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CORNELL 
LAB of ORNITHOLOGY 


A\DELSON 


LIBRARY 


at Sapsucker Woods 
_ 


Illustration of Bank Swallow by Louis Agassiz Fuertes 


Cornell University 


The original of this book is in 
the Cornell University Library. 


There are no known copyright restrictions in 
the United States on the use of the text. 


http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924090281225 


Coue’s Key, N.A.Birds. 


RW.Shuteldt, pinx. 


ANATOMY OF PIGE % 


Kb yy, 


TO 


NortH AMERICAN BIRDS. 


CONTAINING A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF EVERY SPECIES OF LIVING AND FOSSIL 
BIRD AT PRESENT KNOWN FROM THE CONTINENT NORTH OF THE 
MEXICAN AND UNITED STATES BOUNDARY, INCLUSIVE 
OF GREENLAND AND LOWER CALIFORNIA, 


WITH WHICH ARE INCORPORATED 


GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY: 


AN OUTLINE OF THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS; 


AND 


FIELD ORNITHOLOGY, 


A MANUAL OF COLLECTING, PREPARING, AND PRESERVING BIRDS. 


The Third Edition, 
EXHIBITING THE NEW NOMENCLATURE OF THE AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION, AND 
INCLUDING DESCRIPTIONS OF ADDITIONAL SPECIES, ETC. 


By ELLIOTT COUES, A.M, M.D., PH.D., 


Late Captain and Assistant Surgeon U. S. Army and Secretary U.S. Geological Survey ; Vice-President of the American 
Ornithologists’ Union, and Chairman of the Committee on the Classification and Nomenclature of North American Birds ; 
Foreign Member of the British Ornithologists’ Union ; Corresponding Member of the Zodlogical Society 
of London ; Member of the National Academy of Sciences, of the Faculty of the National 
Medical College, of the Philosophical and Biological Societies of Washington, 
of the General Council of the Theosophical Society of India, etc. 


PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. 


BOSTON: 
ESTES AND LAURIAT. 
1887. 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 
F. W. PuTNAM AND ELLIOTT COUES, 


In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by 
F. W. PuTNAM AND ELLIOTT COUEs, 


In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 


Copyright, 1882, 1884, and 1887, 
By Estes anD LAuRIAT. 


UNIVERSITY PRESS: 
Joun WILSON AND Son, CAMBRIDGE. 


Go 


SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD, 


NESTOR OF AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS, 


Chis Mork, 


BEARING TO OTHERS THE TORCH RECEIVED FROM HIM IN EARLIER DAYS, 


{Is Dedicated. 


CONTENTS. 


Seeresrs ome 
TITLE 
DEDICATION 
ConTENTS . 
HistorRicaL PREFACE . 
PART I. 


FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


§ 1. Implements for collecting, and their use 

32: DDOBSs hae an aise 

§ 3. Various suggestions and ditections a field. won, 
§ 4. Hygiene of collectorship . 

§ 5. Registration and labelling 


§ 6. Instruments, materials, and fixtures Rey preparing Binds , 


§ ‘7 How to make a birdskin . 

§ 8. Miscellaneous particulars 

§ 9. Collection of nests and eggs 
§10. Care of a collection 


PART II, 


GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


§ 1. Definition of birds 
§ 2. Principles and practice of aaah catian 
§ 3. Definitions and descriptions of the exterior ee at begs 
a. Of the feathers, or plumage eee ear 
6. The topography of birds 
1. Regions of the body : ‘ 
2. Ofthe members ; their parts and organs 
i. The bill 
ii. The wings. 
iii, The tail 
iv. The feet 


59 
65 
82 
$2 
91 
94 
100 
100 
106 
114 
118 


vi CONTENTS. 


§ 4. Anintroduction to the Anatomy of birds. . . . 2 6 ee ee we 
a. Osteology : the osseous system, or skeleton . . . . 2s + 6 

1. The spinal column . ; 

2. The thorax: mbs and sterko 

3. The pectoral arch . 

4. The pelvic arch . 

5. The skull . . ‘ 

Neurology: the nervous apsteen sienns of special senses 


b. 
e. Myology: the muscular system . : 
d. Angeiology: the vascular or circulatory sesbente 
e. Pneumatology: the respiratory system . 
J. Splanchnology: the digestive system 
g. Odlogy: the urogenital system . 

§ 5. Directions for using the artificial keys 


ARTIFICIAL Key To THE ORDERS AND SUBORDERS . 
ARTIFICIAL Key To THE FaMILizs 
TABULAR VIEW OF THE GROUPS HIGHER THAN GENERA. . «+ + ee « 


PART III. 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS. 


I. Order PASSERES: Insessores, or Perchers Proper : 
1. Suborder PASSERES ACROMYODI, or OSCINES: eee Birds ‘ 
1. Family Turpip#: Thrushes, etc. . : : : 
1. Subfamily Zurdine: Typical Phyashes : 
Subfamily Mimine: Mocking Thrushes 
Subfamily Cincline: Dippers . ‘ 
Subfamily Saxicoline : Stone-chats and Blue: birds ‘ 
Subfamily Reguling: Kinglets and Wood-wrens . 
6. Subfamily Polioptiline: Gnat-catchers . 
Family Cuamaip#: Wren-tits 
8. Family Paripa#: Titmice, or Chickadees 
7. Subfamily Paring: True Titmice 
4. Family Srrtipz: Nuthatches . 
5. Family Certuipa#: Creepers 
8. Subfamily Certhiine: Typical Creepecs 
6. Family Troctopytipz: Wrens : 
9. Subfamily Campylorhynchine : Fan-tailed Wrens 
10. Subfamily Zroglodytine: True Wrens . 
7. Family ALavpip#: Larks . 
11. Subfamily Colandritine : Shore Tacks 
12. Subfamily Alaudine: Sky Larks 
8 Family Moractnuip#: Wagtails and Pipits 
18. Subfamily Motacilline: Wagtails 
14. Subfamily Anthine: Pipits, or Titlarks 


A aed 


© 


238 
240 
240 
243 
248 
254 
256 
259 
260 
262 
263 
263 
269 
272 
272 
273 
274 
277 
280 
281 
282 
283 
284 
285 


CONTENTS. 


9. Family Syivicotipm: American Warblers. 
15. Subfamily Sylvicoline: True Warblers 
16. Subfamily Le¢ertine: Chats 


17. Subfamily Se¢ophagine: Fly-catching Warblers ‘ 


10. Family Cerzzipa: Honey Creepers 
11. Family Tanacripm: Tanagers 
12. Family Hirvnpinipz: Swallows 
13. Family AMprtip#: Chatterers 
18. Subfamily Ampeline: Waxwings 
19. Subfamily P/ilogonatine : Fly-snappers 
20. Subfamily Myiadestine: Fly-catching Thrushes . 
14. Family Vireontp#: Vireos, or Greenlets . ng 
15. Family Lanimp#: Shrikes . ‘ 
21. Subfamily Laniine: True Shvikes 
16. Family Frineiturp: Finches, ete. . 


17. Family Icrer1ip#: American Starlings; Blackbirds, etc. . 


22. Subfamily Ayeleing: Marsh Blackbirds 
23. Subfamily Sturnelline: Meadow Starlings 
24. Subfamily Ieterine: Orioles 
25. Subfamily Quiscaline: Crow Blackbirds 
18. Family Corvipm: Crows, Jays, ete. 
26. Subfamily Corvine: Crows 
27. Subfamily Garruline: Jays 
19, Family Sturwipz: Old World Starlings 
28. Subfamily Sturnine: Typical Starline 


2. Suborder PASSERES MESOMYODI, or CLAMATORES: Sonetens Pussies 


20. Family Trrannipm: American Flycatchers 
29. Subfamily Zyrannine: True Tyrant Hiscatehers, 


II. Order PICARLE: Picarian Birds 
3. Suborder CYPSELIFORMES: Cypseliform Birds 
21. Family Caprimuteip#: Goatsuckers 
30. Subfamily Caprimulgine : True Gantegokens 
22. Family Cypsrtipa{: Swifts : 
31. Subfamily Cypseline: Typical Swifts 
32. Subfamily Cheturine: Spine-tail Swifts 
23. Family Trocuiuipz: Humming-birds : 
33. Subfamily Zrochiline: Humming-birds 
4. Suborder CUCULIFORMES: Cuculiform Birds 
24. Family Troconipz: Trogons . 5 
34. Subfamily Trogonine: Trogons . 
[-—. Family Momorips: Sawbills] . 
25. Family ALcEDINIDZ: Kingfishers . : 
35. Subfamily dlcedinide: Piscivorous Kiietitied 
26. Family Cucutip#: Cuckoos oretmgh ee ah Ab 
36. Subfamily Crotophaging: Anis : 
37. Subfamily Seurotherine: Ground Gaalose 
38. Subfamily Coceygine: American Cuckoos . 
5. Suborder PICIFORMES: Piciform Birds 
27, Family Picipm: Woodpeckers . 


vii 
PAGE 
Q87 
289 
311 
312 
317 
317 
319 
325 
325 
327 
328 
329 
336 
336 
339 
399 
400 
405 
406 
410 
414 
415 
419 
426 
426 
427 
4.28 
428 


44-4. 
447 
447 
448 
455 
456 
457 
458 
458 
467 
468 
4.68 
468 
468 
469 
470 
471 
473 
474 
476 
477 


viii CONTENTS. 


ITI. Order PSITTACI: Parrots ........, 
28. Family Psirracipa: Parrots 
39. Subfamily drive: Parrots . 


IV. Order RAPTORES: Birds of Prey . 
6. Suborder STRIGES: Nocturnal Birds of Pe 
29. Family Atuconip#: Barn Owls 
30. Family Strierpm: Other Owls . 
40. Subfamily Strigine : 
41. Subfamily Budbonine: ; 
7 Suborder ACCIPITRES: Diurnal Birds of Hey 


81, Family Fatconipz: Vultures, Falcons, Hawks, Haein are ; 


42. Subfamily Circine: Harriers . 
43. Subfamily Milvine: Kites . 

44. Subfamily Aeccipitrineg: Hawks 
45. Subfamily Falconine: Falcons 
46. Subfamily Polyboring: Caracaras 


47. Subfamily Buteonine: Buzzards and Tngles ‘ 


82. Family Panpion1ip#: Fish Hawks, or Ospreys 
8. Suborder CATHARTIDES: American Vultures 
83, Family Catuartip#: American Vultures . 


V. Order COLUMBZ:: Columbine Birds : 
9. Suborder PERISTERZ: True Columbine Birds . 
34. Family CotumBipm: Pigeons . 
48. Subfamily Columbine : Pied. ies: 
49. Subfamily Zenaidine: Ground Doves 
50. Subfamily Starnenadine: Quail Doves 


VI. Order GALLINE: Gallinaceous Birds; Fowls . 
10. Suborder PERISTERA: Pigeon-toed Fowls . 
85. Family Cracip@: Curassows . F 
51. Subfamily Peneloping: Guans . 
11. Suborder ALECTOROPODES: True Fowls . 
86. Family Metzacripipa#: Turkeys 
87. Family Tetraontpm: Grouse; Partridge; Gon 
52. Subfamily Zetraonine: Grouse 


53. Subfamily Odontophorine: American Partrllges an Gunils:. 
[—. Subfamily Perdicine : Old World Partridges and Quails . 


VII. Order LIMICOL: Shore-birds 
88. Family Coarapriup#: Plover : 
54. Subfamily Charadriine: True Biveee 5 
55. Subfamily Aphrizing: Surf-birds 


389. Family Hamatopopipm: Oyster-catchers ; Turnstones a 


56. Subfamily Hematopodine : Oyster ceeichens 
57. Subfamily Strepsilaine : Turnstones 
40. Family Recurvirostrip#: Avocets; Stilts . 
41, Family Puataropopip#: Phalaropes 
42. Family Scotopacip#: Snipe, etc. 


PAGE 
494 
495 
495 


495 
498 
500 
502 
502 
503 
517 
519 
521 
522 
526 
531 
539 
541 
556 
557 
557 


561 
562 
562 
564 
566 
571 


571 
572 
572 
573 
573 
576 
576 
577 
588 
594 


596 
597 
597 
605 
606 
606 
608 
609 
612 
614 


CONTENTS. 


VIII. Order HERODIONES: Herons and their Allies. 


IX. 


XI. 


12. Suborder IBIDES: The Ibis Series . 
43. Family Intpipm: Ibises : 
44. Family Puataterpm: Spoonbills . 
13. Suborder PELARGI: The Stork Series . 
45. Family Ciconiip#: Storks . 
58. Subfamily Zantaline: Wood Thises 
59. Subfamily Cicontine: True Storks . 
14. Suborder HERODII: The Heron Series 
46. Family AnpErp#: Herons . : ; 
60. Subfamily Ardeine: True Herons : 
61. Subfamily Botauring: Bitterns . 


Order ALECTORIDES: Cranes, Rails, and their Allies 
15. Suborder GRUIFORMES: Cranes and their Allies . 
47. Family Gruip#: Cranes 
48. Family Aramip#: Courlans ; 
16. Suborder RALLIFORMES: Ralliform Birds : 
49. Family Parripa: Jagands . 
50. Family Rauuipm: Rails, etc. . : 
62. Subfamily Raddine: True Rails . 
63. Subfamily Gadlinuline: Gallinules . 
64. Subfamily Fudicine : Coots 


Order LAMELLIROSTRES: Anserine Birds . 
17. Suborder ODONTOGLOSSZ: Grallatorial Anseres 
51. Family Po@nicortErip#: Flamingoes . 
18. Suborder ANSERES: Anserine Birds Proper . 
52. Family Anatipm: Geese, Ducks, ete. 
65. Subfamily Cyguine: Swans 
66. Subfamily Anserine: Geese . 
67. Subfamily Avatine: River Ducks 
68. Subfamily Fudiguline: Sea Ducks 
69. Subfamily Merging: Mergansers 


Order STEGANOPODES : Cae aclseE Birds 
53. Family Surip#: Gannets 5 . 
54. Family Perzcanipa#: Pelicans . , 
55. Family PHALACROCORACIDS: Cormorants ‘ 
56. Family Protip#: Darters 
57. Family Tacuypretipa{: Frigates 
68. Family Paaitnontipz: Tropic Birds 


XII. Order LONGIPENNES: Long-winged Swimmers 


19. Suborder GAVLA: Slit-nosed Longwings 
59. Family Lara: Gulls, Terns, etc. ; 
70. Subfamily Lestridine : Jaegers, or Skua Gulls 
71. Subfamily Zaring: Gulls . ‘ 
_ 72. Subfamily Sternine: Tes . . vatenes 
73. Subfamily Rhynchopine : Skimmers haan 


x CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
20. Suborder TUBINARES: Petrels. . 2. 2 1 1 1 ee eee ee ee 178 
60. Family Procettarups#. Petrels . i deokeh Gate ces HONS 


74. Subfamily Diomedeine : ‘ATbutrosses ae Neneh acne Wamea el Sacctae cee chia! 
75. Subfamily Procellariing: Petrels . . . 2 6 6 ew ee « 776 


XIII. Order PYGOPODES: Diving Birds... .......2.4.. 787 
61. Family Cotympip#: Loous Ruse ey hy oolesoee ares ee 189) 

62. Family Popicrrepipm: Grebes 792 

797 


68. Family Aucipm: Auks . re ee 
76. Subfamily Phaleridine : Puree aes ates Sate saws: as 800 
77. Subfamily Alcine: Guillemots, Murres, and Auks proper +. » 810 


PART IV. 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF THE FOSSIL BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA. 


A. Tertiary Birps 822 
Beso (CRETAOROUS) BIRDS: 4-4), Gf ee GY ee OO Pn a eae ce 85 
Gx. GUWRASSIG: BIRDS) ie 2. ede) he ey Gah Be Re Sok > Sr sel wee (> sa 38.99) 


WIND) Bs ta acs Sy cseadh fen tall rete tes Sega Mana Se, Gel ek Se Nod les let we, Getty Cow? ee BOL: 
ACE BEIN DU KG 5 ares aes ae peat Ai (en seat erste May aire Aen ake ee Nek en S On 


PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 


HE second edition of the “Key,” which appeared in May, 1884, has al- 
ready been out of print for more than a year. Though aware of the 
continued demand for a standard work of reference, the author has been unable 
to meet it more promptly, having meanwhile accepted some other literary en- 
gagements which proved imperative in their demand upon his capacity for work. 
Slight as the requisite revision of this book has proven to be, it did not seem ex- 
pedient to go to press again without recognizing the steps American Ornithology 
has taken during the past three years, though these may be called many rather 
than great ones. There is so little to change in the substance of the book that 
it has been thought decidedly best to reprint from the same plates, and put what 
new matter has come to hand in the form of an Appendix. However much 
there is that might have advantageously gone into the second edition, but did 
not, the author is satisfied with nearly everything that did go in, and quite ready 
to submit it all to the still further test of time. The transition from what some 
of his friends have called the “Couesian Period” may mean a change in form 
rather than in fact. 

The naming of our birds, as an art distinguished from the science of know- 
ing them, has lately been pitched in a key so high that the familiar notes of the 
former “Key” might jangle out of tune, or be lost entirely, were the attempt 
made to reset them just now. During the confusion unavoidably incident to 
such sweeping changes in nomenclature as we have recently made, it will be a 
decided benefit to the student, the sportsman, and the amateur, if not also to 
every working ornithologist, to be provided with a convenient means of compar- 
ing the older with the newer style of nomenclature we have adopted, until each 
one shall have grown accustomed to the change of spectacles. This accommoda- 
tion is afforded by the present edition, which leaves the names and their num- 


li PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 


bers untouched in the body of the text, and then adjusts them to the new angle 
of vision in the Appendix, in parallel columns. Thus the new “Key” turns 
either way; or, to vary the metaphor, the renovated structure stands Janus- 
faced, looking both ways at once —backward upon its old self, of which it 
has no cause to be ashamed; forward upon another self, of which it has much 
reason to be proud. 

The train of incidents which resulted in what may be called a nomenclatural 
explosion was fired at the founding of the American Ornithologists’ Union at 
New York, in September, 1883. As one of three persons who brought that 
happy episode upon an unsuspecting bird-world, which nevertheless greeted their 
stroke with acclamation, the author must plead a modesty act in bar of trial of 
his pen on that particular count. But as the honor was his of presiding over 
the first Congress of the Union, whilst the ideas of its founders were shapen in- 
to a permanent and world-wide organization, so also it fell to his lot to appoint 
several committees for the despatch of business the Union at once took in hand ; 
and of one of these he has to speak here. 

This particular wheel within other wheels turned upon a resolution of the 
Union “that the Chairman appoint a committee of five, including himself, to 
whom shall be referred the question of a revision of the Classification and 
Nomenclature of the Birds of North America.” Having accepted the situation, 
the author held with his esteemed colleagues many sessions of the Committee in 
Washington and New York, and in April, 1885, offered to the Union the result 
of much joint labor. The report of the Committee being accepted, it was ordered 
to be printed, and it appeared in 1886 in an octavo volume of 400 pages, 
entitled “The Code of Nomenclature and Check-list of North American Birds, 
adopted by the American Ornithologists’ Union,” ete. 

The objects which we kept steadily in view were: first, to establish certain 
sound principles or canons of nomenclature applicable to zodlogy at large as 
well as to ornithology: and, secondly, to apply these rules consistently and 
effectually to the naming of North American birds. Others must be left to 
judge how well or ill these purposes may have been accomplished, but the 
simple fact is that no sooner had the book appeared than it became the standard 
and indeed the only recognized Nomenélator in American Ornithology. That 
which the Committee had stamped with the seal of the Union became the 
current coin of the realm, other than which our venerable fowl, The Auk, should 
know none. 


PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. iii 


In estimating the probable consequences for the long run, it is necessary to 
discriminate between any given ornithological fact and the handle we may acree 
to give that fact. The former is a natural fixity, the latter is a movable furni- 
ture; the former is subject to no authority we can set up, the latter is wholly ar- 
bitrary, determinable at our pleasure. Uniformity of nomenclature is so obvious 
and decided a practical convenience that even at the risk of seeming to laud 
work in which he had a hand, the author cannot too strongly urge compliance 
with the Union’s code, and adherence to the set of names the Union has 
adopted. These may not be the best possible, but they are the best we have. 

The author’s insistence upon this point does not of course extend to any 
case where an error of ornithological fact may appear. That is an entirely 
different matter. Reserving to himself, as he certainly does, the right of indi- 
vidual judgment in every question of ornithological science, he is the last to 
persuade others to refrain from equal freedom of expert opinion. “So many 
men, so many minds,” even when the number is only five; no individual opinion 
is necessarily reflected upon any point in the Code and Check-list ; it is the collec- 
tive voice of a majority of the Committee that is heard in every instance. The 
occasion for individual dissent on the part of any member of that body, as of any 
other writer upon the subject, arises when in his private capacity as an author 
he has, as it were, to pass upon and approve or disapprove any results of the 
labors of others. The Appendix to the present edition of the “Key” unavoidably 
brings up such an occasion. Yet that he may not even seem to reflect upon any 
of his co-workers, his criticism express or implied has been sedulously reduced 
to its lowest terms. It consists chiefly in declining to admit to the “Key” some 
forms that the Committee have deemed worthy of recognition by name. Indeed 
he has preferred to err, if at all, on the other side, desiring to give the user of this 
book the later results of the whole Committee. 

Nevertheless he must here record an earnest protest, futile though it may 
be, against the fatal facility with which the system of trinomials lends itself to 
sad consequences in the hands of immature or inexperienced specialists. No 
allusion is here intended to anything that has been done, but he must reiterate 
what was said before ( Key, p. xxvii) respecting what may be done hereafter if 
more judicious conservatism than we have enjoyed of late be not brought to bear 
down hard upon trifling incompetents. The “trinomial tool” is too sharp to 
be made a toy; and even if we do not cut our own fingers with it, we are likely 
to cut the throat of the whole system of naming we have reared with such 


lv PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 


care. Better throw the instrument away than use it to slice species so thin that 
it takes a microscope to perceive them. It may be assumed, as a safe rule of 
procedure, that it is useless to divide and subdivide beyond the fair average 
ability of ornithologists to recognize and verify the result. Named varieties of 
birds that require to be “compared with the types” by holding them up slant- 
wise in a good strong light, — just as the ladies match crewels in the milliner’s 
shop, — such often exist in the cabinets or in the books of their describers, but 


seldom in the woods and fields. 
E. C. 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
Wasuineton, D.C., April, 1887. 


HISTORICAL PREFACE. 


Were a modern Hesiod to essay — neither a cos- 
mogony nor a theogony — but the genesis of even the 
least department of human knowledge,— were he to 
seek the beginnings of American Ornithology, he would 
find it only in Chaos. For from this sprang all things, 


great and small alike, 
to pass through Night 
and Nemesis to the 
light of days which 
first see orderly pro- 
gress in the course 
of natural evolution, 
when is first estab- 
lished some sequence 
of events we recognize 
as causes and effects. 
Then there is system, 
and formal law ; there 
science becomes possi- 
ble ; there its possible 
history begins. 

Long was the time 
during which the birds 
of our country were 
known to its inhab- 
itants, after the fash- 
ion of the people of 
those days, — known 
as things of which use 
could be made, and 
studied, too, that use 
might be madeofthem. 
But this period is pre- 
historic; no evidence 
remains, save in some quaint pictograph or rudely graven image. There followed a 
period— shorter by far than the former one, though it endures to-day — when the same 


xii HISTORICAL PREFACE. 


birds awakened in other men an interest they could not excite in a savage breast, and 
the sense of beauty was felt. Use and Beauty! What may not spring from such divinely 
mated pair, when once they brood upon the human mind, like halcyons stilling troubled 
waters, sinking the instincts of the animal in the restful, satisfying reflections of the 
man 4 

The history of American Ornithology begins at the time when men first wrote upon 
American birds ; for men write nothing without some reason, and to reason at all is the 
beginning of science, even as to reason aright is its end. The date no one can assign, 
unless it be arbitrarily ; it was during the latter part of the sixteenth century, which, 
with the whole of the seventeenth, represents the formative or embryonic period during 
which were gathering about the germ the crude materials out of which an ornithology of 
North America was to be fashioned. As these accumulated and were assimilated, — as 
the writings multiplied and books bred books, “each after its kind,” this special depart- 
ment of knowledge grew up, and its form changed with each new impress made upon its 
plastic organization. 

Viewing in proper perspective these three centuries and more which our subject has 
seen — passing in retrospect the steps of its development — we find that it offers several 
phases, representing as many ‘“ epochs” or major divisions, of very unequal duration, and 
of scientific significance inversely proportionate to their respective lengths. All that 
went before 1700 constitutes the first of these, which may he termed the Archaic epoch. 
The eighteenth century witnessed an extraordinary event, the consequence of which to 
systematic zodlogy cannot be over-estimated ; it occurred almost exactly in the middle of 
the century, which is thus sharply divided into a Pre-Linnean epoch, before the institu- 
tion of the binomial nomenclature, and a Post-Linnean epoch, during which this technic 
of modern zodlogy was established, — each approximately of half a century’s duration. 
In respect of our particular theme, the first quarter of the nineteenth century saw the 
“father of American ornithology,” whose spirit pointed the crescent in the sky of the 
Wilsontan epoch. During the second quarter, these horns were filled with the genius of 
the Audubonian epoch. In the third, the plenteousness of a master mind has marked 
the Bairdian epoch. 

Clearly as these six epochs may be recognized, there is of course no break between 
them ; they not only meet, but merge in one another. The sharpest line is that which 
runs across Linneeus at 1758; but even that is only visible in historical perspective, while 
the assignation of the dates 1700 and 1800 is rather a chronological convenience than 
otherwise. Nothing absolutely marks the former; and Wilson was unseen till 1808. 

The Archaic epoch stretches into the dim past with unshifting scene, even at the 
turning-point of the two centuries in which it lies. It is otherwise with the rest ; their 
shapes have incessantly changed; and several have been the periods in each of them dur- 
ing which their course of development has been accelerated or retarded, or modified in 
some special feature. These changes have invariably coincided with — have in fact been 
induced by — the appearance of some great work ; great, not necessarily in itself, but 
in its relation to the times, and thus in the consequences of the interaction between the 
times and the author who left the science other than he found it. The edifice as it 
stands to-day is the work of all, even of the humblest, builders ; but its plan is that of 
the architects who have modelled its main features, and the changes they have success- 


HISTORICAL PREFACE. xl 


ively wrought are the marks of progress. It isconsequently possible, and it will be found 
convenient, to subdivide the epochs named (excepting the first) into lesser natural inter- 
vals of time, which may be called “ periods,” to each of which may attach the name of 
the architect whuse design is expressed most clearly. I recognize fifteen such periods, of 
very unequal duration, to which specific dates may attach. Seven of these fall in the 
last century ; eight in the three-quarters of the present century. We may pass them in 
brief review. 


Tue Arcuaic Epocu: to 1700. 


Mere mention or fragmentary notice of North American birds may be traced back 
to the middle of the sixteenth century ; but, up to the eighteenth, no book entirely and 
exclusively devoted to the subject had appeared. The Turkey and the Humming-bird 
were among the earliest to appear in print; the latter forms the subject of the earliest 
paper I have found, exclusively and formally treating of any North American bird as 
such, and this was not until 1693, when Hamersly described the “ American Tomineius,” 
as it was called. One of the largest, as well as the smallest of our birds, — the turkey, 
early came in for a share of attention. The germs of the modern “ faunal list,” —that is 
to say, notes upon the birds of some particular region or locality, — appeared early in the 
seventeenth century, and continued throughout; but only as incidental and very slight 
features of books published by colonists, adventurers, and missionaries, in their several 
interests, — unless Hernandez’s famous “ Thesaurus” be brought into the present connec- 
tion. Among such books containing bird-matter may be noted Smith’s “ Virginia,” 1612; 
Hamor’s “ Virginia,” 1615 ; Whitbourne’s ‘‘ Newfoundland,” 1620; Higeinson’s “New 
England,” 1630; Morton’s “ New English Canaan,” 1632 ; Wood’s “New England’s 
Prospect,” 1634; Sagard Theodat’s “Voyage,” 1632; Josselyn’s “ New England’s 
Rarities,” 1672 ; —and so on, with a few more, — sometimes mere paragraphs, some- 
times a page or a formal chapter, — but scarcely anything to be now considered except in 
a spirit of curiosity. 


Tue Pre-Linnwzan Epocu : 1700-1758. 
(1700-1730.) 

The Lawsonian Period. —It may be a lucus a non to call this the ‘ Lawsonian” 
period ; but aname is needed for the portion of this epoch prior to Catesby, during which 
no other name is so prominent as that of John Lawson, Gentleman, Surveyor-General of 
North Carolina, whose “ Description and Natural History ” of that country contains one 
of the most considerable faunal lists of our birds which appeared before 1730, and went 
through many editions, — the last of these being published at Raleigh, in 1860. The 
several early editions devote some fifteen or twenty pages to birds, —an amount aug- 
mented considerably when Brickell appropriated the work ig 1737. The Baron de la 
Hontan did similar service to Canadian birds in his “ Voyages,” 1793; but, on the 
whole, this period is scarcely more than archaic. 


(1730-1748.) 
The Catesbian Period. — This comprises the time when Mark Catesby’s great work 
was appearing by instalments. ‘The Natural History of Carolina, Florida,” etc, is the 


xiv HISTORICAL PREFACE. 


first really great work to come under our notice ; its influence was immediate, and is even 
now felt. It is the “ Audubon” of that time ; a folioin two volumes, dating respectively 
1731 and 1743, with an appendix, 1748; passing to a second edition in 1754, to a 
third in 1771, under the supervision of Edwards ; reproduced in Germany, in “ Selig- 
mann’s Sammlung,” 1749-76. It was published in parts, the date of the first of which 
I believe to have been 1730, though it may have been a little earlier. Volume I, contain- 
ing the birds, appears to have been issued in five parts, and was made up in 1731 ; it consists 
of a hundred colored plates of birds, with as many leaves of text ; a few more birds are 
given in the appendix, raising the number to 113. These illustrations are recognizable 
almost without exception ; most of the species are for the first time described and figured ; 
they furnish the basis of many subsequently named in the Linnean system ; the work 
was eventually provided by Edwards with a Linnean concordance or index ; and alto- 
gether it is not easy to overestimate the significance of the Catesbian period, due to this 
one work ; for no other book requires or indeed deserves to be mentioned in the same 
connection, though a few contributions, of somewhat “archaic” character, were made by 
various writers. 


(1748-1758.) 

The Edwardsian Period. — This bridges the interval between Catesby and the estab- 
lishment of the binomial nomenclature, and finishes the Pre-Linnean epoch. No great 
name of exclusive pertinence to North American ornithology appears in this decade. 
But the great naturalist whose name is inseparably associated with that of Catesby had 
begun in 1741 the “ Natural History of Uncommon Birds,” which he completed in four 
parts or volumes, in 1751, and in which the North American element is conspicuous. 
This work contains two hundred and ten colored plates, with accompanying text, forming 
a treatise which easily ranks among the half-dozen greatest works of the kind of the Pre- 
Linnean epoch, and passed through several editions in different languages. Its impress 
upon American ornithology of the time is second only to that made by Catesby’s, of 
which it was the natural sequence, if not consequence _It bore similarly upon birds soon 
to be described in binomial terms, and was shortly followed by the not less famous 
“Gleanings of Natural History,” 1758-64, a work of precisely the same character, and in 
fact a continuation of the former. Edwards also made some of our birds the subject of 
special papers before the Philosophical Society, as those of 1755 and 1758 upon the 
Ruffed Grouse and the Phalarope. It may be noted here that one of the few special papers 
upon any American bird which Linnzus published appeared in this period, he having in 
1750 first described the Louisiana Nonpareil (Passerina ciris). This period also saw the 
publication of part of the original Swedish edition of Peter Kalm’s “Travels,” 17 53-61, 
which went through numerous editions in different languages. Kalm was a correspondent 
of Linnus; the genus off plants, Xalmia, commemorates his name; his work contains 
accounts of many of our birds, some of them the bases of Linnean species; and he also 
published, in 1759, a special paper upon the Wild Pigeon. As in the Catesbian period, 
various lesser contributions were made, but none requiring comment. Thus Lawson, 
as representing the continuation of a preceding epoch, and the associated names of 
Catesby and Edwards in the present one, have carried us past the middle of the last 
century. 


HISTORICAL PREFACE. XV 


Tue Post-Linnajan Epocn: 1758-1800. 
(1758-1766. ) 

The Linnean Period. — An interregnum here, during which not a notable work or 
worker appears in North American ornithology itself. But events elsewhere occurred, 
the reflex action of which upon our theme is simply incalculable, fully requiring the 
recognition of this period. The dates, 1758-1766, are respectively those of the appear- 
ance of the tenth and of the twelth edition of the “Systema Nature” of Linneus. In 
the former the illustrious Swede first formally and consistently applied his system of 
nomenclature to all birds known to him; the latter is his completed system, as it finally 
left his hands ; and from then to now, zodlogists and especially ornithologists have dis- 
puted whether 1758 or 1766 should be taken as the starting-point of zodlogical nomen- 
clature. In ornithology, the matter is still at issue between the American and the 
British schools. However this may result, the fact remains that during this “Linnean 
period,” 1758 to 1766, we have the origin of all the tenable specific names of those of 
our birds which were known to Linneus; the gathering up and methodical digestion 
and systematic arrangement of all that had gone before. Let this scant decade stand, — 
mute in America, but eloquent in Sweden, and since applauded to the echo of the world. 

Nor is this all. The year 1760 saw the famous “Ornithologia” of Mathurin Jacques 
Brisson (born April 20, 1725 —died June 23, 1806), in six portly quartos with 261 folded 
plates, and elaborate descriptions in Latin and French of hundreds of birds, a fair pro- 
portion of which are North American. Many are described for the first time, though 
unfortunately not in the binomial nomenclature. The work holds permanent place ; 
and most of the original descriptions of Brisson’s are among the surest bases of Linnean 
species. 


(1766-1785.) 

The Forsterian Period. — Nearly twenty years have now elapsed with so little in- 
cident that two brochures determine the complexion of this period. John Reinhold 
Forster was a learned and able man, whose connection with North American ornithology 
is interesting. In 1771 he published a tract, now very scarce and of no consequence 
whatever, entitled “A Catalogue of the Animals of North America.” But it was the 
first attempt to do anything of the sort, —in short, the first thing of its kind. It gives 
302 birds, neither described nor even named scientifically. But that was a large num- 
ber of North American birds to even mention in those days, — more than Wilson gave 
in 1814. Forster followed up this exploit in 1772 with an interesting and valuable 
account of 58 birds from Hudson’s Bay, occupying some fifty pages of the ‘“ Philosophical 
Transactions.” Several of these birds were new to science, and were formally named, — 
such as our White-throated Sparrow, Black-poll Warbler, Hudsonian Titmouse, and 
Eskimo Curlew. Aside from its intrinsic merit, this paper is notable as the first formal 
treatise exclusively devoted to a collection of North American birds sent abroad. The 
period is otherwise marked by the publication in 1780 of Fabricius’ “ Fauna Groenlandica,” 
in which some 50 birds of Greenland receive attention ; and especially by the appearance 
of a great statesman and one of the Presidents of the United States in the réle of orni- 
thologist, Thomas Jefferson’s “Notes on the State of Virginia” having been first pri- 


XVi HISTORICAL PREFACE 


vately printed in Paris in 1782, though the authorized publication was not till 1787. 
It contains a list of 77 birds of Virginia, fortified with references to Catesby, Linnzus, 
and Brisson, as the author’s authorities. There were many editions, one dating 1853. 

The long publication in France of one of the monumental works on general orni- 
thology coincides very nearly with this period. I refer of course to Buffon and his 
collaborators. The “ Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux,” by Buffon and Montbeillard, dates 
in its original edition 1770-1783, being in nine quarto volumes with 264 plain plates. 
It forms a part of the grand set of volumes dating 1749-1804 in their original editions. 
With the nine bird-volumes are associated the magnificent series of colored plates known 
as the “Planches Enluminées,” published in 42 fascicles from 1765 to 1781. The 
plates are 1008 in number, of which 973 represent. birds. 


(1785-1791.) 

The Pennantian Period. —A great landmark — one of the most conspicuous of the 
last century — was set up with the appearance in 1785 of the second volume of Thomas 
Pennant’s “Arctic Zoology.” The whole work, in three quarto volumes with many 
plates, 1784-1787, was ‘‘designed as a sketch of the Zoology of North America.” 
In this year, also, John Latham completed the third volume (or sixth part) of his 
“General Synopsis of Birds.” These two great works have much in common, in so far 
as a more restricted treatise can be compared with a more comprehensive one; and in 
the history of our subject the names of Latham and Pennant are linked as closely as 
those of Catesby and Edwards. The parallel may be drawn still further; for neither 
Pennant nor Latham (up to the date in mention) used binomial names; their species 
had consequently no standing; but they furnished to Gmelin in 1788 the same bases 
of formally-named species of the thirteenth edition of the “Systema Nature,” that. 
Catesby and Edwards had afforded Linneus in 1758 and 1766. Pennant treated up- 
wards of 500 nominal species of North American Birds. The events at large of this brief 
but important period were the progress of Latham’s Supplement to his Synopsis, the first. 
volume of which appeared in 1787, though the second was not completed till 1801 ; 
the appearance in 1790 of Latham’s “ Index Ornithologicus,” in which his birds receive 
Latin names in due form; and the publication in 1788 of the thirteenth edition of the 
“Systema Nature,” as just said. 

We are so accustomed to see “Linn,” and “Gm.” after the names of our longest- 
known birds that we almost unconsciously acquire the notion that Linnzeus and Gmelin 
were great discoverers or describers of birds in those days. But the men who made 
North American ornithology what it was during the last century were Catesby, 
Edwards, Forster, Pennant, Latham, and Bartram. For “the illustrious Swede” was in 
this case little more than a methodical cataloguer, or systematic indexer ; while his editor, 
Gmelin, was merely an industrious, indiscriminate compiler and transcriber. Neither of 
these men discovered anything to speak of in this connection. 


(1791-1800.) 
The Bartramian Period. — William Bartram’s figure in the events we are sketching 
is a notable one, — rather more on account of his bearing upon Wilson’s subsequent ca- 
reer than of his own actual achievements. Wilson is often called the “father of Ameri- 


HISTORICAL PREFACE. XVii 


can ornithology ;” if this designation be apt, then Bartram may be styled its godfather. 
Few are fully aware how much Wilson owed to Bartram, his “guide, philosopher, and 
friend,” who published in 1791 his “Travels through North and South Carolina,” con- 
taining much ornithological matter that was novel and valuable, including a formal 
catalogue of the birds of the Eastern United States, in which many species are named 
asnew. I have always contended that those of his names which are identifiable are 
available, though Bartram frequently lapsed from strict binomial propriety ; and the 
question furnishes a bone of contention to this day. Many birds which Wilson first 
fully described and figured were really named by Bartram, and several of the latter’s 
designations were simply adopted by Wilson, who, in relation to Bartram, is as the 
broader and clearer stream to its principal tributary affluent. The notable “Travels,” 
freighted with its unpretending yet almost portentous bird-matter, went through several 
editions and at least two translations ; and I consider it the starting-point of a distinctively 
American school of ornithology. 

We have seen, in several earlier periods, that men’s names appear in pairs, if not 
also as mates. Thus, Catesby and Edwards; Linneus and Gmelin; Pennant and 
Latham ; and, perhaps, Buffon and Brisson. The Bartramian alter ego is not Wilson, 
but Barton, whose ‘‘ Fragments of the Natural History of Pennsylvania,” 1799, closed 
the period which Bartram had opened, and with it the century also. Benjamin Smith 
Barton’s tract, a folio now very scarce, is doubly a “fragment,” being at once a work 
never finished, and very imperfect as far as it went; but it is one of the most notable 
special treatises of the last century, and I think the first book published in this country 
that is entirely devoted to ornithology. But its author’s laurels must rest mainly upon 
this count, for its influence or impression upon the course of events is scarcely to be rec- 
ognized, —is incomparably less than that made by Bartram’s “ Travels,’ and by his 
mentorship of Wilson. 

By the side of Bartram and Barton stand several lesser figures in the picture of this 
period. Jeremy Belknap treated the birds of New Hampshire in his “ History” of that 
state (1792). Samuel Williams did like service for those of Vermont in his “‘ History ” 
(1794). Samuel Hearne, a pioneer ornithologist in the northerly parts of America, fore- 
shadowed, as it were, the much later ‘‘ Fauna Boreali-Americana”’ in the narrative of his 
journey from Hudson’s Bay to the Northern Ocean —a stout quarto published in 1795. 
Here a chapter of fifty pages is devoted to about as many species of birds; and Hearne’s 
observations have a value which “ time, the destroyer,” has not yet wholly effaced. 


THE Wisontan Epoco: 1800-1824. 
(1800-1808.) 


The Vieillotian Period. — As we round the turn of the century a great work occupies 
the opening years, before the appearance of Wilson, —a work by a foreigner, a French- 
man, almost unknown to or ignored by his contemporaries in America, although he was 
already the author of several illustrated works on ornithology when, in 1807, his “ Histoire 
Naturelle des Oiseaux de l’Amérique Septentrionale ” was completed in two large folio 
volumes, containing more than a hundred engravings, with text relating to several hun- 
dred species of birds of North America and the West Indies; many of them figured for 


xvili HISTORICAL PREFACE. 


the first time, or entirely new to science. This work, bearing much the same relation 
to its times that Catesby’s and Edwards’ respectively did to theirs, is said to have been 
published in twenty-two parts of six plates each, probably during several years; but the 
date of its inception I have never been able to ascertain. However this may be, Vieillot 
alone and completely fills a period of eight years, during which no other notable or even 
mentionable treatise upon North American birds saw the light. Vieillot’s case is an 
exceptional one. As the author of numerous splendidly illustrated works, all of which 
live; of a system of ornithology, most of the generic names contained in which are 
ingrained in the science; of very extensive encyclopedic work in which hundreds of 
species of birds receive new technical names: Vieillot has a fame which time rather 
brightens than obscures. Yet it is to be feared that the world was unkind during his 
lifetime. At Paris, he stood in the shadow of Cuvier’s great name; Temminck assailed 
him from Holland ; while, as to his work upon our birds, many years passed before it 
was appreciated or in any way adequately recognized. Thus, singularly, so great a work 
as the “Histoire Naturelle’? — one absolutely characteristic of a period — had no appre- 
ciable effect upon the course of events till long after the times that saw its birth, when 
Cassin, Baird, and others brought Vieillot into proper perspective. There is so little 
trace of Vieillot during the Wilsonian and Audubonian epochs, that his “ Birds of North 
America” may almost be said to have slept for half a century. But to-day, the solitary 
figure of the Vieillotian period stands out in bold relief. 


(1808-1824.) 

The Wilsonian Period. — The “ Paisley weaver ;” the ‘Scotch pedler ;” the ‘“ melan- 
choly poet-naturalist ;” the ‘father of American ornithology,” — strange indeed are the 
guises of genius, yet stranger its disguises in the epithets by which we attempt to label 
and pigeon-hole that thing which has no name but its own, no place but its own. Alex- 
ander Wilson had genius, and not much of anything else — very little learning, scarcely 
any money, not many friends, and a paltry share of ‘‘the world’s regard” while he lived. 
But genius brings a message which men must hear, and never tire of hearing; it is 
the word that comes when the passion that conceives is wedded with the patience that 
achieves. Wilson was a poet by nature, a naturalist by force of circumstances, an Ameri- 
can ornithologist by mere accident, — that is, if anything can be accidental in the life of 
aman of genius. As a poet, he missed greatness by those limitations of passion which 
seem so sad and so unaccountable ; as the naturalist, he achieved it by the patience that 
knew no limitation till death interposed. As between the man and his works, the very 
touchstone of genius is there; for the man was greater than all his works are. Genius 
may do that which satisfies all men, but never that which satisfies itself; for its inspira- 
tion is infinite and divine, its accomplishment finite and human. Such is the penalty 
of its possession. 

Wilson made, of course, the epoch in which his work appeared, and I cannot restrict 
the Wilsonian period otherwise than by giving to Vieillot his own. The period of Wil- 
son’s actual authorship was brief; it began in September, 1808, when the first volume of 
the “ American Ornithology” appeared, and was cut short by death before the work was 
finished. Wilson, having been born July 6, 1766, and come to America in 1794, died 
August 23, 1813, when his seventh volume was finished ; the eighth and ninth being 


HISTORICAL PREFACE. xix 


completed in 1814 by his friend and editor, George Ord. But from this time to 1824, 
when Bonaparte began to write, the reigning work was still Wilson’s, nothing appearing 
during these years to alter the complexion of American ornithology appreciably. Wil- 
son’s name overshadows nearly the whole epoch, — not that others were not then great, 
but that he was so much greater. This author treated about 280 species, giving faithful 
descriptions of all, and colored illustrations of most of them. There are numerous 
editions of his work, of which the principal are Ord’s, 1828-29, in three volumes ; 
Jameson's, 1831, in four; Jardine’s, 1832, in three; and Brewer's, 1840, in one; all 
of these, excepting of course the first one, containing Bonaparte’s “ American Orni- 
thology” and other matter foreign to the original ‘ Wilson.” In 1814, just as “ Wilson” 
was finished, appeared the history of the memorable expedition under Lewis and Clarke 
—an expedition which furnished some material to Wilson himself, as witness Lewis’ 
Woodpecker, Clarke’s Crow, and the “ Louisiana” Tanager; and more to Ord, who con- 
tributed to the second edition of “ Guthrie’s Geography” an article upon ornithology. 
Ord’s prominence in this science, however, rests mainly upon his connection with Wilson’s 
work, as already noted. Near the close of the Wilsonian period, Thomas Say gave us 
important notices of Western birds, upon the basis of material acquired through Long’s 
Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, the account of which appeared in 1823. In this 
work, Say described sundry species of birds new to science ; but he was rather an ento- 
mnologist than an ornithologist, and his imprint upon our subject is scarcely to be found 
outside the volume just named. A noted —some might say rather notorious — character 
appeared upon the scene during this period, in the person of C. S$. Rafinesque, who seems 
to have been a genius, but one so awry that it is difficult to do aught else than mis- 
understand him, unless we confess that we scarcely understand him at all. In the 
elegant vernacular of the present day he would be called a crank ; but I presume that 
term means that kind of genius which fails of interpretation ; for an unsuccessful genius 
is a crank, and a successful crank is a genius. For the rest, the Wilsonian period was 
marked by great activity in Arctic exploration, in connection with the ornithological 
results of which appear prominently the names of William E. Leach and Edward 
Sabine. 

As illustrating the relation between Wilson and Bartram, which I have already 
pointedly mentioned, I may quote a few lines from Ord’s “Life of Wilson.” ? 


1 ‘His school-heuse and residence being but a short distance from Bartram’s Botanic Garden, situated on 
the west bank of the Schuylkill: a sequestered spot, possessing attractions of no ordinary kind; an acquaintance 
was soon contracted with that venerable naturalist, Mr. William Bartram, which grew into an uncommon friend- 
ship, and continued without the least abatement until severed by death. Here it was that Wilson found him- 
self translated, if we may so speak, into a new existence. He had long been a lover of the works of Nature, and 
had derived more happiness from the contemplation of her simple beauties, than from any other source of gratifi- 
cation. But he had ‘hitherto been a mere novice ; he was now about to receive instructions from one whom the 
experiences of a long life, spent in travel and rural retirement, had rendered qualified to teach. Mr. Bartram 
soon perceived the bent of his friend’s mind, and its congeniality to his own; and took every pains to encourage 
him in a study, which, while it expands the faculties, and purifies the heart, insensibly leads to the contemplation 
of the glorious Author of Nature himself. From his youth Wilson had been an observer of the manners of birds; 
and since his arrival in America he had found them objects of uncommon interest; but he had not yet viewed 
them with the eye of a naturalist.” 

This was about 1800 — rather a little later. Wilson’s “ novitiate” was the Vieillotian period, almost exactly. 
Bartram survived till July 22, 1823, his eighty-fourth year; the date of his death thus coinciding very nearly with 
the close of the Wilsonian epoch and period. 


xx HISTORICAL PREFACE. 


Toe Avupuponian Epocu: 1824-1853. 
(1824-1831.) 


The Bonapartian Period. — A princely person, destined to die one of the most 
famous of modern naturalists — Charles Lucien Bonaparte, early conceived and executed 
the plan of continuing Wilson’s work in similar style, if not in the same spirit. He 
began by publishing a series of “Observations on the Nomenclature of Wilson’s Orni- 
thology,” in the “Journal” of the Philadelphia Academy, 1824-25, republished in an 
octavo volume, 1826. This valuable critical commentary introduced a new feature, — 
decided changes in nomenclature resulting from the sifting and rectification of synonymy. 
It is here that questions of synonymy — to-day the bane and drudgery of the working 
naturalist — first acquire prominence in the history of our special subject. There had 
been very little of it before, and Wilson himself, the least “bookish” of men, gave it 
scarcely any attention. Bonaparte also in 1825 added several species to our fauna upon 
material collected in Florida by the now venerable Titian R. Peale, — whose honored 
name is thus the first of those of men still living to appear in these annals. Bonaparte’s 
“ American Ornithology,” uniform with “ Wilson,” and generally incorporated therewith 
in subsequent editions, as a continuation of Wilson’s work, was originally published in 
four large quarto volumes, running 1825-33. The year 1827, in the midst of this work 
of Bonaparte’s, was a notable one in several particulars. Bonaparte himself was very busy, 
producing a ‘ Catalogue of the Birds of the United States,” which, with a “Supplement,” 
raised the number of species to 366, and of genera to 83; nearly a hundred species 
having been thus become known to us since Ord laid aside the pen. that Wilson had 
dropped. William Swainson the same year described a number of new Mexican species 
and genera, many of which come also into the ‘North American” fauna. But the most 
notable event of the year was the appearance of the first five parts of Audubon’s elephant 
folio plates. In 1828-29, as may also be noted, Ord brought out his three-vol. 8vo 
edition of Wilson. In 1828, Bonaparte returned to the charge of systematically cata- 
loguing the birds of North America, giving now 382 species; and about this time he 
also produced a comparative list of the birds of Rome and Philadelphia. His main 
work having been completed in 1833, as just said, Bonaparte continued his labors with 
a “Geographical and Comparative List of the Birds of Europe and North America,” 
published in London in 1838. This brochure gives 503 European and 471 American 
species. The celebrated zodlogist wrote until 1857, but his connection with North 
American birds was only incidental after 1838. The period here assigned him, 1824— 
1831, may seem too short: but this was the opening of the Audubonian epoch —a 
period of brilliant inception, and one in which events that were soon to mature their 
splendid fruit came crowding fast; so that room must be made at once for others who 
were early in the present epoch. 


(1831-1832.) 


The Swainsonio-Richardsonian Period. —The “ Fauna Boreali-Americana,” the 
ornithological volume of which was published in 1831, made an impression so indelible 
that a period, albeit a brief one, must be put here. The technic of this celebrated 


HISTORICAL PREFACE. xxi 


treatise, more valuable for its descriptions of new species and genera than for its methods 
of classification, was by William Swainson, as were the elegant and accurate colored 
plates ; the biographical matter, by Dr. (later Sir) John Richardson, increased our knowl- 
edge of the life-history of the northerly birds so largely, that it became a fountain of 
facts to be drawn upon by nearly every writer of prominence from that day to this. 
Each of the distinguished authors had previously appeared in connection with our birds, 
— Swainson as above said; Richardson in 1825, in the appendix to Captain Parry’s 
«‘Journal.” The influence of the work on the whole cannot be well overstated. 

Two events, besides the appearance of the “ Fauna,” mark the year 1831. One of 
these is the publication of the first volume of Audubon’s “ Ornithological Biography,” 
being the beginning of the text belonging to his great folio plates. The other is the 
completion of the bird-volumes of Peter Pallas’ famous “‘ Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica,” 
one of the most important contributions ever made to our subject, treating so largely 
as it does of the birds of the region now called Alaska. The same year saw also the 
Jameson edition of “ Wilson and Bonaparte.” 


(1832-1834.) 

The Nuttallian Period.—Thomas Nuttall (born 1786—died 1859) was rather botanist 
than ornithologist; but the travels of this distinguished English-American naturalist 
made him the personal acquaintance of many of our birds, his love for which bore fruit 
in his “ Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and Canada,” of which the first 
volume appeared in 1832, the second in 1834. The work is notable as the first “ hand- 
book” of the subject ; it possesses an agreeable flavor, and I think was the first formal 
treatise, excepting Wilson’s, to pass to a second edition, as it did in 1840. Nuttall’s 
name is permanent in our annals; and many years after he wrote, the honored title was 
chosen to be borne by the first distinctively ornithological association of this country, — 
the “ Nuttall Ornithological Club,” founded at Cambridge in 1873, and still flourishing. 


(1834-1853.) 

The Audubonian Period. — Meanwhile, the incomparable work of Audubon — 
“the greatest monument erected by art to nature” — was steadily progressing. The 
splendid genius of the man, surmounting every difficulty and discouragement of the 
author, had found and claimed its own. That which was always great had come to be 
known and named as such, victorious in its impetuous yet long-enduring battle with 
that curse of the world,—I mean the commonplace; the commonplace, with which 
genius never yet effected a compromise, since genius is necessarily a perpetual menace 
to mediocrity. Audubon and his work were one; he lived in his work, and in his 
work will live forever. When did Audubon die. We may read, indeed, “on Thurs- 
day morning, January 27th, 1851, when a deep pallor overspread his countenance. ... 
Then, though he did not speak, his eyes, which had been so long nearly quenched, 
rekindled with their former lustre and beauty; his spirit seemed to be conscious that 
it was approaching the Spirit-land.” And yet there are those who are wont to exclaim, 
“a soul! a soul! what is that?” Happy indeed are they who are conscious of its 
. existence in themselves, and who can see it in others, every instant of time during their 
lives ! 


Xxil AISTORICAL PREFACE. 


Audubon’s first publication, perhaps, was in 1826,—an account of the Turkey- 
buzzard, in the “Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal,” and some other minor notices 
came from his pen. But his energies were already focused on his life-work, with that 
intense and perfect absorption of self which only genius knows. The first volume of 
the magnificent folio plates, an hundred in number, appeared in 1827-30, in five parts ; 
the second, in 1831-34, of the same number of plates; the third, in 1834-35, likewise 
of the same number of plates; the whole series of 4 volumes, 87 parts, 435 plates and 
1065 figures of birds, being completed in June, 1839. Meanwhile, the text of the 
“ Birds of America,” entitled “ Ornithological Biography,” was steadily progressing, the 
first of these royal octavo volumes appearing in 1831, the fifth and last in 1839. In 
this latter year also appeared the “Synopsis of the Birds of North America,” a single 
handy volume serving as a systematic index to the whole work. In 1840-44 appeared 
the standard octavo edition in seven volumes, with the plates reduced to octavo size 
and the text rearranged systematically ; with a later and better nomenclature than that 
given in the “ Ornithological Biography,” and some other changes, including an appendix 
describing various new species procured during the author’s journey té the upper Mis- 
souri in 1843. In the original elephant folios there were 435 plates ; with the reduction 
in size the number was raised to 483, by the separation of various figures which had 
previously occupied the same plate; and to these 17 new ones were added, making 500 


? are 491 in number ; those in the 


in all. The species of birds treated in the “ Synopsis’ 
work, as it finally left the illustrious author’s hands, are 506 in number, nearly all of 
them splendidly figured in colors. 

In estimating the influence of so grand an accomplishment as this, we must not 
leave Audubon “alone in his glory.” Vivid and ardent was his genius; matchless 
he was both with pen and pencil in giving life and spirit to the beautiful objects he 
delineated with passionate love ; but there was a strong and patient worker by his side, — 
William Macgillivray, the countryman of Wilson, destined to lend the sturdy Scotch 
fibre to an Audubonian epoch. The brilliant French-American naturalist was little of 
a “scientist.” Of his work, the magical beauties of form and color and movement are 
all his ; his page is redolent of Nature’s fragrance: but Macgillivray’s are the bone and 
sinew, the hidden anatomical parts beneath the lovely face, the nomenclature, the 
classification, —in a word, the technicalities of the science. Not that Macgillivray was 
only a closet-naturalist ; he was a naturalist in the best sense—in every sense —of the 
word, and the “vital spark” is gleaming all through his works upon British birds, 
showing his intense and loyal love of Nature in all her moods. But his place in the 
Audubonian epoch in American ornithology is as has been said. The anatomical struc- 
ture of American birds was first disclosed in any systematic manner, and to any consider- 
able extent, by him. But only to-day, as it were, is this most important department 
of ornithology assuming its rightful place; and have we a modem Macgillivray to 
come t 

The sensuous beauty with which Audubon endowed the object of his life was long 
in acquiring, with loss of no comeliness, the aspect more strict and severe of a later and 
maturer epoch, Audubon was practically accomplished in 1844, the year which saw 
his completed work ; but I note no special or material change in the course of events, — 
no name of assured prominence, till 1853, when a new régime, that had meanwhile been 


AISTORICAL PREFACE. xxi 


insensibly established, may be considered to have closed the Andubonian epoch, — the 
Audubonian period thus extending through the nine years after 1844. 

While Audubon was finishing, several mentionable events occurred. I have already 
spoken of Bonaparte’s “ List” of 1838, and of the 1840 edition of Nuttall’s ‘“ Manual.” 
Richardson in 1837 contributed to the Report of the Sixth Meeting of the British Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science an elaborate and important “Report on North 
American Zoology,” relating in due part to birds. The distinguished Danish naturalist, 
Reinhardt, wrote a special treatise on Greenland Birds, 1838; W. B. 0. Peabody one 
upon the birds of Massachusetts, 1839. The important Zodlogy of Captain Beechey’s 
Voyage appeared in 1839, with the birds done by N. A. Vigors. Maximilan, Prince 
of Wied, published his “ Reise in das Innere Nord-America” in 1839-41. Sixteen new 
species of birds from Texas were described and figured by J. P. Giraud in 1841, and 
the same author’s useful “Birds of Long Island” was publisued in 1844. This year 
saw also the bird-volume of De Kay’s “ Zoology of New York.” The Rev. J. H. Linsley 
furnished a notable catalogue of the birds of Connecticut in 1843. A uame intimately 
associated with Audubon’s is that of J. K. Townsend, whose fruitful travels in the 
West in company with Nuttall in 1834 resulted in adding to our list the many new 
species which were published by Townsend himself in 1837, and also utilized by 
Audubon. Townsend’s “Narrative” of his journey appeared in 1839; and the same 
year saw the beginning of a large work which Townsend projected, an ‘ Ornithology 
of the United States,” which, however, progressed no further than one part or number, 
being killed by the octavo edition of Audubon. In 1837 I first find the name of a 
friend of Audubon which often appears in his work — that of Dr. Thomas Mayo Brewer, 
who wrote on the birds of Massachusetts in this year, and in 1840 brought out his use- 
ful and convenient duodecimo edition of “‘ Wilson,” in one volume. In 1844, Audubon’s 
last effectual year, the brothers Wm. M. and 8. F. Baird appear, with a list of the birds 
of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, having the year previously, in July, 1843, described two new 
species of flycatchers, in the first paper ever written by the one who was to make the 
succeeding epoch; and it is significant that the last bird in Audubon’s work was named 
“Emberiza bairdw.” 

Such were the aspects of the ornithological sky as the glorious Audubonian sun 
approached and passed the zenith ; still more significant were the signs of the times as 
that orb neared its golden western horizon. In the interval between 1844 and 1853, 
Baird and Brewer continued ; Cassin and Lawrence appeared in various papers; and 
round these names are grouped those of William Gambel, with new and interesting ob- 
servations in the Southwest; of George A. McCall and S. W. Woodhouse, in the same 
connection ; and of Holbill in respect of Greenland birds. The most important con- 
tributions were the several papers published by Gambel, in 1845 and subsequently, and 
Baird’s Zodlogy of Stansbury’s Expedition, 1852. But no period-marking, still less epoch- 
making, work accelerated the setting of the sun of Audubon. 


Tas Barrpiran Epocu: 1853-18 —. 
(1853-1858.) 


The Cassinian Period. — While much material was accumulating from the explora- 
tion of the great West, and the Bairdian period was rapidly nearing ; while Brewer and 


XXIV HISTORICAL PREFACE. 


Lawrence were continuing their studies and writings, and many other names of lesser 
note were contributing their several shares to the whole result: the figure of John Cassin 
stands prominent. Cassin was born September 6, 1813, and passed from view in the 
Quaker City, January 10, 1869. Numerous valuable papers and several important works 
attest the assiduity and success with which he cultivated his favorite science to the end 
of his days. I think that his first paper was the description of a new hawk, Cymindis 
wilsont, in 1847. Among his most important works are the Ornithology of the Wilkes 
Exploring Expedition ; of the Perry Japan Expedition ; and of the Gilliss Expedition to 
Chili. Aside from his strong codperation with Baird in the great work to be presently 
noticed, Cassin’s seal is set upon North American ornithology in the beautiful book 
begun in 1853 and finished in 1856, entitled “Illustrations of the Birds of California,” 
etc., forming a large octavo volume, illustrated with fifty colored plates. His distinc- 
tive place in ornithology is this: he was the only ornithologist this country has ever 
produced who was as familiar with the birds of the Old World as with those of America. 
Enjoying the facilities of the then unrivalled collection of the Philadelphia Academy, his 
monographic studies were pushed into almost every group of birds of the world at 
large. He was patient and laborious in the technic of his art, and full of book-learning 
in the history of his subject ; with the result, that the Cassinian period, largely by the 
work of Cassin himself, is marked by its “bookishness,” by its breadth and scope in 
ornithology at large, and by the first decided change since Audubon in the aspect of the 
classification and nomenclature of the birds of our country. The Cassinian period marks 
the culmination of the changes that wrought the fall of the Audubonian sceptre in all 
that relates to the technicalities of the science, and consequently represents the beginning 
of a new epoch. 

The peers of this period are only three, — Lawrence, Brewer, and Baird. The for- 
mer of these, already an eminent ornithologist, continued his rapidly succeeding papers 
and was preparing his share of Baird’s great work of 1858 ; though later his attention be- 
came so closely fixed upon the birds of Central and South America, that a “ Lawrencian 
period” is to be found in the history of the ornithology of those countries rather than 
of our own. Dr. Brewer’s various articles appeared, and in 1857 this author, so well 
known since Audubonian times, became the recognized leading odlogist of North America, 
through the publication of the first part of his “ North American Odlogy ” —a work unfor- 
tunately suspended at this point. Though thus fragmentary, this quarto volume stands 
as the first systematic treatise published in this country exclusively devoted to odlogy, and 
giving a considerable series of colored illustrations of eggs. But a larger measure of the 
world’s regard became his much later, when, in 1874, appeared the great “ History of North 
American Birds,” in three quarto volumes, all the biographical matter of which was by 
him ; and, even as I write, two more volumes are about to appear, in which he has like 
large share. Thus closely is the name of Brewer identified with the progress of the 
science for nearly half a century, — from 1837 at least, to 1884, some four years after his 
death, which occurred January 23, 1880. He was born in Boston, November 21, 1814. 

Baird published little during the Cassinian period, being then intent upon the great 
work about to appear; but the number of workers in special fields attests the activity 
of the times. S. W. Woodhouse published his completed observations upon the birds 
of the Southwest in an illustrated octavo volume. Zadock Thompson’s “ Natural History 


HISTORICAL PREFACE. XXV 


of Vermont” (1853) paid attention to the birds of that state. Birds of Wisconsin were 
catalogued by P. R. Hoy; of Ohio, by M. C. Read and Robert Kennicott ; of Illinois, by 
H. Pratten ; of Indiana, by R. Haymond ; of Massachusetts, by F. W. Putnam; and 
various other ‘faunal lists” and local annotations appeared, including President Jeffer- 
son’s Virginian ornithology, three-quarters of a century out of date. Dr. T. C. Henry 
and Dr. A. L. Heermaun wrote upon birds of the Southwest ; Reinhardt continued ob- 
servations on Greenland birds; Dr. Henry Bryant published some valuable papers. 
The since very eminent English ornithologist, Dr. P. L. Sclater, appeared during this 
period in the present connection. The series of Pacific Railroad Reports, which were 
to culminate, so far as ornithology is concerned, with the famous ninth volume, were in 
progress ; the sixth volume, containing Dr. J. 8. Newberry’s valuable and interesting 
article upon the birds of California and Oregon, was published in 1857. Thus the 
Cassinian period, besides being marked as already said in its broader features, was 
notable in its details for the increase in the number of active workers, the extent and 
variety of their independent observations, and the consequent accumulation of materials 
ready to be worked into shape and system. 


(1858-18—.) 

The Bairdian Period. — The ninth volume of the “ Pacific Railroad Reports ” was an 
epoch-making work, bearing the same relation to the times that the respective works 
of Audubon and Wilson had sustained in former years. A great amount of material — 
not all of which is more than hinted at in the foregoing paragraph — was at the service 
of Professor Baird. In the hands of a less methodical, learned, and sagacious naturalist, 
— of one less capable of elaborating and systematizing, —the result would probably have 
been an ordinary official report upon the collections of birds secured during a few years 
by the naturalists of the several explorations and surveys for a railroad route from the 
Mississippi Valley to the Pacific Ocean. But having already transformed the eighth 
volume of the Reports from such a “public document” into a systematic treatise on 
North American Mammals, this author did the same for the birds of North America, 
with the codperation of Cassin and Lawrence. This portly quarto volume, published in 
1858, represents the most important and decided single step ever taken in North Ameri- 
can ornithology in all that relates to the technicalities of the science. It effected a 
revolution — one already imminent in consequence of Cassin’s studies — in classification 
and nomenclature, nearly all the names of our birds which had been in use in the 
Audubonian epoch being changed in accordance with more modern usages in generic 
and specific determinations. While the work contains no biographical matter, — nothing 
of the life-history of birds, it gives lucid and exact diagnoses of the species and genera 
known at the time, with copious synonymy and critical commentary. Various new 
genera are characterized, and many new species are described. The influence of the 
great work was immediate and widespread, and for many years the list of names of the 
738 species contained in the work remained a standard of nomenclature from which 
few desired or indeed were in position to deviate. The value of the work was further 
enhanced in 1860 by its republication, identical in the text, but with the addition of an 
atlas of 100 colored plates. Many of these plates were the same as those which had 
appeared in other volumes of the Pacific Railroad Reports, notably the sixth and tenth 


XXv1 HISTORICAL PREFACE. 


and twelfth (the two latter volumes having appeared in 1859) ; others were those con- 
tained in the “ Mexican Boundary Report” which had appeared under Professor Baird’s 
editorship in 1859; about half of them were new. 

I have spoken of the collaboration of Cassin and Lawrence in the production of this 
remarkable treatise. Considering it only as one of a series of reports upon the Pacific 
Railroad Surveys, I should bring into somewhat of association the names of those who 
contributed the ornithological portions of other volumes, as the fourth, sixth, tenth, and 
twelfth, — Dy. C. B. R. Kennerly, Dr. J. 8. Newberry, Dr. A. L. Heermann, Dr. J. G. 
Cooper, and Dr. George Suckley. Nor should it be forgotten that numberless other col- 
lectors and contributors, whose specimens are catalogued throughout the volume, brought 
their hands to bear upon the erection of this grand monument. 

But what of the genius of this work ?—for I have not measured my words in speak- 
ing of Wilson and Audubon. Can any work be really great without that mysterious 
quality ? Certainly not. This work is instinct with the genius of the times that saw 
its birth. This work is the spirit of an epoch embodied. 

But here I must pause. My little sketch is brought upon the threshold of contem- 
poraneous history, —to the beginning of the Bairdian period, of the close of which, as 
of the duration of the Bairdian epoch, it is not for me to speak. When the splendid 
achievements of American ornithologists during the past quarter of a century shall be 
seen in historical perspective; when the brilliant possibilities of our near future 
shall have become the realizations of a past; when the glowing names that went before 
shall have fired another generation with a noble zeal, a lofty purpose, and a generous 
emulation — then, perhaps, the thread here dropped may be recovered by another hand. 


Yet a few words of Preface proper to the present work appear to be required. The 
original edition of the “Key” was published in October, 1872, in an issue of about 
2,200 copies. It was not stereotyped, and has been for some years entirely out of print. 
It formed an imperial octavo of 361 pages, illustrated with 238 woodcuts in the text and 
6 steel plates. It was designed as a manual or text-book of North American Ornithology. 
To meet this design, the Introduction consisted of a general account of the external 
characters of birds, an explanation of the technical terms used in describing them, and 
some exposition of the leading principles of classification and nomenclature. An artificial 
“key” or analysis of the genera, constructed upon a plan found practically useful in 
botany, but seldom applied to zoélogy, was introduced, to enable one who had some 
knowledge of the technical terms to refer a given specimen to its proper genus. Then, 
in the body of the work, each species was briefly described, with indication of its 
geographical distribution and references to several leading authorities. The families and 
orders of North American birds were also characterized, and a synopsis of the fossil birds 
was appended. The work introduced many decided changes in classification and nomen- 
clature which the then state of the science seemed to require, and systematically recog- 
nized a large number of those subspecies or geographical races which are now indicated 
by the use of trinomial nomenclature, — a method now fully established and recognized 
as peculiar to the “‘ American school.” The central idea of the treatise was to enable one 


HISTORICAL PREFACE. XXVU 


to identify and label his specimens, though he might have no other knowledge of orni- 
thology than such as the book itself gave him. I have been given to understand that 
the work has answered its purpose, and has had a useful career; and I have long since 
been advised by my esteemed publishers that they were ready to issue a second edition, 
which I have only just now found time to complete. 

The present edition of the ‘‘ Key” is conceived in the same spirit as the former one, 
to fulfil precisely the same purpose. But it has been entirely rewritten, and is quite 
another work, though the old title is preserved. An author who practises his profession 
diligently for twenty years is apt to find fault with his first book, and seek to remedy 
its defects when opportunity offers. It has become quite clear to me, as it doubtless has 
to others, that the old “ Key” no longer turns in the lock with ease and precision, — not 
that it has rusted from disuse, but that the more complicated mechanism of the lock re- 
quires its key to be refitted. During no previous period has our knowledge gone faster 
or farther or more surely than in the interval between the two editions of the ‘“ Key ;” 
there are scores of active and enthusiastic workers where there was one before ; scores of 
important treatises have appeared ; the literature of the subject has been searched, sifted, 
and systematized ; every corner of our country has been ransacked for birds, and the list 
of our species and subspecies has reached about 900 by the many late discoveries ; active 
interest in this branch of science is no longer confined to professed ornithologists ; the 
importance of avian anatomy is as fully recognized as is the beauty of the life-history of 
birds ; a distinctively American school of ornithology has grown up, introducing radical 
changes in nomenclature and classification ; a quarterly journal of ornithology has reached 
its ninth annual volume ; an American Ornithologists’ Union, the membership of which 
extends to every quarter of the globe, has been founded. 

So rapid, indeed, has been the progress, and so radical the changes wrought during the 
last few years, that I doubt not this is the time to take our bearings anew and proceed 
with judicious conservatism. Neither do I doubt that just at this moment a new 
departure is imminent, hinging upon the establishment of the American Ornithologists’ 
Union. It behooves us, therefore, to consider the question, not alone of where we stand 
to-day, but also, of whither we are tending ; for we are certainly in a transition state, and 
not even the near future can as yet be accurately forecast. The pliability and elasticity of 
our trinomial system of nomenclature is very great ; and the method lends itself so readily to 
the nicest discriminations of geographical races, — of the finest shades of variation in sub- 
specific characters with climatic and other local conditions of environment, that our new toy 
may not impossibly prove a dangerous instrument, if it be not used with judgment and cau- 
tion. We seem to be in danger of going too far, if not too fast, in this direction. It is not 
to ery “halt!” — for any advance is better than any standstill ; but it is to urge prudence, 
caution, and circumspection, lest we be forced to recede ingloriously from an untenable 
position, — that these words are penned, with a serious sense of their necessity. 

In the present unsettled and perplexing state of our nomenclature, when appeal to 
no “authority ” or ultimate jurisdiction is possible, it is well to formulate and codify 
some canons of nomenclature by which to agree to abide. It is well to apply such 
canons rigidly, with thorough sifting of synonymy, no matter what precedents be disre- 
garded, what innovations be caused. It is well to use trinomials for subspecific deter- 
minations. But it is not well to overdo the ‘variety business ;” feather-splitting is 


XXVlii HISTORICAL PREFACE. 


no better than hair-splitting, and the liberties of the “ American idea” must never 
degenerate into license. Our action in this regard must stop short of a point where an 
unfavorable reaction would be the inevitable result. 

But I have digressed, in saying a warning word, from the point of the conclusion of 
this Preface, which is simply to describe the new edition of the ‘‘ Key” with special 
reference to its difference from the former one. The classification and nomenclature are 
materially different, in consequence of the progress of our knowledge during the past twelve 
years. In 1873, a year after the old “Key” appeared, I published a “ Check List,” con- 
formed exactly with the nomenclature of the ‘‘ Key.” In 1882, when I had recast the ‘‘ Key,” 
I published a second edition of the “ Check List” in conformity with the new “ Key.” 
The present work, therefore, gives the same names, with scarcely any variance, though with 
a few additional ones; the new “Check List” and the new “‘ Key” being practically one 
in all that pertains to nomenclature, and representing a particular phase of the subject. 
The numbering of the species, also, corresponds with that in the “ Check List.” 

Part I. of the present work consists of my “Field Ornithology,” originally published as 
a separate treatise in 1874, and now for the first time incorporated with the “Key.” It is 
reprinted nearly verbatim, but with some little amplification towards its end, and the intro- 
duction of a few illustrations. 

Part II. consists of the introductory matter of the old “ Key,” very greatly amplified. 
In its present shape it is a sort of “ Closet Ornithology ” as distinguished from a “ Field 
Ornithology ;” being a treatise on the classification and structure of birds, explaining and 
defining the technical terms used in ornithology, —in short, teaching the principles of 
the science and illustrating their application. 

Part III., the main body of the work, describes all the species and subspecies of 
North American birds known to me, defines the genera, and characterizes the families and 
higher groups. The descriptions are much more elaborate than those of the old “ Key,” 
and I trust that such amplification has been made without loss of that sharpness of 
definition which was the aim of the first edition. I have kept steadily in view my main 
purpose — the ready identification of specimens. In many cases I have drawn upon my 
other works — such as the “ Birds of the Colorado Valley,” the “Birds of the North- 
west,” and several of my Monographs, — for available ready-made descriptions ; but for 
the most part the matter of this kind is new. Scarcely any of this part of the old 
“Key” remains as it was. One improvement, I think, will be found in the removal of 
the unnecessary references to authorities which closed the descriptive paragraphs of the 
old “Key,” and the utilization of the space thus gained by introducing terse biograph- 
ical items, with special reference to nests and eggs, to song, flight, migrative and other 
habits ; the technical descriptions of the species thus also epitomizing the life-history of 
the birds. Geographical distribution is also more fully treated, as its importance de- 
serves. More attention has been paid to the description of the plumages of females and 
young birds. The specific names head their respective paragraphs, instead of tailing-off 
the same; they are also marked for accent, and their etymology is concisely stated, — 

though for this matter the student should continue to use the new “Check List.” 

As regards the artificial “key to the genera” of the old work, it has proven that 
too much was attempted in undertaking to carry the student at once to our refined mod- 
ern genera. I have accordingly substituted artificial keys to the orders and families ; 


HISTORICAL PREFACE. XXIx 


and throughout the work have analyzed species under their respective genera, these 
under their subfamilies or families, and these again under their orders. 

Part IV. consists of a Synopsis of the Fossil birds of North America, corresponding 
to the appendix of the old “ Key,” but augmented by later discoveries. As before, this 
part of the work has been revised by Professor O. C. Marsh. 

In the mechanical execution of the work, it has been my aim to compress the most 
matter into the least space and leave no waste paper, in order to keep the treatise within 
a single portable volume of convenient text-book size. I judge that there is nearly four 
times as much matter in the present volume as there was in the original edition, the 
page being much more closely printed, in a smaller type, and on thinner paper. 

The old “Key” was insufficiently illustrated, and the average character of the cuts 
was not entirely satisfactory. The present edition more than doubles the number of 
illustrations. These are in part original, in part derived from various sources, all of 
which are duly accredited in the text. The basis of the series is of course the cuts of the 
former edition ; but many of these have been discarded and replaced by better ones. 
About fifty of the most effective engravings were secured by my publishers from Brelm’s 
“Thierleben ;” nearly as many more are from Dixon’s “ Rural Bird Life,” the American 
edition of which is owned by the same firm. A few have been copied from D. G. Elliot’s 
“ Birds of America,” and a few others from the Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of 
London. About fifty of the prettiest ones were drawn by Mr. Edwin Sheppard and en- 
graved by Mr. H. H. Nichols, expressly for this edition. Another set-— how many there 
are of them I do not know —are from my own drawings, and have mostly appeared in 
other of my publications. Several of Mr. R. Ridgway’s drawings have been placed at my 
service, through his kind attentions, and with Professor Baird’s permission. I am in- 
debted to Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S. A., for about thirty original anatomical drawings, as 
well as for the colored frontispiece. Mr. Henry W. Elhott has kindly put at my dis- 
position several of his own artistic compositions, and I have received some very beautiful 
engravings with the compliments of the Century Company of New York. 

It is always agreeable to pay one’s respects when due, and acknowledge assistance 
and encouragement received in the preparation of one’s books. Yet what an embarrass- 
ment is mine now! For there is no writer of repute on North Ameriean ornithology, 
and scarcely a leader of the science at large, who has not assisted in the making of the 
“Key ;” and there is no reader of the work who has not encouraged its author to produce 
this new edition. I am trebly in debt, —to thousands whose names I know not; to 
hundreds I only know by name and fame ; to scores of tried and trusted friends. 

But let me say how much I am indebted to my compositors and proof-readers of the 
University Press at Cambridge for the skill with which they have turned copy into print, 
and to the proprietors of that justly-celebrated establishment for the pains they have 
taken in making the book an example of beautiful and accurate typography. Let me 
recognize here the liberality and generosity of my friend, Mr. Dana Estes, senior of the 
firm of Estes and Lauriat, in permitting me to make the book to suit myself, and in 
sparing no expense to which he might be put in consequence. Let me not forget that 
during its preparation, as for many years previously, I have enjoyed to the fullest extent 
the privileges of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum, through the 
courtesy of Professor Baird, my access to the great collection of birds bemy always facili- 


Xxx HISTORICAL PREFACE. 


tated by the attentions of Mr. Robert Ridgway, the Curator of Ornithology. And may 
that less tangible but not less real source of strength which inheres in the sympathetic 
and genial intercourse of a lifetime continue to be mine to draw upon, for all my works, 
from my warm friend, J. A. Allen, the first President of the American Ornithologists’ ° 
Union. 

“ Prefaces,” says some one, “ever were and still are but of two sorts; .. . still the 
author keeps to his old and wonted method of prefacing, when, at the beginning of his 
book he enters, either with a halter about his neck, submitting himself to his reade1’s 
mercy whether he shall be hanged, or no; or else in a huffing manner he appears with 
the halter in his hand, and threatens to hang his reader, if he gives him not his good 
word.” But I wish neither to hang nor be hanged ; I wish the work were better than it 
is, for my readev’s sake ; I wish the author were better than he is, for my own sake ; and 
above all I wish that every author may rise superior to his best work, to the end that the 
man himself be judged above his largest achievements. It is well to do great things, 
but better still to be great. 

E. C. 


SmiruHsonian INSTITUTION, 
Wasuincron, D.C., Apriz, 1884. 


Parr If. 


FIELD ORNITHOLOGY: 


BEING A 


MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION FOR COLLECTING, PREPARING, 
AND PRESERVING BIRDS. 


IELD ORNITHOLOGY must lead the way to Systematic and Descriptive Ornithology. 
The study of Birds in the field is an indispensable prerequisite to their study in the 
library and the museum. Directions for observing aud collecting birds, for preparing and pre- 
serving them as objects of natural history, will greatly help the student on his way to become 
a successful Ornithologist, if he will faithfully and intelligently observe them. It is believed 
that the practical Instructions which the author has to give will, if followed out, enable any 
one who has the least taste or aptitude for such pursuits to become proficient in the necessary 
qualifications of the good working ornithologist. These instructions are derived from the 
writer's own experience, reaching in time over twenty years, and extending in area over large 
portions of North America. Having made in the field the personal acquaintance of most 
species of North American birds, and having shot and skinned with his own hands several 
thousand specimens, he may reasonably venture to speak with confidence, if not also with 
authority, respecting methods of study and imanipulation. Feeling so much at home iu the 
field, with his gun for destroying birds, and his instruments for preserving their skins, le 
wishes to put the most inexperienced student equally at ease; and therefore begs to lay 
formality aside, that he may address the reader familiarly, as if chatting with a friend on a 
subject of mutual interest. 


§1.—IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE. 


The Double-barrelled Shot Gun is your main reliance. Under some circumstances 
you may trap or snare birds, catch them with bird-lime, or use other devices ; but such cases 
are exceptions to the rule that you will shoot birds, aud for this purpose no weapon compares 
with the one just mentioned. The soul of good advice respecting the selection of a gun is, 
Get the best one you can afford to buy ; go the full length of your purse in the matters of 
material and workmanship. To say nothing of the prime requisite, safety, or of the next most 
desirable quality, efficiency, the durability of a high-priced gun makes it cheapest in the end. 

1 


2 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


Style of finish is obviously of little consequence, except as an index of other qualities; for 
inferior guns rarely, if ever, display the exquisite appointments that mark a first-rate arm. 
There is really so little choice among good guns that nothing need be said on this score; you 
cannot miss it if you pay enough to any reputable maker or reliable dealer. But collecting 
is a specialty, and some guns are better adapted than others to your particular purpose, which 
is the destruction, as a rule, of small birds, at moderate range, with the least possible injury 
to their plumage. Probably three-fourths or more of the birds of a miscellaneous collection 
average under the size of a pigeon, and were shot within thirty yards. A heavy gun is there- 
fore unnecessary, in fact ineligible, the extra weight being useless. You will find a gun of 
7% to 8 pounds weight most suitable. For similar reasons the bore should be small; I prefer 
14 gauge, and should not think of going over 12. To judge from the best sporting authorities, 
length of barrel is of less consequence than many suppose; for myself, I incline to a rather 
long barrel, — one nearer 33 than 28 inches, —believing that such a barrel may throw shot 
better; but Iam not sure that this is even the rule, while it is well known that several 
circumstances of loading, besides some almost inappreciable differences in the way barrels are 
bored, will cause guns apparently exactly alike to throw shot differently. Length and crook 
of stock should of course be adapted to your figure, —a gun may be made to fit you, as well 
as a coat. For wild-fowl shooting, and on some other special occasions, a heavier and 
altogether more powerful gun will be preferable. 


Breech-Loader vs. Muzzle-Loader, a case long argued, may be considered settled in 
favor of the former. Provided the mechanism and workmanship of the breech be what they 
should, there are no valid objections to offset obvious advantages, some of which are these : 
ease and rapidity of loading, and consequently delivery of shots in quick succession ; facility of 
cleaning; compactness and portability of ammunition ; readiness with which different-sized shot 
may be used. This last is highly important to the collector, who never knows the moment 
he may wish to fire at a very different bird from such as he has already loaded for. The 
muzzle-loader must always contain the fine shot with which nine-tenths of your specimens 
will be secured; if in both barrels, you cannot deal with a hawk or other large bird with 
reasonable prospects of success; if in only one barrel, the other being more heavily charged, 
you are crippled to the extent of exactly one-half of your resources for ordinary shooting. 
Whereas, with the breech-loader you will habitually use mustard-seed in both barrels, and yet 
can slip in a different shell in time to seize most opportunities requiring large shot. This con- 
sideration alone should decide the case. But, moreover, the time spent in the field in loading 
an ordinary gun is no small item; while cartridges may be charged in your leisure at home. 
This should become the natural occupation of your spare inoments. No time is really gained ; 
you simply change to advantage the time consumed. Metal shells, charged with loose ammu- 
nition, and susceptible of being reloaded inany times, may be used instead of any special fixed 
ammunition which, once exhausted in a distant place (and circumstances may upset the bes! 
calculations on that score), leaves the gun useless. On charging the shells mark the number 
of the shot used on the outside wad; or better, use colored wads, say plain white for dust shot, 
and red, blue, and green for certain other sizes. If going far away, take as many shells as you 
think can possibly be wanted — and u few more. 


Experience, however, will soon teach you to prefer paper cartridges for breech-loaders. 
They may of course be loaded according to cireumstances, with the same facility as metal 
shells, and even reloaded if desired. It is a good deal of trouble to take care of metal shells, 
to prevent loss, keep them clean, and avoid bending or indenting ; while there is often a prac- 
tical difficulty in recapping— at least with the common styles that take a special primer. 
Those fitted with a screw top holding a nipple for ordinary caps are expensive. Paper cart- 


IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE. 3 


ridges come already capped, so that this bother is avoided, as it is not ordinarily worth while 
to reload them. They are made of different colors, distinguishing various sizes of shot used 
without employ of colored wads otherwise required. They may be taken into the field empty 
and loaded on occasion to suit; but it is better to pay a trifle extra to have them loaded at the 
shop. In such ease, about four-fifths of the stock should contain mustard-sced, nearly all the 
rest about No. 7, a very few being reserved for about No. 4. Cost of ammunition is hardly 
appreciably increased ; its weight is put in the most convenicntly portable shape; the whole 
apparatus for carrying it, and loading the shells, is dispensed with; much time is saved, the 
entire drudgery (excepting gun-cleaning) of collecting being avoided. I was prepared in this 
way during the summer of 1873 for the heaviest work I ever succeeded in accomplishing during 
the same length of time. In June, when birds were plentiful, I easily averaged fifteen skins 
a day, and occasionally made twice as many. As items serving to base calculations, I may 
mention that in four months I used about two thousand cartridges, loaded, at $42 per M., 
with seven-eighths of an ounce of shot and two and three-fourths drachms of powder; only 
about three hundred were charged with shot larger than mustard-seed. Iu estimating the size 
of a collection that may result from use of a given number of cartridges, it may not be safe for 
even a good shot to count on much more than half as many specimens as cartridges. The 
number is practically reduced by the following steps: — Cartridges lost or damaged, or orig- 
inally defective ; shots missed; birds killed or wounded, riot recovered; specimens secured 
unfit for preservation, or not preserved for any reason ; specimens accidentally spoilt in stuffing, 
or subsequently damaged so as to be not worth keeping; and finally, use of cartridges to 
supply the table. 


Other Weapons, ete. — An ordinary single-barrel gun will of course answer; but is a 
sorry makeshift, for it is sometimes so poorly coustructed as to be unsafe, and can at best be 
only just half as effective. This remark does not apply to any of the fine single-barrelled breech- 
loaders now made. You will find them very effective weapons, and they are not at all expen- 
sive. An arm now much used by collectors is a kind of breech-loading pistol, with or without 
a skeleton gun-stock to screw into the handle, and taking a particular style of metal cartridge, 
charged with a few grains of powder, or with nothing but the fulminate. They are very light, 
very cheap, safe and easy to work, and astonishingly effective up to twenty or thirty yards; 
making probably the best ‘second choice” after the matchless double-barrelled breech- 
loader itself, The cane-gun should be mentioned in this connection. It is a single-barrel, 
lacquered to look like a stick, with a brass stopper at the muzzle to imitate a ferule, counter- 
sunk hammer and trigger, and either a simple curved handle, or a light gunstock-shaped piece 
that serews in. The affair is easily mistaken for a cane. Some have acquired considerable 
dexterity in its use; my own experience with it is very limited and unsatisfactory ; the handle 
always hit me in the face, and I generally missed ny bird. Jt has only two recommendations. 
If you approve of shooting on Sunday and yet seruple to shock popular prejudice, you can slip 
out of town unsuspected. If you are shooting where the law forbids destruction of small birds, 
—a wise and good law that you may sometimes be inclined to defy, — artfully careless handling 
of the deceitful implement may prevent arrest and fine. A blow-gun is sometimes used. It is 
a long slender tube of wood, metal, or glass, through which clay-balls, tiny arrows, etc., are 
projected by force of the breath. It must be quite an art to use such a weapon successfully, 
and its employment is necessarily exceptional. Some uncivilized tribes are said to possess 
marvellous skill in the use of long bamboo blow-guns; and such people are often valuable 
employés of the collector. I have had no experience with the noiseless air-gun, which is, in 
effect, a modified blow-gun, compressed air being the explosive power. Nor can I say much 
of various methods of trapping birds that may be practised. On these points I must leave you 
to your own devices, with the remark that horse-hair snares, set over a nest, are often of great 


4 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


service in securing the parent of eggs that might otherwise remain unidentified. I have no 
practical knowledge of bird-lime ; I believe it is seldom used in this country. A method of 
netting birds alive, which I have tried, is both easy and successful. A net of fine green silk, 
some 8 or 10 feet square, is stretched perpendicularly across a narrow part of one of the tiny 
brooks, overgrown with briers and shrubbery, that intersect many of our meadows. Retreating 
to a distance, the collector beats along the shrubbery making all the noise he can, urging on 
the little birds till they reach the almost invisible net and become entangled in trying to fly 
through. I have in this manner taken a dozen sparrows and the like at one “drive.” But 
the gun can rarely be laid aside for this or any similar device. 


Ammunition.— The best powder is that combining strength and cleanliness in the highest 
compatible degree. In some brands too much of the latter is sacrificed to the former. Other 
things being equal, a rather coarse powder is preferable, since its slower action tends to throw 
shot closer. Some numbers are said to be ‘‘too quick” for fine breech-loaders. Inexperienced 
sportsmen and collectors almost invariably use too coarse shot. When unnecessarily large, two 
evils result: the number of pellets in a load is decreased, the chances of killing being corre- 
spondingly lessened; and the plumage is unnecessarily injured, either by direct mutilation, 
or by subsequent bleeding through large holes. As already hinted, shot cannot be too fine fur 
your routine collecting. Use ‘‘ mustard-seed,” or “‘ dust-shot,” as it is variously called; it is 
smaller than any of the sizes usually numbered. As the very finest can only be procured in 
cities, provide yourself liberally on leaving any centre of civilization for even a country village, 
to say nothing of remote regions. A small bird that would have been torn to pieces by a few 
large pellets, may be riddled with mustard-seed and yet be preservable ; moreover, there is, as 
a rule, little or no bleeding from such minute holes, which close up by the elasticity of the 
tissues involved. It is astonishing what large birds may be brought down with the tiny pellets. 
I have killed hawks with such shot, knocked over a wood ibis at forty yards and once shot 
a wolf dead with No. 10, though I am bound to say the animal was within a few feet of me. 
After dust-shot, and the nearest number or two, No. 8 or 7 will be found most useful. Water- 
fowl, thick-skinned sea-birds, like loons, cormorants, and pelicans, and a few of the largest land 
birds, require heavier shot. I have had no experience with the substitution of fine gravel or 
sand, much less water, as a projectile; besides shot I never fired anything at a bird except 
my ramrod, on one or two occasions, when I never afterwards saw either the bird or the stick. 
The comparatively trivial matter of caps will repay attention. Breech-loaders not discharged 
with a pin take a particular style of short cap called a “ primer; ” for other guns the best 
water-proof lined caps will prevent annoyance and disappointment in wet weather, and may 
save you an eye, for they only split when exploded ; whereas, the flimsy cheap ones — that 
“G D” trash, for instance, sold in the corner grocery at ten cents a hundred — usually Hy 
to pieces. Cut felt wads are the only suitable article. Ely’s “chemically prepared ” wadding 
is the best. It is well, when using plain wads, occasionally to drive a greased one through 
the barrel. Since you may sometimes run out of wads through an unexpected contingency, 
always keep a wad-cutter to fit your gun. You can make serviceable wads of pasteboard, but 
they are inferior to felt. Cut them on the flat sawn end of a stick of firewood: the side of a 
plank does not do very well. Use a wooden mallet, instead of a hammer or hatchet, and so 
save your cutter. Soft paper is next best after wads; I have never used rags, cotton or tow, 
fearing these tinder-like substances might leave a spark in the barrels. Crumbled leaves or 
grass will answer at a pinch. I have occasionally, in a desperate hurry, loaded and filled 
without any wadding. 


Other Equipments. — (a.) For the Gun. A gun-case will come cheap in the end, 
especially if you travel much. The usual box, divided into compartments, and well lined, 


IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE. 5 


is the best, though the full length leather or india-rubber cloth case answers very well. The 
box should contain a small kit of tools, such as mainspring-vice, nipple-wrench, screw-driver, 
ete. A stout hard-wood cleaning rod, with wormer, will be required. It is always safe to 
have parts of the gun-lock, especially mainspring, in duplicate. For muzzle-loaders extra 
nipples and extra ramrod heads and tips often come into use. For breech-loaders the appara- 
tus for charging the shells is so useful as to be practically indispensable. (b.) For anmuni- 
tion. Metal shells or paper cartridges may be carried loose in the large lower coat pocket, 
or in a leather satchel. There is said to be a chance of explosion by some unlucky blow, when 
they are so carried, but I never knew of an instance. Another way is to fix them separately 
in a row in snug loops of soft leather sewn continuously along a stout waist-belt; or in several 
such horizontal rows on a square piece of thick leather, to be slung by a strap over the shoul- 
der. But better than anything else is a stout linen vest, similarly furnished with loops holding 
each a cartridge ; this distributes the weight so perfectly, that the usual ‘‘ forty rounds” may 
be carried without feeling it. The appliances for loose ammunition are almost endlessly 
varied, so every one may consult his taste or convenience. But now that everybody uses the 
breech-loader, shot-pouches and powder-flasks are among the things that were. (c.) For 
specimens. You must always carry paper in which to wrap up your specimens, as more par- 
ticularly directed beyond. Nothing is better for this purpose than writing-paper; ‘‘ rejected” 
or otherwise useless MSS. may thus be utilized. The ordinary game bag, with leather back 
and network front, answers very well; but a light basket, fitting the body, such as is used 
by fishermen, is the best thing to carry specimens in. Avoid putting specimens into pockets, 
unless you have your coat-tail largely excavated : crowding them into a close pocket, where 
they press each other, and receive warmth from the person, will injure them. It is always 
well to take a little cotton into the field, to plug up shot-holes, mouth, nostrils, or vent, imme- 
diately, if required. (d.) For Yourself. The indications to be fulfilled in your clothing are 
these: Adaptability to the weather; and since a shooting-coat is not conveniently changed, 
while an overcoat is ordinarily ineligible, the requirement is best met by different underclothes. 
Easy fit, allowing perfect freedom of muscular action, especially of the arms. Strength of 
fabric, to resist briers and stand wear; velveteen and corduroy are excellent materials. Sub- 
dued color, to render you as inconspicuous as possible, and to show dirt the least. Multiplicity 
of pockets — a perfect shooting-coat is an ingenious system of hanging pouches about the 
person. Broad-soled, low-heeled boots or shoes, giving a firm tread even when wet. Close- 
fitting cap with prominent visor, or low soft felt hat, rather broad brimmed. Let india-rubber 
goods alone ; the field is no place for a sweat-bath. 


Qualifications for Success. — With the outfit just indicated you command all the required 
appliances that you can buy, and the rest lies with yourself. Success hangs upon your own 
exertions; upon your energy, industry, and perseverance; your knowledge and skill; your 
zeal and enthusiasm, in collecting birds, much as in other affairs of life. But that your 
efforts —maiden attempts they must once have been if they be not such now—may be directed 
to best advantage, further instructions may not be unacceptable. 


To Carry a Gun without peril to human life or limb is the a D ¢ of its use. “ There’s 
death in the pot.” Such constant eare is required to avoid accidents that no man ean give it 
by continual voluntary efforts: safe carriage of the gun must become an unconscious habit, fixed 
as the movements of an automaton. The golden rule and whole secret is: the muzzle must 
never sweep the horizon ; accidental discharge should send the shot into the ground before your 
feet, or away up in the air. There are several safe and easy ways of holding a piece: they 
will be employed by turns to relieve particular muscles when fatigued. 1. Hold it in the 
hollow of the arm (preferably the left, as you can recover to aim in less time than fron the 


6 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


right), across the front of your person, the hand on the grip, the muzzle elevated about, 45°. 
2. Hang it by the trigger guard hitched over the forearm brought round to the breast, the 
stock passing behind the upper arm, the muzzle pointing to the ground a pace or so in front 
of you. 3. Shoulder it, the hand on the grip or heel-plate, the muzzle pointing upward 
at least 45°. 4. Shoulder it reversed, the hand grasping the barrels about their middle, the 
muzzle pointing forward and downward: this is perfectly admissible, but is the most awkward 
position of all to recover from. Always carry a loaded gun at half-cock, unless you are about 
to shoot. Most good guus are now fitted with rebounding locks, an arrangement by which 
the hammer is thrown back to half-cock as soon as the blow is delivered on the pin. This 
admirable device is a great safe-guard, and is particularly eligible for breech-loaders, as the 
Uuless the lock fail, 
cept under these circumstances: a, a direct blow on the 


barrels may be unlocked and relocked without touching the hammers. 


accidental discharge is impossible, ¢ 
nipple or pin; 0b, catching of both hammer and trigger simultaneously, drawing back of 
the former and its release whilst the trigger is still held, — the chances against which are 
simply incalculable. Full-cock, ticklish as it seems, is safer than no-cock, when a tap on 
the hammer or even the heel-plate, or a slight catch and release of the hammer, may cause 
discharge. Never let the muzzle of a loaded gun point toward your own person for a 
single instant. Get your gun over fences, or into boats or carriages, before you get over 
or in yourself, or at any rate no later. Remove caps or cartridges on entering a house. 
Never aim a gun, loaded or not, at any object, unless you mean to press the trigger. Never 
put a loaded gun away long enough to forget whether it is loaded or not; never leave a 
loaded gun to be found by others under cireumstances reasonably presupposing it to be un- 
loaded. Never put a gun where it can be knocked down by a dog or a child. Never imagine 
that there can be any excuse for leaving a breech-loader loaded under any cireumstances. 
Never forget that the idiots who kill people because they ‘did n’t know it was loaded,” are 
perennial. Never forget that though a gunning accident may be sometimes interpreted (from 
a certain standpoint) as a “dispensation of Providence,” such dispensatious happen oftenest 
to the careless. 


To Clean a Gun properly requires some knowledge, more good temper, and most 
“‘elbow-grease ;” it is dirty, disagreeable, imevitable work, which laziness, business, tiredness, 
indifference, and good taste will by tums tempt you to shirk. After a hunt you are tired, have 
your clothes to change, a meal to eat, a lot of birds to skin, a journal to write up. If you 
‘“sub-let” the contract the chances are it is but half fulfilled; serve yourself, if you want to 
be well served. Tf you cannot find time for a regular cleaning, an intolerably foul gun may be 
inade to do another day’s work by swabbing for a few momeuts with a wet (not dripping) rag, 
and then with an oiled one. For the full wash use cold water first; it loosens dirt better than 
hot water. Set the barrels in a pail of water; wrap the end of the cleaning rod with tow or 
cloth, and pump away till your arms ache. Change the rag or tow, and the water too, till 
they both stay clean for all the swabbing you ean do. Fill the barrels with boiling water till 
they are well heated; pour it out, wipe as dry as possible inside and out, and set them by a 
fire. Finish with a lighé oiling, inside and out; touch up all the inetal about the stock, and 
polish the wood-work. Do not remoye the locks oftener than is necessary ; every time they 
are taken out, something of the exquisite fitting that marks a good gun may be lost; as long 
as they work smoothly take it for granted they are all right. The same direction applies to 
nipples. To keep a gun well, under long disuse, it should have had a particularly thorough 

. A : So 
cleaning ; the chambers should be packed with greasy tow; greased wads may bo rammed at 
intervals along ise ihe or the barrels may be filled with melted tallow. Neat’s-foot is 
recommended as the best eas rocured oil; porpoise-oil which is ‘ 
recominended as t est easily procured oil ; porpoise-oil which is, I believe, used by v 


rateh- 


makers, is the very best; the oil made for use on sewing-iachines is excellent ; “olive” oil 


IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE. 7 


(made of lard) for table use answers the purpose. The quality of any oil may be improved by 
putting in it a few tacks, or seraps of zine, — the oil expends its rusty capacity in oxidizing the 
metal. Inferior oils get “sticky.” One of the best preventives of rust is mercurial (** blue”) 
ointment: it may be freely used. Kerosene will remove rust; but use it sparingly for it 
‘eats sound metal too. 


To Load a Gun effectively requires something more than knowledge of the facts that the 
powder should go in before the shot, and that each should have a wad a-top. Probably the 
most nearly universal fault is use of too much shot for the amount of powder; and the nest, 
too much of both. The rule is badk for bulk of powder and shot. If not exactly this, then 
rather less shot than powder. It is absurd to suppose, as some persons who ought to know 
better do, that the more shot in a gun the greater the chances of killing. The projectile 
force of a charge cannot possibly be greater than the vs merti@ of the gun as held by the 
shooter. The explosion is manifested in all directions, and blows the shot one way simply 
and only because it has no other escape. If the resistance in front of the powder were 
greater than elsewhere, the shot would not budge, but the gun would tly backward, or 
burst. This always reminds me of Lord Dundreary’s famous conundrum — Why does a dog 
wag his tail? Because he is bigger than his tail; otherwise the tail would wag hin. A 
gun shoots shot because the gun is the heavier; otherwise the shot would shoot the gun. 


Every unnecessary pellet is a pellet against you, uot agaiust the gaine. The experienced sports 

man uses about one-third less shot than the tyro, with proportionally better result, other things 
being equal. As to powder, moreover, a gun can only burn just so much, and every grain 
blown out unburnt is wasted if nothing more. No express directions for absulute weight or 
measures of either powder or shot can be given; in fact, different guns take as their most 
effective charge such a variable amount of ammunition, that one of the first things you have to 
learn about your own arm is, its normal charge-gauge. Find out, by assiduous target practice, 
what absolute amounts (and to a slight degree, what relative proportion) of powder and shot 
are required to shoot the furthest and distribute the pellets most evenly. This practice, further- 
more, will acquaint you with the gun’s capacities in every respect. You should learn exactly 
what it will and what it will not do, so as to feel perfect confidence in your arm within a cer- 
tain range, and to waste no shots in attempting miracles. Immoderate recoil is a pretty sure 
sign that the gun was overloaded, or otherwise wrongly charged; and all force of recoil is sub- 
tracted from the impulse of the shot. It is useless to ram powder very hard; two or three 
smart taps of the rod will suffice, and more will not increase the explosive force. On the shot 
the wad should simply be pressed close enough to fix thg pellets immovably. All these direc- 
tions apply to the charging of metal or paper cartridges as well as to loading by the muzzle. 
The latter operation is so rarely required, now that guns of every grade break at the breach, 
that advice on this score may seem quite anachronistic: nevertheless, I let what I said in the 
original edition stand. When about to recharge one barrel see that the hammer of the other 
stands at half-cock. Do not drop the ramrod into the other barrel, for a stray shot might 
impact between the swell of the head and the gun and make it difficult to withdraw the rod. 
During the whole operation keep the muzzle as far from your person as you conveniently can. 
Never foree home a wad with the flat of your haud over the end of the rod, but hold the rod 
between your fingers and thumb; in case of premature explosion, it will make just the differ- 
ence of lacerated finger tips, or a blown-up hand. Never look into a loaded gun-barrel; you 
might as wisely put your head into a lion’s mouth to see what the animal had for dinner. 
After a miss-fire hold the gun up a few moments and be slow to reload: the fire sometimes 
“hangs” for several seconds. Finally, let me strongly impress upon you the expediency of 
light loading in your routine collecting. Three-fourths of your shots need not bring into action 
the gun’s full powers of execution. You will shoot more birds under than over 30 yards; not 


8 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


a few you must secure, if at all, at 10 or 15 yards; and your object is always to kill them with 
the least possible damage to the plumage. I have, on particular occasions, loaded even down 
to $0z. of shot and l$dr. of powder. There is astonishing force compressed in a few grains of 
powder ; an astonishing number of pellets in the smallest load of mustard-seed. If you can 
load so nicely as to just drive the shot into a bird and not through it and out again, do so, and 
save half the holes in the skin. 


To Shoot successfully is an art which may be acquired by practice, and can be learned 
only in the school of experience. No general directions will make you a good shot, any more 
than a proficient in music or painting. To tell you that in order to hit a bird you must point 
the gun at it and press the trigger, is like saying that to play on the fiddle you must shove 
the bow across the strings with one hand while you finger them with the other; in either 
case the result is the same, a noise —vox et preterea nihil—but neither music nor game. 
Nor is it possible for every one to become an artist in gunnery; a ‘crack shot,” like a poet, is 
born, not made. For myself I make no pretensions to genius in that direction; for although 
JI generally make fair bags, and have destroyed many thousand birds in my time, this is rather 
owing to some familiarity J have gained with the habits of birds, and a certain knack, acquired 
by long practice, of picking them out of trees and bnshes, than to skilful shooting from the 
sportsman’s standpoint ; in fact, if I ent down two or three birds on the wing without a miss 
I am working quite up to my average in that line. But any ove not a purblind “ butter fin- 
gers,” can become a reasonably fair shot by practice, and do good collecting. It is not so hard, 
after all, to sight a gun correctly on an immovable object, and collecting differs from sporting 
proper in this, that comparatively few birds are shot on the wing. But I do not mean to 
imply that it requires less skill to collect suecessfully than to secure game; on the contrary, it 
is finer shooting, I think, to drop a warbler skipping about a tree-top than to stop a quail at 
fall speed ; while hitting a sparrow that springs from the grass at one’s fect to flicker in sight 
a few seconds and disappear is the most difficult of all shooting. Besides, a crack shot, as 
understood, aims unconsciously, with mechanical accuracy and certitude of hitting ; he simply 
wills, and the trained mnseles obey without his superintendence, just as the fingers form letters 
with the pen in writing ; whereas the collector must usually supervise his muscles all through 
the act and see that they mind. In spite of the proportion of snap shots of all sorts you will 
have to take, your collecting shots, as a rule, are made with deliberate aim. There is much 
the same difference, on the whole, between the sportsman’s work and the collector’s, that. there 
is between shot-gun and rifle practice, collecting being comparable to the latter. It is gener- 
ally understood that the acme of skill with the two weapons is an incompatibility ; and, eer- 
tainly, the best shot is not always the best collector, even supposing the two to be on a par in 
their knowledge of birds’ haunts and habits. Still a hopelessly poor shot can only attain fair 
results by extraordinary diligence and perseverance. Certain principles of shooting may per- 
haps be reduced to words. Aim deliberately direetly at an immovable object at fair range. 
Hold over a motionless object when far off, as the trajectory of the shot curves downward. 
Hold a little to one side of a stationary object when very near, preferring rather to take tha 
chances of missing it with the peripheral pellets, than of hopelessly mutilating it with the 
main body of the charge. Fire at the first fair aim, without trying to improve what is good 
enough already. Never “pull” the trigger, but press it. Bear the shock of discharge with- 
out flinching. In shooting on the wing, fire the instant the but of the gun taps your shoulder; 
you will miss at first, but by and by the birds will begin to drop, and you will have laid the 
foundation of good shooting, the knack of “covering” a bird unconsciously. The habit of 
“poking” after a bird on the wing is an almost incurable vice, and may keep you a poor 
shot all your life. (The collector’s frequent necessity of poking after little birds in the bush 
is just what so often hinders him from acquiring brilliant execution.) Aim ahead of a 


SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK. 9 


flying bird —the calculation to be made varies, according to the distance of the object, 
its velocity, its course and the wind, from a few inches to several feet; practice will finally 
render it intuitive. 


§ 2.— DOGS. 


A Good Dog is one of the most faithful, respectful, affectionate and sensible of brutes ; 
deference to such rare qualities demands a chapter, however brief. A trained dog is the indis- 
pensable servant of the sportsman in his pursuit of most kinds of game; but I trust I am guilty 
of no discourtesy to the noble animal, when I say that he is a luxury rather than a necessity te, 
the collector —a pleasant companion, who knows almost everything except how to talk, who 
converses with his eyes and ears and tail, shares comforts and discomforts with equal alacrity, 
and oceasionally makes himself useful. So far as a collector's work tallies with that of a 
sportsman, the dog is equally useful to both ; but finding and telling of game aside, your dog’s 
services are restricted to companionship and retrieving. He may, indeed, flush many sorts of 
birds for you; but he does it, if at all, at random, while capering about; for the brute intellect 
is limited after all, and cannot comprehend a naturalist. The best trained setter or pointer 
that ever marked a quail could not be made to understand what you are about, and it would 
ruin him for sporting purposes if he did. Take a well-bred dog out with you, and the chances 
are he will soon trot home in disgust at your performances with jack-sparrows and tomtits. It 
implies such a lowering and perversion of a good dog’s instincts to make him really a useful 
servant of yours, that I am half inclined to say nothing about retrieving, and tell you to make 
a companion of your dog, or let him alone. I was followed for several years by ‘‘ the best dog 
I ever saw” (every one’s gun, dog, and child is the best ever seen), and a first-rate retriever ; 
yet I always preferred, when practicable, to pick up my own birds, rather than let a delicate 
plumage into a dog’s mouth, and scolded away the poor brute so often, that she very properly 
returned the compliment, in the end, by retrieving just when she felt like it. However, we 
remained the best of friends. Any good setter, pointer, or spaniel, and some kinds of curs, 
may be trained to retrieve. The great point is to teach them not to ‘“‘mouth” a bird; it may 
be accomplished by sticking pins in the ball with which their early lessons are taught. Such 
dogs are particularly useful in bringing birds out of the water, and in searching for them when 
lost. One point in training should never be neglected: teach a dog what ‘to heel” means, 
and make him obey this command. A riotous brute is simply unendurable under any 
circumstances. 


§3.— VARIOUS SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK. 


To be a Good Collector, and nothing more, is a small affair; great skill may be ac- 
quired in the art, without a single quality commanding respect. One of the most vulgar, 
brutal, and ignorant men I ever knew was a sharp collector and an excellent taxidermist. 
Collecting stands much in the same relation to ornithology that the useful and indispensable 
office of an apothecary bears to the duties of a physician. A field-naturalist is always more or 
less of a collector; the latter is sometimes found to know almost nothing of natural history 
worth knowing. The true ornithologist goes out to study birds alive and destroys some of 
them simply because that is the only way of learning their structure and technical characters. 
There is much more about a bird than can be discovered in its dead body, — how much more, 
then, than can be found out from its stuffed skin! In my humble opinion the man who only 
gathers birds, as a miser money, to swell his cabinet, and that other man who gloats, as miser- 
like, over the same hoard, both work on a plane far beneath where the enlightened naturalist 
stands. One looks at Nature, and never knows that she is beautiful; the other knows she is 
beautiful, as even a corpse may be; the naturalist catches her sentient expression, and knows 


10 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


how beautiful she is! I would have you to know and love her; for fairer mistress never 
swayed the heart of man. Aim high! — press on, and leave the half-way house of mere col- 
lectorship far behind in your pursuit of a delightful study, nor fancy the closet its goal. 


Birds may be sought anywhere, at any time; they should be sought everywhere, at 
all times. Some come about your doorstep to tell their stories unasked. Others spring up 
before you as you stroll iu the field, like the flowers that enticed the feet of Proserpine. Birds 
flit by as you measure the tired roadside, lending a tithe of their life to quicken your dusty 
steps. They disport overhead at hide-and-seek with the foliage as you loiter in the shade of 
the forest, and their music now answers the sigh of the tree-tops, now ripples an echo to the 
voice of the brook. But you will not always so pluck a thornless rose. Birds hedge them- 
selves about with a bristling girdle of brier and bramble you cannot break; they build their 
tiny castles in the air surrounded by impassable moats, and the drawbridges are never down. 
They crown the mountain-top you may lose your breath to climb; they sprinkle the desert 
where your parched lips may find no cooling draught; they fleck the snow-wreath when the 
nipping blast may make you turn your back; they breathe unharmed the pestilent vapors of 
the swamp that mean disease, if not death, for you; they outride the storm at sea that sends 
strong men to their last account. Where now will you look for birds? 

And yet, as skilled labor is always most productive, so expert search yields more than 
random or blundering pursuit. Imprimis ; The more varied the face of a country, the more 
varied its birds. A place all plain, all marsh, all woodland, yields its particular set of birds, 
perhaps in profusion: but the kinds will be limited in number. It is of first importance to 
remember this, when you are so fortunate as to have choice of a collecting-ground ; and it will 
guide your steps aright in a day’s walk anywhere, for it will make you leave covert for open, 
wet for dry, high for low and back again. Well-watered country is more fruitful of bird-life 
than desert or even prairie; warm regions are more productive thon cold ones. As a rule, 
variety and abundance of birds are in direct ratio to diversity and luxuriance of vegetation. 
Your inost valuable as well as largest bags may be made in the regions most favored botani- 
cally, up to the point where exuberance of plant-growth mechanically opposes your operations. 


Search for particular Birds can only be well directed, of course, by a knowledge of 
their special haunts and habits, aud is one of the mysteries of wood-craft only solved by long 
experience and close observation. Here is where the true naturalist bears himself with con- 
scious pride and strength, winning laurels that become him, and do honor to his calling. 
Where to find game (‘game” is anything that vulgar people do not ridicule you for shooting) 
of all the kinds we have in this country has been so often and so minutely detailed in sporting- 
works that it need not be here enlarged upon, especially since, being the best known, it is the 
least valuable of ornithological material. Most large or otherwise conspicuous birds have very 
special haunts that may be soon learned; and as a rule such rank next after game in ornitho- 
logical disesteem. Birds of prey are an exception to these statements; they range everywhere, 
and most of them are worth securing. Hawks will unwittingly fly in your way oftener than 
they will allow you to approach them when perched: be ready for them. Owls will be 
startled out of their retreats in thick bushes, dense foliage, and hollow trees, in the daytime ; 
if hunting them at night, good aim in the dark may be taken by rubbing a wet lucifer match 
on the sight of the gun, causing a momentary glimmer. Large and small waders are to be 
found by any water’s edge, in open marshes, and often on dry plains; the herons more particu- 
larly in heavy bogs and dense swainps. Under cover, waders are oftenest approached by 
stealth ; in the open, by strategy; but most of the sinaller kinds require the exercise of no special 
precautions. Swimiaing birds, aside from water-fowl (as the “game” kinds are called), are gen- 
erally shot from a boat, as they fly past; but at their breeding places many kinds that congre- 


SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK. 11 


gate in vast numbe:s ‘re more readily reached. There is a knack of shooting loons and grebes 
on the water; if they are to be reached at all by the shot it will be by aiming not directly at 
them but at the water just in front of them. They do not go under just where they float, 
but kick up behind like a jumping-jack and plunge forward. Rails and several kinds of 
sparrows are confined to reedy marshes. But why prolong such desultory remarks? Little 
can be said to the point without at least a miniature treatise on ornithology; and I have not 
yet even alluded to the diversified host of sinall insectivorous and granivorous birds that fill our 
woods and fields. The very existence of most of these is unknown to all but the initiated ; yet 
they include the treasures of the ornithologist. Some are plain and humble, others are among 
the most beautiful objects in nature; but most agree in being small, and therefore liable to be 
overlooked. The sum of my advice about them must be brief. Get over as much ground, 
both wooded and open, as you can thoroughly examine in a day’s tramp, aud go out as many 
days as you can. It is not always necessary, however, to keep on the tramp, especially dur- 
ing the migration of the restless insectivorous species. One may often shoot for hours without 
moving more than a few yards, by selecting a favorable locality and allowing the birds to 
come to him as they pass in varied troops through the low woodlauds or swampy thickets. 
Keep your eyes and ears wide open. Lovk out for every rustling leaf and swaying twig aud 
bending blade of grass. Hearken to every note, however faint ; when there is no sound, listen 
for a chirp. Habitually move as noiselessly as possible. Keep your gun always ready. 
Improve every opportunity of studying a bird you do uot wish to destroy ; you may often 
make observations more valuable than the specimen. Let this be the rule with all birds you 
recognize. But I fear Iinust tell you to shoot an unknown bird on sight; it may give you 
the slip in a moment and a prize may be lost. One of the most fascinating things about field- 
work is its delightful uncertainty: you never know what’s in store for you as you start out ; 
you never can tell what will happen next; surprises are always in order, and excitement is 
continually whetted on the chances of the varied chase. 

For myself, the time is past, happily or not, when every bird was an agreeable surprise, 
for dewdrops do not last all day; but I have never yet walked in the woods without learning 
something pleasant that I did not know before. I should consider a bird new to science 
ample reward for a month’s steady work; one bird new to a locality would repay a weelk’s 
search; a day is happily spent that shows me any bird that I never saw alive before. How 
then can you, with so much before you, keep out of the woods another minute ? 


All Times are good times to go a-shooting; but some are better than others. (a.) Time 
of year. In all teinperate latitudes, spring and fall— periods of migration with most birds — 
are the most profitable seasons for collecting. Not only are birds then most numerous, both as 
species and as individuals, and most active, so as to be the more readily found, but they 
include a far larger proportion of rare and valuable kinds. In every locality in this country 
the periodical visitants outnumber the permanent residents; in most regions the number of 
regular migrants, that simply pass through in the spring and fall, equals or exceeds that of 
either of the sets of species that come from the south in spring to breed during the summer, 
or from the north to spend the winter. Far north, of course, on or near the limit of the vernal 
migration, where there are few if any migrants passing through, and where the winter birds 
are extremely few, nearly all the bird fauna is composed of ‘‘ summer visitants;” far south, 
in this country, the reverse is somewhat the case, though with many qualifications. Between 
these extremes, what is conventionally known as ‘‘a season” means the period of the vernal or 
autumnal migration. For example, the body of birds present in the District of Columbia (where 
I collected for several years) in the two months from April 20th to May 20th, and from Septem- 
ber 10th to October 10th, is undoubtedly greater, as far as individuals are concerned, than the 
total number found there at all other seasons of the year together. As for species, the number 


12 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


of migrants about equals that of summer visitants; the permanent residents equal the winter 
residents, both these being fewer than either of the first mentioned sets; while the irregular vis- 
itors, or stragglers, that complete the bird fauna, are about, or rather less than one-half as many 
as the species of either of the other categories. About Washington, therefore, I would readily 
undertake to secure a greater variety of birds in the nine weeks above specified than in all the 
rest of the year; for in that time would be found, not only all the permanent residents, but nearly 
all the migrants, and almost all the summer visitants; while the number of individual birds 
that might be taken exceeds, by quite as much, the number of those procurable in the same 
length of time at any other season. Mutatis mutandis, it is the same everywhere in this 
country. Look out then, for ‘‘the season;” work all through it at a rate you could not 
possibly sustain the year around; and make hay while the sun shines. (b.) Time of day. 
Early in the morning and late in the afternoon are the best times for birds. There is a myste- 
rious something in these diurnal crises that sets bird-life astir, over and above what is ex- 
plainable by the simple fact that they are the transition periods from repose to activity, or 
the reverse. Subtile meteorological changes occur; various delicate instruments used in 
physicists’ researches are sometimes inexplicably disturbed ; diseases have often their turning 
point for better or worse; people are apt to be born or die; and the susceptible organisms of 
birds manifest various excitements. Whatever the operative influence, the fact is, birds are 
particularly lively at such hours. In the dark, they rest —inost of them do; at noonday, 
again, they are comparatively still; between these times they are passing to or from their 
feeding grounds or roosting places; they are foraging for food, they are singing ; at any rate, 
they are in motion. Many migratory birds (among them warblers, ete.) perform their journeys 
by night ; just at daybreak they may be seen to descend from the upper regions, rest a while, 
and then move about briskly, simging and searching for food. Their meal taken, they recu- 
perate by resting till towards evening; feed again and are off for the night. If you have had 
some experience, don’t you remember what a fine spurt you made early that morning ? — 
how many mexpected shots offered as you trudged home belated that evening? Now Iam 
no fowl, and have no desire to adopt the habits of the hen-yard; I have my opinion of those 
who like the world before it is aired; I think it served the worm right for getting up, when 
caught by the early bird; nevertheless I go shooting betimes in the morning, and would walk 
all night to find a rare bird at daylight. (¢.) Weather. It rarely occurs in this country that 
either heat or cold is unendurably severe; but extremes of temperature are unfavorable, for two 
reasons: they both occasion great personal discomfort ; and in one extreme only a few hardy 
birds will be found, while in the other most birds are languid, disposed to seek shelter, and 
therefore less likely to be found. A still, cloudy day of moderate temperature offers as a rule 
the best chance ; among other reasons, there is no sun to blind the eyes, as always occurs on a 
bright day in one direction, particularly when the sun is low. While a bright day has its good 
influence in setting many birds astir, some others are most easily approached in heavy or fall- 
ing weather. Some kinds are more likely to be secured during a light snowfall, or after a 
storm. Singular as it may seem, a thoroughly wet day offers some peculiar inducements to 
the collector. I cannot well specify them, but I heartily indorse a remark John Cassin onee 
made to me: —‘‘T like,” said he, “‘to go shooting in the rain sometimes; there are some 
curious things to be learned about birds when the trees are dripping, things too that have not 
yet found their way into the books.” 


How many Birds of the Same Kind do you want ? — All you can get — with some 
reasonable limitations; say fifty or a hundred of any but the most abundant and widely diffused 
species. You may often be provoked with your friend for speaking of some bird he shot, but 
did not bring you, because, he says, ‘‘ Why, you’ve got one like that!”  Birdskins are 
capital; capital unemployed may be useless, but can never be worthless. Birdskins are a 


SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK. 13 


medium of exchange among ornithologists the world over; they represent value, — money value 
and scientific value. If you have more of one kind than you can use, exchange with some 
one for species you lack; both parties to the transaction are equally benefited. Let me bring 
this matter under several heads. (a.) Your own “series” of skins of any species is incomplete 
until it contains at least one example of each sex, of every normal state of plumage, and every 
normal transition stage of plumage, and further illustrates at least the principal abuormal 
variations in size, form, and color to which the species nay be subject; I will even add that 
every different faunal area the bird is known to inhabit should be represented by a specimen, 
particularly if there be anything exceptional in the geographical distribution of the species. 
Any additional specimens to all such are your only “duplicates,” properly speaking. (b.) Birds 
vary so much in their size, form, and coloring, that a ‘‘ specific character” can only be pre- 
cisely determined from examination of a large number of specimeus, shot at different times, in 
different places ; still less can the “limits of variation” in these respects be settled without 
ample materials. (¢.) The rarity of any bird is necessarily au arbitrary and fluctuating con- 
sideration, because in the nature of the case there can be no natural unit of comparison, 
nor standard of appreciation. It may be said, in general terms, no bird is actually ‘‘ rare.” 
With a few possible exceptions, as in the cases of birds occupying extraordinarily limited 
areas, like some of the birds of paradise, or about to become extinct, like the pied duck, 
enough birds of all kinds exist to overstock every public and private collection in the world, 
without sensible diminution of their numbers. ‘‘ Rarity” or the reverse is only predicable 
upon the accidental (so to speak) circumstances that throw, or tend to throw, specimens into 
naturalists’ hands. Accessibility is the variable element in every case. The fulmar petrel is 
said (on what authority I know not) to exceed any other bird in its aggregate of individuals ; 
how do the skius of that bird you have handled compare in number with specimens you have 
seen of the “rare” warbler of your own vicinity? All birds are common somewhere at some 
season; the point is, have collectors been there at the time? Moreover, even the arbitrary 
appreciation of ‘rarity ” is fluctuating, and may change at any time; long sought and highly 
prized birds are liable to appear suddenly in great numbers in places that knew them not 
before ; a single heavy ‘invoice ” of a bird from some distant or little-explored region may at 
once stock the market, and depreciate the current value of the species to almost nothing. 
For example, Baird’s bunting and Sprague’s lark remained for thirty years among our special 
desiderata, ouly one specimen of the former and two or three of the latter bemg known. Yet 
they are two of the most abundant birds of Dakota, where in 1873 I tuok as many of both as 
I desired; and specimens enough have lately been secured to stock all the leading museums 
of this country and Europe. (d.) Some practical deductions are to be made from these 
premises. Your object is to make yourself acquainted with all the birds of your vicinity, and 
to preserve a complete suite of specimens of every species. Begin by shooting every bird you 
can, coupling this sad destruction, however, with the closest observations upon habits. You 
will very soon fill your series of a few kinds, that you find almost everywhere, almost daily. 
Then if you are in a region the ornithology of which is well known to the profession, at once 
stop killing these common birds —they are in every collection. You should not, as a rule, 
destroy any more robius, bluebirds, song-sparrows, and the like, than you want for yourself. 
Keep an eye on them, studying them always, but turn your actual pursuit into other channels, 
until in this way, gradually eliminating the undesirables, you exhaust the bird fauna as far as 
possible (you will not quite exhaust it—at least for many years). But if you are in a new 
or little-known locality, I had almost said the very reverse course is the best. The chances 
are that the most abundaut and characteristic birds are ‘ rare” in collections. Many a bird’s 
range is quite restricted: you may happen to be just at its metropolis; seize the opportunity, 
and get good store, — yes, up to fifty or a hundred; all you can spare will be thankfully 
received by those who have none. Quite as likely, birds that are scarce just where you happen 


14 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


to be, are so only because you are on the edge of their habitat, and are plentiful in more acces- 
sible regions. But, rare or not, it is always a point to determine the exact geographical 
distribution of a species; and this is fixed best by having specimens to tell each its own tale, 
from as many different and widely separated localities as possible. This alone warrants pro- 
curing one or more specimens in every locality ; the commonest bird acquires a certain value 
if it be captured away from its ordinary range. An Eastern bluebird (Stalia sialis) shot in 
California might be considered more valuable than the “rarest” bird of that State, and would 
certainly be worth a hundred Massachusetts skins; a varied thrush (Turdus nevius) killed 
in Massachusetts is worth a like number from Oregon. But let all your justifiable destruction 
of birds be tempered with mercy ; your humanity will be continually shocked with the havoe 
you work, and should never permit you to take life wantonly. Never shoot a bird you do not 
fully intend to preserve, or to utilize in some proper way. Bird-life is too beautiful a thing to 
destroy to no purpose; too sacred a thing, like all life, to be sacrificed, unless the tribute is hal- 
lowed by worthiness of motive. ‘‘ Not a sparrow falleth to the ground without His notice.” 

I should not neglect to speak particularly of the care to be taken to secure full suites of 
females. Most miscellaneous collections contain four or more males to every female, — a dis- 
proportion that should be as far reduced as possible. The occasion of the disparity is obvious : 
females are usually more shy and retirimg in disposition, and consequently less frequently 
noticed, while their smaller size and plainer plumage, as a rule, further favor their eluding 
observation. The difference in coloring is greatest among those groups where the males are 
most richly clad, and the shyness of the mother birds is most marked during the breeding 
season, just when the males, full of song, and in their nuptial attire, become most conspicuous. 
It is often worth while to neglect the gay Benedicts, to trace out and secure the plainer but not 
less interesting females. This pursuit, moreover, often leads to discovery of the nests and 
eggs, — an important consideration. Although both sexes are generally found together when 
breeding, and mixing indiscriminately at other seasons, they often go in separate flocks, and 
often migrate independently of each other; in this case the males usually in advance. 
Towards the end of the passage of some warblers, for instance, we may get almost nothing 
but females, all our specimens of a few days before having been males. The notable exeep- 
tions to the rule of smaller size of the female are among rapacious birds and many waders, 
though in these last the disparity is not so marked. I only recall one instance, among Amer- 
ican birds, of the female being more richly colored than the male — the phalaropes. When 
the sexes are notably different in adult life, the young of both sexes usually resemble the adult 
female, the young males gradually assuming their distinctive characters. When the adults 
of both sexes are alike, the young commonly differ from them. 

In the saine connection I wish to urge a point, the importance of which is often over- 
looked ; it is our practical interpretation of the adage, ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the 
bush.” Always keep the first specimen you secure of a species till you get another; no matter 
how common the species, how poor the specimen, or how certain you may feel of getting other 
better ones, keep tt. Your most reasonable calculations may come to naught, from a variety 
of circumstances, and any specimen is better than no specimen, on general principles. And in 
general, do not, if you can help it, discard any specimen in the field. No tyro can tell what 
will prove valuable and what not ; while even the expert may regret to find that a point comes 
up which a specimen he injudiciously discarded might have determined. Let a collection be 
“weeded out,” if at all, only after deliberate and mature examination, when the scientific results 
it affords have been elaborated by a competent ornithologist ; and even then, the refuse (with 
certain limitations) had better be put where it will do some good, than be destroyed utterly. 
For instance, I myself onee valued, and used, some Smithsonian “sweepings”; and I know 
very well what to do with specimens, now, to which I would not give house-room in my own 
cabinet. If forced to reduce bulk, owing to limited facilities for transportation in the field 


SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK. 15 


(as too often happens), throw away according to size, other things being equal. Given only 
so many cubic inches or feet, eliminate the few large birds which take up the space that would 
contain fifty or a hundred different little ones. If you have a fine large bald eagle or pelican, 
for instance, throw it away first, and follow it with your ducks, geese, etc. In this way, the 
bulk of a large miscellaneous collection may be reduced one half, perhaps, with very little 
depreciation of its actual value. The same principle may be extended to other collections in 
natural history (excepting fossils, which are always weighty, if not also bulky) ; very few bird- 
skins, indeed, being as valuable contributions to science as, for example, a vial of miscella- 
neous insects that occupies no more room may prove to be. 


What is “ A Good Day’s Work ? ” — Fifty birds shot, their skins preserved, and obser- 
vations recorded, is a very good day’s work; it is sharp practice, even when birds are plentiful. 
I never knew a person to average anywhere near it; even during the ‘‘ season” such work 
cannot possibly be sustained. You may, of course, by a murderous discharge into a flock, 
as of blackbirds or reedbirds, get a hundred or more in a moment; but I refer to collecting 
a fair variety of birds. You will do very well if you average a dozen a day during the seasons. 
I doubt whether any collector ever averaged as many the year around; it would be over four 
thousand specimeus annually. The greatest number I ever procured and prepared in one day 
was forty, and I have not often gone over twenty. Even when collecting regularly and 
assiduously, I am satisfied to average a dozen a day during the migrations, and one-third or 
one-fourth as many the rest of the year. Probably this implies the shooting of about one in 
five not skinned for various reasons, as mutilation, decay, or want of time. 


Approaching Birds.— There is little if any trouble in getting near enough to shoot 
most birds. With notable exceptions, they are harder to see when near enough, or to hit 
when seen; particularly small birds that are almost incessantly in motion. As a rule—and a 
curious one it is— difficulty of approach is in direct ratio to the size of the bird; it is perhaps 
because large conspicuous birds are objects of more general pursuit than the little ones you 
ordinarily search for. The qualities that birds possess for self-preservation may be called 
wariness in large birds, shyness in small ones. The former make off knowingly from a sus- 
picious object; the latter fly from anything that is strange to them, be it dangerous or not. 
This is strikingly illustrated in the behavior of sinall birds in the wilderness, as contrasted with 
their actions about towns; singular as it may seem, they are more timid under the former cir- 
cumstances than when grown accustomed to the presence of man. It is just the reverse with 
a hawk or raven, for instance ; in populous districts they spend much of their time in trying to 
save their skins, while in a new country they have not learned, like Indians, that a white man 
is ‘mighty uncertain.” In stealing on a shy bird, you will of course take advantage of any 
cover that may offer, as inequalities of the ground, thick bushes, the trunks of trees; and it is 
often worth while to make a considerable détour to secure unobserved approach. I think that 
birds are more likely, as a rule, to be frightened away by the movements of the collector, 
than by his simple presence, however near, and that they are more afraid of noise than of 
mere motion. Crackling of twigs and rustling of leaves are sharp sounds, though not loud 
ones; you may have sometimes been surprised to find how distinctly you could hear the move- 
ments of a horse or cow in underbrush at some distance. Birds have sharp ears for such 
sounds. Forma habit of stealthy movement ; 7 tells, in the long run, in comparison with 
lumbering tread. There are no special precautions to be taken in shooting through high open 
forest ; you have only to saunter along with your eyes in the tree-tops. It is ordinarily the 
easiest and on the whole the most renumerative path of the collector. In traversing fields and 
meadows move briskly, your principal object being to flush birds out of the grass; and as most 
of your shots will be snap ones, keep in readiness for instant action. Excellent and varied 


16 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


shooting is to be had along the hedge rows, and in the rank herbage that fringes fences. It is 
best to keep at a little distance, yet near enough to arouse all the birds as you pass: you may 
catch them on wing, or pick them off just as they settle after a short flight. In this shooting, 
two persons, one on each side, can together do more than twice as much work as one. Thick- 
ets and tangled undergrowth are favorite resorts of many birds; but wheu very close, or, 
as often happens, over miry ground, they are hard places to shoot in. As you come thrashing 
through the brush, the little inhabitants are scared into deeper recesses ; but if you keep still a 
few minutes in some favorable spot, they are reassured, and will often come back to take a 
peep at you. A good deal of standing still will repay you at such times ; needless to add, you 
cannot be too lightly loaded for such shooting, when birds are mostly out of sight if a dozen 
yards off. When yourself concealed in a thicket, and no birds appear, you can often call num- 
bers about you by a simple artifice. Apply the back of your hand to your slightly parted lips, 
and suck in air; it makes a nondescript ‘screeping” noise, variable in intonation at your 
whim, and some of the sounds resemble the cries of a wounded bird, or a young one in distress. 
It wakes up the whole neighborhood, and sometimes puts certain birds almost beside themselves, 
particularly in the breeding season. Torturing a wounded bird to make it scream in agony 
accomplishes the same result, but of course is only permissible under great exigency. In pen- 
etrating swamps and marshes, the best advice I can give you is to tell you to get along the 
best way you can. Shooting on perfectly open ground offers much the same case ; you must 
be left to your own devices. I will say, however, you can ride on horseback, or even in a 
buggy, nearer birds than they will allow you to walk up to them. Sportsmen take advantage 
of this to get within a shot of the upland plover, usually a very wary bird in populous districts ; 
I have driven right into a flock of wild geese; in California they often train a bullock to graze 
gradually up to geese, the gunner being hidden by its body. There is one trick worth know- 
ing; it is not to let a bird that has seen you know by your action that you have seen it, but to 
keep on unconcernedly, gradually sidling nearer. I have secured many hawks in this way, 
when the bird would have flown off at the first step of direct approach. Numberless other 
little arts will come to you as your wood-eraft matures. 


Recovering Birds. — It is not always that you secure the birds you kill; you may not 
be able to find them, or you may see them lying, perhaps but a few feet off, in a spot practi- 
cally inaccessible. Under such circumstances a retriever does excellent service, as already 
hinted ; he is equally useful when a bird properly ‘*inarked down” is not found there, having 
fluttered or run away and hidden elsewhere. The most difficult of all places to find birds is 
among reeds, the eternal sameness of which makes it almost impossible to rediscover a spot 
whence the eye has once wandered, while the peculiar growth allows birds to slip far down out 
of sight. In rank grass or weeds, when you have walked up with your eye fixed on the spot 
where the bird seemed to fall, yet failed to discover it, drop your cap or handkerchief for a 
mark, and hunt around it as a centre, in enlarging circles. In thickets, make a “bee line” 
for the spot, if possible keeping your eye on the spray from which the bird fell, and not for- 
getting where you stood on firing; you may require to come back to the spot and take a new 
departure. You will not seldom see a bird just shot at fly off as if unharmed, when really it 
will drop dead in a few moments. In all cases therefore when the bird does not drop at the 
shot, follow it with your eyes as far as you can; if you see it finally drop, or even flutter 
languidly downward, mark it on the principles just mentioned, and go in search. Make every 
endeavor to secure wounded birds, on the score of humanity; they should not be left to pine 
away and die in lingering inisery if it can possibly be avoided. 


Killing Wounded Birds. — You will often recover winged birds, as full of life as before 
the bone was broken ; and others too grievously hurt to fly, yet far from death. Your object is 


SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK. 17 


tu kill them as quickly and as painlessly as possible, without injuring the plumage. This is 
to be accomplished, with all small birds, by suffocation. The respiration aud circulation of 
birds is very active, and most of them die in a few moments if the lungs are so compressed 
that they cannot breathe. Squeeze the bird tightly across the chest, under the wings, thumb 
on one side, middle finger on the other, forefinger pressed in the hollow at the root of the neck, 
between the forks of the merrythought. Press firmly, hard enough to fix the chest immovably 
and compress the lungs, but not to break in the ribs. The bird will make vigorous but ineffect- 
ual efforts to breathe, when the muscles will contract spasmodically ; but in a moment more, 
the system relaxes with a painful shiver, light fades from the eyes, and the lids close. I 
assure you, it will make you wince the first few times; you had better habitually hold the 
poor creature behind you. You can tell by its limp feel aud motionlessness when it is dead, 
without watching the sad struggle. Large birds obviously cannot be dealt with in this 
way; I would as soon attempt to throttle a dog as a loon, for instance, upon which all the 
pressure you can give makes uo sensible impression. A winged hawk, again, will throw itself 
on its back as you come up, and show such good fight with beak and talons, that you may be 
quite severely scratched in the encounter: meanwhile the struggling bird may be bespatteriug 
its plunage with blood. In such a case — in any case of a large bird aking decided resist- 
ance —I think it best to step back a few paces and settle the matter with a light charge of 
mustard-seed. Any large bird once secured may be speedily dispatched by stabbing to the 
heart with some slender instrument thrust in under the wing — care must be taken too about 
the bleeding ; or, it may be instantly killed by piercing the brain with a knife introduced into 
the mouth and driven upward and obliquely backward from the palate. The latter method is 
preferable as it leaves no outward sign and causes uo bleeding to speak of. With your thumb, 
you may indent the back part of a bird’s skull so as to compress the cerebelluin; if you cap 
get deep enough in, without materially disordering the plumage, or breaking the skin, the 


method is unobjectionable. 


Handling Bleeding Birds.— Bleeding depends altogether upon the part or organ 
wounded ; but other things being equal, violence of the hemorrhage is usually in direct: pro- 
portion to the size of the shot-hole ; when mustard-seed is used it is ordinarily very trifling, if it 
occur at all. Blood Hows oftener from the orifice of exit of a shot, than from the wound of 
entrance, for the latter is usually plugged with a little wad of feathers driven in. Bleeding from 
the mouth or nostrils is the rule when the lungs are wounded. When it occcurs, hold up the 
bird by the feet, and let it drip; a general squeeze of the body in that position will facilitate 
the drainage. In general, hold a bird so that a bleeding place is most dependent; then, pres- 
sure about the part will help the flow. A ‘‘ gob” of blood, which is simply a forming clot, 
on the plumage may often be dexterously tipped almost clean away with a snap of the finger. 
It is first-rate practice to take cotton and forceps into the field to plug up shot-holes, and stop 
the mouth and nostrils and vent on the spot. I follow the custom of the books in recommend- 
ing this, but I will confess I have rarely done it myself, and I suspect that only a few of our 
must leisurely and elegant collectors do so habitually. Shot-holes may be found by gently 
raising the feathers, or blowing them aside; you can of course get only a tiny plug into the 
wound itself, but it should be one end of a sizable pledget, the rest lying fluffy among the 
feathers. In stopping the mouth or vent, rain the fluff of cotton, entirely inside. You cannot 
conveniently stop up the nostrils of small birds separately ; but take a light cylinder of cotton, 
lay it transversely across the base of the upper mandible, closely covering the nostrils, and 
confine it there by tucking each end tightly into the corner of the mouth. In default of such 
nice fixing as this, a pinch of dry loam pressed on a bleeding spot will plaster itself there and 
stop further mischief. Never try to wipe off fresh blood that has already wetted the plumage ; 
you will only make matters worse. Let it dry on, and then —but the treatment of blood- 
stains, and other soilings of plumage, is given beyond. 

2 


18 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


Carrying Birds Home Safe. — Suppose you have secured a fine specimen, very likely 
without a soiled or rutHed feather; your next care will be to keep it so till you are ready to 
skin it. But if you pocket or bag it directly, it will be a sorry-looking object before you get 
home. Each specimen must be separately cared for, by wrapping in stout paper; writing 
paper is as good as any, if not the best. Jt will repay you to prepare a stock of paper before 
starting out; your most convenient sizes are those of a half-sheet of note, of letter, and of cap 
respectively. Either take these, or fold and cut newspaper to correspond; besides, it is always 
well to have a whole newspaper or two for large birds. Plenty of paper will go in the breast 
pockets of the shooting-coat. Make a ‘ cornucopia,” — the simplest thing in the world, but, 
like tying a particular knot, hard to explain. Setting the wings closely, adjusting disturbed 
feathers, and seeing that the bill points straight forward, thrust the bird head first into one 
of these paper cones, till it will go no further, being bound by the bulge of the breast. Let 
the cone be large enough for the open end to fold over or pinch together entirely beyond the 
tail. Be particular not to crumple or bend the tail- feathers. Lay the paper cases in the game 
bag or great. pocket so that they very nearly run parallel and lie horizontal; they will carry 
better than if thrown in at random. Avoid overcrowding the packages, as far as is reasonably 
practicable ; moderate pressure will do uo harm, as a rule, but if great it may make birds 
bleed afresh, or cause the fluids of a wounded intestine to ooze out and soak the plumage of 
the belly, —a very bad accident indeed. For similar obvious reasons, do not put a large heavy 
bird on top of a lot of little ones ; I would sooner sling a hawk or heron over my shoulder, or 
cary it by hand. If it goes in the bag, see that it gets to the bottom. Avoid putting birds 
in pockets that are close about your person; they are almost always unduly pressed, and may 
gain just enough additional warmth from your body to make them begin to decompose before 
you can get at skinning them. Handle birds nv more than is necessary, especially white- 


plumaged ones; ten to one your hands are powder-begrimed : and besides, even the warmth 
and moisture of your palms may tend to injure a delicate feathering. Ordinarily pick up a 
bird by the feet or bill; as you ueed both hands to make the eornucopia, let the specimen 
dangle by the toes from your teeth while you are so employed. In catching at a wounded 
bird, aim to cover it entirely with your hand; but whatever you do, never seize it by the tail, 
which then will often be left in your hands for your pains. Never grasp wing-tips or tail- 
feathers ; these large flat quills would get a peculiar crimping all along the webs, very difficult 
to efface. Finally, I would add there is a certain knack or art in manipulating, either of a 
dead bird or a birdskin, by which you may handle it with seeming carelessness and perfect 
impunity; whilst the most gingerly fingering of an inexperienced person will leave its rude 
trace. You will naturally acquire the correct touch; but it can be neither taught nor 
described. 


A Special Case.— While the ordinary run of land birds will be brought home in good 
order by the foregoing method, some require special precautions. I refer to sea birds, such as 
gulls, terns, petrels, ete., shot from a boat. In the first place, the plumage of most of them is, 
in part at least, white and of exquisite purity. Then, fish-eating birds usually vomit and 
purge when shot. They are necessarily fished all dripping from the water. They are too 
large for pocketing. If you put them on the thwarts or elsewhere about the boat, they usually 
fall off, or are knocked off, into the bilge water ; if you stow them in the cubby-hole, they will 
assuredly soil by mutual pressure, or by rolling about. It will repay you to pick them from 
the water by the bill, and shake off all the water you can; hold them up, or let some one do 
it, till they are tolerably dry ; plug the mouth, nostrils, and vent, if not also shot-holes ; wrap 
each one separately in a cloth (not paper) or a mass of tow, and pack steadily in a covered box 
or basket taken on board for this purpose. With such precautions as these birds most liable 
to be soiled reach the skinning table in perfect order; and your care will afterward transform 
them into specimens without spot or blemish. 


HYGIENE OF COLLECTORSHIP. 19 


§ 4.— HYGIENE OF COLLECTORSHI?. 


It is Unnecessary to speak of the Healthfulness of a pursuit that, like the collector’s 
ocenpation, demands regular bodily exercise, aud at the same time stimulates the mind by 
supplying an object, thus calling the whole system into exhilarating action. Yet collecting 
has its perils, not to be overlooked if we would adequately guard against them, as fortunately 
we nay, in most cases, by simple precautions. The dangers of taxidenny itself are elsewhere 
noticed; but, besides these, the collector is exposed to vicissitudes of the weather, may endure 
great fatigue, may breathe miasm, and may be mechanically injured. 


Accidents from the Gun have been already treated; a few special rules will render 
others little liable to occur. The secret of safe climbing is never to relax one hold until another 
is secured; it is in spirit equally applicable to scrambling over rocks, a particularly difficult 
thing to do safely with a loaded gun. Test rotten, slippery, or otherwise suspicious holds 
before trusting them. In lifting the body up anywhere, keep the mouth shut, breathe 
through the nostrils, and go slowly. In swimming, waste no strength unnecessarily in trying 
to stem a current; yield partly, and land obliquely lower down; if exhausted, float; the 
slightest motion of the hands will ordinarily keep the face above water; and in any event keep 
your wits collected. In fording deeply, a heavy stone will strengthen your position. Never 
sail a boat experimentally ; if you are no sailor, take one with you or stay on land. In cross- 
ing a high, narrow footpath, never look lower than your fect; the muscles will work true if 
not confused with faltering instructions from a giddy brain. On soft ground, see what, if 
anything, has preceded you; large hoof-marks generally mean that the way is safe; if none 
are found, inquire for yourself before going on. Quicksand is the most treacherous, because 
far more dangerous than it looks; but I have seen a mule’s ears finally disappear in genuine 
mud. Cattle paths, however erratic, commonly prove the surest way out of a difficult place, 
whether of uncertain footing or dense undergrowth. 


Miasm. — Unguarded exposure in malarious regions usually entails sickness, often pre- 
ventable, however, by due precautions. It is worth knowing, in the first place, that miasmatic 
poison is most powerful between sunset and sunrise; more exactly, from the damp of the 
evening until night vapors are dissipated; we may be out in the daytime with comparative 
impunity, where to pass a night would be almost certain disease. If forced to camp out, seek 
the highest and dryest spot, put a good fire on the swamp side, and also, if possible, let trees 
intervene. Never go out on an empty stomach ; just a cup of coffee and a crust may make a 
decided difference. Mcet the earliest unfavorable symptoms with quinine; I should rather say, 
if unacclimated, anticipate them with this invaluable agent. Endeavor to maintain high 
health of all functions by the natural means of regularity and teinperauce in diet, exercise, and 
repose. 


“ Taking Cold.” — This vague ‘‘ household word” indicates one or more of a long varied 
train of unpleasant affections, nearly always traceable to one or the other of only two causes: 
sudden change of temperature, and unequal distribution of temperature. No extremes of heat 
or cold can alone effect this result; persons frozen to death do uot ‘ take cold” during the 
process. But if a part of the body be rapidly cooled, as by evaporation from a wet article of 
clothing, or by sitting in a draught of air, the rest of the body remaining at an ordinary tem- 
perature ; or if the temperature of the whole be suddenly changed by going out into the cold, 
or, especially, by coming into a warm room, there is much liability of trouble. There is an 


old saying, — 
ss “When the air comes through a hole 
Say your prayers to save your soul ;”” 


20 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


and I should think almost any one could get a “‘ cold” with a spoonful of water on the wrist 
held to a key-hole. Singular as it may seem, sudden warming when cold is more dangerous 
than the reverse ; every one has noticed how soon the handkerchief is required on entering a 
heated room on a cold day. Frost-bite is an extreme illustration of this. As the Irishman 
said on picking himself up, it was uot the fall, but stopping so quickly that hurt him; it is 
not the lowering of the temperature to the freezing point, but its subsequent elevation, that 
devitalizes the tissue. This is why rubbing with snow, or bathing in cold water, is required 
to restore safely a frozen part; the arrested circulation must be very gradually re-established, 
or inflammation, perhaps mortification, ensues. General precautions against taking cold are 
almost self-evident, in this light. There is ordinarily little if any danger to be apprehended 
from wet clothes, so long as exercise is kept up; for the “‘ glow” about compensates for the 
extra cooling by evaporation. Nor is a complete drenching more likely to be injurious than 
wetting of one part. But never sit still wet; and,in changing rub the body dry. There is a 
general tendency, springing from fatigue, indolence, or indifference, to neglect damp feet ; that 
is to say, to dry them by the fire; but this process is tedious and uncertain. I would say 
especially, off with the muddy boots and sodden socks at once; dry stockings and slippers, 
after a hunt, may make just the difference of your being able to go out again or never. Take 
care never to check perspiration ; during this process, the body is in a somewhat critical condi- 
tion, and sudden arrest of the function may result disastrously, even fatally. One part of the 
business of perspiration is to equalize bodily temperature, and it must not be interfered with. 
The secret of much that might be said about bathing when heated, lies here. A person over- 
heated, panting it may be, with throbbing temples and a dry skin, is in danger partly because 
the natural cooling by evaporation from the skin is denied, and this condition is sometimes not 
far from a “sunstroke.” Under these cireumstances, a person of fairly good constitution may 
plunge into the water with impunity, even with benefit. But if the body be already cooling 
by sweating, rapid abstraction of heat from the surface may cause internal congestion, never 
unattended with danger. Drinking ice-water offers a somewhat parallel case; even on stoop- 
ing to drink at the brook, when flushed with heat, it is well to bathe the face and hands first, 
and to taste the water before a full draught. It is a well-known excellent rule, not to bathe 
immediately after a full meal; because during digestion the organs concerned are compara- 
tively engorged, and any sudden disturbance of the circulation may be disastrous. The 
imperative necessity of resisting drowsiness under extreme cold requires no comment. In 
walking under a hot sun, the head may be sensibly protected by green leaves or grass in the 
hat; they may be advantageously moistened, but not enough to drip about the ears. Under 
such circumstances the slightest giddiness, dimness of sight, or confusion of ideas, should be 
taken as a warning of possible sunstroke, instantly demanding rest and shelter. 


Hunger and Fatigue are more closely related than they might seem to be; one is a sign 
that the fuel is out, and the other asks for it. Extreme fatigne, indeed, destroys appetite ; 
this simply means, temporary incapacity for digestion. But even far short of this, food is more 
easily digested and better relished after a little preparation of the furnace. On coming home 
tired, it is much better to make a leisurely and reasonably nice toilet than to eat at once, or to 
lie still thinking how tired you are; after a change and a wash you will feel like a “ new 
man,” and go to table in capital state. Whatever dictetie irregularities a high state of civili- 
zation may demand or render practicable, a normally healthy person is inconvenienced almost 
as soon as his regular meal-time passes without food; a few can work comfortably or profit- 
ably fasting over six or eight hours. Eat before starting; if for a day’s tramp, take a lunch ; 
the tee ah aes i a ; it do not satisfy hunger, and so postpone its urgency. As 
a small scrap of practical wisdom, I would add, keep the remnants i re ar 
any; for oe aa always be sure of getting it to ce a a 


REGISTRATION AND LABELLING. 21 


Stimulation. — When cold, fatigued, depressed in mind, and on other occasions, you 
may feel inclined to resort to artificial stimulus. Respecting this many-sided theme I have a 
few words to offer of direct bearing on the colleetor’s case. It should be clearly understood in 
the first place that a stimulant confers no strength whatever; it simply calls the powers that be 
into increased action at their own expense. Secking real strength in stimulus is as wise as an 
attempt to lift yourself up by the boot-straps. You may gather yourself to leap the ditch and 
you clear it; but no such muscular energy can be sustained; exhaustion speedily renders further 
expenditure impossible. But now suppose a very powerful mental impression be made, say 
the circumstance of a suecession of ditches in front, and a mad dog behind; if the stimulus of 
terror be sufficiently strong, you may leap on till you drop senseless. Alcoholic stimulus is a 
parallel case, and is not seldom pushed to the same extreme. Under its influence you never 
can tell when you are tired; the expenditure goes on, indeed, with unnatural rapidity, only it 
is not felt at the time; but the upshot is you have all the original fatigue to endure and to 
recover from, plus the fatigue resulting from over-excitation of the system. Taken as a forti- 
fication against cold, alcohol is as unsatisfactory as a remedy for fatigue. Insensibility to cold 
does not inply protection. The fact is the exposure is greater than before; the circulation and 
respiration being hurried, the waste is greater, and as sound fuel cannot be immediately supplied, 
the temperature of the body is soon lowered. The transient warmth and glow over, the system 
has both cold and depression to endure ; there is no use in borrowing from yourself and fancy- 
ing you are richer. Secondly, the value of any stimulus (except in a few exigencies of disease 
or injury) is in proportion, not to the intensity, but to the equableness and durability of its 
effect. This is one reason why tea, coffee, and articles of corresponding qualities, are preferable 
to alcoholic drinks ; they work so smoothly that their effect is often unnoticed, and they “stay 
by” well; the friction of aleohol is tremendous in comparison. A glass of grog may help a 
veteran over the fence, but no one, young or old, can shoot all day on liquor. I have had 
so much experience in the use of tobacco as a mild stimulant that I am probably no impartial 
judge of its merits: I will simply say I do not use it in the field, because it indisposes to mus- 
cular activity, and favors reflection when observation is required; and because temporary 
abstinence provokes the morbid appetite and renders the weed more grateful afterwards. 
Thirdly, undue excitation of any physical function is followed by corresponding depression, on 
the simple principle that action and reaction are equal; and the balance of health turns too 
easily to be wilfully disturbed. Stimulation is a draft upon vital capital, when interest alone 
should suffice; it may be needed at times to bridge a chasm, but habitual living beyond vital 
income infallibly entails bankruptcy in health. The use of alcohol in health seems practically 
restricted to purposes of sensuous gratification on the part of those prepared to pay a round 
price for this luxury. The three golden rules here are, —never drink before breakfast, never 
drink aloue, and never drink bad liquor; their observance may make even the abuse of 
alcohol tolerable. Serious objections for a naturalist, at least, are that science, viewed 
through a glass, seems distant and uncertain, while the joys of ram are immediate and unques- 
tionable; and that intemperance, being an attempt to defy certain physical laws, is therefore 
eminently unscientific. 


§5— REGISTRATION AND LABELLING. 


A mere Outline of a Field Naturalist’s Duties would be inexcusably incomplete with- 
out mention of these important matters; and, because so much of the business of collecting 
must be left to be acquired in the school of experience, I am the more anxious to give explicit 
directions whenever, as in this instance, it is possible to do so. 


Record your Observations Daily. — In one sense the specimens themselves are your 
record, — prima facie evidence of your industry and ability ; and if labelled, as I shall presently 


22 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


advise, they tell no small part of the whole story. But this is not enough ; indeed, I am not 
sure that an ably conducted ornithological journal is not the better half of your operatious. 
Under your editorship of labelling, specimeus tell what they know about themselves ; but you 
can tell much more yourself. Let us look at a day’s work: You have shot and skinned so 
many birds and laid them away labelled. You have made observations about them before 
shooting, aud have observed a number of birds that you did not shoot. You have items of 
haunts and habits, abundance or scarcity ; of 1manners and actious under special circumstances, 
as of pairing, nesting, laying, rearing young, feeding, migratiug, and what not ; various notes 
of birds are still ringing in your ears ; and finally, you may have noted the absence of species you 
saw a while before, or had expected to occur iu your vicinity. Meteorological and topographi- 
cal items, especially when travelling, are often of great assistance in explaining the occurrences 
and actions of birds. Now you know these things, but very likely no one else does; and 
you know them at the time, but you will not recollect a tithe of them in a few weeks or months, 
to say nothing of years. Don’t trust your memory : it will trip you up; what is clear now will 
grow obscure; what is found will be lost. Write down everything while it is fresh in your 
mind ; write it out in full: time so spent now will be time saved in the end, when you offer 
your researches to the discriminating public. Don’t be satistied with a dry-as-dust item ; 
clothe a skeleton fact, and breathe life into it with thoughts that glow; let the paper smell of 
the woods. There’s a pulse in a new fact; catch the rhythm before it dies. Keep off the 
quicksands of mere memorandum— that means something ‘ to be remembered,” which is just 
what you cannot do. Shun abbreviations; such keys rust with disuse, and may fail in after 
times to unlock the secret that should have been laid bare in the beginning. Use no sigus 
intelligible only to yourself: your note-books may come to be overhauled by others whom 
you would not wish to disappoint. Be sparing of sentiment, a delicate thing, easily degraded 
to drivel : erude enthusiasm always hacks instead of hewing. Beware of literary infelicities : 
‘“‘ the written word remains,” it may be, after you have passed away; put down nothing for 
your friend’s blush, or your enemy’s sneer; write as if a stranger were looking over your 
shoulder. 


Ornithological Book-keeping inay be left to your discretion and good taste in the 
details of execution. Each may consult his preferences for rulings, headings, and blank forms 
of all sorts, as well as particular modes of entry. But my experience has been that the entries 
it is advisable to make are too multifarious to be accommodated by the most ingenious formal 
ruling; unless, indeed, you make the conventional heading ‘“ Remarks” disproportionately 
wide, and comiit to it everything not otherwise provided for. My preference is decidedly for a 
plain page. I use a strongly bound blank book, cap size, containing at least six or eight 
quires of good smovth paper; but smaller may be needed for travelling, even down to a pocket 
note-book. I would not advise a multiplicity of books, splitting up your record into different 
departinents: let it be journal and register of specimens combined. (The registry of your 
own collecting has nothing to do with the register of your cabinet of birds, which is sure to 
include a proportion of specimens from other sources, reccived in exchange, donated, or pur- 
chased. I speak of this beyond.) I have found it convenient to commence a day’s record 
with a register of the specimens secured, each entry consisting of a duplicate of the bird’s label 
(see beyond), accompanied by any further remarks I have to offer respecting the particular 
specimens ; then to go on with the full of my day’s observations, as suggested in the last para- 
graph. You thus have a “register of collections” in chronological order, told off with an 
unbroken series of numbers, checked with the routine label-items, and continually interspersed 
with the balance of your ornithological studies. Since your private field-number is sometimes 
an indispensable clew to the authentication of a specimen after it has left your own hands, 
never duplicate it. If you are collecting other objects of natural history besides birds, still have 


REGISTRATION AND LABELLING. 23 


but one series of numbers; duly enter your mammal, or mineral, or whatever it is, in its 
place, with the number under which it happens to fall. Be scrupulously accurate with these 
and all other figures, as of dates and measurements. Always use black ink; the “ fancy” 
writing-fluids, even the useful camnine, fade sooner than black, while lead-pencilling is never 
sate. 


Labelling. — This should never be neglected. It is enough to make a sensitive ornithol- 
ogist shiver to see a specimen without that indispensable appendage — a label. I am sorry to 
observe that the routine labelling of most collections is far from being satisfactory. A well- 
appointed label is something more than a slip of paper with the bird’s name on it, and is still 
defective, if, as is too often the case, only the locality and collector are added. A complete 
label records the following particulars: 1. Title of the survey, voyage, exploration, or other 
expedition (if any), during which the specimen was collected. 2. Name of the person in 
charge of the same (and it may be remarked that the less he really cares about birds, and the 
less he actually interests himself to procure them, the more particular he will be about this). 
3. Title of the institution or association (if any) under the auspices or patronage of which the 
specimen was procured, or for which it is designed. 4. Name of collector; partly to give 
credit where it is due, but principally to fix responsibility, and authenticate the rest of the 
items. 5. Collector’s number, referring to his note-book, as just explained; if the specimen 
afterwards forms part of a general collection it usually acquires another number by new regis- 
try; the collector’s then becoming the ‘ original,” as distinguished from the ‘“ 
number. 6. Locality, perhaps the most important of all the items. A specimen of unknown 
or even uncertain origin is worthless or nearly so; while lamentable confusion has only too 
often arisen in ornithological writings from vague or erroneous indications of locality: I should 
say that a specimen ‘‘not authentic” in this particular had better have its supposed origin 
erased and be let alone. Nor will it do to say simply, for instance, ‘‘ North America” or even 
““United States.” The general geographical distribution of birds being according to recognized 
faunal areas, ornithologists generally know already the quarter of the globe from which any 
bird comes ; the locality of particular specimens, therefore, should be fixed down to the very 
spot. If this be obscure add the name of the nearest place to be found on a fairly good map, 
giving distance and direction. 7. Date of collection, —day of the month, and year. Among 
other reasons for this may be mentioned the fact that it is often important to know what 
season a particular plumage indicates. 8. Sex, and if possible also age, of the specimen, — an 
item that bespeaks its own importance. Ornithologists of all countries are agreed upon certain 
signs to indicate sex. These are: g for male, 9 for female,—the symbols respectively of 
Mars and Venus. Immaturity is often denoted by the sign ,; thus, @, young inale. Or, 
we may write 9 ad., 9 yg., for adult female, young female, respectively. It is preferable, 
however, to use the language of science, not our vernacular, and say @ juv. (juvenis, young). 
“ Nupt.” siguifies breeding plumage; ‘‘ hornot.” means a bird of the year. 9. Measurements 
of length, and of extent of wings; the former can only be obtained approximately, and the 
latter not at all, from a prepared specimen. 10. Color of the eyes, and of the bill, feet, or 
other naked or soft parts, the tints of which may change in drying. 11. Miscellaneous partic- 
wlars, such as conteuts of stomach, special circumstances of capture, vernacular name, ete. 
12. Scientific name of the bird. This is really the least important item of all, though 
generally thought to take precedence. But a bird labels itself, so to speak; and nature’s 
label inay be deciphered at any time. In fact, I would enjoin upon the collector not to 
write out the supposed name of the bird in the ficld, unless the species is so well known as 
to be absolutely unquestionable. Proper identification, in any case to which the slightest 
doubt may attach, can only be made after critical study in the closet with ample facilities for 
examination and comparison. The first eight items, and the twelfth, usually constitute the 


current,” 


24 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


face of a label; the rest are commonly written on the back. Labels should be of light card- 
board, or very stiff writing paper; they may be dressed attractively, as fancy suggests; the 
general items of a large number of specimens are best printed; the special oues must of course 
be written. Shape is immaterial; sinall “cards” or “ tickets” are preferred by some, and 
certainly look very well when ueatly appointed; but I think, on the whole, that a shape 
answering the idea of a “slip” rather than a “ticket” is most eligible. A slip about three 
inches long and two thirds of an ineh wide will do very well for anything, from a hawk to a 
humming-bird. Something like the “ shipping tag” used by merchants is excellent, particu- 
larly for larger objects. It seems most natural to attach the string to the left-hand end. The 
slip should be tied so as to swing just clear of the bird’s legs, but not loose enough to dangle 
several inches, for in that case the labels are continually tangling with each other when the 
birds are laid away in drawers. The following diagrams show the face and back of the last 
label I happened to write before these lines were originally penned; they represent the size 
and shape that I find most convenient for general purposes; while the ‘ legend” illustrates 
every one of the twelve items above specified. 


§ Explorations in Dakota. Dr. Elliott Coues, U.S.A. 

3 ea 

z No. 2655. Buteo borealis (Gm.) V. 9 juv. = 

be) ion 

5 Fort Randall, Missouri River. Oct. 29, 1872. S 

a : 
Obverse. 


23.00 ~ 53.00 « 17.50. — Eyes yellowish-gray; Dill horn-blue, 
darker at tip; cere wax-yellow; tarsi dull yellowish; claws 
bluish-black. Stomach contained portions of a rabbit; also, a 


large tapeworm. 


Reverse. 


Directions for Measurement inay be inserted here, as this matter pertains rightfully to 
the recording of specimens. The following instructions apply not only to length and extent, 
but to the principal other dimensions, which may be taken at any time. For large birds, a 
tape-line showing inches and fourths will do; for smaller ones, a foot-rule graduated for inches 
and eighths, or better, decimals to hundredths, must be used; and for all nice measurements 
the dividers are indispensable. ‘ Length: ” Distance between the tip of the bill and end of 
the longest tail-feather. Lay the bird on its back on the ruler on a table; take hold of the bill 
with one hand and of both legs with the other ; pull with reasonable force to get the curve all 
out of the neck ; hold the bird thus with the tip of the bill flush with one end of the ruler, and 
see where the end of the tail points. Put the tape-line in place of the ruler, in the same way, 
for larger birds.“ Eatent:” Distance between the tips of the outspread wings. They must 
be fully outstretched, with the bird on its back, crosswise on the ruler, its bill pointing to your 
breast. Take hold of right and left metacarpus with the thumb and forefinger of your left and 
right hand respectively, stretch with reasonable force, getting one wing-tip flush with one end 
of the ruler, and see how much the other wing-tip reaches. With large birds pull away as 
hard as you please, aud use the table, floor, or side of the room; mark the points and apply 
tape-line. ‘Length of wing +” Distance from the earpal angle formed at the bend of the 
wing to the end of the longest primary. Get it with compasses for small birds. Tn birds with 
a convex wing, do not lay the tape-line over the curve, but under the wing in a straight. line. 
This measurement is the one called, for short, “ the wing.” ‘ Length of tail: ” Distance 


MATERIALS FOR PREPARING BIRDSKINS. 25 


from the roots of the rectrices to the end of the longest one. Feel for the pope’s nose; in either 
a fresh or dried specimen there is more or less of a palpable lump into which the tail-feathers 
stick. Guess as near as you can to the middle of this lump; place the end of the ruler opposite 
this point, and see where the tip of the longest tail-feather comes. ‘‘ Length of bill: ” Some 
take the curve of the upper mandible; others the side of the upper mandible from the feathers; 
others the gape, etc. I take the chord of the culmen. Place one foot of the dividers on the 
culmen just where the feathers end; no matter whether the eulmen runs up on the forehead, or 
the frontal feathers run out on the culmen, and no matter whether the culmen is straight or 
curved. Then with me the length of the bill is the shortest distance from the point just. indi- 
cated to the tip of the upper mandible; measure it with the dividers. In a straight bill of 
course it is the length of the culmen itself; in a curved bill, however, it is quite another thing. 
‘““ Length of tarsus:” Distance between the joint of the tarsus with the leg above, and that 
with the first phalanx of the middle toe below. Measure it always with dividers, and in front 
of the leg. ‘Length of toes: ” Distance in a straight line along the upper surface of a toe 
from the point last indicated to the root of the claw on top. Length of toe is to be taken 
without the claw, unless otherwise specified. ‘Length of the claws :” Distance ina straight line 
from the point last indicated to the tip of the claw. ‘ Length of head” is often a convenient 
dimension for comparison with the bill. Set one foot of the dividers over the base of the culmen 
(determined as above) and allow the other to slip snugly down over the arch of the occiput. 


§ 6.—INSTRUMENTS, MATERIALS, AND FIXTURES FOR PREPARING BIRDSKINS. 


Instruments. — The only indispensable instrument is a pair of scissors or a knife; 
although practically you want both of these, a pair of spring foreeps, and a knitting-needle, or 
some similar wooden or ivory object, yet I have made hundreds of birdskins consecutively 
without touching another tool. ‘ Persicos odi, puer, apparatus!” I always mistrust the 
emphasis of a collector who makes a flourish of instruments. You might be surprised to sce 
what a meagre, shabby-looking kit our best taxidermists work with. Stick to your scissors, 
knife, forceps, and needle. But you may as well buy, at the outset, a common dissecting-case, 
just what medical students begin business with; it is very cheap, and if there are some unneces- 
sary things in it, it makes a nice little box in which to keep your tools. The case contains, 
among other things, several scalpels, just the knives you want; a “ cartilage-knife,” which is 
nothing but a stout sealpel, suitable for large birds; the best kind of scissors for your purpose, 
with short blades and long handles —if ‘‘ kneed” at the hinge so much the better; spring 
forceps, the very thing; a blow-pipe, useful in many ways and answering well for a knitting- 
needle ; and some little steel-hooks, chained together, which you may want to use. But you 
will also require, for large birds, a very heavy pair of scissors, or small shears, short-bladed 
and long-handled, and a stout pair of bone-nippers. Have some pins and needles ; surgical 
needles, which cut iustead of punching, are the best. Get a hone or strop, if you wish, and a 
feather duster. Use of scissors requires no comment, and I would urge their habitual employ 
instead of the knife-blade ; I do nine-tenths of my cutting with scissors, and find it much the 
easiest. A double-lever is twice as effective as a single one, and besides, you gain in cutting 
soft, yielding substances by opposing two blades. Moreover, scalpels need constant sharpen- 
ing; mine are generally too dull to cut much with, and I suppose I am like other people — 
while scissors stay sharp enough. The flat, thin ivory or ebony handle of the scalpel is about 
as useful as the blade. Finger-nails, which were made before scalpels, are a mighty help. 
Forceps are almost indispensable for seizing and holding parts too small or too remote to be 
grasped by the fingers. The knitting-needle is wanted for a specific purpose noted beyond. 
The shears or nippers are only needed for what the ordinary scissors are too weak to do. Our 
instruments, you see now, are ‘‘ a short horse soon curried.” 


