! ATT AR ATCA | McComareAuLp COLLECTION NEW: YORK: STATE COLLEGE AGRICULTURE | CMS Us aT TTT Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924081096988 AGRICULTURAL ZOOLOGY. _ Zoology (Text Book of), a Complete Introduction to the Science, by Dr. J. E. V. Boas, Lecturer in Zoology in the Royal College of Agriculture, &c., Copenhagen, an English translation by J. W. Kirkaldy and E.C. Pollard, B.Sc. Lond., with 427 idlustrations, roy. 8vo volume, cloth, 6s (pub. 21s net) 1896 AGRICULTURAL ZOOLOGY BY DR. J. RITZEMA BOS, LECTURER IN THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, WAGENINGEN, HOLLAND. WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY ELEANOR A. ORMEROD, F.R.Mzt.8., F.R.MS., Ertc., FORMERLY HON. CONSULTING ENTOMOLOGIST TO THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. TRANSLATED BY J.R. AINSWORTH DAVIS, B.A. (Trin. Cot. Caus.), F.C.P., PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WALES, AND PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY AND GEOLOGY IN THE SOIENTIFIO AND AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF WALES. WITH 149 ILLUSTRATIONS. LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, up. 1894 % AUTHOR'S PREFACE. THE present volume of the Thaer Library was under- taken with the intention of providing agricultural colleges with a condensed review of the entire animal kingdom, but treating in greater detail the animals harmful or helpful to agriculture. I have, however, omitted all reference to the domesticated farm animals, as in all such institutions these are treated of, not by the zoologist, but by the lecturer on stock-breeding. Although the book is not allowed to exceed a certain size, I have taken great pains to make it intelligible, and venture to hope that it may be found suitable for the private use of the practical farmer. To the farmer who wishes more exhaustive information, and desires a reference-book on the animal foes of agriculture, stock-breeding, horticulture, fruit- tree culture, and forestry, I venture to point out my b Vi AUTHORS PREFACE. larger work, Animal Foes and Friends,* brought out last year by the publisher of this book. It is hoped that the present volume may be found serviceable, both in the teaching of agricultural insti- tutions, and to the practical farmer. DR. J. RITZEMA BOS. WAGENINGEN, February, 1892. * Tierische Schadlinge und Niitzlinge fiir Ackerbau, Viehzucht, Wald- und Gartenbau. Lebensformen, Vorkommen, Einfluss und die Massregeln zu Vertilgung und Schutz. Praktisches Handbuch v. Dr. J. Ritzema Bos, Docent an der landwirtschaftl: Lehranstalt in Wageningen. Mit 477 eingedruckten Abbildungen. Preis 18 m., geb, 20 m. Verlag von Paul Parey, 10 Hedemannstrasse, Berlin, S.W. TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE. —_1oo—— AGRICULTURAL education is making such rapid strides in this country, that no apology is needed for translating a book which appears to fill a gap, especially as it is written by a well-known authority. Dr. Ritzema Bos has kindly allowed certain small alterations to be made which adapt the work to the requirements of British agriculture. Additions are indicated by square brackets, and small print employed in the case of some non-British animals. A few forms have been omitted for similar reasons. Constant reference has been made to the published works of Miss E. A. Ormerod, who has added to my obligation by writing an Introduction, and I also wish to acknow- ledge my indebtedness to Mr. J. H. Salter, B.Sc., and Mr. J. Dawson Roberts, M.R.C.V.S., for kind help given by them. J. R. AINSWORTH DAVIS. ABERYSTWYTH, May, 1894 INTRODUCTION. By request of Professor Ainsworth Davis, the skilled translator of this “handy-book” on “Agricultural Zoology,” I add some words of introduction; and I have especial pleasure in so doing: not that any observations of mine can add value to the work of the well-known author, but because, having myself had the advantage for many years of colleagueship, and important help in my own work from the assistance of Dr. Ritzema Bos, I am well acquainted both with his extensive knowledge and also his scrupulous care in observation, and I believe that this abstract of his larger work, now given in a form in which it is avail- able for general use, will meet a great need. We have long wanted a book, plain in wording, and of moderate size, dealing with the wild animals or animal infestations generally which occur in connection with farm life—a manual, in fact, which, whilst suit- able for the use of agricultural students and teachers, should at the same time not be too technically x INTRODUCTION. scientific to be intelligible to practical farmers or to general readers. In the pages of the present volume a very service- able amount of information will be found to be embodied. So far as can be arranged in the limited space the chief characteristics of the main divisions of the animal kingdom are given, from the Vertebrata —including descriptions of some of our most notable forms of what may be popularly described as beasts, birds, and reptiles,—to the Arthropoda, including in- formation on a most serviceable amount of insect infestation ; also regarding Mites, Ticks, etc. These are followed by the Vermes, including, among other families of the Nematoda, the eelworms which cause go much injury to crop growth ; and these are followed by the intestinal tape-worms and the fluke. The fourth sub-kingdom, that of Mollusca, includes, besides snails and slugs, various kinds of shell-fish; and the lower sub-kingdoms—including Echinodermata, which may be typified by star-fishes and sea urchins, the Celenterata, or Zoophytes, and the Protozoa—will be found to be just entered on sufficiently to show their place in the scale. The clear descriptions, made still more instructive by the numerous and good figures, will speak for them- selves to all readers; but I should like to add a few lines to point out the serviceableness of a handbook in which the reader may turn at pleasure to the history of any common farm animal—as a weasel or a vole, a INTRODUCTION. Xl wood-pigeon or a pheasant, a blind-worm or a com- mon frog. And, in regard to the insect infestations, to which it will be seen more than a hundred pages of the book are devoted, I can bear witness to the great amount of valuable information which I constantly derive myself from the study of the writings of Dr. Ritzema Bos on this subject; and I trust this little manual of “ Agricultural Zoology” may take the place in our farm and school libraries which I believe it to be excellently fitted to fill. ELEANOR A. ORMEROD, Late Consulting Entomologist of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Torrineton Hovsz, St. ALBAN’s, May 24, 1894. CONTENTS. _—. PAGE InTRODUCTION— I. Subdivision of the Animal Kingdom see 1 Il. Review of the Structure and Vital Phenomena of Animals... an eis ash va 3-16 First Sub-Kingdom: VERTEBRATA (Backboned Animals) 16-82 CLASS I: Mammauta (Sucklers) vee aes w. 21-48 OrpER: Carnivora (Beasts of Prey) ans sl 24-30 Family : Felide (Cat Family) ae ise we 24-25 Family : Canidz (hog Family) .. aig 25-26 (Wolf, p. 25; Fox, p. 26.) Family: Mustelids (Weasel Family) sais «. 26-30 (Martens and Polecat, p. 26; Ferret, p. 27; Stoat and Weasel, p. 28 ; Mink, Otter, and Badger, p. 29.) ORDER: Insectivora (Insect-eating Mammals) 30-33 (Shrews, pp. 30,31; Mole, pp. 31-33 ; Hedgehog, p. oH) ORDER: Cheiroptera (Bats) ss 33-35 Orper: Rodentia (Gnawing Mammals) we sv 35-43 Family: Leporide (Hares and Rabbits) ts ... 86-38 (Hare and Rabbit, p. le Family: Muride (Mouse Family) 38-41 (Hamster, Black Rat, and Brown Rat, P- "39; Common Mouse, Long-tailed Field Mouse, and Harvest Mouse, p. 40; Corn Mouse, p. 41.) Family : Arvicolidze (Vole Family) . 41-43 (Bank Vole and Water Vole, p. 42; Field Vole, pp. 42, 48; Southern Field Vole, p. 43. ) Oxprr: Ruminantia (Cud-chewing Mammals) as 44-47 Family: Cervide (Deer Family) at 45-47 (Red Deer, p. 46; Roebuck and Fallow Deer, p. 47.) Orper: Multungula or + nety dental Ming ooled or Thick-skinned Mammals) ats ss 48 (Wild Boar, p. 48.) Orver: Solidungula (Single-hoofed sini oes 48 CLASS II: Aves (Birds) dws in we 49-74 Orver:; Raptores (Birds of Prey) .. ok as 53-55 Orper: Scansores (Climbing Birds) wee sie wv. =5§5-56 (Cuckoo, pp. 55, as Orper: Passeres (Perching Birds) : sie 57-65 Xiv CONTENTS. PAGE Group: Hirundinide (Swallows) _ .. 57-58 (Swallows and Martins, p. 57; Swift and Goatsucker, p. 58.) Group: Magnirostres (Large-beaked Perchers) _ ... 58-61 (Jackdaw, Crows, Rook, and Raven, pp. 59-61 ; Mag- pie and Jay, p. 61.) Pf Group: Conirostres (Conical-beaked Perchers) 61-64 (Titmice, Larks, and Buntings, pp. 61, 62; Finches, p.62; Sparrows, pp. 62, 63 ; Linnet, p. 63 ; ‘Chaffinch, pp. 63, 64.) Group : Subulirostres (Awl-beaked Perchers) ie 64-65 (Wagtails, Pipits, and Hedge “Sparrow,” p. 64; War- blers, pp. 64,65; Thrush-like birds, p. ob ORDER : Gyrantes (Doves) e 65-67 (Wood Pigeon, pp. 66, 67; Turtle Dove “and Rock Pigeon, p. 67.) ORDER: Rasores (Poultry) aoe 8 67-68 (Pheasant, p . 68. ) Orver: Grallatores (Wading Birds) pa oli ... 68-70 Orver: Natatores (Swimming Birds) ae def 70-74 Family: Lamellirostra (Ducks) ce eae .. G1-73 Family: Longipennes (Gulls) ... ae 20% 73-714 CLASS III. : Repriir1a (Reptiles) os ae ws 14-79 CLASS IV. : Ampuie1a (Amphibians) wn are 79-81 CLASS V.: Pisczs (Fishes) Ss as 28 ... 81-82 Second Sub-Kingdom: ARTHROPODA (Jointed-limbed Animals) 82-206 CLASS I.: Inszcra (Insects) eae aes “ts 85-194 OrveEr I.: Coleoptera (Beetles) os ... 94-118 Family : Carabide (Ground Beetles) ie 94-96 (Corn Ground Beetle, pp. 95, 96. ) Family : Staphylinide (Rove Beetles) - vee 96-97 Family : Silphide (Burying Beetles) ... 97 (Black Burying Beetle, and Beet Carrion Beetle, ?. ms Family: Nitidulide (Shine Beetles) ... 