- NaTIoNAL: GEoGRAPHIC: SocreTyY: | Fone D.C. S = ee oN _ Pashiag FOIL NALS SDP FVERTCS ROOM CORNELL | LAB of ORNITHOLOGY a LIBRARY |. at Sapsucker Woods |. Illustration of Bank Swallow by Louis Agassiz Fuertes | LABORATORY OF ORNITHOLOGY CORNELL UNIVERSITY THACA, NEW YORK THE BOOK OF BIRDS COMMON BIRDS OF TOWN AND COUNTRY AND AMERICAN GAME BIRDS BY HENRY W. HENSHAW Formerty Cuier Unirepd States BroLocicaL SURVEY ILLUSTRATED IN NarurAL Corors with 250 PAINTINGS BY LOUIS AGASSIZ FUERTES WirH CuHapters on ‘“‘Encouracinc Birps AROUND THE Home,’ sy F. H. Kennarp; ‘‘THe Mysteries oF Birp MicratTion,’’ By Wetts W. Cooke, anp ‘How Birps Can Take THEIR Own Porrrairts,’’ By GEORGE SHIRAS, 3RKD, AND 45 ILLUSTRATIONS AND 13 CHarRts IN Black AND WHITE. PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY WASHINGTON, D. C. Wie is. aN SBBb78 Copyright by the NaTIOoNAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 1914, 1915, 1916, and 1918 Washington Press of Judd & Detweiler, Inc. 1918 OUR FEATHERED FRIENDS N THIS VOLUME are presented the principal articles and the most beautiful color illustrations of man’s feathered friends which have been published in the National Geographic Magazine during the last six years. The text and pictures comprise one of the most valua- ble and fascinatingly interesting contributions to popular science the National Geographic Society has devised, and the most comprehen- sive and charming handbook of avian lore that has ever been offered at a moderate price. The 250 illustrations in color of the Common Birds of ‘Town and Country, of our Warblers and American Game Birds, are repro- ductions of the matchless pictures from the brush of the distin- guished artist-naturalist, Louis Agassiz Fuertes, while the descriptive text by Henry W. Henshaw, formerly Chief of the U. S. Biological Survey, sets forth concisely, entertainingly, yet with scientific accu- racy, the distinguishing characteristics of each species of bird, its pe- culiar habits, and its favorite habitat. Dr. Henshaw has pointed out the need for the preservation of bird life, and how the farmer without his feathered insect-destroyers would face constant disaster to his crops. Few wonders of the natural world are as compelling in interest as is the display of that mysterious impulse which is followed season after season by the birds which migrate from their winter homes to their nesting places in the spring, and then make the return journey in the fall, guided no one knows how—an absorbing study for both layman and scientist. The article by the late Wells W. Cooke, “Our Greatest Travelers: Birds that Fly from Pole to Pole, ete.,” gives a most comprehensive and engaging digest of these mysterious migra- tions, and the text is elucidated by a series of illuminating maps and charts. Frederick H. Kennard’s article, “Kncouraging Birds Around the Home,” accompanied by numerous illustrations in black and white, tells with the bird-lover’s enthusiasm how every reader, be he III IV OUR FEATHERED FRIENDS proprietor of a great estate or the owner of a window-sill, can make the acquaintance and win the confidence of birds, adding them to his circle of appreciative friends and charming visitors. George Shiras, 3rd, the inventor of flashlight photography of wild animals and of methods of making animals and birds take their own portraits, gives some useful hints on the latter subject. Utility, beauty, and art are served alike when man befriends the birds. GILBERT GROSVENOR, Director and Editor. Photograph by Howard H. Cleaves THE EXCITEMENT OF TOUCHING THE ECCENTRIC WOODCOCK ON ‘THE BACK CONTENTS Common Birds of Town and Country. Friends of Our Forests—The Warblers. World Record for Feathered Friends. How Birds Can Take Their Own Portraits. American Game Birds. Index to American Game Birds.......... Encouraging Birds Around the Home. Our Greatest Travelers—Bird Migrations. GILBERT GROSVEN OR. 62a). cece nae ey eee as GEORGE SHIRAS, BRDi 2 cc eres s sree ELE N Riva View LAE NSE AgWasmnace aie tarmac ta cncte tei: eicierctee crore a cede ssceee FrevertcK H. KENNARD.........0..00e0eeee08 IWELTSY Whi COOKE Ae meee wei e a cias dees ols Page INDEX TO COMMON BIRDS OF TOWN AND COUNTRY For or picture description see page see page Blackbird, Brewer’s............ 25 24 Blackbird, Crow..............: 17 16 Blackbird, Red-winged......... 60 61 Blackbird, Yellow-headed....... 46 47 Bile bind gira crcsccrerno tecnico 9) 8 ISU ESIEI A sone econ ppp eamnal cen Ss 25 24 Bobolink seca era cea 58 59 Bob wilitermecet ci teacnnn re arora see 54 55 Bunting, Indigo............... Be 32 Bum Gin Sea ZULU yey. usa chesiistssens 33 32 EUS eri Gaeeysweper eet won eircacmcmee se crsrercnas 27 26 Buzzard, Turkey.............. 68 69 Gardimalyeeyereencs cretarck site) setensre = 23 22 CENT DING! 3s 6 Gigcicie ears Beceo Clb cacuorn 3 abe Chat, Yellow-breasted.......... 81 80 Chewink, or Towhee........... 29 28 Chickadee. panacea eae cra: 11 10 (COOL awed Bes trea es eae co 6 Sok 44 45 (OtyNel aac bb ooomedus sad pao ord 46 47 Creeper, Brown............+55 11 10 Crow, (COMMOM sa yer.els er ever e 58 59 Cuckoo, Yellow-billed.......... 62 63 Dove MOULIN Gem. close = 52 53 (Dw, Wily gapcksoouudens cae 44 45 Bp, LEG Goacunpnomogon oes 66 67 IDV, sus hao eepopioodoud os 37 36 Jails, IRWIN S See osomamoon ose 387 36 IVY Kae h gaan bono gao Ss 64 65 lor Lor picture description see page see page licker, Red-shafted........... 56 57 Ilycatcher, Black; Phainopepla. 35 34 Game Birds Index............ 158 Goldfinch, American........... 37 36 Goldfinch, Arkansas........... 37 36 Grosbeak, Black-headed........ 15 14 Grosbealk, (Blue: e265 heise ce oe a ee 23 22) Grosbeak, Rose-breasted........ 15 14 Grouse; Rwilediss. 6s se. cos ete 54 55 Gull, Mvanklin’s. 2.2.2. 60ce 0s 70 71 Gilly EL errinle re eens cero ces cose 48 49 Hawi © oOpe Ss amc. e cies sre 4 a4 2, 53 Hawk, Fish or Osprey......... 66 67 Elawiky Marsa sesh aust oe 68 69 Hawk, Red-tailed.............. 50 51 Haiwik, Sparrow. .4 a0 20. 040.6 50 51 Heron, Black-crowned Night.... 48 49 Heron, Great Blue............ 48 49 Hummingbird, Ruby-throated... 39 38 Hummingbird, Rufous......... 39 38 Jay, Blue-fronted............. 21 20 Jays \CaliOrnia ses gis sc cers cise 25 24 Junco, Slate-colored........... 3 32 USUI MSR epee tesyerate tay ass aeiae teresa ere 70 71 VESTRY DYBUO! wy ooo on a aioutieend Go oar 19 18 Kingbird, Arkansas............ 19 18 Sain otis Gas rey wociy ea etatc) euccs fonataeveccos 56 57 Kinglet, Ruby-crowned......... 9 8 VI INDEX TO COMMON BIRDS OF TOWN AND COUNTRY For For For For picture description picture description see page see page see page see page Hark. HOrnedin ws. cna aeceeaves< 19 18 Thrush, Northern Water-....... 93 95 Marks sMiead Owes eects ees 60 61 Thrush, Russet-backed......... 9 8 STAT AUSIAS S Viel Lie Cliepey cecasiearystonosceceoess 27 26 Marples is trace ainsi oon cererns rail 20 ETNA NO OG) araremevieiet ste ne eon ctatctierts 26 26 Magpie, Black-billed........... 21 20 Towhee, California Brown..... 29, 28 Magpie, Yellow-billed.......... pal 20 Towhee, or Chewink........... 29 28 Mar Lines Up le hn caine sasye romero 15 14 Mocking (Birdigwin. «oie a see 42 43 TW GGU Vis stein tod eeceonedenece brett intecereles Dah 26 Vireo; URedseyed eins «cece rauies 35 34 AN TOUGH Wy IR nswateyatiey sities! saenseatenAcce ats 19 18 Vireo, Yellow-throated......... 35 34 Nuthatch, White-breasted....... 11 10 Warblers : Orioles PB alitimrow err oureraiue ee edsts 29 28 Audubon’s warbler........ 85 83 Ovioles WBullOck:Siieaca cece ans 945) 24 Bay-breasted warbler...... 92) 94 Oniole; Oren ards cic ste cers oe 29 28 Black and white warbler... 85 838 Osprey, or (Phish Hlawis in d.) RUBY-THROAT (Archilochus colubris) Length, about 334 inches. Needs no descrip- tion, as it is the only hummer living in the Eastern States. Range: Breeds from southeastern Saskatch- ewan and central Quebee south to Gulf coast, west to North Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and central ‘Texas; winters from middle Florida and Louisiana through southern Mexico and Central America to Panama. Of the five hundred or more species of this strictly American family, the eastern United States is favored by the presence of only one, the ruby-throat, nor is this species as common as might be desired. Compared to the abun- dance of its kind in the far west it is rare in- deed. As if afraid of being too prodigal of her gifts, Nature has denied the hummingbird song, and the harsh squeaks of these tiny sprites are far better adapted to making war than love. Truth is, the hummer has a sharp temper and not only engages in warfare with its own kind, but attacks any bird, however large, that ventures to dispute its territorial rights. These are not small, for in its own estimation it is literally “Lord of all it sur- veys.’ The male is an inconstant swain and no sooner is the nest made—and in the making he takes no part—and the eggs laid than he departs, leaving the joys and cares of house- keeping to his erstwhile mate. While the nec- tar of flowers is eaten in large quantities, a creature so vivacious as the hummer could hardly sustain life on diet so thin, and the bird adds to its bill of fare a liberal supply of minute insects and spiders of various sorts. WHIP-POOR-WILL (Antrostomus vociferus) Length, about 1o inches. Not to be con- fused with the nighthawk, which flies by day and has white wing bars, while the whip-poor- will is crepuscular and nocturnal. Range: Breeds from the Atlantic to the plains, and from Manitoba and the eastern Canadian provinces south to northern parts of Louisiana, Mississippi and Georgia; winters from South Carolina and the Gulf States to Central America. This bird of the night, whose day begins with the going down of the sun when the nighthawk’s ends, is common throughout the east in open woodlands, on the edges of which it likes to hunt. It dozes away the hours of daylight squatting on the ground among the leaves where its marvelous protective colora- tion affords it safety, No sooner have the shadows lengthened, however, than it becomes active and its characteristic note resounds through the forest glades. So plaintive is its cry and so mysterious its comings and goings that in the minds of many its notes are asso- ciated with misfortune, as a death in the house near which it persistently calls. Its two eggs are laid among the leaves, needing no other protection than the cover of the mother’s body. The whip-poor-will may be accounted one of our most efficient insect destroyers, as its im- mensely capacious mouth beset with bristles, a regular insect trap, would suggest. RUFOUS HUMMINGBIRD (Selasphorus rufus) Leneth, from 3% to 334 inches. The red- dish brown body color, red and green gorget, and the notch in tail feathers serve to distin- eguish this species from our other hummers. Range: Breeds from the Alaskan coast, east central British Columbia, and southern Alberta south to the mountains of central California and southern Idaho. One can but wonder at the hardihood of this little wanderer from the tropics in including in its summer itinerary a journey to distant Alaska. It reaches a latitude of 61°, much far- ther north than any other of its kind. In favored elades of the forests in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierras during the migra- tion this and other species of hummers are to be seen literally by hundreds. The rufous hummer has temper and courage to match its fiery hues, and spends no small part of its time doing battle with its fellows. The con- testants after several fierce rounds fly away not only fit, but eager for another fray on the first occasion, In addition to the nectar of flowers, its standard fare, this hummer in- cludes in its diet “honey dew,” the sugary se- cretion of plant lice which is deposited on vegetation. Like all other hummers, it eats large numbers of minute insects which it finds inside the flowers, It is interesting to note that hummingbirds discover the flowers they frequent by sight alone, and any bit of bright color in the distance is sure to attract their notice, as a bright red handkerchief on a bush or about the neck. More than once T have ob- served them poising within a few inches of my head, evidently endeavoring to ascertain the nature of the red handkerchief I wore. ROAD RUNNER ‘(Geococcyx californianus) Length, 20 to 24 inches, mostly tail. Quite unlike any other North American bird in form and color. Range: From the upper Sacramento Valley south through California and the peninsula and from Colorado, Kansas, middle and western Texas, Arizona and New Mexico southward; resident. The name “road runner” when applied to a cuckoo may seem an anomaly to those who know only our eastern cuckoos, but in truth the road runner is anomalous in many ways. Tt is distinguished by curiously marked plu- mage, the possession of a long bill and a dis- proportionally long tail. As a result of its strange appearance, and stranger antics, the road runner is made the hero of many a fable Among other wonders, it is claimed that it can outrun the swiftest horse and kill the biggest rattlesnake. It is said to accomplish the latter feat by surrounding the reptile while asleep with a rampart of cactus spines on which the enraged reptile accommodatingly impales itself. The truth is that when in a hurry this ground cuckoo can run with great speed, though as yet no official record of its best time has been made. Its food consists of a great variety of harmful insects—mice, lizards, and small snakes. RuByY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD Rurous HUMMINGBIRD Male, upper; female, lower Male, upper; female, lower CW HIP-POOR-WILL ROADRUNNER ‘UONLIIPISUOD dT] OS PdATOd.OI Sey pIIq juLJIOdu sty} yey} Aajsnpur ourns ayy JO satpasei} oy} JO auo St }] ‘AtayOOI plo oy} edu Spiiq Aue ATOIIVIS MES 9Y III} JISIA JXOU SJIHIM JY} JO dT} JY} VW SPAONFW 9p SsOqo’T 9} JO purjst pseMmjsea ay} UO ‘pjo} [Je ‘suedijod o0d‘OOI JO paeMdn a49M d1oYy} JeY} JOYOD “APY AQ pozeurtjsoa sea 4] ANAd ‘SANW IST VANNAV AG SOTO'T AHL NO SNVOITHd “AT Jaaqoyy Aq ydesSojoyg AIYOD pee 2 40 Peqanjsipun urewar 0} payiuriad jou svm ‘sreak [eraAas 10} pajsapowun ‘A1ayOOI a[qenjea puke years sty} ‘Ajayeunjsoju~, “Sp4lq Joljeurs FO Jaquinu 4J9}k018 AT|seA B UP} WaPo AMOYS IIOU V SoOyPUU Sp4iq Av1IS SIq Jo AvIIe Ue YONG SNVOITHd GNVSNOHL GHYGNNH ANO 41 UAIHSVAH T, NMOAG aulg ONINODOJW MOCKING BIRD (Mimus polyglottos) Length, to inches. Most easily distinguished from the similarly colored loggerhead shrike (see p. 679) by the absence of a conspicuous black stripe through the eye. Range: Resident from southern Mexico north to California, Wyoming, Iowa, Ohio, and Maryland; casual farther north. Habits and economic status: Because of its incomparable medleys and imitative powers, the mocking bird is the most renowned singer of the Western Hemisphere. Even in confine- ment it is a masterly performer, and formerly thousands were trapped and sold for cage birds; but this reprehensible practice has been largely stopped by protective laws. It is not surprising, therefore, that the mocking bird should receive protection principally because of its ability as a songster and its preference for the vicinity of dwellings. Its place in the affections of the South is similar to that occu- pied by the robin in the North. It is well that this is true, for the bird appears not to earn protection from a_ strictly economic stand- point. About half of its diet consists of fruit, and many cultivated varieties are attacked, such as oranges, grapes, figs, strawberries, blackberries, and raspberries, Somewhat less than a fourth of the food is animal matter, and grasshoppers are the largest single ele- ment. The bird is fond of cotton worms, and is known to feed also on the chinch-bug, rice weevil, and bollworm. BROWN THRASHER (Toxostoma rufum) Length, about 31 inches. Brownish red above, heavily streaked with black below. Range: Breeds from the Gulf States to southern Canada and west to Colorado, Wyo- ming, and Montana; winters in the southern half of the eastern United States. Habits and economic status: The brown thrasher is more retiring than either the mock- ing bird or catbird, but like them is a splendid singer. Not infrequently indeed its song is taken for that of its more famed cousin, the mocking bird. It is partial to thickets and gets much of its food from the ground. Its search for this is usually accompanied by much scratching and scattering of leaves; whence its common name. Its call note is a sharp sound like the smacking of lips, which is useful in identifying this long-tailed, thicket-haunting bird, which does not much relish close scrutiny, The brown thrasher is not so fond of fruit as the catbird and mocker, but devours a much larger percentage of animal food. Beetles form one-half of the animal food, grasshop- pers and crickets one-fifth, caterpillars, includ- ing cutworms, somewhat less than one-fifth, and bugs, spiders, and millepeds comprise most of the remainder. By its destruction of these and other insects, which constitute more than 60 per cent of its food, the thrasher much more than compensates for that portion (about one-tenth) of its diet derived from cultivated crops. Photograph by L. W. Brownell MOTHER IS TAKING NO CHANCES OF LETTING HER LITTLE ONE SPILL ON ITS CLEAN DRESS: A BROWN THRASHER FEEDING ITS YOUNG Woop Duck Male, upper; female, lower Great Horned Owe Coor SPOTTED SANDPIPER 44 GREAT HORNED OWL (Bubo virgin- ianus and subspecies) Length, about 22 inches. The great size and long ear tufts sufficiently distinguish this owl. Kange: Resident over the greater part of North and South America. This, our largest owl, inhabits heavily for- ested and unsettled regions and is becoming more and more rare in thickly populated areas. It is well known by its far-reaching call— “hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo”—which is heard best in the still small hours of the night, when it echoes across the expanse of canyon and forest in the far west. This owl destroys many partridges and other game birds, and unhoused poultry is never safe from its nocturnal attacks. Its deeds are those of darkness, since usually it hunts only at night, though when disturbed in the daytime it can see well enough to take good care of itself. Its bill of fare is a long one and includes many kinds of mammals and birds. It is one of the few creatures which when hungry do not hesi- tate to attack the skunk, and it appears to have no great difficulty in killing this rather for- midable little beast. That it does not always do so with entire impunity is evident from the odor frequently attaching to its feathers. Its destruction of rodents entitles it to our grati- tude, especially when it kills pocket gophers, rats, mice, ground squirrels, and rabbits. COOT (Fulica americana) Length, about 15 inches. The slate-colored plumage, with blackish head and neck, white bill, and scalloped toes mark this bird apart from all others. Range: Breeds from:southern Canada south to Lower California, Texas, Tennessee, and New Jersey; also in southern Mexico and Guatemala; winters from southern British Co- lumbia, Nevada, Utah, Ohio Valley, and Vir- ginia south to Panama. The coot, or mud-hen, is a sort of combina- tion of duck, gallinule, and rail, and withal is a very interesting bird. Fortunately for the coot, its flesh is little esteemed, and by many, indeed, is considered unfit for human consump- tion. The coot is thus passed by in contempt by most sportsmen, and in some regions it is as tame as can well be imagined, swimming within a few feet of the observer with entire unconcern. Under other circumstances, how- ever, as in Louisiana, where it is shot for food under the name poule d’eau, it becomes as wild as the most wary of ducks. It frequents both salt and fresh water, preferably the latter. The mud-hen is one of the few American birds that occasionally visits the distant Hawaiian Islands in fall and winter. Finding conditions there to their liking, some of the immigrants, probably centuries ago, elected to remain and found a new colony, and there, in the fresh- water ponds of the island archipelago, their descendants still live and thrive. The food of the coot consists almost entirely of water plants of no use to man. There would seem, therefore, to be no excuse for killing or disturbing the bird in any way. 45 WOOD DUCK (Aix sponsa) Length, about 19 inches. The elongated crest of feathers and variegated plumage of white and brown, spotted with chestnut, ochraceous, and steel blue, are characteristic. Range: Breeds from Washington to middle California, and from Manitoba and southeast- ern Canada to Texas and Florida; winters chiefly in the United States. It can be said of this duck, as of no other, that it is our very own, since most of the breeding area it occupies is within our terri- tory, and by far the greater number of the species winter within the United States. The story of its former abundance on our ponds and streams and of its present scarcity is a sad commentary on our improvidence and a warn- ing for the future. Happily, it is not yet too late to save this most beautiful of our ducks, and under proper regulations it may be ex pected not only to hold its own, but to increase until it is once more a proper object for the skill of sportsmen. Under present conditions all true sportsmen should refrain from its fur- ther pursuit. As is well known, the wood duck is one of the few wildfowi that builds its nest in hollow trees, and the security thus provided for the young is one of the factors to be relied upon for the increase of the species. North, south, east, and west, the States of every section are, or should be, interested in the preservation of this distinctively American duck, and should make suitable regulations for its welfare and see to their enforcement. SPOTTED SANDPIPER (Actitis macularia) Length, about 6 inches. The “tip up,” with its brownish gray upper parts and white under parts and its teetering motion, is too well known to need description. Range: Breeds in northwestern Alaska and in much of northern Canada south to southern California, Arizona, southern Texas, southern Louisiana, and northern South Carolina; win- ters from California, Louisiana, and South Carolina to southern Brazil and Peru. The little “tip up,’ as it is appropriately named, from its quaint nodding motion, unduly favors no one section or community, but elects to dwell in every region suited to its needs from Alaska to Florida. It is doubtless more widely known than any other of our shore birds, and as it takes wing when disturbed, its “wit, wit” comes to us from beach, river side, and mill pond, from one end of the land to the other. It is the only shore bird that habitually nests in cornhelds and pastures, and its hand- some buff eggs spotted with chocolate are well known to the farmer’s boy everywhere. Much is to be said in favor of the food habits of the little tip up, as the bird includes in its diet army worms, squash bugs, cabbage worms, grasshoppers, green flies, and crayfishes. Hav- ing thus earned a right to be numbered among the farmers’ friends, the bird should be exempt from persecution. fee ee A ALAA AE isagt? YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD CowBIRD Male, upper; female, lower Male, upper; female, lower STARLING CHIMNEY SWIFT 46 YELLOWHEAD (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) Length, about 10 inches. Our only blackbird with a yellow head, Range: Confined to western North America. Breeds from southern British Columbia, south- ern Mackenzie, southwestern Ieewatin, and northern Minnesota to southern California and Arizona, east to southern Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana; winters from southwestern Cali- formia, southern Arizona, southeastern Texas, and southwestern Louisiana south into Mexico. Apparently Nature started out with the in- tention of making an oriole, but decided to make a blackbird instead—and behold the yel- lowhead. He is a sociable chap and nests in great companies in the tule swamps of the west. The yellowhead’s voice is harsh and guttural and his vocal efforts have been well characterized as a maximum of earnest effort with a minimum of harmony. Late in mid- summer when the young are on the wing, old and young betake themselves to the uplands, grain fields, pastures, and corrals, associating as often as not with redwings and Brewer's blackbirds. The yellowhead feeds principally upon insects, grain, and weed seed, and does not attack fruit or garden produce; but it does much good by eating noxious insects and troublesome weeds; where too abundant it is likely to be injurious to grain. STARLING (Sturnus vulgaris) Length, about 8% inches. General color dark purple or green with reflections; feathers above tipped with creamy buff, In flight and general appearance unlike any native species. Range: At present most numerous near New York City. Has spread to Massachusetts, Con- necticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and recently to the District of Co- lumbia; resident where found, though wander- ing southward in winter in search of food. The Old World has sent us two bird pests— the English sparrow and the starling. Al- though, up to the present time, we cannot con- vict the starling of having done any great dam- age he has proclivities which make him poten- tially very dangerous. Introduced into New York in 1890, the original sixty have multiplied many fold and spread in all directions till now they occupy territory hundreds of miles square, and are multiplying and spreading faster than ever. On the north they have entered Massa- chusetts and Connecticut, and on the south they have reached Richmond, though only in migration. Even as I write the calls of a flock of 200 or more can be heard coming from a neighboring park, but as yet the bird has not elected to summer in the National Capital. The starling is a hardy, prolific bird and is also aggressive. Like the English sparrow it asso- ciates in flocks, which is a great advantage in bird disputes. There is little doubt that the effect of its increase and spread over our coun- try will prove disastrous to native species, such as the bluebirds, crested flycatchers, swallows, wrens, and flickers, all valuable economic spe- cies, which nest in cavities as does the starling. 47 COWBIRD (Molothrus ater) Male glossy black, Female brown- Length, about 8 inches head, neck, and breast brown. ish gray. Range: Breeds from southern British Co- lumbia, southern Mackenzie, and southeastern Canada south to northern California, Nevada, northern New Mexico, Texas, Louisiana, and North Carolina; winters from southeastern California and the Ohio and Potomac valleys to the Gulf and to central Mexico. Chapman calls the cowbird a villain—but is not the villain in the piece often the most in- teresting character on the stage? 