26 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


Materials. — (a.) Yor stuffing. ‘What do you stuff ’em with?” is usually the first 
question of idle curiosity about taxidermy, as if that were the great point; whereas, the stuffing 
is so sinall a matter that I generally reply, “‘anything, except brickbats!” But if stuffing 
birds were the final cause of Cotton, that admirable substance could not be more perfectly 
adapted than it is to the purpose. Ordinary raw cotton-batting or wadding is what you want. 
When I can get it I never think of using anything else for small birds. I would use it for all 
birds were expense no object. Here tow comes in; there is a fine, clean, bleached article of 
tow prepared for surgical dressings; this is the best, but any will do. Some say chop your 
tow fine; this is harmless, but unnecessary. A crumpled newspaper, wrapped with tow, is 
first-rate for a large bird. Failing cotton or tow, any soft, light, dry, vegetable substance may 
be made to answer, — rags, paper, crumbled leaves, fine dried grass, soft fibrous inner bark, 
ete. ; the down of certain plants, as thistle and silkweed, makes an exquisite filling for small 
birds. But I will qualify my remark about brickbats by saying : never put hair, wool, feathers, 
or any other ANIMAL substance in a birdskin ; far better leave it empty: for, as we shall see in 
the sequel, bugs come fast enough, withont being invited into a snug nest. (b.) For preserv- 
ing. ARSENIC, — not the pure metal properly so called, but arsenic of the shops, or arsenious 
acid, —is the great preservative. Use dry powdered arsenic, plenty of it, and nothing else. 
There is no substitute for arsenic worthy cf the name, and no preparation of arsenic so good as 
the simple substance. Various kinds of ‘arsenical soap” were and may still be in vogue ; 
it is a nasty greasy substance, not fit to handle; and although efficacious enough, there is a 
very serious hygienic objection to its use. Arsenic, I need not say, is a violent irritant poison, 
and must therefore he duly guarded, but may be used with perfect impunity. It is a very 
heavy substance, not appreciably volatile at ordinary temperatures, and therefore not liable, 
as some suppose, to be breathed, to any perceptible, wuch less injurious, extent. It will not 
even at once enter the pores of healthy unbroken skin ; so it is no matter if it gets on the fingers. 
The exceedingly minute quantity that may be supposed to find its way into the system in the 
course of time is believed by many competent physicians to be rather beneficial as a tonic. I 
will not commit myself to this; for, though I have never felt better than when working daily 
with arsenic, I do not know how much my health was improved by the out-door exercise 
always taken at the same time. The simple precautions are, not to let it lie too long in con- 
tact with the skin, nor get into an abrasion, nor under the nails. It will convert a seratch or 
cut into a festering sore of some little severity ; while if lodged under the nails it soon shows 
itself by soreness, increased by pressure; a white speck appears, then a tiny abscess forms, dis- 
charges and gets well in a few days. Your precautions really respect other persons more than 
yourself; the receptacle should be conspicuously labelled ‘‘POISON!” Arsenic is a good 
friend of ours; besides preserving our birds, it keeps busybodies and meddlesome folks away 
from the scene of operations, by raising a wholesome suspicion of the taxidermist’s surround- 
ings. It may be kept in the tin pots in which it is usually sold; but some shallower, broader 
receptacle is more convenient. A little drawer say 6 x6 inches, and an inch deep, to slip 
under the edge of the table, or a similar compartment in a large drawer, will be found handy. 
A salt-spoon, or little wooden shovel whittled like one, is nice to use it with, though in effect, 
T always shovel it up with the handle of a scalpel. As stated, there is no substitute for arsenic ; 

1 “Strange as it may appear to some, I would say avoid especially all the so-called 
are at best but filthy preparations ; besides, it is a fact to which I can bear painful tes 
especially when applied to a greasy skin, poisonous in the extreme. I have been so badly poisoned, while working 
upon the skins of some fat water birds that had been prepared with arsenical soap, as to be made seriously ill, the 
Elec iepenia te ini cepa nn tae Gc ce ee 

: ‘ 8 , ! 0 s bad, although grease and arsenic are generally 
ee with ‘soap’ the effect, at least as far as my experience goes, 
. ARD, ide, p. 12.) In endorsing this, I would add that the combination is the 


tore poisonous, in all probability, simply because the soap, being detersive, mechanically facilitates the entrance 
of the poison, without, however, chemically increasing its virulence. 


arsenical soaps ; they 
timony that they are, 


MATERIALS FOR PREPARING BIRDSKINS. 27 


but at a pinch you can make temporary shift with the following, among other articles: —table 
salt, or saltpetre, or charcoal strewn plentifully; strong solution of corrosive sublimate, brushed 
over the skin inside ; creosote ; impure carbolic acid; these last two are quite efficacious, but 
they smell horribly for an indefinite period. A bird threatening to decompose before you can 
get at it to skin, may be saved for a while by squirting weak carbolic acid or crevsote down the 
throat and up the fundament; or by disembowelling, and filling the cavity with powdered 
charcoal. (¢.) For cleansing. Gypsum is an alinost indispeusable material for cleansing 
soiled plumage. ‘‘ Gypsum” is properly uative hydrated sulphate of lime ; the article referred 
to is ‘‘ plaster of Paris” or gypsum heated up to 260° F. (by which the water of erystalliza- 
tion is driven off) and then finely pulverized. When mixed with water it soon solidifies, the 
original hydrate being again formed. The mode of using it is indicated beyond. It is most 
conveniently kept in a shallow tray, say a fvot square, and an inch or two deep, which had 
better, furthermore, slide under the table as a drawer; or form a compartment of a larger 
drawer. Keep gypsum and arsenic in different-looking receptacles, not so much to keep from 
poisoning yourself, as to keep from not poisoning a birdskin. They look much alike, and 
skinning becomes such a mechanical process that you may get hold of the wrong article when 
your thoughts are wandering in the woods. Gypsum, like arsenic, has no worthy rival in its 
own field ; some substitutes, in the order of their applicability, are: — corn-meal, probably the 
best thing after gypsum; calcined magnesia (very good, but too light — it floats in the air, 
and makes you cough); bicarbonate of magnesia; powdered chalk (“‘ prepared chalk,” creta 
preparata of the drug shops, is the best kind); fine wood-ashes; clean dry loam. No article, 
however powdery when dry, that contains a glutinous principle, as for instance gum-arabic or 
flour, is admissible. (d.) For wrapping, you want a thin, pliable, strong paper ; water-closet 
paper is the very best; newspaper is pretty good. For making the cones or cylinders in 
which birdskins may be set to dry, a stiffer article is required ; writing paper answers perfectly. 


Naturalists habitually carry a Pocket Lens, much as other people do a watch. You 
will find a magnifying glass very convenient in your search for the sexual organs of small 
birds when obscure, as they frequently are, out of the breeding season; in picking lice from 
plumage, to send to your entomological friend, who will very likely pronounce them to be of a 
‘new species ; ” and for other purposes. 


Fixtures. When travelling, your fixtures must ordinarily be limited to a collecting- 
chest ; you will have to skin birds on the top of this, on the tail-board of a wagon, or on your 
lap, as the case may be. The chest should be very substantial —iron-bound is best ; strong 
as to hinges and lock—and have handles. A good size is 30x18 x 18 inches. Let it be 
fitted with a set of trays; the bottom one say four inches deep; the rest shallower; the top 
one very shallow, and divided into compartments for your tools and materials, unless you fix 
these on the under side of the lid. Start out with all the trays full of cotton or tow. At 
home, have a room to yourself, if possible ; taxidermy makes a mess to which your wife may 
object, aud arsenic must not come in the way of children. At any rate have your own table. 
I prefer plain deal that may be scrubbed when required; great cleanliness is indispensable, 
especially when doing much work in hot weather, for the place soon smells sour if ueglected. 
T use no special receptacle for offal, for this only makes another article to be cleaned; lay 
down a piece of paper for the refuse, and throw the whole away. A perfectly smooth surface 
is desirable. I generally have a large pane of window-glass on the table before me. It will 
really be found advantageous to have a scale of inches scratched on the edge of the table; only 
a small part of it need be fractionally subdivided; this replaces the foot-rule and tape-line, 
just as the tacks of a dry-gouds counter answer for the yardstick. You will find it worth while 
to rig some sort of a derrick arrangement, which you can readily devise, on one end of the 


28 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


table, to hitch your hook to, if you hang your birds up to skin them; they should swing clear 
of everything. The table should have a large general drawer, with a little drawer for gypsum 
and arsenic already mentioned, unless these be kept elsewhere. Stuffing may be kept in a box 
under the table, and make a nice footstool; or in a bag slung to the table leg. 


Query: Have you cleansed the bird’s plumage? Have you plugged the mouth, nostrils, 
and vent? Have you measured the specimen and noted the color of the eyes, bill, and feet, 
and prepared the labels, and made the eutry in the register? Have you got all your apparatus 
within arm’s length? Then we are ready to proceed. 


§7.—HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN. 
a. THe RecuLar Process. 

Lay the Bird on its Back, the bill pointing to your right! elbow. Take the scalpel like 
a pen, with edge of blade uppermost, and run a straight furrow through the feathers along the 
middle line of the belly, from end of the breast-bone to the vent. Part the feathers com- 
pletely, and keep them parted.2 Observe a strip of skin either perfectly naked, or only cov- 
ered with short down; this is the line for incision. Take scissors, stick in the pointed blade 
just over the end of the breast-bone, cut in a straight line thence to and into the vent; cut 
extremely shallow.’ 

Take the forceps in your left hand, and scalpel in your right, both held pen-wise, and with 
the forceps seize and lift up one of the edges of the cut ski, gently pressing away the belly- 
walls with the scalpel-point ; no cutting is required; the skin may be peeled off without trouble. 
Skin away till you meet an obstacle; it is the thigh. Lay down the instruments ; with your 
left hand take hold of the leg outside at the shank; put your right forefinger under the raised 
flap of skin, and feel a bump; it is the Anee ; push up the leg till this bump comes into view ; 
hold it so. Take the scissors in your right hand; tuck one blade under the concavity of the 
knee, and sever the joimt at a stroke; then the thigh is left with the rest of the body, while 
the rest of the leg is dissevered and hangs only by skin. Push the leg further up till it has 
stipped out of its sheath of skin, like a finger out of a glove, down to the heel-joint. You 
have now to clear off the flesh and leave the bone there; you may scrape till this is done, 
but there is a better way. Stick the closed points of the scissors in among the muscles just 
below the head of the bone, then separate the blades just wide enough to grasp the bone; 
snip off its head; draw the head to one side; all the museles follow, being there attached ; 
strip them downward from the bone; the bone is left naked, with the muscle hanging by a 
bundle of tendons (‘‘leaders”) at its foot; sever these tendons collectively at a stroke. This 
whole performance will occupy about three seconds, after practice ; and you may soon discover 
you can nick off the head of the bone of a small bird with the thumb-nail. Draw the leg bone 
back into its sheath, and leave it. Repeat all the foregoing steps on the other side of the bird. 
If you are bothered by the skin-flaps settling against the belly-walls, insert a fluff of cotton. 


1 Reverse this and following directions for position, if you are left-handed. 

? The motion is exactly like stroking the right and left sides of a moustache apart ; you would never dress 
the hairs smoothly away from the middle line, by poking from ends to root; nor will the feathers stay aside, 
unless stroked away from base to tips. 

§ The skin over the belly is thin as tissue paper in a small bird; the chances are you will at first cut the 
walls of the belly too, opening the cavity; this is no great matter, for a pledget of cotton will keep the bowels in; 
nevertheless, try to divide skin only. Reason for cutting info vent: this orifice makes a nice natural termination 
of the incision, buttonhole-wise, and may keep the end of the cut from tearing around the root of the tail. Reason 
for beginning to cut over the edge of the sternum: the muscular walls of the belly are very thin, and stick so close 
to the skin that you may be in danger of attempting to remove them with the skin, instead of removing the skin 
from them; whereas, you cannot remove anything but skin from over the breast bone, so you have a guide at the 
start. You can tell skin from belly-wall, by its livid, translucent whitishness instead of redness. 


HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN. 29 


Keep the feathers out of the wound; cotton and the moustache movement will doit. Next you 
must sever the tail from the body, leaving a small ‘‘ pupe’s-nose” for the feathers to stay stuck 
into. Put the bird in the hollow of your lightly closed left hand, tail upward, belly toward you; 
or, if too large for this, stand it on its breast on the table in similar position. Throw your 
left forefinger across the front of the tail, pressing a little backward ; take the scissors, cut the 
end of the lower bowel free first, then peck away at boue and muscle with cautious snips, till 
the tail-stump is dissevered from the rump, and the tail hangs only by skin. You will soon 
learn to do it all at one stroke; but you cannot be too careful at first ; you are cutting right 
down on to the skin over the top of the pope’s-nose, aud if you divide this, the bird will part 
company with its tail altogether. Now you have the rump-stump protruding naked; the legs 
dangling on either side; the tail hanging loose over the bird’s back between them. Lay down 
scissors, take up forceps! in your left hand; with thein seize and hold the stump of the rump ; 
and with point or handle of scalpel in the other hand, with finger-tips, or with thumb-nail 
(best), gently press down on and peel away skin.? No cutting will be required (usually) till 
you come to the wings: the skin peels off (usually) as easily as an orange-rind; as fast as it 
is loosened, evert it; that is make it continually turn itself more and more completely inside 
out. Work thus till you are stopped by the obtruding wings. You have to sever the wing 
from the body at the shoulder, just as you did the leg at the knee, and leave it hanging by 
skin alone. Take your scissors,* as soon as the upper arm is exposed, and cut through flesh 
and bone alike at one stroke, a little below (outside of) the shoulder-joint. Do the same with 
the other wing. As soon as the wings are severed the body has been skinned to the root of 
the neck ; the process becomes very easy ; the neck almost slips out of its sheath of itself; and 
if you have properly attended to keeping the feathers out of the wound and to continual ever- 
sion of the skin, you now find you have a naked body connected dumb-bell-wise by a naked 
ueck to a cap of reversed skin into which the head has disappeared, from the inside of which 
the legs and wings dangle, and around the edges of which is a row of plumage and a tail. 
Here comes up an important consideration: the skin, plumage, legs, wings, and tail together 
weigh something, — enough to stretch ® unduly the skin of the neck, from the small cylinder of 
which they are now suspended; the whole mass must be swpported. For small birds, gather 
it in the hollow of your left hand, letting the body swing over the back of your hand out of the 


1 Or at this stage you may instead stick a hook into a firm part of the rump, and hang up the bird about 
the level of your breast; you thus have both hands free to work with. This is advisable with all birds too large 
to be readily taken in hand, and will help you, at first, with any bird. But there is really no use of it with a small 
bird, and you may as well learn the best way of working at first as afterward. 

2 The idea of the whole movement is exactly like ungloving your hand from the wrist, by turning the glove 
inside out to the very finger tips. Some people say, pull off the skin; I say never pull a bird’s skin under any cir- 
cumstances: push it off, always operating at lines of contact of skin with body, never upon areas of skins already 
detached. 

3 The elbows will get in your way before you reach the point of attack, namely, the shoulder, unless the 
wings were completely relaxed (as was essential, indeed, if you measured alar expanse correctly), Think what a 
difference it would make, were you skinning a man through a slit in the belly, whether his arms were stretched 
above his head, or pinned against his ribs. It is just the same with a bird. When properly relaxed the wings 
are readily pressed away toward the bird’s head, so that the shoulders are encountered before the elbows. 

4 Shears will be required lo crash through a large arm-bone. Or, you may with the scalpel unjoint the 
shoulder. The joint will be found higher up and deeper among the breast muscles than you might suppose, 
unless you are used to carving fowls at table. With asmall bird, you may snap the bone with the thumb-nail 
and tear asunder the muscles in an instant. 

6 You find that the little straigut cut you made along the belly has somehow become a hole larger than the 
greatest girth of the bird; be undismayed; it is all right. 

6 If you have up to this point properly pushed off the skin instead of pulling it, there is as yet probably no 
stretching of any consequence; but, in skinning the head, which comes next, it is almost impossible for a beginner 
to avoid stretching to an extent involving great damage to the good looks of askin. Try your utmost, by delicacy 
of manipulation at the lines of contact of skin with flesh, and only there, to prevent lengthwise stretching. Cross- 
wise distension is of no consequence; in fact more or less of it is usually required to skin the head, and it tends 
to counteract the ill effect of undue elongation. 


30 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


e 
way; for large ones, rest the affair on the table or your lap. To skin the head, secure the 
body in the position just indicated, by confining the neck between your left thumb and fore- 
finger; bring the right fingers and thumb to a cone over the head, and draw it out with gentle 
force; or, holding the head itself between the left thunb aud forefinger, insert the handle of 
the scalpel between the skin and skull, aud pry a little, to enlarge the neck-cylinder of skin 
enough to let the head pass. It will generally? slip out of its hood very readily, as far as its 
greatest diameter ;? there it sticks, being in fact pinned by the ears. Still holding the bird as 
before, with the point of the scalpel handled like a nut-picker, or with your thumb-nail, detach 
the delicate membrane that lines the ear-openinug ; do the same for the other éar. The skull is 
then shelled out to the eyes, and will skin no further of its own accord, being again attached 
by a membrane, around the border of the eye-socket. Holding the scalpel as before, run its 
edge around an are (a semicircle is enough to let you into the orbit) of the circumference, dis- 
severing the membrane from the bone. Reverse the scalpel, and scoop out the eyeball with 
the end of the handle ; you bring out the eye betwixt the ball of your thumb and the handle 
of the instrument, tearing apart the optic nerve and the conjunctival tissue, but taking care 
not to open the eyeball? or lacerate the eyelids. Do the same with the other eye. The head 
is theu skinned far enough ; there is no use of getting quite to the base of the bill. You have 
now to get rid of the brain and flesh of the nape and jaws,* and leave most of the skull in; the 
cranial dome makes the only perfect ‘‘stuffing” for the skin of the head. This is all done at once 
by ouly four particular cuts. Hold the head between your left thumb and fingers, the bill point- 
ing towards you, the bird’s palate facing you; you observe a space bounded behind by the base 
of the skull where the neck joins, in front by the floor of the mouth, on either side by the prongs 
of the under jaw, — these last especially prominent. Take the scissors; stick one blade just 
inside one branch of the lower jaw, thence into the eye-socket which lies below (the head 
being upside down), thence into the brain-box ; make a cut parallel with the jaw, just inside 
of it, bringing the upper scissor blade perpendicularly downward, crashing through the skull just 
inside of the angle of the jaw. Duplicate this cut on the other side. Connect the anterior 
ends of these cuts by a transverse one across the floor and roof of the mouth. Connect the 
posterior ends of the side cuts by one across the back of the skull near its base, —just where 
the nape-muscle ceases to override the cranium. You have enclosed and eut out a squarish- 
shaped mass of bone and imusele, and, on gently pulling the neck (to which of course it 
remains attached), the whole affair comes out, bringing the brain with it, but leaving the 
entire roof of the skull supported on a scaffolding of jaw-bone. It only remains to skin the 
wings. Seize the arm-stump with fingers or forceps; the upper arm is readily drawn from its 
sheath as far as the elbow; but the wing must be skinned to the wrist (carpus— ‘)end of 
the wing”) ; yet it will not come out so easily, because the secondary quills grow to one of the 
fore-arm bones (the ulna), pinning down the skin the whole way along a series of points. To 
break up these connections, hold the upper arm firmly with the left thumb and forefinger, the 
convexity of the elbow looking towards you; press the right thumb-nail closely against the 
back edge of the ulna, and strip downward, scraping the bone with the nail the whole way. 
If you only hit the line of adhesions, there is no trouble at all about this. Now you want to 


1 The special case of head too large for the calibre of the neck is treated beyond. 

2 And you will at once find a great apparent increase of amount of free skin in your hand, owing to release 
and extension of all that was before shortened in length by circular distension, in enlargement of the neck- 
cylinder. 

3 An eyeball is much larger than it looks from the outside; if you stick the instrument straight into the 
socket, you may punch a hole in the ball and let out the water; a very disagreeable complication. Insinuate the 
knife-handle close to the rim of the socket, and hug the wall of the cavity throughout. 

4 You may of course at this stage cut off the neck at the nape, punch a hole in the base of the skull, dig out 
“the brains, and scrape away at the jaw-muscles till you are satisfied or tired; an unnecessary job, during which 
the skin may have become dry and shrivelled and hard to turn right side out. The operation described in the 
text may require ten seconds, perhaps. 


HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN. 31 


leave in one of the two fore-arm bones, to preserve sufficiently the shape of the limb, but to 
remove the other, with the upper-arm bone and all the flesh. It is done in a moment: stick the 
point of the scissors between the heads of the two fore-arm bones, and cut the hinder one (ulna) 
away from the elbow; then the other fore-arm bone (radius), bearing on its near end the 
elbow and the whole upper arm, is to be stripped away from the ulna, taking with it the flesh 
of the fore-arm, and to be cut off at its far end close to the wrist-joint, one stroke severing the 
bone and all the tendons that pass over the wrist to the hand; then the ulna, bare of flesh, 
is alone left in, attached at the wrist. Draw gently on the wing from the outside till it slips 
into the natural position whence you everted it. Do the same for the other wing. This 
finishes the skinning process. The skin is now to be turned right side out. Begin any way 
you please, till you see the point of the bill reappearing among the feathers; seize it with 
fingers or forceps, as convenient, and use it for geutle traction. But by no means pull it out 
by holding on to the rear end of the skin —that would infallibly stretch the skin. Holding 


g 
the bill, make a cylinder of your left hand and coax the skin backward with a sort of milking 
motion. It will come easily enough, until the final stage of getting the head back iuto its 
skull-cap; this may require some little dexterity ; but you cannot fail to get the head in, if 
you remember what you did to get it out. When this is fairly accomplished, you for the first 
time have the pleasure of seeing something that looks like a birdskin. Your next? care is to 
apply arsenic. Lay the skin on its back, the opening toward you and wide spread, so the 
interior is in view. Run the scalpel-handle iuto the neck to dilate that cylinder until you can 
see the skull; find your way to the orifices of the legs and wings; expose the pope’s-nose ; 
thus you have not only the general skin surface, but all the points where some traces of flesh 
were left, fairly in view. Shovel in arsenic; dwnp some down the neck, making sure it reaches 
and plentifully besprinkles the whole skull; drop a little in each wing hole and leg hole; 
leave a small pile at the root of the tail; strew some more over the skin at large. The simple 
rule is, put in as much arsenic as will stick anywhere. Then close the opening, and shake up 
the skin ; move the head about by the bill; rustle the wings and move the legs; this distrib- 
utes the poison thoroughly. If you have got im more than is necessary, as you may judge by 
seeing it piled up dry, anywhere, hold the skin with the opeuing downward over the poison- 
drawer, and give it a flip and let the superfluous powder fall out. Now for the ‘make up,” 
upon which the beauty of the preparation depends. First get the empty skin into good shape. 
Let it lie on its back; draw it straight out to its natural length. See that the skin of the 
head fits snugly; that the eyes, ears, and jaws are in place. Expand the wings to make sure 
that the bone is in place, and fold them so that the quills override each other naturally ; set the 
tail-feathers shinglewise also; draw down the legs and leave them straddling wide apart. 
Give the plumage a preliminary dressing; if the skin is free from kinks and creases, the feath- 
ers come naturally into place; particular ones that may be awry should be set right, as may 
be generally done by stroking, or by lifting them free repeatedly, and letting them fall; if any 
(through carelessness) remain turned into the opening, they should be carefully picked out. 
Remove all traces of gypsum or arsenic with the feather duster. Tho stuffing is to be put in 
through the opening in the belly; the art is to get in just enough, in the right places. It 
would never do to push in pellets of cotton, as you would stuff a pillow-case, till the skin is 
filled up; no subsequent skill in setting could remove the distortion that would result. It 
takes just four? pieces of stuffing — one for each eye, one for the neck, and one for the body; 


1 Some direct the poisoning to be done while the skin is still wrong side ont; and it may be very thoroughly 
effected at that stage. I wait, because the arsenic generally strews over the table in the operation of reversing 
the skin, if you use as much asI think advisable; and it is better to have a cavity to put it info than a surface to 
strew it on. 

2 For any ordinary bird up to the size of a crow. It is often directed that the leg-bones and wing-bones be 
wrapped with cotton or tow. I should not think of putting anything around the wing-bones of any bird up to the 
size of an eagle, swan, or pelican. Examination of a skinned wing will show how extremely compact it is, except 


32 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


while it requires rather less than half as much stuffing as an inexperienced person might 
suppose. Take a shred of cotton that will make a tight ball as large as the bird’s eye; stick 
it on the end of your knitting-needle, and by twirling the needle whilst the cotton is confined 
in your finger tips, you make a neat ball. Introduce this through the belly-opening, into 
the eye-socket ; if you have cut away skull enough, as already directed, it will go right 
‘n; disengage the needle with a reverse twirl, and withdraw it. Take hold of the bill with 
one hand, and with the forceps in the other, dress the eyelids neatly and naturally over 
the elastic substance within. Repeat for the other eye. Take next a shred of cotton that 


will roll into a firm cylinder rather less than the size of the bird’s neck. Roll it on the 


ueedle much as you did the eye-ball, introduce it in the same way, and ram it firmly into 
the base of the skull; disengage the needle by twirling it the other way, and withdraw it, 
taking care not to dislodge the cotton neck. If now you peep into the skin you will see 
the end of this artificial neck; push it up against the skin of the breast, — it must not lie 
down on the back between the shoulders.t| The body-wad comes next; you want to 
imitate the size and shape of the bird’s trunk. Take a mass of cotton you think will be 
enough, and take about half of this; that will be plenty (cotton is very elastic). It should 
make a tolerably firm ball, rather egg-shaped, swelling at the breast, smaller behind. If you 
simply squeeze up the cotton, it will not stay compressed; it requires a motion something 
like that which bakers employ to knead dough into the shape of a loaf. Keep tucking 
over the borders of the cotton till the desired shape and firmness are attained. Insert the ball 
between the blades of the forceps in such way that the instrument confines the folded-over 
edges, and with a wriggliug motion insinuate it aright into the body. Before relaxing 
the forceps, put your thumb and forefinger in the bird’s armpits, and pinch the shoulders 
together till they almost touch; this is to make sure that there is no stuffing between the 
shoulders, — the whole mass lying breastwards. Loosen the forceps and withdraw them. If 
the ball is rightly made and tucked in, the elasticity of the cotton will chiefly expend itself in 
puffing out the breast, which is just what is wanted. Be careful not to push the body too far 
in; if it impacts against the skin of the ueck, this will infullibly stretch, driving the shoulders 
apart, and no art will remedy the unsightly gape resulting. You see I dwell on this matter of 
the shoulders ; the whole knack of stuffing correctly focuses just over the shoulders. If you find 
you have made the body too large, pull it out aud make a smaller one; if it fits nicely about 
the shoulders, but is too long to go in, or too puffy over the belly, let it stay, and pick away 
shreds at the open end till the redundancy is remedied. Your bird is now stuffed. Close the 
opening by bringing the edges of the original cut together. There is no use of sewing? up 
the cut, for a small bird; if the stuffing is correct, the feathers will hide the opening; and if they 
do not, it is no matter. You are not making an object for a show case, but for a naturalist’s 


just at the shoulder. What you remove will never make any difference from the outside, while you would almost 
inevitably get in too much, not of the right shape, and make an awkward bulging no art would remedy; I say, 
then, leave the wings of all but the largest birds empty, and put in very little under any circumstances. As for 
legs, the whole host of small perching birds need no wrapping whatever; depend upon it you will make a nicer 
skin without wrapping. But large birds and those with very muscular or otherwise prominent legs must have 
the removal of flesh compensated for I treat of these cases beyond. 

1 Although a bird’s neck is really, of course, in direct continuation of the back-bone, yet the natural sigmoid 
curve of the neck is such that it virtually takes departure rather from the breast, its lower curve being received 
between the prongs of the merrythought. This is what we must imitate instead of the true anatomy. If you let 
the end of the neck lie between the shoulders, it will infallibly press them apart, so that the interscapular plumage 
cannot shingle over the scapular feathers as it should, and a gaping place, showing down or even naked skin, 
will result, Likewise if the neck be made too /arge (the chances are that way, at first), the same result follows. 
These seemingly trifling points are very important indeed; I never made a decent birdskin till I learned to get the 
neck small enough and to shove the end of it against the breast. 

* But sew it up, if you please, though you may be perhaps giving the man who subsequently mounts the 
bird the trouble of ripping out the stitches. Stitches, however, will not come amiss with a large bird. I generally, 
in such cases, pin the edges of the cut in one or more places. 


HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN. 33 


cabinet. Supposing you to have been so far successful, little remains to be done; the skin 
already looks very much like a dead bird; you have ouly to give the finishing touches, and 
“set” it. Fixing the wings nicely is a great point. Fold each wing closely; see that the 
carpal bend is well defined, that the coverts show their several oblique rows perfectly, that all 
the quills override each other like shingles. Tuck the folded wings close up to the body — 
rather on the bird’s back than along its sides ; see that the wing tips meet over the tail (under 
the tail as the bird lies on its back); let the carpal angle nestle in the plumage; have the 
shoulders close together, so that the interscapulars shingle over the scapulars. If the wing be 
pressed in too tightly, the scapulars will rise up on eud; there must be neither furrow nor 
ridge about the insertion of the wings; everything must lie perfectly smooth. At this stage 
of the process, I generally lift up the skin gingerly, and let it slip head first through one hand 
after the other, pressing here or there to correct a deformity, or uniformly to make the whole 
skin compact. The wiugs set, next bring the legs together, so that the bones within the 
skin lie parallel with each other; bend the heel-joint a little, to let the tarsi cross each uther 
about their middle; lay thein sidewise on the tail, so that the naturally flexed toes lie flat, all 
the claws mutually facing each other. See that the neck is perfectly straight, and, if anything, 

shortened rather than outstretched ; have the crown of the head flat ou the table, the bill point- 
ing straight forward,} the mandibles shut tightly.2 Never attempt any “fancy” attitudes with 
a birdskin; the simpler aud more compactly it is made up the better. Finally, I say, hang 
over your bird (Gif you have time); dress better the feathers that were well dressed before ; 
ingly, and put it away tenderly, as you hope to be shriven 


perfect every curve; finish cares 
yourself when the time comes. 
There are several ways of layiug a birdskin. A common, easy, and slovenly way is to 
thrust it head first into a paper cone; but it makes a hollow-chested, pot-bellied object, 
unpleasant to see, and renders your nice work on the make-up futile. A paper cylinder, 
corresponding in calibre to the greatest girth of the birdskiu, binds the wings well, and makes 
a good ordinary specimen, —perhaps better than the average. Remarking that there are some 
detestable practices, such as hanging up a bird by a string through the nose (methods only to 
be mentioned to be condemned), I will tell you the easiest aud best way, by which the most 
elegant and tasteful results are almost necessarily sceured. The skins are simply laid away 
in cotton, just as they come from your hands. Take a considerable wad of cotton, make a 
“bed” of it, lay the specimen in, and tuck it up nicely around the edges. In etfect, I gener- 
ally take a thin sheet of cotton wadding, the siziug of which confers some textile consistency, 
and wrap the bird completely but lightly in it. By loosening or tightening a trifle here or 
there, laying down a “ pillow” or other special slight pressure, the most delicate contour-lines 
may be preserved with perfect fidelity. Unnecessary pother is sometimes made about drying 


1 Exceptions. Woodpeckers, ducks, and some other birds treated of beyond, are best set with the head flat 
on one side, the bill pointing obliquely to the right or left; owls, with the bill pointing straight up in the air as 
the bird lies on its back. 

2 If the mandibles gape, run a thread through the nostrils and tie it tightly under the bill. Or, since this 
injures the nostrils (and we frequently want to examine their structure) stick a pin in under the bill close to the 
gonys, driving it obliquely into the palate. Sometimes the skin of the throat looks sunken betwixt the sides of the 
jaw. A shred of cotton introduced with forceps through the mouth will obviate this. 

3 Don’t cock up the head, trying to impart a knowing air — it cannot be done, and only makes the poor bird 
look ridiculous. Don’t lay the skin on one side, with the legs in perching position, and don’t spread the wings — 
the bird will never perch nor fly again, and the suggestion is unartistic because incongruous. The only permis- 
sible departure from the rule of severe simplicity is when some special ornament, as a fine crest, may be naturally 
displayed, or some hidden markings are desired to be brought out, or a shape of tail or wing to be perpetuated ; 
but in all such cases the “flowery” inclination should be sparingly and judiciously indulged. It is, however, 
frequently desirable to give some special set to hide a defect, as loss of plumage, etc.; this may often be accom- 
plished very cunningly, with excellent result. No rules for this can be laid down, since the details vary in every 
case; but in general the weak spot may be hidden by contracting the skin of the place, and then setting the bird 
in an attitude that naturally corresponds, thus making a virtue of necessity. 


34 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


skins; the fact being that under ordinary circumstances they could not be kept from drying 
perfectly ; and they dry in exactly the shape they are set, if not accidentally pressed upon. At 
sea, however, or during unusually protracted wet weather, they of course dry slowly, and may 
require some attention to prevent mildew or souring, especially in the cases of very large, 
thick-skinned, or greasy specimens. Thorough poisoning, and drying by a fire, or placing 
in the sun, will always answer. Very close packing retards drying. When travelling, or 
operating under other circumstances requiring economy of space, you must not expect to 
turn out your collection in elegant order. Perfection of contour-lines can ouly be secured by 
putting each specimen away by itself; undue pressure is always liable to produce unhappily 
outré configuration of a skin. Trays in a packing box are of great service in limiting possi- 
bilities of pressure ; they should be shallow; one four inches deep will take a well stuffed hen- 
hawk, for example, or accommodate from three to six sparrows a-top of one another. It is 
well to sort out your specimens somewhat according to size, to keep heavy ones off little ones ; 
though the chinks around the former may usually be economized with advantage by packing 
in the less valuable or the less neatly prepared of the latter. When limited to a travelling 
chest, 1 generally pass in the skins as fast as made, packing them ‘‘ solid” in one sense, yet 
hunting up a nice restiug-place for each. If cach rests in its own cotton coffin, it is astonishing 
how close they may be laid without harm, and how many will go in a given space; a tray 
30 x 18 x 4 inches will easily hold three hundred and fifty birds six inches long. As a tray fills 
up, the drier ones first put in may be submitted to more pressure. A skin originally dried in 
good shape may subsequently be pressed perfectly flat without material injury; the only thing 
to avoid being contortion. The whole knack of packing birds corresponds to that of filling a 
trunk solidly full of clothes, as may easily be done without damage to an immaculate shirt- 
front. Finally, I would say, never put away a bird unlabelled, not even for an hour; you may 
forget it or die. Never tie a label to a bird’s bill, wing, or tail; tie it seeurely to both legs 
where they cross, and it will be just half as liable to become detaghed as if tied to one leg only. 
Never paste a label, or even a number, on a bird’s plumage. Never put in glass eyes before 
mounting. Never paint or varnish a bird’s bill or feet. Never replace missing plumage of one 
bird with the feathers of another — no, not even if the birds came out of the same nest. 


b. SpEcIAL PROCESSES; COMPLICATIONS AND ACCIDENTS. 


The Foregoing Method of procedure is a routine practice applicable to three-fourths if 
not nine-tenths of the ‘ general run” of birds. But there are several cases requiring a modi- 
fication of this programme; while several circumstances may tend to embarrass your operations. 
The principal special conditions may therefore be separately treated to your advantage. 


Size. — Other things being equal, a large bird is more difficult to prepare than a small 
one. In one case, you only need a certain delicacy of touch, easily acquired and soon becom- 
ing mechanical ; in the other, demand on your strength may be made, till your muscles ache. 
It takes longer, too;1 I could put away a dozen sparrows in the time I should spend over 
an eagle; and I would rather undertake a hundred humming-birds than one ostrich. For 


1 The reader may be curious to know something of the statistics on this score —how long it ought to take 
him to prepare an ordinary skin, He can scarcely imagine, from his first tedious operations, how expert he may 
become, not only in beauty of result, but in rapidity of execution. I have seen taxidermists make good small 
skins at the rate of ten an hour; but this is extraordinary. The quickest work I ever did myself was eight an 
hour, or an average of seven and a half minutes apiece, and fairly good skins. But I picked my birds, all small 
ones, well shot, labelled, measured, and plugged beforehand, so that the rate of work was exceptional, besides 
including only the actual manipulations from first cut to laying away. No one averages eight birds an hour, even 
excluding the necessary preliminaries of cleansing, plugging, etc. Four birds an hour, everything included, is 
good work. A very eminent ornithologist of this country, and an expert taxidermist, once laid a whimsical wager, 
that he would skin and stuff a bird before a certain friend of his could pick all the feathers off a specimen of the 
same kind. I forget the time, but he won, and his friend ate crow, literally, that night. 


HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN. 385 


“large” birds, say anything from a hen-hawk upward, various special mauipulations I have 
directed may be foregone, while however you observe their general drift and intent. You may 
open the bird as directed, or, turning it tail to you, cut with a knife. Forceps are rarely 
required; there is not much that is too small to be taken in hand. As soon as the tail is 
divided, hang up the bird by the ramp, so you will have both hands free. Let it swing clear 
of the wall or table, at any height most convenient. The steel hooks of a dissecting case are 
not always large enough; use a stout fish-hook with the barb filed off Work with your nails, 
assisted by the sealpel if necessary. I know of no bird, and I think there is none, in this 
country at least, the skin of which is so intimately adherent by fibrous or muscular tissue as 
to require actual dissecting throughout; a pelican comes, perhaps, as near this as any; but in 
many cases the knife may be constantly employed with advantage. Use it with long clean 
sweeping strokes, hugging the skin rather than the body. The knee and shoulder commonly 
require disarticulation, unless you use bone-nippers or strong shears; the four cuts of the skull 
may presuppose a very able-bodied instrument, even a chisel. The wings will give you the 
most trouble, and they require a special process; fur you cannot readily break up the adhesions 
of the secondary quills to the ulna, nor is it desirable that very large feathers should be 
deprived of this natural support. Hammer or nip off the great head of the upper ann-bone, 
just below the insertion of the breast muscles; clean the rest of that bone and leave it in. Tie 
a string around it (what sailors call “two half hitches” gives a secure hold on the bony 
cylinder), and tie it to the other humerus, inside the skin, so that the two bones shall be rather 
less than their natural distance apart. After the skin is brought right side out, attack the 
wings thus: Spread the wing under side uppermost, and secure it on the table by driving 
a tack or brad through the wrist-joint; this fixes the far end, while the weight of the skin 
steadies the other. Raise a whole layer of the under wing-coverts, and make a cut in the skin 
thus exposed, from elbow to wrist, in the middle line between the two forearm bones. Raise 
the flaps of skin and all the muscle is laid bare; it is to be removed. This is best done by 
lifting each muscle from its bed separately, slipping the handle of the scalpel under the 
individual bellies; there is little if any bouy attachinent except at each end, and this is readily 
severed. Strew in arsenic; a little cotton may be used to fill the bed of muscle removed from 
a very large bird; bring the flaps of skin together, and smooth down the coverts; you need 
not be particular to sew up the cut, for the coverts will hide the opening; in fact, the operation 
does not show at all after the make-up. Stuffing of large birds is not commonly done with 
ouly the four pieces already directed. The eyeballs, and usually the neck-eylinder, go in as 
before; the body may be filled any way you please, provided you do not put in too much 
stuffing nor get any between the shoulders. All large birds had better have the leg-bones 
wrapped to nearly natural size. Observe that the leg-muscles do not form a cylinder, but a 
cone ; let the wrapping taper naturally from top to bottom. Attention to this point is neces- 
sary for all large or medium-sized birds with naturally prominent legs. The large finely 
feathered legs of a hawk, for example, ought to be well displayed ; with these birds, and also 
with rails, etc., moreover, imitate the bulge of the thigh with a special wad laid inside the 
skin. Large birds commonly require also a special wad introduced by the mouth, to make 
the swell of the throat; this wad should be rather fluffy than firm. As a rule, do not fill out 


1 Certain among larger birds are often opened elsewhere than along the belly, with what advantage I cannot 
say from my own experience. Various water birds, such as loons, grebes, auks, gulls, and ducks (in fact any 
swimming bird with dense under plumage) may be opened along the side by a cut under the wings from the 
shoulder over the hip to the rump; the cut is completely hidden by the make-up, and the plumage is never ruffled 
But I see no necessity for this; for, as a rule, the belly opening can, if desired, be completely effaced with due care, 
though a very greasy bird with white under plumage generally stains where opened, in spite of every precaution. 
Such birds as loons, grebes, cormorants, and penguins are often opened by a cut across the fundament from one 
leg to the other; their conformation in fact suggests and favors this operation. I have often seen water birds slit 
down the back; but I consider it very poor practice. 


36 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


large birds to their natural dimensions; they take up too much room. Let the head, neck, 
and legs be accurately prepared, but leave the main cavity one-third if uot one-half empty ; 
no more is required than will fairly smooth out creases in the skin. Reduce bulk rather by 
flattening out than by general compression. Use tow instead of cotton; and if at all short of 
tuw, economize with paper, hay, ete., at least for the deeper portions of the main stuffing. 


Large birds may be ‘set’ in a great quantity of tow; wrapped in paper, much like any 
other parcel ; or simply left to dry on the table, the wings being only supported by cushioning 
or other suitable means. 


Shape. — Some special configurations have been noticed in the last paragraph, prema- 
turely perhaps, but leading directly up to further considerations respecting shape of certain 
birds as a modifying elemeut in the process of preparation. As for skinning, there is one 
extremely important matter. Most ducks, many woodpeckers, flamingoes, and doubtless 
some others with which I am not familiar, cannot be skinned in the usual way, because the 
head is too large for the calibre of the neck and cannot be drawn through. In such eases, 
skin as usual to the base of the skull, cut off the head there (inside the skin of course), and 
operate upon it, after turning the skin right side out, as follows: Part the feathers carefully 
in a straight line down the back of the skull, make a cut through the skin, just long enough 
to permit the head to pass, draw out the skull through this opening, and dr 


it as already 
directed. Return it, draw the edges of the cut nicely together, and sew up the opening with 
a great many fine stitches. Simple as it may appear, this process is often embarrassing, for 
the cut has an unhappy tendeney to wander about the neck, enlarging itself even under the 
most careful manipulation; while the feathers of the parts are usually so short, that it is diff- 
cult to eflace all traces of the vperation. I consider it very disagreeable ; but for ducks I know 
of no alternative. I have however found out a way to avoid it with woodpeckers, excepting 
the very largest; it is this: Before skinning, part the eyelids, and plunge the scalpel right 
into the eyeballs; seize the eut edge of the ball with the forceps, and pull the eye right out. 
It may be dexterously done without spilling the eye-water on the plumage ; but, for fear of 
this, previously put a little pile of plaster on the spot. Throw arsenic iuto the socket, and 
then fill it with cotton poked in between the lids. The eyes are thus disposed of. Then, iu 
skinning, when you come to the head, dissever it from the neck and work the skull as far out 
as you can; it may be sufficiently exposed, in all cases, for you to gouge out the base of the 
skull with the scissors, and get at the brain to remove it. Apply an extra large dose of 
arsenic, and you will never hear from what jaw-imuscle has beeu left in. In all these eases, as 
already remarked, the head is preferably set lying on one side, with the bill pointing obliquely 
to the right or left. Certain birds require a special mode of setting ; these are, birds with very 
long le; 


es or neck, or both, as swaus, geese, pelicans, cormorants, snakebirds, loons, and 
especially cranes, herons, ibises, and flamingoes. Long legs should be doubled completely on 
themselves by bending at the heel-joint, and cither tucked under the wings, or laid on the 
under surface ; the chief point is to sce that the toes lie flat, so that the claws do not stick up, 
to catch in things or get broken off. A long neck should be earefully folded; not at a sharp 
angle with a crease in the skin, but with a short curve, and brought round either to the side 
of the bird or on its breast, as may seem most couvenient. The object is to make a “ bale ” 
of the skin as nearly as may be, and when it is properly effected it is surprising what little 
space a crane, for stance, occupies. But it is rarely, if ever, admissible to bend a tail back 
ou the body, however inconveniently long it may be. Special dilations of skin, like the pouch 
of a pelican, or the air saes of a prairie hen, may be moderately displayed. 

Thin Skin. — Loose Plumage. — It is astonishing how much resistance is offered by 
the thin skin of the smallest bird. Though uo thicker than tissue paper, it is not very liable 


HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN. BT 


to tear if deftly handled; yet a rent once started often enlarges to an embarrassing extent if 
the skin be stretched in the least. Accidental rents and enlargements of shot-holes should be 
neatly sewn up, if occurring in an exposed place ; but im most cases the plumage may be set 
to hide the openings. The trogons are said to have remarkably thin and delicate skin; I have 
never handled one in the flesh. Among our birds, the cardinal grosbeak and the species of 
Caprimulgide have, I think, about the tenderest skins. The obvious indication in all such 
cases is simply a little extra delicacy of manipulation. In skinning most birds, you should 
not loose more than a feather or two, excepting those loosened by the shot. Pigeons are 
peculiar, among our birds, for the very loose insertion of their plumage ; you will have to be 
particularly careful with them, and in spite of all your precautions a good inany feathers will 
probably drop. As stripping down the secondary quills from the forearm, in the manner 
already indicated, will almost invariably set these feathers free from the skin, I recommend you 
not to attempt it, but to dress the wings as prescribed for large birds. 


Fatness. — Fat is a substance abhorred of all dissectors; always in the way, embarrass- 
ing operations and obscuring observations; while it is seldom worth examination after its 
structure has once been ascertained. It is particularly obnoxious to the taxidermist, since it 
is liable to soil the plumage during skinning, and also to soak into the feathers afterwards ; 
and greasy birdskins are never ple 


asing objects. A few birds never seem to have any fat ; 
some, like petrels, are always oily ; at times, especially in the indolent autumn season, when 
hirds have little to do but feed, the great majority acquire an embonpoint doubtless to their own 
satisfaction, but to the taxidermist’s discomfort. In all such cases gypsum should be lavishly 
employed. Strew plaster plentifully, from the first cut all through the operation; dip your 
fingers in it frequently, as well as your instruments. The invaluable absorbent will deal with 
most of the ‘frunning” fat. When the skin is completely reversed, remove as much of the 
solid fat as possible; it is generally found oceupying the areolar tissue of particular definite 
tracts, and most of it may usually be peeled or flaked off in considerable masses. Since the 
soft and oozy state of most birds’ fat at ordinary temperatures may be much improved by cold, 
it will repay you to leave your birds on ice for a while before skinning, if you have the means 
and time to do so; the fat will become quite firm. There is a device for preventing or at any 
rate lessening the soiling of the plumage so apt to occur along the line of your incision; it is 
invaluable in all cases of white plumage. Take a strip of cloth of greater width than the 
length of the feathers, long enough to go up one side of the cut and down the other. Sew 
this closely to the skin all around the cut, and it will form an apron to guard the plumage. 
You will too frequently find that a bird, prepared without soiling and laid away apparently 
safe, afterwards grows greasy ; if the plumage is white, it soon becomes worse than ever by 
showing dust that the grease catches. Perhaps the majority of such birds in our museums 
show the dirty streak along the belly. The reason is, that the grease has ovzed out along the 
cut, or wherever else the skin has been broken, and infiltrated the plumage, being drawn up 
apparently by capillary attraction, just as a lampwick ‘sucks up” oil. Sometimes, without 
obviously soiling the plumage, the grease will run along the thread that ties the label, and 
make a uniformly transparent piece of ‘oil-paper.” I have no remedy to offer for this gradual 
infiltration of the plumage. It will not wash out, even with soap and water. Possibly careful 
and persistent treatment with an ether might be effective, but I ain not prepared to say it would 
be. Removal of all fat that can be got off during skinning, with a liberal use of plaster, will 
in a measure prevent a difficulty that remains incurable. 


Bloodstains, etc. —In the nature of the case, this complication is of continual occurrence; 
fortunately it is easier dealt with than greasiness. Much may be done in the field to prevent 


bloodying of the plumage, as already said. A little blood does not show much on a dark 


38 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


plumage; but it is of course conspicuous on light or white feathers. Dried blood may often 
be scraped off, in imitation of the natural process by which a bird cleanses its plumage with 
the bill; or be pulverized by gently twiddling the feathers between the fingers, and then 
blown off. But feathers may by due care be washed almost as readily as clothing; and we 
must ordinarily resort to this to remove all traces of blvod, especially from white surfaces. If 
properly dried they do not show the operation. With a soft rag or pledget of cotton dipped in 
warm water bathe the place assiduously, pressing down pretty hard, only taking care to stroke 
the feathers the right way, so as not to crumple them, until the red color disappears ; then you 
have simply a wet place to deal with. Press gypsum on the spot; it will cake; flake it off 
aud apply more, till it will no longer stick. Then raise the feathers on a knife-blade and 
sprinkle gypsuin in among them; pat it down and shake it up, wrestling with the spot till the 
moisture is entirely absorbed. Two other fluids of the body will give you occasional annoy- 
ance, —the juices of the alimentary canal and the eye-water. Escape of the former by mouth, 
nostrils, or vent is preventable by plugging these orifices, and its oecurrence is inexcusable. 
But shot often lacerates the gullet, crop, and bowels, and though nothing may flow at the 
time, subsequent jolting or pressure in the game-bag causes the escape of fluids: a seemingly 
safe specimen may be unwrapped to show the whole belly-plumage a sodden brown mass. 
Such accidents should be treated precisely like bloodstains ; but it is to be remarked that these 
stains are not seldom indelible, traces usually persisting in white pluinage at least im spite of 
our best endeavors. Eye-water, insignificant as it may appear, is often a great annoyance. 
This liquor is slightly glairy, or rather glassy, and puts a sort of sizing on the plumage difficult 
to efface; the more so since the soiling necessarily occurs in a conspicuous place, where the 
plumage is too scanty and delicate to bear much handling. It frequently happens that a lacer- 
ated eyeball, by the elasticity of the coats, or adhesion of the lids, retains its fluid till this is 
pressed out in manipulating the parts; and recollecting how the head lies buried in plumage at 
that stage of the process, it will be seen that not only the head, but much of the neck and even 
the breast may become wetted. If the parts are extensively soaked, the specimen is almost 
irreparably damaged, if not ruined. Plaster will absorb the moisture, but much of the sizing 
may be retained on the plumage ; therefore, though the place secs simply wet, it should be 
thoroughly washed with water before the gypsum is applied. I always endeavor to prevent 
the accident; if I notice a lacerated eyeball, I extract it before skinning, in the manner 
described for woodpeckers. Miscellaneous stains, from the juices of plants, etc., may be 
received ; all such are treated on general principles. Blood on the beak and feet of rapacious 
birds, mud on the bill and legs of waders, etc., etc., may be washed off without the slightest 
difficulty. A land bird that has fallen in the water should be recovered as soon as possible, 
picked up by the bill, and shaken ; inmost of the water will run off, unless the plumage is com- 
pletely soaked. It should be allowed to dry just as it is, without touching the plumage, 
before being wrapped and bagged. If a bird fall in soft mnd, the dirt should be scraped or 
snapped off as far as this can be done without plastering the feathers down, and the rest 
allowed to dry; it may afterward be rubbed fine and dusted off, when no harm will ensue, 
except to white feathers which may require washing. 


Mutilation. — You will often be troubled, carly in your practice, with broken legs and 
wings, and various lacerations ; but the injury must be very severe (such as the carrying away 
of a limb, or blowing off the whole top of a head) that cannot be in great measure remedied by 
care and skill. Suppose a little bird, shot through the neck or small of the back, comes apart 
while being skinned; you have only to remove the hinder portion, be that much or little, and 
go on with the rest as if it were the whole. If the leg bone of a sinall bird be broken near 
the heel, let it come away altogether; it will make little if any difference. In case of the 
same accident to a large bird that ought to have the legs wrapped, whittle out a peg and stick 


HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSNILN. 39 


it in the hollow stump of the bone; if there is no stump left, file a piece of stout wire to a 
point and stick it into the heel joint. If the forearm boue that you usually leave in a small 
bird is broken, remove it and leave the other iu; if both are broken, do not clean the wings 
so thoroughly that they become detached ; au extra pinch of arsenic will condone the omission. 
In a large bird, if both bones of the forearm are broken, splint them with a bit of wood laid in 
between, so that one end hitches at the elbow, the other at the wrist. A humerus may be 
replaced like a leg bone, but this is rarely required. If the skull be smashed, save the pieces, 
and leave them if you can; if not, imitate the arch of the head with a firm cotton-ball. A 
broken tarsus is readily splinted with a pin thrust up through the sole of the foot: if tuo large 
for this, use a pointed piece of wire. There is no mending a bill when part of it is shot away ; 
for I think the replacing of part by putty, stucco, ete., inadmissible; but if it be only fractured, 
the pieces may usually be retained in place by winding with thread, or with a touch of glue or 
inucilage. It is singular, by the way, what unsightliness results from a very trifling injury to 
the bill; much, I suppose, as a boil on a person’s nose is peculiarly deplorable. I have already 
hinted how artfully various weak places in a skin, due to mutilation or loss of plumage, may be 


hidden. 


Decomposition. — It might seem unnecessary to speak of what may be smelled out so 
readily as animal putrescence; but there are soine useful poiuts to be learned in this connection, 
besides the important sanitary precautions that are to be deduced. Immediately after death 
the various fluids of the body begin to “ settle” (so to speak), and shortly after the muscular 
system as a rule becomes fixed in what is technically called rigor mortis. This stiffening 
usually occurs as the animal heat dies away; but its onset, and especially its duration, is very 
variable, according to cireunstances, such as cause of death ; although in inost cases of sudden 
violent death of an animal in previous good health, it seems to depend chiefly upon tempera- 
ture, being transient and imperfect, or altogether wanting, in hot weather. As it passes off, 
the whole system relaxes, and the body soon becomes as “Timp” as at the moment of death. 
This is the period immediately preceding decomposition ; in fact, it may be considered as the 
stage of incipient putridity ; it is very brief in warm weather, and it should be seized as the 
last opportunity of preparing a bird without inconvenience and even danger. If not skinned 
at once, putrescence becomes established; it is indicated by the efMuvium (at the outset ‘ sour,” 
but rapidly acquiring a variety of disgusting odors); by the distension of the abdomen with 
gaseous products of decomposition ; by the loosening of the cuticle, and consequently of the 
feathers ; and by other signs. If you part the feathers of a bad-smelling bird’s belly to find 
the skin swollen and livid or greenish, while the feathers come off at a touch, the bird is too 
far gone to be recovered without trouble and risk that no ordinary specimen warrants. It is 
a singular fact that this early putrescence is more poisonous than utter rottenness; as physicians 
are aware, a post-mortem examination at this stage, or even before it, involves more risk 
than their ordinary dissecting-room experience. It seems that both natural and pathological 
poisons lose their early virulence by resolution into other products of decay. The obvious 
deduction from all this is to skin your birds soon enough. Some say they are best skinned 
perfectly fresh, but I see no reason for this; when I have time to choose, I take the period of 
rigidity as being preferable on the whole; for the fluids have then ‘‘ settled,” and the limbs are 
readily relaxed by manipulation. If you have a large bag to dispose of, and are pressed for 
time, set them in the coolest place you can find, preferably on ice; a slight lowering of temper- 
ature may make a decided difference. Disembowelling, which may be accomplished in a 
moment, will materially retard decomposition. Injections of creosote or dilute carbolic acid 
will arrest decay for a time, for an indefinitely long period if a large quantity of these anti- 
septics be employed. When it becomes desirable (it can never be necessary) to skin a putres- 
cent bird, great care must be exercised not only to accomplish the operation, but to avoid 


40 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


danger. I must not, however, unconsciously lead you to exaggerate the risk, and will add 
that I think it often overrated. I have probably skinned birds as ‘‘ gamey ” as any one has, 
and repeatedly, without being conscious of any ill effects. Iam sure that no poison, ordinarily 
generated by decomposition of a body healthy at death, can compare in virulence with that 
commonly resulting after death by many diseases. I also believe that the gaseous products, 
however offensive to the smell, are innocuous as a rule. The danger practically narrows down 
to the absorption of fluids through an abraded surface ; the poison is rarely taken in by natural 
pores of healthy skin, if it remain in contact but a short time. Cuts and scratches may be 
closed with a film of collodion, or covered with isinglass or court plaster, or proteeted by 
rubber cots on the fingers. The hands should, of course, be washed with particular care 
immediately after the operation, and the nails scrupulously dressed. Having never been 
poisoned (to my knowledge), I cannot give the symptoms from personal experience ; but I 
will quote from Mr. Maynard: 

“Tn a few days numerous pimples, which are execedingly painful, appear upon the skin 
of the face and other parts of the person and, upon those parts where there is chafing or 
rubbing, become large and deep sores. There is a general languor and, if badly poisoned, 
complete prostration results; the slightest scratch becomes a festering sore. Once poisoned 
in this manner (and I speak from experieuce), one is never afterward able to skin any animal 
that has become in the least putrid, without experiencing some of the symptoms above 
described. Even birds that you handled before with impunity, you cannot now skin without 
great care. The best remedy in this case is, as the Hibernian wonld say, not to get poisoned, 
.... bathe the parts frequently in cold water; and. if chafed, sprinkle the parts after bathing, 
with wheat flour. These remedies, if persisted in, will effect a cure, if not too bad; then, 
medical advice should be procured without delay.” 


How to mount Birds. — As some may uot improbably procure this volume with a 
reasonable expectation of being taught to mount birds, I append the required instructions, 
although the work only professes to treat of the preparation of skins for the cabinet. Asa 
role, the purposes of science are hest subserved by not mounting specimens; for display. the 
only end attained, is not required. JT would strongly advise you not to mount your rarer or 
otherwise particularly valuable specimens; select for this purpose nice, pretty birds of no 
special scientific value. The priucipal objections to mounted birds are, that they take up 
altogether too much room, require special arrangements for keeping and transportation, and 
cannot be handled for study with impunity. Some might suppose that a mounted bird would 
give a better idea of its figure and general aspect than a skin; but this is only true to a limited 
extent. Faultless mounting is an art really difficult, acquired by few; the average work done 
in this line shows something of caricature, ludicrous or repulsive, as the case inay be. To 
copy nature faithfully by taxidermy requires not only long and close study, but an artistic 
sense; and this last is a rare gift. Unless you have at least the germs of the faculty in your 
composition, your taxidermal suecess will be incommensurate with the time and trouble you 
bestow. My own taxidermal art is of a low order, decidedly not above average; although I 
have mounted a great many birds that would compare very favorably with ordinary museum 
work, few of them have entirely answered my ideas. A live bird is to me such a beautiful 
object that the slightest taxidermal flaw in the effort to represent it is painfully offensive ; per- 
haps this makes me place the standard of excellence too high for practical purposes. I like a 
good honest birdskin that does not pretend to be anything else; it is far preferable to the 


1 Avoid all mechavical irritation of the inflamed parts: touch the parts that have ulcerated with a stick 
of lunar caustic; take a dose of salts; use syrup of the iodide of iron, or tincture of the chloride of iron, say thirty 
drops of either, in a wineglass of water, thrice daily; rest at first, exercise gradually as you can bear it; and skin 
no birds till you have completely recovered. 


HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN. 41 


ordinary taxidermal abortions of the show-cases. But if, after the warnings that I mean to 
convey in this paragraph, you still wish to try your hand in the higher department of taxi- 
dermy, I will explain the whole process as far as manipulation goes; the art you must discover 
in yourself. 

The operation of skinning is precisely the sane as that already given in detail; then, 
instead of stuffing the skin as directed above, to lie on its back im a drawer, you have to stuff 
it so that it wil] stand up on its feet and look as much like a live bird as possible. To this end 
a few additional implements and materials are required. These are: a, aunealed wire of vari- 
ous numbers; it may be iron or brass, but must be perfectly annealed, so as to retain no 
elasticity or ‘‘ spring ;” b, several files of different sizes; c, some slender, straight, brad awls ; 
d, cutting pliers; e, setting needles, merely sewing or darning needles stuck in a light wooden 
handle, for dressing individual feathers ; f, plenty of pins (the long, slender insect pius used by 
entomologists are the best) and sewing thread; g, an assortment of glass eyes. (The fixtures 
and decorations are noticed, beyond, as occasion for their use arises.) 

There are two principal methods of mounting, which may be respectively styled soft stuft- 
isting of a single anterior piece 


ing and hard stuffing. In the former, a wire framework, cous 
passing in the middle line of the body up through the neck and out at top of the head, is 
immovably joined behind with two pieces, one passing through cach leg; around this naked 
forked frame soft stuffing is introduced, bit by bit, till the proper contour of the skin is secured. 
T have seen very pretty work of this kind, particularly on small birds; but I consider it much 
more difficult to secure satisfactory results in this way than by hard stuffing, and IT shall there- 
fore confine attention to the latter. This method is applicable to all birds, is readily practised, 
facilitates setting of the wings, arranging of the plumage, and giving of any desired attitude. 
Tn hard stuffing, you make a firm ball of tow rolled upon a wire of the size and shape of the 
bird’s body and neck together ; you introduce this whole, afterwards running in the leg wires 
and clinching them immovably in the mass of tow. 

Having your empty skin in good shape, as already described; cut three pieces of wire of 
the right! size; one piece somewhat longer than the whole bird, the other pieces two or three 
times as long as the whole leg of the bird. File one end of each piece to a fine sharp point ; 
try to secure a three-edged cutting point like that of a surgical needle, rather than the smooth 
punching point of a sewing-needle, as the former perforates more readily. Have these wires 
perfectly straight.2. Bend a small portion of the unfiled end of the longer wire irregularly upon 
itself, as a convenient nucleus for the ball of tow.? Take fine clean tow, in loose dossils, and 
wrap it round and round the wire nucleus, till you make a firm ball, of the size and shape of 
the bird’s body and neck. Study the contour of the skinned body: notice the swelling breast- 
muscles, the arch of the lower back, the hollow betieen the fureula into which the neck, when 
naturally curved, sinks. Everything depends upon correct shaping of the artificial body ; if 
it be misshapen, no art can properly adjust the skin over it. Firmness of the tow ball and 
accurate contour may both be secured by wrapping the mass with sewing thread, loosening 
here, tightening there, till the shape is satisfactory. Be particular to secure a smooth super- 
ficies ; the skin in drying will shrink close to the stuffing, disclosing its irregularities, if there 
be any, by the maladjustment of the plumage that will ensue. Observe especially that the 
neck, though the direct continuation of the backbone, dips at its lower end into the hollow of 
the merry-thought, and so virtually begins there instead of directly between the shoulders. 


1 The right size is the smallest that will support the whole weight of the stuffing and skin without bending, 
when a piece is introduced into each leg. If using too thick wire, you may have trouble in thrusting it through 


the legs, or may burst the tarsal envelope. 
2 If accidentally kinky, the finer sizes of wire may be readily straightened by drawing strongly upon them 


so as to stretch them a little. Heavier wire must be hammered out straight, 
3 Cotton will not do at all; it is too soft and elastic, and moreover will not allow of the leg wires being thrust 


into it and there clinched. 


42 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


The three mistakes most likely to be made by a beginner are, getting the body altogether too 
large, not firm enough, and irregular. When properly made, it will closely resemble the 
bird’s body and neck, with an inch or several inches of sharp-pointed wire protruding from the 
anterior extremity of the neck of tow. You have now to introduce the whole affair into 
the skin. With the birdskin on its back, the tail pointing to your right elbow, and the 
abdominal opening as wide as possible, hold the tow body in position relative to the skin ; 
enter the wire, pass it up through the neck, bring the sharp point exactly against the middle 
of the skull, pierce skull and skin, causing the wire to protrude some distance from the middle 
of the crown. Then by gentle means insinuate the body, partly pushing it in, partly drawing 
the skin over it, till it rests in its proper position. This is just like drawing on a tight kid 
glove, and no more difficult. See that the body is completely encased; you must be able to 
cluse the abdominal aperture entirely. You have next to wire the legs. Enter the sharp 
point of one of the leg-wires already prepared, exactly at the centre of the sole of the foot, 
thrusting it up inside the tarsal envelope the whole length of the ‘‘shank,” thence across the 
heel joint} and up along the next bone of the leg, still inside the skin. The point of the wire 
will then be seen within the skin, and may be seized and drawn a little further through, and 
you will have passed a wire entirely out of sight all the way along the leg. The end of the 
wire is next to be fixed immovably in the tow ball. Thrust it in at the point where the kuee, 
in life, rests agaiust the side of the body.? Bring the point to view, bend it over and reinsert 
it till it sticks fast. There are no special directions to be given here; fasten the wire in any 
way that effectually prevents ‘“‘ wabbling.” You may find it convenient to wire both legs 
before fastening either, and then clinch them by twisting the two ends together. But remem- 
ber that the leg-wires may be fixed respecting each other, yet permit a see-saw motion of the 
body upon them. This must not be; the body and legs must be fixed upon a jointless frame. 
Having secured the legs, close the abdominal opening nicely, either by sewing or piuning; you 
may stick pins in anywhere, as freely as in a pin-cushion; the feathers hide their heads. Stick 
a pin through the pope’s nose to fix the tail in place. 

All this while the bird has been lying on its back, the neck stretched straight in continua- 
tion of the body, wired stiffly, the legs straddling wide apart, straight and stiff, the wings lying 
loosely, half-spread. Now bring the legs together, parallel with each other, and make the 
sharp bend at the heel joint that will bring the feet naturally under the belly (over it, as the 
bird lies on its back). Pick up the bird by the wires that project from the soles and set it ov 
its stand, by running the wires through holes bored the proper distance apart, and then secur- 
ing the ends by twisting. The temporary stand that you use for this purpose should have a 
heavy or otherwise firm support, so as not easily to overturn during the subsequent manipu- 
lations. At this stage the bird is a sorry-looking object ; but if you have stuffed correctly and 
wired securely, it will soon improve. Begin by making it stand properly. The common fault 
here is placing the tarsi too nearly perpendicular. Perching birds, constituting the majority, 
habitually stand with the tarsi more nearly horizontal than perpendicular, and generally keep 
the tarsi parallel with each other. Wading and most walking birds stand with the legs more 
nearly upright and straight. Many swimming birds straddle a little; others rarely if ever. 
See that the toes clasp the perch naturally, or are properly spread on the flat surface. Cause 
the flank feathers to be correctly adjusted over the tibiee (and here I will remark that with 
most birds little, if any, of the tibize shows in life), the heel joint barely, if at all, projecting 

1 There is occasionally difficulty in getting the wire across this joint, from the point sticking into the enlarged 
end of the shin-bone. In such case, take stout pliers and pinch the joint till the bone is smashed to fragments. 
The wire will then pass and the comminution will not show. If there is any trouble in passing the wire through 
the tarsus, bore a hole for it with a brad awl. : 

* This point is further forward and more belly-ward than you might suppose. Observe the skinned body 


again, and see where the lower end of the thigh lies. Ifyou insert the wire too far back, you cannot by any possi- 
bility balance the bird naturally on its perch; it will look in imminent danger of toppling over. 


HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN. 43 


from the general plumage. It is a common fault of stuffing not to draw the legs closely 
enough to the body. Above all, look out for the centre of gravity; though you have really 
fastened the bird to its perch, you must not let it look as if it would fall off if the wires slipped; 
it must appear to rest there of its own accord. Next, give the head and neck a preliminary 
setting, according to the attitude you have determined upon. This will bring the plumage 
about the shoulders in proper position for the setting of the wings, to which you may at once 
attend. If the body be correctly fashioned and the skin of the shoulders duly adjusted over it, 
the wings will fold into place without the slightest difficulty. All that I have said before 
about setting the wings in a skin applies here as well; but in this case they will not stay 
in place, since they fall by their own weight. They must be pinned up. Holding the wing 
in place, thrust a pin steadily through uear the wrist joint, into the tow body. Sometimes 
another pin is required to support the weight of the primaries; it may be stuck into the flank 
of the bird, the outer quill feather resting directly upon it. With large birds a sharp pointed 
wire must replace the pin. When properly set, the wing-tips will fall together or symmctri- 
cally opposite each other, the quills and coverts will be smoothly imbricated, the scapular 
series of feathers will lie close, and uo bare space will show in front of the shoulder. Much 
depends upon the final adjustment of the head. The commonest mistake is getting it too 
far away from the body. In the ordinary attitudes of most birds little neck shows, the head 
appearing nestled upon the shoulders. If the neck appears too long, it is not to be contracted 
by pushing the head directly down upon it, but by making an 8 curve of the neck. No precise 
directions can be giveu for the set of the head, but you may be assured it is a delicate, difficult 
matter ; the slightest turn of the bill one way or another may alter the whole expression of the 
bird. You will of course have determined beforehand upon your attitude, upon what you wish 
the bird to appear to be doing; then, let your meaning be pointed by the bird’s bill. 

On the general subject of striking an attitude, and giving expression to a stuffed bird, little 
can be said to good purpose. If you are to become proficient in this art, it will come from 
your own study of birds in the field, your own good taste and appreciation of bird life. The 
manual processes are easily described and practised; it is easy to grind paint, I suppose, but 
not so to be an artist. I shall therefure only follow the above accouut of the general processes 
with some special practical poiuts. After ‘‘attitudinuizing” to your satisfaction, or to the best 
of your ability, the plumage is to be carefully ‘‘ dressed.” Feathers awry may be set in place 
with a light spring forceps, or needles fixed in a haudle, oue by one if necessary. When no 
individual feather seems out of place, it often occurs that the general plumage has a loose, 
slovenly aspect. This is readily corrected by wrapping with fine thread. Stick a pin into the 
middle of the back, another into the breast, and perhaps others, elsewhere. Fasten the end of 
a spool of sewing cotton to one of the pins, and carry it tu another, winding the thread about 
among the pins, till the whole surface is covered with an irregular network. Tighten to 
reduce an undue prominence, loosen over a depression ; but let the wrapping as a whole be 
light, firm, and even. This procedure, nicely executed, will give a smoothness to the plunage 
not otherwise attainable, and may be nade to produce the most exquisite curves, particularly 
about the head, neck, and breast. The thread should be left on till the bird is pertectly dry ; 
it may then be unwound or cut off, and the pins withdrawn. When a particular patch of skin 
is out of place, it may often be pulled into position and pinned there. You need not be afraid 
of sticking pins in anywhere: they may be buried in the plumage and left there, or withdrawn 
when the skin is dry. In addition to the main stuffing, a little is often required in particular 
places. As for the legs, they should be filled out in all such cases as I indicated earlier in this 
section ; small birds require no such stuffing. It is necessary to fill out the eyes so that the 
lids rest naturally ; it may be done as heretofore directed, or by putting in pledgets of eotton 
from the outside. A little nice stuffing is generally required about the upper throat. To stuff 
a bird with spread wings requires a special process, in most cases. The wings are to be wired, 


44 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


exactly as directed for the legs; they may then be placed in any shape. But with most small 
birds, and those with short wings, simple pinning in the half-spread position indicating flutter- 
ing will suffice; it is readily accomplished with a long, slender insect pin. I have already 
spoken of fixing the tail by pinning or wiring the pope’s nose to the tow body; it may be thus 
fixed at any desired elevation or depression. There are two ways of spreading the tail. One 
is to run a pointed wire through the quills, near their base, where the wire will be hidden by 
the coverts ; each feather may be set at. any required distance from the next by sliding it along 
this wire. This method is applicable to large birds: for small ones the tail may be fixed with 
the desired spread by enclosing it near its base in a split match, or two slips of card-board, 
with the ends tied together. This holds the feathers until they dry in position, when it is to 
be taken off. Crests may be raised, spread, and displayed on similar principles. A small 
erest, like that of a cardinal or cherry bird, for instance, may be held up till it dries in position 
by sticking in behind it a pin with a little ball of cotton on its head. It is sometimes neces- 
sary to make a bird’s toes grasp a support by tying them down to it till they dry. The toes 
of waders that do not lie evenly on the surface of the stand may be tacked down with small 
brads. The bill may be pinned open or shut, as desired, by the method already given. Never 
paint or varnish a bird’s bill or feet. 

Substitution of an artificial eye for the natural one is essential for the good looks of a 
specimen. Glass eyes, of all sizes and colors, may be purchased at a moderate cost. The 
pupil is always black; the iris varies. You will, of course, secure the proper color if it is 
known, but if not, put in a dark brown or black eye. It is well understood that this means 
nothing; it is purely conventional. Yellow is probably the next most common color; then 
come red, white, blue, and green, perhaps approximately in this order of frequency. But do 
not use these striking colors at hap-hazard; sacrificing truth, perhaps, to looks. Eyes are gen- 
erally inserted after the specimen is dry. Remove a portion of the cotton from the orbit, and 
moisten the lids till they are perfectly pliable; fix the eye in with putty or wet plaster of Paris, 
making sure that the lids are naturally adjusted over it. It goes in obliquely, like a button 
through a button-hole. Much art may be displayed in this little matter, making a bird look 
this way or that, to carry out the general ‘ expression.” 

On finishing a specimen, set it away to dry; the time required varies, of course, with the 
weather, the size of the bird, its fatness, ete. The more slowly it dries the better; there is 
less risk of the skin shrinking irregularly. You will often find that a specimen set away with 
smooth plumage and satisfactory curves dries more or less out of shape, perhaps with the 
feathers raised in places. I know of no remedy; it may, in a measure, be prevented by seru- 
pulous care in making the body smooth and firm, and in securing slow, equable drying. 
When perfectly dry remove the wrapping, pull out the supertiuous pins or wires, nip off the 
others so short that the ends are concealed, and insert the eyes. The specimen is then ready 
to be transferred to its permanent stand. 

Fixtures for the display of the object of course vary interminably. We will take the 
simplest case, of a large collection of mounted birds for publie exhibition. In this instance, 
uniformity and simplicity are desiderata. ‘‘ Spread eagle” styles of mounting, artificial rocks 
and flowers, ete., are entirely out of place in a collection of any scientific pretensions, or 
designed for popular instruction. Besides, they take up too much room. Artistic grouping 
of an extensive collection is usually out of the question; and when this is unattainable, half- 
way efforts in that direction should be abandoned in favor of severe simplicity. Birds look 
best on the whole in uniform rows, assorted according to size, as far as a natural classification 
allows. They are best set on the plainest stands, with cireular base and a short cylindrical 
crossbar on a lightly turned upright. The stands should be painted dead-white, and be no 
larger than is necessary for secure support ; a neat stiff paper label may be attached. A small 
collection of birds, as an ornament to a private residence, offers a different caso; here, variety 


MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS. 45 


of attitude and appropriate imitation of the birds’ natural surroundings are to be secured. A 
miniature tree, ou which a number of birds may be placed, is readily made. Take stout wire, 
aud by bending it, and attaching other pieces, get the framework of the tree of the desired size, 
shape, and number of perches. Wrap it closely with tow to a proper calibre, remembering 
that the two forks of a stem must be together only about as large as the stem itself. Gather 
a basket full of lichens and tree moss; reduce them to coarse powder by rubbing with the 
hands ; besmear the whole tree with mucilage or thin glue, and sift the lichen powder on it till 
the tow is completely hidden. This produces a very natural effect, which may be heightened 
by separately affixing larger seraps of lichen, or little bunches of moss ; artiticial leaves and 
flowers may be added at your taste. The groundwork may be similarly prepared with a bit 
of board, made adhesive and bestrewn with the same substance; grasses and moss may be 
added. If a flat surface is not desired, soak stout pasteboard till it can be moulded in various 
irregular elevations and depressions ; lay it over the board and decorate it in the same way. 
Rocks may be thus nicely imitated, with the addition of powdered glass of various colors. 
Such a lot of birds is generally euclosed in a cylindrical glass case with arched top. As it 
stands on a table to be viewed from different points, it must be presentable ou all sides. A 
niche in parlor or study is often fitted with a wall-case, which, when artistically arranged, has 
a very pleasing effect. As such cases may be of considerable size, there is opportunity for the 
display of great taste in grouping. A place is not to be found for a bird, but a bird for the 
place, — waders and swimmers below on the ground, perchers on projecting rests above. 
The surroundings inay be prepared by the methods just imdicated. One point deserves atten~ 
tion here; since the birds are only viewed from the front, they may have a ‘ show-side” to 
which everything else may be sacrificed. Birds are represented flying in such cases more 
readily than under other circumstances, supported on a concealed wire inserted in the back of 
the ease. I have scen some very successful attempts to represent a bird swimming, the duck 
being let down part way through an oval hole in a plate of thick glass, underneath which 
were fixed stuffed fishes, shells, and seaweed. It is hardly necessary to add that in all orna- 
mental collections, labels or other scientific machinery must be rigorously suppressed. 

Transportation of mounted birds offers obvious diticulty. Unless very small, they are 
best secured immovably inside a box by screwing the foot of the stands to the bottom and 
sides, so that they stay in place without touching each other. Or, they ay be carefully packed 
in cotton, with or without removal of the stands. Their preservation from accidental injury 
depends upon the same care that is bestowed upon ordinary fragile ornaments of the parlor. 
The ravages of insects are to be prevented upon the principles to be hereafter given in treating 
of the preservation of birdskius. 


§ 8.— MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS. 


Determination of Sex. 


This is an important matter, which must never be neglected. 
For although many birds show unequivocal sexual distinctions of size, shape, and color, like 
those of the barnyard cock and hen for instance, yet the outward characteristics are more 
frequently obscure, if not altogether inappreciable, on examination of the skin alone. Young 
birds, moreover, are usually indistinguishable as to sex, although the adults of the same species 
may be easily recognized. The rule results, that the sexual organs should be examined as the 
only infallible indices. The essential organs of masculinity are the testicles ; similarly, the 
ovaries contain the essence of the female nature. However similar the aceessory sexual struc- 
tures may be, the testicles and ovaries are always distinct. The male organs of birds never 
leave the cavity of the belly to fill an external bag of skin (scrotum) as they do among 
mammalia; they remain within the abdomen, and lie in the same position as the ovaries 
of the female. Both these organs are situated in the belly opposite what corresponds to the 


46 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


“small of the back,” bound closely to the spine, resting on the front of the kidneys near their 
fore end. The testicles are a pair of subspherical or rather ellipsoidal bodies, usually of the 
same size, shape, and color, and are commonly of a dull opaque whitish tint. They always 
lie close together. A remarkable fact connected with them is, that they are not always of the 
same size in the same bird, being subject to periodical enlargement during the breeding season, 
and corresponding atrophy at other seasons. Thus the testicles of a house sparrow, no bigger 
than a pin’s head in winter, swell to the size of peas in April. The ovary (for although this 
organ is paired originally, only one is usually functionally developed in birds) will be reeog- 
nized as a flattish mass of irregular contour, and usually whitish color; when inactive, it 
simply appears of finely granular structure which may require a hand lens to be made out ; 
when producing eggs, its appearance is unmistakable. Both testis and ovary may further be 
recognized by a thread leading to the end of the lower bowel, —in one case the sperm-duet, in 
the other the oviduct; the latter is usually much the more conspicuous, as it at times transits 
the perfect egg. There is no difficulty in reaching the site of these organs. Lay the bird on 
the left side, its belly toward you: cut with the scissors through the belly-walls diagonally 
from anus to the root of the last rib, or further, snipping across a few of the lower ribs, if these 
continue far down, as they do in a loon for instance. Press the whole mass of intestines aside 
collectively, and you at once see to the small of the back. There you observe the kidneys, — 
large, lobular, dark reddish masses moulded into the concavity of the sacrum (or back middle 
bone of the pelvis); and on their surface, towards their fore end, lie testes or ovary, as just 
described. The only precaution required is, not to mistake for testicles a pair of small bodies 
capping the kidneys. These are the adrenals or ‘ supra-renal capsules,” — organs whose 
function is unknown, but with which at any rate we have nothing to do in this connection. 
They occur in both sexes, and if the testicles are not immediately seen, or the ovary not at 
once recognized, they might easily be mistaken for testicles. Observe, that instead of lying 
in front, they cap the kidneys; that they are usually yellowish instead of opaque whitish ; and 
that they have not the firm, smooth, regular sphericity of the testicles. The testes, however, 
vary nore iu shape and color than might be expected, being sometimes rather oblong or linear, 
aud sometimes grayish or livid bluish, or reddish. There is occasionally but one. The sex 
determined, use the sign ¢ or 9 to designate it, as already explained. In the very rare cases 
of impotence or sterility among birds, of course no organs will be observed; but I should dislike 
to become responsible for such labelling without very careful examination. The organs of a 
small bird out of the breeding season are never conspicuous, but may always be found on close 
scrutiny, unless the parts are disintegrated by a shot. 


Recognition of Age is a inatter of ornithological experience requiriug in many or most 
cases great funiliarity with birds for its even approximate accomplishment. There are, how- 
ever, some unmistakable signs of immaturity, even after a bird has become full-feathered, that 
persist for at least one season. These are, in the first place, a peculiar soft fluffy ‘ feel” of the 
plumage ; the feathers lack a certain smoothness, density, and stiffening which they subse- 
quently acquire. Secondly, the bill and feet are softer thin those of the adults; the comers of 
the mouth are puffy and flabby, the edges and point of the bill are dull, and the seales, ete., 
of the legs are not sharply eut. Thirdly, the flesh itself is tender and pale colored. These are 
some of the points common to all birds, and are independent of the special markings that 
belong to the youth of particular species. Some birds are actually larger for a while after 
leaving the nest, than in after years when the frame seems to shrink somewhat in acquiring 
the compactness of senility. On the other hand, the various members, especially the bill and 
feet, are proportionally smaller at first. Newly growing quills are usually recognized on sight, 
the barrel being dark colored and full of liquid, while the vanes are incomplete. In studying, 
for example, the shape of a wing or tail, there is always reason to suspect that the natural 


MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS. 47 


proportions are not yet presented, unless the quill is dry, colorless, and empty, or only occupied 
with shrunken white pith. 


Examination of the Stomach frequently leads to interesting observations, and is always 
worth while. In the first place, we learn most unquestionably the nature of the bird’s food, 
which is a highly important item in its natural history. Secondly, we often secure valuable 
specimens in other departments of zodlogy, particularly entomology. Birds consume incal- 
culable numbers of insects, the harder kinds of which, such as beetles, are not seldom found 
intact in their stomachs; and a due percentage of these represent rare and curious species. 
The gizzards of birds of prey, in particular, should always be inspected, in search of the small 
mamuials, etc., they devour; and even if the creatures are unfit for preservation, we at least 
learn of their occurrence, perhaps unknown before in a particular region. Mollusk-feeding 
and fish-eating birds yield their share of specimens. The alimentary canal is often the seat of 
parasites of various kinds, interesting to the helininthologist ; other species are to be found 
undeg the skin, in the body of muscle, in the brain, ete. Most birds are also infested with 
external parasites of many kinds, so various that alinost every leading species has its own sort 
of louse, tick, etc. Since these creatures are only at home with a live host, they will be found 
crawling on the surface of the plumage, preparing for departure, as svon as the body cvols after 
death. There is thus much to learn of a bird aside from what the prepared specimen 
teaches, and moreover apart from regular anatomical investigations. Whenever practicable, 
brief items should be recorded on the label, as already mentioned. 


Restoration of Poor Skins. —If your cabinet be a ‘‘general” one, comprising specimeus 
from various sources, you will frequently happen to receive skins so badly prepared as to be 
unpleasant objects, besides failing to show their specific characters. There is of course no sup- 
plying of missing parts or plumage ; but if the defect be simply deformity, this may usually be 
in a measure remedied. The point is simply to relax the skin, and then proceed as if it were 
freshly removed from the bird; it is what bird-stuffers constantly do in mounting birds from 
prepared skins. The relaxation is effected by moisture alone. Remove the stuffing ; fill the 
interior with cotton or tow saturated with water, yet not dripping ; put pads of the same under 
the wings; wrap the bill and feet, and set the specimen in a damp, cool place. Small birds 
soften very readily and completely ; the process may be facilitated by persistent mauipulation. 
This is the usual method, but there is another, more thorough and more effective; it is expo- 
sure to a vapor-bath. The appointments of the kitchen stove furnish all the apparatus 
required for an extempore ‘“‘ steamer ;” the regular fixture is a tin vessel much like a wash- 
boiler, with closed lid, false bottom, and stopcock at lower edge. On the false bottum is 
placed a heavy layer of gypsum, completely saturated with water; the birds are laid on a 
perforated tray above it; aud a gentle heat is maintained over a stove. The vapor penetrates 
every part of the skin, and completely relaxes it, without actually wetting the feathers. The 
tine required varies greatly of course ; observation is the best guide. The chief precaution 
is not to let the thing get too hot. Professor Baird has remarked that drumpled or bent 
feathers may have much of their original elasticity restored by dipping in hot water. Immer- 
sion for a few seconds suffices, when the feathers will be observed to straighten out. Shaking 
off superfluous water, they may be simply left to dry, or they may be dried with plaster. The 
method is chiefly applicable to the large feathers of the wings and tail. Soiled plumage of 
dried skins may be treated exactly as in the case of fresh skins. 


Mummification. — As before mentioned, decay may be arrested by injections of carbolic 
acid and other antiseptics; if the tissues be sufficiently permeated with these substances, the 
body will keep indefinitely; it dries and hardens, becoming, in short, a “mummy.” Injection 


48 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


should be done by the mouth and vent, be thorough, and be repeated several times as the 
fluid dries in. It is an improvement on this to disembowel and fill the belly with saturated 
tow or cotton. Due eare should be taken not to soil the feathers in any case, nor should the 
earbolic solution come in contact with the hands, for it is a powerful irritant poison. I mention 
the process chiefly to condemn it as an atrocious one; I cannot imagine what circumstances 
would recommend it, while only an extreme emergency could justify it. It is further objection- 
able because it appears to lend a dingy hue to some plumages, aud to dull most of them - 
perceptibly. Birds prepared — rather unprepared — in this way, may be relaxed by the ° 
method just described, and then skinned; but the operation is rather difficult. ; 


Wet Preparations. — By this term is technically understood an object immersed in some 
preservative fluid. It is highly desirable to obtain more information of birds than their stuffed 
skins can ever furnish, and their structure cannot be always examined by dissection on the 
spot. In fact, a certain sinall proportion of the birds of any protracted or otherwise ‘t heavy ” 
collecting may be preferably and very profitably preserved in this way. Specimens in too 
poor plumage to be worth skinning may be thus utilized ; so may the bodies of skinned firds, 
which, although necessarily defective, retain all the viscera, and also afford osteological mate- 
rial. Alcohol is the liquid usually employed, and, of all the various articles recommended, 
seems to answer best on the whole. I have used a very weak solution of chloride of zine with 
excellent results; it should not be strong enough to show the slightest turbidity. As glass 
bottles are liable to break when travelling, do not fit corners, and offer practical annoyance 
about corkage, rectangular metal cans, preferably of copper, with screw-lid opening, are 
advisable. They are to be set in small, strong, wooden boxes, made to leave a little room for 
the lid wrench, muslin bags for doing up separate parcels, parchment for labels, ete. Unoce- 
eupied space in the cans should be filled with tow or a similar substance, to prevent the 
specimens from swashing about. Labellmg should be on parchment; the writing should be 
perfectly dry before immersion ; india-ink is the best. Skinned bodies should be numbered to 
correspond with the dried skin from which taken; otherwise they may not be identifiable. 
Large birds thrown in unskinned should have the belly opened, to let in the alcohol freely. 
Birds may be skinned, after being in alcohol, by simply drying them: they often make fair 
specimeus. They are best withdrawn by the bill, that the “swash” of the alcohol at the 
moment of emersion may set the plumage all one way, and hung up to dry untouched. 
Watery moisture that may remain after evaporation of the aleohol may be dried with plaster. 


Fies 1, 2.— Views of sternum and pectoral arch of the ptarmigan, Lagopus albus, reduced; after A. New- 
ton. 1, lateral view, with the bones upside down; 2, viewed from below. a, sternum or breast-bone, showing two 
long slender lateral processes; 6, ends of sternal ribs; c, ends of humerus, or upper arm-bone, near the shoulder- 
joint; d, scapula, or shoulder-blade; e, coracoid; f, merry-thought, or furculum (clavicles). 


Osteological and other Preparations (figs. 1=3). 


While complete skeletonizing of 
a bird is a special art of some difficulty, and one that does not fall within the scope of this 


treatise, I may mention two bony preparations very readily made, and susceptible of rendering 


MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS. 


ornithology esseutial service. 
attachmeuts. 
afford 
is of course to sacrifice a skin, to 
mutilated or decayed specimens 
in this way. The breast-bone 
tilated, is always preservable with 
may form its uatural accompani- 
with it the coracoids (the stout 
with the shoulders, figs. 1, 2, e), 
intervening between these bones, 
d), all without detachment from 
tively constitute the ‘‘shoulder- 
off the large breast muscles close 
sertivus into the wing-boues (¢) ; 
that tie the shoulder-blades to the 
b) close to the side of the breast- 
usually found between the prongs 
hold of the shoulders (figs. 1, 2, 
affair, dividing some slight counec- 
behind it. The following points 
often has long slender processes 
mon fowl and the ptarmigan are 
shown in the figures), Hable to be 
snapped ; the shoulder-blades usu- 
off; the merry-thought is some- 
When travelling, it is generally not 
tious of either skull or sternum ; 
fluous flesh removed, and besprin- 
perfectly cleaned, is particularly 
pronged bones that hinge the jaw, 
push on the palate from behind. 
specting the ideutification of these 
which should invariably bear the 
it belongs; the label should be 
is more likely to be able to speak 
ally accompauied by askin; never- 
cilitate its recognition should be 
are methods, with which I am not 
preparations. You may secure 
ing the bones; or, what is perhaps 
till the flesh is completely rotted 
the sun. A little potassa or soda 
hones, if you can stop the process 
dissolved but the tougher ligaments 
preparation, as it is called; if the 
parts of a large specimen may be 
one glued. I think it best, with 


in must cases invaluable 


Fig. 3, —Trachea or 
windpipe of the male red- 
breasted merganser, Mer- 
gus serrator, about 4 nat. 
size, viewed from above 
(behind); after Newton, 4, 
tongue; BB, its attach- 
ments; ( (', windpipe, di- 
lated in the middle and 
swelling below into a bony 
box, D; F £E, bronchial 
tubes, going to lungs. 


49 


I refer to the skull, and to the breast-bone with its principal 
These parts of the skeleton are, as a rule, so highly characteristic that they 


zoological items. To save a skull 
all intents; but you often have 
that are very profitably utilized 
(figs. 1, 2, @) excepting wheu mu- 
the skin, and for “choice” invoices 
ment. You want to remove along 
bones connecting the breast-bone 
the merry-thought (figs. 1, 2, f) 
and the shoulder-blades (figs. 1, 2, 
each other, for these bones collec- 
girdle,” or seapular arch. Slice 
to the bone, and divide their in- 
scrape or cut away the muscles 
chest ; snip off the ribs (figs. J, 2, 
bone; sever a tough membrane 
of the wish-bone; then, by taking 
at ¢), you can lift out the whole 
tions underneath the bone and 
require attention: the breast-bone 
behind and on the sides (the coin- 
extreme illustrations of this, as 
cut by mistake for ribs, or to be 
ally taper to a point, easily broken 
times very delicate or defective. 
advisable to make perfect prepara- 
they are best dried with only super- 
kled with arsenic. The skull, if 
liable to lose the odd-shaped, 
and the freely movable pair that 
Great care should be exercised re- 
bones, particularly the sternum, 
number of the specimen to which 
tied to the coracvid bone. A skull 
for itself, and, besides, is not usu- 
theless, any record tending to fa- 
duly entered ou the register. There 
familiar, of making elegant bony 
very good results by simply boil- 
better, macerating thein in water 
away, and then bleaching thei iu 
hastens the process. With breast- 
just when the flesh is completely 
remnain, you secure a ‘natural” 
ligaments go too, the associate 
wired together, those of a small 
skulls, to clean them entirely of 


ligament as well as muscle; for the underneath parts are usually those conveying the most 


- desirable information, and they should not be in the slightest degree obscured. 


4 


Since in such 


50 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


case the anvil-shaped bones, the palatal cylinders already mentioned, and sometimes other 
portions come apart, the whole are best kept in a suitable box. I prefer to see a skull with 
the sheath of the beak removed, though in some cases, particularly of hard-billed birds, it 
may profitably be left on. The completed preparations should be fully labelled by writing on 
the bone, in preference to an accompanying or attached paper slip, which may be lost. Some 
object to this, as others do to writing on eggs, that it “‘defaces” the specimen ; but I confess 
T see in dry bones no beauty but that of utility. 

“In many families of birds, as the ducks (Anatide), the trachea or windpipe of the male 
affords valuable means of distinguishing between the different natural groups, or even species, 
chiefly by the form of the bony labyrinth, or bulla ossea, situated at or just above the divari- 
cation of the bronchial tubes. A little trouble will enable the collector in all cases to preserve 
this organ perfectly, as represented in the annexed engraving (fig. 3). Before proceeding to 
skin the specimen, a narrow-bladed knife should be introduced into its mouth and by taking 
hold of the tongue (A) by the fingers or forceps, the muscles (BB) by which it is attached to 
the lower jaw should be severed as far as they can be reached, care being of course taken not 
to puncture the windpipe (CC); and later in the operation of skinning, when dividing the 
body from the neck or head, uot to cut into or through it. This done, the windpipe can be 
easily withdrawn entire and separated from the neck, and then the sternal apparatus being 
removed as before described, its course must be traced to where, after branching off in a fork 
(D), the bronchial tubes (Z E) join the lungs. At these latter points it is to be cut off. Then 
rinsing it in cold water, and leaving it to dry partially, it may, while yet pliant, be either 
wrapped round the sternum, or coiled up and labelled separately.” — (A. Newton.) 


§ 9. — COLLECTION OF NESTS AND EGGS. 


Ornithology and Odlogy are twin studies, or rather one includes the other. A collee- 
tion of nests and eggs is indispensable for any thorough study of birds; and many persons 
find peculiar pleasure in forming one. Some, however, shrink from ‘‘ robbing birds’ nests” 
as something particularly cruel; a sentiment springing, no doubt, from the sympathy and 
deference that the tender office of maternity inspires; but with all proper respect for the 
humane emotion, it may be said simply, that birds’-nesting is not nearly so cruel as bird- 
shooting. What I saidin a former section, in endeavoring to guide search for birds, applies 
in substance to hunting for their nests; the essential difference is, that the latter are of 
course stationary objects, and consequently more liable to be overlooked, other things being 
equal, than birds themselves. Most birds nest on trees or bushes; many on the ground 
and on rocks; others in hollows. Some build elegant, elaborate structures, endlessly varied 
in details of form and material; others make no nest whatever. In this country, egging is 
chiefly practicable in May and during the summer; but some species, particularly birds of 
prey, begin to lay in January, while, on our southern border at least, the season of repro- 
duction is protracted through September; so there is really a long period for search. Par- 
ticular nests, of course, like the birds that build them, can only be found through ornithological 
knowledge; but general search is usually rewarded with a varied assortment. The best clew 
to a hidden nest is the actions of the parents; patient watchfulness is commonly successful in 
tracing the bird’s home. As the science of vdlogy has not progressed to the point of deter- 
mining from the nests and eggs to what bird they belong, in even a majority of cases, the 
utmost care in authentication is indispensable. To be worth anything, not to be worse 
than worthless in fact, an egg must be identified beyond question; must be not only 
unsuspected, but above suspicion. A shade of suspicion is often attached to dealers’ eggs ; 
not necessarily implying bad faith or even negligence on the dealers’ part, but from the nature 
of the case. It is often extremely difficult to make an unquestionable determination, as for 


COLLECTION OF NESTS AND EGGS. 51 


instance when numbers of birds of similar habits are breeding close together; or even impos- 
sible, as in case the parent eludes observation. Sometimes the most acute observer may be 
mistaken, cireumstances appearing to prove a parentage when such is not the fact. It is in 
general advisable to secure the parent with the eggs: if shot or snared on the nest, the 
identification is simply unquestionable. If you do not yourself know the species, it then 
becomes necessary to secure the specimen, and retain it with the eggs. It is not required to 
make a perfect preparation ; the head, or better, the head and a wing, will answer the purpose. 
When egging in downright eamest, a pair of climbing irons, a coil of $ inch rope, and a tin 
collecting box filled with cotton, become practically indispensable; these are the only field 
implements required in addition to those already specified. 


Preparing Eggs. For blowing eggs, a set of special tools is needed. These are ‘ egg- 
drills,” — steel implements with a sharp- pointed conical head of rasping surface, and a slender 
shaft; several such, of different sizes, are needed; also, blow-pipes of different sizes, a delicate 


Fic. 4. —Egg-drills, different sizes, nat. 
size; after Newton. 


thin pair of scissors, light spring for- 
ceps, some little hooks, and a small 


f ¥ Ta: Fig. 5. — Instrninents for blowing eggs; after Newton. a, 6, 
syringe. They are expensive, and blow-pipes, } nat. size; c, wire for cleansing them; d, syringe, } 


may be had of any dealer in natur- Geeta Cpehaie sr rene eared eaieenngs se 
alists’ supplies. (See figs. 4-7.) Eggs 

should never be blown in the old way of making a hole at each end; nor are two holes any- 
where usually required. Opening should be effected on one side, preferably that showing least 
conspicuous or characteristic markings. If two are wade, they should be rather near together ; 
on the same side at any rate. But one is generally sufficient, as the fluid contents can escape 


around the blow-pipe. Holding the egg gently but steadily in the fingers,! apply the point of 


1 The usual method of emptying eggs through one small hole is doubtless supposed to be a very modern trick ; 
but it dates back at least to 1828, when M. Danger proposed “a new method of preparing and preseving eggs for 
the cabinet,” which is practically the one now followed, though he used a three-edged needle to prick the hole, 
instead of our modern drill, and did not appear to know some of our ways of managing the embryo. I make this 
reference to his article to call attention to one of the tools he recommends, which I think would prove useful, as 
being better than the fingers for holding an egg during drilling and blowing. The simple instrument will be un- 
derstood from a glance at the figure given in the Nuttall Bulletin, iii, 1878, p.191. The oval rings are covered with 
light fabric, like mosquito-netting or muslin, and do not touch the egg, which is held lightly but securely in the 
netting. The cost would be trifling, and danger might be avoided by Danger’s method. 


FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


the drill perpendicularly to the surface, unless it be preferred to prick with a needle first. 
A twirling motion of the instrument gradually enlarges the opening by filing away the shell, 
and so bores a smooth-edged circular hole. This should be no larger than is required to 
insert the blow-pipe loosely, with room for the contents to escape around it. Nor is it always 
necessary to insert the pipe; a fine stream of water may be easily injected by holding the 
instrument close to the egg, but not quite touching. The blowing should be continuous and 
equable, rather than forcible ; a strong puff easily bursts a delicate egg. Be sure that all the 
contents are removed; then rinse the interior thoroughly with clean water, either by taking a 
mouthful and sending it through a blow-pipe, or with the syringe. Blowing eggs is a rather 
fatiguing process, more so 
than it might seem; the cal i) 
cheek muscles soon tire, 
and the operator actually 
becomes “blown” himself 
before long. The opera- 
tion had better be done 
over a basin of water, both 
to receive the contents, and 
to eatch the egg if it slip 
from The 
membrane lining the shell 
should be removed if pos- 
sible. It may be seized by 
the edge around the hole, 
with the forceps, and 
drawn out, or picked out 
But this 
is scarcely to be accom- 


ee ee 
SSS 


vm 


the fingers. 


with a bent pin. 


plished in the case of fresh 


eggs, when the membrane 
may be pared 
smoothly around the edge 
of the hole. Eggs that have been incubated of course offer diffi- 
culty, in proportion to the size of the embryo. The hole may be 
drilled, as before, but it must be larger; and as the drill is apt to 


Fig. 6.— Scissors, knives, and forceps, } nat. 
size; after Newton. 


simply 


split a shell after it has bored beyond a certain size of hole, it is often 
well to prick, with a fine needle, a circular series of minute holes 
almost touching, and then remove the enclosed circle of shell. This 
must be very carefully done, or the needle will indent or crack the 
shell, which, it must be remembered, grows more brittle towards 


Fic. 7.—Hooks for ex- 
tracting embryos, nat. size; 


after Newton. a, J, c, plain 
hooks; d, bill-hook, having 
cutting edge along the con- 
cavity. 


the time of hatching. Well-formed embryos cannot be got bodily through any hole that can 
be made in an egg ; they must be extracted piecemeal. They may be cut to pieces with the 
slender scissors introduced through the hole, and the fragments be picked out with the 
forceps, hooked out, or blown out. No embryo should be forced through a hole too small; 
there is every probability that the shell will burst at the critical moment. Addled eggs, the 
contents of which are thickened or hardened, offer some difficulty, to overeome which persistent 
syringing and repeated rinsing are required; or it may be necessary to fill them with water, 
and set them away for such length of time that the contents dissolve by maceration; carbonate 
of soda is said to hasten the solution ; the process may be repeated as often as may be necessary. 


Tn no event must any of the animal contents be suffered to remain in the shell. When emptied 


nN 


COLLECTION OF NESTS AND EGGS. 


aud rinsed, eggs should be gently wiped dry, and set hole downward on blotting-paper to 
drain.! Broken eggs may be neatly mended, sometimes with a film of collodion, or a bit of 
tissue paper and paste, or the edges may be simply stuck together with any adhesive substance. 
Even when fragmentary a rare egg is worth preserving. Eggs should ordinarily be left empty ; 
indeed, the only case in which any filling is admissible is that of a defective specimen to which 
some slight solidity can be imparted with cotton. It is unnecessary even to close up the hole. 
It is best, on all accounts, to keep eggs in sets, a ‘‘set” being the natural clutch, or whatever 
less number was taken from a nest. The most scrupulous attention must be paid to accurate, 
complete, and permanent labelling. So important is this, that the undeniable defacing of a 
specimen, by writing on it, is no offset to the advantages accruing from such fixity of record. 
It is practically impossible to attach a label, as is done with a bird-skin, and a loose label is 
always in danger of being lost or displaced. Write on the shell, then, as many items as 
possible ; if done neatly, on the side in which the hole was bored, at least one good ‘ show side ” 
remains. An egg should always bear the same number as the parent, in the collector’s 
record. In a general collection, where separate ornithological and odlogical registers are kept, 
identification of egg with parent is nevertheless readily secured, by making one the numerator 
the other the denominator of a fraction, to be simply inverted in its respective application. 
Thus, bird No. 456, and egg No. 123, are identified by making the former 48% the latter 22. 
All the eggs of a clutch should have the same number. If the shell be large enough, the naine 
of the species should be written on it; if too small, it should be accompanied by a label, and 
may have the name indicated by a number referring to a certain catalogue. According to my 
“Check List,” for example, ‘No. 1” would indicate Turdus migratorius. The date of collec- 
tion is a highly desirable item; it may be abbreviated thus; 3 | 6 | 82 means June 3, 1882. It 
is well to have the egg authenticated by the collector's initials at least. Since ‘‘ sets” of eggs 
may be broken up for distributions to other cabinets, yet permanent indication of the size of 
the clutch be wanted, it is well to have some method. A good one is to write the nwinber of 
the clutch on each egg composing it, giving each egg of the set, moreover, its individual 
uumber. Supposing for example the clutch No. 422 contained five eggs ; one of them would 
5 | 2, and so on. But it should be remembered that all such 


be $23 | 5 | 1: the next 422 
arbitrary memoranda must be systematic, and be accompanied by a key. Eggs may be kept 
in cabincts of shallow drawers in little pasteboard trays, each holding a set, and containing a 
paper label on which various items that cannot be traced on the shell are written in full. 


1 Reinforcing the Eggshell before Blowing. — Fig. 8 “ shows a piece of paper, a number of which, when gummed 
on to an egg, one over the other, and left to dry, strengthen the shell in such a manner that the instruments above 
described can be introduced through the aperture in the middle and worked to the best advantage, and thus a 
fully formed embryo may be cut up, and the pieces extracted through a very moderately 
sized hole; the number of thicknesses required depends, of course, greatly upon the size 


of the egg, the length of time it has been incubated, and the stoutness of the shell and - \ 

the paper. Five or six is the least number that it is safe to use. Each piece should be I~ ie 
left to dry before the next is gummed on. The slits in the margin cause them to set | aS \ 
pretty smoothly, which will be found very desirable; the aperture in the middle of each = -=—— — 
may be cut out first, or the whole series of layers may be drilled through when the hole \ ~~ / 
is made in the egg. For convenience’ sake, the papers may be prepared already gummed, * > 
and moistened when put on (in the same way that adhesive postage labels are used). ©, [\ 


Doubtless, patches of linen or cotton cloth would answer equally well. When the opera- — 
tion is over, a slight application of water (especially if warm) through the syringe will pyq. g,—Nat. size. 
loosen them so that they can be easily removed, and they can be separated from one 

another, and dried to serve another time. The size represented in the sketch is that suitable for an egg of mod- 
erate dimension, such as that of a common fow]. The most effectual way of adopting this method of emptying 
eggs is by using very many layers of thin paper and plenty of thick gum, but this is, of course, the most tedious. 
Nevertheless, it is quite worth the trouble in the case of really rare specimens, and they will be norfe the worse for 
operating upon from the delay of a few days caused by waiting for the gum to dry and barden. The naturalist 
to whom this method first occurred has found it answer remarkably well in every case that it has been used, from 
the egg of an eagle to that of a humming-bird, and among English odlogists it has been generally adopted.” 
(A, Newton, in Smiths. Misc. Coll. 189, 1860.) 


54 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


Such trays should all be of the same depth, —half an inch is a convenient depth for general 
purposes; and of assorted sizes, say from one inch by one and one-half inches up to three by 
six inches; it is convenient to have the dimensions regularly graduated by a constant factor 
of, say half an inch, so that the little boxes may be set side by side, either lengthwise or 
crosswise, without interference. Eggs may also be kept safely, advantageously, and with 
attractive effect, in the nests themselves, in which a fluff of cotton may be placed to steady 
them. When not too bulky, too loosely constructed, or of material unsuitable for preservation, 
nests should always be collected. Those that are very closely attached to twigs should not be 
torn off. Nests threatening to come to pieces, or too frail to be handled without injury, may 
be secured by sewing through and through with fine thread: indeed, this is an advisable pre- 
caution in most cases. Packing eggs for transportation requires much care, but the precau- 
tions to be taken are obvious. I will only remark that there is no safer way than to leave them 
in their own nests, each wrapped in cotton, with which the whole cavity is to be lightly filled ; 
the nests themselves being packed close enough to be perfectly steady. 


§ 10.—CARE OF A COLLECTION. 


Well Preserved Specimens will last ‘forever and a day,” so far as natural decay is 
concerned. I have handled birds in good state, shot back in the twenties, and have no doubt 
that some eighteenth century preparations are still extant. The precautions against detilement, 
mutilation, or other mechanical injury, are self-evident, aud may be dismissed with the remark, 
that white plunages, especially if at all greasy, require the most care to guard against soiling. 
We have, however, to fight for our possessions against a host of enemies, individually despica- 
ble but collectively formidable, — foes so determined that untiring vi 
off their attacks even temporarily, whilst in the end they prove invincible. It may be said that 


gilance is required to ward 


to be eaten up by insects is the natural cud of all bird-skins uot sooner destroyed. 


1“ 4 Plea for the Study of Nests,” made by Mr. Ernest Ingersoll in his excellent “ Birds’-Nesting,” suits 
me so well that I will transcribe it. ‘ Whether or not it is worth while to collect nests— for there are many per- 
sons who never do so —is, it seems to me, only a question of room in the cabinet. As a scientific study there is far 
more advantage to be obtained from a series of nests than from a series of eggs. The nest is something with which 
the will and energies of the bird are concerned. It expresses the character of the workman; is to a certain extent 
an index of its rank among birds, — for in general those of the highest organization are the best architects, — and 
give us a glimpse of the bird’s mind and power to understand and adapt itself to changed conditions of life. Over 
the shape and ornamentation of an egg the bird has no control, being no more able to govern the matter than it 
can the growth of its beak. There is as much difference to me, in the interest inspired, between the nest and the 
egg of a bird, as between its brain and its skull, — using the word brain to mean the seat of intellect. The nest is 
always more or less the result of conscious planning and intelligent work, even though it does follow a hereditary 
habit in its style, while the egg is an automatic production varying, if at all, only as the whole organization of 
the bird undergoes change. Don’t neglect the nests then, In them more than anywhere else lies the key to the 
mind and thoughts of a bird, —the spirit which inhabits that beautiful frame and bubbles out of that golden 
mouth. And is it not this inner life, —this human significance in bird nature, —this soul of ornithology, that we 
are all aiming to discover? Nests are beautlful, too. What can surpass the delicacy of the huamming-bird’s home 
glued to the surface of a mossy branch or nestling in the warped point of a pendent leaf; the vireo’s silken ham- 
mock ; the oriole’s gracefully swaying purse; the blackbird’s model basket in the flags; the snug little caves of the 
marsh wrens; the hermitage-huts of the shy wagtails and ground-warblers, the stout fortresses of the sociable 
swallows! Moreover, there is much that is highly interesting which remains to be learned about nests, and which 
can only be known by paying close attention to these artistic masterpieces of animal art. We want to know by 
what sort of skill the many nests are woven together that we find it so hard even to disentangle; we want to know 
how long they are in being built; whether there is any particular choice in respect to location; whether it be a 
rule, as is supposed, that the female bird is the architect, to the exclusion of her mate’s efforts further than his 
supplying a part of the materials. Many such points remain to be cleared up. Then there is the question of 
variation, and its extent in the architect of the same species in different quarters of its ranging area. How far is 
this carried, and how many varieties can be recorded from a single district, where the same list of materials is 
open to all the birds equally? Wariation shows individual opinion or taste araong the builders as to the suitability 
of this or that sort of timber or furniture for their dwellings, and observations upon it thus increase our acquaint- 
ance with the scope of ideas and habits characteristic of each species of bird.” 


CARE OF A COLLECTION. 00 


Insect Pests (Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12) with which we have to contend belong principally to the 
two families Tineid@ and Dermestide — the former are moths, the latter beetles. The moths are 
of species identical with, and allied to, the commen clothes moth, Tinea flavifrontella, the carpet 
moth, T. tapetzella, ete., —small species observed flying about our apartments aud museums, 
in May and during the summer. The beetles are several rather small thick-set species, prinei- 
pally of the genera Dermestes and Anthrenus. I am able to figure species of these genera, 
with their larval stages, and of two other genera, Ptinus and Sttodrepa, through the attentions 
of Prof. C. V. Riley, the eminent entomologist. The larve (‘‘ caterpillars” of the moths, and 
‘orubs” of the beetles) appear to be the chief agents of the destruction. The presence of the 
mature insects is usually readily detected ; on disturbing an infested suite of specimens the moths 


Fie. 9.—Anthrenus scrofularie, enlarged; the short line shows nat. size. a, b, larve; c, pupa; d, imago, 


\ 
Fic. 10. — Dermestes lardarius, en- FiG. 11.— Sitodrepa panicea, Fic. 12. — Ptinus brunneus. 
larged. a, larva; >,anenlarged hair; enlarged. a, imago; }, its an- 
c, imago. tenna, more enlarged. 


flutter about, and the beetles crawl as fast as they can into shelter, or simulate death. The 
insidious larvee, however, are not so easily observed, burrowing as they do among the feathers, 
or in the interior of a skin; whilst the minute eggs are commonly altogether overlooked. But 
the ‘“‘bugs” are not long at work without leaving their unmistakable traces. Shreds of 
feathers float off when a specimen is handled, or fly out on flipping the skin with the fingers, 
and in bad cases even whole bundles of plumes come away at atouch. Sometimes, leaving the 
plumage intact, bugs eat away the horny covering of the bill and feet, making a peculiarly 
unhappy and irreparable mutilation. I suppose this piece of work is done by a particalar 
insect, but if so I do not know what one. It would appear that when the bugs effect lodgment 
in any one skin, they usually finish it before attacking another, unless they are in great force. 
We may consequently, by prompt removal of an infested specimen, save further depredations; 


56 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


nevertheless, the rest become ‘‘suspicious,” and the whole drawer or box should be quaran- 
tined, if not submitted to any of the processes described beyond. Our lines of defence are sev- 
eral. We may mechanically oppose entrance of the enemy ; we may meet him with abhorrent 
odors that drive him off, sicken or kill him, and finally we may cook him to death. I will 
notice these methods successively, taking occasion to describe a cabinet under head of the first. 


Cases for Storage or Transportation should be rather small, for several reasons. They 
are easier to handle and pack. There are fewer birds pressing each other. Particular speci- 
mens are more readily reached. Bugs must effect just so many more separate entrauces to 
infest the whole. Sinall lids are more readily fitted tight. For the ordinary run of small birds 
I should not desire a box over 18x18x18, and should prefer a smaller one; for large birds, a box 
just long enough for the biggest specimen, aud of other proportions to correspond fairly, is 
most eligible. Whatever the dimensions, a proper box presupposes perfect jointing ; but if 
any suspicion be entertained on this score, stout paper should be pasted along all the edges, 
both inside and out. We have practically to do with the lid only. If the lot is likely to 
remain long untouched, the cover may be screwed very close and the crack pasted like the 
others. Under other and usual circumstances the lid ay be provided with a metal boss fitting 
a groove lined with india rubber or filled with wax. An excellent case nay be made of tin 
with the lid secured in this manner, and further fortified with a wooden casing. Birdskins 
entirely free from insects or their eggs, encased in some such secure manner, will remain intact 
indefinitely ; but there is misery in store if any bugs or nits be put away with them. 


Cabinets. — As a matter of fact, most collections are kept readily accessible for examina- 
tion, display, or other immediate use, and this precludes any disposition of them in ‘hermeti- 
eal” cases. The most we can do is to secure tight fitting of movable woodwork. The 
“cabinet” is most eligible for private collections. This is, in effect, simply a bureau, or chest of 
drawers, protected with folding doors, or a front that may be detached, cither of plain wood or 
sashing for panes of glass. It is siinply astonishing how many birdskins of average size can 
be accommodated in a cabinet that makes no inconvenicut picee of furniture for an ordinary 
room. A cabinet may of course be of any desired size, shape, and style. In general it will be 
better tu put money into excellence of fitting rather than elegance of finish; the handsomest 
front docs not compensate for a crack in the back or for a drawer that hitches. There should 
not be the slightest flaw in the exterior, and doors should fit so tightly that a puff of air may 
be felt on closing them. The greatest desideratuun of the interior work, next after close 
fitting yet smooth ruming of the drawers, is economy of space. This is secured by making 
the drawers as thin as is consistent with stability ; by having them slide by a boss at each end 
fitting a groove in the side wall, instead of resting on horizontal partitions; and by hinged 
countersunk handles instead of knobs. I do not reeommend, except for a suite of the smallest 
birds, a multiplicity of shallow drawers, accommodating each one layer of specimens; it is 
better to have fewer deeper drawers, into which light shallow movable trays are fitted. These 
trays never need be of stuff over one-cighth or one-fourth of an inch thick, and may have 
bottoms of stiff pasteboard glued or tacked on. They may vary from one-half inch to two 
inches in depth, but this dimension should always be some factor of the depth of the drawer, 
so that a certain number of trays may exactly fill it. They should be just as long as one 
transverse dimension of the drawer, and rather narrow, so that two or more are set side by 
side. Finally, though they may be of different depths, they should be of the same length and 
breadth, so as to be interchangeable. They may simply rest on top of each other, or slide on 
separate projections inside the drawer. Such trays are extremely handy for holding particular 
sets of specimens, to be carried to the study table without disturbing the rest of the collection. 

If a collection he so extensive that any particnlar specimen may not be readily hunted up, 


CARE OF A COLLECTION. oF 


it will be found convenient to have the drawers themselves labelled with the name of the 
group within. A collection should always be methodically arranged — preferably according to 
some approved or supposed natural classification of birds ; this is also the readiest mode, since, 
with some conspicuous exceptious, birds of the same natural group are approximately of the 
same size. If I were desired to suggest proportions for a private cabinet of most general 
eligibility, I should say four feet high, by three feet wide, by two feet deep, in the clear; this 
makes a portly yet not unwieldy looking object. It is wide enough for folding-doors, to be 
sceured by bolts at top and bottom, and lock; not so high that the top drawer is not readily 
inspected ; and of proportionate depth. Such a ease will take seven drawers six inches deep 
either of the full width, or in two series with a median partition; these drawers will hold 
anything up to an eagle or crane. A part of them at least should have a full complement of 
such trays as I have described, — say three or four tiers of the shallower trays, three trays to it 
tier, each about two feet long by about a foot wide ; and one or two tiers of deeper trays. 


To Destroy Bugs. — In our present case prevention is not the best remedy, simply be- 
cause it is hot always practicable ; in spite of all mechanical precautions the bugs will get in. 
We have, therefore, to see what will destroy them, or at least stop their ravages. It is a 
general rule that any pungent aromatic odor is obnoxious to them, and that any very light 
powdery substance restrains their movements by getting into the joimts and breathing pores. 
Both these qualities are secured in the ordinary ‘‘insect powder,” to be had of any leading 
druggist. It should be lavishly strewn on and among the skins, and laid in the corners of the 
drawers and trays. Thus employed it proves highly effective, and is on the whole the most 
eligible substance to use when a collection is constantly handled. Camphor is a valuable agent. 
Small fragments may be strewn about the drawers, or a luinp pinned in mosquito netting in a 
corner. Benzine is also very useful. A small saucer full may be kept evaporating, or the 
liquid may be sprinkled — even poured — direetly over the skins ; it is very volatile and leaves 
little or no stain. It is, however, obviously ineligible when a collection is in constant use. 
My friend Mr. Allen informs me he has used sulphide of carbon with great success. The 
objection to this agent is, that it is a stinking poison; should be used in the open air, to 
escape the ineffably disgusting and deleterious odors, and its employ is properly restricted to 
eases for storage. When the bill or feet show they are attacked, further depredation may 
be prevented by pencilling with a strong solution of corrosive sublimate ; a weaker solution, 
one that leaves no white film, on drying, on a black feather, may even be brushed over the 
whole plumage. Mr. Ridgway tells me that oil of bitter almonds is equally efficacious. But 
remember that these poisons must be used with care. Specimens may be buried in coarse 
refuse tobacco leaves. One or another of these lines of defenee will commonly prove successful 
in destroying or driving off mature insects, and even in stopping the ravages of the larve; 
bat I doubt that any such means will kill the “nits.” With these we must deal otherwise ; 
and their destruction no less that that of their parents is assured, if we subject them to a high 
temperature. Baking bird-skins is really the only process that can make us feel perfectly 


safe. Infected specimens, aloug with suspected ones, should be subjected to a dry heat, from 
212° F. up to any degree short of singeing the plumage. This is readily done by putting the 
birds in a wooden tray in any oven — they must however be watched, unless you have special 
contrivances for regulating the temperature. How long a time is required is probably not 
ascertained with precision ; it will be well to bake for several hours. When the beetles and 
larve are found completely parched, it nay be confidently believed that the unseen eggs are 
out of the hatching way forever. 


Two Items. 


One is, that arsenic helps to keep out the bugs, besides preventing decay 
—afact that should never be forgotten, and that should give sharper edge to my advice 


58 FIELD ORNITHOLOGY. 


respecting lavish use of the substance at the outsct. If it be true, as some state, that bugs can 
eat arsenic without dying, it is also true that they do not relish it; and in entering a case of 
skins they will burrow by preference in those holding the least of it. This fact is continually 
exhibited in large collections, where if two birds be side by side, one being duly arsenicized 
and the other not so, one will be taken and the other left. My second item, with its proper 
deduction, will form, I think, a fitting conclusion to this treatise. It is a fact in the natural 
history of these our pests, that they are fond of peace and quiet, —they do uot like to be dis- 
turbed at their meals. So they rarely effect permanent lodginent in a collection that is con- 
stantly handled, though the doors stand open for hours daily. As a consequence, the degree 
of our diligence in studying birdskins is likely to become the measure of our success in pre- 
serving them. I once read a work, by an eminent and learned divine, on the “ Moral Uses of 
Dark Things,” under which head the author included everything from earthquakes to mos- 
quitoes. If there be a moral use in the ‘dark thing” that museum pests certainly are to us, 


we have it here. The very bugs urge on our work. 


aA. 
vale 


Fig. 13.— WILSON’s SCHOOL-HOUSE, NEAR GRAY’s FERRY, PHILADELPHIA. From a drawing by M. 8S. 
Weaver, Oct. 22, 1841, received by Elliott Cones, February, 1879, from Malvina Lawson, daughter of Alexander 
Lawson, Wilson’s engraver. See article in the ‘Penn Monthly,” June, 1879, p. 443. The drawing was first 
engraved on wood, and published, by Thomas Meehan, in the *‘Gardener’s Monthly,’ August, 1880, p- 248. The 
present impression is from an electrotype of that wood-cut. The size of the original is 5.10 x 3.95 inches. This 
reminder of early days of “ Field Ornithology” in America may be further attested by the signature of 


Part Il. 


GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY: 


AN OUTLINE OF THE 


STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. 


§1.—DEFINITION OF BIRDS. 


ENERAL ORNITHOLOGY, like Field Ornithology, is a subject with which the 
student must have some acquaintance, if he would hope to derive either pleasure or 
profit from the Birds of North Ameriea. For any intelligeut understaudmg of this subject, he 
must become reasonably familiar with the technical terms used in describing aud classifying 
birds, and learn at least enough of the structure of these creatures to appreciate the characters 
upon which all description and classification is based. Extensive and varied and accurate as 
may be his raudom pereeption of objects of natural history, his knowledge is uot scientific, but 
only empirical, until reflection comes to aid observation, aud conceptions of the significance of 
what he knows are formed by logical processes in the mind. For 


Science (Lat. scire, to know) is knowledge set in order; knowledge disposed after the 
rational method that best shows, or tends to show best, the true relatious of observed facts. 
Sound scientific facts are the natural basis of all philosophic truth, and the safest stepping- 
stones to religious faith, —to that wisdom which comes only of knowing the relation which 
material entities bear to spiritual realities. The orderly knowledge of any particular class of 
facts —the methodical disposition of observations upon any particular set of objects — constitutes 
a Special Science. ‘Thus 


Ornithology (Gr. ép6os, ornithos, of a bird; déyos, logos, a discourse) is the Science of 
Birds. Ornithology consists in the rational arrangement and exposition of all that is known of 
birds, and the logical inference of much that is not known. Ornithology treats of the physical 
structure, physiological processes, and mental attributes of birds ; of their habits and manners ; 
of their geographical distribution and geological succession; of their probable ancestry ; of 
their every relation to one another and to all other animals, including nan, — in short, of their 
significance in Nature and Supernature. The first business of Ornithology is to define its 
ground — to answer the question, 


60 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


What is a Bird ? — There is every reason to believe that a Bird is a greatly modified 
Reptile, being the offspring by direct descent of some reptilian progenitor; and there is no 
reason to suppose that any bird ever had any other origin than by due process of hatching out 
of an egg laid by its mother after fecundation by its father, —just what we believe to have been 
the invariable method during the period of the world known to human history. There is no 
reason to believe that any bird was ever originally created and endowed with the characters it 
now possesses; but that every bird now living is the naturally modified lineal descendant 
of parents that were less and less like itself, and more and more like certain reptiles, the 
further removed they were in the line of avian ancestry from such birds as are now living. 
This is the Darwinian logie of observed facts, upon which the modern Theory of Evolution is 
based, in opposition to the tradition of the special creation of every species of animal; which 
latter has no scieutifie basis whatever, and is consequently accepted as true by few thought- 
ful persons who are capable of forming independent judgments. Accordingly, 


Birds and Reptiles — even those of the present geologic epoch — share so many and so 
important structural characters, that the chiefs of science of our day are wont to unite the two 
classes, Aves and Reptilia, in one primary group of the Vertebrata, or animals with a back- 
bone. This group is called Sawropsida, or reptiliform ; it is contrasted, on the one hand, with 
Ichthyopsida, or fish-like vertebrates, including Batrachians as well as Fishes; and, on the 
other, with Mammalia, the province of the Vertebrata which includes Man and all other 
animals that suckle their young. We find that 


The Sauropsida (Gr. catpos, sauros, a reptile ; dyes, opsis, appearance), or lizard-like 
Vertebrates, agree with one another, and differ from other animals, in the following important 
combination of characters, substantially as laid down by Professor Huxley, — some of the char- 
acters being shared by the Ichthyopsida, and some by the Mammatia, but the sum of the 
characters being distinctive of Sawropsida: They are all oviparous (laying eggs hatched out- 
side the body of the parent), or ovoviviparous (laying eggs hatched inside the body of the 
parent), being never viviparous (bringing forth alive young nourished before birth by the 
blood of the mother). The embryo develops those feetal organs called amnion and allantois, 
and is nourished before hatching by the great quantity of yolk in the egg. There are no 
maminary glands to furnish the young with milk after birth. The generative, urinary, and 
digestive organs come together behind in a common receptacle, the cloaca, or sewer, and their 
products are discharged by a single orifice. The kidneys of the early embryo, ealled Wolffian 
bodies, are soon replaced functionally by permanent kidneys, and structurally by the testes of 
the male and the ovaries of the female. The cavity of the abdomen, or belly, is not separated 
from that of the thorax, or chest, by a complete muscular partition, or diaphragm. The great 
lateral hemispheres of the brain are not connected by a transverse commissure, or corpus 
callosum. Air is always breathed by true lungs, never by gills. The blood, which may be 
cold or hot, has red oval nucleated corpuscles; the heart has either three or four separate 
chambers, — the latter in birds, in which the circulation of the hot blood is completely double, 
i.e., in the lungs and one side of the heart, in the body at large and the other side of the heart. 
The aortic arches are several ; or if but one, as in birds, it is the right, not the left as in mam- 
mals. The centra, or bodies, of the vertebree are ossified, but have no terminal epiphyses. 
The skull hinges upon the back-bone by a single median protuberance, or condyle, and the 
part bearing the condyle is completely ossified. The lower jaw consists of several separate 
pieees, the articular one of which hinges upon a movable quadrate bone; and there are 
other peculiarities in the formation of the skull. The ankle-joint is situated, not, as in 
mammals, between the tarsal bones and those of the leg, but between two rows of tarsal bones. 
The skin is usually covered with outgrowths, in the form of scales or feathers. — Different as 


DEFINITION OF BIRDS. 61 


are any living members of the class of Birds from any known Reptiles, the characters of the 
two groups converge in geologic history so closely, that the presence of feathers in the former 
class, and their absence from the latter, is one of the most positive differences we have found. 
The oldest known birds are from the Jurassic rocks of Europe, and the Cretaceous beds of 
North America. These birds had teeth, and various other strong peculiarities of structure, 
which no living members of the class have retained. 


AVES, or the Class of Birds, may be distinguished from other Sawropsida, for all that 
is known to the contrary, by the following sum of characters: The body is covered with 
feathers, a kind of skin-outgrowth no other animals possess. The blood is hot; the cireu- 
lation is completely double ; the heart is perfectly four-chambered ; there is but one (the right) 
aortic arch, and only one pulmonary artery springs from the heart; the aortic and the pulino- 
nary artery have each three semilunar valves. The lungs are fixed and moulded tu the cavity 
of the chest, aud some of the air-passages run through them to admit air to other parts of the 
body, as under the skin and in various bones. Reproduction is oviparous; the eggs are very 
large, in consequence of the copious yolk and white; have a hard chalky shell, and are hatched 
outside the body of the parent. There are always four limbs, of which the fore or peetoral 
pair are strongly distinguished from the hind or pelvic pair by being modified into wings, 
fitted for flying, if at all, by means of feathers — not of skin as in the cases of such maimuinals, 
reptiles, and fishes as ean fly. The terminal part of the limb is compressed and reduced, 
bearing never more than three digits, only two of which ever have claws, and no claws 
being the rule. There are not more than two separate carpals, or wrist-bones, in adult recent 
birds (with very rare exceptions); uor any distinct interclavicular bone. The clavicles are 
complete (with rare exceptious), and coalesce tu form a “ wish-bone” or “ merry-thgught.” 
The sternum, or breast-bone, is large, usually carinate, or keeled, and the ribs are attached to 
its sides ouly; it is developed from two to five or more centres of ossification. The sacral ver- 
tebra proper have no expanded ribs abutting against the aa ; the iia, or hauuch-bones, are 
greatly prolonged forward ; the socket for the head of the femur,or thigh-bone,is a ring, not a 
cup; the ischia and pubes are prolonged backward in parallel directions, and neither of these 
bones ever unites with its fellow in a ventral symphysis (except in Struthio and Rhea). The 
fibula, or outer bone of the leg, is incomplete below, taking uo part in the ankle-joint. The 
astragalus, or upper bone of the tarsus, unites with the tibia,or inner bone of the leg, leaving 
the ankle-joint between itself and other tarsal bones, the lower of which latter similarly unites 
with the bones of the instep, or metatarsus. There are never more than four metatarsal bones, 
and the same number of digits; the first or inner metatarsal bone is usually free, and incoin- 
plete above; the other three anchylose (fuse) together, and with distal tarsal bones, as already 
said, to form a compound tarso-metatarsus. Recent birds, at any rate, have a certain saddle- 
shape of the ends of the bodies of some vertebree. Such birds have also no teeth and no fleshy 
lips; the jaws are covered with horny or leathery integument, as the feet are also, when not 
feathered. 


The Position of the Class Aves among other Vertebrates is definite. Birds come in 
the scale of development next below the Class Mammalia, and no close links between Birds 
and Mammals are known; the most bird-like known mamunal, the duck-billed platypus of 
Australia (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus), being several steps beyoud any known bird. Birds 
are the higher one of the two classes of Sawropsida — the lower class, Reptilia, connecting with 
the Batrachians (frogs, toads, newts, etc.) and so with the Fishes, Ichthyopsida. In this Verte- 
brate series, Birds constitute what is called a highly specialized group; that is to say, a very par- 
ticular off-shoot, or, more literally, a side-issue, of the Vertebrate genealogical tree, which in 
the present geological era has becume developed into very numerous (about 10,000) species, 


So 
te 


GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


closely agreeing with one another in the peculiar sum of their physical characters. In compar- 
ison with other classes of Vertebrates, all birds are much alike; there is a less degree of 
difference among them than that found among the members of any of the other classes of Verte- 
brates ; their likeness to each other being strong, and their kind of difference from any other 
Vertebrates being peculiar, makes thein the “highly specialized” class they are recognized to 
be. The structural difference between a humming-bird and an ostrich, for example, is not greater 
in degree than that subsisting between the members of some of the orders of Reptiles ; whence 
some hold, with reason, that Birds should not form a class Aves, but an order, or at most a sub- 
class, of Sawropsida, and so be compared not with a class Reptilia collectively, but with other 
Sauropsidan orders, such as Chelonia (turtles), Sauriu (lizards), Ophidia (serpents), ete. The 
practical convenience of starting with a ‘‘class” Aves, however, is so great, that such classificatory 
value will probably long continue to be ascribed, as heretofore, to Birds collectively. I have 
spoken of Birds as a particular ‘ side-issue ” or lateral branch of the Vertebrate “ tree of life”; 
hence it is not to be supposed that they are in the direct line of genealogical descent. Though 
they stand as a group next below Mammals in the scale of evolution, it does not follow that 
Mammals were developed from any such creature as a Bird has come to be, any more than 
that Birds have been evolved from any such Reptiles as those of the present day. It is one 
of the popular misunderstandings of the Theory of Evolution, to imagine that all the lower 
forms of animals are in the genetic line of development of the higher forms; that man, for 
example, was once a gorilla or a chimpanzee 


actually such an ape. The theory simply 
requires all forms of life to be developed from some antecedent form, presumably, and in most 
cases certainly, lower in the seale of or- 
ganization. Thus man and the gorilla 
are both descendants of some common 
progenitor, ore or less unlike either of 
these existing creatures. All mammals 
are siinilarly the modified descendants of 
sume more prinitive stock, from which 
stock sprang also all Sauropsida, medi- 
ately or immediately; therefore, a Main- 
mal is not a modified Bird, though higher 
in the seale; and, though a Bird is a 
inodified Reptile, it is not a modification 
of any such snake or lizard as now ex- 
ists. The most bird-like reptiles known 
are not the Pterodactyls, or Flying Rep- 
tiles (Pterosauria), as might be sup- 
posed; but of that remarkable order, the 
Ornithoscelida, comprising the Dinosau- 
rians, which ‘present a large series of 
modifications intermediate in structure 
between existing Reptilia and Aves,” 
and are therefore inferentially in the 
direct ancestral line of modern Birds. 


Geologic Succession of Birds. — 
Birds have been traced back in geologic 


Fic. 14.—Oldest known ornithological treatise, illus- time to Cretaceous and Jurassic epochs 


trating also the art of lithography in the Jurassic period, . .. : aps : 
engraved by Archeopteryxz lithographica, From the original of the Mesozoic or Mid-Life period of 


slab in the British Museum; after A. Newton, Ency. Brit. the world’s history. The earliest ornith- 


DEFINITION OF BIRDS. 638 


ichnites, —the fossils so called because supposed to indicate the presence of Birds by their 
foot-prints, were discovered about the year 1835 in the Triassic formation in Connecticut. 
But the creatures which made these tracks are now reasonably believed to have been all 
Dinosaurian Reptiles. The oldest ornitholite, or fossil certainly known to be that of a true 
Bird, is the famous Archeopteryx, found by Andreas Wagner in 1861 in the Odlitic slate of 
Solenhofen in Bavaria. This has a long lizard-like tail of twenty vertebree, from each of which 
springs a well-developed feather on each side; feathers of the wings are also well preserved ; 


Fic. 15.— Restoration of Hesperornis regalis. After Marsh. 


bones of the hand are not fused together, as they are in recent Birds; and the jaws bear true 
teeth. This Bird has served as the basis of one of the primary divisions of the class Aves ; 
though it has many reptilian characters, it is a true Bird. The great gap between this ancient 
Avian and latter-day birds has been to some extent bridged by Marsh’s discovery and splendid 
restoration of Birds from the Cretaceous formations of North America, such genera as 
Ichthyornis and Hesperornis forming types of two other primary divisions of the class, Odon- 
totorme and Odontolce, or Birds with teeth in sockets, and those with teeth in grooves. In 
both genera the tail is short, as in ordinary birds. In Ichthyornis, though the wings are 


64 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


well developed, with fused metacarpals, and the sternum is keeled, the vertebra present the 
extraordinary primitive character of being biconcave. In Hesperornis the vertebre are 
saddle-shaped, as usual, but the sternum is flat, as in the existing ostriches, and the wings 
are rudimentary, wanting metacarpals. Some twenty species of several genera of other 
American Cretaceous Birds have been described by the same author. Remains of Birds | 
multiply in the next period, the Tertiary. Those of the Eocene or early Tertiary are largely 
and longest known from discoveries made in the Paris Basin, among them the Gastornis 


Fia. 16.— Restoration of Ichthyornis victor. After Marsh. 


parisiensis, at least as large as an ostrich; some of these belong to extinct genera, others to 
genera which still flourish ; none are known to have true teeth, or otherwise to be as primitive 
as the reptile-like forms of the Cretaceous. The Miocene or Middle Tertiary has proven 
specially rich in remains of Birds, including some of extinct genera, but in largest proportion 
referable to modern types. Later Tertiary (Pliocene and Post-pliocene) birds are almost all 
of living genera, and some are apparently of living species. Extinct birds coeval with man, 
their bones bearing his marks, are found in various caves. Sub-fossil birds’ bones occur in 
shell-heaps (kitchenmiddens) and elsewhere, of course contemporaneous with man, and some 


PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 65 


of them scarcely pre-historic. One of the oldest of these is the gigautic Apyornis maximus 
of Madagascar, of which we have not only the bones, but the egg. The immense Moas, or 
Dinornithes of New Zealand, were among the later of these to die, ; 
portions of skin, feathers, etc., of these great creatures having been nee 
found. With the Mva-remains are found those of Harpagornis, a 

raptorial bird large enough to have preyed upon the Moas. Finally, \ 
various birds have been exterminated in historic times, and some of 

them within the life-time of persons nuw living. The Dodo of \ 
Mauritius, Didus ineptus, is the most celebrated one of these, of ) \ 
the living of which we have documentary evidence down to 1681; 
the Solitaire of Rodriguez, Pezophaps solitarius, the Géant, Leguatia 
gigantea, and several others of the same Mascarene group of islands, 
are in similar case. The Great Auk, Alca impennis, is supposed 
to have become extinct in 1844; a species of Parrot, Nestor pro- 
ductus, was last known to be living in 1851; various parrots and 
other birds have likewise disappeared within a very few years. 
At least one North American bird, the Labrador Duck, Caimp- 
tolemus labradorius, seems likely soon to follow. (A. Newton, 
Ency. Brit., 9th ed., art. Birds.) 


§ 2.— PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 


Having seen what a Bird is, and how it is distinguished 
from other animals, our next business is to inquire how birds are iG Tee URES ATOR OE 
related to and distinguished from one another, as the basis of Leguatia gigantea. From 

Packard, after Schlegel. 

Classification : a prime object of ornithology, without the attainment of which birds, 
however pleasing they are to the senses, do not satisfy the mind, which always strives to make 
orderly disposition of its knowledge, and so discover the reciprocal relations and interdepen- 
dencies of the things it knows. Classification presupposes that there do exist such relations, 
according to which we may arrange objects in the manner which facilitates their comprehen- 
sion, by bringing together what is like, and separating what is unlike; and that such relations 
are the results of fixed, inevitable law. It is, therefore, 


Taxonomy (Gr. rdés, taxis, arrangement, and véduos, nomos, law), or the rational, 
lawful disposition of observed facts. Just as taxidermy is the art of fixing a bird’s skin in a 
natural manner, so taxonomy is the science of arranging birds in the most natural manner; 
in the way that brings out most clearly their natural affinities, and so shows them in their 
proper relations to each other. This is the greatest possible help to the memory in its 
attempt to retain its hold upon great numbers of facts. But taxonomy, which involves 
consideration of the greatest problems of ornithology, as of every other branch of biology 
(biology being the science of life and living things in general), is beset with the gravest difficul- 
ties, springing from our defective knowledge. We could only perfect our taxonomy by 
having before us a specimen of every kind of bird that exists, or ever existed; and by 
thoroughly understanding how each is related to and differs from every other one. This is 
obviously impossible; in point of fact, we do not know all the birds now living, and only a 
small number of extinct birds have come to light; so that many of the most important links 
in the chain of evidence are missing, and many more cannot be satisfactorily joined together. 
With these springs of ignorance and sources of error must be reckoned also the risk of going 

5 


66 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


wrong through the natural fallibility of the mind. The result is, that the ‘ natural classifica- 
tion,” like the elixir of life or the philosopher’s stone, is a goal still distant ; and as a matter 
of fact, the present state of the ornithological system is far from being satisfactory. It is 
obvious that birds, or any other objects, may be ‘‘ classified” in numberless ways, — in as 
many ways as are afforded by all their qualities and relations, —to suit particular purposes, or 
to satisfy particular bents of mid. Hence have arisen, in the history of the science, very many 
different schedules of classification ; in fact, nearly every leader of ornithology has in his time 
proposed his own “system,” and enjoyed a more or less respectable and influential following. 

Systems have been based upon this or that set of characters, and erected from this or that 
preconception in the mind of the systematist. Down to quite recent days, the modifications 
of the external parts of birds, particularly of the bill, feet, wings, and tail, were almost ex- 

elusively employed for purposes of classification; and the mental point of view was, that 

each species of bird was a separate creation, aud as much of a fixture in Nature’s museum 

as any specimen in the naturalist’s cabinet. Crops of classifications have been sown in 

the fruitful soil of such blind error, but no lasting harvest has been reaped. The confusion 

thus engendered has brought about the inevitable reaction; and the fashion of the present 

day is decidedly the opposite extreme, —that of counting external features of little conse- 

quence in comparison with anatomical characters. Too much time has been wasted in 

arguing the superiority of each of these characters for the purposes of classification ; as if 

a natural classification should not be based upon ail points of structure! as if internal and 

external characters were not reciprocal and mutually exponent of each other! But the 

genius of modern taxonomy seems to be so certainly right, — to be tending so surely, even if 

slowly, in the direction of the desired consuinimation, that all differences of opinion, we may — 
hope, soon will be settled, and defect of knowledge, not perversity of the mind, be the 

only obstacle left in the way of success. The taxonomic goal is not now to find the way in 

which birds may be most conveniently arranged, described, and catalogued ; but to discover 

their pedigree, and so construct their family-tree. Such a genealogical table, or phylwn 

(Gr. idov, phulon, tribe, race, stock), as it is called, is rightly considered the only taxonomy 

worthy the name, —the only true or natural classification. In attempting this end, we proceed 

upon the belief that, as explained above, all birds, like all other animals and plants, are 

related to each other genetically, as offspring are to parents; and that to discover their genetic 

relationships is to bring out their true affinities, — in other words, to reconstruct the actual 

taxonomy of Nature. In this view, there can be but one ‘‘ natural” classification, to the 

perfecting of which all increase in our knowledge of the structure of birds infallibly and inevi- 

tably tends. The classification now in use, or coming into use, is the result of our best 

endeavors to accomplish this purpose, and represents what approach we have made to this end. 

It is one of the great corollaries of that theorem of Evolution which most naturalists are 

satisfied has been demonstrated. It is necessarily a 


Morphological Classification ; that is, one based solely upon consideration of structure 
or form (poppy, morphé, form); and for the following reasons: Every offspring tends to take 
on precisely the structure or form of its parents, as its natural physical heritage; and the 
principle involved, or the law of heredity, would, if nothing interfered, keep the descendants 
perfectly true to the physical characters of their progenitors ; they would ‘ breed true” and be 
exactly alike. But counter influences are incessantly operative, iu consequence of constantly 
varying external conditions of environment; the plasticity of organization of all creatures ren- 
dering them more or less susceptible of modification by such wneans, they become unlike their 
ancestors in various ways and to different degrees. On a large scale is thus accomplished, by 
natural selection and other natural agencies, just what man does in a small way in producing 
and maintaining different breeds of domestic animals. Obviously, amidst such ceaselessly 


PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 67 


shifting scenes, degrees of likeness or unlikeness of physical structure indicate with the greatest 
exactitude the nearness or remoteness of organisms in kinship. Morphological characters 
derived from examination of structure are therefore the surest guides we can have to the 
blood-relationships we desire to establish; and such relationships are the ‘ natural affinities” 
which all classification aims to discover and formulate. As already said, taxonomy consists 
in tracing pedigrees, and constructing the phylum ; it is like tracing any leaf or twig of a tree 
to its branchlet, this to its bough, this again to its trunk or main stem. The student will 
readily perceive, from what has been said, the impossibility of naturally arranging any consid- 
erable number of birds in any linear series of groups, one after the other. To do so means 
nothing more or less than the mechanical necessity of book-making, where groups have to 
succeed one another, in writing page after page. Some groups will follow naturally ; others 
will not; no connected chain is possible, because no such single continuous series exists in 
nature. In cataloguing, or otherwise arranging a series of birds for description, we simply 
begin with the highest groups, and make our juxta-positions as well as we can, in order 
to have the fewest breaks in the series. 


Morphology being the safest, indeed the only safe, clue to natural affinities, and the key 
to all rational classification, the student cannot too carefully consider what is meant by this 
term, or too sedulously guard against misinterpreting morphological characters, and so turn- 
ing the key the wrong way. The chief difficulty he will encounter comes from phystological 
adaptations of structure ; and this is something that must be thoroughly understood. The 
expression means that birds, or any animals, widely different in the suin of their morphological 
characters, may have certain parts of their organization modified in the same way, thus bring- 
ing about a seemingly close resemblance between organisms really little related to each other. 
For example: a phalarope, a coot, and a grebe, all have lobate feet; that is, their feet are 
fitted for swimming purposes in the same way, namely, by development of flaps or lobes on 
the toes. A striking but very superficial and therefore unimportant resemblance in a certain 
particular exists between these birds, on the strength of which they used to be classed 
together ina group called Pinnatipedes, or ‘‘ fin-footed” birds. But, on sufficient examination, 
these three birds are found to be very unlike in other respects; the sum of their unlikenesses 
requires us to separate them quite widely in any natural system. The group Pinnatipedes is 
therefore unnatural, and the appearance of affinity is proven to be deceptive. Such resem- 
blance in the condition of the feet is simply functional, or physiological, and is not correspon- 
dent with structural or morphological relationships. The relation, in short, between these 
three birds is analogical ; it is an inexact superficial resemblance between things profoundly 
unlike, and therefore having little homological or exact relationship. Analogy is the apparent 
resemblance between things really unlike, — as the wing of a bird and the wing of a butterfly, 
as the lungs of a bird and the gills of afish. Homology is the real resemblance, or true relation 
between things, however different they may appear to be, —as the wing of a bird and the fore- 
leg of a horse, the lungs of a bird and the swim-bladder of a fish. The former commonly 
rests upon mere functional, 7. e. physiological, modifications; the latter is grounded upon 
structural, 7. e. morphological, identity or unity. Analogy is the correlative of physiology, 
homology of morphology; but the two may be coincident, as when structures identical in 
morphology are used for the same purposes and are therefore physiologically ideutical. Physi- 
ological diversity of structure is incessant, and continually interferes with morphological 
identity of structure, to obscure or obliterate the indications of affinity the latter would 
otherwise express clearly. It is obvious that birds might be classified physiologically, 
according to their adaptive modifications or analogical resemblances, just as readily as upon 
any other basis: for example, into those that perch, those that walk, those that swim, ete. : 
and, in fact, most early classifications largely rested upon such considerations. It is also evi- 


68 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


dent, that when functional modifications happen to be cotncident with structural affinities, — 
as when the turning of the lower larynx into a music-box coincides with a certain type of 
structure, — such modifications are of the greatest service in classification, as corroborative 
evidence. But since all sound taxonomy rests on morphology, on real structural affinity, we 
must be on our guard against those physiological ‘‘ appearances” which are proverbially 
‘‘deceptive.” I trust I make the principle clear to the student. Its practical application 
is another matter, only to be learned in the school of experience. This matter of 


Homology or Analogy may be thus summed: Birds are homologically related, or 
naturally allied or affined, according to the sum of like structural characters employed for 
similar purposes; they are analogically related, only according to the sum of unlike characters 
employed for similar purposes. A loon aud a cormorant, for instance, are closely affined, 
because they are both fitted in the same way for the pursuit of their prey by flying under water. 
A dipper (family Cinclid@) and a loon (tamily Colymbida@) are analogous, in so far as both are 
fitted to pursue their prey by flying under water; but they stand near opposite extremes of the 
ornithological system ; they have little affinity beyond their common birdhood ; very different 
structure being modified to attain the sane end. So again, conversely, the crow has voeal 
organs almost identical in structure with those of the nightingale, and the organization of the 
two birds is in other respects very similar ; their affinity or homology is therefore close, though 
the crow is a hoarse croaker, the nightingale an impassioned musician. 


The Reason why Morphological Classification is so important as to justify or even 
require its adoption has been very clearly stated by Huxley, whose words I cannot do better 
than quote in this connection. Speaking of animals, not as physiological apparatuses merely ; 
not as related to other forms of life and to climatal conditions; not as successive tenants of 
the earth ; but as fabrics, each of which is built upon a certain plan, he continues: ‘It is 
possible and conceivable that every animal should have been constructed upon a plan of its 
own, having no resemblance whatever to the plan of any other animal. For any reason we 
can discover to the contrary, that combination of natural forees which we term Life might 
have resulted from, or been manifested by, a series of infinitely diverse structures; nor would 
anything in the nature of the case lead us to suspect a community of organization between 
animals so different in habit and in appearance as a porpoise and a gazelle, an eagle and a 
crocodile, or a butterfly and a lobster. Had animals been thus independently organized, each 
working out its life by a mechanism peculiar to itself, such a classification as that now under 
contemplation would be obviously impossible; a morphological or structural classifieation 
plainly implying morphological or structural resemblances in the things classified. 

“As a matter of fact, however, no such mutual independence of animal forms exists in 
nature. On the contrary, the members of the animal kingdom, from the highest to the lowest, 
are marvellously connected. Every animal has something in common with all its fellows: 
much, with many of them; more, with a few; and usually, so much with several, that it 
differs but little from them. 

“Now, a morphological classification is a statement of these gradations of likeness which 
are observable in animal structures, and its objects and uses are manifold. In the first place, 
it strives to throw our knowledge of the faets which underlie, and are the cause of, the similar- 
ities discerned, into the fewest possible general propositions, subordinated to one another, 
according to their greater or less degree of generality ; and in this way it answers the purpose 
of a memoria technica, without which the mind would be incompetent. to grasp and retain the 
multifarious details of anatomical science. 

“But there is a second and even more important aspect of morphological classification. 
Every group in that classification is such in virtue of certain struetural characters, which are 


PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 69 


not only common to the members of the group, but distinguish it from all others; and the 
statement of these constitutes the definition of the group. 

“Thus, among animals with vertebrae, the class Mammalia is definable as those which 
have two occipital condyles, with a well ossified basi-occipital ; which have each ramus of the 
mandible composed of a single piece of bone and articulated with the squamosal element of the 
skull; and which possess mammee and non-nucleated red blood-corpuscles. 

“But this statement of the characters of the class Mammalia is something more than an 
arbitrary definition. It does not merely mean that naturalists agree to call such and such 
animals Mammalia: but it expresses, firstly, a generalization based upon, and constantly 
verified by, very wide experience; and, secondly, a belief arising out of that generalization. 
The generalization is that, in nature, the structures mentioned are always found associated 
together ; the belief is that they always have been, and always will be, found so associated. 
In other words, the definition of the class Mammalia is a statement of a law of correlation, or 
coexistence, of animal structures, from which the most important conclusions are deducible.” 
(Introd. to Classif. of Animals, 8vo, London, 1869, pp. 2, 3.) 

But broad as such laws of correlation of structure are, and important as are the conclusions 
deducible, we must constantly be on our guard agaiust presuming upon the infallibility either 
of the data or of the deduction, as the author just quoted goes on to show. Such caution is 
specially required where there is no obvious reason for the particular combination that may be 
found to exist. In the case of the ostrich-like birds (Ratite), for example, we can understand 
how a flat, unkeeled breast-bone, a particular arrangement of the shoulder-bones, and a rudi- 
mentary state of the wing-bones, are found in combination, because all these modifications of 
structure are evidently related to loss of the power of flight; and, in point of fact, no exception 
is known to the generalization, that such couditions of the sternal, coraco-seapular, and 
humeral bones always coexist. But in all known struthious (ratite) birds, this state of the 

bones in inention coexists also with a peculiar modification of the bones of the palate, and no 
necessary connection between these two sets of diverse characters is conceivable. Now, if we 
only knew struthious birds, and found the combination in mention to hold with them all, we 
should doubtless declare our belief, that any bird having such palatal characters would also he 
found to possess such imperfect wing-apparatus. But this would be going too far: in fact, 
we know that the tinamous (Dromeognathe) have such a palate, yet have a keeled sternum 
and functionally developed wings. The real use and proper application of such generalizations 
is to teach the lesson, that creatures exhibiting such modified combinations of characters are 
genetically related to each other just in the degree to which they possess characters in common, 
and are genetically remote from each other in the degree to which they do not possess characters 
in common: 1%. é., that their similarities and distinctions of structure are sure indexes of their nat- 
ural affinities. To take another case, derived from consideration of a large number of existing 
birds: it is an observed fact, that a particular arrangement of the plates upon the back of the 
tarsus, a peculiar modification of the lower larynx or voice organ, and an undeveloped or abortive 
condition of the first large feather on the hand, are found associated in a vast series of birds, 
constituting the group of Passeres called Oscines. What possible connection there can be 
between these three separate and apparently independent modifications we cannot even sur- 
mise ; but that they have some natural and necessary connection we cannot doubt, and that 
the connection is causal, not fortuitous, is a logical inference from the observed fact, that 
birds which present this particular combination are also closely related in other structural 
characters; that is, that they have all been subjected to operative influences which have 
conspired to produce the modifications observed. Given, then, a bird with a known oscine 
larynx, but unknown as to its feet and wings, it would be a reasonable inference that 
these members, when discovered, would present the characters observed to occur in like 
cases. But the first lark (Alaudide) examined would show the inference to be fallible; 


70 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


for the tarsus of such a bird is differently disposed, though a lark has an elaborate singing 
apparatus, and only nine instead of ten developed primaries. Once more: the development 
of a keeled sternum, a peculiar saddle-shape of certain vertebrae, and lack of true teeth, are 
characters cvexisting in all the higher birds; and, as far as these birds are concerned, we 
have no hint that such a combination is ever broken. In faet, however, the singular Creta- 
ceous Ichthyornis shows us a pattern of bird in which a well-keeled sternum and _ perfectly 
formed wing coexist with teeth in reptile-like jaws and with fish-like biconcave vertebre. 
What we learn from this case indeed breaks down one of the most precise definitions we 
might have made (and indeed did make) respecting birds at large; but in its failure we are 
taught how great is the modification of geologically recent birds from their primitive gener- 
alized ancestry; we learn something likewise of the steps of such modification, and of the 
length of time required for the process. It is the history of attempts to frame definitions 
of groups in zoélogy, that they are all liable to be negatived by new discoveries, and 
therefore to be broken down and require remodelling as our knowledge increases. It is to 
be readily perceived that the ability to draw distinctions and make definitions of groups is as 
much the gauge of our ignorance as the test of our knowledge ; for all groups, like all species, 
come to be such by modification so gradual, so slight in each successive increment of difference, 
that, if all the steps of the process were before our eyes, we should be able to limit no groups 
whatever in a positive, unqualified manner. All would merge insensibly into one another, be 
inseparably linked in as many series as there have been actual lines of evolutionary progress, 
and finally converge to the one or few starting points of organized beings. 

Practically, however, the case is quite the reverse, — happily for the comfort of the work- 
ing naturalist, however sadly the philosopher may deplore the ignorance implied. Degrees of 
likeness and unlikeness do exist, which when rightly interpreted enable us to mark off groups 
of all grades with much facility and precision, and thus erect a morphological classification 
which recognizes and defines such degrees, and explains them upon the principles of Evolution. 
The way in which the principles of such classification are to be practically applied gives occa- 
sion for some further remarks upon 


Zoslogical Characters. — A ‘ character,” in zodlogical language, is any point of struc- 
ture which inay be perceived and described for the purpose of comparing or contrasting animals 
with one another. Thus, the conditions of the sternum, palate, tarsus, larynx, as noted in 
preceding paragraphs, are each of them “ characters ” which may be used in describing indi- 
vidual birds, or in framing definitions of groups of birds. Morphological characters, with 
which the classification we have adopted alone concerns itself, may be derived from the 
structure of a bird considered in any of its relations, or as affected by any of the conditions to 
which it is subjected. Thus embryological characters are those afforded by the bird during 
the progress of its development in the egg, from the almost structureless germ to the fully 

ie Y Ah apa co P a . ; jtss ve 47 yy, 7 P 4] 7 oe 
formed chick. Such characters of the embryo in its successive stages are of the utmost signifi- 
cance ; for it is a fact, that the germ of each of the higher organisms goes through a series of 
developmental changes which, at each succeeding step in the uni ding of its appropriate plan 
of structure, causes it to resemble the adult state of animals lower than itself in the scale of 
organization. In fine, the history of the evolution of every individual bird epitomizes the 
history of those changes which birds collectively have undergone in becoming what they are by 
modified descent from lower organisms. Such transitory stages of any embryo, therefore, give 
us glimpses of those evolutionary processes which have affected the group to which it belongs. 
Any bird, for example, when a germ, is at first on the plane of organization of the very lowest 
known creatures, — one of the Protozoa. As its germ develops, and its structure becomes 
more complicated by the formation of parts and organs successively differentiated and special- 
ized, it rises higher and higher in the scale of being. At a certain stage very early reached 


PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 71 


(for the steps by which it becomes like any invertebrate are very speedily passed over), it 
resembles a fish in possessing gill-like slits, several aortic arches, no true kidneys, no amnion, 
etc. Further advanced, losing its gills, gaining kidneys aud amnion, etc., it rises to the 
dignity of a reptile, and at this stage it is more like a reptile than like a bird; having, for 
example, a number of separate bones of the wrist and ankle, no feathers, ete. The assump- 
tion of its own appropriate characters, 7. e. those by which it passes from a reptilian creature 
to become a bird, is always the last stage reached. We can thus actually see and note, 
inside any egg-shell, exactly those progressive steps of development of the individual bird 
which we believe to have been taken on a grand scale in nature for the evolution of the class 
Aves from lower forms of life; and the lesson learned is fraught with significance. It is nothing 
less than the demonstration in ontogeny (genesis of the individual) of that phylogeny by which 
groups of creatures come to be. The interior of any adult bird, again, furnishes us with all 
kinds of ordinary anatomical characters, derived from the way we perceive the different organs 
and systems of organs to be fashioned in themselves, and arranged with reference to oue 
another. The finishing of the outward parts of a bird gives us the ordinary external characters, 
in the way in which the skin and its appendages are modified to form the covering of the bill 
and feet, and to fashion all kinds of feathers. Birds being of opposite sexes, and such differ- 
ence beiug not only indicated in the essential sexual organs, but usually also in modifications 
in size or shape of the body or quality of the plumage and other outgrowths, a set of seawal 
characters are at our service. Birds are also sensibly modified in their outward details of 
feathering by times of the year when the plumage is changed, and this renders appreciation 
of seasonal characters possible. All such circumstances, and others that could be mentioned, 
such as effects of climate, of domestication, etc., in so far as they in any way affect the strauc- 
ture of birds, conspire to produce zodlogical ‘ characters,” as these are above defined. Such 
characters, according as they result from more or less profound impressions made upon the 
organism, are of more or less “ 
that serve to distinguish the nearest related species or varieties, to the fundamental ones that 
serve to mark off primary divisions. Thus the ‘‘ character” of possessing a backbone is coin- 
mon to all animals of an immense series, called Vertebrata. The ‘ character” of feathers is 
common to all the class Aves ; of toothless jaws to all modern birds; of a keeled sternum to 
all the sub-class Carinate ; of feet fitted for perching to all Passeres ; of a musical apparatus 
to all Oscines ; of nine primaries to all Fringillide ; of crossed mandibles to all of the genus 
Loxia ; of white bands on the wings to all of the species Loria leucoptera. There is thus 
seen a sliding scale of valuation of characters, from those involving the most profound or 
primitive modifications of structure to those resting upon the most superficial or ultimate 
impressions. It will also be obvious, that every ulterior modification presupposes inclusion 
of all the prior ones; for a white-winged crossbill, to be itself, must be a loxian, fringilline, 
oscine, passerine, carinate, modern, avian, vertebrated animal. The more characters, of all 
grades, that any birds share in common, the more closely are they related, and conversely. 
Obviously, the possession of more or fewer characters in common results in 


value” in taxonomy ; being of all grades, from the trivial ones 


Degrees of Likeness. — Were all birds alike, or did they all differ by the same characters 
to the same degree, no classification would be possible. It is a matter of fact, that they do 
exhibit all degrees of likeness possible within the limits of their Avian nature ; it is a matter 
of belief, that these degrees are the necessary result of Evolution,— of descent with modification 
from a common ancestry; and that being dependent upon that process, they are capable of 
explaining it if rightly interpreted. For example: Two white-winged crossbills, hatched in 
the same nest, scarcely differ perceptibly (except in sexual characters) from each other and 
from the pair that laid the eggs. We call them “‘ specifically” identical ; and the sum of the 
differences by which they are distinguished from any other kinds of crossbills is their ‘specific 


72 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


character.” All the individual erossbills which exhibit this particular sum constitute a 
“species.” In this case, the genetic relationship of offspring and parent is unquestionable, — 
it is an observed fact. Now turn to the extremely opposite case. The difference between 
our crossbills and the Cretaceous Ichthyornis is enormous: I suppose it is nearly the greatest 
known to subsist between any two birds whatsoever. But the Ichthyornis and the Lo«ia are 
also separated by a correspondingly immense interval of time, and presumably by correspond- 
ingly enormous differences in conditions of environment, —in their physical surroundings. 
It is a logical inference that these two things — difference in physical structure, and difference 
in physical environmen 
the theory of evolution, that despite the great difference, a crossbill is genetically related 
to some such bird as an Ichthyornis, as truly as it is to its actual parents, only much more 
remotely, and that the difference is due to modifications impressed upon its stock in the course 
of time, conformably with changing conditions of environment, we shall have a better expla- 


vay corrclated and coérdinated. If we presume, upon 


nation of the difference than auy other as yet offered, 


an explanation, moreover, which is 
corroborated by all the related facts we know, and with which no known facts are irrecon- 
cilable. But to correctly gauge and formulate the degrees of likeness or unlikeness between 
any two birds is to correctly “ch 


ssify” them ; and if these degrees rest, as we believe they do, 
upon nearness or remoteness of genetic relationship, classification upon such basis becomes the 
truest attainable formulation of ‘natural affinities.” It is the province of morphological 
classification to search out those natural affinities which the structure of birds indicates, and 
express them by dividing hirds into groups, and subdividing these into other groups, of greater 
or lesser ‘‘ value,” or grade, according to the more or fewer characters shared in common, — 
that is, according to degrees of likeness ; that is, again, according to genealogical relationship 
or consanguinity. 


Zoological Groups. — To carry any scheme of classification into practical effect, natu- 
ralists have found it necessary to invent and apply a system of grouping objects whereby the 
like may come together and be separated from the unlike. They have also found it expedient 
to give names to all these groups, of whatever grade, such as class, order, family, genus, 
species, ete. ; and to stamp each such group with the value of its grade, or its relative rank 
in the scale, so that it may become currency among naturalists. The student must observe, 
in the first place, that the value of each such coinage is wholly arbitrary, until sanctioned 
and fixed by common consent. The term “class,” for example, simply indicates that natu- 
ralists agree to use that word to designate a conventional group of a particular grade or 
value. Indispensable as is some such acceptable medium of exchange of ideas among 
naturalists, their groups are not fixed, have no natural value, and in fact have no actual 
existence in the treasury of Nature. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the student 
that Nature makes no bounds, — Natura non facit saltus ; there are vo such abrupt transi- 
tions in the unfolding of Nature’s plan, no such breaks in the chain of being, as he would be 
led to suppose by our method of defining and naming groups. He must consider the words 
“class,” ‘ ” ete., as wholly arbitrary terns, invented and designed to express our ideas 
of the relations which subsist between any animals or sets of animals. Thus, for example, by 
the term the ‘‘ Class of Birds” we signify simply the kind and degree of likeness which all 
birds share, such being also the kind and degree of their unlikencss from any other animals ; 
the word ‘class” being simply the uame or handle of the generalization we make respect- 
ing their relations with one another and with other animals; it represents an abstract idea, 
is the expression of a relation. True, all birds embody the idea; but “class” is never- 
theless an abstraction. Now, as intimated cavrlicr in this essay, the definition of the idea we 
attach to the term — the limitation of the class Aves — depends entirely upon how much we 
know of the relation intended to be expressed. It so happens, that no animals are known 


order, 


PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 73 


which cannot be decided to belong, or not to belong, to the conventional class of birds, because 
we have found it convenient and expedient to consider the presence of feathers a fair criterion, 
or necessary qualification. But what, when an animal is discovered the covering of whose body is 
half-way between the scales of a lizard and the plumes of a bird, and whose structure is other- 
wise as equivocal? This may happen any day. A feather is certainly a modified scale; a 
feather has doubtless been developed out of a scale. In the case supposed, we should have to 
modify our detivition of the “ Class of Birds”; that is, change our ideas upon the subject, and 
alter the boundary-line we established between the classes of birds and reptiles; whereas, 
were a ‘‘class” something naturally definite, independent, and fixed, all that we could learn 
about it would only tend to establish it more surely. The same obscurity and uncertainty of 
definition attaches to groups of every grade— from the Animal ‘ Kingdom” itself, which 
cannot be cut clear of the Vegetable ‘‘ Kingdom” —down through classes, orders, families, 
genera, species, and varieties —yes, to the individual itself which, however unniistakable 
among higher organisms, cannot always be predicated of the lowermost forms of Life. 
Such divisions, of whatever grade, as we are able to establish for the purposes of classification, 
depend entirely upon the breaks and defects in our knowledge. There is no such thing as 
drawing ‘hard and fast” lines anywhere, for none such exist in Nature. 


Taxonomic Equivalence of Groups. — But, however arbitrary they may be, or however 
obseure or fluctuating may be their boundaries, groups we must have in zodlogy, and groups 
of different grades, to express different degrees of likeness of the objects examined, and so 
to ‘“elassify” them. It is a great convenience, moreover, to have a recognized sliding-scale 
of valuation of groups from the highest to the lowest, and an accepted valuation. Just as ina 
thermometrie scale, there are ‘‘ degrees ” designated as those of the boiling-point of water, the 
heat of the blood, the freezing of water, of mercury, etc. ; so there are certain degrees of like- 
ness conventionally designated as those of class, order, family, genus, and species ; always ac- 
cepted in the order here given, from higher to lower groups. (There are various others, and 
especially a number of intermediate groups, generally distinguished by the prefix swb-, as sub- 
family ; but those here given are generally adopted by English-speaking naturalists, and 
suffice to illustrate the point I wish to make.) It may sound like a truism to say, that groups 
of the same grade bearing the same name, whatever that may be, must be of the same value, 
—rust be based upon and distinguished by characters of equal or equivalent importance. 
Equivalence of groups is necessary to the stability and harmony of any classificatory system. 
It will not do to frame an order upon one set of characters here, and there a family upon a 
similar set of characters; but order must differ from order, and family from family, by an equal 
or corresponding amount of difference. Let a group called a family differ as much from the 
other families in its own order as it does from some other order, and by this very circumstance 
it is not a family but an order itself. It seems a very simple proposition, but it is too often 
ignored, and always with practical ill result. Two points should be remembered here: First, 
that absolute size or numerical bulk of a group has nothing to do with its taxonomie value: 
one order may contain a thousand species, and another be represented by a single species, 
without having its ordinal valuation affected thereby. Secondly, any given character may 
assume different innportance, or be of different value, in its application to different groups. 
Thus, the number of primaries, whether nine or ten, is a family character almost throughout 
Oscines ; but in one oscine family (Vireonid@) it has searcely generic value. It is difficult, 
however, to determine such a point as this without long experience. Nor is it possible, in 
fact, to make our groups correspond in value with entire exactitude. The most we can hope 
for is a reasonable approximation. As in the thermometric simile above given, ‘‘ blood heat ” 
and other points fluctuate, so does order not always correspond with order, nor family with 
family, in actual significance. What degree of difference shall be “ordinal”? What shal! 


74 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


be a difference of “family”? What shall be “generic” and what ‘“ specific” differences ? 
Such questions are more easily asked than answered. They demand critical consideration. 


Valuation of Characters. —In a general way, of course, the greater the difference 
between any two objects, the more “important” or ‘fundamental” are the ‘‘ characters ” 
by which they are distinguished. But what makes a character ‘‘ important” or the reverse? 
Obviously, what it signifies represents its importance. We are classifying morphologically, 
and upon the theory of Evolution; and in such a system a character is important or the 
reverse, simply as an exponent of the principles, or an illustration of the facts, of evolutionary 
processes of Nature, according to the unfolding of whose plans of animal fabrics the whole 
structure of living beings has been built up. Why is the possession of a back-bone such a 
“fundamental” character that it is used to establish one of the primary branches of the animal 
kingdom? It is not because so many millions of creatures possess it, but because it was 
introduced so early in the evolutionary process, and because its introduction led to the most 
profound modification of the whole structure of the animals which became possessed of a 
vertebral column. Why is the possession by a bird of biconcave vertebrae so significant? 
Not because all modern birds have saddle-shaped vertebrae, but because to have biconcave ver- 
tebree is to be quoad hoe fish-like. Why is presence or absence of teeth so important? Not that 
teeth served those old birds better than a horny beak serves modern ones, but because teeth 
are a reptilian character. Obviously, to be fish-like or reptile-like is to be by so much unbird- 
like; the degree of difference thus indicated is enormous ; and a character that indicates such 
degree of difference is proportionally “ important” or ‘ fundamental,” — just what we were 
after. By knowledge of facts like these, aud by the same process of reasoning, a naturalist of 

_ tact, sagacity, and experience is able to put a pretty fair valuation upon any given character ; 
he acquires the faculty of perceiving its significance, and according to what it signifies does it 
possess for hin its taxonomic importance. As a matter of fact, it seems that characters of all 
sorts are to be estimated chronologically. For, if animals have come to be what they are by 
any process that took time to be accomplished, the characters earliest established are likely to 
be the most fundamental ones, upon the introduction of which the most important train of 
consequences ensue. Feathers, for example, as the Archeopteryx teaches us, were in full 
bloom in the Jurassic period, and they are still the most characteristic possession of birds: 
all birds have them; they are a class character. If they had been taken on quite recently, we 
may infer that many creatures otherwise entirely avian might not possess them, and they 
would have in classification less significance than that now rightly attributed to them. On 
the other hand, we cannot suppose that the finishing touches, by which, in the presence of 
white bands on the wings of Lowia leucoptera, and their absence in Loxia curvirostra, these two 
“species” are distinguished, were not very lately given to these birds. It is a very late step 
in the process, and correspondingly insignificant; it is of that value or importance which we 
call ‘‘ specific.” The same method of reasoning is available for determining the value of any 
character whatever, and so of estimating the grade of the group which we establish upon such 
character. As arule, therefore, the length of time a character has been in existence, and its 
taxonomic value, are correlated, and each is the exponent of the other. 


‘““Types of Structure.” — In no department of natural history has the late revolution in 
biological thought been more effective than in remodelling, presumably for the better, the 
ideas underlying classification. In earlier days, wheu “species” were supposed to be inde- 
pendent creations, it was natural and alinost inevitable to regard them as fixed facts in nature. 
A species was as actual and tangible as an individual, and the notion was, that, given any two 
specimens, it should be perfectly possible to decide whether they were of the same or different 
species, according to whether or not they answered the ‘specific characters” laid down for 


PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 75 


them. The same faney vitiated all ideas upon the subject of geuera, families, and higher 
groups. <A “genus” was to be discovered in nature, just like a species; to be named and 
defined. Then species that answered the definition were ‘‘typical”; those that did not do so 
well were ‘sub-typical”; those that did worse, were “aberrant.” A good deal was said of 
‘types of structure,” much as if living creatures were origiuaily run into moulds, like casting 
type-metal, to receive some indelible stamp; while—to carry out my shnile—it was supposed 
that by looking at some particular aspect of such an animal, as at the face of a priuter’s type, 
it could be determined in what box in the ease the creature should be put; the boxes them- 
selves being supposed to be arranged by Nature in some particular way to make them fit 
perfectly alongside each other by threes or fives, or in stars and circles, or what not. How 
much ingenuity was wasted in striving to put together such a Chinese puzzle as these fancies 
made of Nature’s processes and results, I need not say ; sutlice it, that such views have become 
extinct, by the method of natural selection, and others, apparently better fitted to survive, are 
now in the struggle for existence. Rightly appreciated, however, the expression which heads 
this paragraph is a proper one. There are numberiess ‘types of structure.” It is perfectly 
proper to speak of the “ vertebrate type,” meaning thereby the whole plan of organization of 
any vertebrate, if we clearly understand that such a type is not an independent or original 
model conformably with which all back-boned animals were separately created, but that it is 
oue modification of some more general plan of organization, the unfolding of which may or 
did result in other besides vertebrated animals; aud that the successive modifications of the 
vertebrate plan resulted in other forms, equally to be regarded as ‘‘types,” as the reptilian, 
the avian, the mammalian. Upon this understanding, a group of any grade in the animal 
kingdom is a ‘‘ type of structure,” of more general or more special significauce, presumably 
according to the longer or shorter time it has been in existence. Au individual specimen is 


“typical” of a species, a species is ‘‘ typical” of a genus, etc., if it has not had time enough to 
be modified away from the characters which such species or genus expresses. Any set of 
individuals, that is, any progeny, which become modified to a degree from their progenitors, 
introduce a new type; and continually increasing modification makes such a type specific, 
generic, and so on, in succession of tine. There must have been a time, for example, when 
the Avian and Reptilian ‘ types” began to diverge from each other, or, rather, to branch apart 
from their common ancestry. In the initial step of their divergence, when their respective 
types were beginning to be formed, the differeuce must have been infinitesimal. <A_ little 
further along, the increment of difference became, let us say, equivalent to that which serves to 
distinguish two species. Wider and wider divergence increased the difference till genera, 
families, orders, and finally the classes of Reptilia and Aves, became established. In one 
sense, therefore, — and it is the usual sense of the term, —the “type” of a bird is that one 
which is furthest removed from the reptilian type, — which is inost highly specialized by differ- 
entiation to the last degree from the characters of its primitive ancestors. One of the Oscines, 
as a thrush or sparrow, would answer to such a type, having lost the low, primitive, gener- 
alized structure of its early progenitors, and acquired very special characters of its own, repre- 
senting the extreme modification which the stock whence it sprung has undergone. In a 
broader sense, however, the type of a bird is simply the stock from which it originated; and 
in such sense the highest birds are the least typical, being the furthest removed and the most 
modified derivations of such stoek, the characters of which are consequently remodelled and 
obscured to the last degree. Two opposite ideas have evidently been confused in the use of 
the word ‘‘ Type.” They may be distinguished by inventing the word teleotype (Gr. rédeos, 
teleos, final, t.e., accomplished or determined ; formed like teleology, ete.) in the usual sense of 
the word type, and using the word we already possess, prototype (Gr. mpéros, protos, first, 
leading, determining), in the broader sense of the earlier plan whence any teleotype has been 
derived by modification. This, Ichthyornis or Archcopteryx is prototypic of modern birds, 


76 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


any of which are teleotypic of their ancestors. It may be further observed that any form 
which is teleotypic in its own group, is prototypic of those derived from it. Thus, the 
Archaeopteryx, so prototypie of modern birds, was a very highly specialized teleotype of its 
own ancestry. A little reflection will also make it clear that the same principle of antitypes 
(opposed types) is applicable to any of our groups in zodlogy. Any group is teleotypic of the 
next greater group of which it is a member; prototypic of the next lesser one. Any species is 
teleotypic of its genus; any genus, of its family; any family, of its order; and conversely ; 
that is to say, any species represents one of the ulterior modifications of the plan of its genus. 
The Class of Birds, for example, is one of the several teleotypes of Vertebrata, 7. e., of the 
vertebrate plan of structure; representing, as it does, one of several ways in which the 
vertebrate prototype is accomplished. Conversely, the Class of Birds is prototypical of its 
several orders, representing the plan which these orders severally unfold in different ways. 
And go on, throughout any series of animals, backwards and forwards in the process of their 
evolution; any given form being teleotypic of its predecessors, prototypic of its successors. 
All existing forms are necessarily teleotypic, — only prototypic for the future. Prototype, in the 
sense here conveyed, indicates what is ofteu expressed by the word archetype. But the latter, 
as I understand its use by Owen and others, signifies an ideal plan never actually realized; the 
“archetype of the vertebrate skeleton,” for example, being something no vertebrate ever pos- 
sessed, but a theoretical model — a generalization from all known skeletons. The correspond- 
ence of my use of ‘‘ prototypic” with a common employ of ‘‘archetypic,” and of ‘ teleotypic” as 
including both ‘“ attypic” and ‘“ etypic,” is noted below.? 