97-98 (Turnip-flower Beetle, pp. 97, 98. y Family: Cryptophagide (Secret-eating Beetles) pie 98-99 (Beet Beetle, pp. 98, 99.) Family: Lamellicornia (Chafers) ... - 99-102 (Cockchafer, pp. 100, 101; Buckwheat Beetle, Dp: 101; Rye and Garden Chafers, p. 102.) Family: Elaterids (Click Beetles) eee 102-105 (“* Wireworms,” pp. 103-105.) Family: Curculionids (Weevils) wee 105-110 (Seed Beetles, pp. 106, 107; Pea Weavil, pp. “107, 108 ; Mouse-tooth Weevils, p. 108; Gall Weevils, pp. 108-110.) Family: Chrysomelids: (Leaf Beetles) ... at 110-117 (Colorado Beetle, pp. 111-113; Tortoise Beetles, pp. 113, 114; Flea Beetles, 114-117.) CONTENTS. xv PAGE Family: Coccinellidse (Lady Birds) «. 117-118 Orper IT.: Orthoptera (Straight-winged Insects) wae 118-121 (Migratory Grasshopper, pp. 119, 120; Mole Cricket, pp. 120, 121.) Orpzr IIT. : N europtera (Net-winged Insects) 121-123 (Dragon Flies, p. 122; Lace Flies, pp. 122, 128; Scorpion Flies, p. 123. ) Orper IV.: Hymenoptera [Migmb enous: winged Insects) 123-136 Family: Apida (Bees) sis see ae 125-126 Family : Vespide (Wasps) on 126-128 Family: Fossores (Digging Wasps) ae ee 128-129 Family: Formicids (Ants), 3 .. 129-132 Family: Ichneumonids (Ichneumon, Flies) ae 132-134 Family : Tenthredinids (Saw-flies) .» 184-136 (Turnip Saw-fly, pp. 134-136.) Orver V.: Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths) ... 136-159 Family: Diurna (Butterflies) aie «» 187-142 (Whites, pp. 138-142. ) Family : Noctuidee (Owlet Moths) .. 142-152 (Surface Caterpillars, p. 143 ; Dart or Turnip Moth, pp. 143-145; Cabbage Moth » pp. 145-147; Lettuce aud Pea Moths, Pp. 147; Grrass-root Moth, p. 148; Couch-grass Moth, pp. 148, 149; Wheat-haulm Moth, p. 149; Grass Moth, pp. 149, 150; Darnel Moth, p. 150; Silver ¥ Moth, pp. 151, 152.) Family : Pyralidee (Snout Moths) aoe pen 152-155 Family : Tortricidse (Leaf-rollers) ... 155-157 (Fawn-coloured Pea Moth, p. 156; Crescent Pea Moth, pp. 156, 157.) Family : Tineides (Leaf-miners) 157-159 (Carrot Moth, pp. 157, 158; Diamond-back Moth, pp. 158, 159.) Orver VI. : Hemiptera (Half-winged Insects) «. 159-163 Family: Aphids (Plant Lice) wa 159-163 Orper VII.: Physopoda (Bladder-footed Insects) ... 163-164 (Thrips, pp. 163, ss Orper VIII.: Diptera (Flies) ... esi 164-193 Family: Culicine (Gnats) ea tie « 164-165 Family: Gallicole (Gall Gnats) 165-170 (Hessian Fly, pp. 166-168 ; Scarlet Wheat Midge, p. 168, 169; Wheat Midge, 169, 170.) Family : Rostratee (Crane Flies) ... ide see 170-172 Family : Musceformes (Gnat Flies)... ae 173-174 (Sand Flies, pp. 173, ca Family: Tabanidw (Gad Flies)... 8 a8 174 Family: Muscide (‘True Flies) wae 175-184 (Caterpillar and Flesh Flies, p. 175; Common Flies, p. 175; Flower Flies, pp. 176, 177; Cheese-fly, p. 178; Ribbon-footed Corn Fly, pp. 178-182; Frit Fly, pp. 182-184.) Xvi CONTENTS. Family: Syrphide (Hover Flies) . Family : Stomoxydz (Stable Flies) Family : Gistride (Bot Flies) (Ox Warble-fly, pp. 186-188; Sheep Bot Fly, pp. 188-190; Horse Bot, ete., pp. 190-192.) Family : Pupipara (Louse Flies) Se OrpeEr IX.: Aphaniptera (Fleas) OrvEr X.: Parasita (Lice) = CLASS II. : Myriopopa (Centipedes and Millipedes) CLASS IIL: AracuNomwea ead al Siler ance) OrveErR: Acaridea (Mites) “se Family : Acaride (True Mites) (Itch or Mange Mites, pp. 196-202. 4 Family: Ixodide (Ticks) _... aes Family: Gamaside (Beetle Mites) (Fowl Mite, p. 204.) Family : Trombidiide (Plant Mite or “ Red Spider,” p. 205) CLASS IV.: Crustacea (Crustaceans) Third Sub-Kingdom : VERMES (Worms) CLASS: AnneLma (Segmented Worms) ... ob (Earthworms, pp. 207-209.) CLASS : NemaTeLminTHES (Round Worms) OxpER: Nematoda (Thread Worms) oi Family : Family : Family : Family : Family : tem Eelworm, pp. 220-224; Wheat - Eelworm, pp. 224-227; Beet Eelworm, pp. 227-230; Root- Strongylide (Palisade Worms) Trichotrachelide (Whip Worms) (Trichina, pp. 216-218.) Filaride (Slender Thread a Ascaride (Round Worms) . Anguillulide (Eelworms) knot Eelworm, p. 231.) CLASS: PiaTyHELmt1a (Flat Worms) ... Orver: Cestoda (Tapeworms) Ogpeg.: Trematoda (Flukes) Fourth Sub-Kingdom: MOLLUSCA (Mollusca) CLASS: Cepsatoropa (Cuttle-fishes) CLASS: Gastropopa (Snails and Slugs) (Grey Field Slug, pp. 249- 251) CLASS.: LaMELLIBRANCHIATA (Bivalve Molluscs)... Sixth Sub-Kingdom : CELENTERATA (Zoophytes) Fifth Sub-Kingdom : ECHINODERMATA (Hedgehog-skinned Animals) Seventh Sub-Kingdom: PROTOZOA (One-celled Animals) 1AGB 185 185-186 186-192 192-193 193 193-194 195 195-205 196-202 196-202 202-204 204 205 206 206-245 207-209 209-231 210-231 212-215 215-218 218 218-219 219-231 231-245 231-240 240-245 245-251 247 247-251 251 252-253 253-255 255-256 ILLUSTRATIONS. oO fIG. PAGE 1. Schematic Longitudinal pais of the Human serie! we OE 2. Human Skeleton ... one aes 7 3. Skeleton of an Ox ag. 9 4. Bending of the Arm by “Contraction of the "Biceps Muscle 10 5. Diagram to explain the Action of the Motor and Sensory Nerves ee oo a ate ves IL 6. Diagram of the Course ‘of the Circulation eS 13 7. Life History of the aap athie Gall- ray (Andricus ter- minalis) ... 15 8. Diagram of a Fish’s Heart vag ae wae se 18 9. Diagram of a Mammal’s Heart ... sd oe wx 20 10. Diagram ofa Reptile’s Heart a3 siete te 20 11. Diagram of a Frog’s Heart wei se wee QI 12. Vertical Section of a Human Grinding Tovth 8 22 13, Crown of an Ox’s Grinder wie Bee — we 22 14, Skull of Domestic Cat oe aie is sae 25 15. Pine Marten (Mustela martes) ote ioe wie we 27 16. Skull of Mole eis ies sie ie 30 17. Common Shrew (Sorex mulgari) ae 68 ww. BL 18. Skeleton of Bat... ou gis = 34 19. Skull of Squirrel : ead ae 253 a. 85 20. Abnormal Tooth in Hare... as, a: in 37 21, Hamster (Cricetus frumentarius) en we 288 22, Long-tailed Field Mouse (Mus sylwaticus) sisi he 40 23. Upper Back Teeth of Brown Rat site ive AL 24, Upper Back Teeth of Water Vole... an oe 41 25. Southern Field Vole (Arvicola aemales) shes aa a 43 26. Skull of Sheep ‘ — ies 44 27. Development of Roebuck Antlers i ws we. 45 28. Wing of Buzzard . waa sine ote 50 29. Section through Bird’s Egg sus = wie wie OT 30. Eagle Owl (Otus maximus) . a ais wa 52 31. Head and Foot of Falcon : sits si . «53 32. Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaétus) = i sas 54 33, Barn Owl (Strix flammea) za sie se -. 55 34. Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) ... : aici ne 56 35. Goatsucker (Caprimulgus europaeus) aes sie a 58 36. Head of Rook (Corvus frugilegus) ... ad: wis 60 37. Head of Bullfinch (Pyrrhula vulgaris)... sist .. 62 XVili ILLUSTRATIONS. . Nightingale (Daulias luscinia) . Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus) . Capercailzie (Tetrao urogallus) . Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) .. . Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) . Crested and Little Grebes ( Fodiceps cristatus ‘and ménor) ave . Grey Goose (Anser cinereus) sii . Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) . Common Lizard (Lacerta agilis) . Adder (Pelias berus) ... . Grass Snake (Tropidonotus natr ix) .. . Blindworm (Anguis fragilis)... . Great Crested Newt (Triton cristatus) . Common Frog (Rana temporaria) . Natterjack (Bufo calamita) . The Perch (Perca fluviatilis) . Wood-borer (Siren) . Centipede (Scolopendra morsitans) z . Ground Beetle, showing Nervous System . Disarticulated Grasshopper . Head and Mouth-parts ofa Ground Beetle . Leg of Ground Beetle . Stages of Silkworm Moth (Bombyx mori) . Stages of Hornet (Vespa crabro) . Migratory Grasshopper (Aery ens migratoriaum) . Looper Caterpillar ... oe . False Caterpillar... . Stages of Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris) . Larva of a Weevil . Stages of Aphis-eating Fly (Syrphus } pyr asti) . A Ground Beetle (Carabus auronitens) . Corn Ground Beetle (Zabrus gibbus) and. larva. . A Rove Beetle (Staphylinus erythropterus) ... . Black Burying Beetle (Silpha atrata) and larva ... . Antenne of Cockchafer ... . Abdomens of Common and Horse-chestnut Cockchafers . Skipjack (Agriotes lineatus) ae oe ee . Skipjack about to spring . Grain-plants sown deep and shallow, ‘to show. Wirew orm attack . Bean Beetle ( Bruchus rufimanus) . Pea Weevil (Sitones lineatus) es . Mouse-tooth Weevil (Baridius chloris) and lur va. . Turnip Gall Weevil (Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis) . Colorado Beetle (Chrysomela decemlineata) ‘ . Stages of Colorado Beetle . ves ves ar . Cloudy Tortoise Beetle (Cassida nebulosa) . Rape Flea Beetle (Psylliodes chrysocephalus) . Stages of Seven- eee es iuecinelin eeptempune- tata) ILLUSTRATIONS. . Stages of Common Lace Fly (Chrysopa baci a . Head of Honey Bee (Apis mellifica) ... . Common Wasp (Vespa vulgaris) and nest . . Common Sand Wasp (Ammophila sabulosa) aa . Stages of Yellow-legged Ichneumon Fly (Microgaster glome- ratus) . Turnip Saw-fiy (Athalia spinarum) ‘and caterpillars . Head of Butterfly si ae . Scales from Butterfly’s Wine wo . Stages of Peacock Butterfly ‘(Vanessa io) : . Stages of Cabbage White (Pieris brassicx) . Garden White (Pieris rapx), male .. ia . Garden White, female and caterpillar sa . Green-veined White (Pieris napt).. . Dart or Turnip Moth (Agrotis segetum) and caterpillar . Stages of Cabbage Moth (Mamestra brassicz) . Grass Moth (Charwas Graminis) and caterpillar . Stages of Silver Y Moth (Plusia gamma) . Hop Snout Moth (Hypena rostralis) ... . Mother-of-Pearl Moth (Botys margaritalis) and larva . Fawn-coloured Pea Moth (Grapholitha nebritana) . Larch Moth (Coleophora 5 - na . Wings of a Bug ees . Bean Aphis (Aphis papaveris) . Corn Thrips (Thrips cerealium) . Wheat Midge (Cecidomyia tritici) .. . Barley attacked by Hessian Fly . Larves of Wheat Midge (Cecidomyia tritici) . Stages of Daddy Longlegs (Tipula oleracea) Rain Breeze Fly (Hzmatopota pluvialis) ... . Caterpillar Fly (Tachina fera) . Turnip infested by Cabbage Fly (Anthomyia br assica) . Ribbon-footed Corn Fly (Chlorops tzniopus) . Stages of ditto oe . Wheat Plant distorted by winter generation of ditto .. . Stages, etc., of Frit Fly (Oscinis frit) . . Stages of Horse Bot Fly (Gastrus equi) . Horse Louse (Hematopinus ee . Common Snake Millipede (Julus terrestris) .. . A Spider (Salticus scenicus) . Mange Mite of the Pig (Sarcopte seabici var. suis). . Ditto tae . The Dog Tick (Inodes ‘ricinus) | aa . Diagrammatic transverse section through a “Thread Worm . Tail of male Strongylus armatus, “... ast ave . Encapsuled Muscle Trichinew in flesh . . Male Intestinal Trichina.. . Rye Plant in the later stage of the Eelworm Disease . Ear Cockles of Wheat .. es . Stages of Beet Eelworm (Heterodera Schachtit) vei XE PAGE 122 124 127 129 133 135 136 136 138 139 141 141 142 143 146 150 151 153 155 156 157 159 160 163 165 167 169 171 174 175 177 179 181 181 183 190 194 195 196 197 198 203 210 213 217 217 222 225 226 xX FIG. 135. 