimens all broke with fracture of a few inches in length. E= 677270. S= 1982. LASLETT’S TABLES TaBLeE XCVI. Tensile Experiments. 367 | Number of the Dimensions of Specific Weight we Binee golesiay specimen. each piece. gravity. aa .] r square inch. | Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 31 693 16,800 ; 4,200 ; 32 | 630 17,640 4,410 33 651 19,320 4,830 34 %2 RO y 620 17,920 4,480 35 ; i 662 19,600 4,900 36 : 698 20,720 5,180 . Total 3954 112,000 yi 28,000 ‘Average... | 659 18,666 4,666 | | bad TaBLE XCVII. Vertical oy Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. ' ' No. 37. No. 38 | No. 39. | No. 40. No. 41. No. 42. Total. Average. Ditto on | ; f ' I square | Tons. Tons, | Tons. Tons. Tons. |! Tons. | Tons. Tons. inch, i ro'875 | T1125 , II'5 Ir'625 12°00 ° 12°I25 | 69°25 I1"542 2°885 : : I TaBLe XCVIII.—Pine, Rep (Canapa). Transverse Experiments. Deflections. Pi ht, ae ee ; Weight Weight Number | | Total, ere Specifi eliced to Peauiced of the With the | After the At pha o ng specific to break specimen. ae | welt | the ols each piece. cay I oauate 390 lbs. . removed. ; breaking. Tuches. Inch. i Inches. Ibs. Ibs. i 1°85 “15 | 4°50 590 536 660 147°5 2 75 15; 4°25 572 525 654 143'0 3 1750): "10 | 3°25 588 576 612 147'0 4 r65 i) 15) + 5°75 ZOO 578 727 175°0 5 1'50 | ‘10 5°50 724 552 787 181'o 6 75. | as | 4°50 746 554 808 186°5 1 | } Total Io700 =| "80 | 27°75 3920 3321 4248 980°0 i : Average . 1°666 | ‘133 | 4°625 653°33 553°5 708 163°33 ReMARKS.—Nos. 1, z, and 6 broke with a moderate length of fracture; 3, 4, and 5, rather short. 3688 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TABLE XCIX. Tensile Experiments. fee ey ace Wee te | ued on ee ‘ Number of the * Dimensions of Specific Real iahrse Direct fl FOP EON ETO'SS by 48 6 673 183°80 | ‘671 he gt ih aa eee eer: .. if 39 8 » 564 25440 | 2°292 72 | 21 fo Pete TOTS 1 4513 «561 279°20 ; 2600 | ! | “E= 579190. S= 2301. 372 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLE CVIII.—Pine (Rica). Transverse Experiments. Deflections. | | . i | Weight | Weight Number Total weight _.. (teduced to; required of the With the | After the At sa a to | Se ' Spee to break specimen. aan weight the cries each piece. - pre t ae e 390 lbs. | removed. | breaking. Inches. Inch. | Inches. : Ibs. | Ibs. I "25 ‘10 3°00 580 | 524 664 145°00 2 I'00 ‘IO 3°75 707 584 726 176°75 3 1°50 ‘10 3°30 498 518 577 | 24°50 4 1°50 ‘05 4°50 615 534 691 | 153°75 5 1°35 “10 3°85 677 570 712 169°25 6 I°l5 ‘IO 3°35 523 516 608 130°75 Total 775 "55 21°75 3600 3246 3978 goo00 | Average . | 1°292 “092 37625 600 541 663 150°00 fa’ Remarks.—No. 1 broke a little short ; 2 and 3 with fractures 9 inches in length ; in 4, 5, and 6 the fractures were longer and splintery. TaBLeE CIX. Tensile Experiments. i . . Weight the Direct cohesi ee Dinners of Specific piece broke ‘on: en : Petes gravity. with. I square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 (| 584 17,920 4,480 8 Ra nibetpaete | 524 12,320 3,080 9 | a3 | 570 19,600 4,900 10 | 534 14,980 3.745 Total ‘ ies ps 64,820 16,205 Average . z ce = 16,205 4,051 LASLETT’S TABLES 373 TaBLe CX. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on cubes of— : ; ae es ! Nuiiber of ihe | 1 Inch. | 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Perec Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with | | | Tons. | Tons. Tons. Tons. 11-14 3°25¢6 1 g°000 16° 34°875 15, 16 ‘ 3°125 | 7875 ae i 17,18 3°500 i 8-250 19, 20 3°750 8-500 21,22 3°250 8-750 23, 24 3°000 | 8250 Total 19°875 | 50°625 Average . 3°312 | 8°437 16° 34'875 Do. per inch 3°312 | 2°I09 1°77 2°179 TABLE CXI. Vertical or Crushing Experiments. Number | Length 2 A n Weight Specifi ; Ditto on coe lopedenees| PE lmauare gnc. | annie, | OAM eae Inches. Inches. Ibs, oz. Tons. Tons. 25 I o 1 9°875 | 2°469 26 2 Oo 2 8437 | 2109 27 3 | o 33 | 11°500 | 2875 28 4 | o 44 | “g'000 |, 2°250 29 5 : o 7 | To"500 | 2°625 30 G6, o 8} 11‘250 2-812 Br eG 0 10 | TII25 | 2°781 32 | 8 2x2 4 © 10} | II‘000 | 2°750 33 | 9 (| O12 | 10°000 | 27500 34 10 ar) iH! 8:000 | 2°000 35 II I Bab 9°750 | 2°437 36 12 cord 33 TEI25 | 2°781 37 1 18 | a eae 9°875 . 2°469 38.) 28) | for 8h! 6°875 | 1-719 39; 30 | 2 5 oe 77375 | 1°844 40 12 | (’ 28 1 647 367°80 3°678 41 15 o} x 10} 100 29. 9 506 214°70 2°147 42 18 | | 33 0 507 245°40 2°454 43 2m |? | 48 3 634 245°40 27454 44 18 | if 46 6 646 307°00 2°784 45 2I i to} x 104 TI0°25 ~' 54 11 654 307°00 2°784 46 24 F 25 4 577 ele ae 2°532 47 27 \ me fr 85 0 604 378°72 2°630 get geo jo PERE LA ge ce 593 | 39628 | 2-752 E= 752420. S=1575 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 374 TaBLeE CXII.—PInE, YELLOW (CaNaDA), Transverse Experiments. Deflections. o Weight Weight Number : oe) weer Specifi cme to enue of the With the | After the At ba are to Latta specific to break specimen. | apparatus | weight the crisis fae Bravitys gravity I square weighing was of each Piece. 600. in 390 lbs. removed. | breaking. | | Inches. Inches. Inches. Ibs. Tbs. I 2°00 1°75 4°50 630 424 891 157°5 2 2°00 1°65 5700 636 432 882 159°0 3 2°00 1°85 4°50 684 464 884 I7I'o 4 1°75 1°65 4°50 | 660 444 892 165°0 5 2°25 2°00 3°75: | 552 435 761 138-0 6 2°75 20 575 | 598 411 873 149°5 Total 12°75 II‘00 28:00 | 3760 2610 5183 940°0 Average 2°125 1°833 4°66 626°6 435 864 156°66 Remarks.—Tke whole of these broke with a moderate length of fracture and splintery. TABLE CXIII. Transverse Experiments.—Second Example. ry Deflections. < Tensile 2 ee a Ee as 7 ne ? 3 na 3 d Experiments. af p ois ra mao 5 Sm | Bud ee ne ee ere $3 Sa Ea eg gua ° KE | ofic 8 Bl fe ou vor op Big fu9 a ~ Ao 2 = Be! og ga SEo ao os O85 SD 8 $2 wae | 8ae gf Z ag®| aq | Se | “8 & | S2 |e "13°8) 28 Bs oe] & i Be. 2 ¢F | Be BE < < ce An! @ Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 73 1°50 50 4°25 508 568 537 | 12770 | 2,660 3. 22 8. 2 1°25 50 4°25 562 600 562 | 140°5 2,800 2. 23 9. I 1°50 50 2°25 480 537 536 | 120°0 | 2,485 | 1. 24 Io. © 225 | F208 2°75 360 430 502 go'o ie? 3) II. 1’ 1°85 85 3°00 480 588 490 | 120°0 | 2,730 | 1’. 25 A ey mee I'90 90 4°25 512 568 541 | 128'0 | 2,800! 2’. 26 13. 3° 17, 65 | 3°00 478 566 | 507,| 119°5 | 3,080 ; 3’. 27 1 Total 12'00 | 5'00 | 23°75 3380 3857 | 3657 | 845°00 116,555 | Average 1714 714} 3°393 | 482°85 551 525 | 120°71 2,759 on | | LASLETT’S TABLES 375 TABLE CXIV. Transverse Experiments—Third Example. Deflections. = es perentile ee ae ee ee eee: “ +6 > xperiments. 3 a i 2 on a5 8 2 Be | Em: ee | Be | $8 | ag | Bek] B | Be; EB | Eg | 2 Pes Sea | $2: BP SOE] rR | sag $8 | 48 ES yee | of 64) sis) 4 Zo | See er ae 54 Bee $2 o§ e338 3 7: nn a O68 go 2 ae” | ga*| 28 oe | oe | 82) SP | ee) Be Se | 3 | 2 : | A~ | 2 Inches. | Inches. ; Inches. | Ibs. | Ibs. Ibs. 14. 4 2°00 65 3°00 | 504] 562 538 126°00 2,485 | 4. 28 15. 3 1°75 65 3°50! 5560] 564] 591 139°00 2,800 | 3. 29 16, 2 1°50 "50 4°75 | 665 | 530 753 166°25 2,870 | 2. 30 17. I 2°2 "85 4°50' 498 | 560 533 124°50 2,240 I. 31 18. 1’ 2°25 “75 3°25 | 513 |] 526 585 | 128°25 1,610 | 1’. 32 19. 2% | 2°25 | 85 | 2°75; 419} 566| 444 , 104°75 2,150 | 2’. 33 20. 3° 2°50 "5 2°85! 421 | 544 464 | 105°25 2,100 | 3’. 34 21. 4° 2°25 "65 | 3°00; 460 | 564]; 490 , 115'00 1,820 | 4’. 35 - Total .' 16°75 | 5°65 27°60 | 4036 | 4416] 4398 | 100900 18,075 Sis Average | 2°093; °706)/ 3°45 | 504°5| 552| 549°75 | 126°125 | 2,259°37| «. E=650960. S=1324. TaBLeE CXV. Tensile Experiments. 3 CaadiK Weight the | Direct cobesion Number of th D ns of p : | oe | thepiecs, | gravity. | PEC boKe oo | Inches | Ibs. Ibs. 36 | 464 7,280 j 1820 37 ‘fF 2xX2x30 444 7,840 1960 38 | 506 9,205 | 2301 Total é | | 1414 24,325 : 6081 Average . | 471 8,108 | 2027 2 376 TaBLE CXVI. THE TIMBERS OF THE: WORLD Vertical Experiments on cubes of— Number of the | 1 Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. ‘ 4 Inches. . specimen. I : R i : : Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 1 Crushed with | Tons. Tons. Tons. i Tons. 39-42 | 37625 6°750 15°75 | 22°875 43.44 | 3°000 6°875 aes : bes 45,46 ! 2°125 77250 47, 48 2°250 8-000 49, 50 i 1875 8-000 51,52 | 2250 | 7°750 Total I5°125 44°625 | Average . oe | 2°521 7437 | 15°75 22°875 Do. per inch | 2°521 | '1°859 | 1°75 I°430 | | Vertical Experiments.—Four pieces, Nos. 53, 54. 55, and 56, each 2x2 inches, and respectively I Crushed with 8°5 2 3 ; 7454 | 825 | 4 Inches in length. 7°875 Tons. TaBLe CXVII.—Pytnxapo (Burma). Transverse Experiments. | Deflections. | : Weight Weight { Number | par Slee Specific |teduced to] required of the With the | After the At one ok pecine specific to break specimen. | apparatus weight | the crisis re on ie fece gravity. gravity I square ! weighing was of SS siesta 1000. inch. i : 390 Ibs. removed, | breaking. : Inches. Inch. Inches. lbs. Ibs. | I °75 00 4°50 1240 1150 1078 310 1 2 1'00 05 4°60 1250 1225 1020 312°5 3 I'00 05 4°90 1490 1150 1291 | 37275! 4 5, 85 : "00 3°25 | ILO 1165 953 2775 5 "90 | "00 3°50 1130 1225 922 282°5 6 1°25 10 4°75 1420 1143 1242 355 { . : Total = 7% O75 | "20 | 25'5 7640 | 7058 6506 I9Io d 4 | Average . 958 | - bo ahs 1273°3 | 1176°33 | 108473 318-33 ls Ah t ea ee, ot ' REMARKS.—Nos. I, All were fibrous and wiry: , 3, and 6 broke with about r2 inches length of fracture, 4 and 5 with somewhat less. LASLETT’S TABLES 377 TaBLE CXVIII. Tensile Experiments. ! . aah oe Pad * i ' Numb: f th Di . f | Specifi Weight the Direct cohesion ; specimen. : each piece. gravity. eee I eave inch. Inches. , Ibs. Ibs. vE . 