The actual and visible genetic relationships of living forms being practically restricted to 
individuals of the same species, — parents and offspring ‘‘ specifically ” identical, —it would seem 
at first sight that species must be the modified desceudants of their respective genera, in order 
to be teleotypic of any such next higher group. But nothing descends from a genus, or any 
other group; everything descends from individuals; a ‘‘ genus,” like any other group, is an 
abstract statement of a relation, not a begetter of anything. -To illustrate: the ‘ genus 
Turdus” is represented, let us say, by a score of species: if these species be rightly allocated 
in the genus, they are all the modified descendants of a form which was, before they severally 
branched off, a specific form; and the ‘genus Turdus” in the abstract is simply that form ; 
and that form is prototypic of its derivatives. In the concrete, as represented by its teleotypes, 
the genus Turdus sums the modifications which these have collectively undergone, without 
specifying the particular modifications of any of them; it expresses the way in which they are 
all like one another, and in which they are all unlike the representatives of any other genus. 
Thus what is above advanced is seen to hold, though genera and all other groups are actual 
descendants of individuals specifically identical. 


Generalized and Specialized Forms. — Taking any one group of animals—say the genus 
Turdus, of numerous species — and considering it apart from any other group, we perceive that 
it represents a certain assemblage of characters peculiar to itself, aside from those more funda- 
mental ones it includes of its family, order, etc. Its particular characters we eall “ generic.” 
Atinong the numerous teleotypic forms it includes, there is a wide range of specific variation, 


1“ Archetypical characters are those which a group derives from its progenitor, and with which it com- 
mences, but which in much modified descendants are lost; such, for example, is the dental formula of the Educa- 
Dilian (M 3PM 7} C } 14 x 2), —a formula, as shown by Owen, very prevalent among early members of the group, 
but generally departed from more or less in those of the existing faunas. Aftypical characters are those to the 
acquisition of which, as a matter of fact, we find that forms, in their journey to a specialized condition, tend... 
Etypical characters are exceptional ones, and which are exhibited by an eccentric offshoot from the common stock 
of a group.” —(Gil/, Pr. Am. Assoc. Ady. Sci., XxX, 1873, p. 293.) To illustrate in birds: A generalized lizard-like 
type of sternum is archetypic of any bird’s sternum. The sternum of the Jizard-like animals whence birds 
actually descended is prototypic ; the keeled sternum of a carinate bird is aftypical in most birds, etypical in the 
peculiar state in which it is found in Stringops; but equally teleotypic in both instances. 


PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. TT 


within the limits of generic relationship. Some of its species are modified further away than 
some others are from the generic standard or type to which all conform more or less perfectly. 
The former, having more peculiarities of their own, are said to be the most specialized ; the 
latter, having fewer peculiarities, ure the least specialized. Those that are the least specialized 
are obviously the most generalized ; and this means, that we believe them to be nearest to the 
stock whence all have together descended with modification. The application of this illustra- 
tion to great groups shows us the principle upon which any form is said to be generalized or 
specialized. The Ichthyornis, with its fish-like vertebree, reptile-like teeth, bird-like sternum 
and shoulder-girdle, is a very generalized form. A thrush is the opposite extreme of a highly 
specialized form. The two are also separated by an enormous interval of time: one being 
very old, the other quite new; a chronological sequence is here perceived. Since the evolu- 
tionary processes concerned in the modification on the whole represent progress from simplicity 
to complexity of organization, and therefore ascent in the scale of organization, a generalized 
type, an ancient type, aud a simple type are on the whole synonymous, and to be contrasted 
with forms specialized, recent, and complex. They therefore respectively correspond to 


“Low” and “High” in the Scale of Organization. — All existing birds are very 
closely related, notwithstanding the great numerical preponderance of the class in the present 
geological epoch. This outbreak, as it were, of birds upon the modern scene, is like the 
nearly simultaneous bursting into bloom of a mass of flowers at the end of one branch of the 
Sauropsidan stem. All modern birds, in fact, are strongly specialized forms, so much so that it 
is difficult to predicate “high” or ‘‘low” within such a narrow scale. The great group 
Passeres, for example, comprehending a majority of all known birds, is scarcely more different 
from other birds than are the families of reptiles from each other, and among Passeres we have 
little to go upon in deciding ‘‘high” or “low” beyond the musical ability of Oscines. It is 
hard to see much difference in actual complexity of organization between those birds regarded 
as the lowest, as an ostrich or a penguin, and those conceded to be highest, as a swallow or 
sparrow. Nevertheless, in a larger perspective, as between a fish, a reptile, and a bird, the 
student will readily perceive the bearing of the ideas attached to the terms ‘‘low” and ‘‘high” 
in the scale of organization. Creatures rise in the seale by a number of correlated modifica- 
tions and‘. the course of time (for it takes time to evolve a class of birds from sauropsidan 
stock as really as it does to develop the germ of an egg into the body of a chick). Progressive 
differentiation and specialization of structure and function in due course elaborates diversity 
from sameness, complexity from simplicity, the ‘‘ high” special from the ‘‘ low” general plan 
of organization ; the culmination in man of the vertebrate type, first faintly foreshadowed in 
the embryonic Ascidian. No one should venture to foretell the result of infinitesimal increments 
in elevation of structure and function, nor presume to limit the infinite possibilities of evolu- 
tionary processes, either in this actual world or in the foretold next one. 

As to “evidences of design” in the plan of organized beings, it may be said simply that 
every creature is perfectly ‘‘designed” or fitted for its appropriate activities, and perfectly 
adapted to its conditions of environment. In fact, it must be so fitted and adapted, or it would 
perish. Whether it so determines itself, or is so determined, is a teleological question. The 
truth remains that every creature is perfect in its own way. A worm is as perfectly fitted to be 
a worm, as is a bird tu be a bird; in fact, were it not, it would either turn into something else, 
or cease to be. A spade is as perfect an organization of the spade hind, as is a steam-engine of 
that kind of an organization ; though the difference in complexity of structure and functional 
capacity, like that between the lowly organized asvidian generality and the highly organized 
avian speciality, is enormous. 

One word more: The class of mammals is highest in the scale of organization. The 
class of birds is next highest. But it does not follow, from this relation sustained by Jfam- 


78 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


malia and Aves collectively, that every mammal must be more highly organized than every 
bird. It is difficult to say how a mole or a mouse is a more elaborate or more capable creature 
than a canary-bird, physically or mentally. The relative rank of two groups is determined 
by balancing the aggregate of their structural characters. In large series, the average of 
development, not the extremes either way, is taken into account ; so that the lowest members 
of a higher group may be below the highest members of the next lower group. The common 
phrase, ‘‘ below par,” or ‘‘above par,” is most applicable to such cases. 


Machinery of Classification. — The inexperienced student may be glad to be given some 
explanation of the way in which the taxonomic principles we have discussed are applied, and 
carried into practical effect in classifying birds. Our machinery for that purpose is our inherit- 
ance from those naturalists who held very different views from those which touch the evolu- 
tionary key-note of modern classification. It is clumsy, and does not work well as a means of 
expressing the relations we now believe to be sustained by all organisms toward one another ; 
but it is the best we have. Systematic zodlogy, or the practice of classification, has failed to 
keep pace with the principles of the science; we are greatly in need of some new and sharper 
“ tools of thought,” which shall do for zodlogy what the system of symbols and formule have 
done for chemistry. We want some symbolic formulation of our knowledge. The invention of 
a practicable scheme of classification and nomenclature, which should enable us to formulate 
what we mean by Turdus migratorius, as a chemist symbolizes by SO,H, what he understands 
hydrated sulphuric acid to be, would be an inestimable boon to working naturalists. The 
mapping out of groups with connecting lines to indicate their genetic relations, in the form of a 
“phylum,” is a common practice ; but that, like any other pictorial represeutation of a ‘‘ fami- 
ly tree,” is not the graphic symnbolization required. The first steps in this direction have been 
tentatively taken already by the late Mr. A. H. Garrod and others: we already haye a mother 
of the required invention in the necessity of the case, and may hope that the father will not be 
long in coming. 

Under the present system, Birds are called a ‘‘Class” of Vertebrates, and are subdivided 
into ‘ orders,” ‘fainilies,” ‘‘ genera,” “species” and ‘‘ varieties,” as already sufficiently indicated. 
Groups intermediate to any of these may be recognized ; and if so, are usually distinguished 
by the prefix sub-. Many other terms are in occasional use, as ‘ tribe,” ‘‘race,” “series,” 
“cohort,” “super-family ”; but those first mentioned are the best established ones among 
English-speaking naturalists. Their sequence is fixed, as above, from higher to lower, in 
relative rank.1 With the exceptions to be presently noted, the names of any groups are 
arbitrary, at the will of the person who founds and designates them. The framer of a genus 
or the describer of a species, calls it what he pleases, and the name he gives holds, subject to 
certain statutory regulations which naturalists generally agree to abide by. The exceptions 
are the names of families and sub-families, the former commonly being made to end in -zde, the 
latter in -ine: family Turdide ; sub-family Turdine. This is a great convenience, since we 
always know the rank intended to be noted by these forms. The names of groups higher than 
species are almost invariably single words; as, order Passeres ; but sometimes, especially in 
cases of intermediate groups, two words are used, one qualifying the other; as, sub-order 
Passeres Acromyodi, or oscine Passeres. A generic or sub-generic name is always a single 
word ; these, and the names of all higher groups, invariably begin with a eapital letter. 

Until quite recently, the scientific name of any individual bird almost invariably consisted 
of two terms, generic and specific, —the name of the genus, followed by the name of the 


1 The expression ‘‘ higher group,” in the sense of relative rank in the taxonomic scale, will of course be dis- 
tinguished from the same expression when applied to the relative rank in the scale of organization of the objects 
classified. An order of birds is a “ higher group ” than a family of birds, in the former sense, but no higher than 
an order of worms, in the latter sense. 


PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 79 


species ; as, Turdus migratorius, for the robin. This is the ‘‘ binomial nomenclature” (badly so 
called, for ‘‘binominal” would be better); introduced by Linnzeus in the middle of the last cen- 
tury. It was a great improvement upon the former method of giving either single arbitrary names 
to birds, often a mere Latin translation of their vernacular nickname, or long descriptive names 
of several words; probably no other single improvement in a method of nomenclature ever did 
so much to make the technique of nomenclature systematic. To couple the two terms at all 
was a great thing, the convenience of which we who never felt its want can hardly appreciate. 
To follow the generic by the specific term was itself of the same advantage that it is to have 
the Smiths and Browns of a directory entered under 5 and B, instead of by Johns and Jameses ; 
besides according with the genius of the Romance languages, which commonly put the adjec- 
tive after the noun. A Frenchman, for example, would say, Bec-croisé aux ailes blanches de 
V Amérique septentrionale, or ‘ Bill-crossed to the wings white of the America north,” where 
we should say, ‘‘ North American white-winged Cross-bill,” and Linnzeus would have written 
Loviu leucoptera. The binomial scheme worked so well that it came to have the authority 
and force of a statute, which few subsequent naturalists have been inclined, and fewer have 
ventured, to violate; while it beeame an ex post facto law to prior naturalists, ruling them out 
of court altogether, as far as the legitimacy of any of the names they had bestowed was con- 
cerned. It necessarily rested, however, or at any rate proceeded upon, the false idea of a species 
as a fixity. Linneus himself experienced the inadequacy of his system to deal binomially with 
those lesser groups than species, commonly called ‘ varieties,” now better designated as ‘‘ con- 
species” or ‘‘ subspecies”; and he often used. a third word, separated however from the 
var.” or some other symbol. Thus, if he had 


binomial name by intervention of the sign ‘ 


supposed an American crossbill to be a variety of a European Lowia leucoptera, he might have 
called it Loxia leucoptera, a, americana. Some years ago, in treating of this subject, I urged 
the necessity of recognizing by name a great number of forms of our birds intermediate between 
nominal species, and connecting the latter by links so perfect, that our handling of ‘ species” 
required thorough reconsideration. The dilemma arose, through our very intimate knowl- 
edge of the climatic and geographical variation of “species,” either to discard a great number 
that had been described, and so ignore all the ultimate moditications of our bird-forms ; or else 
to recognize as good species the same large number of forms that we knew shaded into each 
so completely that no specific character could be assigned. In the original edition of the 
present. work (1872), I compromised the matter by reducing to the rank of varieties the nominal 
species that were known or believed to intergrade; and the original edition of the ‘“ Check 
List” (1873) distinguished such by the sign “‘ var.” intervening between the specific and the 
subspecific name. I subsequently determined to do away with the superfluous term ‘ var.,” and 
in the next edition of the Check List (1882) reverted to a purely trinomial system of naming 
the equivocal forms; as, Loxia curvirostra americana. The same system is used in the present 
treatise ; it is found to work well, and seems likely to come into general employ, at least in 
this country. It is commended to the consideration of our brethren over the sea. 


The Student cannot be too well assured, that no such things as species, in the old 
sense of the word, exist in nature, any more than have genera or families an actual existence. 
Indeed they cannot be, if there is any truth in the principles discussed in our earlier paragraphs. 
Species are simply ulterior modifications, which once were, if they be not still, inseparably 
linked together; and their nominal recognition is a pure convention, like that of a genus. 
More practically hinges upon the way we regard them than turns upon our establishment of 
higher groups, simply because upon the way we decide in this case depends the scientific 
labelling of specimens. If we are speaking of a robin, we do not ordinarily concern ourselves 
with the family or order it belongs to, but we do require a technical name for constant use. 
That name is compounded of its genus, species, and variety. No infallible rule can be laid 


80 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


down for determining what shall be held to be a species, what a conspecies, subspecies, or 
variety. It is a matter of tact and experience, like the appreciation of the value of any other 
group in zodlogy. There is, however, a convention upon the subject, which the present 
workers in ornithology in this country find available; at any rate, we have no better rule to go 
by. We treat as “specific” any form, however little different from the next, that we do not. 
know or believe to intergrade with that next one; between which and the next one no inter- 
mediate equivocal specimens are forthcoming, and none, consequently, are supposed to exist. 
This is to imply that the differentiation is accomplished, the links are lost, and the characters 
actually become “specific.” We treat as “ varietal” of each other any forms, however differ- 
ent in their extreme manifestation, which we kuow to intergrade, having the intermediate 
specimens before us, or which we believe with any good reason do intergrade. If the links 
still exist, the differentiation is still incomplete, aud the characters are not specific, but ouly 
varietal, in the literal sense of these terms. In the latter case, the oldest name is retained as 
the specific one, and to it is appended the varietal designation: as, Turdus migratorius pro- 
pinquus. The specific and subspecific names are preferably written with a small initial 
letter, even when derived from a person or place. 

One other term than those just considered sometimes forms part of a bird’s scientific 
naine: this is the subgenus. When introduced, it always follows the generic term, in par- 
entheses; thus, Turdus (Hylocichla) mustelinus. This is cumbrous, especially when there 
are already three terms, and is little used in this country. Ihave latterly discarded it altogether. 
There is no real difference between a subgenus and a genus, —it is a difference of slight 
degree merely; and modern genera have so multiplied that one can easily find a single name 
for any generic refinement he may wish to indulge. 

It has always been customary to write after the bird’s name the name of the original 
describer of the species, — originally and properly, as the authority or voucher for the validity 
of the species named. But as genera multiplied, it was often found necessary to change the 
gencri¢ name, the species being placed in another genus than that to which its original 
namer referred it. The name of the person who originated the new combination came to be 
generally suffixed, presumably as the authority for the validity of the classification implied. 
As this was to ignore the proprietorship of the original describer, it became customary to 
retain describer’s name in parentheses and add that of the classifier ; thus, Turdus migratorius 
Linneus ; Planesticus migratorius (Liun.) Bonaparte. The practice still prevails; it is no 
more objectionable than any other harmless exhibition of human vanity. The studeut will find 
it carefully carried out in my Check List, and entirely discarded in the present work. 

It would take ine too far to go fully into the rules of nomenclature: some few points may 
be noted. A proper sense of justice to the describers of uew genera, species, and varieties, 
prompts us to preserve inviolate the names they see fit to bestow, with certain salutary 
provisions. Hence arises the ‘‘ law of priority.” The jirst naine given since 1758 is to be 
retained and used, if it can be identified with reasonable certitude; that is, if we think we 
know what the giver meant by it. But it is to be discarded, and the next name in priority of 
time substituted, if it is “glaringly false or of express absurdity,” —as calling an American bird 
“africanus,” or a black one ‘ albus.” No generic name can be duplicated in zodlogy, and one 
once void for any reason cannot be revived and used in any connection. The saine specific 
name cannot be used twice in the same genus. 


The Actual Classification of Birds has undergone radical modification of late years, 
though the same machinery is employed for its expression. This is as would be expected, 
seeing how profoundly the theory of Evolution has affeeted our principles of classification, how 
completely the morphological has replaced other systems, and how steadily our knowledge of 
the structure of birds, and their chronological relations, has progressed. Nevertheless, the 


PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CLASSIFICATION. 81 


ornithological system is still in a transition state, and the classification implied by the way 
North American birds are arranged in the present work must be regarded as tentative and 
provisional. In the original edition of the ‘ Key,” the classification was vitiated at the outset 
by physiological considerations,’ and in some other respects was open to decided improvement, as 
I trust the present edition shows. The general arrangement is, however, much the same. The 
table given on a succeeding page (p. 234) will afford the student a coup d’@il of the groups, from 
subelass to subfamily, which I have been led to adopt; it represents, as far as it goes, a classiti- 
cation of birds at large. The principal groups, higher than families, which are absent from the 
North American Fauna, are: the whole of the Ratite, or Struthious birds ; the Dromeognathe, 
probably an order, embracing the South American Tinamous; the order or suborder of the 
Penguins of the Southern Hemisphere, Sphenisci ; and several small superfamily groups be- 
longing in the vicinity of the Gallinaceous and Columbine birds. 

As to the primary divisions of Aves, it seems certain that these must be made with special 
reference to the extraordinary extinct forms from the Cretaceous, and to the radical difference 
between struthious or Ratite and Carinate Birds. The arrangement offered on p. 234 has 
perhaps some claims to consideration. The subclass Carinate, which includes all other exist- 
ing birds, seems certainly not to be primarily divisible into a few orders, such as were in vogue 
but a few years ago; but to be split directly into a large number— perhaps about twenty — 
groups of approximately equivalent value, to be conventionally designated as orders, if we 
take Carinate as a subclass of the class Aves. The attempt to force birds into a few — five or 
six — leading divisions cannot be justified if we are to regard the taxonomic significance of a 
number of remarkable forms, the peculiarities of which are now well known. Passeres seems 
to be one of the most firmly established of these ordinal groups. ‘‘ Picari@” is one of the most 
unsatisfactory of all, and I have no doubt it will be abolished. 

With this glance at some taxonomic principles and practices, I pass to an outline of the 
structure of birds, some knowledge of which is indispensable to any appreciation of orni- 
thological definitions and descriptions. It is necessary to be brief, and I shall confine myself 
mainly to the consideration of those points, and the explanation of thuse technical terms, which 
the student needs to understand in order to use the present volume easily and successfully. 
Here, however, I will insert a tabular illustration of a sequence of zoédlogical groups, from 
highest to lowest, under which a bird may fall : — 


Kingdom, Animalia: Animals. 
Branch, Vertebrata: Back-boned Animals. 
Province, Sawropsida: Lizard-like Vertebrates. 
Class, Aves: Birds. 
Subclass, Carinate: Birds with keeled breast-bone. 
Order, Passeres : Perching Birds. 
Suborder, Oscines: Singing Birds. 
Family, Turdide: Thrush-like Birds. 
Subfamily, Turdine: True Thrushes. 
Genus, Turdus : Typical Thrushes. 
Subgenus, Hylocichla: Wood Thrushes. 
Species, ustulatus : Olive-backed Thrush. 
Subspecies, alici@: Alice’s Thrush. 


1 In primarily dividing birds into Aves aerew, Aves terrestres, and Aves aquatice, after Liljjeborg. I should 
do myself the justice to say, however, that the fact that these divisions did not rest upon morphological characters 
of any consequence was expressly stated (pp. 8 and 276 of the orig. ed.). 


6 


co 
NG 


GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


§ 3.—DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF THE EXTERIOR PARTS OF BIRDS. 


a. OF THE FEATHERS, OR PLUMAGE. 


Feathers are possessed only by birds, and all birds possess them. Feathers are modified 
seales ; like scales, hair, horns, plates, sheaths, etc., they are outgrowths of the integument, or 
skin covering the body, and therefore belong to the class of epidermie (Gr. émt, epi, upon; 
déppa, derma, skin), or evoskeletal (Gr. é&, ex, out; oxederdv, skeleton, dried; in the seuse of 
‘outer skeleton”) structures. The horny coverings of the beak and feet are of the same class, 
but very differently developed. Besides being the most highly developed or complexly special- 
ized, wonderfully beautiful and perfect kind of tegumentary outgrowth ; besides fulfilling in a 
singular manner the design of covering and protecting the body ; — feathers have their particular 
locomotory office: that of accomplishing the act of flying in a manner peculiar to birds. For 
all vertebrates, excepting birds, that progress through the air—the flying fish (Zvocatus) with 
its enlarged pectoral fins; the flying reptile (Draco or Pterodactyl) with its skinny parachute ; 
the flying mammal (bat) with its great webbed fingers — accomplish aérial locomotion by means 
of tegumentary expansions. Birds alone fly with tegumentary outgrowths, or appendages. All 
a bird’s feathers, of whatever kind, collectively constitute its ptilosis (Gr. mridov, ptilon, a 
feather) or PLUMAGE (Lat. pluma, a plume or feather). 


Development of Feathers. — In a manner analogous to that of hair, a feather grows in 
a little pit or pouch formed by inversion of the dermal or true-skin layer of the integument, 
being formed in a closed follicle or shut sac consisting of an inner and outer coat separated by 
a layer of fine granular substance. The outer layer or “ 
thin strata of nucleated epithelial cells (cuticle cells) ; the inner is thicker, spongy, and filled 
with gelatinous fluid; a little artery and vein furnish the blood circulation, very active during 
the formation of feathers. The inner is the true matrix or mould upon which the feather is 
formed, evolving from the blood-supply the gelatinous material, and resolving this into cell- 
nuclei; the granular layer is the formative material which becomes the feather. The outer 
grows a little beyond the cutaneous sac that holds it, and opens at the end; from this orifice 
the future feather protrudes, sprouting as a little five-rayed pencil point. The process is thus 
graphically illustrated by Huxley: ‘‘The integument of birds is always provided with horny 
appendages, which result from the conversion into horn of the cells of the outer layer of the 
epidermis. But the inajority of these appendages, which are termed ‘feathers,’ do not take the 
form of mere plates developed upon the surface of the skin, but are evolved within sacs from 
the surfaces of conical papillae of the dermis. The external surface of the dermal papilla, 
whence a feather is to be developed, is provided upon its dorsal [upper] surface with a median 
groove, which becomes shallower towards the apex of the papilla. From this median groove 
lateral furrows proceed at an open angle, and passing round upon the under surface of the 
papilla, become shallower, until, in the middle line, opposite the dorsal median groove, they 
become obsolete. Minor grooves run at right angles to the lateral furrows. Hence the surface 
of the papilla has the character of a kind of mould, and if it were repeatedly dipped in such a 
substance as a solution of gelatine, and withdrawn to cool until its whole surface was covered 
with an even coat of that substance, it is clear that the gelatinous coat would be thickest at 
the basal or anterior end of the median groove, at the median ends of the lateral furrows, 
and at those ends of the minor grooves which open into them; while it would be very thin 
at the apices of the median and lateral grooves, and between the ends of the minor grooves. 
Tf, therefore, the hollow cone of gelatine, removed from its mould, were stretched from within ; 
or if its thinnest parts became weak by drying ; it would tend to give way, along the inferior 
median line, opposite the rod-like cast of the dorsal median groove and between the ends of 


outer follicle” is composed of several 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — FEATHERS. 83 


the casts of the lateral furrows, as well as between each of the minor grooves, and the hollow 
cone would expand into a flat feather-like structure with a median shaft, as a ‘vane’ formed 
of ‘barbs’ and ‘barbules.’ In point of fact, in the development of a feather such a cast of the 
dermal papilla is formed, though not in gelatine, but in the horny epidermic layer developed 
upon the mould, and, as this is thrust outward, it opens out in the manner just described. 
After a certain period of growth the papilla of the feather ceases to be grooved, and a continu- 
ous horny cylinder is formed, which constitutes the ‘quill.’” (Introd. Classif. Anim., p. 71.) 


fe) 
oO 


0060000 
ta) 


all 2 Lg one 
a 


A a 
sit 


Fic. 18. -Symmetrical Figures from Forming Feathers; a, dove; b, turkey. — ‘In the summer of 
1869, whilst examining the feather capsule of a nestling dove, the microscopic slide was suddenly covered with a 
soultitude of exquisite forms. . . . The next day my German farmer climbed to the dove’s nest and procured a few 
more pin-feathers. Some of these were cut into fine shreds, rubbed in a drop of water, and placed under the 
microscope. In a short period the figures of yesterday were again before me. From the cut surfaces of the 
portions of the pin-feathers I had placed under the lens, granules appeared to stream forth like blood, covering 
the microscopic slide in countless numbers. Mingled with these were numerous larger cells of a globular or oval 
form, having a transparent centre. These and the granules gave to the water a slightly glutinous consistency. 
As the fluids on the glass dried, lines at different angles shot across the slide, looking much as though an 
unseen camel’s hair pencil had been swiftly drawn in opposite directions, sometimes at right angles, but frequently 
at angles more acute. Probably at the moment of transition from a fluid to a solid condition, the transparent 
nucleated cells assumed the form of a square, a lozenge, a starry hexagon, a cross, or any other beautiful figure 
which could be formed of the parts which suddenly appeared in the spherical cells, these parts seeming at first, in 
some instances at least, to consist of minute triangles. At the same moment the little granules moved to order, 
and there before the astonished gaze were diamonds such as Aladdin might have envied, in form as varied, but far 
more symmetrical, than the frost-work on a window pane of a winter’s morning.”” (Miss Grace Anna Lewis, in 
Am, Nat., v, 1871, p. 675.) 


A 


84 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


Structure of Feathers. — A perfect feather, possessing all the parts it can have devel- 
oped, consists of a main stem, shaft or scape (Lat. scapus, a stalk: fig. 19, ad), and a supple- 
mentary stem or after-shaft (hyporhachis : Gr. d6, hupo, under, payis, rhachis, a spine or ridge: 
fig. 19, b), each bearing two webs or vanes ( Lat. verillum, pl. vevilla, a banner; tig. 19, ¢, ¢, ©), 
one on either side. The whole scape is divided into two parts: one, nearest the body of the 
bird, the tube or barrel or ‘* quill” proper (Lat. calamus, a reed), which is a hard, horny, 
hollow, and semi-transparent eylinder, containing a little pith in the interior; it bears no webs. 
One end of this quill tapers to be inserted into the skin; the other passes, at a point marked by 
a little pit (Lat. wmbilicus, the navel) into the shaft proper or rhachis, the second part of the 
stem. The rhachis is a four-sided prism, squarish in transverse section, and tapers gradually 
to a fine point; it is less 
horny than the barrel, very 
elastic, opaque, and solidly 
pithy; it bears the vevilla. 
The after-shaft, when well 
developed, is like a duplicate 
in miniature of the main 
feather, from the stem of 
which it springs, at june- 
tion of calamus with rha- 
chis, close by the umbilicus. 
It is generally very small 
compared with the main 
part of the feather, though 
quite as large in a few kinds 
of birds ; it is entirely want- 


ing in some groups of birds; terior, 8,4, and posterior, 

it is never developed ou the ¢,barbules; enlarged; after 
- F Nitzsch. 

large, strong wing- and tail- 

feathers. The rane consists of a series of appressed, 

flat, narrowly linear or lance-linear lamine or 

plates, set obliquely on the rhachis by their bases, 


Fig. 19. — A partly pennaceous, partly plum- diverging out from it at a varying open angle, end- 
ulaceous feather, from Argus pheasant; after = 
Nitzsch. ad, mainstem; d, calamus; a, rhachis; 
c, ¢, ¢, Vanes, cut away on left side in order not is ealled a barb (Lat. barba, a beard ; fig. 20, a, a). 


to interfere with , the after-shaft, the whole of Noy if these laminz or barbs simply lay alongside 
the right vane of which is likewise cut away. a : : = 
each other, like the leaves of a book, the feather 
would have no consistency; therefore, they are connected together; for, just as the rhachis 
bears its vane or series of barbs, so does each barb bear its vanes of the second order, or little 
vanes, called barbules (dimin. of barba ; fig. 20, b, b,c). These are to the barbs exactly what 
the barbs are to the shaft, and are similarly given off from both sides of the upper edges of 
the barbs; they make the vane truly a web, that is, they so connect the barbs together that 
some little force is required to pull them apart. Barbules are variously shaped, but generally 
flat sideways, with upper and lower border at base, rapidly tapering to a sleuder thready end, 
and are long enough to reach over several barbules of the next barb, crossing the latter ob- 
liquely. All the foregoing structures are seen by the naked eye or with a simple pocket lens, 
but the next to be deseribed require a microscope: they are the larbicels (another dimin. of 
barba), also called cilia, or lashes (fig. 21); and hamuli, or hooklets (Lat. hamulus, a little 
hook; fig. 21). These are simply a sort of fringe to the barbules, just as if the lower edge 
of the barbules were frayed out, and only differ from each other in that barbicels are plain hair- 


ing ina free point: each such narrow, acute plate 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— FEATHERS. 85 


like processes, while hamuli are hooked at the end; they are not found on all feathers, nor on 
all parts of some feathers. Barbicels occur on both anterior and posterior rows of barbules, 
though rarely on the latter; hooklets are confined to any an- 
terior series of barbules, which, as we have seen, overlie the 
posterior rows, forming a diagonal mesh-work. The design 
of this beautiful structure is evident; the barbules are inter- 
locked, and the whole made a web; for each hooklet of one 
barbule eatches hold of a barbule from the next barb in front, 
any barbule thus holding on to as many of the barbules of the 
next barb as it has hooklets; while, to facilitate this interlock- 
ing, the barbules have a thickened upper edge of the right size 
for the hooklets to grasp. The arrangement is shown in fig. 
22, where a, a, a, a, are four barbs in transverse section, viewed 
from the cut surfaces, with their anterior, b, b, b, b, and pos- 
terior, ¢, ¢, ¢, ¢, barbules, the former bearing the hooklets 
which catch over the edge of the latter. 


Fie. 22, — 
Four barbs in 
cross section, a, 
a, a, a, bearing 


Types of Feathery Structure. — But all feathers do not 
answer the above description. The after-shaft may be wanting, 


as we have seen. Hooklets may not be developed, as frequently 


anterior, 6, b, b, 
b, and posterior 
Cy.167.-Cy Cy. “Dar= 
bules, the form- 


sia happens. Barbicels may be few or entirely wanting. Barb- ooeeel 4 pane 
1G, 21. — isons 7 : ets which cate 
A single bar- ules may be similarly deficient, or so defective as to be only — over the latter; 
bule, bearing recognized by their position and relations. Even barbs them- ™agnified; after 


barbicels and 
hooklets ; mag- 
nified ; after 


selves may be few or lacking on one side of the shaft, or on 


Nitzsch. 


Consideration of 


both sides, as in certain bristly or hair-like styles of feathers. 
these and other modifications of feather-structure has led to the recognition of 
three types or plans: 1. The perfectly feathery, plumous, or pennaceous (Lat. pluma, a plume, 
or penna, a feather fit for writing with; fig. 23), as above described. 2. The downy or 
plumulaceous (Lat. plumula, a little plume, a down-feather), when the stem is short and 
weak, with soft rhachis and barbs, with long slender thready barbules, little knotty dilata- 
tions in place of barbi- 
cels, and no hooklets. 
3. The hairy, bristly, or 
filo - plumaceous (Lat. 
filum, a thread), with 
a very long, slender stem, 
and rudimentary or very 
small vanes composed of fine cylindrical barbs and barbules, if any, and uo barbicels, knots, 
or hooklets. There is no abrupt definition between these types of structure ; in fact, the same 
feather may be constructed on more than one of these plans, as in fig. 19, partly pennaceous, 
partly plumulaceous. All feathers are built wpon one or another, or some combination, or 
modification, of these types; and, in all their endless diversity, may be reduced to four or five 


Nitzsch. 


Fic. 23. — A feather from the tail of a kingbird, Tyrannus carolinensis, 
almost entirely pennaceous; no after-shaft. From nature, by Coues. 


Different Kinds of Feathers.—1. Contour-feathers, penne or plume proper, have a 
perfgct stem composed of calamus and rhachis, with vanes of pennaceous structure, at least 
in part, usually plumulaceous toward the base. These form the great bulk of the surface- 
plumage exposed to light; their beautiful tints give the bird’s colors; they are the most 
modified in detail of all, from the fish-like scales of a penguin’s wings to the glittering jewels of 
the humming-bird, and all the endless array of the tufts, crests, rnffs, and other ornaments of the 
feathered tribes; even the imperfect bristle-like feathers above mentioned may belong among 


86 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


them. Another feature is, that they are usually individually moved by subcutaneous muscles, 
of which there may be several to one feather, passing to be attached to the sheath of the tube, 
inside the skin, in which the stem is inserted. These muscles may be plainly seen under the 
skin of a gouse, and every one has observed their operation when a hen shakes herself after a 
sand bath, or any bird erects its top-knot. 2. Down-feathers, plumule, are characterized by 
a downy structure throughout. They more or less completely invest the body, but are almost 
always hidden beneath the contour-feathers, like padding about the bases of the latter; occa- 
sionally they come to light, as in the fleecy ruff about the neck of the condor, and then usually 
replace contour-feathers ; they have an after-shaft, or none ; and sometimes no rhachis at all, 
the barbs then being sessile in a tuft at the end of the quill. They often stand in a regular quin- 
cunx ({::) between four contour-feathers. 3. Semiplumes, semiplume, may be said to unite 
the characters of the last two, possessing the pennaceous stem of the former, and the plumula- 
ceous vanes of the latter; they are with or without after-shaft. They stand among penne, as 
the plumule do, about the edges of patches of the former, or in parcels by themselves, but are 
always covered by contour-feathers. 4. Filoplumes, filoplume, or thread-feathers, have an 
extremely slender, almost invisible stem, not well distinguished into barrel and shaft, and 
usually no vane, unless a terminal tuft of barbs may be held for such. Long as they are, 
they are usually hidden by the contour-feathers, close to which they stand as accessories, 
one or more seeming to issue out of the very sacs in which the larger feathers are implanted. 
These are the nearest approach to hairs that birds have; they are very well shown on domestic 
poultry, being what a good cook finds it necessary to singe off after plucking a fowl for the 
table. 5. Certain down-feathers are remarkable for coutinuing to grow indefinitely, and with 
this unlimited growth is associated a continual breaking down of the ends of the barbs. Such 
plunule, from being always dusted over with dry, scurfy exfoliation, are called powder-down ; 
they may be entitled to rank as a fifth kind, or pulviplumes. They occur in the hawk, parrot, 
and gallinaceous tribes, and especially in the herons and their allies. They are always preseut 
in the latter, where they inay be readily seen as at least two large patches of greasy or dusty, 
whitish feathers, matted over the hips and on the breast. The design is unknown. 


Feather Oil Gland. — Birds do uot perspire, and cutaneous glands, corresponding to the 
sweat-glands and sebaceous follicles so common in Mammatlia, are little known among them. 
But their “ oil-can” is a kind of sebaceous follicle, which may be noticed here in connection 
with other tegumentary appendages. This is a two-lobed or rather heart-shaped gland, sad- 
dled upon the ‘ pope’s nose,” at the root of the tail, and hence sometimes called the wropygial 
(Lat. wropygium, rump), or rump-gland. If there be uo single word to name it, it may be 
called the ele@odochon (Gr. €avoddyos, elaiodochos, containing oil). It is composed of numerous 
slender tubes or follicles which secrete the greasy fluid, the duets of which, uniting successively 
in larger tubes, finally open by one or more pores, commonly upon a little nipple-like elevation. 
Birds press out a oe of uo bu the beak and dress the feathers with it, in the well-known 
operation called “preening.” The gland is large and always present in aquatic birds, which 
have need of waterproof plumage ; sinaller in land-birds, as a rue, and wanting in some. The 
presence or absence of this singular structure, and whether or not it is surmounted by a particu- 
lar cirelet of feathers, distinguishes certain groups of birds, and has come to be made much use 
of in classification. 


Pterylography. — Feathered Tracts and Unfeathered Spaces. — Excepting certain 
birds having obviously naked spaces, as about the head or feet, all would be taken to be 
fully feathered. So they are all covered with feathers, but it does not follow that feathers are 
everywhere implanted upon the skin. On the contrary, a uniform and continuous pterylosis 
is the rarest of all kinds of feathering ; though such occurs, almost or quite perfectly, among 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — FEATHERS. 87 


certain birds, as the ostrich tribe, penguins, and toucans. If we compare a bird’s skin to a 
well-kept park, part woodland, part lawn; then where feathers grow is the woodland ; where 
they do not grow is the lawn. The former places are called tracts or pteryle (dimin. from Gr. 
mrepov, pteron, a plume); the latter, spaces or apteria (Gr. a privative, and mrepov) ; they 
inutually distinguish certain definite areas. Not only are the pteryl@ and apteria thus detinite, 
but their size, form, and arrangement mark whole families and even orders of birds; so that 
pterylosis becomes available, and is indeed found to be important, for purposes of classification. 
Pterylography, or the description of this matter, has been inade a special study by the cele- 
brated Nitzsch, who has laid down the general plan of pterylosis which obtains in the great 
inajority of birds, as follows: 1. The spinal or dorsal tract (pteryla spinalis; tig. 24, 1), 
runuing along the middle of the bird above from the nape of the neck to the tail; subject tu 
great variation in width, to dilation and contraction, to forking, to sending out branches, to 
interruption, ete. 2. The humeral tracts (pt. humerales ; Lat. humerus, the shoulder, or upper 
arm-bone: fig. 24, 2), always present, one on each wing; they are narrow bands, running fron 
the shoulder obliquely backward upou the upper arm-bone, parallel with the shoulder-blade. 


Fig, 24. — Pterylosis of Cypselus apus, drawn by Coues after Nitzsch; right hand upper, left hand lower, 
surface. 1. spinal tract; 2. humeral; 3. femoral; 4. capital; 5. alar; 6. caudal; 7. crural; 8. ventral. 


3. The femoral tracts (pt. femorates ; Lat. femur, the thigh ; fig. 24, 3): a similar oblique 
band upon the outside of each thigh, but subject to great variation. 4. The ventral tract (pt. 
ventralis ; Lat. venter, the belly ; fig. 24, 8), which forms most of the plumage on the under 
part of a bird, commencing at or near the throat, and continued to the vent: like the dorsal 
tract, it is very variable, is usually bifureate, or forked into right or left halves, with a median 
apterium, is broad or narrow, branched, ete.; thus, Nitzsch enumerates seventeen distinet modi- 
fications! The foregoing are mostly isolated tracts, that is, bands nearly surrounded by com- 
plementary apteria; the following are, in general, continuously and uniformly feathered, and 
thus practically equivalent to the part of the body they represent: Thus, 5, the head tract 
(pt. capitalis ; Lat. caput, capitis, head; fig. 24, +) clothes the head, and generally runs 
into the beginning ‘of both dorsal and ventral tracts. 6. The wing tract (pt. alaris ; Lat. ala, 
wing; fig. 24, 5) represents all the feathers that grow upon the wing, excepting those of 
the humeral tract. 7. The tail tract (pt. caudalis ; Lat. cauda, tail; fig. 24, 6) includes 
the tail-feathers proper and their coverts, and those about the el@odochon, and usually receives 
the termination of the dorsal, ventral, and femoral tracts. 8. The leg tract (pt. eruralis 
Lat. crus, cruris, leg; figs. 24, 7) clothes the legs as far as these are feathered, which is 
generally to the heel, always below the knee, and sometimes to the toes or even the claws. — 
I need not enumerate the apteria, as these are merely the complements of the pterylee. The 


88 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


highly important special “‘ flight-feathers ” of the wings and ‘‘rudder-feathers” of the tail are 
to be examined beyond, in describing those members for purposes of classification. 


Endysis and Ecdysis. — Putting on and off Plumage. — Newly hatched birds are 
covered for some time with a kind of down, entirely different from such feathers as they ulti- 
mately acquire. It is scanty, leaving much or all of the body naked, in most altricial birds, 
such as are reared by the parents in the nest (Lat. altrix, female nourisher) ; but thick and 
puffy in some Altrices, and in all Precoces (Lat. pre@cox, precocious), which run about at birth. 
Since many birds which require to be reared in the nest are also hatched clothed, or very speedily 
become downy, a more exact distinction may be drawn by using the terms ptilopedic and psilo- 
pedic (Gr. mridtov, ptilon, a feather; Wdrds, psilos, bare; and mais, pais, a child) respectively 
for those birds which are batched feathered or naked ; a chicken and a canary-bird are familiar 
examples. It is the rule, that the higher birds are born helpless and naked, requiring to be 
reared in the nest till their feathers grow ; the reverse with Jower birds, as the walking, wading, 
aud swimming kinds; and a primary division of birds has even been proposed upon this physio- 
logical distinction. It offers, however, too many exceptions; thus, no birds are more naked 
and helpless at birth than young cormorants. Probably all precocial birds are also ptilopadie 
and all psilopeedic birds altricial; but the converse is far from holding good, many altrices, as 
hawks and owls, being also ptilopedic. In other words, psilopaedie birds are always altricial. 
but ptilopeedic birds may be either altricial or preecocial. In any case, true feathers are soon 
gained, in some days or weeks, those of the wings and tail being usually the first to sprout. 
The acquisition of plumage is called endysis (€vdvars, endusis, putting on). The renewal of 
plumage is a process familiar to all, in its generalities, under the term ‘ moult,” or eedysis 
(Gr. éxdvars, ehkdusis, putting off). Feathers are of such rapid growth, and make such a drain 
upon the vital energies, that we easily understand how critical are periods of the change. 
The first plumage is usually worn but a short time; then another more or less complete 
change commonly occurs. The moult is as a rule annual; and in many cases more than 
one moult is required before the bird attains the perfection of maturity in its féathering. 
It is well known how different many birds are the first year in their coloration from that 
afterward acquired; sometimes changes progress for several years; and some birds appear 
to have a period of senile decline. All such changes are necessarily connected, if not 
with actual moult, as is the rule, then at any rate with wear and tear and repair of the 
plumage. The first plumage being gained, under whatever conditions peculiar to the species, 
it is the general rule, that birds are subject to single, or annual, moult. This commonly oceurs 
in the fall, when the duties of incubation are coneluded, and the well-worn plumage inost needs 
renewal. This once-a-year moult, at least, happens to nearly or quite all birds. Many, 
however, moult twice a year, the additional moult usually occurring in the spring-time, when 


a fresh nuptial suit is acquired ; in such cases, the moult is said to be double, or semi-annual. 
Such additional moult is generally incomplete; that is, all the feathers are not shed and 
renewed, but nore or fewer new ones are gained, with more or less loss of the old ones, if 
any. The most striking ornaments donned for the breeding season, as the elegant plumes 
of many herons, are usually worn but a brief time, being doffed in advance of the general 
fall moult. A few birds, as the ptamnigan (Lagopus), regularly have even a third or triple 
moult, shedding many of their feathers as usual in the early autumn, then changing 
entirely to pure white for the winter, then in spring moulting completely to assume their 
wedding-dress. As a rule, feathers are moulted so gradually, particularly those of the wings 
and tail, and so simultaneously upon right and left sides of the body, that birds are at no time 
deprived of the power of flight. The first flight-feathers acquired by young birds are usually 
kept till the next season; but in those that fly very early, before they are half grown, as so 
many gallinaceous birds do, their first weak wing-feathers are included in the general moult 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. —FEATHERS. 89 


which occurs to young and old in the fall. The duck tribe offer the remarkable case, that 
they drop their wing-quills so nearly all at once as to be for some time deprived of the power 
of flight. It is quite certain that many birds change the colors of their plumage remarkably, 
without losing or gaining any feathers, by some process which affects the texture of the feath- 
ers, such as the shedding of the barbicels and hooklets, or its pigmieutation ; or by such processes 
combined. The male of our bobolink changes from the buff dress of the female to his rich black 
suit without losing or gaining any feathers. It is difficult to lay down any rules of moulting 
for particular groups of birds, since birds very closely related differ greatly in respect to their 
changes of plumage, and the subject has not yet received the attention its interest and impor- 
tance should claim for it. The physiological processes involved are analogous to those con- 
cerned in the shedding of the hair of mammals and the casting of the cuticle of reptiles. 


Plumage-changes with Sex, Age, and Season. Aside from any consideration of the 
way in which plumage changes, whether by moult or otherwise, the fact remains that most birds 
of the same species differ more or less from one another according to certain circumstances. The 
dissimilarity is not only in coloration, though this is the usual and most pronounced difference, 
but also in the degree of development of plumes, — their size, form, and texture. Since young 
birds are those which have not come to sexual vigor; since breeding recurs at regular periods 
of the year; and since males and females usually differ in plumage, — nearly all the various 
dresses worn by different individuals of the same species are correlated with the conditions of 
the reproductive system. As the internal generative organs represent of course the essential or 
primary sexual characters, all those of the plumage just indicated may be properly classed as 
secondary sexual characters. These are of great importance, not only in practical ornithology, 
but as the basis of some of the soundest views that have been advanced respecting the evolu- 
tion of specific characters in this class of animals. The generalizations may be made: that 
when the sexes are strikingly different in plumage, the young at first resemble the female ; 
when the adults are alike, the young are different from either; when seasonal changes are great, 
the young resemble the fall plumage of the parents; and, further, that when the adults of two 
related species of the same genus are nearly alike, the young are usually intermediate, their 
specific characters not being fully developed. Specific characters are often to be found only in 
the male, the females of two related species being scarcely distinguishable, though the males 
may be told apart at a glance. Extraordinary developments of feathers, as to size, shape, and 
color, are often confined to one sex, usually the male. The more richly, extensively, or pecu- 
liarly the male is adorned, the simpler the female in comparison, as the peacock and peahen. 
The Wise Man of Late has formulated the several categories of secondary sexual characters, 
giving the following rules or classes of cases: ‘41. When the adult male is more beautiful or 
conspicuous than the adult female, the young of both sexes in their first plumage closcly 
resemble the adult female, as with the common fowl and peacock; or, as occasionally 
oceurs, they resemble her much more closely than they do the adult male. 2. When the adult 
female is more conspicuous than the adult male, as sometimes though rarely oceurs [chiefly 
with certain birds of prey and snipe-like birds], the young of both sexes in their first plumage 
resemble the adult male. 3. When the adult male resembles the adult female, the young of 
both sexes have a peculiar first phumage of their own, as with the robin [usual]. 4. When the 
adult male resembles the adult female, the young of both sexes in their first plumage resemble 
the adults [unusual]. 5. When the adults of both sexes have a distinct winter and summer 
plumage, whether or not the male differs from the female, the young resemble the adults of 
both sexes in their winter dress, or much more rarely in their summer dress, or they resemble 
the females alone. Or the young may have an intermediate character; or again they may 
differ greatly from the adults in both their seasonal plumages. 6. In some few cases the 
young in their first plumage differ from cach other according to sex; the young males re- 


90 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


sembling more or less closely the adult males, and the young females more or less closely the 
adult females.” — (Darwin, Desc. of Man, new ed., 1851, p. 466.) 


Summary of Secondary Sexual Characters of Birds.— The temptation to give the 
conclusion of the whole matter in Darwin’s own words, summary of his views of Sexual 
Selection as so important a factor in Natural Selection, need not be resisted. I therefore quote 
again from the work last cited, pp. 496-499. 


“‘ Most male birds are highly pugnacious during the breeding-season, and some possess weapons adapted for 
fighting with their rivals. But the most pugnacious and tbe best armed males rarely or never depend for success 
solely upon their power to drive away or kill their rivals, but have special means for charming the female. With 
some it is the power of song, or of giving forth strange cries, or instrumental music, and the males in consequence 
differ in their vocal organs, or in the structure of certain feathers. From the curiously diversified means for pro- 
ducing various sounds, we gain a high idea of the importance of this means of courtship. Many birds endeavor to 
charm the female by love-dances or antics, performed on the ground or in the air, and sometimes at prepared places. 
But ornaments of many kinds, the most brilliant tints, combs, and wattles, beautiful plumes, elongated feathers, 
top-knots, and so forth, are by far the commonest means. In some cases mere novelty appears to have acted as a 
charm. ‘The ornaments of the males must be highly important to them, for they have been acquired in not a few 
cases at the cost of increased danger from enemies, and even at some loss of power in fighting with their rivals. 
The males of very many species do not assume their ornamental dress until they arrive at maturity, or they assume 
it only during the breeding season, or the tints then become more vivid. Certain ornamental appendages become 
enlarged, turgid, aud brightly colored during the act of courtship. The males display their charms with elaborate 
care and to the best effect; and this is done in the presence of the females. The courtship is sometimes a pro- 
longed affair, and many males and females congregate at an appointed place. To suppose that the females do not 
appreciate the beauty of the males, is to admit that their splendid decorations, all their pomp and display, are 
useless; and this is incredible. Birds have fine powers of discrimination, and in some few cases it can be shewn 
that they have a taste for the beautiful. The females, moreover, are known occasionally to exhibit a marked 
preference or antipathy for certain individual males. 

“Tfit be admitted that the females prefer, or are unconsciously excited by the more beautiful males, then 
the males would slowly but surely be rendered more and more attractive through sexual selection. That it is 
this sex which has been chiefly modified, we may infer from the fact that, in almost every genus where the sexes 
differ, the males differ much more from one another than do the females ; this is well shown in certain closely-allied 
representative species, in which the females can hardly be distinguished, whilst tle males are quite distinct. Birds 
in a state of nature offer individual differences which would amply suffice for the work of sexual selection; but we 
have seen that they occasionally present more strongly-marked variations which recur so frequently that they 
would immediately be fixed, if they served to allure the female. The laws of variation must determine the nature 
of the initial changes and will have largely influenced the final result. he gradations, which may be observed 
between the males of allied species, indicate the nature of the steps through which they have passed. They 
explain also in the most interesting manner how certain characters have originated, such as the indented ocelli 
on the tail-feathers of the peacock and the ball and socket ocelli on the wing-feathers of the Argus pheasant. It is 
evident that the brilliant colors, top-knots, fine plumes, &c., of many male birds cannot have been acquired 
as a protection; indeed, they sometimes lead to danger. That they are not due to the direct and definite action 
of the conditions of life, we may feel assured, because the females have been exposed to the same conditions, 
and yet often differ from the males to an extreme degree. Although it is probable that changed conditions acting 
during a lengthened period have in some cases produced a definite effect on both sexes, or sometimes on one sex 
alone, the more important result will have been an increased tendency to vary or to present more strongly marked 
individual differences : and such differences will have afforded an excellent ground-work for the action of sexual 
selection. 

“The laws of inheritance, irrespectively of selection, appear to have determined whether the characters 
acquired by the males for the sake of ornament, for producing various sounds, and for fighting together, have been 
transmitted to the males alone or to both sexes, either permanently, or periodically during certain seasons of the 
year. Why various characters should have been transmitted sometimes in one way and sometimes in another, is not 
in most cases known; but the period of variability seems often to have been the determining cause. When the 
two sexes have inherited all characters in common, they necessarily resemble each other; but as the successive 
variations may be differently transmitted, every possible gradation may be found, even within the same genus, 
from the closest similarity to the widest dissimilarity between the sexes. With many closely-allied species, follow- 
ing nearly the same habits of life, the males have come to differ from each other chiefly through the action of 
sexua! selection; whilst the females have come to differ chiefly from partaking more or less of the characters thus 
acquired by the males. The effects, moreover, of the definite action of the conditions of life, will not have been 
masked in the females, as in the males, by the accumulation through sexual selection of strongly-pronounced colors 
and other ornaments. The individuals of both sexes, however affected, will have been kept at each successive 
period nearly uniform by the free intercrossing of many individuals. 

“ With species, in which the sexes differ in color, it is possible or probable that some of the successive varia- 
tions often tended to be transmitted equally to both sexes; but that when this occurred the females were pre- 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — TOPOGRAPHY. 91 


vented from acquiring the bright colors of the males, by the destruction which they suffered during incubation. 
‘There is no evidence that it is possible by natural selection to convert one form of transmission into another. But 
there would not be the least difficulty in rendering a female dull-colored, the male being still kept bright-colored, 
by the selection by successive variations, which were from the first limited in their transmission to the same sex 
Whether the females of many species have actually been thus modified, must at present remain doubtful. When, 
through the law of the equal transmission of characters to both sexes, the females were rendered as conspicuously 
colored as the males, their instincts appear often to have been moditied so that they were led to build domed or 
concealed nests. 

“In one small and curious class of cases the characters and habits of the two sexes have been completely 
transposed, for the females are larger, stronger, more vociferous and brighter colored than the males. They have, 
also, become so quarrelsome that they often fight together for the possession of the males, like the males of other 
pugnacious species for the possession of the females. If, as seems probable, such females habitually drive away 
their rivals, and by the display of their bright colors or other charms endeavour to attract the males, we can under- 
stand how it is that they have gradually been rendered, by sexual selection and sexually-limited transmission, 
more beautiful than the males — the latter being left unmodified or only slightly modified. 

“Whenever the law of inheritance at corresponding ages prevails, but not that of sexually-limited trans- 
mission, then if the parents vary late in life—and we know that this constantly occurs with our poultry, 
and occasionally with other birds — the young will be left unaffected, whilst the adults of both sexes will be 
modified. If both these laws of inheritance prevail and either sex varies late in life, that sex alone will be 
modified, the other sex and the young being unaffected. When variations in brightness or in other conspicuous 
characters occur early in life, as no doubt often happeus, they will not be acted on through sexu: selection until 
the period of reproduction arrives; consequently if dangerous to the young, they will be eliminated through 
natural selection. Thus we can understand how it is that variations arising late in life have su often been pre- 
served for the ornamentation of the males; the females and the young being left almost unaffected, and therefore 
like each other. With species having a distinct summer and winter plumage, the males of which either resemble 
or differ from the females during both seasons or during the summer alone, the degrees and kinds of resemblance 
between the young and the old are exceedingly complex; and this complexity apparently depends on characters, 
tirst acquired by the males, being transmitted in various ways, as limited by age, sex, and season. 

‘As the young of so many species have been but little modified in color and other ornaments, we are enabled 
to form some judgment with respect to the plumage of their early progenitors ; and we may infer that the beauty 
of our existing species, if we look to the whole class, has been largely increased since that period, of which the 
plumage gives us an indistinct record. Many birds, especially those which live much on the ground, have undoubt- 
edly been obscurely colored for the sake of protection. In somie instances the upper exposed surface of the plumage 
has been thus colored in both sexes, whilst the lower surface in the males alone has been variously ornamented 
through sexual selection. Finally, from the facts given in these four chapters (pp. 858-499 of the work in citation], 
we may conclude that weapons for battle, organs for producing sound, ornaments of many kinds, bright and con- 
spicuous colors, have generally been acquired by the males through variation and sexual selection, and have been 
transmitted in various ways according to the several laws of inheritance — the female and the young being left 
comparatively but little modified.” 


b. Tur TopograpHy oF BIrps. 


The Contour of a Bird with the feathers on is spindle-shaped, or fusiform (Lat. 
fusus, a spindle), tapering at both ends; it represents two cones joined base to base at the middle 
or greatest girth of the body, tapering in front to the tip of the bill, behind to the end of the 
tail. The obvious design is easiest cleavage of air in front, and least drag or wash behind, in 
the act of flying. This shape is largely produced by the lay of the plumage; a naked bird pre- 
sents several promivences and depressions, this irregular contour being reducible, in general 
terms, to two spindles or double cones. The head tapers to a point in front, at the tip of the 
bill, and contracts behind, toward the middle of the neck, in consequence of diminution in 
bulk of the muscles by which it is slung on the neck; which last is somewhat contracted or 
hour-glass shaped near the middle, swelling where it is slung to the body. The body is largest 
in front and tapers to the tail. The 


Centre of Gravity is admirably preserved beneath the centre of the body, and opposite 
the points where it is supported by the wings. The enormous breast-muscles of a bird are 
among its heaviest parts, sometimes weighing, to speak roundly, as much as one-sixth of the 
whole bird. Now these are they that effect all the movements of the wings at the shoulder- 
joiuts, lifting as well as lowering the wings. Did these pectoral muscles pull straight, the 
lifters would have to be above the shoulder-joint ; but they all lie below it, and the lifters 


, 


92 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


aecomplish their office by running through pulleys to change the line of their traction. They 
work like men hoisting sails from the deck of a vessel; and thus, like a ship’s cargo, a bird’s 
chief weight is kept below the centre of motion. Top-heaviness is further obviated by the way 
in, which birds with a long heavy neck and head draw these parts in upon the breast, and 
extend the legs behind, as is well shown by the attitude of a heron fying. The nice adjust- 
nent of balance by the variable extension of the head and feet is exactly like that produced in 
weighing by shifting a weight along the arm of a steel-yard ; and together with the slinging 
of the chief weight under the wings instead of over or even between them, enables a bird to 
easily keep right side up in flight. The 


Exterior of a Bird is divided for purposes of description into seven parts: —1. The head 
(Lat. caput) ; 2. The neck (Lat. collum) ; 3. The body proper, or trunk (Lat. truncus) ; 4. 
The bill or beak (Lat. rostrum); 5. The wings (Lat. pl. ale); 6. The tail (Lat. cauda) ; 7. 
The feet (Lat. pl. pedes). Of these, 1, 2, 3, the head, neck, and trunk, are collectively termed 
the body (Lat. corpus), in distinction from 4, 5, 6,7, which are the members (Lat. membra). 
The wings and feet are of course double or paired parts. The bill is strictly but a part of the 
head; but its manifold uses as an organ of prehension make it functionally a hand, and there- 


fore one of the ‘‘ 


members.” The 


Head has the general shape of a four-sided pyramid; of which the base is applied to the 
end of the neck, therefore not appearing from the exterior, and the apex of which is frustrated 
at the base of the bill. The uppermost side is more or less convex or vaulted, sloping in 
every direction ; the under side is flattish and horizontal; the lateral surfaces are flattish and 
vertical ; all similarly taper forward. The departures from any such typical shape are endless 
in degree and variable in kind, giving rise to numerous general descriptive terms, such as 
“head flattened,” “head globular,” but not susceptible of exact definition. The head is 
moulded, of course, upon the skull, corresponding in a general way to the brain-cavity of the 
cranium proper, both in size and shape; but it differs in several particulars. In the first place, 
there is the scaffolding of the jaws; secondly, large excavations to receive the eye-balls, and 
smaller ones for the ear-parts; thirdly, muscular masses overlying the bone; aud lastly, in 
some birds, large hollow spaces in the bone between the inner and outer tables or plates of the 
cranial walls. Each side of the head presents two openings for the eye (Lat. oculus) and ear 
(Lat. auris), the position of which is variable, both absolutely and in relation to each other. 
But in the vast majority of birds, the eye is strictly lateral in situation, and near the middle of 
the side of the head; while the ear is behind and a little below the eye, near the articulation 
of the lower jaw. But the shape of the skull of owls is such, that the eyes are directed forward, 
and such birds are said to have ‘ eyes anterior.” Owls also have enormous outer ears, in some 
cases provided with a movable flap or conch, closing wpon the opening like the lid of a box; 
and in many cases their ear-parts, and some of the cranium itself, is unsymmetrical. In 
most birds the ear-opening is quite small, and only covered by modified feathers. In the 
woodcock and snipe, owing to the way the brain-box is tilted up, the ears are below and not 
behind the eyes. The mouth (Lat. os, gen. oris) is always a fissure across the front of the head. 
The cleavage varies, both in extent and direction; the latter is usually horizontal, or uearly 
so, but may trend much downward ; the former varies from a mininum, in which the cleft does 
not reach back of the horny part of the bill, as in a snipe, to the maximum seen in fissure-billed 
birds like the swifts and goatsuckers, which gape almost from ear to ear. There are no other 
openings in the head proper, for the nostrils are always in the bill. The 


Neck, in effect, is a simple cylinder, rendered somewhat hour-glass-shaped, as above said. 
It consists of a movable chain of bones, the cervical vertebre (Lat. cervix, the neck; verto, I 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— TOPOGRAPHY. 93 


turn) enveloped in muscle, along which in front lie the gullet (Lat. wsophagus) and windpipe 
(Lat. trachea), with associate blood-vessels, nerves, etc. Its length is very variable, as is the 
number of its bones, the latter ranging from 8 to about 26. Bearing as it does the head, with 
the bill, which is the true hand of a bird, the neck is extremely flexible, to permit the neces- 
sarily varied movements of this handy member. Its least length may be said to be that which 
allows the point of a bird’s beak to reach the oil-gland on the rmnp; its greatest length some- 
times exceeds that of the body and tail together, as in the case of a swan, crane, or heron. The 
length is usually in direct proportion to that of the legs, in obvious design of allowing the beak 
to touch the ground easily to pick up food. The neck is habitually carried in a double curve, 
like an open § or italic f, the lower belly of the curve, convex forward, fitting in between the 
forks of the merry-thought (Lat. furculum), the upper curve holding the head horizoutal at the 
same time. This “sigmoid flexure” (sigma, Greek $8), highly characteristic of the bird’s neck, 
is produced by the saddle-shaping of the articular surfaces of the several bones. The mechan- 
ical arrangement is such, that the sigma may be easily bent till the upper end (head) rests on 
the lower convexity, or as easily straightened to a right line ; but little if any further deviation 
in opposite curvature is permitted. As a generalization, the neck may be called relatively 
longest in wading birds, as herons, cranes, ibises, ete. ; shortest in perching birds, as the great 
majority of small Insessores ; intermediate in swimming birds. But many swimmers, as 
swans and cormorauts, have extremely long necks; and some waders, as plovers, have very 
short ones. A long neck is a rarity among the higher birds (above the Galline), in most of 
which the head seeins to nestle upon the shoulders. The longer the neck, the more sinuous 
and flexible is it likely to be. Anatomically, the neck ends before at the articulation of the 
atlas (first cervical vertebra) with the skull, and behind at the first vertebra which bears free 
jointed ribs reaching the sternmn. (See also p. 133, Anatomy.) The shape of the 


Body proper, or Trunk, is obviously referable to that of the egg; it is ovate (Lat. 
ovum, an egg; whence oval, the plane figure represented by the middle lengthwise section of 
an egg; ovate or ovoid, the solid figure). The swelling of the breast represents the greatest 
diameter of the egg, usually near the larger end. But the ovoid is never perfectly expressed, 
and departures from the figure are numberless. In general, the higher perching birds have the 
body nearly of the ovate shape; among waders, the figure is usually compressed, or flattened 
vertically, as is well seen in the herons, and still better in the rails, where the lateral narrow- 
ing is at an extreme; among swimmers, the body is always more or less depressed, or flattened 
horizontally, and especially underneath, that the birds may rest on the water with more 
stability, as well shown by a duck or diver. Anatomically the body begins with the foremost 
dorsal vertebra, or those that bear true ribs; laterally, it ceases quite definitely at the shoulder- 
joints, the whole of the fore limb being outside the general content of the trunk; behind, in 
the middle line, it includes everything, only the tail-feathers themselves being beyond it ; 
behind and laterally, it includes more or less of the legs, for these are generally buried in the 
common integument of the body to the knee-joint, nearly or quite so, and sometimes to the 
heel-joint ; though more strictly the trunk should be limited by the hip-joint. The rib-bearing 
part of the back-bone, the ribs themselves, and the greatly enlarged breast-bone (Lat. sternwm) 
compose the cavity of the chest (Lat. thorax). Upon this bony box, which contains the 
heart and lungs and some other viscera, are saddled on each side the bones of the shoulder-girdle 
or scapular-arch, namely, the shoulder-blades (Lat. scapula),the coracoids, and the collar-bones 
(Lat. clavicula), all three of which come together at the shoulder-joint. The thoracic cavity 
is not separated by any partition or diaphragm from that of the belly (Lat. abdomen), which 
with the pelvis, or basin, contains the digestive, urinary, and genital organs. The pelvis is 
composed, in dorsal mid-line, of so many of the vertebra (dorso-lumbar, sacral proper, and 
urosacral, as become immovably joined to one another, and laterally of the confluent haunch- 


94 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


bones. The numerous anchylosed (or confluent) vertebree compose the sacrum. 'The haunch- 
bones or ossa innominata consist on each side of three bones, ilium, ischium, and pubis, in adult 
life more or less perfectly anchylosed. Where they all three come together is the hip-joint. 
The remaining bones, usually included among those of the body proper, are the coccygeal or 
caudal vertebrae. (For anatomical detail see beyond, under Osteology, ete.) 


Topography of the Body. — Besides being thus divided into head, neck, trunk, and mem- 
bers, the exterior of the body is further subdivided or mapped out into regions for the purposes 
of description. It is necessary for the student to become familiar with the ‘topography ” of a 
bird, as this kind of mapping out may be called, for the names of the regions or outer areas 
are incessantly used in ordinary descriptive ornithology. Many more names have been applied 
than are in common use; I shall try to define and explain all those which are usually em- 
ployed, beginning with the parts of the body, and ending with those of the members. 


1. REGIONS OF THE BODY. 


Upper and Under Parts. — Draw a line from the corner of the mouth along the side of 
the head and neck to and through the shoulder-joint and thence along the side of the body to 
the root of the tail; all above this line, including the upper surfaces of the wings and tail, are 
upper parts ; all below it, including under surfaces of wings and tail, are under parts ; for 
which the short words ‘‘ above” and ‘‘ below” often stand. The distinction is purely arbi- 
trary, but so convenient as to be practically indispensable. It will be seen how an otherwise 
lengthy description, enumerating parts that lie over or under the “lateral line” can be 
put in so few words as, for example, ‘above, green; below, yellow.” Many birds colors have 
some such simple general distribution. These parts are also the dorsal (Lat. dorsum, back) 
and ventral (Lat. venter, belly) surfaces or aspects. The upper parts of the body proper, or 
trunk, have also received the general name of noteum (Gr. veros, notos, back) ; the under parts, 
similarly restricted, that of gastreum (Gr. yaornp, gaster, belly): but these terms are not 
much used now. These two are never naked, while both head and neck may be variously bare 
of feathers. The only exception is the transient condition of certain birds during incubation, 
when, like the cider duck, they pull off feathers to furnish the nest, or when the plumage, as 
usually happens, wears off. The gastreeum is rarely ornamented with feathers different in 
texture or structure from those of the plumage at large; but such a case is furnished by our 
Lewis’s woodpecker (Asyndesmus torquatus). The notzum, on the contrary, is often the seat 
of extraordinary development of feathers, either in size, shape, or texture, or all three of these 
qualities ; as the singularly elegant dorsal plumes of many herons. Individual feathers of the 
noteum are generally pennaceous, and for the most part straight and lanceolate; and as a 
whole lie smoothly shingled or imbricated. The ventral feathers are usually more largely 
plumulaceous, and less flat and imbricated, but even more compact, that is thicker, than those 
of the upper parts; especially among water birds, where they are more or less curly, and 
very thick set. There are subdivisions of the 


Notzum. — Beginning where the neck ends, and ending where the tail-coverts begin 
(see fig. 25, 12), this part of a bird is subdivided into back (Lat. dorsum ; fig. 25, 11) and 
rump (Lat. wropygium ; fig. 25, 13). These are in direet continuation of each other, and their 
limits are not precisely defined ; the feathers of both are of the pteryla dorsalis. In general,we 
should call the anterior two-thirds or three-fourths of noteum “back,” and the rest “rump.” 
With the former are generally included the scapular or shoulder-feathers, scapulars or scapu- 
laries ; these are they that grow on the pteryle humerales. The region of notzeum they repre- 
sent is called scapulare (Lat. scapula, shoulder-blade), and that part of noteum strictly 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— TOPOGRAPHY. 95 


between them is called the imterscapulare (fig. 25, 10) ; it is often marked, as in the chipping 
sparrow, with streaks or some other distinctive coloration. A part of dorsum, lying between 
interscapulare and uropygium, is sometimes recognized as the ‘lower back” (Lat. tergum); but 
this distinction is not practically useful. To uropygium probably also belong the feathers of 
the pteryle femorales, or at any rate these are commonly included with the rump in descrip- 
tions; but they more properly represent the flanks (Lat. ilia, or hypochondria) ; that is, sides 
of the rump. They are sometimes the seat of largely developed or otherwise peculiarly 
modified feathers, as the snowy flank plumes of the white-bellied swift (Panyptila saxatilis) or 
violet-green swallow (Tachycineta thalassina), which meet over the rump. The whole of 
noteum, taken together with the upper surfaces of the wings, is called the mantle (Lat. stragu- 


lum, a cloak); often a convenient term, as in describing gulls and terns for example. In like 
manner, the 


Fic. 25.— Topography of a Bird. 1, forehead (/rons). 2, lore. 8, circumocular region. 4, crown (vertex). 
5, eye. 6, hind head (occiput). 7, nape (nucha). 8, hind neck (cervir). 9, side of neck. 10, inferscapular region. 
11, dorsum, or back proper, including 10. 12, notewm, or upper part of body proper, including 10, 11, and 13. 
13, rump (uropygium). 14, upper tail-coverts. 15, tail. 16, under tail-coverts (crissum). 17, tarsus. 18, abdo- 
men. 19, hind toe (kallux). 20, gastreum, including 18 and 24. 21, outer or fourth toe. 22, middle or third toe. 
23, side of the body. 24, breast (pectus). 25, primaries. 26, secondaries. 27, tertiaries; nos. 25, 26, 27 are all 
remiges. 28, primary coverts. 29, alula, or bastard wing. 30, greater coverts. 31, median coverts. 32, lesser 
coverts. 33, the ‘‘ throat,” including 34, 37, 38. 34, jugulum or lower throat. 35, auriculars. 36, malar region. 
37, gula, or middle throat. 38, mentum, or chin. 39, angle of commissure, or corner of mouth. 40, ramus of 
under mandible. 41, side of under mandible. 42, gonys. 43, apex, or tip of bill. 44, tomia, or cutting edges of 
the bill. 45, culmen, or ridge of upper mandible, corresponding to gonys. 46, side of upper mandible. 47, nostril. 
48 passes across the bill a little in front of its base. 


Gastreum is subdivided into regions, called, in general terms, breast (Lat. pectus ; fig. 25, 
24), belly (Lat. abdomen ; fig. 25, 18), and sides of the body (Lat. pleura ; fig. 25, 23). The 
“sides” or pleuree belong really as much to the dorsal as to the ventral aspects of a bird’s 
body; but in consequence of the underneath-freighted shape, the line we drew passes so high 
up along thein, that they are almost entirely given over to gastreeum. The breast begins over 


96 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


the merry-thought where jugulum (see beyond) ends; on either hand, it slopes up to “sides” ; 
behind, its extension is indetinite. It should properly reach as far as the breast-bone does, to 
the limit of the thorax; but in many birds this would leave almost nothing for abdomen, and 
the limit would moreover fluctuate with almost every family of birds, the sternuin being so 
variable in length. Practically, therefore, without reference to the breast-bone, ‘‘ breast” or . 
pectus is restricted to the swelling anterior part of gastreeum, which we call belly or abdomen 
as soon as it begins to straighten out and flatten. Abdomen, like pectus, rounds up on either 
hand into sides ; behind, it ends definitely in a transverse line passing across the anus. It has 
been unnecessarily divided into epigastriuwm or ‘‘ pit of the stomach,” and venter or lower belly ; 
but these terms are rarely used. (Crisswm is a word constantly used for some indefinite region 
immediately about the vent; sometimes meauing the flanks, sometimes the vent-feathers or 
under tail-coverts proper; I refer to it again in connection with these last.) Though these 
boundaries seem fluctuating and not perfectly satisfactory, a little practice will enable the 
student to appreciate their proper use in descriptions, and to employ them himself with suth- 
cient accuracy. The adjectival terms are respectively pectoral, abdominal, and lateral. The 
anterior continuation of the trunk, or the 


Neck (Lat. collum) is likewise subdivided into regions. Its lateral aspects, except in 
those birds that have lateral neck-tracts of feathers, are formed by the meeting over its sides 
of the feathers that grow ou the dorsal aud ventral pteryle, the skin being usually not planted 
with feathers. Partly on this account, perhaps, a distinctively named regiou is not often 
expressed ; we say simply ‘sides of the neck,” or *‘ neck laterally” (parauchenia, fig. 25, 9), 
The neck behind, or the dorsal (upper) aspect, is divided into two portions: a lower, the 
‘hind neck” proper, or “scruff of the neck” (Lat. cervix ; fig. 25, 8), next to the back ; 
and an upper, or ‘nape of the ueck” (Lat. nucha ; fig. 25,7), adjoming the hind head. 
These are otherwise respectively known as the cervical and nuchal region ; and, in speaking 
of both together, we usually say ‘the neck behind.” The front of the neck has been need- 
lessly subdivided, and these subregions vary with almost every writer. It suffices to call it 
throat (Lat. gala, fig. 25, 37, or jugulum, 34); remembering that the jugular portion is 
lowermost, vanishing in breast, and the gular uppermost, runuing into chin along the under 
surface of the head. Guttur is a term sometimes used to include gula and jugulum together : 
it is shnply equivalent to “‘ throat,” as just defined ; the adjective is guttural. Though gener- 
ally covered with feathers, the neck, unlike the trunk, is frequently partly naked. When naked 
behind, it is usually cervix that is bare, as so characteristically occurs in herons, from interrup- 
tion of the forward extension of the pteryla spinalis. Nucha is seldom if ever naked, except as 
an extension of general bald-headedness. Gaula is similarly naked from above downwards, as 
conspicuously -illustrated in the order Steganopodes, comprising the pelicans, cormorants, ete., 
which have a bare gular pouch; and as seen in many vultures, whose baldness extends over 
nucha and gula, and even all around the ucek, as in the condor, whose nakedness ends with so 
singular a collar of close-set, downy feathers. The lower throat or jugulum becomes naked 
in a few birds, in which a distended crop or craw protrudes, pushing apart feathers of two 
branches of the pteryla ventralis as these ascend the neck. The rule is, that the neck is not 
the seat of enlarged or otherwise highly developed feathers, which might restrict the requisite 
freedom of its motion; but there are some signal exceptions, among which may be instanced 
the grouse fanily. The ruffed grouse has a singular umbrella-like tuft on each side of the neck : 
the pinnated grouse has still more curious winglets in the same situation, covering bare disten- 
sible skin : the sharp-tailed grouse is in somewhat similar but less pronounced case ; while the 
cock of the plains has some extraordinary jugular developments of feathers in connection with 
his subeutaneous tympanum. Cervix proper almost never has modified feathers, but often a 
transverse coloration different from that of the rest of the upper parts ; when conspicuous, this 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— TOPOGRAPHY. 97 


is called “ cervical collar,” to distinguish it trom the guttural or jugular ‘“ collars” or rings of 
color. Nucha is frequently similarly marked with a “nuchal band;” often special develop- 
ments there take the form of lengthening of the feathers, and we have a ‘nuchal crest.” More 
particularly in birds of largely variegated colors, guttur and jugulum are marked lengthwise 
with stripes and streaks, of which those on the sides are apt to be different from those along 
the middle line in front. Jugulum voecasionally has lengthened feathers, as in many herons. 
Higher up, the neck in front may have variously lengthened or otherwise modified feathers. 
Conspicuous among these are the ruffs, or tippets, of some birds, especially of the grebe family 
(Podicipedide), and, above all our other birds, of the male ruff (Machetes pugnar). But 
these, and a few other modifications of the feathers of the upper neck, are more conveniently 
considered with those of the 


Head. — Though smaller than any of the areas already considered, the head has been 
more minutely mapped out, and much detail is required by the number and importance of its 
recognizable parts or regions. Without intending to mention all that have been named, I 
describe all needed to be known for any practical purposes. 

“Top of the head” is a collective term for all the upper surface, from base of bill to 
nape, and laterally to about the level of the upper border of the eyes; this is the pileum or 
“cap” (fig. 25, 1, 4, 6); it is divided into three portions. The forehead, or frontal region, 
or simply ‘‘ the front” (Lat. frons ; fig. 25, 1), includes all that slopes upward from the Dill, 
— generally to about opposite the anterior border of the eyes. Middle head or crown (Lat. 
corona) or vertex (Lat., fig. 25, 1), includes the top of the head proper, or highest part, from 
the rise of the forehead to the fall of the hind-head towards nucha. This slope is the hind-head, 
or occiput (Lat., fig. 25, 6). The lateral border of all three constitutes the superciliary line, 
that is, the line over the cye (Lat. super, over; cilia, little hairs, especially of the brows). 
‘* Crown” is often used as the same thing as pileum. The adjectives of the several words are 
frontal, coronal or vertical, and occipital: pileum has none in use, corvnal being said instead. 

“Side of the head” is a general term defining itself; it presents for consideration several 
regions. The orbital or circumorbital region, or simply the orbit (Lat. orbis, an orb, here the 
socket of the eyeball; fig. 25, 3), is a small space forming a ring around the eye. It includes 
the eye, and especially the eyelids (Lat. palpebre). The points where these meet, in front and 
behind, respectively, are the anterior canthus and posterior canthus (Gr. xavOés, kanthos, Lat. 
canthus, a tire). The orbital region is subdivided into supra-orbital, infra-orbital, ante-orbital, 
aud post-orbital, according as its upper, under, front, or back portion is desired to be specially 
designated. The situation of the orbit varies much in different groups of birds; it is generally 
midway, as said above, but may be higher or lower, jamimed on toward the bill, or pushed far 
up and back, as strikingly shown in the woodeock. In owls, the orbital region is exaggerated 
into a great dise of radiating feathers, conferring a peculiar physiognomy. The azral or 
auricular (Lat. auris, or auriculum, ear; fig. 25, 35) region lies about the external opening 
of the ear, or meatus auditorius ; its position varies in heads of different shapes, but it nearly 
always lies behind and a little below the eye. Wherever located, it may be recognized at a 
glance, by the peculiar texture of the feathers (the azriculars) which overlie the meatus. 
Doubtless to offer least obstacle to sound, these are a parcel of loose-webbed little plumes, 
which may be collectively raised and turned furward, exposing the orifice of the ear; they are 
extremely large and notable in those owls which have complicated external ear parts, and in 
such they form part of the great facial disc. The term ‘‘ temporal region” or “ temple” is not 
often used in ornithology, not being well distinguished from the post-orbital space between eye 
and ear, and having nothing special about it. At the lowermost back corner of the side of the 
head, generally just behind and below the ear, may be scen or felt a hard protuberance ; it is 
the sharpest corner-stone of the head, being the plucc where the lower jaw hinges upon the 

7 


98 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


skull. This is called the ‘angle of the jaw ;” it is a good landmark, which must by no means 
be confused with the ‘angle of the mouth,” where the horny parts of the beak come together. 
The lore (Lat. lorum, a strap, or bridle; hence, place where the cheek-strap passes; fig. 25, 2) 
includes pretty much all the space between the eye and the side of the base of the upper 
mandible; a considerable part of it is simply ante-orbital. Thus we say of a hawk, ‘‘ lores 
bristly ;” and examination of a bird of that kind will show how large a space is covered by the 
term. Lore, however, should properly be restricted to a narrow line between the eye and bill 
in the direction of the nostrils. It is excellently shown in the heron and grebe families, where 
“naked lores” is a distinctive character. The lore is an important place, not only from bemg 
thus marked in many birds, but from being frequently the seat of specially modified or specially 
colored feathers. The rest of the side of the head, including the space between angle of jaw 
and bill, has the name of cheek (Lat. gena, first eyelid, then, and generally, the prominence 
under the eye formed by the cheek-bones; fig. 25, 36). It is bounded above by loral, infra- 
orbital, and auricular regions; below, by a more or less straight line, representing the lower 
edge of the bony prong of the under mandible. It is cleft in front for a varying distance by the 
backward extension of the gape of the mouth; above this gape is more properly gena, or malar 
region (Lat. mala, upper jaw) in strictness; below it is jaw (marilla), or rather ‘side of the 
jaw.” The lower edge of the jaw definitely separates the side of the head from the ‘ under 
surface” of the head; properly bounded behind by an imaginary line drawn straight across from 
one angle of the jaw to the other, and running forward to a pvint between the forks of the 
under inandible. As already hinted, “‘ throat” (gula ; fig. 25, 87) extends upward and forward 
into this space without obvious dividing line ; it runs into chin (Lat. mentum ; fig. 25, 38), of 
which it is only to be said, that it is the (varying in extent) anterior part of the under surface 
of the head. Anteriorly, it may be conveniently marked off, opposite the point where the 
feathers end on the side of the lower jaw, from the feathery space (when any) between the 
branches of the upper mandible itself; this latter is called the interramal space (Lat. inter, 
between, ramus, fork). 

The head is so often marked lengthwise with different colors, apt to take such definite 
position, that these lines have received special names. Dedian vertical line is one along the 
middle of pileum, from base of bill to nucha; lateral vertical lines bound it on either side. 
Supreiliary line has already been noticed; below it runs the lateral stripe; that part of it 
before the eye, is loral or ante-orbital ; behind the eye, post-orbital ; when these are continu- 
ous through the eye, they form a trans-ocular (Lat. trans, across; oculus, eye) line ; below 
this is malar line, or cheek-stripe (Lat. frenwm, a bridle) ; below this, on the under jaw, max- 
alary or submaxillary line ; in the middle below, mental or gular lines. 

No part of the body has so variable a ptilosis as the head. In the great majority of birds 
it is wholly and densely feathered; it ranges from this to wholly naked; but nakedness, it 
should be observed, means only absence of perfect feathers, for most birds with unfeathered 
heads have a hair-like growth of filoplumes on the skin. Our samples of naked-headed birds 
are the turkey, the vultures, the cranes, and some of the heron tribe, as ibises. Associated with 
more or less complete “ baldness,” is the frequent presence of various fleshy outgrowths, as 
combs, wattles, caruncles (warty excrescences), lobes, and flaps of all sorts, even to enumerate 
which would exceed our limits. The parts of the barn-yard eock exemplify the whole; among 
North American birds they are very rare, being confined, in evident development at any rate, 
to the wild turkey. Sometimes horny plates take the place of feathers on part of the head; as 
the frontal shields of the coots and gallinules. A very common form of head-nakedness marks 
one whole order of birds, the Steganopodes, which have mentum and more or less of gula 
naked, and transformed into a sort of pouch, extremely developed in the pelicans, and well seen 
in the cormorants. The next commonest is definite bareness of the lores, as in all herons 
and grebes ; in the former including the whole cireum-orbital region. A little orbital space is 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. ~ TOPOGRAPHY. 99 


bare in many birds, as the vulturine hawks, and some pigeons; species of grouse have a bare 
warty supra-orbital space. Aimong water-birds particularly, more or less of the interramal space 
is ahnost always unfeathered ; the nakedness always proceeds from before backwards. With 
the rare exceptions of a narrow frontal line, and a little space about the angle of the mouth, no 
other special parts of the head than those above given are naked in any North American bird, 
unless associated with general baldness. 

The opposite condition, that of redundant feathering, gives rise to all the various crests 
(Lat., pl. ertste) that form such striking ornaments of many birds. Crests proper belong to 
the top of the head, but may be also held to include those growths on its side; these together 
being called crests in distinction to the ruffs, ruffles, beard, cte., of gula or mentum. Crests 
may be divided into two kinds: 1, where the feathers are simply lengthened or otherwise 
enlarged ; and 2, where the texture, and sometimes even the structure, is altered. Nearly all 
birds possess the power of moving and elevating the feathers on the head, simulating a slight 
crest In moments of excitement. The general form of a crest is a full, soft elongation of the 
coronal feathers collectively; when perfect, such a crest is globular, as in the genus Pyro- 
cephalus ; generally, however, the feathers lengthen on the occiput more than on the vertex 
or front, and this gives us the simplest and commonest form. Such crests, when more par- 
ticularly occipital, are usually connected with lengthening of nuchal feathers, and are likely 
to be of a thin, pointed shape, as well shown in the kingfisher. Coroual or vertical crests 
proper are apt to be rather different in coloration than in specially marked elongation of the 
feathers ; they are perfectly illustrated iu the king-bird, and other species of the genus Tyran- 
nus. Frontal crests are the most elegant of all; they generally rise as a pyrainid from the 
furchead, as excelleutly shown iu the blue jay, cardinal bird, tufted titmouse, and others. All 
the foregoing crests are generally single, but sometimes double ; as shown in the two lateral 
oceipital tufts of the horned” lark, in all the tufted or ‘‘ horned” owls, and in a few cormo- 
rants. Lateral crests are, of course, always double, one on each side of the head; they are of 
various shapes, but need not be particularized here, especially since they mostly belong to the 
second class of crests, — those cousisting of texturally modified feathers. It is a general, though 
not exclusive, character of these last that they are temporary ; while the other kind is ouly 
chauged with the general moult, these are assumed for a short period only, the breeding season ; 
and, furthermore, they are often distinctive of sex. Occurring on the top of the head, they 
furnish the most remarkable ornaments of birds. I need only instance the elegant helmet-like 
plumes of the partridges of the genus Lophortyx ; the graceful flowing train of Oreortyx ; the 
somewhat similar plumes of the night and other herons. The majority of the cormorants, and 
inany of the auks, possess lateral plumes of similar description ; these, and those of the herons, 
are probably — in most, cases certainly — deciduous ; while those of the partridges above men- 
tioned last as long as the general plumage. These lateral plumes, in many birds, especially 
among grebes, are associated with, and, in fact, coalesce with, the ruffs, which are singular 
lengthening and modifying in different ways of feathers of auriculars, gene and gula; and are 
alinost always temporary. Beards, or special lengthening of the mental feathers alone, are 
comparatively rare; we have no good example among our birds, but a European vulture, 
Gypaétus barbatus, is one. The feathers sometimes hecome scaly (squamous), forming, for 
instance, the exquisite gorgelets or frontlets of hummiug-birds. They are often bristly (seta- 
ceous), as about the lores of nearly all hawks, the forehead of the dabchick, meadow-lark, 
etc. <A particular set of bristles, which grow in single series along the gape of many birds, 
are called rictal bristles or vibrisse. These oceur in greater or less development in most sinall 
insectivorous birds; they are large and stiff and highly characteristic of the family Tyrannide, 
or flycatchers; while in some of the goatsuckers (Caprimulgide) they are prodigiously long, 
and in one species of that family (Antrostomus carolinensis) they have lateral filaments. While 
usually all the unlengthened head-feathers point backward, they are sometimes erect, forming 


100 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


a velvety pile, or they may radiate in a circle from a given point, as from the eye in most owls, 
where they form a disc. 

In the foregoing paragraph I only mention a few styles of crests, chietly needed to be 
known in the study of our birds; but should add that there are many others, with endless 
modifications, among exotic birds ; to these, however, I cannot even allude by uname. Peculiar- 
ities of nasal feathers, and others around the base of the bill, are noticed below. Forms of crests 
are illustrated by many of the figures given passim in the present work. 


2. OF THE MEMBERS: THEIR PARTS AND ORGANS. 
I. THE BILL. 


The Bill (Lat. rostrum) is hand and mouth in one: the instrument of prehension. A 
hand, it takes, holds, and earries food or other substances, and in many instances, feels ; as 
mouth, it tears, cuts, or crushes, according to the nature of the substances taken ; assuming 
the functions of both lips and teeth, neither of which du any recent birds possess. An organ 
thus essential to the prime functions of birds, one directly related to their various modes of life, 


wn 


is of much consequence in a taxonomic point of view; yet its structural modifications are so 
various and so variously interrelated, that it is more important in framing genera than families 
or orders ; more constant characters must be employed for the higher groups. The general 
shape of the bill is referable to the cone; it is the anterior part of the general cone that we 
have seen to reach from its point to the base of the skull. This shape confers the greatest 
strength combined with the greatest delicacy ; the end is fine to apprehend the smallest objects, 
while the base is stout to manipulate the largest. But in no bird is the cone expressed with 
entire precision ; and, in most, the departure from this figure is great. The bill always con- 
sists of two, the upper and the lower 


Mandibles (fig. 26), which lie, as their names indicate, above and below, and are sepa- 
rated by a horizontal fissure, — the mouth. Each mandible always consists of certain project- 
ing skull-boues, sheathed with more or less horny integument in lieu 
of true skin. The frame-work of the Upper Mandible is (chiefly) 
a bone ealled the tntermaxillary, or better, in this case, the premaa- 
lary. Iu general, this is a three-pronged or tripodal bone rumning 


abede iB g 


to a point in front, with the uppermost prong, or foot, implanted 
upon the forehead, and the other two, lower and horizontal, running 
into the sides of the front of the skull. The seafftold of the Under 
Mandible is a compound bone called inferior maxillary ; it is U- or 


Fic. 26.—Parts of a Bin, W-shaped, with the point or convexity in front, and the prongs run- 
a, side of upper mandible; ’, ning to cither side of the base of the skull behind, to be there mov- 
culmen; ¢, nasal fossa; <(, 
nostril; e (see below); 7, gape, 
or whole commissural line: g, upper mandible, as the palate bones, ete., together with the horny 
rictus; 2, commissural point a . 
or angle of the mouth; %, ra- ; 
mus of under jaw; j,tomiaof the under, by the joint just mentioned; the upper, either by a 
under mandible (the refer- ;.; ear p , P tig. 8 
: oint at, or by the elasticity > bones > forehead ; $ 
BAGS Vines Oa incor been oEa ey y the ¢ ticity of the bones of, the forehead; it is 
drawn to indicate the corre- moved by a singular muscular and bony apparatus in the palate, 
sponding tomia of upper man- 
dible): &, angle of gonys; /, ae ; zi ; a 
gonys; m, side of under man- (Osteology). The motion of the upper mandible is freest and most 
didle; x, tips of mandibles. — extensive in the parrot tribe, where both fronto-maxillary and 
palato-maxillary sutures exist. When closed, the jaws meet and fit along their apposed edges 
or surfaces, in the same manner and for the same purposes as the lips and teeth of man or 
other vertebrate animals. All bills, thus similarly constituted, have been divided into 


ably hinged. These two bones, with certain accessory bones of the 


investinent, constitute the Jaws. Both jaws, in birds, are movable ; 


further notice of which is given beyond, under head of Anatomy 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.—THE BILL. 101 


Four Classes, representing as many ways in which the two mandibles close upon each 
other at the end. 1. The epignathous (Gr. émi, epi, upon, yudbos, gnathos, jaw) way, plan, or 
type, in which the upper mandible is longer than the under, aud its tip is evidently bent down 
over the tip of the lower. 2. The hypognathous (Gr. tnd, hupo, under), in which the lower 
mandible is longer than the other. 3. The paragnathous (Gr. mapa, para, at or by), in which 
both are of about equal length, and neither is evidently beut over the other. 4. The metagna- 
thous (Gr. pera, meta, with, beside, ete.), in which the points of the mandibles cross each 
other. The second and fourth of these are extremely rare; they are exemplified, respectively, 
by the skimmer and the cross-bill (genera Rhynchops and Loxia). The first is common, 
occurring throughout the birds of prey, the parrots, and among the petrels, gulls, ete., ete. 
The great majority of birds exhibit the third; and, among them, there is such evident grada- 
tion into epignathism, that it is necessary to restrict the latter to its complete development, 
exhibited in the intermaxillary bone divested of its horny sheath, which often, as among fly- 
catchers, etc., forms a little overhanging point, but does not constitute epignathisin. These 
classes, it should be added, though always applicable, and very convenient in descriptions, are 
purely arbitrary, that is, they by no means correspond to any four large groups of birds; but, 
on the contrary, usually only mark families and the subdivisions of families; and the four 
types may be seen in contiguous genera. The general shape of the bill has also furnished 


Other Classes, for many years used as a large basis for ornithological classification, even 
for the establishment of orders; but which the progress of the science has shown to be merely 
as convenient as, and only less arbitrary than, the foregoing. The principal of these are 
represented by the following types: A, among land birds. 1. The fisstrostral (Lat. fissus, 
cleft, and rostrum), or cleft, in which the bill is small, short, and with a very large gap ran- 
ning down the side of the head; as in the swallow, chimney-swift, whippoorwill. 2. The 
tenuirostral (Lat. tenuis, slender), or slender, in which the bill is small, long, and with a short 
cleft ; as in the humming-bird, creeper, nuthatch. 3. The dentirostral (Lat. dens, a tooth), 
or toothed, in which, with a various general shape, there is present a nick, tooth, or evident 
lobe in the opposed edges of one or both mandibles near the end; as in the shrike, vireo, and 
some wrens, thrushes, and warblers. 4. The conirostral (Lat. conus, a cone), or conical, suffi- 
ciently defined by its name, and illustrated by the great finch family and some allied ones. — 
B, among water birds. 5. The longirostral (Lat. longus, long), or long, an aquatic style of 
the tenuirostral, best exhibited in the great snipe family. 6. The presstrostral (Lat. pressus, 
pressed), or the compact, illustrated by the plovers, etc., and quite likely analogous to the 
couirostral. 7. The cultrirostral (Lat. culter, a knife), cutting, perhaps analogous to the 
dentirostral, exemplified in the heron group. None of these terms are now used to indicate 
natural groups, nor have we such absurdities as the ‘ orders” Fisstrostres, Tenwirostres, ete. 
A swallow, for instance, and a swift are equally fissirostral, though ouly distantly related to 
each other ; a swift is very closely related to a humming-bird, though the latter is extremely 
tenuirostral; and birds of contiguous genera may be dentirostral or not. The words are 
nevertheless convenient incidental terms in general descriptions. Various other similar terms, 
expressing special modifications, as lamellirostral (Lat. lamella, a plate), acutirostral (Lat. 
acutus, sharp), ete., are also employed as common names, simply descriptive of 


Other Forms. — A bill is called long, when notably longer than the head proper ; short, 
when notably shorter ; mediewm, in neither of these conditions. It is compressed, when higher 
than wide, at the base at least, and generally for some portion of its length; depressed, when 
wider than high ; terete (Lat. teres, cylindric), under neither of these conditions. It is recurved, 
when curved upward ; decurved, when curved downward; bent, when the variation in either 
direction is at an angle; straight, when not out of line with the axis of the head. A Dill is 


102 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


obtuse (said chiefly of the paragnathous sort) when it rapidly comes to an end that therefore 
is not fine; or when the end is knobby; it is acute when it runs to a sharp point ; acwminate, 
when equally sharp and slenderer; attenuate, when still slenderer; saulate (awl-shaped), 
when slenderer still; acicular (needle-shaped), when slenderest possible, as in some humming- 
birds. A bill is arched, vaulted, turgid, tumid, inflated, ete., when its outlines, both crosswise 
aud lengthwise, are notably more or less convex ; and contracted, when some, or the principal, 
outlines are concave (said chietly of depressions about the base of the upper mandible, or of 
coneavity along the sides of both mandibles). A bill is hamudate (Lat. hamus, a hook), or 
unguiculate (Lat. unguis, a claw), when strongly epignathous, as in rapacious birds, where 
the upper mandible is like the talon of a carnivorous beast; it is dentate, when toothed, as in 
a faleou; if there are a number of similar ‘ teeth,” it is serrate (Lat. serra, a saw), like a saw; 
it is cultrate (knife-like), when extremely compres: 
if much curved as well as cultrate, it is falcate (Lat. falr, a reaping-hook ; seythe-shaped) ; 
and each mandible may be oppositely faleate, as in the cross-bill, coustituting metagnathism. 
A Dill much flattened and widened at the end (rare) is spatulate (Lat. spatula, a spoon) ; 
examples: spoonbill, shoveller duck. Que is ealled /amellate, when it has a series of plates 


and sharp-edged, as in the auk, skimmer ; 


or processes just inside the edges of the mandibles; as in all the duck order, and in a few 
petrels ; the design is to furnish a sifter or strainer of water, just what is effected in the whale, 
by the “bone” in its mouth. Finally, the far end of the bill, of whatever shape, is called the 
tip or apex (fig. 26, n); the near end, joined to the rest of the skull, the base ; the rest is the 
continuity. Some other features of the bill as a whole are best treated under separate head of 


The Covering of the Bill. —(.) In the great majority of birds, including nearly all 
perchers, many walkers, and some waders and swimmers, the sheathing of the mandibles is 
wholly hard, horny, or corneous (Lat. cornu, a horn); it is integument modified mueh as in 
the cas 


of the nails or claws of beasts. In nearly all waders and most swimmers, the sheath 
becomes, wholly or partly, softer, and is of a dense, leathery texture. But some swimmers, as 
among the auks, furnish bills as hard-covered as any, while some perchers have it partly quite 
soft, so that no unexceptional rule can be laid down; and, moreover, the gradations from one 
extreme to the other are inseusible. Probably the softest bill is found among the snipes, where 
it is skinny throughout, and in typical snipes and woodcocks vascular and nervous at the tip, 
becoming a true organ of touch, used to feel for worms out of sight in the mud. In all the duck 
order the bill is likewise soft; but there it is always terminated by a hard, horny, wnguis or 
‘* nail,” more or less distinct ; and such a horny claw also occurs in other water birds with softish 
bills, as the pelican. An interesting modification occurs in all, or nearly all, of the pigeon order ; 
these birds have the Will hard or hardish at tip and through most of continuity, but towards 
and at the base of the upper mandible the sheath changes to a soft, tumid, skinny texture, 
overarching the nostrils; it is much the same with most plovers. But the most importaut 
feature in this connection is afforded by the parrots and all the birds of prey ; one so remarkable 
that it has received a distinct name: CeRE. The cere (Lat. cera, wax; because it looks 
waxy) is a dense membrane saddled on the upper mandible at base, so different from the rest 
of the bill, that it might be questioned whether it does not more properly belong to the head than 
to the bill, were it not for the fact that the nostrils open in it. Moreover, the cere is ofteu 
densely feathered, as in the Carolina paroquet, in the bill proper of which no nostrils are seen, 
these being hidden in the feathered cere, which, therefore, inight easily be mistaken at first sight 
for the bird’s forehead. A sort of false cere occurs in some water birds, as the jaegers, or skua- 
gulls (genus Stercorarius). The tumid nasal skin of pigeous is sometimes called a cere; but 
the term had better be restricted to the birds first above named. The under mandible probably 
never presents softening except as a part of general skinniness of the bill; it may have a nail 
at the end. (b.) The covering is either entire or pieced. In most birds it is entire ; that is, the 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— THE BILL. 103 
sheath of either mandible may be pulled off whole, like the finger of a glove. It is, however, 
in many birds divided iuto parts, by various lines of slight connection, and then comes off iu 
pieces; as is the case with some water birds, particularly petrels, where the divisions are reeu- 
lar, and the pieces have received distinctive names. Many auks (Alcid@) have the cove 


ing 
of the bill in particular pieces, and it is un extraordinary fact that such parts are of a secondary 
sexual character (see p. 90), being assumed at the breeding season aud afterwards moulted 
like feathers. Such condition of the sheath of the beak, or of special developmeuts of the 
sheath, is called caducous or deciduous. ‘The entire covering of both jaws together is called 
rhamphotheca (Gr. pappos, hramphos, beak; O@yxn, theke, a sheath); of the upper alone, 
rhinotheca (Gr. pis, hris, the nose) ; of the under, yuuthotheca (Gr. yrabos, gnathos, jaw) ; but 
these terms are not much used. (¢.) The covering is otherwise variously inarked ; sometimes 
so strongly that similar features are impressed upon the hones themselves beneath. The most 
frequent marks are various ridges (Lat. pl. carine, keels) of all lengths and degrees of expres- 
sion, straight or curved, vertical, oblique, horizontal, lengthwise, or transverse; a bill so 
inarked is said to be striate (Lat. stria, a streak) or carinate ; when numerous and irregular, 
they are called rage (Lat. ruga, a wrinkle) and the bill is said to be corrugated or rugose, 
When the elevations are in points or spots instead of lines, they are called puncta (Lat. punc- 
tum, a point); a bill so furnished is punctate, but the last word is oftener employed to designate 
the presence of little pits or depressions, as in the dried bill of a snipe towards the end. Larger 
softish, irregular knobs or elevations pass under the general name of warts or papille, and a 
bill so marked is papillose ; when the processes are very large and soft, the bill is said to be 
carunculate (Lat. caro, flesh, diminutive caranculus, little bit of flesh). Various linear depres- 
sions, often but not always associated with carine, are grooves or sulci (Lat. sulcus, a furrow) 
and the bill is then called suleate. Sulei, like cariue, are of all shapes, sizes, and positions ; 
when very large and definite, they are sometimes called canaliculi, or channels. The various 
knobs, ‘‘ horns,” and large special features of the bill cannot be here particularized. Any of 
the foregoing features may occur on both mandibles, and they are exclusive of that special 
mark of the upper the nasal fossa in which the nostrils open, and which is considered below. 
We have still to notice the special parts of either mandible; and will begin with the 
simplest, the 


Under Mandible.-—JIn the majority of birds it is a little shorter and a little narrower and 
not nearly so deep as the upper; but sometimes quite as large, or even larger. The upper 
edge, double (7. ¢., there is an edge on both sides), is called the mandibular tomawm, or in the 
plural, tomia (Gr. réuvew, temnein, to cut; fig. 26,7), as fur as it is hard; this is received 
against, and usually a little within, the corresponding edge of the upper mandible. The 
prougs already mentioned are the mandibular rami (pl. of Lat. ramus, a branch; fig. 26, ¢) ; 
these meet at some point in front, either at a short angle (like >) or with a rounded joiming 
(like). At their point of union there is a prominence, more or less marked (fig. 26, k) ; 
this is the Gonys (corrupted from the Gr. ydévu, gouu, a knee; hence, any similar protuber- 
ance). That is to say, this point is gonys proper; but the term is extended to apply to the 
whole line of union of the raini, from gonys proper to the tip of the under mandible; and in 
descriptions it means, then, the under outline of the bill for a corresponding distance (fig. 26, 2). 
This important term must be understood; it is constantly used in describing birds. The 
gonys is to the under mandible what the keel is to a boat; it is the opposite of the ridge or 
culmen of the wpper mandible. It varies greatly in leugth. Ordinarily it forms, say, one- 
half to three-fourths of the under outline. Sometimes, as in conirostral birds, a sparrow for 
example, it represents nearly all this outline ; while in a few birds it makes the whole, and in 
soine, as the puffin, is actually longer than the lower mandible proper, because it extends back- 
wards in a point. Other birds may have almost no gonys at all; as a pelican, where the rami 


104 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


only meet at the extreme tip, or in the whole duck family, where there is hardly more. As 
the student must see, the length of the gonys is simply a matter of how extensive is the fusion 
of the rami, and that, similarly, their mode of fusion, as in a sharp ridge, a flat surface, a 
straight line, a curve, ete., results in corresponding modifications of its special shape. The 
interramal space is complementary to length of gonys: sometimes it runs to the tip of the bill, 
as in a pelican, sometimes there is next to none, as in a puffin; while its width depends upon 
the degree of divergence, and the straightness or curvature, of the rami. The surface between 
the tomium and lower edge of rami and gonys together is the side of the under mandible 
(fig. 26, m). The most important feature of the 


Upper Mandible is the culmen (Lat. for top of anything; fig. 26, b). The culmen is to 
the upper mandible what the ridge is to the roof of a house; it is the upper profile of the bill 
—the highest middle lengthwise line of the bill ; it begins where the feathers end on the fore- 
head, and extends to the tip of the upper mandible. According to the shape of the bill it may 
be straight or convex, or concave, or even somewhat v-shaped ; or double-convex, as in the 
tufted puffin: but in the great majority of cases it is convex, with increasing convexity towards 
the tip. Sometimes it rises up into a thin elevated crest, as well shown in the genus Cro- 
tophaga, and in the puffins (Pratercula), when the upper mandible is said to be keeled, and the 
culmen itself to be cultrate ; sometimes it is really a furrow instead of a ridge, as toward the 
end of a snipe’s bill; but generally it is simply the uppermost ne of union of the gently con- 
vex and sloping sides of the upper mandible (fig. 26, a). Ina great many birds, especially 
those with depressed Dill, as all the ducks, there is really no culmen; but then the median 
lengthwise line of the surface of the upper mandible takes the place and name of culmen. 
The culmen generally stops short about opposite the proper base of the bill; then the feathers 
sweep across its end, and downwards across the base of the sides of the upper mandible, 
usually also obliquely backwards. Variations in both directions from this standard are 
frequent; the feathers may run out in a point on the culmen, shortening the latter, or the 
eulmen may run a way up the forehead, parting the feathers; either in a point, as in the rails 
and gallinaceous birds, or as a broad plate of horn, as in the coots and gallinules. The lower 
edge (double) of the upper mandible is the maxillary tomium, as far backward as it is hard 
and horny. The most conspicuous feature of the upper mandible in most. birds is the 


Nasal Fossa (Lat. fossa, a ditch), or nasal groove (fig. 26, c), in which the nostrils open. 
The upper prong of the intermaxillary bone is usually separated some ways from the two 
lateral prongs; the skinny or horny sheath that stretches betwixt them is usually sunken 
below the general level of the bill, especially in those birds where the prongs are long or 
widely separated; this ‘‘ ditch” is what we are about. It is called fossa when short and wide, 
with varying depth ; saleus or groove when long and narrow; the former is well illustrated in 
the gallinaceous birds; the latter in nearly all wading birds and many swimmers. When the 
intermaxillary prongs are soldered throughout, or are very short and close together, there is 
no (or no evident) nasal depression, the nostrils then opening flush with the level of the 
pill. The 


Nostrils (fig. 26, d), two in number, vary in position as follows :— they are lateral, when 
on the sides of the upper mandible (almost always); culminal, when together on the ridge 
(rare); superior or inferior when evidently above or below midway betwixt culmen and tomia; 
they are basal, when at the base of the upper mandible; swb-basal when near it (usual) ; 
median when at or near the middle of the upper mandible (frequent, as in cranes, geese, ete.) : 
terminal when beyond this (very rare; probably there are now no birds with nostrils at the 
end of the bill, except the Apteryx). The nostrils are pervious, when open, as in nearly all 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— THE BILL. 105 


birds; émpervious, when not visibly open, as among cormorants and other birds of the same 
order ; they are perforate when there is no septum (partition) between thei, so that you can 
look through them from one side of the bill to the other, as in the turkey-buzzard, crane, ete. ; 
imperforate wheu partitioned off from each other, as in most birds ; but different ornithologists 
use these terms interchangeably. The principal shapes of the nostrils may be thus exhibited : 
—a_line, linear nostrils; a line variously enlarged at cither end, clavate, club-shaped, oblong, 
ovate nostrils ; a line, enlarged in the middle, oval or elliptic nostrils; this passing insensibly 
into the circle, round or circular nostrils ; and the various kinds of more or less linear nostrils 
may be either longitudinal, as in most birds, or oblique, as in a few; almost never directly 
transverse (up and down). Rounded uostrils may have a raised border or rim; when this is 
prolonged they are called tubular, as in some of the goatsucker family, and iu all the petrels. 
Usually, the nostrils are defined entirely by the substance surrounding them; thus, of cere, in a 
hawk; of softish skin, in a pigeon, plover or snipe; or of horn, in most birds ; but often their 
contour is partly formed by a special development, somewhat distinct either in form or texture, 
and this is called the nasal scale. Generally, it forms a sort of overhanging arch or portico, 
as well shown in all the gallinaceous birds, among the wrens, ete. A very curious case of 
this is seen in the European wryneck (Iynx torquilla), where the seale forms the floor instead 
of the roof of the nostrils. The nostrils also vary in being feathered or naked; the nasal fossa 
being a place where the frontal feathers are apt to run out in points (called anti@), embracing 
the root of the culmen. This extension may completely fill and hide the fossa, as in many 
grouse and ptarmigan ; but it oftener runs for a varying distance toward, or above and beyond, 
the nostrils ; sometimes similarly below them, as in a chimney-swift ; and the nostrils may be 
densely feathered when there is no evident fossa, as in an auk. When thus truly feathered in 
varying degree, they are still open to view; another condition is, their being covered over 
and hidden by modified feathers not growing on the Dill itself, but ou the forehead. These 
are usually bristle-like (setaceous), and form two tufts, close-pressed and directed forwards, as 
is perfectly shown in a crow; or, the feathers may be less modified in texture, and form either 
two tufts, one over each nostril, or a single ruff, embracing the whole base of the upper 
mandible; as in nuthatehes, titmice, red-poll linnets, snow buntings and many other northern 
Fringillide. Bristles or feathers thus growing forwards are called retrorse (Lat. retrorsum, 
backward; here used in the sense of im an opposite direction from the lay of the general 
plumage ; but they should properly be called antrorse, 7. e., forward). The nostrils, whether 
culininal or lateral, are, like the eyes and ears, always two in number, though they may be 
united in one tube, as in the petrels. 


The Gape. —It only remains to consider what results from the relations of the two 
mandibles to each other. When the bill is opened, there is a cleft or fissure between them ; 
this is the gape or rictus (Lat. rictus, mouth in the act of grinning). But while thus really 
meaning the open space between the mandibles, it is generally used to signify the line of their 
closure. Commissure (Lat. committere, to put or join together) means the point where the 
gape ends behind, that is, the angle of the mouth, angulus oris, where the apposed edges of the 
mandibles join each other; but, as in the last case, it is loosely applied to the whole line of 
closure, from true commissure to tip of the bill. So we say, ‘‘ commissure straight,” or ‘ eom- 
imissure curved ;” also, ‘‘ commissural edge” of either nandible (equivalent to “ tomial edge”) 
in distinction from culmen or gonys. But it would be well to have more precision in this 
matter. Let, then, tomia (fig. 26, 7) be the true cutting edges of either mandible from tip to 
opposite base of bill proper; rictus (fig. 26, g) be their edges thence to the POINT commis- 
sure (fig. 26, h) where they join when the bill is open; the LINE commissure (fig. 26, f) to 
include both when the Dill is closed. The gape is straight, when rictus and tomia are both 
straight and lie in the same line ; curved, sinuate, when they lie in the same curved or waved 


° 


106 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


line ; angulated, when they are straight, or nearly so, but do not lie in the same line, and 


therefore meet at an angle. 
Synopsis.) 


(An important distinction. 


II. THE WINGS. 


See under family Fringillide in the 


Definition. — Pair of anterior or pectoral limbs organized for flight by means of dermal 
outgrowths. Used for this purpose by birds in general ; but by ostriches and their allies only 


D 


‘iG, 27.— Bones of right wing of a duck, Clangula islandica, from above, 
Juat. size. (Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A.) A, shoulder, omos; 3B, elbow, ancon ; 
C, wrist. carpus ; D, end of principal finger; 2, end of hand proper, metacarpus. 
AB, upper arm, brachium; BC, fore-arm, antibrachium; ( D, whole hand 
or pinion, manus ; composed of CL, hand proper or metacarpus, excepting d ?; 
ED, or d? d3, d4, tingers, digits, digiti. h, humerus; rd, radius ; ul, ulne ; 
outer carpal, scapholunare or radiale ; cu, inner carpal, cunciforme or ulnare ; 
these two composing wrist or carpus. mc, the compound hand-bone, or meta- 
carpus, composed of three metacarpal bones, bearing as many digits — the outer 
digit seated upon a protuberance at the head of the metacarpal, the other two 
situated at the end of the bone. d2, the outer or radial digit, commonly called 
the thumb or pollev, composed of two phalanges; d%, the middle digit, of two 
phalanges; d4, the inner or ulnar digit, of one phalanx dd? is the seat of the 
feathers of the bastard wing or alula, D to C (whole pinion), seat of the flight- 
feathers called primaries; C to B (fore-arm), seat of the secondaries ; at Band 
above it in direction of 4, seat of tertiarics proper; below A, in direction of B, 
seat of scapularies (upon pteryla humeralis), often called tertiaries The wing 
shown half-spread: complete extension would bring 4 BCD into a right line; 
in complete folding C goes to 4, and /) to B; all these motions nearly in the 
plane of the paper. The elbow-joint and wrist are such perfect hinges, that, in 
opening or closing the wing, ( cannot sink below the paper, nor D fly up above 
the paper, as would otherwise be the effect of the pressure of the air upon the 
flight-feathers. Observe also: rd and wl are two rods connecting Band C; the 
construction of their jointing at 2 and C, and with each other, is such, that they 
ean slide lengthwise a little upon each other. Now when the point (, revolving 
about B, approaches 4 in the are of a circle, rd pushes on sc, while w/ pulls back 
cu; the motion is transmitted to D, and makes this point approach 3B. Con- 
verscly, in opening the wing, rd pulls back sc, and w/ pushes on cuz, making D 
recede from B. In other words, the angle A BC cannot be increased or dimin- 
ished without similarly increasing or diminishing the angle B C1); so that no 
part of the wing can be opened or shut withont automatically opening or shut- 
ting the rest, — an interesting mechanism by which muscular power is corre- 
lated and economized. ‘This latter mechanism is further illustrated in fig. 28, 
where rc and we show respectively the size, shape and position of the radial con- 
dyle and ulnar condyle of the humerus. It is evident that in the flexed state of 
the elbow, as shown in the middle figure, the radius, rd, is so pushed upon that 
its end projects beyond w/, the ulna; while in the opposite condition of extension, 
shown in the lower figure, rd is pulled back to a corresponding extent. 


sc, 


as outriggers to aid running; 
by penguins as fins for swim- 
ming under water; used also 
in the latter capacity by some 
birds that tly well, as divers, 
cormorants, dippers. Want- 
ing in uo recent birds, but 
imperfect in a few, as all 
Ratite ; greatly reduced in 
the Emeu, Cassowary, aud 
Apteryx ; also in the Moas 
(Dinornis) ; in the Creta- 
ceous Hesperornis ouly the 
rudimentary 

To 


structure 


humerus — is 
known. understand 


their we must 


notice particularly 


The Bony Framework 
(figs. 27, 28, 29). — The 
skeletou of a bird’s wing is 
built upon a plan common 
to the fore or pectoral limb 
of all the higher vertebrates, 
so that its bones and joints 
may readily be compared 
and identified with 
of any lizard or mammal, 
But the 
member is highly special- 


those 
including man. 


ized; being fitted for accom- 
plishing flight, not only by 
the development of feathers, 
but also by modifications in 
The 
axes of the bones have a 
special direction with refer- 
ence to each other and to 
the axes of the body; the 
movements of the joints are 


the bones themselves. 


peculiar in some respects}; 
and the whole extremity of 
the wing, from the wrist 
outward, is peculiarly con- 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— THE WINGS. 107 


structed, by loss of some of the digits that five-fingered animals possess, and by the compres- 
sion of those that are left. The wing proper begins at the shoulder-joint, where it hinges 
freely upon the shoulder, in a shallow socket formed conjoimtly by the shoulder-blade or 
scapula, and by the coracoid 
bone; these two, with the 
clavicles, collar-bones or mer- 
ry-thought, furculum, form- 
ing the shoulder-girdle, or 
pectoral arch (figs. 56, 59). 
The wing ordinarily con- 
sists, in adult life, of ten or } 
eleven actually separate bones ; 
in the embryo (see fig. 29) 
there are indications of several 
more at the wrist-joint, which 
speedily lose their individual 
identity by fusing together 
and with bones of the hand. 
Aside from these, there is 
often an accessory ossicle at Fic. 28.— Mechanism of elbow-joint. (See explanation of fig. 27.) 


the shoulder-joint (fig. 56, os), sometimes one at the wrist-joiut, occasionally an extra bone at 
the end of the principal finger. The normal or usual number is shown in fig. 27, taken from 
a duck (Clangula islandica), in which there are eleven. 

The upper arm-bone, h, reaching from the shoulder A 
to the elbow B, is the humerus. In the closed wing, the 
humerus lies nearly in the position of the same bone in man 
when the elbow is against the side of the body; in extension 
of the wing, the elbow is borne away from the body, as when 
we raise the ann, but carry it neither forward nor backward. 
A peculiarity of the bird’s humerus is, that it is rotated on 
its axis through about the quadrant of a circle, so that what 
is the front of the human bone is the outer aspect in the 
bird. The humerus is a cylindric bone, straightish or some- 
what italic f-shaped, with a globular head to fit the socket 
of the shoulder, a strong pectoral ridge for insertion of the 
breast muscles, and at the bottom two condyles (fig. 28, re, 
uec,) or joint-surfaces for articulation with a pair of succeed- 
ing bones. The fore-arm, cubet or antibrachium, extending 
from elbow to wrist, B to C, in fig. 27, has two parallel 
bones of about equal lengths. These are the wlna, ul, and 
the radius, rd; the former, inner and posterior, the larger 
of the two, bearing the quills of the secondary series ; the 
latter, slenderer, outer and anterior. The enlarged proximal 


extremity of the ulna is called the olecranon, or ‘‘ head of the 

Fria. 29, from a young grouse (Centrocercus wrophasianus, six months old), is designed to show the composi- 
tion of the carpus and metacarpus before the elements of these bones fuse together: 7, radius; wv, ulna; s, scaph- 
olunar or radiale; c, cuneiform or ulnare; om, a carpal bone believed to be os magnum, later fusing with the 
metacarpus; z, a carpal bone, supposed to be unciform, later fusing with metacarpus; 8, an unidentified fifth 
carpal bone, which may be called pentosteon, later fusing with the metacarpus; 7, radial or outer metacarpal 
bone, bearing the pollex or outer digit, consisting of two phalanges, d@ and i; 91, principal (median) metacarpal 
bone, bearing the middle finger, consisting of the two phalanges, @/, d/’ ; 9, inner or ulnar metacarpal, bearing a 
digit of one phalanx, d//’, The pieces marked om, <, 7, 8, 9. all fuse with 9’. (From nature by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, 
U.S.A.) 


108 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


elbow.” The third segment of the wing is the wrist or carpus. In adult life, this normally 
consists of two little knobby carpal bones, extremely irregular in shape,called the scapholunar, 
sc, and cuneiform, cu. One being at the end of the radius, the other at that of the ulna, they 
_are also called radiale and ulnare. In the embryo, there is at least another carpal bone, that 
early fuses with the next segment. This fourth segmeut is the hand proper, or metacarpus, 
me, C to E (exclusive of d 2). The single metacarpal or hand-bone is very composite; that 
is, compounded of several; for, besides including certain carpal eleinents, as already said, it 
consists of three bones fused (in all recent birds) in one, corresponding to the three digits or 
fingers that birds possess. In fact it is three metacarpals in one. The metacarpal corre- 
sponding to the principal finger is much the largest of the three: that of the first finger is very 
short, being only the expanded part seen in the figure just above the bone marked d 2; that 
of the third finger is nearly as long as the main metacarpal, but much slenderer, and usually 
fused only at its two ends, leaving between itself and the main metacarpal a considerable 
space, as seen opposite the letters me in the figure. The wing is finished off with three 
fingers or digits, marked d 2, d3, d4. The middle one of these, H to D in the figure, is 
much the largest, and forms the main continuation of the hand. This digit, d 3, ordinarily 
consists of two bones, called phalanges, placed end to end, as in the example before us; but 
occasionally there is found a third phalanx. The outer or radial digit, d@2, ordinarily con- 
sists of two bones, of which the terminal one is small, and may be wanting. The inner or 
ulnar digit, d4, consists of a single sinall phalanx, closely bound to the side of the middle 
finger. Corresponding to the compactness and consolidation of these terminal segments, the 
digits enjoy little individual motion. The outer or radial digit is the most independent one. 
In the Archaeopteryx the three metacarpals were free bones, and the whole hand more like 
that of a lizard. No bird now has free metacarpals in adult life; none has more than three 
digits. These three are supposed by some to correspond to the thumb and fore and middle 
fingers of our hands; by others, to the fore, middle, and ring fingers, and being consequently 
the second, third, and fourth digits, as marked in the figure. The digit marked dQ is com- 
monly called a bird’s thumb or pollex. The Apteryx and the cassowary have but one complete 
digit. The resemblance to a lizard’s or quadruped’s digits is increased by the claws which 
many birds possess. These may be borne on the enlarged terminal phalanx of d 2 (k, in 
fig. 29), as is very well shown in the turkey-buzzard and other American Cathartide ; both on 
this and on the terminal phalanx of d 3 (d” in fig. 29), as in the ostrich; on the latter alone, 
as in the Apteryx, cassowary, American ostrich, and swan. The inner finger, d 4 (d/” in 
fig. 29) is not known to ever bear a claw, excepting in Archeopteryx. The whole segment, 
C to D, is commonly called ‘‘ the hand,” “ pinion,” or manus, though, as we have seen, it consists 
of hand proper (metacarpus), and fingers (digits) with their respective phalanges. (Fig. 112 ter.) 

Some other bones are observed in birds’ wings. As already said, there isa little ossicle in 
the shoulder-joint of many birds ; it is called the scapula accessoria (fig. 56, ohs). At the con- 
vexity of the elbow there may be one or more ossicles, not pertaining properly to the wing- 
skeleton, but developed in the tendons of muscles passing over the joint: they are sesamoids, 
like the human patella, or knee-cap. In various birds there is found at the convexity of the 
wrist, on the head of the metacarpal, an ossicle called the os prominens ; apparently a 
sesamoid. Some other ossicles observed in the wrists of young birds are all supposed to be 
carpal elements, the exact homologies of which may be still questioned., 


The Mechanism of these Bones is admirable. The shoulder-joint is free, much like 
our own, permitting the humerus to swing all about ; though the principal motions are to and 
from the side of the body (adduction and abduction), and up and down in a vertical plane. 
The elbow-joint is a very strict hinge, permitting motion in one plane, nearly that of the wing 
itself. The finger-bones have little individual motion. The construction of the wrist-joint is 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.—THE WINGS. 109 


quite peculiar. In the first place the two bones of the forearm are so fixed in relation to each 
other, that the radius cannot roll over the ulna, like ours. If you stretch your arm upon the 
table, you can, without moving the elbow, turn the hand over so that either the palm or the 
‘knuckles are downward. This is a rotary motion of the bones of the forearin, called pronation 
and supination ; the prone when the palm touches the table, supine when the knuckles are 
downward. This rotation is absent from the bird’s arm; if it could occur, the action of the air 
upon the pinion-feathers would throw them all “ at sea” during the strokes of the wing, render- 
ing flight difficult or impossible. The hingeing of the hand upon the wrist is such, also, that the 
hand does not move up and down, as ours can, in a plane perpendicular to the surface of the 
wing, but in the same plane as that surface. The motion is that which would take place in our 
hand if we could bring the little finger and its border of the hand so far around as to touch the 
corresponding border of the forearm. It is a motion of adduction, not of Hexion, and its opposite, 
abduction, not extension, by which a wing is folded and spread. Such abduction is the way in 
which the hand is ‘‘ extended” upon the wrist-joint, increasing and completing the unfolding 
of the wing that begins by the true extension of the forearm upon the elbow and abduction of 
the upper arm from the body. In a word, a wing is spread by the motion of abduction at the 
shoulder and wrist, of extension at the elbow; it is closed by adduction at the shoulder and 
wrist, and flexion at the elbow. The numerous museles which unfold or straighten out the 
wing are called extensors ; those that bend or close it are flecors. Extensors lie upon the back 
of the upper arm, and the front of the forearm and hand, their ‘‘ leaders” or tendons passing 
over the convexities of the elbow and of the wrist. The flexors occupy the opposite sides of the 
limb, with tendons in the concavities of the joints. The most powerful muscles of the wings 
are the great pectoral or breast muscles, acting upon the upper eud of the humerus; there are 
several of them, exerted in throwing out the arm from the body, and in giving both the up and 
down wing-strokes. Tendons are generally strong inelastic cords ; but there is an interesting 
arrangement of an elastic cord in a bird’s wing. In fig. 27, A BC is a deep angle formed by 
the naked bones, but nove such is visible from the exterior, because the space is filled by a 
fold of skin passing from C to near d. But C approaches and recedes from A as the wing 
is folded or unfolded, and a cord long enough to reach A—C' would be slack in the folded wing, 
did uot its elasticity enable it to contract and stretch, keeping the anterior border of the wing 
straight and smooth. (For another automatic mechanism, see explauation of fig. 28.) 

The point C is a highly important landmark in practical ornithology ; it represents, in 
any folded wing, a very prominent point, the distance from which to the tip of the longest 
flight-feather is a special measurement knowu as that of ‘the wing.” It is the convexity of 
the carpus, commonly called the ‘‘ carpal angle,” or ‘‘ bend of the wing.” Having thus glanced 
at the bony structure and mechanism of the wing, we are ready to examine the 


Feathers of the Wing (fig. 30). — How important these are will be evident from the 
consideration that they are the bird’s chief organs of locomotion ; for without them the wing 
would be useless for flight. We also remember that such means of locomotion is the great 
specialty of birds. Wing-feathers are those which grow upou the pteryla alaris. They are 
of two main sorts: the flight-feathers proper, or long stiff quills, collectively called remiges 
(Lat. remex, pl. vemiges, rowers) ; and the smaller, weaker feathers overlying them, and hence 
called coverts, or tectrices (Lat. tectria, pl. tectrices, coverers). To these may be added as a 
third distinct group the bastard quills, which constitute the 


Alula, or Ala Spuria (Lat. aluia, little wing, diminutive of ala, wing ; spuria, spurious, 
bastard). The ‘‘little wing” is simply the small parcel of feathers which grow upon the 
thumb” (see fig. 27,2; 29, dandk; 30, al). Highly significant as these may be in a mor- 
phological point of view, as representing what this part of the wing may have been in early times, 


110 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


they are so much reduced in modem birds as to be of little account in practical ornithology. 
In fact, the unpractised student may fail to recognize them at first. They form a small packet 
on the fore outer border of the pinion near the carpal angle, and lie smoothly upon the upper 
surface of the wing, strengthening and finishing off what would be otherwise a weak spot in 
the contour of the wing-border. It is quite easy, on recognizing them, to lift them collectively 
a little away from the other feathers, owing to the slight mobility the thumb possesses. In fact, 
they are sometimes quite obtrusive, when faulty taxidermy has discomposed them. They are 
not often conspicuously modified either in size or color. In a few birds (e.g., Cathartes), a claw 
will be found at the end of the joint which bears them. The student must be careful to dis- 
criminate between the use of the word spurious in the present connection and its application 
to a rudimentary condition of the first remex (see p. 113). The 


Wing-Coverts overlie the bases of the large quills on both the upper and under surfaces 
of the wing. They are therefore conveniently divided into an upper set (tectrices superiores) 
and an under set (tect. inferiores). The former are so inuch more conspicuous than the latter 
that they are always under- 


stood when ‘‘ 


upper” is not 
specified. The latter are 
sometimes collectively called 
“the lining of the wings.” 
Coverts include all the small 
feathers of the wings except- 
ing the bastard quills; they 
extend a varying distance 
along the bases of the flight- 
feathers. The ordinary dis- 
position and division of the 
upper coverts is as follows : 
One set, rather long and stif- 
fish, grow upon the pinion, 
and are close-pressed upon 
the bases of the outer nine 


; F or ten remiges, covering 
Fic. 30. — Feathers of a sparrow’s wing; nat. size. (Jor explanation sce text.) . 

these large feathers about as 
far as their structure is plumulaceous. These are the wpper PRIMARY coverts, or coverts of the 
primaries (fig. 30, pe) ; they are ordinarily the least conspicuous of any. All the rest of the 
upper coverts are SECONDARY; they spring mostly from the forearm. These are considered in 
three groups or rows. The greater upper secondary coverts, called simply the “greater coverts” 
(tectrices majores, fig. 30, gsc,) are the first, outermost, longest row, reaching nearest the tips of 
the flight-feathers; they overlie the bases of nearly all the remi; 
ten. The median upper secondary coverts, shortly known as the ‘ middle coverts” (tectrices 
media), are a next row, shorter and therefore less exposed, but still quite evidently forming a 
special scries (fig. 80, msc). It is a common feature of these median coverts that they shingle 
over each other contrary-wise to the way the greater coverts are imbricated, the outer vane of 
one being under the inner vane of the next outer one. All the rest of the upper secondary 


s, excepting the first nine or 


coverts, forming several indistinguishable rows, pass under the general name of lesser coverts 
(tectrices minores ; fig. 30, bc). The greater coverts furnish an excellent zodlogical character ; 
for in no Passeres are they more than half as long as the remiges they cover, while the reverse 
is the case in most birds of lower orders. Woodpeckers, however, though non-passerine, have 
quite short coverts. The ender coverts have the same general arrangement as the upper; but 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.—THE WINGS. 111 


they are more alike and less distinctly disposed in rows or series; so that for practical purposes 
they pass under the general name of under wing-coverts, or lining of the wing. Since, when 
the wing is particularly marked on the under side, it is the coverts and not the remiges that are 
highly or variously colored, the common expression ‘ wing below,” or ‘ under surface of the 
wing,” refers to the coverts more particularly. We should distinguish, however, from the under 
coverts in general, the axillars, or axillary feathers (Lat. axilla, the arm-pit). These are the 
innermost feathers lining the wings, lying close to the body; almost always longer, stiffer, 
narrower, or otherwise peculiarly modified. In ducks, for example, and many of the waders, 
as snipe and plover, they are remarkably well developed. The color of the axillaries is the 
principal distinction between some species of plovers. The 


Remiges, or Flight-Feathers (fig. 30, b, s, and ¢),give the wing its general character, 
mainly determining both its size and its shape; they represeut most of its surface and of its 
inner and outer borders, and all of its posterior outline, forming a great expansion of which the 
bony and fleshy framework is insignificant in comparison. The shape of the wing is indeed 
primarily affected by the relative lengths of its bony segments, the upper arm being, in a 
humming-bird, for example, very short in comparison with the terminal portion of the limb, 
and in an albatross again, both upper and forearm being greatly lengthened ; still in any case 
it is the flight-feathers that mainly determine the contour of the wing, by their absolute degree 
of development, their lengths proportionately to one another, and their individual shapes. They 
collectively form a thin, elastic, fattened surface for striking the air, quite firm along the front 
border where the bone and muscle lie, thence growing more mobile and resilient toward the 
posterior border and along the outer edge. Such surface may be quite flat, as in such birds us 
cut the air with long, pvinted wings, like oar-blades ; but it is generally a little concave under- 
neath and correspondingly convex above ; such arching or vaulting of the wing-surface being 
usually associated with a short, broad, rounded wing, as in the gallinaceous tribe, and being 
least in birds which have the thinnest and sharpest wings. Corresponding differences in the 
mode of flight result. The short, rounded wing confers a powerful though labored flight for 
short distances, usually accompanied by a whirring noise resulting from the rapidity of the 
wing-beats; birds that fly thus are almost always thickset and heavy. The long, pointed 
wing gives a noiseless, airy, skimming flight, indefinitely prolonged, and accomplished with 
more deliberate wing-beats ; birds of this style of wing are generally trim and elegant. These, 
of course, are merely generalizations of the extremes uf modes of flight, mixed and gradated 
in every degree in actual bird-life. Thus the humming-bird, which has sharp, thin wings, 
whirs them fastest of all birds, —so rapidly that the eye cannot follow the strokes, merely 
perceiving a haze about the bird while the ear hears the buzzing. The combination of acute- 
ness and concavo-convexity is a remarkably strong one, conferring a rapid, vigorous, whistling 
flight, as that of a duck or pigeon, or the splendid hurtling of a falcon. An ample wing, as 
one both long and broad without being pointed is called, is well displayed by such birds as 
herons, ibises, and cranes; the flight may be strong and sustained, but is rather slow and 
heavy. The longest-winged birds are found among the swimmers, particularly the pelagic 
fainily of the petrels, and some of the whole-webbed order, as pelicans, particularly the frigate- 
pelican. The last named, Tachypetes aquilus, has perhaps the longest wings for its bulk of 
body of any bird whatever, as well as the shortest feet. The American vultures are likewise 
of great alar expanse in proportion to their weight. The shortest wings, among birds possess- 
ing perfect remiges, occur among the lower swimimers, as auks and divers, and among some 
of the Galline. The great auk is, or was, perhaps the only flightless bird with well-formed 
flight-feathers, only too small to subserve their usual purpose; though certain South American 
ducks are said to be in similar predicament. In the penguins, the whole wing-structure is 
degraded, and the remiges abort in scale-like feathers, the wings being reduced to fins boti 


112 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


in form and function. The whole of the existing Ratite have rudimentary or very imperfect 
wings, as was the case with the Cretaceous Hesperornis ; but the contemporary of the latter, 
Icthyornis, and the still more ancient Archeopteryx, appear both to have had excellent ones. 

The disposition of the remiges in their mutual relations is very noteworthy. They have 
a rigid hollow barrel of great resistant powers, cousidering the amount of substance, —just 
like the cylindrical stem of the cereal plant; a stout, solid, highly elastic shaft; the outer web 
narrower than the inner, with its barbs set at a more acute angle upon the shaft. Any one 
of these stiffer outer vanes overlies the broader and more yielding inner vane of the next outer 
feather, which, on receiving the impact of air from below, resists as it were with the strength of 
a second shaft superimposed. Though the “way of an eagle in the air” was a mystery to the 
wise man of old, the mechanics of ordinary flight are now better understood. But the sailing 
of some birds for an indefinite length of time, up as well as down, without visible motion of 
the wings, and without reference to the wind, remains au enigma. The flight of the albatross 
and turkey vulture, I venture to affirm, is not yet explained. The riddle of The Wing will be 
read when we know how the archsaurian escaped from ilus to ther. 

The number of true remiges ranges from about sixteen, as in «a humming-bird, to up- 
wards of fifty, as in the albatross. Their shape is quite uniform, minor details aside. They 


g 
are the stiffest, strongest, most perfeetly pennaceous of feathers, without evident hyporhachis, 
if any. They are generally lanceolate, that is, tapering regularly and gradually to an obtuse 
point, though not infrequently more parallel-sided, especially those of the secondary and 
tertiary series. Either or both webs may be incised toward the end; that is, more or less 
abruptly narrowed ; this is called emargination (sce tig. 279); their ends may be transversely 
or obliquely truncate, or nicked in varivus ways. In a few birds, apparently for purposes of 
sexual ornamentation, they are developed in bizarre shapes of beauty, with evident decrease of 
utility as flight-feathers. Those of the ostrich and penguin tribes share the peculiarities of the 
general plumage of these extraordinary birds. Remiges are divided into three classes or series, 
according to where they grow upon the limb, whether upon the hand, the fore-arm, or the 
upper arm. In this distinction is involved one of the most important considerations of practical 
ornithology, of which the student must make himself master. The three classes of quill- 
feathers are: ]. the primaries ; 2. the secondaries ; 3. the tertiaries. 


The Primaries (Jig. 30, )) are those remiges which grow upon the pinion, or hand- 
and finger-bones collectively (fig. 27, C to D). Whatever the total number of the remiges 
may be, in nearly all birds with true remiges the Primaries are either NINE or TEN in number. 
The humming-bird with sixteen remiges, the albatross with fifty or more, each have ten 
primaries. The grebes and a few other birds are said to have eleven primaries: if this be so, 
it is at any rate highly exceptional. No instance of a higher number than this is known 
to me. Again, it is only among the highest Passeres that the number nine is found, the 
Oscines having indifferently nine or ten. In a good many Oscines, rated as uine-primaried, 
there are actually ten, though the outermost is so rudimentary, and even out of allignment 
with the developed primaries, that it is not counted as one of them. Among Oscines, just this 
difference of one evident and unquestionable primary more or less forms one of the best distiuc- 
tions between the families of that suborder. So the tenth feather in a bird’s wing, counting 
from the outside, becomes a crucial test in many cases; for, if it be last primary, the bird is 
one thing ; if it be first secondary, the bird is another. Tn such cases the necessity, therefore, 
of determining exactly which it is becomes evident. Of course it is always possible to settle 
the question by striking at the roots of the remiges and secing how many are seated on the 


pinion; but this generally involves some defacing of the specimen, and there is usually an 
easier way of determining. Hold the wing half-spread: then, in most Oscines, the primaries 
come sloping down on one side, and the secondaries similarly on the other, to form where they 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— THE WINGS. 113 


meet a reéntrant angle in the general contour of the posterior border of the wing ; the feather 
that occupies this uvotch is the one we are after, and unluckily it is sometimes last primary, 
sometimes first secondary. But observe that primaries are so to speak, se/f-asserting, emphatic, 
italicized, remiges, stiff, strong, and obstinate ; while secondaries are retiring, whispering, im 
brevier, limber, weak, and yielding. Their different character is almost always shown by 
something in their shape or texture which the student will soon learn to recognize, though it 
cannot well be described. Let him examine fig. 80, where ) marks the nine primaries of a 
sparrow’s wing, and s indicates the secondaries; he will see a difference at once. The 
primaries express themselves, though with diminishing emphasis, to the last one; then the 
secondaries begin to tell a different tale. Among North American birds the only ones with 
NINE primaries are the families Motacillide, Vireonide, Cocrebida, Sylvicohde, Hirundinide, 
Tanagrida, Fringillide, Icterida, part of Vireonidia, and the genus Ampelis. The condition 
of the first primary, whether spurious or uot, is often of great help in this determination. 
The first primary is called ‘ spurious” when it is very short — say one third, or less, as long 
as the second, or longest, primary. Amoug Passeres, « spurious first primary only occurs in 
certain teu-primaried Oscines: whence it is evident, that to tind such short first primary is 
equivalent to determining the presence of teu primarics, though not to find it does not prove 
there are only nine ; the count should be made in all cases in which the outer primary is more 
than one-third as long as the next. The difference between nine primaries, and ten with the 
first spurious, is excellently illustrated among the species of Vireo. Any thrush, nuthatch, 
titmouse, or creeper shows a spurious primary to advantage, — large euvugh not to be over- 
looked, small enough not to be mistaken. 


The Secondaries (lig. 30, 5) are those remiges which are seated on the fore-arm (fig. 
27, Bto C). They vary in number from six to forty or more. They have the peculiarity of 
being attached to oue of the bones of the fore-arm, the 
wna. If an ulna be examined closely, there will be 
secn a row of little points showing the attachinent ; 
ols : 
rp . 2 Fra. 31.—Ulna of Colaptes mexicanus, 
Phe secondaries preseut no points necessary to dwell — showing points of attachment of the second- 
upon here, after what has been said of the primaries. ties. (Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S. A.) 
They are enormously developed in the Argus pheasant, and have curious shapes in some other 
exotie birds. They are often long enough to cover the primaries completely when the wing is 
closed, as in grebes; on the other hand, they are extremely short in the swifts and humming- 


such are indicated in fig. 27, along ul, and in fig 


birds. 


The Tertiaries (Fig. 30, t) are properly the remiges which grow upon the upper arm, 
humerus. But such feathers are not very evident in most birds, and the two or three inner- 
most secondaries, growivg upon the very elbow, and commonly different from the rest in form 
or color, pass under the naine of ‘ tertiaries.” 
(fig. 30, sep,) are called tertiaries, especially when long or otherwise conspicuous. But 
there is au evident and proper distinction. Scapulars belong to the pteryla humeralis (see 
p- 87); while tertiaries, whether seated on the elbow or higher up the arm, are the innemnost 
remiges of the pteryla alaris. These inner remiges are often shortly called ¢ertials ; though 
the longer name is more eorreet, besides being conformable with the names of the other two 


Again, in some cases, scapular feathers 


series of remiges. Tertiaries often afford good characters for description, in peculiarities of 

their size, shape, or color. Thus it is very common among Fringillide for these feathers to be 

parti-colored differently from the other remiges. In many birds they are long and ‘flowing ”; 

as in the families Motacillide and Alaudide, where they reach about to the end of the 

primaries when the wiug is closed. Their development is similar in many Scolopacide. In 
8 


114 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


such eases, the feather-border of the wing pronounces the letter W quite strongly, — outer 
lower angle at point of primaries; middle upper angle at reéntrance between primaries and 
secondaries; inner lower angle at point of tertiaries. 

The “point of the wing” is at the tip of the longest primary. It is best expressed when 
the first primary is longest. Sometimes the end is so much rounded off, that the midmost 
primary may be the longest one, the others being graduated on both sides of this projecting 
point. In speaking of the relative lengths of remiges, we always mean the way in which their 
tips fall together, not the actual total lengths of the feathers. Thus a second primary, whose 
tip falls opposite the tip of the first one, is said to be of equal length, though it may actually 
be longer, being seated higher up on the pinion. The development of the primaries also 
furnishes one of the most important measurements of birds: for the expression ‘length of 
wing,” or simply “the wing,” means the distance from the ‘bend of the wing,” or carpal 
angle, to the end of the longest primary. The integument of the wing dves not very often 
develop anything but feathers. Occasionally 


Claws and Spurs are found upon the pinion. Claws have been already noticed (p. 108). 
They are properly so called, being horny growths comparable in every way to those upon the 
ends of the toes, like the claws of beasts, or human nails. A spur (Lat. calcar), however, is 
something different, though of the same horny texture, since it does not terminate a digital 
phalanx, but is off-set from the side of the hand. It is exactly like the spur on the leg of a 
fowl, which obviously is not a claw. The spur-winged goose (Plectropterus), pigeon (Didun- 
culus), plovers (Chettusia, ete.), and the doubly-spurred screamer (Palamedea), afford exam- 
ples of such outgrowths, of which the Jaganas (Parra) furnish the only, though a very 
well-marked, illustration among North American birds. (See fig. 53 ter.) 


Ill. THE TAIL. 


Its Bony Basis. — Time was when Dirds flew about with long, lizard-like, bony and 
fleshy tails, having the feathers inserted in a row on either side like the hairs of a squirrel’s. 
But we have changed all that distichous arrangement since when the Archeopteryx was 
steered with such a rudder through the scenes of its Jurassic life. Now the true separate 
coccygeal bones are few, generally about nine in number, and so short and stunted that they do 
not project beyond the general plumage,—in fact scarcely beyond the border of the pelvis. 
Anteriorly, within the bony basin of the pelvis, there are several vertebre, which, fusing 
together and with the true sacrum, are termed wrosacral or false tail-bones. To these 
succeed the true caudal vertebree, movable upon each other and upon the urosacruin. The 
last one of these, abruptly larger than the rest, and of peculiar shape, bears all the large 
tail-feathers, which radiate from it like the blades of a fan. The true caudal vertebre col- 
lectively form the coccyx (Gr. xéxkv€, kokkux, a cuckoo; from fancied resemblance of the 
human tail-bones to a cuckoo’s bill) ; the enlarged terminal one is the vomer (Lat. vomer, a 
plough-share, from its shape; not to be confused with a bone of the skull of same name) or 
pygostyle (Gr. muyn, puge, rump, and orddos, stulos, a stake, pale). The pygostyle, however, 
is a compound bone, consisting of several stunted coceygeal vertebre fused in one. The bones 
are moved by appropriate muscles, and upon the surface is seated the elaeodochon (p. 86). The 
whole bony and muscular affair is familiar to every one as the ‘ pope’s nose” of the Christmas 
turkey; it is a bird’s real tail,of which the feathers are merely appendages. In descriptive 
ornithology, however, the anatomical parts are ignored, the word “tail” having reference solely 
to the feathers. These, like those of the wings, are of two sorts: the coverts or tectrices, and 
the rudders or rectrices (Lat. rectrix, pl. rectrices, a ruler, guider; because they seem to 
steer the bird’s flight); corresponding exactly to the coverts and remiges of the wings. The 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— THE TAIL. 115 


Tail-Coverts are the numerous comparatively small and weak feathers which overlie and 
underlie the rectrices, covering their bases and extending a variable distance toward their 
ends, contributing to the firmmess and symmetry of the tail. They pass smoothly out from 
the body, by gradual lengthening, there being seldom, if ever, any obvious outward distinction 
between thei and feathers of the rump and belly; but they belong to the pteryla caudalis 
(p. 87). The natural division of the coverts is into an upper and under set (tectrices super- 
iores, tectrices inferiores). The inferior coverts are the best distinguished from the general 
plumage, the anus generally dividing off these ‘“ vent-feathers,” as they are sometimes called. 
It is to the bundle of under tail-coverts, behind the vent, that the term crisswm is most properly 
applied. Neither set is ever entirely wanting ; but one or the other, particularly the upper one, 
may be very short, as in a cormorant, or duck of the genus Hrismatura, exposing the quills 
almost to their bases. While the upper coverts are usually shorter and fewer than the under 
ones, reaching less than half-way to the end of the tail, they sometimes take on extraordinary 
development and form the bird’s chicfest ornament. The gorgeous, iridescent, argus-eyed 
train of the peacock consists of enormous tectrices, not rectrices; the elegant plumes of the 
paradise trogon, Pharomacrus mocinno, several times longer than the bird itself, are like- 
wise coverts. Occasionally, a pair of coverts lengthens and stiffens, and then resembles true 
tail-feathers; as in the Ptarmigan (Lagopus). The crissal feathers are more uniform in 
development; they ordinarily form a compact, definite bundle, as well shown in a duck, 
where they reach about to the end of the tail. In some of the storks, they become plumes of 
considerable pretensions; and in the wonderful humming-bird, Loddigesia mirabilis, the 
iniddle pair stiffens to resemble rectrices and projects far beyond the true tail. The 


Rectrices, Rudders, or true tail-feathers, like the remiges or rowers, are usually stiff, 
well-prouounced feathers, pennaceous to the very base of the vexilla, without after-shafts, as a 
rule, and with the outer web narrower than the other in most cases. They are always in 
pairs; that is, there is an equal number of feathers on the right and left half of the tail; and 
their number, consequently, is an even one. The exceptions to this rule are so few and 
irregular, and then only among birds with the higher numbers of rectrices, that such are 
probably to be regarded as mere anomalies, from accidental arrest of a feather. They are im- 
bricated over each other in this wise: the central pair are high- 
est, lying with both their webs over the next feather on either 
side, the inner web of one of these middle feathers indifferently ES 
underlying or overlying that of the other; all thus successively eras 
overlying the next outer one so that they would form a pyra- — 
mid were they thick instead of being so flat. The arrange- aaa 


ment is perceived at once in the accompanying diagram ; —= 
where it will be seen, also, that spreading the tail is the diver- u 
gence of a from b, while closing the tail is bringing @ and } together under ¢. The motion 
is effected by certain muscles that draw on either side upon the bases of the quills collectively ; 
they are the same that pull the whole tail to one side or the other, acting like the tiller-ropes 
of a boat’s rudder. The general 


Shape of a Rectrix is shown in fig. 23. Such a feather is ordinarily straight, some- 
what clubbed or oblong, widening a little, regularly and gradually toward the tip, where it is 
gently rounded off. But the departures from such shape, or any that could be assumed as a 
standard, are numberless, and in some cases extreme. In fact, none of a bird’s feathers are 
more variable than those of the tail; it is impossible to specify all the shapes they assume. 
While most are straight, some are curved — and the curvature may be to or from the middle 
line of the body, in the horizontal plane, or up and down, in the vertical plane. Some shapes 


116 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


have received particular names. A rectrix broad to the very tip, and there cut squarely off, is 
said to be truncate ; one such cut obliquely off is incised, especially when, as often happens, the 
outline of the cut-off is concave. A linear rectrix is very narrow, with parallel sides; a lanceo- 
late one is broader at the base, thence tapering regularly and gradually to the tip. A notably 
pointed rectrix is said to be acute ; when the pointing is produced by abrupt centraction near the 
tip, as in most woodpeckers, the feather is acwminate. A very long and slender, more or less 
linear feather is called filamentous, as the lateral pair of a barn swallow or most sea swallows. 
The vanes sometimes enlarge abruptly at the end, forming a spoon-shaped or spatulate feather: 
or such a spoon may 
result from narrowing 
of the vanes near the 
end, or their entire ab- 


senee, as in the ‘ rack- 
et” of a saw-bill (Mo- 
Se ATE SESS ASSESS motus). The vanes are 


eI 


sometimes Wavy as if 
crimped: our Plotus is 
a tine example of this. 
Sometimes the vanes 
are entirely loosened, 
the barbs being remote 
from each other, as in 
the exotic genus Stipi- 
turus, and some parts 
of the wonderful caudal 
appendage of the male 
lyre-bird (Menura su- 
perba). When the rha- 
chis projects beyond the 
vanes, the feather is 
spinose, or better, mu- 
cronate (Lat. mucro, a 
pricker), as excellently 
shown in the chimney- 
swift, Chetura (tig. 
297). A pair of feathers 


Fic. 32.— The Lyre-bird of Australia, Wenura superba, to show the unique abruptly extending far 
lyrate shape of the tail. (From Amer. Nat.) beyoud the others are 
called long-exserted, after the analogous use of the term in botany. Tail-feathers also differ 
much in their consistency, from the softest and weakest, not well distinguished from coverts, 
to such stiff and rugged props as the woodpeckers possess. They are downy and very rudi- 
mentary in a few birds, notably all the grebes, Podicipedide, which are eommonly said to 
have uo tail. The tinamous of South America (Drome@ognathe) are also very closely 
docked. The 


Typical Number of Rectrices is twelve. This holds in the great majority of birds. It 
is so uniform throughout the great group Oscines, that the rare exceptions seem perfectly 
anomalous. In the other group of Passeres (Clamatores) it is usually twelve, sometimes ten. 
Ten is the rule among Picarie, though many have twelve, a very few only eight, as in the 
genus Crotophaga. The whole of the woodpeckers (Picide) have apparently ten ; but really 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— THE TAIL. 117 


twelve, of which the outer one on each side is spurious, very small, and hidden between the 
bases of the second and third feathers. Birds of prey (Raptores) have about twelve. In 
pigeons the rule is twelve or fourteen, as in all our genera; but sixteen are found in some and 
twenty in one case. In birds below these, the number increases directly; there are often or 
usually more than twelve in the grouse, and there may be sixteen, eighteen, or twenty, as 
among our own genera of Tetraonide. Wading birds, often having but twelve, furnish in- 
stances of as many as twenty. Those swimming birds with large well-formed tails, as the 
Longipennes, and some Anatide, have the fewest, us twelve, sometimes fourteen, rarely 
sixteen; those with short soft tails have the most, as sixteen to twenty-four. Among the 
penguins there are thirty-two or more. The Archaeopteryx appears to have had forty, —a pair 
to each free caudal vertebra; and this may be considered the prototypic relation between the 
bones and feathers of the tail. The 


Typical Shape of the Tail, as a whole, isthe fan. The modifications of form, how- 
ever, which are greater and more varied than those of the wing, are susceptible of better 
definition, and many of them have received special names. Taking the simplest case, where 
the rectrices are all of the same length, we have what is called the even, square, or truncate 
tail. The other forms depart from this mainly by shortening or lengthening of certain 
feathers. A tail nearly or quite even may have the two central feathers long-exserted, as seen 
in the jaegers (Stercorarius), and tropic-birds (Phaéthon). The most frequent departure from 
the even shape results from gradual shortening of successive rectrices from the middle to the 
outer ones. This is called, in general, gradation or graduation (Lat. gradus, a step); such 
shortening may be to any degree. More precisely, graduation means shortening of each 
successive feather to the same extent, —say, each half an inch shorter than the next; but 
such exactitude is not often expressed. When the feathers shorten by more and more, we 
have the true rounded tail, probably the commonest form among birds; thus, the gradation 
between the middle and next pair may be just appreciable, and then increase regularly to an inch 
between the next and the lateral feather. The opposite gradation, by less and less shortening, 
gives the wedge-shaped or cuneate (Lat. cuneus, a wedge) tail; it is well shown by the 
magpie (Pica) in which, as in many other birds, the middle feathers would be called long- 
exserted were the rest all as short as the outer one is. A cuneate tail, especially if the feathers 
be narrow and lanceolate, is also called acute, or pointed, as in the sprig-tailed duck (Dafila) 
or sharp-tailed grouse (Pediacetes). The generic opposite of the gradated is the forked tail ; 
in which the lateral feathers successively increase in length from the middle to the outermost 
pair. The least appreciable forking is called emargination, and a tail thus shaped is said to be 
emarginate ; when it is better marked, as, for instance, an inch of forking in a tail six inches 
long, the tail is truly forked or furcate (Lat. furca, a fork). But the degrees of furcation, like 
those of gradation, are so insensibly varied, that qualified expressions are usual; as, ‘slightly 
forked,” ‘deeply forked.” Deep furcation is usually accompanied by more or less narrowiug 
or filamentous elongation of the lateral pair of rectriees, as in the barn swallows (Hirundo) 
and most of the sea-swallows (Sterna). An advisable teri to express such an extreme furea- 
tion is forficate (Lat. forfex, scissors), when the depth of the fork is at least equal to the 
length of the shortest feathers; it occurs among our birds in those last named, in the species 
of the flycatcher genus Milvulus, and elsewhere. Double-forked and double-rounded tails 
are not uncommon; they result from combination of both opposite gradations, in this way: 
The middle feathers being of a certain length, the next two or three pairs progressively 
increasing in length, and the rest successively decreasing, the tail is evidently forked ceutrally, 
rounded externally, which is the double-rounded form, each half of the tail being rounded ; 
it is shown in the genera Myiadestes and Anous. Now if with middle feathers as before, 
the next pair or two decrease in length, and then the rest imerease to the outermost, we have 


118 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


the double-forked, a common style among sandpipers, as if each half of the tail were forked. 
Sut in such ease, the forking is slight, merely omargination, being Httle more than protrusion 
of the middle pair of feathers in-an otherwise lightly forked tail; and in the doublo-rounded 
form the gradation is seldom if ever great. 

LT should also allude to shapes of tail resulting trom the relative positions of the feathers, 
Prominent among these is the complicate or folded tail of the baru-yard fowl, and others of the 
Phasianide, —a very familiar but not eonmon form. Tt is only retuined while the tail is 
closed and cocked up,— for when it is lowered and spread in tlight it Hattons out. “Pho oppo 
site disposition of the feathers is seeu to some exteut in our crow blackbirds CQescales), 

where the lateral feathers 

— shut upward trom the lower 
~ oamost central pair, like the 

sides of a boat frome its keel: 

this is the  scaphotd (Gr. 

oxagdy, a boat) or carieate 

Chat. carina, a keel) tail 

Our “boat - tailed" grackle 


has been so named on this 


neeount. Que of the most 
£5 beautiful and wonderful of 

Fig. 83. — Diagram of shapes of tail ade, rounded | aec, gradate; cic, 
euneate-gradate; ave, cuneate; abe, doublo-rounded; eg, square; sho, ; : 
emarginate; eeog, doublo-emarginate; Ain, forked; hem, deoply forked; iustrated by the male of the 
Ab BONG Y lyre-bird (Meni superba, 


all the shapes of the tail is 


fig. 82), im whieh the feathers are auemalous both iu shape and iv texture, and the resulting 
form of the whole is unique. Various shapes, whieh the student will readily name trom the 
foregoing paragraphs, are illustrated in miamy other figures of this work. Tt should be remem- 


bered that, to determine the shape, the tail should be nearly closed; for spreading will ob 


viously make a square tail round, an emarginate one square, ete. L append a diagram of the 


principal forms (tig. 33). 
VW. THE PRET, 


Tho Hind Limbs, in all birds, are organized for progression — all ean walk, ran, or hop 
on land, though the power to do so is very slight: in some of the lower swinuuing birds, as 
loons 


and grebes, and certain of the lower perching birds, as humors, switts, goutsuekers, and 


Kingfishers. They are specially titted for perehing on trees, bushes, and other supports requiring 


to be grasped, in the great majority of birds, as throughout the Passeres, Piearte, Aceipitres, 


Columbe, and, in: fact, many water-birds > there being tow fornis, viavinty found minong three- 


toed birds, or those in whieh the hind toe is 


short, werk, and clovated, in whieh the oxtremity 
of the Timb has not decided grasping power. ‘The limb becomes a paddle for swimming either 
onorin the water in many cases. Tn not a few, as parrots and) birds of prey, the foot is 
serviceable as a timd. Those kinds of birds whieh live in trees and bushes habitually 
progress, ovens when on level ground, ina series of hops, or rather leaps, both feet being 
moved together: in-all the lower birds, however, the feet move one after the other, as in ordi- 
nary walking or runing. ‘Phe iodifieations of the hind limb are more ummerous, more 
diverse, and more important in their bearing on classifiention than those of either bill, wing, 


or tail; their study is consequently a matter of special intorest. 


Thoir Bony tf 


wmnowork (tig. 84).— Beginning at the hip-joint, and onding at. the 
extremities of the several toes, the skeleton of the hind limb consists in the vast majority of 


adult, birds of twenty bones. ‘This is the typienl and nowrly the average number; birds 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.—THE FEFT. 119 


seareely ever have more, and the principal lessenings of the number result from the absence 


of one or two toes. or a slight reduction in the number of the joints of some toes. or absence of 
he knee-eap. Of the normal twenty, fourteen are bones of the toes: one is an incomplete 
bone connecting the hind toe with the foot: ove is the knee-cap. aud four are the principal 
bones of the thigh (1). leg (2). and foot (1). The tirst or uppermost is the thigh-bone or 
yemur (Lat. femur : adjective. femoral), fm, from hip to knee. 4 to B in the figure. It is 
a rather short. quite stout. cylindrical bone. enlarging above and below. Above it has a 
globular head. a. standing off obliquely from the shaft. received in the acetabulum (Lat. aceta- 
bulum, a kind of receptacle) or socket of the hip. and a prominent shoulder or trochanter. 
which abuts against the 
brim of the acetabulum. 
Below. it expands into 
two condyles (Gr. xordv- 
Nos. a knob). for articu- 
lation with both the 
bones it meets at the 
knee. It is the same 
bone as the femur of a 
quadruped or of man, 
and corresponds to the 
humerus of the wing. 
In the knee-joint. many 
er most birds have a 
small ossicle. and a few 
have two sueh bony nod- 
ules, not shown in the 
figure, but nearly in the 
position of the letter B: 
the knee-pan or knee- 
cap. patella (Lat. patel- 
la). The thigh is the 
first segment of the limb: 
the next segment is the 
leg proper. or crus (Lat. 


crus, the shin: adjective. Fie. 34.— Bones of a bird's hind limb: from a duck. Clangula éslandi 
erural), B to C in the size: Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. 4, hip: B. kmee: C. heel or anklej 
eae. “ ine bases of toes. 4 to B, thigh or * second joint; Bto C, crus, leg proper, * drum- 
figure, or irom Knee to sek.” often wrongly called * thigh"; C to D, metatarsus, foot proper, correspond- 
heel. This segment is ing to our instep, or foot from ankle to bases of toes: in descriptive ornithology 
¥ the tarsus; often called * shank." From D outward are the toes or digits. 7m. 
: femur: ¢b, tibia, principal (inner) bone of leg: 7, Hbula. lesser (outer) bone of 
the tibia (Lat. tibia, a leg: mt, principal metatarsal bone. consisting chiefly of three fused metatarsal 
bones; am, accessory metatarsal. bearing lf, first or hind toe, with two join ts 
: , Fr er 3 SSOT) e xl, J 
tube, tr mnper - t. and second toe, with three joints; 3¢, third toe, with four joints: 4, fourth toe, with 
Jibula (Lat. jibuda, a five joints. At C there are in the embryo some small tarsal bones, not shown in 
. > >¢ the figure, uniting in part with the tibia, which is therefore a tihio-7 in part 
=p sJasp ) = : s t : E z ie: 
SE int, clasp). fe Ot with the metatarsus. which is therefore a farsometatarsus: the ankle-joint being 
these the tibia is the therefore between two rows of tarsal bones, not, as it appears to be, directly be- 
principal. larger. immer VEER tibia and metatarsus 
bone, running quite to the heel: the fibula is sinaller. and (with rare exceptions. as in some uf 
the penguins) only runs part way down the outside of the tibia as a slender pointed spike. close 
pressed against or even partly fused with the shaft of the tibia. Above. at the knee. both 
bones articulate with the femur: the tibia with both the femoral condyles. the fibula only with 


the outer condyle. Above, the tibia has an irregularly expanded head or cnemial process (Gr. 


eceupied by two bones. 


a 


120 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


xunpn, kneme, same as Lat. crus), which in some birds, as loons, runs high up in front above 
the knee-joint. Below, the tibia alone forms the ankle-joint, C, by articulating with the next 
bone. For this purpose it ends in an enlarged trochlear (Gr. tpoxadia), or pulley-like surface, 
presenting a little forward as well as downward, above which, in many birds, there is a little 
bony bridge beneath which tendons passing to the foot are confined. This finishes the leg, 
consisting of thigh, A B, and leg proper, B C, bringing us to the ankle-joint at the heel, C. 

Now a bird’s legs, unlike ours, are not separate from the body from the hip downward ; 
but, for a variable distance, are enclosed within the general integument of the body. The 
freedom of the limb is greatest among the high perching birds, and especially the Raptores, 
which use the feet like hands, and least among the lowest swimmers. The range of variation, 
from greatest freedom to most extensive enclosure of the limb, is from a little above B nearly to 
C, as in the case of a loon, grebe, or penguin. In no bird is the knee, B, seen outside the 
general contour of the plumage: it must be looked or felt for among the feathers, and in most 
prepared skins will not be found at all, the femur having been removed. It is a point of little 
practical consequence, though bearing upon the generalization just made. The first joint, or 
bending of the limb, that appears beyond a bird’s plumage is the heel, C; and this is what, 
in loose popular parlance, is called “knee,” upon the same erroneous notions that make people 
call the wrist of a horse’s fore-leg ‘‘ knee.” People also eall a bird’s crus or leg proper, B to C, 
the “thigh,” and disregard the true thigh altogether. This confusion is inexcusable; any one, 
even without the slightest anatomical knowledge, can tell knee from heel at a glance, whatever 
their respective positions relative to the body. nee is at junction of thigh and leg proper; 
it always bends forward; heel is at junction of leg with foot, and always bends backward. 
This is as true of a bird, which is digttigrade, that is, walks on its toes with its heels in the 
air, as it is of a man, who is plantigrade, that is, walks on the whole sole of the foot, with the 
heel down to the ground. In a carver’s language, the thigh is the ‘‘ second joint” (from 
below) ; the leg is the ‘‘drumstick ”; the rest of a fowl’s hind limb does not usually come to 
table, having no flesh upon it. (See frontispiece, Th, An, Lg.) 

Before proceeding to the next segment of the limb, I must dwell upon the ankle-joint, 
situated at the heel, — the point C, — corresponding to the carpal angle or bend of the wing, 
C, in fig. 27. There we found, in adult birds, two small carpal bones, or bones of the wrist 
proper; and noted the presence in the embryo of several other carpals (fig. 29), which early 
fuse with the metacarpus. Just so in the ankle, there are in embryonic life several tarsal bones, 
or bones of the tarsus (Lat. tarsus, the ankle); all of which, however, soon disappear, so that 
there appears to be no tarsus, or collection of little bones between the tibia and the next 
segment of the limb, the metatarsus. An upper tarsal bone, or series of tarsal bones, fuses 
with the lower end of the tibia, making this leg-bone really a tibio-tarsus ; and similarly, a 
lower bone or set of bones fuses with the upper end of the metatarsus, making this bone a 
tarso-metatarsus. So there are left no free bones in the ankle-joint, which thus appears to be 
immediately between the leg-bone and the principal foot-bone; but which is nevertheless 
really between two series of tarsal bones, the identity of which has been lost.? 


1 The exact homologues of a bird’s vanishing tarsal bones are still questioned. Gegenbaur showed the so- 
called epiphysis or shoe of bone at the foot of the tibia, and the similar cap of bone on the head of the principal 
metatarsal bone, to be true tarsal elements. Morse went further, showing the tibial epiphysis, or upper tarsal bone 
of Gegenbaur to be really two bones, which he held to correspond with the tibiale and fibulare, or astragalus and 
caleaneum of mammals; these subsequently combining to form the single upper tarsal bone of Gegenbaur, and 
finally becoming anchylosed with the tibia to form the bitrochlear condylar surface so characteristic of the tibia ot 
Aves. The distal tarsal ossicle he believed to be the centrale of reptiles. Wyman discovered the so-called ‘ process ot 
the astragalus”’ to have a distinct ossification, and Morse interpreted it as the intermedium of reptiles. Later 
views, however, as of Huxley and Parker, limit the tibial epiphysis to the astragalus alone of mammals. If these 
opinions be correct, other tarsal elements (more than one) are to be looked for in the epiphysis of the metatarsus. 
Whatever the final determination of these obscure points may be, it is certain that, as said in the text above, the 
Jower end of a bird’s tibia and the upper end of a bird’s metatarsus include true tarsal elements, just as the upper 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— THE FEET. 121 


The next segment of the limb, C to D, or the foot proper, is represented by the principal 
metatarsal bone, mt. This corresponds to the human imstep or arch of the foot, nearly from 
the ankle-joint quite to the roots of the toes. The metatarsal bone, like the metacarpal of 
the hand, which it represents in the foot, is a compound one. Besides including the evanes- 
cent tarsal element or eleinents already specified, it consists of three metatarsal bones con- 
solidated in one, just as the metacarpal is tripartite. Among recent birds, the three are 
partly distinct only in the penguins; but in all, excepting ostriches, the origiual distinction is 
indicated by three prongs or stumps at the lower end of the bone, forming as many articular 
surfaces for the three anterior toes. The other toe most birds possess, the hind toe, is hinged 
upon the metatarsus in a different way, by means of a small separate metatarsal bone, quite 
imperfect ; this is the accessory metatarsal, am. It is situated near the lower end toward the 
inuer side of the principal metatarsal bone, and is of various shapes and sizes; it has no true 
jointing with the latter, but is simply pressed close upon it, much as the fibula is applied to the 
tibia, or partly soldered with it. Above, it is defective; below, it bears a good facet for articn- 
lation with the hind toe. In spite of anatomical proprieties, the metatarsal part of a bird’s 
foot — from heel to base of toes —from C to D, is in ordinary descriptive ornithology mvariably 
called ‘‘ The Tarsus” ; a wrong name, but one so firmly established that it would be finical 
and futile to attempt to substitute the correct name. In the ordinary attitude of most birds, 
it is held more or less upright, and seems to be rather “leg” than a part of the ‘ foot.” It is 
vulgarly called ‘‘ the shank.” These points must be ingrained in the student’s mind to 
prevent confusion. (See fig. 112 bzs, p. 229.) 

The digits of the foot, or toes, upon which alone most birds walk or perch, consist of 
certain numbers of small bones placed end to end, all jointed upon one another, and the basal 
or proximate ones of each toe separately jointed either with the principal or the accessory meta- 
tarsal bone. ‘Like those of the fingers, these bones are called phalanges (Lat. phalanx, a 
rank or series) or internodes (because coming between any two joints or nodes of the toes). 
The furthermost one of each almost invariably bears a nail or claw (unguis). The phalanges 
are of various relative lengths, and of a variable number in the same or different toes. But all 
these points, being matters of descriptive ornithology rather than of anatomy proper, are fully 
treated beyond, as is also the special horny or leathery covering of the feet usually existing 
from the point C outward. . We may here glance at the 


Mechanism of these Bones. — The hip is a ball-and-socket joint, permitting round-about 
as well as fore-and-aft movements of the whole limb, though more restricted than the shoulder- 
joint. The knee is usually a strict ginglymus (Gr. ylyyAupos, gigglumos, hinge) or hinge-joint, 
allowing only backward and forward motion ; and so coustructed that the forward movement of 
the leg is never carried beyond a right line with the femur, while the backward is so extensive 
that the leg may be quite doubled under the thigh. In some birds there is a slight rotatory 
motion at the knee, very evident in certain swimmers, by which the foot is thrown outward, so 
that the broad webbed toes may not ‘‘interfere.” The heel or ankle-joint is a strict hinge; its 
hendings are just the reverse of those of the knee; for the foot cannot pass back of a right line 
with the leg, but can come forward till the toes nearly touch the front of the knee. In some 
birds the details of structure are such that, with the assistance of certain muscles, the foot is locked 
upon the leg when completely straightened out, so firmly that some little muscular effort is re- 
quired to overcome the obstacle; birds with this arrangement sleep securely standing on one leg, 
which is the design of the mechanism. The jointing of the toes with the prongs of the meta- 
tarsus is peculiar; for the articular surfaces are so disposed in a certain obliquity, that when 


end of the metacarpus includes carpal elements; and that a bird’s ankle-joint is not tibio-tarsal or between 
leg-bone and foot-bones, as in mammals, but between proximal and distal series of tarsal bones, and therefore 
medio-tarsal, as in reptiles. 


122 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


the toes are brought forwards, at right angles or thereabouts with the foot, they spread apart 
from each other automatically in the action, and the diverging toes of the foot thus opened are 
pressed upon the ground or against the water. When the toes are bent around in the opposite 
direction, they automatically come together and lie in a bundle more or less parallel with one 
another, besides being each bent or flexed at their several nodes. The mechanism is best 
marked in the swimmers, which, for advantageous use of their webbed toes, must present a 
broad surface to the water in giving the backward stroke, and bring the foot forward with the 
toes closed, presenting only an edge to the water, —all on the principle of the feathering of oars 
in rowing. It is carried to an extreme in a loon, where, when the foot is closed, the digit 
marked 2t in the figure lies below and behind 3¢. It is probably least marked in birds of 
prey, which give the clutch with their talons spread. The jointings of the individual phalanges 
of the toes upon one another are simple hinges, permitting motion of extension to a right line 
or a little beyond in some cases, with very free flexion in the opposite direction. On the 
whole, the mechanics of a bird’s foot are less peculiar than those of the wing, and quite those 
of the limbs of a quadruped. 

In ordinary hopping, walking, and running, and in perching as well, only the toes rest upon 
or grasp the support, from D to beyond, C being more or less vertically over D. Such resting 
of the toes is complete for 2 ¢, 3¢, 4¢ in the figure, or for all the anterior toes; but for the hind 
toe it varies according to the length and position of that digit, from complete incumbency, like 
that of the front toes, to mere touching of the tip of that toe, or not even this: the hind toe 
is then sure to be functionless. But many of the lower birds, such as loons and grebes, cannot 
stand at all upright on their toes, resting with the heel touching the ground; and in many such 
cases the tail furnishes additional support, making a tripod with the feet, as in the kangaroo. 
Such birds might be called plantigrade (Lat. planta, the sole; gradus, a step) im strict 
anatomical conformity with the quadrupeds so designated. The others are all digttigrade, 
standing or walking on their toes alone. But no birds progress on the ends of their toes, or 
toe-nails, as hooted quodrupeds do. A bird’s ordinary walking or running is the same as ours, 
so far as the ordinary mechanics of the motions are concerned ; but its so-called ‘‘ hopping” is 
really leaping, both legs inoving at once. Most birds, down to Columbe, leap when on the 
ground, a mode of progression characteristic of the higher orders; but many of the more terres- 
trial Passeres and Accipttres progress by ordinary walking when on the ground, as is invariably 
the case with parrots, pigeons, gallinaceous birds, and all waders and swimmers. 

