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2URAL TEXT-BOOK
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| CORN
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TH MONTGOMERY
Uo BALLEY
EDITOR
Cornell University
Library
The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924089416287
E. (arene
The re Texrt=Book Series
Epitep sy L. H. BAILEY
betes FL
THE CORN CROPS
The Rural Text-Book Series
Lyon anp Fippin, Princrepces or Sort Man-
AGEMENT.
G. F. Warren, ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE.
A. R. Mann, BEGINNINGS IN AGRICULTURE.
J. F. Duccar, Sournern FIELD Crops.
B. M. Dueear, Piant PuysioLocy, with
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PLantT PRODUCTION.
G. F. Warren, Farm ManaGeMEnNT.
M. W. Harper, ANIMAL HvusBANDRY FOR
ScHoots. :
E. G. Montcomery, THE Corn Crops.
H. J. WHEELER, Manures AND FERTILIZERS.
(Frontispiece)
TYPICAL PLANTS OF DENT CORN.
THE CORN CROPS
A DISCUSSION OF MAIZE, KAFIRS, AND
SORGHUMS AS GROWN IN THE
UNITED STATES AND CANADA
BY
E. G. MONTGOMERY
PROFESSOR OF FARM CROPS IN THE NEW YORK
STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT
CORNELL UNIVERSITY
Neto Work
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1916
All rights reserved
Copyrieut, 1913,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1913. Reprinted
July, 1915; February, 1916.
Nortoood JPress
J.§. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.8.A.
PREFACE
In planning a course of study, the author must needs lay
out a working plan. He should know the philosophy of his
subject and its relation to other sciences. Field crops like
other applied sciences has little pure science of its own, but
is rather based on other sciences. The subject is not erected
so much as a superstructure on other sciences, but rather
moves in a progressive way, between them, abstracting such
elements from each as contribute to the art of producing the
crop under consideration.
The outline on page vi is an attempt to illustrate the log-
ical order of study and relation of other sciences to the
study of Crop Production.
The outline below indicates that a knowledge of all the
“earth sciences” is fundamental to a study of crop produc-
tion, hence a student should have a general course in all
these sciences with special emphasis on botany (physiology
and ecology) and chemistry.
In regard to a particular crop like maize, this knowledge
needs special interpretation and application, which is the
function of field crops instruction.
The ability to yield with our ordinary crops is far above
the average yield. With maize 200 bushels per acre have
been produced under optimum conditions, while the average
yield is about 26 bushels. Therefore the study of maize
production is principally a study of those factors which
serve to hinder full development, and thus limit production,
v
vi
PREFACE
OvrtLINE PLAN SHOWING THE RELATION OF THE SCIENCES TO
THE Various Puases oF Crop PRoDUCTION
DEPARTMENT
GIVING WORK
CHARACTER OF WORK
Basic ScrENcE
INVOLVED
1. Botany
Field crops treats
application to
special crop
2. Field crops will
consider the
application of
the sciences to
the particular
crop under
consideration
3. (a) Field crops
(Plant breed-
ing)
(b) Soils
4. (a) Field crops;
also farm
practice
for (b) and
(c)
(b) Botany (the
diseases)
(c) Entomology
(the in-
sects)
The Plant
Study of normal
plants, their histol-
ogy, physiology,
etc., and normal
environmental re-
quirements
Survey
Survey of natural con-
ditions as related to
the normal, under
which it is proposed
to cultivate the
plant
Adaptation
(a) Adaptation of
plant to climate
and soil
(b) Adaptation of soil
to plant
Protection
(a) Farm practice in
preparing and
planting fields
in order to pro-
tect against
weeds, drought,
rain, ete.
(b) Against fungous
diseases
(c) Against insects
Botany
Ecology (Botany)
Meteorology
Geology
(Geography)
(a) Plant breeding
(natural and
artificial se-
lection)
Ecology
(b) Chemistry
Physics
Bacteriology
Botany
Entomology
PREFACE vii
and the art of maize production is removing or modifying
these limiting factors.
Practically the whole problem is involved in securing
a perfect harmony between the plant and its environ-
ment.
Environment may be classed as climatic factors and soil
factors. Over climate we exercise little or no control.
Either the plant must be adapted to suit the climate or its
production is limited only to those regions where a natural
climate is found to which the plant is suited. The natural
precipitation is about the only factor assigned to climate,
the effect of which can be modified.. Where precipitation is
excessive, land can be drained, or where deficient, methods
of storing the moisture in soil may be adopted. However,
within certain limits there is usually an optimum rainfall
which favors the largest production. -
Soil environment, however, is subject to modification in a
very large degree. If proper elements are present in the
soil but in an insoluble state, solvents may be added as
decaying organic matter, or air be admitted by tillage and
the bacterial flora increased. If the proper mineral ele-
ments are not present or present in an unavailable form,
these elements may be added to the soil, until a normal
state of fertility is produced.
After the conditions of adaptation of both plant and soil
have been fulfilled so far as practicable, and seed has been
planted in suitable soil, it is then necessary to protect.
Protection is the principal reason for cultivation. To facil-
itate cultivation, systems of planting have been devised, as
the distribution of the plants in rows, drills, or checks, in
furrows or on the level surface.
Protection against insect enemies and fungous diseases is
also an important part of production, and is one of the
reasons for the practice of rotations.
Vili PREFACE
A large share of farm practice has to do with modifying
the soil environment and protection of the crop.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF CROP PRODUCTION
The art of crop production is based on an application of
the sciences, (a) to producing a natural condition as per-
fectly adapted as possible to the needs of some particular
crop, or (b) the adaptation of the crop to certain natural con-
ditions.
The study of crop production for any large region in-
volves a study of four general phases of the subject, as:
1. The plant, its structure, physiology, and normal require-
ments. 2. A general survey of the region where it is pro-
posed to cultivate the plant, to note how the natural conditions
found correspond to the needs of the plant. 3. The adapta-
tion of the plant on the one hand to natural conditions and
adaptation of soil on the other to the needs of the plant.
Maximum production is obtained when perfect adaptation is
secured. 4. Protection is necessary against other indige-
nous plants, fungous diseases, and insects.
The treatment of subjects in the text follows practically
the above plan. The plan also allows a wider use of the
text for different classes of students. The first two divisions
are technical and should only be studied by students who
have training in the sciences involved. With less advanced
students the work may begin with Part III, Adaptation.
The third and fourth divisions deal with the more practical
phases of production and are written in a more popular style,
this double use of the book being in mind.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. — For furnishing photographs used
in illustrating the text, the author is indebted to Mr. Carle-
ton R. Ball, Mr. C. W. Warburton, and Mr. C. P. Hartley,
all of the Bureau of Plant Industry. A large number of
PREFACE 1x
photographs secured from the Nebraska Experiment Station
have also been used, Professor T. A. Kisselbach furnishing
several of these.. Also the Portland Cement Co., Deere and
Co., Janesville Machine Co., Planet Jr. Co., and Sandwich
Manufacturing Co. have furnished illustrative material.
E. G. MONTGOMERY.
Irpaca, N.Y.,
January 1, 1913.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I
CORN
CHAPTER I
PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN CorN .
Relative importance of corn and other crops in the
world, 1— Corn crop of the world, 3 — International trade
in corn, 4— Relative value of different crops in the United
States, 6— Development of corn production in United
States, 7 — Production by states, 7 — Production by sec-
tions and market movement, 11.
SECTION I
THE CORN PLANT
CHAPTER II
ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION : ‘ é ‘
Geographical origin, 15 — Biological origin, 16 — Classi-
fication of maize in groups, 20.
CHAPTER III
DescRIPTION OF THE CORN PLANT . : e
The root, 26—The stem, 31 — Tillers, soeeayes 33
— The flower, 36 — The ear, 37.
CHAPTER IV
PuysioLocy oF Corn : - .
Turgidity, 39 Tension, 40 — Mechanical tissue, 40 —
The composition of a corn plant, 42 —The absorption of
water, 45—The giving off of water, 45— Assimilation,
47 — Growth, 48 — Pollen, 50 — Style,
51 — Fertilization, 52.
xi
PAGES
1-11
15-25
26-37
38-56
xii TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION II
PRODUCTION AS RELATED TO CLIMATE
AND SOILS
CHAPTER V
PAGES
Revation or Ciimatic Factors To GrowTH é , . 57-67
Relation of climatic factors to growth, 58 — Length of
growing season, 59— Relation of sunshine to growth, 61
— Relation of rainfall to growth, 64.
CHAPTER VI
ReEvatTiIon or Sorts TO GROWTH . : , 3 ‘ . 69-73
Causes of low production, 70—Classification of corn
soils in the United States according to productiveness, 70.
SECTION III
IMPROVEMENT AND ADAPTATION OF THE
CORN PLANT, AND ENVIRONMENT
CHAPTER VII
Ear.ty CULTURE : : é . : , Z ‘ . 771-84
Development of varieties, 78— Early methods of modi-
fying varieties, 80 — Natural selection and acclimatization
in producing varieties, 83.
CHAPTER VIII
IMPROVEMENT OF VARIETIES . : . 85-93
Type of ear, 85 — Type of plant, 86 — Systems of selec-
tion, 88 — Results with mass and pedigree selection, 89 —
Selection for composition, 91.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER IX
MernHops or Layinc out A BREEDING PLat . ‘ .
How to conduct a breeding plat, 95—-The second
year’s work, 98— Continuation of breeding, several
plans, 99.
CHAPTER X
REsULTs WITH HyBRIDIZATION ‘ ; 2
Degrees of Relationship, 101 — Xenia, 103 — Mendel’s
laws, 104 Dominant and recessive characters, 105 —
. Hybridization, effect on growth, 107— Self-fertilization,
107 — Pure strains, or biotypes, 109 — Crossing biotypes,
111— Crossing varieties, 111— Isolating high-yielding
biotypes, 115.
CHAPTER XI
ACCLIMATION AND YIELD
Effect of environment on the corn plant, 118 — Effect
of previous environment on yield, 119— Adaptation of
the soil, 121.
CHAPTER XII
Croprine System In RELATION TO MAINTAINING THE YIELD
or Corn . ‘ a : : . ‘
Cropping systems, 122 — Restoring production, 123 —
Maintaining production, 124 — Rotations for corn grow-
ing, 127.
CHAPTER XIII
Oreanic MATTER . s
Farmyard manure for corn, 130.
xill
PAGES
94-100
101-116
117-121
122-128
129-134
xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER XIV
PAGES
MiyeraL Matter . : : : : és ‘ . 135-150
Fertilizers for corn, 188 — Fertilizer mixtures for corn,
142 — When it pays to fertilize for corn, 144 — Nitrogen,
146 — Lime, 147.
CHAPTER XV
REGULATING THE WATER SUPPLY ‘ : . 3 . 161-157
Erosion, 154 — Drainage, 157.
SECTION IV
CULTURAL METHODS
CHAPTER XVI
PREPARATION AND PLANTING ‘ ‘i $ . 161-196
The old corn stalks, 161— Time of Siow 163 —
Depth of plowing, 163—Subsoiling, 166 — Preparation
of plowed land, 166 — Planting the seed, methods, 168
— Sowing corn for forage, 171 — Checking and drilling,
172— Time of planting, 172 — Rate of planting, 176 —
Adjustment of corn plants, 178— Economic value of
tillers, 179 — Rate of planting on different soils, 180 —
Methods of distribution of plants, 181— Width of rows,
182 — Yield of forage, 183 — Effect on composition, 183
— Choice of a variety, 184— Preparing seed for plant-
ing, 190 — Causes of poor germination, 190 — Germina-
tion tests, 192— Importance of strong vitality, 194 —
Grading seed, 195 — Calibrating the planter, 195.
CHAPTER XVII
THE Principles oF INTERCULTURE . . 197-213
Tillage machinery, 197 — Methods of ies ert
206 — Water-loss from fallow soil, 207 — Evaporation
TABLE OF CONTENTS
under corn crop, 208— The effect of weeds, 208—
Depth and frequency of cultivation, 209 — Growing corn
for silage, 212.
CHAPTER XVIII
ANIMAL AND INSECT ENEMIES. .
Birds, 214— Rodents, 214 — mee: 216 — Diseases
of corn, 220.
CHAPTER XIX
HarvestING THE Corn Crop Es 5 : :
Time of harvesting, 224 — Relative proportion of parts,
226 —Composition of parts, 226 —Relative value of
parts, 227 — Time of harvesting for silage, 229-— Meth-
ods of harvesting, 230 —-Comparative cost of harvesting
methods, 241 — Shrinkage in curing fodder, 248 — Mar-
keting, 245.
CHAPTER XX
Uses or Corn , F ; é j ; :
CHAPTER XXI
Snow Corn . : :
Growing show corn, 257.
CHAPTER XXII
Sweet Corn or Sucar Corn :
Varieties and types, 259— Varieties, 262 —-Seed, 263
— Selecting and curing sweet corn, 264 Growing sweet
corn for canning, 266 — Market sweet corn, 270 — Forc-
ing sweet corn, 273 — Sweet corn in the home gar-
den, 274.
xv
PAGES
214-221
222-248
249-252
253-258
259-275
Xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART II
SORGHUMS
CHAPTER XXIII
Tue Sorcuum PLANT .
Geographical origin, 280 — Botanical classification, 281
— The sorghum plant, 285— Physiology of sorghums,
286 — Reproduction, 287 — Fertilization, 287 — Natu-
ral crossing, 287 — Climate and soils, 288— Sorghum
types, 290.
CHAPTER XXIV
Tue SACCHARINE SORGHUMS
Introduction into the United States, 2928— How the
crop is utilized, 296 — Classification of sweet sorghums,
296.
CHAPTER XXV
THe NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS
Historical, 301— Region where cultivated, 303 — Sta-
tistics of culture, 304— Kafir, 308— Durra, 310 —
Shallu, 313— Kowliang, 314.
CHAPTER XXVI
CuLturAL Metnops For SorcuumMs
Growing sorghums for grain, 315 — Growing sorghums
for forage, 321.
PAGES
279-291
293-300
801-314
315-323
TABLE OF CONTENTS Xvil
CHAPTER XXVII
PAGES
Utinizinc THE SorcHUM CRoP . ‘ . 9824-327
Poultry food, 325 —Soiling or green feed, 325 — Pas-
ture, 325—Sorghum mixtures for pasture, 326— Sor-
ghum for silage, 326— Sorghum poisoning, 327.
CHAPTER XXVIII
SorGHUM FOR SIRUP-MAKING & . 828-830
Time of harvesting, 328 — An average | yield, 329.
CHAPTER XXIX
Broom Corn : E “ 7 . 881-340
Historical, 831 — Statistics of culture, 331 — Varieties,
333— Planting, 386 — Tillage, 336— Time of harvest-
ing, 337.
PART I
CORN
CORN CROPS
CHAPTER I
PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN
CORN
THE corn crops, as understood in this book, are the de-
rivatives of two group-species: of Zea Mays, the Indian
corn or maize; and of Andropogon Sorghum, the sorghum
and kafir series. The former is a plant-group of the West-
ern Hemisphere and the latter of the Eastern Hemisphere.
The maize products are used both for human and stock
food, but the sorghum products are employed in this
country mostly for the feeding of animals.
1. Relative importance of corn and other crops in the
world. — The hay and forage crop is the most important
crop of the world, but this is made up of a great variety
of plants. The yield in millions of tons of the world’s
most important plants is shown in the following diagram : —-
Worup’s Crops oF THE Most Important Foop Puants. AVERAGE
For 5 Years, 1906-1910
co Ui
Potatoes 156
Corn 3,
we 107
Oats 67 Ea
Rice 7
Rye 46 |
Barley 33 aaa
B 1
CORN CROPS
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PRODUCTION OF INDIAN CORN 5)
In total value, the world’s wheat crop probably ranks
first, the potato crop second, and the corn crop third.
2. Corn crop of the world. — The following tables
(I, II) give the world’s production of corn for the past
five years. The data is abstracted from the Year Books
of the United States Department of Agriculture : --
TABLE II
PERCENTAGE OF WoRLD’s CorRN CROP PRODUCED BY THE Con-
TINENTS, AND PRINCIPAL CORN-PRODUCING COUNTRIES.
For 5 Years, 1906-1910
ConTINENT 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 |AvERAGE
North America | 77.25} 80.56] 78.74] 77.06] 76.88} 78.09
Europe. . 15.34] 14.34] 14.68] 15.04] 16.02] 15.08
South America 5.03 2.29 3.98 5.20 4.55 4.20
Africa... 2.15 2.49 2.36 2.42 2.25 2.35
Australia .. .23 32 24 .28 .29 .28
Total . . | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00
PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES
United States 73.85 | 75.79] 73.94] 71.74] 71.67] 73.39
Austria-
Hungary . 5.31 5.74 5.28 5.92 5.97 5.64
Mexico. . 2.77 4.09 4.15 4.77 4.73 4.10
Argentina : 4.91 2.09 3.77 4.98 4.35 4.02
Italy . .. 2.34 2.58 2.65 2.79 2.52 2.57
Roumania . 3.29 1.68 2.18 1.97 2.57 2.34
Egypt... 1.64 1.90 1.80 1.82 1.74 1.78
Russia
(European) 1.77 1.48 1.69 1.11 1.91 1.59
Total. . | 95.88} 95.385] 95.46] 95.10] 95.46] 95.43
The world’s corn crop varies from about three and one-
half billion bushels to about four billion bushels, or a
variation of 12 per cent, This rather wide variation is
4 CORN CROPS
due to the fact that more than one-half the world’s corn
crop is concentrated in one section of the United States.
The comparative production is brought out more clearly
in Table II, based on percentage production.
From the tables, it appears that North America pro-
duces 78 per cent of the world’s corn crop, Europe pro-
duces 15 per cent, leaving only 7 per cent for the other
continents. The United States produces about 73 per
cent of the world’s crop, Austria-Hungary 5.6 per cent,
Mexico 4.1 per cent, and Argentina 4 per cent, the four
countries combined producing 87 per cent of the world’s
crop.
TABLE III
SHOWING CORN EXPORTED BY COUNTRIES AND PERCENTAGE
oF Totat Worup’s Exports ror 5 Years, 1906-1910,
INCLUSIVE
AVERAGE ANNUAL
Counnny Exon Tose Evers
Argentind . .... 83,569,388 35.66
United States . . . . 62,596,444.2 26.64
Roumania . . i 33,124,210.4 14.15
Russia (European) Cae 23,255,489.2 9.90
Belgium . .... . 7,007,737.8 2.93
Netherlands. . .. . 6,718,712 2.83
Bulgariae is <3 ee x Soe 6,021,984.4 2.55
Servia aces Seen certs 3,054,136.2 1.35
Austria-Hungary a Oke obs 328,352.6 14
Uruguay . . be Aes 210,674.2 09
Other Countries i She 8,703,035 3.75
Totals 42. s-4k Ah og 234,590,164.0 100.00
3. International trade in corn. — The net exports and
imports indicate those countries producing a surplus, and
those countries as well that must buy. Table III shows
PRODUCTION OF INDIAN CORN 5
that Argentina furnishes about 35 per cent of the world’s
export corn and the United States only 26 per cent.
Table IV shows that Argentina exports 55 per cent of the
crop produced, while the United States exports only 2.29
per cent. This country can hardly be classed as a sur-
plus corn country, though the small percentage exported
furnishes one-fourth of the world’s export corn. The prin-
cipal importing country is the United Kingdom, taking
36 per cent of the world’s trade in corn, and Germany 14
per cent more, the two taking one-half the corn trade.
TABLE IV
SHowine PercenTAaGe or Toran Corn CROP EXPORTED BY
THE PRINCIPAL Exportinac Counrtriss, 5-YEAR AVERAGE,
1906-1910, INcLUSIVE
PRODUCTION IN
EXPORTATION IN
PERCENTAGE OF
Country BUSHELS BusHELS Crop
United States 2,725,367,400 | 62,596,444 2.29
Argentina 151,015,000 | 83,569,388 55.33
European Russia . 59,831,200 | 23,255,489 38.86
Roumania 88,163,400 | 33,124,210 37.57
Bulgaria . 22,281,800 6,021,984 27.02
Europe consumes about 91 per cent of the world’s corn
trade. This corn is largely used for feeding live-stock,
but also in the brewing industry.
Exportation of corn from the United States is decreasing.
The maximum exportation from this country was during
the 5-year period 1896-1900, when it reached an annual
average of 9.4 per cent. The present decrease in expor-
tation, indicates that home consumption in the United
States will soon equal production. In fact, in the past
three years corn has been imported on the Pacific Coast.
6 CORN CROPS
TABLE V
SHowinG CoRN IMPORTED BY COUNTRIES AND PERCENTAGE OF
Tora Wortp’s Imports ror 5 Years, 1906-1910, In-
CLUSIVE
Country Ce eee | mes Beane
United Kingdom .. . 84,835,078 36.07
Germany Eee tet aos 34,189,007 14.53
Netherland . ... . 24,836,943.4 10.56
Belgium . .... . 21,984,982.6 9.36
France ...... 18,510,287.2 5.74
Denmark ..... 12,705,123.8 5.45
Canadas 2 6 4 a, e 10,809,151.8 4.59
Atay ay sso ceo tes ee ee 7,737 137.8 3.29
Spats x. 2. 4. 4: Ee 4,891,501 2.08
Austria-Hungary . .. 4,170,578.2 1.77
Switzerland... . . 2,996,767.6 1.27
IMLGXIGO® oc.- deuce “Es ee 2,738,086.8 1.16
Ciba aoa fe ts 2,546,576.8 1.08
Porttigal 0. . 3 42. sue 3s 1,169,913.4 A9
Norway 2. 2 . 2 2 + 1,043,998 44
Egypt ke eeuie oa 662,416.4 .28
Sweden ....... 386,611 16
Russia Bete ie eae nes 329,755.6 14
British South Africa . . 147,452.2 .06
Other Countries . . . 3,453,661.4 1.46
Total: © « 4.4. = 235,145,030.0 100.00
CORN PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
4. Relative value of different crops in the United
States. — The corn crop is more valuable than any two
other crops in the United States. The value of all wealth
produced on farms, including that derived from cereals,
hay, cotton, live-stock, forests, and fruit, amounts to
7955 millions of dollars. The corn crop alone furnishes
about one-fifth of this annual wealth.
PRODUCTION OF INDIAN CORN 7
Rewative Farm VALUE oF PRINCIPAL Crops IN THE UNITED STATES.
AVERAGE For 5 Years, 1906-1910
re Value in
TOP Millions
on 33) ii
Hay cs
Cotton 670 a
Wheat 590 PF
Oats so7
Potatoes 187 mz
Barley 92 |_|
Tobacco 82 ||
5. Development of corn production in United States
is shown in the following table: —
TABLE VI
AVERAGE PRopUCTION oF CoRN at DIFFERENT PERIODS
ToTaL
YIELD
BusHELS VaLuE |VALUE PER
YEARS ACRES (000 omrTTED) oemente (000 BusHEL
OMITTED)
Doll Cent:
1849. . 592,071 ae ies
1859 . . 838,793
1867-1876 | 38,688,449 | 1,011,535 | 26.2 | 457,000 | 46.5
1877-1886 | 68,408,900 | 1,575,626 | 25.1 625,623 | 40.3
1887-1896 | 74,290,879 | 1,800,271 | 24.0 | 633,694 | 36.6
1897-1906 | 87,971,235 | 2,240,363 | 25.4 | 869,575 | 39.0
The total crop has about doubled in 40 years and
quadrupled in 60 years.
6. Production by states. — Table VII gives the most
important data summarized on the production of corn by
states. This table is arranged according to rank by
states and shows that the eight leading states produced
about 63 per cent of the total crop. ,
CORN CROPS
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Fic. 1.— Corn production in the United States.
Corn per sguare mile, census 1900: Black shading, more than 3200 bu.; next
shading, 640 to 3200 bu.; next-to-bottom shading, 64 to 640 bu.; bottom shading,
less than 64 bu.
4
Fig. 2.— Map showing average yield per acre, average farm price per
bushel, and average shipment out of county where grown for grand
divisions of the United States.
PRODUCTION OF INDIAN CORN 11
7. Production by sections, and market movement.— The
following summary, together with Fig. 2, gives a definite
idea of the relative production in different sections of the
country, and also the comparative market movement.
The available data is corn shipped out of the county where
grown, and does not always mean that the corn leaves
the state, but indicates the surplus corn in the hands of
growers. Most of the lesser corn states consume more
corn than they raise, while in the principal corn-belt, most
of the corn put on the market leaves the state, and is
utilized in manufacturing corn products or shipped to other
regions : —
TABLE VIII
TaBLE SHOWING PERCENTAGE oF ENTIRE Corn Crop PRO-
DUCED BY Eacu Granp Division or THE UNITED STATES
AND THE Market Movement. 5-YrEar AVERAGE, 1906-—
1910, INcLUSIVE
Pen Centr PER CENT
GRAND Tora. Pro- om Toray AMOUNT pila ee eae
Division DUCTION aon SHIPPED SHIPEED oo G.
SHIPPED agian
North Atlantic 90,543,473 3.32 5,817,676 -96 6.42
South Atlantic 223,216,236 8.19 20,134,990 3.30 9.02
North Central
East Miss.
River. . 777,297,616 28.53 | 255,966,226 41.98 32.93
North Central
West Miss. ;
River . .| 1,027,233,955 37.69 249,041,882 40.84 24.24
South Central 597,806,892 21.93 77,974,324 12.78 13.04
Far West . . 9,329,243 34 810,453 14 8.68
Total . .| 2,725,427,415 | 100. 609,745,551 100.
SECTION I
THE CORN PLANT
CHAPTER II
ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION
In common with all living organisms, corn has been de-
veloped through a long and slow evolutionary process.
We can only guess at the probable place, origin, and course
of evolution by a study of botanically related forms, and
especially by a consideration of the embryonic develop-
ment of the corn plant itself. How much of the evo-
lutionary change was wrought by natural selection, and
how much is the result of artificial selection, we can never
know. It is probable that corn reached a stage of eco-
nomic value before attracting the attention or care of
man. Since then, no doubt most of the further changes
are the result of natural variation and artificial selection.
8. Geographical origin. — Numbers of investigators
have made careful studies regarding the probable region
in which Indian corn originated. In the early part of
the nineteenth century, there was some controversy as to
whether this plant was of American origin, the question
being based on the contention of some persons that maize
had been cultivated in Europe previous to the discovery
of America. Careful investigation has not disclosed
proof of this supposition, and it is not likely that a plant
of such easy culture and obvious value could have existed
in Europe without being known. According to Harsh-
berger, it seems most probable that the cultivation of
maize originated in the high plateau region of central or
15
16 CORN CROPS
southern Mexico at an elevation of about 4500 feet.
In this region, plants of Zea canina are found growing wild ;
it is also the native habitat of teosinte and gama grass,
two plants closely related botanically to maize. Harsh-
berger concludes that maize probably came into cultiva-
tion in this region about the beginning of the Christian
Era and spread rapidly both north and south, reaching
the Rio Grande about 700 a.p., and the coast of Maine
not later than the year 1000.
When Columbus visited America in 1492, maize was in
common cultivation. It was at once introduced into
other parts of the world, reaching Europe, Africa, China,
and Asia-Minor early in the sixteenth century. Its early
culture in the Eastern Hemisphere seems to have been
confined mostly to the countries bordering on the Mediter-
ranean Sea.
Maize acquired many names in Europe, such as Spanish
corn, Roman corn, Guinea corn, Turkish wheat, Egyptian
corn; these names probably indicate the places where its
culture first became extensive.