1143 35,840 8,960 8 | 1150 41,440 10,360 | 9 2x2 x30 l II50 40,320 10,080 pac) | 1225 38,640 9,660 | 11 | 165 38,080 9,520 12 1225 37,420 9,355 | Total 7058 231,740 57,935 | Average 1176 38,623 9,656 i TaBLE CXIX. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 13. | No. 14. No. 15. y No. 16, No. 17. No. 18. Total. Average. | Ditto on 1 square Tons. Tons. Tons. | Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. inch. 20°750 | 20°625 | 20°875 | 20'500 | 21°250 | 21°000 | 125-000 | 20°833 | 5°208 E=1,031940. S=3342. TaBLE CXX.—SaBicv. Transverse Experiments. | Deflections. i ei teste ae yoke ln ; Weight Weight | Number | Bonini Specifi senyeedl to remiited ' ofthe | With the | After the ats, plete eal specific to break » specimen. apie noe the cis each piece. ee I square | | 390 Ibs. removed. | breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. ; Ibs. I i; I'00 “00 3°25 1090 936 1165 272°50 2 | Too bs Ke) 4°10 I510 928 1735 377°50 3 1°00 "05 3°15 1090 899 1213 272°50 4 © °85 “00 425 1390 910 1527 | 347°50 | 5 ' 1'00 "05 3°50 1280 923 1387 320°00 | | 6 “90 ‘00 4°25 1395 904 1543 348°75 | | Total | 5°75 “20 22°50 7755 | §500 8570 -1938°75 ae : | 958 "033 3°75 1292°5 | 916°66 | 1428°331 323°125 Remarks.—Nos. 1, 4, 5, and 6 broke with about ro to 11 inches fracture; 2 and 3 broke with 8 inches fracture. 378 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLE CXXI. Tensile Experiments. ‘Number of the Dimensions of Specific \ ee pirect scobrsiot specimen. the pieces, gravity. | with. 1 square inch. Inches. \ Ibs. Ibs. 7 923 17,360 45340 8 | 904 24,360 6,090 9 gIo 22,120 5,530 | Io Da | 936 | 21,280 5,320 | II | 1 899 | = 20,776 5.194 a2 | 928 | 27,496 | 6,874 | 1 | Total . «| | 5500 133,302 | 33,348 | A ' } / | Average... | | 916°66 22,232! 5,558 | TaBLE CXXII. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— 1 Inch, ' 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Number of the ; SREIESE: Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Tons. 1 Tons. Tons. Tons. 13-16 *3°000 15°875 36°625 61°75 17, 20 3°250 16°750 36°500 63°75 21, 22 3°125 16°000 a oe 23, 24 2°875 14°750 an rec Total . : 12°25 63°375 73125 125°50 Average : 37062 15°844 36°562 62°75 Do. perinch . 3'062 3°961 4°06 3°922 E=972320. S= 3393. LASLETT’S TABLES 379 TaBLE CXXIII.—Spruce (CanaDa). Transverse Experiments. | | Deflections. } : ! Weight . Weight Number q Total Me Specifi ' reduced to , Tequired of the With the | After the | At ss eect eo airs Cc ' ‘specific | to break specimen. | apparatus| weight the crisis | each piece. 8 Y | gravity I square weighing was fey Piece. 600. ! inch. 390 Ibs. removed. | breaking. i Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. ; Ibs. I 1°25 ‘06 6°25 696 451 926 * T1275 2 T20 "O05 5°00 719 485 ; 890 I21'25 3 1°15 "04 3°75 556 510 654 | 127750 4 1°30 ‘07 5°75 709 490 867 122°50 f | H Total -| 4°90 22 , 20°75 2680 1936 | 3337 | 484°00 i} Average .| 1°225 "055 5°187 670 484 | 834 | 1I21°00 | Remarks.—No. 1 broke with about 12 inches Jength of fracture; 2, 3, and 4 with only a little less. TABLE CXXIV. Tensile Experiments. (Dimensions of each piece, 2 x 2 x 30 inches; sp. gr. 484.) cepa 3 = | No. 5. | No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. Total. Average. | ara | Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. , e1g! € piece \ H ' broke with fr 13,104 | 19,040 | 13,440 | 17,360 | 62,944 | 15,736 Direct cohesion on V I I square inch 3,276 ; 4,760 | 3,360 | 4,340 | 15,736 3,934 | ! ‘| | | 1 : TABLE CXXV. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. ivan T T ar No. 9. y No. ro. | No. x1. No. 12. | No. 13. No. 14. ! Total. | Average. Ditto on I square Tons. Tons. | Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | inch. | i | 9°00 8°875 | 775 8°875 | 8°75 8-75 | 52°00 ~~ 8666 2°166 | 1 ‘f f i E=771800. S=1759. 380 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD TaBLE CXXVI.—TeEak (BurMma).—No. I. Transverse Experimenis. Deflections. ; | ° Weight Weight Number [| | —C—COtCS Total weight Speaise drenuees to| required of the Witb the } After the At pha nent ° aauiey : specific to break | specimen. pours weight the a each piece. l ee) I eee 390 Ibs. removed. : breaking. | 1 Inches. | Inch. { Inches. Ibs. | Ibs. 7 2°05; °25 | 5°50 840 jiz | 1179 210700 8 1°35 Y) —— Z : : 23 ca Bi waa SARA Diagram oF SMOKE KILN VENTILATION BY CHIMNEY Hear FRom Fire Moisture From Wet FUueL % EvaPoRATION FROM TANK THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD WT quads VLIOVIA, uoon(y Zh py (OD Fuldsaursuy yURAIANIS 97 Aq WOT ues} “Aep rod yoy prvog ooo'Szr Apordey ‘OOW SUVAA AIUMIHL INVAALYNLS “aA “6 « | Ad LIAL ‘NT AAISSAMOON] YVAMOAA-OMI THE ARTIFICIAL SEASONING OF TIMBER 39 ee SS ae —— ——-—--— PROGRESSIVE KiILn or A.B.C. TYPE. (lustration lent by Erith’s Engineering Co. Ltd., 70 Gracechurch Street, London.) <4 AKON: BOON: \ COMPARTMENT KILN (STURTEVANT SYSTEM) AT SCHNEIDER'S Works, FRANCE. 304 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD In the Sturtevant, progressive kiln, air heated by contact with steam pipe coils is driven into one end of the dryer by means of centrifugal fans, and the timber after drying passes out at the other end. The air gathers moisture as it passes over the timber, and cools down. Green timber is entered at the air discharge end, where the temperature is low and the moisture high, and moves progressively through zones of increasing temperature and decreasing humidity, and finally emerges at the hot-air entry end. The American Blower Company then developed a progressive kiln in which the circulation of the air was obtained by thermal means. Fans and motive power were not needed, and these kilns, being milder and more moist in their action, proved most useful for hard woods. The A.B.C. kiln, in its latest improved form, is known in this country as the “Erith ” moist air dryer. As progressive kilns are not adaptable for a mixed output, that is, for small quantities of varying kinds of thicknesses, such as are required for some works, compartment kilns were then developed. B. F. Sturtevant used fan-controlled ventilation, while with other processes fans or thermal circulation were the methods employed for ventilating the kilns. With thermal circulation each compartment is a separate unit, with its own radiator pipes, chimney, and other apparatus, and a drying plant consists of several of these units. With fan circulation, one fan and steam heater serves any number of compartments, all the machinery being in a separate chamber at the side of the drying rooms. The fan kiln has certain advantages over the thermal kiln. Firstly, less steam piping is required to radiate the same amount of heat, and consequently there are fewer joints to keep tight. As the steam pipe is outside the dryer it is under better observation. Finally, as the circulation is under mechanical control, the intensity of ventilation can be varied independently of alterations in the temperature, and “ return air,’” or warm, moist air from the various compartments, gives a humid atmosphere suitable for the starting process, and therefore greater thermal efficiency. In B. F. Sturtevant’s compartment kilns the temperature in any one compartment was regulated by reducing or increasing the amount of hot air admitted, while the humidity was controlled by altering the pro- portion of return air taken by the fan. The disadvantage of this system was that any alteration to suit conditions in one room naturally altered those in others, while for very low temperatures the volume of air passing was so small that stagnation occurred in parts and mildew developed. After many years of little appreciable progress, the British Sturtevant Company brought out their “ Triple Duct ’ dryer. This, a great improve- ment on previous types, will be more particularly described later. THE ARTIFICIAL SEASONING OF TIMBER 395 In America, thermal circulation has received most favour, and apart from the progressive kilns of the American Blower Company, numerous companies are selling compartment kilns all working on the thermal principle, and differing only in small details and accessories. The general basis of all these is a bank of steam pipe radiators under the floor of each compartment. The air is renewed by chimney draught, some- times assisted by steam pipes or steam jets, and steam vapour is admitted under the timber to provide the humidity required when starting a charge, and generally to restrain the action of the heat. Apart from the two leading types of dryers, progressive and compart- ment, the only variant is the condensing kiln, which can be applied to either type. This was first fitted to fan-operated dryers, secondly to thermal kilns, and finally to kilns where thermal ventilation is assisted by the cooling and ejector action of water sprayers. The fan-operated condensing kiln (known as the Common-sense Dryer) could be either EEE fi —_— ——s on CONDENSER HEATER FAN. of the progressive or compartment variety. This had a closed circuit, and constantly re-circulated the same air. The wet air from the kiln passed over cold-water pipe coils which condensed the excess moisture. The air then passed to the heater, and thence back to the dryer. From a salesman’s point of view this could be made very attractive, as it was possible to show a dryer at work with wet timber going in, dry timber coming out, and the extracted water trickling away from the condenser. However, as this system