2? ‘Thus our cowbird, short as he is of manners and morals, cannot fail to interest the bird lover. He is full of idiosyncrasies that keep one guessing. Why, for instance, his close association with the peaceful cow? Why his ludicrous attempts to sing, he who has not a thread of music in his whole make-up? How did Madame Cow- bird come to lapse from the paths of virtue and, in place of building a nest of her own, foist her eggs and the care of her offspring on smaller and better principled birds to their det- riment ? CHIMNEY SWIFT (Chetura pelagica) Length, rather less than 5'4 inches. Too well known by its peculiar flight and habits to need describing. Range: Known only in eastern North Amer- ica. Breeds from southeastern Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec, and Newfoundland south to Gulf coast; west to Plains from eastern Mon- tana to eastern Tex winters south of the United States. The popular name of this bird, chimney swallow, embodies an error, since the bird not only is not a swallow, but is not even distantly related to the swallow family. Unlike the hummingbirds as the chimney swift is in ap- pearance and habits, it is structurally not far removed from them, Like the swallows it is an indefatigable skimmer of the air, and like them it earns a debt of gratitude by destroy- ing vast numbers of our winged enemies, which its unsurpassed powers of flight enable it to capture. g Indeed, chimney swifts eat nothing but insects, and no insect that flies is safe from them, unless it be too large for them to swal- low. In June swifts may be seen gathering igs for nest material. They disdain to pick these up from the ground, but seize the cov- eted twig with their strong feet and break it off from the terminal branch when in full flight. By means of a sticky saliva secreted for the purpose the swift glues these twigs to the sides of the chimney in the form of a shal- low nest. Although not generally known, swifts roost in chimneys and cling to the walls by using the sharp-pointed tail as a prop, as do many woodpeckers in ascending trees. Any bird lover may secure distinction by solving an ornithological riddle and telling us where our chimney swifts spend the winter. They come in spring, they go in fall, and at present that is about all we know of the matter, save that they do not hibernate in hollow trees, as many have believed. BLack-CROWNED NIGHT HERON Male, upper; young bird, lowe: HERRING GULL Adult in winter, upper Adult in summer, lower 48 Great Biue Heron Common TERN BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON (Nycticorax nzvius nevius) Length, about 24 inches. The black crown distinguishes it from its relative, the yellow- crow ned night heron. Range: Breeds from northern Oregon, south- ern Wy oming, southern Manitoba, and central Quebec south to Patagonia; winters from northern California and Gulf States southward. Given for a roosting place a suitable stand of leafy trees, especially evergreens, conve- niently near a stream or pond that harbors fish, frogs, and tadpoles, and any locality may have its colony of night herons. As its name implies, this heron is a bird of the night, not leaving its roost till dusk, when, with frequent iteration of its hoarse quawk, it wings its way in the gathering gloom straight to its feeding place. So rarely is the bird about in daylight that a large colony may exist for years near a town or large city and not above a dozen indi- viduals have an inkling of its existence. True to its sociable instincts, the’ night heron by preference nests in colonies, and several pairs often place their rude nests of sticks in the same tree; or, in the absence of trees, as in the extensive tule swamps of the far west, where other conditions are ideal for herons, they nest on the ground or on the prostrate tules, hun- dreds of pairs being associated together. This heron sometimes feeds on field mice, but it eats too many fish to please the fish- culturist, and after it has once learned the way to a hatchery strong measures are needed to discourage its activities. HERRING GULL (Larus argentatus) Length, about 24 inches. above; much of rest of plumage white. readily distinguished in life from its allies. Range: Breeds in Alaska and in Arctic re- gions south to southern British Columbia, southern Alberta, northern North Dakota, cen- tral Wisconsin, southern Ontario, northern New York, and Maine; winters from southern British Columbia to Lower California and western Mexico, and from Gulf of St. Law- rence and Great Lakes south to Bahamas, Yucatan, and coast of Texas. All things considered, the herring gull is probably the best known of the family by rea- son of its abundance and wide distribution. Moreover, this is the gull most frequently noticed by passengers as it follows in the wake of our ocean and trans-Atlantic steamers. It breeds no farther south than the coast of Maine, but in winter it is very numerous along the Atlantic coast and in many of our inland ponds. It does excellent service as a scavenger in our harbors, venturing fearlessly among the shipping to secure anything edible that may find its way overboard. The services of this and other gulls in such a capacity are so valu- able that their destruction under any pretense is to be deprecated. When the craze for feath- ered hat gear was at its height thousands of gulls, without regard to species, were killed for millinery purposes; but now that the sale of their feathers is illegal practically everywhere in the United States, the gulls are rapidly in- creasing. Deep pearl gray Not 49 GREAT BLUE HERON (Ardea herodias and subspecies) Length, from 42 to 50 inches. Range: Breeds from the southern Canadian provinces south to southern Lower California, southern Mexico, and South Atlantic States; winters from Oregon, the Ohio Valley, and Middle States south to the West Indies, Pan- ama, and Venezuela. When one sees a large bluish bird, with long neck and stilt-like legs, standing motionless by river, pond, or lake, or slowly wading in the shallows, he may be sure he has before him the great blue heron, and a notable bird he is in many ways. Wary as this heron is and keen to scent danger, he offers so tempting a mark as he wings his way slowly along, with head and neck drawn in against the body and long legs, trailing behind, or as he stands motionless watching for game, that he is frequently shot “just for the fun of it.’ This wanton taking of life is never justifiable, but when the life cut short represents so much beauty and grace as are embodied in this stately bird the crime seems doubly heinous. Naturally this heron is much less common than he used to be. Small fish, frogs, tadpoles, and snakes form the bulk of his food, and in some regions he is a determined foe of mice and gophers, and the sight of a heron in the midst of a dry pasture or in a stubble field watching for a gopher to emerge from his hole is very common. COMMON TERN (Sterna hirundo) Length, about 15 inches. The pearl-gray breast and belly distinguish the adult of this tern from its relatives. The outer web of the outer tail feathers is darker than the inner web; the reverse is true of Forster’s tern, its nearest ally. Range: Breeds from Great Slave Lake, cen- tral Keewatin, and southern Quebec south to southwestern Saskatchewan, northern North Dakota, southern Wisconsin, northern Ohio, and North Carolina; winters from Florida to Brazil. Our common tern is, alas, common no longer. The Atlantic coast is peculiarly fitted to be the home of the terns by reason of the extensive shallows and the great number of sandy islands on which terns and gulls used to breed in abso- lute safety. At the bidding of fashion, how- ever, thousands of these beautiful creatures were slaughtered, till the sand was red with their blood and island colonies that used to number thousands were exterminated. No ex- cuse serves to palliate the crime of the whole- sale murder of these graceful sea swallows, as they are aptly termed, which used to make our shores so attractive by their presence. But the tide seems to have turned, partly at least. The government has set aside islands as breeding resorts and places of refuge and, through the activity of Audubon societies and of individual workers, a certain measure of safety seems now assured to these persecuted birds. It may even prove possible, by the bird sanctuary plan, to increase their numbers again and make them a familiar sight along our deserted shores, Sparrow Hawk Rep-TaAILeD Hawk SPARROW HAWK (Falco sparverius) Length, about 10 inches. This is one of the best known and handsomest, as well as the smallest, of North American hawks. Range: Breeds throughout the United States, Canada, and northern Mexico; winters in the United States and south to Guatemala. Habits and economic status: The sparrow hawk, which is a true falcon, lives in the more open country and builds its nest in hollow trees. It is abundant in many parts of the West, where telegraph poles afford it conve- nient perching and feeding places. Its food consists of insects, small mammals, birds, spi- ders, and reptiles. Grasshoppers, crickets, and terrestrial beetles and caterpillars make up considerably more than half its subsistence, while field mice, house mice, and shrews cover fully 25 per cent of its annual supply. The balance of the food includes birds, reptiles, and spiders. Contrary to the usual habits of the species, some individuals during the breed- ing season capture nestling birds for food for their young and create considerable havoc among the songsters of the neighborhood. In agricultural districts when new ground is broken by the plow, they sometimes become very tame, even alighting for an instant under the horses in their endeavor to seize a worm or insect. Out of 410 stomachs examined, 314 were found to contain insects; 129, small mam- mals, and 70, small birds. This little falcon renders good service in destroying noxious in- sects and rodents and should be encouraged and protected. RED-TAILED HAWK (Buteo borealis) Length, about 2 feet. One of our largest hawks; adults with tail reddish brown. Range: Breeds in the United States, Mexico, Costa Rica, Canada, and Alaska; winters gen- erally in the United States and south to Guate- mala. Habits and economic status: The red-tailed hawk, or “hen-hawk,” as it is commonly called, is one of the best known of all our birds of prey, and is a widely distributed species of great economic importance. Its habit of. sit- ting on some prominent limb or pole in the open, or flying with measured wing beat over prairies and sparsely wooded areas on the look- out for its favorite prey, causes it to be noticed by the most indifferent observer, Although not as omnivorous as the red-shouldered hawk, it feeds on a variety of food, as small mam- mals, snakes, frogs, insects, birds, crawfish, centipedes, and even carrion. In_ regions where rattlesnakes abound it destroys consid- erable numbers of the reptiles. Although it feeds to a certain extent on poultry and birds, it is nevertheless entitled to general protection on account of the insistent warfare it wages against held mice and other small rodents and insects that are so destructive to young or- chards, nursery stock, and farm produce. Out of 530 stomachs examined, 457, or 85 per cent, contained the remains of mammal pests, such as field mice, pine mice, rabbits, several spe- cies of ground squirrels, pocket gophers, and cotton rats, and only 62 contained the remains of poultry or game birds. Photograph by Lloward IL. Cleaves RED-SHOULDERED HAWK DEMONSTRATING THE, REACH OF ITS LEGS For experimental purposes a stuffed owl was tied in an upright position and the investi- gators secreted themselves to await developments. A red-shouldered hawk swooped down upon in which every bird in the vicinity took part. Almost immediately there was an uproar the bait and gave it a vicious jab, while the others were an interested audience perched in adjoining trees around the arena. The attack was repeated until the owl's feathers were almost all pulled out and the excelsior stuffing showed in several places. On > Cooper's Hawk Mournina Dove on to COOPER’S HAWK (Accipiter cooperi) Length, about 15 inches. Medium sized, with long tail and short wings, and without the white patch on rump which is characteristic of the marsh hawk. Range: Breeds throughout most of the United States and southern Canada; winters from the United States to Costa Rica. Habits and economic status: The Cooper's hawk, or “blue darter,” as it is familiarly known throughout the South, is preéminently a poultry and bird-eating species, and its de- structiveness in this direction is surpassed only by that of its larger congener, the goshawk, which occasionally in autumn and winter enters the United States from the North in great numbers. The almost universal prejudice against birds of prey is largely due to the ac- tivities of these two birds, assisted by a third, the sharp-shinned hawk, which in habits and appearance might well pass for a small Coop- er’s hawk. These birds usually approach under cover and drop upon unsuspecting victims, making great inroads upon poultry yards and game coverts favorably situated for this style of hunting. Out of 123 stomachs examined, 38 contained the remains of poultry and game birds, 66 the remains of other birds, and 12 the remains of mammals. Twenty-eight species of wild birds were identified in the above-men- tioned material, This destructive hawk, to- gether with its two near relatives, should be destroyed by every possible means. MOURNING DOVE (Zenaidura macroura) Length, 12 inches. The dark spot on the side of the neck distinguishes this bird from all other native doves and pigeons except the white-winged dove. The latter has the upper third of wing white. Range: Breeds throughout the United States and in Mexico, Guatemala, and southern Can- ada; winters from the central United States to Panama. Habits and economic status: The food of the mourning dove is practically all vegetable matter (over 99 per cent), principally seeds of plants, including grain. Whieat, oats, rye, corn, barley, and buckwheat were found in 150 out of 237 stomachs, and constituted 32 per cent of the food. Three-fourths of this was waste grain picked up after harvest. The principal and almost constant diet is weed seeds, which are eaten throughout the year and constitute 64 per cent of the entire food. In one stomach were found 7,500 seeds of yellow wood sorrel, in another 6,400 seeds of barn grass or fox- tail, and in a third 2,600 seeds of slender pas- palum, 4,820 of orange hawkweed, 950 of hoary vervain, 120 of Carolina cranesbill, 50 of yellow wood sorrel, 620 of panic grass, and 40 of various other weeds. None of these are useful, and most of them are troublesome weeds, The dove does not eat insects or other It should be protected in every animal food. possible way. Photograph by Dr. C. William Beebe THE DANDY AMONG BIRDS The Mexican mot-mot is perhaps the only hird that mutilates its tail-feathers for pur- poses of decoration after they are full-grown. A portion of the shafts is denuded by the bird, leaving the web at the tips to form a conspicuous racket. RUFFED CROUSE BoBWHITE RUFFED GROUSE (Bonasa umbellus) Length, 17 inches. The broad black band near tip of tail distinguishes this from other grouse. Range: Resident in the northern two-thirds of the United States and in the forested parts of Canada. Habits and economic status: The ruffed grouse, the famed drummer and finest game bird of the northern woods, is usually wild and wary and under reasonable protection well withstands the attacks of hunters. Moreover, when reduced in numbers, it responds to pro- tection in a gratifying manner and has proved to be well adapted to propagation under arti- ficial conditions. Wild fruit, mast, and browse make up the bulk of the vegetable food of this species. It is very fond of hazelnuts, beech- nuts, chestnuts, and acorns, and it eats practi- cally all kinds of wild berries and other fruits. Nearly 60 kinds of fruits have been identified from the stomach contents examined. Various weed seeds also are consumed. Slightly more than 10 per cent of the food consists of in- sects, about half being beetles, The most im- portant pests devoured are the potato beetle, clover-root weevil, the pale-striped flea beetle, grapevine leaf-beetle, May beetles, grasshop- pers, cotton worms, army worms, cutworms, the red-humped apple worm, and sawfly larve. Of all the characteristics of this superb game bird, This loud tattoo begins with the measured thump of the big drum, in the rumble of the kettle-drum. the most remarkable. then gradually changes represented thus: V=0-1 4-1-0011. and dies away he stands firmly braced on some favorite low perch; Thu mp—thimp—thump—thunip, The sound is produced by the male bird be ating the air with his wings as BOBWHITE (Colinus virginianus) Length, 10 inches. Known everywhere by the clear whistle that suggests its name. Range: Resident in the United States east of the plains; introduced in many places in the West. Habits and economic status: The bobwhite is loved by every dweller in the country and is better known to more hunters in the United States than any other game bird. It is no less appreciated on the table than in the field, and in many States has unquestionably been hunted too closely. Fortunately it seems to be practi- cable to propagate the bird in captivity, and much is to be hoped for in this direction. Half the food of this quail consists of weed seeds, almost a fourth of grain, and about a tenth of wild fruits. Although thus eating grain, the bird gets most of it from stubble. Fifteen per cent of the bobwhite’s food is composed of in- sects, including several of the most serious pests of agriculture. It feeds freely upon Colorado potato beetles and chinch bugs; it devours also cucumber beetles, wireworms, billbugs, clover-leaf weevils, cotton-boll wee- vils, army worms, bollworms, cutworms, and Rocky Mountain locusts. Bobwhite is very useful to the farmer, and while it may not be necessary to remove it from the list of game birds every farmer should see that his own farm is not depleted by eager sportsmen. = tit 2 ' Photograph by John Woodcock A RUFFED GROUSE ABOUT TO DRUM its habit of drumming is perhaps It may be briefly thump; thump, than p- rup rup rup rup and it is now quite well known to be the call of the male to the female—an announcement that he is at the old rendezvous. 55 KINGFISHER RED-SHAFTED FLICKER RED-HEADED WoopPrcKeER CALIFORNIA WOODPECKER KINGFISHER (Ceryle alcyon) Length, about 13 inches. Not to be confused with any other American bird. Range: Breeds from northwestern Alaska and central Canada south to the southern bor- der of the United States; winters from British Columbia, Nebraska, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Virginia south to the West Indies, Colom- bia, and Guiana. The cry of the kingfisher, which suggests a watchman’s rattle in vigorous hands, can be mistaken for the note of no other bird; nor, for that matter, is the bird himself likely to be confused with any other species. Whether fly- ing, perched on a branch over a stream, or diving for small fish, our kinghsher is always himself, borrowing none of his peculiarities from his neighbors. Many of his tropical brothers catch insects for a living; but our bird, early in the history of the development of the kingfisher family, discovered that fish were easier to catch and in the long run more filling than insects, and hence renounced the family habit and assumed the role of fisher- man. Instead of using a hollow tree as a nest site, the kingfhsher has apparently learned a lesson from the sandswallows and excavates a burrow for himself in some sandbank, usually not far frém pond or stream; and you may be sure that ay pond chosen by him for a haunt is well stocked with fish. RED-HEAD (Melanerpes erythro- cephalus) Length, about 934 inches. Our only wood- pecker with red head and broad white wing patch. Range: From southern Canada to the Gulf Coast and from central Montana, central Colo- rado, and central Texas to the Hudson and Delaware. Generally resident, but more or less migratory in the southern parts of its range. This strikingly marked and readily identified woodpecker is common in some localities and entirely wanting in others, which apparently are equally well adapted to the bird’s needs. Its habits are a combination of woodpecker, jay, and flycatcher, and catching insects on the wing is a common habit. Though in general migratory, the bird is apparently ‘indifferent to cold and other weather conditions, and winters wherever food abounds, especially where beech- nuts, of which it is very fond, are plentiful. The red-head eats nearly twice as much vege- table food as it does animal, but the latter in- cludes many destructive insects. For instance, it is greatly to its credit that it eats both species of clover beetles, the corn weevil, cherry scale, and 17-year cicada. On the other hand, vigorous accusations are not wanting from various parts of the country of damage done by this species. It eats corn on the ear, and attacks many kinds of small fruits, includ- ing strawberries and apples. It is also guilty of robbing the nests of wild birds of both eggs and nestlings. It does some damage to tele- graph poles by boring into them to make nests. No doubt some of these charges are well founded. For the most part they represent the occasional acts of individuals, or are local and not characteristic of the species as a whole. RED-SHAFTED FLICKER (Colaptes cafer collaris) Length, 12 to 14 inches. To be distinguished from its eastern relative (C. auratus) by its red mustache and nuchal band and the red wing and tail shafts. Range: Rocky Mountain region from British Columbia south to Mexico, west to the coast mountains in Oregon and Washington, and through California; largely resident. Few birds are more widely known than the flicker, as appears from the fact, recorded by Chapman, that in the various parts of the country it appears under no fewer than 124 aliases. Though well known, the flicker is more often heard than seen, its loud call often proclaiming its presence when it is hidden among the trees. As a rule the flicker is shy, and in some sections of the country it has good reason to be, since it is accounted a game bird and, as such, pursued for the table. Though a woodpecker, the red-shaft departs widely from typical members of the tribe both in structure and habits. Notwithstanding the fact that its bill is not well adapted for boring into wood for larve, the bird manages to do considerable damage in the West by making holes, in church steeples, school-houses, and other buildings, to serve as roosting quarters. As it is nowise particular as to its domicile, it is possible materially to increase its numbers by putting up nesting boxes for its accommo- dation. The bird’s subsistence is obtained largely from the ground, where it secures vast quantities of ants, for taking which its tongue is specially adapted; about one-half its food, in fact, consists of these creatures. CALIFORNIA WOODPECKER (Melanerpes formicivorus and races) Length, about 9% inches. Easily distin- guished from its fellows by its general black color, white forehead, throat patch, belly and wing patch. Range: Breeds from northwestern Oregon, California, Arizona, and New Mexico south through Lower California to Costa Rica. The California woodpecker is a noisy, frolic- some bird and by all odds the most interesting of our woodpeckers. Its range seems to be de- termined by that of the oaks upon which it lives and from which it draws a large part of its subsistence. In California the bird is known to many by the Spanish name, carpintero, or carpenter, and its shop is the oak, in the dead limbs of which, as in the bark of pines, it bores innumerable holes, each just large enough to receive an acorn. That the birds do not re- gard the filling of these storehouses as work, but, on the contrary, take great pleasure in it, is evident from their joyous outcries and from the manner they chase each other in their trips from tree to tree like boys at tag. In Cali- fornia many of the country school-houses are unoccupied during the summer and the wood- peckers do serious damage by drilling holes in the window casings and elsewhere with a view to using them as storage places. As long as the acorn crop lasts, so long does the storing work go on. Meanwhile the jays and squirrels slip in and rob the woodpecker’s larder MOUD NOWNOD MNITOROT BOBOLINK (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) Length, about 7 inches. Range: Breeds from Ohio northeast to Nova Scotia, north to Manitoba, and northwest to British Columbia; winters in South America. Habits and economic status: When Ameri- can writers awoke to the beauty and attract- iveness of our native birds, among the first to be enshrined in song and story was the bobo- link. Few species show such striking contrasts in the color of the sexes, and few have songs more unique and whimsical. In its northern home the bird is loved for its beauty and its rich melody; in the South it earns deserved hatred by its destructiveness. Bobolinks reach the southeastern coast of the United States the last half of April, just as rice is sprouting, and at once begin to pull up and devour the sprout- ing kernels, Soon they move on to their north- ern breeding grounds, where they feed upon insects, weed seeds, and a little grain. When the young are well on the wing, they gather in flocks with the parent birds and gradually move southward, being then generally known as reed birds. They reach the rice fields of the Carolinas about August 20, when the rice is in the milk. Then until the birds depart for South America planters and birds fight for the crop, and in spite of constant watchfulness and innumerable devices for scaring the birds a loss of 10 per cent of the rice is the usual re- sult. COMMON CROW (Corvus brachyrhynchos) Length, 19 inches. Range: Breeds throughout the United States and most of Canada; winters generally in the United States. Habits and economic status: The general habits of the crow are universally known. Its ability to commit such misdeeds as pulling corn and stealing eggs and fruit and to get away unscathed is little short of marvelous. Much of the crow’s success in life is due to coéperation, and the social instinct of the spe- cies has its highest expression in the winter roosts, which are sometimes frequented by hundreds of thousands of crows. From these roosts daily flights of many miles are made in search of food. Injury to sprouting corn is the most frequent complaint against this spe- cies, but by coating the seed grain with coal tar most of this damage may be prevented. Losses of poultry and eges may be averted by proper housing and the judicious use of wire netting, The insect food of the crow includes wireworms, cutworms, white grubs, and grass- hoppers, and during outbreaks of these inse the crow renders good service. The bird also an efficient scavenger. n is But chiefly because of its destruction of beneficial wild birds and their eggs the crow must be classed as a crim- inal, and a reduction in its numbers in locali- ties is justifiable, Photograph by W. C. Johnson ALL ABOARD! The first venture of these little swans upon the stormy seas of life is safely negotiated upon their mother’s back, while she, with a true mother’s pride in her offspring, takes every care that no harm shall come. By) Cada MOw TA GAONTIM- day WAV IMOCVAYL 60 MEADOWLARKS (Sturnella magna and Sturnella neglecta) Length, about 1034 inches. Range: Breed generally in the United States, southern Canada, and Mexico to Costa Rica; winter from the Ohio and Potomac valleys and British Columbia southward. Habits and economic status: Our two mead- owlarks, though differing much in song, resem- ble each other closely in plumage and _ habits. Grassy plains and uplands covered with a thick growth of grass or weeds, with near-by water, furnish the conditions best suited to the mead- owlark’s taste. The song of the western bird is loud, clear, and melodious. ‘That of its east- ern relative is feebler and loses much by com- parison. In many localities the meadowlark is classed and shot as a game bird. From the farmer's standpoint this is a mistake, since its value as an insect eater is far greater than as an object of pursuit by the sportsman. Both the boll weevil, the foe of the cotton grower, and the alfalfa weevil are among the beetles it habitually eats. Twenty-five per cent of the diet of this bird is beetles, half of which are predaceous ground beetles, accounted useful insects, and one-fifth are destructive weevils. Caterpillars form tr per cent of the food and are eaten in every month in the year. Among these are many cutworms and the well-known army worm. Grasshoppers are favorite food and are caten in every month and almost every day. The vegetable food (24 per cent of the whole) consists of grain and weed seeds. RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD (Agelaius pheeniceus) Length, about 9% inches. Range: Breeds in Mexico and North Amer- ica south of the Barren Grounds; winters in southern half of United States and south to Costa Rica. Habits and economic status: The prairics of the upper Mississippi Valley, with their numer- ous sloughs and ponds, furnish ideal nesting places for redwings, and consequently this re- gion has become the great breeding ground for the species. ‘These prairies pour forth the vast flocks that play havoc with grain fields. East of the Appalachian Range, marshes on the shores of lakes, rivers, and estuaries are the only available breeding sites and, as these are comparatively few and small, the species is much less abundant than in the West, Red- wings are eminently gregarious, living in flocks and breeding in communities. The food of the redwing consists of 27 per cent animal matter and 73 per cent vegetable. Insects constitute practically one-fourth of the food. Beetles (largely weevils, a most harmful group) amount to 10 per cent. Grasshoppers are eaten in every month and amount to about 5 per cent. Caterpillars (among them the injurious army worm) are eaten at all seasons and ag- gregate 6 per cent. Ants, wasps, bugs, flies, dragonflies, and spiders also are eaten. The vegetable food consists of seeds, including grain, of which oats is the favorite, and some small fruits. When in large flocks this bird is capable of doing great harm to grain. N a | -hotograph by Elton Perry THE SLACKER OF BIRDDOM EXPOSED This is a picture of the nest of Mr. and Mrs. Yellow-breasted Chat, and the majority of the eggs belong to the lady of the house; but she has been imposed upon in her absence and made the victim of the indolence of her neighbor, Mrs. Cowbird, who has laid an egg in the Chat nest for Mrs. Chat to incubate with her own. sibility of bringing up her offspring, is probably off indulging in some frivolity. The darker egg is the alien embryo. sitic habit is a characteristic of the cowbird. Mrs. Cowbird, relieved of the respon- This para- q q OONIN) AATITA- MOTTA A UANOAMCOO MM ANMOC 62 DOWNY WOODPECKER (Dryobates pubescens) Length, 6 inches. Our smallest woodpecker ; spotted with black and white. Dark bars on the outer tail feathers distinguish it from the similarly colored but larger hairy woodpecker. Range: Resident in the United States and the forested parts of Canada and Alaska. Habits and economic status: This wood- pecker is commonly distributed, living in wood- land tracts, orchards, and gardens. The bird has several characteristic notes, and, like the hairy woodpecker, is fond of beating on a dry resonant tree branch a tattoo which to appreci- ative ears has the quality of woodland music. In a hole excavated in a dead branch the downy woodpecker lays four to six eggs. This and the hairy woodpecker are among our most valuable allies, their food consisting of some of the worst foes of orchard and woodland, which the woodpeckers are especially equipped to dig out of dead and living wood. In the examination of 723 stomachs of this bird, ani- mal food, mostly insects, was found to consti- tute 76 per cent of the diet and vegetable mat- ter 24 per cent. The animal food consists largely of beetles that bore into timber or bur- row under the bark. Caterpillars amount to 16 per cent of the food and include many espe- cially harmful species. A TWO-STORY BIRD NEST The nests of giant tropical orioles, or caciques, in Mexico are pendant structures 3 and 4 feet in length. They are usu- ally built out on the very tips of slender branches, so that they are protected from the attacks of arboreal beasts of prey. Often, as in the above photograph, there is a little subsidiary chamber at the sum- mit, which is used by the male bird as a roosting place when his mate is sitting on the eggs below. 