136. 137, 138. 139. 140. 141, 142. 143, 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. ILLUSTRATIONS. Tenia saginata ... Common Tapeworm (Tenia oficinalis) es Tapeworm Larva (Tzxnia solium) .. Types of Bladder-worm ve Measle of Tenia solium ... Measles in Pork : Liver Fluke (Distoma hepaticwm) .. Life History of Liver Fluke ... Diagrams of Molluscs Grey Field Slug (Limaz agrestis) Common Starfish (Asterias suena Fresh-water Polype (Hydra) .. A Jellyfish (Pelagia nodtiluea) A Sea Anemone (Sagartia niveay Proteus Animalcule (Ameba) PAGE 232 ZOOLOGY. INTRODUCTION. I. Subdivision of the Animal Kingdom. THERE are animals so like one another that they are given the same name. Such animals are ranked in the same species. Animals which differ so much that they have to be referred to different species, but which notwithstanding agree in the majority of their cha- racters, especially the most important ones, are placed in the same genus. Hare and rabbit, or horse and donkey, are reckoned as different species of the same genus. Genera resembling one another are united into a family ; thus, the pine marten and the beech or stone marten both belong to the Marten genus (Martes), while the weasel and stoat are different species of the Weasel genus (Mustela); but these two genera are so similar that they are both placed in the same family, i.e. the Weasel family (Mustelide). Nearly related families together build up an order. Thus, the Weasel family, Dog family, Cat family, ete., collectively constitute the order of Carnivora, cha- racterized, speaking generally, by the same kind of teeth, claws, habits, and food. Several related orders are united intoaclass. Thus, for example, carnivorous animals (Carnivora), ruminating animals (Ruminantia), B 2 ZOOLOGY. gnawing animals (Rodentia), ete., constitute different orders of the class of Sucklers (Mammalia) ; while birds of prey (Raptores), pigeons (Gyrantes), and poultry (Rasores), are included in a second class, that of Birds (Aves). But both Birds and Mammals have a skeleton, of which the chief support is the backbone; on this account they are placed in a larger subdivision, the sub-kingdom of Backboned animals (Vertebrata) ; while snails are grouped under the sub-kingdom of Molluscs, millipedes and centipedes under that of Jointed-limbed animals (Arthropods). > In this way the animal kingdom is divided into sub-kingdoms, the sub-kingdoms into classes, the classes into orders, the orders into families, the families into genera, and the genera into species, Animals of the same species which differ from one another in more or less constant characters, belong to different races (domestic or geographical races). There are many species of animals the external features of which are well known to ordinary folk, and which therefore possess a definite English name, but a much larger number, of the smaller forms especially, have no English name. It is, therefore, necessary to devise new names for these species. The English names, however, are liable to cause great confusion, since in different districts the same name is often applied to widely different animals. Besides this, distinct names have usually been given to suc- cessive stages in the life-history of the same form: “ wireworms,” for example, are the young state of the “ elick-beetle.” By using the scientific method of naming invented by Linnzus, confusion is made impossible. The Latin names of this naturalist have the great advantage that they not only give a perfectly distinct name to any particular species, but also at the same time show the genus to which it belongs. Each kind of animal possesses, in fact, two names; just in the same way as INTRODUCTION. 3 every person possesses at least two names, a Christian name and a surname. ‘The generic name comes first, and is, of course, common to all animals of the same genus. The second name is the specific one, and belongs exclusively to animals of the same species. The hare and rabbit, for example, are both included in the genus Lepus. The Latin name of the first is Lepus tymidus ; that of the second, Lepus cuniculus. Horse = Equus caballus ; ass = Equus asinus. II. Review of the Structure and Vital Phenomena of Animals. I select as a point of departure the human body, and the bodies of domestic animals, because my readers are best acquainted with these. ’ The limbs consist, beginning on the outside, of skin, flesh, and bone. The same parts can also be distin- guished in the head, neck, and trunk; but in these divisions of the body they enclose a cavity, the body - cavity, which, again, contains various parts (“organs”), which are not everywhere attached to the body-wall. Fig. 1 represents a longitudinal section through the body. The skin is represented by a line, flesh and internal lining are shaded, while the bones are black. These parts form together the body-wall. In front the body-wall encloses a cavity, the body- cavity (Kh.), which in Mammals is divided into two sections (thoracic cavity, Bz.h, and abdominal cavity, Bh) by the midriff (diaphragm). In the thoracic cavity are found the lungs and heart (4), also most of the gullet or upper part of the gut; the abdominal cavity contains the remainder of the often much-coiled gut, which in one place widens into the stomach (1), also the kidneys, spleen, and parts connected with the gut (eg. the liver). The cavities are bounded behind by the backbone (vertebral column), which is made up of many flattened vertebra. The uppermost vertebra 4 supports the skull, which encloses a cranial cavity (Sch.h.) continuous with a vertebral canal bounded by the vertebre. Cranial cavity and vertebral canal form together a second body-space, in which are con- tained the brain and spinal cord. We will now consider the individual parts of the body, beginning with the skeleton. The axis of the Fic. 1.—Schematic Longitudinal Section of the Human Body. skeleton is formed by the vertebral column (spine), which is com- posed of flat bones, the vertebre. and. skeletal muscles, attached respectively to the skin 10 - ZOOLOGY. or by one end to an integumentary structure (hair, feather, scale), and to parts of the skeleton. The animals which are devoid of any internal skeleton, the invertebrates (i.e. all animals except vertebrates), naturally possess no skeletal muscles. Examples of dermal muscles are those by means of which a bird erects its feathers (tail-coverts of peacock !), and those which enable a hedgehog to roll itself into a ball and stick out its spines. Each end of a skeletal muscle is connected with a bone. If such a muscle contracts the more easily movable bone is drawn towards the less easily movable one (Fig. 4). In order that the bones may be movable upon one another they are united together by joints. According as muscular movements are, or are not, under the influence of the will, they are distinguished as voluntary and involuntary. To the latter kind belong the movement of the heart, and the movements of the muscles in the wall of the gut by which the food is made to progress. To destroy the contractile power of a muscle it is re of not necessary to injure Ww ul the muscle itself. Every muscle is related to a nerve, which sends its fine branches to the fibres making up the muscle. If we cut the nerve, the correspond- ing muscle loses its power of contraction. But the nerve arises from the central nervous system, which in ver- Fie, 4.—Bending of the Arm by Contraction of the Biceps Muscle. a, humerus; b, ulna; tebrates principally con- ¢, elbow-joint ; d, biceps muscle ; ¢, origin; gists of the brain and Ff. insertion of the same. In the right-hand : naire at ca muscle d is contracted; in the spinal cord. The te na ; left-hand figure it is slackened. muscle will therefore lose its contractile power if the connection with INTRODUCTION. ll these central parts is broken. The true cause of movement resides in these parts. A sort of change, the essential nature of which is unknown to us, takes place in them, and is propagated along the nerve to the muscle, causing it to contract. The central ner- vous system is, therefore, the origin, the centre from which the order to contract proceeds ; hence its name. The nerves which run from these central parts to the muscles are known as the nerves of movement (motor nerves). There is still, however, a second group of nerves, the nerves of sensation (sensory nerves), which arise in the sense-organs (skin, mucous membrane of tongue, nose, ear, eye), and convey to the central nervous system the impressions they receive from the outer world by the aid of these sense-organs. In the ap- pended diagram (Fig. 5), C represents the central Fic, 5.—Diagram to explain the Action of the Motor and Sensory Nerves. nervous system; B.N., a motor nerve, branching in the muscle M; G.N.,asensory nerve, which runs from the blood-bathed inner skin or dermis (L.h), underlying the outer skin or epidermis (0.h), to the central system. (The arrows indicate the direction in which impulses are conveyed along the corresponding nerve. 