The student need scarcely be reassured that, whatever their modifications, their relative 
development, motions, and postures, the several segments of both fore and hind limbs of any 
vertebrate, quadruped or biped, feathered or featherless, are fixed in one morphologically iden- 
tical series, thus: 1, shoulder or hip-joint; 2, upper arm or thigh, humerus or femur; 3, 
elbow or knee-joint; 4, fore-arm or leg proper, radius and ulna or tibia and fibula; 5, wrist, 
bend of wing, carpus, or heel, ankle, tarsus; 6, hand proper, metacarpus, or foot proper, 
metatarsus; 7, digits with their phalanges, of hand or foot, fingers or toes. 2, first segment; 
4, second segment; 5, third segment (not separate in foot of bird); 6 and 7, fourth segment, 
in the wing called 1nanus or pinion, in the leg, pes. Observe the improper naming of parts, 
in the case of the hind limb, whereby 1, 2, 3, are not generally counted; 4 is called “ thigh ” ; 
5 is called “‘ knee”; 6 is called “leg” or ‘‘ shank”; 7 is called ‘‘foot.” Observe also that in 
descriptive ornithology 6 is ‘‘ the tarsus.” 


The Plumage of the Leg and Foot varies within wide limits. In general, the leg is 
feathered to the heel, C, and the rest of the limb is bare of feathers. The thigh is always 
feathered, as part of the body plumage (pteryla femoralis). The erus or leg proper (thigh of 
vulgar language, B to C) is feathered in nearly all the higher birds, and in swimming birds 
without exception ; in the loons, the feathering even extends on the heel-joint. It is among 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.—THE FEET. 123 


the walking and especially the wading birds that the crus is most extensively denuded ; 
it may be naked half-way up to the knee. A few waders, —among ours, chiefly in the 
snipe family, —have the crus apparently clothed to the heel-joint ; but this is due, in most if 
not all cases, to the length of the feathers, for probably in nove of them does the pteryla cruralis 
itself extend to the joint. Crural feathers are nearly always short and inconspicuous; but 
sometimes long and flowing, as in the “flags” of most hawks, and in our tree-cuckoos. The 
tarsus (I now and hereafter use the term in its ordinary acceptation — C to D in fig. 34; ts in 
fiy. 36) in the vast majority of birds is entirely naked, being provided with a horny or leathery 
sheath of integument like that covering the bill. Such is its condition in the Passeres aud 
Pwarie (with few exceptions, as among swifts and goatsuckers) ; in the waders without ex- 
ception, aud in nearly all swimmers (the frigate-bird, Tachypetes, has a slight feathering). 
The Raptores and Galline furnish the most feathered tarsi. Thus, feathered tarsi is the rule 
among owls (Striges); frequent, cither partial or complete, in hawks and eagles, as in Aquila, 
Archibuteo, Falco, Buteo, ete. All our grouse, and perhaps all true grouse, have the tarsus 
more or less feathered (fig. 35). The toes themselves are feathered in a few birds, as several 
of the owls, and all the ptarmigans (Lagopus). Partial feathering of the tarsus is often cou- 
tinued downward, to the toes or upon them, by sparse inodified feathers in the form of bristles ; 
as is well shown in the barn-ow] (fig. 47). When incomplete, the feathering is generally waut- 
ing behind and 
below, and it is 
alinost invariably 
continuous above 
with the crural 
plumage. Butin 
that spirit of per- 
versity in which 
birds delight to 
prove every rule Fic. 35. — Feathered tarsus of a grouse, Cupidonia cupido. Nat. size. 


we establish by furnishing exceptions, the tarsus is sometimes partly feathered discontinuously. 
A curious example of this is afforded by the bank-swallow, Cotile riparia, with its little tuft of 
feathers at the base of the hind toe; and some varieties of the barn-yard fowl sprout monstrous 
leggings of feathers from the side of the tarsus. 


The Length of Leg, relatively to the size of the bird, is extremely variable; a thrush or 
sparrow probably represents about average proportions of the limb. The shortest-legged bird 
known is probably the frigate-pelican, Lachypetes ; which, though a yard long more or less, 
has a tibia not half as long as the skull, and a tarsus under an inch. The leg is very short in 
many Picarian birds, as hummers, swifts, goatsuckers, kingfishers, trogons, etc., in many of 
which it scarcely serves at all for progression. Among Passeres, the swallows resemble swifts 
in shortness of their hind limbs. It is pretty short likewise in many zygodactyle, yoke-tued or 
scansorial birds, as woodpeckers, cuckoos, and parrots. In most swimming birds the limh 
may also be called short, especially in its femoral and tarsal segments; while the broad-webbed 
toes are comparatively longer. The leg lengthens in the lower perching birds, as many 
hawks and some of the terrestrial pigeons; it is still longer among walkers proper, such as the 
gallinaceous birds, and reaches its maximum among the waders, especially the larger ones, 
such as eranes, herons, ibises, storks, and flamingoes; among all of which it is correlated with 
extension of the neck. Probably the longest-legged of all birds for its size is the stilt 
(Himantopus). Taking the tarsus alone as an index of length of the whole limb, this is in 
the frigate under one-thirty-sixth of the bird’s length; a flamingo, four feet long, has a tarsus 
a foot long: a stilt, fourteen inches long, one of four inches; so that the maximum and 


aN 


124 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


ininimum lengths of tarsus are nearly thirty and under three per cent. of a bird’s whole 


length. 


The Horny Integument of the Foot requires particular attention. That part of the 
limb which is devoid of feathers is covered, like the bill, by a hardened, thickened, modified 
integument, varying in texture from horny to leathery. This sheath is called the podotheca 
(Gr. mots, wo8ds, pous, podos, foot, and Onxn, theke, sheath). It is more corneous in land birds, 
and in water birds more leathery ; this general distinction has but few exceptions. The perfectly 
horny envelope is tight, and immovably fixed or nearly so, while the skinny styles of sheath 
are looser, and may usually be slipped about a little. The integument may differ on different 
parts of the same leg, and in fact generally does so to some extent. Unlike the sheath of the 
bill, the podotheca is never simple and continuous, being divided and subdivided in various 
ways. The lower part of the crus, when naked, and the tarsus and toes, always have their 
integument cut up into scales, plates, tubercles, and other special formations, which have 
received particular names. The manner and character of such divisions are often of the 
utmost consequence in classification, especially among the higher birds, since they are quite 
significant of genera, families, and even some larger groups. 


My 


Fr 
(hy 


tt 
Set 
eee 
Bt 
Fig. 38. — a. Reticulate tarsus 
Fic. 37. — Scutellate of a plover. Nat. size. 0b. Scutel- 
Fic. 36.— Booted laminiplantar laminiplantar tarsus of a late and reticulate tarsus of a 
tarsus ofarobin. Nat. size. cat-bird. Nat. size. pigeon. Nat. size. 


The commonest division of the podotheca is into scales or scutella (Lat. scutellum, a little 
shield; pl. scutella, not scutelle as often written) ; figs. 37, and 38, b. These are generally of 
large comparative size, arranged in definite vertical series up and down the tarsus and along 
the toes, and apt to be somewhat imbricated, or fixed shingle-wise, the lower edge of one 
overlapping the upper edge of the next. The great inajority of birds have such seutella. They 
oftenest occur on the front of the tarsus (or acrotarsiwm, corresponding to our ‘ instep”), and 
almost invariably on the tops of the toes (collectively called acropodiwm) ; frequently also on 
the sides and back of the tarsus or planta ; not so often ou the crus, and rarely if ever on the 
sides and under surfaces of the toes. A tarsus so disposed as to its podotheea is said to be 
scutellate, — scutellate before (fig. 37), or behind, or both, as the case may be. The term is 
equally applicable to the acropodium, but is uot so often used because scutellation of the upper 
sides of the toes is so universal as to be taken for granted unless the contrary condition is 
expressly said. The inost notorious case of the Oscine podotheca (figs. 36, 37), characterizing 
that great group of birds, is given beyond (next paragraph). 

Plates, or reticulations (Lat. reticulum, a web; fig. 38, a) result from the eutting up of 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— THE FEET. 125 


the envelope in various ways by cross lines. Plates are of various shapes and sizes, aud 
grade usually into true scutella, from which however they are generally distinguished by being 
smaller, or of irregular contour, or not in definite rows, or lacking the appearance of imbrica- 
tion; but there is uo positive distinction. They are oftenest hexagonal (six-sided), a form best 
adapted to close packing, as shown very perfectly in the cells of the honey-bee’s comb; but 
they may have fewer sides, or be polygonal Qnany-sided), or even circular ; when crowded in 
one direction and loosened in another the shape tends to be oval or even linear. A leg so fur- 
nished is said to be reticulate : the reticulation may be entire, or be associated with scutellation, 
as often happens (fig. 38, 0). A particular case of reticulation is called granulation (Lat. 
granum, a grain): when the plates become elevated into little tubercles, roughened or uot. 
Such a leg is said to be granular, granulated, or rugose: it is well showu by parrots, and the 
tish-hawk (Pandion). When the harder sorts of scales or plates are roughened without 
obvious elevation, the leg is said to be scabrous or scarious (Lat. scabrum, a scab). But 
scabrous is also said of the under surfaces of the toes, when these develop special pads, or 
wart-like bulbs (called tylari) : as is well shown in the sharp-shinned and many other hawks. 
The softer sorts of legs, and especially the webs of swimming birds, are often marked crosswise 
or cancellated with a lattice work of lines, these however not being strong enough to produce 
plates ; it is more like the lines seen on our palms and finger-tips. The plates of a part of the 
leg occasionally develop into actual serrations ; as witnessed along the hinder edge of a 
grebe’s tarsus. When an unfeathered tarsus shows no divisious of the podotheca in front 
(along the acrotarsinm), or only two or three scales close by the toes, it is said to be booted or 
greaved ; and such a podotheea is holothecal (Gr. 6dos, holos, whole, entire, and @nKn; fig. 36). 
The generic opposite is schizothecal (Gr. cxifa, | cleave), whether by scuteHation or reticula- 
tion or in any other way the integument may be cut up. A booted or holothecal tarsus chictly 
occurs iu the higher Oscines, and is supposed by inany, particularly German ornithologists, to 
indicate the highest type of bird structure. It is, however, found in a few water birds, as 
Wilson’s stormy petrel and other species of Oceanites. It is not a common modification. 
Exceptions aside, it only occurs in connection with an equally particular condition of the 
sides and back of the tarsus, or planta. In almost all Oscine Passeres (Alaudide are an 
exception), which coustitute the great bulk of the large order Passeres, the planta is covered 
re; a condi- 


with one pair of plates or lamin, one on each side, meeting behind in a sharp rid 
tion called daminiplantar, in distinction from the opposite, sewéelliplantar, state of the parts. 
A holothecal podotheca only occurs im connection with the laminiplautar condition, the combi- 
nation resulting in the perfect ‘ boot.” Among North American birds, the genus Oceanites 
aside, it is exhibited by the following genera, and by these ouly: Yurdus, Cinclus, Saxicola, 
Sialia, Regulus, Cyanecula, Phylloscopus, Chamea, Myiadestes ; and even birds of these 
genera, when young, show scutella which disappear with age by progressive fusion of the 


acrotarsial podotheca. (Compare figs. 36, 37.) 


The Crus, when bare of feathers below, may, like the tarsus, be scutellate or reticulate 
before or behind, or both ; such divisions of the crural integument being commonly seen in 
long-legged wading birds. Or, again, this integument may be loose, softish, aud movable, not 
obviously divided, and passing directly into ordinary skin. 

The Tarsus, in general, nay be called subeylindrical: it is often quite cireular in cross- 
section; generally thicker from before backward, and only rarely wider from one side to the 
other than in the opposite direction; but such a shape as this last is exhibited by the penguins. 
When the transverse thinness is noticeable, the tarsus is said to be compressed; and such 
compression is very great in a loon, iu which the tarsus is almost like a knife blade. ‘Quite 
cylindrical tarsi occur chiefly when there are similar scales or plates before and behind, as 


126 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


happens in the larks (Alaudide) ; they are rare among land birds. common among waders. 
Those swimming birds with a very thin skinny podotheca are apt to show traces of the four- 
sidedness of the metatarsal bone. The tarsus in the vast inajority of land birds is seen on 
close inspection to be somewhat ovate or drop-shaped on cross-section, — gently rounded in 
front, more compressed laterally, and sharp-ridged behind. This results from the laminiplan- 
tation described above, and is equally well exhibited by most passerine birds, whether they 
have booted or anterivrly scutellate tarsi. The line of union of anterior scutella with postero- 
lateral plates on the sides of the tarsus is generally in a straight vertical line, — either a mere 
line of flush union, or a ridge, or oftener a groove (well seen in the crows), which may or 
may not be filled in with a few small narrow plates. In the Clamatorial Passeres, represented 
by our flyeatchers, the tarsus is enveloped in a scroll-like podotheea of irregularly arranged 
plates, the edges of the scroll meeting along the inner side of the tarsus. But the full consider- 
ation of special states of the tarsal envelope, however important and interesting, would be part 
of a systematic treatise on ornithology, rather than of an outline sketch like this. 


The Number of Toes (individually, digiti ; collectively, podiwm) is four: there are 
never nore. There are two in the ostrich alone, in which both inner and hind toe are wanting. 
There are three in all the other struthious birds (Rheide, Casu- 
ariide), excepting Apteryx, which has four. There are like- 
wise three, the hind toe being suppressed, in the tinamine 
genera Calodromas and Tinamotis (Dromeognathe) ; through- 
out the auk family Cdleide); in the petrel genus Pelecan- 
vides; apparently in the albatrosses (Diomedein@) ; usually in 
the gull genus Rissa; in the Hamingo genus Phenicoparra ; 
throughout the bustard family (Otidide@), and among various 
related forms, as CG?¢dicnemus, Hsacus, Cursorius; in the 
plovers (Charadriide), excepting Squatarola ; and in the 


Fig, 39.—Tridactyle foot of sand- bush-quails (Turnicide), excepting Pedionomus. In higher 
erling, Calidris arenaria; nat. size. i 


birds, three toes are a rare anomaly, only known to oceur in 
three genera of woodpeckers (Picotdes, Sasia, and Tiga), and in one galbuline genus (Jaca- 
maralcyon), by loss of the hind toe ; in two genera of kingfishers (Ceya and Aleyone), by sup- 
pression of the inner front toe; and in the passerine genus Cholornis, by defect of the outer 
front toe. North American three-toed birds are these only: the woodpeckers of the genus 
Picoides ; all auks (Alcide), and albatrosses (Diomedeine ; in these, however, there is a 
rudiment of the hind toe); all plovers (Charadriide, excepting one, Squatarola) ; the oyster- 
catchers (Hematopus) ; the sanderling (Calidris, fig. 39); the stilt (Himantopus). Birds 
with two toes are said to be didactyle ; with three, tridactyle ; with four, tetradactyle. In the 
vast majority of cases, birds have three toes in front and one behind. Oceasionally, either the 
hind toe, or the outermost front toe, is versatile, that is, susceptible of being turned either 
way. Such is the condition of the outer front toe in most owls (Sériges), and in the fish-hawk 
(Pandion). We have no ease of true versatility of the hind toe among North American birds; 
but several cases of its stationary somewhat lateral position, as in goatsuckers (Caprimulgide), 
some of the swifts (Cypselide), the loons (Colymbide), and all the totipalmate swimmers 
(Steganopodes). Nor have we any example of that rarest of all conditions (seen in some 
Cypselide, and the African Coltid@) in which all four toes are turned forward. The arrange- 
ment of toes im pairs, two before and two behind, is quite common, being the characteristic 
of seansorial birds and some others, as all the parrots and woodpeckers, cuckoos, trogons, ete. 
Such arrangement is called zygodactyle or zygodactylous (Gr. (vydv, zugon, a yoke; ddxrudos, 
daktulos, a digit) ; and birds exhibiting it are said to be yoke-toed (fig. 45). In all yoke-toed 
birds, excepting the trogons, it is the outer anterior toc which is reversed ; in trogons, the 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.— THE FEET. 127 


inner one. In nearly every three-toed bird, all three toes are anterior; our single exception is 
in the genus Picotdes, where the true hind toe is wanting, the outer anterior one being reversed 
as usual in zygodactyles. No bird has more toes behind than in front. Birds’ tues, and their 
respective joints, are 


Numbered, in a certain definite order, as follows (see figs. 34, 36): hind toe = first toe, 
1t; inner anterior toe = second tue, 2¢; middle anterior toe = third toe, 3¢; outer anterior 
toe = fourth toe, 4¢. Such identification of 1 t, 2 t, 3¢, 4¢ applies to the ordinary case of three 
toes in front and one behind. But, obviously, it holds good for any other arrangement of the 
toes, if we only know which one is changed in position, —a thing always easy to learn, as we 
shall see at once. In birds with the hind tve reversed, leaving all four in front, the same 
order is evident, though then 1¢ is the inner anterior, 2¢ the next, ete. ; for it always happens, 
when a hind toe turns forward, that it turns on the nner side of the foot. Similarly, in yoke- 
toed birds (excepting Trogonide), it is the outer anterior which is turned backward, as above 
said; then, evidently, inner hind toe = 1¢; inner front toe = 2¢; outer front toe = 3t; outer 
hind toe =4t. In Trogonide, with inner front toe reversed, the correction of the formula is 
easily made. Moreover, when the number of toes decreases from four to three or two, the 
digits are almost always reduced in the same order: thus, in three-toed birds, 1 ¢ is the missing 
one; in the two-toed ostrich, 1t and 2¢ are gone. The only known exceptions to this general- 
ization are afforded by two exotic genera of kingfishers, Ceya and Alcyone, in which 2t is 
defective ; and by the anomalous passerine Cholornis of China, in which 4 ¢ is in like case. 
The rule is proven by the 


Number of Phalanges, or joints, of the digits. The constancy of the joints in birds’ 
toes is remarkable, —it is one of the strongest expressions of the highly monomorphic character 
of Aves. In all birds, excepting Procellariide, 1 t when present has two joints (not counting, 
of course, the accessory metatarsal). In all birds, 2 ¢ when present has three joints. In nearly 
all birds, 3¢ has four joints. In nearly all birds, 4t has five joints. Thus, any digit has one 
more joint than the number of itself. The exceptions to this regularity consist in the lessening 
of the number of joints of 1 t or 3¢ by one, and of 4¢ by one or two. So when the joints do 
not run 2, 3, 4, 5, for toes 1 to 4, they run either, 1, 3, 4, 5, or 2, 3, 4, 4, or 2, 3, 3, 3. (These 
statements do not regard the anomalous cases of Ceyx, Alcyone, and Cholornis —sece above.) 
This variability is nearly confined to certain Picarian birds: our examples of it are in certain 

2 genera of Cypselina, fig. 40, where the ratio is 2, 3, 3, 3, 4 

of Caprimulgine, fig. 41, where it is 2, 3, 4, 4; and the petrel 
family, with 1,3, 4,5. Such admirable conservatism enables 
a2, us to tell what toes are missing in any case, or what ones are . 
(ZF y) out of the regular position. Thus, in Picotdes, the hind toe, pi a) \ 
N apparently 1¢, is known to be 4 ¢, because it is five-jointed ; AY 4 
in a trogon, the inner hind toe is 2 ¢, being three-jointed ; in ar 
Fic. 40.—Pha- ‘4 : « ( ff 0) 
langes of Cypse- the ostrich, with only two toes, 3¢ and 4¢ are seen to be R 
line foot, 2,3, 3,3. preserved, because they are respectively fuur- and five-jointed. J) 
(See fig. 34, where the digits and their phalanges are nmnbered.) Besides X 
this. interesting numerical ratio, the phalanges have other inter-relations of . 
some consequence in classification, resulting from their comparative lengths. ude er piade 
In some families of birds, one or more of the basal or proximal phalanges gine foot, 2,3, 4,4. 
(those next to the foot — opposed to distal, or those at the ends of the digits) of the front toes 
are extremely short, being mere nodules of bone (fig. 40); in other and more frequent cases, 
they are the longest of all, as in figs. 34, 41. On the whole, they generally decrease in length 
from proximal to distal extremity, and the last one of any tue is quite small, serving merely 


128 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


as a core to the claw. The difference in the lengths of the several phalanges, like that ot 
the digits themselves, makes the toes mure efficient in grasping, since they thereby clasp more 
perfectly upon an irregular object. The design and the principle are the same as seen in the 
human hand, in which model instrument the digits and their joints are all of different lengths. 


The Position of the Digits, vther than in respect to their direction, is important. In | 


all birds the front toes are inserted on the metatarsus on the same level, or so nearly in one 


horizontal plane that the difference is not notable. The same may be said of the hind toes - 


when they are a pair, as in zygodactyle birds. But the hind toe, or hallux, as it is often 
called, when present and single, varies remarkably in position with reference to the front toes ; 
aud this matter requires special notice, as it is important in classification. The insertion of 
this digit varies, from the very bottom of the tarsus (metatarsus), where it is on a level with 
the front toes, to some distance up the bone. When the hallux is flush with the bases of 
the other toes, sc that its whole length is on the ground, it is said to be incumbent. When 
just so much raised that its tip only touches the ground, it is called insistent. When inserted 
so high up that it does not reach the ground, it is termed remote (amotus) or elevated. 
But as the precise position varies insensibly, so that the foregoing distinctions are not readily 
perceived, it is practically best to recugnize only two of these three conditions, saying simply 
‘hind toe elevated,” wheu it is inserted fairly above the rest, and ‘‘ hind toe not elevated,” 
when its insertion is flush with that of the other toes. In round terms: itis characteristic of 
all insessorial (Lat. insedo, I sit upon) or perching birds to have the hind toe Down; of all 
other birds to have it up (when present). The exceptions to the first of these statements are 
extremely rare; among North American birds they are chiefly furnished by certain genera of 
Caprimulgide, perhaps also of Cypselide, and of Cathartide. But among other Raptores 
besides Cathartide, especially certain owls (Striges), and in some of the pigeons (Columbida), 
the hind toe is not quite down, or is decidedly uplifted (as in Starnwnas, for example). It is 
elevated in all our rasorial birds (Galline); elevated in all our waders excepting the herons 
and some of their allies (Herodiones), though not very markedly so in the rail family (Rallide). 
It is elevated in al! swimming birds, whether lobe-footed or completely or partly web-footed, 
but in the totipalnate order (Steganopodes), where the hailux is lateral in position and 
webbed with the imner toe, the elevation is slight. Now since, curivusly enough, the only 
ones of our insessorial genera (see above) that have the hind toe up, have also little webs 
between the front toes —since some Raptores are our only other insessorial birds with any 
such true webbing —since herons and some of their allies are our only birds with such 
webbing that have the hallux down — the following rule is perhaps infallible for North 
American birds: Consider the hind toe up in any bird with any true webbing or lobing of the 
front toes, excepting herons and some of their allies and some birds of prey. The converse 
also holds alnost as well; for our only birds with fully cleft anterior toes and hind toe up, are 
the rails and gallinules (Rallide), the black-bellied plover (Squatarola helvetica), our only 
four-toed plover, the turn-stone (Strepsilas wterpres), the American woodcock (Philohela 
minor), the European woodcock (Scolopax rusticula), Wilson’s snipe (Gallinago wilsont), and 
most of the sandpipers (Scolopacida). Tf the sense of this paragraph is taken in, the student 
who wishes to use my artificial ‘key ” will seldom be puzzled to know whether to take the 
toe up or down. 


The Hallux has other Notable Characters. —It is free and simple, in the vast majority 
of birds : in all insessorial birds, nearly all ewrsorial (Lat. crsor, a courser), and most natatorial 
(Lat. natator, a switminer) forms. Its length, claw included, may equal or surpass that of the 
longest anterior toe; and generally exceeds that of one or two of these. It is never so long as 
when incumbent ; when thus down on a level with the rest it also acquires its greatest mobility 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS.—THE FEET. 129 


and functional efficiency. In most Passeres it is virtually provided with a special muscle for 
independent movement, so that it may be perfectly apposable to the other tues collectively, 
just as our thumb may be brought against the tip of any finger. In general, it shortens as it 
rises on the metatarsus; and probably in no bird in which it is truly elevated is it as long as 
the shortest anterior toe. It is short, barely touching the ground, in inost wading birds; 
shorter still in some swimmers, as the gulls, where it is probably functionless ; it is incom- 
plete in one genus of gulls (Rissa), where it bears no perfect claw; it has only one phalanx 
and is represented only by a short immovable claw in the petrels (Procellartida) ; it disappears 
in the birds named in the last paragraph but two above, and in some others. It is never actu- 
ally soldered with any other toe, for any noticeable distance ; but it is webbed to the base of the 
inner toe in the loons (Colymbus), and to the whole length of the toe in all the Steganopodes 
(fig. 52). It may also be independently webbed; that is, be provided with a separate flap or 
lobe of free membrane. This lobation of the hallux is seen in all our sea-ducks and mergansers 
(Fuliguline and Mergine), and in all the truly lobe-footed birds, as coots (L’ulica), grebes 
(Podicipedide) and phalaropes (Phalaropodide). The modes of union of the anterior toes 
with one another may be finally considered under the head of the 


Three leading Modifications of the Avian Foot. — Birds’ feet are modelled, on the 
whole, upou one or another of three plans, furnishing as many types of structure ; which 
types, though they run into one another, and each is variously modified, may readily be appre- 
ciated. These plans are the perching or isessorial, the walking or wading, cursorial or 
grallatorial, and the swimming or natatorial —in fact, so well distinguished are they, that 
earinate birds have even been primarily divided into groups corresponding to these three 
evidences of physiological adaptation of the structure of the Avian pes. Independently of the 
number and position of the digits, the plans are pretty well indicated by the method of union 
of the toes, or their entire lack of union. 1. The insessorial type. (a) In order to make a foot 
the most of a hand, that is, to fit it best for that grasping function which the perching of 
birds upon trees and bushes requires, it is requisite that the digits should be as free and 
movable as possible, and that the hind one should be perfectly apposable to the others. 
Compare the human hand, for example, with the foot, and observe the perfection secured by 
the perfect freedom of the fingers and especially the appositeness of the thumb. In the most 
accomplished insessorial foot, the front toes are cleft to the base, or ouly coherent to a very 
slight extent; the hind toe is completely incumbent, and as long and flexible as the rest. Our 
thrushes (Turdida) probably show as complete cleavage 
as is ever seen, practically as much as that of the 
human fingers; the cleft between the inner and middle 
toe being to the very base, while the outer is only joined 
to the middle for about the length of its own basal 
joint. This is the typical passerine foot (figs. 36, 37, 
42,43). There may be somewhat more cohesion of 
the toes at base, as in the wrens, titmice, creepers, 
vireos, etc., without, however, obscuring the true pas- 
serine character. As regards this matter, the point is, 
that when the toes are united at all, it is by their actual 
cohesion there, not by movable webbing. Besides the F F 
typical passerine, there are several other modifications ane ae gps Laue 

ig ge ctrophanes lappo- 
of the insessorial foot. (b) Thus a kingfisher shows ”écus, nat. size.) 
what is called a syndactyle or syngnesious (Gr. avy, sun, together ; yrjcotos, gnesios, relating to 
way of birth) foot (fig. 44), where the outer and middle toes cohere for most of their extent and 
have a broad sole in common. It is a degradation of the insessorial foot, and not a common 
9 


1380 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


one either; seen in those perching birds which scarcely use their feet for progression, but 
simply for sitting motionless. (¢) The zygodactyle or yoke-toed modification has been suffi- 
ciently noted (fig. 45). It was formerly made much of, as a scansorial or climbing type of foot, 
and an absurd “ order” 
of birds has been called 
Scansores. But many 
of the zygodactyle birds 
do not climb, as the 
cuckoos; while the most 
nimble and adroit of 
climbers, such as the 
nuthatches and creepers, 
retain a typically pas- Fic. 45.—Zygodactyle foot of a woodpecker, //y/otomus 
serine foot. The “sean- Pettus, nat. size. 

sorial” is simply one modification of the insessorial plan, and has little clas- 
cone Dae bed sificatory significance, —no more than that attaching to the particular con- 
fisher, nat. size. dition of the insessorial foot (¢) which results from elevation or versatility of 
the hind toe, as in some Cypselid@ and Caprimulgide. This is an abnormality which has 
received no special name; it is generally associated with some little webbing of the anterior 
toes at base, which is a de- 
parture from the true inses- 
sorial plan, or with abnormal 
reduction of the phalanges of 
the third and fourth toes, as 
explained above (figs. 40, 41). 
(e) The raptorial is another 
modification of the insessorial 
foot. It is advantageous to a 
bird of prey to be able to 
spread the toes as widely as 
possible, that the talons may 

eT” seize the prey like a set of 
Fig. 46.— Raptorial foot of a hawk, Accipiter cooperi, nat. size. grappling irons ; and accord- 


ingly the toes are widely divergent from each other, the outer one in the owls and a few hawks 
being quite versatile. In a foot of raptorial character, the toes are cleft profoundly, or, if united 
at base, it is by movable 
webbing; the claws are im- 
mensely developed, and the 
under-surfaces of the toes are 
scabrous or bulbous for greater 
security of the object grasped. 
Any hawk or ow] or old-world 
vulture exhibits the raptorial 
insessorial foot (figs. 46, 47). 
2. The cursorial or grallato- 
rial type. The gist of this 
plan lies in the decrease or 

Fic. 47.— Raptorial foot of an owl, Aluco flammeus, nat. size. entire loss of the grasping 
fonction, and in the elevation, reduction in length, or loss of the hind toe; the foot is a good 
foot, but nothing of a hand. The columbine birds, which are partly terrestrial, part!y arboreal, 


EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. — THE FEET. 151 


exhibit the transition from the perchiug to the gradient foot, in some reduction of the hind toe, 
which is nevertheless in most cases still on the same level as the rest (fig. 38, b). In the 
gallinaceous or rasorial (Lat. rasor, a scraper) birds, which are essentially terrestrial, and 
uoted for their habit of scratching the ground for food, the hind toe is decidedly elevated and 
shortened in almost all of the families (fig. 35). Such reduction and uplifting of the hallux is 
carried to an extreme in most of the waders, or gral- 
latores, in many of which this toe disappears (figs. 
38, a, 39). Itis scarcely practicable to recognize special 
modifications of such gradient or grallatorial feet, since 
they merge insensibly into one another. The herons, 
which are the most arboricole of the waders, exhibit a 
reversion to the iusessorial type, in the length and in- 
cumbency of the hallux. The mode of union of the 


Fic. 48. — Semipal- 


mation in Ereunectes; front toes of the walkers and waders is somewhat char- Fic, 40. — Semi- 
. tae , . “ palmated bases of 
Nats 8128s acteristic. The toes are cither cleft quite to the base, toes of symphemia; 


or there joined by small webs; probably never actually coherent. Such nat. size. 

basal webbing of the toes is called semipalmation (‘‘half-webbing ”). It is actually the 
same thing that occurs in many birds of prey, in most gallinaceous birds, ete. ; the term is 
mostly restricted, in descriptive ornithology, to those wading birds, or grallatores, in which it 
oeeurs. Such basal webs generally run out to the end of the first, or along part of the second, 
phalanx of the toes; usually farther between the outer and middle 
than between the middle and inner toes. Such a foot is well illus- 
trated by the semipalmated plover (gialites semipalmatus), 
semipalmated sandpiper (Hreunetes pusillus, fig. 48), and willet 
(Symphemia semipalmata, fig. 49). In a few wading birds, as the 
avocet and flamingo, the webs extend to the ends of the toes. 
This introduces us at once to the third main modification of the 
foot, 3. The natatorial type. Here the foot is transformed into 
a swimming implement, usually with much if not entire abrogation 
of its function as foot or hand. Swimming birds with few ex- 
ceptions are notoriously bad walkers, and few of them are perchers. 
The swimming type is presented under two principal modifica- 
tions: — (a.) In the palmate or ordinary webbed foot, all the front Fic. 50. —Palmate foot of a 
toes are united by ainple webs (fig. 50). The palmation is usually tern, Sterna forsteri; nat. size. 
complete, extending to the ends of the toes; but one or both webs may be so deeply incised, 
that is, cut away, that the palmation is practically reduced to semipalmation, as in terns of 
the genus Hydrochelidon (fig. 51). The totipalmate is a special case of palmation, in 
which all four toes are webbed; this characterizes the whole order 
Steganopodes (fig. 52). (b.) In the lobate foot, a paddle results not 
from connecting webs, but from a series of lobes or flaps along the 
sides of the individual toes; as in the coots, grebes, phalaropes, and 
sun-birds (Heliornithide). Lobation is usually associated with semi- 
palmation, as is well seen in the grebes (Podicipedide). In the snipe- 
like phalaropes (Phalaropodidg), lobation is present as a modification 
of a foot otherwise quite cursorial. The most emphatic cases of loba- 
tion are those in which each joint of the toes has its own flap, with a Pe. Blo Srctsed pal: 
free convex border ; the membranes as a whole therefore present a scol- mation of Hydrochelidon 
loped outline (figs. 53, 53 bis). Such lobes are merely a development '#Vormis; nat. size. 

of certain marginal fringes or processes exhibited by many non-lobate or non-palmate birds. 
Thus, if the foot of some of the gallinules be examined in a fresh state, the toes will be scen to 


182 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


have a narrow membranous margin running the whole length. The same thing is evident in 
a great many waders, and on the free borders of the inner and outer tues of web-footed birds. 
In the grouse family 
(Tetraonide), war- 
ginal fringes are 
very conspicuous ; 
there being a great 
development of hard 
horny substance, 
fringed into a series 
of sharp teeth or 
pectinations (fig. 
35). These forma- 


Fic. 52, —Totipalmate foot of a tious appear to be 
pelican; reduced. deciduous, that is, 


to fall of€ periodically, like parts of the claws of FIG. 53.— Lobate foot of a coot; reduced. 
some quadrupeds (lemmings). 


Claws and Spurs.— With rare anomalous exceptions, as in the case of an imperfect 
hind toe, every digit terminates in a complete claw. The general shape is remarkably constant 
in the class; variations being rather in degree than in kind. A cat’s claw is about the usual 
shape: it is compressed, arched, acute. The great talons of a bird of prey are only an en- 
largement of the typical shape ; and, in fact, they are scarcely longer, more curved, or more 
acute than those of a delicate canary bird; they are simply stouter. The claws of scansorial 
birds are very acute and much curved, as well as quite large. The under surface of the claw 
is generally excavated, so that the transverse section, as 
well as the lengthwise outline below, is concave, and the 
under surface is bounded on either side by a sharp edge. 
One of these edges, particularly the inner edge of the middle 
claw, is expanded or dilated in a great many birds; in some 

Fra. 53 bis. —Lobate foot of phala- it becomes a perfect comb, having a regular series of teeth. 
rope, Lobipes hyperborcus ; nat. size. This pectination (Lat. pecten, a comb), as it is called, only 
occurs on the inner edge of the middle claw. It is beautifully shown by all the true herons 
(Ardeide) ; by the whip-poor-wills and night-hawks (Caprimulgide, fig. 41); by the frigate 
pelican (Tachypetes); und imperfectly by the barn owl (Aluco flammeus). It is supposed to 
be used for freeing parts of the plumage that cannot be reached by the bill from parasites; 
but this is very questionable, seeing that some of the shortest-legged birds, which cannot 
possibly reach much of the plumage with the comb, possess that instrument. Claws are 
more obtuse among the lower birds than in the insessorial and seansorial groups, as the 
columbine and gallinaceous (rasorial) orders, and most natatorial families. Obtuseness is 
generally associated with flatness or depression; for in proportion as a claw becomes less 
acute, so does it lose its arcuation, as a rule. This is well illustrated by Wilson’s petrel 
(Oceanites oceanicus), as compared with others of the same family. Such condition is carried 
to an extreme in the grebes (Podicipedide), the claws of which birds resemble human finger- 
nails. Otherwise, deviations from curvature, without loss of acuteness, are chiefly exhibited 
by the hind claw of many terrestrial Passeres, as in the whole family Alaudide (larks), 
aud some of the finches (Fringillide), as the species of ‘ long-spur” (Centrophanes). But all 
the claws are straight, sharp, and prodigiously long, in birds of the genus Parra (fig. 
53 ter); these jagands being enabled to run lightly over the floating leaves of aquatic plants 
by so much increase in the spread of their toes that they do not ‘‘slump in.” Claws are 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 133 


also variously carinate or ridged, sulcate or grooved. In a few cases they are rounded under- 
neath, so as to be nearly circular in cross-section, as is the case with those of the fish-hawk 
(Pandion). They are always horny (corneous). They take naine from and are reckoned by 
their respective digits: thus, 1 cl. = claw of 1¢; 2 cl. = claw of 2¢, ete. 


Fic. 53 ter.— Foot of Parra gymnostoma, nat. size, showing the long, straight claws. (From Pr. U.S. Nat. 
Mus. The spurred wing of the same bird is also shown. See p. 114.) 


Spurs (Lat. calcar, a spur) are developed on the metatarsal bones of a few birds. They 
are of the nature of claws, being hard, horny modifications of the epiderm: but they have 
nothing to do with the digits. They possess a bony core upon which they are supported, 
like the horns of cattle. Such growths chiefiy occur in gallinaceous birds: the spurs of the 
domestic fowl are a familiar case. Sometimes there are a pair of such weapons on each foot, 
as in the Pavo bicalcaratus. The only instance of their occurrence among indigenous birds of 
North America is offered by the wild turkey (Meleagris gallipavo). Metatarsal spurs are 
characteristic of the male sex; they are offensive weapons, and belong to the class of ‘‘second- 
ary sexual characters” (p. 90). (For wing-spurs, as shown in fig. 53 ter, see p. 114.) 


§ 4.—AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. 


Anatomical Structure now affords ornithologists many and the most important of the 
characters used in classification. In fact, few if any of the groups above genera can be 
securely established without consideration of internal parts and organs, as well of exterior 
modifications of structure. Therefore, the student who really ‘‘ means business” must be on 
speaking terms at least with avian anatomy. For example, none could in the least intelli- 
gently understand a wing or a leg without knowing the bony framework of those members. 
Yet, for me to adequately set this matter forth would be to occupy this whole volume with 
anatomy ; whereas, I can only devote a few pages to the entire subject. In such embarrass- 
ment, which attends any attempt to treat a great theme in a short way that shall not also be a 
small way, attention must be mainly confined to those points which bear most directly upon 
systematic ornithology as distinguished from pure anatomy, in order to bring forward the 
structures which are more particularly concerned in the classification of birds. I wish to 
give a fair account of the skeleton, as osteological characters are of the utmost importance for 
the determination of natural affinities; and to continue with some notice of prominent features 
of the muscular, vascular, respiratory, digestive, urogenital, and nervous systems, and 
organs of the special senses, as the eye and ear. The tegumentary system has already been 
treated at some length (pp. 82-91) ; so has the osseous system, so far as the bones of the limbs 
are concerned (pp. 106-109, 118-122, 127). What further I shall have to say is designed 
merely as an introduction to the rudiments of avian anatomy, and is supposed to be addressed 
to beginners only. 


134 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


a. OSTEOLOGY: THE Ossrous SYSTEM, OR SKELETON. 


Osteology (Gr. daréov, osteon, a bone; Aédyos, logos, a word) is a scientific description of 
bone in general and of bones in particular. Bone consists of an animal basis or matrix (Lat. 
matrix, a mould) hardened by deposit of earthy salts, chiefly phosphate of lime. Bone is 
either preformed in the gristly substance called cartilage (Lat. cartilago, gristle), and results 
from the substitution of the peculiar osseous tissue for the cartilaginous tissue, or it is formed 
directly in ordinary connective tissue, such as that of most membranes or any ligaments of the 
body. Bone tissue presents a peculiar microscopic structure, in which it differs from teeth, as 
it does also in not being developed from mucous membrane; the substance is called ostein, 
as distinguished from dentine. Though very dense and hard, bone has a copious blood-supply, 
and is therefore very vascular ; the nutrient fluid penetrates every part in a system of vessels 
called Haversian canals. In the natural state bone is covered with a tough membrane called 
periosteum (Gr. wepi, pert, around, and éaréov), which is to bone what bark is to a tree. The 
bones collectively constitute the osseous system, otherwise known as the skeleton (Gr. ckederov, 
dried, as bones usually are when studied). The skeleton is divided into the endoskeleton (Gr. 
&8ov, endon, within), consisting of the bones inside the body ; and the exoskeleton (Gr. é€, ex, 
out of), or those upon the surface of the body, of which birds have none. Certain bones 
developed apart from the systematic endoskeleton, in fibrous tissue, are called scleroskeletal 
(Gr. oxdnpéds, scleros, hard), as the ossified tendons or leaders of a turkey’s leg, the ring of 
ossicles in a bird’s eye (an ossicle is any small bone). Sesamoid (Gr. onoapn, sesame, a 
kind of pea) bones, so often found in the ligaments and tendons about joints, are probably 
best considered scleroskeletal. The endoskeleton is divided into bones of the axial skeleton, 
so called because they lie in the axis of the body, as those of the skull, backbone, chest, 
pelvis, and shoulder-girdle ; and of the appendicular skeleton, including bones of the limbs, 
considered as diverging appendages of the trunk. The skeleton is jointed; bones join 
either by immovable suture, or by movable articulation (Lat. articulus, a joint, dimin. of artus 
a limb). In free articulations, the opposing surfaces are generally smooth, and lubricated 
with a tluid called synovia. Progressive ossification often causes bones originally distinct to 
codssify, that is, to fuse together; this is termed ankylosis or anchylosis ; bones so melted 
together are said to be ankylosed or anchylosed (Gr. dyxtAwots or dyyvAwors, the stiffening of 
joints in a bent position). Thus all the bones of a bird’s brain-hox are anchylosed together, 
though the box at first consists of many distinct ones; and the determination of such osseous 
elements or integers in compounded bones is a very important matter, as a clue to their 
morphological composition. The names of most individual bones, chiefly derived from the 
old anatomists, are arbitrary and have little scientific signification; many are fanciful and mis- 
leading; bones named since anatomy passed from the empiric stage, when it was little more 
than the art of dissecting and describing, however, have as a rule better naming. The shaft 
of a long bone is its continuity: the enlargements usually found at its extremities are called 
condyles (Gr. xévdudos, kondulos, a lump, knot, as of the knuckles). Points where ossification 
commences in cartilage or membrane, are ossific centres, or osteoses ; valuable clues, usually, 
to the elements of compound bones. But ossification of individual simple bones may begin in 
more than one spot, and the several osteoses afterward grow together. This is especially the 
case with the ends of bones, which often make much progress in ossification before they unite 
with the shaft or main part; such caps of bone, as long as they are disunited, are called 
epiphyses (Gr. émi, epi, upon; vats, phusis, growth). Protrusive parts of bones have the 
general name of processes, or apophyses (Gr. ad, apo, away from, and dvots); such have 
generally no ossific centres, being mere outgrowths. But many parts of a vertebra, which are 
called ‘‘ apophyses,” have independent ossific centres. The progress of ossification is usually 
rapid and effectual. 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 185 

The skeleton of birds is noted for the number and extent of its anchyloses, a great ten- 
deney to coéssification and condensation of bone-tissue resulting from the energy of the vital 
activities in this hot-blooded, quick-breathing class of creatures. Birds’ bones are remarkably 
hard and compact. When growing, they are solid and marrowy, but in after life more or fewer of 
them become hollow and are filled with air. This pnewmaticity (Gr. mvevpatixds, pneumatihos, 
windy) is highly characteristic of the avian skeleton. Air penetrates the skull-bones from the 
nose and ear-passages, and may permeate all of them. 
trunk and limbs by means of air-tubes and air-sacs which connect with the air-passages iu 
the lungs; such sacs, sometimes of great extent, are also found in many places in the interior 
of the body, beneath the skin, ete. ; sometimes the whole subcutaneous tissue is pneumatic. 
The extent to which the skeleton is aérated is very variable. In many birds only the skull, 
in a few the entire skeleton, is in such condition; ordinarily the greater part of the skull, 
The passage of air in some cases 


It gains access to the bones of the 


and the lesser part of the trunk and limbs, is pneumatized. 
is so free, as into the arm-bone for example, that a bird with the windpipe stopped can breathe 


hs 


Fig. 54. — Ideal plan of the double-ringed body of a 
vertebrate. N,neuralcanal; H, hemal canal; the body 
separating them is the centrum of any vertebra, bear- 
ing e, an epapophysis, and y, a hypapophysis; n,n, neu- 
rapophyses; @, d, diapophyses; ns, bifid neural spine; 
pl, pl, pleurapophyses; h, h, hemapophyses; hs, bifid 
hemal spine. Drawn by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S. A., 
after Owen. 


for an indefinite period through a hole in the humerus. 


Fig. 55. — Actual section of the body in the thoracic 
region of a bird. N, neural canal; H, hemal canal; c, 
centrum of a dorsal vertebra; hy, hypapophysis; d, 
diapophysis ; z, zygapophysis; ms, neural spine; r, 
pleurapophysis, or vertebral part of a free rib, bearing 
wu, uncinate process or epipleura; cr, hemapophysis 
or sternal part of the same; st, section of sternum or 
breast-bone (hemal spine). Designed by Dr. R. W. 
Shufeldt, U.S. A. 


Pneumnaticity is not directly nor 


necessarily related to power of flight; some birds which do not fly at all are more pneumatic 


than some of the most buoyant. 
head of the respiratory system.) 


(On the general pneumaticity of the body see beyond under 


The Axial Skeleton (figs. 54, 55, 56) of a bird or any vertebrated animal, that is, one 


having a back-bone, exhibits in cross-section two rings or hoops, one above and the other 
below a central point, like the upper and lower loops of a figure 8. The upper ring is the 
neural arch (Gr. vedpor, neuron, a nerve), socalled because such a cylinder encloses a section 
of the cerebro-spinal axis, or principal nervous system of a vertebrate (brain and spinal cord, 


136 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


whence arise all the nerves of the body, excepting those of the sympathetic nervous system). 
The lower ring is the hemal arch (Gr. aiva, haima, blood), which similarly contains a section 
of the principal blood-vessels and viscera. Fig. 55 shows such a section, made across the 
thoracic or chest-region of the trunk. Here the upper ring (neural) is contracted, only sur- 
rounding the slender spinal cord, while the lower ring is expanded to enclose the heart and 


ses), whereof sr is sacral; 1, one of the five uncinate processes or 


, and urosacral vertebrae; J, ilium; Js, ischium; P, pubis; a, acetabu- 
(For extent of dv, see note 2, p, 138.) 


), whereof the sixth floats; p, pelvic or sacral region of the spine, com- 


, sacral proper. 
, caudal or coccygeal vertebra, whereof py is the pygostyle; s, scapula; 


, of an owl, Asio wilsonianus, life size; from nature by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S. A. 
, sternum. 


w#; ¢, c’, cervical ribs, or free pleurapophyses; dv, dorsal vertebrae, excepting the last one, 


which joins the sacrum; M2, two of the six true ribs (pleurapophy 


Fic. 56.— Axial skeleton, minus the skull 
epipleura; cr, two of the six sternal ribs (hamapophyses 


prehending one dorsal, and several lumbar 
lum; in, ischio-iliac foramen; 0, obturator foramen; c/v 


at, atlas; az, axis; cv, cervical vertebr: 
ohs, 08 humero-scapulare; cl, clavicle; C, coracoid; S. 


lungs. Such a section, made in the region of the skull, would show the reverse ; the upper 
Ting greatly inflated to contain the brain, the lower contracted and otherwise greatly modified 
into bones of the jaws. Thus the trunk of a vertebrate is a double-barrelled tube; one tube 
above for the nervous system, the other below for the viscera at large ; the partition between 
the two being a jointed chain of solid bones from one end of the body to the other. These 
solid bones are the centrums or bodies of vertebre, in the trunk; and in the head certain 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 137 


bones which in some respects correspond with the centrums of vertebrae. The entire chain or 
series of vertebrae composes the back-bone or spinal column ; with its connections (thorax and 
pelvis) and anterior continuation (skull) it is the axial skeleton. The skull is considered by 
some competent anatomists to consist of modified vertebree. The skull-bones have certainly 
the position and relations of parts of vertebrae; to a certain extent they resemble vertebree, as 
in being divisible into several segments, like as many vertebral segments ; they are also direct- 
ly in the axis of the body, enclosing a part of the cerebro-spinal nervous system above, and 
portions of the visceral systems below. But supposed strict morphological correspondence of 
cranial bones with vertebrae is not supported by their mode of development, and is now gen- 
erally denied, the relation being considered rather analogical and physiological than hoinological 
and morphological. 


1. THE SPINAL COLUMN. 


A Vertebra (so called from the flexibility of the chain of vertebree; Lat. verto, I turn) 
consists of a solid body or centrum, and more or fewer processes or apophyses, some of which 
have separate ossific centres. Plate-like processes which arch upward from either side of a 
centrum to enclose the neural canal are the neural arches or newrapophyses (fig. 54, n, 2); 
at their union in the middle line above they commonly send up a process called the neural spine 
(ns). Transverse processes from the sides of the neural arch are diapophyses (Gr. 6:4, dia, across) 
(figs. 54, 55, d,d). Oblique processes from the sides of the same arches, serving to lock them 
together, are zygapophyses (Gr. (vyov, zugon, a yoke; fig. 55, 2); there are two on each side ; 
one anterior, on the front border of an arch, a pre-zygapophysis ; one posterior, on the hind 
border, a post-zygapophysis. From the under-side of a centrum, in the middle line, there is often 
a hypapophysis (Gr. timé, hupo, under: fig. 55, hy). These several processes, with some others 
not necessary to mention here, inake with the centrum «@ vertebra in strictness; that is, when exist- 
ing at all, they are completely consolidated with one another and with the centrum into one bone. 
But certain important elements of a vertebra, developed from independent ossifie centres, may or 
may not anchylose therewith, in different regions of the same spinal column. These are the 
pleurapophyses (Gr. mdeupdv, pleuron, a rib; fig. 54 pl; fig. 55,7). Any red is in fact the 
pleurapophysial element of a vertebra ; it may be, and in most regions of the spinal column it is, 
quite small when existing at all, and anchylosed with the vertebra to which it belongs, as an 
integral portion thereof. Only in the lower region of the neck, and throughout the thoracic 
region, such pleurapophyses elongate, and are movably articulated with their respective verte- 
bree; they then become the ‘‘ribs” of ordinary language. Moreover, the true thoracic ribs of 
birds are jointed near the middle, each thus consisting of two pieces; the upper piece is pleura- 
pophysis proper: the lower is called a hemapophysis (fig. 54, h; fig. 55, cr) ; it corresponds to 
a “‘ costal cartilage ” of human anatomy. Once again: since the sternwm (breast-bone) is theo- 
retically, and doubtless archetypically, a solidified set of those parts of the vertebral segments 
which complete the hemal arches below, each segment of a sternum to which a hemapophysis 
is articulated is called a hemal spine, being compared to a neural spine above. Aside from any 
consideration of the ribs proper and sternum, or free pleurapophyses, hemapophyses, and 
hemal spines, any ‘‘ vertebra” of ordinary language is the compound bone which consists of 
centrum and neur-, di-, pre- and post-zyg-, pleur-, hyp- and other -apophyses, if any, aud 
neural spine ; the latter being often called the ‘‘ spinous process.” 


The Vertebrz join one another, forming a continuous chain. Their centra are placed 
end to end, one after another; their neural arches are also locked together by the zygapophyses, 
when such articular processes are developed. Zygapophyses bear upon their free ends smooth 
articular facets, the faces of which are mostly horizontal; those of the pre-zygapophyses looking 
downward, and overriding the reversed faces of the post-zygapophyses. The mode of jointing 


138 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


of the centra of such vertebrz as are freely movable upon each other is highly characteristic 
of birds, in so far as the shapes of the articular ends of the vertebral centra are concerned. 
In anatomy at large, a vertebral centrum which is cupped or hollowed at both ends, is of 
course bi-concave. Such a vertebra is called amphicelous (Gr. api, amphi, on both sides ; 
koidos, koilos, hollowed) ; this is the rule in fishes, and obtained in some extinct Cretaceous birds, 
as Ichthyornis ; it is unknown in receut birds.1 A centrum cupped in front only is procelous ; 
one cupped only behind is opisthocelous (Gr. émeade, opisthe, behind). Such structure neces- 
sarily results in a ball-and-socket jointing of vertebree. In those vertebree of birds in which 
this arrangement obtains, it is always the posterior face of a centrum which is cupped, the 
anterior one being balled; such vertebree are therefure opisthocwlous. But in the freest 
vertebral articulation of birds, that existing in the region of the neck, another modification 
oceurs. Both ends of each vertebra are saddle-shaped ; 7. ¢., concave in one direction, convex 
in the other; a condition which may be called heterocalous (Gr. érepos, heteros, contrary). 
The concavo-convexity of any one vertebra fits the reciprocal concavo-convexity of the next. 
Anterior faces of heteroccelous vertebrz are concave crosswise, up-and-down convex ; posterior 
faces are the reverse; consequently, such vertebree are proccelous in horizontal section, but in 
vertical section opisthocwelous. The various physical characters of vertebree in different regions 
of the body, and their connections with and relations to other parts of the body, have caused 
their division into several sets, as cervical, dorsal, ctc., which are best considered separately. 


Cervical Vertebrz (tig. 56, cv) are those of the neck: all those in front of the thorax or 
chest, which do not bear free pleurapophyses in adult life, or the free pleurapophyses of which, 
if any, are not in two-jointed pieces and do not reach the breast-bone; ¢. e., have no hema- 
pophyses. It is advisable, in birds, to draw this line between cervical and succeeding vertebrz, 
no other being equally practicable; for, on the one hand, one, two or more of the cervieals 
(recognizable as such by their general conformation and free articulation) ay have long free 
ribs, movably articulated ; and all the cervicals, excepting usually the first, or first and second, 
have short pleurapophyses, anchylosed in adult life, but free in the embryo; while, on the 
other hand, a vertebra, appareutly dursal by its configuration and even its anchylosis with the 
dorsal series, may be entirely cervical in its pleurapophysial character.? Thus, in fig. 56, of an 
owl's trunk, the bone which is apparently first dorsal, and is so marked (dv), bears a free 
styliform “‘riblet” an inch long (c’), only it is not jointed, and does not reach the sternum ; 
while the next to the last cervical has a minute but still free rib (c). In a raven’s neck before 
me, the last cervical rib is about two inches long, articulating by well-defined head and shoul- 
der to body and lateral process of the vertebra; the penultimate rib is about half an inch long, 
with one articulation to the lateral process; while the next anterior vertebra (third from the 
last) has a minute ossicle, as a free ‘‘riblet.”. The rule is two such free pleurapophyses or 
cervical ribs of any considerable length : sometimes one; rarely three; in the cassowary four. 
Rudimeutary pleurapophyses may usually be traced up to the second cervical vertebra, as slender 

1 Except to this statement, however, the oddly-massed pygostyle, which, in birds where a terminal disc 
develops inferiorly, may be distinctly cupped at both ends, as it is in a raven for example. 

+ The case is very puzzling; the more so because, viewing the whole series of birds, the ambiguous “ cervico- 
dorsal,” or two such equivocal vertebra, may lean in different cases in opposite directions when the whole sum of 
characters is taken into account. Therefore it may be best, as already said, to make the possession of a jointed 
sternum-reaching rib the criterion of the jirst dorsal vertebra, even though an antecedent one may have the 
physical characters of a dorsal, and be anchylosed with the dorsal series. This is the view taken by Huxley, who 
says: ‘‘ The first dorsal vertebra is defined as such by the union of its ribs with the sternum by means of a sternal 
rib.” (Anat. Vert. Anim., 1872, p. 237.) Owen appears to regard as dorsal any of the vertebrze in question which 
bear free ribs. The actual uncertainty in the case, and the discrepant reckoning by different authors, prevents us 
from making a satisfactory count of tbe numbers of the two series of vertebrx in any given case. Thus, tig 56, as 
marked by Dr. Shufeldt, shows six dorsals (dv), to which is to be added the one under p, bearing the rib sr; and 


from which is to be subtracted the anterior one, bearing the rib c’, which is to be regarded as cervical, though its 
physical characters are evidently those of the dorsal series. 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 189 


stylets or riblets, completely anchylosed with the neural arches in adult life, and lying parallel 
with the long axes of the bones. The anchylosis of pleuropoplyses distinguishes most cervical 
yertebre in another way: for from it results, on each side of the neural arch, a foramen 
(Lat. foramen, a hole, pl. foramina), through which blood-vessels (vertebral artery and vein) 
pass to and from the skull. The series of these foramina is called the vertebrarterial canal ; 
nove such exist in those posterior cervical vertebrae which bear free ribs; thus, in the raven the 
canal begins abruptly at the fourth from the last cervical. But, as in Rhea for instance (and 
doubtless in many other cases), the vertebrarterial canal shades visibly into the series of 
foramina formed by the spaces between the head aud shoulder of any rib and the side of the 
vertebra to which it is attached; such being, as I suppose, the true morphology of the canal. 
The cervical is the most flexible regiou of a bird’s spine ; the articular ends of the vertebral bodies 
are the most completely saddle-shaped (heteroccelous) ; the zygapophyses are large and flaring, 
overriding each other extensively ; the largest processes are at the fore ends of the bones ; the ap- 
positions of the central and zygapophysial articular surfaces are collectively such, that the column 
tends to bend in an S-shape or sigmoid curve. The vertebral bodies are more or less contracted 
in the middle, or somewhat hour-glass-shaped; on several lower cervicals, bypapophyses are 
likely to be well developed; as are ueural spines toward both the beginning and end of the 
series. The vertebree on the whole are large; their neural canal is also of ample calibre. The 
first two cervicals are so peculiarly moditied for the articulation of the skull as to have received 
special names. The first one, fig. 56, at, the atlas (so called because it bears up the head, as 
the giant Atlas was fabled tu support the firmament), is a simple ring, apparently without a 
centrum. The lower part of the ring is deeply cupped to receive the condyle of the occiput 
into ball-and-socket joint. The second cervical is the axis, ax, which subserves rotary move- 
ments of the skull. It has a peculiar tooth-like odontoid (Gr. dd0vs, dddvros, odows, odontos, 
tooth ; efdos, eidos, form) process, borne upon the anterior eud of its budy, fitting into the lower 
part of the atlantal ring; abuut which pivot the atlas, beariug the head, revolves like a wheel 
upon an eccentric axis. The cervicals of birds vary greatly in utmber; according to Huxley 
there are never fewer than eight, and there may be as many as twenty-three; Stejneger gives 
twenty-four for some of the swans. Twelve to fourteen nay be about an average number. 


Thoracic or Dorsal Vertebre (fig. 56, dv) extend from the cervical to or into the 
pelvie region of the spine. In most avimals, and in ordinary anatomical language, a ‘‘ dorsal” 
is one which bears a distinct free rib, and is therefore truly thoracic, since ‘‘ribs” are the side- 
walls of the chest. But in birds, as we have seen, certain cervicals have distinct elongate 
ribs ; and, as will be seen soon, loug jointed pleurapophyses are usually found in that regiou 
commonly called “sacral.” The first dorsal, in birds, is arbitrarily considered to be that oue 
which bears the first rib which is jointed, and which reaches the sternum by its lower (hzma- 
pophysial) half. Five or six vertebra of birds commonly auswer this description ; though the 
last one which bears a long free jointed rib (which may or may not reach the sternum) is com- 
monly auchylosed with the sacrum, as sr. So few as only three hemapophysis-bearing ribs nay 
reach the sternum. There may also be a long free-jointed rib which “floats” at both ends ; 
i. e., is articulated neither with the sternum uor with the vertebra to which it belongs as in the 
loon, for example. As the dorsal series thus shades insensibly behind into another series, the 
lumbar (which has no free, nor any distinct ribs, — ribs that one would not hesitate to call 
such), it is best to consider as dorsal or thoracic all those vertebra, succeeding the last 
cervical (which is to be determined as explained in the last paragraph), which have distinct 
jointed ribs, whatever the connection or disconnection of such pleurapophyses at either end. 
On this understanding, one, sometimes two or even three ‘ dorsal” vertebree anchylose with 
the pelvic region of the spine. Fixity of the dorsal region being of advantage to flight, these 
vertebree are very tightly locked together; not only by the close apposition vr even 


140 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


anchylosis of their podies and processes, but also, in many cases, by ossifications of the 
tendons of muscles of the back, and codssifications of these with the vertebra, like a set of 
splints, till the consolidation of the thoracic is only surpassed by that of the pelvic region of the 
spine. Dorsal vertebre also usually differ a good deal from most cervicals in having shorter 
bodies, laterally compressed, producing a ridge which runs along their middle line below; in 
lacking a vertebrarterial canal; in having on each side two articular facets, — one on the body 
and the other on the transverse process, for the head and shoulder of a rib. They are further 
distinguished, usually, by having large spinous processes, in the form of high, long, thin, 
squarish plates, often or usually anchylosed together. Their transverse processes are also 
very prominent laterally, thin and horizontal, and often anchylosed. More or fewer dorsals 
may bear large hypapophyses; which, as in the loon, may bifurcate at their ends into two 
flaring plates. Such processes continue a similar series from the neck, and are in relation to 
the advantageous action of the muscles (rectus colli anticus and longus collt) by which the 
neck is made to straighten out from the lower curve of its sigmoid flexure. 


The “Sacrum” of a Bird (figs. 57, and 60) is commonly considered to be that large 
solid mass of numerous anchylosed vertebrae in the region of the pelvis, covered in by, and 
fused more or less completely with, the principal bones of the 
pelvis, or haunch-bones (iia). But in this consolidation of an 
extremely variable number (averaging perhaps twelve, but run- 
ning up to at least twenty, eleven to thirteen being usual) 
of bones are included vertebrae which in other animals belong 
to several different sets — dorsal, lumbar, sacral proper, and 
coceygeal or caudal. We have just seen that one or two, even 
three, vertebre, which are dorsal according to the definition 
agreed upon, may enter into the composition of the “‘ sacrum,” 
being firmly anchylosed therewith, and their long ribs issuing 
out from underneath the ilia, as shown in fig. 56, sr. Next 
comes one bone, or a series of several (two to five or more) 
bones, anchylosed together by their bodies and spinous proc- 
esses, and also anchylosed with the ilia by means of stout lateral 
bars of bone sent transversely outward on either side from their 
respective centra to abut against the ilia. These cross-bars 
correspond in general form and position with the transverse 
process of the last. true rib-bearing dorsal, — that process against 
which the shoulder of any developed rib abuts; they are variously 
considered to be, to represent, or to include rudimentary ribs; 
and such difference of view may be warranted by the state of the 
parts in different birds. However this may be, the bones just 
described are lumbar vertebrae (Lat. hunbus, the loin; where 
such vertebre are situated in man and other mammals) ; which 
certainly possess abortive ribs in some eases. On_ successive 


Fig. 57.— The “sacrum” of 


a young fowl, seen from below, 
nat. size; after Parker. dl, dor- 
solumbar series, whereof the first 
is dorsal proper, the next three 
are lumbar; s, the sacral series 
proper, or true sacrum, consist- 
ing of five vertebra; c, the uro- 
sacral series, being those caudal 
vertebra, six in number, which 
anchylose with one another and 
with the sacrum. 


lumbars the cross-bars, whatever their nature, commonly slip 
lower and lower downward (belly-ward) on the vertebral bodies, 
till the last ones are quite down to the level of the ventral 
aspect of the centrum; these are also commonly the stoutest, 
most directly transverse, and most nearly horizontal of the series 
of processes, abutting against the ilia a little in advance of the 
socket of the thigh bone. This ends a series of consolidated 
“sacral” vertebrae which are termed collectively ‘ dorso-lumbar,” 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 141 


all of them anterior to the true sacrum of a bird. The sacrum proper (fig. 57, s) consists 
of those few vertebrae — three, four, or tive —from foramina between which issue the spinal 
nerves that form the net-work called the sacral plexus. These true sacral vertebree are ribless, 
and may be recognized, in a general way, by the absence of anything like the cross-bars above 
described, issuing from the vertebral centra; though their neural arches send off some small 
bars or plates tv fuse with the ilia. These sacrals proper are at or near the middle of the 
whole sacral mass. After these come a large number of verte- 
bre which, from their following the true sacrals, though consolidated therewith and with vue 
another, are considered to belong to what would be the caudal region of other animals, and 
are hence called “ tail-sacrals,” wro-sacrals (Gr. odpa, tail, fig. 57, c.) These continue to send 
off a series of little plate-like processes from their neural arches, just as the true sacrals do; 
but, in addition to these, processes are given off from the bodies of the uro-sacrals, corre- 
sponding in position and relation to those which proceed from the bodies of the lunbars, and 
being apparently of the same morphological character (pleurapophysial). These ‘“riblets” 
are, however, quite slender, and also oblique in two directions; for instead of being trans- 
verse and nearly horizontal, they trend very obliquely backward and upward; they also 
shorten consecutively from before backward. The cross-bars of the latter uro-sacrals, however, 
are stouter and altogether more like those of a lumbar vertebra. The appearances described 
are those seen from below, or on the ventral aspect. Above, on the back of the pelvis, the 
line of confluent spinous processes of the dorso-lumbars is commonly distinct, separated a little 
from the flaring lips of the ilia. Such distinct formation may continue throughout the sacral 
and uro-sacral regions; oftener, however, the line of spinous process sinks, flattens, and 
widens into a horizontal plate which becomes perfectly confluent with the ilia along the pos- 
terior portion of their extent; such smooth, somewhat lozenge-shaped surface being quite 
continuous with the superficies of the pelvis, but perforated with more or fewer pairs of inter- 
vertebral foramina. — Such is the general character of a bird’s complex sacrum; the description 
is taken chiefly from a raven (Corvus corax); the figure from the common fowl, after Parker. 
The kidneys are moulded into the recesses between the sacral and uro-sacral vertebrze and in 
the concavity of the ilia. The general shape of a ‘ sacrum,” viewed from below, is fusiform, 
broadest across the sacral bodies proper or just in front of them, tapering toward either end; 
the face of the sacrum is also flattest about the middle, more or less ridged before and behind 
from compression of the vertebral bodies. It has little if any lengthwise curvature, and that 
chiefly in the uro-sacral region, where the concavity isdownward. The total number of bones 
may be less than twelve, or more than twenty. The extensive anchyloses in this region of 
the spine are in evident adaptation to bipedal locomotion, which requires fixity hereabouts, 
that the trunk may not bend upon the fulcrum represented by a line drawn through the hip- 
joints, which are situated about opposite the middle of the sacral mass, as shown by the arrow, 
ac, in fig. 60. (The word “ sacrum,” a ‘‘sacred thing,” curious in this application, is very 
ancient in human anatomy, commemorating some superstitious or ritualistic notion, respecting 
this part of the body.) 


from five to ten or more 


The Coccygeal, or Caudal Vertebrez (fig. 56, clv) proper, terminate the spinal column. 
They are called “ coceygeal,” from the fancied resemblance of the human tail-bones collectively 
to the beak of a cuckoo (Gr. ké«kv&, kokkuc). The caudals are all the free bones situated 
behind the anchylosed uro-sacrals. The series commonly begins opposite the point where the 
pelvic bones end; it consists of a variable number of bones, from the twenty long slender ones 
which the Archeopteryx possessed, down to seven or fewer separate ones. The usual number 
is eight without the pygostyle. They are stunted, degraded vertebrae, whose chief office is to 
support the tail-feathers: for the leash of nerves which emerge from the spinal canal to form 
the sacral plexus by so much diminish the spinal cord that a mere thread is left to pene- 


142 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


trate the tail, though the neural arches of all the eoccygeals be still pervious. AI may be 
freely movable, as in the American Ostrich (Rhea) ; but in abnost all birds only the anterior 
ones are distinct and vertebra-like, the rest, to a variable number, being abortive, and melted 
into that extraordinary affair called the ‘ ploughshare” or pygostyle (Gr. muyn, puge, the 
ruinp; oTvAos, a post), which may cuusist of no fewer than ten such wetamorphosed tail-bones. 
It has usually a shape suggesting the share of a plough (see fig. 56, py), but is too variable to 
be concisely described. The pygostyle supports the tail-feathers ; aud as these are morphologi- 
cally one pair to each reetrix-bearing vertebra, the number of tail-feathers may be primarily 
equal to the number of vertebra which fuse in the pygostyle. Thus the swan is said to have 
ten vertebrae in this mass; our wild swan (Cygnus columbianus) has twenty tail-feathers. In 
this view, six should be the usual composition of the share-bone. A bird’s tail is really more 
extensive and lizard-like than commonly supposed; thus the swan, besides its ten in the 
pygostyle, has seven free caudals, aud ten urv-sacrals — twenty-seven post-sacral vertebra in 
all (Huxley). In the raven, the free caudals are six, exclusive of the pygostyle. These all 
have large flaring transverse processes and moderate spinous processes, and the latter ones are 
also provided with hypapophyses, some of which are bifurcate. The pygostyle in many birds 
expands below into a large circular or polygonal disc. 


2. THE THORAX: RIBS AND STERNUM. 


The Thorax (Gr. dwpaé, a coat of mail; in anat., the chest; adj. thoracic; see tig. 56) is 
the bony box formed by the ribs on each side, the breast-bone below, and the back-bone above. 
In birds, it is very extensive, including most or all of the abdominal as well as the thoracic 
viscera, and its cavity is not partitioned off from that of the belly by a completed diaphragm, 
though a rudimentary structure of that kind is found in the class. The thorax is usually sol- 
dered behind to the pelvis by union of one or more pairs of ribs with the ilia; in front it al- 
ways and entirely bears the pectoral arch (see p. 145). The thorax is very movable in birds, 
by reason of the great length and jointedness of the ribs. 


The Ribs (Lat. costa, a rib; pl. coste; adj. costal; sec fig. 56, c, ¢, R, cr, sr, w), as said 
above, are the pleurapophysial elements of vertebrae, which remain small and anechylosed, or 
become long and free. In the latter state only are they “ribs” in ordinary language. The 
one or more cervical ribs, however elongated, and the abortive lumbar and uro-sacral ribs, are 
to be excluded from the present description, and have been already considered. True ribs are 
those which belong to the dorsal vertebrae proper, and are jointed in themselves; that is, have 
articulated hemapophyses (see p. 137), by which they may or do articulate with the sternum. 
Such true ribs are fixed, when they reach from back-bone to breast-bone; floating, when either 
or neither of these connections is made. Usually the last rib, though bearing a perfect heem- 
apophysis, does not reach the sternum; in the loon, for example, the last rib floats at both 
ends, having connection neither with vertebra nor sternum; and the two next ribs float at 
their sternal ends. The perfected ribs are few, — five or six is a usual number, though nine 
are hemapophysis-bearing in the loon, The last rib at least is usnally “saeral;” de, be- 
longs to a dorsal vertebra which is anchylosed with the ‘‘saeral” mass; and two or even, as in 
the loon, three ribs may likewise issue out from under cover of the ilia. These “saeral ribs” 
are furthermore distinguished by being devoid of the epiplewral or uncinate processes (Lat. 
uncus, a hook ; fig. 56, «) with which other true ribs are furnished, forming a series of spliut- 
bones proceeding obliquely from one rib to shingle over the next suececding one, and thus 
increase the stability of the thoracic side-walls. Such splints may be either articulated or an- 
chylosed with their respective ribs; they have independent. ossifie centres. The upper (pleura- 
pophysial) part of a rib, or ‘‘ vertebral rib,” when perfected, articulates with the side of the 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 143 


body of a vertebra by its head or capitulum (Lat. dimin. of caput, head), and also with the 
lateral process of the same vertebra by its shoulder or tuberculum (Lat. dimin. of tuber, a 
swelling). In well-marked cases, the head and shoulder are quite far apart, the rib seeming 
prolonged above; either of these vertebral connections may be disestablished, the other re- 
maining, or both may be lost. The lower (hemapophysial) part of a rib, or “sternal rib,” 
articulates with the side of the sternum by a simple enlargement; the ends of those sternal ribs 
which thus join the sternum tend to cluster closely together at a part of the breast-bone called 
its costal process (fig. 58); those which do not make the sternal connection are simply bundled 
together. Commonly five or six, sometimes four, rarely only three ribs reach the sternum. 
The ribs are ordinarily as slender and strict as those shown in fig. 56; but in Apterysx, for 
example, their pleurapophysial parts are expansive and plate-like. They lengthen rapidly 
from before backward, both in their vertebral and their sternal moieties; these parts mect at 
angles of decreasing acuteness from before backward; but these angles, as those of the ribs 
both with vertebree and sternum, incessantly increase and diminish in the respiratory move- 
ments of the chest; all being in expiration more acute, and more obtuse in inspiration. 


The Avian Sternum (Gr. otépvov, sternon, the breast; fig. 56,8) is highly specialized ; 
its extensive development is peculiar to the class of Birds, and its modifications are of more 
importance in classification than those of any other siugle bone. Thereupon it becomes an 
interesting object. Theoretically it is a collection of hemal spines of vertebrae. Though 
such morphological character is appreciable in those animals which have a long jointed ster- 
num, the segments of which, answering to pairs of ribs, develop from separate centres, there 
is little or nothing in the development or physical characters of the avian sternuin to favor 
this view. The great bone floors the chest and more or less of the belly, and furvishes the 
main point @apput of both the bony and muscular apparatus of flight, receiving important bones 
of the scapular arch and giving origin to the immense pectoral muscles. (See also fig. 58.) 

Birds offer two leading types of sternal structure, the ratite and the carinate, or the “ raft- 
like” and the “‘ boat-like”, according as the bone is flat or keeled (Lat. ratis, a raft; adj. 
ratite; in an arbitrary nom. pl., Ratite, a name of one of the leading divisions of birds: Lat. car- 
ina, a keel; adj. carinate: nom. pl. Carinate, name of another such division). 1. In all stru- 
thious birds, comprehending the ostrich and its allies (and also in the Cretaceous Hesperornis), 
the sternum is a flattish, or rather concavo-convex, buckler-like bone, of somewhat squarish 
or rhotnboidal shape, developed from a single pair of lateral centres of ossification, —a “ flat 
boat,” without any keel, built with reference to an important modification of the shoulder-gir- 
dle, and a reduced or rudimentary condition of the wings, which are unfit for flight. 2. In all 
flying birds, and some which from other than any fault of the sternuin do not fly, —comprising 
all remaining recent birds, or Carinate, and also the Cretaceous Ichthyornis, —the sternum 
is keeled and develops from a median centre of ossification as well as from lateral paired cen- 
tres; usually two of these, making five iv all. Ina few Carinate the keel is rudimentary, as 
the flightless ground parrot of New Zealand, Stringops habroptilus ; or otherwise anomalous, 
as in the extraordinary Opisthocomus cristatus, where it is cut away in front, aud in the rail- 
like Notornis, where the sternum is extremely like a lizard’s. In general, the development of 
the keel is an index of wing-power, whether for flying or swimming, or both; the effectiveness 
of the pectoral muscles being rather in proportion to depth of keel than to extent of the sides 
of the “‘ boat-bone;” thus, the keel is enormous in swifts (Cypselide) and humming-birds 
(Trochilide). 

The carinate sternum normally develops from five ceutres, having consequently as many 
separate pieces in early life. Two of these are lateral and iu pairs; the third is median and 
single. The median ossification, which includes the keel, is the lophosteon(Gr. Ades, lophos, 
a crest ; daréoy, osteon, a bone). The anterior lateral piece, that with which the ribs, or some 


144 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


of them, articulate, is the pleurosteon (Gr. mAevpdv, pleuron, a rib); in adult life this becomes 
the costal process, so prominent in Passeres (fig. 58). The posterior lateral piece is the metosteon 
(Gr. perd, meta, after). From the latter are derived the pair, or two pairs, of lateral processes 
which the posterior border of the sternum has in so many birds. In fine, the extent of ossifica- 
tion of the lophosteon and metostea, and the mode of their codsification, determines all those 
various shapes of the posterior border of the sternum which, being commonly characteristic of 
genera and higher groups, are described for purposes of classification. Thus, if the lophosteon 
and the metostea are completely ossified and to the same extent behind, the posterior border of 
the sternum will be transverse, and perfectly bony. Such a sternum is said to be entire. Ifthe 
lophosteon is longer than the lateral pieces, the sternum will have a central pointed or rounded 
projection; when such a formation is called the middle xiphoid process (Gr. Eidos, xiphos, a 
sword: etdos, eidos, form). The projection of the metostea, not infrequent, similarly gives 
a pair of external lateral xiphoid processes. But such processes oftener result merely from de- 
feets of codésification between the elements of the sternum. Thus, there is often a deep notch 
in the posterior border of the sternum between the lophosteon and the metosteon of each side ; 
the sternun is then said to be single-notched or single-emarginute (one pair of notches, one on 
each side; fig. 58). This conformation prevails throughout the great group Passeres, possibly 
without exception; it is therefore highly characteristic of that order, though a great many other 
birds also have it. In the natural state, the notch is filled in with membrane. Such a notch 
may also be converted into a ‘‘fontanelle” or fenestra (Lat. fenestra, a window), which is simply 
a hole in the boue, the metostea having grown to the lophosteon at their extremities, but left an 
opening between. Such a sternum is called fenestrate, more exactly uni-fenestrate (Lat. unus, 
one; one window on each side). Now, the parts remaining as before, let either each half of 
the lophosteon, or each metosteon, be notched or fenestrate ; obviously then, such a sternum is 
double-notched or bi-fenestrate, having four notches, or holes, two on each side, — two notches, 
or two holes; or notched and fenestrate, having a notch and a hole on each side. The latter 
is very frequent: when occurring, the hole is generally nearest the middle line, the notch ex- 
terior. Trregularity of ossification, converting a hole into a notch, and conversely, may in any 
case result in lack of symmetry; but this is a mere individual peculiarity. When there are 
two notches on each side, as in fig. 56, the sternum has evidently a median and two lateral back- 
ward extensions, which are then called respectively the middle, internal lateral, and external 
lateral xiphoid processes. Notching of the lophosteon in the middle line, at least to any extent, 
must be very rare, if indeed it ever occurs. The extreme case of emargination of the sternum is 
afforded by the Galline, and is highly characteristic of that group. Here the lophosteon is 
extremely narrow, and fissured deeply away from the metostea, which latter are deeply forked ; 
the arrangement giving rise to two very long slender lateral processes on each side (figs. 1 and 2, 
p. 48). The sternum of the tinamou, a dromeognathous bird, is still more deeply emargi- 
nated, but the extremely long and slender lateral processes, which enclose an oval contour, are 
simple, not forked. 

In a very few birds there are centres of ossification additional to those above described. 
In Turnix, there are said by Parker to be a pair of centres between the pleurostea, which he 
names coracostea, because related to the part of the sternum with which the coracoids (see 
p- 146) unite. The same authority describes for Dicholophus a posterior median cartilagi- 
nous flap having a separate centre, named wrosteon (Gr. odpa, oura, tail). In various birds the 
sternum is eked out in the middle line behind by cartilage which has no ossification. 

The sternum, especially of the higher birds, develops in the middle line in front a beak- 
like process called the rostrum or manaubrium (Lat. manubrium, a handle) ; its size and shape 
vary ; it is well-marked in Passerine birds (fig. 58) ; and may be bifureate at the end and run 
down the front of the keel some way, as in the raven. The fore border of the sternum is 
generally greatly convex from side to side, and then, in those birds which have prominent 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 145 


pleurostea, produced in angular costal processes. This border is also thickened, and presents 
on each side a well-marked, smooth-faced groove, in which the expanded feet of the coracoid 
bones are instepped and firmly articulated. These deep grooves commonly meet in the middle; 
are occasionally continuous from one side to the other; sometimes each crosses to the other 
side a little way. The costal processes on each side also have thickened edges, with a series 
of articular facets for the ribs, which gives this border a fluted 
or serrate profile. Generally the fore half, or rather less, of the 
side border of the sternum is thus articular; and it is only such 
costiferous (rib-bearing) extent of sternum which corresponds to the 
whole body of the bone in a mammal, all the rest being ‘ xiphoid.” 
The singular carinate sternuin of Notornis, and the ratite bone of 
Apteryx, are concave crosswise along the front border, and bear the 
coracoids far apart, at the stunmits of antero-lateral projections. 

A sternum is generally concavo-convex iu each direction, 
bellying downward; somewhat rectangular, it may be long and 
uarrow, or short, broad, and squarish. It is commonly longer than 
broad, with convex front border, a median beak, which is often 
forked, prominent antero-lateral corners, pinched-in sides (bulg- 
iug in timamou) and indeterminate hind border. The keel 
usually drops down lowest in front, sloping or curving gently up to 
the general level behind, with a concave (rarely protuberant) 


Fic. 58.— Typical passerine 
vertical border, and pronounced apex, to which the clavicles may sternum, pectoral arches, and 
In sternal ends of ribs; from the 
= robin, Turdus migratorius, nat. 
Opisthocomus, the clavicles anchylose with the manubrium of. size; Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. 


or may not be anchylosed, as they are in a pelican for instance. 
the sternum. The external surface, both of body and keel, is Ste™um single-notched, with 
é : edie ‘ é ame prominent costal processes and 
ridged in places, indicating lines of attachment of the different pec- forked manubrium; five ribs 
toral muscles. In a few birds, notably swans and cranes, the kee] Tetcbing sternum, one rib “float- 
F : : : wer ing. 

is expanded and hollowed out to receive folds of the windpipe in its 

interior (see figs. 99, 100).— But the numberless modifications of the sternum in details of 
configuration belong to systematic ornithology, not to rudimentary anatomy. 


3. THE PECTORAL ARCH. 


The Pectoral Arch (Lat. pectus, the breast; figs. 1, 2, 56, 58, 59) is that bony structure 
by which the wings are borne upon the axial skeleton. It is to the fore limb what the pelvic 
arch is to the hind limb; but is disconnected froin the back-bone and united with the breast- 
bone, whereas the reverse arrangement obtains in the pelvic, which is fused with the sacral 
region of the spine. Each pectoral arch of birds cousists (chiefly) of three bones: the scapula 
and coracoid, forming the shoulder-girdle proper, or scapular arch ; and the accessory clavicles, 
or right and left half of the clavicular arch. There is also at the shoulder-joint of most birds 
an insignificant sesainvid ossicle, called scapula accessoria or os humero-scapulare (fig. 56, ohs) ; 
and in many a rudiment of a bone called procoracoid, which occurs in reptiles, but in birds is 
united with the clavicle. From the ribs, the scapula; from the sternum, the coracoid ; from 
its fellow, the clavicle, converges to meet each of the two other bones at the point of the 
shoulder. The lengthwise seapular arches of opposite sides are distinct from each other ; the 
clavicular arch is crosswise, and nearly always completed on the middle line of the body; by 
which union of the clavicles the whole pectoral arch is coaptated. The coracoid bears the 
shoulder firmly away from the breast; the scapula steadies the shoulder against the ribs ; the 
clavicles keep the shoulders apart from each other. The scapular arch is always present and 
complete ; the clavicular is sometimes defective or wanting. There are two leading styles of 

10 


146 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


scapular arch, corresponding to the ratite and carinate sternum. (1) In Ratite the axes of the 
coracoid and scapula are nearly coincident (for the most part in a continuous right line) and 
anchylosed together; the clavicles are usually wanting, or defective; and the coracoids ave in- 
stepped on the sternum far apart. (2) In all Carinate, the axes of the coracoid and scapula 
form an acute or scarcely obtuse angle (fig. 56, sglc); normally these bones are not anchylosed; 
perfect clavicles are present, anchylosed with each other, but free from the other bones ; and the 
coracoids are instepped close together. Decided exceptions to these conditions, as in Notornis, 
are anomalous ; though incompletion of the clavicles repeatedly occurs, as noted below. 


The Coracoid (Gr. xépagé, korax, a crow; «idos, eidos, form: the corresponding bone of 
the human subject, which is the stunted ‘‘ coracoid process of the scapula,” being likened to a 
oe crow’s beak ; no applicability in the present case ; 
figs. 56, ¢, 59, ¢) is a stout, straight, cylindric bone, 
expanded at each end, extending forward, outward, 


and upward from the fore border of the sternum 
to the shoulder. Its foot is flattened and splayed 
to fit in the articular groove of fore border of 
the sternum already described; it often overlaps 
that of its fellow on the median line; is narrower 
and remote from its fellow in Ratite. The head 
of the bone, irregularly expanded, articulates or 
auchyloses with the end of the scapula, and also 
usually with the clavicle. It bears externally a 
smooth demi-facet, which represents the share it 
takes iu forming the glenotd (Gr. yhyn. glene, a 
shallow pit; fig. 59, gl) cavity, which is the socket 
of the humerus. This articular expansion is the 
glenoid process of the coracoid: the clavicular 
process is that by which the bone unites with the 
clavicle. The relation between the heads of the 
three bones (each uniting with the other two) is 
such that a pulley-hole is formed, through which 
plays the tendon of the pectoral muscle which ele- 
vates the wing. The coracoid is a very constant 
and characteristic bone of birds. 
Fic. 59.— Right pectoral arch of a bird, Pedic- 

cetes phasianellus, nat. size, outside view; Dr. R. The Scapula (Lat. scapula, the shoulder- 
Ree eer Br Gta ks aE blade; figs. 56, 59, s) merits in birds its name of 
he, hypocleidium. Jn situ, the right end of the fig- ‘‘ blade-bone,” being usually a long, thin, narrow, 
ure should tlt mp:a litte, see fg. /00- sabre-like bone, which rests upon the ribs— usu- 
ally not far from parallel with the spinal column, and near it; but in Ratit@ otherwise. 
It seldom gains much width, and is quite thin and flat in most of its length; but it has a 
thickened head or handle, expanding outwards into a glenoid process which unites with that 
of the coracoid to complete the glenoid cavity, and dilated inward to form an acromial (Gr. 
axpapuov, akromion, point of the shoulder) process for articulation with the clavicle (as it does in 
man), when that bone exists. The other end is usually sharp-pointed, but may be obtuse, or 
even clubbed, as in a woodpecker. The scapula is broadest and most plate-like in the pen- 
guins, in which birds all the bones of the flipper-like wing are singularly flattened. In Apteryx 
it reaches in length over only a couple of ribs; in most birds, over most of the thorax; and 
in some its point overreaches the pelvis. 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 147 


The Clavicles, or Furculum (Lat. clavicula, « little key: furculem, a little fork ; 
figs. 56, 59, cl), or the clavicular arch, are the pair of bones which when united together form 
the object well known as the ‘merry-thought” or ‘ wish-bone,” corresponding to the human 
“eollar-bones.” They lie in front of the breast, across the middle line of the body like a V 
or U; the upper ends uniting as a rule both with scapula and coracoid. For this purpose, in 
most. birds, the ends are expanded more or less ; such expansion is called the epicleidim (Gr. 
émt, epi, upon; KAediov, kleidion, the collar-boue) ; in Passerine birds it is said to ossify separ- 
ately, and is considered by Parker to represent the procoracoid of reptiles. At the poiut of 
union below, the bones often develop a process (well shown in the domestic fowl) called the hypo- 
cleidium (Gr. tm, hypo, wider ; fig. 59, he), supposed to represent the interclaviele of reptiles. 
The clavicles are as a rule present, perfect, anchylosed together, articulated at the shoulder; ina 
few birds anchylosed there; in several, there and 
with the keel of the sternum; in Opisthocomus there 
and with the manubrium of the sternum. In various 
birds, chiefly Picarian and Psittaciue, they are de- 
fective, not ineeting each other. They are wanting 
in Struthio, Rhea, Apteryx, and some Psittacide. 
Besides curving toward each other, the clavicles 
have usually a fore-and-aft curvature, convex for- 
ward. In general, the strength of the clavicles, 
the firmness of their connections, and the opeuness 
of the V or U, are indications of the volitorial or 
natatorial power of the wings. The end of the fur- 
culum is hollowed for a fold of the windpipe in the 
crested pintado (Owen). 


4. THE PELVIC ARCH. 


The Pelvis (Lat. pelvis, a basin, fig. 60), is 
that posterior part of the trunk which receives the 
uro-genital, and lower portion of the digestive, vis- 
cera. It consists of the “sacral” vertebree on the 
middle dorsal line, flanked on each side by the bones 
of the pelvic arch, which supports the hind limb. 
In vertebrates generally the pelvic basin is com- 
pleted on the ventral aspect by union (symphysis ; 
Gr. atv, sun, together ; vows, growth) of the bones 
from opposite sides. Excepting only Struthio, which 
has a pubic symphysis; and Rhea, which has an 
ischiac symphysis just below the sacral vertebree, 
the pelvis of a bird is entirely open below and 
behind; each pelvic arch anchylosing firmly with 
the sacral vertebree to form a roof over the viscera 
above named. This sacro-iliae anchylosis is com- 
monly coextensive with the confluence of the many 


Fic. 60. — Pelvis of a heron (Ardea herodias), 
nat. size, viewed from below; from nature by Dr. 
vertebree which make the ‘‘sacrum” of ordinary R.W.Shufeldt, U.S.A. dé, dorso-lumbar vertebra 


a aad to and including the last one, sc ; below sc, for the 
language, that is, from the first dorso-lumhar to the extent of the large black spaces (oppositethearrow) 


last uro-sacral. The whole roof-like affair looks are the true sacral vertebrx; ws, urosacral verte- 


: . ; Cee . bree (opposite the five oval black spaces; Jd, ilium ; 
something like a keelless sternuin inverted. The 7a jechiain® Pi publa: ob obturator foramen. 


pelvic arch of each side consists of three bones, iliwm, The arrow flies into the acetabulum. 


148 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


ischium, and pubis, which have independent ossific centres, but become firmly consolidated 
together to form the haunch-bone or os tmnominatum. Each of these bones unites with the 
other two, somewhere near the middle of the whole affair, at a ring-like structure called the 
acetabulum (Lat., a vinegar-cruet, fig. 56, a; fig. 60, arrow ac), which all three consequently 
contribute to the formation of, and which is the socket for the head of the thigh-bone (femur, 
p- 119). When free ribs issue from under cover of the pelvis, they are commonly anchylosed 
with the ilia; and all the abortive pleurapophyses of the lmmbar and uro-sacral vertebrae have 
likewise iliac anchylosis, as explaiucd in treating of the sacrum (p. 140). As a whole, the pelvis 
varies like the sternum in relative leugth, breadth, and degree of convexity ; and especially in 
the configuration of its posteriur border; but few zodlogical characters are derived from this 
structure. 

Viewed from below, the pelvis is seen to be much hollowed or excavated for the lodgmeut 
of the kidneys, and cross-cut into compartments by the sacral rafters; the series of sacral 
bodies forming a ridge-pole along the middle line. Above, the series of sacral spinous pro- 
cesses represent the ridge-pole; anteriorly, the somewhat spoon-shaped iliac bones are 
applied, concavity outward, to the dorso-lumbars ; posteriorly, in the middle line, is a more or 
less flattened horizontal expansion, and laterally are the more expanded sides of the ischiac roof, 
finished along the eaves and behind by the slender pubic bone, which commonly projects 
backward, and inclines toward its fellow of the opposite side. The most prominent formation 
of the side wall of the pelvis is the thick-lipped smooth articular ring, the acetabulum, con- 
verted in the natural state into a cup by a membrane. 
The postero-superior segment of the rim is promi- 
nent, to form the antitrochanter (Gr. avri, anti, 
against ; tpoxavrnp, trochanter of the femur) against 
which the shoulder of the femur abuts when the 


Fic. 61. — Pelvis of young grouse, showing ] ae c 
aa YOR e : "8 head is in the ring. 
three distinct bones. I/, Zs, P, ilium, ischium, 5 “ 2 . 
pubis, In front of former a dorsal vertebra pro- It is normal to recent Carinate birds to have 


trades. (Dr. R. W. Shufelut, U.S. A.) the ischium fused with the ilium, however distinct the 


pubis may remain; but to Cretaceous birds (even the ecarinate Ichthyornis), and the existing 
Ratite, to have both ischium and pubis distinct in most of their extent. 


The ium (Lat. iliwm, haunch-bone ; pl. tlia ; adj. iliac ; figs. 56, L; 60, 61, Ll) is the 
median, most anterior and longest of the haunch-bones, and the only one which extends in ad- 
vance of the acetabulum. Such anterior prolongation of this bone is the specialty of the avian 
pelvis: it. commonly overlies one or more ribs, and is often overreached by the end of the seapula. 
Tt is longest and narrowest and flattest in some of the lower swimmers; the reverse among the 
highest birds. Its relations and connections have been sufficiently indicated. The bone is 
almost always separated from its fellow by the sacrum, though the approximation may be 
very close over the back of the pelvis, along the middle line. 


The Ischium (Gr. icxiov, ischion, the haunch-bone; pl. ischia ; adj. ischiadic, ischiatic, 
better ischiac; figs. 56, 60, 61, Is) lies entirely post-acetabular, or behind the socket which it 
contributes to forin, and composes most of the side-wall of the pelvis thence to the end. It is 


generally a thin, plate-like bone. Among Cretaceous bire 


sand existing Ratite it only unites 
with the ilinm at and jnst behind the acetabulum, whence a deep ¢lo-ischiac fissure between 
the two exists, as in the young grouse, fig. 61; but in ordinary adult birds this fissure is con- 
verted into a fenestra or window of large size, just behind the acetabulum, by union of the two 
bones behind it. This vacuity, whether a notch or a hole, corresponds to the ‘ sacro-sciatic 
notch” of human anatomy (fig. 56, i). The ischia of opposite sides are distinct, except in 
Rheu. 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 149 


The Pubis (Lat. pubis, bone of the front of the human pelvis where the hair grows at 
puberty ; pl. pubes ; adj. pubic ; figs. 56, 60, 61 P), beginning at its share of the acetabular ring, 
is a long slender bone which runs along the lower border of the ischium, sometimes for a short 
distance only, often for the whole length of the ischium, and usually projecting behind; more 
or less perfectly parallel with, applied to, or united with, the inferior ischiac border. When 
separate, a long deep fissure results; when united at the end, a long narrow foramen is 
formed ; when incompletely united in any part of its ischiae continuity, a fissure and a foramen, 
in the ostrich two foramina, result. All these conditions occur; in any case, such ischio-pubic 
interval corresponds to the obturator foramen (fig. 56, 0; fig. 60, ob) of human anatomy ; it is 
greatest in Cretaceous birds and existing Ratite. The free ends of the pubes may be more or 
less expanded. In the ostrich only there is a pubic symphysis of the ends of the bones; in the 
same bird a separate ossicle, situated upon the lower border of the pubes, and called epipubic. 
is considered to represent a ‘‘ marsupial” boue (Garrod). In various birds, among them our 
ground cuckoo, Geococcyx californianus, the pubis projects a little forward, under the ace- 
tabulum: this prominence is the propubis. Separation of the pubes is supposed to be for 
amplification of the pelvie strait to facilitate the passage of the large chalky eggs birds lay. 


5. THE SKULL. 

The Skull of a Bird is a poem in boue— its architecture is the ‘‘ frozen music” of 
morphology ; in its mutely eloquent lines may be traced the rhythmic rhymes of the myriad 
ameebiform animals which constructed the noble edifice when they sang together.1_ The poésy 
(moinots, poresis, a making) of the subject has been translated with conspicuous zeal and success 
by Mr. W. K. Parker; its zodlogical moral has been similarly pointed by Professor Huxley ; 
and the young ornithologist who would not be hopelessly unfashionable must be able tu whistle 
some bars of the cranial song — the pterygo-palatine bar at least. 

The rapid progress of ossification soon obliterates most of the original landmarks of the 
skull, fusing the distinct territories of bone in one great indistinguishable area. Thus the 
brain-box of almost any mature bird is apparently a single solid bone, and most parts of the 
jaw-scaffolding similarly run together. Aside froin the bones of the tongue, which are collec- 
tively separate from those of the skull proper ; and of the compound lower jaw, which is freely 
articulated with the rest of the skull; only two or three other bones of the skull, as a rule, are 
permanently and perfectly free at both ends. These are the quadrate bones— the anvil-shaped 
pieces by which the lower jaw is slung to the skull; the pterygoids, articulating the palate with 
the quadrate ; and sometimes the vomer. Traces only of the bones of the face and jaws are 
usually found; but even such vestiges disappear, as a rule, from among the bones of the 
brain-box. It is necessary to any intelligent understanding of the construction of a bird’s skull, 
to learn somewhat of its mode of development in the embryonic stage; this being the only clue 
to the individual bones of which it is composed, aud so to any correct idea of its morphology. 
One theory is, that the skull consists of four modified vertebree ; and the principal bones have 
been named and described by some in terms indicating the elements of a theoretical vertebra. 
It is true that the skull is segmented, or may be segmented off, like a chain of several 
vertebrae; that it continues the vertebral axis forward; that it has a basis cranie like a series of 
vertebral centrums, above which rises a segmented neural arch enclosing the great nervous 
mass, and below which depends a set of bones enclosing visceral parts like a hemal arch. 
The hindmost cranial segment, the occipital bone, resembles a vertebra in many physical 
characters, and even in mode of development. But if the serial homology of the skull with 


1 Bone-tissue chiefly consists of the aggregated skeletons of Osteamebe —a kind of uni-cellular protozoan 
animals which inhabit in myriads the bodies of nearly all the Vertebrata, possessing the faculty of feeding upon 
phosphate of lime and other earthy matters they find in the blood, and afterward excreting them in the form of 
multiradiate exoskeletons of their own, collectively forming the whole skeleton of their host. 


150 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


the back-bone be real and true, it is so obscured by the extraordinay modifications to which 
the vertebral elements have been subjected that the fact of such homology cannot be demon- 
strated; and to interpret the skull as something super-imposed upon, and morphologically 
different from the spinal column, is perfectly warranted if not required by the known facts of 
its constructive development. This is the view taken by the rulers of to-day’s science. As 
already said (p. 137) the relation between eranial and vertebral parts is rather the analogy of 
adaptive modification than a true homology of structure. 

Before proceeding to describe the mature skull, it will be best to consider its mode of 
development. In this I shall closely follow Parker, often using the words of that master, and 
illustrating the early stages of the embryo with figures borrowed from the same safe source. 
In the fewest words possible, I wish to convey an idea of the embryonic skull up to Parker’s 
‘third stage,” at which it begins to ossify. Here, however, I will first insert a figure, kindly 
drawn for me by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, of the U.S. Army, which shows most of the cranial 
bones, and will give the student a preliminary notion of the ‘lay of the land.” I advise him 
to contemplate this picture till he has learned the names printed on it by heart, and can apply 
them to the identification of the parts of the real skull he should have in hand at the same time. 
He may also meditate on fig. 63. 


Ongiksphoneit 
Ali sphenoid: Spree or 
, Squares. 
Pros. 


gal- 


Fie. 62... Skull of common fowl, enlarged; from nature by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S. A. The names of bones 
and some other parts are printed, requiring no explanation; but observe the following points: The distinction of 
none of the bones composing the brain-case (the upper back expanded part) can be found in a mature skull. The 
brain is contained between the occipital, sphenoidals, squamosals, parietals and part of frontal; the ethmoidals 
belong to the same group of cranial bones proper. All other bones, excepting the three ofic ear-bones, are bones 
of the face and jaws. The lower jaw, of five bones, is drawn detached; it articulates by the black surface marked 
articular with the prominence just above— the quadrate bone. Observe that from this quadrate a series of bones 
—quadrato-jugal, jugal, maxillary —makes a slender rod running to the premavillary ; this is the zygoma, or 
jugal bar. Observe from the quadrate also another series, composed of pterygoid and palatine bones, to the pre- 
maxillary; this is the pterygo-palatine bar; it slides along a median fixed axis of the skull, the rostrum, which 
bears the loose vomer at its end. The under mandible, quadrate, pterygoid, and vomer are the only movable bones 
of this skull. But when the quadrate rocks back and forth, as it does by its upper joint, its lower end pulls and 
pushes upon the upper mandible, by means of the jugal and pterygo-palatine bars, setting the whole scaffolding of 
the upper jaw in motion. This motion hinges upon the elasticity of the bones of the forehead, at the thin place just 
where the reference-lines from the words “ lacrymal”’ and ‘‘ mesethmoid”’ cross each other. The dark oval space 
behind the quadrate is the external orifice of the car; the parts in it to which the three reference-lines go are 
diagrammatic, not actual representations ; thus, the quadrate articulates with a large pro-olic as well as with 
the squamosal. The great excavation at the middle of the figure, containing the circlet of unshaded bones, is the 
left orbital cavity, orbit, or socket of the eye. The mesethmoid includes most of the background of this cavity, shaded 
diagonally. The upper one of the two processes of bone extending into it from behind is the post-frontal or sphe- 
notic process ; the under one (just over the quadrate) is the squamosal process. A bone not shown, the presphenoid, 
lies just in front of the oval black space over the end of basisphenoid. This black oval is the optic foramen, 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 151 


through which the nerve of sight passes from the brain-cavity to the eye. The black dot a little behind the optic 
foramen is the oritive of exit of a part of the trifucial nerve. ‘The black mark under the letters on” of the word 
“frontal” is the olfuctory foramen, where the nerve of smell emerges from the brain-box to go to the nose. The 
nasal cavity is the blank space behind nasal and covered by that bone, and in the oval blank before it. The parts 
of the beak covered by horn are only premavillary, nasal, and dentary. The condyle articulates with the first 
cervical vertebra; just above it, not shown, is the foramen magnum, or great hole through which the spinal medulla, 
or main nervous cord, passes from the skull into the spinal column. The basiocerpital is hidden, excepting its 
condyle; so is much of the basisphenoid. ‘Lhe prolongation forward of the basisphenvid, marked “ rostrum,” and 
bearing the vomer at its end, is the parasphenoid, as tar as its thickened under border is concerned. Between the 
fore end of the pterygoid and the basisphenoidal rostrum, is the site of the basipterygoid process, by which the 
bones concerned articulate by smooth facets; further forward, the palatines ride freely upon the parasphenoidal 
rostrum. In any Passerine bird, the vomer would be thick in front, and forked behind, riding like the palatine 
upon the rostrum. ‘he palatine seems to run into the maxillary in this view; but it continues on to premaxillary, 
The mazil/o-palatine is an important bone which cannot be seen in the figure because it extends horizontally into 
the paper from the maxillary about where the reference line “ maxillary” goes to that bone. The general line 
from the condyle to the end of the vomer is the cranial axis, basis cranii, or base of the cranium. This skull is 
widest across the post-frontal; next most so across the bulge of the jugal bar. 


Fie. 63.— Skull of a duck ( Clangulaislandica), nat. size; Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. a, premaxillary bone; 
6, partly ossified internasal septum; 0/, pervious part of nostril; c,end of premaxillary, perforated for numerous 
branches of second division of the fifth cranial nerve; ¢, dentary bone of under mandible; e, groove for nerves, etc. ; 
J,a vacuity between dentary and other pieces of the mandible; g, articular surface; hk, recurved “angle of the jaw;”’ 
i, occipital protuberance; j, vacnity in supraoccipital bone; /, muscular impression on back of skull; / is over the 
black ear-cavity; m, post-frontal process; 7, quadrate bone; o, pterygoid; p, palatine; g, quadrato-jugal; r, 
jugal; s, maxillary ; ¢, fronto-parietal dome of the brain-cavity; u, the lacrymal bone, immense in a duck, nearly 
completing rim of the orbit by approaching m; v, vomer: w, supra-orbital depression for the nasal gland 
(see p. 157); x, cranio-facial hinge; y, optic foramen; 2, etc., interorbital vacuities. 


Development of the Fowl’s Skull (figs. 64 to 69). —In the chick’s head cartilage is 
formed along the floor of the skull by the fifth day of incubation. This cartilaginous basilar 
plate is formed on each side of the notochord, fig 64, ¢ (Gr. varov, noton, back ; yopdy, chorde, a 
chord), a rod-like structure, the primordial axis of the body, around which, along the spinal 
column, the bodies of the vertebree are formed, and which runs in the middle line of the floor 
of the skull as far as the pituitary space, pts. The basilar plate is the parachordal (Gr. mapa, 
para, by the side of) cartilage. In this, at the earliest stage, are already planted certain parts 
of the ear, the cochlea, cl, (Lat. cochlea, a snail-shell), and the horizontal one of the three semz- 
circular canals, hsc. Opposite the end of the notochord, the border of the parachordal plate 
is notched, 5; this notch afterward forms the foramen ovale, for the passage of parts of the 
Jifth or trifacial nerve. Near the middle line, posteriorly, the plate is perforated for the 
passage of the twelfth or hypoglossal nerve, g. At each lateral corner is the separate quadrate 
cartilage, to form the quadrate bone. Anteriorly, the plate connects by a strap or bridge 
of cartilage, the lingula, lg (Lat. lingula, a little tongue) with the trabeculae, tr (Lat. trabe- 
cula, a little beam), which enclose the pituitary space, pts (Lat. pituita, mucus: no applica- 
bility here). In front of this pituitary interval the trabecule come together to form an inter- 


152 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


nasal plate, which is so arched over downward as to disappear from this view, as seen in 
fig. 65, where fn is the fronto-nasal process, and » is the future exterual nostril. After 
uniting in the inter-nasal plate, the fore ends of the trabecule separate and become free ; their 
free ends are the under extremities of this jirst visceral arch (first and only pre-oral arch). 
The same chiek’s head, now viewed from below, fig. 65, shows the squarish aperture, m, 
of the future mouth ; the three post-oral arches, with their respective cartilaginous bars, ont 
of which are to be formed the bones of the jaws and tongue. 1, 2, 3, are the corresponding 
visceral clefts, between the arches; the first of these is to be modelled into the ear- 
passages (outer and middle ear and eustachian tube) ; the others will disappear. The quadrate 
cartilage, q, is the same that was seen in fig. 64; it is already nearly in position, between the 
hind ends of the scaffolding of the upper and under jaw. The curved subocular or mawvillo- 
palatine bar, mxp, developed in the first post-oral arch, already indicates anteriorly palatine, 
pa, and posteriorly, pterygoid, pg, parts; it will form the bones so named, and others of the 


Fig. 65.— Same as fig. 64, but seen from below. 
evl, anterior cerebral vesicle; e, eye; m, mouth; pfs, 
pituitary space; jr, fronto-nasal plate; tr, ends of the 
trabecule, free again after their union and bent strong- 
ly from the original axis of the trabeculie; nm, exter- 


Fic. 64. — Skull of chick, fifth day of incubation, 
x9 diameters. Seen from above, the membranous roof 


of the skull and the brain removed. crl, anterior cere- nal nostril; map, subocular bar of cartilage, or ptery- 
bral vesicle ; e, eye; c, notochord, running through the go-palatine rod, to form pa, palatine, and pg, pterygoid 
middle of the basilar plate or parachordal cartilage, in bone, and otber parts of the upper jaw, as the maxil- 
which are already visible the rudimentary ear-parts, ¢/, lary, jugal and quadrato-jugal; q, quadrate cartilage, 
the cochlea, Asc, the horizontal semicircular canal ; pfs, same as seenin fig. 64; mk, meckelian cartilage, to form 
the pituitary space, bounded by fr, the trabeculz, lower jaw; these parts are in the first post-oral visceral 
which come together before it to form the fronto-nasal arch; ch, cerato-hyal, and bh, basibyal, of second post- 
plate, fn, in fig. 65; /g, lingula or bridge connecting oral arch; cbr, cerato-branchial, er, epi-branchial, 
trabecule with parachordal cartilage ; 5, notch after- bbr, basi-branchial, of third post-oral arch; the darts 
ward becoming foramen ovale for passage of parts of of the second and third arch all going into the  yoid 
the fifth (trifacial) nerve ; 9, foramen for hypoglossal bone. 1, 2, 3, Ist, 2d, 8d visceral clefts, whereof une Ist 
nerve; qg, separate cartilage forming the future quad- is to be modified into the ear-passages, and the others 
rate bone. (After Parker, in Ency. Brit.) are to be obliterated. (After Parker.) 


upper jaw. This subocular bar is an antero-superior part of the first post-oral arch, of which 
q and mk are a postero-inferior portion; the cleft of the future mouth is to lie between them. 
The lower jaw bone, or mandible, is entirely developed from mk, its several bones developing 
around this rod of cartilage, the meckelian cartilage ; it is to become movably articulated with 
the bone, the quadrate, into which q will be transformed. Thus the postero-inferior part of 
the first post-oral arch (second of the whole series of arches) begins in two pieces, one of which 
is to become the suspensorium, or suspender of the mandible, and the other the mandible 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 153 
itself. The rest of the pieces belong to the second and third post-oral arches, and all 
together make up the very composite hyotd bone, or bone of the tongue (figs. 72, 73, 74). The 
pieces ch and bh are in the second arch, and form respectively the ceratohyal and basihyal 
boues; the pieces cbr, ebr, and bbr are in the third arch, aud form respectively the cerato- 
branchial, epibranchial and basibranchial bones. These pieces of the third arch have already 
outgrown those of the second arch, and they will forin the greatest part of the hyoid bone. 

In the second stage, after the fifth day of incubation, but before any ossification has 
begun, a vertical section shows the appearauces represented in fig. 66. The parachordal and 
trabecular cartilages are applied to each other unconformably, the latter rising high between 
second and third cerebral vesicles to form the posterior pituitary wall, pel, in which the axial 
skeleton properly ends. There are other changes in the parachordal cartilages. The inter- 
nasal plate, formed by the union of the trabeculee in front of the pituitary space, has become a 
vertical median wall between the olfactory and optic chambers of the right and left sides (pn 
aud eth, to ps and alc). This partition, besides forming finally the interorbital septum which 
divides the right and left orbits, will undergo further notable changes in direction, and will 
develop lateral plates and processes, which 
will make up the nasal labyrinth and the 
partition between the cavity of the nose 
and that of the eye, when any exists. Such 
lateral developments of the ethmoid plate 
are the aliethmoid, aliseptal, and alinasal. 
This plate extends backward in mid-line 
to the optic foramen, 2, ending in the ante- 
rior clinoid wall, asc, separated from the 
(parachordal) posterior clinoid wall by the 
original pituitary space, now the opening 
through which the carotid arteries, ic, enter 
the brain cavity. Besides ethmoidal parts 
proper, the plate develops at what will be 
the end of the upper beak a prenasal carti- 
lage, pn, to become the axis of the beak. 


Fig. 66. — Head of a chick, second stage, after five days 


The mouth is become already better formed, 
the axis of its cavity pointing more forward 
than downward; and great changes are 
undergoing in parts of the ear at the back 
corner of the mouth. The quadrate and 
meckelian cartilages are assuming much of 
their true form. The quadrate develops 
an orbital process, which extends free into 
the orbit, and an ote process which articu- 
lates with the auditory sac and parts of 


of incubation, section in profile; x 6 diameters. cvl, cv2, cv3, 
first, second, and third cerebral vesicles; 1, place of the 
first nerve, the olfactory; 2, place of second nerve, the 
optic; ic, internal carotid artery, running into skull at what 
was originally the pituitary space, now an opening bounded 
in front by the anterior, acl, behind by the posterior, pel, 
clinoid walls; nc, notochord; oc, occipital condyle, thence 
to pel being the original parachordal cartilage, here seen in 
profile; eo, exoccipital; eth, ethmoid, with ps, its presphe- 
noid region posteriorly, and pr, pre-nasal part; this whole 
plate afterward developing into parts of the nose and the 
partition between the eyes; pa, palatine; pg, pterygoid 
region; pa and pq reference lines are in the chick’s mouth; mk 
meckelian cartilage (lower jaw); ch and bh, ceratohyal and 


the exoccipital cartilage. The relations at basihyal parts of the hyoid or tongue bone. (After Parker.) 


this stage have not been made out in the fowl, but are figured and described from the corre- 
sponding stage of the European house martin (Chelidon urbica). In fig. 67, mk is the eut 
stump of the meckelian cartilage, of which ar is the articular part ; q is the quadrate, of which 
a backward process is seen articulating with teo, the tympanic wing of the exoccipital. Just 
below and behind this otic process of the quadrate, exactly where in riper embryos is the 
fenestra ovalis in which is fitted the foot of the stapes or stirrup-bone of the middle ear, there 
appears a trowel-shaped projection of cartilage, the handle of which is continuous with the 
substance of the ear-capsule; the sickle-shaped piece behind which is the tympanic wing ¥! 


154 


the exoceipital (teo). 


GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


This trowel of cartilage is the upper anterior segment of the hyoidean 


(second post-oral) arch, being to that arch what the pterygo-palatine bar is to the mandibular 


(first post-oral) arch. 


Fig. 67.—The post-oral arches of the 
house martin, at middle of period of incuba- 
tion, lateral view, x 14 diameters. mk, stump 
of meckelian or mandibular rod, its articular 
part, ar, already shapen; g, quadrate bone, or 
suspensorium of lower jaw, with a free anterior 
orbital process and long posterior otic process 
articulating with the ear-capsule, of which teo, 
tympanic wing of ocvipital, is a part; mst, 
est, sst, ist, sth, parts of the suspensorium of 
the third post-oral arch, not completed to chy; 
mst, medio-stapedial, to come away from teo, 
bringing a piece with it, the true stapes or co- 
/umella auris; the oval base of the stapes fit- 
ting into the future fenestra ovalis, or oval 
window looking into the coch/ea; sst, supra-sta- 
pedial; vst, extra-stapedial; ist, infra-stapedial, 
which will unite with sth, the stylo-hyal ; 
chy and bhy, cerato-hyal and basi-hyal, distal 
parts of the same arch; bbr, br 1, br 2, basi- 
branchial, epi-branchial and cerato-branchial 
pieces of the third arch, composing the rest of 
the hyoid bone; tg, tongue. (After Parker.) 


end of the second post-oral arch, we see by fig. 68 
how rapidly the parts are shaping themselves at the 
end of this second stage of development. 
shows the cartilaginous skull, in which no trace of 
ossification has appeared, excepting in the under 
The brain and membranous parts of the 
crauium have been removed. The roof of the skull 


inandible. 


never becomes cartilaginous, bone there growing di- 
rectly from the membrane; and the whole of the chou- 


Several parts of this stapedial cartilage are recognized, as named in the 


fine print under the figure. If the connections of the 
second post-oral arch were completed, as those of the 
first are, the tongue bone would be slung to the skull 
as the lower jaw is; but they are uot, the tract rep- 
resented by the dot-line from the stylo-hyal, sth, to 
the cerato-hyal, chy, being, like ist, above sth, only 
soft connective tissue. This defect of connection is 
made up for by the great development of the hyoidean 
parts of the third post-oral arch, br 1 and br 2, which 
retain the tongue-bone in position, without however 
articulating it with the skull. The hand of the trowel 
of cartilage soon segments itself off from the ear-cap- 
sule, bringing away with it a small oval piece of the 
periotic wall, which piece is the true stapes, and the 
oval space in which it fits is the fenestra ovalis leading 
into the inmost ear (the cochlea). The broad part of 
the trowel-blade is the extra-stapedial part, on which 
the membrana tympani, or ear-drum, will be stretched. 
The stylo-hyal, sth, will join the extra-stapedial 
plate, and the afterward chondrified band of union will 
be the infra-stapedial, ist. (Figs. 71, st, and 83.) 


Returning ctr tN LP 
now to the teh /- 


chick’s head, 
which we left 
to examine 
the 
ear-parts at 
the proximal 


intricate 


Fic. 68. — Skull of chick, second stage, in 
profile, brain and membranes removed to 
show cartilaginous formations, x 4 diameters. 
eth, ethmoid, forming median nose-parts and 
inter-orbital septum ; developing lateral parts, 
as ale, aliethmoid, as, aliseptum, aln, alinasal, 
pp, partition between nose and eye; pr, pre- 
nasal cartilage; ps, presphenoidal part of mid- 
ethmoid; 2, optic foramen; as, alisphenoid, 
walling brain-box in front; 7/7, post-frontal, 
bounding orbit behind; pa, pg, palatine and 
pterygoid; g, quadrate; so, supra-occipital; 
eo, ex-occipital; oc, occipital condyle, borne 
upon basi-occipital, and showing nc, remains 
of notochord; these occipitals bound the fora- 


This figure 


dro-cranium, as shown in the figure, is one continuous 
cartilaginous strueture (like the whole skull of an 
adult shark or skate), excepting the parts of the post- 
oral arches, which are separate. The auditory cap- 
sule is environed by occipital cartilage, eo, stretching 
over the back of the skull, and by wing-like growths 
(alisphenoids, as) which wall most of the brain-box 
in front. 
from the tract of the conjoined trabeculae. 


men magnum, and eo expands laterally to form 
a tympanic wing, circumscribing the external 
auditory orifice bebind and below; hsc, psec, 
horizontal and posterior vertical semicircular 
canals of ear; jr, st, fenestra rotunda and 
fenestra ovalis, leading into inner ear, lat- 
ter closed by foot of the stapes; mz, ch, bh, 
bbr, cbr, ebr, parts of jaw and tongue, as nam- 
ed in figs. 65, 66 and 67. (After Parker.) 


The high orbito-nasal septum is a continuous vertical plate of cartilage, upgrowing 
Lateral developments of this ethmoidal wall, in 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 


front, are divided into several recognizable parts, ale, 
als, aln, the latter being the external nostril; pp is a 
transverse partition between the orbital and nasal cham- 
bers. The nasal cartilages ultimately become much 
convoluted to form the nasal labyrinth, among the con- 
volutions of which will be the superior and inferior tur- 
binal cartilages, in addition to those already noted. 
The ethmoidal wall euds behind at ps, the presphe- 
noidal region, where the brain case begins; below and 
behind, it is deeply notched for the optic forainen, 2. 
The pituitary space forms a circular foramen, through 
which the carotid arteries enter. The site of the orbit 
of the eye is bounded behind and below by the post- 
frontal process of the alisphenoid wing, pf of as. The 
pterygo-palatine rod is seen along the under border of 
the skull, pg and pa. The quadrate, g, has acquired 
nearly its shape, and the rest of the mandibular and 
hyvidean parts are clearly displayed, mk, etc. The 
proximal hyoidean element, sé, is freed from the peri- 
otic cartilage, leaving the fenestra ovalis (see lust para- 
graph). Below the general outline, pa to oc, is not 
shown a mat of soft tissue, in which are to be devel- 
oped the basitemporal aud parasphenoid bones which 
underfloor the whole skull, — the former making a plat 
between the ears, fig. 69, bt, the latter forming the thick- 
ened under edge of the rostrum of the skull rbs. 

At the third stage, about the middle of the secoud 
week of incubation, the cartilaginous parts already 
described are ueatly finished, and the skull is beginning 
to ossify. The occipital parts are well formed; the 
condyle is perfect ; 
scribed by the ex- and supra-occipitals, eo and so, fig. 
69. Investing bones, formed in membrane without pre- 
vious cartilage, are becoming appareut. The basitem- 
poral, 6¢, and parasphenoid, rls, are engrafting upon 
the base of the skull. The prenasal cartilage, pn, now 
at its fullest growth, is beginning to decline; on each 
side of it is formed a three-forked bone, the premaxil- 
lary, px, having superiorly nasal, and laterally palatal 
and dentary processes. This bone is to grow to great 
size, forming most of the upper beak, and starving out 
the maxillary, which in mammals is the principal bone 
of the upper jaw. The palatal, pa, and pterygoid, pg, 
bones are ossified, and the quadrate, q, is ossifying. 
Between the premaxillary and the quadrate are the 
bones forming the zygoma, or jugal bar, developed in 
the outer part of the maxillo-palatine bar of the earlier 
embryo. They are the weak maaillary, mx, with its 
ingrowing ‘process, the mazillo-palatine bone, mxp; 
next the jugal, j; then the quadrato-jugal, qj; the 


the foramen magnum is ¢ireum- 


155 


aw 


fas 
i fy pees, 


Fic. 69. —Skull of chick, third stage, 
viewed from below, »~ 6? diameters. pn, 
prenasal cartilage, running behind into the 
septum nasi ; on each side of it the premax- 
iNary, pr, of which the (inner) palatal and 
(outer) dentary processes are seen (the upper 
nasal process hidden); mr, the maxillary, 
developing inner process, the maxillo-pala- 
tine. mcp; pa, the palatal, well-formed, ar- 
ticulating behind with rds, the sphenoidal 
rostrum, its thickened under border, the 
parasphenoid ; this will bear the vomer at its 
end when that bone is developed; j, jugal, 
joining mv and qj, the quadrato-jugal, join- 
ing » and q, the quadrate ; mz to q, the 
jugal bar or zygoma; py, the pterygoid, 
making with pa the pterygo-palatine bar, 
joining q and pz; bt, the basitemporal, great 
mat of bone from ear to ear, underflooring 
the skull proper, as rds, a similar formation, 
does further forward; ic, outer end of carotid 
canal, to run between the Jt plate and true 
floor of skull, and enter brain cavity at origi- 
nal site of pituitary fossa (figs. 64, 66, ic); ty, 
tympanic cavity —external opening of ear; 
as, alisphenoid, bounding much of brain- 
box anteriorly, and orbital cavity posteri- 
orly; psc, posterior semicircular canal of ear, 
in opisthotic bone, which will unite with tbe 
spreading co, exoccipital, which will reach 
the condyle shown in the middle line, above 
the foramen magnum, jm, completed above 
by so, supra-occipital; 8, foramen lacerum 
posterius, exit of pneumogastric, glosso-pha- 
ryngeal and spinal accessory nerve; 9, exit 
of hvpoglossal nerve, in basi-occipital. (After 
Parker.) 


156 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


whole forming an outer lateral rod from quadrate to premaxillary, like a duplicate of the 
pterygo-palatine rod from the same to the same. 

Among occurrences of later stages are to be noted the development in membrane in the 
middle line below of the vomer, borne upon the end of the rostrum; the roofing in of the 
whole skull by the parietal, squamosal, frontal and nasal bones; the completion of the periotic 
bones as the prodtic, epiotic and opisthotic, which form the otic capsule ; the development of 
lacrymal bones, bounding the orbits of the eyes in front. Absorption of the middle wall of 
cartilage between the nasal and orbital cavities nicks off the nose parts from those of the orbit 
(fig. 70, between ntb and eth); and certain changes in the orbital septum develop the orbito- 
sphenoids. Very nearly all the bones of a bird’s skull having thus been accounted for, we may 
next consider them in their adult condition. Reference should now be made to figs. 62, 
63, 70, 71. 


The Occipital Bone (fig. 62, 70, 71) forms the back part of the floor of the skull, and lower 
part of the back wall of the skull; ueither its boundaries nor its composition is visible in 
adult skulls. It is formed by the basioccipital, bo, below in the middle line; the supra-occipital 
so, above in the middle line; the exoccipital, eo, on either side. These bound the foramen 
magnum (fig. 69, fm), where the nerve mass makes its exit from the cavity of the cranium into 
the tube of the spina] column. At the lower part of the foramen is the protuberant occipital 
condyle (figs. 68, 71, oc), borne chiefly upon the basioccipital, but to the formation of which the 
exoccipitals alsv contribute; the latter tlare widely on each side, into the tympanic wings, which 
bouud the external auditory meatus behind. The true basioccipital is inostly covered by the 
underlying secondary bone, the basitemporal (69, 70, bt), which extends from one tympanic 
cavity to the other, and more or less forward in the middle line to the sphenoidal rostrum. 
Openings to be observed in the occipital region, besides the great foramen, are those for the 
hypoglossal nerve, 9, near the condyle ; for the parts of the vagus uerve, 8, more laterally, and 
the carotid canal, ic: also, above the foramen magnum, openings for veins, sometimes of great 


size, as in fig. 63, 7. 


The Parietals (figs. 62, and 70, p, 71). — Proceeding up over the brain-box, the next 
bones are a pair of parietals, between the occipital behind, the frontal before, and the squa- 
mosal beside ; but their limits are rarely if ever to be seen in adult skulls. They are relatively 
small in birds; simply squarish plates, bounded as said, coming together in the midline. 


The Frontals (fig. 62, and 70, f, 71), originally paired, soon fuse together, and with sur- 
rounding bones of the skull, though maintaining some distinction from those of the nose and jaw. 
These roof over much of the brain cavity, close in much of it in front, and form the roof and 
eaves of the great orbital sockets. Anteriorly in the middle of the forehead line the feet of the 
nasal process of the premaxillary are implanted upon the frontal, usually distinctly ; more 
laterally, the nasal bones are articulated or anchylosed ; this fronto-naso-premaxillary suture 
forming the frouto-facial hinge, (fig. 63, x) by the elasticity or articulation of which the upper 
jaw moves upon the skull, when acted on by the palatal and jugal bars. In the midst of the fore- 
head the two halves of the frontal sometimes separate, as they do in the fowl, allowing a little 
of the mesethmoid to come to the front. In the middle line, underneath, the frontals fuse with 
whatever extent there may be of the mesethmoid which forms the lengthwise inter-orbital 
septum, aud often a crosswise partition between the orbital and nasal cavities. To the antero- 
external corners of the frontal are articulated or anchylosed the lacrymals. The post-frontal 
process,! morphologically the post-frontal or sphenotic bone, bounds the rim of the orbit behind ; 

1 There is apparently some ambiguity in the use of the term ‘ post-frontal”’ process by different authors. It 


would appear that this process, bounding the rim of the orbit behind, may be a projection of the frorital bone, and 
therefore strictly a post-frontal process. Or that, as said by Owen for hea, it may be a separate bone, and there- 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 157 


it is usually quite prominent. The frontal rim of the orbit in many birds shows a crescentic 
depression (very strong in a loon aud many other water birds; tig. 63, w), for lodgment of the 
supra-orbital gland, the secretion of which lubricates the uasal passages. ‘The cerebral plate of 
the frontal is often imperfectly ossified, showing large ‘‘ windows” besides the regular openings 
for the exit of nerves which are always found at the back of the orbit. View from above, the 
frontal is vaulted and expanded behind, over the brain cavity, then pinched more or less, some- 
times extremely narrow over the orbits, then usually somewhat expanded again at the frouto- 
facial suture. The extent of the frontal between the orbits and face, iv the lacrymal region, 


is very great in the duck family, as seen in fig. 63. 


The Squamosal (Lat. squama, a scale: figs. 70, 71, sq.) bounds the braim-box laterally, 
between occipital, parietal, frontal and sphenoidal bones, its distinction from all of these being 
obliterated in adult life. It is situated near the lower back lateral corner of the skull, forming 
some part of the cranial wall just over the ear-opening, and a strong eaves for that orifice. It 
is firmly united also to the bones of the ear proper, and receives the larger share of the free 
articulation which the quadrate has with the skull. It often develops a strong forward-down- 
ward spur, the squainosal process (fig. 62), looking like « duplicate post-frontal process ; 
between these two is the crotaphyte depression, corresponding to the ‘temporal fossa ” of man, 
in which lic the muscles which close the jaws. It searcely or uot enters into the orbit, the 
adjacent part of the orbit being alisphenoidal. 


The Periotic Bones (Gr. qepi, peri, about; ods, wros, ous, olos, the ear; fig. 70) are 
those that form the petrosal bone (Lat. petrosus, rocky, from their hardness), or bony periotic 
capsule, containing the essential organ of hearing. When united with each other and with the 
squamosal, they form the very composite and illogical bone called ‘‘temporal” in human anat- 
omy. There are three of these otic bones, —an anterior, the pro-otic; a posterior and inferior, 
the opisthotic (Gr. dmoGe, opisthe, behind) and a superior and external, the epiotic. They can 
only be studied in young skulls, upon careful dissection ; they do not appear upon the ontside 
of the skull at all, excepting a small piece of the opisthotic, which there fuses indistinguishably 
with the exoccipital. But somewhat of these bones are seen on looking into the cavity of the 
outer ear, and if the fenestra ovalis can be recognized, it determines a part of the boundary 
between the proétic and opisthotic bones, while the feuestra rotunda lies wholly in the latter. 
The cavity of the periotic bone is hollowed for the labyrinth of the internal ear, including the 
cochlea, which contains the essential nervous organs of hearing, and the three semicircular canals 
—so much of them as does not invade surrounding bones. In the young fowl’s skull viewed 
internally (fig. 70), Parker figures a very large prodtic portion (po) of the periotic, perforated 
by the internal auditory meatus (7) for the entrance from the brain of the auditory nerve ; below 
and behind the proétie a small opisthotic (op), in relation with the exoccipital, upon the surface 
of which it also appears, outside (fig. 69, at psc), and with which it blends; avery sinall epiotic 
centre (ep), between the prootic and supraoccipital; and the anterior semicircular canal (asc) 
embedded in the latter. In Dr. Shufeldt’s figure the otic elements are merely noted diagram- 
matically. According to Huxley’s generalization, the epioti¢ is in special relation with the pos- 
terior semicircular canal; the prodtic with the anterior vertical canal, between which and the 
foramen ovale (5) for the lower divisions of the trifacial nerve it lies. That part on which the 
inner foot of the quadrate is implanted is proétic. Below the drooping eaves of the squamosal, 
before the flaring wing of the exoccipital, and behind the quadrate bone, is the always decided 
and considerable cavity of the ear, bounded pretty sharply by the squamosal and exoccipital rim, 
fore properly a post-frontal bone. Or, again, that it may have nothing to do with the frontal bone, but belong to 


the alisphenoid, as a process of the latter or a separate ossification; in which case it would bo properly the sphe- 
notic, In no event has it anything to do with the squamosal process lettered as such in fig. 62. 


158 


sloping with less distinction in front toward the orbital cavity. 
the meatus or proper ear-passage, through which, in one direction, a 


seen several openings : 


S.C. 


a8.C. 


Fig. 70. — Ripe chick’s skull, longitudinal section, viewed 
inside, X 3 diameters; after Parker. In the mandible are seen: 
mk, remains of meckelian rod; d, dentary bone; sp, splenial; 
a, angular ; sw, surangular; ar, articular; iap, internal articu- 
lar process; pap, posterior articular process. In the skull: pr, 
the original prenasal cartilage, upon which is moulded the pre- 
maxillary, px, with its nasal process, npr, and dentary process, 
dpz ; sn, septo-nasal cartilage, in which is seen 2m, nasal nerve; 
ntb, nasal turbinal ; the reference line crosses the cranio-facial 
suture, the face parts and cranial parts being nearly separated 
here by the nick seen in the original cartilaginous plate; eth, 
ethmoid; pe, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, which will spread» 
nearly throughout the dotted cartilaginous tract in which it lies, 
to form nearly all the interorbital septum; transverse thicken- 
ing (in some birds) below the reference line eth will form the 
pre-frontal, or orbito-nasal septum; io/, inter-orbital foramen; 
Ps, pre-sphenoidal region, just above which is the orbito-sphe- 
noidal region ; 2, optic foramen; as, alisphenoid, with 5, foramen 
for divisions of the 5th (trifacial) nerve; /, frontal; sq, squamosal ; 
P, parietal; so, superoccipital ; asc, anterior semicircular canal ; 
se, a sinus (venous canal); ep, epiotic; eo, exoccipital; op, opis- 
thotic ; po, prodtic, with 7, meatus auditorius internus, for en- 
trance of 7th nerve; 8, foramen for vagus nerve; bo, basioccipi- 
tal; bt, basitemporal ; ic, canal (in original pituitary space ; 
fig. 66 ic) by which carotid artery enters brain cavity ; ap, basi- 
pterygoid process; ap to rbs, rostrum of the skull, being the 
parasphenoid bone underflooring the basisphenoid and future 
perpendicular plate of ethmoid. (The scaffolding cf the upper 
jaw not shown, excepting pz, &c.) 


GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


In this auditory hollow may be 


bristle may be passed to emerge at or near 
the middle line of the base of the skull, 
about the root of the basisphenoidal ros- 
trum. Such a passage is through the first 
visceral cleft of the early embryo, modi- 
fied into meatus auditorius and eustachian 
tube, which latter communicates with the 
back part of the mouth. Besides the other 
ear-passages proper, may be found other 
openings of air-passages leading into the 
interior diploic tissue of bones of the 
skull, and especially into the lower jaw 
bone. The ear-parts are immensely de- 
veloped in owls, in many species of 
which they are unsymmetrical, that is, 
not sized and shaped alike on right and 
left sides of the head. 


The Sphenoid (Gr. o@ny, sphen, a 
wedge; eiSos, eidos, form; figs. 62, 70, 
71) is a compound bone, not easy to un- 
derstand as it occurs in birds, as much 
of it is hidden from the outside, some of 
it is very slightly developed, and all of it 
is completely consolidated with surround- 
ing bones in the adult. It is wedged 
into the very midst of the cranial bones 
proper, with its body in the middle line 
below, next in front of the basioccipital, 
and its wings spread on either side in the 
orbital cavity. A sphenoid consists es- 
sentially of the basisphenoid, or main 
pat of the bone (fig. 62); the alisphe- 
noids or ‘* wings,” on either side (figs. 70, 
71, as); the obscure presphenoid, (ps) in 
the middle line in front of and above the 
main body; and the small orbito-sphe- 
noids, which are in fact the wings of the 
presphenoid. The body is usually covered 
in by the undertlooring of the basitem- 
poral; it is a flat triangular plate, pro- 
duced more or less forward in the middle 
line as the basisphenoidal rostrum, or 
beak of the skull. This rostrwm is an 
important thing. It forms, in fact, the 
central axis of the base of the skull; 
with the mesethmoid plate the inferior 
border of the interorbital septum, usually 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 159 


thickened by the underflooring of the parasphenoid (fig. 70, rbs). The rostrum often bears 
on each side a basipterygoid process (ap), — a smooth facet with which the pterygoid artic- 
ulates. These processes may be very 
strong, and far back on the basisphenoid 
body, when the pterygoids articulate with 
them near their own posterior ends, as 
in the struthious birds and tinamous (fig. 
75, bip); or they nay be further along 
on the rostrum, and the pterygoids then 
articulate near or at their fore-ends. The 
rostrum may be produced far forward, 
beyond the maxillo-palatines and vomer 
even, as in an ostrich; or it may bear the 
vomer at its end; or may be embraced 
by forks of the vomer ; the palatines may 
glide along it, or be remote from it on 
either side. In any event, whatever its 
production, whatever part may be eth- 
moidal, or basisphenoidal, or parasphe- 
noidal thickening, pterygo-faceting, ete., 
this ‘‘ beak” of the basisphenoid is 
always in the axis of the base of the 
skull, and at the bottom of the inter- 
orbital plate; it may be horizontal, or 
obliquely ascending forward; and the 
variety of its relations with the pterygo- 
palatine and vomerine mechanism fur- 
nishes important zodlogical characters, 
as we shall see when we come to treat 
of palatal structure particularly. Just at 
the base of the beak, where it widens Fia. 71. — Ripe chick’s skull, in profile, x 3 diameters; after 
into the main body of the bone, may Parker. px, premaxillary; q/n, ali-nasal cartilage; en, septo- 
nasal; x, nasal bone; /, Jacrymal; pe, perpendicular plate of 
ethmoid, as in fig. 70; ps, presphenoidal region; as, alisphe- 
the sphenoidal body and the lip of the noid; /, frontal; p, parietal; sq, squamosal; so, superoceipital; 
eo, exoccipital; oc, occipital condyle; st, the cross-like object, 
: ‘ the stapes, whose foot fits fenestra ovalis, see fig. 83; g, quad- 
of the eustachian tubes, and often also rate; pg, pterygoid; gj, quadrato-jugal; j, jugal; pa, palatine; 
the anterior ends of the carotid eanal. mx, maxillary. In the mandible: d, dentary ; sw, surangular; 

3 fe f a, angular; ar, articular; icp, internal angular process; pap, 
Ifa bristle, passed into a questionable posterior angular process. 2, optic foramen; 5, foramen ovale, 
for inferior divisions of the 5th nerve. (Compare fig. 70.) 


commonly be seen, coming from between 


basitemporal underflooring, the orifices 


foramen here, comes out of the ear, it 
has gone through the eustachian tube; if it eomes out below the ear, on the floor of the skull, 
outside, it has run in the carotid canal. The extent of the alisphenoids (figs. 70, 71, as) can- 
not be determined in old skulls. They lie at the back lower border of the orbital cavity, clos- 
ing in most of the brain box that is not foreclosed by the frontal bone. You will always find 
at the back of the orbit, close to the mid-line, and rather low down, the very large optic fora- 
mina (any figs., 2); alisphenoid should not extend in front of these orifices. A little below and 
behind the optic foramina, and much more laterally, not far from the quadrate itself, is a con- 
siderable foramen, quite constant, for transmission of the inferior divisions of the fifth (trigeminal 
or trifacial) nerve. This is the foramen ovale (any figs., 5); it is either in the alisphenoid, or 
between that bone and the prodtic; it must not be mistaken for one of the several smaller holes, 
usually seen close about the optic foramen, which transmit the nerves (oculo-motor, pathetic. 


160 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


and abducent) which move the muscles of the eyeball; these holes being collectively about 
equivalent to the foramen lacerum anterius of human anatomy. Parts about the optic foramen, 
before and above, are presphenoidal (figs. 70, 71, ps) and orbito-spheuvidal ; but they are 
obscure to all but the embryologist, and practically furnish uo zodlogical characters. 


The Ethmoid (Gr. 74ués, ethmos, a sieve; from the way it is perforated in the human 
species ; fig. 62) is the bone of the mid-line of the skull, in front of the sphenoidal elements and - 
below the frontal; it is in special relation with the olfactory nervous apparatus, or sense of - 
smell. This is not an easy bone to ‘‘ get the hang of” in birds. Referring to figs. 66, 68, eth, 
the student will see in the early embryo a high thin plate of cartilage, the mesethmoid cartilage, 
which is developing lateral processes to form the convoluted walls of the nasal passages. By 
the uprising and forth-growing of the prenasal cartilage, the mesethmoidal plate is tilted back- 
ward, as it were, under the frontal. Next, by absorption of tissue just opposite the future 
cranio-facial suture, the plate is nicked apart, the portion in front of the nick elaborating 
the nasal chambers, which usually remain cartilaginous, and the portion behind this nick 
becoming the permauent plate, fig. 70, eth, pe, to which the name mesethmoid or mid-ethmoid 
is more strictly applicable. Practically, a bird’s ethmoid is chietly the inter-orbital septum, in 
vertical mid-line between the orbits, with such flange-like processes or lateral plates as may be 
developed to form an orbito-nasal septum separating the eye-socket from the vose-chamber. 
In general, the permanent ethmoidal plate becomes nearly coincident with this orbital wall, and 
pretty well cut off from the osseous or cartilaginous developments, when any, in the nasal eavi- 
ties. It is then fairly under cover of the frontal, with which, as with the sphenoidal elements 
posteriorly, it becomes completely fused. When this inter-orbital septum is fully developed, it 
completely divides the right and left orbital cavities, and its lower horizontal border, fused 
with the basisphenoidal rostrum, may like the latter be thickened by bearing its share of the 
parasphenvidal splint. Oftener, however, this lower border slopes upward aud forward, from the 
sphenoidal base to the roof of the skull about the site of the cranio-facial suture; and usually 
the septum is incomplete, having a membranous fenestra somewhere near its middle (fig. 70, 
iof). Along the upper border of the mesethmoid plate, or just in the crease between it and 
the overarching frontal may usually be seen a long groove, which, beginning behind at the 
olfactory foramen of the brain-box, conducts the thence-issuing olfactory nerve to the nasal 
chambers. Sometimes there is another such groove, from a similar foramen near by in the 
sphenoidal parts, which similarly traces the course of the ophthalmic (first) division of the tri- 
facial nerve. Occasionally, as in the fowls, the two halves of the frontal bone separate a little 
at the extreme forehead, allowing the mesethmoid plate there to come up flush with the outer 
surface of the skull. 

In some birds, as the low ostrich, for example, the original mesethmoidal cartilage-plate 
does not nick apart into orbital and nasal moieties, but ossifies as a continuous shect of bone, 
dividing right and left halves of the skull far towards the point of the beak (see fig. 75, beyond 
Rto Pmx). A nasal septum, separated from the orbital septum, may persist to ossify ; form- 
ing, as in the raven, a vertical plate separate from all surroundings, and liable to be mistaken 
for a free vomer (see fig. 79, where the reference line » goes to it, instead of to the truncate 
vommer) ; or, as in many birds, a plate variously auchylosed with its surroundings. But these 
formations, as well as the various turbinal (Lat. turbo, a whorl) scrolls and whorls formed in 
this part of the skull, belong rather to the organ of smell than to the skull proper. 


The Cranial Bones proper are all those thus far described, excepting the nasal ossifica- 
tions just noted, which belong to the first pre-oral arch ; and the stapedial parts of the ear, 
which belong to the hyoidean apparatus (seeond post-orat arch). Intermediate in some 
respects between the proper cranial bones and 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 161 


The Facial Bones proper is the Vomer. — By “facial bones,” as distinguished from 
“cranial” bones, is meant the entire bony scaffolding of the upper and lower jaws, and of the 
tongue, —parts developed in the pre-oral or maxillary, and first, second, and third post-oral, or 
mandibular, hyoidean proper, and branchial, arches. 


The Vomer (Lat. vomer, a ploughshare ; figs. 62, 63, 75 to 80, v) is considered, by those 
who hold the vertebral theory of the skull, to be the body of the foremost (fourth from behind 
— the basioccipital, basisphenoid, and presphenoid being the other three) cranial vertebra. So 
far from having any such morphological significance, it is one of the late secondary bones, 
developed, if at all, apart from the general make-up of the skull, as a special superaddition 
underlying the ethmoidal region, as the parasphenoid and basitemporal underlie the skull further 
back. Its character is extremely variable in the class of birds, though usually constant in the 
several natural divisions of the class, — a fact which coufers high zodlogical value upon this 
anomalous bone. A vomer is a symmetrical mid-liue bone of the base of the skull, found if at 
all at or near the end of the rostrum. It is originally double, i. e., of right and left paired 
halves. These halves persist distinct in the woodpeckers, and are remote from each other, 
one on each side of the mid-line (fig. 80). The vomer is wautiug entirely in the Columbine 
birds, as the pigeons and some of their allies, as the sand grouse (Plerocletes) and bush quails 
(Hemipodes) of the old world, and in certain of the true Galline. Its connections are various. 
It may be borne tree upon the end of the rostrum. It may be applied like a splint by a grooved 
upper surface to the under side of the rostrum, and so fixed there; or, in such situation, it may 
glide along the rostrum according to the movements of the palatal parts with which it may 
connect. Thus, in the ostrich (fig. 75), it saddles the rostrum below, and is joined by the 
maxillo-palatines. Or, it may be united with separate ossifications, the septo-maxillaries, 
which in some birds bridge across the palate (fig. 80). The commonest case is its deep 
bifureation behind (fig. 79), each fork uniting with the palate bone of its own side, and some- 
times also with the pterygoid. Such is usually the fixture of the bone behind, and it then rides 
along as well as simply bestrides the rostrun. The autcrior end of the vomer may be perfectly 
free, projecting into the floor of the nasal chambers (figs. 62, 77), or the fore end may be 
variously steadied or connected with maxillary processes (fig. 78). When free in front, and 
often when not, the vomer is a simple share-like plate, more or less expanded vertically, quite 
thin laterally, and “ spiked,” i. e., running forward to a point; under these circumstances it may 
or may not bifurcate behind, and be there attached to the palatines or not. But the commonest 
case of vomer, shown by the great Passerine group, which comprise the majority of recent 
birds, is different from this, the vomer being in front thickened, fattened and expanded laterally, 
and conuected with nasal cartilages and ossificatious (alinasals and turbinals). Such a vomer, 
deeply cleft behind to join the palatals, is endlessly diversified in the configuration of its fore end, 
which may be notched, lobed, clubbed, etc. The general case of such a vomer is indicated by 
the expression ‘‘ vomer truncate in front,” as distinguished from the simply pointed or ‘‘spiked” 
vomer. (For further details see description of the several patterns of palate-structure, beyond.) 


The Quadrate Bone (Lat. quadratus, squared; figs. 62; 63, n; 64, 65, 68, 69, 71, q; 
75, Qu), with which we may begin the jaw-bones proper, is the suspeusorium of the lower jaw, 
— the perfectly constant and characteristic bone by means of which the mandible proper articu- 
lates with the skull. Its rudiment is seen in the earliest embryos, at the corners of the pri- 
mordial parachordal cartilages. It belongs to the mandibular (first post-oral) arch, of which it 
is the proximal element. Its general morphology has caused much dispute. From the faet 
that in birds one of its functions is to support, in part, the tympanum of the ear, it has been 
identified with the tympanic bone of mammals, — that which in man forms the bony tube of the 
external auditory meatus. The view now generally accepted is, that the bird’s quadrate repre- 

11 


162 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


sents, certainly in part, probably in whole, the little bone of the middle car called the malleus in 
maminals. Anyhow this may be, the quadrate of a bird bears the proximal ends of both jaws, 
earrying their final (posterior) articulation up to the squamosal and petrosal bones. Thus, the 
foot of the quadrate forms the free hinge of the lower jaw, and also movably articulates the 
back end of both the zygomatic and the pterygo-palatine bars or ‘‘arcades.” The head of 
the quadrate freely articulates with the squamosal, just in front of the tympanity cavity, which 
it thus bounds in front; and there is usually a shoulder which furthermore articulates with 
the anterior periotic bone, the proétic ; Struthious birds do not have these two distinct facets. 
A long pedicle or orbital process extends forwards, inwards, and upwards in the orbit ; this non- 
articular handle is for advantageous muscular traction. So circumstanced, the quadrate is a 
stocky bone, of a shape reminding one of an anvil; it rocks freely to and fro upon its cranial 
socket, pulling and pushing upon the whole maxillary and mandibular mechanism, with such 
effect that when the lower jaw drops, the zygomatic and palatal bars are automatically shoved 
forward, tending to make the upper jaw rise, and so increase the opening of the mouth. Such 
mobility of the upper jaw automatically with the movement of the lower is very free in parrots, 
whose cranio-facial connections are quite articular in character ; it is well shown also in ducks; 
and probably nearly all birds have some such motion of the upper jaw upon the skull. Tn 
nearly all birds, the mandibular articular facet of the quadrate is divided by a lengthwise 
impression into inner and outer protuberances, or condyles, fitting corresponding depressions on 
the articular face of the lower jaw; in some birds the articular surface is single. The zygo- 
matic articulation with the quadrate is made by the balled end of the quadrato-jugal socketed 
in a cup at the outer side of the mandibular facet (with various minor modifications in different 
birds). The palatal articulation is made by a little condyle of the quadrate, at the znner side of 
the main facet, socketed into the cupped end of the pterygoid (with minor modifications). 


The Quadrato-jugal and Jugal Bones (Lat. jugum, a yoke ; figs. 62, 63, q, r; 69, 71, 
qj, J) form most of the outer arcade — the jugal or zygomatic bar — leading from the quadrate 
bone to the beak. The quadrato-jugal is posterior, reaching a variable distance forward ; at its 
fore end it is obliquely sutured to the jugal, a spliut-rod which carries the bar forward to the 
maxillary bone, with which it is in like manner obliquely sutured. The whole affair is almost 
always a slender rod, which with its fellow of the opposite side forms the outermost lateral 
boundary of the skull for a great distance. It corresponds in general with the ‘ zygomatic 
arch ” of a naminal, which is made up of a ‘ zygomatic process of the squamosal” and a malar 
or “ cheek-bone.” The whole zygomatic arch, including the maxillary bone itself, is developed 
from the outer part of the primordial pterygo-palatine bar (see fig. 65). In parrots the zygoma 
is movably articulated before as behind. 


The Maxillary Bone (Lat. maxilla, upper jaw bone; figs. 62; 63, s; 69, 71, 75, mx), 
forming so much of the upper jaw of a mammal, isin birds greatly reduced, being starved out by 
the predominant premaxillaries which form most of the upper beak. The shape of this stunted 
bone varies too much to be concisely described. Its connections are, ordinarily, with the jugal 
behind by a long slender splint-like process, and with the premaxillary and usually the nasal 
bones in front and externally. Internally, it may or may not connect with the palatal and 
vomer. The zodlogical interest of this bone centres in certain inward (palate-ward) processes, 
often its most conspicuous parts, and apparently corresponding to the plate which in a mammal 
roofs the hard palate anteriorly. Though these are mere processes from the main mazxillary, 
they are so distinct and important that they are commonly described as if they were independent 
boncs, under the name of the mazillo-palatines. They are flange-like or scroll-like plates, or 
large spongy masses of delicate bone-tissue, — endlessly varied in configuration and context (sce 
the various figures of base of skull, map, beyond, where the palate-patterns are described). 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 163 


Certain other inward maxillary processes, which may or may not unite with the vomer, and so 
bridge over the palate, are called septo-maxillaries (fig. 80, sm) ; and in some woodpeckers 
yet other palate-processes appear (fig. 80, pm). 


The Pterygoid Bones (Gr. mrépvé, plerux, wing; «tSos, eidos, form; figs. 62; 63, 0; 
65, 66, 68, 69, 71, 80, pg; 75 to 79, Pt). Returning now to the quadrate, and going along the 
inner arcade, we first encounter the pterygoid,—a generally rod-like, but variously twisted, 
crooked, or expanded bone which makes the connection between the quadrate behind and the 
palate bone before. The pterygoid is always freely jointed at both ends; its posterior quadrate 
articulation has been noted above; its anterior connection is usually by little nipper-like claws 
by which it ‘catches on” to the hind end of the palatine. In the ostrich (fig. 75, Pé) the 
pterygoid expands into a scroll-like plate; but its rod-like shape is usually preserved. Besides 
passing very obliquely inward as it goes forward from the wide-apart quadrates to the narrow 
rostrum in the axis of the skull, the pterygoid often bellies or elbows inwards in its course to 
join the basisphenoidal beak, and be movably articulated therewith. In the majority of birds, 
there is no such rostral articulation, or the pterygoid only touches the rostrum at its fore end 
where it joins the palatal. In many, however, special articular facets, called basipterygoid 
processes (fig. 70, ap), are developed on the rostrum for the pterygoids to abut against and 
glide over. In Carinate birds, excepting the tinamous (Dromeognathe), these processes are 
forward on the beak, and the pterygoids articulate at or near their own fore ends, as well shown 
in the fowl or duck, figs. 77, 78, Pt. In Ratite birds and tinamous, the basipteryguids are 
very long, flaring transverse processes, far back on the rostrum, at the sphenoidal base, and 
the pterygoids articulate therewith at or near their own posterior ends (figs. 75, Bip, and 76). 


The Palatal or Palatine Bones (Lat. palatum, roof of the mouth; figs. 62; 63, p; 65, 
66, 68, 69, 71, 77, 78, 80, pa; 75, 76, 79, PD) are a pair, approximately parallel and near the 
mid-line, forming that part of the ‘‘ hard palate” or roof of the mouth which is not constructed 
by the palatal processes of the maxillaries, or vomer. They are nearly always long thin bones, 
among the most conspicuous parts when the dried skull is viewed from below. Sometimes, as in 
the ostrich (fig. 75, pl), they are remote from the axis of the skull and only connected in front 
with the maxillaries and maxillo-palatines. In many birds they skip the maxillary parts in 
going forward to be fused with the premaxillaries ; in most, probably, they form anterior con- 
nections in one or another fashion with palatal parts both of maxillaries and of premaxillaries. 
Behind, they always correctly articulate with the pterygoid. The mid-line connections made 
in most Carinate birds (not in Dromeognathe) are variously with the vomer, with the ros- 
trum, with each other, or some or all of these relations at once. A long deeply-cleft vomer 
may by its posterior forks attach itself to the whole palatal mid-line, excluding the palatals 
from the rostrum ; less extensive attachment of the same kind may permit the palatals to touch 
each other and the rostrum posteriorly, while cutting them off anteriorly; also, a non-cleft 
vomer may attach itself to the posterior extremity of the palatals, and bear them off the ros- 
trum. The whole hard palate may fuse into an indistinguishable mass; and in almost any 
cease the relations of the palatals to each other and their connections afford some of the most 
valuable zodlogical characters of great groups of birds. (Details figured and described beyond.) 
Though very variable in configuration, as well as in connections, certain parts of a palatal may 
usually be recognized, and conveniently named for descriptive purposes. Anteriorly, in the 
great majority of birds, of whatever technical kind of palatal structure, the palatals are simply 
prolonged as flat strap-like or lath-like bars running past the maxillary to the premaxillary 
region ; and such simple band-like character may be preserved behind. Ordinarily, however, 
the palatals expand posteriorly, becoming more or less laminar; and in this plate-like part 
three surfaces way usually be recognized. One, more or less horizontal, flaring outward, is the 


164 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


external lamina. It is well shown in a Passerine or Raptorial bird, where the postero-external 
angle (between the outer border and the posterior end) of the palatal is well-marked, or may 
be acutely produced ; there is no such lamina in a fowl, where the palatals are for the most 
part slender and rod-like. An internal, more or less vertically produced, plate to make the 
mid-line rostral or vomerine connection is the superior internal lamina, or medio-palatine pro- 
cess; very strong, for example, in a fowl, where it forms all the expanded part of the bone, and 
ends anteriorly as a sharp inter-palatine spur. The medio-palatine is probably to be regarded 
as the main body of the bone, being the most axial part, of the most extensive and varied con- 
nections. A third lip or plate of the palatal is the inferior internal lamina, looking downward ; 
it is generally very evident, but in a duck or fowl is reduced to a mere ridge, indicating where 
the superior internal and external laminz meet. A duck’s palatals are quite different in ap- 
pearance from those of most birds, all the posterior parts just distinguished being reduced and 
coustricted, while the fore ends, running abruptly into the hard-boned beak, are inuch expanded 
horizontally (fig. 78). The postero-external angles of the palatal (formed by the external 
lamina), even when much produced, may not reach as far back as opposite the pterygo-palatine 
articulation ; or they may surpass these limits, and when they do, such backward prolongation 
is called post-palatiue, the palate being considered to end at the pterygoids. In like manner, 
the maxillary processes of the palatals, or the palatal strips as prolonged into the premaxillary 
region, are called pre-palatines. The inner posterior process, by which the palatine is articu- 
lated with the pterygoid, is its pterygoid process. 


The Premaxillary Bones (figs. 62; 63,a; 69,70, 71, 80, px; 75 to 79, pmax), also called 
Intermaxillaries, form most of the upper beak, attaining enormous development in birds, and 
reversing the usual relative size of premaxillary and maxillary. Mainly determining as they 
do the form of the upper mandible, their shapes are as various as the bills themselves of 
birds; but their generalized characters can be easily given. Each premaxillary, right and 
left, forms its half the bill; the two are always completely fused together in front, commonly 
preserving traces at least of their original distinction behind. They are commonly called one 
bone, the premaxillary. Each is a triradiate or 3-pronged bone; one upper prong, the most 
distinct, called the nasal or frontal process, forms with its fellow the culmen (p. 104, fig. 26, b) 
of the bill. These processes, side by side, run clear up to the frontal boue in birds, driving the 
nasal bones apart from each other. Such a median frouto-premaxillary suture, with lateral 
fronto-nasal and naso-premaxillary sutures, is highly characteristic of birds, — an arrangement 
probably exceptiouless. Two other horizontal prongs on each side, extensively distinct from 
the frontal process in most birds, but less separate from each other, run horizontally along the 
side and roof of the mouth for a variable distance. These horizontal prongs are an external or 
dentary process (fig. 80, dpx), forming the tomium (p. 104) of the bill, and reaching back to 
joiu the deutary part of the maxillary; and an tmternal or palatal process (tig. 80, ppx), run- 
ning along the commencement of the bony palate. With this latter the anterior ends of the 
palatal bones unite, either on the side toward the mid-line of the beak, or between the palatal 
and dentary processes, as in a woodpecker (fig. 80). Great laminar expansions inward of these 
palatal parts of the premaxillaries roof the hard part of the month anteriorly, though there is 
usually a vacancy between the premaxillary hard palate and that formed farther back by the 
maxillo-palatines and palatines. The posterior extremitics at least of the frontal processes of 
the premaxillaries are commonly distinguishable from each other, as well as from the frontal 


and nasal bones —in fact, these fronto-naso-premaxillary sutures are among the most per- 
sistent of all. The divergence of the frontal from the palatal and dentary processes bounds the 
external vostril in part, the circumscription of that orifice being completed by the prongs of the 
nasal bones. The superficies of the premaxillary bone, like that of the dentary piece of the 
lower jaw bone, is commonly sculptured with the impressions of the vesscls and nerves which 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 165 


ramify beneath the horny integument; and in birds with very sensitive bills, as a snipe or 
duck, the end is perforated sieve-like with little holes, into which the skin shrinks in drying, 
producing the familiar ‘‘ pitted ” appearance (fig. 63, at c). 


The Nasal Bones (figs. 62; 71, n) might have been described next after the frontals, as 
they continue forward the general roofing of the skull; but are conveniently considered in the 
present connection, being in birds rather “ facial” than “cranial.” They are of large size in 
birds, and pronged, — one fork, the superior process, being applied for a variable distance along 
the outer side of the frontal process of the premaxillary, the other, wferior, descending to or 
towards the dentary border of the maxillary or premaxillary, or both ; the divergence of these 
two processes bounding the nostril behind. The base of the nasal, uppermost and posterior, 
anchyloses (usually) or sutures (often) or articulates (as in parrots) with the antero-external 
border of the frontal bone; its frequent collateral connections being with the lacrymal or 
ethmoid, or both of these. The nasals are very variable in shape, as well as in the extent 
of their connections. When expansive, they may wall in inch of the nasal cavity, as well as 
bound the nostrils. These latter openings, as far as the bony boundaries are concerned, are 
usually much more extensive than they seem to be from the outside, being much contracted by 
membrane and integument. Ordinarily, each forms a great vacuity, which the descending 
prong of the nasal bone separates from a similar vacancy between itself and the lacrymal, the 
lacrymal in turn interposing between this and the orbital cavity. The descending process of 
the nasal, in fact, is a marked object at the side of the base of the upper mandible of most birds, 
though slight or rudimentary in the Ratitee. A character of the nasals has been employed in 
classification by Mr. Garrod. A bird having the bones as above generally described, with 
moderate forking, so that the angle of the fork, hounding the nostrils behind, does not reach so 
far back as the fronto-premaxillary suture, is termed holorhinal (Gr. dos, holos, whole ; pis, 
pwds, rhis, rhinos, nose; fig. 62). But in the Columbide, and in a great many wading and 
swimming birds, whose palates are cleft (schizognathous), the nasal bones are schizorhinal 
(cxitw, schizo, I cut) ; that is, cleft to or beyond the ends of the premaxillaries ; such fission 
leaving the external descending process very distinct from the other, almost like a separate 
bone. Pigeons, gulls, plovers, cranes, auks, and other birds are thus split-nosed. The value 
of the character, except as an auxiliary, is doubtful. 


The Lacrymal (Lat. lacryma, a tear; from the relation of the human bone to the tear- 
duct ; figs. 62; 63, «;°71, 1) is one of several splint-like membrane-bones of the skull, having 
little intimacy of relation with the general morphology of the cranium, though quite constant in 
birds, and often very conspicuous. It is situated at or near the anterior outer corner of the 
orbit, near the nasal but behind that bone ; sometimes anchylosed, soinetiines very loosely 
attached, oftener firmly sutured with the frontal; and may also have connection with the nasal 
and ethmoid. It is generally a claw-like affair, depending from the front outer corner of the 
frontal, and consequently bounding the orbit anteriorly ; it may be variously twisted, crooked, 
hooked, etc. It is singularly elongated and distorted in the ostrich. In the duck tribe, in 
which the lacrymo-frontal region of the skull is greatly elongated, the lacrymal has coex- 
tensive attachment to the frontal bone, and is broadly laminar, with a downward process ; 
in some ducks bounding at least a fourth of the orbital brim, and almost completing the circle 
by extending toward the very protrusive post-frontal process, as in fig. 63, «. In some parrots, 
the rin of the orbit is completed below, and even sends a bony bar to bridge over the temporal 
fossa behind the post-frontal. In some birds, the lacrymal is quite free, and even in more than 
one free piece. The os wncinatum, or os lacrymo-palatinum, would appear to be a palatine bone 
distinct from the lacrymal; it has been observed in the Musophagideé and many other pica- 
rian birds, in Tachypetes and certain Procellariide. The lacryinal bone seems to be the prin- 


166 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


cipal relic, in birds, of a set of splint-bones which lie about the edges of the orbits in many 
Sauropsida. Another is the post-frontal or sphenotic, usually a process of the frontal, often a 
separate ossification. In some birds, as various Raptores, there are one or more loose supra- 
orbital plates of bone, serving to eke out the brim of the orbits; thus forming the ‘‘ orbital 
shields” so prominent in many hawks, and causing their eyebrows to project. Were such a 
« chain of splint-bones complete (lacrymal, superorbitals, post-frontal, and squamosal, to 
quadrate), it would form an areade of bones over the orbit, like the actual zygomatic arch 
(maxillary, jugal, quadrato-jugal, to quadrate) which lies under the orbit ; and such a double 
series is very perfectly illustrated in many of the Sawropsida below birds (Huxley). 

Other special ossifications have been described in some birds, but I am obliged to pass 
them over. [ have already far exceeded intended limits, and have yet to describe the mandib- 
ular and hyvidean arches, and the zodlogical characters of the palate as a whole. 


The Mandible, or Lower Jaw Bone (figs. 62, 63, 70, 71) is a collection of bones devel- 
oped in the first post-oral visceral arch. Each half of the compound bone (right and left) con- 
sists normally of five bones, which become immovably anchylosed, but traces of the original 
distinction of which commonly persist for an indefinite period, —in some birds throughout their 
lives. In an embryo whose skull has passed to the cartilaginous stage, a long slender rod of 
cartilage appears iu the first post-oral visceral arch; this is Meckel’s cartilage, or the meckelian 
rod (figs. 65, 66, 68, 70, mk), so nained after a famous anatomist. Around this rod, which 
subsequently disappears, the several bones of the mandible are developed. The anterior one of 
these is the dentary (d), forming the scaffold of the horny part of the external under mandible. 
It usually unites by anchylosis, sometimes only by suture, with its fellow of the opposite side. 
This union in the middle line is the symphysis (Gr. ovv, sun, with ; pvors, phusis, growth). 
The line of union is externally the gonys (sce p. 103), the length and other characters of which 
are determiued by the inode of symphysis, as is the general shape of the tip of the lower mandi- 
ble. The union generally makes an angular A, but may be an obtuse (); the symphysis is 
very short and imperfect, as in a pelican, for instance, or the opposite, as in a woodpecker and 
a multitude of birds. Behind the deutary, each ramus of the jaw continues with pieces called 
splemal, angular and surangular (sp, a, sw); there is often a fenestra between them, by 
impertection of bony union, as shown in fig. 62, or 63, f, which also sufficiently indicates the 
relations of these parts. The articulation of the jaw with the quadrate bone is furnished by a 
fifth piece called articular (ar) from its function. As a whole the mandible is a pronged bone, 
forking with a variable degree of divergence from its obtuse or acute point, sometimes quite 
parallel-sided, as in a duck, oftener very open; such prougs may be straight, or variously 
curved or bent either in the vertical or the horizontal plane; are generally stout and stanch, 
sometimes so slender as to be quite flexible. The articular part, always expanded horizontally, 
presents asmooth irregularly cupped superior surface for reception of the protuberances of the foot 
of quadrate. In general, the concave articular surface is divided into an inner and outer cup sepa- 
rated by a protuberance, corresponding to similar inequalities of the opposing surface of the 
quadrate. Cupping of the mandibular articulation is characteristic of birds as compared with 

‘mammals, in which latter the lower jaw has always a knobbed articular surface (condyle). In 
many birds the angle of the jaw is prolonged back of the articulation as a posterior articular 
process (fig. 63, h, 70, 71, pap), which may be long, slender and up-curved, as is well shown in 
a fowl, duck, or plover. Such birds are said to have the “angle of the mandible recurved ;” 
the opposite condition is ‘“‘angle truncated” (cut off). Usually also, an internal angular 
process (figs. 70, 71, tap) is produced inward from the articular part of the jaw, as in the 
fowl, duck. Between the dentary and articular parts, the ramus of the jaw is usually verti- 
cally produced as a thin raised crest, which, when prominent, is called the coronoid process ; 
it corresponds to the strong process so called in a maminal, and relates to the advantageous 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 


insertion of the temporal or masseteric muscles which effect closure of the jaw. 


167 


It is scarcely 


evident in the fowl, fig. 62, but well marked in the duck, fig. 63, over f. At the back of the 
articular surface is the pnewmatic foramen for entrance of air, when any; on the inner surface 
of the ramus, about the splenial bone, is the opening conveying the vessels and nerve. 


The Hyoid Bone (Gr. letter 0, hu=hy, etSos, eidos, form; figs. 
65-68, 72-74) is the skeleton of the tongue; a very composite struc- 
ture, consisting of several distinct bones, developed in the second and 
third post-oral visceral arches (see fig. 65, where ch and Uh are the 
original elements of the second arch, making the basthyal and cerato- 
hyal bones, and bbr, cbr, and ebr are the original elements of the third 
arch, making the basibranchial, cerato-branchial, and epibranchial 
bones). The whole affair is somewhat A- or gQ-shaped, lying 
loosely, point forward, between the forks of the lower jaw, with its 
long slender prongs curving up behind the hind head more or less ; 
but not definitely connected with any other bones of the skull. The 
connection which exists between the hyoid and other cranial bones 
in a mammal is in birds broken by non-development of certain 
links of bone developed in the mammalian second post-oral arch, as 
the stylo-hyal, epihyal, etc.; though birds have a rudimentary stylo- 
hyal, at least in the embryo, among the several proximal parts of 
the second arch which form the intricate bones within the ear- 
passages (fig. 67). The visible parts of a bird’s hyoid are usually: 
the body of the bone, basihyal (bh, and fig. 72, c), single and median, 
commonly quite short and stocky, sometimes long and slender. The 
basihyal bears in front 4 pair of cerato-hyals (ch; not shown in 
fig. 72, where they have been absorbed in b) usually movably 
articulated with the basihyal. They commonly appear as little 
“horns” or processes of the next piece, the glosso-hyal (fig. 72, 0) 
or bone chiefly supporting the substance of the tongue. It may be 
a stout and apparently single bone, as that of the goose figured; but 
oftener appears as a pair of slender bones, side by side, whose back- 
ward ends are the cerato-hyals. The glossohyal may or may not 
bear at its fore end a cartilaginous tip, as in fig. 72, a. All the fore- 

" going are hyal, i. e., belonging to the second visceral arch; the 
following are branchial, of the third arch: The bast-branchial 
(bbr, fig. 72, d) is a single median piece, projecting backward 
from the basihyal, with which it may be perfectly consolidated, as 
it is in the figure, or separately articulated ; it may be wanting ; it 
is usually tipped and prolonged backward with a thread of cartilage. 
The basibranchial is oftener called “ urohyal,” but had better be 
allowed its strict morphological name. On either side, the basihyal 
bears the separately articulated cerato-branchials (cbr, fig. 72, e), 
long slender bones diverging as they pass backward, and hearing 
upon their ends the epi-branchials (ebr, fig. 72, f), which finish off 
the hyoid bone behind, or may be in turn tipped with cartilaginous 
threads. The cerato- and epi-branchials together are badly called 


Fia. 72. — Hyoid bones of a 
goose, nat. size; by Dr. R. W. 
Shufeldt, U. S. A. a, car- 
tilaginous end-piece of b, the 
great glosso-hyal, which has 
absorbed or replaced cerato- 
lyals or ‘‘ lesser cornua”; c¢, 
basilyal, movably articulated 
with 6, and combined com- 
pletely with @, basibranchial, 
commonly called ‘ urohyal;”” 
e, ceratobranchial; (f, epi- 
branchial; e and f are to- 
gether known as ‘‘thyro- 
hyals,” or “ greater cornua.” 


the “‘ thyro-hyals,” and in still more popular language the “greater cornua” or “ horus” 
of the hyoid. All these bones vary in different birds in size and shape and relative develop- 


ment; the branchial elements are the most constant in their length and slenderness. 


The 


168 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


whole hyoid apparatus of the woodpeckers is specially modified; the basihyal is very long 
and slender, bearing stunted cerato- and glosso-hyals at its extreme end; there is no uro- 
hyal, or only a rudiment; the cerato-branchials are long, and the epibranchials so extraordi- 
narily elongated in some species as to curl up over the back of the skull and forward along the 
top of the skull to a variable distance ; sometimes, as in fig. 73, curling around the orbit of the 
eye, or, as in fig. 74, running into the nostril to the tip of the beak. In such cases they 
buudle together in passing forward over the skull, and go obliquely to one side. (Derivation 
of the terms in this paragraph: hyal is another form of hyoid; branchial, Lat. branchia, 
gills; basi-, Lat. basis, base; cerato-, Gr. xépas, xépatos, keras, keratos, horn; epi-, Gr. émi, 
epi, upon; stylo-, Lat. stylus, a pen; glosso-, (ir. yNéaaa, glossa, tongue; uro-, Gr. odpa, 
oura, tail; thyro-, Gr. 6upeds, thureos, a shield.) 


Other Bones of the Skull. 
The articulation of the lower jaw 
with the quadrate may have certain 
sesamoids. Thus, there are two 
such sclerosteous or ligament-bones 
in the external lateral ligament of 
the raven’s jaw-joint, and the long 


occipital style of the cormorant and 
snake-bird is of the same character, 
being an ossification in the nuchal 
ligament of the neck. The siphon- 
like tube which conveys air from 
the outer ear-passage to the hollow 
of the mandible may ossify, as it 
does in an old raven, resulting in 
a neat tubular ‘‘air-bone” or at- 
mosteon (Gr. arpos, air). 


Fies. 73, 74. — Under fig. side view of a woodpecker’s (Picus) 
skull, showing the long slender basihyal (bh), bearing slight elements 
at its fore end, no uroyhal, and extraordinarily Jong thyrohyals Types of Palatal Structure. 
(cbr, ebr) curving up over back of skull and curling together around 
orbit of the right eye. Upper fig. top view of skull of Colaptes, 
showing thyrohyals running along the skull and into right nostril palate in birds results in several 


The arrangement of the bones of the 
to end of the bill. (Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S. A.) types of structure, first defined by 
Huxley and applied to the classification of birds. These are the droma@ognathous, schizog- 
nathous, desmognathous and egithognathous ; to which Parker has added the saurognathous. 
Huxley proposed to make the primary division of Carinate birds upon this score; and since 
the plan could not be made to work in his hands, it is certainly futile for any one else to 
demonstrate again the impossibility of establishing the higher groups of birds upon any one 
set of characters, — upon the modifications of any one structure. Nevertheless, when duly 
co-ordinated with other characters, palatal structure becomes of the utmost importance in 
defining large groups of birds. It is necessary, therefore, for the student to clearly understand 
this matter, which I will lay before him as nearly as possible in the words of the authors 
just mentioned. 


Dromezognathism (Gr. dpopaios, dromaios, a runner: genus-name of the emew).— All the 
Ratite birds, and the tinamous alone of Carinate birds, are dromaognathous. ‘‘ The posterior 
ends of the palatines and the anterior ends of the pterygoids are very imperfectly, or not at all, 
articulated with the basisphenoidal rostrum, being usually separated from it, and supported by 
the broad, cleft, hinder end of the vomer. Strong basipterygoid processes, arising from the 


169 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OSTEOLOGY. 