63 YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO (Coccyzus americanus) Length, about 12 inches. The yellow lower part of the bill distinguishes this bird from its near relative, the black-billed cuckoo. Range: Breeds generally in the United States and southern Canada; winters in South Amer- ica. Habits and economic status: This bird lives on the edges of woodland, in groves, orchards, parks, and even in shaded village streets. It is sometimes known as rain crow, because its very characteristic notes are supposed to fore- tell rain. The cuckoo has sly, furtive ways as it moves among the bushes or flits from tree to tree, and is much more often seen than heard. Unlike its European relative, it does not lay its eggs in other birds’ nests, but builds a nest of its own. This is, however, a rather crude and shabby affair—hardly more than a platform of twigs sufficient to hold the greenish eggs. The cuckoo is extremely useful because of its insectivorous habits, especially as it shows a marked preference for the hairy cater- pillars, which few birds eat. One stomach that was examined contained American tent caterpillars; another, 217 fall webworms. In places where tent caterpillars are abundant they seem to constitute a large portion of the food of this and the black-billed cuckoo. 250 Photograph by Dr. C. William Beebe 64 YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER FLICKER FLICKER (Colaptes auratus) Length, 13 inches. The yellow under surface of the wing, yellow tail shafts, and white rump are characteristic. Range: Breeds in the eastern United States west to the plains and in the forested parts of Canada and Alaska; winters in most of the eastern United States. Habits and economic status: The flicker in- habits the open country rather than the forest and delights in park-like regions where trees are numerous and scattered. It nests in any large cavity in a tree and readily appropriates an artificial box. It is possible, therefore, to insure the presence of this useful bird about the farm and to increase its numbers. It is the most terrestrial of our woodpeckers and pro- cures much of its food from the ground. The largest item of animal food is ants, of which the flicker eats more than any other common bird. Ants were found in 524 of the 684 stom- achs examined and 08 stomachs contained no other food. One stomach contained over 5,000 and two others held over 3,000 each. While bugs are not largely eaten by the flicker, one stomach contained 17 chinch bugs. Wild fruits are next to ants in importance in the flicker’s dietary. Of these sour gum and wild black cherry stand at the head. The food habits of this bird are such as to recommend it to com- plete protection. YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER (Sphyrapicus varius) Length, about 8!2 inches. Only woodpecker having top of head from base of bill red, com- bined with a black patch on breast. Range: Breeds in northern half of the United States and southern half of Canada; winters in most of the States and south to Costa Rica. Habits and economic status: The yellow- bellied sapsucker is rather silent and suspicious and generally manages to have a tree between himself and the observer. Hence the bird is much better known by its works than its ap- pearance. The regular girdles of holes made by this bird are common on a great variety of trees; in all about 250 kinds are known to be attacked. Occasionally young trees are killed outright, but more loss is caused by stains and other blemishes in the wood which result from sapsucker punctures. These blemishes, which are known as bird pecks, are especially nu- merous in hickory, oak, cypress, and yellow poplar. The two principal components of the vegetable food are wild fruits of no impor- tance and cambium (the layer just beneath the bark of trees). In securing the cambium the bird does the damage above described. The yellow-bellied sapsucker, unlike other wood- peckers, thus does comparatively little good and much harm. 4 Po 2 mY . i po ee oo -_, 7 a ed \ i “eB Soe e yi ooh Photograph by George Shiras, 3rd SAP BASINS MADE IN BARK BY A SAPSUCKER The regularity of the holes shows that this bird is methodical. The basins were made in six weeks, probably by one bird, and served not only to collect sap, but also to catch flies attracted by the sweet fluid. JeMoy farnzeuur fiaddn ‘aeyl ‘AIOVY G1vg AAYAS—C) see Bt? Yad) 66 OSPREY (Pandion haliztus carolinensis) Length, about 23 inches. The great size, brown upper parts and white under parts are distinguishing features. Range: Breeds from northwestern Alaska, and central Canada south to the Gulf coast, western Mexico and Lower California; win- ters from the southern United States, Lower California and Mexico to Central America. A thin, high-pitched whistle, the alarm as well as the call note of the osprey, frequently directs the attention of the passer by to this fine hawk as he circles high in air on the watch for fish. The bird is common along our coast and to some extent along our rivers, and his bulky nest of twigs, often in low trees or sometimes on the ground, frequently attests his former presence when he is wintering else- where. When unmolested, ospreys return to their own strip of territory year after year, and they and their descendants probably rear their young in the same nest for generations, repairing it from season to season as necessity requires. The osprey lives solely on fish which he catches himself—he disdains carrion—div- ing from mid air upon his quarry and often burying himself in the water momentarily by the force of his descent. Usually he succeeds in carrying his prey to his nest, though his slow and labored wing-beats often prove how heavy is his load. Visitors to the seashore, and even old residents, never tire of watching his superb flight and interesting habits, and his plunge after his quarry, whether successful or unsuccessful, is a sight to be remembered. BALD EAGLE (Halieztus leucocephalus and subspecies) Length, about 33 inches, The white head (adult) and naked tarsus distinguish this spe- cies from the golden eagle. Range: A resident of Alaska, much of Can- ada, and the whole of the United States in suitable localities. Though a fisherman by profession, the white head is by no means the master of his craft that the osprey is. In fact, he never fishes for himself so long as he can rob the more skillful and more industrious fish hawk. When neces- sity compels, however, he fishes to some pur- pose, and much after the manner of his erst- while victim, the fish hawk. He is far less fas- tidious in his food habits than that bird, how- ever, and often gorges himself until he cannot fly on dead fish gathered along shore, espe- cially on the great salmon rivers of the north- west. When fish are scarce and waterfowl are plentiful, the white head has little difficulty in living off them. Complaint is made in Alaska, where the bald eagle is numerous, that he sometimes interferes with blue fox farming by killing the animals for food. Though the blue fox is not a large animal he is by no means a pigmy, and the bird who would make him his quarry must needs possess both strength and determination. As this eagle has been taken for our national emblem, it would seem to be the part of patriotism to condone his faults and remember only his virtues, among which are a magnificent presence, superb powers of flight, and devoted care of his family. © Tow OSPREY, OR FISH HAWK, RISING FROM A STRIKE When a fish is sighted, this bird checks himself directly over the quarry on wings that beat horizontally, then down he goes at reckless speed, with wings folded and talons wide open. In the picture above the osprey had been deceived by There is a great splash as the hawk strikes the water and s eizes the fish by the back. an artificial gold fish anchored by an 18-ounce stone, and it shows him shooting upward after the decoy had slipped from his grasp. duavzzng AANAN YT, AMV HSUVIAT 68 MARSH HAWK (Circus hudsonius) Length, about 19 inches. The ashy upper parts, white rump, and long tail of the adult male sufficiently distinguish this hawk; while the fuscous upper parts and buff under parts much streaked with brown distinguish the fe- male and young. Range: Breeds through much of Canada, south to the middle United States; winters in the United States, especially in the South. Though not exclusively a marsh frequenter, as its name might seem to imply, this hawk prefers open country, and its favorite hunting grounds are meadow and marsh, in which it nests on the ground. It flies rather low, the better to see and drop suddenly upon the luck- less meadow mice—its favorite food. Unfor- tunately small birds form part of its fare, and there are localities, like Cape Cod and Marthas Vineyard, in Massachusetts, where this hawk has earned a bad reputation as a destroyer of poultry and game. However, over much the larger part of the vast territory it inhabits the marsh hawk is a rodent eater, and the debt of gratitude it lays upon the farmer is large. This debt should be fully discharged by pre- serving the bird and encouraging its presence. unless it is caught committing overt acts. In other words, as this hawk is very beneficial over most of its range, individual hawks should be presumed to be innocent unless detected in transgression. TURKEY BUZZARD (Cathartes aura septentrionalis) about 30 inches. The naked head and glossy black plumage are dis- Leneth, and neck tinctive. Range: Extends from southwestern Canada, northern Minnesota, southern New York, and south into northern Mexico and Lower Cali- fornia. This buzzard displays superb powers of flight which even the eagle cannot surpass, and no small part of its time is spent in the upper air, describing great circles on motionless wings as if for the mere pleasure of flight. Let another buzzard, however, discover a carcass, and the movements of our aéronaut as he hastens to the feast are at once noted by his next neigh- bor, and his by a third, till the carrion feeders of a wide territory are assembled. Sight and not smell, then, is depended on by the buzzard to guide him to his food. Though of great strength and provided with a formidable bill, the buzzard rarely, if ever, attacks living ani- mals, unless they are disabled, but depends upon death to provide for his wants. No doubt his ability to fast is as great as his capacity for gorging himself when occasion offers, and he must often go for days without food. As a scavenger the buzzard does good service and should continue to enjoy the protection which is at present accorded it in nearly every State of the Union. Photograph by Arthur E. Mayer HUSBAND AND WIFE The magnificent plumage of the peacock belongs only to the male, and it may be noticed that the female to the left of the picture is far less handsome than her husband, who pre- sents us with a back view of his outstretched tail. These birds were once highly esteemed as food, and in the middle ages always figured at the most sumptuous banquets, roasted, but in all the glory of their gaudy plumage. 69 NYIL WoWTg TINS) 8. NITNNVU WIACTUY YIAOTG ANVId AQ, KILLDEER (Oxyechus vociferus) Length, 10 inches. Distinguished by piercing and oft-repeated cry—hkildee. Range: Breeds throughout the United States and most of Canada; winters from central United States to South America. Habits and economic status: The kildeer is one of the best known of the shorebird family. It often visits the farmyard and commonly nests in pastures or cornfields, It is rather suspicious, however, and on being approached takes flight with loud cries. It is noisy and restless, but fortunately most of its activities result in benefit to man. The food is of the same general nature as that of the upland plover, but is more varied. The kildeer feeds upon beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, ants, bugs, caddis flies, dragonflies, centipedes, spi- ders, ticks, oyster worms, earthworms, snails, crabs, and other crustacea. Among the beetles consumed are such pests as the alfalfa weevil, cotton-boll weevil, clover-root weevil, clover- leaf weevil, pine weevil, billbugs, white grubs, wireworms, and leaf beetles. The bird also de- vours cotton worms, cotton cutworms, horse- flies, mosquitoes, cattle ticks, and crawfish. One stomach contained hundreds of larve of the saltmarsh mosquito, one of the most trou- blesome species. The kildeer preys extensively upon insects that are annoying to man and in- jurious to his stock and crops, and this should be enough to remove it from the list of game birds and insure its protection. its BLACK TERN (Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis) Length, 10 inches. In autumn occurs as a migrant on the east coast of the United States, and then is in white and gray plumage. Dur- ing the breeding season it is confined to the interior, is chiefly black, and is the only dark tern occurring inland. : Range: Breeds from California, Colorado, Missouri, and Ohio, north to central Canada; winters from Mexico to South America; mi- grant in the eastern United States. Habits and economic status: This tern, un- like most of its relatives, passes much of its life on fresh-water lakes and marshes of the interior. Its nests are placed among the tules and weeds, on floating vegetation, or on musk- rat houses. It lays from 2 to 4 eggs. Its food is more varied than that of any other tern. So far as known, it preys upon no food hshes, but feeds extensively upon such enemies of fish as dragonfly, nymphs, fish-eating beetles, and crawfishes. Unlike most of its family, it de- yours a great variety of insects, many of which it catches as it flies. Dragonflies, May flies, grasshoppers, predaceous diving beetles, scara- beid bectles, leaf beetles, gnats, and other flies are the principal kinds preyed upon. Fishes of little economic value, chiefly minnows and mummichogs, were found to compose only a little more than 19 per cent of the contents of 145 stomachs. The great consumption of in- sects by the black tern places it among the beneficial species worthy of protection. 1 UPLAND PLOVER (Bartramia longicauda) Length, 12 inches. The only plainly colored shorebird which occurs east of the plains and inhabits exclusively dry fields and hillsides. Range: Breeds from Oregon, Utah, Okla- homa, Indiana, and Virginia, north to Alaska; winters in South America. Habits and economic status: This, the most terrestrial of our waders, is shy and wary, but it has the one weakness of not fearing men on horseback or in a vehicle. One of these meth- ods of approach, therefore, is nearly always used by the sportsman, and, since the bird is highly prized as a table delicacy, it has been hunted to the verge of extermination. As the upland plover is strictly beneficial, it should no longer be classed as a game bird and al- lowed to be shot. Ninety-seven per cent. of the food of this species consists of animal forms, chiefly of injurious and neutral species. The vegetable food is mainly weed seeds. AI- most half of the total subsistence is made up of grasshoppers, crickets, and weevils. Among the weevils eaten are the cotton-boll weevil, greater and lesser clover-leaf weevils, cowpea weevils, and billbugs. This bird devours also leaf beetles, wireworms, white grubs, army worms, cotton worms, cotton cutworms, saw- fly larvee, horseflies, and cattle ticks. In brief, it injures no crop, but consumes a host of the worst enemies of agriculture. FRANKLIN’S GULL (Larus franklini) Length, 15 inches. During its residence in the United States Franklin’s gull is practically confined to the interior and is the only inland gull with black head and red bill. Range: Breeds in the Dakotas, Iowa, Minne- sota, and the neighboring parts of southern Canada; winters from the Gulf coast to South America. Habits and economic status: Nearly all of our gulls are coast-loving species and spend comparatively little of their time in fresh water, but Franklin’s is a true inland gull. Ex- tensive marshes bordering shallow lakes are its chosen breeding grounds, and as many such areas are being reclaimed for agricultural pur- poses it behooves the tillers of the soil to pro- tect this valuable species. When undisturbed this gull becomes quite fearless and follows the plowman to gather the grubs and worms from the newly turned furrows. It lives al- most exclusively upon insects, of which it con- sumes great quantities. Its hearty appetite is manifest from the contents of a few stomachs: A, 327 nymphs of dragonflies; B, 340 grass- hoppers, 52 bugs, 3 beetles, 2 wasps, and I spi- der; C, 82 beetles, 87 bugs, 984 ants, and I cricket, 1 grasshopper, and 2 spiders. About four-fifths of the total food is grasshoppers, a strong point in favor of this bird. Other in- jurious creatures eaten are billbugs, squash bugs, leaf-hoppers, click beetles (adults of wireworms), May beetles (adults of white grubs), and weevils. Franklin’s gull is prob- ably the most beneficial bird of its group. SCREECH OWL Barn Ow. as i) SCREECH OWL (Otus asio) Length, about & inches. Our smallest owl with ear tufts. There are two distinct phases of plumage—one grayish and the other bright rufous. Range: Resident throughout the United States, southern Canada, and northern Mexico. Habits and economic status: The little screech owl inhabits orchards, groves, and thickets, and hunts for its prey in such places as well as along hedge-rows and in the open. During warm spells in winter it forages quite extensively and stores up in some hollow tree considerable quantities of food for use during inclement weather. Such larders frequently contain enough mice or other prey to bridge over a period of a week or more. With the exception of the burrowing owl, it is probably the most insectivorous of the nocturnal birds ot prey. It feeds also upon small mammals, birds, reptiles, batrachians, fish, spiders, craw- fish, scorpions, and earthworms. Grasshop pers, crickets, ground-dwelling beet] and caterpillars are its favorites among insects, as are field mice among mammals and sparrows among birds. Out of 324 stomachs examined, 169 were found to contain insects; 142, small mammals; 56, birds, and 15, crawfish. The screech owl should be encouraged to stay near barns and outhouses, as it will keep in check house mice and wood mice, which frequent such places % and camera in the other. waded ashore. The author was looking for deer. i The owl fell 15 feet into the water, swore like a trooper, and BARN OWL (Aluco pratincola) Length, about 17 inches. Facial disk not cir- cular as in our other owls; plumage above, pale yellow; beneath, varying from silky white to pale bright tawny. Range: Resident in Mexico, in the southern United States, and north to New York, Ohio, Nebraska, and California. Habits and economic status: The barn owl, often called monkey-faced owl, is one of the most beneficial of the birds of prey, since it feeds almost exclusively on small mammals that injure farm produce, nursery, and orchard stock. It hunts principally in the open and consequently secures such mammals as pocket gophers, feld mice, common rats, house mice, harvest mice, kangaroo rats, and cotton ra It occasionally captures a few birds and insects At least a half bushel of the remains of pox phers have been found in the nesting cavity a pair of these birds. Remembering ypher has been known in a short time to girdle seven apricot trees worth $100, it is hard to overestimate the value of the of pair of barn owls; 1,247 pellets of the barn owl collected from the Smithsonian towers con- tained 3,100 skulls, of which 3,004, or 97 per cent, were of mammals; 92, or 3 per cent birds, and 4 were of frogs. The bulk consis of 1,087 field mice, 656 house mice, and 2 common rats. This valuable owl should be rigidly protected everywhere. gO Photograph by George Shiras, 3rd A REMARKABLE FLASHLIGHT OF A SNOWY OWL White Fish River, Michigan. Flash held in one hand FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS—THE WARBLERS By HENRY W. HENSHAW With Illustrations from Paintings by Louis Agassiz Fuertes T EVERY stage of their growth, from the seed to the adult tree, our forest, shade, and orchard trees are subject to the attacks of hordes of insect enemies, which, if unchecked, would soon utterly destroy them. What the loss of our forest and shade trees would mean to us can better be imagined than described. Wood enters into so many products that it is difficult to think of civilized man without it, while the fruits of our orchards also are of the greatest importance. Aside from the eco- nomic loss, which can hardly be imagined, much less estimated, how barren the world would seem shorn of our forests and beautiful shade trees! Fortunately, the insect foes of trees are not without their own persistent enemies, and among them are many species of birds whose equipment and habits spe- cially fit them to deal with insects and whose entire lives are spent in pursuit of them. Many insects at one or another stage of their existence burrow deeply into the bark or even into the living wood of trees, and so are quite safe from ordinary bird enemies. Woodpeckers, however, being among the most highly specialized of birds, are wonderfully equipped to dig into wood and to expose and destroy these hidden foes. Certain insects that largely confine their attacks to the smaller branches and ter- minal twigs are sought out and preyed upon by nuthatches, creepers, titmice, and warblers. Others, and their number is legion, attack the blossoms and _ foliage, and here the nimble and sharp-eyed warb- lers render supreme service, the number of plant lice and lepidopterous larve they destroy in a single day almost challenging belief. Thus our woodland songsters are among the most important of all our birds, and in their own field render man unequaled service. Moreover, very few have any injurious habits, and the little harm they do, if any, weighs as nothing in the balance when compared with the 74 good. By reason of their numbers and their activity in hunting insects, our warblers take first place as preservers of the forest, and the following account, which treats of about half the total num- her, is devoted to the more conspicuous, the more important, and the commoner species. THE WARBLER FAMILY Our wood warblers are assembled in a rather loosely defined family (the Mnio- tiltidee), embracing in all about 140 spe- cies, of which more than a third are visitors to the United States. They are fairly well distributed over the country at large, although more species make their summer homes in the eastern half of the United States than in the western. A. number of notable species, however, summer in the West, as they do also in the Southern States. Our New World warblers are quite unlike their Old World relatives, the Sylviide, or true warblers, whose family includes some 75 genera and between 500 and 600 species. Not only do our American species dif- fer structurally in many particulars from their Old World representatives, espe- cially in possessing nine instead of ten primaries, but they differ markedly also in appearance and habits. It may be said in passing that while our warblers are brilliantly colored and many of them sexually dissimilar, those of the Old World are not only small, but plainly plumaged ; moreover, the sexes are gen- erally alike in coloration. The larger number of our warblers, as well as the most characteristic, are in- cluded in the one genus Dendroica, which is notable, since it includes more species than any other genus of North American birds. Fortunately for the bird lover, our wood warblers are not recluses. They are creatures of light and sunshine. Some of them, it is true, retire to the mountain fastnesses or the depths of coniferous forests during the nesting period; but FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS 75 the number of these is small and their withdrawal for only a comparatively short time, while the majority at all times of the year favor the edges of the forest, open woods, or brushy clearings. Their preference for such situations brings many within the bounds of civil- ization and renders it comparatively easy for any one so inclined to make their ac- quaintance. As during migration they assemble in flocks, they are, on the whole, pretty well known; and since, as a rule, they are not shy, they have long been favorite objects of observation and study. WARBLERS AS SONGSSLERS Despite their name, which would seem to imply musical ability of no mean order, our wood warblers, with few exceptions, occupy no very high place in the musical galaxy. All sing, however, after a fash- ion, and the musical efforts of some are pleasing, even according to human stan- dards. While most warblers are prodigal enough with their music and sing early and often, especially prior to and during the nesting season, their music is fre- quently so faint as to be audible only to the trained ear of the bird lover. As if aware of their musical inferior- ity, few display much enthusiasm in their vocal efforts, but sing while they work, or while pausing for a brief moment as they move among the foliage hunting for food. With them, singing appears to be an audible expression of general content and well being, and, no doubt, an effort to please and attract their mates. Certain members of the thrush and thrasher families, on the contrary, which contain in their ranks the prima donnas of our bird world, as if conscious of their supremacy, are wont to mount a com- manding perch when about to sing, and to pour out their melody for all the world to hear. With them, singing is not merely incidental to the day’s work. It is a con- scious and supreme effort, and is much too important to be slighted or shared with any other function. Apparently they appreciate to a great extent and en- joy their own outpourings, and, if we may interpret their feelings by human standards, are conscious that their musi- cal offerings entitle them to an audience. Not only do their bright colors suggest a tropical origin of our warblers, but their whole make-up is in keeping with tropical surroundings. Warblers are thinly feathered and delicately organized and most of them incapable of withstand- ing any great degree of cold. They are also almost exclusively insect eaters, only a few of the family being at all vege- tarian, and these only to a comparatively small extent. Hence, with them, migration is not a matter of choice, but is imperative. They come to us on a particular errand for a few short months, and when family cares are at an end, back they hie to the tropics, the lands of warmth and sunshine, which lend them to us for a brief season. ‘Thus the true home of our warblers is not where they nest, but where they spend three-fourths of their lives—not the north, but the south—not in the temper- ate, but in the tropical zones. THE SPECTACULAR MIGRATION OF WARBLERS That wonderful phenomenon, bird mi- gration, is illustrated by few birds so clearly and convincingly as by our wood warblers. Assuredly no other birds— unless it be the geese—migrate in such a spectacular manner. The stroller, in late August or September, finds himself in the woods, the silence being broken only by the drumming of a distant partridge, the chirping of insects, or other familiar sounds which only emphasize the general quiet that prevails (see pages 180-195). Presto! The scene changes! The woods, apparently almost tenantless but a mo- ment before, are now filled with life of the most animated and intense kind. Every shrub, every tree, has its feathered occupant. Our observer recognizes per- haps a dozen or twenty species, represent- ing several distinct families; but promi- nent among them, by reason of numbers, variegated plumage, graceful forms, and active motions, are the wood warblers. Every individual is alert and busy, gliding from