had no real advantage, after a brief period of popularity it ceased to be used. The thermal circulation condensing kiln was devised by the Andrews Company. In this the hot-water pipes are, as in most cases, under the floor, the cold pipes of the condenser being in a side chamber. The direction of the circulation is upwards through the timber, and down- wards in the side flue. Excess moisture is condensed from the wet air, which then passes to the radiator pipes and re-circulates. The third variety of condensing kiln is that invented by Mr. H. D. Tieman, M.E., M.F., of the U.S.A. Forest Service. This is a development of the Andrews kiln, but instead of cold-water coils in the side flue, 396 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD numerous water sprays are so directed as to assist the movement of the air in the desired direction. As the spray water is cooler than the hot wet air from the dryer, the moisture is condensed and the air returns to the heater, containing less moisture, and so after re-heating, is capable of doing further drying work. With this system fans and motors are unnecessary, but a pump system with automatic controls is required. The humidity is well under control, but the ventilation can only be varied within very small limits. The direction of movement of the circulating air is vertical. This means complicated piling, either edge- piling, which is only possible with square-edged timber, or an air space, broad below and decreasing towards the top, in the middle of the pile. These conditions present little difficulty in the laboratory, but are not so easy of execution in the timber yard. There are other methods of extracting the water from timber. It can ANoREWS KILN. TIEMAN KILN TYPES OF CONDENSING KILNS. be baked out by putting the wood in contact with steam pipes. This can be done without splitting, if steam vapour is used to restrain the drying action. This treatment is, however, very drastic, and uniform drying is difficult unless the wood is absolutely desiccated. There is also the Hausbrand system of drying with superheated water vapour. In this, wet air is at first circulated, and the temperature is gradually raised. After reaching boiling point the air is allowed to escape, and the water vapour only circulates at such a temperature as to cause evaporation of the moisture in the wood. Wood can be dried by such means, but few people would risk their material under such a drastic process. The various systems may, therefore, be said to be reduced to the two main types of dryer, the progressive and the compartment, and to two ways of obtaining the circulation, that is, either by mechanical or thermal means. Accessories for working, such as water or steam sprays or hygrometers, can be applied to any of these. PROGRESSIVE DRYERS The actual treatment undergone by the timber must in general be the same whatever the type of dryer, if a satisfactory result is to be obtained. The terms “ progressive ’’ and ‘‘ compartment ” apply to the manner of moving the wood or controlling the thermal and hygroscopic conditions. In all progressive kilns the timber is piled on trucks, and moved at regular intervals through zones of varying temperature and humidity. The heating apparatus and means of circulation are therefore arranged so that one end of the dryer is relatively cool and moist and the other end hot and dry. The intermediate space gives a gradual change from the cool, moist conditions to the hot, dry state. The length of time necessary for drying corresponds to the time taken to move the truck load through the dryer. A progressive dryer is essentially suited for dealing with large and regular supplies of one. quality and thickness of timber. If two different thicknesses are put through the process for the same time, it is obvious that either the thicker will not be dry, or that the thinner will be over-dry. It is possible that several units could be installed, each working on one kind and thickness ; but each unit is necessarily large, as a considerable length is necessary to get good circulation, and as the width of the tunnel is fixed by the length of the longest plank. Generally speaking, one unit will deal with 60,000 super feet of 1 inch hardwood per month. The air circulation may be obtained either by fans or by thermal means. If fans are used, an electric motor or steam engine is required to supply the motive power. With thermal circulation there is neither moving machinery, motors, engines, nor pumps. If the dryer is of proper proportions, the circulation and re-circulation of return air are found to be sufficiently active, as there is a constant source of heat at the heating coils, and a regularly renewed cooling effect from the fresh loads of cold, wet wood that are put in at regular intervals. Even if there were no outlet for the air, an internal circulation would be maintained. The air would rise naturally at the hot end, pass horizontally along through the stacked loads of timber, become depressed because of the cooling effect of the fresh material, and would finally return underneath through the space under the floor level. As saturation would be soon reached and drying cease if all outlets were closed, a wet-air outlet chimney is provided, while an inlet is allowed for fresh air to enter to replace that which is drawn off by the chimney. For very heavy evaporations a fan-operated progressive dryer might 397 398 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD be advantagcous, as the thermal kiln would nced some means such as steam jets or exhaust fans to assist in the circulation ; but as a rule, for Erlrarice TED. I, ot ee B.F.STURTEVANT FAN OPERA E rr [peepaedse dra Birk besite feradrardsirt| "PLAN oe THREE ZONE KILN. TIMBER ON TRUCKS !S GIVEN A PERIOD FIRST IN THE MOIST ZONE, THEN IN THE WARM & FINISHED IN THE HOT ZONE missed, without gaining the advantages of a properly designed compart- ment dryer. COMPARTMENT DRYERS With compartment dryers the régime is the reverse of that in pro- gressive dryers. In the compartment system the temperature is varied without movement of the material. A compartment dryer, as the name indicates, consists of a number of compartments or rooms. These are provided with heat either by steam pipes in the room itself, or from a heater outside. Ventilation and renewal of the air may be either by .chimney draught or by the action of fans. Moisture for restraining the too rapid action of dry heat is provided by water spray or steam jets, and also by re-circulating a part of the warm, wet air from the dryer. As the whole of the room is, or should be, at one even temperature, the only circulation that is possible by thermal means is by chimney draught. The contents of the compartment being warmer than the outside air, there would be a natural flow outwards through the chimney, replaced by an inward flow of cold air at floor level. The intensity of this action depends on the height of the chimney and the difference in tempera- ture between the interior and the outside air. The circulation thus varies with the amount of heat, and can only be controlled negatively, that is to say, by shutting dampers in the chimneys. Makers of thermal compartment dryers usually provide either steam coils in the chimneys to accelerate the draught, or steam jet ejectors. Both of these prove somewhat inefficient, and consequently for all compartment dryers there is much to be said in favour of fan circulation. With fan-operated compartment dryers the heating is effected by means of hot air blown into the drying rooms by centrifugal fans. The air is heated by contact with steam-pipe heaters placed outside the rooms, and the necessary humidity is obtained by exhausting part of the used warm moist air from the dryer and re-circulating it. When greater humidity is needed, steam vapour is admitted. The temperature and humidity of the air injected can thus be varied quite independently of the circulation, which is in itself under control. With the first fan-operated dryers this held good only when there was a single compartment. With two or more chambers working with one fan and one heater it was only possible to alter the temperatures in individual rooms by reducing or increasing the amount of air admitted, as otherwise the conditions in the remaining compartments would be interfered with. The Sturtevant triple duct dryer, however, as has been said before, 401 2D 402 ' THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD STURTEVANT TRIPLE Duct DRYER, SHOWING APPARATUS AND Ducts. ia aie id i ELEVATION VIEW ee PLATFORM CONTROL BOARDS FOR CONTROLLING TRIPLE DUCT DAMPERS TO EACH ROOM TA — lpn [Aor Are |- MAIN DUCT 34 We = = a } a LeOld Aye y= WAIN DUCT f= \ iH vy n MOIST AlR —' MAIN DUCT. . u aarti ’ ‘ g el g i : im KILN NOI KILN NO2 KILN NO3 ie & x bal I< i } is el c Heth atk: i. ai Nie “cman ouer MB \ ES, gy eae | | S PLATFORM STURTEVANT TIMBER DRYER AT THE Works orf Mgssrs. W. W. HowarpD Bros. & Co., Poprar. 