12 ZOOLOGY. Men or animals lose in weight if they take no food. The reason for this is that certain substances leave the body either as gases (through the lungs), or as liquids (by the kidneys and sweat-glands), without a corresponding compensation. An animal or human being could not live without taking in fresh sub- stances, which, according as they are solid or liquid, are known as food or drink. The different kinds of food and drink, which, with few exceptions (salts, water), are taken from the animal and plant king- doms, cannot, however, as such, replace the gradually diminishing body-substance, for, to begin with, they contain useless matters, which pass out of the body in the feces (dung). And even the nutritious parts of the animal and vegetable substances taken into the stomach, are not always in a form in which they can be used at once. Digestion, which in all the higher animals takes place in a food-tube (gut), serves to reduce them to a suitable condition, at the same time separating the useless matters. The action of several fluids (saliva, gastric juice, bile, etc.) secreted by glands, extracts the useful (nutritious) substances from the food and drink, converting them also into a suitable form. The smaller the pieces into which the food is separated, the better can this purpose be effected. In mammals the teeth serve to break down . the food; in birds and many Invertebrates the same part is played by special secretions of the stomach or intestine provided with hard ridges. So long as the nutritious food-stuffs remain in the food-canal, even though in a completely suitable form, they cannot nourish the body. And since waste of the substance of the body everywhere takes place, it is absolutely necessary that the food-stuffs should pass after digestion into a system of organs going to all parts of the body. This system is the circulatory, or vascular system. Food-stuffs enter it from the gut directly or indirectly, reaching it in the latter case through the lymphatic (lacteal) system. INTRODUCTION. 13 The blood is the fluid into which the food-stuffs are taken up. It consists of an almost colourless liquid, together with an innumerable number of exceedingly minute blood-corpuscles. The blood flows through the body in a system of tubes, or blood-vessels, which branch repeatedly, and at last become merged in the microscopic capillary blood-vessels. These capillaries are present in nearly all parts of the body except the epidermis and epi- dermal structures (hairs, feathers, scales, etc.). They have exceedingly thin walls, which present no re- sistance to the passage of the nutritious substances contained in the blood, so that these can be absorbed by those parts of the body which lie between the individual capillary vessels. The central organ of the circulation is the heart, an enlarged part of the vascular system, possessing thick muscular walls. By con- traction of these, the blood is driven out of the heart (Fig. 6, H); and its exit is possible on one side only (a), as at the other side (6) there is a valve, which closes when the heart contracts. The vessel Fic. 6.—Diagram of the Course of into which the blood daa iaiahanhisiad leaving the heart enters is termed an artery (S.A.) It divides into several branches, also known as arteries, and the smallest arteries pass into capillaries, which again are connected with veins, which join larger and larger veins, until finally one or a few open into the heart (A). 14 ZOOLOGY. Since the blood in the course of its circulation gives up some of its nutriment to the various parts of the body, it would in the end become useless for the pur- oses of nutrition if it did not receive a fresh supply of food-stuffs from the gut, either directly or indirectly (through the lacteal system). But apart from this, the blood would ultimately become useless, and that very quickly, if it did not traverse the lungs, kidneys, and sweat-glands. It is well known to every one that a man or animal cannot live without air, or at any rate without a certain gas, ovygen, that is contained in air. This oxygen must be able to penetrate into the minutest particles of the body, and the blood, in the corpuscles of which it is contained, carries it everywhere. In the smallest particles (molecules) of the body an oxidation (combustion) of body-substance takes place, which not only causes an evolution of heat, but also renders the body capable of doing work. But if now the blood passes from the capillaries into the veins, it contains too little oxygen. And besides, it has taken up from the molecules of the body several substances, developed in those molecules, which would be fatal to the animal if they were not removed from the body. Now, when the blood streams through the lungs, it gets rid of the poisonous gaseous matter, and when it traverses the kidneys and sweat-glands it parts with the injurious liquid and solid substances. But in the lungs the blood takes up at the same time fresh oxygen; and since in this way the air in the lungs becomes poor in oxygen, the movements of breathing (respiration) provide for the passage of a fresh supply of oxygen into the lungs. Only the higher Vertebrates breathe by means of lungs ; fishes and numerous aquatic Invertebrates breathe by gills, and insects by air-tubes (tracheee). While Nutrition is the life-process which shields the individual from death, Reproduction serves to maintain the species. It is familiarly known that INTRODUCTION. 15 the offspring generally resemble their parents. But it is also a fact recognized by the stock-breeder, that a particular animal will not only transmit several of its own characteristics to its offspring, but perhaps also various characteristics of the grandparents or of animals belonging to still more remote generations, although these characteristics are not visible in the Fig, 7.—The Small-winged Gall-fly, d (Andricus terminatis), lays its eggs separately in the rootlets of oak. Root-galis (@) result trom this, and inside of each of them a larva develops which, after a metamorphosis, becomes a relatively large, wingless gall-fly (c) known as Biorhiza aptera, This pierces the oak-buds in early spring, and lays a large number of eggs in them; from part of the bud is formed a large juicy gall (b), containing several larve, from which the small-winged gall-flies (d) develop. ‘The species here represented exist, therefore, in two forms, e and @ (Heterogeny). animal which is actually breeding (Reversion, Atavism). Among insects and the lower animals there are species which, as adult animals, appear not in one form, but two or several. In this case, as a regular thing, the offspring does not resemble the parents, but the grandparents, great-grandparents, or 16 ZOOLOGY. a still earlier generation. The older observers have placed the offspring and the parents, and sometimes the grandparents too, of the same animal species in different species, or even genera or families, until newer researches on the reproduction and development of these animals have proved them to belong to one and the same species (see Fig. 7 and explanation). The method of reproduction by which a species appears in two or several forms is distinguished as heterogeny and metagenesis, or alternation of generations. In the first (Vig. 7) sexually reproducing animals alternate with other sexual animals. It may be that these are of separate sexes, or else they may possess both male and female organs (hermaphrodite). In metagenesis a sexual generation regularly alternates with one or several generations reproducing asexually. The animal kingdom falls (cf p. 2) into sub- kingdoms or main divisions. Seven of these are commonly distinguished: I. Backboned animals; II. Jointed-limbed animals; ITI. Worms; IV. Molluses; V. Echinoderms; VI. Ccelenterates; VII. Protozoa. First Sub-Kingdom: VERTEBRATA (BACKBONED ANIMALS). The Vertebrate body possesses a bilateral or two- sided symmetry; ae. it can be separated into two exactly corresponding halves, by a plane of division. The bilateral symmetry is strictly carried out as regards the external parts of the body, a single exception to this being flat-fish (plaice, flounder, etc.) ; but, on the other hand, it is more or less obliterated in the arrangement of the internal organs. In the Vertebrate body we find, as an axis, a vertebral column (backbone) made up of vertebrz, and traversed by the vertebral canal. As soon as this canal widens out VERTEBRATA. 