one twig to another near by, or flying from one tree to the next, while from all sides come the soft calls and notes of individual members of the flock, whose friendly converse has the effect, if 76 FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS not the purpose, of keeping the individ- uals of the assemblage in touch with each other and with the flock as a unit. Ina few moments silence again reigns where all was commotion and activity. The birds have passed on their seemingly aim- less course. If the observer would learn the solu- tion of the mystery of the birds’ evident hurry, he has only to follow them for a time, when he will find that, however er- ratic may seem the course of individual members of the flock, the flock as a whole is steering a tolerably straight course southward. In other words, he is in the midst of a flock of birds en route to their winter quarters and, in order to econo- mize time, feeding as they go. This, however, is not the only way warblers migrate, nor is it the most important, since the greater part of the long journey of many is performed by night. Any one with good ears has only to listen on a clear, frosty night in fall to hear hundreds of warblers and other birds as they flit by, a few hundred yards above the earth, the call notes coming in- cessantly out of the darkness. The route of these flying hosts often carries them above cities, and one cannot be insensible to the incongruity between his surround- ings and the woodland scenes, so vividly brought to mind by the lisping notes com- ing from the darkness overhead. The subject of migration has not inspired our poets so often as might be expected, but Longfellow, in his “Birds of Passage,” gives us the following wonderfully sug- gestive lines: But the night is fair, And everywhere A warm, soft vapor fills the air, And distant sounds seem near; And above, in the light Of the star-lit night, Swift birds of passage wing their flight, Through the dewy atmosphere. I hear the beat Of their pinions fleet, As from the land of snow and sleet They seek a southern lea. T hear the cry Of their voices high, Falling dreamily through the sky, But their forms I cannot see. _ Probably because insects constitute such an important part of their food, warblers, as a rule, migrate early in fall and late in spring. It is true that in fall many linger till frosts nip the vegetation; but insects are abroad even later than this, and it is only necessary to watch these late migrants for a short time to learn that their search for insects is be- ing well rewarded. Only a few species come north early in spring, the great bulk of the warblers evidently having been taught by bitter ex- perience that in spring, at least, it is not the early bird that finds most worms or finds them easiest. FLOCKING OF SMALL BIRDS Just why small birds, when migrating, congregate in large flocks and troop through the woodlands has often been the subject of speculation. Juncos, several species of sparrows, woodpeckers, nut- hatches, chickadees, creepers, and, above all, warblers, combine to swell the ranks of these migrating companies. As many as a dozen or more species of warblers may often be seen in one flock, which, in addition, may include 200 or 300 indi- viduals, representing a number of fam- ilies whose tastes and habits in every-day life differ very widely. Yet here are these incongruous ele- ments mingling together on terms of the utmost friendliness. Since birds are so- ciable beings, except during the short time when family cares prompt to jealous vigilance, sociability alone may be the bond of union; added, however, to the kindly feeling of companionship probably is a feeling of increased security which comes from numbers. Certainly no enemy can approach one of these bird assem- blages without being spied by at least one pair of vigilant eyes, when the flock is immediately notified by a few sharp chirps—warning for every individual to seek safety in flight or to scurry to cover. WHAT MYSTERIOUS SENSE GUIDES THEM IN THEIR LONG JOURNEYS? In what manner warblers migrate— that is, how they are guided on their long journeys—is a moot question. Little mystery attaches to their ability to find their way north or south in daylight, since the recognizable landmarks are FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS 77 many and prominent. As most birds, es- pecially the warblers, choose starlight and moonlight nights for their trips, perhaps they are similarly guided by night, and natural landmarks, as mountains, rivers, and the coastline may point out much, if not all, of their way. However plausible this explanation may sound in the case of birds migrating over land, it utterly fails when applied to migrants whose journeys north and south necessitate flight over long stretches of ocean, in some instances at least 2,000 miles, quite out of sight of land and of all landmarks (see pages 180-195). In seeking an explanation of the mys- tery of birds’ ability to find their way under such circumstances, many are in- clined to reject the one-time sufficient answer, “instinct,” in favor of the more recent theory, the possession by birds of another faculty, the so-called “sense of direction.” This added sense enables birds to return to a known locality with no other aid than an ever-present knowl- edge of the right direction. But, in the case of our wood warblers, there is little need of appealing to another sense to guide them in migration, or, in- deed, to anything out of the ordinary save excellent memory and good eyesight. The five-hundred-mile flight toward the trop- ics across the Gulf of Mexico is made by preference, and however it originated as a fly line, had it proved to be extra haz- ardous, it might have been abandoned at any time in favor of the apparently safer West Indian route. But, after all, the Gulf trip involves few hazards other than those connected with storms, since the flight across the water, even at a slow rate, would necessitate a journey of less than 24 hours, and this, no doubt, is quite within the capacity of even the smallest and weakest of the family. Moreover, the South American Continent is too big a mark to be easily missed, and an error of a few hundred miles north or south would make little difference in the safety of the birds. WHY WARBLERS MIGRATE It may be set down as an axiom that all birds which travel south in fall do so because they must migrate or freeze or starve. Why some of them leave early, when food in their summer home is seem- ingly so abundant, is indeed a puzzle. Once the nestlings are on the wing and ready for the journey, off they go, old and young. Nevertheless, by an apparently prema- ture start they only anticipate by a few weeks the time of scarcity when they must go, and perhaps the lesson of bitter experience in the history of the several species has taught them to go when all the conditions are favorable. It is true that every winter a few birds, often a few individuals of a given species, winter far north of the customary winter home. Some of these are evidently stragglers or wanderers which, for some unexplained reason, failed to accompany the rest of their kind on the southward migration. They in no wise affect the general state- ment, being exceptional in every way. A few of our warblers in Florida and on other parts of our southern coast do not migrate ; but the almost universal rule in the family is to abandon the summer home when the care of the young ceases and to go far southward ere they stop for the winter. Indeed, the males of many species do not trouble themselves much with the care of the nestlings, but prepare to migrate before the young are well on the wing. A still more flagrant case is that of the hummingbirds. The male deserts the female when she is still on her eggs, shifting the responsibility of caring for the family entirely on her devoted head, while he disports himself among the flowers, leaving for the south long before his exemplary mate and the young are ready. Some of our species, however, while migrating southward, are satisfied to re- main all winter within our boundaries. Thus the pine and palm warblers winter in the Gulf States, while a greater or less number of individuals, representing sev- eral species, winter in southern Florida. The great majority, however, winter south of the United States, in Central and South America. Thus Professor Cooke tells us: “The prairie, black-throated blue, Swainson’s, Bachman’s, Cape May, and Kirtland’s 78 FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS warblers go only to the West Indies. The worm-eating, myrtle, magnolia, chestnut- sided, black-throated green, hooded, blue- winged, Nashville, orange-crowned, pa- rula, palm, and Wilson’s warblers, and the chat, go no farther than Central America, while many species spend the winter in South America, including some or all the individuals of the black and white, prothonotary, golden-winged, Ten- nessee, yellow, cerulean, bay-breasted, black-poll, Blackburnian, Kentucky, Con- necticut, mourning, and Canada warb- lers, the redstart, oven-bird, and both the water-thrushes. Nearly all the warblers of the western United States spend the winter in Mexico and the contiguous por- tions of Central America.” VAST NUMBERS SUCCUMB The northward journey in spring, away from the land of sunshine and plenty to the land of uncertain spring weather, is another matter. Probably if all birds that habitually abandon the north and winter in the south were to nest there, their quota, added to the number resident in the tropics, would be too great for the means of subsistence. Nevertheless, birds are not forced away from their winter quarters by inclement weather or impending famine, but by the subtle physiological change which warns them of the approach of the mating sea- son and fills them with new desires, among which is the compelling one of a return to the spot where they first saw the light, or where they reared last sea- son’s brood, Whatever the cause, the birds are not discouraged by the many and great perils that attend migration, and vast numbers every year succumb to them. Storms, especially off-shore storms, constitute the gravest peril, and there is abundant evi- dence that millions of birds are annually blown out to sea to find watery graves. Perhaps no family suffers more in the aggregate than the warblers. Thinly feathered, delicately organized, highly in- sectivorous, they are exposed to unusual dangers while birds of passage to and from their nesting grounds. It is a matter of common observation that every few years in some given lo- cality, perhaps embracing a region of con- siderable size, a particular species of warbler or other bird suddenly becomes rare where before common. After a sea- son or so, though sometimes not for years, the equilibrium is reéstablished and the numbers are as before. ‘These changes very probably are the visible signs of migration catastrophes, the result of the sweeping away of a migration wave, com- posed of one or of many species, in the path of some sudden storm. Again, many of us have witnessed the dire effects of a prolonged rain and sleet storm in spring, when thousands of luck- less migrants find only too late that they have prematurely left the warmth and plenty of their tropical winter refuges. Under such circumstances thousands of migrants perish from the combined effects of cold and starvation, and among them are sure to be great numbers of warblers. ECONOMIC VALUE OF WARBLERS From the esthetic point of view, our warblers, as a group, occupy a high and unique position. They also occupy no uncertain place in the list of our useful birds. Preéminently insectivorous, they spend their lives in the active pursuit of insects. They begin with the eggs, prey- ing upon them whenever and wherever found, and continue the good work when the egg becomes the larva and when the larva becomes the perfect insect. They are especially valuable in this re- spect because of the protection they lend to forest trees, the trunk, bark, and foli- age of which they search with tireless energy. Their efficiency is vastly in- creased because the many different spe- cies pursue the quest for food in very different ways. While some confine their search chiefly to the trunks and large branches and examine each crack and crevice in the bark for eggs or larve, others devote their energies to the twigs and foliage, scanning each leaf and stem with eager eyes. Still others descend to: the ground and examine the rubbish and grass for hidden prey, while nearly all are adept at catching insects on the wing. Each species, however, has a method of its own, more or less unlike that of its fellows, and each excels in some specialty. Not only does the group as a whole spe- FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS 79 cialize on insects, but each individual member of the group still further special- izes, so as to leave no loophole for the escape of the enemy. The quantity of animal food required to drive the avian engine at full speed is so very great that it is no exaggeration to say that practically all the waking hours of our warblers, from daylight to dark, are devoted to food-getting. What this never-ceasing industry means when translated into tons-weight of insects, it is impossible even to guess, but the practical result of the work of our warblers and other insectivorous birds is that we still have our forests, and shall continue to have them so long as we encourage and protect the birds. In the case of orchards and shade trees, there are other means at our disposal of controlling the insect enemy, notably the use of sprays. Sprays are very impor- tant, since birds are too few in number immediately to control insect outbreaks, especially nowadays, when the number of destructive native insects has been so greatly increased by importations from all quarters of the globe. But for the preservation of our forests we must rely largely upon our birds, since the use of sprays or of other agencies over our vast woodland tracts would be too expensive, even were it not quite impracticable for many other reasons. MEANS OF INCREASING THE NUMBER OF WARBLERS Insects are very numerous, and there is reason to believe that much benefit would result if we could multiply the present number of their enemies—the birds. The erection of bird boxes and shelters is an easy way to increase the number of cer- tain species of birds, like swallows and chickadees. Unfortunately, with few ex- ceptions, our warblers do not build their nests in cavities, and hence can not be induced to occupy bird boxes. Many of them, however, nest in bushes, vines, and shrubbery, and by planting clumps of these near houses something can be done toward increasing the num- bers of certain species, as the yellow warbler and the redstart. Because our warblers are chiefly insectivorous, their food habits bar them from the usual bird lunch-counter in times of hard storms. During migration, warblers are pecu- liarly exposed to the danger of prowling cats. Many species feed close to or even on the ground, and then they are so much concerned with their own business that any tabby, however old and lazy, is equal to catching one or more individuals daily. The bird lover can do good service by summarily disposing of vagrant cats, which, during migration, work havoc in the ranks of our small birds. They can also restrain the pernicious activities of their own pets, for these, however well fed, are still subject to the predatory instincts of their wild ancestry, which impel them to stalk a live bird with all the zeal and cunning of their fore- bears. PLUMAGES OF WARBLERS Little difficulty is experienced, even by the tyro, in distinguishing warblers from other birds, but to recognize the several species is not so easy, particularly as the adult males and females of many species are markedly dissimilar, while the young, both in the first and second plumages, often differ from the adults. So far as possible the various plumages are shown in the illustrations of Mr. Fuertes, which are so admirable as to do away with the need of descriptive text. All are ap- proximately one-half life size. MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT (Geothlypis trichas and variety) Length, about 54 inches. Mostly green above, yellow below. Distinguished from other war- blers by broad black band across forehead, bor- dered narrowly with white. Range: Breeds from southern Canada to southern California, Texas, and Florida; win- ters from the southern United States to Costa Rica. This little warbler is common throughout the Eastern and Southern States, frequenting thickets and low bushes on swampy ground. He is not a tree lover, but spends most of his time on or very near the ground, where he hunts assiduously for caterpillars, beetles, and various other small insects. Among the pests that he devours are the western cucumber beetle and the black olive scale.’ He has a cheery song of which he is not a bit ashamed, and when one happens to be near the particu- lar thicket a pair of yellow-throats have chosen for their own, one has not long to wait for vocal proof that the male, at least, is at home. The vlan throat has the bump of curiosity well developed, and if you desire a close ac- quaintance with a pair you have only to “squeak” a few times, when you will have the pleasure of seeing at least one of the couple venture out from the retreat far enough to make sure of the character of the visitor. YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT (lIcteria virens and subspecies) Length, about 7% inches. Its size, olive- green upper parts, and bright yellow throat, breast, and upper belly distinguish this bird at a glance. Range: Breeds from British Columbia, Mon- tana, Wisconsin, Ontario, and southern New England south to the Gulf States and Mexico; winters from Mexico to Costa Rica. The chat is one of our largest and most notable warblers. It is a frequenter of brushy thickets and swampy new growth, and, while not averse to showing itself, relies more upon its voice to announce its presence than upon its green and yellow plumage. Not infre- quently the chat sings during the night. The song, for song we must call it, is an odd jumble of chucks and whistles, which is likely to bring to mind the quip current in the West, “Don’t shoot the musician; he is doing his best.” In this same charitable spirit we must accept the song of the chat at the bird’s own valuation, which, we may be sure, is not low. Its nest is a rather bulky structure of grasses, leaves, and strips of bark, and is often so conspicuously placed in a low bush as to cause one to wonder how it ever escapes the notice of marauders fond of birds’ eggs and nestlings. The chat does no harm to agricultural inter- ests, but, on the contrary, like most of the warbler family, lives largely on insects, and among them are many weevils, including the alfalfa weevil and the boll weevil so destruct- ive to cotton. (See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17, p. 18 et seq.; Circular 64, p. 5.) also OVEN-BIRD (Seiurus aurocapillus) Length, a little over 6 inches. olive green; below white, streaked with black. Range: Breeds from southern Mackenzie, Ontario, southern Labrador, and Newfoundland south to Wyoming, Kansas, southern Missouri, Ohio Valley, and Virginia; also in mountains of Georgia and South Carolina; winters in southern Florida, southern Louisiana, Bahamas, West Indies, and southern Mexico to Colombia. The oven-bird is one of our best-known birds and one the woodland stroller is sure to get acquainted with, whether he will or no, so common is it and so generally distributed. In moments of ecstacy it has a flight song which has been highly extolled, but this 1s only for the initiated ; its insistent repetition of ‘‘teacher, teacher, teacher,” as Burroughs happily phrases it, is all the bird vouchsafes for the ears of ordinary mortals. Its curious domed-over grass nest is placed on the ground and is not hard to find. The food of the oven-bird does not differ greatly from that of other warblers, notwithstanding the fact that the bird is strictly terrestrial in habits. It consists almost exclu- sively of insects, including ants, beetles, moths, span worms, and other caterpillars, with a few spiders, millepods, and weevils. (See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17; also yearbook for 1900, p. 416.) Above mostly breast and sides RED-FACED WARBLER (Cardellina rubrifrons) Range: Mainly in Transition Zone in moun- tains of southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico and south through Mexico to the highlands of Guatemala. So differently colored from our own North American warblers generally is the little red- face that one might at once suspect it to he a stranger from a strange land. So at least it seemed to me when, in the mountains near Apache, Arizona, in July, 1874, I saw the first one ever detected within our borders. Later in the same year I found others on Mount Graham. It is a Mexican species which has obtained a foothold along our southern borders in Arizona and New Mexico. As I noted at the time, I saw flocks of ten or fifteen among the pines and spruces, the birds frequenting these trees almost exclusively, only rarely being seen on the bushes that fringed the stream. In habits red-faced warblers are a rather strange com- pound, now resembling the common warblers, again recalling the redstart, but more often, perhaps, bringing to mind the less graceful mo- tions of the “familiar. titmice. Their favorite hunting places appear to be the extremities of the limbs of spruces, over the branches of which they quickly pass, with a peculiar and constant sidewise jerk of the tail. Since 1874 other observers have had a better chance to study the bird and a number of nests have been taken. These were under tufts of grass, and in the case of one found by Price was “such a poor attempt at nest-building and made of such loose material that it crumbled to frag- ments on being removed.” 80 BIRD OVEN-. MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT Female and Male RED-FACED WARBLER YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT 81 WORM-EATING WARBLER (Helmitheros vermivorus) Range: Breeds mainly in the Carolinian Zone from southern lowa, northern Illinois, eastern and western Pennsylvania, and the Hudson and Connecticut River valleys south to southern Missouri, Tennessee, Virginia, and mountains of South Carolina; winters from Chiapas to Panama, in Cuba and thé Bahamas. He who would make the acquaintance of the worm-eating warbler must seek it in its own chosen home, far from which it never strays. It is a bird of shaded hillside and dark thickets along watercourses. ‘Though nimble in its movements and an active insect hunter, it is an unobtrusive little warbler, garbed in very modest colors, and is likely wholly to escape the notice of the unobservant. There seems to be an unusual degree of jealousy among the males, and a pair, the hunting and the hunted, are often seen pur- suing a rapid, zigzag flight through trees and bushes. I imagine that in such cases the pur- suing male, whose angry notes show how much in earnest he is, is asserting the right of do- main over his own hunting grounds, and driving from his preserves an intruder. Like several of our terrestrial warblers, the worm-eater has caught the trick of walking, perhaps borrowing it from his thrush neigh- bors, and he rarely or never hops. In his case the term “terrestrial” must be modified by the statement that to a certain extent he is a connecting link between the arboreal mem- bers of the family, as the black-throated green and Tennessee, which descend to the ground only casually, and such species as the Con- necticut and the Swainson, which seek their food chiefly on the ground. Of the musical ability of the worm-eating warbler little is to be said save that his song is so very feeble that one must listen carefully to hear it at all, and that it much resembles that of our familiar “chippy” when heard a long distance off. This warbler nests on the ground, often on a hillside or in a shallow depression, and the pairs seem so much attached to their old home that they may confidently be looked for in the same place year after year. GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER (Vermivora chrysoptera) Range: Breeds in Alleghanian Zone from central Minnesota, southern Ontario, and Mas- sachusetts south to southern Towa, northern Illinois, northern Indiana, northern New Jer- sey, and northern Georgia; winters from Gua- temala to Colombia. Though less gaudily colored than certain others of our warblers, the golden-wing ranks high in the family for beauty, and its trim form and tastefully contrasted tints of gray, black, and yellow may well excite admiration. It is almost wholly limjted to eastern States, rarely indeed being fottnd west of the Missis- sippi, and its summer ‘haunts are in the north- ern parts of its range.” Though common in some localities, the golden-wing in most places lee} i) is sufficiently rare always to interest the bird observer, and in Massachusetts if several are heard or seen in a long tramp the day may well be esteemed a red-letter day. The bird is to be looked for in deciduous timber, and is espe- cially fond of elms and birches as hunting grounds. I have often seen it busy in elms so high up that only with dithculty could it be dis- tinguished from the Tennessee, Nashville, and other strikingly different warblers in company with it. Like the blue-wing, it has the habit of clinging to the tip of a branch or cluster of flowers, back downward, examining the spot with the most exact scrutiny. Once heard, its song is not to be forgotten nor mistaken for that of any other warbler, unless possibly the blue-wing. It possesses a buzzing, insectlike quality and is well repre- sented to my ears by the syllables se-ze-ze-ze, the latter notes in a higher pitch. It seems strange that a bird so distinctly arboreal in habits should choose to nest on the ground; but numerous nests of the golden-wing have been found, all of them practically on or a few inches from the earth, though usually sup- ported by weed stalks or grass stems. ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER (Vermivora celata celata) Range: Breeds in lower Hudsonian and Can- adian Zones from Kobuk River, Alaska, south- east to central Keewatin and Manitoba, and south locally in the Rocky Mountains to New Mexico; winters in the Gulf and South Atlan- tic States to South Carolina and south through Mexico to Mount Orizaba. The orange-crowned warbler is much better known as a migrant, especially a fall migrant, than as a summer resident. Its summer home, in fact, is so far north that it is beyond the ken of most observers, although the bird occa- sionally summers, and no doubt nests, in Maine and Wisconsin. Seton found it a com- mon summer resident in Manitoba; Kennicott discovered it nesting about the Great Slave Lake among clumps of low bushes; while Nel- son found it common in summer in the wooded regions of northern Alaska. For some reason or other of late years the orange-crown seems to be a much commoner migrant in Massa- chusetts, and perhaps generally in New Eng- land, than formerly, and the sight of three or four in a day occasions no great surprise. It winters in Florida and in other of the South Atlantic States, and the cause of its rarity in the Eastern States in spring is due to the fact that it migrates up the Mississippi Valley. The orange-crown is one of the most plainly col- ored of the warbler tribe, and there is little about it to attract the notice of the casual observer. The song is said to consist of a few sweet trills, and, as is the case with the ditties of so many of its kind, has been likened to that of the familiar little “chippy.” BLUE-WINGED WARBLER (Vermivora pinus) (For text, see page 87) BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER (Mniotilta varia) Length, about 4'4 inches. Easily known by its streaked black and white plumage Range: Eastern North America. reeds from central Mackenzie, southern [eewatin, northern Ontario, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New | iS Wales to eastern Texas, Louisi- ana, central Alabama, and northern Georgia, west to South Dakota; winters in Florida and from Colima and Nuevo Leon to Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela. A warbler in form and general make-up, creeper by profession and practice, this readily jdentified species, in its striped suit of black and white, may be observed in any bit of east- ern woodland. Here it flits from tree to tree or climbs over the trunks and branches, scan- ning every crack and cranny for the insects that constitute its chief food. Though not a lover of open country, it frequently visits the orchard, where it performs its part in the task of keeping insect life within due bounds. It nests on the ground and hides its domicile so skillfully that it is not often found. None of the warblers are noted as songsters, but the black and white creeper, as I like best to call it, emits a series of thin wiry notes which we may call a song by courtesy only. In scramb- ling over the trunks of trees it finds and de- vours many long-horned beetles, the parents of the destructive root-borers; it also finds weev- ils, ants, and spiders. a YELLOW WARBLER (Dendroica estiva and races) Length, yellow, brown. Range: North America, breeding generally throughout its range south to California, New Mexico, Missouri, and northern South Caro- lina; winters in Central and South America. The ‘ ‘yellow bird,” or wild canary, as it is sometimes called, is one of the commonest of the warbler tribe and ranges over a vast extent of territory, being found here and there from ocean to ocean. Unlike some of its relatives, it prefers open thickets, especially of willows, to thick woodland, and often builds its pretty nest by the roadside or in garden shrubbery. Though not an expert musician, the yellow warbler sings early and often, and in zeal makes up what it lacks in quality of voice. Because its nest is easily found by the initiated, this warbler is often victimized by the infa- mous cowbird, and is forced to bring up one, or even two, young cowbirds in place of its own rightful progeny. It is pleasant to be able little more than 5 inches. Mostly breast and belly streaked with reddish to record the fact that sometimes the clever warbler knows enough—how it knows it is an- other matter—to evade the unwelcome respon- sibilities thus thrust upon it, and builds a plat- form over the alien egg, and then continues its domestic affairs as originally planned. Indeed, cases are on record when ee cowbirds’ eggs have been found in a nest, each covered up by a separate layer of nest material. (See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17, p. 20 Bull. 29.) et seq.; also AUDUBON’S WARBLER (Dendroica auduboni) , Length, about 5 inches. low-rump, but with yellow patch. Range: Breeds from central British Colum- bia, Alberta, and southwestern Saskatchewan to our southern border, east to South Dakota and Nebr: aska ; winters from California and ‘Texas south to Guatemala No member of the wood warbler more characteristic of the group than this beautiful bird. In voice, coloration, and habits it is almost thé counterpart of the yellow-rump Much like the yel- crown and throat is family of the Eastern States, for which indeed it might easily be mistaken were it not for its yellow throat, ‘the corresponding area in the It summers in the off to advantage against yellow-rump being white. mountains and shows the dark foliage of the pines. It seems to have little fear of man and in winter frequents orchards, gardens, and dooryards. Wherever it may be, it keeps up an incessant hunt for its insect food, in the pursuit of which, like many others of its family, it sometimes essays the role of flycatcher, being very expert and nimble on the wing.’ This warbler also devours large numbers of ants, flies, scale and plant lice, and noxious bugs. (See Biol. Surv. Bull. 30, pp. 43-46.) REDSTART (Setophaga ruticilla) Length, nearly 5% inches. To be distin- cuished from other warblers os its coloration and its motions. (See below. Range: Breeds from Bee British hia and eastern Canada to Washington, Colorado, Oklahoma, and North Carolina; ters in the West Indies and from lcuador. Its beauty of form and plumage and _ its graceful motions place this dainty bird at the head of our list of wood warblers—a place of distinction indeed. The bird appears to be the incarnation of animated motion and_ fairly dances its way through the forest. Spanish imagination has coined a suggestive and fitting name for the redstart, candelita, the little “torch-bearer.” The full appropriateness of the name appears as the graceful creature flits through the greenery, displaying the salmon- colored body and the bright wing and _ tail patches. The redstart is not unknown in some parts of the West, but it is essentially a bird of the Eastern States, where it is a common inhabitant of open woodland districts. While it builds a rather neat and compact structure Colum- Utah, win- Mexico to of strips of bark, plant fibers, and the like, placing it in a sapling not far from the ground. the nest is not the thing of beauty one might be led to expect from such a fairy-like crea- ture. Ornamental as the redstart is, it pos- sesses other claims on our gratitude, for it is a most active and untiring hunter of insects, such as snittle insects, tree-hoppers, and leaf- hoppers, and both orchard and forest trees are benefited by the unceasing warfare it wages. (See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17, p. 20 et seq.) WORM-EATING WARBLER ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER BLUE-WINGED WARBLER Male and Female 84 BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER AUDUBON WARBLER YELLOW WARBLER REDSTART Female and Male TENNESSEE WARBLER (Vermivora peregrina) Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from up- per Yukon Valley, southern Mackenzie, cen- tral Keewatin, southern Ungava, and Anticosti Island south to southern British Columbia, southern Alberta, Manitoba, northern Minne- sota, Ontario, New York (Adirondacks), northern Maine, and New Hampshire; winters from Oaxaca to Colombia and Venezuela. The Tennessee warbler is by no means as local as its name would imply, but is likely to be found in migration almost anywhere in eastern United States, although it is much more numerous in the Mississippi Valley. Un- pretentious both in dress and character, this little bird seems to possess no Bek salient characteristics. It is, however, not | foe to be mistaken for any other species save the Nash- ville, which it resembles rather closely. Dur- ing spring migration the Tennessee is apt to be overlooked, since it is prone to keep in the tree-tops. In fall, however, it is found lower down, usually in company with flocks of other warblers, among which it becomes conspicuous by reason of its very inconspicuousness and in contrast with its more gaudy fellows. Its song has been variously described and may be said to be a simple trill not unlike the chippy. It appears to be certain that the Ten- nessee, like the Nashville, nests on the ground, but apparently the nesting habits of the bird are comparatively unknown, or at least have not as yet been very fully recorded. NORTHERN PARULA WARBLER (Compsothlypis americana usnez) Breeds Range: mainly in Transition and Austral Zones, from eastern Nebraska, north- ern Minnesota, central Ontario, and Anticosti and Cape Breton Islands south to central south- ern Texas, southern Louisiana, Alabama, Vir- ginia, and Maryland; winters probably in the Bahamas and West Indies to Barbados. and from Vera Cruz and Oaxaca to Nicaragua. The northern parula, smallest of our war- blers, with prevailing colors blue and yellow, is generally distributed during migration and usually found in company with other war- blers in leafy trees, which it explores from the lower to the topmost branches. It is one of the most active of the tribe, and is untiring in its pursuit of the minute insects which form its food. Its habit of hanging head down- ward as it explores a cluster of blossoms sug- gests a chickadee, and the little fellow is a combination of warbler, kinglet, and chickadee. It is very partial to nesting in usnea moss and so is found in summer along streams or in swampy localities where long streamers of the usnea festoon the trees. The preference of the parula for this moss as a site for its nest is exemplified by a nest I once found in 86 Maryland on the bank of the Potomac, which had been built in the frayed end of an old rope hanging to a sapling and which a short distance away looked to me—and no doubt to the bird—exactly like a clump of usnea. As no usnea occurred in this locality, the bird accepted the frayed rope as a satisfactory substitute, and in so doing followed the spirit if not the letter of family tradition. How- ever, the parula is not strictly limited to usnea for a nesting site and [ once saw a _ pair carrying shreds of bark into a juniper on an island in the Potomac River, the nest being already far advanced toward completion. The parula has a short, buzzing song of which it is prodigal enough, but it is weak and can be heard at no great distance. CAPE MAY WARBLER (Dendroica tigrina) Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from south- ern Mackenzie, northern Ontario, New Bruns- wick, and Nova Scotia south to Manitoba, northern Maine, and New Hampshire, and in Jamaica; winters in the Bahamas and the West Indies to Tobago. Not only is the Cape May one of our most beautiful warblers, but its rarity adds greatly to the zest with which one hails the discovery of even an individual. This species, however, is far more numerous even in New England, especially in fall, than it used to be, and in time the bird may even be listed in many of the Eastern States as among the more common migrants. Although the bulk of the species undoubtedly migrates ‘north through the Mississippi Valley, rarely a spring passes that a few individuals are not reported about Washington, D. C., and I have seen several in a day. At this time of year the Cape May often forsakes the wood- lands and appears in orchards or even in city parks, and probably not a season passes that one or more do not visit the Smithsonian or Agricultural Department grounds. Chapman tells us that in Florida he has seen the species “actually common feeding in weedy patches among a rank growth of pokeberries.” The bird is a rather sluggish, but persistent, insect hunter, though it adds to its bill of fare one item, grapes, which is bringing it into ill repute in parts of Pennsylvania | and Virginia. The sharp-pointed bill of the Cape May enables it readily to puncture the skin, its apparent purpose being to satisfy its thirst with the sweet juice. The Cape May is a persistent songster, but its song is weak and squeaky and by no means worthy of so superb a creature. Comparatively little is recorded of this bird’s nesting habits. It is known to summer from northern Maine northward. A nest found by Banks at St. Johns, New Brunswick, was built in a cedar less than three feet from the ground. BLUE-WINGED WARBLER (Vermivora pinus) (For illustration, see page 84) Range: Breeds from southeastern Minne- sota, southern Michigan, western New York, Massachusetts (rarely), and southern Con- necticut south to northeastern Kansas, central Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware; winters from southern Mexico (Puebla) to Guatemala. Like the golden-wing, the blue-winged war- bler is confined to the Eastern States, but it ranges considerably farther west than that species and occurs almost or quite to the Plains. The blue-wing is in many ways an inconspicuous member of the warbler group, but, because of its perplexing relationship with the golden-wing, Brewster’s warbler, and Law- rence’s warbler, its ornithological interest is ex- celled by few. Like the golden-wing, it prefers deciduous trees and second growths and shuns the deeper parts of the forests. It has the habit—shared by the golden-wing and chicka- dee—of hanging from the under side of any particular cluster it wishes to investigate, and no doubt it makes sure of insects that defy the less careful search of most other species. The ordinary song of the blue-wing is com- parable to the golden-wing’s, being in fact little else than an apology for a song, with the same insectlike quality. This warbler, though of distinctly arboreal habits, prefers to nest on the ground, or a few inches above it, in a tuft of grass, a clump of goldenrods, or at the foot of a sapling. The nest is rather bulky, composed of leaves and grasses, put together after the artless man- ner of its kind; but it is usually well concealed by the surrounding screen of grass or weeds from any but chance discovery. BLACK-THROATED BLUE WARBLER (Dendroica czrulescens czrulescens) Range: Breeds in Canadian and Transition Zones from northern Minnesota, central On- tario, and northeastern Quebec south to cen- tral Minnesota, southern Michigan, southern Ontario, Pennsylvania (mountains), and north- ern Connecticut; winters from Key West, Florida, to the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and Cozumel Island. The male black-throated blue warbler is one of the most conspicuous of the warblers, his black throat and blue back serving to distin- guish him at all times and all seasons. The female, despite her inconspicuous coloration, may always be identified by the white spot on the primaries. The bird is common and ranges widely through eastern North America, and few flocks of migrating warblers are without a greater or less number of this species. Though in the main a common resident of the northern woods, in the mountains it breeds as far south as Maryiand, while a color variety of the bird (Dendroica cerulescens cairnsi) nests in the southern Alleghenies from Penn- sylvania south to Georgia. Thayer, as quoted by Chapman, says of the song: “There is not a more regularly and amply versatile singer among our eastern war- blers than the black-throated blue. It has at least four main songs, on which it is forever playing notable variations.” Whether in its northern or southern home, the black-throated blue warbler builds its nest of bark, roots, and other pliant material, loose and rather bulky, in a variety of saplings, bushes, and weeds, but always a few inches or a few feet from the ground. NASHVILLE WARBLER (Vermivora rubricapilla rubricapilla) Range: Breeds in Canadian and Transition Zones from southern Saskatchewan, northern Ontario, central Quebec, and Cape Breton Is- land south to Nebraska, northern Illinois, northern Pennsylvania, northern New Jersey, and Connecticut; winters from Vera Cruz and Chiapas to Guatemala. As Wilson never saw but three individuals of the Nashville warbler, all taken near Nash- ville, Tennessee, he not unnaturally named his new discovery for that city, apparently believ- ing it to be a local species. Far from being so, however, it is now known to inhabit most of the eastern United States. Without doubt the bird is much more common than it was in Wil- son’s time, perhaps due to the fact that second growth and areas of low woods, its preferred haunts, have largely replaced the denser forests of the early part of the nineteenth century. One cannot wander far afield in Massachusetts in summer time without hearing its song or songs, since it is not only a frequent and viva- cious songster, but has a number of ditties in its repertoire, including a flight song. I never found but one nest, and this was on a little prne-wooded knoll in a small depression in the earth, only partially concealed by thin grass. I should never have found it but for the fact that the bird flushed from between my feet. So far as known, the Nashville always nests on the ground. Its preference for the ground as a nesting site is the more remark- able, since the bird rarely or never hunts there, but prefers to seek its insect food among the foliage, often of the tallest elms and chestnuts and other giants of the forest. The Calaveras warbler (Vermivora rubri- capilla gutturalis) is a form closely allied to the Nashville, but confined chiefly to the Pacific coast, extending eastward to eastern Oregon and northern Idaho. Fisher is quoted by Chap- man as saying: “The Calaveras warbler is a characteristic denizen of the chaparral and is found on both slopes of the Sierra Nevadas about as far south as Mount Whitney. It fre- quents the belts of the yellow, sugar, and Jeffry pines, and ranges up into the red-fir zone. During the height of the nesting season, while the female is assiduously hunting among the dense cover of bushes, the male is often sing- ing in a pine or fir, far above mundane house- hold cares.” NASHVILLE WARBLER CAPE MAY WARBLER TENNESSEE WARBLER Male and Female PARULA WARBLER BLACK-THROATED BLUE WARBLER Male and Female Female and Male 88 MAGNOLIA WARBLER BLACK-POLL WARBLER Adult and Immature Male Male and Female CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER Male, Immature Male and Female Male and Female 89 CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER (Dendroica pensylvanica) Range: Breeds mainly in the Transition Zone from central Saskatchewan, northwestern Manitoba, central Ontario, and Newfoundland south to eastern Nebraska, Illinois, Indiana, northern Ohio, northern New Jersey, and Rhode Island, and south in the Alleghenies to Tennessee and South Carolina; winters from Guatemala to Panama. Since the days of Wilson, Audubon, and Nuttall there is little doubt that the chestnut- sided warbler has increased in numbers, and within its range it is now one of the commoner of the family. Itis trim of form and its colors, though not gaudy, have a quiet elegance all their own. During the fall migration it shows little preference in its hunting grounds, but is found with others of its kin in all sorts of woodland haunts and in deciduous as well as coniferous trees. It frequents open woodland tracts in summer and loves to nest in low thickets of hazel and barberry. In favorable localities in Massachusetts I have frequently . found half a dozen nests in a morning’s search. The nests are made of shreds of bark and grasses and are put together so loosely and carelessly that, in connection with their situa- tion, they unmistakably betray their ownership. KENTUCKY WARBLER (Oporornis formosus) (For illustration, see page 93) Range: Breeds in Carolinian and Austrori- parian Zones from southeastern Nebraska, southern Wisconsin, southeastern and south- western Pennsylvania, and the Hudson Valley south to eastern ‘Texas, Louisiana, Alabama, and northern Georgia; winters from Tabasco, Campeche, and Chiapas through Central Amer- ica to Colombia. The Kentucky warbler, with its rich colors and symmetrical form, is to be classed among the elect of the warbler tribe. Moreover, while locally common it is never so abundant that it does not excite a thrill of interest in the breast of even the most blasé of bird observers. It loves the deep, dark forest and shaded ravine, where the foliage overhead casts heavy shad- ows on the plentiful undergrowth beneath and where even in midsummer it is moist and cool. The bird is a persistent singer, and in its own chosen haunts its loud, sweet song may be heard all day long. There is a curious resem- blance between its ditty and that of the Caro- lina wren, and while no one can mistake the two songs when heard close by, at a distance even the expert may be puzzled. This warbler finds most of its food on the ground, and the thick undergrowth in which it hunts makes it difficult to learn much of its habits by observa- tion, since it is difficult to keep an individual in sight many minutes at a time. It builds a rather loose, bulky nest, largely of leaves and grasses, which is placed either on or just above the ground, and although it may seem to have been rather artlessly located it is in reality well protected by the surround- ing vegetation with which it blends, and hence generally escapes the observation of all but the most persistent and sharp-sighted of observers. 90 WILSON WARBLER (Wilsonia pusilla pusilla) (Tor illustration, see page 96) Range: Breeds in Boreal Zones from tree limit in northwestern and central Mackenzie, central Keewatin, central Ungava, and New- foundland south to southern Saskatchewan, northern Minnesota, central Ontario, New Hampshire, Maine, and Nova Scotia; winters in eastern Central America from Guatemala to Costa Rica. This tiny warbler ventures farther north than many bigger and apparently hardier species, and Nelson found it in Alaska “one of the commonest of the bush-frequenting species, é . extending its breeding range to the shores of the Arctic Ocean wherever it finds shelter.” Cooke also found it in Colorado breeding from 6,000 to 12,c00 feet elevation. The black-cap is a nervous, energetic, little fellow, now essaying the role of flycatcher, now hunting for insects among the foliage, while ever and anon it jerks its tail up and down as though constant motion were the chief end of existence. It has a short, bubbling, warbling song which has been likened to the songs of several other species, but which possesses a tone and quality all the bird’s own. Its nest is built on the ground, is composed chiefly of grasses, and the eggs do not differ in essential respects from those of other warblers. It is noteworthy that the West Coast form of the black-cap chryseola breeds as far south as Los Angeles, and that its nest instead of being built on the ground is placed in the crotch of a limb or in a bunch of weeds or nettles. CANADA WARBLER (Wilsonia canadensis) (For illustration, see page 96) Range: Breeds in the Canadian Zone and casually in the Transition from central Alberta, southern Keewatin, northern Ontario, northern Quebec, and Newfoundland south to central Minnesota, central Michigan, southern Ontario, central New York, and Massachusetts, and along the Alleghenies to North Carolina and Tennessee; winters in Ecuador and Peru. The Canada warbler is always associated in my mind with the black-cap, in company with which it is frequently found during migration, The association is purely accidental and results from a common preference for the same hunt- ing grounds. A path or road through swampy ground, especially if bordered by old willow trees, is sure to have its quota of this warbler and the Wilson black-cap during migration. Like the black-cap, the Canada warbler is half flyeatcher, half warbler, and the click of the bird’s mandibles as they close on some hapless insect caught in mid-air is often the first indication of its presence. Unlike many of the family, it sings much during its spring migration. The song is loud for the size of the warbler and is very characteristic. The bird builds a rather bulky nest of leaves and grasses, which it places in a mossy bank or under a moss-grown log. It is an assiduous and active insect hunter and gleans among the leaves and twigs after the fashion of the parula warbler. MAGNOLIA WARBLER (Dendroica magnolia) Range: Breeds in Canadian and upper Tran- sition Zones from southwestern Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, northern Quebec, and New- foundland south to central Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, Minnesota, northern Michigan, and northern Massachusetts, and in the moun- tains of West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylva- nia, and New York; winters from southern Mexico (Puebla and Chiapas) to Panama. The magnolia, or black and yellow warbler, as I like best to call it, is one of our most beautiful warblers, and fortunately, being one of the commonest of the tribe, is easily met with by any one willing to take a little pains. When busy at its self-imposed task of hunting insects—and when is it not busy—it is by no means shy, and may be watched at close range with or without the aid of a field glass. When- ever or however met, the sight of a full-plu- maged male resplendent in the gold and black livery of spring is worth a long journey. The bird ranges over much of eastern North America as far west as the Plains, and toward the north reaches the Mackenzie region. In the mountains it breeds here and there as far south as Maryland. In migration the magnolia shows no preference for special localities, but occurs 1n upland woods and lowland shrubbery where is promised a good harvest of insects. Like so many of its fellows, it finds rich hunt- ing grounds in gray birches, and few large companies of warblers traverse gray birch woods without their complement of these beau- tiful and sprightly wood nymphs. The mag- nolia warbler is a versatile, though scarcely an accomplished, songster, and phrases its song in a number of different ways. Many of its nests have been found in the northern woods, some of them in small firs or spruces only a few feet from the ground. BLACK-POLL WARBLER (Dendroica striata) Range: Breeds in Hudsonian and Canadian Zones from limit of trees in northwestern Alaska, northern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, northern Ungava, and Newfoundland south to central British Columbia, Manitoba, Michigan, northern Maine, and mountains of Vermont and New Hampshire; winters from Guiana and Venezuela to Brazil. The black-poll is one of our warblers, in both spring and fall, commonest and probably heads the warbler list in point of numbers. So far as superficial observations go. the bird would seem to be no spryer, no more indus- trious, and no more adept in hunting food than its compeers; but for some reason or other, possibly greater adaptability, it seems to have succeeded beyond most of its kind in extending its breeding range and in multiplying. It is a late migrant, both spring and fall, and when the hordes of black-polls put in an appearance, 9] especially in the vernal season, one may know that the end of the migrating season is at hand. A laggard in spring, it is also a loiterer in fall, and occasionally a flock of black-polls will linger in some sheltered valley where food is abundant till long after others of the family haye passed southward. The bird nests chiefly in the far north, though it summers as far south as the Adiron- dacks. As it winters in South America, there are thus at least 5,000 miles between its ex- treme northern and southern habitats. Chap- man notes that it is one of the very few war- blers that migrate directly across the West In- dies from South America to Florida. It makes its appearance in the Gulf States about the last of April. As pointed out by Professor Cooke, the black-poll is “one of the greatest travelers among the warblers. The shortest journey that any black-poll performs is 3,500 miles, while those that nest in Alaska have 7,000 miles to travel to their probable winter home in Brazil.” One can only wonder that so small a bird has the requisite courage and streneth to undertake twice a year such a vast journey, every stage of which is compassed by dangers of one sort or another. BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER (Dendroica fusca) Breeds in lower Canadian and upper Transition Zones from Manitoba, southern Keewatin, central Ontario, Quebec, and Cape Breton Island to central Minnesota, Wiscon- sin, northern Michigan, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and in the Alleghenies from Penn- sylvania to Georgia and South Carolina; win- ters from Colombia to central Peru and less commonly north to Yucatan. The Blackburnian, one of the gems of the warbler tribe, has a rather wide range in east- ern North America, extending west as far as the Plains and north to Manitoba. Apparently it is nowhere, at least in migration, an abun- dant warbler, ‘and there are few field observers so seasoned to the sight of its beautiful colors as not to be thrilled by sight of the bird. In migration its habits offer nothing peculiar. In the Atlantic States in September careful scru- tiny of a migrating-band of warblers and other birds will often reveal the presence of one or perhaps half a dozen Blackburnians. About Mount Monadnock, Gerald Thayer finds it a “very common summer resident. It is one of the four deep-wood warblers of this region, the other three being the black-throated blue, the Northern parula, and the Canada.” The Blackburnian favors very big trees, par- ticularly hemlocks, and spends most of its life high above the ground. As Thayer says, the Blackburnian is the “preéminent forest warbler of the group, the lover of deep mixed growth and the upper branches of the biggest conifers.” The bird has a thin, shrill voice and utters at least two songs or variations which some think resemble the black-throated green’s. Whatever the tree selected, be it a hemlock or a deciduous tree, the nest is placed well up among the branches and well out toward the end, where it is safe from all enemies that do not possess wings. Range: BAY-BREASTED WARBLER BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER Male and Female Male and Female BLACK-THROATED GRAY WARBLER PINE WARBLER 92 PALM WARBLER NORTHERN WATER-THRUSH YELLOW PALM WARBLER LOUISIANA WATER-THRUSH PRAIRIE WARBLER KENTUCKY WARBLER Male and Female Male and Female 93 BAY-BREASTED WARBLER (Dendroica castanea) Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from northeastern Alberta, southern lKeewatin, southern Ungava, and Newfoundland south to southern Manitoba, northern Maine, and mountains of New Hampshire; winters in Panama and Colombia. The bay-breast appears to be increasing in numbers. Forty years or so ago it was rare in Massachusetts in fall, and search by the most vigilant collector during the entire autumn migration was rarely rewarded by the sight of more than one or two. Today it is far different, and not a season passes that at the proper time and place careful a dozen or more mingled arbler family. In spring the bird has always been uncommon or alto- gether wanting in the Eastern States, as it migrates up the Mississippi Valley, spreading out to occupy northern Maine and other of its northern summer haunts. In summer it frequents coniferous forests, and often nests in hemlocks. search will not reveal with others of the w BLACK-THROATED GRAY WARBLER (Dendroica nigrescens) Range: Breeds in