403 THE ARTIFICIAL SEASONING OF TIMBER *soue|dosoe 10y Yse Ysysuyq Sutsrp Joy Ajjedroutsd poyosrq ‘"NOGNIMS “OD AVATIVY NUALSTAA LVEUD AHL, JO SHUOM BHI LV INVAALUNLS AG USAUC AALVAP ATdIIINIW 404 4 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Fans, HEATERS, AND THE Atr Ducrs oF MUuLtipLeE HEATER DRYERS, Pitinc Truck FOR TIMBER. COMPARTMENT KILNS. RECORDING HYGROMETER THE ARTIFICIAL SEASONING OF TIMBER 405 FLOOR PILING TRUCK PILING IN COMPARTMENT DRYER. “SECTION.C D iin » 4 g DIAGRAM OF MULTIPLE HEATER DRYER. = aaivaH er! ! j wis” pee < & a bi 2 9 > z| ° @ < Fs 3 [= 4 a] UB1N3H = pe > WER 406 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD gave independent control in each compartment, and the three factors of ventilation, temperature, and humidity could be varied at will. As the name implies, there are three main air ducts, which respectively convey hot dry air, cold dry air, and moist air. The dry air, both hot and cold, is taken from the outside by a centrifugal fan which injects some part directly into the cold duct, and the remainder to a steam pipe radiator and thence to the hot duct. The wet air is drawn from the drying rooms, and is therefore generally termed “‘ return air.” The three main ducts run across the ends of the various compartments, and any required mixture of the three kinds of air can be admitted to the compartment by dampers. By having hot air and cold air on supply to each compart- ment the temperature can be varied without interfering with the ventila- tion. Humid air is also available, and the amount to be admitted is regulated according to requirements. In theory, this system gives ideal control, but there are certain mechanical disabilities. For instance, if the hot-air damper does not shut hermetically, the small leakage of very hot air makes it difficult to get a low starting temperature. Again, if the construction of the ducts is not perfect, or if they are in damp ground, there is a serious loss of heat, and frequently the air in the cold duct gets too hot owing to heat radiat- ing from the hot duct. To eliminate these difficulties, a variation of the triple duct dryer was devised by the writer. With this system there are only two main ducts, one for return air and the other for cold dry air. As no hot air is moved through ducts, there are no radiation losses. Then, instead of one main heater for the whole plant, a separate steam pipe heater for each compartment is used. Instead of the temperature being controlled by an air damper, it is varied by the steam stop-valve on the heater. This can be entirely shut off when no heat is required, or opened to give any desired degree of heat. A steam valve is more reliable in closure than an iron air damper, and can also give finer adjustment. Very accurate working can be effected with these ‘‘ Multiple Heater ” dryers, and a predetermined course as to temperature and humidity can be followed whilst maintaining a constant ventilation. Compartment dryers can be in much smaller units than can the progressive type for a given length of plank, and for some kinds of work it is more convenient to have three or four small rooms than one large one ; where, for instance, supplies of several kinds and thicknesses of timber are required, and where the total output would not warrant having several progressive dryers. The reason that small compartment units can be made, lies in the fact that the lengths need only be that of the plank, whereas in a progressive dryer greater length is necessary for giving a difference in temperature. The width of a progressive dryer has to be THE ARTIFICIAL SEASONING OF TIMBER 407 greater than the length of the longest plank, but a compartment dryer may be quite narrow. The general distinction, therefore, between progressive and compart- ment dryers is not technical or proprietary, but rather administrative. Both can do equally good work, but they are suited to different require- ments. CONTROL OF DRYING PLANTS While it is perhaps possible to work a drying plant by rule of thumb, with the aid possibly of a few thermometers or a hygrometer, it has been proved that consistently good results can only be maintained if the plant is worked in a scientific manner with proper instruments to show what is happening inside the dryers, and to keep autographic records. Record- ing instruments have a twofold use: firstly, to ensure that attendants pay proper attention to their work; and secondly, to find out and record the best processes for different timbers, so that it is possible to repeat or to improve on these which are successful, and discard those which are unsatisfactory. The ordinary mercury thermometer is the basis of all readings, both directly for temperature and indirectly for humidity. The degree of humidity is indicated by the dif- ference in readings between two thermometers, one of which is of the normal type, while the bulb of the other is covered with muslin, which is kept moist by a wick dipping into a water tank. This combination is called the “‘ wet and dry bulb” hygrometer. The dry bulb gives the temperature direct. On the wet bulb there are two influences, the heat of the surroundings which would raise the mercury to the same level as in the dry bulb thermometer, and the cooling effect caused by the evaporation of the moisture in the muslin round the bulb. If the air is completely saturated with moisture, this evaporative effect will be absent, and the two thermo- meters will read equal. If the air is dry, the evaporation will be con- siderable and the wet bulb will show a lower reading than the dry bulb. The amount of the difference between the two readings, together with the dry bulb reading, gives a correct indication of the humidity and temperature in the dryer. By means of calculations, tables or charts (hygrodyks), it is possible to work out the humidity in percentages of saturation, but there is no advantage to be gained by this. There are also instruments which give the percentage readings direct. These use the tightening or slackening of a bunch of hairs, or the curling or uncurling of a spiral of fibre, owing to variations of moisture, to operate an indicating needle on a dial. Such instruments may be correct when new, but as they are very delicate and soon get out of order, they are quite unsuitable for practical work. 408 THE ARTIFICIAL SEASONING OF TIMBER 409 The wet and dry bulb mercury thermometers are therefore the basis of all readings. These, however, in the ordinary form, have to be observed frequently, and the readings noted down. In order to keep a continuous and autographic record of the conditions in the dryer, the recording wet and dry bulb hygrometer is used. This instrument is Reooavinc HYGROMETER. £ RECORDING HYGROMETER IN STURTEVANT DRYER. made in two forms, similar in general principles, but differing as to the form of chart used. The one type carries the paper on a circular dial, and is limited to a certain number of days per chart (generally 7 days), and the other winds up the paper on to a drum, and can take charts of considerable length, the unused part being wound on a spool. The dial or the drum is moved by clockwork, and the expansion or 410 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD contraction of the mercury in the bulbs, due to variations in temperature, eeCoosoot 4 el 2 = & ¢ — bat 1 EL ce z 4 aT a > fe) ih x ~Q [a 4 ol LI 8 |_| i td} 2 ws > Kiss hs! y LJ } 1 = 4 s = = Oo A 5 = o z a Lo 4 4 ul aT = Pe i n ra ts 2 tt ALE || oe Le) LOL E a gl= al | | | iste ft S|) ls a) |_| gi(la a c Ia Pp 0 & (as) lie ii) = ud 7 o jag 5 ” > a t I ‘ < z ae ir i=) Mil) & a a N 0 z es 4 vi Fa ’ EL : 4 . ZI L_ w] Eth 8) |S =I F Fr ots u' _ 6 & 8 8] eA] 45 operates pens which mark the wet and dry bulb readings on the chart. The pen arms of the recorder are provided with screws so that the THE ARTIFICIAL SEASONING OF TIMBER 411 instrument can be corrected from time.to time to agree with the wet and dry bulb thermometers. With an Erith or other progressive dryer, the recorder bulbs are placed in the dryer near the hot end. The records should show either two concentric circles in the case of a dial instrument, or two parallel lines with the drum type. There are, of course, unavoidable fluctuations due to opening of doors BOTH THERMOMETERS J BOTH PENS ON READING EQUAL 9 SAME. LINE ORY BULD es THERMOMETERS READING EQUAL,OR RECORDER PENS TOCETHER INDICATES WET AIR IN KILN BIC DIFFERENCE 50° PENS WIDE APART DRY BULB BETWEEN TWO THERMOMETERS — Il 307 BIG DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THERMOMETERS OR RECORDER PENS INDICATES DRY AIR IN KILN. and the like, but for good working the wet and dry bulb readings should be practically steady. With compartment dryers, where the temperature and humidity are varied according to a predetermined course, the temperature line will rise gradually from atmospheric temperature to full heat, and the wet bulb line will start close to the temperature line (indicating great moisture), and gradually fall away from it as drier air is used. The above diagrams show the analogy between the wet and dry bulb thermometers, and the recorder, under extremes of wetness and dryness. 