Fic. 75. — Dromeognathous skull of ostrich, 7-8 nat. size, from specimen No. 16,629, U. S. Nat. Museum, by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S. A. RR rostrum, beyond 
which the ossified nasal septum continues in the axis of the skull to the letters ‘‘ Pmx.” V, the short vomer, borne upon R, uniting laterally with Map, the broad 
maxillo-palatines; P/, palatines, remote from rostrum, underrunning beyond Map, but not to Pmx. Pt, expanded scroll-like pterygoids, articulating behind with 
Btp, the strong basipterygoid processes on the body (not rostrum) of the sphenoid; they underlap R, but do not articulate there. Pmx, premaxillaries ; Mz, maxil- 
laries, whose ends run forward to opposite the letters “ P ; J, jugal; gj, quadrato-jugal; Qu, quadrate. (N. B. This is the most exceptional case of drommonna: 
thism. Each one of the Ratite families, — Struthionida, Rheide, Casuariide, Dinornithide, and Apterygide ,—as well as the Carinate family Tinamide, offers 
a special case of such formation, as explained in the text.) : : 


body of the basisphenoid and not from the rostrum, articulate with facets which are situated 


nearer the posterior than the anterior euds of the inner edges of the pterygoid bones.” 


This is 


179 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


the gist of drom@ognathism; it is exhibited in several ways. (a) In Struthio alone, fig. 75, 
the very short vomer, borne upon the rostrum, articulates neither with palatines nor with ptery- 
goids, but with the maxillo-palatines ; and the palatines, which are remote from the rostrum, 
advance beyond the maxillo-palatines, as in most birds. (0) In Rhea, the vomer is as long as 
usual in birds, and articulates behind with the palatines and pterygoids, but does not join the 
maxillo-palatines in front; the short palatines unite with the inner and posterior edges of the 
thin fenestrated maxillo-palatines. (c) In Casuarius and Drome@us (cassowary and emeu), 
the long vomer articulates behind with the palatines and pterygoids, and unites in front with 
the maxillo-palatines ; these are flat, imperforate, and solidly joined to the premaxille; the 
palatines are short. (d) The extinet Dinornis had flat imperforate maxillo-palatine plates 
uniting solidly with the premaxille, and probably with the vomer, as in Dromeus. (e) In 
Apteryx, the long vomer unites with palatines and pterygoids behind; short broad palatines 
suture obliquely with flat imper- 
furate mavxillo- palatine plates, 
which unite both with premax- 
ary and vomer. (f) The tin- 
amous, Dromaognathe (tig. 76) 
“have a completely struthious 


Pmx~ 
ies 


palate”; vomer very broad, 
Mep__ RR uniting in front with broad max- 
Wo-palatine plates as in Dro- 
\ --V meus; behind articulating with 
\ posterior ends of palatines and 
Pi- —f ih anterior ends of pterygoids, both 
\ of which are thus prevented, as 
in all Ratite, from any extensive 
connection with the rostrum ; 
basipterygoid processes springing 
from body of sphenoid, not from 
its rostrum, articulating with 
pterygoids very near the pos- 
terior or outer ends of the latter ; FIG. 77. — Schizognathous skull of 
common fowl, nat. size, from nature, 


Fie. 76. — Dromeognathous head of quadrate with a single by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. Letters 
skull of tinamou ( Tinamus articular facet, as in Ratite. as before; Pa, palatine. 
robustus); copied by Shufeldt 
from Hexley. Letters as be- 
fore; Map, maxillo-palatine. Schizognathism (Gr. cyi(@, schizo, I cleave) is the kind of 
bf 


‘cleft palate” shown by the columbine and gallinaceous birds, by the waders at large, and 
many of the swimmers (see fig. 77). In this general case, the vomer, whether large or small, 
tapers to a point in front, while behind it embraces the basisphenoidal rostrum, between the 
palatines ; these bones and the pterygoids are directly articulated with one another and with 
the basisphenoidal rostrum, not being borne upon the divergent posterior ends of the vomer; 
the maxillo-palatines, usually elongated and lamellar, pass inwards over funder, when’ the 
skull is viewed upside-down, as it usually is] the anterior part of the palatines, with which 
they unite and then bend backwards, along the inner edge of the palatines, leaving a broader 
or narrower fissure between themselves and the vomer, on each side, and do not unite with one 
another or with the vomer. It follows from this that in the dry skull of a plover, for instance, 
which shows the schizognathous arrangement extremely well, “ the blade of a thin knife cau 
be passed, without mecting with any bony obstacle, from the posterior nares alongside the 
vomer to the end of the beak.” There are several groups of birds which exhibit the schizo- 
gnathous plan, with ulterior modifications of palatal and other characters. (a) The colum- 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 171 


bine birds (Peristeromorphe of Huxley’s arrangement): maxillo-palatines clongate and 
spongy; basipterygoid processes narrow, but prominent. (b) The gallinaceous birds (Alec- 
toromorph@) : maxillo-palatines varying greatly in size, but always lamellar ; palatines long 
and narrow, with rounded off postero-external angles; basipterygoid processes oval, flattened, 
sessile upon the rostrum, articulating with the pterygoids. (¢) The penguins (Sphenisco- 
morph) : maxillo-palatines concavo-convex and lamellar; no basipterygoid processes ; ptery- 
goids flattened. (d) In the gulls, petrels, loons, grebes, 
and auks, constituting the Cecomorphe of Huxley, the 
maxillo-palatines are usually lamellar and concavo- 
convex, but may be spongy, tumid, and closely approx- 
imated to the vomer; and basipterygoid processes are 
absent or present. (e) In the cranes, rails, and their 
allies (Geranomorphe), the maxillo-palatines are con- 
cavo-convex and lamellar, and basipterygoid processes 
are usually absent. (f). In the plover-snipe group, 
or limicoline Gralle (Charadriomorphe), the maxillo- 
palatines are always concavo-convex and lamellar ; the 
basipterygoid processes narrow and prominent. Except- 
ing perhaps group d, which does not hang together so 
well, the schizognathous groups here voted correspond 
very closely with recognized orders or suborders of birds ; 
in ‘all of them, the maxillo-palatines are perfectly dis- 
tinct from one another and from the vomer, and the 
latter is slender and usually pointed. There are plenty 
of other birds in which the former factor in the case 
obtains ; but in these the vomer is broad and usually 
truncate in front (see Agithognathism, beyond). 


Desmognathism (Gr. decpuos, desmos, a bond) is 
exhibited in one or another style by those swimming 
and wading birds which are not schizognathous, by 
the birds of prey, and various non-passerine perching 
birds. It does not fadge so well as any other one of 
the palatal types of structure with recognized groups of 
birds based on other considerations. In the ‘ bound- 
palate ” type, the vomer is either abortive, or so small 
that it disappears; when existing it is usually slender 
and tapers to a point in front; the maxillo-palatines 
are united across the median line, either directly or by 
means of ossifications in the nasal septum ; the posterior Hig: 18 — Desmognathous: skull/ot mal: 

3 ard duck, Anas boscas, nat. size, from 
ends of the palatines and the anterior ends of the ptery- nature, by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U. S. A. 
goids articulate directly with the rostrum (as in schizo- Letters as before. 
gnathism). This type is simply and perfectly exhibited by a duck (fig. 78) in which the 
maxillo-palatine is a broad flat plate united with its fellow in mid-line; the oval sessile basi- 
pterygoid facets are far forward, opposite the very ends of the pterygoids. In the flamingo, 
ibis, spoon-bill, stork, heron, the united maxillo-palatines are tumid and spongy, filling the 
base of the beak ; basipterygoids are wanting (rudimentary in the famingo). In totipalmate 
swimmers (pelican, cormorant), desmoguathism is carried to an extreme by union of the palate 
bones also across the mid-line; the general arrangement is as before. The birds of prey 
exhibit several special conditions of desmognathism. The parrots are another case; amoug 


172 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


other cranial characters of these birds is to be noted the articulation of the palate bones with 
the upper beak, like that of the zygoma. The multifarious Picarian birds, or non-passerine 
Tnsessores, are desmognathous, excepting the schizognathous trogons (Trogonide) and the 
‘‘saurognathous” woodpeckers. Parker has established the following categories of desmo- 
gnathism: (a) Perfect direct, the maxillo-palatines uniting below at the mmid-line ; either with 
the nasal septum free from such bony bridge, as ina duck; or anchylosed therewith, as in many 
birds of prey. (b) Perfect indirect, very common, as in eagles, vultures, owls; maxillo- 
palatines separated from each other by a chink, but an- 
chylosed with nasal septum. (c¢) Imperfectly direct ; 
maxillo-palatines sutured together, but not anchylosed. 
‘“‘TIn young falcons and hawks the palate is at first in- 
direct, is then imperfectly direct, and at last perfectly 
direct.” (ad) Imperfectly indirect ; maxillo-palatines 
closely articulated with, and separated by, the “‘ median 
septo - maxillary ;” but there is no anchylosis.  (e) 
Double: the palatines united as well as the maxillo- 
palatines ; as in the pelican and cormorant above noted, 
Vv in certain Caprimulgine birds, horn-bills, ete. (f) Com- 
pound: when the properly egithognathous skull of a 
passerine bird becomes also desmognathous. 


Xgithognathism (Gr. aiyadds, aigithalos, some 
small bird) is exhibited almost unexceptionally by the 
great group of Passerine birds ; it is also nearly coinci- 
dent with Passeres, though a few other birds, notably 
the swifts (Cypselide), also exhibit it. Huxley’s term 
Coracomorphe, uearly synonymous with Passeres, relates 
to the palatal structure exhibited by a raven (fig. 79), as 
typical of that of Passeres at large. The vomer is a 
broad bone, truncate in front and deeply cleft behind, 
embracing the sphenoidal rostrum in its forks. The 
palatines have produced postero-external angles. The 
maxillo-palatines are slender at their origin, extending 
inwards and backwards over the palatines and under the 
vomer, where they end free, being united neither with 
each other nor with the vomer. This disconnection of 
the maxillo-palatines is quoad hoc ‘‘ schizognathous,” of ~ 

_ course; but such condition, in association with the pecu- 

Fic. 79. — githognathous skull of areca i . 
raven, Corvus corar, nat. size, from na-  liarities of the vomer, is egithognathous. The nasal 
ture, by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S. A. septum in front of the vomer is often ossified in egitho- 
“ees ae pls a guathism, and the interval between it and the premax- 
borne upon the end of the vomer, which illa filled up with spongy bone; but no union takes 
oe Se ao place between this ossification and the vomer (Huxley). 
and overlies Pl, but touches neither. According to Parker, the distinguishing character of the 
zegithognathous type is the union of the vomer with the alinasal wall and turbinals. He dis- 
tinguishes four styles: (a) Incomplete; very curiously exhibited by the low Turnix, which 
stands near the gallinaceous birds. (b, ¢) Complete, as represented under two varieties, one 
typified by the crow, an Oscine Passerine, the other by the Clamatorial Passerines Pachyrham- 
phus and Pipra. (d) Compound, i. e., mixed with a kind of desmognathism, as noted above. 
““Vomer truncated in front” is the general expression for the condition of that bone in the 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OSTEOLOGY. 


173 


zgithognathous type ; it is frequently massive in that direction, and of endlessly varied con- 


figuration. 


Saurognathism. 


(Gr. cadpos, sauros, a lizard; fig. 80). 


Aceording to Huxley the 


woodpeckers exhibit a ‘‘ degradation and simplification of the agithognathous structure.” The 
peculiarities of the palate of these birds (including Picide, Picumnide and Iyngide) are so 
The structure is very dificult 


decided that Parker proposes to call them sawrognathous. 


to make out, and may be understood best by 
study of the accompanying figure, copied from 
Parker. The masillo-palatines, mxp, are 
very slight, not extending inward beyond the 
outer margin of the palatines, and being some- 
times quite rudimentary. In front of them, 
an additional little palatal plate of the max- 
illary, pmax, is developed. The vomers, v, are 
delicate paired rods on each side of the median 
line. The postero-external angle of the pala- 
tine is either rounded off or obtuse-angled. 
Where the broad main part of the palatine 
suddenly narrows is developed an interpala- 
tine process, ipa. The ethmo-palatine plates, 
epa, or internal superior plates of the palatine, 
which are of variable length, are connected 
by the most marked medio-palatine ossifica- 
tion, mpa, seen in the class of birds. Bridges 
of bone‘are deposited along the inner borders 
of the palatines; such are the septo-maxil- 
laries, smx, and other formations which, like 
the medio-palatine, serve to bind the palate 
halves together. The nasal chambers are 
unusually simple; there are peculiarities of 
the tympanic cavity and quadrate bone. 


“All these things being considered,” 
says Parker, in conclusion, ‘it will seem con- 
tradictory now to assert the great uniformity 
of the skulls of Birds, and indeed of Birds 
themselves. Yet so itis; and the countless 
modifications that offer themselves for obser- 
vation are gentle in the extreme. One form 
is often seen to pass into another by almost 
. . In the rest of the 
Birds’ organization abundant evidence of the 
same specialization will be seen. 
exquisite adaptations. 


insensible gradations. 


Fic. 80.— Saurognathous skull of nestling Picus 
minor, X 4 diameters, after Parker. Px, premaxillary: 
dpx, its dentary process; ppx, its palatal process; sn, 
septo-nasal; pa, palatine ; pm, peculiar palatal plate of 
maxillary of a woodpecker; mf, nasal turbinal; mz, 
maxillary; ipa, interpalatal spur of palatine bone; mxp, 
rudimentary maxillo-palatine, scarcely reaching palatine; 
sm, septo-maxillary, in several pieces; 7, right vomer, 
its fellow opposite ; pe, lower border of perpendicular plate 
of ethmoid, between vomers; epa, ethmoidal (inner) 
plate of palatine; mpa, medio-palatine ; pg, pterygoid ; i, 
foramen for internal carotid; 8, for vagus nerve; 9, for 
hypo-glossal nerve. 


The inind fails to desire more beauty or to contemplate more 
An almost infinite variety of Vertebrate life is to be found in this class. 


Of its members some dig and bury their germs, which rise again in full plumage, whilst others 
watch and incessantly feed their teuder brood in the shady covert or ‘on the crags of the rock 
and the strong place.’ In locomotion some walk, others run, or they may wade, swim, plunge, 
or dive, whilst most of them ‘fly in the open firmament of heaven.’” (Ency. Brit. 9th ed. 
Art. Birds, p. 717.) 


174 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


b. NruroLocy; THe Nervous System; ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSES. 


The Nervous System of any Vertebrate determines the form of such an animal; in fact, 
the beautiful skeleton we have examined is simply asketch in bone of the cerebro-spinal nervous 
system, conformably with which the whole bony framework of the body is erected. A brain 
and spinal chord and their lateral prolougations or nerves are the commanding superad- 
ditions, in a vertebrate, to any such nervous system as an invertebrate may or does possess. 
Besides the vertebrate or main nervous system, all brainy vertebrates retain a sympathetic 
system of nerves, supposed to represent a modified inheritance of the whole nervous system of 
Invertebrates. Thus the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic are the two distinct nervous systems 
of nearly all vertebrates, — of all vertebrates which have askull and brain. The former presides 
over the animal life of the creature, —its sensations, perceptions, and voluntary actions ; the 
latter more especially over its vegetative functions, as digestion, respiration, circulation, and 
reproduction, which are more or less involuntary. But the two are inseparably connected, 
anatomically and physiologically, so that uo distinct line can be drawn between them. 
Nerve-tissue consists of an aggregation of nerve-cells and their investing substance, — the 
bodies of a myriad Newramebe agglutinated by their secretions. They are of two species: 
Neurameba cinerea and N. candida. The former are usually multiradiate, inosculating cells 


“ sray matter” of the brain and spinal chord and the 


of nerve-substance, which form the 
ganglia (knots) of nerves; the latter are white, thready, and form the connections of the 
ganglionic masses and the whole substance of ordinary nerve-chords. The gray ame@bas are 
the immediate communicants between the mind and the body of the creature; the white 
ameebas are the mediators between the body and outward things. The gray ameebas translate 
thought in terms of matter, and conversely; the white convey the translation. How this is 
done, no one knows, but the fact is manifest. In ordinary language, gray nerve centres receive 
from white tracts impressions made upon the periphery of the nervous system; and, with or 
without the knowledge and consent of the animal, convert these impressions into appropriately 
responsive actions. This is called the ‘reflex action” of the nervous system. Some think 
such reflection is the principal or only activity of the nerve-tissue, taking animals to be mere 
automata, the mechanism of which is only set in motion by external stimulation. Others think 
that animals, and even human beings, have in their consciousness an inner spring of action, 
vaguely called ‘“ spiritual,” whose operatious upon the matter of their bodies manifests what is 
called by some ‘‘ mind,” by others ‘‘ soul.” Iam satisfied of the correctness, in the main, of 
the latter view; but, however this may be, it is quite certain that white verve tissue is a meaus 
“nerve impulse,” for want of 
knowing what it is. White nerves have therefore an efferent function, when they earry im- 
pulses outward from gray centres, and an afferent function, when they bring impulses in to gray 
centres. The former is their motor function ; the latter is their sensory function. In nerves at 
large, impulses of both kinds travel in the saine tracts without interference ; sueh mixed nerves 
are therefore called sensort-motor. Thus, cach spinal nerve has a posterior sensory ganglion- 
ated root, and an anterior motor simple root, which svon blend in one chord, in which both 
functions coexist. Some nerves seem to be entirely motor, as those which move muscles of the 
face and tongue. The purest sensory nerves are those of ‘ special sense,” as the olfactory, 
optic, and auditory. Some nerves are so ‘‘ mixed” as to combine functions of special sense, 
common sensation, and motion, as that called glosso-pharyngeal, which moves, feels, and 
tastes. The motor effluence of nerve tissue upon itself and other parts of the body is literally 
animation; the sensory influence is nominally materialization. The physical mechanism of 
these occult processes in a bird is as follows : — 


of carrying something to and fro, which something is called a 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— NEUROLOGY. 175 


The Brain (Lat. cerebrum ; Gr. éyxépadov, eykephalon; frontisp.) is the anterior dilatation 
and complication of the main nervous axis of the body, contained within the skull. It resembles 
a soap-bubble blown at the end of a pipe, being not less beautiful in its iris-quality, and not less 
lasting. It is primarily triune, or three-fold, beginning as three such bubbles, called the 
anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral vesicles, corresponding to what are afterward the fore- 
brain, mid-brain, and hind-brain, or prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and opisthencephalon. The 
birth and multiplication of gray neuramcebas causes thickenings of the bladdery iembranes in 
various places and ways; all such gray deposits are the ganglia of the brain, and the great 
peripheral ganglion is the cortical layer or ‘‘ bark of the brain.” Similar deposits of white 
neurameebas connect all these ganglionic colonies, furnishing the various commissures of the 
brain. The cavity of the original bubbles, coutinuous with the hollow of the pipe-stem or 
spinal chord (which was at the outset a furrow along the back of the embryo, not a tube) 
becomes partially divided up into several communicating hollows; these are the ventricles 
(little bellies) of the brain. Actual prolongations of brain-tissue, or nervous threads more like 
the ordinary spinal nerves, pass out of the brain-box; these are cerebral nerves, oftener called 
cranial nerves ; there are twelve pairs of them. At the pituitary space (see p. 151; the noto- 
chord ends just behind it; fig. 64) is developed a remarkable structure, the pituitary body : its 
nature is unknown. This lies under the brain; opposite it, on top of the brain, is another 
curiosity, the pineal body ; it has been considered the special seat of the soul by some, though 
others have located that throne of animal grace in the solar plexus of the sympathetic system, 
which is in the belly. The pituitary and pineal are also called respectively the hypapophysis and 
epapophysis cerebri. They lie respectively at the bottom and top of one of the cavities of the 
brain, arbitrarily called the third ventricle; the anterior wall of this ventricle is the lamina 
terminalis, or terminal sheet of the brain, with which, morphologically speaking, the brain ends 
in front; though, in its actual growth, the prosencephalon crowds ahead of this formation. As 
the brain-cclls multiply, the prosencephalon outgrows the associated parts, and becomes nearly 
separated into lateral halves; these are the hemispheres of the cerebrum, or ‘‘ halves of the 
great brain”; they retain their ventricles, which intercommunicate through a passage-way, 
which also leads into the third ventricle; this is the foramen of Munro. Each sends out in 
front a hollow process; these processes are the olfactory lobes, or rhinencephalon (‘‘ nose- 
brain”). A great ganglionic thickening of gray matter in the interior of each hemisphere is 
the corpus striatum; these ‘ striped bodics” are connected by the anterior commissure of the 
brain. The rest and greater part of the original anterior cerebral vesicle makes up by 
ganglionic thickening of its sides into what are called misleadingly the optic thalamt, since 
these tracts have nothing to do with the sense of sight. The thalami and associate parts 
behind the lainina terminalis (third ventricle, ete.) compose what is called the thalamen- 
cephalon, or ‘‘ bed-brain.” The original middle cerebral vesicle makes up underneath into 
longitudinal cominissural fibres, called the crura cerebri or ‘legs of the brain,” connecting fore 
and aft parts; but especially composes the ganglionic centres called corpora bigemina, or 
“twin bodies.” These are the optic lobes, or ‘‘ eye-brain.” They are connected by transverse 
commissure. The optic ganglia and commissure, the cerebral crvra, and contained cavities, 
essentially compose the mesencephalon or “ mid-brain.” The original posterior cerebral 
vesicle (opisthencephalon) becomes separated into two parts: The fore part of it is moulded 
into the considerable mass of the cerebellum (‘little brain”); which, with its connections of 
white substance (pons varolii, peduncles, ete.) and the hollow underneath it (“‘ fourth ventricle”) 
constitutes the metencephaton or ‘ after-brain.” The hind part of it tapers off into the spinal 
chord; this tapering part is the medulla oblongata, or ‘ oblong marrow,” also called the 
myelencephalon, or ‘ marrow-braiu.” This description is pertinent to brains at large, repre- 
senting the general plan of structure; any fairly developed encephalon shows the parts speci- 
fied ; and ost complicated brain, as that of man, only snows what elaborate finishing touches 


176 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


may be given to the simple structure thus outlined, when cells, both white and gray, but 
especially the latter, are profusely furnished, to the ornamentation of the mind’s estate with 
race-tracks great and small, and the place of fornication, — fruits of the olive, and of the arbor 
vitae. The membranes, or meninges, which hide all this from the uninitiated, are three. The 
pia mater, or ‘tender mother,” which immediately invests the brain, is very vascular, aud 
furnishes the blood supply; not only by small arteries which immediately penetrate the sub- 
stance of the brain, but by enfolded sheets which enter the veutricles, and are called choroid 
plexus. The arachnoid, or ‘‘ cobweb,” comes next; a serous fluid which it secretes bathes the 
brain, and meets concussion with its gentler fluctuation. The dura mater, or ‘‘ stern mother,” 
is a dense outer membrane which enwraps and holds the whole firmly. These meninges 
descend into the spinal column, and answer the same purpose there, maintaining the same dis- 
position around the spinal chord. 


The Bird’s Brain offers the following comparative characters: It is compact, having 
nothing of the straggling apart of its elements seen in low vertebrates, and completely fills the 
cranial cavity. Its long axis is about transverse to the axis of the spinal column. The cerebral 
hemispheres are well developed, but do not cover the cerebellum or optie lobes; from their 
dome the rhinencephalon protrudes like a porte-cochére. Their surface is quite smooth (devoid 
of the gyri and sulci of most mammalian brains); even the sylvian fissure is barely indicated. 
The optic lobes are of immense size, relatively to those of most vertebrates, and relatively to 
the rest of the encephalon ; they appear much loosened from their surroundings, at the sides and 
lower part of the inid-brain; they retain their ventricles, as does also the rhinencephalon. The 
corpora striata are very large. The fornix is rudimentary. The cerebellum is well developed 
and deeply suleate, with transverse fissures, but is not divided into right and left lobes; a 
“ fleecy ” lobule on each side, the flocculus, is well defined, and received in a special recess of 
the inner wall of the skull. Parts of the medulla oblongata notable in mammals are obscure or 
obsvlete. There is no pons varolit, or superficial transverse commissure of the cerebellum, nor 
any corpus callosum, — that great white commissure of the cerebral hemispheres, characteristic 
of all but the lowest mammals. 


The Spinal Chord, or medulla spinalis (‘‘ spinal marrow ”) is the main nerve-axis of the 
body, running in the series of neural arches of the vertebrae from head to tail ; it directly con- 
tinues the medulla cblongata. It retains its primitively tubular character in part at least, and 
consists as usual of white matter enclosing gray matter. The chord is fissured into lateral 


coluinns, as these are also to some extent into anterior and posterior tracts. The latter diverge 
in ascending the medulla oblongata, to throw the central tube into the cavity of the fourth 
ventricle ; and especially in the sacral region, where a sort of ventricle, Known as the avian 
sinus rhomboidalis, is similarly formed. The calibre of the chord inereases at the root of the 
neck, where large nerves are to be given off from the brachial plexus to the wings, and again in 
the sacral region, with the same reference to nerve supply of the legs; after which the chord 
coutinues to the end of the spinal canal as a terminal thread. 


The Cranial Nerves are twelve pairs, as in mammals, the highest vertebrate number. 
1, the olfactory nerve of special sense (smell) ; origin from rhinencephalon ; exit from cranial 
cavity by olfactory foramen, high up in orbital cavity ; conducted along a groove to final escape 
between perpendicular and lateral plates of ethmoid into the nasal chambers ; distributed to the 
investing mucous membrane of the septal and turbinal bones of the nose. The exit is through 
a sieve-like or ertbriform plate only in Apteryx and Dinornis (Owen). 2, the optic, nerve of 
special sense (sight); origin from optic lobe and thalamus; of great size, and forming a 
chiasm ‘(decussation) with its fellow; exit by optic foramen, a large hole in back of orbital 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— NEUROLOGY. 177 


‘avity between centres of orbito-sphenoid and alisphenoid, close to or in common with its 
fellow. This nerve forms the retina of the eye. 3, 4, 6, the oculi-motor, pathetic, abducent, 
collectively the motor nerves of the eye, supplying the muscles moving the eye-ball; 3, to all 
these muscles excepting superior oblique and external rectus; origin from crura cerebri, base of 
mesencephalon ; 4, to the superior oblique, origin behind optic lobes, upper surface of meten- 
cephalon ; 6, to external rectus (also to muscles of the third eyelid in birds); origin between 
met- and myel-encephalon, base of brain; 3, 4, 6, exits from cranial into orbital cavity by 
several small, not constant, foramina near optic foramen ; or by this foramen sometimes all the 
nerves which enter the orbit pass out of brain cavity through one great hole. 5, great trifacial 
or trigeminal, sensori-motor; feeling skin of head, moving muscles of jaws ; origin (double) 
from myelencephalon ; leaves brain from sides of metencephalon ; sensory root has gasserian 
ganglion; motor root simple. This nerve has three divisions, whence its name: 5a, ophthalmic 
division, the most distinct ; exit from cranial into orbital cavity by separate foramen above 
and to outer side of optic foramen ; grooves orbital wall in passing ; ciliary ganglion ; distri- 
bution mainly to lacrymal and nasal parts; traceable to end of upper mandible ; 5b, superior 
maxillary; exit by foramen ovale, in alisphenoid or between that and prodtie centre ; distribu- 
tion to side of upper jaw; meckelian ganglion ; 5c, inferior maxillary, derived chiefly from 
motor root; exit same as 5b; distribution to lower jaw (muscles, substance of bone, integu- 
ment); no special sense (gustatory) function; no otic ganglion. 7, facial or portio dura, 

motor; origin from myelencephalon ; enters periotie bone, escapes from ear behind quadrate 
bone, by what corresponds to stylo-mastoid foramen of mammals; communicates with 5¢ by 
chorda tympani nerve, with 9, 10, 12, and sympathetic system; distribution to skin-muscles 
and others of lower jaw and tongue, ete. 8, auditory or portio mollis, nerve of special sense 
(hearing); origin with 7; no exit from skull; enters meatus auditorius internus of periotic 
bone; forms auditory apparatus in labyrinth of ear. 9, glosso-pharyngeal, mixed nerve, sensori- 
motor and gustatory (taste); origin myelencephalon ; exit by foramen in exoceipital bone, 
behind basitemporal, near lower border of tympanic recess ; distribution to muscles and mem- 
branes of gullet, throat, tongue, etc. 10, pnewmogastric, sensori-motor ; origin and exit next 
to 9; distribution to windpipe, lungs, gullet, stomach, heart, ete. ; has recurrent syringeal to 
voeal organs. 11, spinal accessory, seusori-motor ; origin upper part of spinal chord ; exit with 
9,10; distribution to these nerves and to muscles of neck. 9, 10, 11, are intimately connected 
with one another, and with other nerves, especially 10 with sympathetic. The several fora- 
mina in a bird’s skull which may be seen in the place indicated at 8, figs. 69, 70, are for the 
divisions of this composite vagus or ‘ wandering ” nerve of respiration, circulation, digestion, 

ete.; they represent morphologically a foramen lacerum posterius, between exoecipital and 
opisthotie centres. 12, hypoglossal, motor nerve of the tongue ; origin from myelencephalon ; 
exit by anterior condyloid foramen in front of the occipital condyle. Thus the plan of the 
cranial nerves of birds is nearly coincident with that of mammals. 


The Spinal Nerves, in pairs, correspond in a general way to the vertebrae, between 
which they pass out by intervertebral foramina, to supply the body at large. They are sensori- 
motor; arise from the spinal chord by anterior motor and posterior sensory (ganglionated) roots 
which unite before leaving the spinal canal; in the sacral region the main branches leave by 
separate foramina. They form plecuses or interlacements. The principal of these is the 
brachial plexus; constituted by several lower cervical nerves, and one or two usually counted 
as dorsal, which combine to form a single chord, whence the nerves of the wing are derived. 
Similar network of three to five true sacral nerves furnishes the nerves of the leg. 


The Sympathetic System consists of a pair of nervous chords running lengthwise below 
the bodies of the vertebra, one on each side in the trunk, and in corresponding relations with 
12 


178 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


cranial bones. An extensive and intricate series of communications is effected with the nerves 
of the cerebro-spinal system, excepting the special-sense nerves of smell, sight, and hearing. 
The points of communication form a chain of sympathetic ganglia; from these knots, the most 
conspicuous features of the system, nervous chords pass to their distribution in the motory 
mechanism of the heart and blood-vessels and other viscera. The anterior sympathetic nerves 
are the iridian ; the ganglia are the spheno-palatine or meckelian, intimately connected with 
cranial nerves. The system ends behind in the caudal region of the spine by a ganglion 
impar. 


Sense of Smell: Olfaction. — The sense of smell is effected by terminal branches of the 
olfactory (1st cranial) nerve, ramifying in the mucous (pituitary or schneiderian) membrane 
of the nasal cavities. Owing to the comparatively small size and little complexity of the fold- 
ings and pleatings of bone or cartilage in the nasal chambers, the sensory surface being cor- 
respondingly limited, it is not probable that birds possess this sense in a high degree. Besides 
the cartilaginous or osseous septum, generally more or less complete in birds, there are lateral 
scrolls and whorls of bone in endless diversity in most birds, which may be ossified, or remain 
gristly. The general cavity is mostly bounded and enclosed by the bony beak; floored by the 
anterior part of the hard palate; defended on each side by the descending prong of the nasal 
bone ; in the dry skull. it either seems continuous with the great orbital cavity on each side 
behind, or is separated therefroin by lateral ethmoid (pre-frontal) or lacrymal ossifications, or 
both. Outwardly the nasal chambers open upon the beak by the external nostrils — orifices of 
great zodlogical diversity, as already indicated (p. 104), bounded by prongs of the premaxillary 
and nasal bones. These openings are minute or quite obliterated in some Steganopodes, as 
pelicans and cormorants. The uasal cavities always communicate with the back part of the 
mouth, or the posterior nares (Lat. naris, a nostril) ; generally paired, that is, with a partition 
between them, sometimes united in one median aperture. The olfactory nerve, which is rather 
a prolongation of the rhinencephalon itself than an ordinary nerve, escaping from the brain- 
box by a special foramen, traversing the upper part of the interorbital septum in a groove or 
canal, enters the nasal cavity by a single orifice (excepting Apteryx and Dinornis), instead 
of the numerous apertures in a cribriform plate by which its filaments reach their destination in 
munmals. The true sensitive membrane in which the nervous filaments end is that investing 
ethmoidal (septal and turbinal), not maxillary parts. An associate structure of the olfactory 
organ is the nasal gland, sometimes called the swperorbital gland, from its position in many 
birds. Thus it is of great size in a loon, and lodged in large deep crescentic depressions on 
top of the skull over the orbits (fig. 63, w) ; these crescents nearly meeting each other in the 
middle line. In other birds it is smaller, and within the cavity of the orbit, but never in that 
of the nose itself, its secretion being poured into the nasal chamber by a special duct. 


Sense of Sight: Vision. — The eye is an exquisitely perfect optical instrument, like an 
automatic camera obscura which adjusts its own focus, photographs a picture upon its sensi- 
tized retinal plate, and telegraphs the molecular movements of the nervous sheet to the optic 
‘‘twins” of the brain, where the result is ‘ biogenized;” that is, translated from the physical 
terms of motion in matter to the mental terms of consciousness. But no part of the nervous 
tract, from the surface of the retina to the optic centre, sees or knows anything about it, being 
simply the apparatus through which the Bird looks, sees, and knows. In this class of Verte- 
brates, the optic organs, both cerebral and ocular, are of great size, power, and effect; their 
vision far transcends that of man, unaided by artificial instruments, in scope and delicacy. The 
faculty of accommodation, that is, of adjusting the focus of vision, is developed to a marvellous 
degree; rapid, almost instantaneous, changes of the visual angle being required for distinct per- 
ception of objects that must rush into the focal field with the velocity at least of the bird’s flight. 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— NEUROLOGY. 179 


Birds are therefore far-sighted or near-sighted (presbyopic or myopic) according to the degree 
of tension the nerve-tide excites in the eye by the mechanism described further on; and the 
wausition from one to the other state is effected with great quickness and correctness. Ob- 
serve an eagle soaring aloft uutil he seems to us but a speck in the blue expanse. He is far- 
anning the earth below, descrics an object much smaller than himself, which 


sighted; and sc 
would be invisible to us at that distance. He prepares to pouncé upon his quarry; in the mo- 
ment required for the deadly plunge he becomes near-sighted, seizes his victim with unerring 
aim, and sees well how to complete the bloody work begun. A humming-bird darts so quickly 
that our eyes cannot follow him, yet instantancously settles as light as a feather upon a tiny 


twig. How far off it was when first perceived we do not know ; but in the intervening fraction 


of a second the twig has rushed into the foeus of distinct vision, from many yards away. A 
woodvock tears through the thickest cover as if it were clear space, avoiding every obstacle. 
The only things to the accurate perception of which birds’ eyes appear not to have accommodated 
themselves are telegraph-wires and light-houses ; thousands of birds are annually hurled against 
these objects to their destruction. 

The orbital cavity, orbit, or socket of the eye, has been almost sufficiently described (p. 150; 
see also any figs. of skull in profile) as that great recess in the side of the skull bounded above 
by the roofing frontal bone, behind by this and sphenoidal elements, in front, if at all, by lateral 
ethmoidal elements (pre-frontal), and separated from its fellow more or less completely by the 
inter-orbital septum, which is chiefly the perpendicular plate of the mesethinoid, but may be also 
in part orbito-sphenoidal and pre-sphenoidal. The brim is completed in few birds, by union of 
lacrymal and post-frontal; in quite a number of birds, however, it is nearly perfected by the 
approximation of these sane bones, as in fig. 63, «and m, and in some the rim is carried out 
by extra supra-orbital and infra-orbital ossification. There is no bony floor, or only such slight 
scaffolding as the expansion of the palatine and pterygoid may afford. The zygoma itself, in 
many dry skulls, seems like the threshold of the orbital chamber. The bony walls may be also 
defective in some places by great vacuities in the inter-orbital septum (fig. 70, cof, and fig. 63, 2), 
and others in the cerebral wall, aside from the regular foramina which the nerves pass through. 
The lst—6th nerves (p. 176) inclusive usually enter the orbit: of their foramina, the optic 
(tigs. 66, 68, 70, 71,2, and fig. 63, y) is much the largest and most constant, generally blended 
with its fellow. Those for nerves 1 and 5 (p. 177) are next most obvious and constant; others 
are often, and all may be, thrown into one large opening. In such a socket as this the eye-ball 


SS 


rests upon a cushion of muscle, fat, gland, and connective tissue; and large as is the chamber, 
the ball fits and nearly fills it. A bird’s eye-ball is much larger than the opening of the 
eye-lids (see p. 30, uote). 

As to its development: “the Eye” says Huxley ‘is formed by the coalescence of two sets 
of structures, one furnished by an involution of the integument, the other by an outgrowth of the 
brain. The opening of the tegumentary depression, which is primarily [in the very early em- 
bryo] formed on each side of the head in the ocular region becomes closed, and a shut sac is 
the result. The outer wall of this sac becomes the transparent cornea of the eye; the epider- 
mis of its floor thickens, and is metamorphosed into the crystalline lens; the cavity fills with 
the aqueous humor. A yaseular and muscular ingrowth taking place round the circumference 
of the sac, and dividing its cavity into two segments, gives rise to the iris. The integuinent 
around the cornea, growing out into a fold above and below, results in the formation of the 
eyelids, and the segregation of the integument which they enclose, as the soft and vascular con- 
Junctiva. The pouch of the conjunctiva very generally communicates, by the lacrymal duct, 
with the cavity of the nose. It may be raised, on its inner side, into a broad fold, the nietitating 
membrane, moved by a proper muscle or muscles. Special glands —the lacrymal externally, 
and the harderian on the inner side of the eye-ball— may be developed in connection with, and 
pour their secretion on to, the conjunctival mucous membrane. ‘The posterior chamber of the 


180 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


eye has a totally distinct origin. Very early that part of the anterior cerebral vesicle which 
eventually becomes the vesicle of the third ventricle, throws out a diverticulum, broad at its 
outer, narrow at its inner end, which applies itself to the base of the tegumentary sae. The 
posterior, or outer, wall of the diverticulum then becomes, as it were, thrust in, and forced 
towards the opposite wall by an ingrowth of the adjacent connective tissue; so that the primi- 
tive cavity of the diverticulum which, of course, communicates freely with that of the anterior 
cerebral vesicle, is obliterated. The broad end of the diverticulum acquiring a spheroidal shape, 
while its pedicle narrows and elongates, the latter becomes the optic nerve, while the former, 
surrounding itself with a strong fibrous sclerotic coat, remains as the posterior chamber of the 
eye. The double envelope, resulting from the folding of the wall of the cerebral optic vesicle 
upon itself, gives rise to the retina and the choroid coat, the plug or ingrowth of connective 
tissue gelatinizes and passes into the vitreous humor, the cleft by which it entered becoming 
obliterated.” (Anat. Vert., 1871, p. 79.) 

Birds alone, of all animate beings, may be truly said to ‘fall asleep” in death. When 
the ‘silver cord” of a bird’s life is loosed, the ‘‘ windows of the soul” are gently closed by 
unseen hands, that the mysterious rites of 
divorce of spirit from matter may not be pro- 
faned. When man or any mammal expires, 
the eyes remain wide open and their stony 
Only birds 
At the same mo- 


stare is the sign of dissolution. 
close their eyes in dying. 
ment, the eye sinks and seems to collapse, by 
the ebbing of its waters. The 
chiefly effected by the uprising of the lower 
lid. These are the principal external differ- 
ences between the eyes of birds and mammals. 
The movements of the upper lid in most birds 
are much more restricted than those of the 
lower. The few exceptions are chiefly fur- 
nished by night birds, as owls, whippoorwills, 
and others of their respective tribes. The lids 
consist externally of common skin, internally 


closure is 


Fia. 81. — Right eye-ball, seen from behind, show- 
ing the muscles: a, rectus superior; b, rectus externus; 


ec, rectus inferior; d, rectus internus; e, obliquus 
superior; f, (not lettered) obliquus inferior; g, quad- 


of a layer of conjunctival (joining) mucous 
membrane, with interposed connective tissue: 
the lower is also stiffened with a smooth plate, 


ratus; hk, pyramidalis, with its tendon, k, passing 
through a pulley in the quadratus (as shown by the 
dotted line) to keep it off the optic nerve, i, then passing 
around the edge of the ball to its insertion in the nicti- 
tating membrane. 


the tarsal cartilage. The upper is raised by a 
small musele, called from its office levator pal- 
pebre superiors, arising from the bony orbit. 
There is no special lowering nor lifting muscle 
of the under lid; the lids close together by the action of the orbicularis ocult, which nearly 
surrounds the eye, and whose chief office is to lift the lower lid; the latter has a small dis- 
tinct depressor muscle. Birds have no true hairs, but in some kinds modified filiform feathers 
answer to eye-lashes. When wide open the orifice of the lids is circular, that is, without the 
inner and outer corners (canthi) of almond-eyed creatures like man. There is a third inner 
eyelid, highly developed and of beautiful mechanism: this is the nictitating membrane, or 
““winker” (nictito, I wink), a delicate, clastic, translucent, pearly-white fold of the con- 
junctiva. While the other lids move vertically and have a horizontal commissure, the winker 
sweeps horizontally or obliquely across the ball, from the side next the beak to the oppo- 
site. If we menace a bird’s eye with the finger, it is curious to see the winker rush out of 
the corner to protect the ball. Owls habitually sit in the daytime with this curtain shading 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. —NEUROLOGY. 181 


the eyes from the glare of light; and doubtless the eagle throws the same screen over its sight 
when soaring towards the sun. When not in action, the winker les curled up in the corner of 
the eye, like those patent window shades which stay up of themselves till pulled down. The 
ingenious mechanism of the movement of the wiuker across the lid may be understood with the 
help of fig. 81, which represents the back of the eye-ball. The winker hes in front, ou the left 
hand of the picture, and is to be pulled across the front by the slender tendon, 4, of the pyrami- 
dalis muscle, h. As h contracts it pulls on hk, and hk, winding round to the front, pulls the 
winker to the right hand. But 7 is the optic nerve, entering the ball; & would press upon 
it, were it not fended off by passing, as seen by the dotted line, through a pulley in the eud 
of the quadratus muscle, g. The harder h pulls, the harder does g also pull, their consentane- 
ous action at once giving the proper direction to the tendon k, aud keeping it off the nerve. 

Beneath the eye-lids, upon the ball, is a delicate filmy membrane uot easily recognized on 
ordinary inspection : this is the conjunctiva, so called because it joins the eye to the lids. The 
ocular layer is transparent where it passes over the cornea: it is then reflected away froin the 
ball, to form the palpebral layer, —a folding between being the nictitating membrane. The 
conjunctiva is highly vascular, but the blood-vessels are too sinall to be seen unless they be- 
come congested, when the eye presents the well-known appearance called blood-shot. Thongh 
birds can hardly be said to ery, they have a well-developed apparatus for the manufacture of 
tears. The lacrymal are two small glands lying one in each corner of the eye, inner and 
outer. The former, called the harderian gland, is the smaller, deeply seated behind the 
winker, upon which it pours a glary fluid : it is an oil-can which not only supplies but 
applies the fluid to the winker, which needs constant lubricating to work well. The lac- 
rymal gland proper is the outer oue, which prepares the tears to moisten and cleanse the 
conjunctiva; after which they are drained off by the lacrymal duct into the cavity of the 
nose, which thus becomes a sort of cesspool to receive the refuse waters of the eye. A third 
gland about the orbit has been already mentioned (p. 178) as pertaining to the nose, not to the 
eye. Its site is shown in the crescentic super-orbital depression, fig. 63, w. 

The motions of the eye-ball, though more restricted than in mammals, owing to the shape 
of the ball and its close socketing, are nevertheless subserved by the usual number of six mus- 
cles. Of these four are called the recti, or straight muscles, and two the obliqui, or oblique 
muscles ; though they are all ‘‘straight” enough, the terms applying to their lines of traction. 
The four rect arise from the bony orbit, near together, about the optic forameu, and pass to 
be inserted in the eye-ball at as many nearly equidistant points on its circumference ; the 
musculus rectus superior, fig. 81, a, on top; m. r. inferior, c, below, antagonizing a; the m. 7. 
externus, b, and internus, d, respectively to the outer and inner (hindward and forward) sides, 
also antagonizing each other. The two oblique muscles arise further forward in the bony or- 
bit, near each other, and then diverge obliquely upward, m. 0. superior, e, and downward, m. 
0. imferror, f, to be inserted near the margin of the globe of the eye, close by the respective in- 
sertions of superior and inferior rectus. All the motions of the ball result from consentaneous 
or dissentaneous action along these six lines of traction; the museles acting as ropes to pull 
the ball about, and to steady it in any direction of its axis. The peculiarity of mechanism in a 
bird is, that the superior oblique goes straight to its insertion, instead of passing through a 
pulley which changes its line of action in mammals. The special nerves presiding over 
these muscles (3, 4, 6) have been pointed out already (p. 177). In the figure, the cut orbital 
ends of thei all are reflected away from the ball to disclose the underlying muscles of the 
winker: the reader must mentally bring the six loose ends together and fasten them to the 
bony orbit at points near about opposite 4, as above said of their origins. 

The above are the principal circumstances and accessories of the optic apparatus ; we ma y 
now examine the eye itself, of which fig. 82 gives an enlarged view, in longitudinal vertical 
section, — the nerve, marsupium, and ciliary processes not indeed lying as shown in this section, 


182 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


but so introduced as to show them up intelligibly. A bird’s eye-ball is not nearly so spherical 
or globular as a mammal’s. The globe of the human eye is about a five-sixths segment of a 
large sphere (sclerotic) with a one-sixth segment of a smaller sphere protruding in front (cor- 
neal). The anterior part of the sclerotic of a bird is so prolonged as to be in some cases almost 
tubular or cylindric, and the corneal protuberance is very convex: the result may be likened 
to an acorn which has a short blunt kernel in a heavy shallow cup, or to a thick old- 
fashioned watch with a very convex erystal. This characteristic shape is fairly shown in 
the figure ; but some birds’ eyes are much more tubular in front, — owls’ for example. The 
eye-ball being hollow and filled with tluids which press in all directions, it is hard to see at first 
how such a peculiar shape is maintained. But the sclerotic coat is very dense, almost gristly 
in some cases; and it is reinforced by a cirelet of bones, the sclerotals, h, h; see also fig. 62, 
where the cirelet is shown. These are packed alongside each other all around the cireumfer- 
ence of one part of the sclerotic, like a set of splints. The large discoidal segment of a bird’s 
eye is mostly composed of the mem- 
brane called from its hardness the 
sclerotic, — thick, tough, and strong, 
of a glistening livid color. Three 
sclerotic coats or layers may be de- 
monstrated by careful dissection; in 
the figure b is the outer, ¢ the com- 
bined middle and inner ones, — much 
exaggerated as to their distinctness. 
The bony plates lie between the 
outer and middle coats anterior to the 
greatest girth of the eye-ball, extend- 
ing from the rim of the dise nearly 
or quite to the edge of the cornea. 
They are a dozen to twenty in num- 
ber, of oblong squarish shape, taper- 
ing toward the cornea, around which 


they are thus cireularly disposed ; 


Fig. 82. — Vertical antero-posterior section of cye-ball: a, optic 
nerve; 0, sclerotic, its outer coat; c, sclerotic, its middle and inner they are pretty closely bound to- 


coats; d, choroid; ¢, hyaloid ; 7, marsupium; g, cornea ; h,h, bony 
plates between sclerotic layers; i, i, corrugations of choroid, form- 
ing ciliary processes; /, 4, canal of Petit; /, /, iris; m, anterior enjoys some little motion back and 
chamber of eye; », capsule of the lens; 0, lens; p, posterior cham- 
ber of eye. Neither the retina, nor the peculiar sheathing of the 
optic nerve, isshown. The nerve, marsupium, and ciliary processes, of the cornea, g. This last is the 
not falling in this section, can only be arbitrarily shown. 


gether, but the cirelet as a whole 
forward with the varying convexity 


thin transparent membrane complet- 
ing the eye-ball in front, like the erystal over the face of a wateh. It is very protuberant 
in birds, —even a hemisphere, or almost tubular. Its structure is not peculiar in birds; but 
it is remarkable in this class of creatures not only for its convexity, but for the wide range of 
the variability in convexity which increased or diminished pressure of the contained humors 
may effect, and its collapse in death. 

The sclerotic coat is lined with the choroid membrane, d, loosely woven of cellular tissue, 
replete with blood-vessels, and painted pitch-black with a heavy deposit of pigment-cells. It 
lines the whole globe as far forward as the edge of the sclerotal bones, where it splits in two 
layers. The inner choroid layer turns away from the wall of the eye, toward the interior, and 
in so reflecting becomes plaited, as a bag is puckered by pulling the strings. These pleats 
converge upon the rim of the delicate capsule enclosing the lens of the eye, », and there 
adhere, forming the ciliary processes, i, i. The outer layer also starts away from the cir- 
cumference of the sclerotic wall, as if to pass directly across the cavity, but ends in the iris. 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — NEUROLOGY. 183 


Around the circumference of the iris, where sclerotic, corneal, and choroid coats come together, is 
acircular band of fibres, the ciliary ligament; and on the outer surface of the choroid isa similar 
band of circular and radiating contractile fibres, the ciliary muscle. These ciliary structures are 
supposed to be the agents of the accommodating faculty of the eye, acting upon the lens to alter 
its shape or its position, or both. It is a difficult matter to settle, when such delicate structures 
are in question. 

The iris, 1, 1, or rainbow of the eye, is an exquisite structure hanging like a many-cvlored 
curtain vertically between the two compartments of the eye; a highly ornamental framework 
of the eye’s window, being both sash and blind to the pupil. It is suspended vertically in the 
aqueous humor, just in front of the lens. Viewed in front, from the outside, the iris appears as 
a colored circular band around the pupil, and seems to come to the surface of the eye. But 
this is not so, for the conjunctiva, the cornea, and the aqueous humor of the front chamber of 
the eye, are between us and it. It may be likened to the dial-plate of a watch, which we look 
at without noticing the interposed crystal. Similarly, the pupil of the eye, which shows us our 
own reflection, diminished to the size of the ‘‘ eye-baby,” may be likened to the round central 
hole in the dial-plate through which protrudes the shaft that bears the hands of a watch. The 
“pupil” is the round black spot within the colored rim of the iris; but it is not a thing — it is 
a hole in a thing — the hole in the iris through which we may look and see the black choroid 
coat behind. The quivering iris is very similar in texture to the choroid, being a delicate tissue 
of interlacing fibres and vessels; but it is highly mobilized by cireular and radiating sets of 
contractile fibres, by which the curtain is tightened and loosened, with corresponding chauge 
in the size of the central oritice—the pupil. Although the iridian movements are largely 
automatic, depending upon the stimulus of light, they are to some extent voluntary, as any one 
may satisfy himself who observes owls in confinement. During these expansions and con- 
tractions of the iris, the pupil in birds preserves its circularity ; and even when the movement 
is freest and most voluntary, as in owls, the contracted pupil never appears as a vertical oval 
figure, or a slit, like that of cats. The round pupil of the great horned owl ranges from the 
diameter of a finger ring down to that of a small split-pea. The iridian colors are often 
striking in birds. Though black and brown are the commonest, yellow is quite frequent, 
red is often seen, blue and green are rarer; the eyes of cormorants are of the latter color. The 
iris is sometimes pure white, as it is in our common “ white-eyed” greenlet, Vireo noveboracensis. 
In the Californian woodpecker, Melanerpes formicivorus, the eyes are indifferently (or at differ- 
ent ages of the bird, or seasons) brown, bluish, pink, rosy, or yellow. 

The crystalline lens, 0, is a transparent biconvex dise, like a common magnifying glass, 
apparently set in the iris like a mirror in its frame, but really hanging a little back of that 
structure. It is enclosed in a capsular membrane, », of extreme delicacy and transparency, 
which is in turn set between two layers of the hyaloid membrane to be presently noticed. 
Where these layers of hyaloid separate around the rim of the capsule to form the investment, a 
small space is left between them ; this circular tube around the lens is the canal of Petit, k, k. 
The lens is stationed in the axis of vision; some suppose it to be equally stationary in any 
transverse axis. It is, however, difficult to understand how an object thus suspended in 
fluctuating humors should be insusceptible of some motion backward or forward, as well as 
of alteration in its degree of convexity; both of which may be factors in the focusing process. 
From what has preceded, it is evident that the cavity of the eye is divided into anterior and 
posterior compartments, or chambers, by the reflection, from the sclerotic wall, of the choroid, 
hyaloid and iridian structures, which with the lens form a vertical partition. Each chamber 
is filled with a fluid of different density and consistence. That in the anterior or corneal 
chamber is thin and watery, and therefore called the aqueous humor; that in the sclerotic 
cavity is more dense and glassy, and for this reason known as the vitreous humor. There is 
much less aqueous than vitreous; but birds have comparatively more of the former than usual, 


184 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


owing to the relatively greater size and convexity of the cornea. The waters are enclosed in 
exceedingly delicate membranes; the vitreous in the hyaloid membrane, e, which, besides 
lining the posterior chamber and enclosing the lens as already said, sends thin partitions all 
through the vitreous humor to steady these glassy waters. 

The optic nerve, a, of birds is peculiar. In mammals, as a rule, the nerve is a smooth 
cylinder, proceeding straight to the sclerotic, penetrating the coats of the eye-ball directly, near 
the middle point behind, and then spreading out on the inside of the ball as a large cireular 
concave mirror. This thin, saucer-like expansion of nerve-tissue is the retina. In birds the 
optic nerve is a fluted column, which approaches the eye-ball quite obliquely, strikes it ata 
point eccentric from the axis of the eye, and does not at once pierce the sclerotic. Tapering to 
a fine point, and running: still obliquely, downward and forward, in a deep groove in the 
sclerotic that would be a tube were it not split, aud through a similar slit in the choroid, a 


fluting of the nerve rises to attain the cavity of the eye, and the retina spreads out from the 


ac ’ 


sides and end of this fold. But the prime peculiarity of a bird’s eye is the ‘ purse” or “ comb,” 
marsupium, pecten, f; a very vascular structure, like the choroid, and likewise painted black ; 
apparently “ erectile,” that is, capable of increasing aud diminishing in size by influx and efHux 
of blood. It is attached behind to the nervous strueture ; is suspended in the vitreous humor, 
and runs forward obliquely a part or the whole of the way to the leus, to the envelope of which 
it may be attached in some cases. — Its office is not fully determined. Its great resemblance to 


the choroid proper suggests a similar function in the absorption of light. If it be turgid and 


flaccid by turns it ust occupy a variable space in the vitreous humor, and in the former state 
press the waters upon the most yielding part of their walls, —that where the lens is situated, 
even to the extent of altering the position of the latter; and if so, of changing the focus of the 
eye. It is difficult to account for the bird’s eyes’ powers of accommodation by the action of 
the ciliary muscle in only changing the shape of the lens, thus throwing out of account as 
impossible any change in the position of that refracting medimn, or of the density of the 
refracting humors, or of the convexity of the cornea. The peculiar course of the optic nerve 
may be simply an anatomical convenience, or may have something to do with a bird’s ability to 
see straight ahead though its eyes be laterally positioned. (See Am. Nat., ii, 1868, p. 578; Pr. 
Bost. Soe. Nat. Hist., xii, Apr. 21, 1869.) 


Sense of Hearing: Audition.— This is enjoyed to a high degree by the ‘“ musical class” 
of the Vertebrata, — birds being the only animals besides man whose emotions are habitually 
aroused, stimulated, and to some extent controlled by the appreciation of harmonic vibrations of 
the atmosphere. Most birds express their sexual passions in song, sometimes of the most 
ravishing quality to our ears, as that of the nightingale or the bluebird, and it cannot be sup- 
posed that they themselves do not experience the effect of music in an eminent degree of 
pleasurable perturbations. Otherwise, they would cease to sing. The capability of musical 
expressiou resides chiefly in the more spiritualized male sex ; the receptive capacity of musical 
affectious is better developed in the feinale, who chietly furnishes the plastie material which is 
to be moulded into the physical manifestation of the male principle. Quickness of ear is 
extraordinary in such birds as those of the genus Mimus, which correctly render any notes they 
may chance to hear, with greater readiness and accuracy than is usually within human 
possibility. It may be reasonably doubted that any others than some of the world’s greatest 
musical composers have a higher experience in acoustic possibilities than many birds. Birds’ 
ears have nevertheless a comparatively simple anatomical structure, on the whole much more 
like that of reptiles than of mammals. Such simplicity is seen in the ligulate or strap-shaped 
cochlea, the essential orgau of hearing, figs. 84, 85, 86, 87, as compared with the helicoid eurva- 
tion of the mammalian cochlea. The openness of the car-parts which lie outside the tympanum 
is seen in fig. 62, at the place where the reference-lines “ ear-cells” reach the skull; and 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — NEUROLOGY. 185 


especially in fig. 71, where the stapes, st, is seen lying in the ear-cavity, the tympanum having 
been removed. 

There is ordinarily no external ear, in the sense of a fleshy conch or auricle, though owls 
at least have a considerable flap which overlies the auditory aperture. The place of an auricle 
is filled by a set of peculiarly modified feathers surrounding and overlying the opening, called 
in ornithology the ear-coverts, or auriculars (p. 97; fig. 25, %6). The outer ear or meatus 
auditorius externus is a considerable shallow roundish depression in the skull, at the extreme 
lower lateral corner. Its ordinary boundaries are the inovably articulated quadrate bone in 
front, the expanded rim of the squamosal above, the tympanic wing of the exoccipital behind 
and below; the termination of the basitemporal also usually contributing to the under boundary. 
(See fig. 71, at st; 63, under/; fig. 62, where reference lines ‘“‘ bones of ear cell” go.) On 
removing the quadrate from the dry skull, the general tympanic depression is seen to be more 
or less continuous with the alisphenoid ; the boundary is best marked behind and below by the 
broad thin sharp-edged shell of the tympanic wing of the exoccipital. To the brim indi- 
cated is attached the tympanum, or dru of the ear —that membrane being, from the con- 
figuration of the parts, quite superficial, — not at the bottom of a tube-like meatus, as in mau. 
The membrane proper is invested externally by modified common integument which readily 
peels off. Thus this wide shallow depression overlaid with feathers or a slight flap is all there 
is to represent the ‘ outer ear-passage.” The tympanic membrane sometimes develops slight 
ossification, which then represents the ‘‘ tympanic bone,” or “external auditory process” of 
human anatomy. Did not this membrane occlude the way, the passage through the ear to the 
mouth would be pervious. This passage is the modified persistence of the first visceral cleft or 
‘‘ gill-slit” of the embryo. Just within the tympanic membrane is the cavity of the tympanum 
or middle ear, which may be very extensively exposed by merely removing the membrane. 
Looking into this cavity, as may readily be done from the outside, in carefully cleaned dry 
skulls, many objects of interest are presented; among them, a number of foramina — openings 
leading in various directions. In the first place there are some (inconstant and not readily 
identified) holes, which are pneumatic openings, conveyiug air from the middle ear-passage to 
the interior of bones of the skull and lower jaw. Next is observed a large oritice in the lower 
anterior part of the cavity, —the mouth of the eustachian tube. This tube continues the ear- 
passage to the mouth ; opening at the back of the hard palate by a median orifice in common 
with its fellow. In clean skulls of any size a bristle, or even a wooden tooth-pick, will pass 
through the eustachian tube, and appear upon the floor of the. skull in mid-line or nearly there, 
under the basisphenoid, over the basitemporal. The foregoing passages have not conducted 
us 10 the inner ear or proper acoustic cavity. There will be observed, in the side-wall of the 
tympanic cavity, two definite openings near the eustachian orifice. Que of these, anterior and 
superior to the other, larger usually, and oval, is the fenestra ovalis; it lies in the obliterated 
suture between the proétic and opisthutie bones; and when the membranous curtain which 
closes it in life is gone, you look through this “oval window ” into the vestibular cavity of the 
ear proper. The lower, posterior, circular orifice is the fenestra rotunda; through which round 
window in the opisthotic bone you look into the cochicar cavity of the ear proper. Fenestra 
ovalis and f. rotunda are generally close together, — only divided by a little bridge of bone, or a 
mere bony bar. To the circumference of the fenestra ovalis is fitted the expanded oval foot of 
the trumpet-shaped columella auris, — the stapes, or “ stirrup-bone,” as it is called in mammals 
(fig. 83, st). This is an elegant little bone, which establishes mechanical connection between 
the membrane closing the fenestra ovalis and the tympanic membrane, — something on the 
principle of the ‘‘ sounding-post.” inside a violin. It is shown magnified greatly in its embry- 
oui¢ condition, in fig. 67, and there seems to be primitively and morphologically the proximal 
connection of the hyoid bone (by cerato-hyal elements) with the bony capsule of the ear; but 
no trace of this relation persists. Fig. 83 shows the mature stapes of a fowl, aud indicates its 


186 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


several elements which have received special names. In skulls prepared with sufficient care, 
the stapes may be seen im situ, as in fig. 71, st, —an extremely delicate rod, stepped into the 
fenestra ovalis by its foot, the other end protruding freely,.and bearing im many cases its 


Fic. 83. — Mature 
stapes of fowl, about x 
4; after Parker. st, its 
foot, fitting fenestra 
ovalis; mst, main shaft, 
or medio-stapedial ele- 
ment; sst, supra-sta- 
pedial; est, extra-sta- 
pedial ; ist, infra-sta- 
pedial, its end repre- 
senting a rudimentary 
stylo-hyal ; /, a fenestra 
in the extra-stapedial. 
(See st in situ, fig. 71, 
and its embryonic for- 
mation, fig. 67.) 


hammer-like or claw-like stapedial elements. A stapes I have just 
picked out of an eagle’s ear is a fourth of an inch long, with a stout 
foot, but a stem as fine as a thread of sewing silk, and at the tympanic 
end a still finer hair-like process half as long as the main stem, from 
which it stands out at a right angle. The ossification is perfect, and 
there appears to have been another similar process which has broken 
off from the cross-like figure shown in fig. 71, st. In a raven’s skull 
before me the stapes has fallen into the fenestra ovalis, and lies there with 
its head sticking out, though perfectly loose. I cannot withdraw it intact, 
as the expanded foot fits the hole too closely to pass through in any 
position I have succeeded in placing it. It appears to be about as large 
as the eagle’s. Close examination at a point somewhere about the fe- 
nestra ovalis, or between that and the eustachian orifice, will discover a 
minute foramen, corresponding to the ‘ stylo-mastoid ” foramen of mam- 
mals. It transmits cranial nerve 7 (see p. 177), or the faceal nerve, which 
has burrowed through the bony acoustic capsule from the brain-cavity 
and entered the tympanic cavity on its way to the surface. There are 
sometimes two such minute foramina, close together, both conducting to 
the brain cavity (neither in common with the internal auditory meatus) ; 
as in the eagle, in which large bird a fine bristle just passes through each. 
Thus in the dry skull of a bird, all the hard parts of the middle ear or 
tympanic cavity, as well as the eustachian tube, can readily be inspected 


from the outside; even the limits of the opisthotie and prodtic bones can be determined to some 
extent, and the ossiculum audités be seen im situ. There will also be noted, in most birds, the 
articular facet upon the prodtic bone for the inner head of the quadrate, as well as upon the 
squamosal for the outer head of the quadrate ; however these may shift in position, in dif- 
erent birds, they cannot easily be overlooked or mistaken. Details of mere size and configura- 
tion aside, the above general description will apply pretty well to any bird, and should suffice 
for the identification of the objects seen on looking into the ear, though the number and 
variety of the irregular pneumatic openings may be puzzling at first. To see these things 
clearly in a mammal’s ear would require special preparation of the parts, as they lie inside a 
tympanum which is itself at the bottom of a contracted tube. In such an ear, properly laid 
open, would be found a chain of three ossicles crossing the tympanic cavity from the inner 
surface of the tympanic membrane to the opposite surface of the membrane closing the fenestra 
ovalis —the malleus, incus, and stapes, or ‘‘ hammer,” “ anvil” and ‘stirrup ;” and the latter 
would be stirrup-shaped, not trumpet-like with a cross-bar at the mouth-piece. Some mam- 
mals would also show a hyoid bone which would have what are the cerato-hyals of a bird 
produced up toward the ear-parts, and continued to these by a bone called stylo-hyal, or 
‘‘styloid process of the temporal”; and any mammal’s jaw would articulate directly with the 
squamosal, —the chain of three ossicles being entirely inside the ear. As to comparing the 
parts now: the mammalian stapes is the stapes or columella of a bird, — its stem and foot at 
least ; the incus of a mammal is represented by one of the claws of the cross-bar of a bird’s 
stapes (the supra-stapedial element; fig. 83, sst); the malleus of a mammal is the great 
quadrate bone of a bird; the stylo-hyal of a mammal is not fairly developed in a bird, unless 
contained in or represented by another claw of the stapes (an imfra-stapedial element, ist) ; 
and in these facts is the reason why a bird’s lower jaw is articulated indirectly to the skull 
by means of the quadrate, and also why a bird’s hyoid bone is not articulated or in any way 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— NEUROLOGY. 187 


directly connected with the skull — excepting when, as in a woodpecker, elongated branchial 
elements of the hyoid bone take on such office by curling over the cranium (figs. 73, 74). 
Section of the bone is required for further examination of the ear-parts. On longitudinally 
bisecting the skull, or otherwise gaining access to the brain-cavity, the internal surface of the 
periotic bone is brought into view (fig. 70, po, op, ep). It is the same bone we have seen in 
the tympanic cavity, now viewed upon its cerebral surface. Ina skull of any size, as that of the 
eagle before me (from which the rest of my description will be taken), there is no difficulty in 
making out the parts, although the periphery of the periotic bone is completely consolidated 
with its surroundings. The periotic, or petrosal (Lat. petrosus, stony — from its hardness), or 
“‘petrous part of the temporal,” is the bony capsule of the inner ear, enclosing the labyrinth or 
essential organ of hearing, — in fact, it is the skull of the ear, sometimes therefore called the 
otocrane — just as ethmoidal parts form the ‘‘ skull of the nose,” and the sclerotal bones represent 
a “skull of the eye.” The periotic consists of the three bones already often mentioned, — the 
prootic, po, eprotic, ep, and opisthotic, op, or anterior, superior, and posterior otocranial bones, 
completely consolidated together, as well as with surrounding bones. The petrosal appears as 
an irregular protuberance in the inner wall of the brain-cavity, at the lower back part. It 
seems to be more extensive than it really is, because the great superior semicircular canal, too 
large to be entirely accommodated in the petrosal, has invaded the occipital bone, — the track of 
its bed in that bone beiug sculptured in bas-relief (fig. 70, asc). Behind this semicircular trace, 
the deep groove of a venous sinus is engraved in the bone, making the tract of the canal still 
more prominent (fig. 70, sc). The top of the petrosal and contiguous occipital is the floor of 
a recess or fossa in which is lodged the great optic lobe of the brain, partly divided from the 
general cavity for the cerebral hemisphere by a bony tentorium, like that which in mammals 
separates the cerebellar from the cerebral fossze. On the vertical face of the petrosal, or on the 
corresponding vccipital surface, is a large smooth-lipped orifice, at least 7, of an inch in longest 
diameter ; it leads to a tongue-like excavation of the bone, in which the floceulus of the cerebel- 
lum is lodged. In front, between the petrosal and alisphenoid (or in the conjoined border of 
one or the other of these bones) is a considerable foramen, conducting the second and third 
divisions of cranial nerve 5 (see p. 177; figs. 70, 71, 5) iuto the orbit. Below the petrosal (in 
fact, between the opisthotic and the exoccipital), near the border of the foramen magnum, is a 
foramen (which may be subdivided into foramina), representing the foramen lacerwm posterius 
of mammals, transmitting cranial nerves 9, 10, 11 (see p. 177; fig. 70, 8). The general space 
under description is continued to the margin of the foramen magnum by the exoccipital (fig. 
70, eo). Now on the vertical face of the petrosal itself— behind foramen for 5, above that for 
9, 10, 11, in front of the large floccular orifice, will be seen a smooth-lipped depression, the 
meatus auditorius internus (fig. 70, 7), at the bottom of which are at least two separate small 
foramina. A bristle passed in the upper (or anterior) one of these two holes emerges outside 
the skull, in the tympanic cavity, near the tympanic end of the eustachian tube; it has traversed 
the interior of the petrosal, in a track known as the fallopian nerviduct; it transmits cranial 
nerve 7 —the facial, or portio dura. A bristle passed into the other of the two foramina may 
also be made to come out in the tympanic cavity, but by a different track, for it emerges through 
either the fenestra ovalis or the fenestra rotunda ; it has traced the course of cranial nerve 8, — 
the auditory nerve or portio mollis. Both bristles have entered the common internal auditory 
meatus, but the second one has traversed the ear-cavity proper, through the labyrinth of the 
ear, and come out at the tympanic vestibular orifice (fenestra ovalis), or at the tympanic cochlear 
orifice (fenestra rotunda). Either passage is easily made, without breaking down or indeed 
meeting with any bony obstacle, which would not be the case with a mammal. Cranial nerves 
7 and 8 were formerly counted as one (seventh); hence the name portio dura (‘hard portion”) 
for the former, and portio mollis (‘ soft portion ”) for the latter. The former, as said, traverses 
the petrosal bone and escapes upon the face; the latter, which is the true acoustic nerve, or 


188 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


nerve of hearing, remains in the bone, being expended upon the labyrinthine structures within 
—the vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea, which constitute the walls of the cavities in 
which the essential organ of hearing is snugly encased. 

If now, with a very fine saw — the saws now so much used for fancy scroll-work will 
answer the purpose — the whole periotic mass be cut away from the skull, and then divided in 
any direction, the labyrinth can be studied. It is best to make the section in some definite 
plane with reference to the axes of the whole skull, —the vertical longitudinal, or vertical 
transverse, or horizontal, — as the direction and relations of the contained structures are then 
more easily made out. Four or five parallel cuts will make as many thin flat slices of bone, 
affording eight or ten surfaces for examination ; the whole course of the labyrinthine cavity can 
be seen in sections which, when put together in the mind’s eye, or held a little apart in their 
proper relations and visibly threaded with bristles, afford the required picture very nicely. It 
is extremely difficult to chisel out the affair from the bone in which it is embedded. At first 
glance the slices show a bewildering maze, —a continuous net-work or lattice-work of bone, in 
which the unaccustomed eye will recognize nothing but. confusion. All this cancellated struc- 
ture, however, is pneumatic—the open-work tissue of the bone, containing air derived from 
the tympanic or eustachian cavities, and having nothing to do with the ear-passages proper. 
Parts of the bony labyrinth will soon be recognized by their firm smooth walls and definite 
courses, as distinguished from the irregular interstices of the pneumatic bone-tissue. The bony 
labyrinth consists of an irregular central cavity, the vestibule; of a cavity, projecting like a 
beak downward and backward from the vestibule, the cochlea ; and of three horseshoe-shaped 
tubular cavities, above, behind, and below the vestibule, the semicircular canals, the ends of 
whose hollows all open into the vestibule. Imagine three hollow horseshoes, with their ends 
melted into a hollow inflation (vestibule), the opposite wall of which is a hollow projection 
(cochlea) — or a hollow flat-iron (vestibule) with a long nose (cochlea) and three hollow handles 
(the canals). Or, see figs. 84 to 87, representing the contained membranous labyrinth, to which 
the containing bony labyrinth very closely conforins, as it is simply the bony cavity whose walls 
encase the membranous and other soft structures. According as the sections have been made, 
numerous cross-cuts of the canals will be seen here and there as circular orifices; the canals 
themselves lying curled like worms in the petrosal and occipital substance, their ends finally 
converging to the vestibular cavity. As compared with those of man, the parts are of great 
size; in the eagle, the whole affair is as large as that part of one’s thumb covered by the nail; 
the whole length of the superior semicircular canal is an inch or more; its calibre, I should 
judge, being absolutely about as great asin man. The cochlea, however, though not diminutive 
comparatively, is in a rudimentary condition as far as complexity of structure is concerned, in all 
Sauropsida, representing only the beginning of the cochlear structure of mammals. In the 
latter class, the cochlea is spirally coiled or whorled on itself like a snail-shell (whence the 
name — cochlea, a snail), making at least one turn and a half, sometimes five (two and a half in 
man); with a centre-post or modiolus around which winds a bony flange, the lamina spiralis, 
a membranous extension of which to the cochlear out-wall divides the cavity into two com- 
partments or scale (scala, a flight of stairs); it is just like a spiral stairway, only an inclined 
plane instead of a series of steps. The membranous extension of the bony spiral lamina to the 
side-wall obviously throws the cavity, us just said, into two spirals, which only intercommuni- 
cate at the top, where the modiolus ends in a funnel-shaped expansion, the infundibulum, 
beneath the apex of the snail-shell, the cupola. A marble rolling down the wpper stairway 
would fall into the vestibular cavity; this division of the cochlea is therefore the scala vestibuli. 
The marble starting from the other side of the infundibulum would roll along the under stair- 
way, and if nothing stopped the way, would fall through the fenestra rotunda into the tym- 
panic cavity; this is therefore the scala tympani. The first marble would also eventually 
reach the tympanum, through the vestibule, and out of the fenestra ovalis, if the foot of the 


189 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.—NEUROLOGY. 


stapes were unstepped (in life, of course, both these ‘“‘ windows” are closed by membranous 


tents are only the 


beginnings of such structure— a strap-shaped or tongue-like protrusion from the vestibule, as 


Now in birds the cochlear cavity and its bony or cartilaginous con 


curtains). 


art of the first mammalian whorl, and very incompletely divided into scala vestibuli and 


if ap 


Fig. 85. Fig. 86. Fig. 87. Fie. 88. 


Figs. 84, 85, membranous labyrinth of Haliattus albicilla, x2. a, b, cochlea; 0, its saccular extremity (or lagena); c, vestibule; 
g, its utricle; d, anterior or superior vertical semicircular canal; e, external or horizontal semicircular canal; /, posterior or inferior 
vertical semicircular canal; h, membranous canal leading into aqueduct of the vestibule; 4, vascular membrane covering the scala 
vestibuli; opposite this, at i, are seen the edges of the cartilaginous prisms in the fenestra rotunda; from the edges of these cartilages 
proceeds the delicate membrane closing the opening of the cochlea (not shown in the fig. ). 

Fig. 86, part of the superior vertical semicircular canal, showing its ampulla (which is the dilatation of the base of any semicircu- 
lar canal), nerve of ampulla, artery and connective tissue of the perilymph, x 3. a, that part of the vestibule (alveus) next to the ampulla; 
b, the dilatation of the ampulla at its vestibular opening; c, where it passes into the canal proper ; d, the canal, furnished with connec- 
tive tissue of the perilymph along its concave border and sides, as appears clearly at the sections e and; g, nerve of the ampulla; h, 
artery of the connective tissue, running beneath it, remote from the wall of the duct. 

Fig. 87, cochlea, x 3. a, external, b, internal, cartilaginous prism; c, membranous zone; d, saccular extremity of the cochlea, or 
lagena; e, vascular membrane; /, auditory nerve, its middle fascicle penetrating the internal cartilaginous prism, to reach the mem- 
branous zone by its terminal filaments; g, auditory nerve, its posterior fascicle, running to the most posterior part of the lagena; h, 
filament to ampulla of posterior or inferior vertical semicircular canal. 

Fig. 88, section of the cochlea, x 3. a, vestibular surface of external cartilaginous prism, extending into d, the lagena; c, section of 
the membranous zone; e, Huschke’s process of the fenestra, which, with the margins of the cartilaginous prisms, affords attachment 
to the blind sac f, occluding the fenestra of the cochlea; g, spongy vascular membrane of the scala vestibuli; k, auditory lamellae of 
Treviranus; i, canals in posterior wall of the lagena, by which the nervous filaments enter its cavity. 

(From Ibsen’s Anatomiske Undersogelser over rets Labyrinth. 4to, Kjpbenhavn, 1881, p. 17, pl. 1, figs. 13-17.) 


Ee Tye Mes Sw noe ses mR eM ODl tt OAoH aA, 4 8 MH ra 
Task he ePPZe esos Pet st sess ss Se. es Sse Resse 
pSSseesss MBS eo AS eb sc ses, SSeS RBSRP RST SSS Eee FG 
oe ee ee ee ee Pee CE eae 
: s ‘5 s 32 2 ie e SR : S 
AB eoSBSERHERTVARE. TC Pab at sabes Se ssReesegta” 
o. S a Oe © wa S as D m8 S ed 4 ae 
ogre ee ee ea teen dee eS tesa. ost ba pee eta ec = Bes 

mo “4 AS q x oo xs 
Se ep eee Set OR ES On a Sere OO ee, aes ksego CO hee moe 
Be Mo Baa gsePaeaggude Sp RE Rs AAS Sess sag zE Se ea 
pee ef ee BMPS SESE PHEPFER OZ EP ORS SES ar Ss 

s oo “a S| Sof So 9 n ss a ree Ss ca 
acd a SQE SS 5 Ou gee SAAD de 5 oS = & 
=a mH Oo 2-4 o~7os =| a ae HoogorY Ho 2H Pa Seb ods 
Seo neeaeecgn bis YE Se es OSs OO ae ye eee ee et 58365 § = & 8 
SPO eS BB EBS MBBS SSA ESBS BABES ESB Brie ss So Sas. S 


to tympanum by fenestra. ova- 


opening in 


ing to meatus auditurius internus by the course of the auditory nerve. 


mouths of the separate or uniting semicircular canals ; 
f its irregularities of contour were smoothed ou 
In the language of human anatomy, 


lis ; conduct 


eagl 


In the 


t, it would about hold a pea. 
the three semicircular canals are the (a) anterior or 


al, the (b) posterior or inferior vert 
the planes of their respective loops are approximately mutually perpendicular, in 


e, 1 


tal; and 


1Z001 


cal, and the (¢) external or hor 


i 


'1C. 


rt 


superior ve 


the three 


190 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


planes of any cubical figure. In birds these terms do not apply so well to the situation of the 
canals with reference to the axes of the body, nor to the direction of the loops; neither is 
mutual perpendicularity so nearly exhibited. The whole set is tilted over backward to some 
degree, so that the (a) ‘‘ anterior” (though still superior) loops back beyond either of the others ; 
the (0) ‘‘ posterior” loops behind and below the (c) horizoutal, which tilts down backward ; 
the verticality of the planes of (a) and (0) is better kept. The canals may be better known 
as the (a) superior (vertical), and (U) inferior (vertical), and (¢) internal (horizontal). What- 
ever its inclination backward, there is no mistaking (a), much the longest of the three, looping 
high up over the rest, exceeding the petrosal and bedded in the occipital, the upper limb and 
loop of the arch bas-relieved upon the inner surface of the skull (fig. 70, ase). It makes much 
more than a semicircle —rather a horse-shoe. The inferior vertical (b) loops lowest of all, 
though little if any of it reaches further backward than the great loop of (a); it is the second in 
size; in shape it is quite circular, — rather more than a half-circle. Its upper limb joins the 
lower limb of (a), as in man, and the two open by one orifice in the vestibule ; but it is not 
simple union, for the two limbs, before forming a common tube, twine half-round each other 
(like two fingers of one hand crossed). The loop of (b) reaches very near the back of the skull 
(outside). The canal (c) is the smallest, aud, as it were, set within the loop of (0), though its 
plane is nearly the opposite of the plane of (b); and the cavities of (b) and (c) intercommuni- 
cate at or near the point of their greatest convexity, farthest from the vestibule. This decus- 
sation of (b) and (c), like the twining inosculation of (a) and (0), is well known. It may not 
be so generally understood that there is (in the eagle if not in birds generally) a third extra- 
vestibular communication of the canals. My sections show this perfectly. The great loop of 
(a), sweeping past the decussating-place of (b) and (c), is thrown into a cavity common to all 
three. Bristles threaded either way through each of the three canals can all three be seen 
in contact, crossiug each other through this curious extra-vestibular chamber, which may be 
named the trivia, or ‘‘ three-way” place. (The arrangement I make out does not agree well 
with the figure of the owl’s labyrinth given by Owen, Anat. Vert., ii, 184. The trivia is at 
the place where, in fig. 84 or 85, the three membranous canals cross one another. It does not 
follow, however, that these contained membranous canals intercommunicate, and it appears 
from Ibsen’s figures that they do not. Study of these adinirable illustrations, with the 
explanations given under them, should make the details perfectly clear to the reader.) 

All that precedes relates to the bony labyrinth, —the scrolled cavity of the periotic bone. 
The membranous labyrinth is asae lying loosely in the hollow of the bone, and shaped just like 
it, lining the hollow of the vestibule and tubes of the semicircular canals. Withdrawn intact, 
it would be a perfect ‘‘ cast” of the labyrinth. Originally, this sac is also continuous with one 
in the cavity of the cochlea, called the membranous cochlea, which afterward becomes shut off 
trom the main sac. This shut-off cochlear part lies between the scala tympani below and the 
scala vestibuli above ; its interior is the scala media. If demoustrable in birds, it inust be quite 
as rudimentary as the other scale. The membraue is not attached to the bony walls of the 
labyrinth, but is separated by a space containing fluid, the perilymph, which also occupies the 
scala vestibuli and scala tympani. A similar fluid, the endolymph, is contamed in the cavity of 
the membranous labyrinth, and scala media of the cochlea; in it are found eoucretions, or oto- 
liths, of the same character as the great ‘ear-stones” so conspicuous in many fishes. This 
lymph has a wonderful office —that of equilibration, enabling the animal to preserve its 
equilibrium. The labyrinth and its contained fluid may be likened to the glass tubes filled 
with water and a bubble of air, by a combination of which a surveyor, for example, is enabled 
to adjust his theodolite true to the horizontal. Somehow a bird knows how the fluid stands in 
the self-registering levelling-tubes, and adjusts itself accordingly. Observations made on 
pigeous show that ‘when the membranous canals are divided, very remarkable disturbances 
of equilibrium ensue, which vary in character according to the seat of the lesion. When the 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— NEUROLOGY. 191 


horizontal canals are divided rapid movements of the head from side to side, in a horizontal 
plane, take place, along with oscillation of the eyeballs, and the animal tends to spin round on 
a vertical axis. When the posterior or inferior vertical canals are divided, the head is moved 
rapidly backwards and forwards, and the animal tends to execute a backward somersault, head 
over heels. When the superior vertical canals are divided, the head is moved rapidly forwards 
and backwards, and the animal tends to execute a forward somersault, heels over head. Com- 
bined section of the various canals causes the most bizarre contortious of the head and body.” 
(Ferrier, Funct. of the Brain, 1876, p. 57.) Injury of the canals does not cause loss of hearing, 
nor does loss of equilibrium follow destruction of the cochlea. Two diverse though intimately 
conuected functions are thus presided over by the acoustic nerve, — audition and equilibration. 


Senses of Taste and Touch: Gustation and Taction. — The hands of birds being 
hidden in the feathers which envelop the whole body — their feet and lips, and usually much 
if not all of the tongue, being sheathed in horn, these faculties would appear to be enjoyed in but 
small degree. While it is difficult to judge how much appreciation of the sapid qualities of sub- 
stances birds may be capable of, we must not be hasty in supposing their sense of taste to be 
much abrogated. One who has had the toothache, or teeth ‘‘set on edge” by acids, or pain- 
fully affected by hot or cold drinks, may judge how sensitive to impressions an extremely dense 
tissue can be. Persons of defective hearing may be assisted to a kind of audition by an instru- 
ment applied to the teeth; and it is not easy to define the ways in which sensory functions may 
be vicariously performed or replaced. Birds are circumspect and discriminative, even dainty, in 
their choice of food, in which they are doubtless guided to some extent by the gustatory 
sensations they experience. As, however, ouly some human beings make these an end instead 
of a natural and proper means to an end, the selection of food by birds may be chiefly upon 
intuitions of what is wholesome. Such purely gustatory sense as they possess is presided over 
by the branches of the glosso-pharyngeal nerve which go to the back part of the tongue and 
mouth. Though the chorda tympani nerve exists, there is no lingual (gustatory) branch of the 
third division of the fifth cranial nerve. Yet the latter, which goes in mammals to the anterior 
part of the tongue, is less effectually gustatory than the glosso-pharyngeal ; as we know by the 
fact that the sensation of taste is not completely experienced until the sapid substance passes to 
the back of the mouth. Gustation is likewise connected with olfaction; the full effect of 
nauseous substances for example, being not realized if the nose is held. From these alternative 
considerations, each one may estimate for himself how much birds know of sapidity ; remember- 
ing also, how soft, thick, and fleshy are the tongue and associate parts in some birds, as parrots 
and ducks, in comparison with birds whose mouths are quite horny. 

The beak is doubtless the principal tactile instrument; nor does its hardness in most birds 
preclude great sensitiveness ; as witness the case of the teeth, above instanced. Sensation is 
here governed by the branches of the fifth nerve. In sume birds, in which also the terminal 
filaments of this nerve are largest and most numerous, the bill acquires exquisite sensibility. 
Such is its state in the snipe family, in most members of which, as the woodcock, true snipe, and 
sandpipers, the bill is a very delicate nervous probe. The Apteryx also feels in thé mud for 
its food, enjoying moreover the unusual privilege of having its nose at the end of its long 
exploration. Ducks dabble in the water to sift out proper food between the “ strainers” with 
which the sides of their beaks are provided; and the ends of the maxillary and mandibular bones 
themselves are full of holes, indicating the abundance of the nervous supply (fig. 63). 

The senses of birds and other animals are commonly reckoned as five — a number which 
may be defensively increased — as by a sixth, the muscular sense, which gives consciousness 
of strain or resistance, apart from purely tactile impressions; and perhaps a seventh, the 
faculty of equilibration, which has a physical mechanism of its own, at least as distinct and 
complete as that of hearing. The ordinary ‘‘ five senses” are curiously graded. Taction con- 


192 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


notes qualities of matter in bulk, as density, roughness, temperature, ete. Gustation, matter 
dissolved in water — fluidic. Olfaction, matter diffused in air—aeriformed. Audition, atmos- 
pheric air in undulation. Vision, an ethereal substance in undulation. All animals are proba- 
bly also susceptible of biogenation, which is the affection resulting from the influence of biogen ; 
a substance consisting of self-conscious force in combination with the minimum of matter 
required for its manifestation.? 


c. MyoLocy: THE MuscULAR SYSTEM. 


Muscular Tissue consists of more or fewer amcebiform animals; separate colonies of which 
creatures, isolated in various parts of the body, compose the individual different muscles. They 
are enveloped in fibrous tissue, the sheets of which are called fascie@, and the ends of which, 
usually attached to bones by direct continuity with the periosteal covering of the latter, form 
tendons and ligaments. The muscle-animals belong to a genus which may be termed 
Myameba, differing from other genera of the ameebiforms which compose the body of a bird 
less in their physical character of being elongated and spindle-shaped, or even filiform, than in 
their physiological character of contractility. Under appropriate stimulus, as the passage of a 
current of electricity, or the wave of biogen-substance which constitutes a ‘‘ nerve-impulse,” 
Myamebe shorten and thicken, tending towards a state of tonie contraction which, if completed 
and long sustained, would cause them to become encysted as spherical bodies; but extreme con- 
traction is never long continued. By alternate contraction and relaxation all the motions of the 
body in bulk are effected. The capacity of, or tendency to, contraction is called the tonicity of 
inuscular fibre. The simultaneous contraction of any colony of Myamebe pulls upon the attach- 
ment of the muscle at each of its ends ; in some cases approximating both ends; oftener moving 
the part to which one end is attached, the other being fixed. The action of a muscle is upon 
the simplest mechanical principles, — nothing more or less than pulling upon a part, as by a 
rope, the line of traction being exactly in the line of contraction of the muscle ; though it is 
often ingeniously changed by the passage of tendons around a corner of bone, or through a loop of 
fibrous tissue, as if through a pulley. Such movements as those of a turtle protruding its head, 
or a bird thrusting its beak forward, where muscle seems to push, are fallacious ; when analyzed, 
the motion is invariably resolved into simple pulling. The swelling up of a muscle in contract- 
ing must indeed impinge upon neighboring parts and shove them aside; but that is an extrinsic 
result. Muscles contract most powerfully under resistance to their turgescence : what is effected 
by the fascize which bind them down ; — what the athlete seeks to increase by bandaging his 
swelling biceps. There are two species of Myamaba. M. striata is the ordinary striped tibre 
of voluntary motion, and also of some motion not under control of the will, as that of the heart. 
This species is usually of a rich red color (pale pink in many birds of the grouse family), and is 
the ordinary “flesh” of the body. The other species, MZ. levis, composes the pale or colorless 
smooth fibre of the involuntary muscles, as those of the intestines, the gullet, ete. A species of 
contractile tissue commonly referred to the genus Desmameba (indifferent connective-tissue 
cells) is very near Myameba levis ; example, mamialian dartos. The movements of erectile 
organs, as the neat combs over the eyes of grouse, or the turkey’s caruncles, are not in any sense 
myamebic, but depend mechanically upon influx of blood. 


The Muscular System of Aves can only be touched upon; it is impossible in my limits 
to even name all the muscles, much less describe them. I can only note the leading peculiarities, 
and present a figure in which the principal muscles are nained. 

1 The reader who may be interested to inquire further in this direction is referred to a publication entitled : — 
Biogen: A Speculation on the Origin and Nature of Life. Abridged from a paper on the “ Possibilities of Proto- 


plasm,” read before the Philosophical Society of Washington, May 6, 1882. By Dr. Elliott Coues, ete. Washing- 
ton, Judd & Detweiler. 8vo, pp. 27. Second ed., Boston, Estes & Lauriat, 1884, 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — MYOLOGY. 193 


“muscles of expression” and 


The subcutaneous sheet of muscle (of which the human 
platysma myoides are segregations) is broken up in birds into a countless number of little slips 
which agitate the feathers collectively, and especially the great quills of the wings and tail. 
There are estimated to be 12,000in a goose. The prime peculiarity of birds’ musculation is the 
enormous development of the pectorales, or breast muscles, which operate the wings. The 
great pectoral, p. major or p. primus, arises froin the sternal keel, when that special bony sep- 
tum between the fellow-pectorals exists, and from more or less of the body of the sternum, pass- 
ing directly to the great pectoral or outer ridge of the humerus, near the upper end of that boue. 
Its origin may even exceed the limits of the sternum, invading the clavicle, ete. ; it may unite 
with its fellow. It is the depressor of the humerus, giving the downward stroke of the wing. 
The next pectoral, p. secundus or p. medius, arises from much or most of the sternum not Geom: 
pied by the first, under cover of which it lies; it passes also the humerus, but by an interesting 
way it has of running through a pulley at the shoulder it elevates that bone, giving the upward 
wing-stroke. A third pectoral, p. tertius or p. minimus, arising from sternum, and often cou- 
tiguous parts of the coracoid bone, passes directly to the humerus, supplementing the action of 
the first. A fourth muscle in many birds acts upon the humerus from the sternum or coracoid, 
particularly the latter. These four differ greatly in their relative development. Such extent of 
the sternum and pectoral muscles correspondingly reduces that of the belly-walls, and the 
abdominal muscles are consequently scanty. Fixity of the spinal column in the dorsal region 
diminishes the musculation of that part, the spinal muscles being much better developed iu 
the cervical region; where, in cases of some of the long-necked birds, there are curious con- 
trivances for the mechanical advantage of the muscle in flexing and extending this mobile part 
of the body. Muscles of the hyoidean apparatus acquire a singular development in woodpeckers. 
The lower jaw is depressed particularly by muscle inserted into the end of the mandible; the 
upper is elevated by particular muscles operating the pterygoid and quadrate bones. Temporal, 
masseteric, and ordinary pterygoid muscles close the jaws. They are unsymmetrical in Lowia. 

The diaphragm, the musculo-membranous partition which in mammals divides the thoracic 
froin the abdominal cavity, is only represented in birds in a rudimentary condition. Macgillivray 
has figured that of the rook as cousisting of three fleshy slips, v, », 2, passing from as many 
ribs, 4, 5, 6, to the pleural sac of the lungs, ¢, ¢, in fig. 101, p. 206. It is best developed in the 
Apteryx. 

The remarkable specialization of both limbs, —the former for flight, the latter for the 
perfectly bipedal locomotion which only birds besides man enjoy, — results in corresponding 
peculiarities of the muscular mechanism. Muscles beyond the shoulder are greatly reduced in 
oumber and complexity from an ordinary quadrupedal standard ; those of the legs are rather 
increased, and their configuration, relative size, and to some extent their relations are so much 
changed, that great difficulty is experienced in identifying them with the corresponding muscles of 
quadrupeds. The result is, great confusion in their nomenclature, which is still shifting, though 
much has been done of late to give it precision. Attention has recently been called by Garrod 
to the classificatory value of certain muscles of the limbs. The tensor patagn, that musele or 
muscles which may have elastic tendons, and by which the folds of skin in the angles of the 
wing bones are regulated, may have different characters in different groups of birds. It has 
long been known that particular muscles of the hind limb are in direct and important relation 
to the prehensile power of the toes, and consequently co-ordinated with the insessorial or the 
reverse character of the foot. In the highest birds, Passeres, the foot grasps with great 
facility, owing to the distinctness or individuality of the flexor longus hallucis, or bender of the 
hind toe. The ambiens (Lat. ambiens, gomg around) is a muscle of which Garrod has even 
made so much as to divide all birds into two primary groups according to whether they possess 
it or not. The ambiensarises from the pelvis about the acetabulum, and passes along the inner 
side of the thigh ; its tendon runs over the convexity of the knee to the outer side, and ends by 

13 


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GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY 


194 


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THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— ANGEIOLOGY. 195 


connecting with the flexor digitorum perforatus, — one of the muscles which bend the toes col- 


lectively. When this arrangement obtains, the result is that when a bird goes to roost, and 
squats on its perch, the toes automatically clasp the perch by the strain upou the ambiens that 
ensues as soon as the leg is bent upon the thigh, and the tarsus upon the leg, the weight of the 
bird thus holding it fast upon its perch. The effect is as if an elastic cord were tied to the hip 
joint, thence directed over the front of the knee and back of the heel and so on to the ends of the 
toes. Obviously, such a cord would be strained when the limb is bent, relaxed when the limb is 
straightened out. The reader may observe a corresponding effect of the muscular arrangement, 
of his forearm by throwing the hand as far back as possible; the fingers tend to close by the 
strain on the flexors in passing over what is a convexity of the wrist when the hand is in that 
position. Passeres have no ambiens, the perfection of their feet in other respects answering all 
purposes. Birds having it are termed homalogonatous or ‘ normally-kneed” (Gr. 6uadés, homalos, 
froin 6pés, homos, like, even, etc.; ydvu, yovaros, goni, gonatos, knee); those wanting it are called 
anomalogonatous, ‘‘ abnormally-kneed.” The distinction prevails with much applicability to 
various large groups of birds, and does good duty in diagnosis when duly connected with other 
charaeters ; but surely should not give name to primary groups founded upon it! Other 
muscles of the leg much used by the same sagacious and zealous anatomist are the femoro- 
caudal, accessory femoro-caudal, semitendinosus, and accessory semitendinosus. The whole five 
of these muscles ‘‘ vary ; any one or more than one may be absent in different birds; .. . the con- 
stancy of the peculiarities in the different individuals of each species, or the species of each 
genus, and very generally in the genera of each family, makes it evident to any one working at 
the subject that much respecting the affinities of the different families of birds is to be learnt 
from the study of their myology, in connection with the peculiarities of their other soft parts ; 
and that these features will, in the long run, lead to a more correct. classification than one based 
on the skeleton alone, becomes almost equally certain.” (Garrod, P. Z. 8., 1873, p. 630.) I 
quote in justice of this author, a modern Macgillivray in sincerity and love of truth; and very 
generally, in constructing my characters of the higher groups of birds in the body of this work, 
IT shall be as glad to use the myological formule of Garrod, as I am here to pay this slight 
tribute to his memory. 


“cc 


d. ANGERIOLOGY: THE VASCULAR OR CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS. 


Blood and Lymph are the two media by the circulation of which throughout the body 
the various ameebvid animals which compose the tissues are fed, their waste repaired, and their 
dead parts removed. Each species of Amaba has the faculty of selecting from the constituents 
of blood and lymph its appropriate food; and of converting such nourishment into its own 
proper substance. Refuse matters are either drained off by the kidneys and voided as excrement, 
or swept by the current of blood into the lungs and there cremated. The stream of lymph is a 
feeder to the blood, and when the mingled currents are wo longer distinguishable has become 
blood. The machinery of circulation is two sets of vessels — the hematic, or vascular system 
proper, consisting of the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries for the blood-cireulation ; and the 
lymphatic, consisting of lymph-hearts and vessels, fur the flow of lymph. The lymphatics, 
converging from all parts of the body, and especially from the intestines, end in vessels which 
pour the lymph into the veins of the neck. The heart is the central organ of the blood-cireu- 
lation, by which that fluid is pumped into all parts of the body through the arteries or efferent 
vessels ; straining through the network of capillaries, it returns to the heart through the veins, 
or afferent vessels. The set of efferent vessels is the arterial system ; that of afferent vessels is 
the venous system. The blood in arteries excepting the pulmonary is bright red; that in 
veins excepting the pulmonary is dark red. The change from bright to dark oceurs in the 
capillaries of the system at large ; the change from dark to bright only in the capillaries of the 
lungs and air-sacs. The systemic blood circulation is completely separated from the pulmonic 


196 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


in all animals in which, as in birds, the right and left sides of the heart are separated from each 
other; such circulation is said to be double ; that is, arterial and venous blood only mingle in 
the capillaries, whether of the lungs or others, and therefore at the periphery of the vascular 
system: the heart being the centre of that system. Blood, in all or some of its constituents, 
permeates absolutely every tissue of the body. Those tissues whose capillaries are large enough 
for the passage of all the constituents of blood are said to be vascular; those which only feed by 
sucking up certain constituents of the blood, and have no demonstrable capillaries, are called 
non-vascular. But nutrient fluid penetrates the densest tissue, as the dentine of teeth; no 
permanent tissues are really non-vascular, or they would soon die, as do feathers, which require 
to be renewed once a year or oftener. 

Lymph and the lymphatics are noticed further on. Blood consists of water in which 
several ingredients are dissolved, aud certain solid bodies are suspended. Its water is salted, 
albuminated, fibrinated, and corpusculated. The proportions, which vary in different birds and 
at different times in the same bird, are in round numbers: water 80, fibrine and corpuscles 15, 
albumen and salts 5= 100 parts. Withdrawn from the body and allowed to settle, blood sepa- 
rates into two parts, serwm and coagulum. The serum is the clear yellowish salty albuminous 
water; the clot is the fibrine, in the meshes of which are mired the corpuscles, reddening the 
whole mass. The plasma, plasm or plastic material of the blood, is its substance dissolved 
in water; that is to say, minus the solid corpuscles. These latter interesting little bodies are a 
myriad of minute animals, which swim in the life-current, and are named Hematameba 
cruentata. They have been supposed to be of two species; but the so-called white blood 
corpuscles, or leucocytes, indistinguishable from lymph corpuscles, are simply the forma- 
tive stages of the red blood-dises. In its early colorless stage, the Hematameba is a 
nucleated mass of protoplasm (protoplasm is the indifferent substance out of which all animal 
tissue is derived), of no determinate size or shape, exhibiting active amceboid movements. 
Later in the life of the minute creature, it passes into a sort of encysted state. in which it red- 
dens and acquires definite dimensions and configuration. In birds, these ‘ blood-dises” are 
flat, elliptical, and nucleated, that is, containing a kernel; they average in the long diameter 
gis in the short yg55, of an inch. Thus they differ decidedly from the flat, cireular, non- 
nucleated, red blood-dises of Mammalia, which latter are supposed to be rather free nueclez than 
perfected Hamatamebe. The red color of blood is entirely due to the presence of these 
unicellular animals. The energy of respiration, and corresponding activity of cireulatiou in 
birds, make them hematothermal, or hot-blooded; the pulse is quickest, the blood hottest, 
and richest in organic matter, iu these of all animals. 


The Heart is a hollow muscular organ, at the physiological centre of the hematic vas- 
cular system. Its muscle presents the principal exception to the rule, that the contractility of 
Myameba striata (see p. 192) is subject to voluntary control. It is the most industrious organ 
of the body, never ceasing its rhythmic systole and diastole, or contraction and dilatation, from 
the moment of the first pulsation in the contractile vesicle which begins it, to that when the 
‘muffled drum” gives the last beat of the ‘funeral march to the grave.” The arteries are 
the elastic thick-walled brauching tubes which leave the heart on their way to the body at 
large; their pulsations, over which the vaso-motor nervous system presides, are isochronous 
with the heart-beats, and arterial blood thus flows in jets. The veins are the vessels converg- 
ing from all parts; thin-walled, less elastic, with more equable current. The capillaries are 
the communicating vessels, of such size as just to permit the Hamatamebas to pass through ; 
their network represents the terminations of arteries and the commencements of veins. The 
heart in adult birds is completely double ; 7. e., the right and left sides are perfectly separated. 
It is also completely four-chambered ; 7. e., there is an auricle and a ventricle on each side, 
which communicate; in embryonic life the two auricles communicate by the foramen. ovale, 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— ANGEIOLOGY. 197 


which then closes. Arteries proceed from the strong muscular ventricles ; veins are received by 
the weaker auricles. The course of the blood is: From the body excepting the lungs it comes, 
dark and heavy with products of decomposition, through the caval veins into the right auricle ; 
from right auricle through the auriculo-ventricular opening into right ventricle ; from right ven- 
tricle through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs; in the capillaries of which it is relieved of 
its burden. There decarbonized and oxygenized, the bright red aerated blood returns through 
the pulmonary veins to the left auricle ; through the corresponding auriculo-ventricular open- 
ing to the left ventricle, which pumps it out through the aorta and other arteries to the 
capillaries, and so to the veins and heart again. Thus the pulmonary arteries convey black 
blood, the pulmonary veins red blood ; the reverse of the usual course. Before lungs come into 
play, in the egg, the blood is purified in the allantois, an embryonic organ which then sustains 
a respiratory function. Besides the pulmonary there is another special circulatory arrange- 
ment, the hepatic portal system of veins, by which blood coming from the chylopoetic viscera 
(stomach, intestines, ete., which make chyle in the process of digestion), strains through the 
liver before reaching the heart. There is no renal portal system in birds. 

The heart of birds is not peculiar in its conical shape, but is more median in position than 
inmammals. There being no completed diaphragm, the pericardial sac which holds it is received 
in a recess between lobes of the liver. The right ventricle is much thinner-walled than the 
left; the auricles have less of the elongation which has caused their name (‘ little cars” of the 
heart) in mammals. The right auriculo-ventricular valve, which prevents regurgitation of 
blood, instead of being thin and membranous, is a thick fleshy flap which during the ventricular 
systole applies itself closely to the walls of the cavity. The pulmonary artery and the aorta are 
each provided at their origination with the ordinary three crescentie or ‘‘ semilunar” valves, as 
in mammals. The pulmonary artery arises single, forking for cach lung. The pulmonary 
veins are two. The systemic veins, or vene cave, bringing blood from the body at large, are 
three — two pre-caval, from head and upper extremities, one post-caval, from trunk and lower 
extremities. The aorta, almost immediately at the root of that great trunk, figs. 90-95, h, 
divides into three primary branches; right, 77, and left, li, innominate arteries, conveying 
blood to the neck, head and upper extremities ; and main aortic, a, which curves over to the 
right (left in mammals) and supplies the rest of the body. More precise statement is, perhaps, 
that the aortic root, h, first gives off the left innominate, h, then at once divides into right 
innominate, 7, and main aortic trunk, a, (right). It represents the fourth primitive aortic 
arch of the embryo. On the whole, the avian heart is a great improvement on that of most 
reptiles, though nearly resembling that of Crocodilia ; it is substantially as in any mammal, 
though differing in its fleshy right auriculo-ventricular valve, two instead of one pre-caval vein, 
right instead of left aortic arch, and mode of origin of the primary aortic branches. 

The zodlogical interest of the avian blood-vessels centres in the carotid arteries, which, 
with the vertebral arteries, supply the neck and head. The carotids may be single or double ; 
and other details of their disposition correspond well with certain families and orders of birds. 
They are the first branches of the innominates. In most birds, there is but one carotid, the 
left; in a few, one, formed by early union of two; in many, two, long distinct. The arrange- 
ment will be perceived by the diagrams taken from Garrod’s adinirable paper (P. Z. S., 1873, 
p- 457). In nearly the words of this author: 1. In what may be termed the typical arrange- 
ment (though it is not the usual one), two carotids, of equal size or nearly so, run up the front 
of the neck, converging till they meet in the middle line, and so continue up to the head, on the 
front of the bodies of the cervical vertebra, in the hypapophysial canal. Birds with this 
arrangement Garrod calls aves bicarotidine normales (fig. 90). 2. In most birds, the earotid 
branch of the right innominate being not developed, only the left, of larger size, traverses the 
hypapophysial canal; but it bifureates before reaching the head, thus producing two carotids, 
distributed as if there had been two all the way up. Such birds are said to have a left carotid, 


198 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


and are termed aves lavo-carotidine (fig. 91). 3. In certain parrots only, with two carotids, 
the right is as in (1), but the left runs superficially along the neck with the jugular vein and 
pucumogastrie nerve ; such birds are aves bicarotidine abnormales (fig. 92). 4. Two carotids, 
arising normally, unite almost immediately, and the single trunk runs to near the head, just as 
if there were two as in (1); then it bifureates, as in birds with left carotid only (2). Such birds 
are termed aves conjuncto-carotiding. Special cases of (4) are: in the bittern, the two roots 
are of nearly equal size (fig. 93); in the flamingo, the left is very small (fig. 94); in a cockatoo, 
the right is very small (fig. 95). Parrots display all four of the arrangements ; the cases of the 
bittern and flamingo are unique. The question is thus for nearly all birds narrowed to whether 
there be two normal carotids (1), or the left only (2). Observations upon three hundred genera 
show two in one hundred and ninety-three, in one hundred and seven the left only ; but the 


Fig. 90. FIG. 92. 


Fig. 94. Fic. 95. 

Fics. 90-95. — Diagrams of carotid arteries of birds: h, root of aorta; a, arch of aorta, to the right side ; li, left 
innominate ; ri, right innominate ; Js, left subclavian ; 7s, right subclavian; lc, left carotid; re, right carotid. (1) 
Fig. 90. Aves bicarotidine normales, with two carotids, both alike. (2) Fig. 91. Aves levo-carotidine, with left 
carotid only. (3) Fig. 92. Aves bicarotidine abnormales, certain parrots, with two carotids, not alike. (4, 5, 6) 
Aves conjuncto-carotidine, with two carotids, which speedily unite in one. (4) Fig. 93, bittern, both alike. (5) 
Fig. 94, flamingo, left very small. (6) Fig. 95, cockatoo, right very small. (Copied by Shufeldt from Garrod.) 
numerical proportion of Passerine genera makes (2) the most frequent arrangement. There is 
but one carotid in all Passeres as far as known; in most Cypselide ; in Trogonide, Meropida, 
Upupide, Rhamphastide, some Psittaci, the Turnicide, Megapodide, Podicipedide, Alcida, 
Rheide, Apterygide. Thus in Passeres, Columba, Accipitres, Gralla, and Anseres, the 
carotid arrangement is an ordinal character, all but the first named of these great groups 

having two. The character separates most of the families of ‘ Picarian” birds, and also dis- 

tinguishes the families Phanicopteride, Megapodida, Cracide, Turnicida, Podicipedida, and 

family groups of the Ratite, from among one another. It is apparently only a generic charac- 
ter in Psittact, and in Cypselide, Ardeide and Alcide. 

Reaching the skull, the carotids burrow in the bone, between the basitemporal plate and 

the true floor of the skull, and enter the cranial cavity by the “sella tureica” (the original 

pituitary space) ; their anastomosis furnishes a sort of ‘ circle of Willis.” (Figs. 66, 69, 70, ic.) 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— PNEUMATOLOGY. 199 


Both limbs of birds have a prime peculiarity of their arteries as compared with mamunals. 
In the fore limb, the blood supply being chietly absorbed by the immense pectoral muscles, 
vessels which in mammals are stall avillary branches appear like the main continuation of the 
subclavian trunk, and the brachial arteries are correspondingly reduced. In the leg, the main 
source of supply is the great ischiae artery, the femoral being small. ‘This ischiac artery cor- 
responds to the twig which in man accompanies the great sciatic nerve (comes nerve vachautict) : 
and the rare human anomaly of a posterior main vessel of the thigh is therefore a reversion 
(atavism) to the avian rule. There is uo single proper renal artery to the kidney. 


The Lymphatics of birds consist chiefly of a deep set accompanying the main blood- 


7 or ‘“‘lymph-hearts” in their course. Su- 


vessels, forming various plexus, —nodes, “ glands,’ 
perficial lymphatics, so prominent in mammals, are little developed, though lymphatic glands 
are found in the arm-pit and groin of seine birds. ‘These are the systenvc vessels; a special 
set, the lacteals, arise by numberless twigs in the course of the small intestine, uniting and ie 
uniting to form at length ¢vo (not one as in mammals) main tubes, which lie along either side 
of the spinal column. These are the thoracie ducts; which terminal trunks of the whole lym- 
phatie system empty into the right and left jugular veins at the root of the neck. The contents 
of the vessels differ correspondingly. Pure lymph is a pale, limpid, albuminous fluid, contain- 
ine when maturely elaborated a number of irregular ameboid bodies, indistinguishable from 
the white formative corpuscles of the blood (p. 196). Tt is strained out of the tissues at large, 
being that material, not yet eflete, which is still fit for feeding the blood. The lacteals contain 
chyle, —the other kind of lymph, drained off by the mucous membrane of the intestine from the 
prepared food in that tube; an albuminous fluid, milky or cloudy from the abundance of oil- 
globules, which, after mingling with the systemie lymph, is poured direetly into the current of 
the blood, in the manner above said. Since the lacteals do net appear to begin with open 
mouths, the chyle must soak into them through the lining membrane of the intestines; aud 
as this consists of a layer of amceba-like animals, through whose bodies the chyle passes, it is 
quite true to say that the whole organisin is nourished upon the excrement of amebas. 


e. PNEUMATOLOGY: THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 


The Organs of Respiration provide for the ventilation of the body. Since the respira- 
tory process is also calorific, they likewise furnish a heating apparatus. They consist esseu- 
tially of air-passages and air-spaces connected with lung-tissue, being therefore pulmonary 
organs. No other animals are so thoroughly permeated as birds with the atmospheric medium 
in which they live; in no others are the respiratory functions so energetic and effectual. The 
lung may be likened to a blast-furnace for the combustion of decayed animal matter; purifica- 
tion of the blood and warming of the body being two inseparable results obtained. Dark 
blood flowing to the lungs, heavy with effete carbonaceous matters, is there relieved of its bur- 
den and aérated by the action of oxygen; the products of coinbustion being exhaled in the 
form of carbonic dioxide and water. Aside from the proper lung-tissue, the capillary substance 
of the immense air-saes tends to the same result. There is likewise, in birds, a lesser system 
of ventilation, by which air is admitted to cranial bones through the eustachian tubes; but 
this is unconnected with the proper respiratory office. Pulmonary tissue consists chiefly of a 
wonderful net (a rete mirabile) of capillaries, interlacing in every direction, bound together and 
supported by fine connective tissue, and invested with meinbrane so delicate that their walls 
seem naked, their exposure to the air being thus very thorough. Air gains such intimacy 
with the capillaries through the larynx, trachea (fig. 101, 0), and bronchial tubes (7, 7), these 
being the primary air-passages. But all the bronchial tubes do not subdivide into the ultimate 
air-cells; some large ones run through the lung, pierce its surface (as at wu, wu, fig. 101), and end 


200 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


in that system of enormous air-spaces for which the respiratory system of birds is so remarkably 
distinguished, —like a heap of soap-bubbles, blown up en masse from a bow] of fluid; the extra- 
pulmonary air-spaces being the larger superficial bubbles, the minute vesicles of lung-tissue 
proper being little bubbles just formed. In this way air penetrates even the hollow skeleton of 
most birds (p. 135). 

The Lungs of Birds (fig. 101, ¢,¢), notwithstanding their heated energy of respiration, 
are anatomically more like those of reptiles than of mainmals. They are not shut by a dia- 
phragm ina special division of the great thoracic-abdominal cavity of the body, but extend from 
the apex of the chest as far as the kidneys, in the pelvic region. They are not divided into lobes, 
as in maminals, nor do they as in that class float freely in the chest by their mooring at their 
roots; nor, again, are they completely invested by a serous membrane forming a closed pleural 
eavity. They are fixed in the dorsal region of the general cavity, covered in front with pleura, 
with which slips of the rudiinentary diaphragm (v, v, v) are connected; but on the dorsal surface 
are accurately moulded to the intercostal spaces, showing the impressions of the ribs and verte- 
bra, — just as the lobulated kidneys are stamped with the sacral inequalities of surface. They 
are, as usual, two, right and left; their ‘ roots” are the brouchi (7, 7), the pulmonary arteries 
and veins, nerves, and connective tissue. 


The Pneumatocysts. — A bird is literally inflated with these great membranous recepta- 
cles of air, and draws a remarkably “long breath,” —all through the trnnk of the body, in 
several pretty definite compartinents ; in many, or most, or all, of the bones; in many inter- 
muscular spaces; in some birds also throughout the cellular tissue immediately beneath the 
skin. They vary so inuch in extent and disposition as to be not easily described except either 
in the most general terms already used, or with particularity of detail for different species. Ac- 
cording to Owen, however, the usual disposition is: An inter-clavicular air-space, quite con- 
stant: this, with its cervical prolougations, furnishes the great ‘air-drums” of our pinnated 
grouse and cock-of-the-plains. Anterior thoracic, about the roots of the lungs. Lateral tho- 
racic, prolonged to axillary, and to spaces and passages in the wings, including the hollow 
humerus. Large hepatic or posterior thoracic, about the lower part of the lung and the liver. 
Abdominal, right and left, of great size, from the lower part of the lung where the longest bron- 
chial tubes open very freely ; extending to pelvic and inguinal compartments, whence femoral 
sacs, the hollow of the femur, ete. The sabecutaneous cells are enormously developed in the 
pelican and gannet; the extensive areolar tissue being thoroughly pneumatic, and furnished 
with an arrangement of the cutaneous muscle (panniculus carnosus) whereby, apparently, the 
air may be rapidly and forcibly expelled by compression. A similar muscle develops in some 
birds in connection with the interclavicular air-space. (For pneumaticity of the skeleton, see 
p- 1385.) 

The purpose of this extensive respiratory apparatus is thus dwelt upon by the great ‘‘ New- 
ton of Anatomy” just cited: ‘*The extension from the lungs of continuous air-receptacles 


throughout the body is subservient to the function of respiration, not only by a change in the 
blood of the pulmonary circulation effected by the air of the receptacles on its repassage through 
the bronchial tubes; but also, and more especially, by the change which the blood undergoes 
in the capillaries of the systemic circulation which are in contact with the air-receptacles. 
The free outlet to the air by the bronchial tubes does not, therefore, afford an argument against 
the use of the air-cells as subsidiary respiratory organs, but rather supports that opinion, since 
the inlet of atmospheric oxygenated air to be diffused over the body must be equally free. A 
second use may be ascribed to the air-cells as aiding mechanically the action of respiration in 
birds. During the act of inspiration the sternum is depressed [lowered from the back-bone in 
horizontal position of a bird], the angle between the vertebral and sternal ribs made less acute, 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.—PNEUMATOLOGY. 201 


and the thoracic cavity proportionally enlarged; the air then rushes into the lungs and tho- 
racic receptacles, while those of the abdomen become flaccid; when the sternum is raised or 
approximated towards the spine, part of the air is expelled from the lungs and thoracic cells 
through the trachea, and part driven into the abdominal receptacles, which are thus alternately 
enlarged and diminished with those of the thorax. Hence the lungs, notwithstanding their 
fixed condition, are subject to due compression through the medium of the contiguous air- 
receptacles, and are affected equally and regularly by every motion of the sternum and ribs. 
A third use, and perhaps the one which is most closely related to the peculiar exigencies of the 
bird, is that of rendering the whole body specifically lighter; this must necessarily follow from 
the desiccation of the marrow and other fluids in those spaces which are occupied by the air- 
cells, and by the rarification of the contained air froin the heat of the body... . A fourth use 
of the air-receptacles relates to the mechanical assistance which they afford to the muscles of 
the wings. This was suggested by observing that an inflation of the air-cells in the gigantic 
crane (Ciconia argala) was followed by an extension of the wings, as the air found its way 
along the brachial and anti-brachial cells. In large birds, therefore, which, like the argala [or 
our wood ibis, Tantalus loculator], hover with a sailing motion for a long-continued period in 
the upper regions of the air, the muscular exertion of keeping the wings outstretched will be 
lessened by the tendency of the distended air-cells to naintain that condition. It is not meant 
to advance this as other than a secondary and probably partial service of the air-cells. In the 
saine light may be regarded the use assigned to them by Hunter, of contributing to sustain the 
song of birds and to impart to it tone and strength. It is no argument against this function 
that the air-cells exist in birds which are not provided with the mechanisin necessary to pro- 
duce tuneful notes; since it was not pretended that this was the exclusive and only office of the 
air-cells.” (Owen, -Lnat. Vert., ii, 1866, p. 216.) 

Though nothing like them exists in mammals, it must not be inferred that these air- 
pouches are unique in birds. The general pulmonary mechanism is reptile-like, and the or- 
nithic development is simply a logical extreme of arrangements found in reptiles and lower 
vertebrates, — even to the swim-bladder of a fish, which is morphologically and homologically 
pulmonary, though fishes’ gills are functionally, and therefore analogically, their lungs; 4. e. 
their respiratory apparatus. ; 


, 


a 


The Trachea (Gr. rpayeia, tracheia, rough) or “‘asper-artery” 
answers perfectly to its English name, wind-pipe. It is the tube 
which conveys air to and from the lungs (fig. 101, 1, 0 tog). It 
commences at the root of the tongue by a chink iu the floor of the 
mouth (fig. 101, 3, ¢), runs down the neck in front between the 
gullet and the skin, and ends below by forking into right and left 
bronchus (fig. 101, 1, 7,7). It is composed of a series of very 
numerous gristly or bony rings connected together by elastic 
membrane. Lengthening and shortening, effected by muscles 
to be presently noted, is permitted by a very ingenious and in- 
teresting construction of these rings, which will be clearly under- 
stood with the help of the figures (96, a, b, 97 1,2) borrowed from 
Macgillivray’s adinirable accouat. When contracted, the rings 
look like an alternating series of lateral half-hoops, as in fig. FIG. 96.—a, an inch of trac 
96, a; when stretched to the utmost, as in fig. 96, b they are chea, contracted to the utmost. 
clearly seen to be annular, or completely circular. The curious sabe Ge Ape ee 
bevelling of the right and left sides of each ring alternately is stretched to two inches, the rings 
shown in fig. 97,1, 2; and fig. 97, 1, 2, represents the same two ¢Vidently complete, with inter- 


F cae 3 : ._-Vening membrane. (After Mac- 
rings put together. The principle by which any two rings slip _ gitlivray.) a i 


202 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


partly over each other on alternate sides is something like that upon which a cooper fastens 
the ends of any one barrel-hoop without any nailing or tying. The rings are in some birds 
perfectly cartilaginous: in most they become 
osseous. The trachea is moved by lateral 
muscles, which not only shorten the tube by 
approximating the rings, but also drag the 
whole strueture backward, by their attach- 
ment to the clavicle and sternum. The strip, 

Fic. 97.—1, 2, left hand, two tracheal rings, sepa- OT two strips, of muscle lying upon each side 
rate, as in fig. 96, b; 1, 2, right hand, the same put of the trachea, is the contractor trachee (fig. 
BREE en ae heatee MaSSU LA _.101, 4, ss, ss); the most anterior, when there 
are two, as soon as it leaves the tube to go to the clavicle, becomes the cleido-trachealis, or 
cleido-hyoid, fig. 101, 1, f, f; the other is similarly the sterno-trachealis. The latter may be a 
direct continuation of the contractor, as in fig. 101, 1, the loose strips under q, or apparently 
arise separately from the side of the lower end of the tube, as in fig. 101, !6, e. (Other muscles 
are to be described with the larynx superior and inferior.) The trachea is long in birds, pro- 
portionate to the extension of the neck ; it is very flexuous, following with ease the bends of 
the neck in which it lies so loosely. Its eross section is oval or circular; but all that relates 
to the configuration and course of the pipe requires special description, —so variable is the 
organ in different birds. It is subject to dilatations and contractions in any part of its extent, 
and to deviations from its usual direct course to the luugs. Minor modifications must be 
passed over. The most remarkable expansions of the lower part of the tube occur in many 
sea-ducks and mergansers (Iuliguline and Merging), and some other birds; several lower rings 
of the trachea being euormously enlarged and welded together into a great bony and mem- 
branous box, of wholly irregular, unsymmetrical contour. Such a structure, represented in 
figs. 3 and 98, is termed a tracheal tympanum, or laby- 
rinth. It is not a part of the voice-organ proper, but 
may act as a reverberatory chamber to increase the vol- 
ume of the sound, without however modulating it. Being 
chiefly developed in the male, it is a kind of secondary 


sexual orgau. The vagaries of the wind-pipe are still 
more remarkable. Very generally, in cranes and swans, 
the trachea enters the keel of the sternum, which is exea- 
vated to receive it, and where it forms one or more coils 
before emerging to pass to the lungs. This curious wind- 
ing is carried to an extreme in our Grus americana, the 
whooping crane, in which the wind-pipe is about as long 
as the whole bird, and about half of it — over two feet of 
it!—is coiled away in the breast-bone (fig. 99). The 
same thing occurs in G. canadensis to a less extent (fig. 
Praia art oe Hee oled ian 100). In a Guinea-fowl, Guttera cristata, a loop of the 
islandica, seen from behind, nat. size. Dr. trachea is received in a cup formed by the apex of the 
R. W. Shufeldt, U.S. A. clavicles. Tn various birds, as some of the curassows (Cra- 


cida), the capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), a goose, Anseranas semipalmata, and the female of the 
curions snipe, Rhynchea australis, the trachea folds between the pectoral muscles and the skin. 


The Larynx (the Gr. name, Adpuyé, larugx) is the peculiarly modified upper end of the 
trachea (fig. 101, 1, and 3 to 12). In mammals it is a complicated voice-organ, containing the 
voeal chords and other consonantal apparatus; in birds the construction is simpler, as the 
larynx merely modulates the sound already produced in the lower end of the tube. It lies in 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— PNEUMATOLOGY. 203 


Fie. 100. — Coiling of the windpipe in the sternum of Grus canadensis ; reduced. (From Amer. Nat.) 


204 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


the floor of the mouth, at the root of the tongue, between the forks of the hyoid bone, resting 
upon the uro-hyal. Besides its attachments of mucous and other membrane, it is connected 
with the hyoid bone by a pair of thyro-hyoid muscles (8, 11), and usually with the rest of the 
trachea by prolongations of the sterno- and cleido-tracheales. It is usually a small, simple, 
conical ‘‘mouth-piece” of the pipe (4, a), without the dilatation which renders the corresponding 
structure —the ‘‘ Adam’s apple,” — so conspicuous in the human throat. Below, it communi- 
cates directly with the pipe: above, it opens into the mouth by the glottidean fissure, or rima 
glottidis (3, c), a median lengthwise chink, which opens and shuts as its sides diverge or close 
together, and which is further defended in front by a folding of the mucous membrane of the 
mouth, constituting a rudiment of that curious trap-door arrangement which, when fully 
developed, is called the epiglottis (3, d, e). Exclusive of two broken upper rings of the tra- 
chea (6, g), the cartilages (or oftener bones, —for they generally ossify) of the larynx are five. 
One is a large single median and inferior piece, the thyroid, or shield-piece (4, 6, 7, a), 
forming the mest substantial part of the structure. It is somewhat triangular or oblong, run- 
ning to an obtuse end in front; and with sides and posterior angles which curl upward behind. 
To its lateral posterior corner is attached on each side the small “horns” or cornicula laryngis 
(5, 6,7, b). There is a small median upper posterior piece, supposed to represent all there is 
of the ericoid (5, 7, c), which in man makes a ring around the larynx below the thyroid. To 
the ericoid, as to a base, are attached a pair of straight slender arytenoids (6, , d), projecting 
forward along the upper surface of the larynx: these form the rima glottidis, — the fissure of the 
glottis being between them. The arytenoids are attached in front by slender ligaments to the 
end of the thyroid (, the little slips between d and e), and they are supplemented by carti- 
laginous edges (8, f, f) ; but there are no true vocal chords. Besides the extriusie thyro-hyoid 
muscles, which pass from the larynx to the tongue-bone, the laryngeal parts are operated by 
intrinsic muscles, the sum of the motion given by which is the opening and shutting of the 
glottis by drawing apart or pulling together the arytenoids. Four pairs of such muscles are 
described for some birds. As named and figured by Macgillivray for the rook, there are: the 
thyro-arytenoids, which are the openers of the glottis (9, 22); the oblique arytenoids (10, 3,3) ; 
the thyro-cricoids (11, 44); and the posterior thyro-cricoids (41 and 12, 5,5). 


The Syrinx (Gr. cvpryé, surigx, a pipe) or Lower Larynx is the voice-organ of birds; in 
most respects a more complicated structure than the larynx proper, and one so differently 
constructed in different birds that it affords characters of great significance in classification. 
The highest group of Passeres, for example, is sigualized by the elaboration of this musical 
organ, the marvellously adroit fingering of the keys of which by the little muscular performers 
sends through the tracheal sounding-pipe the tuneful messages of bird’s highest estate. A few 
degraded or disgraced birds, as the ostrich and the American vultures, have no bucolic organ at 
all, the trachea forking as simply as possible. Others, as the common fowl, have a fair syrinx, 
but no muscles whatever to modulate their pastoral lays. Others have one, two, or three pairs 
of intrinsic muscles; to which may or may not be added a sterno-tracheal with syringeal attach- 
ment. It is not so much the bulk or mere fleshiness of the syrinx that indicates musical abil- 
ity; but the distinctness of the several muscles, and the mode of their insertion, which result in 
endless combinations of rotating and rocking movements of the parts, whereby an infinite modu- 
lation of the musical tones becomes possible. In Oscines, there are normally five or six pairs 
of muscles, without counting the extrinsic sterno-tracheales ; and the gist of the arrangement, 
in these melodious Passeres, is the attachment of the muscles to the ends of the upper bronchial 
half-rings, as far as the third one. As Professor Owen remarks with appreciative feeling, “the 
manifold ways in which the several parts of the complex vocal organ in Cantores may be 
affected, each of the principal bony half-rings, as one or the other end may be pulled, being 
made to perform a slight rotatory motion, are incaleulable; but their effects are delightfully 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— PNEUMATOLOGY. 205 


appreciable by the rapt listener to the singularly varied kind and quality of notes trilled forth 
in the stillness of gloom by the nightingale.” 

I should be able to make the plan of the syrinx clear to the student with the assistance of 
Macgillivray’s beautiful figures. These are drawn from the rook, — a corvine croaker, indeed, 
but one whose syriux is in good order, though he has never learned to play. As the modifica- 
tions affect principally the soft parts covering and moving the music-box, one description of the 
latter is applicable to most birds. The last lower ring, or piece composed of several fused rings, 
of the trachea, at its bifurcation into bronchi, is enlarged or otherwise modified (fig. 101, }, 
aba), and crossed below from front to back by a bony bar, the pessudus (13, at b; 15, a), or 
bolt-bar, which, dividing it into lateral halves (as at 14), forms thus two lateral openings 
instead of one. median tube, —the beginnings of each bronchial tube. A membranous plate, 
strengthened by cartilage, rises vertically into the tracheal tube, forming a septum, or median 
partition, between the orifices of each bronchus. The free curved upper margin of this septum, 
extending of course, from front to back of the orifice, is called the semilunar membrane; being 
the edge of a partition common to both bronchi, it forms, in fact, the taner lip of each bronchial 
orifice ; that is to say, the inner rima glottidis syringis, or lip of the syriugeal mouth-piece. 
This membrane vibrates with the column of air, and is, in fact, one of the ‘vocal chords. ” 
Now the bronchial rings which succeed are not annular, circumscribing the bronchial tube, 
but are half-rings (15, b, b), or ares of circles to be completed by membrane, which forms more 
or less (scarcely or not half) of the circumference of the tube; this membranous part, termed 
the anternal tympaniform membrane (15, ¢ to c), being on the side of the bronchus which faces 
its fellow, while the hard bronchial half-rings complete the rest of the cylinder. The mem- 
brane is attached to the pessulus above. This accounts for the whole bronchial tube and its 
voeal septuin from its fellow. Now the concavity of the upper two or three bronchial half- 
rings, on the outer wall of the tube, but in its interior, is the place where is developed a certain 
fold of the mucous membrane, projecting into the tube opposite the septum, and forming the 
outer lip of the syringeal glottis; for this membranous fold, like the semilunar membrane, is 
set quivering in vocalization. The upper tracheal rings which enter into this arrangement 
are enlarged aud otherwise modified. Thus are formed two ‘vocal chords,” upon the vibrations 
of which the harmonious or discordant notes of the bird depend. The cords are struck by the 
hand of air indeed, but endless musical variations result from the play of the muscles in increas- 
ing or diminishivg and variously combining the tension of the several parts of the instrument. 
In giving four pairs of intrinsic syringeal muscles (anterior external, anterior internal, inter- 
mediate, and posterior, besides the extrinsic sterno-trachezles), as figured in 16, a, b,c, d and e, 
Macgillivray is said to have understated the full oscine number, which is five or six. In the raven, 
Oweu describes five, without counting the sterno-trachealis: broncho-trachealis anticus, anterior 
external; broncho-trachealis posticus, posterior external; broncho-trachealis brevis, posterior 
internal ; bronchialis anticus, anterior internal; and bronchialis posticus. The general arrange- 
ment, however, is fairly indicated by Maegillivray in 16, where on the side of the syrinx, the mus- 
cles are seen to diverge from the tracheal lateral line to go to ends of the bronchial semi-rings. 

The student will understand that my description is particular only as regards the oscine 
sytinx ; that in birds at large every possible modification, almost, of lower tracheal and upper 
bronchial rings occurs, and with various musculation, or with none. The non-oscine rule for 
the muscles is, one on each side, if any; and insertion into mid-parts, not ends, of the bronchial 
half-rings. The latter character chietly distinguishes the non-oscine syrinx when it has sev- 
eral inuscles. As to situations of the syrinx, three have been recognized : the ordinary broncho- 
tracheal, in formation of which both bronchi and trachea take part; the tracheal, only known 
to occur in some American Passeres, as in T hamnophilus and Opetiorhynchus, situated wholly 
in the trachea, the lower part of which is extensively membranous; and the bronchial, wholly 
in the bronchi, as in Crotophaga and Steatornis. 


206 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


Fia. 101. — Respiratory and vocal organs of the Rook, Corvus frugilegus, an Oscine Passerine bird; nat. size, 
after Macgillivray. 1. a, tongue; 0, basi-branchial, commonly called uro-hyal; c, c, horns of hyoid bone; d, d, 
genio-hyoid muscles; e, e, stylo-hyoid muscles; /, f, cleido-hyoid muscles; g. hk, i, esophagus; j, proventriculus; 
or secretory stomach; k, gizzard, or gigerium, the muscular stomach; J, m, n, n, intestine, duodenum to rectum ; 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— PNEUMATOLOGY. 207 


0, p, trachea, or windpipe; g, inferior larynx, or syrinx ; r, 7, right and left bronchus: ss, ss, contractor muscles 
of trachea; ¢, t, lungs, with wv, uw, apertures communicating with thoracic air-cells ; v, v, v, three pairs of muscular 
slips answering to arudimentary diaphragm; 1,2,3,4,5,6,7, as many ribs. — 2. Hyoid bone; a, glosso-hyal, tipped 
with cartilage, its posterior horns being cerato-hyals proper; %, bari-lyal; c, basi-branchial proper, commonly 
called uro-hyal; d, d, cerato-branchials proper, commonly called apo-hyals ; e, e, epibranchials proper, commonly 
called cerato-hyals, tipped with cartilage, 7, 7. —3. Glottis, or opening of trachea in the mouth; a, base of tongue; 
b, b, horns of hyoid bone; c, rima glottidis, cleft or chink of the glottis; @,a triangular vacuity ; v, an elastic liga- 
ment; d and e represent an epiglottis; Jf, a papillose surface. —4. Larynx viewed from before (below); a, thy- 
roid bone or cartilage.—5. Larynx viewed from behind (above): a, thyroid bone; 4, 4, its appendages; c¢, cricoiil: 
d, d, arytenoids; e, e, anterior border of thyroid, to which d, d are connected by two arytenoid ligaments. —6. 
Larynx viewed from right side; a, thyroid ; ), appendage ; ¢, cricoid; d, arytenoid; //, cartilage attached to ary- 
tenoid; g,a tracheal ring. —7. Larynx viewed from behind; a, thyroid; J, 4, its appendages; c, cricoid; d, d, ary- 
tenoids. — 8, 9,10, 11,12. Muscles of the larynx; 1,1 (fig. 8), thyro-hyoids; 2, 2 (tig. 9), thyro-arytenoids, or openers 
of the glottis; 3,3 (tig. 10), oblique arytenoids; 4, 4 (fig. 11), thyro-cricoids; 5,4 (figs. 11 and 12), posterior thyro- 
cricoids. — 13. Bifurcation of trachea; aba, last entire tracheal ring. —14. Last entire tracheal ring, viewed from 
below, crossed by the pessulus.—15. Bifurcation of trachea, and bronchi, viewed from below; a, pessulus, the 
bolt-bar, or ‘‘ bone of divarication ”; 6, b, next succeeding tracheal half-rings. —16. a, b, ¢c, d, inferior laryngeal 
or syringeal muscles, not well made out in this figure; see text. But the typical oscine arrangement (acromyo- 
dian) is perceived, inasmuch as anterior (a) and posterior (@) intrinsic muscular masses go to ends of the first 
tracheal half-ring, at b and cc; the extrinsic slip e passing to sternum; compare fig. 1, at g. —17. Trachea, etc., of 
the nightingale, nat. size. (Compare tigs. 3, 67, 72, 73, 74.) 


The Song of Birds unlocks the great secret of Genesis to those who can hear the key- 
note. It is the closest approach, in animate nature, to the ringing of the hydrogen bells in the 
physics of ight. The musical instrument figured (101, 17) is the identical pipe the “ vreat god 
Pan” first fashioned for a legacy to all time, as so sweetly said by Mrs. Browning : — 


“ He tore out a reed, the great god Pan, 
From the deep cool bed ef the river. 
The limpid water turbidly ran, 
And the broken lilies a-dying lay, 
And the dragon-fly had fled away, 
Ere he brought it out of the river. 


“This is the way,’ laughed the great god Pan, 
(Laughed while he sate by the river!) 
The only way since gods began 
To make sweet music, they could sueceed.’ 
Then dropping his mouth to a hole in the reed, 
He blew in puwer by the river. 


“Sweet, sweet, sweet, O Pan, 
Piercing sweet by the river! 
Blinding sweet, O great good Pan! 
The sun on the hill forgot to die, 
And the lilies revived, and the dragon-fiy 
Came back to dream on the river.” 


But the sad sequel, felt by Keats, when poor Psyche has seen and known, and Eros has 
found his wings : — 

“So did he feel who pulled the boughs aside, 
That we might look into a forest wide, 
To catch a glimpse of Fauns, and Dryades 
Coming with softest rustle through the trees; 
And garlands woven of flowers wild and sweet, 
Upheld on ivory wrists, or sporting feet: 
Telling us how fair trembling Syrinz fled 
Arcadian Pan, with such a fearful dread. 
Poor Nymph, — poor Pan, — how he did weep to find 
Naught but a lovely sighing of the wind 
Along the reedy stream! a half heard strain 
Full of sweet desulation, balmy pain.” 


The blessed blue-bird, “bearing the sky upon her back,” is burthened with the same 
“light load of song ” — 


208 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


Have you listened to the carol of the bluebird in the spring? 

Has her gush of molten melody been not poured forth in vain? 
Ah! then the pulse has quickened, and a sigh, perhaps, has risen, 
From the breast the bluebird’s music stirs to thoughts that lack expression — 
So tender, so tumultuous are the fancies thus aroused. 

The bluebird’s song breathes gladness — breathes the sweet and solemn triumph 
Love feels when all love’s passion melts in its own fruition. 
Exquisitely subtile are the chords the bluebird touches — 

Chords that quiver now in ecstasy, now thrill in fond expectancy, 
Now die in dreams of all that might have been. 

Hers is language to interpret, and translate in accents rhythmic, 
All the yearning of young love to claim his own — 

Of young love that trembles on the threshold of the passions, 

And shrinks before the images his ardor calls to life. 

Thus to the maiden musing come thronging thoughts unbidden, 
When she hears this speaking echo of the hopes that glow within; 
And the tell-tale blushes redden to the rose-tint on the bosom 

Of the bird that dares to breathe her secret joy. 

Thus to the youth impetuous, whose life is set to music — 

Let love but laugh and beckon from afar — 

Fulfilment sends a greeting in the soft voluptuous languor 

That steals upon the senses if the bluebird’s song be heard — 
This song of wondrous gladness, ever bubbling, welling, gushing, 
From a fountain full of promise, inexhaustible, divine ! 

Sweeter fur these liquid accents when the buds of hope are blighted, 
And the tree of knowledge bears its bitter fruit; 

When memory sits brooding on the ashes of her birthright, 

And sackcloth shrouds a heart that once was young; 

For a silver chord is quickened where was greedy, silent sorrow — 
Responding to a sympathetic touch: 

The bird sings true and tender, with a precious burden laden, 
With the tidings of a love that never dies. 

So in the timid spring-time, when the world wears wreaths of roses, 
Ring clear the joyous melodies of hope! 

So in the summer season, when the wine of pleasure reddens, 
Ring passionate the triumphs of the heart! 

So in the sad, still autumn, when life bends beneath its burden, 
When what might have been has never come to pass, 

Rings once again this music on the crushed and wounded spirit, 
Bringing light where all was dark and drear before : 

All is not lost if the music that the bluebird bears be heeded, 

For her mission is to tell us love is God. 


Though it is a fact that ‘the Chenomorphe are not provided with intrinsic syringeal 
muscles,” there nay be much truth in treatises de cantu Cycni morituri which have appeared 
from time to time, and to the number of which I may be pardoned for adding : — 


How sadly sweet, how soft and low 
Is the music born of pain — 
How mournful sounds the ebb and flow, 
What measured beats, what throb and throe, 
In the wild swan’s dying strain! 


The archer, Death, and the twanging bow, 
And the fateful shaft on-sped, 

All state and grace and pride laid low, 

Disordered plumes and crimson flow — 
For the white swan’s heart has bled. 


But hear the mournful cry that rings 
On the startled air of night! 

As a spirit form in the darkness wings 

Its way unseen, the wild swan sings 
His psalm of life and light. 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. —SPLANCHNOLOGY. 209 


How sadly sweet the solemn strain — 
The dirge of the dying swan! 

That wondrous music, child of pain, 

That requiem, sounding once again — 
And a bird’s soul passes on. 


f. SPLANCHNOLOGY: THE DiGEsTIve SYSTEM. 


The Alimentary Canal, or digestive tract, is a tube which passes through the body 
from mouth to anus. conveying food, the uutritious qualities of which are drawn off by the lac- 
teals in transitu and assimilated, the refuse being voided. This is digestion. The canal is 
really a tube within a tube, being contained in the cavity below the bodies of the vertebra, 
formed by the series of hemal arches (p. 135). Birds are fast livers, their digestive operations, 
like the proce of respiration and circulation, being very active and effectual; they require 
proportionally great quantities of food. The voracity of the cormorant is proverbial, but it is 
eater than that of the ethereal nightingale. Birds as a class are omnivorous ; 


probably not g 
many species are as nearly omnivorous as any animals can well be; but the majority are either 
vegetarian or flesh-feeding. Very many birds feed upon fruits, hard or soft ; but even these, 
when in the nest, are nourished for the most part upon the bodies of insects ; and it may be truly 
said, that the great majority of birds are insectivorous. Birds seem to be the great controlling 
agency in the economy of nature, of the increase of insect life ; agriculture would be difficult if not 
impracticable without them, and their economic value, is simply incalculable. Insectivorous 
birds cannot be much interfered with, without destroying one of the most important and conse- 
quential of nature’s many beautiful adjustments. The bird cries perpetual ‘ échec!” to the 
insect. Even those birds which are mainly flesh-eaters, as the hawks and owls, are similarly 
beneficial, fur the creatures they chiefly prey upon are the small rodeuts so fateful to husbandry. 
The carrion-eaters contribute largely to make tropical regions habitable to man. Various 
tribes of birds feed almost exclusively upon fish; and these sometimes reach the dignity of 
diplomatic and other political interests of mankind: nations have gone to war over the dung 
of such birds, guano-beds being to some of the South American powers a large item of their 
revenue. Chili and Peru have been fighting lately, and the United States have been wrang- 
ling, over the excrements of the alimentary canal of sea-birds. This tube, in general, is 
shortest, simplest, and most direct in the flesh- and fish-eaters, the nature of whose food assim- 
ilates already more nearly to the substance of their bodies than does that of the vegetarians. 
The tube is modified in different portions of its extent, for the prehension, retention, saturation, 
maceration, and comminution of food, and the mixture with it of other solvent fluids than those 
secreted by the mucous membrane of the alimeutary canal itself. Hence arise the various 
modifications of its length, dilatation here, contraction there; the presence in its linmg mem- 
brane of uumerous follicles ; and the annexation of various glandular organs. Being always 
longer than the body, the tube is necessarily coiled away in certain places; this folding taking 
place chiefly in the intestinal part of the tract. Modifications of structure make recognizable 
parts, as the mouth, gullet, crop, stomach, gizzard, intestine, cloaca, anus. Annex organs 
are the salivary glands, the liver, and the pancreas, all of which pour their secretions into the 
canal. This tube also receives the terminations of other systems of organs: the auditory organ 
of special sense; the respiratory system, which is at first a mere bud or off-set from the 
digestive ; the urinary and the generative, which, though originally distinct, primitively and 
permanently open into the lower bowel. The intestine is also continuous with the cavity of the 
umbilical vesicle of the embryo, a primitive structure which disappears as the chick matures; 
and with that of the allantois, another embryotic organ which begins by budding from the intes- 
tinal cavity. Its connection with the system of blood-vessels is direct through the lacteals and 


thoracic ducts (p. 199). Its operations are automatic and spontaneous, of the “reflex” order ; 
14 


210 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


that is, excited by the presence of food, — having work to do making it work, so to speak. Its 
innervation is chiefly by the pneumogastric and sympathetic nerves; and digestion is the most 
purely vegetative function, dealing with the raw materials of nutrition and consequently of the 
growth and repair of the whole body. The active factors in this transaction are several spe- 
cies or varieties of small creatures, called Enteramebe; they are all derived by descent with 
modification from the hypoblastic cells of the early embryo. Those of the canal itself form 
all the mucous epithelium of that structure, with its various secretory crypts, follicles, and villi ; 
similar creatures, perhaps of different genera, form the lining of the salivary, hepatic, and pan- 
creatic glands. Blood-vessels, in intimate connection with the digestive organs, form that 
special venous arrangement by which the blood coming from that part of the intestinal tract 
where chyle is made is collected in a portal system and sent through the liver, —in the embryo 
a sort of “ great dismal swamp” which interrupts the ordinary current. The tube within the 
tube is fixed not only at its ends, but by various membranous connections, among them the 
mesenteries. We will notice the several departments of the alimentary canal, and its annexes ; 
reference should be made to the colored frontispiece, aud to fig. 101, where most parts of the 
digestive system are shown. 


The Mouth and Tongue.— The most anterior of the special cavities in which the tube 
is divided, and the ‘‘manual” organ it contains. The mouth in general corresponds to the 
shape of the jaws, already sufficiently noted (pp. 100, 162). The 
anterior pavt is much hardened, like the beak; in fact, this hard- 
ness of the buccal cavity, und the absence, or very slight distine- 
tion, of a “soft palate,” are among the peculiarities of a bird’s 
mouth. There is consequently little distinction, if any, between 
mouth proper and fauces, or pharynx, which is the posterior part, 
leading directly into the gullet. Besides this communication the 
mouth receives the terminations of four special cavities. 1. The 
posterior nares, on the roof of the mouth posteriorly, generally a 
median slit, leading into the nasal chambers. 2. The generally 
single and median and more posterior opening of the eustachian 
tubes, which lead into the tympanum, and are the remains of the 
first post-oral visceral cleft of the early embryo. 38. The glottis (fig. 
101, 3, ¢), a slit at the base of the tongue, the opening of the wind- 
pipe, and so of the whole respiratory system, which is defended by 
a rudimentary trap-door, the epiglottis, if any. 4. One or several 
pairs of orifices, the openings of the duets of the salivary glands. 
These structures, corresponding to the parotid, submaxillary, and 
sublingual glands of mammals, vary extremely in their develop- 
ment. In woodpeckers, for example, and some Raptores, elaborate 
special salivary glands occur, having a glomerate structure, and 
a special ‘‘stenonine” duct. In many other birds, similarly eom- 

Fig. 102.—Gular pouch of pound but less elaborate submaxillary glands pour their secretion 
bustard; copied by Shufeldt§ . . ; 
from Garrod. a, tongue; b, ato the mouth by a series of pores. In most birds, however, the 
the pouch, opening under a,  galivary glands are small, simple, and less distinct from various 
hanging in front ofc, the tra- ‘ es 
chea, behind which is the Other sets of mucous crypts which open into the mouth. In the 
esophagus, d, with its crop, e. great bustard (Otis tarda; fig. 102) there is a singular buccal struc- 
ture; a great pouch opening beneath the tongue, susceptible of distension during those amatory 
antics termed the “ showing-off” of the creature. It is in fact an air-sac, but not of the kind 
already considered (p. 200), having no connection with the respiratory system. The narial, 
eustachian and glottidean apertures are commonly defended by retrorse papilla ; and other such 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — SPLANCHNOLOGY. 211 


processes of unucous membrane, knobbed or acute, may occur elsewhere in lines and patches. 
The roof of the mouth is nearly all “hard palate,” as already said; its soft floor is the mucous 
inenbrane and skin between the jaws, with imuscular or other intervening structures. The 
principal flooring muscle is the mylo-hyoid ; the genio-hyoid (tig. 101, 1, d) is another, which 
passes, like the first, from the mandibular to the hyvid bone; a third is the stylo-hyoid (e). 
‘The floor in some cases forms a pouch, which, as in the case of the pelican, is of great extent 
and susceptible of enormous dilatation (fig. 501). 

The handler of the mouth, or lingual organ, is the tongue, which answers the same pur- 
pose as in other creatures: it is tactile, to some extent gustatory, soinetimes prehensile, nearly 


always manipulatory. In some birds, as the pelican and ibis, and also the kingfisher, it is 
very slightly developed, — scarcely more thau a pad at the bottom of the mouth, enjoying the 
most limited motion or other function. In some birds, as the parrot and duck tribes, and also 
the flamingo, the tongue is large, thick, and fleshy, quite filling the mouth. In the first- 
named of these, it is dexterously manipulatory ; the morsel of food is managed between the 
tongue and upper beak ; the tactile certainly and perhaps the gustatory seuse is highly devel- 
oped; and the fleshiness of the tongue may affect that power of articulate speech for which 
some parrots are justly noted. In the Laimellirostres just mentioned the tongue has lateral 
processes corresponding to the denticulations of the beak, and the under surface is horny at the 
end, like a human finger-nail. In the woodpeckers (figs. 73, 74) the tongue itself (glosso-hyal 
part of the hyoid) is reduced to a slight horny and spiny tip of the lingual apparatus; but other 
parts of that mechanism are so extraordinarily developed that the “tongue” appears as a 
lumbriciform (worm-like), spear-headed organ usually capable of great protrusion from the 
mouth, and therefore acting as a prehensile instrument, being bedewed for that purpose with 
tenacious saliva from the great salivary glands; while it is actuated in protrusion aud retraction 
hy specially developed muscles. In the suipe and many of the long slender-billed waders, the 
tongue is similarly slender, but not protrusible. The long narrow tongue of the toucans (Rham- 
phastid@) is beset with slender processes, so that it seems feathery. The tongue of the hum- 
ming-bird is very singular, —delicately thready, yet double-barrelled, —two tubes placed 
side by side, serving as siphons to extract the nectar of flowers. These and other 
interesting extremes aside, the ordinary style of a bird’s tongue is flat, narrow, more or less 
sagittate or lanceolate, and tipped or sheathed in horn, commonly with lateral backward pro- 
cesses like the barbs of an arrow head, —the whole glossal structure upborne pretty distinctly 
upon the end of the basihyal bone. (See fig. 101, where 1, a, is such an ordinary tongue, and 
2, a-f, is its whole skeleton.) Such horny tongues are commonly bifid at the extreme tip 
or there variously lacerate, or laciniate, or thready, —and even the fleshy tongue of some 
parrots, as the lories, is brushy at the end. The bony foundation of the tongue is the com- 
posite hyoid bone, already often mentioned (see p. 167); the free lingual part proper is based 
upon the glosso-hyal and its terminal cartilage; the roots curve more or less extensively about 
the base or more of the skull. The tongue is moved by some intrinsic muscles, as well as by 
those extrinsic ones by which it is connected to the skull, jaw, and windpipe (fig. 101, 1 and 8). 


The Csophagus. — After comminution, if any, by the beak, and insalivation in the 
mouth, food passes directly through the pharynx into the @sophagus or gullet, —a musculo- 
membranous tube connecting mouth with stomach (fig. 101, 1, , h,7). This is composed (besides 
its mucous membrane) of circularly disposed constrictor fibres, and longitudinal contractor fibres, 
of Myameba, of the pale, smooth species (MM. levis). It has generally a pretty straight course, 
but may be diverted to one side or the other ; and, in particular, is subject to various dilatations 
and contractions, permanent or temporary, aside from the mere distension caused by the pas- 
sage of food. When the floor of the mouth is wide and loose, the gullet partakes of the same 
character above; the extreme case is afforded by the pelicans, especially P. fuscus. But the 


212 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


gullet of nany small birds, as various genera of Fringillide and Corvide, is much more disten- 
sible than is commonly supposed, and may be found crammed with seeds which there find rest- 
ing-place for some time. The fish-eating birds, as herons, cormorants, loons, and others, have 
also capacious gullets. The Australian bu&tard, Mupodotis australis, has an wsophagus capa- 
ble of such extraordinary distension that it hangs down in front of the breast when inflated 
with air, as it is in the amatory display in which that species is wont to indulge. Aside from 
mere distensibility of transient character, the esophagus of many birds becomes modified 
anatomically into a special pouch, —the crop or craw, ingluvies, where the food is detained to 
be macerated in a special secretion before passing on to the true stomach. Such definite crops 
occur in birds of prey, which gorge such masses of food in their irregular voracious banquets 
that it cannot all be received into the stomach at once; and likewise throughout the orders of 
Columbine and Gallinaceous birds, which habitually feed upon seeds and other fruits so hard 
that they are advantageously macerated as a preliminary to true digestion. The common fowl 
furnishes a good illustration of a large, definite, single and median crop ; in pigeons it is a pair 
of lateral dilatations (see frontisp.). In these latter birds, when they are rearing their young, 
the secretion of the ingluvies, always copious, becomes still more so, and of a milky character in 
consequence of the activity of the altered mucous surface; it is regurgitated into the mouths of 
the young, along with the macerated grains. ‘This phenomenon is the nearest approach in 
the class of Birds to the characteristic mammary function of a higher class; and the analogy 
of the ‘pigeou’s milk’ to the lacteal secretion of the Mammalia has not escaped popular notice.” 
Various other birds also feed their young by regurgitation of elaborated food; and very many 
similarly reject indigestible portions of their ingesta. Such vomiting is best known to be the 


wont of birds of prey, which habitually throw up the hair, feathers and bones of their victims, 
made up into the boluses called “ castings”; but the practice is far from being confined tu these 
flesh-eaters. The extreme case of emesis offered by birds is witnessed in the horn-bills 
(Bucerotide) which have been known to throw up the coat of their stomach without discom- 
fort, — what a blessing it would be to some old topers if they could do the same, and grow 
another with equal ease! In fact, in consequence of the capacity and directness of the gullet, 
vomiting is very easy to birds, and with some it is a means of self-defence, — very effectual 
for instance in the cases of our vultures (Cuthartides). Fish-eating birds, as herons, gulls, 
petrels, habitually vomit when wounded or otherwise molested. 


The Proventriculus. — The tube just considered ends below in a special tract, variously 
dilated cr not, but always peculiar in the presence of certain gastric follicles which secrete the 
digestive fluid proper. The ‘stomach ” of a bird, in fact, is compound, consisting of a glandular 
or digestive portion, and a muscular or grinding part. The former is the proventriculus; 
whatever its size or shape, or whatever its magnitude in comparison with the grist-imill, it is 
recognized by the presence in its mucous surface of these gastric follicles, secreting the peptic 
fluid which chymufies the food. ‘The follicles are perhaps always large enough for this part of 
the tube to be recognized by the naked eye, —the mucous membrane having here a thickened, 
velvety, vascular appearance. The glands are of various sizes and shapes, — usually simply 
tubular, sometimes clubbed or conical, or variously racemose (like a bunch of grapes). They 
are disposed in a zone around the tube, or in patches upon part of its surface, —in the darter 
(Plotus), very singularly in a separate lateral compartment looking like a crop. Details of the 
grouping of these solvent glands are interminable. Whatever its anatomical variations, and 
however like the end of the esophagus it may simply appear to be, this ventriculus glandulosus 
is the bird’s proper stomach (fig. 101, 1, j). 


The Gizzard.— Mixed with the salivary, ingluvial, proventricular and other secretions of 
the mucous surface, and already chymified, the food of birds next passes directly into the giz- 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— SPLANCHNOLOGY. 213 


zard, gigertum, or muscular division of the stomach, sometimes called the ventriculus bulbosus. 
The two are sometimes separated by a tract, sometimes immediately consequent. In the mus- 
cular gizzard, the food-grist is ground fine. To this end, the walls of “he cavity become devel- 
oped into a more or less powerful muscular apparatus, and the mucous membrane changes to a 
tough, thick, horny, occasionally even bony, lining; this callous cuticular ling being often 
very loosely attached, and even deciduous in some cases. The muscular arrangemeut is chiefly 
in two great masses, called the lateral muscles, converging to a central tendon; between them 
intermediate fibres may form a more or less distinct muscular belly. In the most powerful 
gizzards, the muscular tissue is very dense and dark-colored; the tendons brilliantly glistening, 
and the contained “ millstones” extremely callous. Such a gizzard is well displayed ly the 
common fowl or the goose. The opposite extreme is afforded by the carnivorous and espe- 
cially the piscivorous birds, whose soft food requires little trituration, —it is all a matter of 
degree. How readily this part of the canal responds to the regimen of the bird, is witnessed in 
our cock-of-the-plains (Centrocercus wrophasianus), —a bird whose gizzard is so slightly mus- 
cular as to appear like a membranous bag, though its gallinaceous relatives have extremely 
strong grinders. Its food is chiefly the buds and leaves of the wild sage (Artemisia), and grass- 
hoppers. Increased muscularity of the gizzard has even been artificially produced. Birds 
whose grist is heavy habitually swallow gravel, that these small stones may mechanically aid 
in the grinding process. The action is so energetic, that in ‘auscultating” a fowl when the 
mill is in full blast, the noise of the grinding can be distinetly heard. The pebbles, in fact, 
have a function which leaves ‘“‘hens’ teeth” not entirely mythical. The kind of motion 
impressed upon the opposing pads of cuticle is alternating, —a rubbing back and forth to a 
slight extent. Peculiar dispositions of the callous surfaces are found in some pigeons, with 
corresponding peculiarity of the cross-section of the gizzard. In some of the euckoos a matting 
of impacted hairs of lepidopterous insects has been mistaken for a coat of the gizzard itself. In 
the darter, which has a pylorie division or compartment of the gizzard, this is nearly filled with 
a mass of matted hairs, a peculiar modification of the epithelial lining, serving to guard the 
pyloric orifice. Folds of the liuimg membrane form a pyloric valve in many birds. The pylo- 
rus, or the pyloric orifice, is that opening by which food leaves the gizzard for the intestines; 
the orifice of entrance froin the cesophagus is the cardiac. The two are always near together, 
and sometimes adjoining. (In fig. 101, 1, & is on the central tendon of the moderately muscular 
gizzard; the cardiac orifice is between j and k, and pylorus between J and k.) 


The Intestine continues the alimentary canal to the cloaca. Any difference in the 
length of the whole tract, relatively to that of the bird, is chiefly produced by the foldings of 
the intestine, especially in the upper portion of its course. The extremes of proportionate 
length are perhaps not ascertained; but known to be from less thau 2:1, to more than 8: 1. 
In birds there is little or no distinction between “small” and “large” intestine, as to the calibre 
of the tube, nor is the latter succulated as in mammals. The former is considered to extend 
from the pylorus to the ceca (structures to be presently noticed). Above the cwca the intes- 
tine commonly receives its foldings and windings; below them it usually proceeds more 
directly, or quite straight, to the cloaca, forming literally a “rectum”; but in the ostrich this 
ultra-ceecal tract is longer than the rest, and convoluted. The cis-ceecal portion is cenvention- 
ally divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum; there is, however, no positive anatomical 
distinction of these parts in any animal with which I am acquainted. In birds, a ‘ duodenum” 
is perhaps as distinct as ever; it forms the most constant duplication of the intestine, the pan- 
creas being lodged in this duodenal fold (fig. 101, 1, 1, m, n). The course of the intestine is 
otherwise very various in different birds. The upper end, near the pylorus, receives the hepatic 
ducts ; and food is chylified after impregnation with the biliary and pancreatic fluids; a process 
furthered by the proper secretions of the intestinal follicles. The chyle is drawn off by the 


214 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. . 


lacteals already described (p. 199), and the unassimilable refuse of the food becomes excremen- 
titious. 


Ceea (Lat. cecus, blind; in the nom. pl. ceca; sing. cecum). — The ‘blind guts,” so 
called because they end in culs-de-sac, are of two kinds. Oue is the umbilical cecum, or 
vitelline cecum, a rudimentary, or rather vestigial, structure, the remains of the opeu duct by 
which the cavity of the umbilical vesicle (an embryonic organ) communicated with that of the 
intestinal tract. It is ordinarily not to be noted at all; but it is said by Owen to have beeu 
found half an inch long in the gallinule, an inch in the bay ibis, and dilated into a sac an inch 
in diameter in the Apteryx. The structures ordinarily called c@ca, or ceca coli, for they are 
usnally paired, are pouches or diverticula which set off from the intestine proper at the junc- 
tion of the ileum with colon; but there is nothing in the intestine itself to mark this point, se 
that when czeca are absent, as frequently happens, no distinction of ileum from colon or rectum 
is appreciable. No part of the intestinal tract is so variable as the cecal; so that presence or 
absence of these appendages furnishes zodlogical characters now-a-days taken very commonly 
into account in framing genera and families. There are no ceca, as in the turkey- 
buzzard and some pigeons; there is a single small cecum in herons. From a condition of 
extremely small size, like little buds upon the intestine, caeca are found to elongate to extraor- 
dinary dimensions; and the large specimens are frequeutly saceate or clubbed, with slender 
roots. In geese and swans the ceca are a foot loug, more or less; in some grouse they are 
said to be a yard long. In the ostrich, the mucous membrane is thrown into a spiral fold. 
However developed, the physiology of these intestinal appendages is, the detention of food until 
all its nutritive qualities are absorbed, and increase of the absorbent surface. 


The Cloa’ca (tig. 101,14) or “sewer,” very well named, is the termination of the bowel, 
—an oval or globular enlargement of the rectuin, of sufficient capacity at least to contain the 
completely shelled egg. For, not as in placental mammals, the uro-genital and digestive or- 
gans are behind-hand in their evolution, and do not entirely lose connection with each other. 
Nor is there in birds any distinct bladder; but a cavity, originally that of the allantois of the 
embryo, persists in common with that of the intestines, aud is the cloaca. Such incomplete 
distinction between the two as there may be, by a folding of mucous membrane or partial com- 
partment of the whole, results in cloaca proper aud urogenital sinus, in which latter are the 
papillose orifices of the wreters, one on each side, from the kidneys; and of the single oviduct 
(2) or paired sperm-ducts (g}), from ovary or testes. The urine of birds not being liquid 
requires no more of a bladder than the sinus furnishes. The same cavity contains the penis of 
those birds, as the ostrich and drake, which are provided with an organ of copulation. A 
peculiar anal gland, the bursa fabricit (see frontisp.), also opens into the cloaca. Refuse of 
digestion, the renal excretion, the spermatic secretion, and the product of conception, are dis- 
charged by a single anal orifice, the two former en masse. 

Being intimately related to dietetic regimen, and so to the habits of birds, the alimen- 
tary canal varies greatly, — even more than my slight sketch shows, —and consequently affords 
good zodlogical characters in the details of its construction. But of all the anatomical systems, 
this is the one most variable as a matter of physiological adaptation (see p. 67). Its char- 
acters, even when they seem weighty, are therefore peculiarly liable to be fallacious as indices 
of natural affinities, and must be applied with discreet caution to morphological classification. 
Such are commonly only of generic significance. Thus in pigeons the ceca and even the gall- 
bladder may be present or absent in neighboring genera. 


Alimentary Annexes. 


Some of these, as the salivary glands, have been noticed already. 
The two most important bodies connected with the digestive tract, and properly considered 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OOLOGY. 215 


adjuncts, are the pancreas and the liver. The former is that kind of lobulated salivary gland 
which in mammals is called the ‘sweetbread.” It lies in the duodenal loop, along which its 
loosely aggregated lobes extend. Its ducts, formed by the successive union of smaller efferent 
tubes, are two or three in number; they pierce the intestine a little below its commencement 
at the pylorus, and pour into the canal the paucreatic juice, which has the property of emul- 
sionizing fat. The liver is a well-kuown glandular organ of very special structure and func- 
tion, secreting the fluid called bile, also received into the intestine. It is of moderate size in 
birds, and deeply divided into two principal (right and left) lobes: in some birds there is also a 
sinaller lobe; and one of the large lobes may also be divided. The lobes dispart above tu 
receive between them the apex of the heart; they are held in place by pleuro-peritoneal folds 
contributing to form the thoracic-abdomiual air-cells. The viscus receives venous blood from 
the extensive portal system of birds; two hepatic veins then conduct it to the post-caval. The 
emunetory ducts, carrying off the bile, are two or three in number. Que at least goes directly 
to the intestine, and another to the gall-bladder, when that cyst exists; in which case there is 
a separate cystic duct from the bladder to the intestine, no ductus communis choledochus, or 
duct common to the hepatic substauce and its cyst, being formed in birds. Two hepatie ducts 
may coexist with a cystic duct, making three to the intestine, all separate; two is the rule 
when there is no gall-bladder. These emunctories commonly enter the intestine some distance 
apart, and after the pancreatic ducts. The gall-bladder is generally present, frequently absent ; 
it may occur or not in closely related genera of birds. 


g. OOLOGY: THE URO-GENITAL ORGANS. 


The Urinary and Generative Organs may be conveniently considered together, not 
only on account of their close anatomical relations, but because their physiological functions, 
totally diverse in adult life, are pritnitively related in the most intimate manner. For it is a 
singular fact that the mean office of straining urine out of the system is at first sustained by a 
structure (wolffian body), in closest connection with which, in the female, actually as a part of 
which, in the imale, are later developed those organs (ovary and testis) whose exalted office 
is creative; for these permanent genital glands procreate the microscopie creatures called 
Dynamamebe, the marriage of which results in the reproduction of a complex organisin like 
the male or female parent. (See figs. 103, 104, and following.) 


The Wolffian Bodies, or primordial kidneys, are a pair of tubular structures which 
appear very early in the progress of development of the embryo, beneath the spinal column, in 
front of the fore end of the future kidneys; with each of them is developed a duct, the wolffian 
duct, which carries their excretion into the cavity of the allantois (the future cloaca). Upon 
the appearance of the true kidneys, the transitory wolffian bodies and ducts lose their urinary 
function; they ultimately disappear from the female, for the most part, leaving only a trace of 
their former existence in certain vestigial structures (parovaria, etc.); in the male, likewise, 
they atrophy, but not to the same extent; for a portion of the bodies persists as an accessory 
(epididymal) portion of the testicle, and their ducts persist as the sperm-ducts, or vasa deferen- 
tua. Meauwhile, in closest connection with the wolffian bodies, appears a pair of organs, the 
gemtul glands, for a while exactly alike. If the new creature is to become female, the genital 
gland develops to a certain complexity of tissue and becomes the ovary ; while a certain duct, 
the miillerian duct, developed coincidently to connect such ovary with the cloaca, becomes 
the oviduct. In birds usually only one ovary and oviduct (the left) becomes functional. If 
the new creature is to become male, the same genital gland develops to a higher degree of 
complexity, acquires a tubular structure, and becomes the testicle; it connects with remains of 
the wolffian body, and the wolffian duct becomes the permanent sperm-duct, conveying the 


216 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


product of the male function to the cloaca, just as the oviduct conveys the product of the female 
function to the same sewerage. Thus the testicle of the male and the ovary of the female are 
homologous, in fact primitively identical organs, upon which sexual difference is impressed by 
the greater complexity of structure acquired if the sex is to be male; a female being, anatomi- 
cally aud physiologically, simply an imperfect male, arrested at one stage of her physical 
progress to male perfection of structure; and the whole nature of the female bears out the same 
relation of inferiority. But the oviduct of the female, and the sperm-duct of the male, though 
physiologically identical, having the same function of conveying the products of generation 
from the genital gland to the light of day, are not anatomically the same; for in the case of the 
female, whose wolffian duct has disappeared, the miilleriau is the oviduet; in the case of the 
male, in which no miillerian duct appears, the wolffian is the sperm-duct. The two are analo- 
gous, not homologous (a good illustration — see p. 68). But it must be further observed that 
while the sperm-duct conveys ouly the masculine esseuce from centre to periphery, the oviduet 
conveys the feminine material from centre to periphery, and also the male essence in the opposite 
direction ; for, upon coitus, which is dircet in all birds, the spermatozoa, deposited in the cloaca 
of the female, find their way up through her oviduet to the ovary, there to accomplish impreg- 
nation of the ovarian ova, the feeund product then passiug down by the same avenue. All that 
relates to the mysteries of generation, — both the structure and function of the reproductive 
organs, and the maturation of the product of conception, is properly Odlogy (Gr. edv, oon, an 
egg); though the term is vulgarly used to signify merely a description of the chalky substance 
in which the egg of a bird is finally invested. The anatomy of the egg is Embryology. An 
egg, or ovwn, is simply the product of conception up to the time that product acquires an inde- 
pendent existence ; avhile still connected with the female tissue of the ovary, and before or after 
it amalgamates with the male element, itis an ovarian ovum ; 
more or less incompletely matured, it is an embryo or furtus, — 
the former term being commonly applied 
to the unhatched young of birds. The 
only difference between the ‘ege” of a 
“viviparous” mammal and that of an 


’ bird, is in the albuminous 


‘oviparous ’ 
and cretaceous envelopes of the latter, 
and its speedy expulsion froin the body 
of the female to be hatched ontside, with- 
out anatomical connection with the moth- 
er after the hard shell is formed ; whereas, 
in most mannnals, the ovum is retained 
in a dilated part of the miillerian duct 
(uterus or womnh) untilit hatches”; but 
mammal and bird alike ‘lay eggs,” the 


Fig. 103 —Uro-genital essential germinative part of which is Fic. 104, — Uro-genital organs 
organsofmaleembryo bird; identical. Appreciation of these facts, of female embryo bird ; from Owen, 
from Owen, after Miiller. , y a ‘ ” after Miiller. a, kidneys; b, wolf- 
a, kidneys: }, ureters; c, aud a proper idea of the relations of the gan bodies; c, genital gland, to 
wolffian bodies; d, their j ature sexual organs to the wolfian become ovary; d, adrenals; e, ure- 
ducts, to be sperm-ducts; . . - ters; /, wolftian ducts, to disap- 
e, genital glands, to become bodies is necessary to any understanding pear; g, miillerian ducts, to become 
testicles; /, adrenals. of thé parts and processes concerned in oviducts. 


reproduction.t We have here to consider the permanent as distinguished from the transitory 
kidneys, and may then recur to the subject of generation. 
1 The matter may be further illustrated by the two figures borrowed from Owen (after Miiller). In both figs., 


the large dark masses, a, are the permanent kidneys, whose ducts, b in fig. 103, e in fig. 104, are the ureters, empty- 
ing into the cloaca. In fig. 103, male, c is the wolffian body, whose duct, d, persists as the sperm-duct, conveying 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.—OOLOGY. 217 


The Kidneys (Lat. renes, Engl. reins, adj. renal; figs. 103, 104, @; 105, x) differ much 
from those of mammals in physical characters, though identical in function, —that of straining 
off from the blood certain deleterious substances in the form of urea; whence they are sometimes 
called emulgent organs. Their oftice of purification is analogous to that of the lungs, which 
decarbonize the blood, and to some extent vicarious, as is that of excretory orgaus in general. 
As the lungs are closely bound down to the thoracic region of the trunk, so are the kidneys 
impacted in the pelvic region, being moulded to the sacral inequalities of surface (p. 141). 
They are paired, but sometimes counected across the median line by renal tissue; they have uv 
special renal artery, but derive their blood from various sources; and blood from them takes 
part in the hepatie portal system, no reniportal being accomplished. They have little or noth- 
ing of the particular mammalian configuration which has made “ kidney-shaped” a common 
descriptive term; being elongated, somewhat parallel-sided and rectangular, flattened bodies. 
lobated into a few large compartments, and lobulated into many lesser divisions; their figure 
depends much upon that of the pelvis. They are very dark-colorea, rather soft, easily lacerable, 
and appear to the naked eye to be of a granular substance, without dis- 
tinction of ‘ cortical” and “medullary” portions. Nor is there any 
“pelvis” of the kidneys in which the uriuiferous tubules empty together 
by numerous ducts as into a common basin. Each wreter (figs. 103, b ; 
104, e; 105, y), or exeretory duct, is formed by reiterated reunion of the 
tubult uriniferi, after the manner of a pancreatic duct; each ureter passes 
down behind the rectum and opens into the lower back part of the cloaca, 
— uch like a mammalian ureter into the base of the bladder. The 
original eavity of the allantois remains to furnish no more of a urinary 
bladder than some special dilatation of the cloaca represents; but this 


rudimentary bladder, as distinguished from the uro-genital sinus in which 
the ureters terminate alongside the sperm-duets, is well marked in some 
birds ; being in the ostrich, for example, a considerable enlargement of 
the cloaca between the termination of the rectum proper and the uro- 
geuital compartment of the sewer. The renal excretion is not watery 
as in mammals, but semi-solid, and voided with the fieces, of which it 
forms part. 