17 in the skull to the cranial cavity, the spinal cord, which it contains, merges into the brain. In addition to the cavity containing the central nervous system, and placed on the upper side (= dorsal side) of the animal, a cavity, the body-cavity, is found in the under side (= ventral side). It contains for the most part the organs of respiration, circulation, digestion, and excretion (Fig. 1), and in Mammals is divided by the diaphragm into thoracic and abdominal cavities. In all the other subdivisions of the animal kingdom the central nervous system is situated in the same cavity as the above-mentioned organs. Various bones are connected with the vertebral column, and they serve for the attachment of muscles. The bones collectively constitute the skeleton, which is one of the most distinctive features of a Vertebrate. The animals of this sub-kingdom never have more than four limbs, and their blood is red, while that of most other animal groups is colourless. The structure of the heart in the various Verte- brates must also be noticed. In no Vertebrate is this organ so simple in structure as in the scheme given in Fig. 6; such an arrangement, moreover, would involve great difficulties, One great difficulty would be that while the blood was leaving the heart at a (Fig. 6), no fresh blood could enter, so that the blood in the veins would stand still. Even in the lowest Vertebrates (the Fishes) this difficulty is obviated, for where the main vein (or veins) opens into the heart an enlargement of this vein is found, where the blood can collect as long as the heart continues to contract. This expansion is also reckoned as part of the heart, and named the auricle (Fig. 8, V.K.), while the heart proper is termed the ventricle (K.). It is also easy to see that there must be a tolerably wide opening between the two chambers, so that as soon as the ventricle becomes flaccid the auricle can force blood into it. But there being such a wide . aperture Cc 18 ZOOLOGY. between auricle and ventricle, one valve is not enough to make it impossible for the blood to pass back into the auricle during the contraction of the ventricular walls. There are two or three valves there (Fig. 8, K1.), fixed by fibres to the wall of the ventricle. In order that the blood which is forced into the artery (S.A.) may not pass into the ventricle during its relaxa- tion, there is another valve (not indicated in Fig. 8), at the base Be ase of the artery. An arrangement like that so ran far described is found in fishes. the blood that has traversed the body, and of a ventricle which ieee moves it on again. But the blood that has traversed the body is on that account poor in HG, S—-Diagrem of'the-Heart. returned to the heart. It ig necessary for it to take up fresh oxygen before being circulated again. In fishes this difficulty is met by the blood, poor in oxygen, which flows out of the ventricle, first going to the gills and in regular rows on the firm gill-arches. The blood, poor in oxygen, passing out of the ventricle’ and through various arterial branches to the gill-filaments, takes up fresh oxygen as it streams through these from the oxygen dissolved in the water which con- vei. The heart consists in them of an auricle, into which is returned Ne oxygen, and consequently unfit > ~ to be circulated again when it is streaming through them. The gills consist of a very large number of small, thin-walled outgrowths arranged stantly surrounds them. For this purpose a stream of pure water is regularly taken in by the mouth and VERTEBRATA. 19 expelled again, right and left, through the gill-slits. The blood, “having become rich in oxygen in the gills, is now once more fit for circulation through the body, and therefore flows out of the gill-capillaries into larger vessels, which finally unite into a single large vessel that carries the purified blood to the various parts of the body. In the arrangement of the heart here described there is the disadvantageous condition that the blood is obliged to traverse two sets of capillaries (gill and body capillaries). This is not an easy matter, for there is a great deal of friction between the blood and the walls of the capillaries, constituting a hindrance to its progress. The circula- tion of the blood in fishes is consequently very slow, and since the blood contains the oxygen which is used by the various parts of the body, oxidation goes on slowly in the body of a fish; hence the small amount of heat developed there. Since fishes almost immediately give off to their surroundings the small amount of heat which they develop, they have no constant body-temperature, varying in this respect with the temperature of the surrounding water. Such animals are termed cold-blooded. In all other Vertebrates a more rapid movement of ~ the blood is rendered possible by the insertion of a second heart, quite similar in every respect to the other heart,in the course of the blood between the respiratory organs and the body. The first heart drives the blood through the lung capillaries, and therefore corresponds to the fish-heart; from these capillaries the blood returns to the auricle of the second heart, and from the ventricle of that heart travels to the various parts of the body. When it has completed this course, it returns to the auricle of the first heart. Although these two structures work in- dependently, they lie close together and make up a single organ. We do not therefore speak of two individual hearts, but of one heart with two halves. 20 ZOOLOGY. The first half, which receives the blood, poor in oxygen, that is returned from the body, and sends it on to the lungs, lies on t Fic. 9.—Diagram of the Mammalian Heart. 1, right, 2, left’ ventricle ; 3, right, 4, left auricle; 5, su- perior, 6, inferior vena cava; 7, pulmonary artery forking into branches for right and left lungs; 8, the four pulmonary veins; 9, the great body-artery (aorta); the arrows indicate the direction of the blood stream. a short time. and Mammals develop he right, and is termed the right half. The second half, which receives the richly oxygenated blood from the lungs, and pumps it to the various parts of the body, is termed the left half (Fig. 9 and explanation). . In the arrangement just described, which is found in Mammals and Birds, the blood returning from ‘the lungs is propelled with new force through the body, and therefore circulates very quickly, so that the various parts receive a relatively large amount of oxygen in It is therefore intelligible that Birds more warmth than Fish. They possess a special, constant body tempera- ture, somewhat different in different species, but usually lying between 98° and 104° Fhr., and they are called warm- blooded animals. In Reptiles (snakes, Fic. 10.—Diagram of the Heart of a Reptile. Between the right (r.X.) and left (LE) ventricles is a perforated partition. 7. V.K., right auricle; 1.V.K., left auricle; H.v., vena cava, carrying back the blood which has traversed the body into the right auricle; L.art., pulmonary artery; L.v., pulmonary vein; 4o., aorta. lizards, etc.), the two halves of the heart are not entirely distinct, since there is an opening in the partition - wall between the two ven- tricles. As a consequence of this, the poorly oxygenated MAMMALS. 21 blood of the right half of the heart mixes with the richly oxygenated blood of the left half, the extent to which this mixing takes place being proportional to the size of the aperture. In Reptiles, therefore, the blood supplied to the lungs - is not so poor in oxygen as it might be, nor, on the other hand, is the blood supplied to the other parts of the body completely Fic, 11.—Diagram of a Frog’s Heart. (The oxygenated. As con- ventricle x. e ee a Sonia Figs. sequences of this: (1) °™**? °* cat respiration is feebler, and (2) the development of heat less than in Mammals and Birds (i.e. reptiles are cold-blooded), and (8) the chemical changes taking place in the body (the metabolism) go on more slowly than in warm-blooded animals, and we can understand why reptiles execute fewer movements in a given space of time. In Amphibians (eg. frog) the two ventricles are similarly connected, but the opening is still larger than in Reptiles, and the partition-wall may even be altogether absent. It follows, therefore, that the mixing of the two kinds of blood is still more com- plete, and that Amphibians, too, are cold-blooded. The vertebrate sub-kingdom embraces the classes of I. Mammals ; IT. Birds; III. Reptiles ; IV. Amphibians ; V. Fishes. CLASS L: MAMMALIA (SUCKLERS). Warm-blooded Vertebrates (p. 16), usually covered with hair, and bringing forth living young, that suck for some time after birth. The female is provided 22 ZOOLOGY, with milk-glands on the thorax or abdomen, or both those regions. Speaking quite broadly, the skeleton is like that of man, described on pp. 4-8. There are, however, great differences in detail. The cranium is relatively much smaller, and the bones of the face (especially of the jaws) are usually much larger than in the human skull. The number of the cervical vertebrae is seven in all Mammals, as in man; but the other kinds of vertebrae vary in number in the different species. The number of caudal vertebrae, for example, is very variable. As most Mammals go on all fours, their fore and hind limbs are much more similar than is the case in man. In many the thigh and upper-arm bones are drawn closely up to the body (horse, ox, pig). Mammals never have more .than five fingers or toes, but may have fewer. The thumb or great toe is the first to disappear (hind foot of dog, fore and hind foot of pig) There may be only three (rhinoceros), two (ox, Fie. 12.—Vertical Section of Fic. 13.—Crown of a Grinder of the Ox. a, a Human Grinding Tooth. cement; b,enamel; c, dentine; d,enamel; e, cement, sheep), or one (horse) digit developed. In addition to fully developed digits, there are in many Mammals very small stunted ones (“ dew-claws” of the stag). There are also great differences in the way of resting the feet on the ground. Man and bear tread on the soles of the feet (plantigrade); dog and cat walk on the under side of the toes (digitigrade), not on the other parts of the feet. Ox, pig, horse, ete., MAMMALS, 23 rest while walking only on the tips of the toes, which are sheathed in hoofs (unguligrade). The teeth of mammals are wedged into special sockets in the jaw-bones. The structure of a mam- malian tooth is made clear by Fig. 12. We first distinguish a pulp-cavity (p), which in the living animal is filled with a substance supplied by a blood- vessel and nerve. This cavity is surrounded by the dentine (d), a hard substance which makes up the greater part of the tooth. Hard enamel (s) covers the whole of the crown in man and many animals, while in certain other forms it is found only on part of the crown. The root of the tooth is covered with cement (z), a bone-like substance. All teeth in which the entire surface of the crown is covered by enamel only are known as simple teeth, while those into which the enamel only penetrates in more or less deep folds, leaving the rest of the crown uncovered, are known as compound teeth (Fig. 18). The structure of the teeth is related to the nature of the food. We distinguish three kinds of teeth in the same animal, which, however, are not all present in every species; these are the incisors, canines, and grinders. The first two kinds are changed ; but only the anterior grinders, known as the premolars, are changed, while the hinder ones, the true molars, do not first appear as “milk” teeth, but rather later on with the other “ permanent” teeth. The following orders of Mammals are distinguished : I, Bimana (Man), II. Quadrumana (Apes), TIT. Car- nivora (Beasts of prey), IV. Insectivora (Insect- eaters), V. Cheiroptera (Bats), VI. Rodentia (Gnawers), VII. Ruminantia, VITI. Solidungula, IX. Pachyder- mata, X. Cetacea, XI. Edentata, XII. Marsupialia (Pouched animals), XIII. Monotremata. I shall deal here only with those orders which are of agricultural importance. 