Transition Zone from southern British Columbia, Nevada, northern Utah, and northwestern Colorado south to northern Lower California, southern Arizona, and northern New Mexico; winters in southern Lower California and in Mexico from Du- rango to Michoacan, Vera Cruz, and Oaxaca. The handsome black-throated gray warbler is exclusively western in distribution, from our southern border to British Columbia. Though I have seen it many times, I am unable to re- call any especially salient characteristics pos- sessed by the species. Like others of the fam- ily, the black-throat is an active insect hunter, both among the oaks and various kinds of scrub growths of the valleys and the conifers of higher altitudes. The bird seems naturally gest the black-throated green warbler of stern States, but I am not aware that in habits it is more nearly comparable to that species than to others. In choice of nesting sites it exhibits a wide range of taste, and nests have been found in scrub oaks, pines, and firs, and varying in height from the ground from 3 or 4 feet up to 50 feet or more. BLACK-THROATED GREEN WAR- BLER (Dendroica virens) Range: Breeds in lower Canadian and Transition Zones from west, central, and northeastern Alberta, southern Manitoba, central Ontario, northeastern Quebec, and Newfoundland south to southern Minnesota, southern Wisconsin, northern Ohio, northern New Jersey, Connecticut, and Long Island, New York, and in the Alleghenies south to South Carolina and Georgia; winters in Mexico (Nuevo Leon to Chiapas and Yucatan), Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Panama. What true bird lover is there who does not 94 cherish fond memories of certain birds? The very name of black-throated green warbler carries me back to boyhood days and to a certain pine-crested hill in Massachusetts, from which was wafted on an early spring morning the song of this warbler, heard by me then for the first time. The many years since elapsed have not effaced the sweet strains, and I seem to hear them now as they were borne that morning by the pine-scented spring breeze. I can vividly recall the pleasure the occasioned and the satisfaction of having added one move bird to my small list of avian acquaintances. Those were the days of mystery, when the woods seemed filled with unknown birds, and secrets lurked in every thicket and met the seeker at every turn. They were the times when bird books were few, keys unknown, and the keen eyes of youth far more satisfactory than the best field glasses of the present day. The black-throated green is one of the com- moner of our eastern warblers and one of the first to engage the attention of the bird stu- dent. During migration it may be met with in every kind of woodland, where it is at home, both high and low, ever pursuing with tireless energy its quest for insects. It has two songs, or rather one song delivered in two different song ways, sprightly, sweet, and perfectly character- istic. In summer it is partial to coniferous woods, especially white pines and hemlocks, and it frequently nests in these, though also in birches and alders. PINE WARBLER (Dendroica vigorsi) Range: Breeds in Transition and Austral Zones from northern Manitoba, northern Mich- igan, southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and New Brunswick south to east-central Texas, the Gulf States, and Florida; winters from southern Illinois and coast of Virginia to Flor- ida, eastern Texas, and Tamaulipas. Few of our birds are so aptly named as the pine warbler, which first, last, and all the time, except in migration, resorts to pine woods. It summers in them in the north and it winters in them in the south. Even its feathers often bear conclusive evidence of its predilection for pines, being often besmeared with their gum. Among its bright-hued relatives the pine war- bler cuts but a poor show with its somber green and brown coat, which, at least in Florida, is often dingy and smoke-begrimed from contact with burnt timber. Though distinctively a warbler and not a creeper, the pine warbler is more deliberate in its motions than most of its kind and, some- what in the manner of the creeper, moves among the branches or over the trunks in search of its insect food. For a warbler it is an early migrant and reaches the latitude of Massachusetts soon after the middle of April. Indeed, its nest contains eggs or young while the late migrants are still passing north. Its song has little variation, but while monotonous is eo and sweet, far sweeter than the trill of the chipping sparrow, which it recalls. Nat- urally the pine warbler nests in pines, usually rather high up, either on a horizontal limb or among the twigs at the extremity of a limb. s PALM WARBLER (Dendroica palmarum palmarum) Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from south- ern Mackenzie (Fort Simpson) and central Keewatin south and southeast to northern Min- nesota; winters from southern Florida and the Bahamas to the Greater Antilles and Yucatan. The palm warbler, including under this name both the eastern and western, or yellow (Leu- droica palmarum hypochrysea), representatives of the species, is for the most part an inhabit- ant of the Mississippi Valley and the region eastward, spending its nesting season chiefly north of our northern frontier. It is, there- fore, as a spring and fall migrant that it is best known. Its somewhat subdued tints of olive and yellow streaked with brown class it among the less conspicuous members of the warbler group, but its motions and habits unmistakably distinguish it from its fellows. Though often associating with other warblers as they flit from tree to tree, the palm warbler keeps close to Mother Earth and not infrequently visits pastures and stubble far from cover of any sort. Favorite hunting grounds are old fences and even buildings. Perhaps the most salient characteristic of this little warbler is the almost incessant tip-up motion of its tail, in which respect it recalls a bird in no wise related to it—the spotted sand- Piper, or “tip-up,’” of pond and stream. It nests on the ground. Its song is a low, faint trill, characteristically warblerlike, but in no way remarkable. It winters in great numbers in Florida, and in 1871 I found it wintering in loose flocks of considerable size near Lakes Borgne and Ponchartrain, Louisiana, where it fed chiefly on the ground and among low bushes. PRAIRIE WARBLER (Dendroica discolor) Range: Breeds chiefly in Carolinian and Austroriparian Zones from southeastern Ne- braska, eastern Kansas, southern Ohio, south- western Pennsylvania, southern New Jersey, and (along the coast) from Massachusetts south to southwestern Missouri, northern Mis- sissippi, northwestern Georgia, Florida, and the Bahamas, and north locally to central Mich- igan, southern Ontario, and New Hampshire; winters from central Florida through the Ba- hamas and the West Indies. The prairie, a dainty little warbler in its variegated black, yellow, and chestnut dress, is common from Florida to the New England States and from Nebraska and Kansas east to the Atlantic. Its choice of habitat varies con- siderably locally ; but wherever it may be found there is nothing in the habits of the bird that justifies its common name, which is entirely misleading, since it has no predilection for prairies or indeed for open country of any sort. In Massachusetts it frequents rocky barberry pastures on open hillsides dotted with cedars. About Washington it frequents sprout lands, and when it first arrives from the south is found almost exclusively in groves of the Jer- sey scrub pine or in junipers. It is an active insect hunter, moving rapidly among the foli- age, now here, now there, ever and again send- ing forth its characteristic song. Its unusually compact and pretty nest is often placed in the crotch of a barberry bush in Massachusetts or elsewhere in junipers or in low deciduous bushes. NORTHERN WATER-THRUSH (Seiurus noveboracencis noveboracensis) Range: Breeds chiefly in Canadian Zone from northern Ontario, northern Ungava, and New- foundland south: to central Ontario, northwest- ern New York, and northern New England, and in mountains south to Pennsylvania and West Virginia; winters from the Valley of Mexico to Colombia and British Guiana, and from the Bahamas throughout the West Indies. So far as appearance, motions, and habits go, the water-thrush is more thrush than warbler, and one who sees him for the first time walk- ing sedately along with teetering tail may well be excused for declining to class him with the warbler family. He is partial to swamps and wet places, 1s a ground frequenter, and in no real sense arboreal. Though an inhabitant of the wilds and showing strong preference for swampy ground, he not infrequently visits gar- dens even in populous towns, and seems to be quite at home there in the shade of the shrub- bery. A sharp and characteristic alarm note often calls the attention of the chance passer- by, who would otherwise overlook the bird in its shady recesses. Few who are privileged to hear its notes will dissent from the opinion that the water-thrush is one of the foremost of the warbler choir and a real musician. The bird is a ground builder, placing its nest under the roots of an upturned tree, in banks, or in cavities of vari- ous sorts. LOUISIANA WATER-THRUSH (Seiurus motacilla) Range: Breeds mainly in Carolinian Zone from southeastern Nebraska, southeastern Min- nesota, and the southern parts of Michigan, Ontario, New York, and New England south to northeastern Texas, northern Georgia, and central South Carolina; winters from northern Mexico to Colombia, the Greater Antilles, An- tigua, and the Bahamas. The Louisiana water-thrush, though not un- like its northern relative in general appearance, is very different in disposition and habits, and I know of no bird more shy and difficult to watch. It frequents the banks and neighbor- hood of clear streams that run through wood- lands and tangles of laurel. One hears the sharp note of challenge or the wild ringing song, but any attempt to see the singer, unless made with the utmost caution, will end in dis- appointment or in a casual glimpse of a small, brown bird flitting like a shadow through the brush. The song of either water-thrush is of a high order of excellence. I cannot but think, however, that the song of the Louisiana water- thrush gains over that of its tuneful rival by partaking somewhat of the nature of its wild surroundings, and that its song is enhanced by its accompaniments—the murmur of the wood- land brook and the whisper of the foliage— among which it is heard. Quite a number of our birds habitually teeter or wag their tails, but few as persistently as the water-thrushes KENTUCKY WARBLER (Oporornis formosus) (For text, see page 90) CONNECTICUT WARBLER WILSON WARBLER MOURNING WARBLER Male and Female MACGILLIVRAY WARBLER HOODED WARBLER CANADA WARBLER Male and Female 96 CONNECTICUT WARBLER (Oporornis agilis) Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from Mani- toba to central Minnesota and northern Mich- igan; winters in South America, probably in Colombia and Brazil. Discovered by Wilson in Connecticut early in the last century, the Connecticut warbler re- mained almost unknown for many years until, September 7, 1870, I found it numerous in the fresh pond swamps of Cambridge. The bird thus rediscovered rapidly came into the lime- light, and there are few eastern observers of the present day who are not tolerably familiar with the appearance and habits of this warbler. In fall it is common throughout eastern United States in low, swampy thickets. It habitually feeds on the ground, and is so silent and shy as easily to escape the notice even of one on the lookout for it, especially as its single chirp of alarm is infrequently uttered. In fact, the only way to be sure that one or more Con- necticut warblers are not concealed in the shrubbery of a suspected locality is to beat over it systematically, not once, but many times. When startled, the warbler flies noiselessly to the nearest shaded perch, and there sits mo- tionless, watching the intruder, till it decides either to renew its interrupted search for food or to seek some distant place, far from the dan- ger of intrusion. Under such circumstances its motions are highly suggestive of the staid and quiet thrushes, and in no respect similar to the sprightly warblers. The Connecticut is one of the few species that for some reason choose distinct routes of migration, as in spring it passes up the Mississippi Valley instead of through the Atlantic Coast States, which form its southern route in fall. The bird is known to breed in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Manitoba, and elsewhere in the north. The only nest so far found, however, appears to be one discovered by Seton in Manitoba. As was to be expected, it was on the ground. MOURNING WARBLER (Oporornis philadelphia) Range: Breeds in lower Canadian Zone from east central Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, southwestern Keewatin, Nova Scotia, and Mag- dalen Islands south to central Minnesota, Michigan, central Ontario, and mountains of New York, Pennsylvania. Massachusetts, and West Virginia; winters from Nicaragua and Costa Rica to Colombia and Ecuador. The mourning warbler is a near cousin of the Maryland yellow-throat and, like that bird, sticks rather closely to Mother Earth, being no lover of tree-tops. Unlike the yellow-throat, however, it is one of the rarest of the family, and few ornithologists have ever enjoyed op- portunity to get on familiar terms with it and to observe its habits adequately. Most observers, like myself, have come across a few in migration from time to time, chiefly in spring, when the birds’ habits may be de- scribed in general terms as a combination of those of the Maryland yellow-throat and the Connecticut warbler. During the spring mi- gration it frequents brushly hillsides and damp thickets, and in the nesting season seems par- 97 tial to briar patches, in which it places its bulky nest of leaves and stalks. The song is said to be rich and full and has been compared with that of the Maryland yel- low-throat and the water-thrush. MACGILLIVRAY WARBLER (Oporornis tolmiei) Breeds mainly in the lower Cana- Zones from central Range: dian and Transition British Columbia, central Alberta, and south- ern Saskatchewan south to southern Cali- fornia, southern Arizona, and northern New Mexico, and from the Pacific coast to the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains and southwestern South Dakota; winters from Lower California to Colombia. ‘ Though closely resembling the mourning warbler in appearance and representing that bird in the west, the Macgillivray warbler differs widely in habits. Thus it is far more generally distributed, both in the mountains and in the lowlands, and is much more numer- ous. In my own experience I have found it in summer chiefly in moist thickets of willows or other brush along streams, and a suitable locality is rarely without a pair or two. Other observers, however, have found the bird on dry brushy hillsides. This warbler nests from a few inches to a few feet above the ground. It has a short, though pleasing, song which is repeated at brief intervals. HOODED WARBLER (Wilsonia citrina) Range: Breeds in Carolinian and Austrori- parian Zones from southeastern Nebraska, southern Iowa, southwestern Michigan, central New York, and the lower Connecticut Valley south to Louisiana, Alabama, and Georgia; winters from Vera Cruz and Yucatan to Pan- ama. While the hooded warbler has a wide range in eastern United States, its center of abun- dance is the lower Mississippi Valley. It is common only locally and wholly absent from many sections except as a casual migrant. Of the bird, one of our most beautiful warblers, Chapman says: “To my mind there is no warbler to which that much misused word ‘lovely’ may be so aptly applied as to the present species. Its beauty of plumage, charm of voice, and gen- tleness of demeanor make it indeed not only a lovely, but a truly lovable bird. Doutbless, also, the nature of the hooded warbler’s haunts increases its attractiveness not merely because these well-watered woodlands are in them- selves inviting, but because they bring the bird down to our level. This creates a sense of companionship which we do not feel with the bird ranging high above us, and at the same time it permits us to see this exquisitely clad creature under most favorable conditions.” WILSON WARBLER (Wilsonia pusilla pusilla) (For text, see page 90) CANADA WARBLER (Wilsonia canadensis) (For text, see page 90) THE WORLD RECORD FOR FEATHERED FRIENDS HE world’s record for density of bird population is held by a farm within ten miles of the National Capital, near Bethesda, Md. It is owned by Mr. Gilbert Grosvenor, the Director and Editor of the National Geographic Society. 5 In 1913 Mr. Grosvenor bought a farm of 100 acres, half in forest and half in field, about four miles from the District of Columbia, moving there early in the spring. Being interested in the work of the Audubon societies, he determined to see what he and his family could do to get birds around the home. He had such success that Dr. H. W. Henshaw, Chief of the U. S. Biological Survey of the De- partment of Agriculture, became inter- ested and delegated Dr. Wells W. Cooke to visit the Grosvenor farm. Dr. Cooke found so many birds there that he suggested a census of those living on an acre or two adjacent to the house, as he thought the count would establish a world’s record. Up to that time the rec- ord was held by a family at Chevy Chase, Md., who had attracted thirteen pairs of birds to half an acre. The prospect of establishing a world’s record was so inviting to the Grosvenor family that they took a census of the nesting birds on an acre adjoining their house and barns, with the result that they found 59 pairs of birds with young or eggs in the nest on that acre, the highest number of land birds inhabiting one acre that has yet been reported to the Depart- ment of Agriculture or to any Audubon Society. A similar census was made of a second acre, and it was found that this acre had 33 pairs of nesting birds. In an article contributed to Bird-Lore, the bimonthly organ of the Audubon so- cieties of the United States, Mr. Grosve- nor tells a fascinating story of the birds which have come to dwell with them at “Wild Acres,” as his farm is named. “Wild Acres” is a typical Maryland farm, with an old-fashioned farm-house surrounded by an apple and pear orchard, with a vegetable garden, hedges, and open fields. Surrounding the fields is a tract of 50 acres in woods, with a beautiful stream and several springs scattered around in both the fields and the woods. The bird census taken in the week of June 15 to June 21 showed that on the first acre they had one pair of flickers, one pair of blackbirds, one of yellow warblers, two of orchard orioles, two of catbirds, one of song sparrows, two of chipping sparrows, one of phcebes, 14 of house wrens, seven of robins, one of kingbirds, and 26 of martins. On the second acre there were one pair each of song sparrows, Carolina wrens, flickers, Maryland yellow-throats, brown thrashers, catbirds, chipping sparrows, screech-owls, and towhees. There were also 18 pairs of martins, four of house wrens, and two of robins. “T attribute our success primarily,” writes Mr. Grosvenor, “to shooting the English sparrows and driving the cats away, to putting up many boxes, to keep- ing fresh water handy at all times, etc We do everything we can for the comfort of our birds. For instance, we put on twigs little pieces of the oiled paper that our butter was wrapped in, and we left mud in convenient places for the martins. The catbirds used the oiled paper for their nests; in fact, they used all kinds of scraps. Imagine the delight of the family when, on examining one of the catbirds’ nests in the autumn, we found one of the children’s hair-ribbons and also a piece of an old dress of the baby! “We had read a great deal about how tame birds become when they are pro- tected, but we were constantly amazed at the quickness with which they perceived the care taken of them. Perhaps the most remarkable nest was that of a phoebe, which was built under the cornice of the piazza within reach of my hand. We had a little school in the morning at the house, and ten children were contin- ually running up and down the piazza, THE WORLD RECORD FOR FEATHERED FRIENDS 99 shouting at the top of their voices; but the phcebe went on building her nest, then hatched her eggs, and fed her young without fear, though she could see every one and every one could see her. “T was also surprised to find how friendly birds, even of the same species, can become. For instance, we had 14 pairs of wrens on a single acre, some of the nests being not more than 15 feet apart. We also had robins’ nests only 12 yards apart. The bluebirds, on the other hand, do not like each other, and would not tolerate another pair of bluebirds nearer than 100 yards. “The first year we had no flickers, but there was a pair nesting in an old apple tree on our neighbors’ property. During the winter the tree was blown down and our oldest son obtained permission to get it. He cut out the portion of the tree which contained the nest, cleaned out the hole, and then hung the nest in a dying cherry tree. The nest was not more than ten yards from the house, but was taken possession of in 1914 and again in 1915. “We had, in 1915, seventy-five pairs of martins in an area approximating ten acres, and expect to have a great many more than this in r916. We had one pair of red-throated hawks nesting in our apple orchard, and kept them for two years; but they developed such a fond- ness for poultry, having frequently been caught thieving, that finally we had to shoot them. We have in the woods a splendid pair of barred owls. They come around the barns at night, and I suspect them also of attempts at chicken thieving, but they are too handsome and rare a bird in these parts to shoot. There is nothing good to be said of the screech- owl, which we suspect of having been the cause of the mysterious disappearance of many young birds from the nests. “If any one wants excitement, I sug- gest that he buy or borrow a stuffed owl and put it out in the garden in the day- time during the nesting season. All of the birds in the neighborhood will soon congregate, and the children will learn them quicker than in any other way.” A census of the species in the 100 acres of fields and woods in Mr. Grosvenor’s “Wild Acres” shows that last summer 60 species were nesting on the farm, and it is expected that these will be added to every year. Commenting upon the story of the birds at “Wild Acres,’ Dr. Frank Chap- man, the editor of Bird-Lore, says: “The birds which Mr. Grosvenor has brought about him are unquestionably more his birds than if he had shot them and placed their skins in a cabinet. With their death his responsibility for their welfare would cease. But a living bird, to which we feel we owe protection, is exposed to so many dangers that our fears for its safety are correspondingly aroused. ‘These birds of our garden are our guests. Through the erection of bird-houses and by other means we have invited them to live with us, and when they accept as readily as they have with Mr. Grosvenor they make us realize not only our responsibility, but they awaken the strongest sense of hospitality.” WYysIy UL Sp4iq jured sjstjiv osouvde[ YOM YIM APopy sy} soziseydwia ainjord ayy ‘suosod syqeaAtaquoo |[v UL Uses o1e pue ‘SpuNO1S-SULpodd} OL} SUIAP] aie Aayy, “ABp & adIM} pa} ase syonp pyIM ayy ‘suns s soyuny UWIOIE aes ‘OTDM “BIUIOF [ED ‘puryyeO ‘Yap aye] ye woye} SEM ydessojoyd oy AQVW WAAH SHMALOId GNId WICVMAVWAY ISON AHL JO ANO :MIV AHL NI ONIATA SMONG GUM JO MOOT V poomMispuy YW poomsapug © 100 HOW BIRDS CAN TAKE THEIR OWN PORTRAITS By GEORGE SHIRAS, 3rd The mventor of flashlight photography of wild animals and birds and of the methods of making animals and birds take their own photographs, and author of numerous articles in the NatIoNAL GkocRAPHIC MAGAZINE, as follows: “Photo- graphing Wild Game with Flashlight and Camera,’ with 72 illustrations; “One Season's Game Bag with the Camera,” with 70 illustrations; “A Flashlight Story of an Albino Porcupine and of a Cunning but Unfortunate Coon,’ with 26 illustra- tions; “The Wiute Sheep, Giant Moose, and Smaller Game of Kenai Peninsula, Alaska,’ with 62 illustrations; “Wild Animals that Took Their Own Pictures by Day and by Night,” with 67 illustrations, and “Nature's Transformation at Pan- ama,’ with 36 wlustrations and 2 colored maps. NY ANIMAL or bird and many a reptile, however large or small, agile or cunning, may have its picture faithfully recorded during day- light or darkness, without the immediate presence of a human assistant. While most birds and daylight-feeding animals, like the elk, caribou, mountain sheep and goat, and small animals, such as the squirrel and woodchuck, present no insurmountable difficulties in photog- raphy, getting a good picture of others is often uncertain or irksome when the game photographer must either await their coming or attempt a near approach. In many instances, owing to the noc- turnal character of the animal, the keen- ness of scent and vision, with the habit of skulking in thick underbrush or oc- cupying points of vantage where no ap- proach can be made, I have usually found it a waste of effort to try to get pictures in the ordinary way; for, even 1f occa- sionally successful, the loss of time can be avoided by the use of the set camera. To meet the difficulties of self-photog- raphy by creatures of the forest, I have developed methods suitable to the habits of each animal and bird subject. In the main I have used many of the devices of the trapper rather than the hunter, substi- tuting the automatic camera for the trap and using the same baits and scents in favorable localities during the season of the year when success was likely. The greatest immediate pleasure which comes to the camera hunter» when, on foot, he can successfully stalk, or in a canoe quietly paddle up to, a big-game I0I animal, and at other times get pictures from the recess of a well-concealed blind, ean still be followed while, at the same time, there are secreted in the forest or along the waterways several cameras capable of picturing the living form of many an elusive animal, and that, too, without the loss of time or patience. In this branch of photography one should have a fair knowledge of the habits and range of the animal sought; for while there are many—1f they can be located—that will seize almost any kind of bait, regardless of human scent or the appearance of a poorly concealed camera, such as the raccoon, opossum, skunk, muskrat, woodchuck, rabbit, or squirrel; yet in the case of others, like the beaver, bear, fox, wolf, and deer, one should follow the cautious methods of the trapper when he erects a dead-fall, sets a steel trap, or puts out poisoned bait. Then, toward the close of the day, when the fading light puts an end to the use of the hand camera, one may ex- pectantly visit the camera traps, and if the string across the runway is broken or the bait disturbed, the surroundings should be carefully examined for the hoof-marks of a frightened deer or the scratches made by the claws of some carnivorous animal fleeing on the click of the revolving shutter. If, however, no visitor has come, the flashlight machine may be adjusted and the shutter of the camera reset at a much slower speed, so that when some night prowler presses against the string or eagerly pulls at the ‘Ja}NYS LOWS dy} Sasvafas ‘SulI]S 9Y} UO Paas B YeJap 0} Sutjdura}ye St YStyM ‘yY9O9 ay} JO SULSSN} OY} Jey} 9}0N ‘So[eUlay OM] PU SYIOD INO} 91 dNOIS dAOCGe dy} UT ‘adUaSqe SITY SUlINp YOO} [lend sy} OM} pue suriqs oy} Suyjnd royyne oy} Aq uaye a1aM soanjord xIg SHV LOT pte ‘seatysS as1095 Aq ojoy ‘Sp1Iq Jaypews 10} jno ynd spaas ay} pataaoosip [renb usadss Jo yoy ke A[payedxouy) NMO WAHL IMVL TIVAO VarNoTa 102 HOW BIRDS CAN TAKE THEIR OWN PORTRAITS bait the flash will illuminate the sur- roundings while the sensitive plate re- cords the scene. Then, when the blazing camp-fire ac- centuates the darkness of the night, the sportsman, lying within the narrow circle of its warmth, may suddenly see a daz- zling column of light ascend on a distant hillside, or illuminating with a momen- tary flutter the gloomy valley of some water-course; and in a few seconds the deep, dull boom of the exploding powder suggests an animal fleeing in needless terror from a spot where the weapon contained no bullet and where its re- corded visit will prove a source of pleas- ure to one who meant it no bodily harm. As I usually explode a compound of magnesium powder in a_ hermetically sealed box—to insure higher speed and the exclusion of moisture—I have some- times heard the report at a distance of three miles and noticed the flash at a much further distance. There“‘ore one can imagine the sur- prise and terror of some timid animal when experiencing the first dazzling ex- plosion. Yet, as will be shown later, the pangs of hunger or the cravings for some particularly choice food will lead many of these animals to return to the inter- rupted feast, and in the course of time the blinding light and roar seem to be regarded as a harmless manifestation of nature, like thunder or lightning. And then one may, if he desires, get a series of interesting night pictures, in every at- titude and action. An example of this was shown by an article in this magazine several years ago, illustrating the nightly visits of the same coon to bait placed at the edge of a little lake.