412 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Having in view the wide variations in the quality of timber, it is not possible, of course, to make for any particular kind a formula which would prove infallible. The charts are but guides, and although they represent the treatment for average timber of the kind, deviations are necessary to meet special cases. The recording hygrometer serves a double purpose, as with the chart it shows the course to be followed, and the record of the pens show whether the proper attention has been given, and steam maintained, while in cases of deviation from the standard chart, a record remains for future guidance. WORKING PROCEDURE The following instructions and illustrative sketches for working timber dryers are derived mainly from the ‘‘ Procedure for Kilns,” A.B.I. No. 255, of the Aeronautical Inspection Directorate, which pro- cedure was drawn up and inaugurated by the writer during his service with the Department. Permission to use this matter is gratefully acknowledged to the Director, Brigadier-General Bagnal-Wilde. Many millions of feet of aircraft timbers have been successfully treated in accordance with this procedure under the supervision of the A.I.D. Methodical working is all important. The timber must be carefully stacked and arranged in the dryer, so that the circulating air is brought into contact with all the boards and does not pass uselessly through gaps in the piles. The piling sticks, of which there should be a sufficient number of the right size, must be dry. After a dryer has been at work for some time, the sticks are naturally quite dry, but when starting a new installation it often happens that new sticks are cut from green timber for immediate use. These should be put in the dryer by themselves, and dried before being used in stacking. If-wet sticks are used, the strip across the plank which has been in contact with the stick will probably be stained, and will certainly be wetter than the remainder. Piling sticks 1 inch square are the most useful size. Smaller ones should not be used even for the thinnest material, as the circulation would be poor. For very thick material it is often advisable to use sticks 14 inch or even 2 inches thick in the lower part of the pile, in order to assist the flow of air through the piles. As a general rule, it may therefore be said that piling sticks should be 1 inch thick for planks up to 2 inches thick. For thicker timber, 2-inch piling sticks should be used in the lower part of the stack (from floor to one-third of the height), and 1-inch sticks for the remainder. The timber must be piled evenly, filling as far as possible the whole cross section of the dryer. The circulating air will naturally take the easiest course, and if free passages are left, the drying air will not come into contact with all the timber, and the drying will be uneven. Canvas curtains should be placed across any unavoidable spaces, or some similar device employed to ensure that the drying air is properly utilised. With progressive dryers the boards should be stacked to pass through 413 414 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD the dryer broadside on; if passed through lengthwise, the drying is not uniform. The timber should be piled evenly, filling the whole cross section of =N N N N N NY N) N N N N N N) N N N N N AY SSSSY 4 PWANARAAVALARVURVBRVN ~ AN WARIO IN Lin IDEAL. GOOD. the tunnel. This, however, though certainly the ideal method, is but rarely possible. Before commencing the stacking of a truck, the boards should be sorted into lengths. The shorter boards can often be paired to make a full width, the longer boards are stacked on these, and those of medium length are = ranged above. One side of the load is made vertically even to fit closely to the side of the dryer. If the boards are taken at random, 7x=4o7x——- x the result is somewhat like this : B A D This means the warping and split- oR tll te ting of the exposed ends. As it is admitted that the ideal is not possible, and that there will be a space on each load at one side, it should be arranged that these spaces do not follow one another. The loads can be stacked dressing alternately to the nght and to the left. By this means a straight blow through the dryer is avoided. The piling sticks must be placed exactly one above the other. More care is required in stacking when seasoning artificially, than for natural air drying. The end sticks must be right up to the end of the board. ale THE ARTIFICIAL SEASONING OF TIMBER 415 Metal cleats do no harm, but wood cleats, far from preventing splitting, often cause it, and should therefore not be used. The protection given to the end of the plank by having a piling stick above and below, is better than any cleat, as the latter becomes useless or worse, as soon as shrinkage raw Zz rs z Zz Zz ih Zz 7a shahethuthechocthonthe Tio hes TRUCK LOADS DRESSING ALTERNATELY TO RIGHT & LEFT takes place. The thickness of the piling sticks fixes the space between the boards. The edges should not be together, but 1 inch or more left between each board. With compartment dryers, the timber is sometimes piled directly on the floor, in other cases it is stacked outside on kiln trucks, and the truck loads pushed into the dryer, and withdrawn after treatment. In either case a full charge is desirable, and any avoidable gaps in the pile should be blocked by curtains. If there is material for only half a charge, it is well to fill the whole length, making a narrower width. As in the case of progressive dryers, the planks should be sorted to length, and paired in order to avoid any overhanging. Where planks are of irregular shape, as resulting from logs sawn through and through, the butt ends must be kept to one side, and be in a vertical line. The top ends may be somewhat uneven, but being lighter, can be more easily supported. With regard to moisture test samples in progressive dryers, one test per load of about 250 boards is ample. When the dryer is running constantly on one consignment, and regular results are being obtained, the number of tests can be diminished to about one every three loads. Compartment dryers generally hold very much more per charge, and two or three samples should be drawn representing 1000 cubic feet or more of material. If there is any variation in the thickness, a sample from each is required. These samples are taken in the first place from the green plank, and the moisture result is a guide as to the length of process required. When it appears to be approaching completion, a 416 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD further sample is taken from the same planks, and it is thus ascertained if the requisite dryness has been attained. CLLESHEE A Cobh ded hdhah dodachchohchhhochchaa CLISEaE Tig | EAN, > esetenatateetatnst —] NAS Cu ERO —— ——_—_—_ 4 SSH Nae Bi SS RIE SNOT» FILLE DAR Se a oe Se RO ee OR KER xy OSSSS a a oS no —— 5 —— ——— _——_— Z oo _——————— —————— = SS SS rR a a oe or ae TE a FIDO Zi fa TT a ddd hdd hedoheddadeabodehodededten 7 a ZN TOR a> Cc Door End TA ¢, ENTIFIC NAMES Artocarpus Chaplasha, Roxb., 59 integrifolia, Linn. f., 103 Lakoocha, Roxb., 13 Aspidosperma Peroba, Fr. Allem., 210 Astronium commune, Jacq., 4 fraxinifolium, Schoitt., 86 urundueva, 13 Athrotaxis cupressoides, Don., 217 selaginoides, Don., 217 Balanocarpus sp., 63 Banksia littoralis, R. Br., 22 Bassia latifolia, Rowb., 152 Bauhinia retusa, Ham., 24 Beilschmiedia Tarairi, Benth. and Hook. f., 268 Berberis vulgaris, Linn., 22 Berrya Ammonilla, Roxb., 295 Betula alba, Linn., 29 alba, Linn., var. vulgaris, DC., 31 bhojputtra, 30 excelsa, 30 lenta, Linn., 29 Maximowiczei, 31 nigra, 30 papyracea, 30 ulmifolia, 31 Bischofia javanica, Blume, 31 Boehmeria rugulosa, Wedd., 34 Bombax insigne, Wail., 34 “ malabaricum, DC., 34, 66 Boswellia Klaineana, 140, 141, 256 Bowdichia nitida, Spr., 257 Brosimum Aubletii, Sw., 258 Brya Ebenus, DC., 65, 76 Bumelia lanuginosa, 22 Bursera serrata, Colebr., 42 Buxus Macowani, Oliv., 35, 36, 37 sempervirens, Linn., 35, 37 sempervirens, Linn., var. japonica, 38 Cabralea cangerana, Sald. Gam., 46 Caesalpinia braziliensis, 40 echinata, 40 sappan, 40 Calophyllum Calaba, Jacg., 246 433 2F 434 Calophyllum (conid.)— candidissimum, DC., 71 Inophyllum, Linn., 119 spectabile, Willd., 42 tomentosum, Wight, 43 Canthium didymum, Foxb., 38 Carallia integerrima, DC., 46 Carapa guianensis, Aubl., 67 moluccensis, Lam., 47 Careya arborea, Roxb., 47 Cariniana pyriformis, 143 Carpinus betulus, Linn., 99 Cassia Fistula, Linn., 47 Castanea dentata, Borkh., 63 vulgaris, Linn., 61 Castanopsis brevi-spina, Hay, 47 Castanospermum australe, A. Cunn., 32 Casuarina Fraseriana, Miq., 257 Cedrela angustifolia, Mog and Sesse, 42 australis, 48 braziliensis, 48, 53 odorata, Linn., 4, 22, 48, 49, 51, 55, 201 Toona, Roxb., 33, 48, 51, 55, 56, 156 Cedrus atlantica, Manetti, 56 Deodara, Loudon, 56 Libani, Barrel, 56 Centrolobium robustum, Mart., 12 tomentosum, Benth., 13 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, S. and Z., II2 Chamaecyparis formosensis, Mats., 50, 97 Lawsoniana, Sarg., 54, 263 obtusa, S. and Z., 97 Chickrassia tabularis, 4. Juss., 63, 127 Chlorophora excelsa, Benth. and Hook., IOI Chloroxylon Swietenia, DC., 127, 248, 252 Cinnamomum Camphora, Nees and Eberm., 43, 45, 109 inunctum, Meissn., 109 Connarus africanus, Lam., 316 guianensis, Lamb., 316 Cordia fragrantissima, Kurz, 65 Cryptomeria japonica, Don., 265 Cumamodendron oxillare, 46 Cunonia capensis, Linn., 48, 55 Cupressus Lawsoniana, Murr., 47, 50, 54 nootkatensis, Hook., 59 obtusa, Koch., 97 sempervirens, Linn., 68 thyoides, Linn., 48, 59 torulosa, Don., 67 Cytisus Laburnum, Linn., 116 Dacrydium cupressinum, Soland., 237 Franklinii, Hook. f., 215 Westlandicum, T. Kirk., 225 Dalbergia cultrata, Grah., 70 latifolia, Roxb., 33, 240, 241 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Dalbergia (contd.)