9. Biological origin. — The Gramines, or grass family,
includes most of our common cereals, as maize, oats,
wheat, and rye. A distinguishing feature of the tribe
Maydee, to which maize belongs, is the separation of its
staminate flowers (pollen-bearing) from its pistillate
flowers (seed-bearing). Two grasses related to maize
and of common occurrence in Mexico— the region in
which corn is supposed to have originated — are gama
grass (Tripsacum dactyloides) and teosinte (Huchkena
Mexicana).
Gama grass is distributed also over the southern half
of the United States and usually is found on low, rich
soil. At a distance a patch of this grass looks very much
Fia. 3.— The relationship between gama, teosinte, and corn.
1. Gama grass (Tripsacum dactyloides). 2. Teosinte (Euchlena Mexicana).
3. Corn (Zea mays). 4. Floral parts of gama grass: a, tassel; b, spike of tassei,
bearing staminate flowers on upper part, and pistillate flowers on lower part;
c, staminate flower; d, pistillate flower. 5. Floral parts of teosinte. 6. Floral parts.
of corn.
Cc 17
18 CORN CROPS
like maize. While it grows to a height of five to ten feet,
the stem is slender and the leaf about half the width of
the maize leaf. The plant bears a tassel-like structure
at the top and on the lateral branches, closely resem-
bling the maize tassel, except that the seeds are borne
on the lower part of each tassel and the pollen on the
upper part.
Teosinte, which is sometimes cultivated but does not
mature north of Mexico, is more like maize than is gama
grass, the plant being larger and the terminal tassel bear-
ing pollen only. The lateral branches of the plant are so
shortened that the terminal tassel-like structure is borne
in a leaf axil, surrounded by a kind of husk as is an ear
‘of maize, and bears only pistillate flowers, or seed. It is
only a step in the production of an ear of maize, from
teosinte, by a development of the central spike of the
lateral tassel into an ear.
It is probable that the early progenitor of maize was a
grass-like plant having a tassel at the top and tassel-like
structures on long, lateral branches, all tassels bearing
perfect flowers. As evolution progressed, the terminal
tassel came to produce only pollen, and the side branches
only ovules, or seeds. Evolution often results in a greater
“ division of labor,” as in this case. At the same time, the
lateral branches were shortened or telescoped into the
leaf sheaths, these sheaths forming a covering, or husk,
for the ear. Also it is probable that in this evolution the
central spike of the tassel developed into an ear.
The close relationship of maize and teosinte is proved
by the crosses that have been made between the two. In
the third or fourth generation after crossing, a peculiar
type of corn is secured, identical with a type of maize that
has been found growing wild in Mexico (Zea canina), and
19
ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION
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|
20 CORN CROPS
is supposed by some persons to be the true wild 1 maize
and the progenitor of our cutivated maize.
Watson and Bailey both studied this wild maize and
regarded it as a distinct species; however, since it has
been produced by hybridizing teosinte and maize, this
probably accounts for its origin.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAIZE IN GROUPS
Order — Graminee
Tribe — Maydee
Genus — Zea
Species — Mays
10. Maize may be classified into the following groups,
or ‘ agricultural species ”’ (after Sturtevant) :—
1. Zea Mays canina (Watson), Maiz de Coyote. Said to
grow wild in Mexico, but the same type has been produced
artificially by crossing teosinte and common maize.
Characterized by a branching plant and by the production
of numerous small ears in
the leaf axils of lateral
branches; ears sometimes
clustered; 4 to 8 rows on
an ear, and ear 2 to 4
inches in length.
2. Zea Mays tunicata, the
pod corns, Bul. Torrey Bot.
Club, 1904.
Each kernel inclosed in
a pod or husk and the ear
inclosed in husks ; not com-
mon. All forms of kernel, as sweet, dent, flint, and
others, are found in pod corn. Occasionally a few podded
kernels will occur on ears of ordinary corn. It has been
Fie, 5.— Pod corn.
ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION 21
supposed by some persons that pod corn represented
a primitive or early type of corn, but there is no good
evidence for this surmise.
3. Zea Mays everta, the pop corns.
Characterized by the excessive proportion of corneous
endosperm and the small size of the kernels and ear. The
popping quality is due to the explosion
of contained moisture on the applica-
tion of heat, and the best varieties
for popping are usually corneous
throughout. Two forms of seed are
common, one of which is pointed at
the top (rice pop corn), and the other
form is rounded (pearl pop corn),
much as a small flint. All maize 4. 6.— Popcorn.
colors are found, as red, yellow, white,
and blue. The ears are small but vary in length from
2-inches in Tom Thumb to 5 inches for rice and 7 inches
for some of the large pearl
types. Rows vary from
8 to 16.
4. Zea Mays indurata, the
flint corns.
Characterized by white
starchy endosperm, inclosed
by flinty endosperm. Ker-
nels oval in form; in some
varieties the corneous part is very thin at the top and a
slight indentation appears. There are types of flint
maize closely resembling pop corn on the one hand and
approaching dent on the other, thus forming a series
between the pop and dent corns. Flint maize has all the
common maize colors. It varies in length of ear from 8 to
Fia 7. Flint corn.
22 CORN CROPS
14 inches, and has 6 to 12 rows. The maize most com-
monly cultivated by the early colonists and North
American Indians is extensively cultivated at present in
regions where the large dents
do not mature.
5. Zea Mays indentata, the
dent corns.
Characterized by horny endo-
sperm at the sides, with starchy
endosperm extending to the
summit. By shrinkage of the
starchy matter in drying, the
summit of the kernel is drawn
in and indented in various
forms. The plant varies in
height from 5 to 18 feet; the ear varies in length from
6 to 12 inches and has 8 to 24 rows. The most com-
monly cultivated type in the United States.
6. Zea Mays amylacea, the soft corns.
Characterized by entire absence of corneous endosperm.
All soft. No indentations, the kernel being shaped like
that of flint corn. Ears
mostly 8 to 12-rowed, 8 to
10 inches in length. The
usual colors occur. Culti-
vated to some extent in
Southwestern States, Mexico,’
and South America.
7. Zea Mays saccharata, the
sweet corns.
Characterized by the translucent, horny appearance and
more or less wrinkled condition of the kernel. Shrinking
probably due to the conversion of starch into glucose.
Fia. 8. — Dent corn.
Fic. 9.— Soft corn.
ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION 23
According to East, sweet corns are either dent or flint
corns that have failed to convert their sugars into starch.
Usual variations in color, size,
and time of maturity.
Zea Mays japonica. The
leaves of this species are
striped green and white; the
grain resembles a pop or small
flint type. Cultivated as an
ornamental.
Zea Mays hirta. Character-
ized by an unusual amount of His i ead
hairs on leaves and sheath,
sufficient to be distinctly noticeable. Flint, pop, and dent
types. Found mostly in South America.
Res
OAR TL Oe
a
etdsearee
tak
A
an
;
LECCE
Wah a
py
ary
eR
au &
§
8,
Ate
ete eee
Gis ry
Fig. 11.— The six principal types of corn. From left to right, pod corn,
pop corn, flint corn, dent corn, soft corn, and sweet corn.
24 CORN CROPS
Zea Mays curagua. Characterized by a serrate leaf
edge. Probably a flint type.
Chinese maize. A small-eared type resembling pearl
pop corn, but characterized by a softer, opaque endo-
sperm. Not starchy. A tendency for the upper leaves
to be on one side of the plant. (See Bur. Plant Indus.,
Bul. 161.)
Hermaphrodite forms (perfect flowers). A hermaphro-
dite form has been described several times. Each pistil-
late flower bears 3 stamens. The plant is usually short-
jointed, with very broad leaves. (See Exp. Sta. Rec.,
Vol. 18, p. 732. Pop. Sei. Mo. Jan. 1906.; Oct. 1911.)
References on early history :—
Darwin, Cuas. (1874.) Animals and Plants under Domestica-
tion, p. 338.
Der Canpouie, A. (1882.) Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 387.
Sturtevant, E.L. (1899.) U.S. Dept. Agr., Office of Exp. Sta.,
Bul. 57.
HarsHBERGER, JoHN W. (1893.) Maize: A Botanical and
Economic Study. Bot. Lab. Univ. Penn., Vol. I, No. 2.
Couuns, G. N. (1909.) U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus.,
Bul. 161.
References on biological origin of maize :—
HackeEu. (1890.) True Grasses. Translated by Scribner and
Southworth, pp. 36-43.
Grasses of Iowa, Bul. Iowa Geol. Survey, 1903.
HarsHBercer, J. W. Maize: A Botanical and Economic
Study. Bot. Lab. Univ. Penn., Vol. I, No. 2, p. 94.
Montecomery, E.G. (1906.) What is an Ear of Corn? Pop.
Sci. Mo., Jan. 1906. Perfect Flowers in Maize. Same, Oct.
1911.
References on Zea canina :—
Watson. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., 26:160. Grasses of
Iowa. Bul. Iowa Geol. Survey, 1903: 11-19.
Batuey, L. H. (1892.) Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 49.
ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION 25
References to crosses of maize and teosinte :—
Harsupercer, J. W. Crosses of Teosinte and Maize. Garden
and Forest, 1X : 522.
U.S. Dept. Agr. Year Book, 1909: 312.
References on classification of maize : —
Bonaraus. Mais. folio. Paris, 1836 (folio).
Index Kewensis. :
Sturtevant, E. L. (1899.) Varieties of Corn. Bul. 57, Office
of Exp. Sta., U. S. Dept. Agr.
CHAPTER III
DESCRIPTION OF THE CORN PLANT
Unver the head “ Biological Origin” (page 15) it is
seen that corn, through a process of evolution, probably
came from some branched, grass-like plant resembling
teosinte. In Fig. 13 is shown a drawing of a corn plant,
with leaves removed, illustrating the grass-like character.
The main stem is divided by nodes. Below the ground,
the nodes are very close together and give rise to roots;
at the surface they give rise to branches or tillers and
also roots, and above ground to leaves and ears.
The branches or tillers correspond in detail to the main
stem, having in all cases as many nodes and leaves as the
main stem above the point of attachment. The ear is
only a modified branch, as the ear stem has exactly the
same number of nodes as the main stem above, and the ear
corresponds in many details to the tassel.
11. The root. — When a kernel of maize germinates there
is produced, first, a root from the tip end of the seed. A
few hours later the stem will appear at the upper end of
the germ chit. At nearly the same time two roots will be
sprouting from about the median point between root and
stem. These are the ‘‘temporary’’ roots and maintain the
plant for only a short time. When the corn plant is
about six to ten days old, whorls of permanent roots begin
to ‘develop at a point about one inch below the ground
surface. The seed may be planted 1 to 5 inches deep,
26
DESCRIPTION OF THE CORN PLANT 27
Fic. 12.— Corn roots. 1. Ordinary distribution of roots when corn is
planted in rows three feet six inches apart ina deep loam soil. Figures
in margin indicate feet. Ina hardpan soil roots do not penetrate so
deep. 2. Single lateral root. 3. Small branch root showing root-
hairs. 4. Root and root-hairs enlarged. 5. Cross-section of 4 at
point a. 7. Root-hair in contact with soil grains.
28 CORN CROPS
but the permanent roots develop at about the same dis-
tance below the surface.
12. The spread of the roots. — Root studies on maize
at the Wisconsin, Minnesota, Colorado, New York, and
North Dakota experiment stations indicate that the
permanent roots first spread laterally for about nine to
twelve days, when they will have reached a distance 16
to 18 inches from the plant and will be confined mostly
to a zone between 3 and 6 inches below the surface. From
this time on, the root system rapidly extends downward
as well as laterally, at eighteen days reaching a depth of
about 12 inches and at twenty-seven days a depth of 18
inches, with a lateral extension of 24 inches. By the time
the maize plants are two months old, when they are 5 to
6 feet high and coming in tassel, the lateral spread of roots
has a radius of about 4 feet and penetrates the soil to a
depth of 3 to 4 feet. The number of roots continues to
increase until the plant is mature, when they fully occupy
the upper 3 to 4 feet of soil.
The depth to which roots may penetrate is somewhat
dependent on the character of the soil, as is shown by the
Colorado station. In a black adobe soil, the roots were
limited mostly to the upper 12 inches, while on another
heavy soil containing much clay they penetrated only 24
inches.
13. Distance from surface. — At a distance of 6 inches
from the plant the upper roots are usually about 3 inches
below the surface, sloping gently to 4 or 5 inches deep at a
distance of 2 feet from the plant. However, when there is
abundance of moisture in the surface, feeders may come
within 2 inches or less. Distance from the surface seems
to be controlled by the presence of sufficient moisture, and
also by the degree of shading, since roots are very sensitive
DESCRIPTION OF THE CORN PLANT 29
to light. Late in the season, when the soil is well shaded,
roots will be found very near the surface; but ordinarily,
during the growing season, they are 3 to 4 inches below.
The method of planting may also exercise some influence
on the depth of upper roots. At the Kansas station,}
where the root systems of ‘listed’ corn were compared
with those of surface-planted, the upper roots of the
former were found to average about 1 inch deeper during
the cultivating season, especially near the plant, thus
permitting deeper cultivation.
14. Types of roots. — Maize roots may be classed as
primary roots, brace roots, lateral roots, and hair roots.
The main roots are those having their origin at the base
of the stem; they are twenty to thirty in number and
4 to 6 feet in length. The lateral roots are numerous small
roots thrown off from these, and they again may produce
other laterals. Their number is very large and may aver-
age several hundred to each main root; in length they
vary from less than 1 inch to 1 or 2 feet. The root-hairs
are microscopic in size, single-celled, and infinite in number.
They are borne on the main roots in their earlier growth,
and on all the laterals. Root-hairs are short-lived and
limited to the newer root growth, or rather to a zone near
the growing point of the roots. They are absorbent or-
gans, and do not grow to be roots.
15. The proportion of root. — The total weight of the
root in a corn plant has been found to be about 12 to 15
per cent of the weight of the total plant, including the
ear2 The total length of roots laid end to end, of a single
plant of small grain, as wheat or oats, has been estimated
at 1600 feet; but in a corn plant it would be greater.
1 Kan. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 127: 203.
2Kipssetpacu. Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta., Rpt. 1910:131.
30 CORN CROPS
16. The amount of root. — The amount of root devel-
oped is more or less in response to the needs of the plant.
When moisture is abundant or excessive, the plant will not
develop so much root as when the moisture content is
normal or below normal. Also in very dry soil, with a
moisture content below the wilting point of plants (about
12 per cent in loam soils), the growth of roots is limited,
as is also the case when the soil is very hard.
17. Functions of the root. — The root functions may be
stated as: (1) the absorption of water and of salts in solu-
tion; (2) the excretion of organic substances, especially
carbon dioxid, and possibly free organic acid, also mineral
salts and the salts of organic acids; (3) the solvent effect
of the excretions on soil particles.
The absorption of water and solutions, as well as the
exudations, take place largely through the root-hairs.
These root-hairs are constantly produced from the epider-
mal cells near the growing root tip. They are forced into
close contact with the soil grains; in fact, the soil grains
are more or less embedded in the root-hair tissues. Each
soil grain in a moist soil is surrounded by a film of water
containing more or less mineral matter dissolved from the
soil. This soil water is absorbed by the root-hair, and it
seems probable that exudations from the root-hair also aid
in freeing less soluble minerals in the soil grains. The
process of absorption is by means of osmosis.!
1 Osmosis. — When two solutions of different density are separated by
a porous membrane, there will be first a movement of the weaker solu-
tion through the membrane into the stronger, and later a return move-
ment, the process continuing until the two solutions have the same den-
sity. The contents of a root-hair being denser than the soil solution
surrounding it, there is a constant movement of the soil solution into the
root-hair. By some means the exosmosis, which would take place in the
case of an ordinary membrane (movement of the cell solution outward),
seems to be restrained in the root-hair, probably by some functional
DESCRIPTION OF THE CORN PLANT 31
18. The stem. — The stem of maize differs from that of
other cereals in the fact that it is solid — filled with pith —
while others are hollow. The maize stem may vary in
height from 2 feet, in the case of dwarf pop corn, to 18 or
20 feet in some of the tall southern varieties.
The nodes not only serve to strengthen the stem, but
are also the points of origin for all its lateral outgrowths,
as roots, branches (tillers), leaves, and ears.
The stem usually extends not more than three to five
inches below the ground surface. This part is divided
into about six to ten short nodes, each bearing a whorl
of roots. Above the soil surface each node bears a leaf
and in addition either a branch or an embryonic ear. The
early northern varieties of maize, with a height of about
6 feet, usually have about eight to ten nodes above the
soil, while the tall southern varieties may have eighteen
to twenty. A typical plant in Illinois or Indiana will
have about fourteen nodes, with one or two branches from
the surface nodes and an embryonic ear at each node;
usually, however, only the ear at about the eighth node
develops, the others remaining dormant.
In Fig. 13 is shown a stem from a plant about 10 inches
high. The full number of nodes, and also of leaves, is
formed. Growth of the stem from this point on will be by
a lengthening of the internodes, but there will be no in-
crease in number of nodes. This is called internodal
growth, in distinction from the apical, or terminal, growth
of many other plants — as peas and beans, where new
growth is constantly taking place at the apex.
The outer part of the stem is a thin shell of hard tissue,
activity of the cell. The result is a much greater movement into the
root-hair than exudation out of it. The soil solution passes from the
root-hair into the root and is finally transmitted to the stem and leaves.
82 CORN CROPS
the function of which is to give strength and rigidity. A
cross-section of the stem will show, in addition to the pith,
Fig. 13. — Development of the corn stem.
1. Plant about 10 inches high. 2. Section of
1, at base, showing that all nodes, leaves, and
tassel are more or less developed at this stage;
growth is internodal. 3. Full-grown stem
with leaves removed. 4. Cross-section of
stem.
a large number of fibrous strands,
known technically as fibro-vascular bun-
dles. It is through these bundles that
the water taken in by the roots passes
up the stem and is distributed through-
out the plant; and again, when the
leaves have elaborated plant-food from
the material taken up from the soil and
out of the air, this plant-food is carried
down these same fibro-vascular bundles and distributed
to those parts where it is needed, as the growing ear or
the roots.
DESCRIPTION OF THE CORN PLANT 33
19. Tillers. — If a young corn plant about 8 inches high
is carefully dissected, two or more small buds will be noted
‘in the axils of the first leaves. If conditions are favorable,
one or more of these buds will develop into a branch of
the plant, or a “tiller.” If conditions are unfavorable,
as in poor soil, or when the plants are close, the buds may
remain suppressed and never grow. On a cold clay or wet
soil very few of the tillers develop ; while on a warm, sandy
soil, especially if fertile, every plant may develop one to
three or four tillers. A good example of this is the very
abundant tillering common in cornfields in the light but
fertile soils on the west edge of the corn-belt (central
Nebraska) ; while the same varieties on the heavier clay
soils of Ohio or New York will rarely develop tillers.
Every corn plant has several latent buds, which may
develop if conditions are favorable, but which otherwise
may remain dormant. The tiller may develop its own
root system and ears, and may function in all respects as a
normal plant. A tendency to tiller, however, is somewhat
hereditary, as certain small varieties of flint and sweet
corn normally produce well-developed ear-bearing tillers,
while some of the large dent varieties seldom tiller.
20. Leaves. — If a small corn plant a few days old be
taken and a cross-section made just above the first node,
the full number of leaves may be identified, wrapped into
a kind of stem (Fig. 13). As the stem elongates the
leaves are gradually exposed, but the leaf growth takes
place mostly while the leaves are yet enfolded. There is
very little increase in size after the leaf is fully exposed.
The structure of a leaf is more complicated than’ appears
from a casual examination, because of its many functions.
The functions are principally: (1) to provide for the free
circulation of solutions and air throughout the leaf; (2) ta
D
34 CORN CROPS
give off constantly large quantities of excessive water
taken up by the roots; (8) to elaborate plant-food from
the minerals and water taken out of the soil, combined
with carbon and oxygen taken from the air; (4) to ab-
sorb energy from the sun which is necessary in order that
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Fic. 14. — Leaf structure. The movement of water and solutions takes
place through the fibro-vascular bundles. The mesophyll tissue fur-
nishes the means for elaborating plant-food from raw material. Inter-
change of air and gases takes place through the stomata. The bulli-
form cells are similar to mesophyll cells, but contain a large percentage
of water. Shrinkage of these cells causes the leaf to roll in dry weather.
these activities may proceed. Each of the above functions
of the leaf requires specialized tissues which are briefly de-
scribed as follows (21, 22) :—
21. The vascular system. — If a maize leaf is examined,
there will be found running lengthwise a large number of
DESCRIPTION OF THE CORN PLANT 385
parallel veins. On examining a cross-section of the leaf
under the microscope, each vein will be seen to contain a
fibrous bundle of various kinds of tissues, known as a
fibro-vascular bundle. In Fig. 14 are shown some of these
large, thick-walled cells, resembling somewhat the veins of
an animal; and it is by means of these that solutions are
circulated through the leaf. These fibrous bundles ex-
tend into the stem and the roots, making a direct passage
for the transfer of soil solutions taken up by the roots
through the stem and out into the leaves.
22. Air passages. — Throughout the leaf tissues are
systems of air passages. These are connected with small
openings of the leaf surface, or stomata. Fresh air is con-
stantly coming into the leaf through these stomata, car-
rying carbon dioxid and oxygen, both of which are utilized
by the plant in connection with the minerals taken up from
the soil and elaborated into plant-food.
23. Loss of water. — As the air passes out of a leaf it
constantly carries out the water that has been taken up
from the earth. The outer covering, or epidermis, of the
leaf is impervious to water or air, but there are stomata
at regular intervals. The number of these is very great,
NumBer or STOMATA IN
One Square Incu
Kinp or Lear
Upper Side Under Side
Indian corn (Zea Mays) . . . . . . 60,630 101,910
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) a. 6
percentage of ear and stalk. By referring to Table XLVI,
last column, it will be seen that the proportion of stalk to
ear increases as the rate of planting increases, there being
more than twice the proportion of stover with the thickest
planting as compared with the minimum ratio (11,880
kernels). The comparative analysis of stover and grain
as summarized by Jenkins and Winton is given in the
following table : —
184 CORN CROPS
TABLE XLVII
Composition oF STOVER AND Grain IN Corn. WATER-FREE
Basis
NitRo-
NuMBER ASH PROTEIN| FIBER |GEN-FREE Fat
OF PER- PER- Per- | Extracr| PrEr-
ANALYSIS | CENTAGE |CENTAGE| CENTAGE| PER- | CENTAGE
CENTAGE
Fodder. . . 35 4.7 7.8 24.7 60.1 2.8
Leaves. . . 17 7.9 8.6 30.6 51.0 1.9
Husks . . . 16 3.5 5.0 32.2 57.9 1.4
Stalks... 15 3.6 5.9 34.8 64.1 1.6
Stover... 60 5.7 6.4 33.0 53.2 1.7
Grain. 2 « *s 208 1.7 11.7 2.4 78.1 6.1
In well-developed corn planted at proper distance for
maximum yield, the weight of shelled corn will be almost
equal to the weight of stalk. Increasing the rate of
planting has very little effect on the composition of either
grain or stalk, but, as the proportion of stalk to grain
increases, it is evident that the analysis of the whole
plant will show a decreased percentage of protein and fat
and an increased percentage of fiber. The total protein
per acre, however, will increase. Silage from very thickly
planted corn will not be so rich in percentage of protein
and fat, but the total yield per acre will be greater.
By reference to Table XLIV it will be seen that the rate
of planting has more effect on percentage of ears in a dry
season than in a seasonable year. The same would be true
on poor soil.
CHOICE OF A VARIETY
131. There are probably one thousand named varieties
of corn. This very large number of varieties, many of
1U.8. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Sta., Bul. 77. 1892.
PREPARATION AND PLANTING 185
which are of only local importance, makes rather confusing
a study of experiments, in order to select the best varieties.
In some cases a number of varieties have had a common
origin and for a general discussion might be grouped to-
Fic. 52. — Rouzh division of the United States into corn regions, accord-
ing to the types of corn grown.
gether. There are other groups, originating from widely
different sources, which are yet very similar for all practi-
cal purposes.
The eastern half of the United States, where most of
the corn is grown, may be roughly divided into large
186 CORN CROPS
regions, within which certain types and varieties pre-
dominate to a greater or less degree.
Elevation must always be considered in selecting a type.
For example, the coast plains of North Carolina would
probably require a type similar to that suitable to the Gulf
States, while the mountain regions would require a type
Fic. 53. — Prolific varieties of corn produce from two to six ears per stalk.
They are adapted principally to the cotton belt. (Cockes’ prolific.)
PREPARATION AND PLANTING 187
normally adapted to a region as far north as Ohio. Thus,
in North Carolina, above 2800 feet, flint varieties are
recommended — the type of corn most common in the
New England States. Other local considerations enter
in, but in general the following varieties have been found
satisfactory in the regions indicated : —
Natural divisions
Section No. 1. Gulf States. Prolific varieties bearing
160 to 200 ears to 100 stalks, on the average, give better
results than those bearing only single ears. Among
the best of these are: —
Mosby Sanders Albemarle
Cocke’s Prolific Blount Marlboro
Large-eared varieties are :—
St. Charles White Boone County White
Section No. 2. In this region large single-ear varieties
share about equal importance with prolific varieties.
In addition to the prolific varieties named above, we find
such varieties succeeding as :—
For good fertile land :—
Boone County White St. Charles White
Huffman White Peari
Leaming Hickory King
For poorer soils and upland :—
Hickory King Sanders
Leaming St. Charles White (Early
Strains)
For high elevations : —
Eight-row Flint
188 CORN CROPS
This region partakes about half and half of the varieties
common to the regions north and south of it.
Section No. 3. This is the ‘‘ Corn Belt.”’ Only large
single-ear dent varieties are grown. South of this belt
the dent corn is mostly white in color, but in the Corn
Belt yellow corn is as popular as white. The leading
varieties are :—
Yellow White Early varieties
Leaming Silver Mine Pride of the
Ried’s Yellow Boone County North
Dent White Early Calico
Riley’s Favorite Johnson County White Cap
Legal Tender White
St. Charles White
Leaming is probably the most extensively cultivated
corn in the United States, being not only a universal
favorite as a field corn, but also grown extensively for
silage corn. Silver Mine is probably second in impor-
tance.
Section No. 4. This is more of the nature of a small-
grain region, but corn culture is increasing. A few years
ago flint corns predominated, but in recent years early
dent corns have been developed and have largely replaced
the flints.
Dent varieties
Pride of the North
Minnesota No. 13
Wisconsin No. 7
Early Huron
White Cap
Flint varieties
King Philip
Smut Nose
Eight-row Yellow
Hall’s Gold Nugget
Section No. 5. Flint corns are grown principally,
though on the best soils below 1000 feet elevation. The
PREPARATION AND PLANTING 189
early dent varieties share about equal popularity with
the flints. Above 1000 feet elevation, flints are almost
universal.
Flint varieties Dent varieties
Eight-row and Twelve-row Pride of the North
Yellow Flint White Cap
King Philip Hall’s Gold Nugget
Canada Smut Nose Various acclimated local
varieties
In this section, one-third to one-half of the corn is
grown for silage. For this purpose the seed is usually
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Fic. 54. — Four ears in center are Sanford white flint, the longest type of
cultivated corn. On right and left are shown typical ears of dent and
flint, for comparison.
190 CORN CROPS
purchased and large varieties are used that do not ripen
grain but are barely mature enough for silage when frost
comes. Leaming is the favorite with Hickory King,
Eureka Ensilage, Burrill and Whitman, and Evergreen
Sweet following. In fact, almost all the large dent
varieties are used to some extent for ensilage on the lower
elevations, while flints are grown on the higher lands.
The importance of using acclimated seed has already
been pointed out (page 117). Acclimated native seed
should always be used for grain growing; and even for
ensilage, while it is not necessary that the grain should
mature, a better quality of silage is secured if the climatic
change is not too great.