The kidneys are capped by a pair of small yellowish bodies, the 
supra-renal capsules or adrenals (figs. 103, f; 104, 105, d), the nature 
of which is undetermined. They are chiefly interesting to the practical 
ornithologist in their liability to be mistaken for testes in examining Fic. 165. — Uro-gen- 
specimens for sex (see p. 45). nie aes ee gee 

a, testis; b, epididymis; 
The testis (Lat. testis, pl. testes, a sperm-duction vaside: 
. : es : erens; d, adrenal; /, 
a witness; fig. 105, @) or testicle has heen already sufficiently noticed as cloaca; 2, kidney; «, 
to its general appearance and position (p. 46). As said above, it is the reter. 
essential male organ, consisting of the primitive indifferent genital gland (fig. 103, e) in its 
highest state of development as a tubular secretory organ, connected with the remains of 
the wolffian body as a part of its efferent structure (epididymis ; fig. 105, b) and with the 
original wolffian duct as its vas deferens (figs. 103, d; 105, ¢), or efferent duct, by which the 
semen is conveyed to the cloaca. The original glands normally remain paired, and both 
are usually functionally developed to corresponding size, shape, and activity; they remain 
in their embryonic situation in front of the upper part of the kidneys; and such difference 


Male Organs of Generation. 


semen from e, the testis. In fig. 104, b is the wolffian body, whose duct, f, disappears ; and g is the miillerian duct, 
becoming the oviduct, to convey the egg from c, the ovary. Thuse, fig. 103, and c, fig. 104, are the homologous 
genital glands, becoming either testis or ovary: but the sperm-duct, @, fig. 103, is not the oviduct, g, fig. 104. 


218 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


of appearance as they present under different circumstances is mainly seasonal. For birds, 
as a rule, procreate only at particular times of the year, rarely having more than one or 
two broods of young: the functional activity aud quiescence of the testes correspond, as the 
enormous swelling of the gland during the breeding season is oue of the peculiarities of the 
bird’s organ. ‘This may be related to the absence, in birds, of specially formed vesicule semi- 
nales, or. seminal reservoirs; though certain couturtions and dilatations of the sperm-ducts 
which are to be observed may imperfectly answer to detain the seeretion until circumstance 
render it available. The passage of the sperm-duet is along the face of the kidneys, generally 
in company with the ureters; the opening is by a papilla upon the surtace of the uro-genital 
sinus. These papillose tenninations of the sperm-ducts are erectile to a degree, and answer the 


purpose of paired penes in those birds which are not provided with better-formed copulatory 
parts. In coitu, the cloacal chambers containing the orifices of the genital ducts are opened, 
and the more or less protruded papilla come in contact or close juxtaposition. In cases in 
which a penis or two pence are developed, the urethral passage is a groove, never a tube, 
though cavernous and even muscular tissue may be developed; and in any case of such an 
intromittent apparatus, it has cloacal invagination when not operative (see p. 680). These 
organs, in all their variety, are of the sauropsidan, not mammalian, type; though in some 
respects the structure approaches that seen in the non-placental mammals. No prostate or 
cowperian glands exist in birds. 

The sole office of the testis, or odphoron masculinum, is the secretion of semen, associate 
structures being simply accessory, for the conveyance of that vital substance and its trausfer- 
ence to the opposite sex. The seminal fluid itself is merely the vehicle of transport of the 
spermatozoa, in which their activity may be freely exercised in their intuitive struggles to gain 
access to their mates in the ovary. It is literally a ‘sea of life” in which the minute creatures 
swim in shoals to their destiny, 


and their fate in any case is death. If they successfully 
buffet the waves of fate they find a watery grave in the ovum at last; if that haven be not 
reached they simply perish in mid-oeeau. The spermatozoa, or seminal animaleules, or male 
Dynanamebe (figs. 106, 107), are the exact counterparts of ovarian ova, in so far as they are 
single-celled animals of a very low grade of organi- 
zation; but their activity and intelligence is marvel- 
lous, and still more so is the mysterious attribute 
with which they are endowed of assimilating their 
protoplasmic substance with that of the ovum; with 
the result that the thus fecundated ovum is eapable 
of procreating itself by fissiou for a period until a 


mass of similar creatures is engendered; from which 
ss . i eB i < Fia. 107. —Sper- 

Fig. 106.—Spermatozoa ynass is then speedily evolved the complex body of jyato, ee 
of domestic cock, greatly >: ii i Z 7 3 Miatizos Of Sparrow; 
magnified; from Owen, after the Bird. The corresponding female Dynamamebe@ greatly magnitied ; 
from Owen, after 
5 Seas Wagner and Leuck- 
ically indistinguishable from an ordinary eucysted Ameba ; but the sperma- art. 


Wagner and Leuckart. (ovarian ova) are simple spherical animalcules, phys- 


tozoa are remarkably distinguished in appearance, furnishing probably the best marked case of 
sexual characters to be found among the Protozoa, to whieh class of animals they belong. The 
spermatozoa resemble flagellate infusoria or ciliated endothelium cells, though they each have 
but a single whip. They are of extremely minute size, mueh smaller than their females, and 
filamentous ; more or less thickened and sometimes wavy at their nucleated heads, whence pro- 
trudes an excessively delicate thready tail, endowed with great vibratory energy. They may be 
likened to diminutive attenuated tadpoles, which swim by lashing the tail in the seminal fluid. 
Under the microscope shoals of these curious creatures may be seen swimiing in the sea, nosing 
about in search of the ovum, butting their heads in wrong places, backing out and trying again 
in another direction; with such success that out of myriads a score or so may gain their end. It 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OOLOGY. 219 


will be seen that they have a long journey to accomplish ; for, liberated in the cloaca of the 
female, they have to swim through the whole length of the oviduct to the ovary. Besides 
such physical difference between the male and female Dynamameba as I have indicated, they 
differ in their place and mode of birth ; and in this difference lies the very gist of sex. The 
original indifferent genital gland above described, arrested, as said, at a certain stage of de- 
velopment and therefore female—the ovary — produces its eggs froin its surfave-cells, which 
subside into the ovarian tissue, and are quietly packed away there as ovarian ova, ready to 
ripen and awaken to impregnation in due course. The same glaud, further developed into a 
testis, gives active birth to the spermatozoa in the tubules of its complicated interior tissue. In 
the former case, the superficial cells slowly ovulate ; in the latter, the cells lining the interior 
speedily spermate ; in a word, the testis is as literally viviparous as is the ovary oviparous, — 
and these conditions are certainly no insigniticaut indices of relative development in the scale of 
being. The spermatozoa appear in some animals to be set free in myriads from the walls of the 
seminal tubules whence they directly issue; in birds, they are described as appearing coiled or 
otherwise packed in delicate sperm-cells, which speedily rupture and discharge the creatures in 
the current of the seminal fluid, where they take up the course aud display the euergetic actious 
above noted. Either case has its parallel among ordinary Protuzoaus; the former correspoud- 
ing to the process of budding or gemination, the latter to that of interior fission and discharge 
of numerous progeny by rupture of the envelope. The final conjugation of spermatic filaments 
with ovarian ova is simple fusion, such as any ordinary sexless amoeboid animal may practise to 
blend its protoplasmic substance with that of another. But there is this difference, that in the 
case of Dynamameba it is a true sexual congress, usually polyandrous, and still more of a 
one-sided affair in that the female Dynamameba is at the time in a more or less quiesceut, 
encysted state. 


Female Organs of Generation. — The connection between the male and female orgaus 
of generation is uaturally so close that in what has preceded it has been scarcely possible to 
speak of the former without reference tu the female counterparts. I have thus far endeavored 
tu state clearly the uature of the originally sexless genital gland; the difference iu the same 
gland when afterward sexed male or female; and the character of the spermatic offspring of 
the male gland. In reading that lessou the novitiate in such Eleusinian mysteries must wot 
mistake the language I have used to describe the male Dynamameba, or ‘spermatozodn, as 
applicable to anything in the development of the female Dynamamaba, or ovuin, into the 
chick ; for all said thus far only relates to the bringing of the spermatozodn into contact with 
the ovum, preliminary to the initial step of the ovun in its course of development. It is this 
female Dynamamaba — this primitive ovarian ovum, the germ of the chick, which corresponds 
to and is the counterpart of the male Dynamameba, on meeting and mingling with which 
fecundation is accomplished; the impregnated ovum being then empowered to take up its 
marvellous march. Conjugation of the opposite Dynamamebe oceurs either in the ovary or 
upper part of the oviduct, — most probably the former. One or several spermatozoa — usually 
more than one — accomplishing their joumey up the oviduct, and finding their affinity, 
insinuate themselves into the substance of the ovum, and die there, dissolved in amorous pain; 
that is to say, they melt into the substance of the ovum. The now fertile result, consisting of 
the mingled protoplasm of the opposite amebas, is to all appearance precisely the same as the 
original infecund ovum — yet there is all the difference in the world, as the result shows. 

The general character of the ovary of a bird has been already indicated (p. 46). The 
principal superficial difference in appearance when the ovary is in functional activity, from the 
corresponding organ of a mammal, is that the ova develop to such a size, in ripening in the 
ovary before leaving it for the oviduct, that the organ looks like a bunch of grapes, — very 
large and conspicuous. The oviduct is the musculo-membranous tube (modified miillerian 


220 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


duct) which conveys the ripened ovum, and in its passage provides it with a quantity of white 
albumen, and finally a chalk shell. A bird’s oviduct is the strict morphological homologue 
(p. 68) of a mammal’s fallopian tube, uterus and vagina, — 
more accurately, of one fallopian tube, one half of a uterus, 
and one half of a vagina; for the uterus and vagina of a 
mammal result from the union of both miilerian ducts; 
whereas in a bird only one —the left usually —is normally 
developed. Functionally, the oviduct is also analogous (p. 
68) to the mammalian uterus, inasmuch as it transmits the 
product of conception, aud detains it for a while, in the initial 
stage of its germination, as we shall sce in the sequel; though 
all but the very first steps in the development of the chick 
are taken during incubation, the egg having so hastily left 
its uterine matrix. These structures — ovary and oviduct, 
tig. 108,— are most conveniently described as we trace the 
course of the ovum from its origination to its maturity. This 
record differs considerably from the corresponding course of 
events in a mammal, inasmuch as the ovun of a bird, though 
primitively identical with that of any other animal, acquires 
special albuminous and cretaceous envelopes which the mam- 
malian ovum, developed in the body of the parent, does not 
require. 


LA. 


ZA 


ot The process is termed ovulation. Ovulation, which 


Fia. 108. — Female organs of do- 
mestic fowl, in activily ; from Owen, 
after Carus. a, b, c,d, mass of oya- 
rian ova, in all stages of develop- 
ment; b, a ripe one; c, its stigma, 
where the ovisac or calyx ruptures ; 
d,a ruptured empty calyx, to be ab- 
sorbed; ¢, infundibulum, or funnel- 
shaped orifice of the oviduct ; /, next 
portion of oviduct; g, follicular part 
of oviduct ; m, mesometry, membrane 
steadying the oviduct; the reference- 
line, m, crosses the constricted part or 
isthmus of the oviduct; these parts 
secrete the white of the egg; i, shell- 
forming or uterine part of oviduct, 
in which is a completed egg, i; J, 


is the formation of an egg in the bird, must not be confounded 
with germination, which is the formation of a bird in the egg. 
The former can be accomplished by the virgin bird, which 
may lay eggs searcely differing in appearance from those which 
have been fecundated, but germination in which is of course 
The course of ovulation, and afterward of gemni- 
nation, is now to be traced. 


impossible. 


Ovulation. — The ovwm begins as a microscopic point in 
the ovary, the stroma or tissue of which is packed with these 
incipient eggs. It is primitively just like any other female 
Dynamameba, from that of a sponge up to that of a woman, 


lowest or vaginal part of oviduct, 
opening into uro-genital sinus of the 
cloaca, 7 ; 0, anus, 


—a uaked simple cell, capable of exhibiting active ameeboid 
movements. It consists of a finely granular protoplasm, the 
vitellus, or yelk, enclosed in a delicate structureless cell-wall, the vitelline membrane, called 
the zona pellucida from its appearance under the microscope. Imbedded in the vitellus is a 
nucleus, or kernel, the germinal vesicle; in this is a nucleolus, or inner kernel, the germinal 
The ovum occupies a tiny space in the ovary, the cellular walls of which constitute an 
Now if such an ovum as this were mammalian, it would, without 


spot. 
ovisac, or graafian follicle. 
material change, burst the ovisac, be received into the fallopian tube and conveyed to the 
uterus; where, supposing it already fertilized, the whole of its contents would develop into the 
body of the embryo. It would therefore he holoblastic (Gr. ddos, holos, the whole; Bracrikés, 
blastikos, germinative). Jt is different with a bird or other “ oviparous ” animal, the egg of 
which has to hatch outside the body; for provision must be made for the nourishment of the 
developing chick, thus separated from the tissues of its mother. Such provision is made by 
the accumulation about the ovum of a great quantity of granular protoplasmic substance, which 
forms nearly all the large yellow ball called in ordinary language “the yelk” of an egg. None 
of this adventitious substance goes to form the embryo ; it is what the embryo feeds on during 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OOLOGY. 221 


its formation. A bird’s egg is therefore meroblastic (Gr. pépos, meros, a part, and BAagrexos), 
and we must carefully discriminate between the great mass of yellow food-yelk, as it may be 
called, and a small quantity of “white yelk,” the true germ-yelk, which alone is transformed into 
the body of the chick. The latter forms the cicatricle, vulgarly called the “tread”; that small 
disc, visible in most birds’ eggs to the naked eye, which appears 
upon the surface of the great yellow ball, floating in a pale thin 
yelk which penctrates the denser and yellower food-yelk by a 
cord of its own substance leading to a central cavity, the false 
yelk-cavity, around which the food-yelk is deposited in a series 
of concentrie layers like a set of .onion-skins The whole mass 
is surrounded by a delicate structureless yelk-skin, called the 
vitelline membrane (whether this be the original vitelline mem- 
brane of the Dynamameba or not; i. e., whether the food-yelk 
has accumulated inside or outside the original zona pellucida). 
All this enormous accumulation, effecting what is called a meto- 


ye Fic. 109. — Meroblastic ovum 
vum or after-egg, to distinguish it from the protovwm, or primitive (yelk) of domestic fowl, nat. size, 


5 3 a i in section; after Haeckel. a, the 
state of the egg, goes on in the ovary, and in the ovisac of each jh.) selieabin, eodlasing the yel- 


ovum ; with the ripening of the ovum, the ovisacs become dis- low food-yelk, which is deposited 
tended to a corresponding size, and the whole ovary acquires Gun a bie a 
the familiar bunch-of-grapes appearance. With such maturation cleus, whence passes a cord of 
of the fruit, the connection with the rest of the ovary lengthens White yelk (here represented in 
: : A : 5 = ‘ black) to the central cavity, d’. 
into a stalk, or pedicel, by which the ripe ovum hangs to its 

stock, like any fruit upon its stem, ready to burst its skin and fall into the open mouth of the 
oviduct. Such rupture of the graafian follicle (ovisac), in its now distended state known as 
the capsule or calyx, oceurs along a line where the numerous blood-vessels which ramify 
upon its surface appear to be wanting, called the stigma: this is rent; the ovum slips out of 
its calyx, like the substance of a grape pinched out of its skin, and falls into the oviduct. 
After this discharge, the empty calyx collapses, shrivels, and ultimately disappears by ab- 
sorption. (See expl. of fig. 108). 

The ovum thus acquires the full size of its yelk in the ovary, — becoming, as in the case of 
the hen, a yellow sphere an inch in diameter.1 Notwithstanding its enormous distension with 
foud-yelk, it is still morphologically a simple cell, affording the maximum dimension of any 
known protozoan or single-celled animal. Entering the oviduct, the germ-yelk part of the 
whole mass is fertilized by spermatozoa, unless this process has before occurred in the ovary, 
and in its passage through that tube the yelk-ball becomes invested snecessively with the 
mass of transparent albumen known as the ‘‘ white” of the egg, and finally by the chalk shell 
— both secreted by the mucous membrane lining the oviduct. 

During its functional activity, the left oviduct (there being usually only this one) becomes 
highly developed, both as to its muscular walls, which by their contractility embrace the ovum 
closely and squeeze it along, and as to its mucous secretory surface. It is supported by perito- 
neal folds forming a mesometry, like the mesentery of the intestines; its whole structure and 
office are quite like those of a length of intestine. The upper end of the singularly serpentine 
oviduct is dilated into an infundibulum, or funnel-like mouth, corresponding to the fimbriated 
extremity of the maimmalian fallopian tube, and constituting a morsus diaboli, or *‘ devil’s grip,” 


1 How great this is can only be appreciated by comparison. The human egg, on escaping from the graafian 
follicle, is said to be from z}y to p45 Of an inchin diameter. Taking it at 5},, there would be 40,000 in a square inch, 
and in a cubic inch 8,000,000. The largest bird’s egg known, that of the Zpyornis, is said to have a content of 
about a gross of hen’s eggs—144. Supposing the yelk of the -Zpyornis egg to bear the usual proportion to the 
other contents of the shell, and allowing for the difference in bulk between a sphere and a cube of equal diameters, 
there would still be somewhere about a billion human eggs in one Zpyornis egg-yelk, — roundly, a mass of them 
equal to that of the germs of more than one-half of the present population of the globe. 


222 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


which gets hold of the ovum to drag it down to the common lot of mortals from its high ovarian 
birth. The infundibulum receives from the mesentery a delicate tunic of unstriped muscular 
fibres, which are so disposed as to dilate that orifice for the reception of the ovum ; and during 
the venereal orgasm the mouth of the tube is supposed to seize upon the ripest egg. The 
actual anatomy of the arrangement, and the whole operation, is strangely suggestive of one of 
the oldest myths respecting the serpent which bore the egg of the world in its jaws. The 
mucous lining of the oviduct consists of a layer of ciliated epithelium; the membrane has a 
different character in successive portions of its extent. Above, when the tube is uot distended 
with its burthen, the lining is thrown into lengthwise folds, which lower down become spirally 
disposed, and then longitudinal again before they cease. This rugous portion of the tube is 
beset with mucous follicles, which secrete “the white.” The oviduct, after contracting at a 
point called the isthmus, enlarges to a calibre snflicient to accommodate the egg in its shell ; 
for this is the shell-forming part, homologous with the mammalian uterus (a sinister semi-uterus 
at least), lined with large villi, and beset with the follicles whose seeretious calcify the egg-shell, 
and decorate it with pigment. The rest of the tube is vaginal, being merely the passage-way 
by which the perfected ovum is discharged into the cloaca, to be expelled per anum. The 
muscular walls of the oviduct consist of both circular and longitudinal unstriped fibres, like 
those of intestine, — the latter especially in upper portions and at the infundibulum, the former 
nore conspicuously below, where they form a sort of os tince at the bottom of the calcific 
portion, and a kind of sphincter vagine at the end of the tube. A recognizable clitoris is 
developed in many birds. 

The deposition of the white and of the shell 
remains to be noticed. The first deposit upon 
the yelk-ball consists of a layer of dense and 
somewhat tenacious albumen, called the chala- 
ziferous membrane (Gr. xadaa, chalaza, a tu- 
bercle, and Lat. fero, I bear). As the ege is 
urged along by the peristaltic action of the 
tube, it acquires a rotation about the axis of the 
tube; the successive layers of soft albumen it 
receives are deposited somewhat spirally ; and 
the chalaziferous membrane is drawn out into 


Fia. 110. —Hen’s egg, nat. size, in section; from threads at opposite poles of the ege. These 
Owen, after A. Thompson, 4, cicatricle or “tread,” e 
with its nucleus, of white germ-yelk, floating on surface e 
of pale thin nutritive yelk, leading to central yelk- tlons during the rotation of the egg, are called 
cavity, FRc the yellow yelk-ball, deposited in the suc: chalaze ; they are the ‘¢ strings,” rather un- 
cessive layers, forming a set of ha/ones, and enveloped Z : x 
in the chalaziferous membrane which is spun out at Pleasantly evident in a soft boiled egg, but serve 
opposite poles into the twisted strings, chalaze, c,¢; the important office of mooring and steadying the 
b, b/, successive investments of softer white albumen; : : a = 
d, membrana, putaminis, the “soft shell” or egg-pod, Yelk in the sea of white by adhesions eventually 
between layers of which at the great end of the egg is contracted with the membrane which immedi- 
the air space, /; ¢, the shell. : 

ies ately lines the shell. They are also intrusted 
with the duty of ballasting, or keeping the yelk right side up. For there is a ‘right side” 
to the yelk-ball, being that on which floats the cicatricle, or “tread.” This side is also the 
lightest, the white yelk being less dense than the yellow; and the chalazze are attached a little 
below the central axis. The result is, that if a fresh egg be slowly rotated on its long axis, 
the tread will rise by turning of the yelk-ball in the opposite direction, till, held by the twisting 
of the chalazze, it can go no farther ; when, the rotation being continued, the tread is carried 
under and up again on the other side, resuming its superior position as before. After all the 
spiral layers of soft white are laid on, a final covering of dense albumen is deposited at the 
isthinie part of the oviduct. This forms a tough tunic called the membrana putaminis (Lat. 


threads, which become twisted in opposite direc- 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. — OOLOGY. 223 


” 


putamen, a peel, rind), or ‘egg-pod”; it is the final envelope of such a “soft-shelled egg 
as a hen drops when deprived of the lime required to enable her to secrete a hard shell. In 
the uterine dilatation of the oviduct a thick white fluid charged with earthy matter is exuded ; 
this condenses upon the egg-pod and forms the shell. The composition of this carth is chietly 
carbonate of lime (common chalk), with some carbonate of inagnesia, and phosphates of both 
of these bases —thus like that of bone as to ingredients, but in very different proportions. The 
shell does not simply overlie the pod in a distinct sheet, but is iutimately coherent, the micro- 
scopic crystals or other particles of the earthy matter being deposited in the matted fibrous 
texture of the pod. The connection is most intimate in fresh eges; after a while, layers of the 
pod separate at the butt of the egg, forming the large air-space which every one has noticed in 
that situation. The shell being very porous, readily admits air. The air space eularges during 
incubation, and the pod becomes more and more distinct from the shell, which latter also 
increases in porosity and fragility towards “full term.” The rough or smooth appearance of an 
egg-shell, the pores which may be visible to the naked eye, and other physical characters, are 
due to the impression made upon it by the lining membrane of the ‘ uterus.” 
deposit of chalk is so heavy, in some cases, as those of cormorants, ete., that it may be scraped 
off without interfering with the texturally firm shell-substance underlying. All the coloration 
of egg-shells, which frequently makes them pretty objects, is simply the deposit of pigmeut 
granules in or upon the shell. Such deposit may be perfectly uniform, as it is in the bluish- 
green egg of a robin, for instance, but it is oftener spotty — either upon a white or a whole- 
colored ground. The browns and neutral tints are the usual colors, particularly a bright 
reddish-brown ; the same, lying in instead of upon the shell, gives the grays, ‘ lilacs,” and 
“lavenders” so well known. In ptarmigan, the pigment is so heavily deposited that the 
egg comes out pasty on the surface; a sign of “fresh paint!” one must not disregard if he 
would not spoil the decoration. 


The superticial 


Oviposition. — The energy and rapidity with which the processes involved in the inanu- 
facture of so complex a product as a bird’s egg is now seen to be are extraordinary. A domestic 
fowl may lay an egg every day for an indefinite period. It is difficult to say how quickly an 
egg may ripen in the ovary; for, during the activity of that organ, several or many are to be 
found in all stages of immaturity, and the date of the initial impulse cannot well be deternined. 
As there is probably but one egg at a time in the oviduct, the whole process of finishing off the 
yelk-ball with its chalaziform, soft albuminous, putaminous, and calcareous envelopes may go 
on in twenty-four hours, most of which time is consumed in the shell-formation. The number 
of eggs matured by the human female is or should be thirteen anuually; this is no large number 
for many of the gallinaceous and anatine birds to deposit in about as many days. But a 
probable average number is five or six. Defeat of the procreative instinct from any accident is 
commonly a stimulation to renewed endeavors to reproduce ; and very many birds rear two or 
three broods annually, though one clutch of eggs is the rule. Many, such as auks, petrels, and 
penguins, lay a single egg. Two eggs is the rule in humming-birds and pigeons. Three is 
normal to gulls and terns, though these often have but two. Four is the rule among the 
small waders of the limicoline groups. Some of the small Oscines lay over the average, 
having eight or ten; among these, the European sparrow, Passer domesticus, is probably the 
most prolific. The parasitic enckoos are said to lay the relatively smallest eggs; that of the 
Apertyx is said to be the largest, weighing one fourth as much as the bird. The usual 
shape of an egg has given us the common names oval, ovate, and ovoidal, for the well-known 
figure. Some, as those of owls, woodpeckers, kingfishers, and others, more or less nearly 
approach a spherical shape. Eggs of grebes, herons, Totipalmate birds and various others 
are rather elliptical, or equal-ended, and narrow in proportion to their length. Eggs of the 
limicoline group are generally pyriform, — very broad at one end and narrow at the other. But 


224 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


the eggs of all birds vary more in size and shape than some of the devotees of theoretical odlugy 
admit in their practice. The variation so well known in any breed of domestic fowl is scarcely 
above anormal rate. The short diameter, corresponding to the calibre of the oviduct, is less 
variable than the long axis; for when the quantity of food-yelk and white, upon which the 
difference in bulk depends, varies with the vigor of the individual, the scantiness or redundancy | 
is expressed by the shortening or lengthening of the whole mass. The egg traverses the | 
passage small end foremost, like a round wedge, with obvious reference to ease of parturition 
by more gradual dilatation of the outlet. 


Germination. — Leaying now all the accessory parts of an egg, let us confine attention 
to the germ-yelk, or ‘* tread,” which is alone concerned in the germinative process. Recurring 
to the female Dynamameba, consisting of granular protoplasm (vitellus) included in its cell- 
wall (vitelline membrane) and including its nucleus and nucleolus (germinal vesicle and germi- 
nal spot), we will trace it up to the time it begins to take shape as an embryochick. At first, 
as I have observed before, it is like any other amceba; the first step of development is prob- 
ably a retrograde one; for if there eusues, when the spermatozoa melt into the ovum, the 
result affirmed for mammalian ova, the original germinal vesicle and germinal spot disappear, 
and the whole con- 
tent of the ovum 
proper is simply a 
homugeneous mass 
of granular proto- 
plasm. In this ret- 
rograde step, the or- 
ganism, at the low- 
est possible round 
of the ladder of 
evolution, is called 
a monerula. The 
germinal vesicle 
and spot, however, 
are speedily recou- 
structed, and the 
ovum looks _ pre- 
cisely as it did be- 


Fig. 111, — Segmentation of the vitellus by discoidal cleavage, diagrammatic, x about fore. But observe 
10 times, after Hacckel. Only the ‘tread,’ cicatricle, or germ-yelk (figs. 109, b, 110, .A) is that the actual dif- 
represented, as 10 other part of the whole yelk-ball undergoes the process. A,separation : 
into 2; B, into 4; C, into 16, by 8 radial and 1 concentric furrow; D, into many parts, by ference is enormous; 
16 radial and about 4 concentric furrows: Z, 64 radial and about 6 concentric furrows: for it now consists 
F, the whole tread broken up into a mulberry-mass (morw/a) of cells. 
of the blended sub- 


stance of the original ovum and of the spermatozoa; and in this duplex or bisexed state, 
before any further step is taken, the creature is called a cytula,—the parent cell of the entire 
future organism. In the former state it could reproduce nothing, not even itself; for it is the 


strange physiological law of a Dynamameba that it cannot reproduce like an ordinary cell, 
but must evolve an entire organism, like both of those two whose vital forces it concentrates, 
summarizes, and embodies, — or nothing. 

The first change in the parent-cell is that by which it becomes broken up into a mass of 
cells, each of which is just like itself. This process is called segmentation of the vitellus; each 
one of the numerous resulting cells is called a cleavage-cell. The nucleus of the parent-cell 
divides into two; each attracts its half of the yelk; the halves furrow apart and there are now 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.—~— OOLOGY. 225 


two cleavage-cells in place of the one parent-cell. A furrow at right angles to the first, and 
redivision of the nuclei, results in fowr cleavage-cells. Radiating furrows intermediate to the 
first two bisect the four cells, and would render eight cells, were not these simultaneously 
doubled by a circular furrow which cleaves each, with the result of sixteen cleavage-cells. So 
the subdivision goes on until the parent-cell becomes a mass of cells. This particular kind of 
cleavage, by radiating and concentric furrowing, is called discoidal, and the resulting heap of 
little cells assumes the figure of a thin, flat, circular disc. Segmentation of the vitellus, in 
whatever manner it may go on, results in a mulberry-like mass of cleavage-cells; and the 
original eytula has become what is called a morula. This process and result are clearly shown 
in fig. 111, A-F. 

The morula or mnlberry-massed germ of which the ‘‘tread” of a bird’s egg at this mo- 
ment consists increases by multiplication of cells, and the dise is lifted a little away from the 
mass of yellow food-yelk upon which it rests, like a watch-crystal from the face of a watch. 
This disposition of the greatly multiplied cells in a layer and their coherence forms of course 
a membrane, —the blastodermic mem- 
brane, or blastoderm, fig. 112, B, b. 
The cavity between the blastoderm 
and the mass of food-yelk is called the 
cleavage cavity, s. At the stage when 
the blastodermic membrane and cleav- : oot ; 
age-cavity are formed, the germ is | | a 
called a blastula, or germ-vesicle,! and ! 
the process by which the morula be- - a 
comes a blastula is called blastulation. F 
Next, from the thickened rim, w, of ) | Hi 
the watch-crystal-like blastula a layer i oF ope 
of large entoderm cells, fig. 112, C, 4, ea = Er, 
separates, and grows toward the centre: | | ||) ri = |i) = | = | i 
when it gets there, of course the origi- ASA 
ual cleavage-cavity, s, is shut off from Fia, 112. — Farther development of hen’s egg; after Hueckel: 
the surface of the tood-yelk ; a second A, the mulberry mass of cleavage cells, b, same as seen on top in 


i fig. 111, F, here viewed in profile in section, resting upon n, the 
crystal having grown under the first simply-shaded part of the figure, to represent conventionally the 


one. The second udheres to the first, ™5§ of food-yelk. 4, morula stage (as before); B, blastula 
. ’ stage, the mass of cells, b, forming the blastoderm, uplifted from 


TILE ey, oe 


= 


eae 


qn Se 


| = 


i 


obliterating the original cleavage-cav- 
ity; the gerin is now obviously two- 
layered ; the rising of the inner layer 
to meet the outer results in a cavity 


the food-yelk, leaving the cleavage-cavity, s; w, the thickened 
rim of the germ-disc; C, the blastula in process of inversion, by 
which a layer of entoderm-cells, i, growing from periphery to 
centre, will apply itself to the layer of exoderm-cells, e, obliterat- 
ing the cleavage-cavity, s; D, the disc-gastrula completed, by 
union of entoderm, i, with exoderm, e, leaving the primitive 


between itself and the food-yelk, D, d. intestinal cavity, d, which is quite similar in appearance to the 
This cavity exactly resembles the cleavage cavity, s, but morphologically quite different. 
original cleavage-cavity, but it is a very different thing, being the primitive intestinal cavity. 
The blastula, or germ-vesicle, has become converted into a gastrula, by the invaginating 
process just described, known as gastrulation. The gastrula of a bird has the circular dis- 
coidal form which causes it to be termed a discogastrula. This process of forming a single 
blastodermie layer, with a cleavage-cavity (blastula, or true germ-vesicle), then two blasto- 
dermic layers, with obliteration of the cleavage-cavity and substitution of a primitive intestinal 
cavity (gastrula), is common to all animals which consist of more than single cells, under vari- 
ous modifications and disguises; the process described is that occurring in meroblastic eggs 
which have a discoidal cleavage and form a discogastrula.? 

1 Not to be confounded with the original “germinal vesicle ” of the parent-cell, which long since disappeared. 

2 The so-called “germ-vesicle”’ of the holoblastic mammalian egg is subsequent to gastrulation, not prior, 


and is therefore not a blastula proper. 
ae net 


226 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


What we have got now is a tread or germ consisting of a circular concavo-convex disc of 
two layers of blastoderm, resting by its rim upon the great yellow ball of food-yelk, from which 
it is separated by a cavity, as a watch-crystal from its face. All these changes, up to comple- 
tion of gastrulation, may go on before the egg is laid, the tread of a perfectly fresh egg being 
already a multicellular discogastrula. Since the earlier stages of the embryo (cytula, morula, 
blastula, and gastrula) are actually accomplished while the egg is still in the body of the parent, 
the analogy of the oviduct to uterus, ete., as well as its strict homology to the parts of a 
miillerian duct so named, is not so fanciful as some appear to think. The outer of the two 
blastodermic layers is the ectoderm or epiblast, C or D, e; the inner is the endoderm or hypo- 
blast, i. By multiplication of cells between the two arises the mesoblast. The mesoblastic 
layer of cells subsequently splits into two, of which the outer is the somatopleura, or body 
layer, the inner the splanchnopleura or visceral layer. The two-layered germ has then become 
four-layered. Up to the time of formation of four layers, the cells are all alike, or only differ 
slightly in size, color, or consistency. Now, however, ensues that marvellous process by which 
the indifferent cells of the blastodermic layers are to become differentiated in form and special- 
ized in function,—a sort of division-of-labor system in the infant colony of cells, by which some 
are to learn to move, others to digest, others to procreate, others to think and feel, with corre- 
sponding modifications of form by which are generated the Osteamebe, Myamebe, Neur- 
amebe,—the bone-cells, muscle-cells, uerve-cells, and all others of the complex organism 
which is in a few days to come into being from such simple beginnings. This of course opens 
up the whole field of embryology, which we cannot here enter upon. I will only add, that from 
the epiblast is derived the integument, and its inversions, as those of the eye and ear, and the 
brain and spinal chord. From the hypoblast is derived the lining of the alimentary canal and of 
its annexes and offsets, as liver, lungs, ete. The rest of the embryo comes from the mesoblast, 
and most of it from the somatopleural layer. The fissure between the two layers of the 
mesoblast becomes the great pleuro-peritoneal cavity. 

In explaining the early embryo, I have closely followed the great German morphologist, 
Haeckel; and the illustrations are from the same high source. 


Incubation. — To induce the wonderful metamorphoses just hinted at, it is only necessary 
to keep a bird’s egg at a pretty even temperature of about 100° F. Nearly all birds secure 
this result by the process of incubation. In many cases the sun’s rays relieve the parent of 
some part of the duty. In a few, the heat evolved from vegetable ferment or decomposition is 
utilized for the same purpose. This seems to be the case to some extent with grebes; but 
these incubate. ‘The exception to the rule of incubation is given by the Megapodial birds 
of the Australasian Islands. A buge mound of decaying vegetable matter is raised; the eggs 
are deposited vertically in a circle at a certaim depth, near the summit, and the chick is devel- 
oped with the aid of the heat of fermentation. The large size of the egg relates to affording 
a supply of material sufficing for an unusually advanced state of development of the chick at 
exclusion; whereby it has strength to force its way to the surface of the hatching-mound, 
with wings and feathers sufficiently developed to enable it to take a short flight to the nearest 
branch of an overshadowing tree” (Owen). The period of incubation has been ascertained 
with precision for few birds; it is known to range from ten days (perhaps less), as in case of 
the wren, to fifty or sixty for the ostrich. The female is usually the sitter. Frequently both 
sexes incubate in turn; such unnatural care for the young by the male is termed double monog- 
amy. In most or all Ratite, in the family Phalaropodide, and some other Limicoline genera, 
the male incubates. Most birds attend to their own eggs; many cuckoos (Cuculide) and the 
species of Molothrus, are parasitical, laying in the nests of other birds, which are thus forced to 
become foster-parents of alien offspring, generally to the destruction of their own. This seems 
to result from some peculiarity of the egg-laying process, which does not permit several eggs 


THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.— OOLOGY. 227 


to be incubated and hatched simultaneously. It is not so unusual among American cuckoos 
as generally supposed. The degree of development to which birds attain in the egg has been 
already discussed (p. 88). They break the shell by pecking at it, and struggling; for the 
former operation the bill is often tempered at the tip by a hard knob which is afterward ab- 
sorbed. The necessity of providing a receptacle for eggs, in which they may be incubated, 
results in nidification or nest-building ; and the extraordinary taste and ability many birds dis- 
play in this matter, as well as the wide range of their habitudes, furnishes one of the most 
delightful departments of ornithology, called caliology (Gr. kadud, alia, a bird’s nest; see 
p- 54, note). Many birds burrow in the ground; others in trees; the most beautiful and 
elaborate nests are furnished by various members of the Oscines, the weaver-birds of Africa 
(Ploceide) probably taking the lead. The male sometimes constructs his own ‘‘nest” apart 
from that in which the female incubates. ‘‘ Certain conirostral Cantores still practise in the 
undisturbed wilds of Australia the formation of marriage-bowers distinct from the later-formed 
nesting-place. The satin bower-bird (Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus), and the piuk-necked 
bower-bird (Chlamydodera maculata), are remarkable for their construction on the ground of 
avenues, over-arched by long twigs or grass-stems, the entry and exit of which are adorned by 
pearly shells, bright-colored feathers, bleached bones, and other decorative materials, which are 
brought in profusion by the male, and variously arranged to attract, as it would seem, the 
female by the show of a handsome establishment” (Owen). The extraordinary nests of the 
Crotophaga, used in common by a colony of the birds, are noted at p. 471.‘ Edible birds’- 
nests,” constructed by swifts of the genus Collocalia, consist chiefly of inspissated saliva. 
Perhaps the most remarkable of all the receptacles of eggs is that which the penguin makes of 
its own body, the egg being carried in a sort of pouch formed by the integument of the belly, 
something like that of a marsupial mammal. 


§ 5. DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE ARTIFICIAL KEYS. 


These “Keys” differ from natural analyses in being wholly arbitrary and_ artificial. 
They are an attempt to take the student by a ‘‘short cut” to the name and position in the orni- 
thological system of any specimen of a North American bird he may have in hand and desire to 
identify. The plan has been much used in Botany, though seldom if ever employed for a 
whole Fauna, before the original edition of this work. It will serve a good purpose, rightly 
used; but it must be remembered there is no ‘royal road to learning”; nobody can be 
smuggled into sound erudition, either. Nor must too much be expected of me here; I can 
take the student nowhere until he has learned the difference between the head and the tail of 
a bird, at any rate. That is what the preceding pages undertake to teach; but, until such 
technicalities have been mastered, progress in ornithology is out of the question. 

The original ‘ Key to the Genera” proved scareely so satisfactory as I hoped it would be. 
It undertook too much, to conduct the student at once down to the intricacies of the very 
many modern genera, not all of which can by any possibility be characterized intelligibly in 
a line of type. I have probably simplified and expedited matters by preparing on the same 
plan Keys to the Orders and Sub-orders, and to the Families. Then in the body of the 
work, under each head, further analyses are given when snch seems to be required, — of 
families under their orders or sub-orders, of genera under their families, and of species under 
their genera. These ulterior analyses are for the most part rather natural than artificial, 
though I never hesitate to seize upon any character that may furnish the desired clue to identi- 
fication. 

The artificial Keys immediately following will take the student to the families, with refer- 
ence to the page of the work where such groups come ; on turning to which, further analyses 


228 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


will be found, generally down to species and even varieties. They are to be used as follows 
(after the preceding lessons have been learned) : — 

We have in hand a bird we do not know, and the name of which we wish to ascertain. 
Suppose it to be that common species which builds the nest of mud upon the bough of the 
apple-tree and lays greenish-blue eggs. To what family does it belong ? 

The Key opens with an arbitrary division of our birds according to the number and 
position of their toes. Our specimen, we see, has four toes, three in front, one behind. It 
therefore comes under IV. Going to IV., we read: 


Hind toe — inserted above the level of the rest, etc. 
—not inserted above the level of the rest. . . . (Go to B.) 


Our specimen has the hind toe not inserted above the level of the rest. Going to B, we find 
five alternatives. Our bird presents no one of the special characters of the first four alterna- 
tives, and this determined takes us tog. There we find: 

(g) Primaries —10 ; the 1st (never spurious), etc. 


—10; the 1st (spurious or), etc. . . . (Go to z) 
— 9; the lst (never spurious), etc. 


In this case the bird has obviously a spurious first primary, not nearly two-thirds as long as 
the longest. Going to 7;— 
(i) Tarsus — “‘ booted ”’ ; wings — shorter than, etc. 


— longer than tail; tail — double rounded. 
—not doublerounded. . . . . TURDID&, p. 240. 


Thus (provided we have taken the trouble to inform ourselves what “ spurious first pri- 
mary” and ‘‘booted tarsus” mean), the key conducts to a family, by presenting in succession 
certain alternatives, on meeting with each of which, we have only to determine which one of 
the two or more sets of characters agrees with those afforded by our specimen. There will 
not, it is believed, be any trouble in determining whether a given character 2s so, or is not so, 
since only the most tangible, definite, and obvious features have been selected in framing the 
key. After each determination, either the name of a family is encountered, or else a reference- 
letter leads on to some new alternative, until by a gradual process of elimination the proper 
family is reached. After a few trials, with specimens representing different groups, the process 
will be shortened, for the main divisions will have heen learned; still the student must be 
careful how he strikes in anywhere except at the beginning, for a false start will soon set him 
hopelessly adrift. The key has been tested so thoroughly that there is little danger of his 
running off the track except through carelessness, or nisconception of technical terms; but 
there is no excuse for the former, and the latter ay be obviated by the Glossary at the end of 
the book, and cspecially the foregoing General Ornithology, § 38, which should be consulted 
when any doubt arises. Time spent upon the preliminary lessons will be time saved in 
the end. 

At page 240, as indicated, the family Turdide is fully characterized, and its sub-families 
and genera are analysed. The bird in hand should answer all the characters of the family and 
those of one of the sub-families, Zurding, and one of the genera, Zurdus. The analysis of 
the species of Zurdus should show the specimen to be Turdus migratorius, the Robin. Under 
the head of that species, No. 1 of the List, will be found a fair description and various other 
particulars. 

If there be any difficulty in going at once to the family, the student may try the key to 
the orders and sub-orders, and get on the track in that way. 

Directions for measurement have already been given (p. 24). In comparing measure- 
ments made with those given in the Synopsis, absolute agreement must not be expected ; 
individual specimens vary too much for this. It will generally he satisfactory, if the discre- 


DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE KEYS. 229 


pancy is not beyond certain bounds. A variation of, say, five per cent. may be safely allowed 
on birds not larger than a robin: from this size up to that of a crow or hawk, ten per cent. ; 
for larger birds even more. Some birds vary up to twenty or twenty-five per cent., in their 
total length at least. So if I say of a sparrow for instance, ‘length six inches,” and the 
specimen is found to be anywhere between five and three-fourths and six and one-fourth, it 
will be quite near enough. But the relative proportions of the different parts of a bird are 
much more constant, and here less discrepancy is allowable. Thus ‘tarsus longer than the 
middle toe,” or the reverse, is often a matter of much less than a quarter of an inch; and as it 
is upon just such nice points as this that a great many of the generic analyses rest, the neces- 
sity of the utmost accuracy in measuring, for the use of the keys, becomes obvious. When I 
find it necessary to use the qualification ‘‘ about” (as, ‘bill about = tarsus”) I probably never 
mean to indicate a difference of more than five per cent. of the length of the part in question. 
It may be well to call attention to the fact, that most persons unaccustomed to handling 
“pirds are liable to be deceived in attempting to estimate a given dimension; they generally 
make it out less than measurement shows it to be. This seems to be an optical effect con- 
nected with the solidarity of the object, as is well illustrated in drawing plates of birds, which, 
when made exactly of life-size, always look larger than the original, on account of the flatness 
of the paper. The ruler or tape-line, therefore, should always be used, and particularly in 
those cases where analyses in the key rest upon dimensions. It is hardly necessary to add, 
that in taking, approximately, the total length from a prepared specimen, regard should be 
had for the ‘‘ make-up” of the skin. A little practice will enable one to determine pretty 
accurately how much a skin is stretched or shrunken, and to make the due allowance in either 
case. 
The measurements used in this work are allin English inches and decimals. 
There are probably no signs or abbreviations not self-explanatory or not already explained 
in “ Field Ornithology.” 


La ais 
----~ oe 
-- se, 
ies 
Cease ee Oar 
Rarer ae ee 
ee nn ag 
ae S$ 
ta E Tae J 
pau Sey SO - SS 18 


2 e 


230 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE ORDERS AND SUBORDERS. 


Page 

I. Tors 3; 2infront,1 behind . . . see ee ew ew ew ws. 6 Piciformes of PICARIM 444 
II. Tors 3; 3in front. Toes — cleft or asnipalmate eed fo ae oes Bk She eee es CEEOL a, (596) 
— palmate. Nostrils — tubular . soe ee ee ew . |). LONGIPENNES 732 

—nottubular . . . . . . . . . . . PYGOPODES 787 

III. Tors 4; 2in front,2 behind. Bill—ceredandhooked. . .......... . . . Psirract 494 


— neither cered nor hooked. Tail feathers — 8 or 10 
Cuculiformes of PICARLE 
—12 Piciformes of PICARIA 
IV. Toes 4; 3in front, 1 behind. 
Toes — syndactyle . . 4a eS He ak w SW a CleNlifories of PICARIC 


— totipalmate (all four full- webbed) Wh Se aS Sk ee a GS US TEGANOR ODT. 


—palmate. Bill—curvedup . . Gti, ae aS) at Ge Tek we fate Ser war sel wT COM 
— not curved ip tamallate oe ee a wy 8 oS) LD AMEEEIROSTRES 


—not lamellate. Hallux —lobate . . . . . PyGoropEs 7 
—notlobate . . LONGIPENNES 7. 
—lobate. Tail—rudimentary. . . Rs el A | ah OS oti god en, se Sh Re os, PMGOPRODES.T 


— perfect. — A horny frontal ‘shield soe ee 4 a + 4.) . . ALECTORIDES 665 


—Nofrontalshield. . . . . soe 8 Roe a » x UIMICOna 5 


— semipalmate; joined by evident movable basal web (go to A). 
— cleft to the base or there immovably coherent (go to B). 
A. Hind toe — elevated. Tibiz — feathered below. Nostrils— perforate. . . Cathartides of RAPTORES 
— imperforate. Gape — reaching below eye 
Cypseliformes of PICARLE 
— not reaching below eye 
GALLINE 
— naked below. Nostrils— perforate .. . . . . ALECTORIDES 
— imperforate. Tarsi - * scutellate in front 
LIMIcoLz® 
—reticulate. Head — bald 
HERODIONES 
— feathered 
LimiIcoLa: 
— not elevated. Tibia — naked below . . +e + . . . . « HERODIONES 
— feathered below. Bill a ‘and hooked . . . . . . RAPTORES 
—notcered, Nasal —membrane soft CoLUMBA 
—scalehard . GALLINZ 
B. Hind toe — elevated. Gape— reaching beloweye. . . . . +. . Cypseliformes of PICARTE 
— not below eye. 1st primary — “emareinate orabout= 2d . . LimicoLa 
— not emarginate and shorter than 2d 
ALECTORIDES 
— not elevated. Nostrils — opening beneath soft swollen membrane . . . . . . COLUMB 
— otherwise. Bill—ceredand hooked . . . . . . . RAPTORES 
— otherwise. Secondaries — only six 
Cypseliformes of PICARI A 


— more than six (go to a). 


a. Primaries — 10; 1st more than 38 long asthe longest . . . . . . . . . Clamatores of 
— 10; 1st not 2 as long as the longest. 
~~ onlys coe a ww ee } 


F PASSERES 
ee 6 . . . Oscines of 


GAT 
496 


665 
561 
496 


44 


238 


ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE FAMILIES. 231 


ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE FAMILIES. 


Page 
TOES 3,—21N FRONT, 1 BEHIND. © 6 ee ee ee ee ee ee ee PIcIDz 477 
TOES 3, —3 IN FRONT. (Go to II.) 
TOES 4,—2 IN FRONT, 2 BEHIND. (Go to ITI.) 
TOES 4, —3 IN FRONT, 1 BEHIND. (Go to IV.) 
Il. [Tors 3, — 3 in FrRoyt.] 
Toes — completely webbed. Nostrils — tubular (Albatrosses). . ©. © - . 1 ew . PROCELLARIIDZ 773 
— not tubular (Auks, &¢.) . . . ‘ . . ALcIDz 797 


— incompletely or not webbed. Legs — about as long as wings. Bill sibulats (Stilt) ) RECuRVrRostRIpm 609 
— much shorter than wings (go to a). 


(a) Tarsus — scutellate in front, about as long as bill (Sanderling) . . . . . . .SCOLOPACIDA 614 
— reticulate in front — shorter than red chisel-like bill (Oyster- catcher) . HEMATOPODIDA 606 
— longer than bill(Plovers) .... . . . . . . CHARADRIID& 597 


Ill. [Tors 4, — 2 1n Front, 2 BEHIND.] 


Bill — cered and strongly hooked. Tarsus granulated (Parrot) . . so re Ma Says PSITTACID 496 
— not cered; inner hind toe — 3-jointed; Plumage iridescent (Trogon) en . . TROGONIDE 468 
— 2-jointed ; — tail of — 8 or 10 soft feathers (Cuckoos, &e. ) . . CucuLipx 470 
—12 (apparently only 10) rigid acuminate feathers 
(Woodpeckers). . .. . PIcIDZ 477 


[Tors 4,— 3 In Front, 1 BEHIND.] 


HIND TOE — INSERTED ABOVE THE LEVEL OF THE REST (AND ALWAYS SHORTER THAN THE SHORTEST 
FRONT TOE). (Go to A.) 
— NOT INSERTED ABOVE THE LEVEL OF THE REST (AND GENERALLY BUT NOT ALWAYS NOT 
SHORTER THAN THE SHORTEST FRONT TOE). (Go to B.) 


[The hind toe elevated. | 


Feet — TOTIPALMATE (all 4 toes webbed ; hind toe semi-lateral and barely elevated). (Goto A.) 
— PALMATE (3 front toes full-webbed, hind toe well up, simple or lobed or connected by slight webbing to 
base only of inner toe). (Go to B.) 
— LOBATE (3 front toes partly webbed or not, and conspicuously bordered with plain or scalloped mem- 
branes ; hind toe free, and simple or lobed). (Go to C.) 
— SEMIPALMATE (2, or 3, front toes webbed at base only by small yet evident membrane ; hind toe well up, 
simple). (Goto D.) 
— SIMPLE (front toes with no evident membranes ; hind toe well up, simple). (Go to E.) 
(A.) Tarsus — feathered, partly ; tail deeply forked; bill epignathous (Frigate-bird). . . . TACHYPETID@ 730 
— naked; bill — > tail, hooked at tip, furnished with enormous pouch (Pelicans) PELECANID# 721 
— < tail; throat — feathered; middle tail feathers filamentous (Tropic-birds) 
PHAETHONTID 731 
— naked; tail— pointed, soft; tomia subserrate(Gannets) SULIDA 720 
—rounded, stiff; bill — paragnathous (Anhinga) 
PLOTID# 729 
— epignathous (Cormorants) 
PHALACROCORACIDE 123 


232 GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


Page 
(B.) Bill — curved up, extremely slender and acute(Avocet). . . . . . . . . . . RECURVIROSTRID 609 
— bent abruptly down, very stout, lamellate (Flamingo) . . . . PHGNICOPTERIDZE 678 
— lamellate; mostly membranous, with nail at end (Swans, Geese, Ducks, &.) . . . . ANATIDE 679 
— not lamellate; nostrils — tubular; hind toe very small (Petrels) . . 5 as PROCELLARUD.& 713 
— not tubular; hind toe — free, not lobed (Gulls and Terns). . Laripazs 733 
— not free, lobed (Loons). . . . . COLYMBID2® 789 
(C.) Tail -- rudimentary; lores naked (Grebes) . . . wee ee ee a) 4). PODICIPEDID AD 792 
— perfect; forehead — covered with a horny shield (Coots) oe ee eae ee RADDA 669) 
— feathered (Phalaropes). . . . . . . . .PHALAROPODIDAD 612 
(D.) Mid-claw — pectinate; 4th toe 4-jointed; plumage lax (Goatsucker ey) .. . . . + CAPRMIULGIDA 447 
— not pectinate; hind toe — versatile; plumage compact (Swifts) . . . . . . CYPSELIDa® 455 
— not versatile; head — naked (go to b). 
— feathered (go to ¢). 
(b.) Nostrils — imperforate; naked leg and foot shorter than tail (Turkey). . . . MELEAGRIDID@ 576 
— perforate; naked leg and foot — shorter than tail (Turkey-buzzards) . CATHARTIDA® 557 
— longer than tail(Cranes) . . . . . . . GRUIDE 666 
(c.) Nostrils — feathered, or scaled, in deep fossa of stout hard bill. . . . . . . TETRAONIDA 576 
— not feathered nor scaled, in groove of softish bill; tarsus — reticulate (Plover) 
CHARADRIIDA: 597 
— scutellate in front (Snipe, &c.) 
(E.) Wing—spurred . . . oe me ee a oe a | PARR pan 669 
— not spurred ; forehead — cov vered! with. a horny shield (Gallinules) . oe. ee . +). RALLIDZE 669 
— feathered; length —2feetormore . . . » . . . ARAMIDZ 667 
— under 2 feet; 1st primary — attenuate (Woodcock). . . SCOLOPACIDA 614 
— not attenuate — much shorter than 2d (Rails) 
RALLID 669 
— about equal to 2d (Snipe, &c.) ScoLoracipm® 614 
or HAa:MATOPODIDA: 606 
B. |The hind toe not elevated.) 
TOES SYNDACTYLOUS; tibize naked below; Dill straight, acute (Kingfishers) . . . . . . . ALCEDINID® 468 
TIBLE NAKED BELOW. (Go to d.) 
NOSTRILS OPENING BENEATH SOFT SWOLLEN MEMBRANE. (Go toe.) 
BILL HOOKED AND FURNISHED WITH A CERE. (Go to f.) 
BIRDS WITHOUT THE ABOVE CHARACTERS. (Go to g.) 
(d.) Middle claw — pectinate (Herons) . . . $99 we Boe at we Se ARDEA 6bt 
— simple; tarsus — scutellate in frarit (Ihises) ae ee . . Isrpmaz 648 
— reticulate; bill — flat, spoon- shaped (Spoonbill), PLATALEIDA® 651 
— not flat, stout tapering (Wood Ibis) Crcon1IDz 652 
(e.) Bird over 18 Inches long, greenish (Texan Guan)... . . . . . . . . CORACIDA 572 
Birds under 18 inches long (Pigeons) . . . . . COLUMBID2® 562 
(f.) Eyes — lateral, not surrounded by a disc; nostrils # in ‘the cere , (Hawks, Eagles, &¢c.) . FaLconrpaz 519 
or PANDIONIDA® 556 
— anterior; face more or less disc-like ; nostrils at edge of cere (Owls); middle claw — simple 
STRIGIDA 502 
— jagged 
ALUCONIDA® 500 
(g.) PRIMARIES — 10; the Ist (never spurious) always more than § as long as longest (go to h). 
—10; the Ist (spurious or) at most not 3 as long as longest (go to i). 
— 9; the 1st (never spurious) of variable length (go to k). 
(h.) Jail — 12- feathered ; tarsal envelope irregular (Flycatchers) . . » + 4. .DTYRANNIDAS 428 
— 10-feathered; secondaries — only 6; bill subulate (Humming: birds) - . . ‘TROCHILIDA 458 
— more than 6; bill small, very short (Swifts) . . CyrsrLipae 455 
(i.) Tarsus — “booted”; wings — shorter than tail, both much rounded; plumage very lax CHAMasIDE 262 


— longer than tail; tail—double-rounded, . . . . . . AMPELIDA® 3 
— not double-rounded (Thrushes, &c.) TURDIDA® 2 


—scutellate; nostrils — concealed ; bill — strongly epignathous, toothed and notched (Shrikes) 
LANIIDE 

— paragnathous;— over 7 inches long (Crows and 

Jays) CORVIDA 

—not7inches; bill — nearly = head 

(Nuthatches) SirTrpz 

— scarcely or not 

4 = head (Tits) PARIDm 


336 


414 


269 


263 


ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE FAMILIES. 233 


Page 


— exposed ; length — over 9 inches; color brown or blue . CoRrvIDz& 
— 7-8 inches; crested; 6 glossy black AMPELIDA 
—4}-6} inches; bill distinctly hooked; tail soft, 
without black VIREONIDZ 
—4}-5} inches; bill slender, curved, tail stiff, acute 
CERTHIIDA 
— Birds without these characters; rictus — bristled 
TURDIDE 
— unbristled 
TROGLODYTIDE 2 
(k.) Tarsus — scutelliplantar; hind claw straight (Larks) . . . . A . . ALAUDIDA: 2 
—laminiplantar; bill — metagnathous, both mandibles felaxte, their points crossed 

FRINGILLIDZ 

— paragnathous, tomia of up. mand. toothed or lobed near middle 
(Tanagers) TANAGRIDZE 
— epignathous, notched and hooked at tip. Length 51-6} VIREONIDE 

—various. Quills — tipped with red horny appendages; head 


crested AMPELID : 


—not appendaged; bill — fissirostral (go to 1). 
—dentirostral or tenui- 
rostral (go to m). 
— conirostral (go to n). 
(l.) Bill triangular-depressed, about as wide at base as long, gape twice as long as culmen, reaching 


about opposite eyes, tarsus not longer than outer toe and claw (Swallows) . . HIRUNDINIDZ 

(m.) Longest secondary nearly reaching end of primaries in closed wing; hind claw (usually) little 
curved, nearly twice as long as middle claw (Titlarks). . . . - + . . MOTACILLIDA 
Longest secondary not nearly reaching end of primaries in closed wing; hind claw well curved, 

not nearly twice as long as middle claw (Warblers, &c.) . CasREBID 317, or SYLVICOLID.2@ 

(n.) Bill usually thick, stout, and with evident angulation of the commissure. . . . . JCTERIDa 


or! FRINGILLIDZ 


319 


287 
399 


339 


1 Note. — These two families cannot be concisely distinguished. IcTERID.% contains the blackbirds, orioles, 
meadow starlings, bobolinks, and cowbirds. FRINGILLID, our largest family, includes all kinds of grosbeaks, 


buntings, linnets, finches, and sparrows. 


aa 


ESSERE eet S trem eee eet 


a 


Fic. 112 ter. Diagram of fore limbs of man, bat, horse, and bird. The lines 1-9 are isotomes, cutting the limbs 


into morphologically equal parts, or isomeres. 


234 


GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 


TABULAR VIEW OF THE GROUPS HIGHER THAN GENERA 


ADOPTED IN THIS WORK FOR THE 


CLASSIFICATION OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS. 


Subclass CARINATZ: Carinate Birds. 


OrpeERs (13). 


SuBORDERS (20). 


Famivigs (63). 


SUBFAMILIES (77). 


I. PASSERES. 


Il. PICARLZ (?). 


1. OSCINES 


2. CLAMATORES . 


3. CYPSELIFORMES . 


4, CUCULIFORMES ?. 


56. PICIFORMES 


an 


or’ NT aAamrrwn’ 


ea 


23, 
. Trogonide 
25. 
. Cuculide . 


27. 


. Turdide . 


. Chameide (?) . 
. Paride 

. Sittide 

. Certhiide . 

. Troglodytide . 


. Alaudide . 
. Motacillide . 


. Sylvicolide . 


. Ceredide . 

. Tanagride . 
2. Hirundinide 
3. Ampelida (?) 


. Vireonide 
. Laniide . 
. Fringillide . 
. Icteride . 


. Corvide 


. Sturnide . 
20. 
21. 
. Cypselida 


Tyrannide . 
Caprimulgide . 


Trochilide . 


Alcedinide . 


Picide. 


a 


26. Corvin. 

27. Garruline. 
28. Sturnine. 

. Tyrannine, 

. Caprimulging. 
. Cypseline. 

. Cheeturina. 

. Trochilins. 

. Trogonins. 


37. Saurotherinz 
- Coccygina. 


Bote Sp 


. Certhiine. 

. Campylorhynchine. 
. Troglodytine. 

. Calandritine. 

. Alaudine. 


. Anthine. 

. Sylvicolinz. 
. Icteriinz. 

7. Setophagine. 


. Ampelinz. 
. Ptilogonatine. 
. Myiadestine. 


. Laniine. 


. Sturnellinz. 
. Icterinz. 


Turdine. 
Miminez. 
Cincline. 
Saxicoline. 
Regulinz. 
Polioptilinz. 


Parine. 


Motacilline. 


? 
Ageleinz. 


Quiscalina. 


Alcedininz. 
Crotophaginag. 


CLASSIFICATION OF NORTH AMERICAN 


BIRDS. 


OrDeErs (18). 


SUBORDERS (20). 


Famiuigs (63). 


SUBFAMILIES (77). 


Ill. PSITTACI 
IV. RAPTORES . 


Vv. COLUMBAZ 

VI. GALLIN AE 

VU. LIMICOLA 

VIL HERODIONES . 
IX. ALECTORIDES 
X. LAMELLIROSTRES 
XI. STEGANOPODES 
XII. LONGIPENNES. 


XIII. PYGOPODES 


aes ak 
6. STRIGES . 


7. ACOCIPITRES. 


. CATHARTIDES . 
. PERISTERZ. 


oo” 


10. PERISTEROPODES 
11. ALECTOROPODES. 


12. Tees. 

13, Penanas 4 
1. ‘Hrrovu ; 
16. GRUIFORMES 


16. RALLIFORMES . 


a°¢ 


1 
18. ANSERES . 


19. GAVIA 


20. TUBINAREs . 


. ODONTOGLOSS. 


2 
2! 
3 


oo 


2. 


31. 


a 
i=) 


a. 


5 


CS 


Psittacide 


. Aluconide 
. Strigide . 


falconide 


. Pandionide . 
. Cathartide . 


Columbide . 


. Cracide . 
. Meleagridide 
. Tetraonide . 


. Charadriide 
. Hematopodide 


. Recurvirostride 
. Phalaropodide 
. Scolopacide. 

. Ibidide 

4, Plataleide 

. Ciconiide 


. Ardeide . 
. Gruide 
. dramide . 


. Parride . 
. Rallide 


. Phenicopteride 
52. 


Anatide . 


. Sulide . 

. Pelecanide . 

. Phalacrocoracide . 
. Plotide 

. Tachypetide . 

. Phacthontide . 

. Laride 


. Procellariide 
. Colymbide 


. Podicipedide . 
. Alcide . 


39. Aringw. 


40. Striginee? 
41. Buboningw? 
42. Circine. 

43. Milvine. 
44. Accipitrine. 
45. Falconine. 
46. Polyborins. 
47. Buteonine. 


48. Columbine 

49, Zenaidinz. 

50. Starnoenadinsz. 
51. Peneloping. 


52. Tetraonina. 
53. Odontophorinz. 
54. Charadriine. 
55. Aphrizine ? 
56. Heematopodine. 
57. Strepsilaing. 


58. Tantalinz. 
59. Ciconiinsg. 
60. Ardeinz. 

61. Botaurine. 


62. Ralline. 
63. Gallinuline. 
64. Fulicine. 


65. Cygninze. 
66. Anserine. 
67. Anatine. 
68. Fuliguline. 
69. Mergine. 


70. Lestridinz. 
71. Larine. 

72, Sternineg. 

73. Rhynchopine. 
74. Diomedeinz. 
75. Procellariing. 


76. Phaleridine. 
77. Alcine. 


13 ORDERS. 


20 SuBoRDERs. 


63 FAMILIES. 


77 SUBFAMILIES. 


EXPLANATION OF COLORED FRONTISPIECE. 


ANATOMY OF PIGEON, 9, § Nat. Size. 


The breast-bone and entire front walls of body removed ; the viscera drawn to the right. 


A, A, skin of neck turned aside. —a, opening of bursa fabricii into cloaca. — B, brain 
removed from skull and turned hind part before (p. 176). — Bp, brachial plexus (p. 177). — 
b, opening of oviduct into cloaca (p. 219). — ©, crop, with left C’, and right C”, lateral dila- 
tations (p. 212). — ¢, opening of left ureter into cloaca (p. 214). — ea, ceea coli, point where 
small intestines pass into colon (p. 214).—D, D, duodenal loop of intestine, enfolding pan- 
creas (p. 213).— E, esophagus, gullet (p. 211). — Er, right ear-opening.—e, left cerebral 
hemisphere. — f, optic nerve (p. 176). —G, gizzard; letter on central tendon (p. 212). — g 
left optie lobe (p. 176). — H, heart (p. 196); the unlettered orange-red arteries from it are the 
short right and long left innominate, latter dividing into left carotid and left subclavian (both 
cut short), former dividing into right carotid (the long ascending vessel) and right subclavia 
just over the letters “Ty”; main aortic arch (right) not shown (pp. 197, 198); the unlet- 
tered bright-blue vessels are the pulinonary arteries. — Hy, hyoid arch (p. 167). —-h, cerebel- 
lum (p. 176). —hd, hepatic ducts entering duodenum from liver (p. 215).—4, termination 
of rectum in cloaca (p. 214). — J, esophagus between crop and proventriculus. — Kn, knee 
(p. 120). —k, k, k, three lobes of kidney, lying in pelvis p, ureter w passing down upon 
them to ¢ (p. 217). —LL, liver, right and left lobes, receiving apex of heart between them 
(p- 215). — Lg, leg (p. 120). —Lu, left lung (see p. 200; compare fig. 101).—M, M’, M’, 
M”’, stumps of cut pectoral muscles (p. 193). —m, entrance into lung of left bronchial tube. 
N, N, skinned neck. —n, spigelian lobe of liver. —O, left ovary, inactive (p. 220, fig. 108) 
od, left oviduct, passing down with ureter to b. —P, pelvis partly exposed (p. 147).— Pe, 
pancreas, lying in duodenal fold of intestine (p. 215).— Pr, proventriculus or true stomach, 
between cesophagus and gizzard (p. 212).—p, medulla oblongata, connecting brain with 
spinal cord (p. 175). —Q, coils of intestine, coming down from D/, behind G, passing ca to i 
(p. 218). —R, cut ends of several ribs. —r, r’, two openings leading from lung to not shown 
air-sacs (p. 200, fig. 101, u, «).-—S, spleen. -—Sr is placed over the syrinx; the fleshy bands 
on each side of the letters are the intrinsic syringeal muscles; the narrower bands diverging 
from trachea between Sr and Tr are extrinsic muscles (p. 204, fig. 101, 16, a-e). —Th, 
thigh (p. 120). — Tr, trachea or wind-pipe (p. 201).— Ty, a gland. —t, intermediate mus- 
cle of the gizzard. —U or V, remains of skull broken open to remove brain. —v, vw, v’, 
three pancreatic ducts entering intestine (p. 215). — w, ureter, see k, above.— Drawn and 
colored from nature by Dr. R. W. SHurELpt, U.S. A. 


Part IIL. 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS 


OF 


NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS. 


CLASS AVES: BIRDS. 


HIS CLASS OF ANIMALS, while sharply distinguished from Mammals, is so closely 

related to Reptiles, that the presence of feathers in the former, and their absence 

from the latter, is the most obvious if not the only positive character by which the two classes 
are separable. 

Though the species of birds are numerous (some 10,000 are known), the structural diver- 
sity of the Class is comparatively so slight, that the characters upon which the primary divisions 
are based seem insignificant in view of those upon which the major groups of Mammals or 
Reptiles may be founded. With strict regard for equivalency of taxonomic groups, based on 
morphological considerations, the conventional “class” of Birds is scarcely or not of higher 
value than an order of Reptiles, with which Birds are associated under the name SauRop- 
sipa. But it is not proven that a given structural character may not have classificatory value 
in one case, different from that which may properly be attributed to it in another; so that, 
though the most diverse birds may be more alike than are extremes among Lizards for 
example, we may still continue to speak of a class Aves, to be primarily divided into sub-classes 
or orders. 

All known Birds, living and extinct, are divisible into the following primary groups, 
which may be termed sub-classes : 


J. Saurur#. — Birds with teeth. Vertebra biconcave (amphiccelous). Sternum 
keeled. Wings small, with separate metacarpals. Tail longer than body, its 
vertebree not pygostyled, its feathers arranged in distichous series. (One species, 
Archaeopteryx lithographica, from the Jurassic of Europe. Fig. 14.) 

II. Ovonrororma.— Birds with teeth, implanted in sockets. Vertebre biconcave. 
Wings large, with anchylosed metacarpals. Sternum keeled. Tail short. 
(Typified by the genus Ichthyornis, from the Cretaceous of North America. 
Fig. 16.) 


288 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — CARINATZE — PASSERES. 


If. Opoxrotc#. — Birds with teeth, implanted in grooves. Vertebree saddle-shaped 
(heterocceelous). Wings rudimentary, wanting metacarpals. Sternum without 
keel. Tail short. (Typified by the genus Hesperornis, from the Cretaceous of 
North America. Fig. 15.) 

IV. Ravita.— Birds without teeth. Vertebree (some) saddle-shaped. Wings rudi- 
mentary, or at most unfit for flight, with anchylosed metacarpals. Sternum 
without keel (as in Odontolce, fig. 15). Tail short. (Embracing the extinct 
Moas, and the living Ostriches, Cassowaries, Emeus, and Kiwis.) 

V. Carwatz.— Birds without teeth. Vertebree (some) saddle-shaped. Wings devel- 
oped, with rare exceptions fit for flight, with anchylosed metacarpals. Sternum 
keeled. Tail short (as to its vertebre, which are pygostyled). (Embracing all 
living birds excepting the Ratite). 


V. AVES CARINATA: ORDINARY BIRDS. 


The essential characters of this group, which includes all living birds excepting the 
ostriches and their allies (ratite or struthious birds), are the absence of teeth, the saddle-shaped 
faces of the best-developed vertebrz, and the keeled breast-bone (fig. 56), in combination with 
the perfection of wing-structure in adaptation to aerial (or aquatic) flight. The metacarpals and 
three metatarsals are anchylosed (figs. 27, 34); the scapula and coracoid meet at less than a 
right angle (very rarely more), and the furculumn is usually perfect (fig. 59). (In the flightless 
parrot of New Zealand (Stringops habroptilus), the sternal keel is rudimentary.) The caudal 
vertebree are few, and the last few (pygostyle, fig. 56) are peculiarly modified to support the 
tail-feathers in fan-like array. There is normally extensive post-acetabular anchylosis of the 
pelvic bones, which are normally separate there in the other groups (compare figs. 56 and 15). 

The division of Carinate birds has always exercised the judgment and ingenuity of orni- 
thologists ; no system that has been proposed has been universally adopted, and few if any of 
the major groups can be considered established and perfectly detined. The orders of Carinate, 
therefore, are still provisional. But a great assemblage of birds have been ascertained to 
agree (with few exceptions) in possessing certain characters, upon the combination of which 
may be based an 


I.— Order PASSERES: Insessores, or Perchers Proper. 


The feet are perfectly adapted for grasping by the length and low insertion of the hind toe, 
great power of apposing which to the front toes, and great mobility of which, are secured by 
separation of its principal muscle (Hexor longus hallucis) from that which bends the other toes 
collectively (flexor profundus digitorum). The hind toe is always present, perfectly incumbent, 
and never turned forwards or even sideways; its claw is as long as, or longer than, the claw 
of the middle toe. The feet are never zygodactyle, nor syndactyle, nor semipalmate, nor 
palmate; the front toes are usually immovably joined to each other at base, for a part, or 
the whole, of the basal joints. No one of the frout toes is ever versatile. The joints of the 
toes are always 2, 3, 4, 5, counting from the first (hinder one) to the fourth (outer front one). 
The toes are always four in number (excepting Cholornis). (Figs. 36, 37, 42, 48.) Various 
as are the shapes of the wings, these members agree in having the great row of coverts not more 
than half as long as the secondaries ; the primaries either nine or ten in number, and the second 
aries more than six. (Fig. 30.) The tail, extremely variable in shape, has twelve rectrices 
(with certain anomalous exceptions). The bill is too variable in form to furnish characters of 
groups higher than families; but its covering is always hard and horny, in part or wholly, — 
never extensively membranous, as in many wading and swimming birds, nor softly tumid, as in 


CHARACTERS OF PASSERES. 239 


pigeons, nor cered, as in parrots and birds of prey. The nostrils do not openly communicate 
with each other. The oil-gland (p. 86) is nude, and of a characteristic shape. Besides these 
external characters, which the student may readily examine without dissection, there are some 
more important anatomical ones. The sternum (with few exceptions) is cast in a particular 
mould, being manubriated, with prominent costal processes, and having each side of the poste- 
rior border single-notched (neither entire, nor deeply nor doubly notched, nor fenestrate ; fig. 
58). The bony palate has a peculiar structure, called egithognathous (fig. 79). There is but 
one carotid artery, the left (fig. 91). The caca coli are present, though small. There is a 
peculiarity in the method of insertion of the tensor patagii brevis. Besides possessing the pecul- 
iarity of the flexors of the toes, already mentioned, Passeres are anomalogonatous (p. 195); 
that is, the ambiens muscle is absent, as is the accessory femoro-caudal; the femoro-caudal and 
semitendinosus are present, as is usually also the accessory semitendinosus. 

Physiologically, the nature of Passeres is altricial and psilopeedic (p. 88) ; that is, the young 
are hatched weak and naked, and require to be fed for some time in the nest by the parents. 
They represent the highest grade of physiological development, as well as the most perfect 
physical organization of the class of birds. Their nervous irritability is great, codrdinate with 
the rapidity of their respiration and circulation ; they consume the most oxygen, and live the 
fastest, of all birds. They habitually reside above the earth, in the air that surrounds it, among 
the plants that with them adorn it; not on the ground, nor on ‘the waters under the earth.” 

Pas'seres were named by Cuvier in 1798 as an order of birds; the naine is simply the 
plural of the Lat. passer, a sparrow. But the group as established by him included many 
forms which were first properly excluded by the celebrated Nitzsch, who in 1829 limited the 
group as now accepted. Besides being one of the best defined, it is by far the largest group 
of its grade in ornithology. For example, of the 888 birds enumerated as North Aierican in 
the Check List, no fewer than 394 are Passeres; as are more than half of all known birds. 

Passeres are primarily divisible into two groups, commonly called sub-orders, mainly 
according to the structure of the vocal organ, — the lower larynx, or syrinx. In one of these 
groups, the musical apparatus is highly developed, with several distinct pairs of intrinsic mus- 
cles, inserted into the ends of the upper three half-rings of the bronchial tubes. In the other, 
the voice-organ is less complex, with less specialized muscles inserted into the middle portions 
of the upper bronchial half-rings. The former arrangement is termed acromyodian, the latter 
mesomyodian: and the birds which exhibit this differeuce of structure are respectively called 
Passeres acromyodi and Passeres mesomyodi, or Oscines and Clamatores. (See p. 205, tig. 101.) 

Associated with the acromyodian or oscine type of syrinx is a peculiar condition of the 
tarsal envelope. In nearly all Oscines, the tarsus is covered on each side with a horny plate, 
nearly or quite undivided, mecting its fellow in a sharp ridge behind. This condition of the 
tarsus is called bilaminate, and the birds showing it are laminiplantar (figs. 37, 42, 43). Iw 
some cases the fusion of the tarsal envelope proceeds so far that the frout of the tarsus likewise 
presents a nearly or quite undivided surface, the whole tarsus being then encased in a “ boot,” 
as it is called. A ‘ booted” tarsus may be said to be trilaminate (fig. 36). The principal ex- 
ception to the association of a bilaminate or trilaminate tarsus with an acromyodian syrinx is 
afforded by the Alaudid@, which have the tarsus scutellate and blunt behind; and, with very 
few exceptions, no bird which is not acromyodian has a bilaminate tarsus. A third important 
feature characterizes Oscines, as arule. This is the reduction in length of the first primary, 
which never equals the longest primary in length, is rarely over two-thirds as long as the 
longest, is so short as to be called spurious, or is quite rudimentary and apparently wanting, 
leaving apparently only nine primaries (fig. 30). 

Associated with the mesomyodian or clamatorial type of syrinx is seen (with few excep- 
tions) the opposite condition of the tarsus, the sides and back of which, as well as the front, are 
covered with variously arranged scutella, so that there is no sharp undivided ridge behind. 


240 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


In such cases there are also ten fully developed primaries, the first of which, if not equalling or 
being itself the longest, is at least two-thirds as long. (See p. 428, fig. 279.) 

These combinations of characters may be contrasted for the purpose of dividing the great 
group Passeres into two sections, conventionally denominated sub-orders. 


1. SusorpeR PASSERES ACROMYODI, OR OSCINES: Sineine Birps. 


Syrinx with four or five distinct pairs of intrinsic muscles, inserted at the ends of the three : 
upper bronchial half-rings, representing the acromyodian type of voice-organ, and constituting 
a highly complex and effective musical apparatus. Side of tarsus covered with a horny plate 
meeting its fellow in a sharp ridge behind ; front of tarsus also sometimes laminate. Prima- 
ries ten, with the first short or spurious, or apparently only nine. 

Here belong all the North American families of Passeres, with the single exception of the 
Tyrannide, or Flyeatchers, which are clamatorial (mesomyodian). The only North American 
exceptions to the diagnosis given are afforded by the Alaudide, or Larks, and certain Troglo- 
dytide, which, with an oscine syrinx and wing-structure, do not have a bilaminate tarsus. Of 
our 394 Passerine species, no fewer than 363 are Oscine. The name is the Lat. os!cen, in un. 
pl. os'eines, divining-birds — those whose notes were regarded as augural. 

It is a question, which one of the numerous Oscine families should be placed at the head 
of the series. Largely, perhaps, through the influence of those ornithologists who hold that 
fusion of the tarsal envelope into one continuous plate indicates the acme of bird-structure, the 
place of honor has of late been usually assigned to the thrushes. But only a part of the 
thrushes themselves show this character ; on which account, probably, the rest were associated 
by Cabanis with the wrens. It seems to me most probable that this character, though unques- 
tionably of high import, should be taken as of less value than the reduction of the number of 
primaries from ten to nine ; and I am at present inclined to believe that eventually some Oscine 
family with only nine primaries — as the finches or tanagers— will take the leading position. 
Here, however, I follow usage in the sequence of the North American families of Oscines, as 
follows : — Turdida, Chameide, Paride, Sittide, Certhiide, Troglodytide, Alaudide, Mota- 
cilide, Sylvicohde, Tanagride, Hirundinide, Ampelide, Vireonde, Laniide, Fringillide, 
Icteride, Corvide, Sturnide. 


1. Family TURDIDZ: Thrushes, etc. 


The essential character of this great group of 
Oscines is, booted tarsi and ten primaries, the lst 
spurious. But such expression requires qualification, 
for the Turdide do not show this combination with- 
out exception, and birds of some other families do 
possess it. Though it be as natural as any other 
Oscine family of equal extent and variety, and equally 
close relationships with other groups, it is in the 
nature of the case insusceptible of perfect definition 
in concise terms. The North American representa- 
tives, however, may readily be circumscribed in a man- 
ner enabling the student to assure himself of the family 
to which they belong. Besides the true Thrushes, the 
ae ei ee Tuopenn Belang family as at present constituted includes the Mocking 
(Turdus iliacus) and Fieldfare (T. pilaris). Thrushes, Dippers, Blue-birds, Kinglets and Gnat- 
From Dixon. catchers, with stray representatives of certain Old 
World forms. the Chats and Sylvives, sometimes held to represent separate families (Sazico- 


TURDIDZA — TURDINZ!: THRUSHES. 241 


lide and Sylviide), between which and Turdide, however, no line whatever can be drawn. 
The vast assemblage of Old World Warblers are in fact uch more thoroughly Thrush-like 
than are our Mimina, for example; and the Turdide@ would be much more homogeneous and 
easy to characterize if the Mock-birds and Gnat-catchers, with scutellate tarsi and not strictly 
spurious lst primary, were to be excluded. The relationships of the Miming with the Wreus 
are really so close, that they have often been associated with the Troglodytidg, to which they 
would probably be best assigned after all. The position of Polioptila is uncertain; but it 
caunot well go with Parid@, and does not seem to be very different from some of the Sylvine 
forms now brought under Turdide. 

The North American members of the Turdide offer collectively the following characters : — 

Wing of ten primaries, of which the lst is spurious or quite short — attaining functional 
size only in Miming and Polioptiling. Wing inore or less elongate and pointed, longer than 
the tail (shorter and more rounded in Polioptila and most Miming). Inner secondaries never 
long and flowing as in Motacillide. Bill never stout and conical, nor with angulated comimis- 
sure, nor flattened with gape reaching under the eyes; usually slender, straight or little curved, 
more or less compressed, subulate and acute, usually notched at end of upper mandible (but 
the uick frequently - 
obsolete, and whole if 
bill attaining ex- 
traordinary charac- 
ters in Harporhyn- 
chus). Nostrils oval 
or roundish, rarely 
linear, exposed in 
conspicuous nasal 
fussee ; nearly or 
quite reached or 
overreached by the 
froutal feathers, but 
never concealed by A 
a dense ruff as in 
Paride and Sittide. 


Fie. 114.—Skulls of Turdide and Sylvicolide, nat. size; after Shufeldt. A, Oro- 
scoptes montanus; B, Siala mexicana; ©, Cinelus mexricanus; D, Siuvrus nevius. 
tictus bristled or Observe likeness between A and B, at points marked c,c/, l,l’; and between C and D, 
at points marked b, b,/ d, d/. 


with bristle-tipped 
feathers, except in Cinclus. Tarsus normally booted, the anterior scutella, excepting a few 
below, being fused in a continuous plate, — not so in imine and Polioptiling. On the sides 
and behind, tarsus strictly laminiplantar (compare Alaudid@ and soine Troglodytidg). Tarsus 
usually also long and slender; never decidedly shorter than the middle toe and claw, often 
decidedly longer. Anterior toes deeply cleft, the inner to its very base, the outer adherent to 
the middle for only the length of its basal joint (compare Troglodytide). Hind claw never 
lengthened and straightened as usual in Motacillide. Tail feathers twelve; tail normally 
inuch shorter than the wings, sometimes about equal, only decidedly longer in some Mimina ; 
never cuneate, nor deeply forked, nor doubly rounded. 

Any North American bird showing booted tarsi, ten primaries, the 1st spurious, — and 
not double-rounded tail—is one of the Turdide. The group thus constituted is divisible 
into several sub-fainilies, which may be analyzed as follows with reference to the North Amer- 
ican genera : — 

ANALYSIS OF SUBFAMILIES. 

Turvinz: Typical Thrushes. Tarsi booted. Rictns bristly. Nostrils oval, exposed. 

Bill straight, shorter than head. First quill strictly spurious; 2d between 4th and 6th. Tail 
16 


242 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


shorter than wings. Tarsus little if any longer than the middle toe and claw. Of medium 
size. Cosmopolitan. One genus — Turdus. 

Miminz:: ‘Mocking Thrushes. Tarsal scutella usually distinct. Bill variable, sometimes 
attaining extraordinary length and curvature. Rictus bristly. Nostrils oval, exposed. Wings 
short and rounded; Ist quill not strictly spurious, at least one-half as long as 2d, which is 
shorter than 6th. Tail equalling or much longer than wings. Of medium and largest size. 
Peculiar to America. An aberrant group, related to the Troglodytide. Three genera, — 
Oroscoptes (fig. 114, A), Mimus, Harporhynchus. 

CincLine: Dippers. Tarsi booted. Bill shorter than head. Nostrils linear, exposed, 
but overreached by feathers. No bristles whatever about rictus. Wings short, but still longer 
than the very short square tail, with strictly spurious 1st primary. Form stout. Plumage 
dense. Habits aquatic. Cosmopolitan. One genus— Cinclus (fig. 114, C). 

Saxiconin#: Chats, ete. Tarsi booted. Bill small, much shorter than head. Rictus 
bristly. Nostrils oval. Wings pointed, exceeding the short, square or emarginate tail. Tar- 
sus usually much longer than the middle toe and claw (not in Sialia). Of small size and 
slender form, and for the most part terrestrial; but scarcely distinguished from Turdine 
proper. Chiefly Old World. Three genera, — Saxicola, Cyanecula, and Siaka (fig. 114, B). 

Recutinzxz: Kinglets. Tarsi booted (scutella rarely appreciable). Bill much as in 
Turdine, but small and weak. Nostrils exposed, or overhung by tiny feathers. Wings 
pointed, with strictly spurious Ist primary, longer than the even or emarginate tail. Tarsi 
longer than middle toe and claw. Very small; under six inches. Greenish, often with flaming 
crest. Chiefly Old World. Two genera, — Phylloscopus and Regulus. 

PoLiopritinzZ: Gnat-catchers. Tarsi seutellate. Bill very slender, but widened and 
flattened at base, with acute notched and hooked tip. Rictus strongly bristled. Nostrils 
entirely exposed. First primary not strictly spurious, half as long as the 2d. Very small; 
under six inches. Coloration bluish, black and white. Peculiar to America. One genus— 
Pohoptila. 

Artificial Key to the Genera. 


Tarsi distinctly scutellate (if not, crissum reddish), Wings not longer than tail. 
Length under 6 inches. Colors bluish, black and white . . . . wea we we os §6©Polkioptila. 1 
Length over 6 inches. 
Bill about as long as head or much longer. Tail decidedly longer than wings Harporhynchus 4 


Bill shorter than head. 


Wings and tail of about equal lengths. Ashy, spotted below . . . . . . Oroscoptes 2 
Wings rather shorter than tail. Ashy, adults plain below; or cap black . . . . Mimus 83 
Tarsi booted (anterior scutella at most indistinct). 
Length 5 inches or less. Colors greenish and yellowish. 
A fame-colorediicrest. 2.3. Soe 6 a woe ee Se ee a TRegulus 10 
Rig nOlgne BREW GE a owe a gE a ee eK ee Phylloscopus 9 
Length over 5 inches. 
No bristles about bill. Whole-colored. Aquatic . . . .. 0.0.0... 4... 4. Cinelus 7 
Rictus bristled. 
Tarsus much longer than middle toe and claw. 
Blue on throat, reddish on tail . 2... . 1... ee Cyaneccula 8 
No blue or reddish. Tail black and white... .. 0.0.0.2... . Savicola 6 
Tarsus little if any longer than middle toe and claw. 
Coloration chiefly blue; bill and feet black... ... 4... =... Sialia 6 
No blue. Bill and feet not black. . 2. ae ~ ss . Turdus 1 


Oss. — In determining character of tarsus, whether booted or scutellate, it is necessary to examine adult birds; 
for the fusion of the anterior scutella is progressive, and only accomplished perfectly at maturity. And in general, 
in using artificial keys to genera and species, the student must agree with the author in understanding that speci- 
mens fairly illustrating normal adult characters are in hand. 


TURDIDA — TURDINA): TYPICAL THRUSHES. 243 


{. Subfamily TURDIN/E: Typical Thrushes. 


With the tarsus, in the adult, ‘‘ booted” or 
euveloped in a continuous plate, formed by fusion 
of all the tarsal scutella excepting two or three 
just above the base of the toes (fig. 36). Toes 
deeply cleft, —the inuer to the very base, the 
outer coherent with the middle only for the length 
of its basal joint. Wings more or less pointed, 
longer than the tail; 1st primary spurious, and 
very short; 2d longer than 6th. Bill moderate, 
shorter than the head, straight, more or less sub- 

wate, little depressed at base, with bristly rictus. 
Fic. 115.— A typical Thrush, the European Nostrils oval, nearly or quite reached by the 
SSL Dae OE ETE ERT: frontal feathers. (Fig. 116.)  Tail-feathers 
widening somewhat toward their ends; tail as a whole somewhat fan-shaped ; neither decidedly 
forked at the end, nor wuch graduated. Upwards of one hundred and fifty species are now 
usually assigned to the Turdine, most of them referable to the single genus Turdus and its 
subdivisions. They are nearly cosmopolitan, and have a great development in the warmer 
parts of America, where they are mainly represented by types closely allied to Turdus proper ; 
more aberrant forms, constituting very distinct genera, occur in the Old World. We have 
but one genus in North America, of which the robin is the most familiar, as it is a very 
characteristic, example; a species of Catharus, however, occurs very near if not actually 
over our Mexican border. The thrushes are diffused over all the woodland parts of our 
country, and are all strictly migratory insectivorous birds, though feeding also upon berries and 
other soft fruits. Though not truly gregarious, some, as the robin for instance, often collect in 
troops at favorite feeding places, or migrate in companies. They build rather rude nests, 
often plastered with mud, never pensile, but saddled on a bough or fixed on a fork, or set 
on the ground; and lay from four to six green or blue eggs, sometimes plain, sometimes 
spotted. All are vocal; and some, like the wood thrush, are exquisitely melodious. 

These birds may be taken in illustration of a character which runs through other of the 
groups of Turdide besides the Turdine proper. The young, in their first feathering, which 
is worn but a short time, are curiously speckled and streaked, in a manner quite different 


from the adults. This feature is well shown by a young robin, or blue-bird, as described 
beyond. 


TUR/DUS. (Lat. turdus, a thrush.) Turusues. The characters of the typical aud single 
genus represented in North Aierica are in effect the same as those of the subfamily already 
given. The several species fall in three subgenera, which may be thus analyzed : — 
Merula. — Sexes similar. Bill notched near end, little widened at base. Tarsi little longer 
than middle toe and claw. Beneath mostly unicolor, with streaked throat. Large; stout. 
(Type, Turdus merula ; includes our robins.) 
Hesperocichla. — Sexes dissimilar. Bill unnotched. Male with a black pectoral collar. Other- 
wise like Merula. (Type, and only species, Turdus naevius.) 
Turdus. — Sexes similar. Bill notched near end, much widened and depressed at base. Tarsi 
decidedly longer than middle toe and claw. Beneath spotted. Of small stature, and rather 
slender form. 

Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


Neither spotted nor banded below, but throat streaked, (Robins.) 
Upper parts slate-colored ; breast chestnut. 
Outer tail-feather with white tipping. (Eastern ) eee 
Outer tail-feather without decided white tipping. (Western.) . 
Upper parts grayish-ash ; breast yellowish-buff. (Cape St. Lucas.) . 


se ee we we Migratorius 
eee ew ee propinguus 
ee ew ew sw 2 ConsiNis 


G toe 


244 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


Streaked below on white ground, with reddish sides, (European) . 2... 1 ee eee ee . Uiacus 4 
Banded crosswise, not spotted, below ; upper parts slate-colored. (Western.) . 2... 1. 2. 6 . 2 . nevius 5 
Spotted below on white or tawny ground, or on both, 

Upper parts not of uniform color, 


Upper parts tawny, shading to olive on rump. (Wood Thrush, eastern.). . . . . mustelinus 6 
Upper parts olive, shading to rufous on rump. 
Of medium size. (Ilermit Thrush, eastern.) 2. 2 2. 6 0-8 ee ee ee eee ENTS 10 
Of largest size. (lermit Thrush, Rocky Mts.) . . . 0.0. . 2 4 2 + ee + auduboni 9 
Of smallest size. (Hermit Thrush, Pacific coast.) 2. 6 6. 6 ee ee es unalasce § 


Upper parts of uniform color throughout. 
Upper parts tawny : spots below few, pale, sented confined to buff jugulum: no buff 


eve-ring (Tawny Thrush, eastern.) .. Bae one foe me wy Som 5 pescascenss 7 
Upper parts russet olive; under parts as before 3 no > buff eye-ring. (Tawny Thrush, 

western.) 2. 0.) Be a be DA : : . . . salicicola 7 
Upper parts russet alive spots lielowe numerous, invading slits meer au putt eye- 

ving. (Western Olive-backed Thrush.) . 9... coe eee ee ustulatus 11 
Upper parts dark pure vlive ; spots below as before: a ‘putt eye-ring. (Eastern Olive- 

backed Thrush.) . . . Oe see ie @s «2 = & oSt6atnvon 13 


Upper parts dark pure olive; apots Belo. as “before; no buffeye-ring. (Eastern.) . . . aliciw 12 


1. T. migrato’rius. (Lat. migratorius, migratory; migrator, a wanderer. Figs. 36, 58, 116.) 
Rosin. ¢, in summer: Upper parts slate-color, with a shade of olive. Head black, the eye- 
lids and a spet before the eye white, and the throat streaked with white. Quills of the wings 
dusky, edged with hoary ash, aud with the eolor of the back. Tail blackish, the outer 
feather usually tipped with white. Under parts, to the vent, including the under wing-coverts, 

chestnut. Under tail-coverts and tibia white, 

showing more or less plumbeous. Bill yellow, 
often with a dusky tip. Mouth yellow. Eyes 
dark brown. Feet blackish, the soles yellow- 
ish. Length about 10.00; extent 16.00; wing 

5.00-5.50; tail 4.00-4.50; bill 0.80; tarsus, or 
middle 108 and elaw, 1.25. 9, in summer: 

Similar, bnt the colors duller; upper parts 

rather olivaceous-gray ; chestnut of the under 

; parts paler, the feathers skirted with gray or 

“FIG. 116. — Robin, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E.C.) white; head and tail less blackish; throat with 
more white. Bill much clouded with dusky. ¢ 9, in winter, and young: Similar to the adult 

@, but receding somewhat farther from the % in summer by the duller colors, the palencss 

and restriction of the chestuut, with its extensive skirting with white, lack of distinction of the 

color of the head from that of the back, tendency of the white spot before the eye to run into 

a superciliary streak, aud dark color of most of the bill. Very young birds have the back 

speckled, each feather being whitish centrally, with a dusky tip; and the cinnamon of the 

under parts is spotted with blackish. The greater eoverts are tipped with white or rufous, 
frequently persistent, as are also some similar markings on the lesser coverts. N. Am. at 
large; an abundant and familiar bird, migratory, but breeding anywhere in its range. Nest 
in trees, usually saddled on a horizontal bough, composed largely vf mud; eggs 4-6, about 
1.18 x 0.80, aniform greenish-blue, normally unspotted. 


-2. T. m. propin’quus? (Lat. propinguus, neighboring ; as related to the last.) ALLIED 
Ron. Quite like ZT. migratorius; averaging slightly larger; wing up to 5.60; tail up 
to 4.70, not so blackish as that of 7. migratorius, the outer feather without white, or 
merely a narrow edging. A scarcely distinguished race, of the Rocky Mt. region and 
westward. 

‘3. T. confi/nis. (Lat. confinis, allied or related; as to TZ. migratorius.) Sr. Lucas Rosiy. 
Upper parts, including sides of head and neck, uniform grayish-ash, with slight olive shade, 
scarcely darker ou the head; chin and throat white, streaked with ashy-brown ; breast, sides, 


TURDIDA)— TURDINZA): THRUSHES. 245 


and lining of wings pale yellowish-buff, belly white, flanks ashy. A distinct white super- 
ciliary stripe; lower eyelid white. Feathers of jugulum and sides with ashy tips; greater 
wing-coverts tipped with whitish; bill yellowish, upper mandible and tip of lower tinged 
with dusky; feet pale brown. Wing 5.10; tail 4.10; tarsus 1.20; imiddle toe and claw 
1.07. Lower California ; resembling a young robin, but quite distinct. 

T. ili/acus. (Lat. aliacus, relating to the flanks, which are red. Fig. 113.) Rep-wimNGrp 
TurusH. Upper parts hair-brown with an olive shade, darker on the head, paler ou the 
runp. Wiug-quills deep brown; coverts and inner secondaries tipped with whitish. Tail 
dark brown, the outer feather usually white-tipped. Lore blackish; eyclids and superciliary 
stripe whitish; auriculars streaked with light and dark brown. Throat yellowish-white, 
streaked with brownish-black ; breast and belly grayish-white; lower tail-coverts whitish, 
streaked with brown. Sides aud under wing-coverts light red. Bill brownish-black, basal 
half of lower mandible orange-yellow ; iris brown; feet tlesh-colored. Sexes alike. Length 
8.50; extent 14.00; wing 4.50; tail 3.50; bill 0.75; tarsus, or middle toe and claw, 1.15. 
A European species, only N. Aimerican as occurriug in Greenland. The upper parts are 
almost exactly like a robin’s; the lower whitish, streaked with dusky, the sides of the body 
and lining of the wings bright chestnut. 

T. ne/vius, (Lat. nevius, spotted, varied; nevus, a birth-mark. Fig. 117.) Vanriep 
TurusH. OREGON Rogpin. , in summer: Entire upper parts dark slate-color, varyiug in 
shade from a blackish to a plumbeous slate, in less perfect specimens with a slight olive tinge ; 
wings and tail blackish, with more or less of pluinbeous or olive shade, according to the age of 
the quills; wing-coverts, greater and 
lesser, tipped with orange-brown form- 
ing two cross-bars, and quills edged in 
two or three places with the same; 
quills also white at base on the inner 
webs, this marking not visible from the 
outside; one or several of the lateral 
tail-feathers tipped with white. A 
broad black collar across the breast, 
mounting on the side of the neck and 
head. Stripe behind the eye, lower 
eyelid, and under parts orange-brown, 
gradually giving way to white on the 
lower belly; vent and crissum mixed 
white, orange-brown, and plumbeous. 
Bill black ; feet and claws dull yellow- 
ish. Length 9.50-10.00; extent about 
16.00; wing 5.00; tail 3.75; bill 0.80; 
tarsus, or middle toe and claw, 1.25. Fig. 117. — Varied Thrush (Turdus nevius), nat. size. (Ad. 
Q, in summer: Upper parts olivaceous- 94" del. E. C.) 

plumbeous (almost exactly the shade of the common robin in winter) ; wings and tail seareely 
darker; the pectoral collar narrow, like the back in color; other under parts like those of 
the ¢, but duller, paler, and rather rusty than orange-brown, with more white on the lower 
belly. Markings of head, tail, and wings exactly as in the male. Young: Like the adult ?. 
Upper parts in many cases with a decided umber-brown wash. No speckled stage, like that 
of the very young robin, has been observed, though August specimens have been examined. 
In the young @, the black pectoral bar is at first indicated by interrupted blackish crescents 
on individual feathers. Young 9 2 sometimes show scarcely a trace of the collar. At 
all ages, the markings of the head and Wings are much the same. Pacific coast region, Alaska 


Ta. 


246 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES. 


to Mexico, abundant, migratory; accidental in Mass., N. J., and Long Jsland. A beautiful 
and very distinct species, representing the subgenus Hesperocichla (Gr. €orepos, hesperos, Lat. 
vesperus, western, and xkixda, kichla, a thrush). Nest in bushes, of twigs, grasses, mosses, 
aud lichens ; eggs 1.12 x 0.80, light greenish-blue, speckled with dark brown. 

T. musteli/nus. (Lat. mustelinus, weasel-like; i.e., tawny in color; mustela, a weasel. 
Fig. 118.) Woop Turusu. @ 9, adult: Upper parts, including the surface of the closed 
wings, tawny-brown, purest and deepest on the head, shading insensibly into olivaceous on the 
rump and tail. Below, pure white, faintly tinged on the breast with buff, and everywhere, 
except on the throat, middle of belly, and crissun, marked with numerous large, well-defined, 
rounded or subtriangular blackish spots. Inner webs 
and ends of quills fuscous, with a white or buffy 
edging toward the base. Greater under wing-coverts 
inostly white. Auriculars sharply streaked with 
dusky and white. Bill blackish-brown, with flesh- 
colored or yellowish base. Feet like this part of the 
bill. Length 7.50-8.00; extent about 13.00; wing 
/ 4.00-4.25 ; tail 3.00-3.25 ; bill 0.75; tarsus 1.25; 
‘ middle toe and claw less. Young: Speckled or 


Hy? if! ; : es 
“ip streaked above with pale yellowish or whitish, espe- 
FIG. 118. — Wood Thrush (7. mustelinus), cially noticeable as triangular spots on the wing- 
mato eizes (Ad. nate del Bee) coverts. But these speedily disappear, when a 


plumage scarcely different from that of the adult is assumed. The most strongly marked 
species of the subgenus. In 7. wnalasce, the only other one showing both tawny and 
olive on the upper parts, the position of the two colors is reversed, the tawny occupying the 
ruinp, the olive the head. In no other species are the spots below so large, sharp, numerous, 
and generally dispersed. Eastern U. 8., N. to New England only; a famous vocalist, common 
in low damp woods and thickets; migratory; breeds throughout its range; nest in bushes 
and low trees, of leaves, grasses, ete., and mud; eggs usually 4-5, plain greenish-blue like 
those of the robin, but smaller: 1.08 x 0.70. 

T. fusces/cens. (Lat. fuscescens, less than fusews, dark.) Wiutson’s THrusu. VEERY. 
692 : Upper parts reddish-brown, with slight olive shade; no contrast of color between 
back and tail; quills and tail-feathers darker and purer brown, the former with white or 
buff spaces at the concealed bases of the inner webs (as usual in this subgenus). No orbi- 
tal light ring around the eye; auriculars only obsoletely streaky. Below, white; the sides 
shaded with hoary-gray or pale grayish-olive; the jugulum buff-colored, contrasting strongly 
with the white of the breast, and marked with a few small brown arrow-heads, the chin and 
middle line of throat, however, nearly white and immaculate. A few obsolete grayish-olive 
spots in the white of the breast ; but otherwise the markings confined to the buff area. Bill 
dark above, mostly pale below, like the feet. @, Length 7.25-7.50; extent about 12.00; 
wing 4.00-4.25; tail 3.00-3.25 ; bill 0.60; tarsus 1.20. 9, smaller; average of both sexes: 
length 7.35; extent 11.75; wing 3.90; tail 2.85; tarsus 1.12. Chiefly eastern U.8., but N. 
to Canada; common, migratory, nesting in northerly parts of its range. Nest on ground or 
near it, of leaves, grasses, ete., but no mud; eggs 4-5, greenish-blue like those of the wood 
thrush, normally unspotted, 0.90 X 0.60. A delightful songster, like others of the genus, 
found in thick woods and swamps; of shy and retiring habits. 

T. f. salici/cola. (Lat. saliz, a willow; colo, I cultivate.) Wittow Tawny Turusu. Like 
T. fuscescens, but averaging larger, the upper parts less decidedly tawny, the jugulum less 
distinctly buff. Wing 3.80-4.25, av. 4.02; tail 2.95-3.40, av. 3.20; bill 0.55-0.60; tarsus, 
ay. 1.17; middle toe without claw, av. 0.69. A slight form recently described by Mr. Ridgway, 
inhabiting the lower willowy portions of the Rocky Mt. region, U. 8. This variety is clearly 


10. 


11 


12. 


TURDIDA — TURDIN: THRUSHES. 247 


referable to 7. fuscescens; but it bears an extraordinary resemblance to T. ustulatus, in the 
russet-olive color of the upper parts, and only slightly buff tinge of the jugulum. It is dis- 
tinguished from ustulatus by lack of the buff orbital ring so characteristic of ustulatus and 
swainsont, and other characters by which fuscescens differs, notably the few if any spots in the 
white breast back of the buff area, and pale hoary gray instead of sordid olive-gray shading of 
the sides. The nest and eggs are presumably like those of fuscescens, not like those of uste- 
latus or swainsont. (Not in Check List, 1882.) 

T. unalas’ce. (Named from the island of Unalaska.) Werstern Hermir Turusn. In 
color absolutely like No. 10; in size slightly less on an average; length scarcely 7.00; wing 
3.30: tail 2.50; tarsus 1.15. Pacific coast region of N. A. 

T. u. au/duboni. (To J. J. Audubon.) AupusBon’s Hermit Turusn. In color absolutely 
like No. 10; in size larger on an average; length about 7.75; wing 4.20; tail 3.30; tarsus 
1.30. Southern Rocky Mt. region. A better marked variety than the last. 

T.u.na/nus. (Gr. vdvos, Lat. nanus, a dwarf.) EasterN Hermit Turusu. ¢ 92, in 
summer: Upper parts olivaceous, with a brownish cast, and therefore not so pure as in 
swainsont; this color changing on the rump and upper tail-coverts into the rufous of the tail, 
in decided contrast with the back. Under parts white, shaded with grayish-olive on the sides ; 
the breast, jugulum, and sides of the neck more or less strongly tinged with yellowish, and 
marked with numerous large, angular, dusky spots, which extend back of the yellowish-tinted 
parts. Throat immaculate. A yellowish orbital ring. Bill brownish-black, most of the under 
mandible livid whitish ; mouth yellow, eyes brown; legs pale brownish. @, length 7.00- 
7.25; extent 11.00-12.00; wing 3.50-3.75; tail 2.75-3.00. Q, smaller; length 6.75-7.00; 
extent 10.75—-11.25; wing 3.25-3.50. Averages of both sexes are: length 7.00; extent 11.25; 
wing 3.50; tail 2.75; tarsus 1.15. The dimensions thus overlap those of both unalasce an 
auduboni, and no positive discrimination is possible; the differences, when any, being u 
averages, not of extremes either way. $9, in winter: The olivaceous of the upper parts 
assumes a more rufous cast, much like that of ustwlatus, and the yellowish wash of the under 
parts and sides of the head and neck is more strongly pronounced. But the most rufous speci- 
mens are readily distinguished from fuscescens by the strong contrast between the color of the 
tail and other upper parts. Very young: Most of the upper parts marked with pale yellowish 
longitudinal streaks, with clubbed extremities, and dusky specks at the end; while the feathers 
of the belly and flanks are often skirted with dusky in addition to the numerous blackish spots 
of the rest of the under parts. N. Am. at large, but chiefly the Eastern Province; abundant; 
migratory, and found in all woodland, but breeds only northerly, frou Massachusetts and cor- 
responding latitudes to the Arctic regions ; winters in the Southern States. Nest and eggs not 
distinguishable from those of the Veery (No. 7). 

T. ustula‘tus. (Lat. ustulatus, scorched, singed; referring to the warm russet coloration.) 
OREGON OLIVE-BACKED TurusH. RUSSET-BACKED THRUSH. Quite like 7. swainsoni 
proper, No. 13, in uniformity of the color of the whole upper parts, presence of a buff orbital 
ring, and general character of the shading and spotting of the under parts; but olive of the 
upper parts not pure, having a decided rufous tinge, resulting in a russet-olive of exactly the 
shade of that of the upper parts of the Western variety of fuscescens (salicicola) ; from which 
it is distinguished by the buff orbital ring, and very different shading and marking of the 
under parts (compare No. 7 a); there being, as in swainsoni proper, much olive-gray spotting 
of the white breast back of the buff area, and much shading of the same olive-gray on the sides. 
Size of swainsoni. Nest in bushes, and eggs spotted, as in the latter. Pacific coast region 
of the U. S., abundant. 

T. u. alifcie. (To Miss Alice Kennicott, sister of Robert Kennicott.) GRAyY-CHEEKED 
THRUSH. Similar to swainsoni in uniformity and purity of the olive of the upper parts, which 
is as dark and pure (no tendency to the rufous of ustulatus) ; but the sides of the head lack- 


13. 


248 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


ing the yellowish or buffy suffusion seen in swainsoni, being thus like the back, or merely 
grayer ; o buff ring around eye; breast slightly if at all tinged with yellowish. Rather larger 
than swainsoni, about equalling mustelinus: length 7.50-8.00; extent 12.50-13.50; wing 
4.00-4.25 ; tail 3.00-3.25 ; bill over 0.50; average dimensions about the maxima of swainsoni. 
Distribution and nesting the same, but breeding range more northerly(?). A well-marked 
variety, perhaps a distinct species. (A local race has been described as smaller, with the bill 
usually slenderer; Catskill and White Mts.; 7. alicie bicknelli Ridgw.) 

T. u. swain/soni. (To Wm. Swainson, an English naturalist.) OLIVE-BACKED THRUSH. 
& @: Above, clear olivaceous, of exactly the same shade over all the upper parts; below, 
white, strongly shaded with olive-gray on the sides and flanks, the throat, breast, and sides 
of the neck and head strongly tinged with yellowish, the fore parts, excepting the throat, 
marked with numerous large, broad, dusky spots, which extend backward on the breast and 
belly, there rather paler, and more like the olivaceous of the upper parts. Edges of eyelids 
yellowish, forming a strong buff orbital ring; lores the same. Mouth yellow; bill blackish, 
the basal half of lower mandible pale ; iris dark brown; feet pale ashy-brown. Length of 
6, 7.00-7.50; extent 12.00-12.50; wing 3.75-4.00; tail 2.75-3.00; bill 0.50; tarsus 1.10. 
Q averaging smaller; length 6.75; extent 11.50-12.00, ete. North America, N. to high 
latitudes, W. to the Rocky Mts., common; migratory ; breeds from New England northward. 
Nest in bushes and low trees, thus in situation like that of the wood thrush, but no mud 
in its composition ; eggs unlike those of mustelinus, fuscescens, and the varieties of unalasce, 
in being freely speckled with different shades of brown on a greenish-blue ground; size 0.90 X 
0.66; number 4-5. 


2. Subfamily MIMINAZ: Mocking Thrushes. 


Aberrant Turdide, departing 
from the prime characteristic of 
the family in having the tarsi seu- 
tellate in front (the scutella some- 
times fusing, however, as in the 
eatbird), and the Ist primary, 
though short, hardly to be called 
spurious. Wings short and round- 
ed (for this family), about equal 
to the tail only in Oroscoptes ; 2d 
primary shorter than the 6th. 
Tail large and rounded or much 
graduated, usually decidedly longer 
than the wings. Tarsus about 
equal to the middle toe and claw ; 
feet stout, in adaptation to some- 
what terrestrial life. Bill various 
in form, usually longer or at least 
more curved than in the true 
thrushes; in Harporhynchus at- 
taining extraordinary length and curvature. Birds much like overgrown wrens (with which 
they have been associated by some) ; distinguished chiefly by greater size, different nostrils 
and rictal bristles, and more deeply-cleft toes. As a group they are rather southern, hardly 
passing beyond the United States; few species reaching even the Middle States, and the max- 
imum development being in Central and South America. They are peculiar to America, 
where they are represented by Oroscoptes, Mimus, Harporhynchus, and five or six related 


Fig. 119. — Mocking-bird, about 3 nat. size. (After Wilson.) 


14 


TURDIDA!— MIMINA!: MOCKING THRUSHES. 249 


genera, with upward of forty recorded species, two-thirds of which are certainly genuine. 
About one-half of these fall in Mimus alone; of Harporhynchus, nearly all the species occur 
in the United States. In their general habits they resemble wrens as much as thrushes, 
habitually residing in shrubbery near the ground, relying for concealment as much upon the 
nature of their resorts as upon their own activity and vigilance. They are all inelodious, and 
some, like the immortal mocking-bird, are as famous for their powers of mimicry as for the 
brilliant execution of their proper songs. In compensation for this great gift of music, perhaps 
that they may not grow too proud, they are plainly clad, grays and browns being the prevail- 
ing colors. The nest is generally built with little art, in a bush, and the eggs, two to six in 
number, are blue or green, plain or speckled. 
Analysis of Genera, 

Smallest: bill shortest ; wings about equal to tail. Adults speckled below .. .. . +. « - Oroscoptes 2 

Medium : bill moderate; wings a little shorter than tail. Adults plain below. . 2... . . . « Mimus 3 

Largest : bill immoderate ; wings much shorter than tail. Plain or spotted below , . . Harporhynchus 4 
OROSCOP'TES. (Gr. épos, oros, a mountain, and creémrns, scoptes, a mimic). MouNnrAIN 
Mocxkers. Wings and tail of equal leugths, the former more pointed than in other genera of 
Mimine, with the 1st quill not half as long as the 2d, which is between the 6th and 7th; 
the 3d, 4th, and 5th about equal to one another, and forming the poiut of the wing. Tail 
nearly even, its feathers but slightly graduated. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw, 
anteriorly distinctly scutellate. Bill much shorter than head, not curved, with obsolete notch 
near the end. Rictal bristles well developed, the longest reachiug beyond the nostrils. 
O. montanus is the only known species. 
O. monta/nus. (Lat. montanus, of a mountain.) MounTAIN MOCKING-BIRD. SAGE 
Turasuer. 9, in summer: Above, grayish or brownish-ash, the feathers with ob- 
soletely darker centres. Below, whitish, more or less tinged with pale buffy-brown, every- 
where marked with triangular dusky spots, largest and most crowded across the breast, small 
and sparse, sometimes wanting, on the throat, lower belly, and crissum. Wings fuscous, 
with much whitish edging on all the quills, and two white bands formed by the tips of the 
greater and median coverts. Tail like the wings ; the outer feather edged and broadly tipped, 
and all the rest, excepting usually the middle pair, tipped with white in decreasing amount. 
Bill and feet black or blackish, the former often with pale base. Length about 8.00; wing 
and tail, each, about 4.00; tarsus 1.12; bill 0.75. Young: Dull brownish above, conspic- 
uously streaked with dusky; the markings below streaky and diffuse. Plains to the Pacific, 
U.8.; also Texas and Lower California; an interesting species, resembling an undersized 
young mocking-bird, abundant in the sage-brush of the W. Nest on ground or in low bushes; 
eggs usually 4, 1.00 X 0.72, light greenish-blue, heavily marked with brown and neutral tint. 
MI/MUS. (Lat. mimus, a mimic.) Mocrine-sirps. Bill much shorter than head, scarcely 
curved as a whole, but with gently-curved commissure, notched near the end. Rictal vibrisse 
well developed. Tail rather longer than wings, rounded, the lateral feathers being considerably 
graduated. Wings rounded. (Tarsal scutella 
sometimes obsolete.) Tarsi longer than the mid- 
dle toe and claw. Of this genus there are two 
well marked sections (represented by the mock- 
ing-bird and ¢at-bird respectively), which may 
be distinguished by color: —- 

Mimus. — Above ashy-brown, below white; 
lateral tail-feathers and bases of primaries white. 
(Tarsal scutella always distinct.) Fig. 120. —Catbird, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.) 

Galeoscoptes. — Blackish-ash, scarcely paler below; crown and tail black, unvaried ; 
crissum rufous. (Tarsal scutella sometimes obsolete.) 


15. 


16 


250 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


M. polyglot/tus. (Lat. polyglottus, many-tongued; from Gr. roAvs, polus, many, and yAérra, 
glotta, tongue. Fig. 119.) Mocxine-pirp. , adult: Upper parts ashy-gray; lower parts 
soiled white. Wings blackish-brown, the primaries, with the exception of the first, marked 
with a large white space at the base, restricted on the outer quills usually to half or less of 
these feathers, but oceupying nearly all of the iuner quills. The shorter white spaces show as 
a conspicuous spot when the wing is closed, the longer inner ones being hidden by the second- 
aries. The coverts are also tipped and sometimes edged with white; and there may be much 
edging or tipping, or both, of the quills themselves. - Outer tail-feathers white; next two 
pair white, except on the outer web; next pair usually white toward the end, and the rest 
sometimes tipped with white. Bill and feet black, the former often pale at the base below ; 
soles dull yellowish. Length about 10.00, but ranging from 9.50 to 11.00; extent about 
14.00 (13.00 to 15.00) ; wing 4.00-4.50; tail 4.50-5.00; bill 0.75; tarsus 1.25. 9, adult: 
Similar, but the colors less clear and pure; above rather brownish than grayish-ash, below 
sometimes quite brownish-white, at least on the breast. Tail and wings with less white than 
as above described. But the gradation in these features is by imperceptible degrees, so that 
there is no infallible color-mark of sex. In general, the clearer and purer are the colors, and 
the more white there is on the wings and tail, the more likely is the bird to be a ¢ and prove 
a good singer. The @ is also smaller than the ¢ on an average, being generally under and 
rarely over 10 inches in length, with extent of wings usually less than 14.00; the wing little 
if any over 4.00, the tail about 4.50. Young: Above decidedly brown, and below speckled 
with dusky. U. S. from Atlantic to Pacific, southerly; rarely N. to New England, and not 
common N. of 38°, though known to reach 42°; thronging the groves of the South Atlantic 
and Gulf States. Nest in bushes and low trees, bulky and inartistic, of twigs, grasses, leaves, 
ete.; eggs 4-6, measuring on an average 1.00 X 0.75, bluish-green, heavily speckled and 
freckled with several brownish shades. Two or three broods are generally reared each season, 
which in the South extends from March to August. When taken from the nest, the ‘“ prince 
of musicians” becomes a contented captive, and has been known to live many years in con- 
finement. Naturally an accomplished songster, he proves an apt scholar, susceptible of improve- 
ment by education to an astonishing degree; but there is a great difference with individual 
birds in this respect. 

M. carolinen’sis. (Of Carolina: Carolus, Charles IX., of France.) (Figs. 37, 120.) Cat- 
BIRD. ¢ 9: Slate-gray, paler and more grayish-plumbeous below ; crown of head, tail, bill, 
and feet black. Quills of the wing blackish, edged with the body-color. Under tail-coverts 
rich dark chestnut or mahogauy-color. Length 8.50-9.00; extent 11.00 or more; wing 3.50- 
3.75; tail 4.00; bill 0.66; tarsus 1.00-1.10. Young: Of a more sooty color above, with little 
or no distinction of a black cap, and comparatively paler below, where the color has a soiled 
brownish cast. Crissum dull rufous. U.S. and adjoining British Provinces. West to the 
Rocky Mts., and even Washington Terr., but chiefly Eastern; migratory, but resident in the 
Southern States, and breeds throughout its range; nest of sticks, leaves, bark, ete., in bushes; 
eggs 4-6, deep greenish-blue, not spotted. An abundant and familiar inhabitant of our 
groves and briery tracts, remarkable for its harsh ery, like the mewing of a cat (whence its 
name), but also possessed, like all its tribe, of eminent vocal ability. 

HARPORHYN’CHUS. (Gr. dpm, harpe, a sickle; piyyos, rhygchos, beak; i. e., bow- 
billed.) Turasners. Bill of indeterminate size and shape, ranging from one extreme, in 
which it is straight and shorter than the head, to the other, in which it exceeds the head 
in length and is bent like a bow (see figs. 121-125). Feet large and strong, indicating terres- 
trial habits; tarsus strongly seutellate anteriorly, about equalling or slightly exceeding in 
length the middle toe with its claw. Wings and tail rounded, the latter decidedly longer 
than the former. Rictus with well developed bristles. Viewing only the extreme shapes of 
the bill, as in H. rufus and H. erissalis, it would not seem consistent with the minute subdivis- 


17. 


18. 


ind 


TURDIDA’— MIMINZ!: MOCKING THRUSHES. 251 


ions which now obtain in ornithology to place all the species in one genus; but the gradation 
of form is so gentle that it seems impossible to dismember the group without violence. The 
arcuation of the bill proceeds part passu with its elongation; the shortest bills being the 
straightest, and conversely. There is also a curious correlation of colour with shape of bill; 
the short-billed species being the most richly colored and heavily spotted, while the bow- 
billed ones are very plain, sometimes with no spots whatever on the under parts. Our nine 
forms of the genus are with one exception South-western, focusing in Arizona, where occur 
four species, two of them not known elsewhere; two others are confined to California; two 
to the Mexican border, leaving only one generally distributed. They furnish the following 


Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


Bill not longer than head (0.87-1.12), little or not curved. Breast spotted. 
Bill 1.00, quite straight. Above rich rusty-red ; below whitish, heavily spotted and streaked with 
dare browm.. “Master: 2) ge. 4- 4° Gok Ae Bay Sa Ge ss ae aw . rufus 1T 
Bill 1.12, slightly curved. Above dark reddish-brown, below whitish, heavily spotted and streaked 
with blackish. Texas Gis sd ic laced ha Vis Var rma ies wads AES Payee longirostris~ 18 
Bill 1.12, curved. Above ashy-gray, below whitish, breast with round spots of the color of the back. 
Mexican border and Arizona. . . . . . 1 - + ee ees . Curvirostris or palmeri 19, 20 
Bill 0.87, scarcely curved. Above grayish-brown, below brownish-white, breast alone with arrow- 
heads of the color of the back. Arizona. . . 2. 1... 1 ee ee « « bendirii 12 
Bill 1.12, curved. Above ashy-gray, below whitish, with profuse distinct blackish-brown spots. 
ower California. 4.4. Gs A Ae a ee we Oe ws  errewgS 29. 
Bill longer than head (1.50), arcuate. Breast not spotted. 
Dark oily olive-brown, below paler, belly and crissum rufescent. Coast of California . . redivivus 23 


Pale ash, paler still below, lower belly and crissum brownish-yellow. Arizona . .. . . lecontii 24 
Brownish-ash, paler beloay, crissum chestnut in marked contrast. Arizona, New Mexico, and 
Californian: sade he see es a ee we ae ee he a. se Sessa. D5 


H. rwfus. (Lat. rufus, rufous, reddish. Fig. 121.) THRasHER. Brown Turusu. $ 9: Upper 
parts uniform rich rust-red, with a bronzy lustre. Concealed portions of quills fuscous. 
Greater and median wing-coverts blackish near the end, then conspicuously tipped with white. 
Bastard quills like the coverts. Tail 
like the back, the lateral feathers with 
paler ends. Under parts white, more 
or less strongly tinged, especially on 
the breast, flanks, and crissum, with 
tawny or pale cinnamon-brown, the 
breast and sides marked with a profu- 
sion of well-defined spots of dark 
brown, oval in front, becoming more 
linear posteriorly. Throat immaculate, 
bordered with a necklace of spots; 
middle of the belly and under tail- 
coverts likewise unspotted. Bill quite 
straight, black, with yellow base of the 
lower mandible ; feet pale; iris yellow Fic. 121.—Thrasher, nat. size. (Ad, nat, del. E. C.) 

or orange. Length about 11 inches; extent 12.50-14.00; wing 3.75-4.25 ; tail 5.00 or more; 
bill 1.00; tarsus 1.25. Eastern U. 8. chiefly, but N. to adjoining British Provinces and W. 
to the Rocky Mts.; migratory, but breeds throughout its range, and winters in the Southern 
States. A delightful songster, abundant in thickets and shrubbery. Nest in bushes (some- 
times on ground), bulky and rude, of sticks, leaves, bark, roots, ete.; eggs 4-5, sometimes 6, 
1.05 X 0.80, whitish or greenish, profusely speckled with brown. 

H. 1. longiros'tris. (Lat. longus, long, and rostris, from rostrum, beak; i. e., long-billed.) 
Texas THRASHER. Similar to H. rufus ; upper parts dark reddish-brown, instead of rich 
foxy-red; under parts white, with little if any tawny tinge, the spots large, very numerous, 


19. 


21. 


252 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


aud blackish instead of brown; ends of the rectrices scarcely or not lighter than the rest of these 
feathers ; bill almost entirely dark-colored. Besides these points of coloration, there is a decided 
difference in the shape of the bill. In H. rufus, the bill is quite straight, and only just about 
an inch long; the gonys is straight, and makes an angle with the slightly concave lower 
outline of the mandibular rami. In H. longirostris, the bill is rather over an inch long, and 
somewhat curved; the outline of the gonys is a little concave, making with the ramus one con- 
tinuous curve from base to tip of the bill. Size of H. rufus. Texas and Mexico. 
H. curviros’tris. (Lat. curvus, curved, and rostris; bow-billed.) CURVE-BILLED THRASHER. 
& 2: Above, uniform ashy-gray (exactly the color of a mocking-bird), the wings and tail 
darker and purer brown. Below, dull whitish, tinged with ochraceous, especially on the 
flanks and crissum, and marked 
with rounded spots of the color of 
the back, most numerous and blend- 
ed on the breast. Throat quite 
white, immaculate, without maxil- 
lary stripes; lower belly and cris- 
sum mostly free from spots. No 
decided markings on the side of the 
head. Ends of greater and median 
Fig. 122. — Bow-billed Thetaclies, nat. size; bill a little too Wing-coverts white, forming two de- 
thick. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.) cided cross-bars ;_ tail-feathers dis- 
tinctly tipped with white. Bill black, over an inch Jong, curved, stout; feet dark brown. 
Length of g about 11.00; wing 4.25-4.50; tail 4.50-5.00; bill 1.12; tarsus 1.25; middle toe 
and claw 1.33. Q averaging rather smaller. Mexico, reaching the U. 8. border of Texas. 
H. c. palmeri. (To Edw. Palmer. Fig. 122.) Bow-pittep Turasuer. Above, grayish- 
brown, nearly uniform ; wing-coverts and quills with slight whitish edging, the edge of the 
wing itself white; tail-feathers with slight whitish tips; below, a paler shade of the color of 
the upper parts, the throat quite whitish, the crissum slightly rufescent, the breast and belly 
with obscure dark gray spots on the grayish-white ground; no obvious maxillary streaks, 
but vague speckling on the checks; bill black; feet blackish-brown. Length 10.75; bill 
1.12; wing 4.25; tail 5.00; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw 1.30. Q smaller; wing 3.75; 
tail 4.50; tarsus 1.20; middle toe and claw 1.12; bill barely 1.00. Although the differences 
from the typical form are not easy to express, they are readily appreciable on comparison of 
specimens. ‘The upper parts are quite similar; but the under parts, instead of being whitish, 
with decided spotting of the color of the back, are grayish, tinged with rusty, especially 
behind, and the spotting is nebulous. The white on the ends of the wing-eoverts and tail- 
feathers is reduced to a minimum or en- 
tirely suppressed. The bill is slenderer 
and appareutly more curved. Arizona, 
common, in desert regions. Nest in cac- 
tus, mezquite and other bushes; eggs 
usually 3, 1.10 x 0.80, pale greenish-blue 
profusely dotted with reddish-brown. 
H. bendi/rii. (To Capt. Chas. Bendire, 
U.S.A. Fig. 123.) Arizona THRASHER. 
&@Q: Bill shorter than head, compara- 
tively stout at base, very acute at tip, the culmen quite convex, the gonys just appreciably 
concave. Tarsus a little longer than the middle toe and claw. 3d and 4th primaries about 
equal and longest, 5th and 6th successively slightly shorter, 2d equal to 7th, 1st equal to penul- 
timate secondary in the closed wing. Entire upper parts, including upper surfaces of wings 


Fie. 123.— Arizona Thrasher, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.) 


22. 


23. 


TURDID.E — MIMINE: MOCKING THRUSHES. 253 


and tail, uniform dull pale grayish-brown, with narrow, faintly-rusty edges of the wing- 
coverts and inner quills, and equally obscure whitish tipping of the tail-feathers. No max- 
ilary nor auricular streaks; no markings about the head except slight speckling on the 
checks. Under parts browuish-white, palest (nearly white) on the belly and throat, more 
decidedly rusty-brownish on the sides, flanks, and crissum, the breast alone marked with 
numerous small arrow-head spots of the color of the back. Bill light-colored at base 
below. f: Length about 9.25; wing 4.00; tail 4.25; bill 0.87; along gape 1.12; tarsus 
1.25; middle toe and claw 1.12. Q rather smaller; wing, 3.75, ete. Arizona, less common 
thane palmeri, with which it is associated. Nest in bushes; eggs 2-3, about 1.00 x 0.73, 
elliptical rather than oval, whitish, spotted and blotched with reddish-brown. 

H. ciner'eus. (Lat. cinereus, ashy; cinis, cineris, ashes. Fig. 124.) Sr. Lucas THrasHer. ¢ 
@: Upper parts uniform ashy-brown; wings and tail similar, but rather purer and darker 
brown, the former crossed with two white 
bars formed by the tips of the coverts, the 
latter tipped with white. Below, dull white, 
often tinged with rusty, especially behind, 
and thickly marked with small, sharp, tri- 
angular spots of dark brown or blackish. 
These spots are all perfectly distinet, cover- 
ing the lower parts excepting the throat, 
lower belly, and crissum; becoming smaller 
anteriorly, they run up each side of the throat 
in a mavillary series bounding the immacu- 
late area. Sides of head finely speckled, 
and auriculars streaked; bill black, lighten- 


ing at base below, little longer than that of Fig. 124. — St. Lucas Thrasher, nat. size. (Ad nat. 
H. rufus, though decidedly curved. Length el. E. ©.) 

of g about 10.00; wing 4.00; tail 4.50; bill 1.12; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw 1.95. 
Q averaging rather smaller. Young: Upper parts strongly tinged with rusty-brown, this 
color also edging the wings and tipping the tail. The resemblance of this species to the 
mountain mocking-bird (Oroscoptes montanus) is striking. It is distinguished from any others 
of the U. 8. by the sharpness of the spotting underneath, which equals that of H. rufus itself, 
the small and strictly triangular character of the spots, together with the grayish-brown of the 
upper parts, and inferior dimensions. Lower California, common. Nest a slight shallow structure 
of twigs in cactus and other bushes; eggs 1.12 x 0.77, greenish-white, profusely speckled. 

H. redivi'vus. (Lat. redivivus, re- 
vived; the long-lost species having 
been rediscovered and so named. 
Fig. 125.) CALIFORNIA THRASHER. 
3: No spots anywhere; wings and 
tail without decided barring or tip- 
ping. Bill as long as the head or 
longer, bow-shaped, black. Wings 
very much shorter than the tail. 
Above, dark oily olive-brown, the Fig. 125. — California Thrasher, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. G:) 
wings and tail similar, but rather purer brown. Below, a paler shade of the color of the 
upper parts, the belly and crissum strongly rusty-brown, the throat definitely whitish in marked 
contrast, and not bordered by decided maxillary streaks. Cheeks and auriculars’ blackish- 
brown, with sharp whitish shaft streaks. Length 11.50; wing 4.00 or rather less; tail 5.00 or 
more; bill (chord of culmen) nearly or quite 1.50; tarsus 1.35; middle toe and claw about 


25. 


254 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


the same. 9 similar, rather smaller. Coast region of California, abundant in dense chaparral; 
nest a rude platform of twigs, roots, grasses, leaves, ete., in bushes; eggs 2-3, 1.15 x 0.85, 
blnish-green, with olive and russet-brown spots. 

H. r. lecon’tii. (To Dr. John L. Le Conte, the entomologist.) Yuma TurasHer. This 
form, with size and proportions the same as those of redivivus proper, differs very notably in 
the pallor of all the coloration, being in fact a bleached desert race. Excepting the slight 
maxillary streaks, there are no decided markings anywhere; and the change from the pale 
ash of the general under parts to the brownish-yellow of the lower belly and erissum is very 
gradual. Valley of the Gila and Lower Colorado; very rare. Nest in bush, bulky, lose, 
deep; eggs 2, 1.15 X0.77, pale greenish, dotted with reddish. 

Hi. crissa/lis. (Lat. crissalis, relating to the crissum, or under tail-coverts. Fig. 126.) Crissan 
Turasuer. ¢: Brownish-ash, 
with a faint olive shade, the 
wings and tail purer and darker 
fuscous, without white edging or 
tipping. Below, a paler shade. 
of the color of the upper parts. 
Throat and side of the lower jaw 
white, with sharp black maxil- 
lary streaks. Cheeks and au- 
riculars speckled with whitish. 
Fig. 126.—Crissal Thrasher, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) Under tail-eoverts rich chestnut, 


in marked contrast with the surrounding parts. Bill black, at the maximum of length, slen- 
derness, and curvature ; feet blackish. Length about 12.00; wing 4.00-4.25; tail 5.50-6.00; 
its lateral feathers 1.50 shorter than the central ones; bill 1.50; tarsus 1.33; middle toe 
and claw 1.25. This fine species is distinguished by the strongly chestnut under tail-coverts, 
the contrast being as great as that seen in the cat-bird. The sharp black maxillary streaks are 
also a strong character. The bill is extremely slender, the tail at a maximum of length, and 
the feet are notably smaller than those of H. redivivus. Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and 
California in the Colorado Valley, common in chaparral; nest in bushes near the ground, of 
twigs lined with vegetable fibres; eggs usually 2, emerald green, unspotted. 


3. Subfamily CINCLINAE: Dippers. 


Wing of 10 primaries, the 
1st of which is spurious, and, 
like the others, falcate; 2d 
primary entering into the 
point of wing ; wing short, 
stiff, rounded, and concavo- 
convex. Tail still shorter 
than the wing, soft, square, 
of 12 broad, rounded feathers, 
almost hidden by the coverts, 
which reach nearly or quite 
to the end, the under being 
especially long and full. Tarsi 
booted, about as long as the 
middle toe and claw. Lateral 
toes equal in length. Claws 
all strongly curved. Bill 


Fic. 127. — European Dipper, C. aqguaticus. (From Dixon.) 


TURDIDAE — CINCLINZ: DIPPERS. 235 


shorter than head, slender and compressed throughout, higher than broad at the nostrils, about 
straight, but seeming to be slightly recurved, owing to a sort of upward tilting of the superior 
mandible; culmen at first slightly concave, then convex; commissure slightly sinuous, to cor- 
respond with the culmen, notched near the end; gonys convex. Nostrils linear, opening 
beneath a large seale partly covered with feathers. No rictal vibrissee, nor any trace of bristles 
or bristle-tipped feathers about the nostrils. Plumage soft, lustreless, remarkably full and 
compact, water-proof. Body stout, thick-set. Habits aquatic. A small but remarkable 
group, in which the characters shared by the Turdine, Saxicoline, and Sylviine are modified 
in adaptation to the singular aquatic life the species lead. There is only one genus, with 
about 12 species, inhabiting clear mountain streams of most parts of the world, chiefly the 
Northern Hemisphere; easily flying under water, and spending much of their time in that 
element, where their food, of various aquatic animal substances, is gleaned. 

CIN'CLUS. (Gr. kiykdos, kighklos, Lat. cinclus, a kind of bird. Figs. 114, 127, 128.) Dip- 
PERS. Characters those of the subfamily, as above given. 


EE) 
Wei ; 


= 


ZEEE 


2 


30. C. mexica/nus. (Lat. mewxicanus, Mexican. Fig. 128.) American Dipper, or WATER 


OuzeL. §@, adult, in summer: Slaty-plumbeous, paler below, inclining on the head to 
sooty-brown. Quills and tail-feathers fuscous. Eyelids usually white. Bill black; feet 
yellowish. Length 6.00-7.00; extent 10.00-11.00; wing 3.50-4.00; tail about 2.25; bill 0.60; 
tarsus 1.12; middle toe and claw rather less. Individuals vary much in size. 29, in 
winter, and most immature specimens, are still paler below, all the feathers of the under parts 
being skirted with whitish. The quills of the wing are also tipped with white. The Dill is 
yellowish at the base. Young: Below, whitish, more or less so according to age, frequently 
tinged with pale cinnamon-brown ; whole under parts sometimes overlaid with the whitish ends 
of the feathers, shaded with rufous posteriorly ; throat usually nearly white ; bill mostly yellow ; 
white tipping of the wing-feathers at a maximum; in some cases the tail-feathers similarly 
marked. Mountains of Western N. A., from Alaska to Mexico; a sprightly and engaging resi- 
dent of clear mountain streams, usually observed flitting among the rocks; has a fine song. 
Nest a pretty ball of green moss lined with grasses, with a hole at the side, hidden in the rift 
of a rock, or other nook close to the water: eggs about 5, 1.04 X 0.70, pure white, unmarked. 


256 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


4. Subfamily SAXICOLIN/E: Stone-chats and Blue-birds. 


Chiefly Old World; repre- 
sented in North America by 
two European species and the 
familiar Blue-birds; authors 
assign different limits to the 
group, and frequently trans- 
pose the genera. As usually 
constituted, it contains up- 
wards of 100 species, com- 
monly referred to about 12 
genera. Like many other 
groups” of Passeres, it has 
never been defined with pre- 
cision, being known conven- 
tionally by the birds orni- 
thologists put in it. The 
following birds have booted 
tarsi; oval nostrils; bristled 
rictus; rather short, square or 
emarginate tail ; long, pointed 
wings, with very short spuri- 


Fic iz9.-— Wheat-ear. (From Dixon.) 


ous Ist quill; tarsus not shorter (except in Sialia much longer) than middle toe and claw ; 
bill much shorter than head, straight and acute. 


Analysis of Genera. 


Bill slender. Tarsus much longer than middle toe and claw. Point of wing formed by 2d4th quills. 
Lateral toes of equal lengths. Form slender. No blue. Terrestrial. . . . . . . +. . Savicola 6 

Bill very slender. Tarsus much longer than middle toe and claw. Point of wing formed by 3d-5th quills. 

Lateral toes of unequal lengths. Form slender. Throat intense blue and chestnut; tail with chestnut 
Cyanecula 8& 

Bill stouter. Tarsus not longer than middle toe and claw. Point of wing formed by 2d-4th quills. Lateral 
toes of unequal lengths. Blue the chief color. Form stouter. Arboricole . ..... . . Sialia 7 


6. SAXI/COLA. (Lat. sacrum, a rock; colo, I inhabit. Fig. 130.) Sronr-cuarts. Bill shorter 

than head, slender, straight, depressed at base, com- 

pressed at end, notched. Wings long, pointed, the tip 
formed by the 2d-4th quills, the lst spurious, scarcely 
or not one-fourth as long as the 2d. Tail much 

shorter than wing, square. Tarsi booted, but with 4 

seutella below in front; long and slender, much ex- 

ceeding the middle toe and claw; lateral toes of about 
equal lengths, very short, the tips of their claws not 
reaching the base of the middle claw; claws little 
curved ; feet thus adapted to terrestrial habits. A large 
Fic. 130.— Generic details of Saxicola. and widely distributed Old World genus, of some 30 
species, inhabiting Europe, Asia, and especially Africa. 

26. S. wnan’the. (Gr. olvavOy, oinanthe, name of a bird, from oiyn, oine, the grape, and dv6os, 
anthos, a flower. Fig, 129.) Srong-cnat. Wuerar-rar. Adult $: Ashy-gray; forehead, 
superciliary line and under parts white, latter often brownish-tinted ; upper tail-coverts white ; 
wings and tail black, latter with most of the feathers white for half or more of their length; 
line from nostril to eye, and broad band on side of head, black; bill and feet black. Q more 
brownish-gray, the black cheek-stripe replaced by brown. Young without the stripe, above 


27. 


TURDIDA — SAXICOLINA!: BLUE-BIRDS. 257 


olive-brown, superciliary line, edges of wings and tail, and all under parts, cinnamon-brown ; 
tail black and white as in the adult. Length of ¢ 6.75; extent 12.50; wing 3.75; tail 2.50; 
tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw 0.75. 9 smaller: length 6.50; extent 11.50, ete. Atlantic 
coast, from Europe via Greenland ; also North Pacific and Arctic coast, from Asia. Common 
in Greenland, and probably also breeds in Labrador. Nest in holes in the ground or rocks, 
crevices of stone walls, ete.; eggs 4-7, 0.87-0.60, greenish-blue, without spots. 

SIA'LIA. (Gr. cadls, sialis, a kind of bird.) Buur-sirps. Primaries 10, the Ist spurious 
and very short. Wings pointed, the tip formed by the 2d, 3d, and 4th quills. Tail much 
shorter than wings, emarginate. Bill about half as long as head or less, straight, stout, wider 
than deep at base, compressed beyond nostrils, notched near tip, the culmen at first straight, 
then gently convex to the end, gonys slightly convex and ascending, commissure slightly 
curved throughout. Nostrils overhung and nearly concealed by projecting bristly feathers ; 
lores and chin likewise bristly. Gape ample, the rictus cleft to below the eyes, furnished 
with a moderately developed set of bristles reaching about opposite the nostrils. Feet short, 
though rather stout, adapted exclusively for perching (in Sasxicola the structure of the feet 
indicates terrestrial habits). Tarsus not longer than the middle toe; lateral toes of unequal 
lengths; claws all strongly curved. Blue is the principal color of this beautiful genus, which 
contains three species. They are strictly arboricole; frequent the skirts of woods, coppices, 
waysides, and weedy fields; nest in holes, and lay whole-colored eggs; readily become semi- 
domesticated, like the swallow, house wren, and house sparrow ; feed upon insects and berries; 
and have a melodious warbling song. Polygamy is sometimes practised by them, contrary to 
the rule among Oscines. Blue-birds are peculiar to America, and appear to have no exact 
representatives in the other hemisphere. 


Analysis of Species. 


é Rich sky-blue, uniform on back ; throat and breast chestnut, belly white . . . oe. . Sstialis 27 
é Rich sky-blue, including throat ; middle of back and breast chestnut, site whitish . - + + mexicana 28 
é Light blue, paler below, fading to white on belly; nochestnut. . . Soe os «2 « « « aretica 29 


S.si/alis. (Gr. ovaNis, sialis, a kind of bird. Fig. 131.) Eastern BLuE-prrp. WILson’s 
Buue-Birv. , in full plumage: Rich azure-blue, the ends of the wing-quills blackish ; 
throat, breast, and sides of the body chestnut; belly and 
erissum white or bluish-white. The blue sometimes ex- 
tends around the head on the sides and often fore part of 
the chin, so that the chestuut is cut off from the bill. 
Length 6.50-7.00; extent 12.00-13.00; wing 3.75-4.00 ; 
tail 2.75-3.00; bill 0.45; tarsus 0.70. @, in winter, or 
when not full-plumaged: Blue of the upper parts inter- 
rupted by reddish-brown edging of the feathers, or obscured 
by a general brownish wash. White of belly more ex- 
tended; tone of the other under parts paler. In many 
Eastern specimens, the reddish-brown skirting of the 
feathers blends into a dorsal patch ; when this is accom- 
panied by more than ordinary extension of blue on the Fic. 131.—Blue-bird, nat. size. (Ad 
throat they closely resemble S. mexicana. 9, in full nat. del. E.C.) 

plumage: Blue mixed and obscured with dull reddish-brown; becoming bright and pure on 
the rump, tail, and wings. Under parts paler and more rusty-brown, with more abdominal 
white than in the male. Little smaller than g. Young, newly fledged: Brown, becoming 
blue on the wings and tail, the back sharply marked with shaft-lines of whitish. Nearly 
all the under parts closely and uniformly freckled with white and brownish. A white ring 
round the eye; inner secondaries edged with brown. From this stage, in which the sexes are 
indistinguishable, to the perfectly adult condition, the bird changes by insensible degrees. 

17 


28. 


29. 


31. 


258 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


Eastern U.S. and Canada, abundant and familiar, almost domestic; W. often to the Rocky 
Mts. Migratory, but breeds throughout its range; winters in the Southern States and beyond, 
whence it comes as one of the early harbingers of spring, or during mild winter weather, 
bringing its bit of blue sky with cheery, voluble song. Nest in natural or artificial hollows 
of trees, posts, or bird-boxes, loosely constructed of the most miscellaneous materials; eggs 
4-6, pale bluish, occasionally whitish, unmarked, 0.80 0.60; two or three broods in one 
season. 

S. mexica/na. (Lat. mexicana, of Mexico.) WESTERN BLUE-BIRD. MEXICAN BLUE-BIRD. 
¢@, adult: Righ azure-blue, including the head and neck all around. A patch of purplish- 
chestnut on the middle of the back; breast and sides rich chestnut ; belly and vent dull blue 
or bluish-gray. Bill and feet black. Size of the last species. 9, and yonng: Changes 
of plumage coincident with those of the Eastern blue-bird. Immature birds may usually be 
recognized by some difference in color between the middle of the back and the other upper 
parts, and between the color of the throat and of the breast; but birds in the streaky stage 
could not be determined if the locality were unknown. In some adult males, the dorsal patch 
is restricted, or broken into two scapular patches with continuous blue between; the chestnut 
of the breast sometimes divides, permitting connection of the blue of the throat and belly. 
Specimens with little trace of the dorsal patch are scarcely distinguished from those of S. sialis 
in which there is much blue on the throat, — the grayish-blue of the belly, instead of white, 
being a principal character. U.S. and Mexico, from Eastern foot-hills of the Rocky Mts. 
to the Pacific; N. to Vancouver; E. occasionally to the Mississippi. Abundant in the West ; 
habits, nest, and eggs identical with those of S. sialis. 

S. are'tica. (Lat. arctica, arctic; arctos, a bear; i. e., near the constellation so-named.)} 
ArcTic Bius-Birp. Rocky Mountain Buus-pirp. , in perfect plumage: Above 
azure-blue, lighter than in the two foregoing, and with a faint greenish hue; below, paler and 
more decidedly greenish-blue, fading insensibly into white on the belly and under tail-coverts. 
Ends of wing-quills dusky; bill and feet black. Larger; length 7.00 or more; extent 13.00 
or more; wing 4.50; tail 3.00. 9: Nearly uniform rufous-gray, lighter and more decidedly 
rufous below, brightening into blue on rump, tail, and wings, fading into white on belly and 
crissum; a whitish eye-ring. Young: Changes parallel with those of the other species. 
Birds in the streaky stage may be known by superior size, and greenish shade on the wings 
and tail. N. America from the Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, chiefly in high open regions, abun- 
dant; resident southerly, migratory further North. Habits those of the others; nesting the 
same, but eggs larger, about 0.92 x 0.70. 

CYANE/CULA. ( A diminutive form of Gr. xuaveos, Lat. cyaneus, blue; as we should say, 
“‘bluet.”) BuvuE-THRoaTs. Bill much shorter than head, slender, compressed throughout, 
acute at tip, with obsolete notch (quite as in Saxicola, but more compressed and slenderer). 
Feet, as in Saxicola, long and slender; tarsus much longer than the middle toe and claw ; 
lateral toes of unequal lengths, the outer longer, but the tip of its claw still falling short of 
the base of the middle claw ; claws little curved, the hinder fully as long as its digit. Wings 
long and pointed (less so than in Samicola), the point formed by the 3d, 4th, and 5th quills; 
2d about equal to the 6th ; 1st spurious, about one-third as long as the longest. Tail of mod- 
erate length, slightly rounded. Tail particolored with chestnut; throat and breast with azure- 
blue and chestnut. The species were formerly included in Ruticilla, an Old World genus very 
closely related to Savicola ; they form the connecting link between Sazicoline proper avd 
Sylviine, placed by some authors in one, by others in the other group. The relationships with 
Saxicola are vertainly very close. 

C. sue’cica. (Lat. swecica, Swedish.) BLUE-THROATED Repstart. Rev-spoTTED BLUE- 
THROAT. Entire upper parts dark brown with a shade of olive (about the color of a tit- 
lark, Anthus ludovicianus), the feathers of the crown with darker centres; rump and upper 


32. 


10. 


33. 


TURDIDA— REGULINZ: KINGLETS. 259 


tail-coverts rather lighter, and mixed with bright chestnut-red. Wings like the back, with 
slightly paler edgings of the feathers. Middle tail-feathers like back, or rather darker, the rest 
blackish, with the basal half or more of their length bright chestnut-red, or orange-brown. 
Lores dusky; a whitish superciliary line. Chin, throat, and forebreast rich ultramarine blue, 
enclosing a bright chestnut throat-patch; the blue bordered behind by black, this again by 
chestnut mixed with white. Rest of under parts white, washed on the sides, lining of wings 
and under tail-coverts with pale fulvous. Bill and feet black. Q and young similar, the 
throat-markings imperfect. Length 5.75-6.00; wing 3.00; tail 2.25-2.50; bill 0.50; tarsus 
1.00; middle toe and claw 0.75. Alaska; a beautiful and interesting bird, widely distributed 
in the Old World. 


5. Subfamily REGULINZE: Kinglets and Wood-Wrens. 


The two genera to be here noticed are most readily distinguished by the simple colors of 
Phylloscopus, contrasted with the elegant colored crest of Regulus ; both genera include very 
diminutive birds not over five inches long. 

PHYLLO'SCOPUS. (Gr. diAdov, phullon, a leaf; oxoros, skopos, a watchinan; as these 
birds peer about in the foliage.) Woop-Wrens. Bill shorter than head, slender, straight, 
depressed at base, compressed and notched at tip; nostrils exposed, though reached by the 
frontal feathers. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw, booted or sometimes indistinctly 
scutellate; wings pointed, longer than tail; point formed by 3d and 4th quills; 5th much 
shorter, and 6th shorter still, 2d between 5th and 6th; spurious |st primary very short, exposed 
less than 0.50. Tail about even. Size diminutive and coloration simple. Includes numerous 
(about 25) Old World species, one of them occurring in Alaska. 

P. borealis. (Lat. borealis, northern; boreas, the north-wind.) KENNICOTT’S WARBLER. 
Above, olive-green, clear, continuous, and nearly uniform, but rather brighter on the rump; 
quills and tail-feathers fuscous, edged externally with yellowish-green; a long yellowish super- 
ciliary stripe; under parts yellowish-white, the lining of wings and the flanks yellow; wings 
crossed with two yellowish bars, that across ends of greater coverts conspicuous, the other 
indistinct; bill dark brown, pale below; feet and eyes brown. Length 4.75; extent 6.00; 
wing 2.25-2.50; tail 1.75-2.00; tarsus 0.70; middle toe and claw 0.55. Europe, Asia, and, 
in America, Alaska. 

REG'ULUS. (Lat. regulus, diminutive of rex, a king; kinglet.) KinGLetrs. Tarsus booted, 
very slender, longer than the middle toe and claw. Lateral toes nearly equal to each other. 
First quill of the wing spurious, its exposed portion less than half as long as the second. 
Wings pointed, longer than the tail, which is emarginate, with acuminate feathers. Bill 
shorter than the head, straight, slender, and typically Sylviine, not hooked at the end, well 
bristled at rictus, with the nostrils overshadowed by tiny feathers. Coloration olivaceous, 
paler or whitish below, with red, black, or yellow, or all three of these colors, on the head of 
the adult. There are about ten species, of Europe, Asia, and America. They are elegant and 
dainty little creatures, among the very smallest of our birds excepting the Hummers. They 
inhabit woodland, are very-agile and sprightly, insectivorous, migratory, and highly musical. 
R. calen'/dula., (Lat. calendula, a glowing little thing.) RuBy-crRowNED KINGLET. ¢ 9, 
adult: Upper parts greenish-olive, becoming more yellowish on the rump; wings and tail 
dusky, strongly edged with yellowish ; whole under parts dull yellowish-white, or yellowish- 
or greenish-gray (very variable in tone); wings crossed with two whitish bars, and inner sec- 
oudaries edged with the same. Edges of eyelids, lores, and extreme forehead, hoary whitish. 
A rich scarlet patch, partially concealed, on the crown. This beautiful ornament is apparently 
not gained until the second year, and there is a question whether it is ever present in the 
female. Bill and feet black. Length 4.10-4.50; extent 6.66-7.33; wing 2.00-2.33; tail 
1.75 ; bill 0.25; tarsus 0.75. Young for the first year (and 9 ?): Quite like the adult, but 


34. 


35. 


260 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


wanting the scarlet patch. In a newly fledged specimen the wings and tail are as strongly 
edged with yellowish as in the adult; but the general plumage of the upper parts is rather 
olive-gray than olive-green, and the under parts are sordid whitish. The bill is light colored 
at the base, and the toes appear to have been yellowish. N. America at large, breeding far 
north and in mountains of the West, wintering in the Southern States and beyond. An exqui- 
site little creature, famous for vocal power, abundant in wooded regions. Nest a large mass 
of matted hair, feathers, moss, straws, ete., placed on the bough of a tree ; eggs unknown. 

R. satra’pa. (Gr. carpdmns, Lat. satrapes, a ruler; alluding to the bird’s golden crown. Fig. 
132.) GoLpEN-cresTeD Kinauer. @, adult: Upper parts olive-green, more or less bright, 
sometimes rather olive-ashy, always brightest on 
the rump; under parts dull ashy-white, or yel- 
lowish-white. Wings and tail dusky, strongly 
edged with yellowish, the inner wing-quills with 
whitish. On the secondaries, this yellowish edg- 
ing stops abruptly in advance of the ends of the 
coverts, leaving a pure blackish interval in ad- 
vance of the white tips of the greater coverts: 
this, and the similar tips of the median coverts, 
form two white bars across the wings; inner 
webs of the quills and tail-feathers edged with 
white. Superciliary line and extreme forehead 
hoary-whitish. Crown black, enclosing a large 
space, the middle of which is Hame-colored, bor- 
dered with pure yellow. The black reaches 
across the forehead; but behind, the yellow and 
Fig. 132. — Golden-crested Kinglet. (After Audubon.) {4ame-color reach the general olive of the upper 
parts. Or, the top of the head may be described as a central bed of fame-color, bounded in 
front and on the sides with clear yellow, this similarly bounded by black, this again in the 
same manner by hoary-whitish. Smaller than R. calendula ; overlying nasal plumes larger. 
Length 4.00; extent 6.50-7.00; wing 2.00-2.12; tail 1.67. 9, adult; and young: Similar 
to the adult g, but the central field of the crown entirely yellow, enclosed in black (no flame- 
color). N. America, at large; another exquisite, abundant in woodland aud shrubbery, breed- 
ing from N. New England northward, wintering in most of the U.S. Nesta ball of 
moss, hair, feathers, etce., about 4.50 inches in diameter, ou low bough of a tree, 
preferably evergreen ; eggs 6-10, white, fully speckled ; size 0.50 0.40. 

R. s. oliva/ceus? (Lat. olivaceus, olivaceous; oliva, an olive.) WESTERN 
GOLDEN-CRESTED Kineuet. A slight variety, said to be of livelier color- 


ation. Pacific coast 
region. 


6. Subfam. POLIOPTILINA:: Gnat.catchers. 


A small group of one 
genus and about a dozen, 
chiefly Central and South 
American, species ; peculiar 
to America. Polioptila has 
been sometimes associated 
with the Paride, but differs 
decidedly and is apparently 

Ele cS Sylviine. Characters those 
Fig. 133, — Blue-gray Gnat-catcher, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) of the single genus. 


11. 


36. 


37. 


38. 


TURDID4) — POLIOPTILINZA!: GNAT-CATCHERS. 261 


POLIOP'TILA. (Gr. mohids, polios, hoary ; mridov, ptilon, a feather; the primaries being 
edged with whitish.) Gnat-carcuers. Tarsi scutellate. Toes very short, the lateral only 
about half as long as the tarsus; outer a little longer than the inner. — First quill spuri- 
ous, about half as long as the second. Wings rounded, not longer than the graduated tail, the 
feathers of which widen toward their rounded ends. Bill shorter than head, straight, broad 
and depressed at base, rapidly narrowing to the very sleuder terminal portion, distinctly 
notched and hooked at the end —thus Muscicapine in character. Rictus with well-developed 
bristles. Nostrils entirely exposed. Coloration without bright tints; bluish-ash, paler or 
white below; tail black and white. Delicate little woodland birds, peculiar to America, not 
over 5 inches long; migratory, insectivorous, very active and sprightly, with sharp squeaking 


notes. - creates 
: Analysis of Species. 
o Forehead and line over eye black ; outer tail-feather white 2 2. 2...) . ee. ewrulea 36 
3 Whole crown black ; outer web of outer tail-feather only edged with white . . . . . . melanura 37 


¢ Line over eye black ; outer web of outer tail-feather white . Sarees ere Re plumbea 38 
P. coerulea. (Lat. cerulea, cerulean, blue. Figs. 133, 134, 0.) Biur-cray GNar- 
caTcHER. @, adult: Grayish-blue, bluer on the crown, hoary on the rump, the forehead 
black, continuous with a black superciliary line. Edges of eyelids white, and above these a 
slight whitish stripe bordering the black exteriorly. Below white, with a faint plunbeous 
shade on the breast. Wings dark brown, the outer webs, especially of the iuuer quills, edged 
with hoary, and the inner webs of most bor- 
dered with white. Tail jet-black, the outer 
feather entirely or mostly white, the next one 
about half white, the third one tipped with 
white. Bill and feet black. Length 4.50- 
5.00; extent 6.25-7.00 ; wing 2.00-2.20; tail 
about the same. 9: Likethe @, but duller 
and more grayish-blue above; the head like 
the back, and without any black. Bull usually 
in part light-colored. U.S. from Atlantic to 
Pacific, N. to Massachusetts ; breeds through- 
out its range, and wiuters on the southern 
border and southward; abundant in woodland. 


: ; Fig. 134. —a, head of Polioptila melanura; b, of P. 
Nest a model of bird-architecture, compact- ce@rulea; c, tail of P.melanura; d,of P. pluinbea; all 


walled and contracted at the brim, elegantly ae 

stuccoed with lichens, fixed to slender twigs at a varying height from 10 to 50 or 60 feet; eges 
4-5, about 0.60 X 0.45, whitish, fully speckled with reddish and umber-brown and lilac. 
P. melanu'ra. (Gr. wéAas, melas, black; odpa, oura, tail. Fig. 134,a,¢c.) BLAcK-cAPPED 
Gnar-carcHEeR. ¢: Like P. cerulea, but whole top of head black. White of tail reduced 
to a minimum ; outer web of the outer feather only edged with white, instead of wholly white ; 
tip of the inner web, with tip of the next feather, white for a very slight space ; no white on 
the third feather. Size of the foregoing; tarsi rather longer, — about 0.70. 9 : No black on 
the head ; distinguished from 9 cerulea only by less white on the tail. Texas to South and 
Lower California. 

P. plum/bea. (Lat. plumbeus, plumbeous, lead-colored. Fig. 134, d.) PLumprous Gnar- 
CATCHER. @, adult: Upper parts like those of P. cerulea, but duller and more grayish ; no 
black on forehead; a short. black stripe over eye, and below this a white one. Outer tail- 
feather with the whole outer web and tip white (like the second feather of P. coerulea) ; next 
two feathers tipped with white. Size of P. cerulea. 9: Like the &; the upper parts still 
duller, and frequently with a decided brownish shade; no black over eye; thus only distin- 
guished from  ccerulea by less white on the tail. Valley of the Gila and Colorado. 


12. 


39 


39a. 


262 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


Obs. According to Brewster, Bull. Nutt. Club, vi, 1881, p. 101, the two foregoing are adult (No. 37) and young 
(No. 38) of the same species, which is plumbea, Bd., Pr. Phila. Acad., 1854, p. 118; B. N. A., 1858, p. 882, and authors; 
melanura, Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y., vi, 1856, p. 168, but not of authors referring to the Californian bird: also, atri- 
capilla, Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y., v, 1851, p. 124; Cass., Ill., 1854, pl. 27, but not of Swainson. Brewster describes 
the Californian bird as a new species, as follows: —P. CALIFORNICA. California Black-capped Gnat-catcher. 
¢@: Ascompared with P. plumbea, upper parts decidedly plumbeous instead of bluish ; throat, breast, and sides dull 
ashy instead of ashy-white; lower belly and crissum fulvous or even pale chestnut: light edging of the tail-feathers 
confined to outer pair, with sometimes slight tipping of next pair (as in my fig. 134, c.); lining of wings pearly-ash, 
not white; secondaries and tertials edged with light brown. No pure white anywhere; general aspect of under 
parts nearly as dark as those of a cat-bird. Whole crown glossy black. Length 4.50; extent 6.10; wing 1.84; tail 
1.80; tarsus 0.73; bill 0.50. 9: Similar, but no black on crown; belly and crissum pale chestnut; outer webs of 
second pair of rectrices edged with white. California; being the melanura of authors referring to California birds, 
but not of Lawr., 1856. 


2. Family CHAMAIDZ: Wren-tits. 


Recently framed for a single species, much like a titmouse in general appearance, but 
with the tarsus not evidently scutellate in front ; rounded wings much shorter than the gradu- 
ated tail; lores bristly, and plumage extraordinarily soft and lax. With the general habits of 
wreus, with which the species was formerly associated. The position and valuation of the 
group are still uncertain; probably to be determined upon anatomical characters. I have 
little doubt that Chamea will yet be found referable to some other recognized family of birds, 
and suspect that it might be assigned to the Old World Timeliide, with at least as much 
propriety as some other American groups, which have lately been relegated to that ill-assorted 
assemblage. 

CHAMAI’A. (Gr. yayai, chamai, on the ground.) WREN-TITS. Form and general aspect 
combining features uf wrens and titmice. Plumage extraordinarily lax, soft, and full. Color- 
ation simple. Tarsal scutella obsolete, or faintly indicated, at least outside. Toes coherent at 
base for about half the length of the proximal joint of the middle one. Soles widened and 
padded, much as in Paride. Primaries 10, the 6th longest, the 3d equal to the longest sec- 
ondaries, the Ist about three-fifths as long as the longest; wing thus extremely rounded, and 
much shorter than the tail (about two-thirds as long). Tail very long, constituting more 
than half the entire length of the bird, extremely graduated, with soft, narrow feathers, widen- 
ing somewhat toward their tips, rounded at the end, the lateral pair not two-thirds as long as 
the middle. Bill much shorter than head, very deep at the base, straight, stout, compressed- 
conical, not notched, with ridged and very convex culmen, but nearly straight commissure 
and gonys; naked, scaled, linear nostrils, and strongly bristled gape. Frontal feathers reaching 
nasal fossee, but no ruff concealing the nostrils as in Paride. 

C. fascia/ta. (Lat. fasciata, striped; fascis, a bundle of faggots.) Wren-tir. Adult: 
Dark brown with an olive shade, the top of the head clearer and somewhat streaky, the wings 
and tail purer brown, obscurely fasciated with numerous eross-bars; below, dull cinnamon- 
brown, paler on belly, shaded with olive-brown on the sides and ecrissum, the throat and 
breast obscurely streaked with dusky; bill and feet brown; iris white. Length about 6.00; 
wing 2.25-2.50; tail 3.25-3.50, much graduated, the lateral feathers being an inch or more 
shorter than the middle ones; bill 0.40; tarsus 0.90-1.00; middle toe and claw 0.75. First 
primary nearly an inch shorter than the longest one. California coast region. A remarkable 
bird, resembling no other, common in shrubbery; uest in bushes; eggs plain greenish-blue, 
0.70 X 0.52. 

C. f. hen/shawi. (To H. W. Henshaw.) HrnsHaw’s WREN-TIT. Much lighter and duller 
colored; above, grayish-ash with slight olive shade (about the color of a Lophophanes); below, 
scarcely rufescent upon a soiled whitish ground, shaded on the sides with the color of the back; 
bill and feet smaller. Interior of California, and probably adjoining regions; seems to be 
a well-marked form. (Not in the Check List, 1882; see Ridgway, Pr. U. 8. Nat. Mus. Vy 
1882, p. 13.) 


pe) 


PARIDAi— PARINZ: TITMICE. 26 


8. Family PARID: Titmice, or Chickadees. 


Ours are all small (under 7 inches 
long) birds, at once distinguished 
by having ten primaries, the Ist 
much shorter than the 2d; wings 
barely or not longer than the tail ; 
tail-feathers not stiff nor acuminate ; 
tarsi scutellate, longer than the iid- 
dle toe; anterior toes much soldered 
at base; nostrils concealed by dense 
tufts, and bill compressed, stout, 
straight, unnotched, and much 
shorter than the head ; — characters 
that readily marked them off from 
all their allies, as wrens, creepers, 
etc. Really, they are hard to dis- 
tinguish, technically, from jays ; 
but all our jays are much over 7 
inches long. 

They are distributed over North 
America, but the crested species are 
rather southern, and all but one of 
them western. Most of them are 
hardy birds, enduring the rigors of 
Fia. 135.-— European Greater Titmouse, Parus major. (From Dixon.) winter without inconvenience, and, 


as a consequence, none of them are properly migratory. They are musical, after a fashion of 
their own, chirping a quaint ditty; are active, restless, and very heedless of man’s presence ; 
and eat everything. Some of the western species build astonishingly large and curiously 
shaped nests, pensile, like a bottle or purse with a hole in one side, as represented in fig. 140 ; 
others live in knot-holes, and similar snuggeries that they usually dig out for themselves. 
They are very prolific, laying numerous eggs, and raising more than one brood a season ; the 
young closely resemble the parents, and there are no obvious seasonal or sexual changes of 
plumage. All but one of our species are plainly clad; still they have a pleasing look, with 
their trim form and the tasteful colors of the head. 


7. Subfamily PARINAE: True Titmice. 


Exclusive of certain aberrant forms, usually allowed to constitute a separate subfamily, and 
sometimes altogether removed from Paride, the titmice compose a natural and pretty well 
defined group, to which the foregoing diagnosis and remarks are particularly applicable, and 
agree in the following characters: — Bill very short and stout, straight, compressed-conoid in 
shape, not notched nor with decurved tip, its under as well as upper outline convex. Rictus 
without true bristles, but base of the bill covered with tufts of bristly feathers directed forward, 
entirely concealing the nostrils. Feet stout; tarsi distinctly scutellate, longer than the middle 
toe ; toes rather short, the anterior soldered together at the base for most of the length of the 
basal joint of the middle one. Hind toe with an enlarged pad beneath, forming, with the con- 
solidated bases of the anterior toes, a broad firm sole. Wing with ten primaries, of which the 
first is very short or spurious, scarcely or not half as long as the second; wing as a whole 
rounded, scarcely or not longer than the tail, which latter is rounded or graduated, and com- 
posed of twelve narrow soft feathers, with rounded or somewhat truncated tips. Plumage 


13. 


40 


41. 


264 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


long, soft, and loose, without bright colors or well-marked changes according to sex, age, or 
season (excepting Awuriparus). 

There may be about seventy-five good species of the Parine, thus restricted, most of 
thein falling in the genus Parus, or in its immediate neighborhood. With few exceptions 
they are birds of the northern hemisphere, abounding in Europe, Asia, and North America. 
The larger proportion of the genera and species inhabit the Old World. All those of the New 


World oceur within our limits. 
Analysis of Genera. 


Crested. 
Wings and tail rounded, of about equal lengths. Noredoryellow. .... .. . . Lophophanes 13 
Not crested. 
Wings and tail rounded, of about equal lengths. Noredoryellow ........ .. £Parus 14 
Wings rounded, shorter than the graduated tail. Noredoryellow ..... .. + Psaltriparus 15 
Wings pointed, longer than the even tail. Head yellow ; bendofwingred . ... . . Auriparus 16 


LOPHO/PHANES. (Gr. Addos, lophos, a crest; Paiva, phaino, I appear.) CRESTED TiT- 
mMIcE. Head crested. Wings and tail rounded, of about equal lengths, and about as long as 
the body. Bill conoid-compressed, with upper and under outlines both convex. No yellow on 
head nor red on wing. Plumage lax, much the same in both sexes at all ages and seasons. 
Average size of the species at a maximum for Paring. Nests excavated in trees; eggs spotted. 


Analysis of Species. : 
Frontlet black ; sides washed with rusty. Eastern... ..... + ee + we es + bDicolor 


40 
Crest like rest of upper parts ; norusty on sides. Southweste oe ee Fe ee ee st Unornatus 41 
Crest entirely black; rusty on sides. Texan. . ... 2... 1 ew ee ew ww ee) . atrocristatus 42 
Head with several black stripes ; no rusty on sides. Southwestern . . wollweberi 43 


L. bicolor. (Lat. bis, twice; color, color. Fig. 136.) Turrsp Tirmousn. ¢ 9, adult: 
Entire upper parts ashy, the back usually with a slight 
olivaceous shade, the wings and tail rather purer and darker 
plumbeous, the latter sometimes showing obsolete transverse 
bars. Sides of the head and entire under parts dull whitish, 
washed with chestnut-brown on the sides. A black frontlet 
at the base of the crest. Bill plumbeous-blackish ; feet plum- 
beous. Length 6.00-6.50 inches; extent 9.75-10.75; wing 
and tail 3.00-8.25; bill 0.40; tarsus 0.80; middle toe and 
claw 0.75. Q smaller than g. Young: The crest less devel- 
oped; little if any trace of the black frontlet; sides scarcely 
washed with rusty. Eastern U. 8., rather southerly; scarcely 
N. to New England; resident, abundant in woodland and 
Aine ome eee shrubbery. Nest in holes; eggs 6 or 8, 0.75 X 0.56, white, 
nat. size. (Adnat. del. E.C,) dotted with reddish-brown and lilac. 
L. inorna/tus. (Lat. in, as signifying negation, and ornatus, adorned ; orno, I ornament.) 
Puain Tirmouse. ¢& 9, adult: Entire upper parts dull leaden-gray, with a slight olive 
shade ; the wings and tail rather purer and darker. Below, dull ashy-whitish, without any 
rusty wash on the sides. No black on the head. Extreme forehead and sides of the head 
obscurely speckled with whitish. No decided markings anywhere. In size rather less than 
L. bicolor; length usually under 6.00 ; wing and tail under 3.00. Young quite like the adults, 
which closely resemble the young of L. bicolor; but in the latter there are traces at least of the 
reddish of the sides or black of the frontlet, or both ; the general coloration is purer, with more 
distinction between the upper and under parts, and the size is rather greater. The speckled 
appearance of the sides of the head and lores of L. inornatus is peculiar. Southwestern United 
States, abundant, resident. The typical form Californian; a rather larger, stouter-billed form, 
lighter leaden-gray with scarcely any olive shade, from Utah, Arizona, ete., is L. 7. griseus, 
Ridgw., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., v., 1882, p. 344. 


42. 


43. 


14 


44. 


PARIDA — PARINA: TITMICE. 265 


L. atrocrista/tus. (Lat. atro, with black, cristatus, crested; crista, a crest.) BLACK-CRESTED 
Titmouse. ¢ 9, adult: Plumbeous, with a shade of olive, the wings and tail rather darker 
and purer, edged with the color of the back, or a more hoary shade of thesame. Beneath, dull 
ashy-whitish, especially on the breast, the abdomen whiter, the sides chestnut-brown as in ZL. 
bicolor, Extreme forehead and lores whitish; entire crest glossy black. Bill blackish-plum- 
beous; feet plumbeous. Small: length about 5.00; wing and tail 2.75. Valley of the Rio 
Grande. Nest in natural cavities of trees, usually including cast snake-skins ainong its inateri- 
als; eggs 0.75 & 0.58, white, spotted with reddish-brown in fine dots over the general surface, 
boldly blotched at large end, but not distinguishable from those of L. bicolor. 

L. wollweb/eri. (To one Wollweber. Fig. 137.) BripLep Tirmouse. @ 9, adult: 
Upper parts olivaceous-ash, wings and tail darker, edged with the color of the back, or even a 
brighter tint, sometimes nearly as yellowish as in Regulus. Under 
parts sordid ashy-white. Crest black, with a central field like the 
back. Whole throat black, as in species of Parus. A black line 
runs behind the eye and curves down over the auriculars, distin- 
guished from the black of the crest and throat by the white of 
the side of the head and white superciliary stripe; a half-collar 
of black on the nape, descending on the sides of the neck, there 
separated from the black crescent of the auriculars by a white cres- 
cent, which latter is continuous with the white of the superciliary 
line ; considerable whitish speckling in the black of the forehead Age ae eae 
and lores. Bill blackish-plumbeous; fect plumbeous. Smallest: mouse, nat. size. (Mex. B. 
length 5.00 or less; wing or tail 2.40-2.65 ; bill 0.33; tarsus 0.60-— Survey.) 

0.70. Young: Chin narrowly or imperfectly bladk, and some of the above described head- 
markings obscure or incomplete. The singularly variegated markings of the head of this 
species at once distinguish it. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, abundant, going 
in troops, in woods and shrubbery. 

PA/RUS. (Lat. parus, a titmouse.) TypicaL Titmice. CHICKADEES. Head not crested. 
Wings and tail rounded, of approximately equal lengths, and about as long as the body. Bill 
typically parine (see foregoing characters). No bright colors (in any North American species). 
Head in most species with black. Plumage lax and dull, without decided changes with age, 
sex, or season. Size medium in the family. Nest excavated. Eggs spotted. 