— Melanoxylon, Guill. and Perr., 11, 33 nigra, Fr. Allem., 238 Oliveri, Gamble, 70 Sissoo, Roxb., 113, 258° Dammara australis, Lamb., 216 Dialium indum, Linn., 115 Dicorynia Maraensis, Benth., 163, 432 paraensis, Benth., 10 Dimorphandra excelsa, Baill., 161 Mora, Benth. and Hook., 161 Diospyros burmanica, Kurz, 75 Chloroxylon, Roxb., 71 Dendo, Welw., 73 discolor, Wiilld., 73 Ebenaster, Rez, 73 Ebenum, Koenig, 66, 71, 73 haplostylis, Boiv., 73 hirsuta, Linn. f., 65, 73 Kaki, Linn. f., 66, 72, 73, 108 Kurzii, Hiern., 66, 71, 73, 154, 316 Melanoxylon, Roxb., 66, 71, 73 mespiliformis, Hochst., 73 microrhombus, Hiern., 73 oppositifolia, 73 Perrieri, Jumelle, 73 pilosanthera, Blanco, 73 quaesita, Thw., 65, 71, 73 Tessalaria, Poir, 73 virginiana, Linn., 72, 73, 210 Dipterocarpus grandifiorus, Blanco, 12 laevis, 80 tuberculatus, Roxb., 80, 313 turbinatus, Gaert. f., 94 Disoxylum fraserianum, 126 Dryobalanops aromatica, Gaert., 44, 80, 245 Duabanga sonneratioides, Ham., 114 Dysoxylum Muelleri, Benth., 56 Echirospermum Balthazarii, Fr. Allem. 299 Elaeocarpus dentatus, Vahl., 97 Entandrophragma sp., 126, 137 Eperua falcata, Aubi., 300 Erica arborea, Linn., 41 Eriolaena Candollei, Wall., 84 Erythrina sp., 60 Eucalyptus calophylla, R. Br., 93 capitellata, Sm., 93 cornuta, Labill., 314 diversicolor, F. v. M., 109 globulus, Labill., 90 gomphocephala, DC., 297 largiflorens, F. v. M., 102 longicornis, F. v. M., 161 Loxophleba, Benth., 93 marginata, Sm., 103 microcorys, F. v. M., 266 obliqua, L’Hérit., 263 patens, Benth., 32 INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES Eucalyptus (contd.)— pilularis, Sm., 32 tedunca, Schau., 309 salmonophloia, F. v. M., 93 salubris, F. v. M., 93 Euclea Pseudebenus, E. Mey., 72 Eugenia Jambolana, Lam., 228 Eusideroxylon Zwageri, T. and B., 29 Fagraea fragrans, Roxb., 84 Fagus Cunninghamii, Hook., 27 fusca, Hook. f., 285 sylvatica, Linn., 25 sylvatica, Linn., var. Sieboldi, Maxim., 27 Ferolia guianensis, Aubl., 247 variegata, Lam., 247 Filicium decipiens, Thw., 84 Fitzroya patagonica, Hook., 7 Fraxinus americana, Linn., 14 excelsior, Linn., 14 mandschurica, Rupr., 18, 19, 20 sambucifolia, Lam., 14 Garuga pinnata, Roxb., 86 Gluta travancorica, Bedd., 86 Gmelina arborea, Roxb., 94 Goniama Kamassi, E. Mey., 35, 38 Grevillea robusta, A. Cunn., 200 Grewia tiliaefolia, Vahl, 89 Guarea sp., 126 Guatteria virgata, Dun., 116 Guiacum officinale, Linn., 119 Haematoxylon canapectianum, Linn., 123 Hardwickia binata, Roxb., 11 Hedwigia balsamifera, 1 Helicia sp., 115 Heritiera minor, Roxb., 265 Heterophragma adenophyllum, Seem., 96 Hibiscus elatus, Sw., 124 Hicoria alba, Linn., 96 glabra, Britt., 96 laciniosa, Sarg., 96 ovata, Britt., 96 Holoptelea integrifolia, Planch., 79 Homalium tomentosum, Benth., 117 Hopea odorata, Roxb., 294, 313 parviflora, Bedd., 98 Wightiana, Wall., 99 Hymenoe Courbaril, Linn., 122, 432 Icaca altissima, Aubl., 51 Tex aquifolium, Linn., 98 cassine, 98 decidua, 98 monticola, 98 opaca, 98 vomitoria, 98 Illipe betis, Blanco, 29 435 Intsia Bakeri, Prain, 159 trijuga, Colebr., 159, 160 Jugilans cinerea, Linn., 42 mandschurica, Maxim., 308 nigra, Linn., 28, 42, 305, 316 regia, Linn., 300, 304, 308 Juniperus barbadensis, Linn., 53 bermudiana, Linn., 53 occidentalis, Hook., 48, 55 procera, Hoch., 45 virginiana, Linn., 48, 53,°67, 112, 255 Knightia excelsa, R. Br., 237 Koompassia Beccariana, Taub., 159 excelsa, Taub., 267 Kydia calycina, Roxb., 115 Laburnum vulgare, Berch. and Presl., 116 Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae, Retz, 108 hypoleuca, Kurz, 116 lanceolata, Waill., 28 microcarpa, Wight, 28 tomentosa, Presl., 119 Larix americana, Mich., 267 europoea, DC., 117, 211 Laurelia Novae Zelandiae, A. Cunn., 231 Laurus Camphora, Linn., 43 Leptospermum ericoides, A. Rich., 153 Leucuma procera, Mart., 156 Libocedrus Bidwillii, Hook., 48, 207 decurrens, Torrey, 48, 59 Liquidambar styraciflua, Linn., 237, 308 Liriodendron tulipifera, Linn., 23, 112, 158, 218, 311 Litsea calicaris, Benth. and Hook., 152 Lophira alata, Banks, 168 Lovea Klaineana, Thompson, 304 Lysiloma Sabicu, Benth., 241 Maba buxifolia, Pers., 73 Ebenus, 72 Machilus Blumeai, Hay, 123 Thunbergii, S. and Z., 45 Machoerium allemani, Benth., 238 incorruptibile, 238 legale, Benth., 238 violaceum, Fr. Allem., 238 Maclura aurantiaca, Nutt., 103, 202 Magnolia acuminata, Linn., 123 Melanorrhoea sp., 238 usitata, Wall., 255 Melanoxylon brauna, 39 Melia composita, Willd., 156 dubia, Hiern., 156 indica, Brandis., 156 japonica, Don., 115 Mesua ferrea, Linn., 85 Metrosideros robusta, A. Cunn., 236 tomentosa, A. Cunn., 229 436 Michelia Champaca, Linn., 158 compresa, Max., 68 excelsa, Bl., 158 Millettia pendula, Benth., 158 Mimusops elata, Fr. Allem., 156 Elengi, Linn., 159 globosa, Gaert., 27 littoralis, Kurz, 159 Mora excelsa, Baill., 161 Morus alba, Linn., 162 laevigata, Wall., 162 nigra, Linn., 162 Murraya exotica, Linn., 248 Myracrodon urundeuva, Fr. Allem., 13 Myrospermum Erythroxylon, Fr. Allem., 205 Nectandra mollis, Nees., 46 Pisi, Miq., 309 Rodioei, Hook., 87 Wana, 309 Nyssa sylvatica, Marsh, 298 uniflora, Wang., 298 Odina Wodier, Roxb., 200 Olea Cunninghamii, Hook., 152 europoea, Linn., 201 Olearia aricenniaelobia, 5 Ougeinia dalbergioides, Benth., 246 Pametia pinnata, Forst., 238 Parashorea plicata, 118 stellata, Kurz, 207 Paulonia imperialis, S. and Z., 113 tomentosa, Thunb., 113 Peltogyne paniculata, Benth., 232 Pentace burmanica, Kurz, 294 Griffithii, King, 209 Pentacme contorta, 118 suayvis, DC., rot Peraltea erythrinaefolia, Mart., 10 Phyllanthus Emblica, Linn., 9 Phyllocladus rhomboidalis, Rich., 214 Physocalymma floridum, Pohl., 207, 238 scaberrimum, Pohl., 298 Picea ajanensis, Fisch., 262 excelsa, Link, 85, 211, 212, 260, 262 Morinda, Link, 261 nigra, Link, 262 tubens, Sarg., 263 sitchensis, Carr., 262 Picraena excelsa, Lol., 235 Pimenta officinalis, Linn., 211 Pinus Cembra, Linn., 50 densiflora, S. and Z., 215, 262 echinata, 222 excelsa, Waill., 214 heterophylla, 222 longifolia, Roxb., 217 mandschurica, Rupr., 216 palustris, Milley, 211, 220, 221 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Pinus (contd. )}— regida, Muller, 211, 222 resinosa, Ait., 211, 220, 223 Strobus, Linn., 85, 211, 216, 217, 218, 220, 225 sylvestris, Linn., 13, 103, 165, 211 212, 214, 220, 224, 260, 262 taeda, 222 Piptadenia Cebil, Grisebach, 67 rigida, Benth., 11 Pittosporum bicolor, Hook., 60 Planchonia Andamanica, 227 Platanus acerifolia, Willd., 227 orientalis, Linn., 227 Podocarpus dacrydioides, A. Rich., 218 ferruginea, Don., 160 neriifolia, Don., 228 spicata, R. Br., 155 Totara, A. Cunn., 295 Poeppigia excelsa, A. Rich., 1, 247 Populus alba, Linn., 229 canescens, Sm., 229 nigra, Linn., 229 tremula, Linn., 21 . Protium altissimum, Marsh, 48, 51 Prunus Amygdalus, Stokes, 8 avium, Linn., 61 Cerasus, Linn., 61 domestica, Linn., 70, 228 Pseudo -cerasus, Lindl., var. spon- tanea, 38 Pseudocedrela sp., 59, 126 Pseudopanax crassifolium, 100 Pseudotsuga Douglasii, Carr., 211, 218, 219, 262 Pterocarpus angolensis, DC., 23, 202 dalbergioides, Roxb., 203, ek macrocarpus, Kurz, 205 Marsupium, Roxb., 231 Rassak, 80 santalanoides, L’Hérit., 23, 202 santalinus, Linn. f., 236 Pterospermum acerifolium, Willd., 231 Pteroxylon utile, Eck. and Z., 259 Pyrus communis, Linn., 209 malus, Linn., 12 torminalis, Ehvh., 256 Quercus acuta, Thunb., 257 alba, Linn., 168 crispula, Bl., 192, 195, 257 dentata, Thunb., 192 Gilva, Bl., 100, 257 glandulifera, Bl., 192, 195, 257 grosseserrata, B/., 192, 257 Junghuhuii, Mig., 208 Morii, Hay, 190, 191 pedunculata, Ehrh., 171,177, 185, 188, 197 phyllireoides, A. Gr., 257 pseudo-myrsineaefolia, Hay, 190 INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES Quercus (contd. )— Robur, Linn., 183, 187 rubra, Linn., 184, 257 sessiliflora, Sm., 171, 177, 185, 188, 197 spicata, Smith, 191 Suber, Linn., 190 Vibrayeana, Fr, and Sav., 257 virens, Ait., 196 Rhamunus cathartica, 22 purshiana, 22 Robinia Pseudacacia, Linn., 1, 80 Saccopetalum tomentosum, Hook. f. and Thw., 243 Salix alba, Linn., 312 coerulea, Smith, 312 Urbaniana, Von Seeman, 313 Santalum album, Linn., 246 cygnorum, Mig., 246 Sarcocephalus cordatus, Mig., 247 Schima Wallichii, Choisy, 254 Schrebera swietenoides, Roxb., 254 Sequoia gigantea, Decaisne, 29, 254 sempervirens, Endl., 254 Shorea balangaran, Burch., 313 leprosula, Mig., 256 parvifolia, Dyer, 256 robusta, Gaert. f., 90, 244 Sideroxylon malaccense, 24 Silvia navalium, Fr. Allem., 268 Sonneratia alba, Smith, 207 Pagatpat, Blanco, 207 Sophora japonica, Linn., 259 tetraptera, A7t., 114 Soymida febrifuga, 126 Spondias mangifera, Pers., 259 Stephegyne parvifolia, Korth., 263 Stereospermum chelenoides, DC., 263 xylocarpum, Wight, 263 Strychnos colubrina, Linn., 259 Nux-vomica, Linn., 259 Swartzia tomentosa, DC., 28 Swietenia angolense, 126 Khaya, 168 Mahogani, Linn., 150 senegalensis, 168 Syncarpia leptopetala, F. v. M., 299 Syringa vulgaris, 122 Tarrietia javanica, Bl., 123 Taxodium distichum, Richard, 69, 97 Taxus baccata, Linn., 314, 315 Tecoma curialis, Fry. Allem., 101 437 Tecoma (contd.)