PREPARING SEED FOR PLANTING
182. In the more humid part of the Corn Belt, corn is
very likely to decrease in germination. This necessitates
some precautions in curing the seed corn. In regions
where the fall and winter climate is clear and compara-
tively dry, there is less difficulty, but abnormal conditions
occur often enough to justify special care of the seed corn
as a regular practice.
CAUSES OF POOR GERMINATION
133. Slow or imperfect drying of the mature corn,
often accompanied with freezing, seems to be the prin-
cipal cause of deterioration of vitality in the germ. When
corn is first ‘‘ ripe” the kernels will usually contain about
30 per cent moisture. This would be about September 15
to October 1 in the Northern Central States. If the
weather is dry and favorable, the grain should dry down
to about 20 per cent moisture in the course of four to six
PREPARATION AND PLANTING 191
weeks.
If the climate is fairly dry, the cornsshould then
remain in a good germinating condition either on the
stalks or in good dry storage.
The principal cause of loss in vitality seems to be failure
to dry out properly upon becoming ripe.
necessary for the
corn to be frozen
to lose vitality, as
it deteriorates at
ordinary tempera-
tures during the
three months fol-
lowing maturity if
not fairly dry. If
freezing occurs, the
loss is increased.
A freezing tempera-
ture occurring when
the grain still con-
tains a high per-
centage of moisture
may practically de-
stroy vitality.
Any cause that
delays the proper
drying of the corn
after maturity will
result in poor seed
corn. In many
It is not
Fic. 55.—Corn kernel split to show germ,
which is the dark-colored body within the
white, and extending nearly the length of
the kernel. The main outer part of the
germ is the Scutellum, secretes an enzyme
that reduces the starch for use of young
plant. The column-like body in the upper
half is the Plumula, develops into young
plant. The body at the lowest point is the
Radicle, or root of young plant.
cases, growers are using varieties too late in maturing or
not well acclimated.
Deep-kerneled types are more
likely to lose in vitality than shallow-kerneled corn.
Varieties with large, sappy cobs are always slow in drying.
192 CORN CROPS
STORING SEED CORN
To insure good seed corn, the ears should be collected
as soon as mature and dried. Methods of drying are
discussed elsewhere.
GERMINATION TESTS
134. If seed corn has been properly saved, there will
be no occasion for making germination tests. It is much
cheaper to save the seed properly than to make germina-
tion tests. Whenever seed is to be selected from a supply,
the quality of which is doubtful, careful germination tests
should be made.
The general test
135. A general test should be made first. Choose 100
ears at random and remove three kernels from each at
different parts of the ear, as butt, tip, and middle.
A good germinater is made by using two pie tins or
dinner plates. Fill one with sand, sawdust, or soil. Place
Fic. 56.— A simple germinater for testing seed corn. The corn is placed
between damp cloths or blotters.
a cloth on this and spread out the kernels to be germinated.
Place a second cloth over the seeds and wet down. Then
invert the second pie tin or dinner plate over the first
so as to make a moist chamber within. Keep moist and
ina warm place. Six days is sufficient time to allow for
germination. If 90 per cent or more of the seeds show
good strong sprouts, it is doubtful if it would pay to make
a germination test of each ear separately.
PREPARATION AND PLANTING 193
The ear test
136. When the preliminary test shows germination to be
low or a high percentage weak, it will pay to germinate
each ear separately.
There are several ‘ seed testers ” on the market adapted
for this work, but satisfactory germinaters can be made
Fic. 57. — Making a germination test. The rack contains 100 ears, cor-
responding in number to the squares in the germination box.
at home. Usually a series of shallow trays are made and
filled with sawdust or sand. A cloth is laid on top
marked off in two-inch squares, and each square is num-
bered. Twenty inches square is a convenient size, though
some prefer a tray twice to five times as large. The ears
to be tested are laid out on shelves in sets of ten. The
ears are then taken in order, six grains removed, and these
grains placed in the corresponding square on the cloth.
fe)
194 CORN CROPS
It is well to take two kernels from the butt, two from the
middle, and two from the tip, of the ear. When a tray
has been filled, the grains are covered with a second
cloth and a little sawdust on top and thoroughly wet down.
When all trays are filled they are stacked up in a warm
place and wet once a day for five or six days. All ears
that have not shown a strong germination by this time
should be discarded.
IMPORTANCE OF STRONG VITALITY
137. It should be emphasized that only ears showing a
strong, quick-growing germ should be used. C. P. Hartley
records a typical experiment illustrating this point.!
Fic. 58. — Difference in germination of ears. In each square are six
kernels, each from a different ear.
1Hartitey, C. P. The Seed Corn Situation. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur.
Plant Indus., Cire. No. 95. 1912,
PREPARATION AND PLANTING 195
In November two bushels of seed corn were selected, one
bushel being placed in a corn crib and the other in a dry
seed room. Germination was about equally good in both
cases, but the plants from the seed kept in the dry house
were stronger and the yield averaged five bushels more
per acre.
GRADING SEED
138. The corn planter cannot be adjusted to uniform
dropping of seed unless the kernels are uniform in size.
Fia. 59. — Three rows on left from single ear of good seed corn. Three
rows on right from single ear of poor seed corn.
Some growers sort the seed ears into two or three lots,
according to size of kernel. In some cases “sorters”
are used, consisting essentially of a pair of screens that
take out both the extra large and the extra small kernels.
CALIBRATING THE PLANTER
139. The dropping devices on planters are of three types,
known respectively as (1) round hole drop, (2) round hole
196 CORN CROPS
accumulative, and (8) edge drop accumulative. The
first type represents the earliest type of dropper plate,
when it was attempted to regulate the number of kernels
per hill by the size of hole in the dropper plate; the hole
being large enough to take two, three, or four grains
at atime. In both the accumulative drop forms, the hole
Epcr Drop Fiat Drop
Fic. 60. — Two types of planter plates for dent corn. The edge drop is
considered best where the corn is sorted to uniform size, and flat drop
where the seed is not uniform.
is large enough to take only one kernel at a time, the
desired number of kernels being accumulated one at a time
in a pocket and then dropped. The latter method is
considered more nearly accurate when the seed has been .
well sorted. Before starting to plant, care sould be
taken to see that the dropper-plate holes are of the right
size for the seed used.
CHAPTER XVII
THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERCULTURE
TILLAGE MACHINERY
A GREAT variety of tools has been developed especially
adapted for the tillage of corn. For the first cultivation
of drilled or checked corn, the common smoothing harrow
is often used. It is an excellent tool for this purpose as
Fic. 61.— The weeder. A very useful tool on loose soil, for cultivating
corn the first four weeks. Cultivates three rows at a time.
it works a wide swath and kills young weeds effectively.
One disadvantage is that it carries considerable trash es-
pecially where there are many large corn stubbs in the
land. In this case the weeder is much better than the
spike tooth harrow, as it clears of trash and does less in-
jury to the young plants. When the weather is dry and
‘197
198 CORN CROPS
the plants tough, a weeder may be used until the corn has
reached the height of twelve inches.
Fic. 62.—The simplest type of one-row cultivator, in extensive use
throughout the corn belt.
The corn cultivator has undergone a rapid evolution in
the past fifty years. The first horse cultivators were single
are
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JANE SVIL
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Fic. 63. — A modern riding corn cultivator, with handy adjustments and
attachments, to readily adapt for all kinds of corn cultivation. Disk
gangs attached.
THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERCULTURE 199
shovel plows, consisting of a very broad mold-board
shovel mounted on a beam, with handles to guide. Later
two narrower shovels were substituted for the single broad
shovel. Though this was an improvement, it was still nec-
essary to go twice in each row for thorough cultivation.
Fic. 66.— Cut showing
Fic. 65. — Shovel attachment. angle and tilt adjustments.
Later two of these double shovel plows were rigged on a two
wheel sulky, thus enabling the operator with two horses
to cultivate both sides of a row at one time. The corn
cultivator is still built essentially on this principle with
200 CORN CROPS
many types of shovels and improvements for ease in con-
trolling as illustrated in Figs. 63-66.
Modern cultivators may be fitted with four to eight
shovels, the size of the shovels decreasing as the number in-
Fic. 67. — Two-row corn cultivator for three horses.
creases. The six or eight shovel type is usually preferred
where the ground is in good tilth and the weeds small.
Where the ground is hard and the weeds large, so that
the land must be plowed rather than cultivated, the
large four shoveled type is more effective. On stony
land the spring tooth gang is often preferred. Also
most standard riding cultivators may be fitted with disk
gangs. Disk cultivators do excellent work in the hands
of a skilled operator. They are especially desirabie when
‘uoljerado Ut ‘sasIOY OA} IO} 1OJEAT[NI UIOD MOI-OM J, — ‘SQ “OTT
201
202 CORN CROPS
the soil is in poor physical condition and needs pulver-
izing.
Two-rowed cultivators adapted for use with either two
or three horses are now in general use. If two-row cul-
tivators are to be used, the rows should be straight and
uniformly equal distances apart. With the two-row
cultivator it is not possible to do as careful work close to
Fie. 69. — Late cultivation of corn, with narrow tooth plow.
the row as when a single row is worked ata time. On
the other hand, when the corn is clean in the row it may
do all that is necessary in half the time.
One horse cultivators are not used much in corn cultiva-
tion, except occasionally for late cultivation where the
plants are too high to straddle.
For listed corn a variety of tools has been specially
devised. A spike tooth harrow is often used to level the
ridges slightly when the corn first comesup. Then a
tool such as illustrated in Fig. 70 is sometimes used or,
more commonly, a two-row tool of the type illustrated in
Fig 71. The first time over, the disk followers are usually
THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERCULTURE 203
set to throw out, as shown on the right of the figure, with
a shield to protect the young corn and a pair of small
Fic. 70. — Tool for cultivating listed corn the first
time over.
shovels to work in the bottom of the furrow. Later the
disks may be set wider apart and set to throw toward
Fig. 71. — Two-row listed corn cultivator.
the corn. The shovels may be adjusted to suit con-
ditions.
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THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERCULTURE 205
140. Jethro Tull said, ‘‘ Tillage is manure,” and this
axiom has been more cr less accepted and inculcated into
our theories regarding the interculture of hoed crops. In
the case of small grain crops, which are sown thickly
enough to fully occupy the land, benefit has rarely been
derived from interculture. With crops which are planted
wide apart and which never fully occupy the intervening
ground, it has been found profitable to give sufficient
interculture to prevent the growth of weeds.
How much more interculture may benefit the crop than
by keeping down weeds is a debated question. Various
reasons have been advanced to account for the benefits
of interculture and these may be summarized as follows:
To destroy weeds.
To conserve moisture.
To reduce run-off of rainfall by keeping the surface
loose and porous.
To aérate the soil.
To increase availability of plant food.
The relative importance of each of the above functions
of interculture will vary according to locality and season.
Interculture to aérate the soil and to free fertility may be
important on certain heavy clay soils in a humid region,
but negligible on more porous soils or in a dry region.
Where torrential rains occur during the growing season,
it is important to have the surface in a porous, granular
condition.
In general, however, the conservation of moisture and
the destruction of weeds are properly advanced as the
principal objects of interculture. Of all objects, the de-
struction of weeds appears to be paramount. This con-
clusion is arrived at as the result of numerous experiments,
which have shown that keeping down weeds by shaving
206 CORN CROPS
off has given almost as good results as when the soil was
given good cultivation.
METHODS OF TILLAGE COMPARED
141. In the following tables are shown the results of
three of the above-mentioned experiments under very
different climatic and soil conditions, namely, New Hamp-
shire, Illinois, and Utah. All give the same general con-
clusion— that culture beyond the destruction of weeds
has not given much increased yield.
TABLE XLVIII
Resutts at THREE Stations witH DirrERENT METHODS oF
CuutivaTiInc Corn. New Hampsuire Station (But. 71,
1900)
YIELD
Kinp oF CunTure BusHELS PER ACRE
No culture, weeds permitted to grow . . 17.1
Shallow, 14 times. . are 80.6
Shallow, 5 times (ordinary ‘eulture) | sore 79.1
Deep, 5 times ‘4 See: 69.7
Mulch, covered re eautn hay ore 56.1
Inuinoris Station (But. 31, 1894)
AVERAGE YIELD FOR
Kinp oF CULTURE Five YEaRs
BusHELsS PER ACRE
None, weeds scraped witha hoe .. . 68.3
Shallow, about four cultivations tier ts 70.3
Deep, about four cultivations . . . . 66.7
Shallow, about eight cultivations ose 72.8
Deep, about eight cultivations . . . . 64.5
None, weeds allowed to grow
THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERCULTURE 207
Utau Station (Buu. 66)
AVERAGE YIELD FOR
Kinp oF CULTURE EicHt YEARS
BusHELS PER ACRE
None, weeds pulled by hand. . .. . 51.8
Scuffle hoe (searified) . . . .... 58.8
Shallow tillage, ljinch . . .... 52.9
Medium tillage, 2j inches. . . . . . 57.3
Deep tillage, 3} inches. . . .... 57.4
Mulehed with soil . . . ..... 55.8
It has been shown by numerous experiments on bare
soils that a mulch of straw or of dry loose earth would
conserve considerable moisture. It has also been pointed
out heretofore (page 67) that the need of water is the
most common limiting factor in corn production. Rea-
soning from this, it seems that interculture should play
an important part in conserving moisture and this increas-
ing yield, but practical experiments fail to show such
increases.
WATER-LOSS FROM FALLOW SOIL
142. For three months (April, May, and June) the
prospective cornfield is essentially a bare field, exposed to
wind and sunshine; and it is to be expected that early
plowing and maintenance of a soil mulch will conserve
moisture during this period.
At the Wisconsin station adjacent plots of land were
plowed in early spring seven days apart. During this
interval of seven days the unplowed plot lost 1.75 inch
of water, while the plowed plot had actually gained mois-
ture in the first 4 feet, probably due to capillary water
from below.
208 CORN CROPS
Widstoe! states that ‘‘ Fortier, working under California
conditions, determined that cultivation reduced the evap-
oration from the soil surface over 55 per cent.”” At the
Utah station similar experiments have shown that saving
of soil moisture by cultivation was 63 per cent for a clay,
34 per cent for a coarse sand, and 13 per cent for a clay
loam.
EVAPORATION UNDER CORN CROP
143. When the corn becomes large enough to shade the
ground, which will be soon after the time that interculture
begins, most of the conditions causing loss of soil moisture
in fallow soils will have become to a large degree ineffec-
tive. Wind, the most potent cause of soil drying, is
almost nil at the soil surface; direct sunshine is cut off,
the soil being in shade part of the time; and humidity is
higher. At the Nebraska station, jars of water set in
wheat fields level with the soil surface lost practically no
water.
Another important factor in preventing loss of soil
water by evaporation is the spread of roots near the sur-
face. (See page 27.) If there is no rain, practically all
water moving upward from the subsoil is intercepted by
these roots and used by the plants. If there is rain, the
surface moisture is soon reduced by the surface roots to
a point where upward capillary movement is retarded.
From the above, it appears that interculture of the
corn crop can do very little toward conserving moisture.
THE EFFECT OF WEEDS
144. A crop of weeds will not only take out moisture,
but also consume available plant food. As plant food in
1 Wipston, JoHN A. Dry Farming, p. 155.
THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERCULTURE 209
available form is usually more limited than the water
supply, the consumption of plant food by weeds may be
even more injurious than the consumption of water. Only
when water and fertility are far in excess of the needs of the
crop could weeds do no harm.
The effect of witch grass in reducing yield is illustrated
by data obtained at the New Hampshire station (Bulletin
71, page 55). Two plats of corn were treated in the same
manner and given good cultivation up to June 10. One
plat was hand-hoed four times after this date in order to
destroy the witch grass, while this was allowed to grow
in the other plat.
TABLE XLIX
Errsect or WitcH Grass In Corn
Pounps or Corn | BusHELS oF SHELLED
Kinp oF CULTURE STovER Corn PER ACRE
HOGd ea a 11,843 81.6
Unhoed . s is 5 i & al 9,188 61.4
We may conclude that, for corn, the principal object
of intertillage is to destroy weeds, and after this is accom-
plished, further tillage will not pay.
The above does not apply to small tilled crops, as vege-
tables where the soil is exposed and the roots do not fully
occupy the surface soil. Here conditions approach those
obtaining on fallow soil.
DEPTH AND FREQUENCY OF CULTIVATION
145. Since intertillage in corn apparently serves no
important function beyond subduing weeds, it is to be
expected that no increase in yield will result from culti-
P
210 CORN CROPS
vating more deeply or more frequently than is necessary
in order to accomplish this purpose.
_In TableXLVIII are shown results at the New Hamp-
shire, Illinois, and Utah stations with deep and shallow
tillage. The Illinois! results with methods of cultivation
may be summarized as follows :—
TABLE L
AVERAGE YIELD
Kinp oF CULTIVATION nop Fava YBAR6
ACRE
Frequent (4 plats) . . . ..... 68.6
Ordinary (4eplats) .« . « 2. % % & = a 68.5
Shallow (4 plats). . . 2... .0.0.0¢242024%2 71.5
Deep. (4plats) "os. 4 as 2. fe ee el oe 65.6
The principal injury of deep cultivation is that roots
are destroyed. The depth to which the soil can be
stirred without injury to roots depends on the soil to some
extent. (See page 28.) In humid regions and clay soils,
perhaps 2 inches is the limit; in loose loam soils in drier
regions, the roots are ordinarily 3 inches below the surface ;
while with listed corn, the cultivation may often be as
deep as 4 inches. The roots are usually shallow next to
the plant and deeper midway between rows.
It is doubtful whether it would be an advantage to give
deep culture, even when it could be done without particular
harm to the roots, as illustrated with listed corn at the
Kansas station.
Roots of listed corn are deeper than surface planted
corn, and there would be little injury from deep culti-
vation.
1]. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 31: 356.
THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERCULTURE 211
TABLE LI
Resutts at Kansas Station with Derr AND SHALLOW CUL-
TURE FOR Corn. AVERAGE FOR Four Yurars (1892-
1896).?
TREATMENT
AVERAGE YIELD
BusHELS PER ACRE
Listed, deep culture
Listed, shallow culture
Surface planted, deep culture
Surface planted, shallow culture .
Surface planted, deep and shallow culture? :
Surface planted, surface culture .
29.7
29.3
27.3
27.0
28.1
23.0
In Table XLVIII are also given results with frequency
of cultivation. The following data from the Kansas sta-
tion further illustrate :3 —
TABLE LII
Times CULTIVATED
Times CULTIVATED
TWo-YEAR
Two-year AVERAGE
YIELD IN BUSHELS
AVERAGE PER ACRE
Three times a week 17 24.8
Twice a week 13 27.2
Once a week 7 27.8
Once in two weeks 4 25.2
Once in three weeks 3 24.0
Once in four weeks 2 16.9
We may therefore conclude, from the data presented,
that up to the time when corn shades the ground, and the
1 Kansas Bul. 64: 233.
2 Deep first cultivation and shallow later.
3 Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 44 ; 131,
212 CORN CROPS
field is comparatively fallow, cultivation conserves some
moisture as in any fallow soil. After the corn crop is
thoroughly established and a layer of surface roots inter-
cepts capillary moisture from below, the principal service
of cultivation is to destroy weeds. Weeds compete with
the plant for both water and plant food.
GROWING CORN FOR SILAGE
146. The general discussion has thus far had in view
the culture of corn for grain. The recommendations taken
as a whole apply quite as well to growing silage corn.
It is generally true that the best quality of silage is made
from corn grown under conditions for producing the
maximum grain crop.
For grain it is necessary that the variety chosen should
mature sound grain, but in the case of silage corn it need
not mature. In the Southern States, and in practically
all the Corn Belt States, perhaps the best silage variety
is also the best standard variety grown for grain. In
New England and on higher elevations in all Northeastern
States, the most profitable silage variety will probably
be too late to mature. At elevations of 1000 feet or more,
seed may be secured at the same latitude but grown 500
to 1000 feet lower elevation. The growing season of
corn usually shortens about one day to each 100 feet
increase of elevation. At lower elevations it will be neces-
sary to go 200 to 300 miles south for late seed. Dent
corns are usually preferred for silage, Leaming being
perhaps the most popular dent variety for this purpose.
At higher elevations very early dents, sweet corns, and
in some cases flint corns, are best.
As pointed out heretofore (page 179), the total weight of
dry matter increases with rate of planting, but the propor-
THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERCULTURE 213
tion of ear decreases. In general, the best rate, yield
and quality both considered, is about one-fourth to one-
third thicker than would be necessary to secure maximum
yield of grain under the same conditions.
Drills are best where the corn is planted somewhat
thickly, as for silage. Even where hill planting has been
found best for grain growing, drill planting has usually
given slightly larger yields of stover. The difference,
however, is too small to be of much importance, and the
method to be adopted is to be determined by convenience
in tillage and harvesting. Where harvesting is by ma-
chinery, drill planting is most convenient; but where
harvesting is by hand, hills are preferred.
CHAPTER XVIII
ANIMAL AND INSECT ENEMIES
THE corn crop is more easily protected from its animal
and insect enemies than most of the important crops.
Of those insects that live on the roots of corn, practically
all are effectively controlled by rotation. At present the
corn rootworm and root-louse do considerable damage
throughout the corn-belt, wherever several corn crops are
grown in succession on the same land.
Rodents and birds do some damage every year, but
are only considered serious, where corn is grown in small
areas. The corn ear worm is difficult to control, but this in-
sect seldom does serious damage except in the Southern
States.
BIRDS
147. Crows give some trouble in regions where they are
plentiful and the acreage of corn is comparatively small.
They pull up the plants for a period of two weeks after
the shoots appear, in order to get the kernels for food.
Scarecrows or strings stretched with pieces of paper at-
tached are effective in small fields. Coating the seed with
coal tar is a deterrent, but not a complete preventive.
The treatment consists in dipping a paddle in hot coal tar
and stirring in the seed corn until every seed is coated with
tar. The seed is allowed to dry and is then planted.
RODENTS
148. Small ground squirrels of several varieties dig up
seed one totwo weeks after planting. The coal-tar treatment
214
ANIMAL AND INSECT ENEMIES 215
recommended for crows is often effective as a preventive.
Poison is also used. The ordinary method of poisoning
is to soak a quantity of corn in a strychnine solution and
plant this a few days ahead of the regular planting, in
parts of the field likely to be molested. Very often the
squirrels come mostly from adjacent pastures or meadows,
and a few rows of poisoned corn planted next to these will
be effective.
INSECTS
149. The larve of several insects are very injurious
to corn under certain conditions. These may be grouped
as: (1) Insects injurious to the roots. (2) Insects injurious
to the young plant above ground. (3) Insects injurious
to some part of the mature plant, as ear or leaf. (4)
Insects that become abundant in cornfields only when
corn follows corn year after year, as the corn rootworm.
The remedy for this kind is rotation of corn with other
crops. (5) There is another group, which injures corn
only when it follows certain other crops. This includes
the wireworm, which is often injurious the first and second
years after grass sod. The grubworm is most often inju-
rious after a clover sod. (6) Certain migratory insects,
as the chinch bug, army worm, and stalk borer, which
come in mostly from adjacent fields. The most important
of these insects from an economic standpoint are here
given, together with suggestions for their control : —
Cutworms
Cutworms live on various kinds of grasses. The moths
lay their eggs in late summer. These eggs soon hatch
and the partially grown larve live over winter in the
ground. They live on vegetation again the following year
216 CORN CROPS
and pupate during May and June. The larve feed prin-
cipally during the night, cutting the young plants off near
the ground. Late fall plowing usually destroys many of
the larve. Late planting will often avoid them, and
when the regular planting is destroyed it is usually safe
to depend on a late replanting to escape. Cutworms are
poisoned by mixing one pound of paris green to forty
pounds of bran. When applied with a drill the mass is
moistened and dried, so as to cause the poison to adhere.
When applied by hand, a quart of molasses is added to the
mixture.
Grubworms
These are larve of the May beetles, or June bugs.
The eggs are laid in June, mostly in grasslands, but more
or less in all cultivated fields, especially if recently dressed
with barnyard manure. The larve live on decaying
vegetable matter or roots, and often prove very destruc-
tive in cornfields.
No effective remedy has been proposed except in regions
where listing is practiced. Listed corn is not injured so
much as is surface-planted corn.
Wireworms
These are the larve of the family known as “ click
beetles.”’ The eggs are laid in the spring, in soil on grass-
land. The larve usually live two years in the soil, then
pupate in July and August, and are finally transformed
into beetles in about four weeks. The larve both eat
and bore the stems and roots of plants. No success-
ful remedy has been proposed. When damage is expected,
the corn may be planted more thickly, depending on thin-
ning where the wireworms do not reduce the stand. When
ANIMAL AND INSECT ENEMIES 217
replanting a field injured by wireworms the new rows are
planted midway between the old, leaving the old plants
as food for the worms.
Norte. The above pests, cutworms, grubs, and wireworms, give most
trouble on grass sod. They seldom give trouble after cultivated ciops
where clean culture has been practiced.
There are two insects that are most troublesome where
continuous corn culture is practiced — the corn rootworm
and the root-louse.
Corn rootworm
There are two species, known as the Western and the
Southern corn rootworm. The larve are similar and
work in the same way, though the beetles differ in color.
In early fall the female beetles lay about a dozen eggs in
the ground near the corn roots. These remain over winter
and hatch the next spring. The larve are about the
size of a pin and two-fifths inch in length, almost colorless
except for the head, which is yellow. They do most harm
in July and August. Starting near the tip of a large root
they bore inside the root, toward the plant. As they
multiply rather slowly and as corn is their only host
plant, the rootworms are serious only where the land has
been in continuous corn culture for three or more years
in succession.
Corn root-louse
Injury from the corn root-louse is very irregular, due
no doubt to its natural enemies which ordinarily keep
it in check. When unrestrained, however, it increases so
rapidly that it may become very injurious in a short time.
Usually its injury occurs in spots rather than over the
whole field, due probably to local centers of infection
from which it spreads rapidly. During the summer the
218 CORN CROPS
wingless females produce living young continuously, which
in turn at the end of a few days also begin producing young.
The lice live on the juices that they suck from the corn
roots. Winged females occur occasionally, which estab-
lish new colonies. In the fall both winged males and
females appear. This last brood lays eggs which live
over winter. Ants are often associated with plant lice
and it is thought that they assist in protecting them and
in caring for the eggs.
No practical way of restraining the lice has been sug-
gested, except that early plowing and clean, thorough
preparation of the land will destroy to a large degree
those present in the soil.
The corn ear worm
The ear worm is the larva of a moth. Two to seven
broods are produced each year, depending on latitude,
about four broods being the average at the 40th parallel.
It is the brood produced at silking time that is most
injurious. The worms eat off the grains near the tip of
the ear, not only destroying directly considerable grain,
but also opening a way for fungous diseases and ear rot.
Migratory insects
Chinch bugs. — While chinch bugs breed in cornficlds,
the principal damage is due to migrating bugs from adja-
cent grainfields after harvest. The migration of wing-
less bugs is prevented by barriers, such as a dust mulch
10 feet wide, harrowed every day to keep loose, or a plow
furrow with post holes every 2 rods where the bugs collect
and may be destroyed by kerosene. A barrier of tar is
sometimes used.
ANIMAL AND INSECT ENEMIES 219
Fic. 73.— Ear of corn showing corn smut.
220 CORN CROPS
Army worms.— Where army worms migrate, the
remedy generally recommended is to establish a post-
hole barrier by plowing several furrows toward the colony ;
in the bottom of the last furrow, dig post holes into which
the army worms fall and are killed with kerosene.