24 ZOOLOGY. ORDER : Carnivora (BEASTS OF PREY). In each jaw there are six relatively small incisor ~ teeth ; and, on each side of these, a large projecting canine, by which the flesh is torn from the body of the prey (Fig. 14). The premolars and the first of the true molars (the carnassials1) are strongly compressed, and have a cutting crown; their outer surface is completely covered with hard enamel. As the lower jaw is smaller than the upper jaw, and is only able to move up and down, not from side to side, the sharp crowns of the premolars, and especially those of the large carnassials, cut along one another, and divide anything coming between them as if with shears. The small molars which are usually found behind the carnassials have broad tuberculated crowns. The temporal (i.e. chewing) muscles are strongly developed, the general result of which is that the head is broad. The claws are very sharp in some of the families. The Carnivora are powerful animals, move very quickly, and are endowed with keen smell and sight. The wild Carnivora living in Britain belong to the families of cats, dogs, and weasels. Family: Felide (Cat Family). Typical Carnivora with very large canines and carnassials, two premolars in each half of each jaw, one of the upper molars, but none of the lower ones, small and tuberculated. Tongue rough. Fore and hind feet five-toed. When not in use, the claws are drawn back (retracted). The Felide are digitigrade. Backbone very flexible, and with free power of move- ment. The Felide are bloodthirsty, nocturnal animals, many of which climb well, and spring upon their prey. The group is specially exemplified by the Domestic ? The upper carnassials = last premolars. The lower 35 = first molars.—Tr. MAMMALS. 25 Cat, the parent stock of which is the Nubian cat (Felis maniculata), a native of Nubia and the Soudan. The Wild Cat (Felis catus) is larger than the common Fic. 14.—Skull of Domestic Cat. kind, and has a thicker tail. Formerly it was tolerably common in Britain, but now only occurs in a few thinly populated districts. The Lynx (Felis Lynx), found at one time in Germany, still lives in the Carpathians, and in Switzerland, but occurs more commonly in Scandinavia, Denmark, and Russia. Family ; Canidee (Dog Family). Head longer than in cats; canines and carnassials relatively less developed. Two tuberculated molars on each side of each jaw. Claws not so sharp as those of cats, and cannot be drawn back (2.¢. are non- retractile). Fore-foot five, hind-foot four toes. Tongue smooth. The various races of the Domestic Dog belong here. The wolf (Canis lupus) isno longer an inhabitant of Britain or Germany, but sometimes crosses the German frontier from Russia. Galicia, Hungary, the Alps, and the Ardennes, especially in winter, and preys upon the larger domestic animals. The remaining example is— 26 ZOOLOGY. The Fox (Canis vulpes). This animal lives in an underground dwelling, which is either dug out by itself or else is a deserted badger-burrow. It kills roes, fawns, hares, and game-birds; in farms it preys on poultry and eggs. It never commits depredations in the neighbourhood of its burrow, for fear of betraying its hiding-place. Valuable services, however, must be balanced against the damage mentioned above, for it catches many rabbits, and also an enormous number of field- voles in the years when these become a pest. It also often eats insects (¢.g. cockchafers), worms, and snails. In fact, the fox is perhaps generally of more use than otherwise to the farmer and. forester. Family : Mustelide (Weasel Family). Elongated, slender; legs short; head small and flat; cranium elongated ; tongue smooth. Five toes on each foot, with small, sharp claws. A. tuberculated molar on each side in the upper and lower jaws. The weasels give out an offensive odour from stink-glands situated near the anus. There belong to this family— 1, The Pine Marten (Mustela martes). Body up to twenty inches, tail up to ten inches long; fur brown, with yellowish wool-hairs; a yellow patch on the throat. Is found in thick woods, where it destroys small birds and squirrels; it also kills much poultry and game. 2. The Beech, or Stone Marten( Mustela foina). About as large as the preceding species; greyish-brown fur, with whitish wool-hairs; a white patch in the throat; chiefly occurs in the immediate neighbourhood of human dwellings, in barns, wood-stacks, ete.; kills a great deal of poultry, sometimes also wild birds, mice, and game. 3, The Polecat(Putomus fetidus). Shining brownish- black, with yellow wool-hairs; somewhat smaller than MAMMALS. 27 the stone marten; in particular, the tail is shorter and its hair is not so. long as in the two preceding species. In the summer it lives in the open country, in hollow trees, or in the burrows of foxes and rabbits ; in winter it settles down near human dwellings, where it lives in wood and under heaps of brushwood, hay- lofts, etc. In summer it may do more good by destroying numerous field-voles, water-rats, etc., than Fic. 15.—The Pine Marten (Mustela martes). harm by devouring those singing birds which are favourable to agriculture ; but in winter its undesir- able visits to the fowl-house and dove-cot effect. much injury. It kills the birds and devours the eggs, suck- ing without smashing them. In winter, too, it is very harmful to beehives, being fond of honey. The Ferret (Putorius fwro) is undoubtedly a short- legged variety of the common polecat, usually white in colour, and, when that is the case, red-eyed. 28 ZOOLOGY. 4. The Stoat, or Ermine (Putorius erminea). Body twelve inches, tail about three and a half inches long ; slender ; the body is scarcely broader than the head ; tail longer than in the next species; summer fur, cinnamon brown above, white below; tail, cinnamon brown with black tip; winter fur quite white, but the end of the tail remains black. Mostly in fields, in the neighbourhood of plantations or woods; always abundant among sandhills,owing to the rabbits living there, The stoat usually follows its prey at night, stealing upon mice, rats, rabbits, hares, and song-birds ; it is also sometimes very destructive in dove-cots and hen-houses. It must, however, be stated that the stoat is on the whole more useful than harmful. 5. The Weasel (Putorius vulgaris). Smaller than the stoat; head larger and thicker than the extremely slender, almost snake-like, trunk; legs short. The weasel is a very sharp little animal, and can easily pass along mouse-holes. Summer and winter coats alike—back brown, belly white. Its food chiefly consists of field-voles, also of rats and water-rats, young hares and rabbits, birds building near the ground, and also their eggs, which the weasel, by holding under its chin, manages to carry to its home; occasionally also lizards, blindworms, snakes, and frogs. The weasel does some damage in fowl-houses and dove-cots, and is also destructive to game. This, however, does not outweigh its very great use, since it is above all an untiring vole-catcher. When in any region the field-voles have multiplied exces- sively, an immigration of weasels takes place from surrounding parts. In years when there is a plague of voles the usual breeding time in spring is followed by another later on, A very large number of weasels may be found in a vole-infected district, and they thin out the mischievous rodents in a surprising manner. Nor are the weasels less useful in summer than in winter. They even follow under the snow MAMMALS, 29 the voles which winter in the country, and the slaughter effected at this period must exert a great influence on'the following season, when these animals recommence their injurious work, and a pair of them that have survived the winter may perhaps produce two hundred others before the end of the summer. 6. The Mink (Putorius lutreola) is as large as a polecat, and may be regarded as a sort of link between it and the others. Leg and ears short; skin smooth-haired, brown both on the back and the belly; chin, lips, and a small patch on the neck, white; tail about one-third the length of the body. In well-watered regions on the banks of rivers, . lakes, and ponds. Eats water-rats, water-birds, frogs, salamanders, fish, crayfish, water-insects, water-snails, and aquatic bivalves. Holstein, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Silesia. 