— Leucoxylon, Mari., 76 pentaphylla, A. Juss., 39 Tectona grandis, Linn. f., 82, 101, 244, 285, 289 Terminalia acuminata, Fr. Allem., 89 Arjuna, Bedd., 291 bialata, Wall., 291 Catappa, Linn., 292 Chebula, Retz, 292 Manii, King, 292 procera, Roxb., 292 tomentosa, W. and A., 241, 243 Thespesia populnea, Corr., 292 Thuja gigantea, Nutt., 55 occidentalis, Linn., 13, 59 Tilia americana, Linn., 23 cordata, Miller, 122 heterophylla, Vent., 23 pubescens, Ait., 23 Toxylon pomiferum, Raf., 202 Tsuga canadensis, Carr., 261 Sieboldi, Carr., 297 Uimus alata, Michx., 77 americana, Linn., 77 campestris, Sm., 78 crassifolia, Nuttall, 77 montana, Sm., 79 nitens, vat. stricta, Ait., 79 pubescens, Walt., 77 racemosa, Thomas, 77 serotina, 77 Urandra (Lesianthera) sp., 24 Vitex geniculata, Blanco, 161 glabrata, Br., 299 Leucoxylon, Linn. f., 299 littoralis, Dene., 161, 231 pubescens, Vahl., 299 Weinmannia racemosa, Linn., 295 Xylia dolabriformis, Benth., 11, 68, 103, 152, 233, 244 xylocarpa, 103, 233 Xylocarpus borneensis, Becc., 162 granatum, 162 oboratus, A. Juss., 162 Xylomelum occidentale, R. Br., 209 Zanthoxylum sp., 251 Zelkowa acuminata, Pi., 112 Zizyphus Jujuba, Lam., 316 GENERAL INDEX Abele. Abey, 1 Abey Macho, 1 Abies. See Firs Aburasugi. See Sugi Acacia, I, 2 Acana, 3 Acapu, 3 Accumulator boxes, 287 Acer. See Maple Adams’ style of cabinet-making, 242, 252 Aderno, 4 Aerial League, The, 16, 306 Aeronautical Inspection Directorate, 413, 418 Agriculture, The Board of, 177 Ailanthus, 5 Air Board, The, 16, 387, 419 Aka-gashi, 257 Akamatsu. See Pine, Japanese Red Akeake, 5 Alder, 6 Formosan, 7 Alerce, 7 Almique. See Acana Almon. See Lauan Almond, European, 8 Almond-wood, 8 Amarant, 9 Amarante, 9 Amboyna, 9 American Blower Company, The, 391 Amla-ka, 9 Anan. See Fagraea fragrans Angelim-rosa, 10 Angélique, 10 Angico, 11 Anjan, 11 Annals of Botany, The (1919), 185 Apitong, 12 Apothecaries’ Hall, London, 315 Apple, 12 Apraiu. See Messaranduba Arariba amarello, 12 vermelho, 13 Araucaria, 13 See Poplar Arbor vitae, 13 Aroeira do Sertao, 13 Artificial limbs, Timber for, 42, 312 Artificial seasoning of timber, 385 Ash, American, 14 Canadian, 14 English, 14 European, 14 French, 17 Hungarian, 17 Japanese, 18 Russian, 18 Turkish, 18 Aspen, 21 Astoria, U.S.A., 148 Australia House panelling, 32 Australia, Useful Native Plants of, 60 Baker’s Cabinet Timbers of Australia, 33, 56 Balata. See Beefwood Banksia, 22 Barberry, 22 Barwood, 23 Basswood, 23 Bat willow, 312 Baywood, 24 Bean, Red, 56 Bearberry-wood, 22 Beauverie, Les Bois industruelles, 10, 36 Beccari, 267 Bedaru, 24 Beech, European, 25 Evergreen, 27 Japanese, 27 Tasmanian, 27 Beefwood, 27 Benteak, 28 Bergerou, 162 Betis, 29 Bibliography, 431 Big Tree, 29 Bijisal, 231 Billian, 29 Birch, American, 29 Black, 30 439 440 Birch (contd.)— Canadian, 30 European, 30 Japanese, 31 Bischofia, 31 Blackbean, 32 Blackbutt, 32 Blackmore, Judge, 149 Blackwood, African, I1, 33 Australian, 33 Bombay. See Rosewood Blocks, Engraving, 38 Sheaves for, 120 Boat, A Prehistoric, 182 Bois d’or, 76 Bombay Burma Trading Company, 286 Bombwe, Red. See Planchonia Anda- manica White. See Terminalia procera Botany-Bay wood, Black, 33 Boughton House, Northamptonshire, 209 Box Hill, Surrey, 35, 37 Boxwood, 35 Abasian, 38 African, 37 Australian, 35 British, 37 Ceylon, 35 East Indian, 38 East London. European, 37 Japanese, 38 Knysna, 38 Venezuelan. Indian West African, 35 West Indiaa, 39 White, 92 Brauna Parda, 39 Brazil-wood, 40 Brazilletto. See Brazil-wood Briar-root, 41 ‘“ Bright ’”’ timber, 325 British Engineering Standards Associa- tion, 262, 327 British Fire Prevention Committee, 105 Buckeye, Ohio, 41 Buckthorn, Canadian, 22 Common, 22 Bullet-tree. See Beefwood Bullet-wood. See Beefwood Andaman. See Mimusops littoralis Bully-tree. See Beefwood Buna. See Beech, Japanese Burroughes & Watts, Messrs., 204 Butternut, 42 See Boxwood, African See Boxwood, West Cabbage-wood, 208 Cabilma, 42 Cabirma, 42 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Calamander - wood. See Coromandel- wood Calcutta Exhibition, 291 Calemberri-wood. See Coromandel-wood Camphor-wood, Borneo, 44 Formosan, 45 True, 43 Canalete, 45 Canary Whitewood. See Whitewood, American Canary-wood. See Poplar Canella Preta, 46 Tapinhoan, 46 Cangerana, 46 Carallia-wood, 46 Carapa. See Crabwood Case-hardening, 416 Cedar, 47 African Pencil, 48 Atlantic. See Cedar, True Black. See Wana Central American, 49 Cigar-box. SeeCedar, Central American Cuba, 331 Formosan, 50 Guiana, 51 Lebanon. See Cedar, True Moulmein, 51 New Zealand. See Pahautca Paraguay, 53 Pencil, 53 Port Orford, 54 Red (Australia), 55 Red (Cape Colony), 55 Red (North America), 55 Red (Sikkim), 55 True, 56 West African, 58 White, 59 Yellow, 59 Cédve blanc, 51 Ceylon Forester, The, 249 Champak. See Michelia Champaca Chandos, The First Duke of, 304 Chaplash, 59 Cheesewood, 60 Tasmanian, 60 Cherry, 61 Chestnut, 61 American, 63 Horse. See Horse-chestnut mixed with oak, 62 Chibatan. See Aderno Chingal, 63 Chippendale, 150 Chittagong-wood. See Chickrassia tabu- laris Chlorosplenium aeruginosum, 183 Chuglam, Black. See Terminalia Manii White. See T. bialata Cinnamon, 64 GENERAL INDEX 441 Cirouaballi. See Wana City-wood, 151 Clap boards, 164 Cleating, 320, 415 Cleaver, Messrs., 177 Cocobolo, 64 Cocus-wood, 65 Collinson, Peter, 123 Colls & Sons, Messrs., 54 Concha satinwood. See Harewood Congo-wood. See Blackwood, African Contract, Conditions of, 324-327 Conversion of Timber, The, 317-323 Cornel-wood, 36 Coromandel-wood, 65 Cotton-wood, 66 Crabwood, 67 Cucumber-tree. Curupay, 67 Cushimucho, 68 Cutch-tree. See Acacia Catechu Cypress, 68 “ Black,’ 69 Himalayan. Lawson’s. Marsh, 69 ‘ White,”’ 69 See Magnolia See Cupressus torulosa See Cedar, Port Orford Damson, 70 Danbury Palace, Chelmsford, 184 Deal, Red. See Pine White. See Spruce Yellow. See Pine Deck deals, Dantzig oak, 197 Dantzig pine, 214 Degami-wood, 71 Denlia, 80 Deodar. See Cedar, True Dryers, Timber, 389 A History of, 389 Compartment, 387, 401 Erith Moist Air, 391 in Finland, 388 Multiple Heater, 406 Progressive, 397 Sturtevant Triple Duct, 394, 401 Supervision of, 416 Drying, Hausbrand System of, 396 Drying Plants, Control of, 408 Ebéne du Portugal, 33 Ebony, 71 African, 73 Bastard, 73 Burmese, 75 Ceylon, 75 Green, 76 Indian. See Ebony, Ceylon Indo-Malayan, 73 Macassar, 76 Madagascar, 33 Ebony (contd.)— Mauritius, 73 Mozambique, 33 Senegal. See Blackwood, African Edinburgh, St. Giles’ Cathedral, 180 Ellis & Sons, Messrs., 204 Elm, American, 77 British, 78 Canadian, 77 Cornish, 79 Indian, 79 Rock, 77 Swamp, 77 Wych, 79 Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 304 Empadu. See Empata Empata, 80 Empire style of cabinet-making, 9, 70, 201, 247, 298 Eng, 80 Engineering Standards Committee, 77 English Flora, 230 Esparvie, 148, 432 Euston Road, Jarrah paving in the, 106 Felling of Timber, The, 322 Fir. See Pines and Firs Fir, Dantzig. See Pine, Dantzig Douglas. See Pine, Oregon Japanese. See Spruce, Japanese Riga. See Pine, Riga Silver, 84 Swedish. See Pine, Red Baltic White. See Spruce, Baltic Yellow. See Pine, Red Baltic Flore fovestiéve, 91 Forest Bulletin, The, 52, 288 Freijo, 85 Furniture-wood, 85 Gangaw, 85 Gimlet. See Gum, Salmon Glasgow Cathedral, 212 Glass welding or fusing, 26 Goncalo Alves, 86 Grapia-punha, 87 Greenheart, 87 Surinam, 88 West African. See Satinwood, African Greywood. See Harewood, Artificial Guarabu, 89 Guarauna. See Brauna Parda Gubbio, Palace of the Duke of Urbino at, 302 Guiacum, 121 Guizo, 90 Gum, Black. See Tupelo Blue, go Californian Red. See Walnut, Satin Red, 93 Salmon, 93 442 Gum (contd.)— Spotted, 93 White. See Wandoo York, 93 Gumbar, 94 Gurjun, 94 Haldu. See Adina cordifolia Hardwood Record, The, 219 Harewood, 95 Artificial, 95 Hazel-pine. See Walnut, Satin Heath. See Briar-root Hepplewhite, 252 Hickory, 96 Hinau, 97 Hinoki, Formosan, 97 Japanese, 97 Holinshed’s Chronicles, 198 Holly, 98 American, 98 Honeysuckle, New Zealand. See Rewa- rewa Hornbeam, 99 Hornby Castle, 315 Horoeka, 100 Horse-chestnut, 100 Japanese, 100 Hortus Jamaicensis, 124 Hospitals, Teak flooring in, 287 Huon Pine. See Pine, Huon Hygrodyks, 408 Hygrometers, 408 Ichii-gashi, 100 Imperial College of Science and Tech- nology, II, 24, IOI In. See Eng Ingyin, ror Ipé preto, ror tabaco. See Ipé preto una. See Ipé preto Ipil, 159 Iroko, 101 Ironbark, 102 Ironwood. See Gangaw Ironwood, Borneo. See Billian East African, 102 _._ Malabar. See Hopea parviflora Trul. See Jamba Irumbogam-tree, 98 Jacaranda-wood. See Rosewood, Bahia Jack-wood, 103 Jamba, 103 Jarana Preta, 103 Jarrah, 103 used as paving, 105, 106, 107 Jarul, 108 Junglewood. See Fagraea fragrans Kaikawaka. See Pahautea THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Kaki, 108 Kamassi-wood. See Boxwood, Knysna Kanyin, 80 Kanzaw. Sze Mahwa Kapor. See Camphor-wood Kapor-barus, 44 Kapor-bukit, 44 Kapor-paya, 44 Karaway, 109 Karawe, 109 Karri, 109 Kashiwa. See Oak, Japanese Katsura, 112 Keaki. See Keyaki Kew Bulletin, The, 48, 137, 168 Kew, Flagstaff at, 219 Lignum-vitae at, 121 Keyaki, 112 Keyham, The Admiralty Harbour at, 92 Khair. See Acacia Catechu Kiabooca-wood. See Amboyna Kilns, Andrews, 395 Smoke, 391 Tieman, 395 Working Procedure for, 413 King-wood, 113 Kiri, 113 Koa, 114 Kokan, 114 Kokko. See Walnut, East Indian Konara. See Oak, Japanese Kowhai, 114 Kranji, 115 K’runtum, 115 Kuren, 115 Kuromatsu, 215 Kyre Park, Oaks in, 172, 174 Laburnum, 116 Lalone, 116 Lampatia. See Lalone Lancewood, I16 Moulmein, 117 New Zealand. See Horoeka Lantiglos Church, 79, 180 Larch, 117 American. See Tamarack Laslett’s Tables, 328 Lauan, 118 White. See Lauan Laurel, Alexandrian, 119 Leeds, The Duke of, 315 Letter-wood. See Snakewood Leza-wood, 119 Lignum-vitae, 119 Lilac-tree, 122 Lime, 122 Limnoria terebrans, 88 Liverpool Cathedral, 180 Locus, 163, 432 Locust, I, 122, 290, 432 GENERAL INDEX Locust-tree. Logwood, 123 London Docks, 181 Lumbayao, 123 “Lumber,” 326 See Acacia McArthur, Messrs., 60 Magnolia, 123 Mahoe, Blue, 124 Mahogany, 124 African, 127 French polishing