DISEASES OF CORN
150. The diseases affecting corn are the common corn
smut ( Ustilago zea) and certain ear rots, the most serious
of which is caused by a fungus known botanically as
Diplodia zea. Other forms of ear rot are caused by species
of Fusarium. Both these diseases live over on infected
stalks and ears, producing spores abundantly the follow-
ing spring and summer to infect the new crop. The only
remedy is to gather up and destroy by fire the infected
material.
Corn is remarkably free from injurious diseases. It is
rarely that the loss from smut or ear rot in a field will
amount to so much as 1 per cent. Occasionally serious
loss occurs.
References on insects injurious to corn : —
Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 44. Insect Injuries to the Seed and
Root of Indian Corn. 1896.
Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 79. The Corn Bill-bugs in Illinois.
1902.
Il. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 95. The More Important Insect
Injuries to Indian Corn. 1904.
Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 104. Field Experiments and Ob-
servation on Insects Injurious to Indian Corn. 1905. °
Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 130. Experiments with Repellents
against the Corn Root-aphis. 1905 and 1906.
Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 131. Habits and Behavior of the
Cornfield Ant. 1908.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 259. Corn Bill-bugs and Root
Louse.
ANIMAL AND INSECT ENEMIES 221
N. C. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 203. Corn Weevils and Other
Grain Insects.
Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 145. Corn Pests.
Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Cire. 8. Budworms in Corn.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent. Bul. 85. The Corn Root Aphis and
Seed Corn Ground Weevil.
References of corn diseases :—
Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 23. Corn Smut.
Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 11. Smut of Indian Corn.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 69. Corn Smut.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 234. Dry Rot of Corn.
Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 183. Ear rots of Corn.
CHAPTER XIX
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP
151. In the New England States, where corn culture
first developed, it was the custom from the beginning to
harvest the stalk as well as the ears. ‘‘ Topping” was
a common practice, the stalk above the ear being cut off
for forage when immature, and later, when the ears had
matured, these being “ snapped ” off and stored in barns
to be ‘ husked.”’
With the opening up of the North Central and Western
States, from 1840 to the present time, corn became an
important article of commerce. The acreage of corn
increased rapidly and, with little use for the stover, the
custom of harvesting only the ears became general.
In the Southern States, the corn area has never been
extensive and a part of the forage has generally been saved.
The custom of “topping” and ‘‘ stripping ”’ has been
more general in the Gulf States than in other regions.
Corn has also been found to be the cheapest and best
crop for silage; in dairy regions throughout the North-
eastern States, corn is grown principally for silage, the
entire crop of large dairy regions being utilized in this
way.
In the Central and Western States, only a small propor-
tion of the stalks are harvested for either silage or stover,
but the practice of harvesting the entire plant is increas-
ing. It is customary, when only the ears are harvested,
222
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP 223
Fic. 74.— Typical cornfields in the corn belt.
224 CORN CROPS
to turn the farm live stock into the fields during the
winter months to eat what they will of the leaves, husks,
and smaller parts of the stalk.
TIME OF HARVESTING
152. The object should be to harvest at such a time as
to secure the maximum amount of digestible food. The
total dry weight continues to increase up to the time of
ripening, as shown by the following data : —
TABLE LIII
IncrEASE OF Dry WEIGHT AS REPORTED BY THREE STATIONS
YieELD oF Dry MarrEeR PER ACRE
ConpITION WHEN| APPROXIMATE New
HarvesTeD DatTE yy | Michi- |p a3] Aver- | Percent-
nee gan? ranges: age age of
ev Pounds | *°%"°S | Pounds | Increase
Ears in silk .; Aug. 10-15 | 3,000 | 3,670 3,335
Ears in milk | Aug. 25 4,300 | 5,320 | 6,868 | 5,496 65
Ears in glaz-
ing. . .| Sept. 15 7,200 | 7,110] 7,716] 7,342) 33
Ears ripe .| Sept. 25 8,000 | 8,020 | 9,548 | 8,523 16
1 Ann. Rpt. 1889. 2U. 8. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 97: 12.
3 Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 30 : 181-207.
At the time when corn is in tassel or in silk, less than
one-half the dry weight has been developed. Increase
in dry weight continues up to maturity. There was an
average increase of 16 per cent from the time corn was
glazed to time of maturity. There is an increase not
only in total dry weight, but in all valuable constituents,
as shown by the following data from the Michigan sta-
tion : —
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP 225
TABLE LIV
YIELD PER ACRE or GREEN FoppEer, Dry Marrer, AND
NUTRIENTS
: NItRo-
Dry
Time or Currine SaEnN Mar- a pane Far | Finer
AES EXTRACT
August 10 (tasseled) | 21,203 | 3,670 | 472.7] 1,828 | 67.9} 1,010
August 25 (in milk) | 25,493 | 5,320) 576.0| 3,212 | 143.1] 1,148
September 6 (glaz-
ing) . 25,865 | 7,110] 711.0} 4,554 | 199.0) 1,294
September 15 (ripe) 23,007 | 8,020 | 696.9 | 5,356 | 242.6) 1,413
Not only does the total yield increase, but the quality
improves with maturity. The large group of compounds
under the head “nitrogen-free extract”? are not all
equally valuable for feeding purposes. Starch and the
sugars are the most valuable and both increase in propor-
tion as the plant matures, due to the development of ear,
as shown by Jordan of the Maine station.12
TABLE LV
Stance axp Suoar | POUNDS OF Stance
en Tea PRODUCED PER ACRE
August 15, ears eas! to
form. . . 25.1 358.5
August 28, a few roasting
ears... 40.5 1,172
September 4, all ” roasting
ears... ee ae 42.7 1,545
September 12, some ears
glazing 3 42.2 1,764
September 21, all ears glazed 50.3 2,244
1 Maine Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 17:4.
2U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 97 : 12.
bo
bo
for)
CORN CROPS
RELATIVE PROPORTION OF PARTS
153. Before considering the time and method of
harvesting the whole plant, it will be well to note the
relative proportion and value of the different parts of the
corn plant at various stages of growth. The Michigan
station has studied this subject and reported the following
results : ! —
TABLE LVI
PrerRcENTAGE oF TotaL Dry Marrer In Leaves, STALKS, AND
Ears or Corn Puants at Four Staceés or Growrs (Micu-
IGAN Station, 1896)
| PERCENTAGE OF ToTaL Dry MatTrTer
Time oF CutrTina |
| Leaves | Stalks Ears
= | |
|
August 24 (in milk). . . «| 36.41 34.27 29.32
August 31. . . . . . .|] 33.63 25.52 40.85
September 7 (glazing) . . . 30.08 25.53 44.44
September 14 (ripe) ae 21.77 31.91 46.32
COMPOSITION OF PARTS
154. The total dry weight alone does not give a com-
parative statement of the relative feeding value of the
parts of a corn plant. The leaves are very high in al-
buminoids, while the stalks are low in these compounds.
Pound for pound, leaves are about twice as valuable as
stalks. A further study of the distribution of the princi-
pal compounds of the plant at different stages of growth
is reported as follows : —
1U.8. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 97: 9-12.
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP 227
TABLE LVII
DIstRIBUTION oF ALBUMINOIDS AND NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT
In Leaves, STALKS, AND Ears or Corn at DIFFERENT
STAGES oF GROWTH
ALBUMINOIDS NITROGEN-FREE ExTRACcT
Time oF CUTTING
Leaves | Stalks | Ears | Leaves| Stalks | Ears
August 24 (in milk) — . | 52.50 | 10.00 | 37.50 | 38.50 | 17.50 | 44.00
August 31. . . . .|51.06| 2.53 | 46.41 | 28.40 | 23.64 | 47.96
September 7 (glazing) . | 42.71] 5.19 | 52.10 | 20.50 | 25.30 | 54.20
September 14 (ripe) _. | 30.60 | 10.70 | 58.70 | 15.90 | 29.40 | 54.70
The above tables show very clearly the shift in relative
proportion of dry weight and important food constituents
from leaves and stalk to ear, as growth progresses. From
the data presented in the last five tables it would seem that
corn should be allowed to stand until quite mature before
harvesting, since the total yield and quality apparently
improve. There are two considerations against this:
the loss of leaves, and the fact that both leaves and stalk
become less palatable with maturity.
RELATIVE VALUE OF PARTS
155. From the last two tables it appears that at the
time the ear is in the “milk” stage, the relative dry
matter is about equally distributed between leaves, stalks,
and ears, although 40 to 50 per cent of the total nutrients
are in the leaves alone. There is then a gain in ear until
46 per cent of the dry weight and about 56 per cent of the
nutrients are found in the ear,
228 CORN CROPS
RELATIVE FOOD VALUE OF EARS AND STOVER
At the time corn would be cut for silage or fodder,
when the ears are glazed, about 40 per cent of the protein
and 20 per cent of the nitrogen-free extract are in the leaves ;
or, of the total food value of the plant at this time, approxi-
mately 30 per cent is in the leaves, 15 per cent in the stalk,
and 55 per cent in the ear.
Armsby! compiled the data from four stations and cal-
culated the yield of ears and stover to be as follows :—
TABLE LVIII
STATION Ears STovER
New Jersey (dent) . | 4,774 4,041
Connecticut (flint) . | 4,216 4,360
Wisconsin (dent) ee yi 4,490
Pennsylvania (dent) . . . . . [ B77 2,460
Average . | 4,415 3,838
The above average shows that about 53 per cent of the
crop by weight is ears; but the ears contain a higher
percentage of digestible nutrients than does the stover,
and a calculation of the digestible nutrients in the above
shows about 63 per cent in the ear and 37 per cent in the
stover. The above figures represent the distribution of
nutrients at the time the stover is cut for forage, but do
not indicate the final distribution of digestible nutrients.
Fodder is usually cut when the ears are glazed in order to
save the valuable leaves, and about ten days before it is
ripe. But during this period there is considerable trans-
location of sugars and starch from the leaves and stem to
1 Penn. Agr. Exp. Sta., Rpt. 1887.
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP 229
the ear, so that in the fully matured corn crop, under
normal conditions, between 60 and 70 per cent of the
digestible nutrients will be in the ears.
This ratio would not apply to corn planted thick for
silage, when the proportion of stover is increased without
decreasing the yield of ears.
There is also considerable increase in total weight
between the time the ears are glazed and the time when
they are ripe, usually amounting to about 10 per cent.
The value of stover obtained must be decreased by what-
ever loss is occasioned by early harvesting. Charging
this loss against the stover, it would appear that the total
feeding value of the crop is increased about 25 per cent by
harvesting the stover when the ears are glazed, in com-
parison with allowing the crop to mature and harvesting
only the ears.
In conclusion, corn should be permitted to become as
nearly mature before harvesting as is practicable. As
pointed out heretofore (page 227), two-thirds of the value
of the stover is in the leaves, and it is therefore important
to save these. In a humid climate, with fall rains, it is
often possible to allow corn to stand until most of the
ears are mature before cutting; but in a region with dry
falls and windy weather the harvesting must be done
seven to ten days earlier, if the leaves are to be saved.
TIME OF HARVESTING FOR SILAGE
156. When the silo first came into use, the custom was
to use very immature material. It was found in time
that silage from mature corn was better in quality and the
yield was greater. There is a limit, however, in this
direction. Silage, in order to keep well, must pack closely,
230 CORN CROPS
and as nearly as possible, all air must be excluded.
Corn too mature cannot be packed closely enough,
though sprinkling with water and
careful tramping will allow the
ensilaging of corn even when more
than half the ears might be con-
sidered ripe. As a general rule,
when the husks have mostly
turned yellow, and two to four
bottom leaves have turned, is the
aig
Fic. 75.— A modern silage 4
cutter, with blower at- proper time.
tachment, for delivering Good silage contains about 75
the cut silage. es
Pee eee per cent water, and it is doubtful
whether it would be practicable to ensile corn containing
less than 65 per cent moisture.
METHODS OF HARVESTING
157. The four methods of harvesting maize are as fol-
lows : —
1. Stripping: leaves removed while green for forage,
and ears husked later.
2. Topping: tops cut off above ear for forage, and ears
husked later.
3. Ears only harvested, stalks left in field.
4, Entire plant harvested for silage or fodder.
Harvesting by hand
158. Stripping and topping are practiced in the belief
that in this way the forage may be obtained while
green and in the right condition to harvest, while the
ears are allowed to remain and mature. It has been
231
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP
‘aBRTIS JOJ posn doso jedroutd oy} st WI0D
‘uoT}e19dO UI 19}1Nd sseTIs pus OTIS YW — ‘OL “OlT
232 CORN CROPS
shown,! however, that both stripping and topping reduce
the yield of grain, so that it is doubtful whether the total
yield of grain secured is greater than when the whole
plant is harvested as fodder. The loss of shelled corn has
generally amounted to 10 to 20 per cent, which is about
the usual loss when harvested as fodder.
The Texas station reports the labor expense of topping
and stripping to be as follows: —
Tops only: Cost per ton of dry-cured fodder . . . . $2.13
Leaves only: Cost per ton of dry-cured fodder. . . . 7.67
As it takes about four acres to produce a ton of leaves
and half as much for a ton of tops, the value of the forage
secured does not compensate for the loss of grain and
cost of harvesting.
159. Hand cutters. — Probably the first tool used in
harvesting fodder was the hoe. Corn knives came into
use in time, those made from old scythe blades being the
most common at first. Corn ‘ hooks” were also made
by inserting a short blade at about right angles in a short
wooden handle. There are several standard types of
knives and hooks on the market.
Horse-drawn cutters
160. The first horse-drawn cutters to have a general
use were sleds, drawn astride of the corn row, with a
heavy knife attached in front at the right height to cut
off the corn plants, or drawn between two corn rows with
a heavy knife attached to one or both sides for cutting
1 Miss. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 33:63. 1895.
Penn. Agr. Sta., Rpt. 1891 : 58-60.
Ga. Agr. Exp. Sta., 23: 81-82. 1893.
Ark. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 24: 120.
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Fie. 77.— A corn hook and knives used in harvesting corn fodder. A
“‘horse’’ used in shocking corn fodder. A home-mad2 sied cutter.
The sled is drawn by a horse between two rows, the stalks being cut
by sharp knives on each side. Two operators stand on the sled.
The lower figure illustrates a system of cutting by hand, in order to
economize steps.
233
234 CORN CROPS
the plants. Later, wheels were substituted for runners
and seats were provided for the men. Some cutters have
large platforms to carry the green fodder until enough has
been accumulated for a shock. There is no labor saved
Tic. 78. — A two-row corn cutter mounted on wheels. The two operators
stand between the wheels.
by having a large platform, and the most popular type
is that in which there is room for only a large armful to
be collected at a time.
The corn binder
161. The first successful corn binders were introduced
about 1895 and have steadily increased in popularity,
The corn is bound in bundles of convenient size, and with
a bundle carrier six to eight bundles may be collected
before dropping windrows to be shocked up later or drawn
to the silo.
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP 235
Shocking corn
162. The ordinary custom in curing fodder is to leave it
in shocks for one to three months. It is then sufficiently
Fic. 79. — Corn fodder harvester in section.
cured to husk or store in barns or stack yard. It is
often left in the field to be hauled as needed during
the winter.
Size of shocks
163. The exposure and loss is greater in small shocks
than in large. Where fodder is green, the shocks must
be small if the corn is set directly into shock, ordinarily
one hundred to one hundred fifty hills being enough.
When cured it is often practicable to set two or three
shocks together or to stack. When the fodder can be
allowed to partly cure before shocking, as in harvesting
with a binder, the shocks should be made as large as is
practicable.
CORN CROPS
236
‘uoyesado UT Jopulq pus JoysoAreY TIO OY, — 08 “OTL
i \ }
i
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP 237
Setting up shocks
164. When cutting corn with knives, it is customary to
tie four hills together for a “‘ horse ’’ in the place where it
is proposed to place a shock. In other cases a ‘‘ horse ”’
is made as illustrated in Fig. 77. In setting up bundles
after a corn binder, a “ horse ” is not necessary.
Tying shocks
165. After the shock is well set up, the tops of the out-
side stalks should be tucked under and the shock securely
tied with binder twine. A rope with iron hook on one
end, or a quirt, is useful in drawing the shock before tying.
When corn is cut by hand, some steps will be saved by
following a systematic plan, in cutting the hills for each
armful. Such a plan for a shock ten hills square is illus-
trated in Fig. 77.
Husking fodder corn
166. The fodder may be husked in the field, a common
practice in the West, or as common in the Hast, hauled
to the barn to be husked later, or hauled to a shredder.
The shredder delivers the shredded fodder and husked
ears in separate piles. When husking by hand in the
field the ears are often thrown into piles, to be collected
later with a wagon. A more convenient way is to husk
directly into the wagon. A high “ throwboard ”’ should
be put on the wagon box opposite the husker. A light
frame on wheels may be attached to the rear of the wagon
across which the fodder corn is thrown for husking. This
allows the husker to stand while at work.
238 CORN CROPS
Shredding fodder
167. Zintheo makes the following statement:! “ Be-
tween 1880 and 1890, a great deal of attention was given
to threshing corn. This practice so battered the stalk as
to make every part of it available as a cattle food. Fodder
cutters had been in use for many years yet this method of
preparing corn fodder left the fibrous part of the stalk in
a tough woody condition which cattle did not relish. The
bruising and shredding action of the thresher put the
stalk in a more palatable form. The repeated shortages
and failures of the hay crop during the decade 1880-1890,
ENEUMATIC STACKER
Fic. §1. — Combined shredder and husker.
together with the results of attempts at threshing corn,
led to the invention of the combined husker and shredder,
which takes the stalks with the ears on them and prepares
the stalks for feeding.”’
Shredding fodder is generally considered as an economic
way of preparing corn fodder for feed. In humid climates
there is sometimes trouble with the shredded fodder heat-
ing when piled in large quantities, unless care is taken to
shred only fodder in a fairly dry condition.
1U. 8. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Sta., Bul. 173: 40.
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP 239
Hauling fodder corn
168. When there is snow, a sled with fodder rack is
most convenient. At other times and for drawing silage,
a low down rack on wheels is desirable.
Fie. 82. — Husking peg and husking hook. The peg is best for fodder
corn and the hook for standing corn.
Harvesting ears by hand
169. In the Corn Belt States, only the ears are harvested
on perhaps nine-tenths of the area. The method is to
husk directly into a wagon. A “ throw-board ”’ about
30 inches high is put on the wagon-box on the far side
from the husker. The husker takes two rows at a time and
usually one man to a wagon. An average day’s husking
in good corn is 60 to 75 bushels of shelled corn. The
husker uses a peg or hook in the palm of his hand to assist.
in tearing off the husks.
240 CORN CROPS
Harvesting ears by machinery
170. For at least fifty years, attempts have been made
to devise mechanical corn pickers to operate in the field.
Within the past few years, machines have been perfected
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP 241
that do the work in a satisfactory manner, provided the
stalks stand up well and too many ears have not fallen
to ground. At best, some ears are left in the field,
which must be picked up by hand. In some cases, live
stock are turned in to gather up ears that are left. As
the machine requires six horses to draw it and two more
teams to draw the ears away, it is only practical in large
fields. A machine will husk about eight acres a day.
Comparative cost of harvesting methods
171. Zintheo! has collected and summarized data on
comparative cost of different methods of harvesting corn.
He gives the following estimate as comparative cost in the
corn-belt, where the corn is producing an average of 44
bushels per acre : —
TABLE LIX
Cost or Harvestine Corn By Various Mrruops
Average data for harvesting by hand
Cost of implement . . one ae areE $1.00
Acres one man harvests per ‘day etry mer sete 1.47
Cost of cutting and shocking . . ... . $1.50 per acre
Average data for harvesting with sled harvester
Cost of implement . Se ee $5 to $50
Acres 2 men and 1 horse ‘harvest per day. . 4.67
Cost of cutting and shocking . . ... . $1.18 per acre
Average data for harvesting with corn binder
Cost of implement. . . . $125.00
Acres cut per day by 1 man and 3 horses a4 -7.73
Acres shocked per day, | man .... . 3.31
Cost of cutting and shocking . . ... . $1.50 per acre
1Z1ntHEO. Corn Harvesting Machinery. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Office of
Exp. Sta., Bul. 173: 46.
R
242 CORN CROPS
Cost per bushel of picking and husking corn
CENTS.
By hand from field, 3.t
Team for cribbing ........ 2.
By hand from shock os ae os) OS:
Team foreribbing . ....... 79
By corn picker from field . . A ti el,
By huskers and shredder from shock 4.5
The relative cost of methods will differ, depending prin-
cipally upon the price of labor.
Storing ears
172. The ears are usually stored in slatted cribs to
provide ventilation. If a good roof is provided, there is
Fic. 84.—A good type of farm corn crib, and farm elevator used in
unloading.
seldom loss from rotting in the crib. Rats and mice
cause considerable loss where corn is stored for several
months or more and it is important to have cribs rodent
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP 243
proof. Ventilated sheet-iron cribs are now on the
market, that are rodent-proof if set on a cement foun-
dation. Wooden cribs can be made rodent-proof by lin-
ing with hardware netting or if constructed on a cement
foundation. Where a cement floor and foundation are
used, care must be taken to provide ventilation under-
neath by means of a raised board floor. The floor may
be slated and made in movable sections to facilitate clean-
ing beneath.
Shrinkage in curing fodder and silage
173. If the total dry matter and protein content of
corn fodder be ascertained at the time of storage either as
fodder or silage, it may be determined that there is a con-
stant loss in both for at least a year. The amount of this
loss as determined by the Wisconsin station is summarized
as follows: —
TABLE LX
Loss in Curtnc Corn in Sito or aS FoppER (WISCONSIN
Station, THREE-YEAR AVERAGE)
GREEN SILAGE OR
METHOD ey Roope one Pon CENT ;
(a) Ensilage method
Dry matter . . .{ 35,602 | 28,300 7,281 20.5
Crude protein. . . 2,910 2,312 597 20.6
(6) Field cured
Dry Matter . . .| 39,448 | 31,428 8,020 20 3
Crude protein. . . 3,102 2,619 482 15.6
The Connecticut station! reports results of an experi-
ment in which no loss was apparent while curing. Most
1 Conn. Sta., Rpt. 1889 : 219,
244 CORN CROPS
experiments, however, show field losses ranging from 10 to
20 per cent. A part of this loss in field curing is due to
direct loss of leaves and portions of the stalk. Where direct
loss of material is entirely prevented, there is still a loss,
apparently due to a slow process of oxidation or fermen-
tation. This loss will go on even when placed in stack or
under cover.
As 15 to 20 per cent of the feeding value of corn fodder
is in the leaves, a large share of the loss of field curing is
due to loss of leaves, but a part to fermentations; on the
other hand, all loss in silos is due to fermentations.
Gain in gross weight
174. After fodder has become thoroughly air dry, its
weight will then vary with the humidity of the air, as dry
fodder readily absorbs moisture. The Connecticut sta-
tion reports the results with two lots of fodder in 1877.
The fodder-crop was very heavy, but the fall being dry,
the two lots cured down to 27 per cent and 36 per cent
moisture respectively, when placed in the barn. The
winter was warm and damp, so that 5.2 tons placed in the
barn Nov. 11, had increased in weight to 8.5 tons by Feb. 8.
Shrinkage of ear corn in storage
175. When ear corn is stored as harvested in October
or November, there is a shrinkage in total weight during
the first year varying from 5 to 20 per cent. Shrinkage
is principally due to drying out of water. It is directly
related to how well the corn matures, and the dryness of
fall weather. The following data from three experiment
stations illustrate ; —
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP 245
TABLE LXI
SHRINKAGE OF CORN IN CRIB AS SUMMARIZED FROM RESULTS
oF THREE STATIONS
Kansas! 2
Monts AFTER Harvest PERE EAS Rose Tecate eee
Per Cent Per Crenr Per Cent
December. . .... . 3.6 8.7
Febraary . « <« = = + # 3.26
Manche ioc 2s Se oe Se 5.7 10.5
Apriliee &. fa Ve. Gk tee Gee es 5.16
UNG). Gat, hy OR 6.80 14.4 16.2
August Ro tee gs ee 7.44
September. . .... . 16.6 19.4
October: = ‘ ently attains a perfection in
type not possible under aver-
age conditions.
Our study of acclimatiza-
tion developed the importance
of growing seed corn under
conditions similar in soil and
climate to the region where
it is to be used as seed. This
makes it doubtful whether
corn grown under the most
favorable environment is best
adapted for average conditions.
The future of corn shows
does not rest so much on
practical considerations as
esthetic. A sound, perfect
ear of corn is beautiful, artis-
tic, and pleasing to the senses.
The plant on which it grew is
interesting in the same way.
Kh
id
aK
; Ki
'
«
u
&
cae)
eA
Q
Y
Fig. 88. — A typical ear of show corn.
Ried’s yellow dent.
SHOW CORN 255
The ear also represents the largest and most interesting
crop in the United States, and the principal means of sup-
port of many millions. So long as men admire perfect
ears of corn, the corn show will last.
181. Show corn is judged, on the basis of degree of
perfection exhibited, both in soundness and general sym-
metry, uniformity, and beauty. It must be perfectly
sound and matured, and free from signs of deterioration
due to disease or improper care.
The characters of show corn may be grouped in two
classes, as those that pertain to soundness and maturity
and those tha} pertain to perfection in symmetry and uni-
formity. The first class is of practical value and applies
in the judging of all seed corn. The second class of points
cannot be said to beimportant to consider in seed selection.
182. Maturity is judged by the general plumpness and
development of the kernels. If the kernels are loose on the
cob, or unduly shrunken at tip or crown, the ear probably
did not mature properly.
183. Soundness is judged principally by the vitality
of germs and strength of germination. Good germs
should be plump, of a texture similar to good cheese, and
no signs of discoloring. Any variation from this can
usually be seen, but it is not always possible to judge
the viability by examination alone. A germination test
is sometimes necessary to determine this point.
Fancy characters pertain to the perfection and symmetry
of development of all parts of the ear, as butts, tips, rows,
kernels, etc.
184. Standards of perfection have been adopted in re-
gard to a few of the best-known varieties, but at present
these standards are not regarded very much by corn
judges, but rather a universal standard has come to be
256 CORN CROPS
recognized, which is applied to all exhibits, more or less
regardless of variety.
For dent corn the following standards are generally
accepted :
Shape of ear. — Cylindrical or nearly so. The circum-
ference should be about three-fourths the length.
Size of ear. — The standard size of large dent varieties
is ten inches in length and seven and one-half inches in
Fic. 89. — Ideal butt and tip ends of dent corn. Note the regular size of
kernels in both cases.
circumference ; of medium dents, eight inches long and
six inches circumference.
Rows. — The rows should be straight, and each row
be full length of ear and extend well over butt and tip.
Short or irregular rows are regarded as imperfections.
Butt ends. — The butt end should be well rounded,
not flat. The shank should be about one-half the diam-
eter of cob. If smaller, the ear is liable to fall off the stalk ;
and if larger, the ear is more difficult to husk.
Tip of ears. — The rows should extend in a regular
way well over the tip. Only a small exposure of cob at
SHOW CORN 257
the tip end is allowed. Full depth of grain should extend
almost to the very tip of the ear.
Type of kernel.— A good kernel of large dent corn
should be about seven-eighths inch in length and
three-eighths in width, if
an eighteen-row ear, but
narrower if more _ rows.
The kernels should fit close
from tip to crown, being
somewhat keystone shaped.
The kernels should be fairly
thick, averaging in the row
about six kernels to the
inch. The kernel tip should
befull andsquare; the germ,
large, plump, and of good Fic. 90.— Cross-section of very
1 Al text 2 deep-kerneled type of dent corn
color and texture. commonly known as hackberry.