7. The Otter (Lutra vulgaris). Body flattened ; legs short, with webbed toes; snout rounded; ears short, and can be closed by a fold of skin; tail flat, and pointed at its tip. Length of the body, twenty- eight to thirty-two inches; of the tail, fourteen to sixteen inches. Skin smooth-haired, shining dark brown above and below. Found on the banks of lakes, pools, ponds, rivers, brooks, etc., where fish is plentiful. It catches water-rats, ducks and geese, as well as their young, wild water-birds, frogs, fish, cray- fish, water-insects. Especially destructive to fish. 8. The Badger. (Meles taxus). Body heavy; legs short, plantigrade; toes with strong digging claws; snout pointed; canines not very large; both they and the carnassials much worn in old animals. Tuber- culated molars well developed. The dentition and whole structure of the body show that the badger is not exclusively a flesh-eater.. Length of body, three feet; weight, 22 to 33 lbs. Fur tolerably long-haired, yellowish whitey grey, mixed with black. Head with longitudinal stripes of black and white; tail short, yellowish grey. The burrow is very large; several passages, the openings of which may be ninety-seven feet apart, lead 30 ZOOLOGY. to the exterior. The badger only leaves its dwelling in the evening. It eats mice, birds which nest on the ground, especially their eggs and young, snakes, frogs, cockchafer grubs, earthworms, insects; also turnips, carrots, acorns, and sweet fruits. Although it is both harmful and useful, the latter is more generally the case. Its digging habits, however, are sometimes destructive, since it throws up young trees and other plants by the roots. The badger often sleeps several days in succession during the winter, although it does not hibernate. Its fat is used up during the winter. ORDER: Insectivora (INSECT-EATING MAMMALS). Since the Insectivora feed upon very small animals (insects, worms, snails), they cannot themselves be large. Only those species (hedgehog) which feed on small mammals and birds or upon vegetable matter, in addition to insects, are of medium size. The native species all live on or in the ground. The snout is extremely slender, and does duty as an organ of touch. The eyes are usually very badly developed. Incisors sharp ; and the back teeth, which are completely coated with enamel, are remark- able for their pointed crowns. When the mouth is closed the upper teeth fit into the spaces between the ¥1@. 16.—Skull of the Mole. lower teeth, and vice versé. Consequently the shutting of the mouth forces the points of all the back teeth into any insect which happens to be between the jaws. ‘he Insectivora are plantigrade (p. 22). Here belong the following forms: the Shrews (Sorex), the Mole (Talpa ewropea) and the Hedgehog (Frinaceus ewropeus). The Shrews (Sorex) are small animals with a MAMMALS. 31 superficial resemblance to mice, with slender soft- haired bodies, small eyes, and tolerably long, thickly haired tails. Shrews are extremely voracious, eating daily more than their own weight of food, and destroying an enormous quantity of subterranean vermin. They live in underground passages, not usually made by themselves, but dug out by field- voles. They smell strongly of musk, secreted by two glands in the hinder part of the body. The blackish-brown Shrew-mouse, or Common Shrew (Sorex vulgaris), and the Lesser Shrew (Sorex pyg- mous), only about two inches long, kill, in the corn- fields, gardens, or woodland, an enormous quantity of noxious insects found in the earth, together with Fig. 17.—The Common Shrew (Sorex vulgaris). their larve; also snails and worms, and sometimes field-voles, and are in the highest degree serviceable. But the larger (up to 34 inches long), black Water Shrew (Sorex fodiens), although serviceable on land in the same way as the other kinds, is very injurious to fishing and fish-breeding, since it devours the small fish and kills the larger ones, eating out their eyes and brains. The Mole (Talpa europea). Body thick, cylindrical. Legs short, fore legs broad and spade-like, with broad digging claws. Eyes small, scarcely visible among the fur. No external ears; the auditory opening can be completely closed by a fold of skin. Shining black fur. The mole is found in every soil 32 ZOOLOGY. inhabited by insects and earthworms, provided it is not too stiff, but yet sufficiently coherent to dig passages in, which will not at once collapse. Its presence is known by the heaps which it throws up. The nest, however, is always found under a larger heap, frequently hidden under tree roots, walls, etc., though sometimes in the open field. It consists in the first place of a nearly round dwelling-chamber, softly upholstered with vegetable substances; this is surrounded by a labyrinth of passages. From the nest a passage runs to the mole’s hunting-ground. The walls of this passage of the labyrinth, and of the nest, are hard. The wider and subterranean channels, which the mole digs out when it is simply catching insects in the soil, easily fall in again, and the animal takes no pains to compact their walls. The highway to the hunting-ground, in which the animal can progress very rapidly, can be at once detected, not like the ordinary passages by a small chain of mole- hills composed of the thrown-up earth, but by a depression, since in its preparation the earth is late- rally compressed and not thrown out. This tube is shorter or longer according as the hunting-ground is in the immediate neighbourhood or further off; it may be 100 or 160 feet long. The mole sleeps in the nest during the time not employed in seeking for food, and goes three times a day on the hunt for insects (early morning, midday, and before sunset in the evening). Having reached the subterranean hunting-ground, it tracks to some distance the insect larvee, and worms found in the soil, being aided in this by its long snout. It daily devours more than its own weight. During summer the mole digs its passages near the surface, since larvae and worms are then found in the uppermost layer of earth. In winter, when these withdraw into the depths of the soil, it digs much deeper channels. It does not fall into a winter-sleep. The young (three to seven) are born in MAMMALS. 33 May, June, or July. Tne mole never gnaws plants. It does service, sometimes very great, by eating many wireworms, grubs, snail embryos, earth caterpillars, mole-crickets, and other earth-inhabiting insects, as well as their larvae. It also willingly eats earthworms, but whether this does good is not definitely known. But under certain conditions it may also do harm, rooting up plants as it makes its heaps. Grass and grain suffer little, if at all, by this; other plants more ; while young flax-plants perish if their roots are loosened. Mole-hills in hayfields and cornfields are a nuisance at harvest time. Moles are not to be endured in the neighbourhood of dams, since their borings may become the immediate cause of flooding. Trapping may usefully be resorted to in cases where moles are harmful. The Hedgehog, or Hedgepig (Lrinaceus ewropeus). When danger threatens it rolls itself into a ball covered all over with prickles, and is in this way secured from the attacks of most enemies. The hedge- hog goes on the hunt in the evening; while during the day it sleeps in its hiding-place, situated in such places as the side of a ditch, hedges, or under heaps of brushwood. It preys more particularly on field- voles, sometimes also on eggs and small birds (chickens occasionally), lizards, grass-snakes, adders (by the bites of which it is unaffected), frogs, cockchafers and their larve, field-snails, earthworms, and similar small deer; now and then on fallen fruit and juicy plant- roots. ORDER: Cheiroptera (BATS). ' All Bats, except a few tropical genera, feed on insects, and possess teeth like those of the preceding order of Mammals (p. 30). The leading feature is the characteristic modification of the fore limbs into a flying apparatus. The bones of the forearm (Fig. 18, D 34 ZOOLOGY. u, 7), the metacarpels (me), and the phalanges (except in the case of the thumb, which possesses a sharp claw (p)) are of great length ; and between the long fingers, between the fore and hind limbs, and, last of all, Fiq. 18.— Skeleton of a Bat. between the two hind limbs there is an elastic mem- brane, serving both for flight and touch. Sight ill developed, since the bat is a nocturnal animal; a MAMMALS. 35 delicate sense of touch has its seat not only in the flying-membrane, but also in the skin of the ears, which are often very large, and in the membranous flaps which, in a few genera (the “leaf-nosed” bats), occur on the nose and lips. As is well known, bats sleep in the day ; and they also hibernate in chimneys, hollow trees, ruins, and other similar places of conceal- ment. They principally devour night-flying moths, and spiders; and, since they use a great quantity of nourishment, are of great service, since the cater- pillars of many of the species they destroy are very injurious to agriculture or forestry. About nine species live in Britain, but there is no use in enume- rating them here. ORDER: Rodentia (GNAWING MAMMALS). Two long incisors (Fig. 19), the crowns of which are continually being worn down, while a correspond- ing growth takes place at the root-end, These incisors are used for gnawing, in which process the lower jaw Fid. 19.