Analysis of Species. 
Species definitely black-capped and black-throated. 
A white superciliary stripe. ©. 2 2 ee ee ee ee ee ee montanus 48 
No white superciliary stripe. 
Tail not shorter than wing ; feathers of both with much hoary-whitish edging. 
Larger ; tail at maximum length, coloration most hoary. Missouri Region and Rocky 


aU Kt: oe ee Sanee soe e + ss . Septentrionalis 45 
Smaller ; tail moderate : coloration lose: hoary: " Fastern soe ee ew . . Atricapillus 44 
Size of No. 44 ; coloration darker. Pacific Region . . - +e « « . occidentalis 46 
Tail shorter than wings ; whitish edgings of wings and tail obsolete. 
Rather smaller than No. 44. South AtlanticStates. . . +. » carolinensis 47 
Rather smaller than No. 44; coloration very dark. Mexican border - . « meridionalis 879 
Species brown-capped, or crown quite like back, and blackish throat. 
Cap hair-brown; back little different. 
White confined to side of head. Easternand Arctic. . . ..... . . . . Radsonicus 49 
White spreading over sides ofneck. Arctic... ... 0.0.0.0... 4 ss . cinetus 52 
Cap dark wood-brown ; back chestnut. 
Back and sides rich chestnut alike. Pacific, northerly . se 2 . . rufescens 50 


Back chestnut, but sides only washed with rusty. Pacific, southerly . soe ew. . neglectus B51 
P. atricapillus. (Lat. ater, black; capillus, hair. Fig. 138.) BuacKk-cappep Titmouse 
CuIckaDEE. Crown and nape, with chin and throat, black, separated by white sides of the 
head. Upper parts brownish-ash, with slight olive tinge, and a rusty wash on rump. Under 


45. 


46. 


AT. 


879. 


48. 


266 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


parts more or less purely white or whitish, shaded on the sides with a brownish or rusty wash. 
Wings and tail like upper parts, the feathers moderately edged with hoary-white. Average 
dimensions: length 5.25; extent 8.00; wing and tail, 
each, 2.50; tarsus 0.70. Extremes: length 4.75-5.50; 
extent 7.50-8.50; wing and tail 2.35-2.65; tarsus 0.65- 
0.75. Eastern N. Am., from the Middle States northward, 
very abundant, well-known by its familiar habits and peeu- 
liar notes. Nest in holes of trees, stumps, or fences, natural 
or excavated by the bird, made of grasses, mosses, hair, fur, 
feathers, etc. ; eggs 6-8, 0.58 X 0.47, white, fully spriukled 
with reddish-brown dots and spots. 

P. a. septentriona/lis. (Lat. septentrionalis, northern ; 
septentriones, the constellation of seven stars, the dipper.) 
LonG-TAILED CHICKADEE. Similar to P. atricapillus; 
averaging larger, and especially longer-tailed, the tail 
rather exceeding the wing in length. Coloration clear and 
pure; wings and tail very strongly edged, especially on 
the secondaries and outer tail-feathers, with hoary-white, 
which usually passes entirely around their tips. Cap pure 
black and very extensive on the nape; black of throat 
reaching breast; sides of head and neck snowy-white. 


3ill and feet dark plumbeous. Average dimensions about “Fic. 138, — Black-capped Chickadee, 
the maxima of P. atricapillus: length 5.25-5.50; extent Teduced. (Adnat. del. E. C.) 

8.50; wing 2.50-2.75; tail 2.60-2.80, sometimes 3.00. This style reaches its extreme devel- 
opment in the region of the Upper Missouri and Rocky Mts., there apparently to the exclusion 
of P. atricapillus proper. 

P. a. occidenta/lis. (Lat. occidentalis, western; occido, I fall; i. e., where the sun sets.) 
WESTERN CHICKADEE. Similar to P. atricapillus ; of the same average size; presenting 
the opposite extreme from P. septentrionalis in minimum edging of wing- and tail-feathers 
with hoary, heavy brownish wash of sides, and general dark sordid coloration. U.S., Pacific 
coast region. 

P. carolinen/sis. (Lat. of Carolina.) CaRoLina CuIcKADEE. Averaging smaller than P. 
atricapillus, with relatively as well as absolutely shorter tail, which is rather shorter than the 
wings ; wings and tail very little edged with whitish. Average dimensions about at the minima of 
P. atricapillus. Length about 4.50; wing 2.50; tail 2.25. South Atlantic and Gulf States; 
N. to Washington and Southern Illinois. Nesting like-P. atricapillus; eggs similar, rather 
smaller. 

P. meridiona/lis. (Lat. meridionalis, southern.) MbxicAN CHICKADEE. Differs decidedly 
from P. atricapillus in having the under parts merely a paler shade of the ashy of the upper, 
instead of white, without any brownish wash on sides; .wing-coverts and tail lacking any 
hoary edging, though the wing-quills have a slight grayish- 
white edging. Thus quite like P. montanus in color, but no 
white superciliary stripe. Length 4.80-5.20; extent 8.00- 
8.70; wing 2.67-2.90; tail 2.40-2.67. Mexico, recently ascer- 
tained to occur in Arizona. (Numbered among addenda in 
the Check List, 1882.) 

P. monta/nus. (Lat. montanus, of mountains. Fig. 139.) 
MounTAIN CuICKADEB. Upper parts ashy-gray, with scarcely Fra. 139, — Mountain Chickadee, 
a shade, and only on the rump, of the ochraceous seen in most nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 
other species; under parts similarly grayish-white, without a rusty tinge, the middle of the 


50. 


51. 


49. 


49a. 


52. 


15. 


PARIDA — PARINZE: TITMICE. 267 


belly nearly white, the rest more heavily shaded. Wings and tail with comparatively little 
whitish edging —the tail at least with no more than that of P. carolinensis. Sides of the 
head and neck white; top of the head, and the throat, black. A conspicuous white super- 
ciliary stripe in the black cap, usually meeting its fellow across the forehead. Length about 
5.00; extent 8.30; wing 2.50-2.75; tail rather less; bill 0.38; tarsus 0.66. U.8., from 
Eastern foot-hills of the Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, chietly in alpine regions. 

P. rufes'cens, (Lat. rufescens, rufous, reddish.) CHESTNUT-BACKED TITMOUSE. Crown 
and nape dark wood-brown, becoming sooty along the sides, separated from the sooty-black of 
the throat by a large white area extending back on the sides of the neck. Entire back and 
sides of body rich dark chestnut, contrasting strongly with the brown of the head. Breast 
and central line of under parts, with lining of the wings, whitish. Wing- and tail-coverts 
more or less washed with rusty-brown. Quills and tail-feathers scarcely or slightly edged 
with whitish. Bill black; feet dark; iris brown. Young with throat brown, like crown, 
instead of sooty. Length 4.75; extent 7.50; wing 2.30; tail about 2.00. A strongly 
marked species, with chestnut back and sides contrasting with dark brown cap and sooty throat. 
Pacific coast region of the U. §., northerly, and corresponding portions of British America. 
P.r. neglec/tus? (Lat. neglectus, neglected, i. e., not chosen; nec, not, and lego, I gather, 
choose.) Quite similar: crown, throat, and back the same, but sides not extensively chestnut, 
being simply washed with rusty-browu. Coast region of California. 

P. hudson/icus. (Lat. hudsonicus, of Hudson’s Bay; after Henry Hudson, the navigator.) 
Hupsonran Titmouse. Crown, uape, and upper parts generally clear hair-brown, or ashy- 


-brown with a slight olive shade, the coloration quite the same on back and crown, and contin- 


uous, being not separated by any whitish nuchal interval. Throat quite black, in restricted 
area, not extending backward on sides of neck; separated from the brown crown by silky 
white on the side of the head, this white not reaching back of the auriculars to the sides of the 
nape. Sides, flanks, and under tail-coverts washed with dull chestnut or rusty-brown ; other 
under parts whitish. Quills and tail-feathers lead-color, as in other titimice, scarcely or slightly 
edged with whitish. Little or no concealed white on rump. Bill black; feet dark. Size of 
P. atricapillus, or rather less. Wing 2.50; tail rather less. New England and British America 
generally ; Nevada to Alaska. Common in coniferous woods. 

P. h. evu’ra, nobis. Alaskan specimens are larger, the tail nearly 3.00; thus corresponding 
with P. atricapillus septentrionalis, and being quite the size of P. cinctus, from which dis- 
tinguished by retaining precisely the coloration of P. hudsonicus. Alaska. 

P. cine/tus. (Lat. cinctus, girdled; cingo, I bind about.) SrpeRtan TirmouseE. In general, 
similar to P. hudsonicus, but quite distinct. Throat sooty-blackish ; crown and nape dark 
hair-brown, bordered laterally with dusky, quite appreciably different in tone from the brighter 
brownish of the back, from which also separated to some extent by whitish of the cervix. 
Sides of head and neck pure white, in a large area widening behind, this white of opposite 
sides nearly meeting across the cervix. Back ashy overlaid with flaxen-brown, the rump light 
brown with much concealed white. Under parts whitish centrally from the black throat, but 
heavily washed on the sides, flanks, and erissun, sometimes quite across the belly, with light 
brownish. Wings and tail slate-color, as usual in the genus, with much whitish edging, 
especially on the secondaries. Bill plumnbeous-blackish; feet plumbeous. Wing 2.60; tail 
rather more. <A large stylish chickadee, lately ascertained to inhabit Arctic America, especially 
Alaska, as well as boreal regions of Asia and Europe. 

PSALTRI'/PARUS. (Gr. Wadrpia, Lat. psaltria, a lutist; and parus, a tit.) Busu-rirs. 
Dwarfs among pygmies! 3.75-4.25 long; wing 2.00 or less, tail 2.00 or more. Ashy or 
olive-gray, paler or whitish below ; neither crown nor throat black; no bright colors. Head 
not crested; wings rounded, shorter than the long narrow graduated tail, which exceeds the 
length of the body. Nest large, woven, pensile, with lateral entrance (fig. 140). Eggs 6-9, 


53. 


54. 


268 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES. 


white, unmarked. The three species are western; they are notable for their diminutive size, 
scarcely equalling a Polioptila in bulk. 
Analysis of Species. 


Crown brown, unlike back ; no black on side ofhead. 2... ee ee ee ee ww we minimus 53 
Crown like back ; no black on side of head... eh ee ee Boe Be we «oe eplumibeUs? D4 
Crown ash, unlike back ; a black stripe on side of head Bi, goice an en wits ce wes ernie - + + « .melanotis 55 


P. min/imus. (Lat. minimus, least, smallest.) Lrast BUSH-TIT. ; @ : Dull lead-color, 
frequently with a brown- 
ish or olivaceous shade, 
the top of the head ab- 
ruptly darker — clove- 
brown or hair-brown. 
Below sordid whitish, or 
brownish-white. Wings 
and tail dusky, with 
slight hoary edgings. 
Bill and feet black. 
Length 4.00 or less; 
wing scarcely or not 
2.00; tail 2.00 or more; 
pill 0.25; tarsus 0.60. 
Young birds do not dif- 
fer materially. There is 
considerable variation in 
the precise shade of the 
body, but the brown cap 
always differs in color 
from the rest of the up- 
per parts. Pacific coast 
region of the U.S. 
P. plum'beus. = (Lat. 
plumbeus, lead-colored.) 
PLumsBeous Busu-tir. 
62: Clear plumbeous, 
with little or no olive 
or brownish shade; top 
of head not different 
from the back; sides 
of head pale brownish. 
Under parts as in P. : ; 

es Fig. 140. — Least Bush-tit and nest, about ? nat. size. (Ad nat. del. H. W. 
minimus, but clearer. — pyiott,) 
Tail longer than wings. 
Eyes yellow or dark brown. Length about 4.25; wing 1.88-2.12; tail 2.25-2.50; Dill 
0.25; tarsus 0.60. Very closely related to P. minimus ; but specimens are readily distin- 
guishable. Total length greater, owing to elongation of the tail, which sometimes exceeds 
the wings by 0.50. General coloration clearer and purer; crown not different in color from the 
back, but cheeks brownish in obvious contrast. Southern Rocky Mt. region, from Wyoming 
and Nevada southward; common in Arizona. 
P. melano'tis. (Gr. pédas, melas, gen. pedavos, melanos, black; ods, ows, gen. dds, otos, ear.) 
BLACK-EARED Busu-tir. @, adult: Sides of head broadly black with greenish lustre, the 


2 


56. 


SITTIDA’: NUTHATCHES. 269 


bands meeting narrowly across the chin, and nearly meeting on the nape. Crown and nape 
clear ash. Back hair-brown. Wings and tail fuscous, with narrow pale ashy edgings of the 
feathers ; outer webs and tips of outer tail-feathers, and inner webs of many wing-feathers, 
whitish. Below, white, pure on throat and sides of neck, thence passing through lavender- 
gray to rusty-brownish on flanks and crissum. Bill and feet black ; iris brown. Q unknown: 
probably not different. Young quite similar, having glossy black on the head before they are 
fully feathered, but the black does not at first meet on the chin. Length about 4.00; wing 
1.90; tail 2.25; bill 0.25, compressed, with very convex culmen and nearly straight under out- 
line; tarsus 0.60; middle toe and claw 0.45. A neat little tom-thumb, native of Mexico, 
N. to Arizona and probably farther, rare; I have seen but three specimens. 

AURI/PARUS. (lat. auri, of gold, and parus, a tit; from the yellowhead.) Goup-tT1Ts. Head 
not crested. Wings pointed, the 2d quill being little shorter than the 3d; the 1st spurious. 
Tail little rounded, decidedly shorter than the wings. Bill not typically parme 
acute, with straight or slightly concave under outline, and barely convex culmen, thus resem- 
bling that of a Helminthophaga ; longer and slenderer than usual in Parine ; nostrils scarcely 
concealed by the imperfect ruff. Tarsi relatively shorter than in the preceding genera. 
Bright colors on head (yellow) and wing (red). Plumage comparatively compact; sexes 
alike, but young very different from the adult. Size very small. General form sylvicoline. 
Nest globular, woven. Eggs spotted. One species. 

A. fla'viceps. (Lat. flaviceps, yellow-head.) Goxp-tTir. ¢ 9: Upper parts ashy ; under 
parts whitish ; wings and tail dusky, with hoary edging. Whole head rich yellow. Lesser 
wing-coverts chestnut-red. Bill dark plumbeous; feet plumbeous. Length 4.00-4.25 ; 
wing 1.80-2.00; tail 1.75-2.25. Young without red on wing or yellow on head; thus obscure 
objects, known, however, by their generic characters. Adults vary in having the yellow 
heightened to orange, or dull and greenish; the red sometimes hematitic; and the shade of 
the ashy clear and pure, or dull and brownish. Valley of the Rio Grande and Colorado, and 
Lower California ; abundant in chaparral, building in bushes a great globular nest of twigs, 
lined with down and feathers; eggs 4-6, pale bluish speckled with brown, 0.60 * 0.45. 


extremely 


4. Family SITTID4: Nuthatches. 


Bill subcylindrical, tapering, compressed, slender, acute, nearly or about as long as the 
head, culmen and commissure about straight, gonys long, convex, ascending (giving a sort of 
recurved look to a really straight bill). Nostrils rounded, concealed by bristly tufts. Wings 
long, pointed, with 10 primaries, the 1st very short or spurious; tail much shorter than wings, 
broad, soft, nearly even; tarsus shorter than the middle toe and claw, scutellate in front; toes 
all long, with large, much curved, compressed claws ; 1st tue and claw about equal to the 3d ; 
2d and 4th toes very unequal in length. Plumage compact; body flattened; tongue horny, 
acute, barbed. Nuthatches are amongst the most nimble and adroit of creepers ; they scramble 
about and hang in every conceivable attitude, head downwards as often as otherwise. This is 
done, too, without any help from the tail, — the whole tarsus being often applied to the sup- 
port. They are chiefly insectivorous, but feed also on hard fruits; and get their English name 
from their habit of sticking nuts and seeds in cracks in bark, and hammering away with the 
bill till they break the shell. They are very active and restless little birds, quite sociable, 
often going in troops, which keep up a continual noise ; lay 4-6 white, spotted eggs, in hollows 
of trees. The family, as conventionally framed, is a small one, of less than thirty species, 
among them a single remarkable Madagascar form (Hypositta), a genus peculiar to Australia 
(Sittella), and another confined to New Zealand (Acanthisitta) : but some of these (especially 
Acanthisitta) may not be Sittide at all, and in any event the family is chiefly represented by 
the genus Sitta, with some fifteen species of Europe, Asia, and North America. 


1%. 


270 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES. 


SITTA. (Lat. sitta, Gr. oirra, name of a bird. Fig. 141.) TyprcaL NUTHATCHEs. 
Characters practically those given under head of the family. 


Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


White below, the crissum washed with rusty-brown ; cap g 
Bill stouter, 0.18-0.20 deep at base Inner secondarie: 


ssy black, without stripes. 
boldly variegated with black. Eastern 
carolinensis 57 
Bill slenderer, 0.12-0.16 deep at base. Inner secondaries scarcely variegated with blackish. Western 
aculeata 58 
Rusty-brown below ; cap glossy black with white stripes, or color ofthe back . . . . . . «canadensis 59 
Rusty-brown or brownish-white below ; cap brown, unlike back, without stripes. 
Crown clear hair-brown ; a white spot on nape ; middle tail-feathers plain. Southeastern . pusilla 60 
Crown dull brownish, with darker border ; little or no white on nape ; middle tail-feathers with 
black. Southwestern... soe 2 Byford. Som. te edn Se posh hoe See es se Sigman: 6 


VIAN 
\\ 


Fic, 141. — European Nuthatch, Sitta cesia (resembling S. pusil/a), nearly nat size. (From Brehm.) 


S. carolinen’sis. (Lat. of Carolina. Fig. 142.) Caroriya NuTHATCH. WHITE-BELLIED 
Nuruatcu. @, adult: Upper parts, central tail- 
feathers, and much edging of the wings, clear ashy- 
blue ; whole crown, nape, and back of the neck, glossy 
black. Under parts, including sides of neck and head 
to above eyes, dull white, more or less marked on the 
flanks and crissum with rusty-brown. Wings and their 
coverts blackish, much edged as already said, and with 
an oblique bar of white on the outer webs of the pri- 
maries towards their ends; concealed bases of primaries 
white; under wing-coverts mostly blackish; bold bluish 


Fia. 142. —Carolina Nuthatch, nat. size. 4 ’ ; 2 : 
(Ad nat. del. E. C.) and black variegation of the inner secondaries. Tail, 


58. 


59. 


60. 


61. 


SITTIDA): NUTHATCHES. 271 


excepting the two middle feathers, black, each feather marked with white in increasing amount, 
the outer web of the lateral feather being mostly white. Bill blackish-plumbeous, pale at 
the base below. Feet dark brown. Iris brown. Length 5.50-6.00; extent 10.50-11.00; 
wing 3.50; tail 1.75; bill about 0.66 long, 0.18-0.20 deep at base. @ : Similar; black of 
head imperfect, mixed or overlaid with the color of the back, or altogether restricted to the 
nape. Eastern U. 8. and British Provinces, resident, abundant in woodland, where its curious 
quank, quank, quank may often be heard as the nimble bird hops up and down the tree-trunks. 
Nest in holes, often excavated by the birds with infinite labor, lined with fur, feathers, grasses, 
cte.; eggs numerous, 0.80 X 0.60, white, profusely speckled with reddish and lilac. 

S.c. aculea/ta. (Lat. aculeata, sharpened ; referring to the slender Dill.) SLENDER-BILLED 
Nuruatrcu. Like the last; bill slenderer, 0.12-0.16 deep at base. Inner secondaries scarcely 
or not variegated with blackish, and general tone of coloration duller. Woodland of Middle 
and Western provinces of the U. 8., common, replacing No. 57. 

S. canadensis. (Lat. of Canada, an Iroquois word. Fig. 143.) Rrp-BeLLiep NuTHATCH. 
Canapa Nuruatrcu. , adult: Upper parts leaden-blue (brighter than in S. carolinensis), 
the central tail-feathers the same; wings fuscous, with slight 
ashy edgings and concealed white bases of the primaries. 
Entire under parts rusty-brown, very variable in shade, from 
rich fulvous to brownish-white, usually palest on the throat, 
deepest on the sides and crissum; tail-feathers, except the 
middle pair, black, the lateral marked with white. Whole top 
and side of head and neck glossy black, that of the side appear- Fic, 13,— Canada Nuthatch, 
ing as a broad bar through the eye from bill to side of neck, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 

cut off from that of the crown by a long white superciliary stripe, which incets its fellow across 
the forehead. Bill dark plumbeous, paler below ; feet plumbeous-brown. Length 4.50-4.75 ; 
extent 8.00-8.50; wing 2.60; tail 1.50; bill0.50. 9: Crown like the back; lateral stripe 
on the head merely blackish. The under parts average paler than those of the g, but there 
is no constancy about this. Young birds resemble the 9. Temperate N. Am., common, in 
woodland; habits like those of No. 57; eggs similar, smaller, 0.65 « 0.54. 

S. pusilla. (Lat. pusilla, puerile, petty. Fig. 144.) BrowN-nEapED NutuatcH. ¢ 9: 
No black cap or white stripe on head. Upper parts dull ashy-blue; under parts sordid or 
muddy whitish. Cap clear hair-brown. A decided spot of 
white on the middle of the nape, in the brown cap, which on | 
the sides of the head includes the eyes, and is bordered with 
dusky. Middle tail-feathers like back, without black, and with 
little or no white. Small: length scarcely 4.00; extent about 
8.00; wing 2.50; tail 1.25; tarsus 0.60; Dill about 0.50. 
South Atlantic and Gulf States; N. to Virginia and Ohio. 
Habits of the other species: eggs 0.60 X 0.50, very heavily : 
speckled with dark reddish-brown. Fig. 144. — Brown-headed Nut- 
S. pygme/a. (Gr. ruyyn, pugme, the fist; Lat. pygmaeus, a hatch, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 
pygmy, fistling, or tom-thumb.) Pyemy Nuruatcn. 2 9: Upper parts ashy-blue, and 
wings with slight if any markings (as in canadensis), though some outer primaries may be 
nurowly edged with white. Whole top of head, nape, and sides of head to below eyes, olive- 
brown, the lateral borders of this patch blackish; an obsolete whitish patch on the nape. 
Central tail-feathers like the back, but with a long white spot, and their outer webs black 
at base; other tail-feathers blackish, with white marks, and often also tipped with the color of 
the back. Entire under parts ranging from muddy-white to smoky-brown or rich rusty, nearly 
or quite as intense as in 8. canadensis; flanks and crissum shaded with a dull wash of the 
color of the back. Bill and feet dark plumbeous, the former paler at base below. Iris black. 


me 
272 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 

Size of the last. Young: Differs much as the 9 of canadensis does from the @, in having the 
top of the head like the back. U.S. from the Rocky Mts. to the Pacitic, abundant, chiefly in 
pine woods; N. to Vaneouver. Eggs 6-7, white, profusely speckled with reddish, 0.62 x 0.50. 


5. Family CERTHIIDZ: Creepers. 


A very small, well-marked group, of about a dozen species, and four or five genera, which 
fall in two sections, commonly called subfamilies; one of these, Zichodromine, is represented 
by the well-known European Wall Creeper, Tichodroma muraria, and several (chiefly Aus- 
tralian) species of the genus Climacteris; while the genus Certhia, with five or six species or 
varieties, and certain allied genera (all but one Old World) constitute the 


— 
SSS 


FIG. 145.— Common Brown Creeper, Certhia familiaris, nearly nat. size. (From Brehm.) 
8. Subfamily CERTHIINAE: Typical Creepers. 


Our species may be known on sight, among North American Oscines, by its rigid, acumi- 
nate tail-feathers, like a woodpecker’s. Besides: — bill about equal in length to head, ex- 
tremely slender, sharp, and decurved; nostrils exposed; no rictal bristles; tarsus scutellate, 
shorter than 3d toe and claw, which is connate for the whole of the Ist joint with both 2d and 
4th toe; lateral toes of unequal lengths, ]st toe shorter than its claw; claws all much curved 
and very sharp; wing 10-primaried, the Ist primary very short, not one-half the 2d, which is 
less than the 3d; point of wing formed by 3d, 4th, and 5th quills; tail rounded, equal to or 
longer than wing, of 12 stout, elastic, curved, acuminate feathers. Restless, active, little forest 
birds that make a living by picking bugs out of cracks in bark. In scrambling about they use 
the tail as woodpeckers do, and never hang head downwards, like the nuthatches. Lay numer- 
ous white, speckled eggs in knotholes; are not regularly migratory; have slight seasonal or 
sexual changes of plumage ; are chiefly insectivorous, and not noted for musical ability. 


18. 


62. 


62a. 


TROGLODYTIDA): WRENS. 273 


CER'THIA. (Lat. certhius, a creeper. Fig. 146.) Characters as above. The stock-form 
of this genus varies according to locality. European varieties sometimes recognized are C. coste 
and C. britannica. The N. Am. bird, which is in- 
separable from the European, has been called C. 
rufa, fusca, and americana, for Eastern specimens, 
C. montana for those from the Rocky Mt. region, 
and C. occidentalis for those from the Pacific coast 
region. The Mexican form, C. mesxicana, differs 
more appreciably, as below given. 

C. familia’/ris. (Lat. familiaris, from familia, 
family; domestic, home-like. Fig. 145.) Brown 
CreEPeR. ¢ 9: Upper parts dark brown, chang- Fic. 146. —Head, foot, and tuil-feather of Cer- 
ing to rusty-brown on the rump, everywhere ‘#4, nat. sizo. (Ad nat. del. F.C.) 

streaked with ashy-white. An obscure whitish superciliary stripe. Under parts dull whitish, 
sometimes tinged with rusty on the flanks and crissum. Wing-coverts and quills tipped with 
white, the inner secondaries also with white shaft-lines, which, with the tips, contrast with the 
blackish of their outer webs. Wings also twice crossed with white or tawny-white, the ante- 
rior bar broad and occupying both webs of the feathers, the other only on the outer webs near 
their ends. Tail grayish-brown, darker along the shaft and at the ends of the feathers, some- 
times showing obsolete transverse bars. Bill blackish above, mostly flesh-colored or yellowish 
below; feet brown ; iris dark brown. Length of ¢ 5.25-5.75; extent 7.50-8.00; wing 2.50; 
more or less; tail usually a little longer than the wing, sometimes not so, 2.50 to nearly 3.00 ; 
tarsus about 0.60; bill 0.65-0.75 ; Q averaging smaller than g. Temperate N. Am., in wood- 
land, abundant, generally seen winding spirally up the trunks and larger branches of trees. 
C.f. mexica’na. (Lat. of Mexico.) Mexican CREEPER. Differs in lacking light tips of the 
primary coverts, and general richer coloration, the brown more rusty ; rump bright chestnut ; 
under parts grayish. Mexico, to S$. W. border of the U. 8. (Not in Check List, 1882; since 
ascertained to inhabit Arizona.) 


6. Family TROGLODYTIDZ: Wrens. 


Embracing a number of forms assembled in 
considerable variety, and difficult to define with 
precision. Closely related to the last three fami- 
lies; known from these by non-acuminate tail- 
feathers and exposed nostrils. Very intimately 
resembling, in particular, the mocking group of 
thrushes— those with scutellate tarsi and not 
strictly spurious lst primary; but all our wrens 
are smaller than any of the Mimine, and other- 
wise distinguished by less deeply cleft toes —as 
stated on p. 248; ‘the inner toe is united by half 
its basal joint to the middle toe, sometimes by 

Fig. 147.—European Wren. (From Dixon.) the whole of this joint; and the second joint of 
the outer toe enters wholly or partially into this union, instead of the basal only.” Nostrils 
narrowly or broadly oval, exposed, overhung by a scale; bill moderately or very slender, 
straight or slightly decurved, from half as long to about as long as the head, unnotched 
in all our genera; no evident rictal bristles; wings short, more or less rounded, with 10 
primaries, the Ist short, but not strictly spurious; tail of variable length, much or little 
rounded, of broad or narrow feathers, often held over the back. Tarsi scutellate, sometimes 
behind as well as in front. 


18 


274 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


Excepting some Old World forms of doubtful affinity, and the species of Anorthura proper, 
the Troglodytide are confined to America; and if thus restricted are susceptible of better 
definition. About one hundred species or varieties are recognized, usually referred to about 
sixteen gencra, most of which belong to tropical America, where the group reaches its maxi- 
mum development, — over twenty species of Campylorhynchus being described, for instance. 
Of North American genera, Campylorhynchus, Catherpes and Salpinctes are confined to the 
West, and represent a section distinguished by the breadth of the tail-feathers, which widen 
toward the end. Species of all our other genera are common and familiar eastern birds, much 
alike in disposition, manners, and habits; the house wren typifies these. They are sprightly, 
fearless, and impudent little creatures, apt to show bad temper when they fancy themselves 
aggrieved by cats or people, or anything else that is big and unpleasant to them; they quarrel 
a good deal, and are particularly spiteful towards martins and swallows, whose homes they 
often invade and occupy. Their song is bright and hearty, and they are fond of their own 
music; when disturbed at it they make a great ado with noisy scolding. Part of them Jive in 
reedy swamps and inarshes, where they hang astonishingly big globular nests, with a little hole 
in one side, on tufts of rushes, and lay six or eight dark colored eggs; the others nest any- 
where, in shrubbery, kuotholes, hollow stumps, and other odd nooks. Nearly all are migratory; 
one is stationary ; one comes to us in the fall from the north, the rest in spring from the south. 
Insectivorous, and very prolific, laymg several sets of eggs each season. Plainly colored, the 
browns being the usual colors; no red, blue, yellow, or green in any of our species. 


Analysis of Subfamilies, Genera, and Species. 
CAMPYLORHYNCHIN#/. Feet not strictly laminiplantar, the lateral plates divided, or not perfectly fused in one. 
Tail broad, fan-shaped, the individual feathers widening toward the end. 
Very large; length about 8 inches. Tarsus decidedly scutellate behind. Lateral toes of equal lengths. 


Above streaked with white, below spotted with black. . . . eee ee « Campylorhynchus 
Black and white bars of tail chiefly on outer webs of the feathers soe ee « .C brunneicapillus 63 
Black and white bars of tail chiefly on both webs of the feathers . . . - + . . Crafinis 64 


Smaller, about 6.00long. Tarsus scutellate behind. Lateral toes of unequal lengths 
Salpinctes (S. obsoletus) 65 
Smaller, about 5.50 long. Tarsus scarcely scutellate behind. Lateral toes of unequal lengths 
Catherpes (C. mexicanus) 66, 67 
TROGLODYTIN#. Feet strictly laminiplantar, as usual in Oscines. Tail thin, with narrow parallel-edged 
feathers. Wings and tail more or less completely barred cross-wise. 
Large. Upper parts uniform in color, without streaks or bars; rump with concealed white spots. Belly 
unmarked ; a conspicuous superciliary stripe. 
Tail shorter or not longer than the wing, all the feathers brown, distinctly barred 
Thryothorus (T. ludovicianus) 68, 69, 70 
Tail decidedly longer than the wing, blackish, not fully barred on all the feathers 
Thryothorus (T. bewichki) 71, 72, 73 
Small. Upper parts not uniform, the back being more or less distinctly barred cross-wise; wings, tail, 
and flanks fully barred. 
Tail about equal to the wing, the outstretched feet reaching scarcely or not beyond its end 
Troglodytes (T. domesticus) 74, 75 
Tail decidedly shorter than the wing, the outstretched feet reaching far beyond its end 
Anorthura (A. troglodytes) 76, Ti, 7 
Small. Upper parts not uniform, the back being streaked length-wise ; flanks scarcely or not barred. 
Bill about 3 as long as head; crown plain; streaks of back confined to interscapular region 
Telmatodytes (T. palustris) 79, 80 
Bill scarcely or not } as long as head; crown streaked, like the whole back 
Cistothorus (C. stellaris) 8 


) 


4 


9. Subfamily CAMPYLORHYNCHINZ: Fan.-tailed Wrens. 


For characters of this group and analysis of its genera, see above. 
19, CAMPYLORHYN/CHUS. (Gr. capridos, kampulos, bent; piyxos, rhugchos, beak.) Cac- 
tus Wrens. Of largest size in this family; length about 8.00 inches. Tarsus scutellate 
behind. Lateral toes of equal lengths. Wings and tail of about equal lengths. Tail broad, 


63. 


64. 


20. 


65. 


TROGLODYTIDA — CAMPYLORHYNCHINZ: FAN-TAILED WRENS. 275 


with wide feathers. Tarsus a little longer than the middle toe and claw. Upper parts with 
sharp white streaks on a brown ground; under parts boldly spotted with black on a white 
ground; tail-feathers barred with black and white. 

C. brunneicapil/lus. (Lat. brunneus, brown; capillus, hair.) BROWN-HEADED CACTUS 
Wren. @, adult: Back grayish-brown, marked with black and white, cach feather having 
a central white field several times indented with black. Whole crown of head and nape rich 
dark wood-brown, immaculate. A long white superciliary stripe from nostril to nape. Beneath, 
nearly pure white anteriorly, gradually shading behind into decided cinnamon-brown — the 
throat and fore part of the breast marked with large, crowded, rounded black spots, the rest of 
the under parts with small, sparse, oval or linear black spots, again enlarging on the crissum. 
Wings darker and more fuscous-brown than the back; all the quills with a series of numerous 
white or whitish indentations along the edge of both webs. Central tail-feathers like the 
wings, with numerous more or less incomplete blackish bars; other tail-feathers blackish, the 
outer with several broad white bars on both webs; the rest with usually only a single com- 
plete white bar near the end. Bill dark plumbeous, paler below; iris orange. Length near 
8.00; wing 3.50; tail rather longer; bill 0.80; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw 0.90. Q, 
adult: Quite like the , but the spots on the throat and breast rather smaller, therefore less 
crowded, and less strongly contrasting with the sparse speckling of the rest of the under parts. 
Young: Similar to the adult on the upper parts, but the throat whitish with little speckling; 
scarcely any spots on the rest of the under parts, which are, however, as decidedly cinnamon as 
those of the adults. Southwestern U. $.,— Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, southern Utah 
aud Nevada, and portions of California; common in cactus and chaparral, building a large 
purse-shaped nest in bushes; eggs about 6, 1.00 x 0.68, white, uniformly and minutely dotted 
with salmon-color. (If not C. brunneicapillus Lafr., this will stand as C, couesi Sharpe, Cat. 
Br. Mus., vi, 1882, p. 196.) 

C. affiinis. (Lat. affinis, affined, allied; ad, and finis.) St. Lucas Cacrus Wren. Sim- 
ilar to the last. Cap reddish-brown, lighter instead of darker than the back. Markings of 
back very conspicuous, in strong streaks of black and white, these two colors bordering each 
other with little or no indentation. Under parts nearly white, the black spots, though con- 
spicuous, not enlarged and crowded on the breast, but more regularly distributed. All the 
lateral tail-feathers, instead of only the outer ones, crossed on both webs with numerous com- 
plete white bars. The variations with sex and age correspond with those of C. brunneicapillus. 
Lower California. Nest and eggs as before. (According to Sharpe, J. ¢., this is C. brun- 
neicapillus Lafr.) 

SALPINC'TES. (Gr. cadmyxris, salpightes, a trumpeter.) Rock Wrens. Bill about as long 
as head, slender, compressed, straight at base, then 
slightly decurved, acute at tip, faintly notched. 
Nostrils conspicuous, scaled, in a large fossa. Wing 
longer than tail; exposed portion of Ist primary 
about half as long as 2d, which is decidedly shorter 
than 3d. Tail rounded, of 12 broad plane feathers, 
with rounded or subtruncate ends. Feet small and 
weak; tarsus longer than middle toe, scutellate pos- 
teriorly. Hind toe and claw shorter than middle 
one; lateral toes of unequal lengths, the outer 


Fig. 148. — Rock Wren, nat. size. (Ad nat. 
longest, both very short, the tips of their claws del. E. C.) 


falling short of base of middle claw. Only one species known. 

S. obsole’tus. (Lat. obsoletus, unaccustomed ; ob, and soleo, I am wont; hence obsolete, effaced. 
the coloration being dull and diffuse. Fig. 148.) Rock Wren. ¢ 9, adult: Upper parts 
pale brownish-gray, minutely dotted with blackish and whitish points together, and usually 


21. 


66. 


67. 


276 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


showing obsolete wavy bars of dusky. Rump cinnamon-brown; a whitish superciliary line. 
Beneath, soiled white, shading behind into pale cinnamon, the throat and breast obsoletely 
streaked, and the under tail-coverts barred, with dusky. Quills of the wings rather darker than 
the back, with similar markings on the outer webs. Middle tail-feathers like the back, with 
many dark bars of equal width with the lighter ones; lateral tail-feathers similarly marked on 
the outer webs, plain on the inner webs, with a broad subterminal black bar on both webs, and 
cinnamon-brown tips, the latter usually marbled with dusky ; outer feathers with several black- 
ish and cinnamon bars on both webs. Bill and feet dark horn color, the former paler at. base 
below. Length 5.50-6.00; wing 2.60-2.80; tail 2.20-2.40 ; bill 0.66-0.75 ; tarsus 0.75-0.80. 
Most of the markings blended and diffuse. Shade of upper parts variable, from dull grayish to 
a more plumbeous shade, often with a faint pinkish tinge. Specimens in worn and faded plu- 
mage may fail to show the peculiar dotting with black and whitish ; but in these the cross- 
wise dusky undulation, as well as the streaks on the breast, are commonly more distinct than 
in fresher-feathered examples. The rufous tinge of the under parts is very variable in shade ; 
that of the rump, however, being always well marked. Western U. 5., E. to lowa; common, 
haunting rocky places, where it is conspicuous by its restlessness and loud notes; nest of any 
rubbish in a rocky nook ; eggs numerous, 5-8, of crystalline whiteness, sparsely sprinkled with 
reddish-brown dots, 0.75 & 0.62. 

CATHERPES. (Gr. xadepmis, katherpes, a creeper; xara, hata, down, éprw, herpo, I ereep.) 
Canon Wrens. Bill singularly attenuate, about as long as head, nearly straight in all its 
outlines, with such direction of its axis that the bill as a whole appears continuous with the 
line of the forehead. Tarsus not longer than middle toe and claw, with tendency to subdivision 
of the lateral tarsal plate. Lateral toes of unequal lengths, the outer longest. Wings and 
tail as in Salpinctes, and general features, even to system of coloration, much the same as in 
that genus. One known species, with several varieties. 

C. mexica/nus. MrxicAN CANON WREN. Similar to the form next described; much darker 
colored both above and below, with sharper contrast of the white throat; the white speckling 
mostly restricted to the back and wings ; the black tail-bars broader and more regular, and the 
light markings of the wings mere indentations instead of complete bars. Bill straight, more 
abruptly decurved at extreme tip. Feet stouter, dark brown. Size greater; length about 
6.00; wing 2.80; tail 2.40; bill nearly 1.00 long, only about 0.12 deep at base. Specimens 
vary much in sharpness and extensiveness of the speckling of the upper parts. In best-marked 
cases, the spots quite white, almost lengthened into streaks, each one completely set in black ; 
other examples, small, sparse and restricted, these specimens also showing wavy transverse in 
bars of blackish. Mexico, to Texan border. 

C. m. consper’sus. (Lat. conspersus, speckled.) SPECKLED CANON WREN. @ Q, adult: 
Upper parts brown, paler and grayer anteriorly, behind shading insensibly into rich rufous, 
everywhere dotted with small dusky and whitish spots. Tail clear cinnamon-brown, crossed 
with numerous very narrow and mostly zigzag black bars. Wing-quills dark brown, the outer 
webs of the primaries and both webs of the inner secondaries barred with the color of the back. 
Chin, throat, and fore breast, with lower half of the side of the head and neck, pure white, 
shading behind through ochraceous-brown into rich deep ferruginous, and posteriorly obsoletely 
waved with dusky and whitish. Bill slate-colored, paler and more livid below; feet black ; 
iris brown. Length about 5.50; extent 7.50; wing 2.30; tail 2.12; tarsus 0.60; bill 0.80. 
Throughout New Mexico and Arizona, and portions of Texas, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, and 
California; N. to at least 40°. A remarkable bird, famous for its ringing notes, inhabiting 
cafions and other rocky places. Nesting and eggs like those of the rock wren; eggs 5 or 
more, 0.75 X 0.55, crystal white, fairly sprinkled and blotched with reddish-brown. 

C. m. punctula/tus. (Lat. punctulatus, dotted.) Dorrep CANon Wren. Smaller than 
either of the foregoing : length about 5.00; wing 2.10; tail 1.90; bill 0.75. Coloration inter- 


22. 


68. 


69. 


70. 


71. 


TROGLODYTIDA’ — TROGLODYTINA:: TRUE WRENS. 277 


mediate ; upper parts most like those of C. conspersus, and wings completely barred as in that 
species ; but under parts posteriorly dusky ferruginous (dark mahogany color), and tail-bars 
broad, firm, and regular, as in mexicanus proper. Coast region of California. The type speci- 
men, the only one I have scen, for some years in my cabinet and now No. 82,715, Mus. 8. I, 
seens to be recognizably distinct ; but all the forms of the genus intergrade. (Not in Check 
List, 1882; since described by Ridgway, Pr. Nat. Mus., v., 1882, p. 348.) 


10. Subfamily TROCLODYTINA: True Wrens. 


See characters and analysis of this group on p. 274. 

THRYOTHO/RUS. (Gr. dpvov, thruon, a reed, and Ootpos, thouros, leaping.) Rep WRENS. 
Of largest size in this subfamily ; length 5.50-6.00. 3ack uniform in color, without streaks or 
bars; wings and tail more or less barred crosswise ; belly unmarked; a long superciliary stripe ; 
rump with concealed white spots. Eggs colored. 

Tail not longer than wings, like back in color, and barred, in Thryothorus proper. . . . . Nos. 68, 69, 70 

Tail longer than wings, blackish, not fully barred, in Thryomanes.. . . 1 ee ee ee 71, 72, 73 
T. ludovicia’nus. (Lat. Ludovicianus, Louisiana; of Ludovicus, Louis XIV., of France. 
Fig. 149.) Grear Carotina Wren. Upper parts uniform reddish-brown, brightest on the 
rump, where are concealed whitish spots; a 
long whitish superciliary line, usually bordered 
with dusky streaks; upper surfaces of wings 
and tail like back, barred with dusky, the outer 
edges of the primaries and lateral tail-feathers 
showing whitish spots. Below, rusty or muddy 
whitish, clearest anteriorly, deepening behind, 
the under tail-coverts reddish-brown barred 
with blackish. Wing-coverts usually with dusky 
and whitish tips. Feet livid flesh-colored. 
Length 6.00; extent nearly 7.50; wing 2.40; 
tail 2.25; bill 0.65; tarsus 0.75. Eastern 
U.S., southerly; N. regularly to the Middle 
States, rarely to Massachusetts ; resident as far 
north at least as Washington. A common and 
well-known inhabitant of shrubbery, with a 
loud ringing song; shy and secretive. Nest in 
any nook about out-buildings, or in shrubbery, 
when. in the latter usually roofed over, of the 
most miscellaneous materials ; eggs 6-7, white, 
profusely speckled and blotched with shades of Fig. 149. —Great Carolina Wren, reduced. (From 
reddish, brown, and purplish; 0.72 x 0.60. Nuttall attra udubon:) 
T.1. miamien’sis. (Of the Miami River, Florida.) FLorripan Wren. Similar: larger, 
stouter, and more deeply-colored, especially below, where nearly uniform rusty-brown. Wing 
2.75; tail 2.60; bill 0.90; tarsus 0.95. Florida; a local race. 
T. 1. berlan/dieri. (To Dr. Louis Berlandier.) Trxan Wren. Similar: smaller; length 
5.25; wing 2.25; tail 2.12. Coloration darker than in typical ludovicianus, especially below; 
flanks as well as crissum barred with dusky; tail-bars broken up into irregular nebulation. 
Valley of the Rio Grande; a local race. 
T. be'wicki. (To Thomas Bewick.) BrEwick’s Wren. Above, dark grayish-brown; 
below, ashy-white, with a brownish wash on the flanks. Rump with concealed whitish spots. 
A long whitish superciliary stripe from nostrils to nape. Under tail-coverts dark-barred; two 
middle tail-feathers like back, with numerous fine black bars; others black with whitish 


72. 


73. 


23. 


74. 


15. 


24. 


76. 


278 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PASSERES — OSCINES. 


markings on the outer webs and tips. Length about 5.50; extent 6.75; wing 2.00-2.12; 
tail 2.35; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.75. Eastern U.S., southerly, N. to the Middle States and 
Minnesota. Not very common in the Atlantic States, but so abundant as to replace the house 
wren in some parts of the interior. Nest in holes in trees, stumps, fences, ete.; eggs white, 
finely dotted and spotted, resembling those of Catherpes or Salpinctes. 

T. b. leucogas’ter. ((Gr. Aevkos, leukos, white; yaornp, gaster, belly.) WHITE-BELLIED 
Wren. Above, uniform clear ashy-brown; below, clear ashy-white; pure white on the 
iniddle parts. A long, strong, white superciliary stripe; auriculars speckled with white. Con- 
cealed white spots on the rump. Quills of the wings fuscous, the inner feathers very obsoletely 
waved with the color of the back. Two middle tail-feathers closely barred with pure dark ash 
and black; others black, with irregular white or ashy-white tips, the outer web of the exterior 
feather barred with white. Length 5.50-5.75 inches; extent 6.75; wing 2.00-2.33; tail 
2.25-2.50 ; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.75. Southwestern U. 8.; a well-marked geographical race. 

T. b. spilu'‘rus? (Gr. omidos, spilos, spotted ; odpa, oura, tail.) SPECKLED-TAILED WREN. 
Similar to No. 71, and scarcely distinguishable ; bill said to be longer, 0.60. Pacifie Coast. 
TROGLO'DYTES. (Gr. rpwydoditns, troglodutes, a cave-dweller.) House Wrens. Of 
small size; no decided superciliary line. Upper parts not uniform in color, the back more or 
less distinctly barred crosswise ; wings, tail, and flanks fully barred crosswise ; tail about equal 
to wing in length, the outstretched feet scarcely or not reaching beyond its end. Eggs colored. 
T. domes'ticus. (Lat. domesticus, domestic; domus, a house.) Eastern Housrt Wren. 
Brown, brighter behind; below rusty-brown, or grayish-brown, or even grayish-white ; every- 
where waved with darker shade, very plainly on wings, tail, flanks, and under tail-coverts; breast 
apt to be darker than either throat or belly ; bill shorter than head, about 0.50; wings and tail 
nearly equal, about 2.00, but ranging from 1.90 to 2.10; total length 4.50-5.25, averaging about 
4.90; extent about 6.75. Exposed portion of Ist primary about one-half as long as longest 
primary. Eastern U.S., N. to Canada, W. to Dakota; very abundant anywhere in shrubbery, 
gardens, and about dwellings, where its active, sprightly, and fearless demeanor, together with 
its hearty trilling song, bring it into friendly notoriety. Nest of any trash in a hole of a build- 
ing, fence, tree, or stump; eggs 6-9, 0.65 x 0.55, profusely and uniformly studded with minute 
points of brown, often rendering an almost uniform color; two or three broods each season. 
Resident in the South, migratory farther north. 

T. d. park'mani. (To Dr. Geo. Parkman, of Boston.) Western Houss Wren. Brown 
above, little brighter on rump, nearly everywhere waved with dusky, strongest on wings and 
tail, but usually appreciable on the whole back. Below brownish-white, nearly white on belly, 
obscurely variegated with darker markings, which, on the flanks and crissum, become stronger 
bars, alternating with brown and whitish ones. Bill blackish above, pale below ; feet brown. 
Length 5.00-5.25 ; extent 6.75; wing and tail about 2.10. Exposed portion of 1st primary 
about one-half as long as 2d primary. Western U. 8., from the Plains to the Pacific, abun- 
dant, there replacing T. domesticus, to which it is so similar; but on an average paler and 
grayer, with rather longer wings and tail. 

ANORTHU'RA,. (Gr. dv, am, signifying negation ; ép66s, orthos, straight ; odpa, oura, tail. 
Fig. 147.) Winrer Wrens. Like Troglodytes proper, but tail decidedly shorter than wings, 
the outstretched feet reaching far beyond its end. Eggs colored. 

A. troglo/dytes hiema’lis. (Lat. hiemalis, wintry; liems, winter. Fig. 150.) WINTER WREN. 
Above brown, darker before, brighter behind, most of back, together with tail and inner wing- 
quills, banded with dusky, the markings obsolete on the back, where usually accompanied by 
whitish specks, strongest on the wings and tail. Outer webs of several primaries regularly 
barred with brownish-white, in marked contrast with the other bars of the wings. An incon- 
spicuous whitish superciliary line. Below brownish, paler or whitish anteriorly, the belly, 
flanks, and crissum heavily waved with dusky and whitish bars. Bill slender, straight, decidedly 


17. 


78. 


25. 


79. 


80. 


TROGLODYTIDA — TROGLODYTIN4A: TRUE WRENS. 279 


shorter than the head. Tail much shorter than the wings. Length 3.90-4.10; extent 6.00- 
6.50; wing 1.75; tail 1.25; bill 0.40; tarsus, middle toe, and claw together, about 1.12. 
N. Am. at large, common, migratory, breed- 
ing from New England and corresponding 
latitudes northward, wintering in the U.&., 
the strict representative of the European 
wren. Nest of twigs, moss, lichens, hair, 
feathers, etc., usually in a stump or log 
close to the ground; eggs 5-8, 0.65 x 0.48, 
pure white, minutely dotted with reddish- 
brown and purplish. A sly, secretive little 
bird, less often seen than other wrens no less 


common ; voice strong and highly musical. 
A. t. paci/ficus? (Lat. pacificus, pacific, Fra. 150.— Winter Wren, little reduced. (Baird’s 
peace-making; pax and facio; alluding to figure ofc atasce sts.) 
“the stilly sea.”) WrsTeRN Winter Wren. Like the last; darker, in lack of the 
whitish specks of the upper parts, and whitish bars on outer webs of the primaries; but 
very slightly distinguished. Pacific Coast region. 
A. t. alascen'sis. (Of Alaska.) ALASKAN WINTER WRreEN. Like the common species in 
form and coloration; larger; size of a house wren; wing 2.00-2.20; tail 1.50; tarsus 0.75; 
tarsus, middle toe, and claw together 1.40; bill 0.65. Culmen, gape, and gonys almost per- 
fectly straight, latter slightly ascending. Aleutian and Pribylov Islands, Alaska. Well dis- 
tinguished from the common form, and nearer the Japanese A. fumigatus. 
TELMATODYTES. (Gr. réAua, telma, a swamp; dvrns, dutes, an inhabitant.) Marsa 
Wrens. Small. Upper parts not uniform; back streaked lengthwise with white in a black 
patch ; flanks scarcely or not barred; crown plain; bill about two-thirds as long as head. 
Eggs dark. 
T. palus’tris. (Lat. palustris, marshy ; palus, a marsh. Fig. 151.) LonG-BrnLEp Mars 
Wren. Above clear brown, unbarred, the middle of the back with a large black patch sharply 
streaked with white (these white stripes sometimes de- 
ficient). Crown of head usually darker than the back, 
often quite blackish, and continuous with the black inter- 
scapular patch. A dull white superciliary line. Wings 
fuscous, the inner secondaries blackish on the outer webs, 
often barred or indented with light brown. Tail evenly 
barred with fuscous and the color of the back. Under 
parts white, usually quite pure on the belly and middle 
: line of the breast and throat, but much shaded with 
Fic. 151. —Long-billed Marsh Wren, brown on the sides, flanks, and crissum. Bill blackish 
Ratreiver (Ad nat dels BeC.) above, pale below; feet brown. Length about 5.00; 
extent 6.50; wing 1.75-2.00; tail about the same; Dill 0.50 or more; tarsus 0.66-0.75. 
Temperate N. Am.; Greenland. Breeds throughout its range, and winters in the Southern 
States; an abundant bird, colonizing reedy swamps and marshes in large numbers, its great 
globular nests of plaited rushes, with a hole in the side, being affixed to the swaying herbage ; 
eggs 6-10, 0.58 X 0.45, very dark-colored, being so thickly dotted with chocolate-brown as to 
appear almost uniformly of this color. 
T. p. paludi’cola? (Lat. paludicola, a marsh-inhabiter; patus and colo, I cultivate.) Tuit 
MarsH Wren. Scarcely recognizable as distinct; bill said to be shorter, and tail and its 
coverts more distinctly barred. Pacific Coast. 


26. 


81. 


280 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


CISTOTHO'RUS. (Gr. kioros, kistos, a shrub; Oodpos, thouros, leaping.) Marsu Wrens. 
Like Telmatodytes; whole back and crown streaked with white. Bill scarcely or not one-half 
as long as head. Eggs white. 
C, stella’ris. (Lat. stellaris, starry; i.e., speckled. Fig. 152.) SHort-BILLED Marsu WREN. 
Upper parts brown, the crown and most of the back blackish, streaked with white. Below, 
whitish, shaded with clear brown across the breast and along 
the sides, and especially on the flanks and crissum, the latter 
more or less indistinetly barred with dusky (often inappreci- 
able). A whitish line over the eye. Wings and tail marked 
as in the last species. Upper tail-coverts decidedly barred. 
Bill blackish above, whitish below, extremely small, scarcely 
half as long as the head; feet brown. Length 4.50; extent 
Z 5.75-6.00 ; wing and tail each about 1.75; bill 0.35-0.40; 
Fic. 152.— Short-billed Marsh tarsus, middle toe, and claw together, about 1.12. The streak- 
Wren, nat. size. (Ad nat.del.E.C.) ing of the head and that of the back are usually separated 
by a plain nuchal interval; but these are as often run together, the whole bird above being 
streaked with whitish and blackish upon a brown ground. The wings, tail, and entire under 
parts are much like those of 7. palustris, from which the species is distinguished by the mark- 
ings of the upper parts and extremely short bill. Chiefly Eastern U. 8. and adjoining British 
Provinces; W. to Utah. Migratory; winters in the Southern States. Frequents marshy 
places like 7. palustris, but is not common. Nesting different, and eggs white. 


7. Family ALAUDIDZ: Larks. 


A rather small group, well defined by the character of the feet, in adaptation to terrestrial 
life. The subcylindrical tarsi are scutellate and blunt behind as in front, with a deep groove 
along the inner side, and a slight one, or none, on the outer face. That is to say, there is an 
anomalous structure of the tarsal envelope; the tarsus being covered with two series of scu- 
tella, one lapping around in front, the other around behind, the two meeting along a groove on 
the inner face of the tarsus, which is consequently blunt behind as well as in front. There is a 
simple suture of the two series of plates on the outer face of the tarsus; the individual plates 
of each series alternate. Other characters (shared by some Motacillide) are the very long, 
straight, hind claw, which equals or exceeds its digit in length ; the long, pointed wings, with 
the lst primary spurious or apparently wanting, and the inner secondaries (‘‘tertiaries”) 
lengthened and flowing. The nostrils are usually concealed by dense tufts of antrorse feathers. 
The shape of the bill is not diagnostic, being sometimes short, stout and conic, mach as in 
some Fringillide, while in other cases it is slenderer, and more like that of insectivorous 
Passeres, The family is composed, nominally, of a hundred species ; with the exception of one 
genus and two or three species or varieties, it is confined to the Old World. Its systematic 
position is open to question; some place it at the end of the Oscine series, or remove it from 
Oscines altogether, on account of the peculiarities of the podotheca; authors generally place it 
near the Fringillide, from the resemblance of the bill of some species to that of some finches ; 
but it has many relationships with Motacillide, and, in the arrangement of this work, I find no 
better place for it than here, though it has no special affinity with the preceding families. 
Moreover, the fact that it appears to have indifferently 9 or 10 primaries may indicate a natural 
position between the sets of families in which number of primaries is among the diagnostic 
features. The musical apparatus is certainly well developed, as testified by the eminent vocal 
powers of the celebrated sky-lark of Europe. The unpractised reader must be careful not to 
confound the larks proper with certain birds loosely called ‘‘larks”; thus the titlarks, or pipits, 
though sharing the lengthened, straightened hind claw and elongated inner wing-quills of 


27. 


82. 


ALAUDIDA —CALANDRITINA): SHORE LARKS. 281 


Alaudide, belong to an entirely different family, the Motacillide ; while the American field- 
lark is one of the Icteride, much further removed. 

According to shape of bill, structure of nostrils, and apparent number of primaries, the 
family may be divided into two subfainilies, the dlaudine, typitied by the celebrated sky-lark 
of Europe, and the Calandritine, of which the well-known horned lark is a typical representa- 
tive. Both of these occur in North America ; 
the Alauda, however, only as a straggler from 
Europe. 

CALANDRITINE, Without evident spurious Ist primary, 
the primaries apparently only 9. 

ALAUDIN-Z, With spurious lst primary, the primaries 
therefore evidently 10. 


ft. Subfamily CALANDRITINA: 
Shore Larks. 


Represented in Ainerica by the single genus 
Eremophita, of which there are nominally teu, 


Fic. 153. — Shore Lark, much reduced. (From Ten- really four or five species, one of which cecurs 
ney, after Baird.) in North America. 
EREMO'PHILA. (Gr. épijpos, eremos, a desert; pro, phileo, I love.) Hornep Larks. 
Primaries apparently only 9 (no obvious spurious Ist primary). Point of the wing formed 
by the first 3 developed primaries. Inner secondaries elongated. Tail of medium length, 
nearly even, the middle pair of feathers different in shape and color from the rest. Bill com- 
pressed-conoid, acute, shorter than head. Nostrils completely concealed by dense tufts of 
antrorse feathers. Head not crested, but a peculiar tuft of feathers over each ear, somewhat 
like the so-called ‘“‘ horns” of soine owls. Feet of ordinary alandine characters, as already 
given. Coloration peculiar in the presence of yellowish tints and strong black bars on the 
head and breast. The birds of this genus frequent open places, are strictly terrestrial in habits, 
and never hop when on the ground, like most Passeres ; they are migratory in most localities, 
and gregarious, except when breeding ; nest on the ground, and lay 4-5 speckled eggs; siug 
sweetly in the spring time. 
E. alpes'tris. (Lat. alpestris, alpine. Figs. 153, 154.) Hornep or SHore Lark. ¢ 2, 
adult, in breeding plumage: Upper parts in general pinkish-brown, this pinkish or vinaceous 
or liliaceous tint brightest onthe nape, lesser wing- 
coverts, and tail-coverts, the rest of the upper parts 
being duller and more grayish-brown, boldly variegated 
with dark brown streaks; middle pair of tail-feathers 
and several of the inner secondaries rufous-brown, with 
darker centres. Under parts, from the breast backward, 
white; the sides strongly washed with the color of the 
upper parts, and mottling of same across the lower part 
of the breast. A large, distinct, shield-shaped black 
area on the breast. Tail-feathers, except the middle 
pair, black, the outermost edged with whitish. Wing- 
quills, except the innermost, plain fuscous, the outer 
web of the 1st primary whitish. Lesser wing-coverts Fia. 154. — Shore Lark, nat. size, (Ad 
usually tipped with grayish-white. Top of head like Mat del. Bee) 
nape; bar across front of vertex, thence extended along sides of crown, and produced into a 
tuft or ‘‘ horn,” black ; front and line over eye, also somewhat produced to form part of the 
tuft, white or yellowish ; a broad bar from nostrils along the lores, thence curving below the 
eye and widening as it descends in front of the auriculars, black ; rest of the sides of the head 


282 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


and whole throat white or sulphury-yellow. Bill plumbeous-blackish, bluish-plumbeous at 
base below (sometimes there yellowish) ; feet and claws black; iris brown. Leugth of @, 
7.00-7.50 ; extent 13.00-14.00; wing 4.25-4.50; tail 2.75-3.00; bill, from extreme base of 
culmen, 0.40-0.50 ; tarsus 0.88-0.90; middle toe and claw rather less; hind claw about 0.50, 
usually longer than its digit, but very variable. Q commonly smaller than the ¢; length 
6.75-7.25 ; extent 12.75-13.25; wing about 4.00, ete. @ @, adult, in winter: As usually 
seen in most of the United States in the fall, winter, and early spring, differ from the above in 
more sordid coloration of the upper parts, which may be simply grayish-brown, heavily streaked 
with dusky, even on the crown, with little or none of the ‘‘ pinkish” tints; and in lack or re- 
striction of the black markings of the head and breast, or their being veiled with whitish tips 
of the individual feathers ; nevertheless, the sulphury tinge of the white parts about the head is 
usually very conspicuous. Fledglings have the upper parts dusky, mixed with some yellowish- 
brown, and spriukled all over with whitish or light tawny dots, each feather having a terminal 
speck. Most of the wing- and tail-feathers have rusty, tawny, or whitish edging and tipping. 
The under parts are white, mottled with the colors of the upper parts along the sides and across 
the back; no traces of definite black markings about the head and breast, nor any yellow 
tinge. Bill and feet pale or yellowish. This peculiar speckled stage is of brief duration; with 
an early autumnal change, a dress, little if at ail different from that of the adults in winter, is 
acquired. Nesting begins very early in April, or even in March, sometimes before the snow is 
gone, and frequently other broods are reared through the summer; nest of grasses, etc., sunken 
in the ground; eggs very variable in tone, but always profusely and heavily marked with 
brownish-gray or dark stone-gray upon a grayish or greenish-white ground; in some cases 
the whole surface nearly uniform. Northern hemisphere at large; in America, chietly north- 
ern and eastern parts, breeding from the Northern States northward, common in flocks in the 
U.S. in winter; chiefly replaced in the West by the following varicties. 

83. E. a. leucolee’/ma. (Gr. Nev«ds, leukos, white; Aauuods, laimos, throat.) WrsTERN SHoRE 
Larx. Size of the foregoing. General coloration extremely pale — brownish-gray, the 
peculiar pinkish tint of certain parts sharing the geueral pallor. Black markings on head and 
breast much restricted in extent, and white surroundings correspondingly increased — thus, the 
black post-frontal bar scarcely or not broader than the white of the forehead. No yellow about 
head, excepting usually a slight tinge on the chin. Changes of plumage parallel with those 
already given; even the nestlings show the same decided pallor. Prairies of Western U. S., 
breeding everywhere north of about 40°; very abundant. 

84, E. a. chrysole/ma. (Gr. ypiveos, chruseos, golden; Aampéds, laimos, throat.) SouTH-wEST- 
ERN SHore Lark. Smaller than the foregoing: ¢ with the wing scarcely or not 4.00, and 

aaa oe other dimensions to correspond; a very small 

; specimen, probably 9, has the wing only 3.50; 

in another, marked @, it is 3.75. The “ pink- 

ish” tinge intensified into cinnamon-brown, and 
pervading nearly all the upper parts; yellow of 
head intensified ; black markings very heavy, — 
the black on the crown widened to oceupy more 
than half the cap, reducing the white frontlet to 

a mere trace. Southwestern U. §. and Mexico, 

breeding mostly south of 40°; abundant. 


{2. Subfamily ALAUDINA: Sky-Larks. 
S Represented in America by one species, a 
Fig. 155.— Sky-Lark, reduced. (From Dixon.) — straggler from the Old World. Fig. 155. 

28, ALAU/DA. (Lat. alauda, a lark; supposed Celtic al, high, and aud, song.) SKy-LARKS. 


85. 


MOTACILLIDZ): WAGTAILS AND PIPITS. 283 


Primaries 10, the spurious lst primary minute but evident. Head subecrested, but without 
lateral ear-tufts. Wings long, pointed, the tip formed by the first 3 developed primaries ; 
inner secondaries long and flowing. Tail emarginate, little more than half as long as wing. 
Tarsus equal to middle toe and claw. Lateral toes of unequal lengths. Sexes alike. Nest on 
the ground. Eggs 4-5, thickly speckled. 

A. arven’sis. (Lat. arvensis, relating to arable land; arvum, a ploughed field.) Sky Lark. 
Upper parts grayish-brown, the feathers with darker centres; under parts whitish, tinged 
with buff across breast and along sides, and there streaked with dusky; a pale superciliary 
line ; wings with much whitish edging; outer tail-feather mostly white, the next one or two 
with white borders. Length of @ 7.50; extent 14.75; wing about 4.00; tail 2.50; bill 
0.50; tarsus or middle toe and claw 1.00; hind toe 0.45, its claw up to nearly 1.00. 9 
smaller. This celebrated bird, whose music so often inspires the poet, occurs as a straggler 
from Europe in Greenland, and also, it is said, in Bermuda and Alaska. It has also been im- 
ported and turned out in this country, where it may perhaps become naturalized. 


8. Family MOTACILLIDA:: Wagtails and Pipits. 


Bill shorter than the head, very 
slender, straight, acute, notched at 
tip. Nostrils not concealed by 
feathers, which however reach into 
the nasal fosse. Rictus not nota 
bly bristled. Primaries 9, of which 
the 1st is about as long as the 2d, 
and the first 3, 4, or 5, form the 
point; inner secondaries enlarged, 
the longest one nearly or quite 
equalling the primaries in the closed 
wing. Tail lengthened, averaging 
about equal to the wing. Feet 
long and slender ; tarsus scutellate, 
usually longer than the middle toe 
and claw; inner toe cleft to the 
very base, but basal joint of outer 
toe soldered with the middle one; 
hind toe bearing a long and little 
eurved claw (except in Motacilla 
proper). A pretty well-defined 
group of one hundred, chiefly Old 
World, species, which may be 


e > W =e a) Ve © thta 
Fi. 156.— Upper, White Wagtail ; lower, Yellow Wagtail, termed terrestrial Sylvias, all liv- 
(From Dixon.) ing mostly on the ground, where 


they run with facility, never hopping like most Oscines. They are usually gregarious; are 
insectivorous and migratory. They have gained their name from the characteristic habit of 
moving the tail with a peculiar see-saw motion, as if they were using it to balance themselves 
upon unsteady footing. They may be distinguished from all the foregoing birds, except 
Alaudide, by having only 9 primaries; from all the following Oscines, by having long flowing 
inner secondaries; and from Alaudide, with which they agree in this respect, as well as in 
usually having a lengthened, straightish hind claw, by having the tarsal envelope as in 
Oseines generally, slender bill, and exposed nostrils. Two subfamilies are generally recog- 
nized, though the distinctions are searcely more than generic. 


284 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES. 


Analysis of Subfamilies and Genera. 
MOoraciLuin&. Point of wing formed by first 3 primaries. Tail longer or not obviously shorter than wings, with 
narrow tapering feathers. Hind claw variable in length and curvature. Coloration black and white, or 


yellow and greenish. 
Tail decidedly longer than wings, doubly emarginate. Hind claw of ordinary length and curvature. 


Colors black, ashy, and white, in masses . . . . . . Motacilla 29 
Tail, if anything, shorter than wings, oe even. “Wind cline lansthenad, anal ste aightened. Colors 
yellow and green, in masses . . . . 1 . . Budytes 30 


ANTHINA. Point of wing formed by first 4 or  Syprimariea: "Tail decidedly hortae than wings, its feathers not 
tapering. Hind claw lengthened and straightened. Coloration brownish, the under parts streaked, upper 
usually also variegated. 

Tarsus not shorter (rather longer) than hind toe and claw. Tail moderately shorter than wing, the 


outstretched feet not reaching beyonditsend . .. . - . . .Anthus 31 
Tarsus shorter than hind toe and claw. Tail only about ty70- thirds as Silone: as wing, the outstr etched 
feetiréaching beyond its:énd! 3 4 6 wn ee we we a ew ws Weocorys: 932 


(3. Subfamily MOTACILLINA:: Wagtails. 


Represented in America by two species; in the Old World by nearly fifty species or vari- 
eties, chiefly belonging to the genus Motacilla and its subdivisions or immediate allies, of 
which Budytes is one, forming a perfect connecting link between Motacilla proper and the 
Anthine. 

29. MOTACIU'LA. (Lat. mota-cilla, wag-tail; name of some small bird.) Wuitr WaGTAILs. 
Tail much longer than wings, of 12 narrow, weak, tapering or almost linear feathers. First 
3 primaries about equal and longest; longest secondary (when full grown) about reaching 
their ends when the wing is closed; these flowing secondaries narrow and tapering. Tarsi long 
and slender; lateral toes of about equal lengths; hind claw not particularly lengthened or 
straightened ; with its digit much shorter than the tarsus. Form remarkably lithe and slender; 
coloration black, ashy, and white, in large masses. 

86. M. al’/ba. (Lat. alba, white. Fig. 156.) Waits Wacrar. ¢, in summer: Head black, 
with a broad mask of white across forehead and along sides; the black extending on the fore- 
breast ; wings blackish, with much white edging and tipping of the quills and greater coverts ; 
tail black, the two lateral feathers on each side mostly white; back and sides ashy ; lower 
parts mostly white; bill and feet black. In winter the black more restricted, that on the fore 
breast forming a crescent spot. Q similar, the black still more restricted, in part replaced by 
gray. Young, gray above, grayish-white below, with a gray or blackish crescent on the 
fore neck. Length about 7.25; wing 3.25; tail 3.75; tarsus 0.90; hind toe and claw 0.60 ; 
bill 0.50. A species of wide distribution in Europe and Asia, occasional in Greenland. 

86a. M. ocula‘ris. (Lat. ocwlaris, ocular.) Stprrtan Waaraiu. Larger, and with a black eye- 
stripe in the white mask. Occurs at Plover Bay, East Siberia, and may be expected across 
Behring’s Straits. (Not in the Check List, 1882; since found in California.) 

80. BU/DYTES. (Gr. Bovdvrns, boudutes, some small bird.) YELLOW Waartain. Characters of 
Motacilla ; tail shorter, not exceeding the wing in length ; hind claw lengthened and straightish; 
hind toe and claw nearly as long as the tarsus. Coloration chiefly yellow and greenish. 

87. B. flavus? (Lat. flavus, yellow. Figs. 157,156.) Yeruow Waatar. BLUE-HEADED 
QUAKE-TAIL. Adult: Above, yellowish-green ;_ below, rich 
yellow, shaded with greenish on the sides, and bleaching on 
the chin. Top and sides of head bluish-gray, enclosing a long 
white superciliary stripe; a dusky stripe from corner of mouth 
through eye to ear-coverts. Quills of the wing dusky, the 
lesser coverts edged with the color of the back; median and 
greater coverts showing whitish wing-bars, and inner second- 
aries edged with the same. Tail dusky, the middle feathers 


Fic. 157. -—- Yellow Wagtail, i 
nearly nat. size. (After Baird.) edged with the color of the back; the outer two on each side 


31. 


88. 


MOTACILLIDAi— ANTHIN: PIPITS, OR TITLARKS. 285 


mostly white. Bill and feet black. Length about 6.50; wing 3.00; tail about 2.75; bill 0.50; 
tarsus 0.90; hind toe and claw 0.65. A protean species of extensive dispersion in Europe and 
Asia, occurring abundantly in Alaska; there 1s some uncertainty to what form the Aimerican 
bird strictly belongs. It is that with the whole side of the head, below the white stripe, slaty- 
blackish, and some dusky markings on breast; doubtless some Asiatic sub-species (taivanus 
Swinh.?) 


14. Subfamily ANTHINA:: Pipits, or Titlarks. 


In these, the tail is shorter than the wings, 
and composed of broader feathers retaining their 
width to near the end; 4 or 5 primaries usually 
form the point of the wing; the tarsi are rela- 
tively shorter, usually about equal to the middle 
toe; the lateral toes are longer, the points of 
their claws reaching beyond the base of the mid- 
dle claw; the hind claw is always lengthened 

. and straightened (as in the figure beyond given 
of Anthus ludovicianus) ; and the coloration is 
° ‘‘nigeled,” that is to say, broken up in streaks 
Fic. 158.— Meadow Pipit. (From Dixon.) and spots. The species of Anthine make up 
nearly or about half the family; they are chiefly referable to the genus Anthus, of which, 
however, there are several subdivisions. In typical Anthus, the wing is longer than the tail, 
and its point is formed by the outer 4 primaries, the 5th being abruptly shorter; the hind 
claw is nearly straight, and nearly or quite equals its digit in length. Neocorys only differs in 
having the feet larger and tail shorter. In certain 8. Am. forms, Pediocorys and Notiocorys, 
the wing is more rounded, and 4 or even 5 primaries enter into the tip of the wing; in 
several European subgenera only 3 primaries are abruptly longer than the succeeding ones. 
Our Anthus is strictly congeneric with the European A. spinoletta, type of the genus. About 
fifty species (among them six or eight Central and South American ones) are ascribed to 
Anthine. They are terrestrial and more or less gregarious birds, migratory and insectivorous. 
AN'THUS. (Gr. dv6os, anthos, Lat. anthus, a kind of bird.) Prprrs. Bill shorter than head, 
about as wide as high at base, compressed in most of its extent, acute at tip, where distinctly 
notched ; culmen slightly concave between base and terminal convexity ; rictus slightly bristled. 
Wings longer than tail, tipped by the first 4 primaries, 5th abruptly shorter. Tarsi not 
shorter or rather longer than the hind toe and claw; inner lateral toe rather longer than the 
outer, or the two about equal. Tail extending beyond the end of the outstretched feet. 


Markings of upper parts distinct, and shade of under parts greenishin. . . ... . . . . pratensis 88 
Markings of upper parts obscure, and shade of under partsbuffyin . . .... . . . . ladovicianus 89 
A. praten’sis. (Lat. pratensis, relating to pratum, a meadow. Fig. 158.) Mrapow Prpir. 
Upper parts pale greenish-brown, distinctly marked with blackish-brown centres of the feath- 
ers; wing-quills and coverts clove-brown, edged with greenish-gray. Tail-feathers dark 
brown, edged with the greenish shade of the back, the outer one obliquely white for nearly half 


its length, and others with white at the end. Cheeks olivaceous, speckled with dusky. Under 


parts brownish-white with a tinge of green, marked on the breast and sides with brownish- 
black streaks running forward as a maxillary chain; chin, belly, and under tail-coverts un- 
marked. Bill dusky above and at end, the rest livid flesh-color; feet obscure flesh-color ; iris 
blackish. Length about 6.00; extent 9.50; wing 3.00; tail 2.50; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.75. 
Europe; North American as occurring in Greenland, and also, it is said, in Alaska. I have 
seen Alaskan Pipits, certainly not ludovicianus, and apparently pratensis; but too young and 
in too bad condition tu furnish decisive characters. 


286 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


A. ludovicia/nus. (Lat. of Louisiana; Ludovicus, Louis. Fig. 159.) Lourstana Piprr. 
American Tirtark. Brown Lark. Waaertait. Upper parts dark brown with an olive 
shade, most of the feathers with dusky centres, giving an obscure 
streaky or nebulous appearance; eyelids, superciliary line, and all 
under parts brownish-white, or pale buffy or ochrey brown, very 
variable in shade from muddy white to rich buff, the breast and sides 
of the body and neck thickly streaked with dusky ; wings and tail 
blackish, the inner secondaries pale-edged, and 1-3 outer tail-feathers 
white wholly or in part. Bill blackish, pale at base below; feet brown. 
Length 6.25-6.75, sometimes 7.00; extent 10.25-11.00; wing 3.25- 
3.50; tail 2.75-3.00; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.90. N. Am., everywhere ; 
an abundant and well-known bird of fields and plains ; migratory; in 
Fic. 159.—Titlark, nat. the U.S. seen chiefly in flocks in fall, winter, and early spring; 
size. (Adnat.del. E.C.) — Jyyeeds in high latitudes, and in the Rocky Mts. above timber line 
as far south as Colorado; lays 4-6 very dark-colored eggs, 0.80 x 0.60, in a mossy or grassy 
nest on the ground; voice querulous, gait tremulous, flight vacillating. 
NEO/CORYS. (Gr. véos, neos, new; xopus, horus, a helmet, and hence applied to a kind of 
crested lark.) Sky Prpirs. Characters of Anthus, from which little distinguished by the 
shorter aud more nearly even tail and larger feet, which when outstretched reach beyond the 
eud of the tail; tarsus shorter than hind toe and claw. Colors clearer and markings more dis- 
tiuct than in Anthus ludovicianus ; more as in some European species of Anthus. 
N. spra’guii. (To Isaac Sprague, of Mass.) Spracur’s Prerr. Missourr Tiruark. 
Above, variegated with numerous streaks of dark brown and gray, in largest pattern on the 
back, smallest on the nape, the gray constituting the edging of the feathers. Below, dull whit- 
ish, more or less brownish-shaded across the breast and along the sides; the breast sharply 


streaked, the sides less distinctly so, with dusky; a more or less evident series of maxillary 
spots. Quills dark grayish-brown; the inner ones, and the wing-coverts, edged with grayish- 
white, corresponding to the pattern of the back. Middle tail-feathers like the back; next ones 
blackish-brown, the two outer pair wholly or mostly pure white, the 3d pair from the outside 
usually touched with white near the end. With reduction of the gray edgings of the feathers 
of the upper parts by wearing away in summer, the bird becomes darker above, with narrower 
and sharper variegation, and the pectoral streaks are fainter. Bill blackish above; below, 
like the fect, pale flesh-color; iris black. After the fall moalt the colors again become pure ; 
the streaking of the upper parts is strong and sharp, and the under parts acquire a ruddy-brown 
shade. Young: Edgings of the feathers of the upper parts buffy, giving a rich complexion to 
the plumage; feathers of back with pure white edging, forming conspicuous semicircular mark- 
ings; greater wing-coverts and long inner secondaries broadly tipped with white, and prima- 
ries broadly edged and tipped with white or buff Ear-coverts butty-brown, forming a more 
couspicuous patch than in the adult. Under parts strongly tinged, except on throat and middle 
of belly, with buffy-brown, the pectoral and lateral streaks large and diffused. Sexes indistin- 
guishable ; Q rather smaller than g. Length 6.25-6.75, rarely 7.00; extent 10.00-11.00, 
generally about 10.50, rarely 11.50; wing 3.00-3.30; tail 2.25-2.40; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.80- 
0.90; middle toe and claw 0.90; hind toe and claw nearly 1.00, the claw alone about 0.50. 
Central portions of the U. 8., and adjoining British Provinces, from the eastern edge of the 
high central plains to the Rocky Mts., from the valleys of the Red River of the North and 
of the Saskatchewan to Texas; breeding in profusion in Dakota and Montana; nest on the 
ground, of fine dried grasses, sometimes arched over; eggs 4-5, 0.90 x 0.60, grayish-white 
minutely flecked with darker, giving a purplish cast. General habits and manners of titlarks; 
but soaring flight when singing, and the song itself, having all the qualities which have made 
the European skylark famous, and being no less worthy of celebration in poetry. 


SYLVICOLIDA): AMERICAN WARBLERS. 287 


9. Family SYLVICOLID: American Warblers. 


Primaries, nine; rec- 
trices, twelve; tarsi scu- 
tellate ; inner secondaries 
not enlarged, nor hind toe 
lengthened and straight- 
ened, as in the two pre- 
ceding families; bill with- 
out a lobe or tooth near 
the middle of the com- 
missure, as in Pyranga ; 
not strongly toothed and 
hooked at end, as in La- 
nius and Vireo (which 
may have ten primarics), 
nor greatly flattened with 
gape reaching to eyes, as in 
f Hirundimda, nor strictly 
Fia. 160. — Black-throated Green Warbler, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) conical with angulated 


commissure, as in Fringillide. The family presents such a number of minor modifications 
of form, that it seems impossible to characterize it, except negatively ; in fact, it has never been 
satisfactorily defined. But doubtless the student will be able to assure himself that his speci- 
men is a sylvicoline, by its not showing the peculiarities of our other nine-primaried Oscines. 
All the sylvicolas are small birds; excepting Icteria, and perhaps a species of Svwrus, not 
one is over six inches long, and they hardly average over five. With few exceptions they 
are beautifully clothed in variegated colors; but the sexes are generally unlike, and the changes 
of plumage, with age and season of the year, are usually strongly marked, so that different 
specimens of the same species may bear to each other but little resemblance ; this of course 
renders careful discrimination necessary. The usual shape of the bill may be called conoid- 
elongate (something like a slender minié bullet in miniature), but the variations in precise 
shape are endless. The rictus is usually bristled; the bristles sometimes have an extraordi- 
nary development, and are sometimes wanting. The wings are longer than the tail, except 
in Geothlypis, Icteria, and one or two exotic genera; neither the wing nor tail ever presents 
striking forms; the head is never crested. The feet have no special peculiarities, though 
they show some slight modifications corresponding to somewhat terrestrial, or more strictly 
arboricole, habits. The nidification is endlessly varied, more or less artistic or artless nests 
being built in trees, bushes, holes, or on the ground. Musical proficiency might be expected 
from the agreeably suggestive name of the family, but as a rule the ‘‘ warbler’s” singing is 
rather ‘‘ quaint and curious” than very skilfully modulated or highly melodious, —to which 
statement, however, there is signal exception to be taken, as in the case of the Siuri. Some of 
the warblers have the habits of titmice or wrens; others of creepers or nuthatches; the Sire 
closely resemble the titlarks in some respects, and have even been placed in the Motacillide ; 
while the Setophagine simulate the Tyrannide (of a different suborder) so perfectly that they 
used to be classed with these clamatorial flycatchers. The warblers grade so perfectly toward 
the tanagers that they have all been made a subfamily of Tanagride (where possibly they 
belong). The affinity of some of them with the Cwrebide, or honey-creepers of the tropies, is 
so close that the dividing line has not been drawn. The position of Icteria and its two asso- 
ciate exotic genera, Granatellus and Teretristis, is open to question; perhaps they come nearer 
Vireonide. It is probable that final critical study will result in a remapping of the whole 


288 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


group; meanwhile, the very diversity of forms included in it enables us to mark off sections 
with ease. 

This is the second largest family of North American birds, the F’ringillide alone surpass- 
ing it in number of species. If not exactly ‘‘ representative,” in a technical sense, of the Old 
World Sylviine, it may be considered to replace that family in America, having much the 
same réle in bird-economy; both families abound in species and individuals; they are small, 
migratory, insectivorous, and everywhere take prominent part in the make-up of the bird-fauna. 
There are upward of a hundred species of Sylvicolida, distributed over the whole of North and 
Middle America, and much of South America. The centre of abundance of the Setophagine, 
or flycatching warblers, is in the warmer parts of America; comparatively few species reach 
the United States, and only two or three are extensively dispersed in this country. On the 
other hand, the Sylvicoline are more particularly birds of North America; very few of the 
species are confined to Middle or South America; and Dendreca, the leading type of this group, 
is the largest, most beautiful, and most attractive genus of North American birds, preéminently 
characteristic of this country. The warblers have we always with us, all in their own good 
time; they come out of the South, pass on, return, and are away again, their appearance and 
withdrawal scarcely less than a mystery ; many stay with us all summer long, and some brave 
the winters in our midst. Some of these slight creatures, guided by unerring instinct, travel 
true to the meridian in the hours of darkness, slipping past ‘like a thief in the night,” stoop- 
ing at day-break from their lofty flights to rest and recruit for the next stage of the journey. 
Others pass more leisurely from tree to tree, in a ceaseless tide of migration, gleaning as they 
go; the hardier males, in full song and plumage, lead the way for the weaker females and the 
yearlings. With tireless industry do the warblers befriend the human race; their unconscious 
zeal plays due part in the nice adjustment of Nature’s forces, helping to bring about that bal- 
ance of vegetable and insect life without which agriculture would be in vain. They visit the 
orchard when the apple and pear, the peach, plum, and cherry are in bloom, seeming to revel 
carelessly amid the sweet-scented and delicately-tinted blossoms, but never faltering in their 
good work. They peer into the crevices of the bark, scrutinize each leaf, and explore the very 
heart of the buds, to detect, drag forth, and destroy those tiny creatures, singly insignificant, 
collectively a scourge, which prey upon the hopes of the fruit-grower, and which, if undisturbed, 
would bring his care to nought. Some warblers flit incessantly in the terminal foliage of the 
tallest trees; others hug close to the scored trunks and gnarled boughs of the forest kings; 
some peep from the thicket, the coppice, the impenetrable mantle of shrubbery that decks tiny 
water-courses, playing at hide-and-seek with all comers; others more humble still descend to 
the ground, where they glide with pretty mincing steps and affected turning of the head this 
way and that, their delicate flesh-tinted feet just stirring the layer of withered leaves with 
which a past season carpeted the ground. We may seek warblers everywhere in their season ; 
we shall find them a continual surprise; all mood and circumstance is theirs. 

As at present constituted, the Sylvicolide, comprising upwards of a hundred good species, 
inay be divided into three subfamilies, the characters of which, given more at length beyond, 
may here be shortly contrasted : — 

Analysis of Subfamilies. 


Sylvicoline. — Wings longer than tail (except in Geothlypis) ; bill conical, slender; commissure slightly 
curved, with short bristles or none. Size moderate. 

Icteriine, — Wings shorter than tail ; bill compressed, high, very stout ; commissure much curved, with- 
out any bristles ; size very large. 

Setophagine. — Wings longer than tail; bill broad, flattened ; commissure slightly curved, with bristles 
reaching far beyond the nostrils. 


Artificial Key to the Genera of Sylvicolide. 


Length 7.00 inches or more . wpe Mat Nes ees er eee se ee es | Lecteria 43 
Length 5.50 inches or more and tail-feathers plain . 2. 6 1 ee ew ee ew ew ww we Siurus 40 
Length under 5.50 or tail-feathers not plain. 


SYLVICOLIDA — SYLVICOLINA!: TRUE WARBLERS. 289 


Wing shorter than tail, orequaland headashy . . . 1. 1 ee ee we ee ew ee « Geothlypis 42 
Wing longer than tail, or equal and head not ashy 
Tarsus shorter than middle toeandclaw . . . 1... ee ee ee ee we ee ee Mniotilia 33 


Tarsus not shorter than middle toe and claw. 
Rictal bristles evidently reaching far beyond nostrils. 
Tail black and orange, or black and white, or dark and yellow . . . . . . . . Setophaga 46 
Tail ashy edged with white, and head withred . . . . ~~... .. . . . Cardellina 45 
Tail greenish, unmarked, or with white blotches . . . ..... Myiodioctes 44 
Rictal bristles evidently not reaching far beyond nostrils, or not evident at all. 
Tail-feathers all unmarked. 
Bill at least 0.50 inches long, very acute ; 4 black stripes on head, ornone . Helmintherus 36 
Bill not 0,50 inches long. 
Wing over 2.50 inches ; bill not acute; bright yellow below, or head ashy . Oporornis 41 
Wing not over 2.50 inches ; bill very acute ; nobristles . . . . . . Helminthophila 37 
Tail-feathers blotched with white, or yellow on inner webs. 
Rictal bristles not evident. 


Bill not 0.50 inch long; whole fore parts not yellow . . . . . . . Helminthophila 37 

Bill at least 0.50 inch long ; whole fore parts yellow . . . . . . . . Protonotaria 
Rictal bristles very evident. 

Back blue with gold spot, throat and legs yellow... ...... . . Parula 

Head orange-brown with black bar througheye. . .... . . . . Peucedramus 38 

Coloration otherwise . 2. 2. 6 2 6 6 ee ee ee ee ee ee ee Dendrecca 39 


Diagnostics or Characteristics of some of the Genera of Sylvicolide. 


Genera Mniotilta, Parula, and Peucedramus are creeping warblers, with certain slight modifications of the 
feet, enabling them to scramble about the trees much like creepers or nuthatches. 

Genera Geothlypis and Oporornis are ground warblers, with the feet modified in adaptation to terrestrial 
life. Genus Siwrus is similar in this respect ; the species wa/k on the ground, and act in some respects like Mota- 
cillines. 

Genera Protonotaria, Helmintherus, and Helminthophila are ‘‘ worm-eating”’ warblers (the old genus Ver- 
mivora), with slight rictal bristles or none. 

Genera Setophaga, Cardellina, and Myiodioctes are jly-catching warblers, with strongly bristled bill and 
muscicapine habits, in some respects like species of Tyrannide. 

Genus J/cteria is isolated by its peculiarities of form and habits, and great size for this family. 

Genus Dendreca comprehends the wood warblers par excellence, —the largest genus, with over twenty 
species. 

Bix :— Peculiarly stout, high, and compressed in Jcteria ;— flattish, and strongly bristled in Setophaga, 
Cardellina and Myiodioctes ;— large, with straightish outlines, scarcely or not bristled, and very acute in Pro- 
tonotaria and Helmintherus ;— small, unbristled, and very acute in Helminthophila. 

FEET : — Tarsus longest, slenderest, and usually pale-tinted in the ground warblers ; — shortest in the creep- 
ing warblers, with relatively longest toes. 

WinGs :— Shorter than the tailin Icteria and species of Geothlypis ; — about equal to the tail in species of 
Geothlypis, Siurus, Setophaga, and Cardellina ;— usually decidedly longer than the tail, 

TaiL:— The feathers (some or all) blotched with white in the following: Mniotilta, Parula, Protonotaria, 
species of Helminthophila, all Dendrace excepting D. estiva, Peucedramus, one Myiodioctes, one Setophaga. 
The feathers plain olivaceous, or otherwise like the back, unmarked, in species of Helminthophila, in Helmintherus, 
Oporornis, Geothlypis, Siurus, Icteria, species of Myiodioctes, Cardellina ; yellow and dark in one Setophaga and 
one Dendraca. 


15. Subfamily SYLVICOLINA:: True Warblers. 


Bill conoid-clongate, shorter than head, about as high as, or rather higher than wide oppo- 
site the nostrils, not hooked, and with but a slight notch, if any, at tip: commissure straight 
or slightly curved; a few rictal bristles, reaching little, if any, beyond the nostrils, or none. 
Wings pointed, usually longer than the narrow, nearly even tail. 

This beautiful group, which comprehends the great majority of the Warblers, is specially 
characteristic of North America, and reaches its highest development in the eastern portions of 
the continent, mainly through the preponderance of species of the largest genus, Dendreca. 
All the genera and most of the species of Sylvicoling are found in this country, mainly as mi- 
grants, which appear in the spring, pass the summer, and retire for the winter to Mexico, the 
West Indies, and Central or even South America; though some pass the inclement season 
within our limits, and one at least is found in winter in Northern States. 

19 


33. 


91. 


92. 


34. 


93. 


290 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


Here belong the gencra Mniotilta, Parula, Protonotaria, Helmintherus, Helminthophila, 
Peucedramus, Dendreca, Siurus, Oporornis, and Geothlypis. 
MNIOTIL/TA. (Gr. priov, mnion, moss, and riddo, tillo, I pluck, or reArés, tiltos, plucked ; 
conjectural application to the nest-building.) CREEPING WaARBLERS. Coloration entirely 
black-and-white ; tail-feathers white-blotched. Tarsus not longer than middle toe and claw; 
hind toe long, with large claw. Wings long, pointed, lst primary about as long as 2d; tail 
uearly even, much shorter than wing. Bill nearly as long as head, slender, much compressed, 
with concave lateral outlines, and curved culmen and gonys, slightly notched and bristled. 
Only one good species. 
M. varfia. (Lat. varia, variegated. Fig. 161.) Buack-AND-WHITE CREEPER. 6, adult: 
Black; edges of feathers of upper parts, coronal, superciliary, and maxillary stripes, tips of 
greater and median wing-coverts, outer edges of inner second- 
aries and inner edges of quills and tail-feathers, and spots on 
inner webs of lateral tail-feathers, white; under parts mostly 
white, with black streaks on sides and crissum; bill and feet 
black. @ similar: less black in proportion to the white, being 
mostly white below. Length 5.00-5.25; extent 8.25-8.75; wing 
2.35-2.75 ; tail 2.25; bill nearly 0.50. Eastern N. Am.; N. to 
the Fur Countries; W. to Dakota; migratory ; breeds throughout 

SS its range; winters from the southern border southward. A 
Fic. 161. — Black-and-white p ? 

Creeper, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. Common bird of woodland, thicket, and swamp, geuerally seen 
E.C.) scrambling actively about the trunks and larger branches of the 
trees, rather like a nuthatch than like a creeper, the tail not being used as a prop. Nest on 
the ground, or in a stump, of bark-strips, mosses, grasses, leaves, hair, etc.; eggs 4-5, 0.70 x 
0.52, white, profusely marked with reddish and other dots. 
M. v. borea/lis? (Lat. borealis, northern; boreas, the uorth wind.) SMALL-BILLED CREEP- 
ER. Northerly specimens said to have the bill shorter and straighter. 
PA/RULA. (Lat. parula, diminutive of parus, a tit.) BLuE YELLOW-BACKED WARBLERS. 
Coloration highly variegated; tail-feathers white-blotched; back bluish, with yellowish 
spot; throat yellow, with dark spot; feet pale. Size very small—under 5.00 inches. Bill 
short, stoutish; the notch obsolete, the bristles slight though evident. Two very distinct 
species in N. Am. 
P. america/na. (Lat. of America; said to be named not for the Italian navigator, but from a 
mountain in Central America?) @, in spring: Upper parts clear ashy-blue; middle of back 
with a patch of greenish-yellow or brownish-golden. Lores dusky. A white spot on each 
eyelid. Wings blackish, crossed on the ends of the greater and middle coverts with two broad 
white bars; primaries narrowly, secondaries more broadly, edged externally with the color of 
the back, internally with white. Tail like wings, with much edging of outer webs like the 
back, the middle feathers mostly bluish; at least two outer feathers on each side with large, 
white, squarish patches on the inner web near the end, usually third feather blotched with 
white, and a white touch on fourth or even fifth feather. Chin and throat yellow, rather nar- 
rowly confined, this yellow spreading over the whole breast, but much of breast spotted or 
tinged with orange-brown, and jugulum showing even a decided blackish collar; coloration of 
this part very variable; sometimes reddish-brown markings along the sides, much as in the 
chestnut-sided warbler. Rest of under parts white. Bill above black ; below whitish or flesh- 
colored, drying yellowish. Legs pale. Length 4.50-4.75 ; extent 7.00-7.50; wing 2.10-2.30; 
tail 1.75. @, in spring: Like the g; upper parts less brightly bluish, or with slight greenish 
gloss; back-patch not so well defined ; less white on tail; white wing-bands narrower; dark 
or reddish tinting of the fore breast less decided or scarcely indicated ; the yellow itself more 
restricted. Young: Bluish of upper parts glossed over with greenish, sometimes to such extent 


D4. 


35. 


36. 


96. 


SYLVICOLIDA)— SYLVICOLINA: TRUE WARBLERS. 291 


as to obscure the dorsal patch, which is then not very different from the rest of the upper parts. 
White tail-spots smaller, generally confined to two outer feathers on each side. White wing- 
bands narrower. Edging of tail and wings tinged with greenish, like the back. Eyelids not 
spotted with white. Yellow of fore under parts pale, with little or uo indication of the dusky 
across the jugulum. White of the under parts tinged with yellowish posteriorly, and fre- 
quently showing brownish touches along the sides. Eastern U. $8. and British Provinces ; W. 
sometimes to the Rocky Mts. ; migratory ; breeds in the greater part of its N. American range, 
but chiefly northerly ; winters from Florida southward. An elegant, diminutive species, abun- 
daut in high open woods, where it is generally observed fluttering among the sinallest twigs 
and terminal foliage. Nest in trees, an elaborate woven structure of mosses and lichens; eggs 
4-5, 0.62 x 0.48, white with the usual sprinkling of reddish and other dots. 

P. nigrilo’ra. (Lat. niger, black ; lorwm, a bridle; applied to the space between eye and 
bill of a bird.) SEennEeTY’s WarsBiLer. ¢, adult: Upper parts of the same ashy-blue color 
as in P. americana, with a dorsal patch of greenish-yellow exactly as in that species. Wings 
also as in americana, dusky, with grayish-blue outer, and whitish inner, edgiugs, and crossed 
by two conspicuous white bars across tips of greater and middle coverts. Tail as in ameri- 
cana, but the white spots smaller and almost restricted to two outer feathers on each side. 
Eyelids black, without white marks. Lores broadly and intensely black, this color extending 
as a narrow frontal line to meet its fellow across base of culmen, and also reaching back to 
invade the auriculars, on which it shades through dusky to the general bluish. Under parts 
yellow as far as the middle of the belly, and a little farther on the flanks, and also spreading up 
the sides of the jaw to involve part of the mandibular and malar region; on the fore breast 
deepening into rich orange, but showing nothing of the orange-chestnut and blackish of P. 
americana. Lower belly, flanks and crissum white. Bill black above, yellow below. Legs 
undefinable light horn-color. Length about 4.50; wing 2.00-2.20; tail 1.80-1.90; bill 
from nostril 0.38-0.40; tarsus 0.62-0.65; middle toe alone 0.40. Texas. Another little 
exquisite, recently added to our fauna; quite distinct from, though resembling, P. americana; 
coming nearer P. pitiayumi, a Mexican species. 

PROTONOTA’RIA. (Low Lat. protonotarius, first notary, or seribe; why?) GoLpEN 
Swamp Warsters. Bill of great size, nearly as long as head, compressed, conic, acute, with 
slightly notched tip and scarcely bristled rictus. Wings pointed, ummarked, much longer than 
the short, nearly even, spotted tail. Tarsus equal to middle toe and claw. One species. 


- P.cit/rea. (Lat. citrea, pertaining to the citron; i.e., yellow.) PRorHonoraRy WARBLER. 


Golden-yellow, paler on the belly, changing to olivaceous on the back, thence to bluish-ashy 
on the rump, wings, and tail; most of the tail-feathers largely white on the inner webs; no 
other special markings; bill entirely black, very large, at least 0.50 long. Length about 
5.50; extent 9.25; wing 2.75-3.00; tail 2.25; tarsus 0.75. Sexes similar. In highest 
feather the yellow of the head sometimes becomes orange-red. Eastern United States, south- 
erly; north casually to Maine, New Brunswick, and Ohio; regularly to Tinois and Kansas; 
west to Indian Territory and Texas; winters extra-limital. A beautiful species, of striking 
form and colors, and sedate manners, inhabiting swamps and thickets; nest in holes, or other 
sheltered cavities in trees, stumps, and logs, of the most miscellaneous materials ; eggs 4-5, 
0.68 X 0.54, creamy white, profusely speckled. 

HELMINTHE’RUS. (Gr. dws, gen. &purdos, helmis, hebnanthos, a bug; Op, an animal; 
1. €., ApeOoOnpas, helminthotheras, a bug-hunter; like vermvora, worm-eating.) Worm- 
EATING Swamp Warsxers. Bill large, conic-acute, especially high and stout at the base, 
uearly or quite as long as head, unnotched and searcely or not bristled. Wings rather pointed, 
much longer than the little rounded tail. Tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw. Sexes 
similar; tail-feathers unmarked; legs pale. Two very distinct species. 

H. vermi'vorus. (Lat. vermivorus, worm-eating ; vermis, a worm, voro, I devour. Fig. 162.) 


97. 


37. 


292 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


Worm-rATING WARBLER. Olive, below buffy, paler or whitish on the belly; head buff, 
with four black stripes, two along sides of crown from bill to nape, one along each side of head 
through the eye; wings and tail olivaceous, unmarked; bill 
and feet pale; bill acute, unbristled, unnotched, at least 
0.50. Length 5.50; extent 8.75; wing 2.75-3.00; tail 
2.00-2.25. The distinctive head-stripes appear before the 
bird is fully fledged. Eastern U. 8., rather southerly, but 
north regularly to the Middle States, casually to Maine; 
west to Kansas, Missouri, and the Indian Territory ; breeds 

Fic. iv2.— Worm-eating Warbler, throughout its U. 8. range; winters from Florida south- 
MAGEE EG: ACC nage ec) ward; common in woods, shrubbery, and swamps; a bird 


of rather slow and sedate movements; nest on the ground, of leaves, grasses, rootlets; eggs 
4-5, crystal-white, minutely dotted with reddish-brown, 0.70 X 0.50. 

H. swain’soni. (To Win. Swainson.) Swarnson’s WARBLER. Somewhat similar to the 
last ; no black head stripes; no decided markings anywhere. Upper parts dark olive-brown, 
nearly uniform, but browner on exposed surfaces of wings and tail, and quite clear brown on the 
crown. A long light superciliary stripe. Under parts dull sordid whitish, shaded on the sides with 
the color of the back. Middle tail-feathers with obsolete wavy cross-bars. Bill brown above, 
pale below; feet pale. Large: length nearly 6.00; wing 2.75, pointed, tip formed by 1st 
-8d quills; tail 2.00, emarginate; bill of great size, 0.65 along culmen, about equalling tarsus 
in length, deep at base, with straight upper mandible rising high on forehead; thus shaped 
something like a meadow-lark’s. A rare and curious species, confined to the South Atlantic 
States. I have seen but three specimens; the description is from Audubon’s type. 
HELMINTHO'PHILA. (Gr. Apis, ApuvOos, helmis, helminthos, a bug; rea, phaleo, I 
love.) WorM-EaTInG WaARrBLERS. Bill slender and exceedingly acute, unnotched, uubristled 
(fig. 163). Wings pointed, longer than the nearly even tail, —in 
one species nearly half as long again. Tarsi longer than middle 
toe and claw. Tail-feathers in some species white-blotched, in 
others plain, — the former being otherwise of bright and variegated 
colors, the latter more simply clad. Nest on the ground or quite 
near it (excepting in the case of H. lucie); eggs white, spotted. 
To the eight established species of the genus have lately been 
added three others; but one of them is almost certainly a hybrid Fic. 163, — H. chrysoptera, 
between H. pinus and Oporornis formosa, while the other two are Bat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 
probably hybrids between H. penaus and H. chrysoptera. There has also been added a variety 
of H. celata. These are enumerated beyond, but only the eight established species are con- 
sidered in the analysis of the genus. Even with this reduction, Helminthophila is still the 
second largest genus of the subfamily. It is peculiarly North American, all the known 
species occurring in this country, some of them not being known to occur elsewhere. The 
genus may be divided according to coloration into two groups, which correspond in a general 
way with geographical distribution. Three species (H H. pinus, chrysoptera, and bachmani), 
exclusively eastern, are of variegated colors, the tail-feathers white-blotched as in Dendraca. 
In the other five the coloration is simpler; the tail-feathers are not, or not conspicuously, 
blotched with white, and all but one of these species have a crown-pateh; one of them is East- 
ern, two are Western, and two of general dispersion. 'The natural analysis of the species, and 
a shorter key to them, are subjoined; these tables should suffice to identify any adult male 
specimens, but females and young, particularly of Nos. 5, 6, 7, require detailed descriptions for 
their recognition. (In H. peregrina, with tail normally plain, the outer feather is sometimes 
distinetly white- blotched.) 


SYLVICOLIDA:— SYLVICOLINZA: TRUE WALBLERS 298 


Natural Analysis of Species. 


I. Tail-feathers conspicuously white-blotched. Wings with white or yellow on coverts. Head or breast with 
black. All exclusively Eastern. 
1. Bluish-ash, below white ; crown and wing-bars yellow ; throat and stripe on side of head black 
chrysoptera 102 
2. Olive-green ; wings and tail bluish- ash, former with white or yellow bars ; crown and under 
parts yellow; lores black . . . pinus 98 
8. Olive-green, below yellow ; throat, breast, and deer patch black ; forehiedd wellow  Beclamuni 103 
Tl. Tail-feathers inconspicuously or not blotched with white. No decided wing-markings. No black anywhere. 
a. Crown without colored patch. Wings about half as long again as tail. 
4, Tail with obscure whitish spot on outer feather; under parts white or whitish; upper parts 
olive-green, brighter behind, quite ashy in front. Chiefly Eastern. 2... . . peregrina 109 
b. Crown with colored patch. Wings shorter. 
5, Crown-patch orange-brown ; tail unmarked; upper parts olive-green, under parts yreenish- 


yellow, both nearly uniform. Western and incompletely Eastern . . . . . celata 107, 108 

. Crown-patch chestnut ; tail unmarked ; upper parts olive-green, growing ashy on head ; under 
parts uniformly yellow, Eastern and incompletely Western. . . te: rufieapilla 106 

7. Crown-patch chestnut; tail unmarked; above olivaceous-ash, below whitish ; ; Tump and under 
tail-coverts bright yellow ; breast yellowish. Western. . . 2. virginia 105 

§. Crown-patch and upper tail-coverts chestnut ; outer tail- feather ‘with, dull white 
patch ; above pale cinereous, below white. Southwestern. © . . 6 6 ee ee ee lucia 104 
Pass-key to the Species. 

Tail-feathers white-blotched — bluish, crown yellow, throat black... 2. 1 1 ee)» . chrysoptera 102 
— greenish, crown and all under parts yellow. . . . . . 2 7s - pinus 9% 
— greenish, crown (partly) and throat black . . . . 1... : bachmani 103 
—upper tail-coverts chestnut, crown-patch chestnut. . . . . + + lucie 104 
Tai)-feathers all unmarked — upper tail-coverts— yellow; crown-patch chestuut . . . . . . virginie 105 
—not yellow ; crown-pateh—chestnut. . . ruficapilla 106 
—orange-brown . celata 107, 108 
—wanting . . . peregrina 109 


98. H. pimus. (Lat. pinus, a pine-tree.) BrLur-wincrep YELLow Warpier. 4, adult: 
Fore part of crown and entire under parts rich yellow; upper parts yellow-olive, becoming 
slaty-blue on the wings and tail (system of coloration thus like that of Protonotaria). Wings 
with two white or yellowish bars; tail with several large white blotches; under tail-coverts 
white; eyelids bright yellow; small stripe through eye black ; bill blue-black. Female and 
young not very dissimilar ; duller and more olivaceous. Length about 4.75; extent 7.50 ; 
wing 2.40-2.50; tail 2.00-2.10; tarsus 0.65; bill 0.45. Eastern United States, north to 
Massachusetts and Minnesota, west to Kansas, Indian Territory, and Texas; common, migra- 
tory, breeding in its United States range, wintering extralimital. Nest on the ground, eggs 
4-5, 0.67 x 0.48, white, sprinkled with reddish-brown dots. 

99. H. lawren’cii? (To Geo. N. Lawrence, of N. Y.) LAwrencr’s WARBLER. Like Z. 
pinus ; but a large black patch on the throat and breast, and broad black eye-stripe, reaching 
over auriculars, as in H. chrysoptera ; thus pinus X chrysoptera, and doubtless a hybrid 
between the two. New Jersey; two specimens noted to date. 

100. H. leucobronchia/lis? (Gr. Aeuxds, leucos, white, Bpdyxos, brogchos, becoming bronchus, 
throat.) WHITE-THROATED WARBLER. Like H. chrysoptera; but a black bar through the 
eye as in pinus, and lacking the black breast-patch of chrysoptera, the entire under parts being 
white; thus chrysoptera X pimus, and doubtless a hybrid between the two, though up to date a 
dozen or more specimens have been described, from New England, New York, Pennsylvania, 
and Michigan. 

101. H. cincinnatien’sis? (Of Cincinnati, Ohio, where discovered.) CINCINNATI WARBLER. 
Like H. pinus in color; bill with evident rictal bristles; no white wing-bars or tail-blotches ; 
no ashy-blue on wings or tail; concealed black on crown and sides of head like the incom- 
pleted black mask of Oporornis formosa, with which the bird otherwise closely agrees in color ; 
thus curiously being H. pinus x O. formosa. Length 4.75; wing 2.50; tail 1.85; bill 0.44. 
One specimen known, Ohio. 


102. 


103. 


104. 


105. 


106. 


294 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES. 


H. chrysop’tera. (Gr. ypuads, chrusos, golden, and wrepdy, pteron, wing.) BLUE GOLDEN- 
WINGED WARBLER. , adult: Upper parts slaty-blue, or fine bluish-gray; crown, and large 
wing-patch formed by confluent wing-bars, rich yellow; a broad stripe on side of head and 
patch on chin, throat and fore-breast, black, the eye-stripe bordered above and below with 
white; under parts generally, excepting the black breast-plate, white, often tinted with yellow- 
ish, and shaded on the sides with ashy. Exposed surfaces of wings and tail like upper parts; 
great white blotches on three lateral tail-feathers; bill black; feet dark. @ and immature 
specimens have the back more or less glossed with yellowish-olive ; the yellow of the crown 
obseured with greenish; the black eye-stripe and breast-plate veiled with gray tips of the 
feathers, or not at all evident. Size of H. pinus. A beautiful species, common in Eastern 
United States and Canada; migratory, breeding anywhere in its United States range; nest and 
eggs like those of H. pinus. 

H. bach’mani. (To Rey. John Bachman, of 8. C.) BacumMan’s WARBLER. ¢ : Upper 
parts yellowish-olive, including sides of head and neck, tinged with ashy on the hind head; 
forehead and under parts bright yellow: a band on the vertex separating yellow front from 
ashy occiput, and the throat and fore breast, black, this breast-plate isolated in yellow sur- 
roundings. Wings dusky, glossed with the color of the back on all the exposed surface. 
Two or three outer tail-feathers white-blotehed. Small; length 4.50; wing 2.35; tail 2.00. 
South Atlantic States, extremely rare, only kuown to occur in South Carolina, Georgia, and 
Cuba. 

H. lucie. (To Miss Luey Baird, daughter of Prof. 8. F. Baird.) Lucy’s Warsier. 
& Q, adult: Clear ashy-gray. Beneath white, with a faint tinge of buff on the breast. A 
rich chestnut patch on the erown, and upper tail-coverts of the same color. A white eye-ring. 
Quills and tail-feathers edged with the color of the back or whitish. Lateral tail-feather with 
an obscure whitish patch. Lining of wing white. Feet dull leaden-olive. Iris dark brown 
or black. Length 4.33-4.66; extent 7.00-7.50; wing 2.50; tail 1.75-2.00; tarsus 
0.66; bill 0.25-0.33. Young: Lack the chestnut of the crown, though that of the rump is 
present. The throat and breast are milk-white, without the ochrey tinge of the adults; the 
wing-coverts are edged with pale rufous. The chestnut upper tail-coverts, and absence of any 


trace of olivaceous or yellowish coloration, distinguish this interesting species, the general 
superficial aspect of which is quite like that of a Polioptila. Valley of the Colorado and Gila; 
not yet known except from Arizona. The exceptional nidifieation of this species of the genus 
(An. Nat., vi, 1872, p. 493) has been confirmed: nest in crevice behind bark of a tree or bush, 
such as a wren might select; eggs 4, not peculiar, being white dotted with reddish. 

H. virgin‘ie. (To Mrs. Virginia Anderson, wife of the discoverer.) VIRGINIA’S WARBLER. 
&, in summer: Ashy-plumbeous, alike on the back, and top and sides of head. Below dull 
whitish, the sides shaded with ashy. Lining and edge of wings white. Upper and under 
tail-coverts, and isolated spot on the breast, yellow, in strong contrast with all surroundings. 
A white ring round eye. Wings and tail without yellowish edgings. Crown with a chestnut 
pateh, as in H. ruficapilla. Length 4.75; extent 7.50; wing 2.25-2.50; tail 2.25. 9, in 
summer: The yellow duller and slightly tinged with greenish ; that of the breast, and the 
chestnut of the crown, more restricted. Autumnal specimens resemble the Q ; but in both 
sexes the plumbeous of the upper parts has a slight olive shade, and in birds of the year the 
crown-pateh may be wanting. Southern Rocky Mt. Region; north to Colorado, Nevada, and 
Utah at least. Nests on the ground, like others of the genus; eggs indistinguishable from 
those of allied species. 

H. ruficapil'la. (Lat. rufus, rufous; capillus, hair.) NASHVILLE WARBLER. 4, in sum- 
mer: Upper parts olive-green or yellowish-olive, clearer and brighter on the rump and upper 
tail-coverts. Top and sides of the head and neck ashy, with a veiled chestnut patch on the 
crown, and a white ring round the eye. No superciliary stripe. Lores pale. Wings and tail 


107. 


108. 


109. 


SYLVICOLIDA' — SYLVICOLINA): TRUE WARBLERS. 295 


fuscous, edged with the color of the back. Entire under parts yellow, including under wing- 
coverts and edge of the wing, the sides shaded with olive. Length 4.50-4.75 ; extent 7.50; 
wing 2.33-2.50; tail 1.75-2.00. 9, in summer: Similar. Head less purely ashy. Crown- 
patch smaller and more hidden, if not wanting. Yellow of under parts paler, whitening on the 
belly. Autumnal specimens, of both sexes, though quite as yellow below as in summer, have 
the ash of the head glossed over with olivaceous, and in birds of the year the crown-patch may 
be entirely wanting. This species is distinguished by the rich clear yellow of the under parts 
at all seasons. In H. celata, which is next most yellow below, the color has a greenish cast ; 
the head is little, if any, different from the rest of the upper parts, and the crown-patch is 
orange-brown. Temperate North America, but especially the Eastern Province; west only 
rarely to Utah, Nevada, and even California. A common bird, migratory in most of its U. 8. 
range, but breeding in New England (and farther south in alpine regions) and thence north- 
ward. Nest on the ground, like the others, and eggs not peculiar. 

HI. cela/ta. (Lat. celata, concealed, as is the orange on the crown.) ORANGE-CROWNED 
WarsBLer. ¢ @, in summer: Upper parts olive, duller and washed with grayish towara 
and on the head, brighter and more yellowish on the rump and upper tail-coverts. Beneath 
greenish-white, palest on the belly and throat, more olive-shaded on the sides; the color not 
pure, but rather streaky, and having in places a grayish cast. Wings and tail edged with the 
color of the back ; lining of the wings like the belly, and inner edges of tail-feathers whitish. 
Orbital ring and lores yellowish. An orange-brown patch on the crown, partially concealed, 
smaller and more hidden in the Q than in the ¢. Length 4.80-5.20; extent 7.40-7.75 ; wing 
2.30-2.50. Resembling the last, and often difficult to distinguish in immature plumage; but a 
general oliveness and yellowness, compared with the ashy of some parts of ruficapilla, and the 
diilcrent color of the crown-patch in the two species, will usually be diagnostic. The sexes of 
this species scarcely differ, and young or autumnal birds are very similar to the adults, except 
the frequent or usual absence of the orange-brown crown-spot in birds of the year. The 
species is well distinguished from all its allies by the color of the crown-patch. North America 
at large, but especially the Western and Middle regions; rare or oceasional in the Eastern 
Province ; north to high latitudes in British America and Alaska; migratory; breeds in Arctic 
regions and in alpine localities further south ; nest and eggs not peculiar. 

H. ¢. lutes/cens. (Lat. ldtescens, growing yellowish.) Pactric ORANGE-CROWNED WAR- 
BLER. Differs in being much more richly colored. It may be described simply as olive-green 
above, and greenish-yellow, shaded with olive on the sides, below, without any of the qualify- 
ing terms required for precision in the case of typical celata. Pacifie Coast region, Alaska to 
Lower California. 

H. peregri/na. (Lat. peregrina, wandering, alien, foreign; i. e., migratory.) TENNESSEE 
Warsier. , adult: Upper parts yellowish-olive, brightest posteriorly ; on the fore parts 
and head changing to pure ash, without any greenish tint whatever. No crown-patch of any 
different color. Lores, eye-ring, or frequently a decided superciliary stripe, whitish. Entire 
under parts dull white, scarcely or not tinged with yellowish. Wings and tail dusky, strongly 
edged with the color of the back, the outer tail-feathers frequently with an obscure whitish 
spot. Bill and feet dark. Length 4.50-4.75, rarely to 5.00; extent 7.50-8.00 ; wing about 
2.75, thus long for the size of the bird, and especially in comparison with the short tail, pointed, 
with little difference in length between the first three or four quills; tail only 2.00 or less, thus 
remarkably short; the comparative length of wings and tail, with other characters, probably 
always distinguishes the species from the foregoing. @Q, adult: Quite like the 6, but ashy of 
the head less pure and clear, and under parts more or less tinged with greenish-yellow. 
Young: Entire upper parts strongly and uniformly yellowish-olive, like the rump of the adult 
$, or even brighter, this color also tinging the eye-ring and superciliary stripe. Under parts 
as in the adult 9, or more decidedly greenish-yellow, leaving only the belly and crissum whit- 


38. 


110. 


39, 


296 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


ish. In this condition specimens more closely resemble some other species than when adult ; 
but the short tail, long wings, and no crown-pateh, should be distinctive. Chiefly Eastern 
North America, but west to the Upper Missouri region and in Colorado to the Rocky Mts. ; 
common, especially in the Mississippi Valley, but less so in the Atlantic States; migratory ; 
breeds in New England and the northern tier of States, and thence to high latitudes in British 
America; nest and eggs as in other species of the genus. 

PEUCE/DRAMUS. (Gr. mevkn, peuke, a pine, and dpapeiy, to run.) OLIVE WARBLERS. 
General aspect of Dendreca. Tongue much as in that genus, but larger, with revolute edges, 
cleft tip, and laciniate fur some distance from the end. Wings elongated, half as long again 
as the tail (in Dendreca but little longer than the tail), reaching, when folded, nearly to the 
end of the tail. Tail emarginate. Tarsus no longer than the middle toe and claw. Hallux 
little if any longer than its claw. Bill little shorter than tarsus (averaging little over half the 
tarsus in Dendreca), attenuate, notably depressed, yet very little widened at base. Culmen 
rather concave than convex in most of its length, the under outline almost perfectly straight 
from extreme base to tip. Nasal fossee very large, with a highly developed nasal scale. Rie- 
tal vibrissee few and short. Plumage without streaks. One species known. 

P. oliva’ceus. (Lat. olivaceus, olivaceous in color; oliva, an olive.) OLIVE WARBLER. 
&: Upper parts ashy, more or less olivaceous, changing to greenish on the nape. Head and 
neck all around orange-brown or intense saffron-yellow, with a broad black bar on the side of 
the head through the eye. Wings blackish, the inner webs of all the quills edged with white, 
the outer webs of most of the primaries with whitish, and the outer webs of the secondaries 
with greenish ; most of the primaries also marked with white on the outer webs at base, form- 
ing a conspicuous spot (only seen elsewhere in D. cwrulescens, which is altogether different in 
other characters). Tail like the wings, with greenish edging of most of the feathers, the two 
outer ones on each side mostly or wholly white. Belly and sides whitish, tinged with olive or 
brownish. Basal half of under mandible ight brown. Length 4.75-5.25; extent §.25-9.00; 
wing 2.75-3.10; tail 2.25-2.55; bill 0.55; tarsus 0.75. The female is described as having 
the saffron color much clearer yellowish, and shaded with olive-green on the crown; the black 
bar replaced by whitish, excepting a dusky patch on the auriculars. A remarkable Mexican 
warbler, lately ascertained to inhabit Arizona, especially in mountainous localities; probably 
also Texas and New Mexico. It has much the habits of the pine-creeper; the nest and eggs 
are still unknown. 

DENDRE'CA. (Gr. devdpor, dendron, a tree, and oixéw, oikeo, I inhabit.) Woop WARBLERS. 
Bill variable in shape, usually conico-attenuate, more or less depressed at base, compressed 
from the middle, notched near the tip, not showing the extreme acuteness of that of Helmin- 
therus, Helminthophila, and Protonotaria. Rictus with obvious bristles, which are not evi- 
dent in the true ‘‘ worm-eating” warblers. Tarsus longer than the middle toe and claw (it is 
shorter, or not longer, in Mniotilta). Hind toe little if any longer than its claw (decidedly 
longer in Mniotilta and Parula). Wings much longer than tail, pointed, 1st and 2d primaries 
longest. Tail moderate, with rather broad feathers, nearly even, but varying to slightly 
rounded, or with slight central emargination. Pattern of coloration indeterminate. Tail always 
with white blotches (except in @stiva and its immediate allies, where the inner webs are 
yellow), never plain olivaceous. Crown never with lateral black stripes, nor under parts 
uniformly streaked with blackish on a pale ground, nor back with a yellow patch, nor whole 
head yellow. Length usually five or six inches; rarely under and perhaps never over these 
dimensions. Nest in bushes or trees, with rare exceptions. Eggs white, spotted. It is not 
easy to frame a definition of this genus covering all its modifications, yet introducing no term 
inapplicable to any species; but the foregoing expressions considered collectively, however 
arbitrary or trivial some of them may seem to be, will serve to distinguish any Dendreca from 
its allies of other genera; and, if so, the diagnosis is exclusively pertinent to the group as con- 


SYLVICOLIDAE — SYLVICOLINA): TRUE WARBLERS. 297 


ventionally accepted. The coloration of the rectrices is a good clue to this genus; for all the 
species (excepting D. estiva and its exotic conspecies) have the tail-feathers always blotched 
with white, —a feature only shown, among North American allies, in Miotilta, Parula, Pro- 
tonotaria, Peucedramus, and some species of Helminthophila, Mytodioctes. There is as much 
uniformity in the nest and eggs of Dendreca as in those of Helminthophila. Whereas all 
these nest on the ground, as far as known all the Dendrece nest in trees and bushes, with the 
single exception of D. palmarwm. Excepting D. castanea, the eggs are essentially similar ; 
all being white, variously speckled, dotted, or blotched with shades of reddish and darker 
brown, and lilac or purplish shell-spots. About thirty-five species are current, but not all of 
them are well established; they all occur within our limits excepting these: pityophila 
(Cuba), adelaide (Perto Rico), pharetra (Jamaica), eoa (Jamaica), aureola (Galapagoes), 
capitalis (Barbadoes), and petechia (West Indies) with its several tropical forms, all like our 
astiva. Of the twenty-six species which have been ascribed to North America, one, olivacea, 
has since been nade type of the genus Peucedramus; while of ‘‘ montana” and ‘ carbonata” 
nothing is now known: leaving twenty-three species to be treated, nearly as in the original 
edition of the Key, there having been but one North American accession to the genus since 
1872, though two varieties (respectively of dominica and of palmarum) have meanwhile been 
described. D. tigrina has been made type of a genus Perissoglossa ; but it remains to be seen 
whether other warblers do not possess the same peculiarities of the tongue. The followiug 
artificial analysis will facilitate the determination of our twenty-three established species; I 
believe it to be an infallible key to the perfect male plumages, and that it will probably hold 
good for spring specimens of both sexes of many species; but it will fail for nearly all autumnal 
aud most female specimens of (b). It is difficult if not impossible to meet the varied require- 
ments of these by rigid analysis; and recourse must be had to the detailed descriptions of the 
species arranged in what seems to be their natural sequence. The supplementary table of cer- 
tain diagnostic marks may prove of much assistance, though it is not a complete analysis. 


Analysis of perfect Spring Males. 


Tail-feathers edged with yellow; head — yellow... ...... 2... 2.2... . . . @stiva 11 
—chestnut .... ig: ea es UMetTOb: Tle 
Tail-feathers blotched with white ; a white spot at the base of] primaries. . . . . . . . ca@rulescens 117 
—no white spot at base of primaries. (2) 
(a) Wing-bars not white. Below, white, sides chestnut-streaked, crown yellow. . . . . . pennsylvanica 124 
— yellow ; sides reddish-streaked, crown reddish . . . . . palmarum 132, 133 
—black-streaked; above, ashy. . . . . . . . . kirtlandi 131 
— olive, reddish-streaked . . discolor 127 
(a) Wing-bars white (sometimes fused into one large white patch). (b) 
(b) Crown blue, like the back ; below white, sides and breast streaked. . ... ... . . . caerulea 118 
— chestnut, like the throat ; below, and sides of neck, buffy-tinged . . . . . . . . . castanea 123 
— clear ash ; rump and under parts yellow, breast and sides black-streaked . . . . . . maculosa 125 
— blackish, with median line orange-brown, like the auriculars ; rump yellow . . . . . . tigrina 126 
— perfectly black ; throat black ; a small yellow ioralspot . . . ..... . =. =. .migrescens 116 
—not black; no yellow; feet flesh-color . . . . ..... . . striata 122 
—with yellow spot ; throat flame-color; rump not yellow. . . . oe ee. . . bVlackburne 121 
— white ; rump and sides of breast yellow . 1. 4 ew 2 He ee eoronata. 119 
— yellow ; rump and sides of breast yellow. . . . . . . . . a@uduboni 120 
(b) Crown otherwise ; throat black; back ashy, streaked, rump ash, crown yellow . . . . occidentalis 113 
— blackish, rump black, crown blackish . . . . . . chrysoparia 115 
—olive; crownlikeback . . ........ 2.4... virens 112 
—notlikeback. . . ..... . . . . townsendi 114 
— yellow; back olive ; no black or ashy onhead . . . . oe ee ¥ Spinws 134 
—ashy-blue; cheeks the same ; eyelids yellow i 2.4 4 = -Ordete. 128: 
—black ; eyelids white . . . . .dominica 129, 130 


Diagnostic marks of certain Warblers in any plumage. 
Wing-bars and belly yellow . . Bo. Saree AP ae Ge Gk ae oa eo as . . . discolor 127 
Wings and tail dusky, edged with valine Blas Se Gaelad Ue eta, aes OH RN eed ted safes or vieilloti 111 or 1lla 


Wing-bars yellow, and belly pure white . ....... 5. ee ee ee aae pennsylvanica 124 


111. 


Illa. 


112. 


298 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 
A yellow spot in front of the eye and nowhereelse . . . . . . 1... 1 es + es +. nigrescens 116 
A white spot at base of primaries (almost never wanting) . ..... =. . + . e@rulescens 117 
Throat definitely yellow, belly white, back with no greenish . . .. - abminiea or gracie, 129, 130, or 128 
Rump, sides of breast, crown and throat, more or less yellow . . . . . - s+ + + + + « @uduboni 120 
Bill extremely acute, perceptibly curved ; rump (generally) yellow . . . . . .. . . . . . tigrina 126 
Rump, sides of breast, and crown more or less yellow ; throat white . .... .. =. . . coronata 119 
Wing-bars white, tail-spots oblique, at end of two outer feathersonly . . . . . . . . . . «© .pinus 134 
Tail-spots at middle of nearly all the feathers, rump and belly yellow. . . . . . . «. . . maculosa 125 
Wing-bars brownish, tail-spots square, at end of two outer feathers only. . . . . palmarum 132, 133 
Wing-bars not very conspicuous, whole under parts yellow, back with no areenish - « « . « Kirtland 131 
Tail-spots at end of nearly all the feathers, and no definite yellow anywhere. . . . . cerulea 118 
Throat, breast, and sides black or with black traces, sides of head with diffuse yellow, outer tail-feather 
white-edged externally . . . . . . virens and its western allies 112, 113, 114, 115 
Throat yellow or orange, crown with at least a feate of. a central yellow or orange spot, and outer tail- 
feather white-edged externally . . . a ee ee - . + blackburne 121 
Bill ordinary ; and with none of the foregoing special marks AS Ba Mer Ba str jata or castanea 122 or 123 


D. esti'va. (Lat. @stiva, summery; @stas, summer.) SUMMER WARBLER. SUMMER YEL- 
LOW-BIRD. BLUE-EYED YELLOW WARBLER. GOLDEN WARBLER. 4, adult: Golden- 
yellow; the back with a greenish tinge resulting in rich yellow-olive, the rump more yellow- 
ish; the middle of the back sometimes obsoletely streaked with darker. Crown like the under 
parts, in high plumage often tinged with orange-brown. Breast and sides, and sometimes 
most of the under parts, streaked with orange-brown. Quills and tail-feathers dusky, edged on 
both webs with yellow, the yellow occupying most of the inner webs of the tail-feathers. Bill 
plumbeous. Feet pale brown. Length 4.75-5.00; extent 7.50-7.75 ; wing 2.50; tail 2.00. 
¢@, adult: Yellow-olive of upper parts extending on the crown; streaks below obsolete or 
entirely wanting. General coloration paler. Young: Like the 9, but still duller colored. 
Upper parts, including crown, pale olive, with an ochrey instead of clear yellow shade ; 
below ochrey-white or dull pale yellowish. Edgings of wings and tail dull yellowish. North 
America, everywhere in woodland, gardens, orchards, parks, and even city streets, a beautiful, 
abundant, and familiar little bird. Nests throughout its range, in fruit or shade trees, shrub- 
bery and brushwood, building a neat, compact, and durable nest of soft vegetable and animal 
substances felted together; eggs commonly 4—5, from 0.64 to 0.69 x 0.48 to 0.53, grayish- or 
greenish-white, variously dotted and blotched a reddish-brown and lilac shades. The color 
of this precious gem makes a pretty spot as it flits through the verdure of the forest or plays 
amidst the rose-tinted blossoms of the fruit-orchard ; and its sprightly song is one of the most 
familiar sounds of bird-life during the season when the year renews its youth. 

D. vieil'loti bry/anti. (To L. P. Vieillot. To Dr. Henry Bryant.) CHESTNUT-HEADED 
GoLpEN WARBLER. Belonging to the ‘‘ golden warbler” group of the genus, and resembling 
D. e@stiva in general characters. Dusky predominating over yellow on the tail-feathers ; 
tarsus about 0.72. g, adult: Whole head chestnut, well defined all around against the 
yellow ; edging of wing-coverts slight; rufous streaks of breast and sides few and narrow. 
The continental D. vieilloti, as described by Cassin in 1860, would appear to be well dis- 
tinguished among its immediate insular allies by the rufous hood which envelopes the head, 
but to be very questionably divisible into the several forms noted by Ridgway in 1874. That 
here given is described as the Mexican'race, lately ascertained to oceur at La Paz, Lower 
California. The @ is said to be indistinguishable from that of others of the golden warbler 
group. The extra-limital forms are all said to differ from the N. Am. D. estiva in having 
longer tarsi and less yellow on the tail-feathers. (Not in the Check List, 1882. See Hist. 
N. A. Birds, i, 1874, p. 217, and Pr. U. 8. Nat. Mus., iv, 1882, p. 414.) 

D. vir’ens. (Lat. virens, growing green. Fig. 160.) BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER. 
@, in spring: Back and crown clear yellow-olive ; forehead, supereiliary line, and whole sides 
of head rich yellow (in very high plumage, middle of back with dusky marks, and dusky or dark 
olive lines through eyes and auriculars, and even bordering the crown); chin, throat, and 


113. 


114. 


SLYVICOLIDA! — SYLVICOLINZE: TRUE WARBLERS. 299 


breast jet black, prolonged behind as streaks on the sides; other under parts white, usually 
yellow-tinged; wings and tail dusky, former with two white bars and much whitish edging, 
latter with outer feathers nearly all white; bill and feet blackish. @ in the fall, and @ in the 
spring: Similar, but the black restricted, interrupted, or veiled with yellow ; young similar to 
the 9, but the black still more restricted or wanting altogether, except a few streaks along 
sides. Small: Length 4.80-5.10; extent 7.60-8.00; wing 2.30-2.55; tail 2.00. Eastern 
U.S. and British Provinces, west only to the edge of the Plains; migratory, abundant; breeds 
from higher portions of the Middle States, and pleutifully from New England northward ; 
winters extralimital. This jaunty bird is one of the commonest warblers of summer in New 
England, breeding in the pineries, inJune. Nest in fork of a bough, usually at some elevation, 
of the most miscellaneous materials; eggs 4-5, 0.67 0.54, white, with the usual sprinkling 
or wreathing of brown and purplish markings. The nuptial song is very peculiar. 

D. occidenta/lis. (Lat. occidentaks, western; where the sun sets.) WrSTERN WARBLER. 
Hermir WarRBLER. 4, adult: Above, ashy-gray, tinged with olive, especially on the rump, 
and closely streaked with black ; below, white. Top and sides of head rich yellow, the former 
with transverse black markings. Central line of chin, throat, and jugulum black, ending on 
the breast with a sharp convex outline, contrasted with the adjoining white. Wings and tail 
asin virens. Bill black. Length 4.75-5.00; extent 7.75; wing 2.50-2.75; tail 2.12-2.25 ; 
tarsus 0.66-0.75 ; bill 0.40. Q, adult: Described as similar to the male, but darker gray 
above, with the yellow of the head less extended, and the throat whitish, spotted with dusky. 
Young: Upper parts olivaceous-ash, and the yellow of the top of the head overlaid with olive. 
Sides of the head pretty clear yellow, fading gradually into the white of the throat. No black 
on the throat. White of the under parts faintly brownish-tinged, and sides with obsolete 
streaks. In a September specimen the dusky olive extends over all the upper parts, tinging 
the ashy of the lower back, and reaching on the crown nearly to the bill, where it gradually 
lightens by admixture of yellow; the sides of the head are clear yellow, soiled with some 
olivaceous ; chin and throat the same, fading on the breast into the dull white of the other 
under parts; sides with obsolete streaks, and a slight grayish-olive wash. There is no black 
whatever about the head or throat, and the blackish streaks of the back are obsolete. The 
wings are twice-barred with the conspicuous white tips of the greater and median wing- 
coverts. Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, U. S. and southward; one of the several western relatives 
of D. virens. 

D. town'sendi. (To J. K. Townsend.) Townsenn’s Warnier. , adult: Entire 
upper parts yellowish-olive, rather darker than in virens, everywhere streaked with black, 
especially on the crown, where the black usually predominates; no hidden yellow on the 
crown. Side of the head bright yellow, enclosing a large black patch, constituted by the 
loral and orbital and auricular regions, in which the yellow eyelids appear. Chin, throat, 
breast, and sides part way, yellow, the jugulum black ; the sides of the breast and of the body 
streaked with black. Under wing-coverts, belly, flanks, and crissum white, the two latter 
slightly shaded and streaked with dusky. Wings crossed with two white bands, that of the 
median coverts broadest. Wings and tail fuscous, the former with pale edgings, the latter 
having two or three outer feathers largely blotched with white. Bill and feet blackish horn- 
color. Length about 5.00; extent 7.50-8.00; wing 2.25-2.50; tail 2.00. 9: Like the &, but 
the black of the jugulum mixed with yellow (and that on the sides of the head mixed with or re- 
placed by olive?) Young: Shade of the upper parts slightly brownish, and the black streaks 
slight, obsolete, or wanting. The dark patch on the side of the head olivaceous, like the back. 
No continuous black on the jugulum. Autumnal adults show various gradations between the 
characters of the old and young. Very closely related to D. virens, of which it is the western 
representative. Adult males readily distinguished by the darker greenish upper parts, con- 
spicuously streaked, especially on the head, with black; the black cheeks and auriculars ; 


116. 


117. 


300 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


black of jugulum not reaching anteriorly to the bill, and the surrounding yellow spreading on 
the breast back of the black. Young birds not so easily discriminated ; but there are usually 
traces at least of the black streaks on the upper parts; there is no concealed yellow on the 
crown; the yellow of the under parts, quite as bright as in the adult, extends far along the 
breast, behind that part where it veils the black. Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, Alaska to Guat- 
emala; common. A straggler taken at Philadelphia. 

D. chrysopari'a. (Gr. ypuods, chrusos, golden, and raped, pareia, cheek.) GOLDEN-CHEEK- 
ED WARBLER. Prevailing color of upper parts black, usually mixed with olive-green ; sides 
of head yellow, with narrow black stripe through eye; below, with the wings and tail, as in 
virens; size of this species, and changes of plumage doubtless parallel; very closely related. 
&, in full dress: Above, jet-black from bill to tail, anteriorly narrowing to a point on the fore- 
head, with scarcely a trace of olivaceous toward and on the rump. Entire side of head and 
neck golden-yellow, reaching the bill, elsewhere enclosed in black, and enclosing a long black 
stripe through eye to side of nape, nearly cutting off a superciliary stripe from the general yel- 
lew area, which, however, is continuous on lore and side of uape. Chin, throat, and breast 
jet black, this color extending backward along the sides as heavy streaking ; narrowing ante- 
riorly where sharply defined against the yellow; other under parts, including lining of wings, 
white, squarely defined against the black of breast (the whole under parts thus as in virens). 
Wings blackish, with two broad white cross-bars, and whitish edging of the quills, especially 
the inner secondaries. Tail blackish, the outermost feather white with only a black shaft-line 
clubbed at end ; the next three pairs with decreasing white areas. Bill and feet black. Texas 
and southward ; rare, at least in collections. Nest in upright fork, preferably of a cedar, large 
for the bird, compactly felted of bark strips, fine grasses, rootlets, and slender vegetable fibres 
and cobwebs, lined copiously with hair and feathers; eggs 0.75 x 0.55, white, dotted with 
reddish-brown and lavender, and blotched with darker brown, laid in May. 

D. nigres/cens. (Lat. nigrescens, growing black. Fig. 164.) BLACK-THROATED GRAY WaR- 
BLER. ¢, adult: Above, bluish-ash, the interseapular region, and usually also the upper-tail 
coyerts, streaked with black. Below, from the breast, pure white, the 
sides streaked with black. Entire head, with chin and throat, black ; 
a sharply-defined yellow spot before the eye, a broad white stripe 
behind the eye, and a long white maxillary stripe widening behind 
froin the corner of the bill to the side of the neck. Wings fuscous, 
with much whitish edging, and crossed with two broad white bars 
on the ends of the greater and median coverts. Tail like the wings, 
the three lateral feathers mostly white, except on the outer webs, 


Fia. 164. — Black-throated : : : ! 
Gray Warbler, nat. size. (Ad the fourth with a white blotch. Bill and feet black. Size of D. 


nat. del. E. C.) townsendi. 2: Like the male, but the black of the crown mixed 


with the ashy of the back, and that of the throat veiled with white tips of the feathers. Young: 
Like the 9, but the crown almost entirely like the back, and the black of the throat still more 
hidden. Back not streaked. Less white on the tail. Bill not entirely black. Rocky Mts. to 
the Pacific, U. 8. and southward, common in woodland. Quite unlike any other species ; one 
of the five Dendrece which are normally confined to the West. 

D. cerules/cens. (Lat. corulescens, growing blue; ceruleus, blue.) BLACK-THROATED 
BLuE WARBLER. 4), in spring: Above, uniform slaty-blue, the perfect continuity of which is 
only interrupted in very high plumages, by a few black dorsal streaks; below, pure white ; 
the sides of the head to above the eyes, the chin, throat, and whole sides of the body continu- 
ously jet black ; wing-bars wanting (the coverts being black, edged with blue), but a large 
white spot at base of primaries: quill-feathers blackish, outwardly edged with bluish, the inner 
ones mostly white on their inner webs; tail with the ordinary white blotches, the central feath- 
ers edged with bluish; bill black; feet dark. Young ¢: Similar, but the blue glossed with 


118. 


119. 


SYLVICOLIDAE — SYLVICOLINA:: TRUE WARBLERN. 301 


olivaceous, and the black interrupted and restricted. Q entirely different: Dull olive-greenish, 
with faint bluish shade, below pale soiled yellowish ; but recognizable by the whete spot at base 
of primaries, which, though it may be reduced to a mere speck, is nearly always evident, at 
least on pushing aside the primary coverts ; no other wing-markings; tail-blotches small or 
obseure; feet rather pale. Size of virens. Kastern U. 5., abundant, in woodland, its range 
closely coincident with that of virens. It is, however, rather a bird of brake and burn 
than of high woods, at least in summer ; and nests in bushes, close to the ground. Eggs not 
peculiar. A beautiful bird, the ¢ with black, white and blue in masses, thus resembling uo 
other, and the olive-colored 9 as different as possible from her mate. 

D. cerwilea. (Lat. ceruleus, cerulean, sky-blue.) CrRULEAN WARBLER. AzuRE WaAR- 
BLER. @, adult: Entire upper parts sky-blue, the middle of the back streaked with black ; the 
crown usually richer and also with dark markings. Below, pure white, streaked across the 
breast and along the sides with dusky-blue—the breast-streaks inclining to form a short bar, 
sometimes interrupted in the middle. Auriculars dusky; edges of eyelids and superciliary line 
white. Wings blackish, much edged externally with the color of the back, the inner webs of 
all the quills, the outer webs of the inner secondaries, and two broad bars across the tips of the 
greater and median coverts, white. Tail black, with much exterior edging of the color of the 
back, all the feathers, except the middle pair, with small, white, subterminal spots on the inner 
webs. Length 4.00-4.50; wing 2.66; tail 2.00 or less. 9, adult: Quite different. Upper 
parts dull greenish, with more or less grayish-blue shade, the greenish brightest and purest on 
the crown. Eyelids, line over eye, and entire under parts, whitish, ore or less strongly over- 
cast with dull greenish-yellow. Wings and tail dusky, the exterior edgings of the color of the 
back ; the bars, spots, and interior edgings white, as in the g. The female is curiously sim- 
ilar to the saine sex of D. caerulescens, but in the latter the tail-spots are different ; there are no 
white wing-bars, but instead there is a small whitish spot at the base of the outer primaries. 
The autumnal plumage of the adults is said to differ in no wise from that of the spring. Young 
males are much like the adult females, but less uniformly greenish-blue above and purer white 
below, with evident blackish stripes on the interscapulars and sides of the head. The young 
female resembles the adult of that sex, but is still greener above, with little or no blue, and quite 
buffy-yeUowish below. When in full dress this is a perfect little beauty, there being something 
peculiarly tasteful and artistic in the simple contrast of the snowy-white with the delicate azure- 
blue, without any warm” color. Eastern U. 8., rarely north to New England; west some- 
times to the Rocky Mts. in the latitude of Colorado. One of the rarer species. Nest small 
and neat, in fork of a bough 20-50 feet from the ground; eggs 4, ereamy-white, heavily 
blotched with reddish-brown, 0.60 « 0.47. 

D. corona'ta. (Lat. coronata, crowned; corona, a crown. Fig. 165.) YELLOwW-RUMPED 
WARBLER. YELLOW-CROWNED WaRBLER. Myrtie Birv. @, in spring: Slaty-blue, 
streaked with black; below, white, breast and sides mostly 
black, belly, and especially throat, pure white, immaculate ; 
rump, central crown-patch, and sides of breast, sharply yellow, 
there being thus four definite yellow places; sides of head 
black; eyelids and superciliary line white; ordinary white 
wing-bars and tail-blotches; bill and feet black. g in winter, 
and 2 in summer, similar, but slate-color less pure, or quite 
brownish; young birds are quite brown above, with a few 
obscure streaks in the whitish of the under parts. It is im- 
possible to specify the endless intermediate styles; but I never __ FIG. 165.—Yellow-rumped War- 
saw a specimen without the yellow rump, and at least a trace ler, nat. size, (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 
of the other yellow marks; these points therefore are diagnostic. (The only other obscure- 
looking brownish warblers with yellow rump are maculosa and tigrina, when young. Resem- 


120. 


121. 


302 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


bles audubont, excepting in the following points: — Throat white. Breast black, mixed with 
white. Sides of the head definitely pure black; edges of eyelids, and long narrow superciliary 
line, white. Wings crossed with two broad white bars, which do not fuse into one white 
patch, owing to uarrowness or deficiency of white edging along the outer webs of the great 
coverts.) Que of the larger species. Length 5.30-5.75 ; extent §.80-9.40; wing 2.75-3.00; 
tail about 2.50. North America, but chiefly eastern; Alaska; Washington Territory; Cali- 
fornia; Arizona; U.S. rarely in summer, but during the migrations the most abundant of all 
the warblers; winters as far north as New England; scen everywhere, but is particularly 
numerous in shrubbery, along hedge-rows, in flocks, with troops of sparrows, titmice, ete. 
Breeds from northern New England northward; nest generally low in evergreens; eggs 4, 
about 0.75 X 0.55, with the usual markings. Moult double, there being a vernal as well as 
an autumnal change, the former usually effected during the spring migrations. 

D. auduboni. (To J. J. Audubon.) AvpuBon’s WARBLER. WESTERN YELLOW-RUMP. 
g, adult, in summer: Upper parts clear bluish-ash, streaked with black. A central longitudi- 
nal spot on the crown, the rump, throat, and a patch on each side of the breast, rich yellow. 
Sides of the head little darker than the upper parts; eyelids narrowly white, but no decided 
superciliary white stripe. The ash of the upper parts extending far around the sides of the 
neck. Jugulum and breast in high plumage pure black, though usually mixed with some 
grayish skirting of the feathers, or invaded by white from behind, or even touched with yellow 
here and there. Belly and under tail-coverts white, the sides streaked with black. Wings 
blackish, with gray or white edging, especially on the inner quills; the median wing-coverts 
tipped, the greater ones edged and tipped, with white, forming a great white blotch. Tail like 
the wings, the outer webs narrowly edged with gray or white, the inner webs of all the lateral 
feathers with large white blotches. Bill and feet black. One of the largest species. Length, 
5.50-5.75 ; extent, $.75-9.33 ; wing, 2.75-3.00; tail, 2.25. 9, in summer: Generally similar 
to the g. Upper parts duller and browner slate-color, with less heavy dorsal streaks ; crown- 
spot and other yellow parts paler; breast not continuously black, but variegated with black, 
white, and the color of the back. Sides only obsvuletely streaked. Eyelids scareely white, and 
cheeks hardly different from the back. White of wing-coverts mostly restricted to two bars; 
white tail-spots smaller. Both sexes in autumn and winter, and young: Upper parts quite 
brown, with obscure black marking. Yellow crown-spot concealed or wanting; yellow of 
throat, rump, and sides of breast paler and restricted. Under parts whitish, shaded on the 
sides, and usually across the breast, with a dilute tint of the color of the back, the breast and 
sides obsoletely streaked with darker. White of wing-coverts obscured with brownish. North 
Aterica, from easternmost woodland of the Rocky Mts. to the Pacific; north probably to 
Alaska ; accidental in New England; migratory, breeding northward and in Alpine regions; 
extremely abundant ; nesting in no wise peculiar. 

D. black’/burne. (To Mrs. Blackburn, an English lady.) BuAcKBURN’s WARBLER. 
Prometugus. 6, adult, in spring: Entire upper parts, including the wings and tail, black, 
the back varied with whitish, the wings with a large white speculum on the coverts and much 
white edging of the coverts, the lateral tail-feathers largely white, only a shaft-line, with 
clubbed extremity, being left blackish on the outer two or three pairs. Spot on fore part of 
crown, eyelids, line over eye spreading into a large spot behind the auriculars, with chin, 
throat, and fore breast, intense orange or flame-color. There is nothing to compare with the 
exquisite hue of this Promethean torch. Sides of head black in an irregular patch, usually 
confluent with the black streaks on the side of the breast, isolating the orange of the sides of 
the head from that of the throat, and circumscribing the orange patch below the eye. Under 
parts from the breast white, more or less tinged with orange or yellow, and whole sides streaked 
with black. Bill and feet dark. Length about 5.50; extent 8.50; wing 2.75; tail 2.00. 9, 
adult, in spring: Similar to the male in the pattern and distribution of the colors; upper 


SYLVICOLIDA — SYLVICOLIN 4: TRUE WARBLERS. 508 


parts brownish-olive, streaked with black; the fiery orange of the male not so intense, or 
merely yellow, that on the crown obscure or obsolete. White speculum of the wing resolved 
into two white bars. Sides of the head like the back, instead of black as in the male, and the 
lateral streaks duller and more blended. @ and @, adult, in autumn, are sufficiently similar 
to the respective sexes in spring, but the coloration is toned down, the fiery colors of the male 
being less intense, and the black of the back being much mixed with olivaceous, bringing 
about a close resemblance to the spring female; while the female is duller still, and more im- 
purely colored. Young: Early autumnal birds of the year of this species are very vbscure- 
looking, showing no sign of the rich coloration of the adults. Above, like the adult 9, but 
still browner, with more obsolete dusky streaking. Usually an indication of the crown-spot in 
a lightening of the part. Sides of the head like the crown, cutting off a superciliary stripe and 
the eyelids, which are ochrey-white. Whole under parts white, tinged, especially on the throat 
and breast, with yellowish, the sides with obsolete streaking. Indication of the peculiar pat- 
tern of the adults, though without their actual coloration, together with the extent of white on 
the tail-feathers, will usually suffice for the determination of the species, before any orange 
appears on the throat, after which there can be no difficulty. Chiefly Eastern N. Am. ; W., 
however, to Utah. Abundant in mixed woodland; breeds in northerly parts of its U.S. range 
and northward; winters extralimital. One of the later migrants in spring. Nests in bushes 
and low trees; eggs not peculiar. 
D. stria/ta, (Lat. striata, striped. Fig. 166.) .BLAcK-poLL WARBLER. &, adult: Back, 
rump, and upper tail-coverts grayish-olive, heavily streaked with black : whole crown pure 
glossy black. Below, pure white; a double series of black streaks 
starts from the extreme chin, and diverges to pass one on each 
side to the tail, the streaks being confluent anteriorly, discret: 
posteriorly. Side of head above the chain of streaks pure white. 
including lower eyelid. Wings dusky, the primaries with much 
greenish edging, the inner secondaries with whitish edging, the 
greater and median coverts tipped with white, forming two cross- 
bars. Tail like the wings, with rather small white spots at the 
ends of the inner webs of two or three outer feathers. Upper Fic. 166. — Black-poll War- 
mandible brownish-black; lower mandible with the feet flesh-  Dler, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E.C.) 
colored or yellowish. Length 5.25-5.75; extent 8.75-9.30; wing 2.70-2.90; tail 2.25. 9: 
Entire upper parts, including the crown, greenish-olive, with dusky streaks; below, white, 
uiuch tinged with greenish-yellow, especially anteriorly, the streaks dusky and not so sharp as 
those of the male, but still very evident. Bars and edgings of the wings greenish-white. Tail 
as in the male. Rather smaller than the male on an average. Young: Similar to the adult 
Q, but brighter and more greenish-olive above, the streakings few and chiefly confined to the 
middle of the back ; below, more or less completely tinged with greenish-yellow, the streakings 
obsolete, or entirely wanting. Under tail-coverts usually pure white. These autumnal birds 
bear an extraordinary resemblance to those of D. castanea (though the adults are so very differ- 
ent), the upper parts being, in fact, the same in both. But young castanea generally shows 
traces of the chestnut, or at least a buffy shade, quite different from the clear greenish-olive of 
striata, this tint being strongest on the flanks and under tail-coverts, just where striata is the 
most purely white. Moreover, castanea shows no streaks below, traces at least of which are 
usually observable in striata. N. Am., excepting the Western and most of the Middle Province ; 
N. to the Arctic ocean, Greenland, Alaska; west to Nebraska and Colorado. Winters extra- 
limital. Breeds from northern New England northward. Migrates late in the spring, bringing 
up the rear-guard of the Warbler hosts; when the Black-polls appear in force the collecting 
season is about over! Nests low in spruce-trees and other evergreens; eggs 5, 0.72 & 0.50, 
not peculiar. 


123. 


124. 


125. 


304 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


D. casta/‘nea, (Lat. castanea, a chestuut, in allusion to the color.) BAy-BREASTED WarR- 
BLER. 4, in spring: Back thickly streaked with black and grayish-olive ; forehead and sides 
of head black, enclosing a large deep chestnut patch ; a duller chestnut (exactly like a blue-bird’s 
breast) occupies the whole chin and throat and thence extends, more or less interrupted, along 
the entire sides of the body; rest of under parts ochrey or buffy whitish ; a similar buffy area 
behind the ears; wing-bars and tail-spots ordinary; bill and feet blackish. @, in spring: 
More olivaceous than the male, with the markings less pronounced; but always shows evideut 
chestnut coloration : and probably traces of it persist in all adult birds in the fall. The young, 
however, so closely resemble young striata, that it is sometimes impossible to distinguish then 
with certaiuty. The upper parts, in fact, are of precisely the same greenish-olive, with black 
streaks ; but there is generally a difference below —castanea being there tinged with buffy or 
ochrey, instead of the clearer pale yellowish of striata ; this shade is particularly observable on 
belly, flanks, and under tail-coverts, just where striata is whitest ; and moreover, castanea is 
usually not streaked on the sides at all. Mature spring birds vary interminably in the extent 
and intensity of the chestnut. Size of striata. Eastern N. Am., north to Hudson’s Bay, W. 
to the edge of the Plains. Winters extralimital. Migratory in most of the U.S. Breeds 
from northern New England northward. Nests moderately high in conifers, building a large 
nest of twigs, tree-moss, rootlets, fur, ete.; eggs 3-6, 0.70 0.52, blwish-green, profusely 
spotted with browns and lilae. 

D. pennsylva/nica. (Of ‘‘ Penn’s woods”; sylva, a forest; sylvanus, sylvan. Fig. 167.) 
CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER. J, inspring: Back streaked with black and pale yellow (some- 
times ashy or whitish) ; whole crown pure yellow, immediately bordered with white, then 
enclosed with black; sides of head and neck and whole under 
parts pure white, former with an irregular black crescent before 
the eye, one horn extending backward over the eye to border the 
yellow crown and be dissipated on the sides of the nape, the other 
reaching downward and backward to connect with a chain of pure 
chestnut streaks that run the whole length of the body, the 
under eyelid and auriculars being left white; wing-bands gen- 


erally fused into one large patch, and, like the edging of the inner 
secondaries, much tinged with yellow; tail-spots white, as usual ; 


Fic. 167. — Chestnut - sided ? ; ‘ i Heres 
Warbler, nat. size. (Ad nat.del. bill blackish, feet brown. @, in spring: Quite similar; colors 


E.C.) Jess pure; black loral crescent obseure or wanting ; chestnut 
streaks thinner. Young: Above, including the crown, clear yellowish-green, perfectly uniform, 
or back with slight dusky touches; no distinct head-markings ; below, entirely white from bill 
to tail, unmarked, or else showing a trace of chestnut streaks on the sides; wing-bands clear 


yellow as in the adult; this is a diagnostic feature, shared by no other species, taken in con- 
nection with the continuously white under parts; bill ght-colored below. Small: Length 
4.80-5.10; extent 7.75-8.10; wing 2.30-2.50; tail 2.00. Eastern U. 8. and adjoining British 
Provinces ; west only to the edge of the Plains; winters extralimital; breeds abundantly in 
Middle and Northern States; nests in forks of low saplings, shrubs, and bushes; eggs 4-5, 0.68 
x 0.50, with the usual markings. A pretty species chained with chestnut on snowy ground. 

D. maculo/sa, (Lat. maculosa, full of spots; macula, a spot. Fig. 168.) BuacK-anp- 
YELLOW WaRBLER. Maanouia. ¢@,in spring: Back black, usually quite pure and unin- 
terrupted in the g, more or less mixed with olive in the 2 ; rump yellow; upper tail-coverts 
black, often skirted with olive or ashy. Whole crown of head clear ash; sides of head black, 
including a very narrow frontlet ; the eyelids and a stripe behind the eye, between the ash and 
black, white. Entire under parts rich yellow, excepting the white crissum, heavily streaked 
with black across the breast and along the sides, the streaks on the breast so thick as to form a 
nearly continuous black border to the immaculate yellow throat. Wings fuscous, with white 


126. 


127. 


SYLVICOLIDA — SYLVICOLINZ: TRUE WARBLERS. 805 


lining, white edging of the inner webs of all the quills, of the outer webs of the inner second- 
aries, and with a large white patch formed by the tips of the median coverts and tips and outer 
edges of the greater coverts. Tail blackish, with square white spots on the middle of the inner 
webs of all the feathers excepting the middle pair. Bill blackish; feet dark. Length 4.75- 
5.00; extent 7.00-7.50; wing 2.25-2.50; tail 2.00-2.25. Young: Upper parts ashy-olive, 
grayer. on head; rump as yellow as in the adult; no decided head-markings; a whitish ring 
around eye. Below, yellow, generally pure and continuous, 
sometimes partially replaced by gray; black streaks wanting, 
or few and confined to the sides. Wings with two bars; tadl- 
spots as in the adult. While the sexes of this dainty little 
species are quite similar, the young require looking after ; ob- 
serve yellow rump, small square tail-spots on middle of feathers, 
and extensively or completely yellow under parts. Eastern 
N. Am., N. to Hudson’s Bay and Great Slave Lake, W. to Peace ete aL 
the Rocky Mts. of Colorado; abundant, chiefly migratory in warbler, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. 
the U.S.; winters extralimital; breeds from New England E.C.) 
northward. Builds a small neat nest in low conifers; eggs 4-5, 0.64 0.48, not peculiar. 
D. tigri/na. (Lat. tigrina, striped like a tiger, tigris.) Caps May WarpiLer. Adult 3, 
in spring: Back yellowish-olive, spotted with black; crown in high plumage perfectly black, 
usually interrupted with olive. Rump, sides of the neck nearly meeting across the nape, sides 
of head and entire under parts bright yellow; ear-patch orange-brown ; a black transocular 
stripe, cutting off a yellow superciliary stripe; lower throat and whole breast and sides thickly 
streaked with black; yellow of throat sometimes tinged with orange-brown ; that of belly and 
under tail-coverts pale or whitish. Wing-bars fused in a large white patch, formed by middle 
coverts and outer webs of most of the greater coverts. Quills and tail-feathers Mackish, edged 
on outer webs with olive; tail-spots on three outer feathers near their ends, oblique, large on 
outer feather, diminishing on the next successively ; bill and feet blackish. The yellow patch 
on the rump is conspicuous, and in high plumage that on the side of the neck is immaculate 
and very bright. Q, in spring; Similar; lacking the distinctive head-markings ; under parts 
paler and less streaked, tail-spots small or obscure; less white on the wing. Young: An in- 
significant-lpoking bird, resembling an overgrown ruby-crowned kinglet, without its crest ; 
obscure greenish-olive above; rump yellowish; under parts yellowish-white; breast and sides 
with the streaks obscure ‘or obsolete; little or no white on wings, which are edged with yel- 
lowish. Length 5.00-5.25; wing 2.75; tail 2.25. Eastern N. Am. to Hudson’s Bay, only 
known W. to the Mississippi. Another exquisite, resembling the Magnolia in its yellow rump 
and yellow black-striped under parts, but easily recognized at maturity by the orange-brown 
ear-coverts; possessing also the charm of rarity in most parts. It is also remarkable for the 
curved and very acute bill, and some anatomical peculiarities of the tongue, which have caused 
it to be made type of a genus Perissoglossa. Breeds in portions of New England and north- 
ward; nest low in trees ; eggs not peculiar. 
D. dis'color. (Lat. discolor, parti-colored; opposed to concolor, whole-colored.) PRATRIE 
Warsier. Yellow-olive; back with a patch of brick-red spots ; forehead, superciliary line, 
two wing-bars, and entire under parts, rich yellow; a V -shaped black mark on side of head, 
its upper arm running through eye, its lower arm connecting with a series of black streaks 
along the whole sides of the neck and body; tail-blotehes very large, occupying most of the 
inner web of the outer feathers. The sexes are almost exactly alike, and the young only differ 
in not being so bright and in having the dorsal patch and head-markings obscure. Small: 
Length 4.75; extent 7.00-7.40; wing 2.15-2.25; tail 2.00. Eastern U.S. to Massachu- 
setts; W. to Kansas; an abundant bird of the Middle and Southern States, in sparse low 
woodland, cedar thickets and old fields grown up to serub-pines; remarkable for its quaint 
20 


128. 


129. 


130. 


131. 


306 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


and eurious svug; an expert fly-eatcher, constantly darting into the air in pursuit of winged 
insects, like the Redstart and the species of Myiodioctes. Breeds throughout its U. 8. range; 
winters in Florida and the West Indies. Nest on a bush or sapling near the ground; a small, 
neat, compact structure: eggs 3-6, not peculiar. 

D. gra/cie. (To Miss Grace D. Coues, the author's sister.) GRacE’s WARBLER. Entire 
upper parts ashy-gray, with a slaty-blue tinge; the middle of the back streaked with black, 
the upper tail-coverts less conspicuously so marked; the crown with crowded black arrow- 
heads, especially anteriorly and laterally, the tendency of these markings being to form a line 
along the side of the crown, meeting its fellow on the forehead. A broad superciliary line of 
yellow, confluent with its fellow on the extreme front, changing to white behind the eye. 
Lores blackish; sides of head otherwise like the back, enclosing a crescentic yellow spot below 


the eye; edges of eyelids yellow. Chin, throat, and fore breast bright yellow, bordered with 
blackish streaks; the yellow of the throat separate from that under the eye or on the lores. 
Under parts from the breast white, the sides shaded with the color of the back, and streaked 
with black in continuation of the chain of shorter streaks along the side of the neck. Wings 
dusky, with very narrow whitish edging, and erossed with two white bars along the ends of the 
greater and median coverts. Tail like the wings; the lateral feather mostly white, excepting 
the outer web; the next two or three with white blotches, decreasing in size. Eyes, bill, and 
feet black; soles dirty yellowish. Length 4.90-5.25; extent about $.00; wing 2.60; tail 
2.25; bill under 0.50.  @, in autumn: Color of the upper parts obscured with a shade of 
brownish-olive, the dorsal streaks obscure. The head-markings as in summer, and the yellow 
parts quite as bright. 9: Quite similar to the male, and in fact scarcely distinguishable from 
the male in autumn, though the yellow is not quite so strong. Young: The slate-gray of the 
upper parts much shaded with brownish-olive, the black streaks wanting on the back, those on 
the crown obsolete. Yellow much as in the adult but paler, and not bordered along the sides 
of the neck with black streaks. The black lores are poorly defined. The wing-bars are gray- 
ish or obsolete. The white of the under parts has an ochrey tinge, and the lateral streaks are 
not so heavy in color nor so well defined. Southern Rocky Mt. Region of the U.S. and south- 
ward; a beautiful species, related to dominica and adelaide ; it is abundant in the pine woods 
of Arizona and New Mexico. Nesting still unknown. 

D. domin‘ica. (Lat. dominicus, of St. Domingo.) YELLOW-THROATED WARBLER. Much 
like the last species, with which its changes of plumage correspond; back without black 
streaks ; no yellow in the black under the eye. A white patch separating the black of the 
cheeks from the bluish-ash of the neck; a long superciliary stripe, usually yellow from bill to 
eye, thence white to the nape. Forehead and sides of crown usually quite black, chin and 
throat rich yellow, bordered on each side by black. Rest of under parts white, the sides boldly 
streaked with black. Bill black, extremely compressed, almost a little decurved, very long 
(at least 0.50). Length 5.00 or more; extent $.00; wing 2.70; tail 2.25. A large hand- 
some species, with its bright yellow throat. South Atlantic and Gulf States, common; N. 
sometimes to the Middle States, casually to New England. Breeds in its U. S. range at large ; 
winters in Florida and extralimital. 

D. d. albilo’ra. (Lat. albus, white ; lorum, the lore.) WHITE-BROWED WARBLER. Pre- 
cisely like the last; but superciliary stripe entirely white, and yellow of chin cut off from bill 
by white. This slight variety (considering how variable dominica is in amount of yellow in 
the superciliary line) is the common form of the Mississippi and Ohio valley, north regularly to 
Ohio, Indiana, Dlinois, W. to Kansas and Texas. 

D. kirtlandi. (To Dr. Jared P. Kirtland, of Ohio.) Kirrnann’s WarsBLer. &: Upper 
parts slaty-blue; crown and back streaked with black; lores and frontlet black; eyelids 
mostly white. Under parts clear yellow, whitening on crissum, the breast with small spots 
and the sides with short streaks of black; greater and middle wing-coverts, quills, and tail- 


133. 


134. 


SYLVICOLIDZ — SYLVICOLINZ!: TRUE WARBLERS. 307 


feathers edged with white; two outer tail-feathers white-blotched on inner web. Length 
5.50; wing 2.80; tail 2.70. 9, adult: Upper parts dull bluish-gray, obscured with brown- 
ish on the hind neck and back, marked with heavy blackish streaks on the whole back ; 
crown and upper tail-coverts with fine black shaft-lines. Sides of head aud neck like upper 
parts, with darkened lores aud whitish eye-ring. Wing-quills dusky, with slight whitish edg- 
ing of both webs; coverts like back, but with large blackish central field, and whitish edging 
and tipping, forming two inconspicuous wing-bars. Tail-feathers like wing-quills, only the 
outermost one having a small white blotch. Entire under parts dull yellow, brighter on breast, 
paler on throat and belly, washed with brownish on sides, with a slight necklace of brownish 
dots across the fore breast (as in Mytodioctes canadensis) ; these sputs stronger on the sides of 
the breast, whence lengthening into streaks on the sides and flanks; a few small sharp 
scratches of the same nearly across lower breast. Under tail-coverts white, unmarked. Bill 
and feet black. Length about 5.30; wing 2.60; tail 2.30; bill 0.40; tarsus 0.50. Eastern 
U.S., the rarest of all the Warblers; only about a dozen speciinens known thus far; its rela- 
tionships appear to be with dominica, gracia, and adelaide. 

D. palma/rum. (Lat. palmarum, of the palms; gen. pl. of palma, a palm.) YELLOW ReEp- 
poLL WarsLer. Patm WarsBier. In spring: Brownish-olive, ramp and upper tail-coverts 
brighter yellowish-olive, back obsoletely streaked with dusky, crown chestnut ; superciliary 
line and entire under parts rich yellow, breast and sides with reddish-brown streaks, somewhat 
as in the Summer Warbler; a dusky loral line running through eye; no white wing-bars, the 
wing-coverts and inner quills being edged with yellowish-brown; tail spots at very end of 
inner webs of two outer pairs of tail-feathers only, and cut squarely off — a peculiarity distin- 
guishing the species in any plumage. @ not particularly different from the g. Young: An 
obseure-looking object, brownish above like a young Yellow-rump, but upper tail-coverts 
yellowish-olive, and under tail-coverts apt to show quite bright yellow in contrast with the 
dingy yellowish-white or brownish-white of other under parts; pectoral and lateral streaks 
obscure; crown generally showing chestnut traces; but in any plumage, known by absence 
of white wing-bars and peculiarity of the tail-spots. Length 5.00-5.25 ; extent about 8.00 ; 
wing 2.50; tail 2.25; tarsus 0.75. Eastern N. Am., abundant; N. to Labrador, Hudson’s 
Bay, Fort Resolution, ete.; breeds only beyond the U. S., excepting in Maine. Nest on the 
ground ; peculiar in this respect in the genus, as far as known; eggs not peculiar. When the 
bird is migrating it is usually found in fields, along hedge-rows and road-sides, with Yellow- 
rumps and Sparrows; the most terrestrial species of the genus, often recalling a Titlark ; 
migrates early in the spring, and remains in the fall latest of any, except the Yellow-rump, 
being observed at both these seasons in New England, with snow, in April and November ; 
winters abundantly from the Carolinas to Texas, and in the West Indies. 

D. p. hypochry'sea? (Gr. ume, hupo, under; xpiceos, chruseos, golden.) YELLOW-BELLIED 
Rep-pott WarBLER. Said to differ in being more brightly and continuously yellow on the 
under parts, with the streaks confined mostly to the sides, broadly tear-shaped instead of linear, 
reddish instead of dusky; lower eyelid yellow, not whitish ; back brighter olive. ‘¢ Atlantic 
States, from East Florida to Nova Scotia.” According to this, hypochrysea should be the 
common bird of the Atlantic States, and what is above described as true palmarum should be 
the bird of the interior. But I have little faith in the validity of the physical characters 
assigned, and none in the geographical distinctions sought to be established. 

D. pi‘nus. (Lat. pinus, a pine.) Pins WARBLER. Pine-cREEPING WARBLER. &: Uniform 
yellowish-olive above, yellow below, paler or white on belly and under tail-coverts, shaded and 
sometimes obsoletely streaked with darker on the sides; superciliary line yellow ; wing-bars 
whate ; tail-blotches confined to two outer pairs of feathers, large, oblique. Q and young: 
Similar, duller; sometimes merely olive-gray above and sordid whitish below, thus making 
very dingy, non-committal objects. The variations in precise shade are interminable ; but the 


40. 


135. 


308 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


species may always be known by the lack of any special sharp markings whatever, except the 
superciliary line; and by the combination of white wing-bars with large oblique tail-spots 
contined to the two outer pairs of feathers. One of the largest species, as well as most simply 
evlored ; length Bee 75; extent 8.50-9.00; wing 2.75-3.00; tail 2.40; tarsus 0.70; bill 
0.45. Eastern U. S., strictly; N. only to Canada and New Brunswick, W. only to the Missis- 
sippi Valley. Breeds throughout its whole range, and abounds in winter in the Southern 
States; is nearly resident, being sometimes seen in the Middle States in midwinter, and in 
New Eugland early and late, with snow. Nests in pine-trees ; nest and eggs not peculiar. 

*,* Thus passing iu review the 23 “solid” species of Dendraca, with two varieties lately 

introduced, I may allude to two species described by early authors, but never identified. 
1. Sylvia montana, Wilson. This I have given (in the orig. ed., p. 105) some reasons for sup- 
posing to be a young D. virens. 2. Sylvia carbonata, Audubon. A strongly-marked bird, 
the like of which has never been seen since. It has been conjectured to be a hybrid of D. 
tigrina and D. striata. 
SIU/RUS. (Gr. ceio, seio, I wave or brandish ; otpa, owra, tail.) WaG-TarL WARBLERS. In 
general form scarcely distinguishable from Dendraca ; larger in size, different in pattern of 
coloration, in habits, gait, and nidification. Bill ordinary. Rictal bristles short but evident. 
Wings pointed, much longer than tail. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw. Tail nearly 
even, with rather acute feathers, and long, 
colored. Above olivaceous, with or without head-markings, otherwise uniform ; below white, 
buffy, or yellowish, profusely streaked. Legs slender, usually pale-colored. Habits terrestrial 
to some extent; nest on the ground; eggs white, spotted. Vocal powers preéminent. Gait 
ainbulatorial, not saltatorial, aud some other traits decidedly Motacilline. 


copious under coverts. Neither wings nor tail parti- 


Analysis of Species. 


Crown orange-brown, with two black stripes; no superciliary line . . .. . «6. . . auricapillus 135 
Crown like back; a long superciliary line. 
Below, yellowish, heavily streaked; smaller; bill not over0.50 . . . 6. 2. ee. ee ] + nevius 136 
Below, whitish, lightly streaked ; larger; bill over 0.50. 2. 2 2. 1 ee + we ee +. motacilla 138 


S. auricapil/lus. (Lat. aurum, gold; capillus, hair. Fig. 169.) GoLpEN-cROwNED Wac- 
TAIL WARBLER. GOLDEN-CROWNED ACCENTOR. GOLDEN-CROWNED THRUSH. OVEN-BIRD. 
& 9, adult: Entire upper parts, including the wings and tail, uniform bright olive-green, 
without markings. Top of head with black lateral stripes, bounding a golden-brown or dull 
orange space. A white ring round eye; no white super- 
ciliary stripe. Under parts white, thickly spotted with 
dusky on the breast, the spots lengthening into streaks on 
the sides; a narrow black maxillary line; under wing- 
coverts tinged with yellow. Legs flesh-colored. Length 
5.75-6.50, usually 6.00-6.25 ; extent 8.75-10.40, usually 
9.50-10.00; wing 2.90-3.25; tail about 2.50. Varies 
much in size, but is remarkably constant in coloration with 


Fic. 169.—Oven-bird, nat. size. (Ad age, Sex, and season; sexes indistinguishable, and young 
nat. del. E. C.) searcely to be told from the adults. Fall specimens 
ordinarily quite as bright-colored as those of spring; and the orange-brown crown-spot, though 
it may be less bright, is acquired by the young with their first full feathering. There are 
at first no crown-stripes, and the lower parts are buffy, indistinctly streaked; upper parts 
fulvous-brown ; wings and tail as in the adult. N. Am., W. to Colorado, Dakota, and 
Alaska; breeds throughout its N. Am. range; winters from the southern border southward. A 
pretty and engaging species, called “ Oven-bird” from the way it has of roofing over its nest, 
abundant in woodland, migratory. In May the woods resound with its loud crescendo chant, 
so incessant and obtrusive that the bird was long in acquiring the reputation of musical ability 


136. 


137. 


138. 


41. 


139. 