GROWING SHOW CORN
185. The seed must come from a good show strain
with many generations of selection for type. The soil
should be naturally good corn soil, and everything done
to put the soil in perfect condition, by proper rotation,
manuring, and tillage. The soil, however, can be too rich
in nitrogen for best results, as the plant is then inclined to
run too much to stalk rather than ear. The soil should
be rich in available minerals. Good show ears seldom
come from the portion of field where the growth is rankest,
but rather from a part where growth of stalk is normal
but ears large.
The rate of planting should be rather thin, about two-
thirds normal stand.
Ss
258 CORN CROPS
The crop should be handled so as to insure a rapid
normal growth throughout the season without a check.
Fic. 91.— An example of prolific corn.
CHAPTER XXII
SWEET CORN OR SUGAR CORN
By Aupert E. WILKINSON
SWEET corn is grown chiefly as a vegetable for table
use, although the stover is usually harvested as forage for
stock. Sometimes sweet corn is planted as a silage or
forage crop. The development of sweet corn has been dis-
cussed in another place (page 79).
VARIETIES AND TYPES
186. Sweet corn may be divided into about the same
general classes and types as field corn. The height of
the stalk varies from three to ten feet and the number of
rows on the ear from eight to twenty. Practically all
common colors are found. The time from planting to
maturity varies from 65 to 110 days.
187. As mentioned before (page 23) sweet corn is any
one of the starch corns (flint, dent, or flour corn) that has
lost its faculty of coverting sugars into starches; hence,
a large part of its carbohydrate material remains in the
form of sugar, although some starch may be developed.
Sweet corn culture is most extensive in the vicinity of
large cities, where it is grown as a market-garden and
truck crop, and in regions where it is grown as a can-
ning crop.
188. According to the latest census, 1910, the number
of farms reported as growing sweet corn in the United
259
260 CORN CROPS
States was 48,514, the number of acres, 178,224, the value
of the product, $5,936,419. New York leads with the
number of farms
reporting, having
6,584, the number
of acres being
23,739, and the
value of the prod-
uct $942,028. Penn-
sylvania is second
in number of farms,
4,896 reporting
sweet corn. The
second place in
number of acres,
however, is with II-
linois, 19,976 acres.
Illinois is also sec-
ond in the value of
the product, having
$558,746. Ohio is
third in the number
of farms, having
4,591. Maryland
is third in the num-
ber of acres, report-
ing 18,387 acres de-
voted to the crop.
In total value,
Fie. 92.— An ear of green corn, at proper stage New Jersey takes
pee Me third place, with
$557,708. Around the large cities of the northern part
of the United States, large areas are devoted to the
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SWEET CORN OR SUGAR CORN 261
Fic. 93. — Sweet corn of the Evergreen type.
262 CORN CROPS
production of sweet corn for immediate consumption.
Farther back and in several of the states, in particular
Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, New York,
and Ohio, the great canning industry is developed, and
large acreage is devoted to the growing of sweet corn for
canning.
VARIETIES
The varieties can be classified under three heads:
(1) canning, (2) commercial or market garden varieties,
and (3) home garden varieties.
The principal canning variety is a late corn, Stowell
Evergreen. Country Gentleman is also used to a large
extent among the canners. In the Maine canneries, a
corn known as Clark’s is used. This is a corn which has
been developed by the large canning houses, and the
seed is grown in that section. Farther west, the Hickox
is used to a considerable extent, while Trucker’s Fa-
vorite and Evergreen are considered desirable in some
sections.
189. The commercial varieties may be subdivided into
three or four divisions. Among the early varieties are
Cory, Adams Early, Early Maine, Peep o’ Day, Aristo-
crat ; medium earlies, Metropolitan, Golden Bantam, and
other golden corns, Honey, Quincy Market, and Crosby ;
late varieties, Country Gentleman, Stowell Evergreen,
Late Mammoth Hickox, Black Mexican.
In the home garden varieties, quality is of first impor-
tance. The custom is either to plant early and late corn,
or one high-class variety such as Golden Bantam every two
weeks for both early and late. A not unusual sequence
of varieties is: Cory, Crosby, Quincy Market, Country
Gentleman, and Stowell Evergreen.
SWEET CORN OR SUGAR CORN 263
SEED
190. The canning men as a rule raise their own seed,
or have it raised on private farms by contract. In raising
seed it is important to keep it free from contamination with
other varieties, especially with field corn. When a sweet
corn field is within a quarter of a mile of field corn, the
sweet corn ear is likely to have kernels that resemble the
field corn, due to wind-blown pollen. All blocks of seed
corn should be far enough apart to protect against cross-
pollination. The commercial grower or market-gardener
very often produces his own seed.
In some cases the seed has been maintained on the same
farm for many years. Some of these growers have suc-
ceeded by careful selection in developing desirable early
types suited to their needs and as aresult are able to
market their product very early and secure the highest
price.
191. The home gardener must depend practically from
season to season upon the product that he can buy of
the seedsman. If the seedsman is one ‘who practices
good methods of breeding and selecting his corn, the re-
sultant seed is high class. If the seed is grown under con-
tract and care is given, the results are satisfactory. When
a large firm is responsible, it is reasonable to expect that
the corn will come true to name.
192. Breeding and selecting sweet corn offers an interest-
ing field for investigation. As explained before (page 105)
the sweet corn grain type and starchy grain do not blend
in hybridizing. The sweet corn type of grain is a reces-
sive. ‘This makes it possible to cross sweet corn with any
type of starchy corn and, by selecting sweet corn grains
from the hybrids, have pure sweet corns at once which
264 CORN CROPS
may be combined with many or all the characters of the
starchy parent.
SELECTING AND CURING SWEET CORN
193. Methods of selecting seed sweet corn vary with
different growers. One way that has been found satis-
factory is herewith given.
For many years it has been the custom to select for
home planting a number of ears having characteristics
Tort
ya
f
t
Too
Tort
2
rts
Tt
Mt
1!
ENS
(oem q
Fic. 94. — Handy rack for drying seed corn.
most desirable. LEarliness is maintained only by saving
the earliest ears from the early corn, and from these earliest
ears a small number, known as “‘double extra,” are set
aside for the breeding-plat. In selecting these double
extra ears, it is important to note, not only size, length
of grain, and length of cob, but also the character of the
SWEET CORN OR SUGAR CORN 265
corn for quality, as denoted by its translucent appearance.
It is important to practice rigid selection, that is, not only
to have a great many of the right kind of ears, but to plant
none or the wrong kind in the breeding plat or near it.
One of the most important factors in the sweet corn
industry is the proper curing of the seed ears. Sweet
corn molds and ferments more easily than field corn.
This greatly injures germination. Freezing before curing
also injures germination.
194. Drying seed corn by fire heat is often practiced in
seed houses equipped for the work, but is not the most prac-
ticable method on a small scale. Corn thrown in a large
pile with or without the husk on will develop heat enough
inside of twenty-four hours to injure the germ, sour the
cob, and discolor the grain. Sweet corn cut and shocked
up like field corn will sour before it dries, unless the weather
be both cool and dry enough before winter to escape in-
jury by freezing. Corn left on the stalk untouched until
the husk opens will be greatly discolored and injured by
a spell of hot, damp weather. If, however, the ears be
husked out on a dry day and allowed to lie a few hours
exposed to the direct rays of the sun, the organisms which
cause fermentation are killed by the sunshine, and a layer
of impervious matter is formed over the butt end of the
cob, which makes it more difficult for fermentation to
start.
The following method of curing sweet corn seed is
recommended: When the husk is dead and loose on the
ear, wait for a bright, clear day, begin early in the
morning, and cut down a small piece of corn, throwing
into piles. The same forenoon, when the sun is shining
bright, husk it out as rapidly as possible, throw the corn
into small piles on the ground, tie the fodder into bundles,
266 CORN CROPS
and set it up in small shocks. Before night, haul in the
corn and put it on a slatted floor. The floor is made of
lath one inch. thick by two inches wide, spaced one inch
apart. The corn is taken up in baskets, and each basket
is turned upside down on the slats, and taken off carefully,
so that the ears are left like a pile of “ jack-straws,” crossed
in every direction, many of them standing in a nearly verti-
cal position. Each basketful of corn is emptied in a fresh
place, and when all is done the slats are covered with corn
about a foot deep, but so loosely arranged that there is no
obstruction to the passage of air between the ears. In
this position it dries very quickly and may be put into
barrels as soon as all moisture is out of the cob. Each
barrel may be covered with a piece of cloth held down by
the top hoop, and then the barrel turned on its side.
This plan applies more to the regions with humid fall
weather than to those regions in the West where fall weather
is dry.
GROWING SWEET CORN FOR CANNING
195. Canning corn is grown under contract with the firm
in many corn-growing regions. The canning company
sends out a contract similar to the following : —
Sweet corn agreement
(Place), (Date)
This agreement made with the—— Canning Com-
pany, by which I hereby agree to plant and raise for said
Company acres of sweet corn, the same to be de-
livered at factory from time to time as required by said
Company, in proper condition for canning during the
season of 191—; for which said Company agrees to pay
seven dollars per ton, said Company to furnish me at their
factory seed corn at the proper time for planting. For
SWEET CORN OR SUGAR CORN | 267
said seed corn I agree to pay said Company two dollars
per bushel on or before the first day of October, 191-, or
from the proceeds of corn delivered on this contract. I
further agree (1st) to plant said corn in three different
plantings, first planting, acres, to be planted early
in May; second and third plantings, —— acres, to be
planted the last of May or the first week in June, or after
each preceding planting is well up. (2d) Not to let any
corn become heated or damaged by remaining in bulk
too long, and to deliver said corn the day it is picked.
(3d) To make a short snap close to the ear. (4th) It
is further agreed that the corn covered in this contract
shall not be paid for till October first, 191-. (5th) That
corn must not be planted near field corn unless it be white
field corn, as mixed yellow corn is unfit for canning. In
case of destruction of the cannery by the elements, said
Company not to be held liable for damages on this contract.
(Signed) (The Company)
(Signed) (The Farmer)
196. Rotation. —It is often to the advantage of the
growers to plant their cannery corn crop in rotation with
other crops. It is desirable that the corn can be planted
following a sod, especially if on this sod from eight to ten
tons of stable manure are applied and plowed under. From
experiments, sweet corn is found to be greatly benefited
by deep plowing in some soils. If choice of soil is obtain-
able, the piece of ground that will give the most satisfac-
tory results is a gravelly or a sandy loam, especially if
there is some chance of having humus, such as sod or
manure. The corn is generally planted with a machine,
either one- or two-row corn planter ; and at the same time,
some growers apply from three to five hundred pounds of
268 CORN CROPS
a 3-8-5 fertilizer formula, or if the manure is deficient, up
to 1000 to 1200 pounds of fertilizer of the same formula.
In some cases, growers raising sweet corn place not only
the above amount of manure on their ground, but some-
times more, and add the larger amount of fertilizer, as
well.
197. Distance between the rows in planting is from
30 to 42 inches. Sometimes the distance between the
hills in the rows is but 24 inches, and other times it will
extend to 36 inches. The general custom is, with the
smaller-growing varieties, to lessen the distance, whereas
with the large-growing varieties, such as Stowell, the dis-
tance is increased so that each plant may have a normal
amount of space for full development. More seed is gen-
erally planted in the hill than is required, from five to
eight seeds being dropped in each. Later, this corn is
thinned to three or four stalks to the hill. By this pro-
cess the three or four best developed plants are allowed
to remain. ;
The weeder 1s used soon after the seed is planted, or a
fine-tooth harrow. When the corn has broken ground,
the weeding is generally discontinued, and a fine-tooth
cultivator used. This may be a one-row or a two-row
cultivator. The general plan at first in cultivation is to
till rather deeply, especially in the middle of the row
between the plants, later tilling more shallow. The
corn plant requires constant tillage and a good soil
mulch for its best development and conservation of the
moisture. Hand hoeing would be necessary if weeds were
troublesome, especially if the plot was not check-rowed.
However, there are some men that go to the extra care
of check-rowing their corn, and cultivating in two direc-
tions, then omitting the hand hoeing. It may be an ad-
SWEET CORN OR SUGAR CORN 269
vantage to go through with a hand hoe, because, at the
same time that hoeing is performed, sucker growths may
be removed from the corn, thereby improving the quality
and size of the ears. When it is seen that the horse and
machine in cultivating are injuring the corn, this work
is discontinued, and the corn is allowed to grow without
farther attention.
About the time of marketing, the factories generally
send a man to the field to instruct the farmer just when to
bring the corn to the factory. In the different sections,
there is some difference of opinion as to when the corn
should be harvested for the factory and just how. In
general, the corn should be delivered to the factory as soon
as possible after breaking from the stalk. There are some
companies that desire the corn broken in the morning and
carted immediately to their factories. As stated in a
number of reports received from canners, they did not
desire the growers to pick the corn in the late afternoon
and allow this to stand in the wagons over night, owing
to heating of the corn.
In harvesting, the ear is broken from the plant so that
there is very little or no stub left on the base, and the
unnecessary husks as well are taken off. However, no
extra attention or care is given at this period. The corn
may be gathered in baskets or in boxes, and immediately
emptied in a wagon. When the wagon is full, it is taken
to the factory and there weighed, if sold at so much a ton
green weight.
198. Thirty-five dollars is a fair return for an acre, ex-
clusive of the value of the fodder, as well as the husk and
the cob, which the growers can take back to their farms.
The average returns for sweet corn to the acre are between
three and four tons. Example: On good Iowa land, a
270 CORN CROPS
farmer will average with a good stand about three tons
per acre. Some years the yield will be as high as four and
one-half tons. The price varies, but for large Evergreen
corn from six to seven dollars is received per gross ton
of corn with the husks on, and for smaller varieties the
price is from $7.50 to $8.50 per gross ton. Other states
report different yields and different prices for their corn.
Very much depends on the cannery, the methods em-
ployed, and several other factors. The above are average
figures.
Besides the corn grown for the canneries under con-
tract, canneries often grow a large acreage of corn for their
own use. The work there is conducted similarly to that
of the men who contract with them. They plant their
corn at different periods, so that it may extend over a
long season and they may, by so ‘planting, be able to
keep the factory busy throughout the season.
MARKET SWEET CORN
Commercial corn growing for consumption in the green
stage may be classed as: market-garden sweet corn grow-
ing, which embraces the extremely early and a small
amount of the main season crop; and truck growing sweet
corn, which never embraces the extremely early crop, but
only the main and late crops.
199. The market-garden crop is generally grown on
high-priced land near the centers of population. The
soil is generally in the best condition and of the typical
market-garden type, a sandy loam well supplied with
humus, and improved each year by applications of ma-
nure, sometimes as high as 40 tons to the acre. Besides
the heavy applications of manure, some market-gardeners
use large quantities of commercial fertilizer. The general
SWEET CORN OR SUGAR CORN 271
idea among them is that in order to get an early crop of
sweet corn, which is the one that brings the highest money,
they should have food for the plant quickly available.
200. From six to eight kernels, in some cases more, are
planted in each hill. For the early varieties, the hills may
be as close as one foot. From fifteen to eighteen inches is
more nearly the average distance between hills in the row.
The distance between rows varies from twenty-four to
thirty inches. The cleanest culture is given, and irriga-
tion is practiced in some cases.
Market-gardeners, by their intensive methods of plant-
ing, are able to place corn on the market from ten days
to two weeks earlier than men living a little farther back
from the centers of population, and practicing less inten-
sive methods. In cultivating the corn, especially with the
hoe, suckering is generally practiced.
Cultivation ts continued thoroughly and as along as
possible, the horse beng muzzled when it is found that
injury results. If the corn is not growing to suit, slight
applications of fertilizer, especially nitrate of soda 100 to
150 pounds per acre, are made.
In planting the early and main season and late varie-
ties, some planters practice sowing the seed at the same
time, and allowing the difference in the period of maturity
to bring the crop in at the proper time. Other growers
prefer to plant their corn at intervals of ten days to two
weeks. This latter seems to be the most practicable
method.
201. Marketing.— As soon as the ear is at the right
stage for harvesting it is broken from the plant and placed
in baskets or boxes, immediately taken to the shed, and
there repacked. In the eastern markets, especially in New
England, the corn is packed in boxes, a certain definite
272 CORN CROPS
number of ears in each box. For New York and Phila-
delphia and through the North and West, ears are sold
by the hundred in sacks or hampers. This is less satis-
factory. It is not a pleasing pack or one that attracts
attention. The bushel box is more practical, more up to
date and the corn carries better. In the sack the corn
has been known to heat because too much was placed
together.
202. The first corn coming to the market sells for thirty
to forty and in some cases fifty cents a dozen. It then
steadily declines until it reaches eight and even six cents
adozen. If aman has a retail route and has corn through-
out the season, he usually maintains a high average price.
Some men never sell for less than fifteen cents throughout
the season from their retail wagons.
203. The bulk of the main crop and the late crop are
grown a little farther back from cities on less expensive
land, and under less intensive methods. The rows and
hills are generally a little farther apart, three feet to forty-
two inches between rows, and from thirty to thirty-six
inches between hills in the row. Fertilizer up to a thou-
sand or twelve hundred pounds is applied with the corn.
The corn is commonly planted on sod ground, this being
usually spring plowed. Clean culture is practiced in the
early part of the season. The corn is generally harvested
the same as for the market-gardening. When grading and
packing is necessary, the ears should be of uniform size
and about the same degree of maturity. Better prices
can be thus secured. The corn is usually shipped to
commission houses, to wholesale stores, to clubs and hotels.
Gross returns of $100 an acre will make a crop of corn
profitable. As high as $350 the acre has been received
from sweet corn.
SWEET CORN OR SUGAR CORN 273
FORCING SWEET CORN
204. Forcing under glass has been rachned for com-
mercial corn growing. Experiments have been tried, es-
pecially in New England. The Early Minnesota, Crosby,
Early Cory, Adams and other varieties have been used for
forcing with more or less success. A summary of sugges-
tions is given here.
205. The requirements for forcing corn under glass are
practically the same as those for forcing other warm-
weather plants, such as tomatoes, melons, cucumbers, and
egg-plants, — a day temperature of 70° to 80° and a night
temperature of 60° to 70° being required, the atmosphere
in the house to be rather moist during the first period of
the corn’s growth, but when pollen begins to fall, the at-
mosphere being dry. The crop should be marketed before
July first, in order to be remunerative. Extra early
varieties maturing in from 65 to 83 days from seed are to
be used. The corn may be started in pots, either paper
or clay, a few seed in each pot, and later transplanted
where it is to stand in the greenhouse. Inter-cropping
with radishes, lettuce, or spinach may be practiced, to
utilize all space in the greenhouse to the best advan-
tage. The distance between rows should be 18 inches,
and between hills in the row 9 inches. Suckers are very
common in a crop of this kind, and these should be re-
moved. The principal pests in the greenhouse are rats
and ‘mice. They bother both by digging out the seed
and by attacking the matured ear, spoiling it for sale.
Poisoning or destroying these pests should be performed
before the crop is planted.
206. Forcing corn in hot beds or cold frames very early
in the season, allowing it to mature in these beds, is a
T
274 CORN CROPS
practical method. In this way, corn may be obtained
for consumption in the month of -June when the price
is very high. The general conditions of growth are the
same as those for greenhouse work. The spacing between
the corn is the same. Careful attention as to ventilation
and watering should be given. The pollination in the
hotbed or cold frame will be looked after by the natural
elements, but in the greenhouse it is advisable to shake
the corn plant slightly when the pollen is ripe.
A still later method of forcing has been practiced on a
limited acreage near some cities, and that is starting the
corn in paper pots or other receptacles. Two or three
seeds are planted in each pot, allowing the corn to grow
from four to six inches, and then transplanting the corn to
the garden after the weather conditions have settled. The
corn at this time should be four to six inches high. The
roots have not suffered by being pruned, and the plant
will continue its growth. This method has been tried
both in the East and the Middle West, and where the
demand warrants, has proved satisfactory.
SWEET CORN IN THE HOME GARDEN
207. In the home garden the aim should be to have a
liberal and constant supply of sweet corn. The variety
should correspond with the personal taste of the individual
gardener or consumer. It is doubtful whether the extra
early corns will answer the demands of the individual
home gardeners, as they lack somewhat in quality.
The home gardener does not have a great choice of soil
for the growing of sweet corn. The garden may be heavy
clay or light loam. In either case the principal treatment
should be liberal applications of stable manure. Some per-
sons apply a little commercial fertilizer, but this is the ex-
SWEET CORN OR SUGAR CORN 275
ception rather than the rule. No fertilizer is needed if the
garden has plenty of manure. Sweet corn in the home
garden may be grown under the methods described for
commercial growing. Transplanting corn from hotbeds
is a feasible method for the home garden, especially for
early corn. Inter-cropping of the corn, in the earliest
stages when planted from seed, would be practical. Such
crops as radishes, spinach, lettuce, and even beans can be
grown in the home garden, utilizing apparently waste space,
which later is necessary for the full development of the
corn.
PART II
SORGHUMS
CHAPTER XXIII
THE SORGHUM PLANT
SorcHum (Andropogon Sorghum var. vulgaris, Hackel,
A. Sorghum, Brot., Sorghum vulgare, Pers.) is generally
conceded to have been originally derived from the well-
known wild species, Andropogon halepensis, Brot.
The wild species is found abundantly in all tropical
and subtropical parts of the Old World and has been in-
troduced into the Western Hemisphere, where it is now
well distributed in both North and South America between
the parallels of latitude thirty degrees north and south of
the equator.
209. Andropogon halepensis is generally known in the
United States as Johnson-grass. Johnson-grass is a coarse-
growing perennial, with strong underground rootstocks by
means of which it spreads rapidly and is very persistent,
being regarded generally as a bad weed.
Sorghum differs from the wild form in that it is larger-
growing, that it produces more seed, that certain forms
have abundant sweet juice, and that no form is perennial
or has persistent rootstocks. However, there are forms of
Andropogon halepensis that are annual and without the
persistent rootstocks, an example being the variety known
as ‘Soudan grass.” The wild form is somewhat vari-
able, having certain types paralleling in their variations
the cultivated forms.
279
280 CORN CROPS
GEOGRAPHICAL ORIGIN
210. Hackel! states that the cultivated forms had their
origin in Africa, but Ball? believes that they also had
an independent origin in India as well.
The early history of sorghum culture is unknown, but
RAK
My A Ms
Fic. 95.— Plant of sorghum. (After Fuchs, 1542.)
1 HackeL, Epwarp. The True Grasses, p. 59.
2 Baty, CARLETON R. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus., Bul.
175, pp. 9-10.
THE SORGHUM PLANT 281
there is good evidence that it was an important crop in
both Africa and South Asia hundreds of years before the
Christian Era. A reference to miilet in the Bible
(600 B.c.) probably refers to sorghum. (Ezek. x.4. The
word millet is translated “dochan” in the original
Hebrew text, a word still in use in Arabic for various
forms of sorghum.) Sorghum is well adapted to meet the
needs of a primitive agriculture. The seeds provide
human food, while the plant furnishes abundant fodder for
animals. Under favorable conditions the plant will run
wild to some extent, and is better able to care for itself
than any other of our important cultivated plants.
Sorghum is at present the most important cereal food
of the native people of Africa, and is a very important
crop through the southern half of Asia. There are no
statistics of the world’s production of sorghum. The
United States crop is estimated at about 3,000,000 acres
and that of India at 25,000,000. The crop of Africa and of
Asia Minor should approximate that of India.
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION
Order — Graminee.
Tribe — Andropogonee.
Genus — Andropogon.
Species — A. Sorghum var. vulgare.
211. Ball! has suggested the following classification as ‘a
key to the principal groups of sorghum : —
I. Pith juicy.
A. Juice abundant and very sweet.
1. Internodes elongated; sheaths scarcely overlapping ;
leaves 12-15 (except in Amber varieties) ; spike-
lets elliptic-oval to obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide;
seeds reddish brown. I. .Sorgo
1 Bau, CARLETON R. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus., Bul. 175, p. 8.
282 CORN CROPS
B. Juice scanty, slightly sweet to subacid.
1. Internodes short; sheaths strongly overlapping;
leaves 12-15; peduncles erect; panicles cylin-
drical; spikelets obovate, 3-4 mm. wide;
lemmas awnless. II. Kafir.
2. Internodes medium; sheaths scarcely overlapping ;
leaves 8-11; peduncles mostly inclined, often
recurved; panicles ovate; spikelets broadly
obovate, 4.5-6 mm. wide; lemmas awned.
VII. Milo.
II. Pith dry.
A. Panicle lax, 2.5-7 dm. long; peduncles erect; spikelets
elliptic-oval or obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide;
lemmas awned.
1. Panicle 4-7 dm. long; rachis less than one-fifth as
long as the panicle.
a. Panicle umbelliform, the branches greatly elon-
gated, the tips drooping; seeds reddish, in-
cluded. III. Broom-corn.
2. Panicle 2.5-4 dm. long; rachis more than two-
thirds as long as the panicle.
a. Panicle conical, the branches strongly drooping ;
glumes at maturity spreading and involute ; seeds
white, brown, or somewhat buff. IV. Shallu.
b. Panicle oval or obovate, the branches spreading ;
glumes at maturity appressed, not involute;
seeds white, brown, or reddish. V. Kowliang.
B. Panicle compact, 1-2.5 dm. long; peduncles erect or
recurved; rhachis more than two-thirds as long
as the panicle.
1. Spikelets elliptic-oval or obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide;
lemmas awned. V. Kowliang.
2. Spikelets broadly obovate, 4.5-6 mm. wide.
a. Glumes gray or greenish, not wrinkled; densely
pubescent; lemmas awned or awnless; seeds
strongly flattened. VI. Durra.
b. Glumes deep brown or black, transversely
wrinkled; thinly pubescent; lemmas awned;
seeds slightly flattened. VII. Milo.
THE SORGHUM PLANT 283
212. Technical description. — The plant varies in height
from about 4 feet (dwarf Milo) to 12 or 15 feet high in
some of the tropical forms.
Panicle, or “head,” varies in shape from the small,
compact ‘‘ sumac” type, in which the rachis is almost
as long as the panicle, through the looser and more branch-
ing forms of the Collier type, in which the rachis is about
one-half that of the panicle, to the broom-corn type, in
which the rachis is only one-fifth the length of the branches.
Seeds. — The shape of seed varies, from round in the
Kafir, Kowliang, and Shallu, to somewhat pear-shaped in
certain of the sweet sorghums, somewhat flattened in Milo,
and decidedly flat in the Durras. The seed coat of all
dark-colored varieties has a decidedly astringent taste,
due to the presence of tannin. The amount of tannin
seems to vary with the color, being greatest in the black-
seeded and dark red varieties, very little in yellow seeds,
and there being none‘in white seeds. The astringency
apparently has no ill effect except as it affects flavor, the
dark-seeded grain not being so desirable for stock food on
this account.
Stems. — Stems vary not only in height (from 4 to 15
feet), but also in relative thickness. The Amber variety
is slender, with stems less than 1 inch in diameter, while in
the Gooseneck variety the stems are 1 to 2 inches thick.
In slender-stemmed varieties the nodes are usually long,
about 12 inches; while in the stouter-stemmed varieties
the tendency is toward short nodes, as in the Sumac,
the average length being 8 or 9 inches.
Juices. — Stems are designated as juicy or dry. The
actual water content of the green stems does not differ so
much in the two cases, the green stems being 80 to 90 per
cent water. In the juicy-stemmed varieties the juice is
284 CORN CROPS
easily extracted by crushing and pressing. An ordinary
roller cane press will extract 50 to 60 per cent of the juice.
Not all juicy sorghums are sweet, but practically all
the very juicy varieties are. The sugar content of the
juice in sweet sorghums varies from 10 to 18 per cent.
Leaves. — The leaves of the sorghums are strong and
are especially well adapted to withstand the rather dry
and often hot winds that prevail in semiarid regions.