—Skull of Squirrel. is rapidly moved backwards and forwards. Gnawing wears down these teeth less in front than behind, owing to the presence of a thick layer of enamel in the former position. Their crowns, therefore, maintain a chisel-edge. That the incisors never stop growing 36 ZOOLOGY. is clearly seen when the usual wearing down does not take place, as, e.g., when the lower jaw is placed obliquely under the upper jaw, or when a tooth is absent in one jaw, under which circumstances the corresponding incisor in the other jaw is not worn down. In such a case the incisors continue to grow, ultimately curving upwards or downwards, and be- coming tusk-like structures (Fig. 20). The Rodents have no canines. In those Rodents which feed both on animal and vegetable food (the “Ommnivora,” eg. squirrel, common mouse, brown rat, etc.), the crowns of the back teeth are completely covered with enamel ; in the purely vegetable feeders (“Herbivora,” eg. hare, rabbit), they are compound teeth (p. 22). In most Rodents the hind feet are longer than the fore, giving a springing gait. Eyes large. Many forms have “ cheek-pouches,” in which the food they obtain can be stored up for some time. When the pouches are full, a muscle contracts by which their ends are drawn backwards; they are emptied by the animal pressing them with its fore feet. The majority of Rodents are small, they are at most of medium size (hare). The majority of the species have great powers of reproduction, by which the injurious kinds are sometimes rendered a very great pest. The British forms injurious to agriculture principally belong to the families of hares, mice, and voles. The squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), and the dormice (especially Myoxus avellanarius) are solely of importance in forestry. Family : Leporide (Hares and Rabbits). Skull somewhat long. Two small incisors behind the two large upper ones. Ears long and spoon- shaped. Upper lip cleft. Back teeth with enamel folds. Here belong the hare (Lepus timidus) and rabbit (Lepus cuniculus). MAMMALS. 37 Hare (Lepus timidus). Ears longer than the head. Eyes yellowish brown. Fur rusty yellow to grey on the upper side, white on the under side. The doe litters in an open “form;” the young are born Fic. 20.—Abnormal Tooth in Hare. covered with hair and with open eyes. Mature animals breed four or even five times a year, pro- ducing two to four leverets each time. The hare is | injurious to agriculture, eating cabbages, rape, turnips, clover, vetches, young corn-plants, carrots, and grass. It also eats many weeds. It is, however, less injurious than the rabbit, for it does not burrow. The damage done by the hare is also less evident, since this restless, fastidious animal seldom feeds continuously in the same spot. Rabbit (Lepus cwniculus). Ears shorter than the head. Eyes dark-brown. Fur yellowish brown to greyish yellow on the upper side, redder in front. Under fur bluish grey. Shape more compressed. The rabbit breeds more rapidly than the hare. Five to six times yearly the doe brings forth four to eight young, which, after six months, can again reproduce. Dwelling subterranean. Young, blind and hairless at birth. As the rabbit burrows, it is limited to certain districts, for the soil must not be too stiff and firm, 38 _ ZOOLOGY. nor, on the other hand, too light and incoherent. The rabbit is injurious in the same way as the hare, but the damage is more obvious (see above); and as a result of its burrowing habits it does infinitely more damage. Both in sand-hills and in alluvial sandy soil rabbit-burrows lead to the blowing away of material only held together by sand-plants. Kept down by shooting, netting, and ferreting (p. 27). Family : Muride (Mouse Family). The mouse-like animals (the larger species of the family are called “rats”) closely resemble the repre- sentatives of the following family, but are distin- guished from these (the “voles”) by their slender body, longer legs,a more pointed head with longer Fic. 21.—The Hamster (Cricetus /rumentarius). always clearly visible ears, and usually, with the exception of the hamster, by a tail equal in length to the body. The hind legs are longer than the fore legs, hence the hopping mode of progression. Three back teeth on each side of each jaw, possessing a tuberculated crown completely covered with enamel. MAMMALS, 39 The Hamster (Cricetus frumentarius)—The Hamster has cheek- pouches, and a very short, thick, but short-haired tail. It attains the size of the brown rat. Bright yellowish brown; belly and legs black. The hamster is found almost exclusively on fertile soil devoted to cultivation. It appears locally, and then for several years in great abundance, so that it is often caught in tens or even hundreds of thousands. Favourite food: wheat, field-beans, and peas, then rye and similar grain ; and, last, roots, turnips, young corn-plants. Some-: times, too, the hamster eats animal food— worms, insects, lizards, small birds, eggs, and mice. As a winter store it usually only accumulates grain, beans, and peas in its hiding-place, often to the amount of more than five gallons. A little heap of thrown-out soil marks on the sur- face the position of its nest. The entry to this runs vertically down into the soil. Six to twelve young, twice ayear. The dwellings of the hamster, which are situated in stubble-fields, can easily be found ; and by digging them up, particularly in spring and late summer, when there are young ones, the number of these destructive Rodents can be greatly reduced. May be caught in traps. Genus Mus (Mice and Rats) includes Rodents with- out cheek-pouches, and with long, scaly, ringed tails. Two large species (“rats”) belong here, namely— The common Black Rat (M. ruttus), indigenous to Europe since pre-historic times, and the stronger, somewhat larger— Brown Rat (M. decwmanus), with greyish white belly (while the first-named species is black on the upper and only slightly brighter on the under side). The brown rat migrated during the first half of the eighteenth century from Asia into Russia, and about — the same time from Further India to England by means of ships. Since then it has spread all over Europe and other parts of the world, and in many regions has quite driven out the black rat. Both kinds of rat eat almost everything, and are a pest in housekeeping, as well as in agriculture. They feed on insects, mice, eggs, and chickens, will even bite pieces from the living bodies of grown poultry and tattening swine, and also devour young geese and ducks. They eat grain, peas, beans, potatoes, carrots, turnips; bread, cheese, and similar provisions. Multiply very rapidly. Can be driven away by clacking-mills, and to a great extent by noise. Caught in traps. 40 ZOOLOGY. Besides these, four mice belong here :— The Common Mouse (Mus musculus). Back yellowish grey-black, gradually shading into a somewhat lighter tint on the under side. The Wood Mouse, or Long-tailed Field Mouse (1. sylvaticus). Back a brown shade of yellowish grey ; belly white, sharply marked off; relatively very long hind legs, hence a hopping gait. The long-tailed Fig. 22.—The Long-tailed Field Mouse (Afus sylvaticus). field mouse penetrates tolerably far into woods, but is also found in plantations and gardens, sometimes also in quite treeless regions. On arable land it may adopt the habits of the field vole (p. 42), but as it does not multiply so rapidly is not nearly so injurious. It may also live either for a short time or per- manently in houses, adopting the same habits as the common mouse. The Harvest Mouse (M. minutus). Small, pretty; back yellowish brown red, belly of a sharply marked- off white. Lives in cornfields during the summer; in harvest time by the field-paths; during winter in barns and haystacks, but also in outdoor nests in the fields, Climbs among the grass and corn-haulms, and the small stems and branches of other plants, including shrubs, holding fast, not only by the feet, but also by the tail. Builds a beautiful spherical nest with a MAMMALS. 41 side entrance out of the haulms and leaves of grass and corn, or out of other leaves. Devours seeds, espe- cially grain, oats being the favourite. The Corn Mouse (IM. agrarius). Back brownish red with longitudinal black stripes. In plains east of the Rhine. Usually local, but then very abundant. Fic. 23.—Upper Back Teeth of Brown Fic, 24.—Upper Back Teeth of Water Rat, seen from grinding surface. Vole, seen from grinding surface. Chiefly in cornfields and fruitfields; digs holes in the soil. In autumn it often occurs in the field in large colonies. Food: grain, beans, peas, potatoes, turnips, carrots. In winter in the barns and dwelling-houses of farmers. Regarding the means of destroying those mice which are sometimes damaging to agriculture (M. sylvaticus and M. minutus), see methods mentioned under “Field- vole” (p. 48). Family: Arvicolide (Vole Family). The large voles are also popularly called “rats,” the smaller ones “mice.” They closely resemble the true mice and rats (p. 38), but are distinguished from them by their plumper, more compressed body; a a thicker head with blunt snout, and ears quite hidden in the fur; and a short, tolerably hairy tail, on which no rings of scales can be distinguished. There are on each side of each jaw three back teeth, of which each appears to consist of two rows of three-sided prisms, 42 ZOOLOGY. fused together along the middle ‘line (cp. Figs. 24 and 23). The native species all belong to the genus Arvicola; the Bank Vole (Arvicola glareolus), the Water Rat, or Water Vole (A. amphibius), and the Short-tailed Field Mouse, or Field Vole (A. agrestis). The brownish-red Bank Vole (A. glareolws) occurs in forests. . The Water Rat, or Water Vole (A. amphibius). Body six inches long, tail half the length of the body. Fur of one colour, brighter on the under side, varying from brownish grey to brownish black on the back, and from whitish to greyish black on the belly. On the banks of rivers, brooks, ditches, canals, etc. ; also on damp low-lying meadows and fields. Digs much- branched passages in the soil; this often takes place in embankments to such an extent that it finally leads to their complete destruction. The vole also does damage in grass-fields and cornfields in the same way as the mole (p. 33). In its case, however, there is no compensating service. It certainly eats insects and worms, but its chief food is of vegetable nature; grain, potatoes, turnips, and carrots are devoured by it in large quantity, and in particular stored up in its hiding-place. It also destroys the roots of grass and corn, and eagerly devours chickens and the eggs of ducks and geese.