of, 136, 140, 146 Imports of, 127 Teredo worms in, 141 used in Zeppelins, 130, 132, 136, 138 Assinee, 132 Australian, 126 Axim, 132 Bathurst, 132 Benin, 129 Bonamba, 142 Cape Lopez, 140 Cherry, 134 Colombian, 143 Costa Rica, 144 Cuba, 144 Forest, 92 Gaboon, 140 Grand Bassam, 130 Grand Lahou, 142 Guatemalan, 147 Honduras, 147 Jameson River, 140 Lagos, 130 Panama, 148 San Domingo. See Spanish Sapeli, 137 Sassandra, 131 Secondi, 133 South American. Spanish, 24, 150 Surinam. See Wana Warri, 134 White. See Prima Vera Mahwa, 152 Maire, Black, 152 Mangalo. See Angelim-rosa Mangeao, 152 Manuka, 153 Maple, 153 Bird’s-eye, 153 Japanese, 154 Marblewood, Andaman, 154 Margose. See Melia indica Marsh, Cribb & Co. [sic] (Messrs. Marsh, Jones & Cribb), 187 Mata-mata, 154 Matai, 155 Mathieu, A., 91 Mauretania, The, 96, 121 Mahogany, See Crabwood 443 Meranti, 156 Merulius lachrymans, 182 Messaranduba, 156 Messarandur. See Messaranduba Mingris, 159 Miraboo. See Mirabow Mirabow, 159 Miro, 160 Mitsui & Co., Messrs., 7, 18, 45, 50, 192 Moeri, 160 Molavé, 161 Monkey-puzzle. See Araucaria Moor Park, Rickmansworth, 189 Mora, 161 Red, 161 White, 161 Mora-bucquia, 161 Morrell, 161 Mulberry, 162 Mulga. See Gum, Salmon Myall, 162 Myrobolan-tree, The. See Terminalia Chebula Myrtle, Tasmanian See Beech, Tas- manian National Hardwood Lumber Association, The, 147, 169, 326, 327 New Zealand Board of Agriculture, 5, 97, 100, II4, 152, 153, 155, 207, 225, 229, 231, 236, 237, 268, 285, 295 Nilambur teak plantations, 288 Niri, 162 Nordljnger’s wood sections, 22 Northumberland, The Duke of, 305 Noyes & Whitcomb, Messrs., 188 Nutwood, 163 Oak, 163 African, 168 American, 168 American Red, 184 Austrian, 171 British, 177 Brown, 183 Burr, 188 Cork, 190 Dantzig, 197 Formosan, 190, 191 Himalayan, 191 Holly, 191 Japanese, 192 Exports from Japan, 195, 196 Live, 196 Memel, 199 Odessa, 199 Pollard, 188 “ Red,” 183 Riga, 199 Russian, 197 Silky, 200 444 Oak (conid.)— Stettin, 200 The Hooker, 171 The world’s largest, 171 Wainscot, 164, 197 Odum. See Iroko Ohnara. See Oak, Japanese Okumé. See Mahogany, Gaboon Oleo Vermelho, 201 Olive, 201 Omander-wood. See Coromandel-wood Orham-wood, 202 Ossage Orange, 202 ‘Padauk, African, 202 Andaman, 203 Burma, 205 Padji, 44 Pagatpat, 207 Pahautea, 207 Palisander-wood. See Rosewood, Bahia Palisandre. See Purpleheart Pao Rosa, 207 Papapsco, 208 Partridge-wood, 207 Pasania, 208 Pasinia, 208 Patapsco, 208 Pau Amarello, 208 Paulonia. See Kiri Pear, Native, 209 Pear-tree, 209 Pernambuco-wood. See Brazil-wood Peroba Branca, 209 Peroba Rosa, 210 Persimmon-wood, 210 Japanese. See Kaki Peterhouse College, Cambridge, 62 Petwun. See Trincomali-wood Pimento, 211 Pine, 211 African. See Yellow-wood, African Black. See Matai Blue, 214 Canadian White, 263 Canadian Yellow, 225 Celery Top, 214 Cowdie. See Kauri Dantzig, 214 Douglas. See Pine, Oregon Grey. See Walnut, Satin Hazel. See Walnut, Satin Huon, 215 Japanese. See Spruce, Japanese Japanese Red, 215 Kauri, 216 King William, 217 Loblolly, 222 Long-leafed, 217 New Zealand, 218° Norway. See Pine, Red THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Pine (contd.)— Oregon, 218 Pitch, 221 Red, 223 Red. See Walnut, Satin Red Baltic, 224 Riga, 224 Siberian, 213, 216 Silver, 225 Swiss. See Fir, Silver Tonnewanda, 225 Weymouth, 225 White, 225 Yellow, 225 Piquia, 226 Plane, 227 Pliny, 190 Plum, 228 Black, 228 Hog. See Spondias mangifera Pohutukawa, 229 Poland, Larch houses in, 118 Saige truncheons, 65 oplar, English, 229 Grey, 229 Yellow. See Whitewood, American Portia-tree. See Thespesia populnea, Corr. Powellising, 82, 111, 321 Preservation of Timber, The, 317-323 Prima Vera, 230 Pukatea, 231 Punners, 35, 39 Puriri, 231 Purpleheart, 232 Putlogs, 30 Pyinkado, 233 Quassia, 235 Quebracho, 236 Raspberry Jam-wood, 236 Rata, 236 Red Sanders, 236 Redwood. See Sequoia, and Pine, Red Baltic Regent’s Park, Plane-tree in, 227 Rewa-rewa, 237 Rialto, Venice, The, 7 Ribbentrop, 217 Rimu, 237 Ringas, 238 Riugan, 238 River Banksia. See Banksia Rodmersham Church, Kent, 62 Rose-chestnut, Indian, 85 Rosewood, Bahia, 238 Bombay. See Rosewood, East Indian Brazilian, 240 East Indian, 240 Malabar. See Rosewood, East Indian Rio, 238 GENERAL INDEX Rouen, Church of St. Ouen at, 62 Ruby-wood, 236 Sabicu, 241 African, 243 Sain, 243 St. Peter’s, Rome, 68 St. Sepulchre’s Church, Holborn, 227 Sal, 244 Sandal-wood, 246 Sandan, 246 Santa Maria, 246 Sappan-wood. See Brazil-wood Satin Walnut. See Walnut, Satin Satinee, 247 Satinwood, African, 247 Andaman, 248 Concha. See Harewood East Indian, 248 West Indian, 251 Savile Club, London, 190 Seasoning, Artificial, 385-418 Natural, 318, 319, 320, 419 Time required for, 319, 321 Sen, 19 Sequoia, 254 Serayah, 256 Service-tree, 256 Shafts, Propeller, 120 She-oak, 257 Sheraton style in cabinet-making, 70, 242, 252 Shira-gashi, 257 Shira-kamba. See Birch, Japanese Sicupira-Amarella, 257 Silver fir. See Fir, Silver Silver greywood. See Harewood, Arti- ficial Silver spruce. See Fir, Silver Siris, White. See Albizzia procera Sissoo, 258 Sizergh Castle, Westmoreland, 229 Skeat, Professor, 164 Skinners’ Company, The, 54 Small Arms Factory, Enfield, 300 Snakewood, 258 Indian, 259 Sneezewood, 259 Socna Forest, Slavonia, 174 Softwoods. See Pine Sophora, 259 Sorb, 256 South Kensington Museum. See Vic- toria and Albert Museum Specifications and Conditions of Contract, 324-327 Spruce, 260 Baltic. See Spruce Hemlock, 261 Himalayan, 261 Japanese, 262 445 Spruce (contd. )— Quebec, 262 Silver, 263 West Virginia, 263 ‘* Standard defects ’’ in timber, 326 Stemming rods. See Punners Sticks, Piling, 320, 413 Storage contracts, 148, 149 Street paving, Notes on, 106-108 Stringy-bark, 263 Sugi, 265 Sundri, 265 Sycamore, 266 Tables, Laslett’s, 328-384 Ash, Canadian, 329 English, 330 Cedar, Cuba, 331 Elm, English, 332 Greenheart, 333 Gum, Blue, 334 Hornbeam, 335 Ironbark, 335 Jarrah, 336 Kapor or Camphor, 337 Karri, 338 Kranji, 339 Larch, Russian, 340 Lauan, 341 Mahogany, Honduras, 341 Mexican, 343 Spanish, 344 Molavé, 345 Mora, 346 Oak, African, 347 American, 349 American White, 350 Dantzig, 352 English, 354 Pine, Kauri, 361 Pitch, 364 Red (Canadian), 367 Red Baltic, 369 Riga, 372 Yellow (Canadian), 374 Pyinkado, 376 Sabicu, 377 Spruce, Canadian, 379 Teak, Burma, 380 Tuart, 383 Tallow-wood, 266 Tamarack, 267 Tamo. See Ash, Japanese Tapang, 267 Tapinhoan, 268 Taraire, 268 Tawhai, 285 Teak, African. Blora, 289 Burma, 285 Godaveri, 285 See Iroko 446 Teak (contd.)— Indian, 285 Java, 289 Moulmein, 285 Surinam, 290 Tea-tree. See Manuka Telia, 80 Tests, Timber, 417 Thingan, 294 Thitka, 294 Thitkado. See Cedar, Moulmein Thuja. See Arbor vitae Timber Dryers, History of, 390-396 Timber Storage Contracts, 149 Timber Trades Journal, 21, 82, 167, 212 Timbers of Africa, 421 America, Central, and West Indies, 421 North, 422 South, 423 Australia, 424 Borneo and the Philippines, 425 Europe, 426 Great Britain, 426 India, Ceylon, and the Andaman ‘Islands, 427 Japan and Formosa, 429 New Zealand and Tasmania, 424 Timidak, 294 Titoki, 295 Tochi. See Horse-chestnut, Japanese Todo Matsu. See Spruce, Japanese Tongrong. See Spondias mangifera Toon. See Cedar, Moulmein Totara, 295 Totteridge Park, Hertfordshire, 187, 305 Towhai, 295 Tree of Heaven. See Ailanthus Trincomali-wood, 295 Tsuga, 297 Tuart, 297 Tulip-tree. See Thespesia popuinea Tulip-wood, 298 Tupelo, 298 Turpentine, 299 Ubatan. See Aderno Ubame-gashi, 257 Vengai. See Pterocarpus Marsupium Venice, Church of S. Stefano, 180, 301 Church of S. Zaccaria, 301 Frari Church, 180, 301 Vera-wood, 299 Vermilion-wood, 205 Versailles, 58 ; Victoria and Albert Museum, 66, 95, 113, 122, 153, 209, 212, 227, 229, 302 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD Vinhatico, 299 Violet-wood. See Raspberry Jam-wood Wainscot, Methods of sawing for, 165-167 Origin of the term, 164, 165 Wallaba, 300 Walnut, 300 African, 304 American. Black, 305 Brazilian. British, 302 Caucasian, 302 Circassian, 302 East Indian, 6, 306 French, 303 Italian, 303 Manchurian, 308 Satin, 308 Spanish, 303 Turkish, 304 Wana, 309 Wanderings in the Borneo, 267 Wandoo, 309 Washiba, 310 Wattle, Silver, 311 Wellingtonia. See Big Tree West India Docks, Fire at, 92, 111, 264 Westminster Hall roof, 180, 319 Wet and dry bulb hygrometer, 408 See Black See Goncalo Alves Great Forests of White. See Spruce Whitewood. See Cheesewood, Tas- manian Whitewood. See Spruce Whitewood, American, 311 Wigmore Hall, 82, 151 Willow, European, 312 Japanese, 313 Winchester Cathedral, 25, 181 Wright, Professor Joseph, 164 Wylie & Lochhead, Messrs., 32 Yacal, 313 Yama-zakura, 38 Yang, 313 Yate, 314 Yellow. See Pine Yellow Jack-wood. See Jack-wood Yellow-wood. See Adina cordifolia African, 314 Natal, 314 Upright, 314 Yew, British, 314 Caucasian, 315 Yezo Matsu. See Spruce, Japanese Zebra-wood, 316 Zelkova Keaki. See Keyaki Printed by R. & R. Cuark, Limitep, Edinburgh, WORKS ON ARBORICULTURE, ETC. TIMBER AND SOME OF ITS DISEASES. By H, Marswain Warp, DSc, F.R.S,, F.L.S. Pro- fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Illustrated. Crown 8vo. 7s. BRITISH FOREST TREES AND THEIR SYLVI- CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS AND TREAT- MENT. By J. Nisset. Crown 8vo. 6s. net. SYLVICULTURE IN THE TROPICS. By A. F. Broun. Illustrated. 8vo. tos. 6d. net. MANUAL OF TREE DISEASES. By Pror. W. Howarp Rankin, Ph.D. _ Illustrated. Crown 8vo. 12s. 6d. net. 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