In periods of protracted drought the leaves assume a
rather erect position, rolling together to a considerable
degree in a way that appears to protect against exces-
sive evaporation. All the very drought-resistant forms,
as the Milo and Durra types, are rather scanty-leaved ;
the leaves being about eight to ten in number, rather
broad and short, and rather coarse in texture.
Tillers. — All varieties of sorghum seem to produce
tillers abundantly. These appear at the lower joints of
the stem. The buds that develop into tillers may re-
main more or less dormant when conditions for growth are
unfavorable, ready, however, to develop at the first favor-
able opportunity. Fertile soil and thin planting favor
their development. Certain varicties, however, seem to
produce two or more tillers normally, the tillers starting
almost as soon as the main stem, and it is only under the
very thickest planting that they are suppressed.
It sometimes occurs, when the first part of the season is
dry and unfavorable, that the main stem may become
stunted ; if late rains come, the tillers will often grow much
taller than the main stalk. The tillers are later in matur-
ing and are considered undesirable when the crop is
grown for grain or sirup; but they are usually desirable
when the crop is grown for forage, as they no doubt in-
crease the yield of fodder.
THE SORGHUM PLANT 285
When sorghum plants are cut off, tillers usually spring
up at once. In the South two crops, and even three
crops, may be cut from the same roots. In regions of
very mild winters the roots of certain varieties will live
over, giving a crop the second year.
Branches. — Branches come from latent buds on the
upper part of the stem as tillers do from the lower nodes.
The same conditions that favor tillering favor the
development of branches. The first branch appears
from the topmost node, the second from the next, and so
on down, in order; under very favorable conditions and
thin planting, four or five branches may develop. Each
branch bears a small head, similar to the main head but
later in maturing.
Branches are considered undesirable, and the usual
plan is to plant the sorghum thick enough so that there
will be neither tillering nor branching.
Roots. — The Kansas station made a study of Kafir
corn and sweet sorghum roots in comparison with corn and .
other field crops. The roots of Kafir corn were found to be
finer and more fibrous than corn roots under the same con-
ditions. A few of the longer Kafir roots penetrated to a
depth of 3 feet, but most of them were confined to the
upper 18 inches, filling the soil to this depth with a fine
network of roots; while corn under the same conditions
fully occupied the upper 30 inches with roots (see Fig. 12,
page 27), sending its deepest roots about 4 feet. The
sweet sorghum roots were somewhat intermediate in char-
acter, but resembled the Kafir more than the corn roots.!
The distribution of roots indicates that the sorghums
draw their nutrients from the surface soil much more
than corn.
1 Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 127, pp. 207-208. 1904.
286 CORN CROPS
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SORGHUMS
213. In general, the physiology and nutrition of sor-
ghum are similar to those of corn, which has been set forth
(page 38). The most interesting physical phenomenon of
sorghum from an economic standpoint is its general re-
sistance to drought and to the climatic conditions that
prevail in dry climates.
Drought resistance. — The drought resistance of sor-
ghum is well established. Its ability to yield in a dry
climate is apparently not due to a deep root system or to
any other adaptation of the root system so far reported.
Neither does it seem to be due to a low water requirement,
as the few tests made on this point indicate that quite as
much is required per pound of dry weight as for Indian
corn or for other crops not particularly adapted to dry
conditions.
The success of sorghum under semiarid conditions
seems to depend on two qualities, not found developed
to so great a degree in other crops: (1) The high resist-
ance of leaves to injury from hot, dry weather. The non-
saccharine groups, especially, will withstand dry and hot
climatic conditions that would wither most vegetation be-
yondrecovery. (2) The plants have the faculty of becom-
ing almost dormant, so far as growth is concerned, for
long periods during severe drought. During such periods
the leaves roll and tend to assume an upright position.
This, no doubt, reduces evaporation from the leaves and
affords protection to the younger leaves and the seed
head. The plant may remain in this condition, apparently
without growth, for several weeks,-far beyond the endur-
ance of most cultivated plants. With the coming of rain,
growth will usually be renewed with vigor. If the main
THE SORGHUM PLANT 287
stalk has been much stunted, tillers will often grow up at
once and become taller than the main stalk. While
tillers do not usually produce a good seed crop, they are
satisfactory as forage.
REPRODUCTION
214. The sorghums are all ‘“ perfect-flowered ’’ — the
pollen and ovary being in the same flower, instead of in
separate flowers asin corn. This is the principal botanical
distinction between the tribe Maydee, to which corn
belongs, and the tribe Andropogonee, to which sorghum
belongs.
FERTILIZATION
215. All sorghums are adapted to both self-fertilization
and wind fertilization. Apparently, self-fertilization is
normal in the sorghums, and is in no way injurious as it is
in corn (page 107). In developing pure strains of sorghum
it has been found practicable to cover the heads with
bags before blooming, thus securing complete self-fertili-
zation.
NATURAL CROSSING
216. Under normal field conditions more or less crossing
takes place. Regarding this point Ball! makes the fol-
lowing statement: “ Just to what extent cross-fertiliza-
tion takes place under normal field conditions, it is, of
course, impossible to say. However, in the case of ad-
jacent rows of different varieties, flowering on approxi-
mately the same dates, as high as 50 per cent of the seed
produced on the leeward row has been found to be cross-
fertilized. It is probable that in a fairly uniform field
of any given variety a similar percentage of natural
1 Bau, CARLETON R, American Breeders’ Association, Vol. VI, p. 193.
288 CORN CROPS
crossing takes place. Many writers have stated that
such cross-pollination occurs also at very long distances,
but this seems to be less conclusively proved. Probably
a distance of 8 to 10 rods to leeward is the maximum at
which appreciable hybridization occurs.” Ball also states
that the pollen is mostly shed during the early morning
hours, when the winds are usually at lower velocities
than later in the day.
Crossing of types. — All the different types of sorghum,
as sweet sorghums, non-saccharinc types, and broom-corns,
cross readily. (See Fig. 115.) Broom-corn growers must
exercise some care in keeping their seed stocks pure, in
regions where other varieties of sorghum are grown.
CLIMATE AND SOILS
217. The entire botanical genus (Andropogon), made up
of hundreds of species, is found growing principally in
wide-open plains regions. Hackel! states, ‘‘ the species
prefer dry places, especially savannas.”
Climatic requirements
Temperature and sunshine. — Sorghum, like corn, is a
plant of tropical origin, varieties of which have been
adapted to temperate climates. Like corn, it requires
abundant sunshine and warm weather, being very sensitive
to cool nights. At high elevations where nights are gen-
erally cool, sorghum seldom does well even when the days
are warm and sunshiny.
Humidity and rainfall.— While both corn and sorghum
require sunshine and warmth, they apparently differ
somewhat as to humidity, corn preferring regions of high
1 HACKEL, Epwarp. The True Grasses, p. 57.
THE SORGHUM PLANT 289
humidity such as prevail in the Mississippi valley, and
sorghum preferring regions of dry air such as prevail in
the Great Plains region of the upper Missouri River
valley and southward.
The above general difference may be due in part to
selection of varieties. Sorghum being of tropical origin
and widely distributed, certain varieties flourish in very
humid regions of Africa. Certain varieties of the sweet
sorghums grow well in the Carolinas and Gulf States,
where both rainfall and humidity are high.
While certain sorghums do well under humid conditions,
the ability of all sorghums to remain more or less dormant
during periods of drought, and to renew growth with the
return of rain, has qualified the crop for adaptation to dry
climates. For centuries sorghums have been grown and
adapted to dry conditions in the Old World as they are
being further adapted in'the United States. The result
is that the principal varieties of sorghum under cultivation
prefer a drier and warmer climate than is required by the
corn crop, although no doubt varieties of sorghum could
be found equally adapted to humid regions. The above
conclusion applies with more truth to the grain sorghums
(Kafirs and Durras) than to the sweet sorghums or broom-
corns. :
Soil requirements
218. The sorghums are adapted to a wide range of soils,
but they prefer a medium-weight loam to very light or very
heavy soils. The grain sorghums are apparently more
sensitive in this respect than the sweet sorghums. Sor-
ghums for forage are often grown on poor land, not only
because they produce more forage than any other crop
under such conditions, but also because the stems are
finer than when grown on heavy land.
U
290 CORN CROPS
219. Effect on the land. — The sweet sorghums sown
thickly have the reputation of being ‘‘ hard on the land.”
Grain sorghums planted thin seem to have the same effect
also, in lesser degree. All millets have the same reputation.
No very satisfactory explanation for this has been ad-
vanced. When the effect is noted it is most marked on the
first crop following, and less marked afterward, usually
completely disappearing in one or two years. The effect
is most marked on small grain and less on intertilled
crops.
As the sorghum roots are rather concentrated in the
upper layers of soil, it is possible that this soil is very much
exhausted of available fertility. There is some reason to
believe that sorghums may exhaust available fertility to
lower limits than do other crops. It is not known whether
sorghums have a toxic effect on the soil.
The injurious effect when noted is considered only
temporary, and farmers in general do not consider it a
serious drawback to sorghum culture.
220. Alkali resistance. — Sorghum is often said to be
alkali-resistant. It is not resistant in the same sense
as are many native alkali plants, but at least it is one of
the best of our cultivated plants to succeed on land rich
in alkali. ;
SORGHUM TYPES
221. A common grouping, based principally on the
economic use of the crop, is (a) Saccharine sorghums, (6)
Non-saccharine sorghums, (c) Broom-corns.
A. Saccharine sorghums. Those having an abundant sweet
juice. Cultivated at one time principally for sirup manu-
facture, but now principally as a forage plant. Commonly
known as ‘“‘ sorghum,” I. Sorgo.
THE SORGHUM PLANT 291
B. Non-saccharine sorghums.
1. Pith contains a scant juice, which varies from slightly
sweet in some varieties to subacid in others. Grown princi-
pally for the grain, but also has forage value. II. Kafir.
III. Milo.
2. Pith dry.
(a) Grown principally for the grain and forage.
II. Kafir.
VI. Durra.
IV. Shallu.
V. Kowliang.
(b) Grown for the bush, no value as forage.
VII. Broom-corn.
The economic discussion of sorghums will follow the
above grouping.
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CHAPTER XXIV
THE SACCHARINE SORGHUMS
Sweet Sorghums ~
222. This group of sorghums is usually designated as
sweet sorghums, or ‘sugar’ sorghums. They are quite
distinct from the non-saccharine, grain sorghums in having
a juicy stem containing a high percentage of sugar and in
producing a rather light seed crop.
Early culture. — The sweet sorghums have never been
cultivated extensively in the Old World, where the
sorghums have been cultivated more for seed than for
forage — the non-saccharine forms being more productive
for the former purpose. The sweet sorghums seem to have
been kept in cultivation principally for the sweet canes,
which, however, were not manufactured but were peeled
and the juice was expressed by chewing. Almost no sweet
sorghum is raised in North Africa or in India; it has been
kept in cultivation in China and South Africa, however,
though only in a small way. |
223. Introduction into the United States. — The first
recorded introduction into the United States was from
China in 1853, by way of France, and the plant was known
at first as ‘‘ Chinese Sorgo.”’ This was a loose-panicled
sorghum, from which have been derived most of our
cultivated varieties of Amber sorghum. “ Our Early
Amber is said to have originated in 1859 as a sport in a
field of Chinese sorgo growing in Indiana.’ }
1 Bay, CARLETON R. lLe., p. 25.
, 293
294 CORN CROPS
A collection of sixteen varieties of sorghum brought
from Natal, South Africa, to Europe in 1854 and from
Europe to this country in 1857, included several sweet
sorghums, from which have been derived our compact-
headed types such as Orange, Sumac, and Gooseneck.
Development of culture in the United States. — While
sweet sorghum has remained a secondary crop in the Old
World, it had a rather rapid development in the United
States, owing to the belief that it would become a great
sugar- and sirup-producing crop. In 1857 the United
States Patent Office distributed 275 bushels in small lots
to farmers; The American Agriculturist distributed to its
subscribers 1600 pounds in small packages, and the next
year 34,500 pounds in the same way. At this time exten-
sive experiments were being made with it in Europe for
the manufacture of sugar, and later the United States
Government! conducted an elaborate series of experiments
for the same purpose. With the development of sugar
beets at this time a better source of crystallized sugar was
found, and the plan of using sorghum for this purpose was
abandoned.
First grown as a sirup crop. — However, sorghum was
found to be a cheap source of home made sirup and it was
more or less grown for this purpose in every rural com-
munity. Local “ sorghum mills ”’ were very common dur-
ing the eighties in the Central and Western States. Dur-
ing the dry years in the early eighties, and again during
the general drought of 1892-1894 in Nebraska, Kansas,
and southward, sorghums of all kinds were found to with-
stand drought.
There are no available data on acreage of sweet sor-
ghum, but the data on Kafir corn (page 304) indicate the
1See U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem., Buls. 26, 40, etc.
THE SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 295
UNITED STATES
16,050 THOUSAND
GALLONS
UNITEQ STATES
16,973 THOUSAND
GALLONS
Fic, 98.— Production of sirup at close of century.
296 CORN CROPS
increase of sweet sorghum as the acreage of the two crops
of late years is about equal. Beginning with 1890, the
acreage has continued to increase up to the present
time.
224. How the crop is utilized. — In the Central States
east of the Mississippi River, these sorghums have been
cultivated principally since 1865 for the manufacture of
sirup. The extent of sirup manufacture for the census
years is as follows : —
YEAR GALLONS
18600 4 = 4 4 & » & « 4 © 0,749,128
1870. se ee ee ew a 165050089
AS800 sg oh ak ca oe ah ge oe 28444202
1890". a ee ae a ESS DTO
1900) 4. 3. 3 ee ee me ee a 1659725788.
The principal States in sirup manufacture for the last
three decades have been Tennessee, Missouri, and Ken-
tucky, but the industry has shown a rapid decrease in
all these States. In only one State, North Carolina, has
it shown a notable increase. Figures 97 and 98 show
graphically the distribution at two periods.
225. As a forage crop. — West of the Missouri River
and southward in the Great Plains region, the culture of
sweet sorghum is principally as a forage crop. It is an
important forage crop in the drier parts of Kansas,
Oklahoma, Nebraska, and Texas. The use of sweet
sorghum as a forage crop has developed since 1880.
226. Classification of sweet sorghums. — The following
classification is adapted from Ball : —
A. Peduncle and panicle erect.
1. Panicle loose, open, branches spreading to horizontal
or drooping; rachis two-thirds as long to equaling
the panicle.
THE SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 297
Empty glumes black, hairy. J. Amber.
Empty glumes black, smooth. II. Minn. Amber.
Empty glumes red. III. Red Amber.
Empty glumes light brown. IV. Honey.
Rachis less than one-half the length of the panicle :—
Panicle light, drooping branches, seeds orange to red.
V. Collier.
Panicle heavy, seeds orange. VI. Planter’s Friend.
2. Panicle close, compact.
Empty glumes equal to seeds, seed red. VII. Orange.
Empty glumes half as long as the small seeds, seeds
dark red. : VIII. Sumac.
Empty glumes narrow. IX. Sapling.
B. Peduncle recurved (goosenecked) or sometimes erect.
Panicle black, glumes awned. X. ‘Gooseneck.
The three varieties that have had most extensive cul-
tivation are Amber, Orange, and Sumac.
227. Amber, being the earliest of the three (90 to
100 days), has been practically the only variety grown
in the northern limits of sorghum culture — that is,
north of Kansas and the Ohio River—and has been
most popular in Kansas, the leading sorghum-growing
State.
Amber grows about 5 to 7 feet tall, with 8 to 10 leaves,
being neither so tall nor so leafy as the other two varieties.
The seed head is usually black and is loose or spreading,
though it is somewhat variable in this respect. A number
of selections have been made, the best known of which
are: Minnesota Amber, which differs only in minor
details; Red Amber, the heads of which are red instead of
black but which is otherwise similar; and Folger’s Early, a
strain said to be especially desirable for sirup production.
The various strains of Amber sorghum have been popular
for forage because of the rather slender stems and early
298 CORN CROPS
maturity, these qualities facilitating the curing and im-
proving the quality of forage.
Fic. 99. — Amber sorghum.
228. Orange sorghum is two to three weeks later in
maturing (100 to 125 days) than is Amber. It is about 12
inches taller, the stalk is heavier and the nodes are shorter,
THE SACCHARINE SORGHUMS
299
and the plant is more leafy. The variety name refers to
the deep orange color of the ripe heads.
excellent for sirup pro-
duction and it makes
a heavy yield of for-
age, especially on good
land. However, for
cured forage farmers
object somewhat to
heavy stalks, as they
are more difficult to
handle and cure.
Orange sorghum is
second in popularity
to Amber and is grown
principally from Kan-
sas southward.
Collier and Coleman
are two varieties of
the Orange sorghum
type which are so sim-
ilar to it that for all
forage purposes they
may be considered the
same. The Collier is
considered the better
for sirup-making.
229. Sumac sor-
ghum derives its name
from the very com-
pact red seed head,
resembling the seed head of sumac.
This variety is
Fic. 100. — Orange sorghum.
It is somewhat larger
and perhaps later than Orange, but otherwise similar in
300 CORN CROPS
appearance of plant. ‘‘ For forty years this has been the
most popular variety in the South, especially in the Pied-
mont districts. It is now largely grown in Texas and
Oklahoma also.”
230. Gooseneck isa very large,
late-growing variety, adapted
only to the South. Ten to fifty
per cent of the heads are re-
curved, or ‘‘ goosenecked.”
Fig. 101. — Sumac sorghum. Fic. 102. — Gooseneck sorghum.
CHAPTER XXV
THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS
231, The non-saccharine sorghums, with the exception
of broom-corn, are often called grain sorghums because
their principal value is as grain producers rather than as
producers of forage. As a group, they constitute the most
drought-resistant grain and forage crops in cultivation.
The five principal types of the non-saccharine sorghums
are: (1) Kafir, (2) Durra, (8) Shallu, (4) Kowliang, (5)
Broom-corn.
Historical. — The non-saccharine sorghums are very
generally cultivated throughout Africa, southwest Asia,
India, and Manchuria, but are not cultivated extensively
in Europe. In general, the kafir types dominate in South
Africa, the Durra types in North Africa, southwest Asia,
and India, and the Kowliang types in Manchuria. Shallu,
the least important of the five principal groups, is grown as
a winter crop in India, and the same type has been reported
as grown in a limited way in Madagascar and at several
points in Africa.
232. The Durra group (spelled also dura, durah, doura,
dhoura, and other ways) is the most important in the Old
World. It should be noted, however, that there are three
general groups of the durra sorghums, only one of which
is important in the United States: (1) The types grown in
central and northeast Africa are tall, large-seeded, and
late-maturing, furnishing both forage and grain; (2) those
301
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THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 303
of North Africa are shorter, early, comparatively low in
forage and high in grain production, and the grain is flat
and of medium size; (3) those of India have comparatively
small heads and seeds, the seeds not decidedly flat; they
produce both forage and grain, but are too large and late-
maturing for culture in the United States.
The second group has thus far furnished most of the
varieties that have found a place in United States agricul-
ture. The probable reason is that grain sorghum could
not compete with maize in the corn-growing belt. There
was, however, a distinct demand for crops adapted to the
Great Plains, a region too dry for the culture of corn. The
sorghums from the more humid regions of the Old World
have not always been drought-resistant, and in most
cases are too late in maturing. Most of the kafirs and
durras meeting the requirements of drought resistance
and a short maturing season have come from the drier
regions of North Africa and the high plains of South Africa.
233. Introduction in the United States. — The cultiva-
tion of non-saccharine sorghums dates from the intro-
duction of White Durra and Brown Durra into California
in 1874 and the introduction of kafir in 1876, but they
were not generally distributed until about ten years later.
234. Region where cultivated. — The “grain sorghums”
are cultivated for grain and for forage. They are not so
desirable for forage alone as are the sweet sorghums ; the
fodder is coarser and lacks the sweet sugars in the stem,
being less palatable. They are commonly harvested for
both grain and forage. As a grain crop they cannot com-
pete with corn in the regular corn-growing belt, and there-
fore the principal grain-sorghum belt lies just west of the
corn-growing belt, following in general the line of 25-
inch rainfall on the east and extending west to the Rocky
804 CORN CROPS
Mountains; the belt includes also southern California
and Utah. The accompanying chart! (Fig. 104), prepared
: ‘
wna-4uiss | ALA GA
H : .
5 = WAEA WHERE MILO 1S NOY. A STAPLE CROP.
= AREA TO WHICH MILO 18 NOW ADAPTED
LIZA = AREA IN WHICH THE ADAPTABILITY OF MILO 1$ BEING TESTED.
Fic. 104. — This map made to show the distribution of milo; also shows,
approximately, the area where the culture of all sorghums are of most
importance.
to show the area of Milo culture, outlines the probable
area of grain-sorghum culture.
285. Statistics of culture. — It is not possible to supply
exact figures on the production of grain sorghums. The
census of 1909 gives the total acreage of kafir grown for
grain as 266,513. The principal States reported, and their
acreage, were as follows :—
SraTs ACREAGE
Kansas, a a Sos SoS oe ee A. oy 242706
Oklahoma; «a a Se ee a 63,455
BOK AS ab eee mas Ng eee Fon Ist Ctaetaelnttd in 22,813
Canora is se eae ee oe kG 20,218
Total eos s . . 261,192
1U. 8. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 322, p. 11.
THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 305
Ninety-eight per cent of the entire acreage was produced
in four States. The above figures do not include that
sown as forage. From the Kansas State Board of Agri-
culture, however, we have data for the census year show-
ing 631,040 acres sown for forage, or about four times as
Fig. 105. — Two heads of Milo, showing good and poor types.
much as that harvested for grain. On the same basis for
the United States it would appear the the non-saccharine-
sorghum acreage for 1909 was about 1,250,000 acres.
The acreage has since increased slightly in Kansas and to a
marked degree in Oklahoma and Texas, so that present
».¢
306 CORN CROPS
acreage is above two million acres. The value of non-
saccharine sorghums is now recognized, and with the im-
ACREAGE, VALUE, AND YIELD or Karir, Mito, anpD Corn FoR
tHE Yrars 1904 to 1909, 1ncLUSIVE, IN KaNSAS AND
OKLAHOMA
KANSAS
YIELD
PER VALUE
ACRE
Crop anD YEAR ACREAGE |iIN Tons
OR .
ped ee ton Total Per Acre
Katfir :
1904... 518,372 | 3.04] $3.19 | $5,041,546 | $9.70
L9OSY. te ae 538,393 | 3.24 3.06 5,352,810 9.91
1906... 548,497 | 3.05 3.01 5,039,238 9.18
1907... 508,485 | 2.94 3.78 5,658,860 | 11.11
1908 . . . 630,096 | 2.85 3.82 6,856,845 | 10.89
1909 . .. 636,201 |_ 2.79 | 4.02 7,150,080 | 11.21
Average. 2.99] 3.48 10.33
Milo:
1904... 7,166 | 3.18} 3.22 73,476 | 10.24
1905... 20,550 | 2.84] 3.28 190,974 9.31
1906... 17,563 | 2.55 3.26 146,289 8.31
1907 2 ws 22,090 | 2.72 3.90 234,686 | 10.61
TOOS™ sg sce 08 55,255 | 1.92] 4.85 515,269 9.31
1909 . . . 102,492 |_ 1.97 |__ 4.74 959,259 9.34
Average. 2.53 | 3.87 9.52
Corn: L :
1904. . . | 6,494,158 | 20.3 .39 | 50,713,955 7.81
1905 . . .| 6,799,755 | 28.0 .36 | 68,718,584 | 10.11
1906 . . . | 6,584,535 | 28.4 .85 | 65,115,203 9.25
1907 . . . | 6,809,012 | 21.3 .43 | 63,040,743 9.26
1908 . . . | 7,057,535 | 21.3 .55 | 82,642,462 | 11.71
1909 . . .| 7,711,879 | 19.1 -57 | 83,066,905 | 10.77
Average 23.1 44 9.83
THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS
307
ACREAGE, VALUE, AND YIELD or Karrr, MILo, AND Corn FoR
THE YEARS 1904 to 1909, INcLUSIVE IN KANSAS, AND
OKLAHOMA
OKLAHOMA
YIELD
PER VALUE
ACRE
Crop AND YEAR AcREAGE |1n Tons
OR
ley i Rae Total Per Acre
Katfir :
1904 334,948 | 9.79] $0.40 | $1,312,204 $3.92
1905 297,286 | 12.72 .40 1,512,318 5.08
1906 269,218 | 16.10 4 1,465,937 5.44
1907 371,405 | 13.50 58 2,881,032 7.77
1908 400,047 | 9.20 46 2,548,200 ! 6.36
1909 . .
Average 12.26 44 5.71
Milo:
1904
1905 138,608 | 20.06 40 1,112,602 8.02
1906 122,347 | 17.82 40 870,767 7.12
1907 131,366 | 13.30 .65 1,142,098 8.64
1908 145,096 | 12.55 33 757,565 7] 5.22
1909.
Average 15.93 45 7.25
Corn:
1904 1,369,276 | 16.00 .39 8,544,339 6.24
1905 1,369,276 | 16.00 389 8,544,339 6.24
1906 1,642,930 | 18.90 40 | 12,436,557 7.56
1907 1,528,735 | 31.40 .36 | 17,142,081 11.21
1908 4,014,631 | 18.10 48 | 35,409,961 8.82
1909 .. 4,284,561 | 18.60 .48 | 38,449,866 8.97
Average 20.60 42 8.56
1 Includes $828,131 worth of fodder.
2 Includes $151,911 worth of fodder.
308
CORN CROPS
provement of varieties they are destined to become an
important crop west of the 98th meridian. The compara-
tive acreage and value of non-saccharine sorghums com-
pared with corn in Kansas and Oklahoma, as compiled in
Bulletin 203, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture, is given above.
236. Classification of non-saccharine sorghums. —
Karir
GROUP
Dorra |
Group
Pith juicy:
(Very juicy, sweet = Sorgo.)
Juice scanty, subacid or somewhat sweet or dry in
certain varieties.
(1) Heads ereét, cylindrical, spikelets oval, small,
3-4 mm. wide.
(a) Seeds white:
Glumes greenish white, some darker.
I. White Kafir.
Glumes black or nearly.
II. Blackhull Kafir.
(b) Seeds red:
Glumes deep red to black.
III. Red Kafir.
(2) Heads pendent but sometime secret, ovate;
spikelets broadly obovate, large, 4, 5-6
mm. wide.
(a) Seeds white:
Glumes greenish white, silky, seeds flat-
tened, awned. IV. White Durra.
Glumes black, seeds smaller, less flattened,
rare. V. Blaeckhull Durra.
(b) Seeds yellowish to reddish brown:
Glumes short, wrinkled, reddish to black,
not silky; seeds yellowish brown;
florets awned. VI. Yellow Milo.
Glumes as long as seeds, greenish white,
seeds reddish brown, not awned.
VII. Brown Durra.
THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 809
Pith dry:
Head loose, 10-28 inches long; spikelets oval or
obovate, small, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide,
lemmas awned:
Rachis one-fifth as long as branches.
(a) Branches drooping, seeds reddish. XI.
Broom-corn. Rachis more than two-
thirds as long as head:
(b) Branches of panicle drooping; glumes at
maturity spreading and involute; seeds
ee a white to buff (several varieties).
TYPE VIII. Shallu.
(c) Branches spreading but not drooping,
glumes at maturity appressed, not in-
volute; seeds white, brown, or red.
(Several varieties, corresponding to the
red, white, and blackhull varieties of.
Kafir and Durra. Also standard and
dwarf.) IX. Kowliang.
Head compact, erect or pendent, spikelets oval or
obovate, small, lemmas awned:
Rachis two-thirds as long as head. X. Kowliang.