* In taking a picture from a canoe by flashlight one must be able to judge short distances accurately in order to have the animal in proper focus. In a different way, but for the same reason, it is equally important that automatically taken pic- tures should come within the focus for which the camera was set in advance. With the bait placed at a given distance, *See “A Flashlight Story of an Albino Porcupine and of a Cunning but Unfortunate Coon,” National GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, June, IOIl. 103 little trouble arises, but when the animal sought is a deer or a moose coming to the water or feeding grounds, the prob- lem becomes more difficult, because the intercepting string must be touched at the point where the animal will be in sharp focus. Whenever animals are traveling on a well-defined runway, a string running to a stake on the opposite side will insure a good picture, because the camera can be previously focused on the runway; but if such animals are to be photographed when wandering along the shores of a pond or traveling in a creek bottom, it is important that natural conditions be taken advantage of, so that the animal will be forced to pass at a fixed distance from the camera, as will be the case where the shore is narrowed drift- wood, rocks, or mud-holes. Quite often temporarily erected ob- structions will accomplish the same pur- pose, provided no scent is left and the material used is in harmony with the surroundings. Otherwise, in order to avoid having the camera sprung at a point where it is not in focus, the string can be run along the ground and then raised a foot or two high by forked sticks at the spot where the animal is most likely to pass. Usually I have encamped near enough to hear the report of the flashlight em- ployed, but sometimes the camera may be set many miles away, or perhaps I am in town or on a side trip, in which case it has not been unusual for the camera to remain unvisited for a week or ten days. But this is of little consequence ; for, with the shutter opening and closing automatically, the exposed plate is safe until called for. The alphabet for the beginner in wild- life photography usually comprises nest- ing birds of the neighborhood, chip- munks, the lazy and sun-loving wood- chuck, or the stolid porcupine, and even then many difficulties confront the novice, the overcoming of which opens the door for picturing rarer or more active sub- jects. Some who take up camera hunting be- come discouraged by early failures and are unable to see how such an instrument wt BUZZARD FIRING FLASHLIGHT IN DAYTIME The left wing became involved in string tied to bait and half of the pinion feathers were pulled out. These birds became such a nui- sance that when meat bait was used the flash was not set until dusk. can ever be a satisfactory substitute for the sportsman’s gun. Others, with their interest only intensified by defeat, con- tinue on until won over by the attractive- ness of a contest where success costs no life or an awkwardly handled camera leaves no wounded animal to die a linger- ing death. Most birds are photographed about their nests, or in the great rookeries and breeding resorts of the sea-coast and in- land waters, when the domestic duties of the parents or when the fearlessness manifested by many birds under colo- nization makes such photography pleas- ant and generally successful. But there are times of the year and localities, as well as different birds, where an approach is difficult. Often a good method of getting birds singly o- in flocks is the set camera. HOW BIRDS CAN TAKE THEIR OWN PORTRAITS Some years ago I tried to get a group picture of comparatively tame buzzards and vultures which daily circled about my southern cottage; but even when I was in a well-concealed retreat these keen-eyed birds knew of my presence and would not alight in the vicinity of the bait. After an hour’s wait I set out a smaller camera, covered with palmetto leaves, within ten feet of the meat, and tying a piece of this to a string, I with- drew. Returning in half an hour, the bait was all gone and the pulling string in a hopeless tangle. The group obtained included both the black vulture and the turkey buzzard (see page 179). MOUSE-TRAP WILL SERVE AS A TRIGGER Almost any bird of prey, like the hawk, owl, eagle, or condor, will pull energet- ically on the string; but in the case of smaller or more timid birds it is advisable to use an auxiliary spring trigger, or even a common mouse-trap will do, since the release of the wire collar to which the string may be attached only requires the slightest pressure. Having for several seasons scattered grain about an orange grove in Florida to attract local birds more regularly, I took a few of their pictures with the automatic camera, the focal plane shutter being set at 1/400 of a second. For the quail and ground doves I used grains of wheat and sunflower seed strung on a thread (see page 102). Pictures of birds nesting on sea beaches, in open marshes, or the tundra, where the use of a blind is difficult, may be obtained by concealing the camera in rocks, sea- weed, or marsh vegetation. By stretch- ing a thread taut across the nest the brooding bird on reéntering will release the shutter. It is usually best to make the screen for the camera a day in ad- vance, so as not to imperil the fertility of the eggs or the life of very young birds, for strong sunlight and chilling wind are equally fatal. In this way I secured a series of snipe pictures on the eastern shore of Virginia otherwise unobtainable. AMERICAN GAME BIRDS Avian Fleets Which Hover Over Our Forests and Fre- quent the Shores of Our Streams, Lakes, and Seaboard Constitute a Great National Asset, But They Must Be Protected, Otherwise Extermination Threatens Many By HENRY W. HENSHAW With Illustrations from Paintings by Louis Agassiz Fuertes ROM the time of the earliest set- tlement of the country the wild game of America has proved a na- tional asset of extraordinary value. No- where in the world, except in Africa, was there ever greater abundance and variety of wild life. The forests of America were filled with game birds and animals, large and small; its streams, lakes, and ponds were cov- ered with waterfowl, and its rivers and shores furnished highways for myriads of shorebirds as they passed north and south. Nature would appear to have stocked the continent with lavish hand. Indeed, but for the wild game our prede- cessors, the Indians, would not have been able to maintain existence, much less to advance as far as they did in the arts that lift peoples toward the plane of civil- ization. And at first our own forebears were scarcely less dependent than the aborig- ines upon game for food. Many years of toil and struggle had to pass before the rude husbandry of the colonists sufficed to free them measurably from depend- ence on venison and wild fowl. Nor will any student of American his- tory doubt that, but for the services of our pioneer hunters and trappers who literally hunted and trapped their way from the Atlantic to the Pacific, the course of empire westward would have been halted for decades. As a conse- quence, the settlement of much of our fair land would have been long delayed, if, indeed, the land had not passed into the possession of other peoples. Moreover, it was in the pursuit of game that the hardy frontiersmen devel- oped skill as marksmen and acquired many of the rude border accomplish- ments which later made them effective soldiers in the war for independence. Game existed everywhere, for the In- dian, though wasteful of wild life and knowing naught of game laws, took what toll he would of the game about him, and yet made no apparent impression on its quantity ; so that it passed into the hands of his successors, along with his lands, practically in its original state. AMERICAN WATERFOWL AND SHOREBIRDS And what a rich heritage it was! In addition to the upland game birds of the forests and open glades, great numbers of ducks and shorebirds found on our western prairies and in the innumerable iakes and ponds the food, solitude, and safety necessary during the nesting pe- riod. More important still as a nursery for wild fowl and shorebirds were, and 105 106 AMERICAN still are, the tundras of Alaska and the barren grounds that, dotted with count- less lakes and rivers, stretch to the Arctic. Here, in these northern wilds, solitude reigns supreme, and vast multitudes of waterfowl breed, assured of both food and safety. On these Arctic plains Na- ture has provided in a remarkable way for her winged servants by supplying an inexhaustible crop of berries. As the short summer season wanes the berries ripen and furnish a nutritious food upon which the waterfowl fatten and gain strength for their long southern journey. Then the Ice King takes the remainder of the crop in charge, wraps it in a man- tle of snow and ice, and keeps it safe in Nature's cold storage, ready for delivery in spring to the hungry migrants. With- out this storehouse of berries it 1s doubt- ful if our waterfowl could sustain hfe in the Arctic, and the so-called barrens, in- stead of being a nursery for myriads of fowl, would indeed be barren so far as bird life is concerned. When the short. Arctic summer closes and the young birds acquire strength for the journey, multitudes of ducks, geese, swans, and shorebirds, anticipating the Arctic winter, wing their way to southern lands. Including these winged hordes from the Arctic that visit our territory and the birds that nest within our own limits, America possesses upward of 200 kinds of game birds, large and small, many of which are in the front rank, whether viewed merely from the eco- nomic standpoint as food or through the eyes of the sportsman. FORMER ABUNDANCE OF GAME BIRDS While the aggregate numbers of game birds are very great, they sink into insig- nificance when compared with their for- mer abundance. The statements of the early chroniclers regarding the multi- tudes of ducks, plover, and wild pigeons almost defy belief. When, in the records of the first part of the last century, one reads of clouds of pigeons that required three days to pass a given point in a con- tinuous moving stream, and again of flocks estimated to contain more than two billion birds, credulity is taxed to the limit. GAME BIRDS Yet not only one such flock was ob- served, but they were of periodic occur- rence during many years of our early his- tory, and the accounts of them are too well attested to be doubted. As throwing a curious sidelight on the abundance of wild fowl and the hardships to which the slaves of the period were subjected, I quote a paragraph from Grinnell (Amer- ican Game Bird Shooting), who states that “in early days slave owners, who hired out their slaves, stipulated in the contract that canvasback ducks should not be fed to them more than twice each week”! CAUSES OF DECREASE OF GAME BIRDS What, then, has become of the teem- ing millions that once possessed the land ? Before attempting to answer this question it may be well briefly to review certain general causes that contribute to the de- pletion of the ranks of game _ birds. Among these may be mentioned natural diseases; natural enemies, both winged and four-footed; forest, brush, and prairie fires; the drainage of swamps and the general elimination of nesting grounds by the advance of agriculture ; and finally, most potent of all the agencies of de- struction—firearms. From the nature of things, no data are available to show exactly the relative im- portance of the above causes of decrease or of their separate or combined effect. Nevertheless we can arrive at an approxi- mate idea of their relative effect. Natural diseases seem to play a com- paratively unimportant part in causing the death of birds, except perhaps indi- rectly. In a state of undisturbed nature there are few sick or old birds, for the reason that the sick, the heedless, and the old, as soon as their strength begins to fail, are promptly eliminated by natural enemies, who, while foes of individual bird life, nevertheless do good service to the species in keeping the vigor of the stock at a high standard by. promptly weeding out the unfit. While the annual loss of game birds by attacks of predatory birds and mammals is no doubt very great, it is to be noted that it is relativ ely far less at the present time than formerly, owing to the general AMERICAN G destruction of birds of prey and of wild four-footed animals of whatever name or nature. The contrary is true of that predatory animal, the house cat. Never were house cats more destructive of bird life than now. While the annual loss of insectiv- orous birds by them is far greater than that of game birds, the loss of woodcock, quail, grouse, and upland-breeding shore- birds is by no means small. Taking into account bird life in general, the cat is undoubtedly the most destructive mam- mal we have, and the aggregate number of birds annually killed by them in the United States is enormous. Of late. years.serious losses have been reported-among the ducks of certain lo- calities in the West. The causes are yet obscure, but they are probably not due to epidemics, as commonly believed. They will probably prove to be very local and of comparatively modern origin, and to be dependent on drainage contaminations or unnatural crowding into unfavorable feeding grounds. It is hence highly prob- able that such losses can be eliminated either in whole or in part. Before the coming of the whites, for- est and prairie fires were due to lightning or were purposely set by the Indians to facilitate the pursuit of large game. While they were no doubt common at certain seasons and probably fatal to many birds, they were too insignificant to have played an important part in the re- duction of numbers. FIREARMS THE CHIEF CAUSE OF DECREASE The destruction of former breeding grounds through drainage and the gen- eral advance of agriculture is a very im- portant cause of the diminution of certain species. But while agriculture usurps the breeding grounds of many kinds, espe- cially ducks and geese, its effect in this direction is to some extent lessened, since it prepares the way for other species, like the upland game birds, and furnishes food and breeding grounds for them. While these and other causes that might be enumerated have tended to diminish the numbers of game birds, even taken collectively they have played only a minor part in the great reduction of these birds as a whole. AME BIRDS 107 It is the gun that has been the chief cause of the destruction of our game, large and small. Whatever weight may be attached to other causes, these fade into insignificance when compared with the effect of firearms. It is nothing short of marvelous how little time was required by the early pio- neers, even with the crude firearms of the time, to make an impression on the abun- dance of American game. What the In- dian with his bow and arrow and his rude nets failed to do in thousands of years, the handful of white men with powder and shot accomplished in a few decades. Writing within 40 years after the first settlement in New England, Josselyn states that already the wild pigeon had diminished greatly, “the English taking them with nets’; and he adds that the English and Indians, who by this time were supplied with guns, had “destroyed the breed of wild turkeys, so that even at that early day it was very rare to meet one in the woods.” Thus two of our most important game birds, in less than half a century after the first settlements, had already begun to disappear from the neighborhood of the New England colonies. Nor is there reason to believe that it was different in other parts of the country. Game abounded, was needed for food, the sup- ply seemed inexhaustible, and it was shot regardless of consequences, and at first, no doubt, without thought of them. It is undoubtedly true that up to the present time far more strenuous efforts have been made in this country to destroy game than to preserve it. Even today a vastly greater number of individuals are interested in game as something to kill than as something which deserves pro- tection. Clubs having for their chief ob- ject the pursuit of game of all kinds have existed since early days; but organiza- tions having for their chief object the preservation of game are relatively few in number and of comparatively recent origin. 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LR ee x x Lf ae < a S ASO WO W807 INL ee ee a“ ma ~ : 2G oS e a PS oe E ee ee SSS SS vos - SAS ISHAW) 70° 70° 60° THE LONGEST SINGLE FLIGHT MADE BY ANY BIRD—2,500 MILES ACROSS THE OCEAN FROM NOVA SCOTIA TO SOUTIL AMERICA This map shows the migration route of the golden plover, which uses a its return from its winter home (see pages 185 amd 187) 180 different course on OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS Birds that Fly from Pole to Pole and Shun the Darkness; Birds that Make 2,500 Miles in a Single Flight By WELLS W. COOKE OF THE Bro_ocicaL, SurvEY, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HE migration of birds has long been considered an unfathomable mystery, but recent investigations have furnished abundant data on the when and where of migration and solved many of its puzzles. The Bureau of Bio- logical Survey of the United States De- partment of Agriculture has collected much information on the migration of North American birds, and this article is an attempt to put in popular form some of the data that have already appeared in the more technical bulletins and re- ports. No correct understanding of bird migration is possible until it is consid- ered as a voluntary evolution. All mi- gratory movements must have begun with changes of location that were only very slight. From this short migration, benefit ac- crued to individuals or to their posterity. Migration became a fixed habit, and the distance covered gradually—very gradu- ally—increased as each succeeding exten- sion proved advantageous. It is not to be supposed that every attempted exten- sion was a success; in fact, it is more probable that only a small part of the experimental pioneering routes were per- manently adopted. Moreover, it must be borne in mind that the time occupied in the establish- ment of present migration habits and routes was measured in geologic ages, and there is no reason to suppose that changes took place during these ages any faster than they do now. It is about a hundred years since the first reliable notes on migration in the United States were recorded, and this period has proven too short to show any 181 perceptible difference in its time, direc- tion, or speed. It can be affirmed, then, that the migration routes of today are the results of innumerable experiments as to the best way to travel from the winter to the summer home and return. It can also be said that food supplies en route have been the determining fac- tor in the choice of one course in prefer- ence to another, and not the distance from one food base to the next. The location of plenty of suitable provender having been ascertained, the birds pay no attention to the length of the single flight required to reach it. PRINCIPAL MIGRATION ROUTES OF NORTH AMERICA The shape of the land areas in the northern half of the Western Hemisphere has tended to great variations in migra- tory movements. If the whole area from Brazil to Canada were a plain with the general characteristics of the middle sec- tion of the Mississippi Valley, the study of bird migration would lose much of its fascination. There would be a simple rhythmical swinging of the migration pendulum back and forth spring and fall. But a large part of the space between Brazil and Canada is occupied by the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and parts of the Atlantic Ocean, all devoid of sustenance for land birds. The two areas of abundant food supplies are North America and northern South America, separated by the comparatively small land areas of Mexico and Central America, the islands of the West Indies, and the great stretches of foodless waters. MAP SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL ROUTES USED BY BIRDS IN THEIR MIGRATIONS BETWEEN NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA The different courses taken by the birds to get around or over this inter- vening inhospitable region are almost as numerous as the bird families that trav- erse them, and only some of the more important ones are shown on the accom- panying map. The routes are numbered from the east westward. The middle route, No. 4, is by far the most important. In general it may be said to extend from northwestern Flor- ida and western Louisiana across the Gulf of Mexico to the southern coast of the Gulf (Yucatan to Vera Cruz), and thence by land through Central America to South America. Probably more indi- viduals follow this route than all the other routes combined. The birds east of the Alleghany Moun- tains move southwest in the fall approxi- mately parallel with the seacoast, and most keep this same direction across the Gulf to eastern Mexico. The birds of the central Mississippi Valley go south- ward to and over the Gulf. The birds between the Missouri River and the edge of the plains, and those of Canada east of the Rocky Mountains, move south- eastward and south until they join the others in their passage of the Gulf. In other words, the great majority of North American birds bound for a win- ter’s sojourn in Central or South Amer- ica elect a short cut across the Gulf of OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS Mexico in preference to a longer land journey by way of Florida or Texas. In fact, millions of them cross the Gulf at its widest part, which necessitates a single flight of 500 to 700 miles. The peninsula of Florida extends far to the south, and the great island of Cuba forms a convenient stepping-stone between its coast-line and Yucatan. A bird taking this highway would avoid any long single flight; yet, with the ex- ception of a few day-migrating swallows, no bird is known to follow this route. A probable explanation is that southern Florida has vastly less bird food per square mile than the country to the northward, and the birds prefer a single long flight with abundant rations to a series of shorter flights on scantier fare. Migration route No. 3, which is by way of Cuba and Jamaica, offers a much shorter journey to South America, but it is traversed by only a few species. It is popular as far as Cuba with some 60 spe- cies, of whom great numbers spend the winter on the island; about 30 of these species have a small contingent who pass on to make Jamaica their winter resort; but scarcely more than To species try the final long flight across the Caribbean Sea to South America. Among these are one species each of six widely differing fam1- lies—the bank swallow, gray kingbird, Florida nighthawk, Alice thrush, black- poll warbler, and bobolink. The other members of those families employ en- tirely different migration routes. It is not possible to ascertain whether these travelers on the so-called “bobolink route” represent adventurous species that are seeking to improve on the round- about course through Mexico, or old fogies who hold to the way of their fore- fathers long after their brethren have proven to their own satisfaction the su- perior advantages of the more western route. The next route to the eastward, No. 2, traverses the chain of islands that ex- tends from Florida to South America. This, too, is considerably shorter than the Florida-Yucatan route, and land can always be kept in sight; yet this line also is discredited. A few individuals of about 25 species follow it as far as Porto OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS Rico, and only 6 of these continue to the South American coast, and these last in such diminished numbers as to form an insignificant fraction of the winter visit- ants in that region. The explanation, of course, lies in the question of food. The combined area of all the West India islands east of Porto Rico is so small that it could not furnish subsistence for even one per cent of the myriads of birds which throng the main migration route across the Gulf. To the westward the short route, No. 5, stretches a few hundred miles from the coast of Texas to northern Vera Cruz. It is adopted by a few Kentucky warblers, worm-eating warblers, golden- wing warblers, and some others, who seek in this way to avoid a slow journey by land across a region scantily supplied with moist woodlands. Still farther west, routes 6 and 7 rep- resent the land journeys of those birds from the western United States who winter in Mexico and Central America. Their trips are comparatively short ; most of them are content to stop when they have reached the middle districts of Mexico, and only a few pass east of the southern part of that country. Route No. 1 remains to be noticed. It extends in an approximately north-and- south line from Nova Scotia to the Lesser Antilles and the northern coast of South America. Though more than a thousand miles shorter than the main migration route, it is not employed by any land bird. But it is a favorite fall route for thousands of water birds, and as such will be referred to again more in detail. It must not be considered that these routes as outlined on the map _ repre- sent distinctly segregated pathways with clearly defined borders. On the contrary, they are merely convenient subdivisions of the one great flightway which extends from North to South America. There is probably no single mile in the whole line between northern Mexico and the Lesser Antilles which is not crossed each fall by migrating birds. What is meant is that the great bulk of the birds, both as to species and number of individuals, cross MIGRATION ROUTE OF THE BLACK-POLL WARBLERS THAT NEST IN ALASKA This bird winters in South America along- side the cliff swallow, but in summer seems to try and get as far as possible from its winter neighbor. Note how its northward route di- verges from the northward flight of the cliff swallow, shown on the map on page 185. It travels at night, often flying several hundred miles in the darkness (see pages 184 and 193). the Gulf to eastern Mexico, while to the eastward their numbers steadily diminish. LIGHT-HOUSES LURE THOUSANDS OF BIRDS TO DESTRUCTION It is not to be supposed that these long flights over the waters can occur without many casualties, and not the smallest of the perils arises from the beacons which man has erected along the coast to insure his own safety. “Last night I could have filled a mail-sack with the bodies of little warblers which killed themselves strik- ing against my light,” wrote the keeper of Fowey Rocks light-house, in southern Florida. Nor was this an unusual tragedy. Every spring the lights along the coast lure to destruction myriads of birds who are en route from their winter homes in the South to their summer nesting places 184 fall a still greater when the return in the North. Every death-toll is exacted journey is made. Light-houses are scattered every few miles along the more than 3,000 miles of our coast-line, but two light-houses Fowey Rocks and Sombrero Key—are responsible for far more bird tragedies than any others. The reason is twofold: their geographic position and the char- acter of their lights. Both are situated at the southern end of Florida, where countless thousands of birds pass each year to and from Cuba. Both hghts are of the first magnitude, on towers 100-140 feet high, and Fowey Rocks has a fixed white light, the deadliest of all A red light or a rapidly flashing one repels the birds, but a steady white light piercing the storm and fog proves irre- sistible. From whatever direction they approach they veer to windward, and then, flying against the wind, seek the object of their infatuation. The larger part do not strike with sufficient force to injure themselves, but, like great moths, they flutter in and out of the light’s rays, and finally settle on the platform or framework to await the abatement of the storm or the coming of sufficient day- light to enable them once more to orient themselves. NEIGHBORS IN WINTER AND REMOTE STRANGERS IN SUMMER The two maps on pages 183 and 185 show the extremes of direct and circui- tous routes of migration. All black-poll warblers winter in South America. ‘Those that are to nest in Alaska strike straight across the Caribbean Sea to Florida and go northwestward to the Mississippi River. Then the direction changes and a course is laid almost due north to northern Minnesota, in order to avoid the treeless