237. Kafir.— The three principal varieties of kafir are
red, white, and blackhull. The heads are erect, in con-
trast to the durra group, in which the heads are mostly
recurved, or ‘‘ goosenecked.” The white and blackhull
varieties both grow about 5 to 6 feet high, while the red
is 8 to 12 inches taller. The white and red varieties were
first introduced. The white variety, however, was not
satisfactory because of its not maturing well, and the
head was not always exerted from the leaf sheath, thus
inducing rot in damp weather. The red variety matured
properly and soon hecame more popular.
The objection to Red Kafir was the astringent taste of
the seed coat, common to all kafirs with a colored seed
coat. The blackhull, a white-seeded variety, appears to
810 CORN CROPS
be a later introduction, having attracted attention about
1896. It had all the good qualities of Red Kafir, and in
addition the seed was not astringent. This variety
probably furnishes nine-
tenths of the kafir crop
to-day, and Red Kafir the
other tenth.
238. Durra.— The char-
acteristics of this group are
that the heads are mostly
‘““ goosenecked ”’ and_ the
seeds are large and flat.
The extensive culture of
non-saccharine sorghums
in this country began with
the introduction of Brown
Durra and White Durra
into California in 1874,
but the culture did not
become general in the
Great Plains region until
about 1890.
The White Durrais com-
monly known as “ Jerusa-
lem corn,”’ and sometimes
as “ Egyptian rice corn.”
The Brown Durra is often
called ‘‘ Egyptian corn.”
White Durra is little
grown, as it is frequently injured by insects and diseases.
The grain also shatters badly.
Brown Durra has continued in cultivaticn especially
in southern California and Texas. The total area of White
Fig. 106. — Plant of Blackhull Kafir.
THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 311
and Brown Durras was estimated at 50,000 to 60,000 acres
in 1908.1
239. Milo, or Yellow Milo, was introduced about 1885,
ten years later than the
White and Brown Dur-
ras, but it quickly be-
came the most popular
of the group, the area
in 1908 being estimated
at 300,000 acres. This.
variety will mature in
90 to 100 days and is
adapted to culture as
far north as south-
western Nebraska. In
addition to the standard
varieties, there is now
a dwarf variety well
suited to cultivation for
grain production.
Compared with kafir,
the durras are better
adapted as grain pro-
ducers but not so well
suited for forage pro-
duction. Milo is the
best suited of all the
sorghums for grain pro-
duction. Early varie-
ties of milo have been
developed by selection,
which adapts it to a Fic. 107. — White Kafir Corn.
1U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus., Bul. 175, p. 34.
312 CORN CROPS
Fig. 108. — Upright Milo head.
Fic.
109. Pendent form
Milo head.
of
THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 313
wide range of conditions, and this plant, together with
Blackhull Kafir, is the best of the sorghums for grain
production.
The milos, being about three weeks earlier in maturing
than the kafirs, have
two distinct advan-
tages: in Oklahoma
and Texas they can
be planted early and
will more nearly ma-
ture before the severe
midsummer drought ;
also, they may be
grown farther north
and at higher alti-
tudes.
240. Shallu.—- This
plant is of recent in-
troduction. The
stalks are tall and
slender, with large
loose and open pani-
cles, approaching
broom-corn in type.
The plant comes from
India, where it is cul-
tivated as a winter
crop, being sown in
October and __har-
vested in March. It
is grown for both seed
and forage. Seed of :
this was introduced Frc. 110. — Yellow Milo.
314 CORN CROPS
and tested by the Louisiana Agricultural Experiment
Station about twenty years ago. It is occasionally
grown from Kansas to Texas. It has acquired several
local names, as California wheat, Egyptian wheat, and
Mexican wheat.
241. Kowliang. — In both India and China the sorghums
are commonly classed with millets. ‘‘ Kowliang,” or
“tall millet,’’ is a Chinese name given to distinguish this
variety from the common smaller millets (Panicum and
Chetochloa). The three colors of seed and glume found
in kafirs and durras are found also in this group, namely,
brown seeds with black glumes; white seeds with black
glumes, and white seeds with white glumes. There are
varieties of both dwarf and standard size, 4 to 11 feet high.
Kowliang comes from northeast China and the adjacent
territory of Manchuria, 38° to 42° north latitude — the
farthest north of any region where sorghums have been
an important crop for any great length of time. They
are extensively cultivated in this region for grain and
forage and the stems are used for fuel.
All varieties are early-maturing, and, being already
adapted to a region farther north than any other group
of sorghums except the Early Amber varieties (the original
Amber type also came from China), they should be adapted
to a similar latitude in the United States. They have not
been extensively tried in this country, but the early dwarf
stocks give promise of furnishing a good foundation stock
for the development of grain sorghums in the northern
half of the Great Plains. They could not replace Early
Amber sorghums as a forage crop.
CHAPTER XXVI
CULTURAL METHODS FOR SORGHUMS
242. Sorghums are grown for four distinct purposes:
(a) as a grain crop primarily, (6) as a forage crop, (c) for
sirup manufacture, and (d) for broom-corn brush.
The land to be chosen would be similar in each case,
but the principal difference in cultural methods would
come in method of sowing and harvesting.
Because the sorghums will grow on poorer and drier
land than any other of our cereals is to be taken as an
indication not that they naturally prefer such conditions,
but rather that they are capable of withstanding greater
hardships than other crops. Consequently, the culture
of sorghums may extend beyond the limits of common
cereals; but, on the other hand, they will respond as
readily to manuring and to favorable environment as
will any plant, on good, rich land producing six to seven
tons of cured forage per acre.
Preparation. — The land is prepared much as for corn.
The plowing may be done in the fall or in the spring.
As planting does not take place until rather late — two
to four weeks after corn, — there is ample time for spring
preparation of the soil.
GROWING SORGHUMS FOR GRAIN
243. Varieties. — Blackhull Kafir, Milo, Red Kafir, and
Brown Durra, in the order named, are the principal sor-
ghums grown for grain.
315
CROPS
CORN
316
On left, in
1G. 111. — Heads of Sudan Durra, from San Antonio, Tex.
F
On right, in flower
flower latter part of May, not injured by midge.
eptember 1, and almost sterile, due to midge.
8
CULTURAL METHODS FOR SORGHUMS 317
244, Time of Planting. — Grain sorghums are usually
planted soon after corn; the time ranging from March
to June in the Southern States, while as far north as
Nebraska the planting*must be as early as possible in
order to insure maturing. Planting in Nebraska practi-
cally coincides with corn planting, about May 10.
In the San Antonio region of Texas it has been found
necessary to plant very early in order to avoid the sorghum
midge, an insect that becomes very numerous in June
and practically prevents all seeding from that date on.
In. order to avoid the midge, planting must be early.
According to one experiment reported in 1911, eleven va-
rieties of grain sorghums planted on March 4 yielded 23.1
bushels, while early varieties planted on March 15 gave
only profitable yields, and no varieties planted on April 1
were profitable.
245. Rate of planting. — Grain sorghums are usually
planted in rows 3 or 34 feet apart; the plants 6 to 8 inches
apart for the milos and durras, and 8 to 10 inches for
kafirs. On very fertile soils the planting should be
thicker than this. The amount of seed required will be
3 to 5 pounds per acre. With -durras a higher percentage
of the heads “ gooseneck,’ or recurve, when planted thin
than when planted thick.
246. Methods of planting. — Corn-planting machinery
is generally used for sorghums, the only change necessary
being to use special plates for dropping or to adapt the
corn-dropping plates. The corn-planting plates can be
adapted by filling the holes with lead and boring out to
the right size. Grain sorghums are always drilled.
Listing is a method common in regions of low rainfall,
1Grain Sorghum Production in the San Antonio Region of Texas.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus., Bul. 2387. 1912.
318 CORN CROPS
but in regions of higher rainfall and heavy soils surface
planting is better. When planted in a lister furrow the
seed should not be covered deeper than is necessary to
Fig. 112. — Plat of Milo selected for erect heads.
insure good germination, as it rots very easily when planted
deep or when the soil is cold or wet.
Surface planting is ordinarily done with the two-row
corn-planter ; the grain drill is sometimes employed, how-
ever, by using only every fourth or fifth hole.
247. Tillage.— The same tools are used in general for
cultivating sorghum as for corn, and in much the same
manner. However, sorghum, especially when listed, is
much slower in growth than corn for the first four weeks,
CULTURAL METHODS FOR SORGHUMS 319
and consequently more skill is required to clean out the
weeds. Young sorghum is tougher and less likely to break
than is young corn, which is an advantage, since it permits
of the use of such tools as harrows and weeders oftener and
longer than is the case with corn. With surface-planted
sorghums, by the proper use of harrows and weeder it is
often not necessary to give more than one thorough
cultivation with the shovel cultivator.
With listed sorgum, the harrow and lister cultivators
should be used for the first cultivation. When the plants
Fic. 113. — Field of White Kafir in shock.
are 8 to 10 inches high a very thorough cultivation should
be made with the cultivator, to be followed later by such
shallow cultivation as is necessary to keep down weeds.
948. Cutting. — When grown for grain the heads should
be fully ripe. If cut for silage, the seeds should be in the
soft dough stage, as the ripe seeds in silage are very likely
to pass through the animal without digestion.
The corn-binder is the best and most economical
implement for harvesting on a large scale. With smaller
areas the sled cutter is used, or the crop is cut by hand.
820 CORN CROPS
Various plans for harvesting only the heads have been
tried, but all these have proved less satisfactory than
harvesting the whole plant.
249. Curing. — The grain sorghum, however harvested,
should be set up in shocks until well cured. Precaution
should be taken to set the base of the shock wide and to
tie well about the heads. The heads being heavy, the
shocks are very likely to fall over.
Before threshing, the sorghum heads should be very
dry, as the grain heats and spoils quickly when stored if
at all damp. This will require four to six weeks in the
shock.
250. Hauling and storing. — Where the fodder is fed,
it is very common to haul from the field asused. Sorghum
will remain in very good condition for several months
when bound and set in large shocks. If not to be used for
three months, it is usually better to haul and stack.
Baling is sometimes practiced, a hop or broom-corn
baler being used as the bundles are not broken apart.
When the stover and grain are to be fed separately the
bundles are sometimes beheaded with a broadax or heavy
knife. The heads are then stored in a dry place, to be
fed whole or to be threshed.
251. Threshing. — The whole bundles are sometimes
run through an ordinary grain-thresher, or only the heads
run in and the bundles then withdrawn. The labor is
heavy in both cases and it is often considered better to
behead the bundles and thresh only the heads.
Yields
252. As shown by the table on page 306, the average
yield of grain sorghums in Kansas and Oklahoma is not
equal to that of Indian corn; but in these States corn is
CULTURAL METHODS FOR SORGHUMS 321
raised in the part of the State having heaviest rainfall,
and sorghum in the drier part.
West of the 25-inch-rainfall line, grain sorghums will
equal or outyield corn. The advantage increases as rain
decreases. Yields of twelve to twenty bushels of grain
sorghum are often harvested when corn is.a failure from
drought. Twenty bushels per acre is considered an aver-
age crop and forty bushels per acre a good crop. Yields
of seventy bushels have been known.
GROWING SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE
253. Sweet sorghums are used more extensively when
grown primarily for forage than are the non-saccharine.
Since the foliage of all sorghums remains green until
the heads are mature, a fair quality of coarse forage is
secured when sorghums are grown for grain. About one-
half the sorghum crop is sown primarily for fodder, to be
cut before heads are ripe and cured as fodder or hay.
254. Time of planting. — In the Gulf States sorghum
is often sown early so that the crop may be cut two or
three times, though sowing may continue for several
months. In the Central States sowing is usually after
corn planting, generally in the month of June.
255. Rate of planting. — Sorghum for forage is either
sown thick in drill rows about 3 feet apart and cultivated,
or sown close, either broadcast or with the grain drill.
When sown in rows to be cultivated, the methods are
similar to those for growing grain except. that about 15
pounds of seed per acre is used instead of 2 to 5 pounds.
When sown broadcast, one to two bushels per acre of
seed are used; the thinner sowing is done on poorer land
or in adry climate, and the thicker seeding under the most
favorable conditions.
Y
322 CORN CROPS
256. Methods of planting. — Which of the two methods
shall be employed — drilling or broadcasting — depends
on circumstances. In regions of low rainfall, drilling in
wide rows and cultivating is the surer method, but in
more humid regions there is little difference in yield.
On the other hand, drilling in rows increases the cost
because of the amount of cultivation necessary. The
fodder is also coarser.
Harvesting forage sorghum
257. When cultivated in rows the best method of
harvesting is with a corn-binder. The bundles are set up
in small shocks to cure. In four to six weeks several
small shocks may be set together in large shocks, which
Fie. 114. — Cutting sorghum forage with a mower.
CULTURAL METHODS FOR SORGHUMS 823
are securely tied near the top and left in the field to be
hauled as used. A better method is to stack in large
stacks, but care must be observed that the fodder is well
cured before stacking.
When sown broadcast the crop is usually cut with a
mower and handled as coarse hay, or cut with the grain-
binder.
When cut with a mower a stubble of 6 inches should be
left. This tall stubble facilitates drying, and also gath-
ering the heavy fodder with a hayrake. Heavy sorghum
hay dries very slowly and should be left for one to two
weeks in the swath before raking and cocking. It should
be thoroughly cured in the cocks before stacking.
258. An average yield of cured fodder varies from 3 to
6 tons per acre. Very heavy yields of 10 tons per acre
have been reported from one cutting. Where sorghum
is cut two or three times a season, as in the South, the
relative yield of the different cuttings depends on the
method of handling. If the first cutting is allowed to
become quite ripe, the following cutting will be light;
but if the first crop is cut quite green, the second cutting
may be as heavy as, or heavier than, the first.
259. Seed crop. — Twenty-five to thirty bushels of
seed per acre is considered an average yield. All sorghum
sown in rows for fodder or planted thin for sirup-making
produces a good crop of seed. Most of the commercial
seed of sweet sorghums comes from this source.
CHAPTER XXVII
UTILIZING THE SORGHUM CROP
260. In Asia and Africa the grain of sorghum is utilized
principally as human food, in the United States as stock
food.
The seed coat is hard and rather indigestible, therefore
all sorghum grain fed to live stock should be ground.
Composition. — The composition of kafir is shown by
the following summary : ! —
Foop ConstiITUENTS IN Karir.
In FresH or AIR-DRY
MATERIAL
Pro- NitRo-
Warter| AsH | TEIN | FIBER |GEN-FREE| Fat
EXTRACT AUTHORITY
Per Per | Per Per Per
Cent | Cent] Cent | Cent | Per Cent | Cent
!
|
Kafir (whole |
plant green) 76.13 | 1.75 |] 3.22 6.16 11.96 0.78 | Penn. Station
Kafr (whole
plant green) 76.05 | 1.44 2.34 8.36 11.41 0.40 | N. Y. (Cornell)
Station
Average 76.09 | 1.60) 2.78 7.26 11.69 0.59
Kafir fodder
(whole plant .| 10.94 | 5.48] 3.31 30.37 47.40 2.50 | N.C Station
Kafir fodder
(without
heads) 8.67 | 7.14 | 4.89 28.02 49.75 1.53 | Kans. Station
Kafir (mature
head) . . .| 16.23 | 2.02| 6.92 6.79 65.18 2.86 | N.C. Station
Kafir seed : 9.31 | 1.53 | 9.92 1.35 74.92 2.97 | Kans. Station
Kafir flower . 16.75 | 2.18 | 6.62 1.16 69.47 3.82 | N.C. Station
1Cyel. of Agr. IV : 387.
324
UTILIZING THE SORGHUM CROP 3825
Kafir and other sorghum seeds are considered to be
very starchy foods. For good results they require that
some protein food, as alfalfa hay or cottonseed meal, be
fed with them. Ten per cent cottonseed meal is sufficient.
Kafir grain fed alone is also constipating, and this tend-
ency is corrected by the addition of a protein food fed
in connection.
When fed to cattle, horses, and sheep, good results are
secured, though pound-for-pound feeding experiments
show sorghum to be not quite so valuable as corn. In
general, for fat stock, 80 to 90 pounds of corn have been
found to equal 100 pounds of kafir or milo when fed in
comparison.
261. Poultry food. — Sorghum seed is one of the best
poultry foods and enters into a large proportion of these
foods found on the market. It is considered superior to
corn. For poultry the seed need not be ground but is fed
whole, either threshed or in the head.
262. Soiling or green feed. — Sorghum is probably the
most popular crop to cut and feed green. The sweet
sorghums are used principally for this purpose. The
superiority of sorghum for this use lies in its large yield,
its sprouting up from the roots so that the crop may be
cut several times in succession, and its drought resistance.
Sorghum will remain green and growing under drier
conditions than will other forage crops, furnishing succu-
lent food at the time it is most needed.
For green feeding it is usually drilled very thick, in
rows 3 feet apart.
An acre of green sorghum producing 12 tons will feed
twenty head of stock for twenty days, allowing 60 pounds
per head each day.
263. Pasture. — Sorghum is used considerably as a
326 CORN CROPS
pasture crop. For this purpose it is sown rather thick,
2 to 3 bushels per acre. Stock is turned in when the crop
is 3 to 4 feet high.
For pasturing, the field should be divided into lots and
enough stock should be turned in to eat down the crop
in about two weeks. The stock should then be removed
to another lot and the pasture given four to six weeks to
grow up again. This would require three to four lots.
It is estimated that one acre will furnish grazing for
the equivalent of one animal for one hundred days, or
ten animals for ten days.
264. Sorghum mixtures for pasture.— For pasture
purposes German millet is sometimes mixed with sorghum
and gives good results. Cereals have been used as a
mixture, but it is doubtful whether they add to the value
as pasture. In the South, it has been recommended to
mix sorghum and cowpeas, for both forage and pasture.
Cowpeas give a better-balanced ration. For pasture
the sorghum and cowpeas should be drilled in rows about
8 to 12 inches apart, in alternating rows.
265. Sorghum for silage.— Within the corn-belt, sor-
ghum compares favorably with corn as a silage crop.
In regions of less than 25 inches rainfall, sorghum will
probably come to be the most important silage crop.
In the South, also, it is likely to supersede corn for silage,
especially where the crop is to be grown on rather poor
land.
Sorghum silage is more difficult to preserve than corn,
being more likely to ferment. When well preserved it
appears to have a feeding value about equal to that of
corn silage, though very little experimental work on
this point has been done. Sorghum for silage is now in
extensive use in many places in the Southern States.
UTILIZING THE SORGHUM CROP 327
266. Sorghum poisoning. — Sorghum pasture under
some conditions is a virulent poison. This is due to
prussic acid forming in the leaves under certain condi-
tions. The conditions favoring the development of prussic
acid seem to be hot, clear, and dry weather, producing
a stunted growth. Poisoning is most common in semiarid
regions. When conditions are right for developing poison,
the sorghum should be pastured with caution, as the poison
acts quickly and there is no known remedy. Cattle
should not be pastured on stunted or drought-stricken
sorghum. Where it is desired to test the pasture, prob-
ably the best way is to allow only a single animal to. graze
the field for a day or two.
When poisonous sorghum is cut and allowed to lie
until wilted, the poisonous property entirely disappears.
CHAPTER XXVIII
SORGHUM FOR SIRUP-MAKING
As discussed heretofore (see page 296), sorghum has
had an extensive use in the United States for sirup
manufacture. The process of sirup-making is so simple
that nothing more is necessary than a roller press for
extracting the juice, and a single evaporating pan. Ina
few cases rather extensive plants have been established,
but most of the sirup has been made in small local plants.
267. For sirup the sweet sorghums are used, as Amber,
Orange, Sumac, and Gooseneck. There are strains of all
these varieties selected for sirup-making. (See descrip-
tion of these varieties, pages 297-300.)
268. For sirup the sorghum is planted and cultivated
practically as described for the culture of grain sorghums.
269. Time of harvesting. — The sugar content of sor-
ghum at different stages of growth as determined by Collier,
the result of 2740 analyses, is given as follows: !—
SuGar Content or SorGHUM AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF GROWTH
Srace oF Currina Sucrose INVERT SucaRr
Per Cent Per Cent
Panicles just appearing . . 1.76 4.29
Panicles entirely out . . . 3.51 4.50.
Flowers allout. . . . . 5.13 4.15
Seed in milk cooky de. ee 7.38 3.86
Doughy, becoming dry . . 8.95 3.19
Dry, easily split . . . . 10.66 2.35
ards ee eee ake ear" oe 11.69 1.81
1Sorghum Sirup Manufacture. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul.
AT? : 12;
328
- SORGHUM FOR SIRUP—MAKING 329
270. Sorghum increases not only in total weight until
mature, but also in the percentage of sugar. The seed
should reach a hard dough stage before cutting.
Stripping. — For best results the ‘leaves should be
stripped. This is done while the canes are standing. The
canes are often pressed without removing the leaves, but
if this is the case, the yield of juice is less and the im-
purities are much greater.
Cutting. — The canes are cut by hand or with a corn-
binder. In hot weather, cutting should be done not
more than two days before grinding, as there is danger of
fermentation developing., In cool fall weather, however,
canes are often kept in large shocks for one to two weéks
after cutting.
When a heavy frost occurs the sorghum should be cut
and placed in large shocks at once. If it is to stand for
some time, both leaves and heads should be left on. In
large shocks, with cool weather the sorghum may be kept
with little loss for three or four weeks.
A heavy freeze will do no harm provided the cane can
be ground at once upon thawing; but after thawing it is
likely to go out of condition in a very short time.
271. An average yield of green sorghum would be 8 to
10 tons, though it may vary from 5 to 15 tons.
The yield of sirup depends on the kind of mill, quality
of the sorghum, and quality of the juice.
A poor mill may extract only 30 per cent of the total
juice, while with a good three-roller mill 60 per cent of the
original weight may be extracted as juice, or 1200 pounds
to a ton of canes.
Juice varies in quality, containing 8 to 15 per cent cf
sugar. The juice is concentrated by boiling until it con-
tains about 70 per cent of solid matter and 30 per cent of
330 CORN CROPS
water. The amount of sirup produced from a ton of
canes is therefore very variable.
In general, a ton of canes will give 700 to 1200 pounds
of juice, which in turn will yield 10 to 30 gallons of sirup,
according to quality.
272. The manufacture of sorghum sirup consists of three
steps: (1) extraction of juice; (2) clarification of the raw
juice; (3) evaporation of juice.
The extraction is done with heavy roller presses of either
the two-roller or three-roller type. The juice is then
run into settling tanks, where impurities in suspension
are allowed to settle out.
The clarification is accomplished in some cases by
merely allowing the raw juice to settle for some time.
Settling is hastened by heating. Sometimes fine yellow
clay is added, which aids in settling. When the juice is
somewhat acid, lime also is added to the heated juice.
After clarification the clear juice is drawn off to be con-
centrated.
* Concentration takes place in large, shallow pans, where
the juice is kept boiling by a well-regulated fire. Ordi-
narily the pan is divided into compartments, the boiling
juice flowing slowly in a thin layer from one end to the
other. By the time the outflow is reached, the juice
should be concentrated into sirup. In very small plants
the juice is merely boiled down in kettles.
CHAPTER XXIX
BROOM-CORN
Broom-corn belongs to the non-saccharine sorghums,
resembling Shallu or Kowliang more than others. It is
characterized by very short rachis and long, slender,
seed-bearing branches. The plant is grown principally
for the seed head, or ‘ brush,” having practically no forage
value.
273. Historical. — The origin of broom-corn is not
known, though it was cultivated and used for making
brooms two hundred and fifty years ago! in Italy, where
it apparently had its first general culture. References are
made to its culture in the United States about the year
1800.. The following statement appears regarding it in
a book entitled ‘‘ The Pennsylvania Farmer,” published
in 1804:2 “A useful plant, the cheapest and best for
making brooms, velvet whisks, etc. The grain for poultry,
etc., a few hills or rows of it in the garden or cornfield
suffice for family purposes.”
While its value was thus recognized, its culture did not
become important until several decades later.
274. Statistics of culture. — During the past forty
years, broom-corn culture has developed rapidly, as shown
by the crop harvested for the past three census years : —
YEAR Pounps
1879 . . . .. . . . . . 29,480,106
1889 . . .... . . . . 88,557,429
1g99 . . ..... . . . 90,947,370
1 Mentioned by Casper Bauhin as used for this purpose in 1658.
2 Twelfth Census. Vol. VI, Part II, p. 519.
331
882
CORN CROPS
Thecrop practically trebled
in thirty years.
Broom-corn culture has
always been concentrated to
certain rather limited regions :
Four States in 1879 — Ilh-
nois, Kansas, Missouri, and
New York — produced 80 per
cent of the crop. In 1889
four States, the first three
named above and Nebraska,
produced 89 per cent of the
crop. In 1899 the last-named
four States and Oklahoma
produced 90 per cent of the
crop.
In 1899 Illinois alone, which
has been the leading State
in broom-corn production for
forty years, produced 66.7
per cent of the entire crop
in the United States, while
50.1 per cent of the entire
crop was grown in three
counties.
The twenty-two counties
of the United States produc-
ing more than 1000 acres
each are shown in the fol-
lowing table, as reported by
the Twelfth Census: —
ad Fic. 115.—Broom-corn, sorghum, and hybrid between the two:
a, broom-corn; b, hybrid; c, black-seeded sorghum.
BROOM-CORN
338
County Sratr AcREs SN Nino :
Coles . Illinois 34,597 | 23,948,030 692
Douglas . Illinois 22,356 14,768,780 661
Moultrie . Illinois 10,256 6,815,530 665
Cumberland Illinois 6,619 2,738,710 414
Edgar Illinois 6,248 4,085,860 654
Woods Oklahoma 6,086 — 1,292,670 212
McPherson . .; Kansas 5,684 2,890,330 509
Reno . . | Kansas 5,137 1,691,090 329
Rice Kansas 4,167 1,366,030 328
Henry Missouri 3,753 1,177,950 314
Shelby . | Illinois 3,246 1,826,670 563
Clark . . | Illinois 2,446 1,210,140 495
Henry . | Illinois 2,000 1,298,450 649
Allen . . | Kansas 1,952 566,480 290
Cass . | Nebraska 1,726 776,580 450
Stafford . Kansas 1,684 553,710 329
Jasper . | Illinois 1,496 651,560 436
Piatt . | Illinois 1,454 950,710 654
Sheridan , | Kansas 1,307 305,910 234
Cheyenne Kansas 1,090 252,940 232
Stevens Kansas 1,054 267,680 254
Polk | Nebraska 1,051 498,000 474
275. Varieties. — Seedsmen list broom-corn under at
least a dozen variety names, but these names have little
significance. There are two types, known as (1) stand-
ard, normally growing about 12 feet high with a brush
18 to 28 inches in length, and (2) dwarf broom-corn,
growing 4 to 6 feet in height and producing a brush 12 to
18 inches in length.
The standard type is used for the manufacture of large
brooms.
While dwarf brush is also used to some extent in the
manufacture of large brooms, the straw is generally too
334 CORN CROPS
fine and weak for this purpose. The dwarf type, however,
is almost exclusively used in whisk brooms. There is
some variation in different strains. Very often the large
manufacturers keep on hand seed of the strains best suited
to the needs of the trade, and are ready to supply growers
with this seed.
276. Brush.— The brush should be bright and of a
uniform light green color. When the head does not fully
exsert from the “‘ boot,” or upper leaf sheath, the base of
the brush is likely to take on a red color, which is very
undesirable. The discoloring is most common when con-
siderable rain occurs during the maturing season. This
is a very common fault of the dwarf variety and necessi-
tates breaking over the brush as soon as it is well grown
so that it will hang down. For this reason dwarf broom-
corn is more successfully grown in rather dry climates,
most of it at present being cultivated in Kansas and
Oklahoma.
Length of brush.—In general, the longer the brush
the better, all other qualities being equal. There is some
danger that very long brush may be coarse. Brush
that is both fine and long is the most valuable.
Rachts. — The rachis should be short, with no central
“core ”’ of stiff branches extending upward in the center.
Shape of head. —- The head should be broom-shaped
rather than conical, with all branches approximately the
same length.
Flexibility. — The brush should be flexible and tough.
This condition is attained both by proper climatic condi-
tions and by proper harvesting.
277. Culture of broom-corn. — The selection and prepa-
ration of land, method of planting, cultivating, and so on,
are no different in general from those in the culture of
BROOM-CORN 335
other sorghum crops. However, quality and uniformity
in the crop is as important as yield, and more precaution
must therefore be taken to have the land uniform, and the
Fic. 116. — Poor and good heads of standard and dwarf broom-corn (after
C. P. Hartley): a, poor head of dwarf with large center; 6, head of
dwarf inclosed in ‘‘ boot’; c, good grade of dwarf for whisks; d, long
head of dwarf with characteristic weakness at point z; e and f, good
grades of standard hurl; g, good head of self-working; h, poor grade
of standard because of heavy center; 7, smutted head.
stand uniform. Also, the cost of harvesting is much
increased if the crop does not ripen so that it can all be
harvested at one time.
336 CORN CROPS
Land. — Any productive soil will raise broom-corn.
The principal consideration is that the soil be uniform.
One reason why the culture of this plant has been so suc-
cessful in central Illinois is because of the extensive areas
of uniform soil.
Planting
278. Time of planting. — The planting of broom-corn
usually begins about two weeks later than the planting
of field corn and may be continued for a period of four
weeks. In the Central States, planting is done from
the middle of May to the end of June and harvesting begins
the middle of August. It is often desirable to distribute
the planting so that the harvesting will not come too
much at one time.
Method of planting. —'The width of row varies from
3 feet for dwarf varieties to 34 feet for standard varie-
ties. The distance apart in row is 2 inches in dwarf
and 3 inches in standard varieties. The planting should
be uniform, as the brush will be too coarse where the stalks
are thin, and undersized where the planting is too thick.
Drilling is the ordinary method of planting. The ordi-
nary corn-planter, with special plates for broom-corn seed,
is satisfactory.
Replanting thin places is not practicable, and thinning
the stand is too expensive. It is, therefore, very impor-
tant to take every precaution to secure a perfect stand at
the beginning. It is hardly necessary to state that the
land should be clean and in good tilth, and the seed should
be carefully cleaned and of good germinating quality.
279. Tillage. — The same tools and methods of cultiva-
tion that are successful with Indian corn are effective with
broom-corn, except for the fact that broom-corn is more
BROOM-CORN 38387
delicate and grows slowly the first three weeks, necessitat-
ing greater care and skill.
280. Time of harvesting. —In order to get a good green
color and tough, flexible brush, the corn must be cut quite
green, or just as soon as the brush has reached full growth.
The best time is when just past full bloom.
If allowed to ripen, the brush loses color and becomes
brittle, and the selling price for such brush is often less
Fig. 117. —Standard broom-corn, tabled and ready for hauling.
than one-half that of high-grade stock. On the other
hand, when allowed to ripen, 10 to 20 bushels of seed per
acre is secured, which is valuable as a poultry and stock
food. It is generally conceded that the loss in value to the
brush is much greater than the value of the seed crop,
although in California the seed crop is quite generally
harvested ; but this is not customary in other places.
Cutting the brush.— Dwarf broom-corn is usually
“ pulled,” while the standard type is “ tabled’ and cut.
Dwarf varieties are short enough so that a man can
easily reach the heads; also, the base of the brush is
inclosed in the ‘“‘ boot,” which must be removed. When
the crop is uniform enough so that all can be pulled at one
Z
338 CORN CROPS
time, the cheapest way is to pull and load directly on
wagons. When it must be pulled twice, that harvested
the first time over is laid on the ground and covered with
leaves. Itis not possible to get a uniform grade in this way.
Standard broom-corn is first ‘“ tabled’ and the heads
are then cut by hand. In tabling, one man passes backward
Fig. 118. — Threshing broom-corn seed heads or brush.
between two rows, bending the stalks at a point about
30 inches above the ground toward each other and across
the row, so that the heads hang about two feet past the
other row. Two men following cut off the heads and
place them evenly, on every other table. Three men can
harvest about two acres per day. Later, a team with a
wagon passes over the empty tables and the brush is
collected.
Threshing and storing. —The heads are threshed
directly from the field, or within a very few days after
BROOM-—CORN 839
cutting. The thresher removes all seeds, after which the
brush is stored in drying sheds, in thin layers about 3
inches deep.
Bulking. — After drying for about three weeks the brush
is piled in tiers, called ‘ bulking,” for further drying. It
Fic. 119. — Power baling press for broom-corn.
then goes “ through the sweat,’’ which means merely that
considerable natural heat is developed and the drying is
hastened.
Baling. — This should not take place until the brush
is thoroughly dried. Good bales of brush are often very
much damaged by heating and molding, as a result of
baling before dry. A bale weights 300 to 400 pounds,
340 CORN CROPS
281. Market grades. — Certain trade terms are applied
in describing the qualities of broom-corn, which are well
g__| 1
Perea ise
r i ; a Z| 7,
mae 71 nr " f
-L— Wi deh) iu q ma EY
—_—— - ff f y
es ite } Y,
Lb ) ; tf | y (]
Mid i y
Gp, fii
FEZ), H { We
Tt
Fic. 120.— A bale of broom-corn.
understood by those familiar with the stock. The fol-
lowing data, prepared by C. P. Hartley, give trade terms
and relative prices of different grades: —
CrENTs PER PouUND
Fair, crooked . . Sd fe ce One rg tg cae
Good, well-handled, crooked .
Fair, medium, red-tipped . P
Slightly tipp d, smooth growth .
Good, green mooth, self-working s
Choice, green, self-working carpet stock .
Fair, medium, sound hurl
Good medium hurl
Good, green, smooth, carpet hurl
Choice, green, smooth, carpet hurl
tole role whe
CUTE WOR PW bo
ie
BROOM-CORN 841
REFERENCES ON SORGHUMS
Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agri-
culture : —
Bulletin 50. Three Much Misrepresented Sorghums.
Bulletin 175. The History and Distribution of Sorghums.
Bulletin 203. The Importance and Improvement of Grain
Sorghums.
Bulletin 237. Grain Sorghum Production in the San Antonio
Region of Texas.
Farmers’ Bulletins, United States Department of Agriculture :—
Bulletin 37. Kafir Corn Characteristics and Uses.
Bulletin 50. Sorghum as a Forage Crop.
Bulletin 92. Improvement of Sorghum.
Bulletin 174. Broom Corn.
Bulletin 246. Saccharine Sorghums for Forage.
Bulletin 288. Non-saccharine Sorghums.
Bulletin 322. Milo as a Dry Land Crop.
Bulletin 334. Sorghum for Silage.
Bulletin 448. Better Grain Sorghum Crops.
Bulletin 450. The Best Two Sweet Sorghums for Forage.
Bulletin 477. Sorghum Sirup Manufacture.
Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletins : —
Bulletin 23. Smuts of Sorghum, Corn Smut.
Bulletin 93. Kafir Corn.
Bulletin 99. (Page 5.) Kafir Corn, Alfalfa Hay, and Soy
Beans for Pork.
Bulletin 99. (Page 32.) Kafir Corn.
Bulletin 99. (Page 35.) Digestion Experiments with Kafir
Corn.
Bulletin 119. (Page 28.) Kafir Corn vs. Good Butter.
Bulletin 119. (Page 42.) Sorghum Pasture for Dairy Cows.
Bulletin 119. (Page 63.) Whole Kafir Corn Compared with
Ground Kafir Corn for Growing Calves.
Bulletin 136. (Page 164.) Sorghum with Corn for Baby
Beef.
Bulletin 136. (Page 179.) Kafir Corn Meal and Sorghum
Seed Meal with Soy Bean Meal for Swine.
Bulletin 136. (Page 202.) Kafir Corn with Alfalfa for Baby
Beef.
342 CORN CROPS
Bulletin 149. Prevention of Sorghum and Kafir Corn Smut.
Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletins : —
Bulletin 22. Field Experiments with Kafir Corn.
Bulletin 35. Summary of Digestion Experiments with Kafir.
Other Bulletins :—
Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 92. Sorghum
for Silage and Forage.
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 21. Sorghum.
Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 86. Sor-
ghum vs. Corn Meal as a Source of Carbohydrates for
Dairy Cattle.
Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 55. Field
Experiments with Sorghum.
American Breeders’ Association. III. Breeding of Grain
Sorghums.
Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agri-
culture, Bulletin 85. The Sorghum Midge.
South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 88.
Sorghum as a Sirup Plant.
Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 77.
Poisoning of Cattle by Corn or Sorghum, and Kafir Corn.
Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 99. Kafir
Corn and Milo Maize for Fattening Cattle.
Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 98.
Colorado Hays and Fodder.
Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 13. Sor-
ghum; Value as Feed. Effect on Soil.
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 115. Sugar
Beet and Sorghum Investigations in 1899.
Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 44.
Sorghum in 1898.
Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 27.
Tests of Sorghum Varieties.
New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 33.
Feeding Non-saccharine Sorghums.
INDEX
Acclimation, 117-121.
Adaptation
and improvement of corn, 74.
of sorghum to dry climate, 288.
Adjustment of corn plants, 178.
Air passages, 35.
Alkali resistance, 290.
Amber sorghum, 297.
Andropogon halepensis, 279.
Animal and insect pests of corn, 214—
221,
Biological origin, 16.
Biotypes, 109.
Breads, 252.
Breeding
close, narrow, broad, 102.
Breeding plants, 94.
how to conduct, 95.
notes, 97.
selection of ears, 96.
Broom corn, 331-340.
classification, 282.
Carbon, in composition, 47.
Chinch bugs, 218.
Chinese maize, 24.
Classification
corn, 15, 20.
by groups, 20-24.
broom corn, 282.
sorghum, sweet, 281.
sorghum, non-saccharine, 282.
Climatic factors.
in growth of corn, 58-67.
in growth of sorghum, 288.
Composition of corn, 42.
as affected by the rote planting,
183.
of parts of plant, 184, 226.
as affected by time of cutting, 225.
Composition of sorghums, 324.
Corn
binder, 234.
cost of production, 247.
crossing biotypes, 111.
varieties, 111.
shows, 253.
Corn crop, mineral requirements of,
135.
Coyote corn, 20.
Crossing sorghums, 287.
corn, 111.
Crows, 214.
Cultivation
depth and frequency, 209.
methods compared, 206.
principles of, 197.
tools for, 198.
Cultivators
for listed corn, 202.
two-row, 200.
Cultural methods, 158-275.
Cutworms, 215.
Dent corn, 22.
Description
corn plant, 26.
sorghum plant, 283.
Development of varieties, 78.
Diseases of corn, 220.
Disk harrow, 167.
Dominant characters, 105.
Drainage, 157.
Drought resistance, 286.
Drying corn for shipment, 246.
Durra, 299, 310.
classification, 282.
Ear
origin, 37.
proportion of plant, 228.
343
844
Ear (continued)
relative feeding value, 227.
storage, 242.
shrinkage, 245.
Early culture of corn, 77.
methods of modifying, 80.
Ear worm, 218.
Energy, source of, 47.
Environment
effect on corn, 118.
Erosion, 154.
causes of, 155.
prevention of, 156.
Euchlena Mexicana, 16.
Evaporation of water, 151.
from soil under corn crop, 208.
Exportation of corn, 4.
Fertilization of corn, 52.
of sorghum, 286.
Fertilizers
for corn, 138.
formulas, 142.
increase due to, 141.
use in rotation, 131.
when profitable, 144.
with farmyard manure, 133.
Flint corn, 21.
for North Carolina, 187.
varieties, 189.
Flowers of corn, 36.
Fodder shrinkage in curing, 243.
Forage
corn, sowing for, 171.
yield at different rates, 183.
sorghum, 294.
Gooseneck sorghum, 300.
Grain sorghums, 301.
Growth of corn, 48.
climatic factors, 58-67.
length of growing season, 59.
relation of sunshine to, 61.
rainfall to, 64.
soils to, 68.
Growth of sorghum
relation of climate and soils, 288-
289.
Grubworms, 216.
INDEX
Harshberger, J. L., 15.
Harvesting corn, 222-248.
breeding plats, 97.
comparative cost of methods, 241.
cost of harvesting tops and leaves,
232,
time of, 224.
Harvesting sorghum
broom corn, 337.
for forage, 322.
for grain, 319.
for sirup, 328.
Hermaphrodite forms, 24.
History of corn, see Origin
of early corn culture, 77.
of sorghums, 279.
Hoe cake, 252.
Hominy, 249.
Husker and shredder, 238.
Husking fodder corn, 237.
Hybridization of corn, 101-116.
Importation of corn, 6.
Improvement and adaptation, 74-84.
of varieties, 85-92.
Interculture, principles of, 197-213.
International trade in corn, 4.
July rainfall and yield, 66.
Kafir, 309.
Kowliang, 314.
Leaves of corn, 33.
composition of, 184, 227.
percentage, 226.
stripping, 230.
turgidity, 39.
Lime, 147-149.
application of, 134.
effect of, 147.
Lister, 168.
Listing, 169.
Manure, farmyard
for corn, 130.
value the ton, 132.
Marketing, 245.
| Market movement, 11.
INDEX
Mass selection, 88.
results with, 89.
Meal, corn, 249.
Mendel’s laws, 104.
Milo, 311.
Mineral matter for corn soils, 135-150.
Moisture in corn, 175.
Natural selection, 83.
Nitrogen for corn, 134, 146.
Non-saccharine sorghums, 301.
classification of, 291.
region cultivated, 303.
statistics, 304.
Orange sorghum, 298.
Organic matter of corn soils, 130.
Origin of corn
biological, 16.
e®ographical, 15.
Origin of sorghum, 279.
geographical, 280.
Pasture (sorghum), 325.
Pedigree selection of corn, 89.
Physiology of corn, 38.
Physiology of sorghum, 286.
Plant, corn
description of, 26-37.
number to the acre, 176.
type of, 86.
Planter’s corn
calibrating planter plates, 195.
two-row check, 172.
lister, 168.
Planting corn, 161.
checking and drilling, 172.
depth of, 175.
rate of, 176.
on various soils, 180.
time of, 173.
width of rows, 182.
Plowing for corn, 163.
Pod corn, 20.
Poisoning, sorghum, 327.
Poison, for squirrels, 215.
Pop corn, 21.
products, 251.
Preparation of land for corn, 161.
345
Products, corn, 249-251.
Production, broom corn, 331.
Production of corn
as related to climate and soils,
54-73.
causes of low, 70.
continents, 2.
countries, 2.
development, 7.
how maintained, 134.
percentage, 3.
restoring, 123.
United States, 6.
world’s crops, 1-2.
Production of non-saccharine sor-
ghums, 304.
Production of sorghum sirup, 295.
Rate of planting corn, 176.
on different soils, 180.
Recessive characters, 105.
Relation of climatic factors to growth,
58.
of cropping systems to yield, 122.
of July rainfall to yield, 66.
of soils to growth, 68.
Relationship, degrees of, 101.
Relative importance of corn, 1.
Root louse, 217.
Roots of corn, 26-30.
depth, 176.
prevent evaporation, 208.
spread of, 28.
Roots of sorghum, 285.
in upper layers, 290.
Rootworm, 217.
Rotations for corn, 127.
Runoff water, 151.
Saccharine sorghums, 293-300.
classification, 296.
introduction, 293.
sirup, first grown for, 294.
gallons produced, 295.
sirup-making, 328-330.
Seed corn
curing sweet corn, 264.
germination tests, 192.
grading, 195.
346
Seed corn (continued)
preparation of, 190.
Selection of corn
for composition, 91.
mass, 88.
natural, 83.
Self-fertilization, 107.
Shallu, 313.
Shocks, size of, 235.
tying, 237.
Show corn, 253-258.
Shredding fodder, 238.
Shrinkage of ear corn, 244.
of fodder in curing, 243.
of silage, 243. .
Silage
from sorghum, 326.
growing corn for, 212.
shrinkage of, 243.
time of harvesting, 229.
Sirup-making, 328-330.
Smut of corn, 220.
Soft corn, 22.
Soils
as related to growth, 68.
classification of corn soils, 70.
non-saccharine sorghums, 301.
saccharine sorghums, 293.
Sowing corn for forage, 171.
Squirrels, 214.
Stalk cutter, 162.
Stomata, number, 35.
Stover, feeding value of, 229.
relative yield, 228.
Style, 51.
Subsoiling, 166.
Sunlight, intensity of, 62.
Sweet corn
contract with growers, 266.
description of, 22.
forcing sweet corn, 273.
market for, 270.
products of, 251.
seed, 263.
varieties, 262.
Teosinte, 18.
Tillage
comparison of methods, 206.
INDEX
depth and frequency, 209.
machinery, 197.
reasons for, 205.
Tillers, 33.
economic value of, 179.
factors effecting, 179.
Tripsacum dactyloides, 16.
Tull, Jethro, 205.
Types of corn for different sections,
185.
Type of ear, 85.
Type of plant, 86.
Uses of corn, 249-252.
Utilizing the sorghum crop, 324.
Value of principal crops, 7.
Varieties of corn
development of, 78.
for different regions, 187.
improvement, 85.
production by selection, 83.
Varieties of sorghum
broom corn, 331.
for grain, 301.
sweet sorghums, 293.
Water
absorption, 45.
given off, 45.
loss from fallow soil, 207.
loss of, 35.
regulating supply of, 151-157.
required by months, 152.
required for corn, 65, 151.
Weeds
clearing, 168.
effect on yield of corn, 208.
Wireworms, 216.
Xenia, 103.
Yields, corn.
ability of corn to, 57.
relation to cropping system, 122.
to the acre, 7.
to the acre, forage, 183.
when harvested at different dates,
224,
INDEX 847
Yields, sorghum curagua, 24.
broom corn, 331. everta, 21.
forage, 323. hirta, 23.
grain, 320. indentata, 22.
sirup, 329. indurata, 21.
japonica, 23.
Zea Mays: saccharata, 22.
amylacea, 22. tunicata, 20.
canina, 20.
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tion of business principles as it is on crop yields and production of animals.
“The best way to find out what methods of farm organization and man-
agement are most successful is to study the methods now used and the
profits secured on large numbers of farms, and determine how the more
successful ones differ from the less successful, and find to which of the
differences the success is due. After such principles are found, they need
to be tested by use in reorganizing farms.
“The conclusions in this book are based on investigations of the kind
given above, and on cost accounts, census data, travel and study in differ-
ent parts of the United States and experience in farming. It is hoped that
the conclusions may be of use to farmers and students.” — Preface.
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Sheep Farming
By JOHN A. CRAIG and F. R. MARSHALL
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This book deals with sheep husbandry as a phase of intensive farming.
Recognizing that it is likely to be used by persons unfamiliar with sheep,
the authors have worked from the standpoint of the producer of the market
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various breeds are discussed in such a way as to enable the reader to select
the kind that is most likely to do well under his conditions and to acquaint
him with the care it is accustomed to and needs. The management of the
flock in the fall, winter, spring, and summer seasons, the formation of the
flock, the selection of foundation stock, and the means of maintaining a
high standard of flock efficiency are all discussed in subsequent chapters.
Principles of Fruit Growing
By Proressor L. H. BAILEY
New edition. Cloth, r2mo, $1.50
Since the original publication of this book, in 1897, it has gone through
many editions. The progress of fruit growing in the meantime has been
very marked and it has been necessary to completely rewrite the work.
The present issue of it brings the accounts of the new practices and discov-
eries as they relate to fruit growing up to date. All of the text and practi-
cally all of the illustrations are new.
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Codperation in Agriculture
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This book deals with the general principles of codperation. How to
organize codperative societies, how to finance them, simple organizations
and constitutional documents, by-laws, and general advice as to the admin-
istration of the associations or societies are all considered. The author
describes at some length the most famous organizations, such as those
which are handling citrus fruits in California, the farmers’ grain elevators
systems, and the present codperation in the creamery and butter business.
It is, in other words, a practical guide for those who desire to organize
codperative societies and who wish to escape the usual pitfalls.
Farm Forestry
By E. G. CHEYNEY
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This book deals with the place of the wood lot or farm forest in the scheme
of farming, with the planting, care, and harvesting of timber on lands, with
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tions in a forest plantation, the rate of growth, the profits to be expected
and the principal difficulties that are usually encountered. It is profusely
illustrated.
Forage Crops for the South
By S. M. TRACY
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Professor Tracy has had long experience in Southern agriculture, both in
application and in teaching. He was formerly Professor of Agriculture in
the Mississippi Agricultural College, and now conducts a branch station or
farm for the United States Department of Agriculture. He is a botanist of
note and has traveled extensively in the South as a collector. His book is
not only authentic, but practical. In it is contained a discussion of all
kinds of plants and crops adapted to the Southern States for fodder, soiling,
pasturing, and hay. The text is abundantly illustrated. ~
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Fruit Insects
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This is a practical account of the principal insects in this coun-
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small fruits, cranberries, grapes, and the like. It presents a
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Milk and Its Products
By HENRY H. WING
Professor of Dairy Husbandry in Cornell University
New Revised Edition, with new illustrations, cloth, r2mo, $1.50
The revolution in dairy practice, brought about by the introduc-
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fat, by a more definite knowledge regarding the various fermen-
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products, have demanded the publication of a book that shall
give to the dairyman, and particularly to the dairy student, in
simple, concise form, the principles underlying modern dairy
practice. Such has been Professor Wing’s purpose in this
work. This is not a new edition of the author’s very successful
volume published under the same title many years ago; it is, in
reality, an entirely new book, having been wholly reset and en-
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The Farmer of To-morrow
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There has been a great deal of theorizing about the “ back to
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economic bearing on the question. The second half takes up
the soil with a detailed exposition of soil sanitation, the author
confining himself, however, to only the broad principles. In
presenting these two main thoughts the author touches upon
such important and interesting topics as Why Europe Raises
Three Bushels of Grain to Our One, Why Soils Become Un-
productive, Why the Farmer of Yesterday is Rich, Why There
Has Been No Increase in Acreage Productivity, and Why Irri-
gated Land Pays Interest on a Capitalization of Two Thousand
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ture and to those who are trying to solve the problem of the
high cost of living.
Malaria: Cause and Control
By WILLIAM B. HERMS Illustrated, cloth, 8vo, $1.50
The awakening of the general public to the necessity and possi-
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the most careful attention, particularly in these days when so
much is heard of the “back to the soil” movement. For ma-
laria is notably a disease of rural districts. Those who are
familiar with the situation know very well that malaria is too
often responsible for farm desertion. Professor Herms writes
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studied them during the past few years himself, and the sugges-
tions for control which he makes are such as he has applied and
found successful.
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Warren’s Elements of Agriculture
By G. F. WARREN, Professor of Farm Management and
Farm Crops, New York State College of Agriculture at Cor-
nell University
Cloth, 12mo, 456 pages, $1.10
Written by Professor G. F. Warren, who is in charge of the Department of
Farm Management and Farm Crops in the New York State College of Agri-
culture, Cornell University, an authority on questions pertaining to practical
agriculture.
Professor Warren is, moreover, a farmer. He grew up on a farm in the mid-
dle West and is living at the present time on a farm of three hundred and
eighteen acres, which he supervises in connection with his work at the Univer-
sity.
The “ Elements of Agriculture” is a text that does not “ talk down” to the
pupil. It gives agriculture rank beside physics, mathematics, and the languages,
as a dignified subject for the course of study.
In Warren's ‘“ Elements of Agriculture” there is no waste space. It is writ-
ten with the ease that characterizes a writer at home in his subject, and it is
written in a style pedagogically correct. The author has been a teacher of high
school boys and girls and knows how to present his subject to them.
Experts in the teaching of agriculture the country over have been unanimous
in praise of the text. For instance:
Mr. J. E. BLAIR, Supt. of Schools, Corsicana, Texas:
“ An examination of Warren's ‘Elements of Agriculture’ convinces me that
it is a book of uncommon merit for secondary schools as well as for the private
student. It is thoroughly scientific in matter, and is written in an attractive
style, that cannot fail to please as well as instruct.”
Supt. E.S. SMITH, Whiting, Iowa:
“Tam very much pleased with Warren’s ‘Elements of Agriculture.’ In my
opinion it is the only book on the market that presents the work of agriculture
suitably for high schools; too many books are too simple and do not give
enough work; a book for high schools must be more than a primer.”
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RURAL SCIENCE SERIES
Edited by L. H. BAILEY
On Selection of Land, etc.
Isaac P. Roberts’ The Farmstead F - «© « + $1 50
On Tillage, etc.
F. H. King’s The Soil 1 50
Isaac P. Roberts’ The Fertility of the Land 1 50
F. H. King’s Irrigation and Drainage 1 50
Edward B. Voorhees’ Fertilizers. 1 25
Edward B. Voorhees’ Forage Crops 1 50
J. A. Widtsoe’s Dry Farming . : z « 1 50
L. H. Bailey’s Principles of Agriculture. é % : 1 25
On Plant Diseases, etc.
E. C. Lodeman’s The Spraying of Plants . * . 5 1 25
On Garden-Making
L. H. Bailey’s Garden-Making . F F ‘ 1 50
L. H. Bailey’s Vegetable- ene ‘ 1 50
L. H. Bailey’s Forcing Book . 1 25
On Fruit-Growing, etc.
L. H. Bailey’s Nursery Book i Fi : c a 1 50
L. H. Bailey’s Fruit-Growing . E i é « . 1 50
L. H. Bailey’s The Pruning Book . f 1 50
F. W. Card’s Bush Fruits 1 50
On the Care of Live-stock
Uses S. Mayo’s The Diseases of Animals . 1 50
W. H. Jordan’s The Feeding of Animals 1 50
I. P. Roberts’ The Horse 1 25
M. W. Harper’s Breaking and Training of Horses 1 50
George C. Watson’s Farm Poultry. : 1 25
On Dairy Work, Farm Chemistry, etc.
Henry H. Wing’s Milk and Its Products 1 50
J. G. Lipman’s Bacteria and Country Life . 1 50
On Economics and Organization
I. P. Roberts’ The Farmer’s Business Handbook 1 25
eee T. Fairchild’s Rural Wealth and Welfare 1 25
H. N. Ogden’s Rural Hygiene. 1 50
J. Green’s Law for the American Farmer 1 50
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Cyclopedia of American Agriculture
Edited by L. H. BAILEY
Director of the College of Agriculture and Professor of Rurai Economy,
Cornell University.
With 100 full-page plates and more than 2,000 illustrations
be the text; four volumes; the set, $20.00 half morocco,
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VOLUME I—Farms VOLUME III—Animals
VOLUME II—Crops VOLUME IV—The Farm and the Community
“Indispensable to public and reference libraries . . . readily
comprehensible to any person of average education.” —-The Nation.
“The completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions
on modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many years
must pass before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness, accuracy,
practical value, and mechanical excellence. It ought to be in every
library in the country.’’—Record-Herald, Chicago.
Cyclopedia of American Horticulture
Edited by L. H. BAILEY
With over 2,800 original engravings; four volumes; the set,
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in its class. Illustrations and text are-admirable. . . . Our own
conviction is that while the future may bring forth amplified editions
of the work, it will probably never be superseded. Recognizing
its importance, the publishers have given it faultless form. The
typography leaves nothing to be desired, the paper is calculated to
stand wear and tear, and the work is at once handsomely and
attractively bound.”—New York Daily Tribune.
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