plains of North Dakota. But when the forests of the Saskatchewan are reached, the northwestern course is resumed and, with a slight verging to- ward the west, is held until the nesting site in the Alaska spruces is attained. The cliff swallows are winter neigh- bors in South America of the black-poll warblers. But when in early spring na- ture prompts the swallows who are to OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS nest in Nova Scotia to seek the far-off land where they were hatched, they begin their journey to that region—which is situated exactly north of their winter abode—by a westward flight of several hundred miles to Panama. ‘Thence they move slowly along the western shore of the Caribbean Sea to Mexico and, still avoiding any long trip over water, go completely around the western end of the Gulf. Hence as they cross Louisiana they are moving in the opposite direction from that in which they started. A northeasterly course from Louisiana to Maine, and an easterly one to Nova Scotia, completes their spring migration. This circuitous route has added more than 2,000 miles to the distance traveled. THE WARBLER TRAVELS AT NIGHT, SWALLOW BY DAY THE Why should the swallow elect so much more roundabout a route than that taken by the warbler? The explanation is sim- ple. The warbler is a night migrant. Launching into the air soon after night- fall, it wings its way through the dark- ness toward some favorite lunch station, usually several hundred miles distant, where it rests and feeds for several days before undertaking the next stage of its journey. Its migration consists of a series of long flights from one feeding place to the next, and naturally it takes ie most direct course between stations, not deviating for any body of water that can be compassed at a single flight. On the other hand, the swe allow is a day migrant. Little and often is its rule. It begins its spring migration several weeks earlier than the warbler and catches each day’s rations of flying in- sects during a few hours of slow evolu- tions, which at the same time accomplish the work of migration. It keeps along the insect-teeming shores, and the 2,000 extra miles thereby added to the migra- tion route are but a tithe of the distinge covered in pursuit of its daily food. IDIOSYNCRASIES IN MIGRATION ROUTES How migrating birds find their way over the widespread regions lying be- tween their winter and summer homes has always been one of the tantalizing OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS problems of the migration student. A favorite theory of the past, and one still claiming many advocates, is that river valleys and mountain chains form con- venient highways along which the birds travel in the spring, and which are easily recognized on the return trip. The incorrectness of this theory (at least with reference to some species) is proven by the migration routes of the palm warblers. They winter in the Gulf States from Louisiana eastward and throughout the Greater Antilles to Porto Rico. They nest in Canada from the Mackenzie Valley to Newfoundland. To carry out the above theory, the Louisiana palm warbler should follow up the broad, open highway of the Mississippi River to its source and go thence to their breeding grounds, while the warblers of the Antilles should use the Alleghany Mountains as a convenient guide. As a matter of fact, as shown on the map, page 186, the Louisiana birds nest in Labrador, and those from the An- tilles cut diagonally across the United States to summer in central Canada. The two routes cross each other in Geor- gia at approximately right angles. Another idiosyncrasy of bird migra- tion is the adoption by the Connecticut warbler of different routes for its south- ward and northward journeys. All the individuals of this species winter in South America, and, as far as known, all go and come by the same direct route between Florida and South America, across the West Indies; but north of Florida the spring and fall routes di- verge. ‘The spring route (page 186) leads the birds up the Mississippi Valley to their summer home in southern Can- ada; but fall migration begins with a 1,000-mile trip almost due east to New England, whence the coast is followed southwest to Florida. The Connecticut warbler is considered rare, but the multitudes that have struck the Long Island light-houses during Oc- tober storms show how closely the birds follow the coast-line during fall migra- tion. The map represents the spring-migra- tion route as far as at present known. Pearse APRIL 30 i ; a D4 \ a“APRIL20 | =? Mi ARCH 30 MIGRATION ROUTE OF THE CLIFF SWAL- LOWS THAT NEST IN NOVA SCOTIA (SEE PAGES 184 and 193) The swallow, unlike the warbler, travels by day The fact that the route is practically north and south through Ohio and then turns abruptly west indicates a large and as yet undiscovered breeding area in On- tario north of lakes Huron and Superior. Indeed, so little is known about the nest- ing of the Connecticut warbler that the eggs obtained by Mr. Seaton more than 25 years ago still remain unique. Incidentally, this route of the Connec- ticut warbler is a conclusive argument against the theory that migration routes indicate the original pioneer path by which the birds invaded the region of their present summer homes. THE LONGEST CONTINUOUS FLIGHT IN THE WORLD—2,500 MILES Such elliptical migration routes as that mentioned above are rare among land birds, but are used and on a far larger scale by many water birds, notable among which is the golden plover. This species nests along the Arctic coast of North America, and as soon as the young are old enough to care for themselves fall migration is begun by a trip to the Labrador coast, where the plover fat- tens for several weeks on the abundant native fruits. A short trip across the Gulf of St. Lawrence brings it to Nova Scotia, the starting point for its extra- ordinary ocean flight, due south to the coast of South America (page 180). OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS 186 ‘(SgI a8ed 99S) a81AIp saqno. [ey pure Surids ay} eprs0o[y JO yRIOU ynq ‘sarpuy ysaAA dy} ssosde ‘eoTIaWW YNOS puke epllo[.y UsaMjoq anor sures dy} Aq aWIO0d pue O8 [Je ‘UMOUH se Ivy se ‘pue “ediiomy YyyNog ul JoyUIM saidads sty} JO syenpralpur ay} [TV SAUNNAOL NYHHLAOS GNV NYXHIAON SLI woe YWATAYVM LOOMOANNOO HHL Ad NASOHO SALAON LNAMATIIG PHL ‘sopsue 4Yy S11 Ajayeurrxosdde ye eiB1005) ur JayJO Sea SsOID SdjnNoO1 OM} BY, “epeueDd [e1jUad UT JauTUINS 0} sa}e1G Pau) 94} SsoIDe A[[eUOSeIp yd saT[jUY 94} WoOIT 9sOy} pue ‘1Opeiqe’T UI jsoU SPdiq eURISINO’T sYT, ‘OO OO 0} salu Ja}e015) 9Yy} JNO -Y8nO1Y} PUL PAeM4sed CURISINO’T WOT} $d}e}S FIND 9} Ul JaUIM AIT, UVIAUVM W'Ivd AHL JO SHLNOW NOILVASIN TIVdIONINd AHL JO OMI, NOILYYOIW ani ss WV NOILVYIIN, T1VILZ ots J } s ; Z . ‘91.08,06,00/, oN O% > a ae 7 er wee 6 (2 rs > € EE OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS The golden plover takes a straight course across the ocean, and, if the weather is propitious, makes the whole 2,400 miles without pause or rest. But if tempests arise, it may be blown out of its course to the New England coast and start anew on the advent of fair weather; or it may rest for a few days at the Bermudas, one-third of the way along its course, or at the nearest of the Lesser Antilles, still 600 miles from the mainland of South America. These, however, are emergency stop-overs, to be resorted to only in case of storms. Having accomplished its ocean voyage, it passes across eastern South America to its winter home in Argentina. After a six months’ vacation here, the plover finds its way back to the Arctic by an entirely different route. It travels across northwestern South America and the Gulf of Mexico, reaching the United States along the coasts of Louisiana and Texas. Thence it moves slowly up the Mississippi Valley and by early June is again at the nesting site on the Arctic coast. Its round trip has taken the form of an enormous ellipse, with a minor axis of 2,000 miles and a major axis stretching 8,000 miles from Arctic Amer- ica to Argentina. HOW DID THE GOLDEN PLOVER COME TO USE SUCH A DIFFICULT ROUTE? The evolution of the elliptical route of the golden plover, wonderful though it is in its present extended form, is easily traced through its various stages. To- ward the end of the glacial era, when the ice began to recede, the peninsula of Florida was submerged and a compara- tively small area of land in the south- eastern United States was free from ice. Any golden plover that attempted to fol- low up the retreating ice must have been confined to an all-land route from Cen- tral America through Mexico and Texas to the western part of the Mississippi Valley. As larger areas of the eastern United States were uncovered and _ be- came available for bird habitation, ex- tension of the route would be to the northeast, until in time the whole of the Mississippi Valley to the Great Lakes could be occupied. 187 As the migration route lengthened and powers of flight developed, there would arise a tendency to straighten the line and shorten it by cutting off some of the great curve (No. 1, page 188) through Texas and Mexico. A short flight across the western end of the Gulf of Mexico was finally essayed (No. 2), and this gradually lengthened and its points of de- parture and arrival moved eastward until eventually the roundabout curve through Texas was discarded and the flight was made directly from southern Louisiana across the Gulf (No. 3). As the great areas of Canada were added to the birds’ domain, other condi- tions arose. Here appeared a vast new stretch of coast and plain—the Labrador peninsula—offering in the fall rich stores of the most delectable berries and fruits; but at migrating time, in the spring, bound by frost and shrouded in fog. Since Chinook winds made the climate of the interior of the continent just east of the Rocky Mountains especially favor- able for spring migration, there arose gradually a dividing of the spring and fall routes, the fall route tending east- ward (No. 4), while the spring route remained unchanged. When the fall route had worked eastward to the Gulf of St. Lawrence (No. 5), a shortening began to take out the great westward curve of the New England coast. A short ocean flight was attempted (No. 6); and, when this proved successful, it was extended until the present direct route (No. 7) across the Atlantic was obtained. HOW DOES THE PLOVER FIND ITS WAY EVERY SEASON TO THE LITTLE HA- WAIIAN ISLANDS, 2,400 MILES ACROSS THE OCEAN ? The above gives a probable and fairly satisfactory explanation of the origin of the present migration route of the golden plover over the Atlantic Ocean. But this is a very simple problem compared with that presented by the Pacific golden plover. The Hawaiian Islands are in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, distant 2,000 miles from California on the east, 2,400 miles from Alaska on the north, and 3,700 miles from Japan to the west. 188 MAP SHOWING THE EVOLUTION OF THE PRESENT MIGRATION ROUTE OF THE GOLDEN PLOVER (SEE PAGE 187) Golden plovers in considerable numbers fly each fall the 2,400 miles across an islandless sea from Alaska to Hawaii, spend the winter there, and fly back again the next spring to nest in Alaska. But how did they first find their way to Hawaii? It is not to be supposed that any birds would deliberately strike out over un- known seas hunting for a new winter home. It is scarcely more probable that, even if a large flock was caught in a storm and carried far out of its course to the Hawaiian shores, the birds would change in a single season habits of count- less generations and start at once a radi- cally new migration route. It has already been said that present migration routes are evolutions—age-long modifications of other routes. ‘The problem, then, is to find some migration route from which the golden plover’s present Hawatian- Alaskan route could have been easily and naturally derived. The bird breeds on the northern shores of eastern Siberia, from the Liakof Is- lands to Bering Strait, and on the Alaska side of the strait south to the northern OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS base of the Alaska peninsula (page 189). It winters on the mainland of southeast- ern Asia, in the eastern half of Australia, and throughout the islands of Oceanica, from Formosa and the Liu Kiu Islands on the northwest to the Low Archipelago in the southeast. The breeding range has an east-and- west extension of about 1,700 miles, while the winter home extends nearly half around the globe—10,000 miles— from India to the Low Archipelago. Undoubtedly the original migration route was approximately north and south, be- tween the nests in Siberia and the winter resorts in southern Asia. In the course of time the species spread eastward in the winter to Australia, to the islands along the eastern coast of Asia, and throughout Oceanica, while at the same time the breeding range was extended eastward across Bering Strait to Alaska. If all these extensions took place be- fore there was any cutting off of corners in the migration route, then at this stage of development the Alaska - breeding birds were journeying over 11,000 miles (page 189, No. 1) to reach the Low Ar- chipelago, distant only a little more than 5,000 miles in an air-line. It is fair to suppose that early in the course of the eastward extension among the Pacific islands, the plover began to shorten the roundabout journey by flights from the northern islands to eastern Asia, and finally to Japan (No. 2). The most northern island is Palmyra, and the flight from there westward to the nearest of the Marshall Islands is about 2,000 miles; thence a 3,000-mile journey, with several possible rests, brings the birds to Japan. It is easily possible that birds accus- tomed to this 5,000-mile flight might be driven by storms a thousand miles out of their course and discover Hawaii. When from Hawaii they attempted to reach Japan (No. 3) they would find a chain of islands stretching for 1,700 miles in the desired direction, and the final flight of 2,000 miles from the last of these—the Midway Islands—to Japan would be no longer than previous flights to which they had become accustomed. Having once learned the route from OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS 189 120° 160° 180° 160° 140° 120° 100° 120° 140° 160° 120° 140° 180° 160° MAP TO EXPLAIN HOW THE GOLDEN PLOVER IS ABLE TO NAVIGATE TO THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS IN THE MID-PACIFIC (SEE PAGES I87 AND 188) The longest ocean trip without any possibility of resting is shown in this map. This is the same distance as traversed by the Atlantic plover, but the latter can get to land when in trouble. the Midway Islands to Japan, it would be natural that the place of alighting on the Asiatic coast should be gradually carried north and east until the direct flight was made from the Midway Is- lands to the Aleutians (No. 4). A natu- ral and easy carrying of this line east- ward would result in the present route (No. 5) between Hawaii and Alaska. NEIGHBORS AND STRANGERS Both the American and Pacific golden plovers nest in Alaska near Bering Strait, The dotted lines along the Arctic coast show the breeding range of the bird. the former on the north and the latter on the south side of the strait. The American bird reached there by a west- ward extension from Canada, and the Pacific by an eastward extension from Siberia. The birds themselves are so nearly alike that only an expert can dis- tinguish them; and, notwithstanding they are such near neighbors during the sum- mer—scarcely a hundred miles apart— the beginning of migration makes them utter strangers; for those north of the strait travel 3,000 miles east and then 190 6,000 miles south to Argentina, while the others make a 3,000-mile flight directly south to their winter home in Hawaii. THE WORLD'S MOST EX'TRAORDINARY TRAVELER The shore-birds, such as the golden plover, present the longest migration routes among land-feeding birds; but even their surprising records are sur- passed by some of the birds which glean their living from the waters. The world’s migration champion is the Arctic tern (page 191). It deserves its title of Arc- tic, for it nests as far north as land has been discovered; that is, as far north as the bird can find anything stable on which to construct its nest. Indeed, so Arctic are the conditions under which it breeds that the first nest found by man in this region, only 7% degrees from the Pole, contained a downy chick surrounded by a wall of newly fallen snow that had been scooped out of the nest by the parent. When the young are full grown the entire family leaves the Arctic, and sev- eral months later they are found skirting the edge of the Antarctic continent. What their track is over that 11,000 miles of intervening space no one knows. A few scattered individuals have been noted along the United States coast south to Long Island, but the great flocks of thousands and thousands of these terns which alternate from one Pole to the other have never been met by any trained ornithologist competent to learn their preferred path and their time schedule. The Arctic terns arrive in the far north about June 15 and leave about August 25, thus staying 14 weeks at the nesting site. ‘They probably spend a few weeks longer in the winter than in the sum- mer home; and, if so, this leaves them scarcely 20 weeks for the round trip of 22,000 miles. Not less than 150 miles in a straight line must be their daily task, and this is undoubtedly multiplied sev- eral times by their zigzag twistings and turnings in pursuit of food. The Arctic terns have more hours of daylight and sunlight than any other ani- mals on the globe. At their most north- ern nesting site, the midnight sun has OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS already appeared before their arrival, and it never sets during their entire stay at the breeding grounds. During two months of their sojourn in the Antarctic they do not see a sunset, and for the rest of the time the sun dips only a little way below the horizon and broad day- light continues all night. The birds therefore have 24 hours of daylight for at least eight months in the year, and during the other four months have con- siderably more daylight than darkness. THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ROBIN The number of miles traveled per day by a migrating bird varies greatly in dif- ferent parts of the migration journey. These variations are intimately con- nected with corresponding variations in the speed of the northward march of spring, and are based primarily on two facts: First, that the interior of a conti- nent warms up faster than the coasts; second, that spring is hastened in western North America by the Japan current, while it is as decidedly retarded in the east by the polar current. The results of these two causes are strikingly shown in the migration of the robin (page 192). This bird differs from most others in that throughout its entire course northward it adopts spring’s time- table for its own. The robin’s average temperature of migration is 35° F.; that is, it puts in an appearance soon after the snow be- gins to melt and streams to open, but before vegetation has made any start. These conditions occur in the central Mississippi Valley about the middle of February, and it is the first of March before spring and the robins cross north- ern Missouri and arrive together in southern Iowa. ‘Thence a whole month is consumed by the birds in their slow progress — 13 miles a day —to central Minnesota. There their pace quickens, to keep up with the northward rush of spring, and another 10 days at doubled speed brings them to southern Canada. Here they must make an important choice. To the north and northeast lies a land that awakens slowly from its win- ter’s sleep, and where the sun must wage a protracted contest against the cold of [ee] Breeding range Heal none 20 - 40 60" MAP SHOWING SUMMER AND WINTER HOMES OF THE BIRD THAT HATES DARKNESS The summer home of the Arctic tern is along the Arctic coast of North America; its winter home within the Antarctic Circle, 11,000 miles away. During eight months of the year the bird lives where the sun does not go below the horizon. The track of the tern in its round journey of 22,000 miles is unknown (see page 190). IQI OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS 20 solid line marks the division between the eastern and the western forms. =] March, | s~UFebruary, 20 {3 April, 10 ch, 30 THE ROBIN MOVES MUCH QUICKER ON THE PACIFIC THAN ON THE ATLANTIC The dotted lines connect the places at which the robins arrive simultaneously. The heavy The heavy dotted line represents the migration route of the Alaska breeding birds (see pages 190 and 193). OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS the ice- masses in Lake Superior and Hudson Bay. ‘To the northwest stretches a less forbidding region, already quick- ening under the influence of the Chinook winds. THE EASTERN ROBINS MOVE SLOWLY, THE PACIFIC MUCH FASTER Most of the robins from Missouri that pass through western Minnesota elect to turn to the northwest, and now they must not only keep pace with the rapidly advancing season, but must do so while traveling on a long-drawn-out diagonal. Their daily average rises to 50 miles— four times that in southern [owa—and later, when for the birds bound for west- ern Alaska the course becomes nearly due west, the rate increases to 70 miles a day—more than six times the speed with which the journey began. The migration map of the robins shows that these Alaska-breeding birds are the only ones that develop high speed. The robins bound for Newfoundland move by easy stages along the Atlantic coast at the proverbially slow rate of the oncom- ing of spring in New England, and, scarcely exceeding 17 miles a day, they finally arrive at their destination May 6, when their Alaska-bound relatives are al- ready 1,200 miles farther north. One of the most interesting things in- dicated on the map is the migration route of the robins who nest in southern Al- berta. They arrive too early to have come from the south or the southeast ; hence they must have come from the southwest, though this has necessitated their crossing the main range of the Rockies while the mountains were still in the grasp of winter. Robins remain all winter on the Pacific coast, north to southwestern British Columbia, which has about the same winter temperature as St. Louis, 700 miles southward. Hence the wintering robins of British Columbia are already far north at the advent of spring and do not need any hurried mi- gration to reach Alberta on time. As a fact, they average only 8 miles a day, the slowest rate for the species. It may be, fairly asked, How do we know that the Alaska robins have come all this long distance from the central 1938 Mississippi Valley, instead of the far shorter distance from British Columbia ? It happens that the robins of the two sides of the continent are slightly differ- ent in color and in pattern of coloration. Birds of the western style are not known north of southwestern Saskatchewan, central British Columbia, and southeast- ern Alaska, while the whole country to the northward is occupied by birds that evidently have come from the southeast. The heavy, solid line on the map shows the approximate meeting-ground of the two forms. Most migrants except the robins, ducks, and geese wait in their warm winter quarters until springtime is far advanced, and then, traveling swiftly. occupy only a few days in their vernal migration. The black-poll warbler is one of the best examples. THE WARBLERS AND CLIFF SWALLOWS While the Alaska-breeding robins start off in February and spend nearly 90 days in going from central Missouri to western Alaska, the black-poll warbler remains in his tropical home during Feb- ruary and March, and is not seen in southern Florida until about April 20. By the first of May he arrives in central Missouri, which the robins left 60 days earlier, and yet he reaches northwestern Alaska only 10 days later than the robins. The latter’s go-day schedule has been shortened by the warbler to 30 days. The black-poll warbler furnishes a striking example of speed acceleration during the latter part of migration. As indicated on the map of his migration route (page 183), between April 20 and April 30 he goes from central Missouri to central Iowa, a distance of 300 miles, or an average of 30 miles a day. The next 10 days the rate rises to 100 miles a day, while during the last few days of migration a velocity of 300 miles a day is attained. In contrast, notice the dates, distances, and speeds indicated for the cliff swal- low on its migration-route map (page 185). The swallow must strike out for the north very early, since by March to it is already 2,500 miles from the winter home, and yet is averaging only 25 miles OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS 194 (S61 a8ed 39s) oyToeg ay} prvao} Suraocul aie SAUTOFO FO SATUOTOS SuNsat “sa AA 9Y} Ul UOIESIII JO JWaApe ayi YIM (S61 o8ed 9as) aBuer 10}UIM IO Sulpseiq ay} (S61 a9va was) Jaye UeYI pazoesyUOD aroUr YON anor vos e JO afduexea uy INIONVHOS SI MNIIOGOd AHL AO ALNOW NOLILVASIN AHL WAOVNVL LATAVOS AHL SSY =i) JONVY sonra} OnIazzNE ee q JbNvY NOILYYSIW KY JPNVY ON/GIING Soca: Chg a OUR GREATEST TRAVELERS a day for the next 20 days, while it is rounding the western end of the Gulf of Mexico. It more than doubles this rate while passing up the Mississippi and Ohio rivers. The crossing of the Alle- ghany Mountains comes next, and there are only 200 miles of progress to show for the 10 days of migration. By this time spring has really come east of the Alleghanies, and the swallow travels 60 miles a day to its summer home in Nova Scotia. It is to be noted that the swallow, like the robin and the black-poll warbler, works up to’high rates of speed when it is traveling on a diagonal, and that except during the ro days spent in crossing the mountains, each 10 days’ travel covers approximately five degrees of latitude. SOME NARROW MIGRATION ROUTES ' The accompanying illustration of the range of the scarlet tanager (page 194) is given to show the narrowness of the migration route as compared with the width of the summer and winter homes. This tanager nests from New Brunswick to Saskatchewan, a region extending over 1,900 miles of longitude. The Missis- sippi Valley birds go south and the New England birds southeast, until they all leave the United States along 800 miles of Gulf coast from Texas to Florida. The migration lines continue to converge until in southern Central America they are not more than a hundred miles apart. Arrived in South America for the win- ter, the birds scatter over a district about one-half the area of the summer home, with an extreme east-and-west range of about 700 miles. THE BOBOLINKS ARE SEEKING NEW ROUTES The migration route of the bobolink (page 194) shows a similar though not so decided a contraction at its narrowest part. ‘The summer home extends from Cape Breton Island to Saskatchewan, 2,300 miles, and the migration lines con- verge toward the rice fields of the South, 195 the objective point of all bobolinks, no matter where they nest. Having gorged themselves to repletion, they press on toward their Brazilian win- ter abode; but the South Carolina and Georgia birds take a course almost at right angles to that chosen by the scarlet tanagers from those States, and _ strike out directly across the West Indies for South America. In this part of their journey their migration path contracts to an east-and-west breadth of about 800 miles, while a very large proportion of the birds restrict themselves to the east- ern 400 miles of this route. In South America the region occupied during the winter has about one-fifth the breadth and one-third the area of the breeding range. The bobolinks of New England have witnessed great numerical changes, or evolutions. When the white man arrived on the scene, nearly all of New England was covered by primeval forest and bob- olink meadows were scarce. As the for- est gave place to hay-fields, the bobolinks promptly took advantage of their chance and their numbers increased steadily until the maximum was reached some 40 years ago. Then the newly invented mowing machine and the horsepower hay-rake began to destroy thousands of nests and caused a marked diminution in the bobo- link census. The case of the bobolink is a fitting close to this article, because it is reveal- ing to us at the present time the manner of evolution of a new migration route. By nature a lover of damp meadows, it was formerly cut off from the western United States by the intervening arid region. But with the advent of irriga- tion and the bringing of large areas under cultivation, little colonies of nest- ing bobolinks are beginning to appear here and there almost to the Pacific. Some of them are shown by dots on the accompanying map, and the probability is that the not distant future will see a large increase in these trans-Rocky Mountain bobolinks. MYOA MEN “VOVHLIT ALISHHAINA ‘T1ANNOO ADOTOHLINYO dO AYOLVYORY'