SYLVICOLIDZ — SYLVICOLINA,: TRUE WARBLERS. 309 


to which its luxurious nuptia! song entitles it not less than the Louisiana water thrush itself. 
The bird spends much of its time on the ground, trailing prettily among the fallen leaves with 
mincing steps. Nest on the ground, of leaves, grasses, ete.; eggs 4-6, white or slightly 
creamy, profusely speckled with reddish-brown and lilac, 0.85 & 0.65. 
S. ne'vius. (Lat. nevius, spotted; nevus, a imole, birth-mark.) Wac-Tarm WARBLER. 
Aquatic Accentor. New York Water Turuse. @ 9: Uniform dark olive-brown ; 
wings and tail similar, unmarked ; below, pale sulphury-yellow, everywhere, except perhaps on 
the middle of the belly, thickly speckled or streaked with dark olive-brown, the narkings small- 
est. on the throat, largest on the sides. A long dull whitish superciliary line. Bill and feet dark. 
Length 5.50-6.00; extent 8.50-9.50; wing 2.75-3.00; tail 2.25; bill not over 0.50 along 
the culmen. The sexes do not differ appreciably. The shade of the upper parts varies from a 
decidedly olivaceous-brown to a purer, darker bistre-brown, and that of the under parts from 
sulphur-yellow to nearly white; but it is never of the buffy-white of S. motacilla. The streak- 
ing varies in amount and intensity, but has a sharp distinct character in comparison with S. 
motacilla, and is rarely if ever absent from the throat. No bill over 0.50, and this member lacks 
the peculiar shape, as well as size, characteristic of S. motacilla. The very young bird sooty- 
blackish, each feather of the upper parts with terminal bar of ochraceous ; wing-coverts tipped 
with the same, forming two bars; streaks below as in the adult, but broader, and not so sharply 
defined. N. Am. at large, breeding in most if not all of its range; winters from the southern 
border southward; a common inhabitant of thickets, swamps, and morasses, less frequently of 
mixed woodland. Nest usually under a stump or log, of mosses, leaves, and grasses, lined with 
rootlets; eggs 4-6, brilliant white, profusely speckled, 0.80 x 0.60. 
8. n. nota/bilis? (Lat. notabilis, noteworthy.) Wyominc Water Tuorusu. Described as 
identical in coloration with the last, but larger; wing 3.25; tail 2.50; bill from nostril 0.50 ; 
its depth at base 0.25 ; tarsus 0.83: middle toe without claw 0.56. Wyoming, one specimen: 
very doubtful. 
8. motacil/la. (Lat. motacilla, a wag-tail. See p. 284.) LARGE-BILLED WAGTAIL WARBLER. 
Louisiana Water Turusu. Very similar to S. nevius; larger; length 6.00-6.95; extent 
10.00-10.75 ; wing 3.00-3.25 ; bill especially longer and stouter, over 0.50; tarsus nearly 1.00. 
Under parts white, only faintly tinged, and chiefly on the flanks and crissum, with buff (not 
sulphury-yellow) ; the streaks sparse, pale, and not very sharp; throat, as well as belly and 
crissum, unmarked; legs pale. Ihave yet to see a specimen I cannot distinguish on sight ; 
the size of the bill is by no means the only character, though it is a principal one. Eastern 
U. §., rather southern, and not very common; N. to Massachusetts regularly, sometimes to 
Maine; W. to Kausas, Indian Territory, and Texas; more abundant in the Mississippi Valley; 
breeds in its U.S. range at large; winters extralimital. Habits, nest and eggs like those of 
S. nevius. A sweet and skilful songster. 
OPOROR'NIS. (Gr. érépa, opora, autuinn; gpus, ornis, a bird: noting the abundance of 
O. agis in the fall.) Busa Warsiers. Bill of ordinary Sylvicoline characters. Rictal 
bristles short but evident. Wings pointed, much longer than tail; Ist quill nearly or quite 
longest. Tail nearly even, with acute feathers; wings and tail unmarked, like the back. 
Under tail-coverts long and copious. Tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw. Feet pale- 
colored; back, wings, and tail olive; under parts yellow; black or ashy on head. Sexes alike. 
Analysis of Species. 

Head without black ; crown and throat ash; a whitish eyering . 2... 7 ee. ee... agilis 139 

Head with black; line over eye and under parts Yellow ek we we eee we dw formosa’ 140 
O. a’/gilis. (Lat. agilis, agile, active.) Connecricur WARBLER. Olive-green, becoming 
ashy on the head; below, from the breast, yellow, olive-shaded on the sides ; chin, throat, and 
breast dark ash; a whitish ring round eye; wings and tail unmarked, glossed with olive; 
under mandible and feet pale; no decided markings anywhere. Length about 5.50; extent 


140. 


42 


141. 


310 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


8.50-9.00; wing 2.75-3.00; tail 2.00. In spring birds the ash of the head and throat is quite 
pure, and very dark, almost black on the breast; then the resemblance to Geothlypis phila- 
delphia is close; but in the latter the wings are little if any longer than the tail. In the fall 
the upper parts from bill to tail are nearly uniform olive, and the ash of the throat is pale. 
Eastern U. §., not commonly observed in the spring ; abounding in the fall in some localities ; 
ashy, fagitive inhabitaut of brushwood and thickets. Distribution, migration, and breeding still 
imperfectly known. 
O. formo'sa. (Lat. formosa, shapely, comely ; hence, beautiful in any way. Fig. 170.) Ken- 
TucKY WarBLER. Clear olive-green; entire under parts bright yellow, olive-shaded along 
sides; crown black, separated by a rich yellow superciliary line 
(which curls around the eye behind) from a broad black bar 
running from bill below eye and thence down the side of the 
neck; wings and tail unmarked, glossed with olive; feet flesh- 
color. Length 5.50-5.75; extent about 9.25; wing 2.75-3.00 ; 
tail 2.25. Young birds have the black obscure, if not wanting ; 
in the fall, the black feathers of the crown of the adult are 
y, skirted with ash. Eastern U.8., N. to the Connecticut Valley ; 
A also known to occur near Quebec. Not abundant, but common 
FiG. 170.—Kentucky Warbler, in certain sections, as in Illinois, Kansas, and other portious 
mete eZee aun eeu SC) of the Mississippi Valley. Breeds throughout its U. 8. range ; 
winters extralimital. A beautiful object, gleaming like gold in the tangle and débris of thick 
dark woods and swamps. Nest on the ground, or in rubbish near it, of leaves, grasses, weed- 
stems and rootlets, large and shallow; eggs 4-5, 0.70 x 0.56, erystal-white, sprinkled with 
reddish dots. 
GEO'THLYPIS. (Gr. y7 or yéa, ge or gea, the earth, and Odumis or Opaumis, thlupis or 
thraupis, name of some bird.) GrounD WARBLERS. Bill of ordinary Sylvicoline characters ; 
rictal bristles very slight. Wings remarkably short and much rounded, scarcely or not longer 
than the rounded tail. Legs stout; tarsi longer than middle toe. Of medium and rather 
small size for this family. Coloration olivaceous above, with yellow below. Tail rounded, 
without white spots. Legs pale-colored. Habits somewhat terrestrial. Nest on the ground 
or near it. This genus affords several species more or less resembling the common Mary- 
land Yellow-throat, chiefly of the warmer parts of America — three of N. Am. They are 
well distinguished from other Warblers by the extreme shortness of the wings, which are 
scarcely or not longer than the tail, and by the size of the pale-colored legs, which indicates 
somewhat terrestrial habits. Our species are familiar inhabitants of the shrubbery, ordinarily 
keeping near the ground, where the nest is usually placed. 


Analysis of Species. 
Sexes quite unlike: $ witha black mask bordered with ash, and throat yellow; 9 with head plain trichas 141 
Sexes nearly alike: head and throat ashy, deepening on breast. 
No white eyelids ; breast of adult f quite blackish . . . soe ee ew ee 2. philadelphia 142 
White eyelids ; breast of adult ¢ scarcely different from throat soe ee ee ew . . Macgillivrayi 148 
G. trich/as. (Gr. rpiyds, name of some bird in Aristotle. Fig. 171.) YELLOw-THROATED 
GrounD WARBLER. MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT. @, in summer: Upper parts rich olive, 
inclining to grayish on the head, brightest on the rump. Wings and tail brown, edged with the 
color of the back. Chin, throat, and breast, with under wing- and tail-coverts, rich yellow. 
Middle under parts dull whitish, shaded on the sides. A broad black mask on the front and sides 


_ of the head, bordered behind by hoary-ash. Bill black; feet flesh-colured. Length 4.75-5.00 ; 


extent 6.50-6.90; wing 1.90-2.10; tail rather more. 9, in summer: Rather smaller; yellow 
of the under parts paler and more restricted ; no black or ashy markings on head, but crown 
usually with some concealed reddish-brown. Otherwise top and sides of head like back, with 


142. 


143. 


SYLVICOLIDA)—ICTERIINZ: CHATS. 311 


some obscure whitishness about the lores and orbits. Young: Similar to the adult female, but 
the olive of the upper parts with much of a brownish tinge, the yellow parts and, in fact, most 
of the under parts, quite buffy. The adults, in fall and winter, are similar to each other, except 
in the purer and stronger yellow of the male, as at that season 
the peculiar black and ashy markings of the head are wanting. 
Both sexes then resemble the autumnal plumage of the young 
in the browner shade of the olive and buffiness of the under parts. 
U.S., from Atlantic to Pacific; breeds throughout this range ; 
winters from the southern border southward. An abundant and 
familiar inhabitant of shrubbery and underbrush, the sameness 
of which is enlivened by its sprightly presence and hearty song Hie Hi eet and ee 
throughout the summer months. Nest on the ground or near it, jow-throat, g, nat. size. (Ad 
usually carefully concealed, of large size and built of any rub- nat. del. E.C.) 

bish; eggs 4-6, usually 0.60-0.70 long by 0.50-0.55, white, rather sparingly sprinkled, and 
mostly at the large end, with several shades of brown but the markings, like the size and 
shape of the eggs, are very variable. 

G. philadel’/phia. (To the city of brotherly love ; Gr. pidéw, phileo, I love; ddedpos, adelphos, 
brother.) Mourning WARBLER. ¢ Q, in spring: Bright olive, below clear yellow; on the 
head the olive passes insensibly into ash; in high plumage of @ the throat and breast black ; 
but generally ash, showing black traces, the feathers being black veiled with ash, producing a 
peculiar appearance suggestive of the bird’s wearing crape; wings and tail unmarked, glossed 
with olive; under mandible and feet flesh-color; no white about eyes in adult g. Young, 
and generally fall specimens: Ash of the fore parts veiled with olive; sides and across breast 
quite olivaceous, leaving only central line of under parts yellow; blackish-ash of jugulum veiled 
by bright yellow tips of the feathers ; eyelids brownish-yellow. Young birds have little or no 
ash on the head, and no black on the throat, thus resembling Oporornis agilis; but are of 
course distinguishable by their generic characters. Length 5.25-5.50; extent 7.50-8.00; 
wing and tail, each, about 2.25. Eastern U. 8., W. to Kansas and Dakota, rare in most 
localities in the Atlantic States, but abundant in the Mississippi Valley ; migratory; no record 
of wintering in the U. S.; breeds chiefly in the northernmost tier of States and along the British 
border. Nidification like that of @. trichas; eggs not distinguishable. 

G. macgillivray'i. (To Wm. MacGillivray, the eminent Scotch ornithologist, co-author of 
Audubon’s works.) Macciniivray’s Warsler. f @: Upper parts, including exposed 
surfaces of wings and tail, clear olive-green; below, bright yellow, shaded with olive on the 
sides. Head and neck all around, throat, and fore breast, clear ashy ; eyelids white ; the loral 
region usually dusky, the throat with blackish centres to the feathers, veiled by their gray 
skirting. Upper mandible blackish ; under mandible and feet flesh-colored or pale yellowish. 
Length 5.25; extent 5.75-8.00; wing and tail, each, about 2.25. Seasonal and sexual differences 
those of G. philadelphia, of which it is the Western representative, differing in having white 
eyelids, and in never showing a decided black patch on the breast, which is conspicuous in the 
highly plumaged ¢ of the other form; but thus closely resembling Q philadelphia, which nor- 
mally shows a whitish eye-ring, and has not the breast quite black. Middle and Western 
Provinces of the U. §., E. to the limit of trees on the plains, N. to British Columbia; abundant, 


migratory; breeds throughout its U. S. range ; winters beyond. Nest and eggs as in others of 
the genus. 


16. Subfamily ICTERIINAE: Chats. 


A small group, framed to accommodate the following genus and its two tropical allies, 


Granatellus and Teretistris; it is perhaps questionable whether they are most naturally classed 
with the Warblers. 


43. 


144, 


145. 


312 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES. 


ICTE/RIA. (Gr. ikrepos, ikteros, the jaundice; hence, yellowness; from the bird’s golden 
breast.) Cuarts. Bill stout, high at the base (higher than broad at nostrils), thence com- 
pressed ; unnotched, unbristled, with much curved culmen and commissure. Frontal feathers 
reaching the nostrils, which are subcircular and scaled. Wings much rounded, shorter or not 
longer than the graduated tail. Tarsus partly booted, longer than middle toe; feet stout. 
Inner toe cleft to the degree usually seen in this family. Of largest size for this family. Form 
stout. Coloration simple, chiefly olive, yellow, and white. Sexes alike. Nestin bushes. Eggs 
white, spotted. Probably only one species. 
I. vi'rens. (Lat. virens, being green. Fig. 172.) YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT. J @, adult: 
Bright olive-green, below golden-yellow, belly abruptly white ; lore black, isolating the white 
under-eyelid from a white superciliary line above and a short white maxillary line below; wings. 
and tail unmarked, glossed with olive; bill blue-black ; 
feet plumbeous. Length about 7.50; extent about 10.00; 
wing about 3.00; tail about 3.25. Little difference with 
age, sex, or season in the plumage of this rich bird; very 
young have the fore under parts gray or white slashed 
with yellow, no black on lore, and lower mandible pale ; 
white of belly and crissum tinged with buff. Eastern U.S8., 
N.to Massachusetts, abundant, migratory ; breeds through- 
Fic. 172, —Yellow-breasted Chat, nat, out its range; an exclusive inhabitant of low tangled un- 
size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) dergrowth, and oftener heard than seen, except during the 
mating season, when it performs the extravagant aérial evolutions for which, as well as for 
the variety and volubility of its song, it is noted. Nest in a crotch of a bush near the ground ; 
eggs 3-4, very variable in size and markings, about 1.00 X 0.80, white, dotted, spotted or 
blotched with reddish-browns and the usual lilac shell-markings. 
I. v. longicau’da. (Lat. longus, long; cauda, tail.) Lonc-ramLep Cuat. ¢ 9: Entire 
upper parts, including exposed surfaces of the wings and tail, grayish-olive. Quills of the wings 
and tail fuscous. Fore half of body below, including lining of the wings, rich yellow; hinder 
half white, shaded with gray on the sides. Loral region black; a sharp maxillary line, 
another from nostril over the eye, and the under eyelid, white. Bill blackish-plumbeous ; feet 
plumbeous. Size of the last; tail averaging longer. Middle and Western Provinces of the 
U.S. This form, in its typical manifestation, differs from virens in the shade of the upper 
parts — quite grayish instead of pure olive-green ; in the dullest-colored birds there is scarcely 
a tinge of olive in the gray of the upper parts. The yellow of the breast is as rich, however, as 
that of virens. As in the cases of so many birds from this region, the tail averages longer than 
that of Eastern representatives of the same species. 


17. Subfamily SETOPHACINA:: Fly-catching Warblers. 


These usually have the bill depressed, broader than high at base, notched and hooked at tip, 
and furnished with long stiff bristles that reach half-way or more from the nostrils to the end 
of the bill. In other respects they are not distinguished from the rest of the family. While 
many or most other Sylvicolide are expert in taking insects on the wing, these capture their 
prey in the air with special address, simulating in this respect the true Clamatorial flycatchers 
with which some species of Setophaga used to be classed in the extensive old genus ‘ Musci- 
capa.” It is hardly necessary to say that, however closely some of them may resemble the 
Tyrannida, they are at once distinguished from those Clamatorial birds by the Oscine character 
of the tarsi, and the presence of only nine primaries. The Setophagine are most developed in 
Central and South America, where they are represented by three or four genera, and upwards of 
forty species. They include some very brilliant little birds, with glossy black, orange, and even 
carmine red, very likely mistaken by heedless bugs for the tints of flowers. Besides the species 


146. 


147. 


SYLVICOLIDZE — SETOPHAGINE: FLY-CATCHING WARBLERS. 318 


to be described, four or five others may be expected to occur over our Mexican border, — ainong 
them the lovely Cardellina rubra, which is carmine red all over, with silky white ears; Seto- 
phaga miniata, very near 8. picta; and species of the genns Basileuterus. Our three genera 
are readily distinguished, so far as our species are concerned, by coloration. 


Analysis of Genera. 


od Black, white, and orange; ? brown, white,and yellow. . . . . 1 1 6 1 «ee  . Setophaga 46 
¢ @ Ashy, white, and carmine orrosyred. . 6 6 1 6 ee ee ee ee ee Cardellina 45 
o Q Without brown, red, ororange . . . e ) ee ee ee ee ee ee es . Myiodioctes 44 


MYIODIOC'TES. (Gr. pvia, muta, a tly, and dcoxrns, dioktes, a pursuer.) FLY-CATCHING 
Warsters. Bill Muscicapiue, though with lateral outlines a little concave, broad and depressed 
at base, with many obvious rictal bristles reaching decidedly beyond the nostrils; cnlmen and 
commissure nearly straight. Wings pointed, as in most Sylvicolide, longer than tail; Ist quill 
longer than 5th, 3d equalling or exceeding 4th. Tail narrow, even or little rounded. Middle 
toe without claw about three-fifths as long as tarsus. Tail unmarked, or with white blotches 
as in Dendreca. No red or flame-color: always yellow below. Comprehends three species, 
well distinguished among Sylvicolide by the development of the rictal bristles and the depressed 
shape of the bill, though these Muscicapine characters are not pushed to the extreme seen in 
Setophaga. The tail is narrow, lacking the fan-shaped contour of that of Setophaga, and the feet 
are stouter, with longer toes. In Cardellina, a near ally, the bill is narrow and conoidal, some- 
what Parine in appearance, with curved culmen. In Bastlewterws, and in fact in all the extra- 
limital forms of the Fly-catching Warblers, the wing is rounded, with the 1st quill shorter than 
the 5th. 


Analysis of Species. 


Olive and yellow ; tail-feathers white-blotched. . . 2. 2 2. 1. 1 1 ee ee ee mitratus 146 
Olive and yellow; tail-feathers plain 2... 2... 1 1 we ee eee ee ew we) pusillus 147 
Ashy-blue and yellow: tail-feathers plain . 2... 2 2. we ee ee ee canctdensis 149 


M. mitra’tus. (Lat. mitratus, wearing a mitre, or other head-dress. Fig. 173.) Hooprp Fiy- 
CATCHING WARBLER. 4, adult: Clear yellow-olive above ; below, rich yellow, shaded with 
olive along the sides; whole head and neck pure black, en- 
closing a broad golden mask across forehead and through eyes; 
wings unmarked, glossed with olive; tail with large white 
blotches on the two or three outer pairs of feathers, as in 
Dendreca ; bill black ; feet flesh-colored. Length 5.00-5.25 ; 
extent 8.50; wing about 2.75; tail about 2.25. 92, adult, 
and young ¢, with the black restricted or interrupted, if not 
wholly wanting, as it is in the earlier stages, when the parts 
concerned are simply colored to correspond with the upper 
___ Fie. 173.— Hooded Warbler, nat. and under surfaces of the bird. Hood said to be not perfected 
size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) : . r ‘ 

till the third year, and to be finally acquired, in the fulness 
of its extent if not in the purity of the black, by the female. Eastern U. &., strictly; N. 
regularly to the Connecticut Valley ; W. to Kansas; migratory; breeds at large in its U. 8. 
Tange; winters extralimital. A lovely bird, reminding one of the 
Kentucky warbler, common in the south in such brakes and bottoms 
as the Kentucky -haunts, rarer northward. Nest in bushes; eggs 4, 
about 0.70 x 0.50, as usual white, reddish-sprinkled. ; 
M. pusil/lus. (Lat. pusillus, pnerile, petty, small. Fig. 174.) 
BLacK-CAPPED FLy-caTcHInG WarsLer. @, adult: Upper 
parts, including exposed edgings of the wings and tail, bright yel- 325% 
lowish-olive ; under parts, including front and sides of the head Fia. 174, — Black-capped 


ae : aoe 7 is ¢ Warbler, nat.size. (4 
and superciliary line, rich yellow, shaded with olive on the sides. A del. E. co) apeeiay eae 


148. 


149. 


150. 


9 


314 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES. 


squarish, glossy blue-black patch on the crown. Wings and tail plain fuscous, with greenish 
edgings, unmarked with other color. Upper mandible dark; under mandible and feet light. 
Length 4.75; extent 6.75-7.00; wing 2.00-2.25; tail 2.00. 9,and young: Lacking the 
black cap, the crown being colored like the back. There is very little variation in this species, 
according to age or season, though the adult summer birds are the more richly colored. N.Am. 
at large, in wooded regions ; common, migratory. Breeds from the northernmost States north- 
ward to the limit of trees, and in the Rocky Mts. as far south as Colorado at least; winters 
extralimital. Nest on the ground; eggs 4-5, 0.60 x 0.50, white, speckled and blotched with 
dark reddish-brown and lilac. 
M. p. pileola/tus. (Lat. pileolatus, wearing the pilewm, a kind of cap.) WESTERN BLACK- 
CAPPED FLY-CATCHING WARBLER. Specimens from the Southern Rocky Mts. and Pacific 
coast region are frequently of a brighter yellow, almost orange, on the head and fore parts 
below, with the under mandible bright yellow. 
M. canaden'sis. (Lat. of Canada. Fig. 175.) CanapiAN FLY-CATCHING WARBLER. 4, 
adult in spring: Bluish-ash; crown speckled with lanceolate black marks, crowded and gen- 
erally continuous on the forehead; the latter divided length- 
wise by a slight yellow line; short superciliary line and edges 
of eyelids yellow; lores black, continuous with black under the 
eye, and this passing as a chain of black streaks down the side 
of the neck and prettily encircling the throat like a necklace 
of jet; excepting these streaks and the white under tail-coverts, 
the entire under parts are clear yellow; wings and tail unmarked ; 
feet flesh-color. g in autumn with the yellow very rich, even 
tipping the feathers of the black necklace. Length 5.25-5.50; 
; extent 7.75-8.25 ; wing 2.50; tail2.25. Inthe 9 and young the 
Fic. 175.— Canadian Fly- . é 3 
catching Warbler. (Ad nat, black of crown, cheeks, and necklace is obscure or much restricted, 
del. E. C.) and in the young the back may be glossed with olive; but they 
cannot be mistaken for any other species. Eastern N. Am., an abundant and beautiful wood- 
land species, migratory, breeding from the Middle States occasionally, from New England regu- 
larly, northward to the limit of trees. Nest on the ground, in which respect species of this 
genus differ from most Sylvicolide and resemble Helminthophila; eggs 4-5, 0.75 X 0.55, 
white, dotted and blotched with reddish-brown after the usual fashion of warbler eggs. 
CARDELLINA. (Apparently derived from Lat. carduelis, a kind of Finch; carduus, a 
thistle.) Rosz Fry-catcHinc Warsiers. Bill Parine in shape, much shorter than head, 
high at base, culmen convex throughout ; commissure curved. Rictal bristles stiff, but hardly 
reaching half-way from nostrils to tip of bill, which shows scarcely a trace of notch. Wings 
long and pointed; 2d, 3d, and 4th quills nearly equal and longest ; 1st a little longer than 5th. 
Tail shorter than wings, nearly even. Feet small; tarsal scutella indistinct externally; tarsus 
longer than middle toe and claw. 
Cc. rw’brifrons. (Lat. ruber, red; frons, front, forehead.) RErD-FRONTED FLY-CATCHING 
Warsier. ¢ 9: Upper parts ash, wings and tail rather darker, edged with ashy-white; 
a broader and whiter bar across ends of median coverts. Below, from the breast, white, more 
or less shaded with ashy on the sides, and tinged with rosy. Rump and a nuchal patch white, 
or rosy-white. Whole head, throat, sides of the neck, and fore breast, bright red, with a broad 
black cap extending down on the sides of the head, involving the eyes and ears, ending ina 
point below the auriculars. The border of this cap is squarely transverse against the red of the 
forehead from eye to eye; behind it, the red reaches up the sides of neck, but not across the 
back of the neck, the white nuchal area there meeting the ashy of the back. Bill and feet 
dark. In the highest summer plumage, the red is rich and carmine in hue, the cap glossy- 
black ; the under parts are much tinged with rosy; the rump is snowy-white. Less richly- 


46. 


151. 


SYLVICOLIDH — SETOPHAGINZ: FLY-CATCHING WARBLERS. 315 


feathered specimens have the head plain red, the cap sooty-black. There is much difference in 
the character of the white on the nape. Length 5.00: wing 2.66; tail 2.50; tarsus 0.66 ; 
bill 0.33, quite different in shape from that of Setophaga. Young, newly fledged: Ash of upper 
parts much shaded with brown, and white of the under parts the same. Rump snowy-white, 
as in the adult, but the nuchal patch obscure or inappreciable. Wings and tail as in the adult, 
but with browner edgings. Black cap restricted to top of head, and of a dull sooty cast. Red 
parts of the adult, including those parts of the side of the head which are occupied in the adult 
with the extension of the black eap, dull grayish-brown, tinged or irregularly slashed with red, 
especially on the forehead and throat. Bill light brown; feet pale. Arizona, and doubtless 
New Mexico and Texas; common in the pineries of Southern Arizona. 

SETO/PHAGA. (Gr. ofs, ontés, ses, setos, an insect; payo, phago, I eat.) RepsTarts. 
Bill thoroughly Muscicapine in depression and breadth at base, where wider than high, 
straightness of superior and lateral outlines, and development of rictal bristles, which reach far 
beyond the nostrils. Wings pointed, not shorter than tail; 2d, 3d, and 4th quills nearly equal 
and longest; 1st intermediate between 4th and 5th. Tail rather long and fan-shaped, with 
broad flat feathers, widening at their ends. Feet slender, with long tarsi indistinctly scutellate 
externally, and short toes, the middle one without its claw being about half as long as the 
tarsus. Coloration indeterminate. Habits arboricole and Muscicapine. The genus has been 
made to cover considerable variety in form among the numerous species of Fly-catching Warblers 
of subtropical and tropical America, where it is best represented. The diagnosis, drawn up 
from S. ruticilla, may require some little modification in order to its applicability even to S. 
picta. All the extralimital species differ in the shorter and more rounded wing and other char- 
acters. S. ruticilla is the only species in which the sexes are decidedly dissimilar in color ; 
even in S. picta, the nearest ally, they are substantially alike ; and in all the rest, in which the 
coloration is very various, there is no obvious difference between the sexes. Species of Seto- 
phaga (including Myioborus and Euthlypis), to the number of twelve or more, are recognized 
by late authors. 8. ruticilla is the only one that is generally distributed in North America. 


Analysis of Species. 
¢@ Black, white, and orange; @ brown, white, and yellow . . . . - - ee ee ees . ruticilla 152 


od @ Black, white,andcarminered . © 6 6 1 ee ee ee picta 151 
S. pic'ta. (Lat. picta, painted. Fig. 176.) Parnrep Fry-catcHinc Warsier. ¢ 9: 
Lustrous black; middle of breast and belly carmine-red; eyelids, a large patch on the wings 
formed by the greater and middle coverts, broad edging 
of inner secondaries, edging of inner webs of primaries 
toward the base, lining of wings, nearly all the outer tail- 
feather, and a diminishing space on the next two or three, 
together with the crissum, white. Bill and feet black. 
Length 5 inches; wing and tail each 2.75; tarsus 0.66 ; 
bill 0.33-0.40. not particularly different from the ¢, 
though rather less richly colored. In poor plumages, the 
black is not so lustrous; red of the belly less extensive and 
of a more bricky-red tone; white of the wings and tail more : 
restricted. ; Very young: Dull black, or only slightly lus- Fic. 176, — Painted Fly-catching 
trous; white nearly as in the adult; spot on lower eyelid, Warbler. (Ad nat. del. H. W. Elliott.) 
patch on wing, outer edge of first primary only, outer edges of secondaries, inside of wings, 
axillars, crissum, tibiee, outer tail-feather except at base, and a diminishing space on the second 
and third, white. Arizona and N. Mexico, and doubtless also Texas; common in Santa Rita 
Mts. of Arizona. Nest found “under a projecting stone, in a bank near a stream”; large, flat, 
shallow, of bark, weed-fibre, grasses and a few hairs. Eggs 3, 0.65 x 0.50, white, speckled 
and wreathed with pale reddish-brown. 


152. 


316 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


8. ruticil/la, (Lat. ruticilla, red-tail; rutilus, reddish; ‘‘redstart” is corrupted from roth- 
stert, red-tail.) AMERICAN RepsrartT. @, adult: Lustrous blue-black, the belly, flanks 
and crissum white. Sides of the body and lining of wings rich flame-color, which often 
tinges the breast quite across. Basal portions of all the wing-quills, excepting the innermost 
secondaries, the same rich reddish-orange, brightest on the outer webs, where it forms a con- 
spicuous exposed spot, paler and more extensive on the inner webs. All the lateral tail: 
feathers similarly colored for half or more of their length, the orange meeting the black 
abruptly with transverse outline. Bill and feet black. Length 5.00-5.50; extent 7.50-8.00 - 
wing 2.25-2.50; tail the same; bill 0.33; tarsus 0.66. 9, adult: The black of the ¢ replaced 
on the upper parts with olive, growing more ashy on the head, on the wings with fuscous, and 
below with white. Sides rich yellow where the @ is orange, this color often tinging the breast 
across. Orange markings of the wings and tail of the ¢ replaced by clear yellow. Lores 


NS 4 DAY ‘ el NE SSS 


~ ancl MA 


; ial oe 
Fic. 117. — Honey Creeper (Certhiola flaveola; not distinguishable in a cut from C. bahamensis), $ nat size. 
(From Brehm.) 
dusky ; eyelids and slight stripe from nostrils to eye whitish. Rather smaller than the @, about 
equal to the lesser several dimensions given. @, young: Like the 9, but the upper parts more 
brownish, the tail quite black, and the yellow of the sides brighter. Males changing in the 
spring to their final plumage are irregularly patched with black in the general olivaceous and 
white. The spring migration includes males in this condition, and others irregularly patched 
with black, as well as those in perfect dress; whence it is evident that the redstart does not 
acquire his full-dress suit until in his third year. (See B.C. V., p. 340.) Temperate N. Am., 
but chiefly Eastern; W. to Utah. Breeds in most of its U.8., and all of its British American 
range; abundant from the Northern States. Nest a neat compact structure in the fork of a 
shrub or sapling at little elevation; eggs 4-5, averaging 0.65-0.50, not distinguishable from 
other warbler eggs. During the nuptial ecstasies the lovely redstart shines among the birds 
that throng the woodland, where his transparent beauty flashes like a lambent tongue of flame 
at play amidst the tender pale green foliage of the trees. 


47. 


153. 


48 


C@REBIDE: HONEY CREEPERS. TANAGRIDZ: TANAGERS. 317 


10. Family CQAREBID4: Honey Creepers. 


Primaries 9, and other external characters very nearly as in the last family: but the bill is 
generally slenderer and sharper, and often a little decurved. The line between the two faini- 
lies has never been drawn with precision, and has become more difficult of expression since 
some of the Sylvicolide have proven possessed of a peculiarity of the Caerebide : deeply bifid, 
peuicillate tongue. As commonly understood, it is a small group containing perhaps 40 species 
of pretty little birds, of the genera Certhiola, Diglossa, and Cereba, coutined to tropical aud 
subtropical America, being especially numerous in the West Indies. Our species is merely a 
stray visitor to Florida. 

CERTHVOLA. (Diminutive of Lat. certhia, a creeper. Fig. 177.) Honny Creepers. 
Bill little shorter than head, stout at base, but rapidly tapering to the extremely acute tip ; 
whole bill much curved, culmen very convex, outline of under mandible continuously concave 
from base to tip. Rictus unbristled. Wings long, exceeding the short rounded tail. Tarsus 
longer than middle toe without claw. Contains about 15 species or varieties, mostly West 
Indian. 

C. bahamen’sis. (Of the Bahamas.) BAanAmMAN Honey CREEPER. Dark brown above ; 
long superciliary line and under parts dull white; breast, edge of wing, and rump, bright 
yellow; wings dusky, with a white spot at base of primaries, and whitish edging of the quills ; 
tail dusky, tipped with white; bill and feet black; eyes blue. Length 4.50; wing 2.33; tail 
1.75. Florida; Bahamas; closely related to the Stock species, C. flaveola. 


11. Family TANAGRIDZ: Tanagers. 


An extensive, brilliant family, confined to America, 
abounding in species between the tropics. Its position 
is a point at issue with ornithologists; it may naturally 
follow the Cerebide and Sylvicolide, though certainly 
no families should stand between it and Fringillide. 
In fact, certain tropical forms might be assigned to 

. either indifferently. The best definition of the Tana- 
Fig. 178. —Dentirostral bill of a Tana- gers is that given by the distinguished ornithologist 
ger (Pyranga hepatica), nat. size, who called them “dentirostral finches ;” but this gen- 
eralization, like other happy epigrams, is insusceptible of application in detail, and the Tana- 
gers remain to be precisely characterized. As a consequence, the nuwber of species can 
hardly be approximately estimated ; but upwards of 300 are usually enumerated. 

The single well-established North American genus may be recognized, among all the 
birds of our country, by the combination of nine primaries and scutellate tarsi with a turgid 
bill, notched at the tip and toothed or lobed near the middle of the maxillary tomia (fig. 178); 
though this last character is sometimes so obseure that it might be looked at without being 
seen. The species of Pyranga are birds of brilliant colors, with great seasonal and sexual 
differences of plumage. They are frugivorous and insectivorous, and consequently migratory 
in the United States. They inhabit woodland, lay 4-5 dark-colored, speckled eggs, nest in 
trees, and are no great songsters. In distribution they are rather southerly, scarcely passing 
northward beyond the U.S. One species of another genus, Huphonia elegantissima, adinitted 
to our fauna upon insufficient evidence, doubtless occurs over the Mexican border. 
PYRAN/GA. (Barbarous name of some South American bird.) SumMER TANAGERS. Bill 
stout, turgid, conoidal, usually notched at tip, and with one or more denticulations of the cut- 
ting edge of upper mandible near middle of commissure. Rictal bristles well-developed. Nos- 
trils basal, the frontal anti reaching them. Wings lengthened and pointed ; first 4 feathers 


155. 


156. 


157. 


318 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


subequal and longest. Tail moderate in length, shorter than wings, emarginate. Tarsus not 
longer than middle toe; lateral toes about equal, outer echerent with middle by nearly all of 
the length of its basal joint. Sexes more or less unlike in color; red usually prevailing in the 
male sex. Habits migratory, insectivorous, arboreal; voice not musical. Eggs spotted. 
Four species of this beautiful genus inhabit the U.S., three of them representing as many of 
the sections into which it is divisible according to pattern of coloration. Numerous others are 
found in the warmer parts of America. 
Analysis of Species. 

¢ Crimson or scarlet, with black wings and tail: ? clear olive and yellow. Nowing-bars . . . rubra 154 
¢ Vermilion or rose-red, including wings and tail; 9 brownish-olive and buffy-yellow. Bill light. 
Smaller: length about 7.50; wing 3.75 5 . E . @stiva 155 
Larger: length about 8.00; wing 4.25 WE So et So 1 By iss Sirk oe) Bam! Ser ve bs wigs, can ~COOMETE “L5G! 
o Dusky-red above, including wings and tail. g ashy-olive and yellow. Billdark. . . . . hepatica 157 

¢ Yellow, with scarlet head and black back, wings and tail. @ clear olive and yellow, with 2 wing-bars 
ludoviciana 158 


P.rub/ra. (Lat. rubra, red.) SCARLET TANAGER. 4, adult: Crimson or scarlet; wings 


, and tail black; bill and feet dark horn-eolor. @, adult: Above, clear olive-green; below, 


clear greenish-yellow ; wings and tail dusky, glossed with the color of the back ; no wing- 
bars. @, young: Like the @ ; later, when changing, patched with red, green, and black. 
Adult males often show abnormal coloring, the body being yellow, orange, or flame-color; 


cor red patches appeaung on the wing coverts. @ said to change back to plumage of @ at 


each fall moult (?) Length 6.75-7.00; extent 11.00-12.00 ; wing 3.50-3.90 ; tail about 3.00. 


, Eastern U. 8. and adjoining British Provinces, strictly; W. to Kansas, Indian Territory, and 


Texas ; not common N. of Massachusetts ; breeds throughout its U. 8. range; winters extra- 
limital. This brilliant creature nests in woods, groves, and orchards, upon the horizontal 
bough of a tree, building a rather loose and shallow fabric of twigs, fibres, rootlets, etc. Eggs 
3-5, 0.95 X 0.65, dull greenish-blue, fully spotted with brown and lilac. 

P. esti'va. (Lat. estiva, summery; @stas, summer.) Roszr Tanacrer. SumMMER Rep- 
BIRD. ¢, adult: Rich rose-red or vermilion, including wings and tail; the former dusky on 
unexposed portions of the feathers; bill pale; feet darker. 9, adult: Dull brownish-olive 
above, below dull brownish-yellow; no wing-bars. @, young: Like the 9. 4 changing 
plumage shows red, greenish and yellowish in irregular patches, but no black. The Q distin- 
guished from 2 rubra by the dull brownish, ochrey, or buffy shades of the olive and yellowish, 
the greenish and yellowish of 9 rubra being much clearer and paler; also by the paler bill 
and feet. The tint of mature males varies greatly ; from rosy to bricky red. Size of rubra, 
or rather larger. Eastern U. 8., strictly, and rather southerly; N. rarely to Connecticut, only 
casually farther; W. to Kansas, Indian Territory, and Texas. Migratory, abundant; breeds 
throughout its range; winters extralimital. Nesting and eggs like those of rubra. 

P. a. coo’peri. (To Dr. J. G. Cooper, of California.) Cooprr’s TANAGER. WESTERN Sum- 
MER ReD-BIRD. Characters of @estiva; back rather darker than head; larger; length about 
8.00; extent about 13.00; wing 4.25; tail 3.60; bill 0.75 ; tarsus 0.80. Little distinguished. 
Southern Rocky Mt. region. 

P. hepa'tica. (Lat. hepar, hepatis, the liver.) Hepatic Tanacrer. 6, adult: Upper 
parts brownish-ashy, intimately mixed with dull red; top of head, upper tail-coverts, and 
edgings of wings and tail, brighter brownish-red. Inner webs and ends of wing-quills dusky ; 
tail-feathers throughout decidedly tinged with red. Sides of the head like the back ; edges of 
eyelids red. Below, bright red; sides and flanks shaded with the color of the back, many 
feathers often also with ashy skirting. Bill and feet blackish-plumbeous, the cutting edge of 
the upper mandible furnished with a tooth more prominent than in most species (fig. 178). 
Length about 8.00; wing 4.00; tail 3.33; bill 0.66; tarsus 0.80. 9, adult: Bill and feet as 
in the ¢. Upper parts greenish-olive, with an ashy-gray tinge, the crown and rump clearer 


158. 


HIRUNDINIDA): SWALLOWS. 319 


and more yellowish-olive. Sides of head like back. Beneath yellow, clear and nearly pure 
medially, shaded on the sides with the color of the back, sometimes brightening almost into 
orange on the throat. Quills and tail fuscous, with olivaceous-yellow edgings, the former 
darker than the latter. Young ¢: Like the ? ; im males changing, the characters of the two 
sexes confused. Very young: There is an earlier streaky stage, before the assumption of a 
plumage like that of the 9. Upper parts grayish-brown with an olive tinge; lower parts 
grayish-white with a yellowish shade ; both everywhere streaked with dusky. Wings and tail 
like those of adult 9, but the former with uchraceous bands across ends of greater and middle 
coverts. Southern Rocky Mt. region and southward. 

P. ludovicia/na. (Mat. of Louisiana, formerly of great extent in the West; name now inap- 
plicable.) CRIMSON-HEADED TANAGER. 6, adult: Middle of back, wings, and tail, black ; 
wings crossed by two yellow or yellowish-white bars on ends of greater and middle coverts ; 
inner secondaries marked with white or yellowish. Head all around scarlet or even crimson, the 
color extending diluted on the breast. Other parts bright yellow, generally purest ou the rump. 
Iris brown; bill horn-color; legs livid bluish. Length about 7.00; wing 3.50-4.00; tail 
2.75-3.25; bill 0.60; tarsus 0.75. 9, adult: Above, olive, darker and somewhat ashy-shaded 
on middle of back, clearer and brighter on rump and crown. Below, greenish-yellow, shaded 
with olive on sides. Wings and and tail fuscous, with edgings of the color of the upper parts ; 
greater and median coverts tipped with white or yellowish ; inner secondaries edged with the 
same. Averaging rather less than the g. The bird lacks the buffy shades characteristic of ? 
estiva, besides being decidedly smaller. The general coloration, in its clear olive and yellow, 
is exactly that of Q rubra; from which distinguished by the white or yellow markings on the 
wings. The ¢ at first resembles the 9, and in progress toward maturity every gradation 
between the two is presented. The distinctive dark dorsal area, and traces of the red of the 
head, soon appear. In a usual condition of incomplete dress, the black of the back is mixed 
with gray or olive, the yellow of the back of the neck is obscured, that of the under parts is 
shaded with olive, and the head is only partly red. Upper Missouri region and eastern foot- 
hills of the Rocky Mts. to the Pacific; British Columbia. Breeds in all its N. A. range and 
winters extralimital. Habits, nests, and eggs like those of our other Tanagers. 


. 12. Family HIRUNDINIDZ: Swaliows. 


Swallows are fissirostral Oscine Passeres with 
nine primaries. Bill short, broad, flat, some- 
what triangular, deeply cleft, the gape wide and 
about twice as long as the culmen, the mouth 
thus opening to about beneath the eyes. This 
is the strongest character of the family in com- 
parison with its Oscine allies, and one perfectly 
distinctive, though some genera of Hirundines, 
especially Progne, approach the Ampelide in 
the form of the bill. The bill narrows rapidly 
to the compressed acute tip. Nasal fossee short 
and wide ; nostrils directed laterally or upward, 
ee: sometimes circular and completely exposed, 

Fie. 179.— European Barn Swallow, Hirundo sometimes scaled over. Culmen convex 
whatiee, - Crom, atean.) scarcely a third as 1 as the head; ti 

ya s long as the head; tip of 
upper mandible overhanging, usually nicked. Rictus smooth (or with. a few inconspicuous 
bristles ?). Wings extremely long and strong, the pinion bearing only 9 primaries, the 1st of 
which equals or exceeds the 2d in length, the rest being so rapidly graduated that the 9th 


320 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


is scarcely or not half as long as the lst; secondaries and their coverts also very short; all 
these quill-feathers broad and stout. An acute, thin-bladed and somewhat faleate wing, of 
surpassing volatorial power, results from these modifications. Tail of 12 rectrices, perhaps 
abnormally only 10, usually forked, or at least emarginate, and often deeply forticate, the 
outermost feathers being in this latter case narrowly linear in shape for a considerable dis- 
8 tance. Feet short, small, 
and weak, ill-adapted to 

: secure foot-hold, and very 
badly formed for walk- 
ing. Swallows scarcely 
use their feet for locomo- 
tion, relying mainly upon 
their prowess of pinion. 
The tarsal envelope thor- 
oughly Oscine in struct- 
ure, being scutellate in 
front and laminate behind ; 
it is sometimes partially, 
or alinost entirely, feath- 
ered; the tarsi are com- 
monly shorter than the 
lateral toes. The digits 
possess the normal number 
of phalanges; the basal 
phalanx of the middle 
digit is commonly coherent 
with one or both lateral 
toes; the hallux is ordi- 
nary, and not reversible. 
The digits are commonly 
naked and scutellate, rare- 
ly feathered to the claws. 
The claws are compara- 
tively strong, compressed, 
well-curved, and acute, 
apt for clinging. The 
plumage is soft, smooth, 
and blended, most fre- 
quently glossy or even 
AN i ze iridescent, but sometimes 
if a i \ MY anid | iin a a Wate i lustreless. Head short, 
ey : , broad, and depressed ; 
ei neck short. Mouth eapa- 


Fic. 180.— Upper, European House Martin, Chelidon urbica; lower, Bank ejous, its greatest width 
Swallow, Cotile riparia. (From Dixon.) 


equalling that of the head. 

This is a perfectly natural group, well distinguished by the foregoing characters. The 
swallows alone represent, among Oscines, the fissirostral type of structure ; they have a close 
superficial resemblance to the swifts and goat-suckers of another order, but the relation is one 
of analogy, not of affinity, though all these birds were formerly classed together in the highly 
uunatural ‘ order” Fissirostres. (See beyond, under Cypselide and Caprimulgide.) 


49. 


HIRUNDINIDZA: SWALLOWS. 821 


A hundred species of swallows are recorded; probably about three-fourths of them are 
genuine. They are distributed all over the world; the most generalized types, like Hirundo 
itself, are more or less cosmopolitan, but each of the great divisions of the globe has its peculiar 
subgenera or particular sets of species. Thus, all the American groups except Hirundo aud 
Cotile are peculiar to this continent. 

Swallows are iusectivorous, and therefore migratory in cold and temperate latitudes ; 
unsurpassed in powers of flight, they are enabled to pass with ease and swiftness from one 
country to another, as the state of the weather may require. With us a few warm days in 
February and March often allure them northward, only to be driven back again by the cold, 
giving rise to the well-known adage. No birds are better known to all classes than these, and 
none so welcome to man’s abode, — cherished witnesses of peace and plenty in the homestead, 
dashing ornaments of the busy thoroughfare. 

The habits of swallows best illustrate the modifying influences of civilization on indigenous 
birds. Formerly, they all bred on cliffs, in banks, in hollows of trees, and similar places, and 
many do so still. But most of our species have forsaken these primitive haunts to avail them- 
selves of the convenient artificial nesting-places that man, intentionally or otherwise, provides. 
Some are just now in a transition state ; thus the purple martin, in settled parts of the country, 
chooses the boxes everywhere provided for its accommodation, while in the West it retains its 
old custoin of breeding in hollow trees. The nesting of our swallows now presents the follow- 
ing categories of method : — 

1. Holes in the ground, dug by the bird itself, slightly furnished with soft material : Cotile 
riparia, Stelgidopteryx serripennis. 

2. Holes in trees or rocks not made by the birds, fairly furnished with soft material : 
Progne subis, Iridoprocne bicolor, Tachycineta thalassina. 

3. Holes, or their equivalents, not made by the birds, but secured through human agency, 
and more or less fully furnished with soft material, according to the shallowness or depth of the 
retreat. (Formerly, no species ; now, all the species excepting Cotile riparia.) 

4. Holes constructed by the birds, of mud, plastered to surfaces, whether artificial or natural, 
and loosely furnished with soft material. This is seen in perfection in the nesting of Petro- 
chelidon lunifrons, and is imperfectly illustrated by the nidification of Hirundo horreorum. 

5. Eggs pure white, unmarked: Iridoprocne bicolor, Tachycineta thalassina, Cotile ripa- 
ria, Stelgidopteryx serripennis, Progne subis. 

6. Eggs thickly speckled: Hirwndo horreorum, Petrochelidon lunifrons. 

The seven established North American species, referable to as many modern genera, may 
readily be determined by the following 

Analysis of Genera and Species. 
1, Tail deeply forficate, with linear lateral feathers; lustrous steel-blue above, rufous below 
Hirundo erythrogastra horreorum 159 


2. Tail simply emarginate; lustrous green; beneath white. . ... . + + + .  Tridoprocne bicolor 160 
3. Tail simply emarginate; opaque velvety-green; beneath white + + + 6 « Tachycineta thalassina 161 
4. Tail nearly even; lustrous steel-blue; rumprufous .... . + + + . « Petrochetidon lunifrons 162 
5. Tarsus with tuft of feathers below; lustreless gray; below white Rwlenlai ee Cotile riparia 163 
6. Outer edge of first primary serrate; lustreless brownish ; paler below. . . Stelgidopteryx serripennis 16} 
7. Bill very stout, curved; male entirely lustrous blue-black . . .........,~:, Progne subis 165 


HIRUN'DO. (Lat. hirwndo, a swallow. Figs. 179, 181.) Barn Swatows. Tail deeply 
forficate, nearly or about as long as the wings ; lateral feather linear-attenuate, about twice as 
long as the middle feather. Tarsi shorter than middle toe and claw, above feathered for a little 
distance ; basal joint of middle toe partly adherent to both lateral toes. Bill of moderate size 
for this family, of the usual shape, with straight commissure ; nostrils lateral, overarched bya 
membranous scale. Upper parts glossy, dark-colored; a dark pectoral collar; forehead and 
under parts rufous; tail spotted with white. Eggs colored. Sexes similar. 
21 


322 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


159. H. erythrogas'tra horreo/rum, (Gr. ¢pvOpds, eruthros, ruddy, and yaornp, gaster, belly. 


50. 


160. 


61. 


Lat. horreorum, of barns, gen. pl. of horrewm, a barn.) Barn Swautow. 4, adult: deep 
‘ lustrous steel-blue; forehead and entire under 
parts rufous, generally deepest on the forehead 
and throat; an imperfect steel-blue collar. 
Wings and tail blackish, with steel-blue or 
somewhat greenish gloss; the lateral pair of 
tail-feathers much lengthened and filiform at 
the end, all but the central pair with a white 
spot. Length 6.00-7.00, very variable, accord- 
ing to the development of the tail; extent 12.50- 
18.50; wing 4.50-5.00; tail 3.00-5.00, the fork 
2.00-3.00 deep. Q, adult: Quite like the ¢; 
colors rather less intense and lustrous; average 
size smaller. Young: Lacking in great measure 
the elongation and attenuation of the lateral tail- 
feathers, the fork being an inch or less in depth. 
Similar to the adults, but much duller, and with 
rather a greenish than steel-blue lustre — at an 
early age quite brown, with scarcely any lustre, 
and the rump and upper tail-coverts skirted with 
rusty. Frontlet obscurely marked or reduced to 
Fic. 181.— Generic details of Hirwndo (H. hor- ® mere tawny line, and under parts, especially 
reontim, matssize) (Ad nate. C.) behind the dark collar, very pale, even brownish- 
white. N. Am. at large; abundant; breeds throughout its range. 
IRIDOPROCNE. (Gr. "Ipis, gen. “Ipidos, Iris, messenger of the gods; also the rainbow; 
IIpéxvn, Procne, daughter of Pandion.) Iris SwaLLows. Plumage compact, lustrous, as in 
Hirundo ; but tail lacking the elongation of that genus, being simply emarginate. Under 
parts snowy white. Eggs colorless. Sexes similar. 
I..bi/color. (Lat. bicolor, two-colored. Fig. 182.) WHITE-BELLIED SwALLow. 4, adult: 
Entire upper parts glossy dark green; wings and tail blackish, lustrous; lores black. Entire 
under parts pure white. Bill black; feet dark. Length 
about 6.00; extent 13.00; wing 4.50-5.00; tail 2.50. 
@ : Similar, the colors rather less intense and lustrous. 
Young: Birds of the year slowly acquire a plumage 
differing only in the less lustre and intensity from that 
of the adults; but, on leaving the nest, they are dark 
mouse-gray or slate-color above, including the wings 
and tail, the interscapulars and inner quills tipped with 
rusty ; and white below, slightly shaded with ashy ; 
thus curiously similar to Cotile riparia. The feet yel- 
low. The first plumage is worn longer than usual, the 
autumnal dress being slowly gained — one or two of Fic. 182, — White-bellied Swallow, nat. 
the metallic-tinted feathers at a time. The quills of size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 
the wing are moulted by the young as well as by the adult, and in both, in autumn, the inner 
secondaries are white-tipped. Temperate N. Am. Breeds indifferently in all parts of its 
range, and wiuters abundantly on the southern border. 
TACHYCINE'TA. (Gr. rayuxivntos, tachukinetos, moving rapidly.) VIOLET-VELVET 
Swattows. Similar to the last, but lacking lustre of the richly varied plumage of the 
upper parts. 


161. 


52. 


162. 


58. 


HIRUNDINIDA: SWALLOWS. 523 


T. thalas/sina. (Gr. @addcowos, thalassinos, sea-green.) VIOLET-GREEN SwALLow. 4, 
adult: Entire under parts, including the sides of the head to just above the eyes, aud an enlarged 
fluffy tuft on the flanks tending to join its fellow over the rump, pure silky white. Upper parts 
rich, soft, velvety-green, mixed with a little violet-purple; the crown of the head similar, but 
rather greenish-brown, with a purplish tinge. Cervical region, in some cases a well-defined 
though narrow cervical collar, and the upper tail-coverts, violet-purple. These rich colors 
opaque, without gloss or sheen ; wings and tail blackish, with violet and purplish gloss. Bill 
black; feet brownish-black, small; iris brown; mouth pale yellow. Length 4.50-5.00 ; 
extent 11.50-12.50; wing 4.50; tail 2.00, lightly forked; bill 0.25; tarsus 0.40. The 9, 
and immature birds in general, differ simply in the less purity and intensity of the colors of 
the upper parts. In the very highest plumaged specimens, the back is nearly pure green, 
the cervical collar distinct, and the several coutrasts of crown, collar, back, aud upper tail- 
coverts are strong; in general, the back has a bruwnish-purple shade, more like that of the 
crown. Very young birds are like J. bicolor, though smaller, being dark mouse-gray above 
and white below. But traces at least of the special tints speedily appear. Young or autunmal 
birds usually have the inner secondaries white-tipped, as in I. bicolor. Middle and Western 
Provinces, U.S. and adjoining portions of British America; E. to the Upper Missouri. Breeds 
throughout its range, and winters extralimital. A lovely species. 

PETROCHELI'DON. (Gr. sérpa, petra, a rock; xedidav, chelidon, a swallow.) CLIFF 
SwauLows. Bill stout and deep (for this family) ; wostrils superior, opening without nasal 
scale. Tail unusually short, the tips of the folded wings reaching beyond it, about even, or 
vuly slightly emarginate, with the feathers broad to their ends. Feet much as in Hirundo ; 
tarsi feathered above; toes extensively adherent at base. A bristly appearance of the’ front 
and chin, different from what is seen in other groups. The tuft of crissal feathers is full, 
reaching nearly to the end of the tail. The species agree well in a special pattern of coloration, 
being steel-blue above, with rufous rwmp and nuchal band, and usually a frontlet of different 
color from the rest of the upper parts; under parts not continuously white as in Tachycineta 
and Iridoprocne. The nidification peculiar ; eggs colored. Sexes alike. 

P. lwnifrons. (Lat. una, the moon, or a crescent; frons, forehead. Fig. 183.) Cur 
Swallow. Eaves Swattow. Crescent Swattow. Mup Swatiow. 6, adult: 
Back and top of head, with a spot on the throat, deep lustrous steel-blue, that of the crown 
and back separated by a grayish nuchal collar. Frontlet white 
or brownish-white. Shorter upper tail-coverts rufous. Chin, 
throat, and sides of head intense rufous, sometimes purplish- 
chestnut, prolonged around the side of the nape. Under parts 
dull grayish-brown, with usually a rufous tinge (rusty-gray), 
and dusky shaft-lines, whitening on the belly, the under tail- 
coverts gray, whitish-edged and tinged with rufous. Wings 
and tail blackish, with slight gloss. Bill black; feet brown. 
Length 5.00-5.50; extent 12.00 or more; wing 4.25-4.50; tail 
2.25, nearly square. Sexes not distinguishable; both vary much 
in the tone of coloration, especially of the rufous parts. Fore- Fic. 188. — Cliff Swallow, nat. 
head sometimes white, sometimes quite brown. In young birds, *#¢ (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 

the frontlet may be altogether wanting ; upper parts lustreless dark brown, most of the 
feathers being skirted with whitish ; the rufous of the throat aud rump a mere tinge, the spot 
on the throat wanting, and the parts often speckled with white. N. Am. at large, abundantly 
but irregularly distributed, breeding in colonies wherever suitable sites may be found for its 
curious retort-shaped or bottle-nosed nests of mud. 

CO'TILE. (Gr. kwriAds, kotilas, a babbler, twitterer.) Bank SwaLtows. Tarsus with a 
tuft of feathers at the base below, near insertion of the hind toe. Edge of wing not rough. 


163. 


54. 


164. 


x) 


B24 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


© 


Claws little curved, the lateral reaching beyond the base of the middle one. Bill very small, 
the nostrils opening laterally and overhung by a membrane. Tail much shorter than wings, 
emarginate. Coloration dull and simple — lustreless brown above and across breast, white 
below. Eggs uncolored, laid in holes in the ground excavated by the bird. Sexes alike. 

C. ripa’ria. (Lat. riparia, riparian; ripa, bank of a stream. Figs. 180, 184.) Bank 
SwaLitow. @@: Lustreless mouse- 
brown; wings and tail fuscous. Be- 
low, white, with a broad pectoral 
band of the color of the back. A 
dusky ante-orbital spot. Length 
about 5.00; extent 10.50; wing 
4.00; tail 2.00. Sexes similar; the 
young differ chiefly in whitish edg- 
ings of the feathers, especially of 
the wings and tail. Even in the 
adult, the upper parts are apt to 
be not quite uniform, there being 
paler gray edgings of most of the 
feathers. The dark pectoral band 
sometimes extends backward along 
the middle of the under parts (not 
shown in fig. 184). Autumnal speci- 
mens have the secondaries white- 
tipped. Very young birds have 
rather rusty than whitish skirting 
of the dark feathers, and the white 
throat speckled with the same. Al- 
most cosmopvlitan: Europe, Asia, 
Africa, America; abundant in N. 
Am., breeding in immense troops in holes in the ground, wherever suitable sites offer, as 
natural embankments, rail-road cuttings, gravel-pits, ete. 

STELGIDO/PTERYX. (Gr. oredyis, stelgis, a scraper; mtépv&, pterux, wing.) RouGu- 
WINGED SWALLOWS. General aspect of Cotile ; form and coloration much the same. Outer 
web of Ist primary converted into a series of stiff, recurved hooks. (Other Swallows, as Psali- 
doprocne Cab., have this peculiar wing structure, but are otherwise different.) The design of 
the structure is not clear, but we may readily suppose that the hooks assist the birds in crawl- 
ing into their holes, and in clinging to vertical or hanging surfaces. Tarsus slightly feathered 
above, but lacking the curious tuft seen at the base of the hind toe in Coftile. Lateral claws 
curved, and not reaching beyond the base of the middle. Basal joint of middle toe exten- 
sively adherent to the outer, much less so to the inner. Bill small, with oval, superior nostrils 
margined by membrane behind, but not overhung. Tail short and slightly emarginate. Eggs 
uncolored, in holes dug by the birds, or elsewhere. Sexes alike. 

S. serripen/nis. (Lat. serra, a saw; penna, a feather.) ROUGH-WINGED SwaLLow. ¢ 9: 
Lustreless mouse-brown or brownish-gray, paler below, gradually whitening posteriorly. 
Wings and tail darker than the upper parts. Rather larger than the last species. No dark 
pectoral band contrasting with white. No tuft of feathers at the base of the hind toe. Young: 
At a very early age, the feathers of the back, rump, and wings are suffused or edged with rich 
rusty-brown, while the under parts are more or less tinged with a paler shade of the same. 
The hooklets of the wings are only fully developed in adult birds, and are not appreciable at 
all in young ones. U.S. and adjoining British Provinces ; rare in Eastern States. 


Fig. 184.— Bank Swallow. (Designed by H. W. Elliott.) 


55 


56. 


AMPELIDA — AMPELINE: WAXWINGS. 325 


PROG'NE. (Gr. IIpoxyn, Procne, a inythological character.) Of large size and robust form 
for this family. Bill long and stout, with much-curved commissure and deflected tip; culmen 
convex, its tomial edge concavo-convex like *,. Nostrils circular, opening upward, without 
nasal scale. Feet large, with strong, much-curved claws; tarsus shorter than middle toe and 
claw ; lateral toes about equalling each other in length ; basal joint of middle toe freer froin 
lateral toes than usual. Tail forked. Sexes dissimilar. Eggs colorless. 


. P. su/bis. (Lat. subis, name of an unknown bird.) PurpLe Martin. ¢, adult: Intense 


lustrous steel-blue. Wings and tail blackish, with bluish lustre. Bill black; feet blackish. 
Length 7.50 inches; extent 15.50; wing 5.50-6.00; tail 3.00-3.50, forked; bill 0.50, very 
stout, broad at the hase, somewhat decurved at the end; nostrils circular, exposed, opening 
upward. Q : Dark grayish-brown, glossed on the back and head with steel-blue. Wings 
and tail fuscous, paler on the inner webs, with narrow gray edgings. Beneath, whitish, shaded 
with dark gray in most parts, the feathers very generally with dusky shaft-line. Young birds 
of both sexes resemble the adult female, though the young males are rather darker. The steel- 
blue appears at first in patches. U. 8. and adjoining British Provinces, abundant and gener- 
ally distributed; breeds throughout its range, usually in the East in boxes provided for its 
accommodation, in the West in holes in trees. 


13. Family AMPELIDZ: Chatterers. 


This appears to be an arbitrary and unnatural association of a few genera that agree in 
some particulars, but are widely different in others. The composition and position of the group 
differ with almost every writer; some place it in Clamatores, next to the Tyrannide. I think 
that the family should be dismembered ; the Myiadesting are near the true Thrushes, and 
doubtless the other two subfamilies here presented may be properly dissociated. 

Birds of the three following genera agree in this character: Bill short, broad, flattened, 
plainly notched at tip, with wide rictus, and culmen or gonys hardly or not exceeding half the 
length of the commissure; basal phalanx of middle toe joined with outer toe for about two- 
thirds its length, and to inner toe for about half its length. The three, considered separately, 
may be readily and precisely defined. 


(8. Subfamily AMPELIN/AE: Waxwings. 


Of this subfamily, as here restricted, there is only one genus with three species — one of 
Europe, Asia, and America, one of Asia and Japan, one peculiar to America. 
AM'PELIS. (Gr. duedis, Lat. ampelis, name of a bird.) Waxwines. Bill short, broad, 
flat, rather obtuse, plainly notched near tip of each mandible, with wide and deeply-cleft gape, 
the convex culmen and gonys less than half as long as the nearly straight commissure, the 
width of rictus more than two-thirds the length of the gape. Nasal fossee broad, but filled 
with short, erect or antrorse, and close-set velvety feathers; nostrils narrowly elliptical, over- 
arched by a (feathered) scale. Rictal vibrissee few and short. Wings long and pointed, much 
longer than the tail, their point formed by the 3d primary, closely supported by the 2d and 4th, 
the 5th abruptly shorter and the rest rapidly graduated. Primaries 10, but the 1st spurious, so 
very short as readily to eseape observation, and sometimes displaced to the outer side of the 2d 
primary, —a condition like that seen among the Vireos. Inner quills, as a rule, and sometimes 
the tail-feathers, tipped with curious red horny appendages, like sealing-wax. Tail short, 
narrow, even, two-thirds or less of the length of the wing. Feet rather weak ; tarsus shorter 
than the middle toe and claw, distinctly scutellate with five or six divisions anteriorly and some- 
what receding from strict Oscine character by subdivision of the lateral plates. Lateral toes of 
nearly equal lengths, the ends of their claws scarcely reaching the base of the middle claw : 
hallux about as long as the inner lateral toe. Basal phalanx of middle toe cohereut with outer 


166. 


326 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


toe for about two-thirds its length, with inner toe for about half its length. Body stout. Head 
conspicuously crested. Plumage peculiarly soft, smooth, and silky. Tail tipped with yellow 
(or red, in the Japanese A. phenicoptera). Sexes alike; young different. Eggs spotted. 
Nest on trees. 

A. gar’rulus. (Lat. garrulus, a jay-bird: from its loquacity. Fig. 185.) Bonrmian Wax- 
WING. f 9, adult: General color brownish-ash, shading insensibly from the clear ash of the 
tail and its upper coverts and rump into a reddish-tinged ash anteriorly, this peculiar tint 
heightening on the head, especially on the forehead and sides of the head, into orange-brown. 
A narrow frontal line, and broader bar through the eye, with the chin and throat, sooty-black, 
not or not sharply bordered with white. No yellowish on belly. Under tail-coverts orange- 
brown, or chestnut. Tail ash, deepening to blackish-ash toward the end, broadly tipped with 


) ip WI a 

ZA y My i A, z ‘ "1 y 

7 AS W Ws OES Me GS 1 
Fic. 185.— Bohemian Waxwings, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


tich yellow. Wings ashy-blackish ; primaries tipped (chiefly on the outer webs) with sharp 
spaces of yellow, or white, or both; secondaries with white spaces at the ends of the outer webs, 
the shafts usually ending with enlarged, horny, red appendages. Primary coverts tipped with 
white. Bill blackish-plumbeous, often paler at base below; feet black. Length 7 or 8 inches; 
wing about 4.50; tail 2.50. The sexes of this beautiful bird are alike, and the principal varia- 
tions, aside from mere shade of the body-color, consist in the markings of the wings. In the 
finest specimens, the ends of the primary quills are rich yellow, like the tips of the tail-feathers, 
forming broad firm spaces, in a continuous line when the wing is closed, with narrower offsets 
going around the ends of the quills. In less perfect specimens, these markings are simply 
white, are less firm, and do not appear on all the quills. The secondaries may or may not 
show the red ‘sealing-wax” tips, but in adult birds at least probably always show white 


167. 


AMPELIDZE — PTILOGONATINA: FLY-SNAPPERS. 327 


markings at the ends, and the same is the case with the primary coverts. These wing-mark- 
ings, with the chestnut crissum, and absence of yellowish on the belly, wil always distinguish 
the species from A. cedrorum, independently of its much superior size. Young: There is an 
early streaked stage of plumage, like that of A. cedrorum. Northern hemisphere, northerly, 
wandering south in vast troops at irregular periods. In America, south regularly in winter to 
the northern tier of States; in the Rocky Mts. much further ; casually to about 35°. Rare on 
the Pacifie coast except in Alaska. Breeds in high latitudes, but down to the U. 8. border in 
the Rocky Mts. Nesting substantially the same as that of A. cedrorum, and eggs only differ- 
ent in their greater size — about 1.00 x 0.67. 

A. cedro/rum, (Lat. cedrus, gen. pl. cedrorum, the cedar. Fig. 186.) Cepar Waxwine. 
CaroLina WAXWING. CEDAR-BIRD. CHERRY-BIRD. ¢ 9, adult: General color shading 
from clear pure ash on the upper tail-coverts and rump through olivaceous-cinnamon into a 
richer and somewhat purplish-cinnamon on the fore parts 
and_head. On the under parts, the color shades through 
yellowish on the belly into white on the under tail-coverts. 
There is no demarcation of color whatever, and the tints 
are scarcely susceptible of adequate description. Frontlet, 
lores, and stripe through the eye, velvety-black ; chin the 
same, soon shading into the color of the breast. A sharp 
white line on the side of the under jaw; a narrower one 
bordering the black frontlet and lores; lower eyelid white. 
Quills of the wings slate-gray, blackening at the ends, 
paler along the edges of the inner webs; without white 
or yellow markings, as a rule; inner quills tipped with 
red horny appendages. Tail-feathers like the primaries, 
but tipped with yellow, and sometimes also showing red 
horny appendages. Bill plumbeous-black, sometimes paler Fie. 186. —Cedar-bird, nat. 
at base below; feet black. Length 6.50-7.25; extent (Ad nat. del. E.C.) 
11.50-12.00; wing 3.50-3.75 ; tail 2.25. Young: Brownish-gray, with a slight olive shade; 
paler below, whitening or becoming slightly yellowish on the belly ; everywhere streaked with 
dingy whitish ; the markings most evident on the breast and sides. Wings and tail as in the 
adults, but usually lacking the red appendages. The velvety-black and white on the head 
imperfectly defined. Bill pale at base below ; feet plumbeous. Specimens apparently mature 
and full-feathered frequently lack the sealing-wax tips. These are normally confined to the 
secondaries, but occasionally appear on one or several primaries, and some or all of the rectrices 
(as in fig. 185); a case is recorded in which an under tail-covert was similarly embellished. Both 
sexes possess these ornaments, but as a rule they are best developed in the g. The normal 
period of their appearance is not known — it is probably not constant; birds in the earliest 
known plumage may possess one or more. They are possibly deciduous, independently of 
moult of the feather. Their use is unknown. N. Am. at large to lat. 54° N. at least; breeds 
indifferently throughout its N. A. range, and migrates or rather wanders about according 
to food-supply; winters in most of the U. S.; goes in flocks nearly the whole year, and is 
especially fond of resorting to cedar thickets to feed upon the berries; breeds late (June, July) 
in orchards and groves; nest in trees or bushes, in the crotch of a bough or saddled on a limb; 
eggs 3-6, livid or pale bluish, sharply and usually thickly marked with blackish surface spots 
and others paler in the shell; narrow and elongate, about 0.82 x 0.60. 


size. 


19. Subfamily PTILOGONATINAE: Fly-snappers. 


Bill much as in the last subfamily, but slenderer for its length ; nasal scale naked; a few 
short bristles about base of the bill. Tarsus scutellate anteriorly, and sometimes also on 


57. 


168. 


828 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


the sides ; about as long as middle toe and claw; hind toe remarkably short. Wings not 
longer than the tail, much rounded, of 10 primaries; the 1st spurious, less than half as long as 
the 2d, which is only about-as long as the 8th; point of the wing formed by the 4th, 5th, and 
6th or 3d quills. Tail long, nearly even, with broad plane feathers (Phainopepla) ; or much 
graduated, with tapering central feathers (Ptilogonys). Head conspicuously crested ; sexes 
(in our genus) dissimilar; young not streaked or spotted. There are only two genera of the 
subfamily as thus restricted —Phainopepla and Ptilogonys, the latter with two strongly 
marked species of Mexico and Central America. 

PHAINOPEP'LA. (Gr. gaeivos, phaeinos, shining; mémdos, peplos, a robe.) SuINING Fiy- 
SNAPPERS. Bill somewhat as in Ampelis, but slenderer for its length; nostrils naked, 
scaled ; antiz bristly, reaching to nostrils; a few short rictal bristles. Tarsus scutellate 
anteriorly, and slightly subdivided on sides below. Hind toe very short; middle toe and claw 
about as long as tarsus; lateral toes a little unequal, outer the longer, reaching a little beyond 
base of middle claw, its basal joint adherent to middle; inner lateral toe nearly free to the base ; 
claws all much curved. Wings not longer than tail, rounded, of 10 primaries, the 1st spurious, 
though more than half as long as the 2d, which about equals the length of the secondaries : 
point of wing formed by the 4th, 5th, and 6th quills. Tail long and fan-shaped, not emargi- 
nate, of broad plane feathers widening to their obtuse ends. Head with a long, thin, occipital 
crest. Sexes dissimilar: ¢ glossy black, with large white wing-patch; 9 dull-colored; young 
not spotted or streaked. Fine songsters. Nidification arboreal; eggs colored. 

P. ni/tens. (Lat. sitens, shining.) Suininc Fiy-snapprer. , adult: Entirely rich lus- 
trous black, with steel-blue or greenish reflections. Primaries with a large white space on the 
inner webs. Bill and feet black. Length about 7.50 inches; ‘extent 11.50”; wing 3.50- 
3.70; tail 3.50-4.12 ; bill 0.40-0.50; tarsus 0.60-0.66; middle toe and claw 0.66-0.75. 9, 
adult : Crested, like the ¢. Entirely brownish-gray, paler beneath, the wings and tail black- 
ish, the white on the inner webs of the primaries much reduced or extinguished, and in its stead 
much whitish edging of the quills and coverts, tail-feathers, and crissum. Young ¢: Like 
the @ ; and during the progress to maturity every gradation between the characters of the two 
sexes is observed. Sometimes nearly all the feathers are skirted with white. Middle and 
Western Provinces, U. §., from Utah, Nevada, and Colorado southward ; a bird of remarkable 
characters and appearance, restless and vigilant ; feeds on berries and insects; sings beautifully. 
Nest a slight shallow structure, about 4.00 in diaineter by 2.50 high, with a cavity about 2.00 
deep, saddled on a bough, loosely fabricated of twigs, plant-fibres, and down; eggs 2-3 (rarely 
single), averaging 0.93 0.65, greenish-white, distinctly and profusely speckled with blackish 
or dark brown. 


20. Subfamily MYIADESTINA:: Fly-catching Thrushes. 


Bill as in the last subfamily. Tarsus booted, and toes deeply cleft, as in Turdid@. Lateral 
toes very unequal in length, the tip of the inner claw falling short of the base of the middle. 
Wings of 10 primaries, the Ist spurious, the 2d about as long as the 6th, the point of the wing 
formed by the 3d, 4th, and 5th. Tail long, about equalling the wing, dowble-rounded, being 
forked centrally, graduated externally ; all the feathers narrowing somewhat. towards the end. 
Head subcrested ; plumage sombre, variegated on the wings; sexes alike; young spotted. 
Highly musical. Containing about a dozen species, mostly of the genus Mzyiadestes ; others 
of Cichlopsis and Platycichla ; all except one are birds of Central and South America and the 
West Indies. Though our species was formerly called “ Ptilogonys,” it has nothing to do 
with the foregoing subfamily. The Myiadestine are in fact nearly related to the Turdide. 
Should they be placed in that family, as might be done without violence, the comparative 
diagnosis would be : 

Turpinas. — Bill inoderate, scarcely or not depressed, moderately cleft. Legs stout. 


58. 


169. 


VIREONID-E: VIREOS, OR GREENLETS. 329 


Tail-feathers widening a little toward the end, the tail thus becoming squarish or fan-shaped ; 
even or little rounded at their ends. 

MyrapestTixx. — Bill very short, much depressed, widened at base, deeply cleft. Legs 
weak. Tail-feathers tapering, the tail being thus rendered somewhat cuneate, and double- 
rounded at end. 
MYIADESTES. (Gr. via, 
muia, a tly, and eSeotys, edes- 
tes, an eater.) FLY-CATCHING 
TurvusHes. Characters of the 
subfamily as above given. 

M. town’'sendi. (To J. K. 
Townsend.) Townsenp’s Fiy- 
CATCHING THRUSH. ¢ 9: Gen- 
eral color dull brownish-ash, 
paler below, bleaching on the 
throat, lower belly, and crissum. 
Wings blackish, the inner sec- 
ondaries edged and tipped with 
white, nearly all the quills ex- 
tensively tawny or fulvous at : 
the base, and several of the in- Fig. 187. — Generic details of Myiadestes (M. townsendi,; bill and 
termediate ones again edged ges foot nat. size, wing and tail §). (From Baird.) 

ternally toward their ends with the same color. In the closed wing, the basal tawny shows 
upon the outside as an oblique spot in the recess between the greater coverts and the bastard 
quills, separated by an oblique bar of blackish from the second tawny patch on the outer webs 
of the quills near their ends. Tail like the wings (the middle pair of feathers more nearly like 
the back): the outer feather edged and broadly tipped, the next one more narrowly tipped, with 
white. A white ring around the eye. Bill and feet black. Eyes brown. Length about $8 
inches; wing and tail about equal, 4.00-4.50; the latter forked centrally, graduated laterally ; 
bill 0.50; tarsus 0.75; middle toe and claw rather more. Young: Speckled at first, like a 
very young thrush; each feather with a triangular or rounded spot of dull ochraceous or 
tawny, edged with blackish. Western U. S., from the eastern foot-hills of the Rocky Mts. 
to the Pacific; N. to British Columbia. A bird not less strange and unlike anything seen in 
the east than the Phatnopepla ; inhabiting woodland and shrubbery, feeding on insects and 
berries, and capable of musical expression in an exalted degree. Nest on the ground or in 
rubbish near it, loosely made of grasses; eggs about 4, bluish-white, freckled with reddish- 
brown, 0.95 X 0.67. 


a — : a 


14. Family VIREONIDZ: Vireos, or Greenlets. 


Small dentirostral Oscines, related to the Shrikes, with hooked 
bill, 10 primaries and extensively coherent toes. Bill shorter 
than the head, stout, compressed, distinctly notched and hooked 
at tip; rictus with conspicuous bristles; nostrils exposed, over- 
hung with a seale, but reached by the small bristly erect frontal 
feathers. Toes soldered at base for the whole length of the basal 
joint of the middle one, which is united with the basal joint of 
the inner and the two basal joints of the outer, all these coherent 

Fig. 188. — Warbling Vireo, re- phalanges very short. (Lateral toes unequal in the genus Vireo.) 
Sree Ee Tarsus equal to or longer than the middle toe and claw, scutel- 
late in front, laterally undivided, except at extreme base. Wings moderate, of 10 primaries, of 


59. 


330 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


which the 1st is short (one-half to one-fourth the second), or spurious, or apparently wanting 
(being rudimentary and displaced). Size small, under 7 inches; coloration simple, mostly and 
oftenest greenish ; young not spotted or streaked. 

This family was formerly united with the next (Laniide), chiefly on account of the 

resemblance in the shape of the bill of certain species to that of the shrikes ; but the likeness 
is never perfect, and there are other more important characters, especially in the structure of 
the feet, by which the two groups may be discriminated. The Vireonide are peculiar to 
America; they are a small family of five or six genera and nearly seventy recorded species, 
of which about five-sixths appear to be genuine. The typical and principal genus, Vireo, con- 
taining nearly thirty species, is especially characteristic of North America, though several species 
occur in the West Indies and Ceutral America; one genus and species, Laletes osburni, is 
exclusively West Indian; the rest — Cyclarhis, Hylophilus, Vireolanius, and Neochloe — are, 
with one exception, South and Central American. In further illustration of the characters of 
the group, I offer some remarks under the head of the only genus with which we have to do in 
the present connection. 
VIR’EO. (Lat. vireo, 1am green or flourishing.) GREENLETS. Bill like that of a shrike 
in iniuiature, moderately or very stout, shorter than the head, compressed at least toward the 
end, distinctly hooked and notched at the tip, sometimes with trace of a tooth behind the notch 
of the upper mandible, and usually a nick in the under mandible too. Rictal bristles con- 
spicuous, and others present among the frontal and mental feathers. Nasal fosse nearly filled 
with short erect feathers. Toes extensively coherent at base, as explained under head of the 
family ; lateral toes of unequal lengths; claws stout, narrowly compressed, much curved and 
acute. Wings at least as long as the tail, more or less rounded; sometimes much longer and 
quite pointed ; of 10 primaries, the lst usually evident, though short and spurious, but some- 
times (in the section Vireosylvia and in Vireo flavifrons) rudimentary and more or less com- 
pletely concealed (exceptionally obvious even in these species). Tail short, even, of narrow 
feathers. Size small; length usually five or six inches. Coloration simple; above olivaceous 
or grayish, the crown like the back, or ashy (in one case brown, in another black), the under 
parts white, or white and yellow, or partly olivaceous. Sexes quite indistinguishable; young 
similar, not spotted or streaked. Migratory in N. Am. Insectivorous, arboricole. Nest pen- 
dulous ; eggs white, spotted. 

The numerous species of this genus have been divided into several groups, but no violence 
will be done by considering them all as Vireo—in fact, it is difficult to do otherwise. For 
even the seemingly substantial division into two genera, according as there is an evident 
spurious lst primary or apparently none, separates species, like gilvus and philadelphicus, 
hardly otherwise specifically distinguishable; while another division into two genera, according 
to the shape of the wings and length of the spurious Ist primary or its absence, is subject to 
some uncertainty of determination, and unites species, like olivaceus and flavifrons, most dis- 
similar in other respects. The fact is, that almost every single species of Vireo has its own 
peculiar form, in shape of bill, proportions of primaries, ete., and these details cannot well be 
considered as of more than specific value. These slight differences are perfectly tangible and 
surprisingly constant, rendering the determination of the species comparatively easy, though 
these birds bear to each other a close general resemblance in size and color. They are all more 
or less olivaceous above, sometimes inclining to gray or plunbeous, with the crown either like 
the back, or else ashy, —in one species, however, brown, and in another black ; and white or 
whitish below, usually more or less tinged with yellow. The coloration is very constant, the 
sexes being indistinguishable, and the young differing little, if at all, from the adults. All are 
small birds, —about 5 or 6 inches long. Asa group the student will probably have no diffi- 
culty in recognizing them by the foregoing diagnosis, as the character of the feet seems to be 
peculiar, among N. Am. birds, and is at any rate diagnostic when taken in connection with the 


170. 


VIREONIDZ: VIREOS, OR GREENLETS. 331 


character of the bill, —all those Oscines, as wrens, creepers, or titmice, that show much 
cohesion of the toes, having an entirely different bill. Some of the weaker-billed species might 
be carelessly mistaken for warblers ; but there is no excuse for this, nor for coufounding them 
with any of the little clamatorial flycatchers. The Vireos were long supposed to possess cither 
9 or 10 primaries. But that the important character of number of primaries — one marking 
whole families as we have seen—should here subside to specific value only, seemed suspicious ; 
and the fact is that all the species really have 10, only that, in some instances, the Ist primary 
is rudimentary and displaced, lying concealed outside the base of the second quill. The N. Am. 
species are distributed over the temperate portions of this continent, and several of them are 
abundant birds of the Atlantic States, inhabiting woodland and shrubbery. They are exclu- 
sively insectivorous, and are therefore necessarily migratory in our latitudes. They build a 
neat pensile nest in the fork of a branchlet, and commonly lay four or five white, speckled eggs. 
All are alike in this respect, the nest and eggs of none of the species (excepting atricapillus) 
being distinguishable with certainty, though differing in size with that of the parent, and some- 
what in position, according as the parents are birds of woodland or shrubbery; it would be 
useless, therefore, to give particular descriptions for each species. Next after the warblers, 
the greenlets are the most delightful of our forest birds, though their charms address the ear 
and not the eye. Clad in simple tints that harmonize with the verdure, these gentle songsters 
warble their lays unseen, while the foliage itself seems stirred to music. In the quaint and 
curious ditty of the white-eye —in the earnest, voluble strains of the red-eye —in the tender 
secret that the warbling vireo confides in whispers to the passing breeze — he is insensible 
who does not hear the echo of thoughts he never clothes in words. 
: Analysis of Species. 


Primaries apparently 9 (the 1st rudimentary and displaced). (a) 
Primaries evidently 10 (the 1st short or spurious). (b) 


(a) Throat yellow ... oe 2 we ww . flavifrons 176 
— white; crown ashy, pot ‘Back eibed “hardly contrasting with back see «4 « . philadelphicus 173 
— black-edged; back olive; with maxillary streaks. . . . . barbatulus 172 


—no maxillary streaks; crissum merely yellowish 
olivaceus 170 


— bright yellow 
flaviviridis 171 
(b) Crownblack ... . . os eos e ee , Atricapillus 185 
— not black; apunces quill att leaat } as Tone: as 2d, and wing 2. 50 long’: boo & oe we “beIOr 180 

— not 3 as long as 2d, or wing not 2.50 long (e) 

(c) Wing-bands wanting: coloration asin philadelphicus . . . +. + gilvus 174, 175 
— present; length over 5.00; back olive, contrasting with fiche blue c crown . . solitarius 177, 178 
—plumbeous, crown scarcely different . . . . . plumbeus 179 
— 6.00 or less; wing = tail, both about 2.25; 1st quill=}the2d . . . pusillus 184 
— > tail; crown ashy, chin and superc. line white . . . belli 183 
— olive, chin wht., superc. line yell. . mnovebor. 181 
—and under parts yell’sh . . huttoni 182 


V. oliva/ceus. (Lat. oltvaceus, olive-colored. Fig. 189.) Rep-ryep GREENLET. Abov ve, 
olive-green ; crown ash, edged on each side with a blackish line, below this a white super- 
ciliary line, below this 
again a dusky stripe 
through eye; under parts 
white, faintly shaded 
with greenish - yellow 
along sides, and tinged 
with the same on under 
wing- and tail-coverts; \W77 
wings and tail dusky, 
the feathers edged with Fig. 189.— V. olivaceus, nat. size. (From Baird.) 


171. 


172. 


173. 


174. 


332 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES. 


olive outside, with whitish inside; bill dusky above, pale below; feet leaden-blue; eyes red; 
no dusky maxillary streaks; no apparent spurious quill. Little different with age, sex, or 
season; young and fall birds the brightest colored, especially on the sides, crissum, and lining 
of wings. Large; length 5.75-6.25 ; extent 9.75-10.75 ; wing 3.00-3.33 ; tail 2.33-2.50; bill 
about 0.66; tarsus 0.75. E.N. Am.; N. to Hudson’s Bay and even Greenland; W. some- 
times to Utah and Washington Territory; breeds throughout its U. 8. range, and winters from 
the Gulf States southward. In most places the most abundant species of the genus, in wood- 
land; a voluble, tireless songster. 

V. flavivi/ridis. (Lat. flavus, yellow; viridis, green. Fig. 190.) YELLOW-GREEN GREEN- 
LET. Very similar to the last; more yellowish below ; under wing- and tail-coverts decidedly 
yellow ; sides of body decidedly greenish-yellow. Texas and southward. 


oe 
(G 
ae 


“yh — 


</ We: 


Fig. 190.— V. flaviviridis, nat. size. (From Baird.) Fia. 191.— V. a. barbatulus, nat. size. (From Baird.) 
V. alti/loquus barba/tulus. (Lat. altus, high, loqguus, speaking; barbatulus, having a little 
beard. Fig. 191.) BLACK-WHISKERED GREENLET. WHIP-TOM-KELLY. Similar to oliva- 
ceus ; distinguished by a narrow dusky maxillary line, or line of spots, on each side of the 
chin; bill longer, 0.75-0.80; proportion of quills slightly different (see the figs.). Cuba, 
Bahamas, and casually in Florida. [V. altéloqgwus is the West Indian stock-fori. ] 

V. philadel/phicus. (Gr. diréo, phileo, I love; addeddpds, brother. Fig. 192.) Broru- 
ERLY-LOVE GREENLET. Above, dull olive-green, brightening on the rump, fading insensibly 
into ashy on the crown, which is not bordered with blackish ; a dull white superciliary line ; 
below, palest possible yellowish, whitening on throat and belly, slightly olive-shaded on 
sides; sometimes « slight creamy or buffy shade throughout the under parts; no obvious wing- 
bars; no apparent spurious quill. Length 4.80-5.10; extent 8.00-8.50; wing 2.66; tail 
9.25; bill hardly or about 0.50; tarsus 0.66. Eastern N. Am., strictly; N. to Hudson’s Bay ; 
asmall, plainly-colored species, almost indistinguishable from gilvus except by apparent absence 
of a spurious quill; not very common in the Atlantic States, more so in the Mississippi Valley. 


Fra. 192. —V. philadelphicus, nat. size. (From Baird.) Fra. 193. — V. gilvus, nat. size. (From Baird.) 


V. gil’vus. (Lat. gilvus, yellowish. Figs. 188, 193.) Warsiinc GREENLET. Colors pre- 
cisely as in the last species; spurious quill present and evident, + to $ as long as the 2d primary. 
Length 5.50-6.00; extent 8.50-9.25 ; wing 2.80; tail 2.25; bill 0.40; tarsus 0.65. Eastern 
N. Am. to the high central plains, breeding throughout its range; wintering extralimital; an 
abundant little bird and an exquisite songster. Its voice is not strong, and many birds excel 
it in brilliancy of execution ; but not one of them all can rival the tenderness and softness of 


175. 


176. 


177. 


178. 


oo 


VIREONIDA: VIREOS, OR GREENLETS. 


the liquid strains of this modest vocalist. Not born to “waste its sweetness on the desert 
air,” the warbling vireo forsakes the depths of the woodland for the park and orchard and 
shady street, where it glides through the foliage of the tallest trees, the unseen messenger of 
rest and peace to the busy, dusty, haunts of men. 

V. g.swain'/soni? (To Wm. Swainson. Fig. 194.) WESTERN WARBLING VIREO. “Similar 
to V. gilvus, but smaller; colors paler; bill more depressed ; upper mandible almost black ; 
9d quill much shorter than 6th.” Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, U.S. This Western form has 
been described as distinct, but the characters assigned will not be found constant. It is simply 
a dull-colored race, like many other birds of this region. 


Fic. 194.— V. g. swainsoni, nat. size. (From Baird.) Fig. 195. — V. flavifrons, nat. size. (From Baird.) 


V. fla'vifrons. (Lat. flavus, yellow ; frons, front.) YELLOW-THROATED GREENLET. Above, 
rich olive-green, crown the same or even brighter, rump insensibly shading into bluish-ash; 
below, bright yellow, belly and crissum abruptly white, sides anteriorly shaded with olive, 
posteriorly with plumbeous; extreme forehead, superciliary line and ring round eye, yellow; 
lores dusky; wings dusky, with the inner secondaries broadly white-edged, and two broad 
white bars across tips of greater and median coverts; tail dusky, nearly all the feathers com- 
pletely encircled with white edging; bill and feet dark leaden-blue; no apparent spurious quill. 
Length 5.75-6.00; extent about 10.00; wing about 3.00; tail only about 2.25. A large, 
stout, highly-colored species, curiously resembling Icteria virens, common in the woods of the 
Eastern U. S., and adjoining British Provinces; W. only to the edge of the plains; winters in 
Florida and southward ; breeds in all its U. 8. range. Its proper name may be V. ochroleucus. 
V. solita/rius. (Lat. solitarius, solitary; solus, alone. Fig. 196.) BLUE-HEADED GREEN- 
LET. SOLITARY GREENLET. Above, olive-green; crown and sides of head bluish-ash in 
marked contrast, with a broad white line from 
nostrils to and around (not beyond) eye, and a 
dusky loral line; below, pure white, flanks 
washed with olivaceous, and axillars and cris- 
sum pale yellow; wings and tail dusky, most 
of the feathers edged with white or whitish, 
and two conspicuous bars of the same across 
tips of middle and greater coverts; bill and 
feet blackish-plumbeous; iris brown. Length 
5.25-5.75; extent 8.50; wing 2.75-3.00; tail 2.25-2.33; Dill about 0.40, stout, nearly 0.20 
deep at base; spurious quill 0.50-0.66 long, about $ as long as 2d primary. Young and fall 
specimens more brightly colored. A stoutly-built species, known at a glance by the bluish cap. 
Eastern U. 8. and Canada; not rare, but not so common as olivaceus, flavifrons, or novebo- 
racensis ; inhabits woodland. 

V. s. cas'sini. (To John Cassin.) CAssin’s GREENLET. Scarcely different; said to be 
duller and more brownish-olivaceous ; under parts tinged with buff or ochrey where solitarius 
is pure white ; loral line and eye-ring impurely whitish. Arizona and California. (Not at all 
like V. plumbeus, with which it is geographically associated.) 


Fig. 196. — V. solitarius, nat. size. (From Baird.) 


179. 


180. 


181. 


182. 


304 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


V. s. plum/beus. (Lat. plumbeus, lead-colored. Fig. 197.) PLumprous GREENLET. 
Leaden-gray, rather brighter and more ashy on the crown, but without marked contrast, 
faintly glossed with olive on rump; a conspicuous white line froin nostril to and around eye, 
and below this a dusky loral stripe ; below, 
pure white, sides of neck and breast shaded 
with the color of the back, flanks, axillars 
and crissuin with a mere trace of olivaccous, 
or none; wings and tail dusky, with con- 
spicuous pure white edgings and cross-bars. 
Size of solitarius or larger. Length 5.75- 
6.10; extent 9.75-10.25; wing 2.90-3.10; 
tail 2.50; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.66; middle toe 
the same; spurious quill exposed about 0.75, 4 as long as the 2d quill. Central Plains 
to the Pacific, U.8., and especially Southern Rocky Mts., where it is abundant. A large stout 
species, a near ally of solitarius, but nearly all the olivaceous of that species replaced by 
plumbeous, and the yellowish by white, so that it is a very different-looking bird. Fall 
specimens, however, are more olivaceous, aud the bird evidently grades closely up to solitarius. 
V. vicinior. (Lat. vicinus, ucighboring.) Gray Greenter. With the general appearance 
of a small faded specimen of plumbeus: leaden-gray, faintly olivaceous on the rump, below 
white, with hardly a trace of yellowish on the sides; wiugs aud tail hardly edged with white ; 
no markings about head except a whitish eye-ring. Length 5.75; extent 8.66; wing and tail 
each 2.50; tarsus nearly 0.75 ; middle toe and claw hardly over 0.50; tip of inner claw falling 
short of base of middle claw ; tail decidedly rounded ; spurious quill exposed 0.75, 4 as long as 
the 2d primary, which latter is not longer than the 8th. These peculiar proportions of the 
original type specimen are constant, and the species is distinct from any other. It is our 
plainest-colored species, resembling plumbeus, but more closely allied to the smaller rounder- 
winged species like noveboracensis and especially pusillus ; the toes are almost abnormally 
short, and the tail is as long as the wing. Arizona and New Mexico. The type-specimen 
Jong remained unique, but others have since been found. 

V. noveboracen’sis. (Lat. novus, new, Lboracum, York. Fig. 198.) Wirn-ryep 
GREENLET. Above, bright olive-green, including crown; a slight ashy gloss on the cervix, 
and the rump showing yellowish when the feathers are disturbed ; below, white, the sides of 


Fia. 197.—V. s. plumbeus, nat. size. (From Baird.) 


the breast and belly, 
with axillars and cris- 
sum, bright yellow; a 
bright yellow line from 
nostrils to and around 
eye; lores dusky; two 
broad yellowish wing- 
bars ; inner secondaries 
widely edged with the 
same; bill and_ feet 
blackish-plumbeous ; eyes white. About 5 inches long; extent 8.00; wing 2.33-2.50; tail 
2.25; spurious quill exposed 0.75, 4 as long as the 2d, which about equals the 8th; tarsus 
about 0.75; iniddle toe and claw 0.50; Dill nearly 0.50. A small, compact, brightly-colored 
species, abundant in shrubbery and tangle of the Eastern U.S.; W. rarely to the Rocky 
Mts. ; rather southerly, N. only to the Connecticut Valley ; uoted for its sprightly manners 
and emphatic voice. 

V.hut’toni. (To Wm. Hutton, of Cala. Fig. 199.) Hurron’s Greentet. Similar to the 
last, but differing much as flaviviridis does from olivaceus, in having the under parts almost 


Fia. 198. — V. noveboracensis, nat. size. (From Baird.) 


182a. 


183. 


184. 


996 


VIREONIDZ: VIREOS, OR GREENLETS. D900 


entirely yellowish. California. First quill rather less than half the 2d, which about equals 
the 10th; 8d a little longer than 7th; 4th and 5th nearly equal and longest. Tail slightly 
rounded, shorter than the wings. Bill very small. Above olive-green; brightest behind, 
especially on rump and edging of tail; duller and more 


ashy toward and on top and sides of head and neck. — oT ae he 


Wings with two bands on coverts, and outer edges of 3 SS ae af 
innermost secondaries rather broadly olivaceous-white ; I == DF 
other quills edged externally with olive-green, paler he i i 
toward outer primary, internally with whitish. Lat- uk, Rk =F 

, ‘ A AXE al a eae 
eral tail-feathers edged externally with yellowish- Se 


A . SS See 
white. Feathers of ramp with much concealed yel- 


lowish-gray. Under parts pale olivaceous-yellowish, 
purest behind, lightest on throat and abdomen; the breast more olivaceous, the sides still 
deeper olive-green, the breast soiled with a slight buffy tinge. Avillars and crissum yellowish, 
the inside of wings whitish. Loral region and narrow space around eye dull yellowish, in faint 
contrast to the olive of head. Bill horn-color above, paler below; legs dusky. Length 4.70 ; 
wing 2.40; tail 2.05. (Description from Baird.) 

V. h. ste/vensi. (To F. Stephens.) STEPHENS’ GREENLET. Like V. huttoni. Bill stout ; 
wings from 0.30-0.40 longer than tail. Above, grayish-ash ; the crown, vertex and sides of 
head and neck nearly pure ash; the back faintly tinged with olive; the rump and an edging on 
the tail-feathers dull clive-green. Wings with two nearly confluent bands on the coverts, and 
the outer edges of the inner secondaries broadly white ; outer quills edged more narrowly with 
the same color. Beneath brownish or smoky-white, with a mere wash of yellowish on the sides 
and erissam. Upper eyelid dusky-brown; remainder of the orbital region, with the lores, 
ashy-white in decided contrast with the nearly clear cinereous of the head generally. Lining 
of wings white. Length 5.20; extent 8.50; wing 2.55-2.90; tail 2.25; tarsus 0.73; culmen 
0.50. Arizona and New Mexico, especially in mountain ranges. Related to huttoni, which 
has bill less stout, wing 2.40 or less, and is olive-green above and olivaceous-yellow below, 
without clear white anywhere. The differences are nearly parallel with those between belli and 
pustllus, —stevenst being grayish-ash above with no decided olive-green excepting on the rump 
and tail, brownish-white below, untinged with yellowish excepting on sides and crissum, the 
wing-bands pure white and nearly confluent. (Not in Check List, 1880. Description from 
Brewster, Bull. Nutt. Club, vii, 1882, p. —.) 

V. belli. (To J. G. Bell, of New York. Fig. 200.) Brtu’s GREENLET. Olive-green, 
brighter on rump, ashier on head, but without decided contrasts; head-markings almost 
exactly as in gilvus ; below, sulphury-yellowish, only whitish on chin and middle of belly ; 
inner quills edged with whitish; two 
whitish wing-bands, but one more con- 
spicuous than the other. Hardly or not 
5.00 long; wing scarcely over 2.00; tail 
under 2.00; spurious quill about 2 the 2d, 
which equals or exceeds the 7th. A pretty 
little species, like a miniature of gilvus, but \ 
readily distinguished from that species by Fie. 200.— V. belli, nat. size, (From Baird.) 


Fic. 199. —V’. huttoni, nat. size. (From Baird.) 


its small size, presence of decided wing-bars, more yellowish under-parts, and different wing- 
formula. Middle region of the U. S., W. to the Rocky Mts., E. to the valley of the Ohio ; an 
abundant species, inhabiting copses and shrubbery in open country, with much the same 
sprightly ways and loud song as those of noveboracensis. 

V. pusil’lus. (Lat. pusillus, puerile, petty. Fig. 201.) Least GReenter. Olivaceous- 
gray, below white, merely tinged with yellowish on the sides ; head-markings obscure ; wing- 


3386 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


bands and edgings, though evident, narrow and whitish ; no decided olive or yellow anywhere. 
Size of belli ; wing and tail of equal lengths, little over 2.00; bill 0.33; tarsus 0.66; middle 
toe and claw 0.50; spurious quill about $ as long as the 2d, which is intermediate between the 
7th and 8th. A small, obscure-looking 
species, resembling belli, but much grayer, 
tail relatively longer, spurious quill longer, 
and 2d primary shorter. Arizona and 
Southern California, common. 

V. atricapil/lus. (Lat. ater, black ; capil- 
lus, hair.) BLACK-CAPPED GREENLET. 
&: Top and side of the head black, ex- Fic. 201.— V. pusillus, nat. size. (From Baird.) 
cepting a white eye-ring and white loral stripe. Upper parts olivaceous ; lower parts white, 
tinged with pale greenish on the sides and flanks. Wings and tail blackish, edged with 
olivaceous, the former with two dingy whitish bars across the ends of the greater and median 
coverts; lining of wings yellowish. Bill black; feet dark; iris red. Length 4.75; extent 
7.25; wing 2.25; tail nearly 2.00; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.75; middle toe and claw 0.50; Ist 
primary exposed 0.66. A specimen from Mazatlan, supposed to be a Q, is described by Baird 
and Ridgway as having the black of the head replaced by dark slate color, the upper parts 
duller olive, the lower somewhat buffy. The black cap of the g renders the species con- 
spicuous among all its congeners. Texas and Mexico, rare; few specimens known. Nest in 
trees, pensile from a forked twig as usual in the genus, but eggs white, unmarked (as far as 
known; 15 examples examined) ; size 0.65-0.75 & 0.50-0.55. 


15. Family LANIIDZ: Shrikes. 


Essentially characterized by the combination of 
comparatively weak, strictly passerine feet with a 
notched, toothed and hooked bill, the size, shape, and 
strength of which recalls that of a bird of prey (fig. 
202.). The family comprises about 200 recorded 
species, referable to numerous genera and divisible 
into three groups, not very well defined, however, of 
which the following typical subfamily is the only 
one occurring in America: — 


Fic. 202.— Shrikes’ Bills, nat.size. (From Baird.) 


21. Subfamily LANIIN/E: True Shrikes. 


In this group the wing has 10 primaries and the tail 12 rectrices ; both are much rounded 
and of nearly equal lengths. The rictus is furnished with strong bristles. The circular nostrils 
are more or less perfectly covered and con- 
cealed by dense tufts of antrorse bristly 
feathers. The tarsi are scutellate in front 
and on the outside— in the latter respect 
deviating from a usual Oscine character. 
Our shrikes will thus be easily distinguished ; 
additional features are given under head of 
the genus Lanius, the only representative 
of this group in America. Fia. 203, —Butoher-bird, reduced. (From Tenney, 

These shrikes are bold and spirited after Wilson.) 
birds, quarrelsome among themselves. and tyrannical toward weaker species; in fact, their 
nature seems as highly rapacious as that of the true birds of prey. They are carnivorous, 


60. 


186. 


LANUDA—LANIINA: SHRIKES. 83T 


feeding on insects and such small birds and quadrupeds as they can capture and overpower ; 
many instances have been noted of their dashing attacks upon cage-birds, and their reckless 
pursuit of other species under circumstances that cost them their own lives. But the most 
remarkable fact in the natural history of the shrikes is their singular and inexplicable habit of 
impaling their prey on thorns or sharp twigs, and leaving it sticking there. This has occa- 
sioned many ingenious surmises, none of which, however, are entirely satisfactory. They 
build a rather rude and bulky nest of twigs, and lay 4-6 speckled eggs. They are not strictly 
migratory, although our northernmost species usually retires southward in the fall. The sexes 
are alike, and the young differ but little. There are only two well determined American 
species, of nine that compose the genus. 

LA/NIUS. (Lat. lanius, a butcher.) Gray Surimes. Wing of 10 primaries, and tail of 
12 rectrices, both rounded in shape, and of nearly equal lengths. Point of the wing formed by 
the 3d, 4th, and 5th quills, the second not longer than the 6th, and the Ist about half as long 
as the 3d. Tarsus equalling or slightly exceeding in length the middle toe and claw, strongly 
scutellate in front, and with the outer lateral plate usually more or less subdivided, as is unusual 
among Oscines. Lateral toes of about equal lengths, their claws reaching to the base of the 
middle claw ; inner toe cleft nearly to the base, the outer more extensively coherent with the 
basal joint of the middle toe. Feet large and strong, but without specially “raptorial ” 
development either of the digits or of their claws. Bill large and powerful, compressed, deep, 
completely notched and toothed, and strongly hooked, presenting the full accomplishment of a 
raptorial character. Rictus ample and deeply cleft, and strongly bristled; gonys short, only 
about half the length of the lower mandible. Nostrils circular or nearly so, placed well forward 
in the nasal fossee, more or less perfectly overhung and concealed by tufts of antrorse bristly 
feathers. Body stout; neck short; head relatively large. Coloration simple, the black, white, 
and bluish or grayish tints being unrelieved by red or other bright color. In the amount of 
the dusky vermiculation of the under parts the species are graded from borealis (most) to excu- 
bitorides (least or none), and each one is graded from young to old. In all, the general resem- 
blance to a mocking-bird is striking. 

Analysis of Species. 


Large: length 9.00 or over. Black head-stripe broken on under eyelid and across forehead. Always waved 
below with dusky ew, POE ce « for 42 AUR Lah sia See tae ss Ge ete, ote) as GA pa <a ed Si . borealis 186 
Small: length under 9.00. Black head-stripe unbroken across forehead: no white on under eyelid. Adults 
unwaved below. 
Lighter: much white on rump and scapulars; long white patch on primaries . . . excubitorides 188 
Darker: little white on rump and scapulars; short white patch on primaries . . . ludovicianus 187 


L. borea/lis, (Lat. borealis, northern. Figs. 203, 204.) Grear NorTHEern SHRIKE. 
BurcuER-Birp. ¢ 9, adult: Above, clear bluish-ash, blanching on rump and scapulars; 
below, white, always vermiculated trans- 
versely with fine wavy blackish lines; a 
broad black bar along side of head, not 
meeting its fellow across forehead, inter- 
rupted by a white crescent on under eyelid, 
and bordered above by hoary white that 
also occupies the extreme forehead ; wings 
and tail black, the former with a large 
white spot near base of the primaries, 
and white tips of most of the quills, the 2 
latter with the outer web of the outer ak Ny 


feather edged, and all the feathers except- Fic. 204, —Butcher-bird (L. borealis), nat, size. (Ad 

ing the middle pair broadly tipped, with 4+. del. E. C.) 

white, and with concealed white bases; bill and feet bluish-black ; eyes blackish. Length 
22 


187. 


188. 


338 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


9.00-10.00 ; extent 13.50-14.50; wing 5.00-5.50; tail rather more; Dill 0.75; tarsus 0.90; 
middle toe and claw 0.75. Young: The colors much less pure and clear. Above, grayish- 
brown, scarcely or not whitening on the scapulars, tail-coverts, and forehead. The younger 
the browner, sometimes almost with a rusty tinge; grayer according to age. Below brownish- 
white (the younger the browner), the wavy dark markings stronger than in the adult. The 
bar along the head poorly defined, merely dusky, or quite obsolete. Wings and tail brownish- 
black, with less white than in the adult. Bill plumbeous-brown, flesh-colored at base below. 
At a very early age, the upper parts are probably vermiculated somewhat like the lower, as 
in the same stage of L. ludovicianus ; but this state I have not observed. In old age, the 
dusky vermiculation of the under parts is much diminished, but I have never seen it absent 
altogether. This feature, coupled with the particular character of the head-markings and 
the large size and comparatively short tarsi, will always distinguish the species from ZL. ludo- 
vicianus or excubitorides. N. Am., northerly ; breeds, however, on mountains of the Middle 
States and in New England; in winter, usually extends S. to about 35°. The castle of this 
“feudal baron and brigand bold” is built in a bush or low tree with a basement of sticks, 
upon which is matted and felted a thick warm superstructure of bark-strips, grasses, and soft 
vegetable substances: eggs 4-6, about 1.10 X 0.80, rather elliptical in shape, so profusely 
speckled, scratched, and marbled with reddish, brownish, and purplish shades that the greenish- 
gray ground color is scarcely perceptible. 

L. ludovicia‘nus. (Lat. ludovicianus, of Louisiana.) LoGGERHEAD SHRIKE. J Q, adult: 
Above, slate-colored, slightly whitish on upper tail-coverts and euds of scapulars; below, 
white, sometimes a little ashy-shaded, but no wavy black lines, or only a few slight ones ; 
white on wings and tail less extensive than in borealis or excubitorides; black bridle meeting its 
fellow across forehead, not interrupted by white on lower eyelid, scarcely or not bordered above 
by hoary white. Smaller: length 8.00-8.50; wing and tail each 4.00 or little more; tarsus 
at least 1.00, thus relatively longer than in borealis ; bill about 0.50. Young: differing from 
the adult much as young borealis does, and decidedly waved below, as in that species: but the 
size and other characters are distinctive. Eastern and Southern U. S8., resident, abundant; in 
its typical manifestation it is characteristic of the 8. Atlantic States; but specimens more like 
ludovicianus than excubitorides occur N. to New England and W. to Ohio. 

C.1. excubitori/des. (Lat. excubitor, a sentinel; Gr. eiSos, eidos, resemblance ; i. e., like the 
European L. excubitor.) WHITE-RUMPED SHRIKE. COMMON AMERICAN SHRIKE. ¢ 9, 
adult: Leaden-gray or light slate-color, whitening on the scapulars and upper tail-coverts. 
Beneath, white, slightly shaded with the French gray on the sides, but without dusky vermicu- 
lation. A narrow stripe across the forehead, continuous with a broad bar along the side of the 
head, embracing the eye, black, slightly, if at all, bordered with whitish. Lower eyelid not 
white. Wings and tail black, with white markings, much as in the last species. Bill and feet 
plumbeous-black. Length under 9.00; extent 12.00-13.00; wing and tail, each, about 4.00 ; 
bill 0.66; tarsus 1.00 or more. Young: Vermiculated below with dusky, upon a brownish 
ground, about to the same extent as is seen in very old examples of L. borealis. General tone of 
the upper parts less pure than in the adult; scapulars and tail-coverts not purely white ; black 
bar of head less firm, but as far as it goes maintaining the characters of the species. Ata 
very early age, the upper parts, including the whitish of the scapulars and tail-coverts, are finely 
vermiculated with dusky waves. The ends of the quills, wing-coverts, and tail-feathers often 
have rusty or rufous markings. Extreme examples of excubitorides look very different from 
ludovicianus proper, but the two are observed to melt into each other when many specimens 
are compared, so that no specifie character can be assigned. Middle and Western N. Am. 
and Mexico; N. to the region of the Saskatchewan, E. to Ohio, New York, Canada and 
even New England. 


FRINGILLIDA:: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 339 


16. Family FRINGILLIDZ: Finches, ete. 


Conirostral Oscines with 
9 primaries. — The largest 
North American family, 
comprising about — one- 
seventh (123: 888) of all 
our birds, and the most 
extensive group of its 
grade in ornithology. As 
ordinarily constituted, it 
represents, in round nuin- 
bers 500 current species 
and 100 genera, of nearly 
all parts of the world, ex- 
cept Australia, but more 
particularly of the northern 
hemisphere and through- 
out America, where the 
group attains its maximum 
development. Any one 
United States locality of 
average attractiveness to 
birds has a bird-fauna of over 200 species; and if it be away from the sea-coast, and conse- 
quently uninhabited by marine birds, about one-fourth of its species are Sylvicolide and 
Fringillide together — the latter somewhat in excess of the former. It is not easy, therefore, 
to give undue prominence to these two families. 

The Fringillide are more particularly what used to be called ‘ conirostral” birds, in dis- 
tinction from “ fissirostres,” as the swallows, swifts, and goatsuckers, ‘‘ tenuirostres,” as hum- 
ming-birds and creepers, and ‘ dentirostres,” as warblers, vireos, and most of the preceding 
families. The bill approaches nearest the ideal cone, combining strength to crush seeds, with 
delicacy of touch to secure minute objects. The cone is sometimes nearly expressed, but is 
more frequently turgid or conoidal, convex in most directions or, again, so contracted that some 
of its outlines are concave. The nostrils are always situated high wp — nearer the culmen than 
the cutting edge of the bill; they are usually exposed, but in many, chiefly boreal, genera, the 
base of the bill is furnished with a ruff or two tufts of antrorse feathers more or less completely 
covering the openings. The cutting edges of the bill may be slightly notched, but are usually 
plain. There are usually a few inconspicuous bristles about the rictus, sometimes wanting, 
sometimes highly developed, as in our grosbeaks. The wings are endlessly varied in shape, 
but agree in possessing only nine developed primaries; the tail is equally variable in form, but 
always has twelve rectrices. The feet show a strictly Oscine or laminiplantar podotheca, 
scutellate in front, covered on each side with an undivided plate, producing a sharp ridge 
behind. None of these members offer extreme phases of development in any of our species. 

But the most tangible characteristic of the family is angulation of the commissure. The 
commissure runs in a straight line, or with a slight curve, to or near to the base of the bill, and 
is then more or less abruptly bent down at a varying angle—the cutting edge of the upper 
mandible forming a reéntrance, that of the lower inandible a corresponding salience. In 
familiar terms, we might say that the corners of the mouth are drawn down — that the Finches, 
though very merry little birds, are literally ‘‘down in the mouth.” In the great majority of 
eases this feature is unmistakable, and in the grosbeaks, for example, it is very strongly marked 


9 


340 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


indeed ; but in sume of the smaller-billed forms, and especially those with slender Dill, it is 
hardly perceptible. On the whole, however, it is a good character, and at any rate it is the 
most reliable external feature that can be found. It separates our fringilline birds pretty 
trenchantly from other 9-primaried Oscines except Icterid@, and most of these may be dis- 
tinguished by the characters given beyond. 

Taking their characters all together, Fringillide may be defined as 9-primaried conirostral 
laminiplautar oscine Passeres with axis of bill at an angle with that of skull, and nostrils 
nearer culmen than cutting edge of bill. 

When we come, however, to consider this great group of conirostral Oscines in its entirety, 
as compared with bordering families like the Old World Ploceida, or the Icteride, and espe- 
cially the Zanagrid@, of the New, the dithculty if not the impossibility of framing a perfect 
diagnosis becomes apparent, and I am not aware that any attempts at rigid definition have 
proven successful. Ornithologists are nearly agreed what birds to call fringilliue, without being 
so well prepared to say what “ fringilline ” means. The subdivisions of the family, as might 
be expected, are still conventional, and varying with every leading writer. Our species might 
be thrown into several groups, but the distinctions would be more or less arbitrary and not 
readily perceived. It is therefore best to waive the question, and simply collocate the genera in 
orderly sequence. 

The Fringillide are popularly known by several different names. Here belong all the 
sparrows, with the allied birds called finches, buntings, linnets, grosbeaks and crussbills. In 
the following pages I describe 123 species and subspecies, mostly well determined, and ascer- 
tained to occur within our limits, referring them to 37 genera, as the custom is, although I 
think this number of genera altogether too large. Two of them, Passer domesticus and P. mon- 
tanus, are imported and naturalized. Species occur throughout our country, in every situation, 
and many of them are ainong our most abundant and familiar birds. They are all granivorous 
— seed-eaters, but many feed extensively on buds, fruits, and other soft vegetable substances, 
as well as on insects. They are not so perfectly migratory as the exclusively insectivorous 
birds, the nature of whose food requires prompt removal at the approach of cold weather ; but, 
with some exceptions, they withdraw from their breeding places in the fall to spend the winter 
farther south, and to return in the spring. With a few signal exceptions they are not truly 
gregarious birds, though they often associate in large companies, assembled in community of 
interest. The modes of nesting are too various to be here summarized. Nearly all the finches 
sing, with varying ability and effect; some of them are among our most delightful voealists. 
As a rule, they are plainly clad—even meanly, in comparison with some of our sylvan 
beauties ; but among them are birds of elegant and striking colors. Among the highly-colored 
ones, the sexes are more or less unlike, and other changes, with age and season, are strongly 
marked; the reverse is the case with the rest. 

The unpractised student will have more trouble in this family than elsewhere in identifying 
his specimens. In the first place, the genera and species are very numerous, and so variously 
interrelated that no satisfactory subfamilies have been established; they are therefore not 
parcelled out in sets. Secondly, all the genera cannot be discriminated in a line of type. To 
meet the difficulty, I have caused the family to be profusely illustrated with cuts of more than 
average excellence, and attempted a tabular analysis of the genera, which, though necessarily 
defective, will doubtless help to some extent. Speaking roundly, there are three lots of 
genera: (a) Lowiine, mostly boreal birds, sexed unlike, ¢ often red, Q dull, no blue, colors 
massed or streaky, bill usually ruffed at base, wings pointed, tail forked, feet weak: (bd) 
Spizelline, everywhere, mostly small streaked and spotted species, sexed alike, may be 
yellowed but are never red or blue, wings, tail, and feet various; (¢) Spizine, mostly south- 
erly, sexed unlike, @ often red or blue, bill unruffed, wings, tail, and feet various; — but 
nothing will serve to distinguish these groups unexceptionally. 


FRINGILLIDE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 341 


Analysis (partial of Genera. 
Bill metagnathous, both mandibles falcate, their points crossed. gi red, @ dark and yellowish . Loxia 
Bill enormous, nearly = tarsus, greenish-yellow. Wings black and white; tail and tibize black. (Western. ) 
Hesperophona 
Bill parrot-like, whitish. Head conspicuously crested. g 9 gray and carmine, face not black. Length 


7.50 or more. (S.W.U.S.) . 2. - mr LPO en Me i Hy Bae he atthe Ble Goh ee Be. LTT EU ORT 
Bill reddish. Head conspicuously erento: do vermilion, face black. a gray and reddish. Length 7.50 
ormore. (E.and§.U.8.).. . wo. Cardinalis 


Bill with a ruff, or pair of nasal tu ifts, of antr orse stamens: at base of u upper mandible, 
Length 8.00 or more. gt red and gray, @ gray and yellowish, uncrested. Bill turgid, hooked, ( Boreal.) 
Pinicola 
—under 8.00. — Bluish-gray, below reddish-gray, crown, wings, and tail black. (Alaska. ) 

Pyrrhula 

— White, with black on back, wings, and tail ; or washed with clear brown. (Boreal.) 

Plectrophanes 
— Chocolate-brown, unstreaked, with rosy edgings ; black or clear ash on head. 


(Western.) Leucosticte 
— Streaky ; no yellow; gi extensively red; 9 dark and white. Bill turgid. (E. and 
W.U.S.) 2... » . + . Carpodacus 
— Streaky, with dusky or flaxen- brown ‘and White; ¢ crown crimson. Bill acute. 
(Boreal.) . . . . . . Byiothus 


— Streaky everywhere, no prcatg or pars black, some > yellowish. Bil acute. (N. Am.) 
Chrysomitris 
—Streaky or not ; much yellow, wings and tail black,no red. Bill moderate. (U.S.) 
Astragalinus 


{Intermediate between Nos. 68 and 70]. . Linota 
Bill without ruff; nostrils exposed. 


Hind claw lengthened, straightened. — Bill moderate; g with a colored cervical collar ; oblique white 


on tail. (N.andW.N.A.).. . . . 4 .  Centrophanes 
_— Bill ing no Corrieal collar : transverse white on tail. (West- 
1 ee . . . . Rhynchophanes 
Hind and fore claws lengthened; all much curved ; inner teadilns ab least 4 4 way to end of middle 

ge —Spotted and streaked foxy or slaty sparrows, about 7.00 long. (N. Am.) 
Passerella 
— Black, white and chestnut, in masses. (A Western speciesof) . . . . Pipilo 

Hind and fore claws not peculiar. 

Length 4.50 or less. — gf Black and white, 9 olivaceous and yellowish. (Texas.). . Spermophila 
d Greenish blackening on head, ? greenish. (Florida.). . . Phonipara 
Length 7.50 or more. — Tail longer than wings. Plain brown, etc., or black, white, and chestnut. 
(Sis eee ey se Se ao pe el  « @ = Pipito 
— Tail shorter than wings. ‘3 ‘breast | rose or soraneess 9 sulphur or saffron 
under-wings: (UsSi)ie 2 sg ee a a Gk a se ae ws ie melodia 


Length over 4.50, under 7.50. 
Colors greenish — with yellow —on edge of wing, and —2 rufous crown-stripes. (Texas.) 


Embernagra 

— Crown chestnut, breast ashy. (West- 

ern species of) . . . . . Pipilo 

—on all under parts—no head markings. (? of asouthern spe- 
ciesof) . . . . . . . Passerina 


Colors not greenish, and not extensively and decidedly epobeed’ or ‘streaked. 

Black, with great white wing-patch ; longest aicsere about = longest primary. 
(Western.) . ... 2... Calamospiza 

Blue, with chestnut on wings, he plain Browns 19.8 3 over 6. 00 long. (U.S.) Guiraca 

Blue, with red, purple, gold, white, or not, g'; brown, with white or not, 9 ; under 
6.00 long. (U.S.).. . . . . Passerina 

Slate or ashy, red-backed or not belly and 1- 3 tail- feathers white, (N. Am.) Junco 

Gray, throat and tail black, head with 2 white stripes, belly white. (Western.) 


Amphispiza 
Colors not greenish, but somewhere or everywhere spotted or streaked. 
Inner secondaries lengthened, about equalling primaries in the closed wing. 
A large white wing-patch. Upper parts much streaked. (9 of) . . Calamospiza 
Bend of wing chestnut ; outer tail-feather white; no yellow anywhere. (N. Am.) 
Poecetes 


No white or chestnut area on wing, its edge (usually) yellowish. (N. Am.) 
Passerculus 


76 


75 


61. 


189. 


342 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PASSERES — OSCINES. 


Inner secondaries not enlarged ; wing decidedly longer than tail. 
Edge of wing and loral spot yellow ; breast buff; wing under 2.50, (Eastern.) 
Coturniculus TT 
With yellow on breast, edge of wing, over eye; black throat-patch or stripes. 


(Eastern.). . . . Spiza 88 
No yellow ; head striped with black, white, and aha sinut tail black, white- -tipped. 

(Western.). . 2... gg oh Use eo tie ee a gy ae ee oe AChondestes: 85. 
No yellow ; wings white- Haired; throat black, gf. (Jmported.) . . . . . Passer 64 


Inner secondaries not enlarged ; wing not, or not decidedly, longer than tail. 
Tail-feathers — very acute ; bill—very slender. (Eastern, chiefly maritime. ) 
Ammodramus 78 


—very stout. (Eastern, interior.) . .Coturniculus 77 

—not acute ; tail—forked. Length 6.00 or less; no yellow on wing. 
GNesADI see Se a SO oe - . . Spizella 83 

— rounded — black ; edge ar wing yellowish. (West- 
@rm.)) es » . . . Amphispiza 81 


aa black. —Streaked below, or crown 
chestnut. (N.Am.). . Melospiza 79 
—not streaked below. (S. 
and W. U.S.). Peucea 80 
or(N. Am.) Zonotrichia 84 


*,* The commonest ‘‘sparrows”’ of Eastern U. S., which the student will be most likely to find first, belong 
to the genera Passer, Spizella, Melospiza, Zonotrichia, Passerella, Passerculus, Powcetes, Coturniculus (these 
anywhere); dmmodramus (marshes only); common but more distinguished fringillines are Carpodacus, Astra- 
galinus, Chrysomitris, Passerina, Spiza, Pipilo, and Cardinalis. Wiuter visitors, in flocks, are Loxia, Pinicola, 
Plectrophanes, Centrophanes, giothus, and Junco. 

HESPEROPHO'NA. (Gr. éoreépa, Hesperus, place of sunset; gern, voice.) AMERICAN 
Hawrincu_es. Bill enormously large, vaulted, nearly as wide as high at base ; culmen nearly 
straight to the deeurved end; commissure curved without obvious angulation ; gonys very long, 
and mandibular rami short, not reaching back of 
base of upper mandible; mandibles of equal thick- 
ness, lower not so deep as upper; lateral outlines of 
bill converging straight to tip. Nasal fosse ex- 
tremely short and broad; nostrils slightly overhung 
by antrorse plumule. Wings long, pointed, folding 
beyond middle of tail, pointed by first two primaries, 
the rest rapidly graduated; no peculiar shape of 
inner primaries or outer secondaries. Tail rather 
short, emarginate, with long coverts, the under 
reaching nearly to the forking. Feet small and 
weak; tarsus shorter than middle toe without 
claw ; lateral toes of about equal lengths, their claws 
reaching only to base of middle claw. Coloration 
Fra. 206. — Evening Grosbeak, reduced. black, white, and yellow. Sexes dissimilar. Little 
(Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) different from Old World Coccothraustes, excepting 
coloration and simplicity of wing-quills. 
H. vesperti/na. (Lat. vespertina, of Hesperus. Fic. 206.) Eventnc Grospeak. Adult 
&: General color sordid yellow, overlaid with a sooty-olive shade, deepest on fore parts, quite 
black on crown, clearest below behind. Forehead and line over eye, scapulars, and rump, 
yellow. Wings and tail black; several inner secondaries and inner half of the greater coverts 
white ; lining of wings black and yellow. A narrow black line around base of upper man- 
dible; tibia black. Bill greenish-yellow; feet apparently dusky flesh-color. Length 
7.50-8.50; wing 4.00-4.50; tail 2.50-3.00; bill 0.75 long, 0.67 deep, 0.60 broad. @: 
Brownish-ash, paler below, whitening on belly, irregularly patched or mixed with yellowish ; 
white of wings imperfeet, or tinged with yellow ; primaries, which are quite black in ¢, with 


62. 


190. 


FRINGILLIDZ: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 343 


large white spaces on inner webs, and sometimes tipped with white. Adult & @ differ in the 
shade of yellow and degree of its obscuration. (Specimens from Southern Rocky Mts. said 
to have less turgid bill and narrower yellow frontlet.) A bird of distinguished appearance, 
whose very name suggests the far-away land of the dipping sun, and the tuneful romance 
which the wild bird throws around the fading light of day; clothed in striking color-contrasts 
of black, white, and gold, he seems to represent the allegory of diurnal transmutation ; for his 
sable pinions close around the brightness of his vesture, as night encompasses the golden hues 
of sunset, while the clear white space enfolded in these tints foretells the dawn of the morrow. 
Western U. 8. and somewhat northward; E. in region of great lakes to N. Y. and Canada 
and probably New England ; irregularly migratory; common. Nest and eggs unknown. 
PINI/COLA. (Lat. pinus, a pine; colo, I cultivate.) Pine Bunurincnes. Bill short, 
stout, about as high as broad, sides convex in all directions, culmen convex throughout, tip 
hooked ; commissure gently curved throughout, without decided angulation ; gonys relatively 
long, rami of under mandible short, former nearly straight, latter coming together in a very 
broad gentle curve ; commissural edge inflected. Nostrils small, round, basal, concealed by 
the ruff of antrorse plumules ; nasal fossee short and broad. . Wings of moderate length, tipped 
by 2d-4th quills, Ist and 5th a little shorter; 2d-5th with outer webs incised; no peculiarity 
of inner quills. Tail little shorter than wings, emarginate, its short coverts scarcely or not 
reaching half-way to end. Feet small; tarsus not longer than middle toe without claw, 7-scu- 
tellate in front, laminiplantar behind, but the outer of these plates commonly subdivided into 3 
or 4 below! Lateral toes short, their claws scarcely surpassing base of middle one, outer 
rather longer than inner; hind toe less in length than inner lateral; its claw shorter, though 
stouter and more curved than the middle. Sexes l 
unlike; ¢ red, Q gray. One species. 

P. enuclea’tor. (Lat. enucleator, one who shells 
out. Fig. 207.) Pine Grospeax. Adult @: 
Light carmine or rosy-red, feathers of back with 
dusky centres; lower belly and under tail-coverts 
gray, and, in general, the red continuous only in 
highly plumaged specimens. Nasal tufts and lores 
blackish. Wings blackish; primaries with narrow 
white or rosy edging, inner secondaries more broadly 
edged with white, ends of greater and middle coverts 
white or rosy, forming conspicuous wing-bars. 
Tail like wings, with narrow edgings like those 
of primaries. Bill blackish, with or without paler 
base below; feet blackish. Length about 8.50; 
wing 4.50 or more; tail 4.00. 9: Ashy-gray, 
paler below; feathers of the back with darker cen- Fie. 207.— Pine Grosbeak, reduced. (Shep- 
tres, those of head, rump, aud fore parts generally pard del. Nichols sc.) 

skirted with a saffron or yellowish color, very variable in extent and tint, from dull gamboge- 
yellow to olive-orange, or rusty-orange, or even reddish; in some specimens crown and rump 
quite bricky-red. Throat sometimes abruptly paler than surrounding parts. Rather smaller 
than g. Young g resembles 9. Northern portions of both hemispheres; in America, in 
summer, Alaska, British America and N. border of U. S., the Rocky Mts. to Colorado, and 
Sierra Nevada to Califoruia; in winter, range extended sometimes to Maryland, Ohio, Illinois 
and Kansas. Inhabits chiefly coniferous woods, in flocks when not breeding, feeding upon 
the fruit of such trees. A fine musician, of amiable disposition and gentle manners, often 
caged. Nest composed of a basement of twigs and rootlets, within which is a more compact 
fabric of finer materials; eggs usually 4, pale greenish-blue, spotted and blotched with dark 
brown surface-markings and lilac shell-spots ; 1.05 x 0.74. 


63. 


191. 


64. 


192, 


344 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


PYR/RHULA. (Lat. pyrrhula, a bullfinch.) BuLirincues. Generic characters of Pinicola 
as above given; the lesser hook of the bill and different style of coloration being the principal 
distinction. Colors in masses of black, white or gray, and red. 

P. cas/sini. (To John Cassin. Fig. 208.) 
Cassin’s Buturincu. Above, clear ashy- 
gray; below, cinnainon-gray; rump and under 
wing- and tail-coverts white; wings and tail, 
crown, chin and face black ; outer tail-feathers 
with a white patch, greater wing-coverts 
tipped and primaries edged with whitish ; bill 
black, feet dusky. Length 6.50; wing 3.50; 
tail 3.25. Nulato, Alaska, only one specimen 
known, marked ¢, but having all the charac- 
ters of a 9; nearest related to P. coccinea of 
Asia, and originally described as a variety of 
that species. 

PAS/SER. (Lat. passer, a sparrow: this very species.) Sparrows. Form stout and 
stocky. Bill very stout, shaped somewhat as in Carpodacus, but without nasal ruff. Cul- 
men curved ; commissure little angulated; gonys convex, ascending; lateral outlines of bill 
bulging to near the end. Wing pointed; Ist, 2d, and 3d primaries nearly equal and 
longest ; 4th little shorter, rest graduated; inner secondaries not elongate. Tail shorter than 
wings, nearly even. Feet small; tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw; lateral toes of 
equal lengths, their claws not reaching to base of middle claw. Sexes unlike. ¢ with black 
and chestnut on head. Middle of back only streaked. Old World: two species naturalized in 
North America. : 

P. domes'ticus. (Lat. domesticus, domestic. Fig. 209.) Tus Sparrow. Purp Spar- 
row. Housr Sparrow. Parasire. Tramp. Hoopium. Gamin. ¢, adult: Upper 
parts ashy-gray; middle of back and scapulars boldly streaked with black and bay. A dark 
chestnut or mahogany space behind eye, spreading on side of neck. Lesser wing-coverts deep 
chestnut ; median tipped with white, forming a conspicuous wing-bar, bordering which is a 
black line. Greater coverts and inner quills with central black field bordered with bay. Tail 
dusky-gray, unmarked. Lower parts ashy, gray or whitish; chin and throat jet black, 
spreading on the breast and lores, bordered on side of neck with white. Bill blue-black ; feet 
brown. Wing about 3.00; tail 2.25. 2, adult: Above, brownish-gray ; streaking of back 
light ochrey-brown and black ; wing-edgings light ochrey-brown, the white bar impure. 
No black, mahogany, or white on head; a pale brown postocular stripe; bill blackish- 
brown, yellowish at base below. Varies endlessly in the purity or dinginess of coloration. 
Young ¢ at first like 9. Europe, ete. Imported about fifteen years ago, during a craze 
which even affected some ornithologists, making people fancy that a granivorous conirostral 
bird would rid us of insect-pests, this sturdy and invincible little bird has overrun the whole 
country, and proved a nuisance without a redeeming quality. Well-informed persons 
denounced the bird without avail during the years when it might have been abated, but 
further protest is futile, for the sparrows have it all their own way, and can afford to laugh at 
legislatures, like rats, mice, cockroaches and other parasites of the human race which we have 
imported. This species, of all birds, naturally attaches itself most closely to man, and easily 
modifies its habits to suit such artificial surroundings; this ready yielding to conditions of 
environment, and profiting by them, makes it one of the creatures best fitted to survive in the 
struggle for existence under whatever conditions man may afford or enforce ; hence it wins in 
every competition with native birds, and in this country has as yet developed no counteractive 
influences to restore a disturbed balance of forces, nor any check whatever upon its limitless 


Fic. 208. — Cassin’s Bullfinch, reduced. (From Baird.) 


193. 


FRINGILLIDE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 345 


increase. Its habits need not be noted, as they are already better known to everyone than 
those of any native bird whatever. , 

T. monta/nus. (Lat. montanus, of mountains. Fig. 209.) Mounrain Sparrow. Some- 
what like the last, but smaller and otherwise different. g¢: Crown and nape a peculiar pur- 
plish-brown. Lores, chin, and throat black, the throat-patch narrow and short, not spreading 
ou breast, contrasted with ashy-white on side of head and neck; ear-coverts blackish. Back 


= 
Z— 
Ss 


Fic. 209. — Exotic Sparrows. Lowest one, P. domesticus ; next one, P. montanus; reduced. (From Brehm.) 


and scapulars streaked with black and bay, the streaking reaching to the purplish nape; 
rump and tail plain grayish-brown. Wings marked much as in P. domesticus, with a black 
and white bar across tips of median coverts, but also a narrow white bar across tips of greater 
coverts. Primaries more varied with ochrey-brown on outer webs, forming a basal spot ana 
other edging. Below, ashy-gray, shaded on sides, flanks, and crissum with grayish-brown. 
Bill blue-black ; feet brown. Wing 2.75; tail 2.50. @ differs much as before. Europe; 
naturalized about St. Louis and elsewhere. 


65. 


194. 


846 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES— OSCINES. 


CARPO’DACUS. (Gr. xapmés, karpos, fruit; Sdxos, dakos, biting.) PurpLe BULLFINCHES. 
Bill smaller and less turgid than in Pinicola or Pyrrhula, more regularly conic and more acute; 
sides convex in all directions, but with distinct ridge prolonged in a point on forehead where 
not concealed by the antie, its outline moderately curved ; com- 
missure decidedly angulated, about straight before and behind the 
bend; gonys quite straight. Nasal ruff little developed, barely 
concealing the slight nasal fossee, thence falling over sides of bill, 
but discontinuous across culmen. Wings long and pointed, fold- 
ing half-way to end of tail or farther, pointed by first 3 or 4 quills. 
Tail much shorter than wings, considerably forked, with rather 
narrow feathers; both sets of coverts reaching more than half- 
way to end. Feet small and weak; tarsus shorter than middlo 
toe; lateral toes subequal, outer rather longer than inner, their claws reaching base of middle 
claw. Sexes unlike. @ extensively red of some shade, 9 streaky brown and white. Head 
with erectile feathers, but not fairly crested. A beautiful genus, of several species of New and 
Old World. 


Fic. 210. — Bill of Purple 
Finch, nat. size. 


Analysis af Species (#). 
Bill conic-acute, with scarcely convex culmen ; edgings of wing- and tail-feathers reddish. 
Large: length 6.50-7.00 ; bill at least 0.50 along culmen. Under tail-coverts streaked with dusky centres 
of the feathers. Crimson crown well distinguished from merely reddish-brown back. (Southwestern 
Wi Gia) em Psa ER Uae war Gee A Abe oe nen cary hye, py Se ae ary a en, SRP co, toy tien Sa ey Van ee reine eaeaeenes 195, 
Medium: length 5.75-6.25; bill not 0.50 along culmen. Under tail-coverts scarcely or not streaked. 
Crimson of crown not well distinguished from that of back. (U.S.)...... - purpureus 194 
Bill conoid-obtuse, with very convex culmen. Edgings of wing- and tail-feathers whitish. 
Small: length scarcely 6.00; bill about 0.40 along culmen. Front, line over eye, rump and throat red, 
more or less contrasting with brown or white of other parts. 
Red pretty definitely restricted to the areas said (Southwestern U.S.) . . . .. . . Jrontalis 196 
Red spreading over other parts (Californian coast). . . . . 2. . - « . «+ + + rhodocolpus 197 


C. purpwreus. (Lat. purpurens, purple. Figs. 210, 211.) Purpie Finca (better Crim- 
son Fincu.) Adult ¢: Rose-red, paler below, insensibly whitening on belly and crissum, 
brightest anteriorly, intensified to crimson on crown, darker and more brownish-red on back, 
where also streaked with dark brown. Wings and tail 
dusky, the quills edged and coverts tipped with brownish- 
red. Lores and feathers about base of bill hoary-whitish. 
Bill and feet brown, the under mandible rather paler. 
Length 6.00-6.25; extent 10.00-10.60; wing 3.00-3.25 ; 
tail 2.25-2.50; tarsus 0.62; middle toe and claw 0.87; bill 
under 0.50. The shade of red is very variable, almost any- 
thing but purplish — according to season, and age and 
vigor of the individual. In high feather, the crown is 
richer crimson than any other part, but does not form a 
definite cap. The auriculars are dusky, and there is an 
appreciably light rosy stripe over them. Younger g g 
have frequently a bronzy shade. @ and young: Oliva- 
ceous-brown, more clearly olivaceous on rump, everywhere 
streaked with dusky. Below, white, marked everywhere 
except on throat, belly, and crissum with streaks and FIG. 211.— Purple Finch, g, reduced. 
arrow-heads of dusky olive-brown; the latter pretty (Sheppard del. “Nichols, se.) 

evenly distributed on breast, former the same on sides, on the sides of neck and throat con- 
fluent and gathered into a maxillary series running up to the bill, separated by a poorly- 
defined whitish area from the olive-brown auriculars, over which is a whitish postocular 
streak. Wings and tail as in @, but the edgings plain brown. Length 5.70-5.90; extent 


195. 


196. 


FRINGILLIDE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 34T 


9.50-10.00; wing about 3.00. Young ¢ cannot be certainly distinguished from & ; in general, 
duller and grayer brown, with less of the olive shade; the red first shows pale or bronzy in 
slight touches. Cage-birds sometimes turn yellowish after moulting, as is the case with 
various other red finches. U. S. from Atlantic to Pacific, excepting probably the Southern 
Rocky Mt. region; N. to Labrador and the Saskatchewan. Breeds from the Middle States 
northward; winters in most of the U. §., particularly the M. and 8. States. An engaging 
bird, of bright colors and sweet song, and many amiable traits, among them its fondness. for 
the society of man; it comes fearlessly about our houses to build its own, which is generally 
situated on a horizontal bough or fork, composed of the most miscellaneous materials, almost 
any vegetable fibre being available for the flat and shallow structure; it is usually lined with 
hair, and the eggs, to the number of 4 or 5, are pale dull greenish, or almost whitish, sparsely 
sprinkled and scratched with blackish surface-markings and lilac shell-spots ; size about 0.85 
& 0.65; two broods are often reared. When not breeding the birds are generally found in 
flocks, and it is to be feared they do damage in the spring to the blossoms of fruit-trees. 

C. cassi/ni. (To John Cassin.) Cassin’s Purpte Finca. Adult g: In highest plumage 
duller than C. purpureus, excepting on crown. Middle of the back brown, tinged with red, 
the feathers dusky-centred, gray-edged ; crown crimson, the cap not so extensive as In purpu- 
reus, and quite well defined, separated by a dusky and gray interval from the color of the back. 
Under tail-coverts with dusky shaft lines, usually wanting in purpureus. Larger: length 
6.50-7.00 ; extent 11.00-11.50; wing 3.50; tail 2.50; bill atleast 0.50 along culmen, usually 
more, relatively less turgid than in purpureus. Iris brown; feet blackish-brown; bill above 
dark bluish horn-color, below dusky flesh-tinted. The sexual changes are the same as in the 
last species ; it is not so easy to distinguish the Q and young ¢ from those of purpureus, but 
they are larger, with longer and less tumid bill, and more streaked on the crissum. Very 
young birds have an ochraceous or light rufous suffusion, especially noticeable on the under 
parts; the streaks are more numerous and diffuse. Rocky Mts. of U. 8. and westward, espe- 
cially the Southern Rocky Mt. region, as Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico; N. to 
British Columbia; E. to Wind River mountains; 8. to table lands of Mexico. Habits the 
same as those of the purple finch; eggs not fairly distinguishable. 

C. fronta/lis. (Lat. frontalis, pertaining to the front.) CRIMSON-FRONTED Fincu. House 
Fincu. Burton. Adult ¢: Grayish-brown above, somewhat varied with darker centres and 
paler edges of the feathers, and for the most part tinged with red. Below dull white, streaked 
with dark brown, often tinged with red. Fore part of crown, superciliary line, rump, throat, 
breast and sometimes side of head, crimson. Wings and tail dark brown, with narrow pale 
edgings. Bill dusky-brown above, paler below; feet and eyes brown. Length about 6.00; 
extent scarcely 10.00; wing 3.00; tail 2.50; scarcely forked; tarsus 0.67; bill 0.40, very 
turgid, almost as in Pinicola or Pyrrhula. Q: Like g, but without any red; upper parts 
more varied with darker centres and paler edges of the feathers, and entire under parts streaked 
like belly of g. Young ¢ resembles the 9, but at an early age is browner, and apt to have 
buffy edgings of the wings. Colors of adult $ as variable as those of purpureus or more so. 
Tn winter, the red less intense and more diffuse, and may have a rosy or purplish tint, or be 
interrupted with grayish edgings of the feathers. Generally in the Colorado Valley, where the 
typical form is developed, the red is restricted to the parts said, but the constant tendency is to 
spread; the back and belly have usually in fact a tinge of red, and in some cases the whole 
head and fore parts are thus encrimsoned. U. S., rather southerly, from the Rocky Mts. to the 
interior ranges of California; Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico ; abundant in 
those regions, and as familiar as a swallow or chip-bird, nesting in the streets and gardens, 
where its bright colors, hearty song, and sprightly ways make it a weleome visitor. The nest- 
ing is like that of the purple finch in essential particulars; the eggs are smaller, paler, and of 
more fugitive bluish tint, with the blackish sprinkling sparser ; size 0.68 0.60 to 0.75 x 0.54. 


197. 


66. 


198. 


348 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


C. f. rhodocol/pus. (Gr. podor, rhodon, the rose; xéAmos, kolpos, the breast.) RosE- 
BREASTED Fincu. This alleged variety resembles the last; crimson tints more diffuse. 
Pacific coast region of California and southward. 
LOXIA. (Gr. Aogéds, lowos, crooked.) Cross-BrLts. Bill metagnathous; both mandibles 
falcate, deflected to opposite sides, their points crossed (unique among birds). Upper mandible 
stout and broad at base, rapidly narrowing to the elongate, decurved, laterally deflected and 
overhanging tip, its sides nearly flat, culminal ridge well marked and very convex throughout; 
its base beset with a ruff of antrorse plumules concealing nostrils and nasal fossee. ower man- 
dible with gonys very long, occupying nearly all the exposed part of the bill, convex throngh- 
out, the end of the mandible prolonged, curved upward and deflected to one side. Commissural 
line of either mandible curved in the opposite direction from its fellow. Mouth very narrow 
anteriorly, ample at base; tongue horny and concave at end; cesophagus with a large special 
crop, bulging to the right side. Wings long, pointed by tips of the first three primaries, rest 
rapidly graduated. Tail very short, only about $ as long as the wing, emarginate and divari- 
cate, covered nearly to the forking by the coverts both above and below. Feet small; tarsus 
shorter than middle toe without claw ; covered with 3 or 4 large overlapping plates, and smaller 
ones above and below; the postero-lateral plates much broken up below. Lateral toes of sub- 
equal lengths, tips of their claws falling opposite base of middle claw. Hind claw about equal 
to its digit, longer; stouter, and more curved 
than the middle one. Form stout, thick- 
set; ueck short; head broad and flattened 
ontop. Plumage soft and blended. Sexes 
dissimilar in color. ¢@ red, 9 brown with 
olive or yellowish tinge. There are several 
species of these singular finches, — finches 
in which not only the horny envelope of the 
beak, but the bony framework, and to some 
extent the ligaments and muscles acting 
upon it, are unsymmetrical. The struct- 
ures concerned in what would appear to a 
fool to be a deformity constitute a handy 
tool for cracking nuts of some kinds and 
Fic. 212. — White-winged Crossbill, reduced. (After shelling out their kermels: it acts like a 
Audubon.) Sane 5 : ae . 
pair of cutting pliers, — pincers and scissors 
in one. Our two species inbabit the nurthern parts of America, coming southward in flocks in 
the fall; but they are also resident in northern and mountainous parts of the U. S., where they 
sometimes breed in winter. They are irregularly migratory according to exigencies of weather 
and food-supply ; are eminently gregarious, and feed principally upon pine seeds, which they 
skilfully husk out of the cones with their curious bills. 
Analysis of Species. 
Wings with two white bars. gf rosy-red; 9 brownish-olive, streaked and spotted with dusky, the rump 
saffron-yellow sana UON dared cael Cosa Ne OS Cay PALE SO Mitta ae sae bey oar leucoptera 198 
Wings without bars. gf bricky-red. @ as before, without wing-bars. 
Bill small, about 3of aninchlong . . . . 1 1 1 we eee ee ee ee  mericana 199 
Bill large, #¢of aninchlong. . . . 1. 1 we ee ew ee wee we ee «mexicana 200 
L. leucop’tera. (Gr. Neuxds, leukos, white ; mrepov, pteron, wing. Fig. 212.) WHITE-WINGED 
Cross-Bitt. Adult g: Rosy-red, sometimes carmined or even crimsoned, obscured on middle 
of back, paling on lower belly and crissum, latter whitish with dusky centres of the feathers. 
Scapulars black, this color sometimes meeting across lower back. Wing- and tail-feathers 
black, with slight white or rosy edgings; inner secondaries and greater and middle coverts 
tipped with white, forming two cross-bars, sometimes confluent in one large patch. Rather 


199. 


FRINGILLIDA: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 349 


larger than the next, the bill thinner and more attenuate. Q@ and young: Though the differ- 
ences are parallel with those of L. americana, some peculiarity in tone of color usually serves 
to distinguish the two species, independently of the white wing-marks, which exist in both 
sexes at all ages. The difference is something like that between the Q Q of Pyranga estiva 
and P. rubra, in the presence of ochrey or buffy tints, instead of clear olivaceous or yellowish. 
Upper parts fuscous, closely lined with an ochrey-olive or dingy ochre, the rump bright yellow- 
ochre. Below, the gray overlaid with ochreous, and further varied with dark gray centres of 
the feathers, tending to streaks on the flanks. The whole tone of coloration varies inter- 
minably ; the under parts and rump are sometimes bright tawny yellow, or brownish-orange. 
Some @ ¢ are brilliant carmine, some ? 9 pale orange, almost uniform. North Am., 
northerly ; Alaska; Greenland; casual in Europe. In winter 5. in most of the U. S., in 
flocks with the next, not so common. Resident in N. New England, and along whole N. tier 
of States, probably breeding also in alpine U. 8. localities to Pennsylvania and Colorado. 
Breeds in winter and early spring, nesting like that of the next species ; eggs pale blue, dotted 
chiefly at the larger end with black and lilac ; 0.80 x 0.56. 

L. curviros/tra americana. (Lat. curvirostris, curve-billed. Fig. 213.) AMERICAN RED 
Cross-Binu. Adult ¢: Red; 
wings and tail blackish, with- 
out white markings. Middle 
of back darker, more brown- 
ish-red than elsewhere, the 
feathers with dusky centres. 


In the highest feather, even, 
the red is scarcely continuous 
except on head and rump, 
where brightest; lower belly 
and crissum usually gray or 
pale. Though the shade of 
red is never rosy or carmine 
as in the last, it varies inter- 
minably. It is usually tile- 
red or cinnabar, heightening OS ‘) \N 
in some cases to vermilion, in 
others shading to brownish- 
red, and often mixed not only with gray, but with olivaceous or saffron-yellowish tints. 
Orange, chrome or gamboge ¢ gf are sometimes seen. Length about 6.00; wing 3.50; tail 
2.50; bill (chord of culmen) 0.67 or less, very variable ; under mandible usually weaker than 
upper. @ and young: Dull greenish-olive, much mixed with gray or dusky, brighter and 
more yellowish on head and rump; below, gray, most feathers skirted with dingy yellowish, 
overeasting most of the plumage. Very young are dusky, streaked with grayish-white, usually 
no trace of olivaceous ; below gray, streaked with dusky ; bill weak. From such state as this 
the ¢ usually passes through stages resembling the 9, being found in every possible patchy 
state of mixed gray, olive and dusky-reddish ; sometimes appears to pass directly into the red 
state, and the same is doubtless the case with other species. N. Am., alpine and northerly ; 
S. in most of the U.S. in winter, on the E. side usually to Pa. and Md.; resident in Maine, 
in mountains 8S. to Pa., and in the Rocky and other Mts. of the West; abundant, in gentle and 
unwary but timid flocks, usually including some individuals of the other species, fluttering and 
creeping about in the foliage of coniferous trees. Nesting often in winter or early spring when 
snow still covers the ground; nest in forks or among twigs of a tree, founded on a mass of 
twigs and bark-strips, the inside felted of finer materials, including small twigs, rootlets, 


Fig. 213.— Common Crossbill, f 2, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) 


200. 


67. 


201. 


202. 


350 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


grasses, hair, feathers, etc.; eggs 3-4, 0.75 X 0.57, pale greenish, spotted and dotted about 
larger end with dark purplish-brown, with lavender shell-markings. 
L. c. mexica/na. Mexican Cross-BiLu. Like the last; the bill larger, 0.75 or more long, 
the under mandible especially more robust. Southern Rocky Mts. and southward on the table 
lands of Mexico. 
LEUCOSTIC'TE. (Gr. Xevxos, lewkos, white; oruxrn, sticte, varied. Fig. 215.) Rosy FIncHEs. 
Bill small, conic-acute, ruffed at base with antrorse plumules meeting over culmen and con- 
cealing the short nasal fossee and small nostrils. Side of under mandible (in typical species) 
with a sharp ridge running obliquely upward and forward. Culmen ridged between two slight 
depressions parallel with itself, gently convex throughout. No obvious angulation of commis- 
sural edge of upper mandible ; that of lower with decided bend; gonys straight. Wings long, 
folding beyond middle of tail, tipped by first 3 primaries, 4th shorter. Tail of moderate length, 
forked, its feathers rather broad, its coverts reaching about $ way to end. Tarsus not shorter 
than middle toe without claw ; lateral toes unequal, inner shorter, its claw not reaching base 
of middle claw. Hind claw about as long as its digit, more curved and longer than middle 
claw. Sexes somewhat dissimilar. Coloration peculiar; usually chocolate-brown, enriched 
with rose or carmine, shaded with silvery-gray or black ; one species mostly silvery-gray. The 
American representative of the Old World genus Montifringilla. Terrestrial, highly gre- 
garious ; nest on ground; eggs immaculate white. Numerous species of this very interesting 
genus are scarcely stable; I present the forms that are usually recognizable. The nearest 
American relative is Agiothus ; the general economy is more that of Plectrophanes. 

Analysis of Species. 
Under mandible ridged. Body-color chocolate-brown or darker. 


Novash on head (Colorado): « 4 « 40% % 4a 9 asa BS S a 2 « % & © » @ustralis 202 
Ash on head confined to the top. 
Coloration blackish (Colorado) . . . 2... 1 2 1 ee ee te we ew we we ee) «6trata «201 
Coloration chocolate(W. America). . 2... 1 1 1 ee eee ee ee es tephrocotis 203 
Ash spreading on sides of head. 
Smaller: wing 4.20. (W. America). . 2... 2... ee ee ~ . .. - . litoralis 204 
Larger: wing 4.60. (Alaska) ©. 1. 6 6 ee ee ee te eee ee ee griseinucha 205 
Under mandible smooth. 
Dusky-purplish and silvery-gray, withrosy. ..... Mee ce Ca tet Gace ar Sh ee  WeeLOG: “206: 


L. atra/ta. (Lat. atrata, blackened.) Rip@way’s Rosy Fixcu. Sexes unlike. @, in 
April: Pattern of coloration and distribution of tints as in tephrocotis proper (see beyond) ; 
nasal tufts white, and oceiput ashy, as in that species, but the chocolate-brown of tephrocotis 
replaced by black, deepest anteriorly and on under parts, sooty-brownish on the back. Bill 
black (April) or yellow (September). Size of tephrocotis. 9, in April: Black of ¢ repre- 
sented by dark slate-gray, more brownish on back, the rosy markings duller and more restricted ; 
size rather less. This form occurs in the mountains of Colorado and Utah. We know neither 
the summer nor winter plumage of this bird; no winter plumage nor whereabouts of australis ; 
nor young nor breeding plumage of tephrocotis ; -— points to be ascertained before we can decide 
the status of several alleged species of the genus. 

L. austra/lis. (Lat. australis, southern.) ALLEN’s Rosy Fincn. Sexes unlike. @, breed- 
ing plumage: Rich chocolate or umber-brown, the feathers of the back with darker shaft-lines 
and paler edges, those of the under parts darker and somewhat purplish-brown. Red parts of 
the body heightened to intense crimson, extending farther forward than in tephrocotis, some- 
times skirting all the feathers of the under parts; especially strong on the wing- and tail-coverts 
and belly. No pure ash whatever on head; whole pileum black or blackish, purest anteriorly, 
duller behind. Nasal tufts white. Bill and feet black. Length 6.75; wing 4.00-4.40, aver- 
aging in 69 specimens 4.30; tail 2.80-3.35, average 3.10; bill 0.45; tarsus 0.75. When not 
in highest feather, carmine toned down to more pink or rosy. In winter, bill yellow, changing 
to black through various cloudings. Q, in summer: While generally like g, having black 


203. 


204. 


205. 


FRINGILLIDE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 351 


pill and no ash on head, averages a little smaller, and is much duller colored; brown parts of 
a grayish cast; rosy reduced or almost extinguished, chiefly traceable ou rump and wing- 
coverts ; abdomen scarcely tinted, and quills and tail-feathers with whitish instead of rosy edg- 
ings. Wing 4.00-4.20, averaging little over 4.00; tail 2.90-3.25, average 3.00. Colorado 
and New Mexico, breeding up to 12,000 feet ; a curious southerly local race of the genus. 
L. tephroco'tis. (Gr. redpés, tephros, gray; ods, ards, ows, otos, the ear. Fig. 214.) Swarn- 
son’s Rosy Fixcu. Sexes similar. Adult , in breeding plumage or nearly so: Bill and feet 
black. Nasal plumules white. Frontlet black; rest of pileum hoary-ash, not desceuding 
below level of eyes and upper border of 
auriculars (for when the ash invades the 
sides of head to any extent, the bird 
takes the first step toward litoralis, in 
which the head is extensively hooded in 
ash). General color, sides of head in- 
cluded, chocolate or liver-brown of vary- 
ing intensity, many feathers skirted with 
gray or whitish, especially the inter- 
scapulars, which also have dusky centres, 
and inclining to blackish on chin and : 
throat. Hinder parts of the body above : =e Nea 
and below, including tail-coverts, rich Fic. 214. — Rosy Finch, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) 
rosy or carmine red, this color due to broad edgings of the dusky feathers of these parts. 
Wings and tail blackish, the wing-coverts and primaries edged with rosy, showing nearly 
continuous in the closed wing; edgings of inner secondaries rosy-white or white. Length 
(average) 6.75; wing 4.00-4.45, average 4.25; tail 2.50-3.00, average 2.75; culmen 0.40— 
0.50, average 0.45 ; tarsus 0.75-0.85, average 0.80. 9, adult: Very similar; pattern identi- 
cal; tone subdued; size a little less; length 6.60; wing 4.10; tail 2.65. 9 in winter: 
Bill yellow; pattern unchanged; coloration less vivid, the brown rather umber than chocolate, 
the red rather rosy than carmine. Rocky Mt. regiou, from the Saskatchewan or beyond, through 
most of the U. S. in winter; breeding limits unknown, supposed to be Northern Rocky Mts. 
of U.S. and beyond. ‘This is the central figure in the genus. It runs directly into 
L, t. litora/lis. (Lat. litoralis, littoral.) Barrp’s Rosy Fincn. Like the last; the ash 
spreading over the head, more or less, sometimes almost enveloping it like a hood, and even 
occupying the chin in extreme cases. Size of the last. Northwest coast; in summer unknown, 
in winter spreading from Kadiak 8. and E. to California, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado; very 
abundant, in flocks mixed with tephrocotis proper. 
L. griseinu/cha. (Low Lat. griseus, gray, and nucha, nape. Fig. 215.) Branpt’s Rosy 
Fincu. Like the littoral variety of tephrocotis, in having the ashy ‘extending over the sides of 
the head; this color settled in a definite hood, said to never invade 
the chin. The resident form of the N. W. coast and islands, from 
Kadiak W. and N. Much larger than Nos. 203-4; length 7.00 
or more; wing 4.50 (4.25-4.85); tail 3.50 (3.15-3.90); culmen 
0.57; tarsus 0.95. Sexes scarcely distinguishable. Bill black or 
yellow according to season. Young ‘uniform brownish-gray, 
washed with umber; wings and tail dusky-slate, the feathers 
Fig. 215. — Brandt’s Rosy bordered with paler; the edges of the lesser wing-coverts and 
“Finch. (After Baird.) remiges very pale pinkish ; of the greater wing-coverts and tertials 
pale dull ochraceous; no black or gray about head; bill horn-color.” Nest well made of 
grasses and mosses, lined with feathers, on the ground or among rocks; eggs 3-6, generally 4, 
pure white, 0.97 < 0.67. 


802 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES. 


206. L. arcto'a. (Gr. dpetdos, arktoios, northern.) Patuas’s Rosy Fixcu. Dusky-purplish ; 
neck above pale yellowish; forehead and nasal feathers blackish; outer webs of quills and 
wing-coverts, tail-coverts, rump and crissum silvery-gray, rosy-marginued. Kurile and Aleu- 
tian Islands; Siberia. Subgenerically different from any of the foregoing. 

68. ZAEGIVOTHUS. (Gr. Aiyiofos, nom. propr. Fig. 216.) Rep-potn Linnets. Bill small, 
short, straight, very acute, more or less compressed, the lateral outlines usually a little concave, 
those of culmen and gonys straight; commissure straight to the slight angulation. Base of bill 
thickly beset with a ruff of antrorse plumules, concealing the small nasal fossa and round 
nostrils. Wings longer than tail, pointed by first 3 primaries. 
Tail rather long for this group, forked. Feet small and weak, 
but tarsi longer than middle toe without claw; lateral toes of 
equal lengths, their claw-tips falling beyond base of middle claw. 
Hind claw much longer, stouter and more curved than the mid- 
dle, exceeding its digit in length. Size small; plumage streaky 
with dusky, white, and flaxen colors, crown crimson, face and 
throat blackish; sexes otherwise dissimilar; @ with rosy or 
carmine on breast, wanting in 9. Scarcely different from Linota 
( flavirostris, etc.) the pattern of coloration being the most avail- 
able distinction. Arboreal, gregarious, highly boreal finches of 
circumpolar distribution, breeding in high latitudes and alpine 
regions, roving south in winter in great flocks. The species are 


Fic. 216 — Details of 2qio- 


much involved ; we have four recognizable forms. thus (2. hornemanni, nat. size). 
(From Eiliot.) 
Analysis of Species. 
Tarsus as long as middle toe and claw. Heavily streaked below. Rump always fully streaked. 
Smaller: length about 5.50; wing 3.00; bill moderate (N. Am. atlarge) . . . . . . . . Uinaria 207 
Larger: length about 6.00; wing 3.25; bill immoderate (Canada, etc.) . . . . . . . . . holboelli 208 
Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw. Lightly or scarcely streaked below. Rump of adult ¢ immacu- 
late white to some extent. 
Smaller: length about 5.50: wing 3.00. Bill and feet small (Brit. Am., scarcely U.S.). . . exilipes 210 
Larger: length about 6.00; wing 3.30. Bill and feet large (Greenland). . . . . . . hornemanni 209 


207, ZE. linaria. (Lat. linaria, tlaxen; a linnet. Fig. 217.) Common Rep-pouu. Adult g: 
Frontlet, lores, and throat-spot sooty-black. Crown crimson. Above, variegated with brown- 
ish-yellow and dusky, the feathers having dark 
centres and flaxen edges. Rump streaked with 
dusky and white, and tinged with rosy, more or 
less so according to age and season. Below, 
white, the sides and crissum streaked with dusky, 
the entire fore-parts colored with rose-red more 
or less rich and extensive according to same cir- 
cumstances. Wings and tail dusky, the feathers 
edged with whitish, the middle and _ greater 
coverts tipped with the same, forming two cross- 
bars. Bill black or yellow, usually found yel- 
low with dusky tip and edges. Feet blackish. 
Length 5.50; extent 9.00; wing 3.00; tail 
2.50; bill 0.388; tarsus 0.65; middle toe and 
claw the same. Adult 9 : Wanting entirely 
or having but a trace of rosy on the rump and 
Fic. 217.- Common Red-poll, reduced. (Shep- under parts. Breast with a dingy yellowish wash, 
pard del. Nichols sc.) streaked with dusky. Slightly smaller. Young: 
Like 9, but the ¢ soon showing rosy. Young may usually be distinguished from the adult 9 by 


210. 


69. 


211. 


70. 


FRINGILLIDA: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 303 


a general buffy suffusion, especially on fore parts; edgings of wing likewise butty; streaks below 
less sharply defined ; crimson of crown restricted, or of a coppery or bronzy tint. In worn mid- 
summer plumage the bird is very dark colored, almost cutirely dusky. This bright little bird 
inhabits northerly parts of both hemispheres, irregularly south in winter in N. Am. to about 
35°; at times abundant, but erratic. Eggs 4-5, very pale bluish, tinely speekled all over with 
reddish-brown, 0.65 X 0.52. Nest in low trees and bushes. 
4E. 1. hol’/boelli. (To C. Holb6H, a Danish naturalist.) HoLséLu’s Rep-pouu. Like the 
last; larger; length 6.00 or more ; wing 3.25; tail 2.75 ; bill longer and less constricted, with 
straight lateral outlines and rather curved culmen. Europe and N. Am., especially Canada and 
New England. 
4E. hor‘nemanni. (To J. W. Hornemann. Fig. 216.) G@reentanpn Mrary REp-pou.. 
Bill regularly conie, only moderately compressed and acute, as high at base as long, color 
varying with season from black to yellow. Frontlet black, overlaid with hoary. A recogni- 
zable light superciliary stripe, reaching to the bill. Crimson cap over nearly all the crown. 
Upper parts streaked with brownish-black and white, the latter edging and tipping the feathers ; 
this white nearly pure, only slightly flaxen on sides of head and neck. Wings and tail as in 
other species. Rump and entire under parts from the sooty throat white, free from spots, the 
rump and breast rosy. Feet large and stout; tarsus rather longer than middle toe and claw. 
Length 6.00; wing 3.30; tail 2.80; bill 0.384; tarsus 0.65 ; middle toe and claw 0.58. Sexual 
and seasonal changes as before ; quite dark in midsummer. Greenland and N. Europe. This 
large hoary northern form is resident ; never known to occur in the U. S., and most of the eon- 
tinental Red-polls of even Arctic N. Am. belong to the next species. 
4B. exillipes. (Lat. evilis, exiguous, small ; pes, foot.) AmMericAN Mraty Rep-pouu. Bill 
small, short, stout at base, regularly conic, little compressed, all its outlines about straight ; 
nasal plumules very heavy, sometimes reaching half-way to tip of bill. Frontlet dusky, but 
the feathers tipped with hoary; an appreciable light superciliary line ; lores and throat-spot 
dusky. General color of upper parts as in Linaria, but the dusky streaks are smaller and less 
distinct, especially on the anterior parts; and the flaxen is very pale, nearly white, disappear- 
ing entirely on lower back, leaving a space streaked only with dusky and white. Rump snowy- 
white, rosy-tinted, immaculate. Wings and tail as in other species ; under parts white, the 
breast with a rosy tint, paler than in naria of same age and season; the sides streaked with 
dusky, the markings sparser and less definite than in Uinaria; erissum almost immaculate. 
Feet very small and weak, the toes especially shorter. Length 5.50; extent 9.00 ; wing 3.00; 
tail 2.50; tarsus 0.55; middle toe without claw 0.28; middle toe and claw shorter than tarsus ; 
bill 0.32. Seasonal and sexual differences as before. This form inhabits the whole of boreal 
America, seldom reaching the U. 8. and only along the northern tier of States. 
LINO'TA. (Latinized from Fr. Uinotte, a linnet.) Linners. Character of s«Egiothus in 
form ; no crimson crown. European. 
L. flaviros’tris brew’steri? (Lat. flavirostris, yellow-billed. To Wm. Brewster, of Cam- 
bridge.) Brewster’s Linner. With the general appearance of an immature Wgiothus, 
this bird will be recognized by absence of erimson on crown, no black throat-spot, a sulphur- 
yellowish shade on lower back, and somewhat different proportions. Wing 3.00; tail 2.50; 
tarsus 0.50. Massachusetts, one specimen known. (Egiothus flavirostris, var. brewsteri, 
Ridg., Am. Nat., vi, July, 1872, p. 433; Hist. N. A. B., i, 1874, p. 501. Conjectured to be 
LE giothus linaria X Chrysomitris pinus.) : 
CHRYSOMI'TRIS. (Gr. ypucopirpis, chrusomitris, having a golden head-dress.) S1sKrvs. 
Bill exceedingly acute; its lateral outlines concave by compression of the sides toward the end, 
culmen and gonys about straight, commissure angulated, cutting edges inflected, no ridges on 
either mandible. Nasal tufts concealing the nostrils in their short fosse. Wings long, 
exceeding the short, emarginate tail; point formed by the 1-3 or 4 quills, 5 and rest rapidly 
23 


212. 


71. 


213. 


354 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES— OSCINES. 


shorter. Tarsus about as long as middle toe with claw; lateral toes of equal lengths, their 
claws reaching base of middle claw; hind claw shorter than its digit. Everywhere thickly 
streaked. No red. Sexes alike. Habit gregarious. Nest in trees. Eggs speckled. 
C. pi/nus. (Lat. pinus, a pine. Fig. 218.) Pine Linner. Pine Fincn. AMERICAN Sis- 
KIN. ¢ 9, adult: Continuously streaked, above with dusky or dark olivaceous-brown and 
flaxen or whitish, below with dusky and whitish, the whole body usually suffused with yellowish, 
most evident on the rump. Wings dusky, the basal 
portion of all the quills and their inner webs for some 
distance sulphury-yellow, usually showing externally 
as a spot just beyond the coverts, sometimes restricted 
and hidden. Outer webs of the quills also narrowly 
edged with yellow, separated from the basal yellow 
patch by a blackish interval. Tail dusky, its basal 
half yellow, and outer webs edged with yellow. Bill 
and feet brown. Length about 4.75; extent 8.75; 
wing 3.75; tail 1.75. Very variable in yellowness of 
tone, sometimes quite bright, again plain streaky, 
dusky and whitish or flaxen ; Bae the yellow colora- 
tion of the wings and tail is distinctive. Young birds 
have the markings diffuse, with a general buffy- 
Fic. 218, — Pine Finch, relwced: (Sheppara brownish suffusion. N. Am. at large, breeding 
del. Nichols sc.) northerly, ranging in flocks in the winter through 
most of the U. 8., abundant. Nest high in trees, preferably conifers; eggs pale greenish, 
speckled with brown ; about 0.70 X 0.50. Flight undulatory; voice querulous. 
ASTRAGALINUS. (Gr. dotpayadivos, astragalinos, name of some bird.) AMERICAN GOLD- 
FincHEs. Like Chrysomitris. Bill stouter, less acuminate, without extreme lateral com- 
pression, culmen rather convex, gonys quite straight ; commissure strongly augulated ; upper 
mandible usually showing longitudinal strie. Nasal ruff evident, though short. Wings and 
tail asin Chrysomitris; feet smaller; toes shorter ; lateral digits of unequal lengths ; otter claw 
rather overreaching, inner not reaching, base of middle claw. Coloration massed, not streaky ; ; 
yellow, olive, black and white, no red. Sexes unlike. Eggs white. 


Analysis of Species. 
¢ yellow (in summer) with black cap, wings and tail, the 
two latter white-marked (Eastern) . . . . tristis 213 
o gray, varied with yellow on back, breast, and wings, 
with black face, pies aud tail, latter white-marked 
(Western)... . . « . lawrencii 214 
do above olive or black, or mixed with both; yellow below ; 
wings and tail black, white-marked (Western). 
Back olive; crown black, not below eyes; large white 


tail-spots . .. - + . psaltria 215 

Back mixed olive and black; crown black; moderate 
white tail-spots . . . » . . arizone 216 

Back and crown black, to below eyes; small white 
tail-spots . . - . mexicanus 217 

od yellow, with black yellow- sua wings and tail, and 
whole head black. (Mexico, etc). . . . . mnotatus 218 


A. tris'tis. (Lat. tristis, sad; from its note. Fig. 219.) 
AMERICAN GOLDFINCH. YELLOW-BIRD. THISTLE- 
BIRD. , in summer: Rich yellow, changing to 


Fig. 219. = hener lean: Goldtinch, * in 
whitish on the tail-coverts; a black patch on the summer, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nicholssc.) 


crown; wings black, more or less edged with white; lesser wing-coverts white or yellow; 
greater coverts tipped with white; tail black, every feather with a white spot; bill and feet 


216. 


217. 


FRINGILLIDA: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 355 


flesh-colored. In September, the black cap disappears; the general plumage changes to a 
pale flaxen-brown above and whitey-brown below, with traces of the yellow, especially 
about the head; wings and tail much as in summer; sexes then much alike: this con- 
tinues until the following April or May. Length 4.80-5.20; extent 8.75-9.25; wing 2.75 5 
tail 2.00; @ olivaceous above, including the crown; below soiled yellowish, wings aud tail 
dusky, whitish-edged ; rather smaller than the @. 
Young like the winter Q; when very young, suf- 
fused with fulvous, and the wings edged with tawny. 
N. Aun., especially the Eastern U. S.; an abundant 
and familiar species, conspicuous by its bright 
colors, and~plaintive lisping notes; in the fall, 
collects in large flocks, and so remains until the 
breeding season ; irregularly migratory, but winters 
as far north as New England; feeds especially on 
the seeds of the thistle and buttonwood; flies in 
an undulating course. Nest small, compact, built 
of downy aud other soft pliant substances, placed 
in a crotch ; ess 4-6, faintly bluish-white, nor- F:a. 220. — Lawrence’s Goldfinch, reduced. 
mally uninarked, 0.65 & 0.50. (Altered from Audubon.) 

A. lawren’cii. (To G. N. Lawrence, of New York. Fig. 220.) LAwRrence’s GOLDFINCH. 
&, in summer: Gray, more or less tinged with yellowish, whitening on the belly and crissuin ; 
rump, a large breast-patch, and much of the back rich yellow; crown, face, and chin black ; 
wings black, variegated with yellow, most of the coverts being of this color, and the same 


‘broadly edging the quills; inner secondaries edged with hoary gray; tail black, most of the 


feathers with large square white spots on the inner webs and whitish edging of the outer; bill 
and feet flesh-color more or less obscured. The @ resembles the g, but there is no black on 
the head, and the yellow places are not so bright; yellow of the back often wanting. 9, in 
winter: The yellowish of the upper parts changed to olive-gray, but the yellow of other parts 
often as bright as in summer, and the black of the g’s head the sane. Size of tristis, or 
rather less; an elegant species. California, Arizona, and New Mexico. General habits the 
same as those of C. tristis; nest and eggs indistinguishable. 
A. psal'tria, (Gr. padrpia, psaltria, a lutist. Fig. 221.) ARKANSAWGOLDFINCH. @, adult: 
Upper parts uniform olive-green, without any 
black; below yellow; crown black, this not 
extending below eyes; wings black, most of 
the quills and the greater coverts white-tipped, 
and the primaries white at base; tail black, 
the outermost three pairs of feathers with a 
long rectangular white spot on the inner web. 
@ and young similar, but not so bright, and 
no black on the head; sometimes, also, no 
decided white spots on the tail. Length 4.25- 
4.50; wing 2.30; tail 2.00. Plains to the 
Fic. 221. — Arkansaw Goldfinch, reduced. (After Pacific, U.S., southerly; N. at least to the 
Audubon.) head-waters of the Platte. A pretty species, 
of the same habits as the common Goldfinch ; nest and eggs the same. Southward this form 
passes directly into 
A. p. arizomz. (Lat., of Arizona.) Arizona GOLDFINCH. The upper parts mixed olive 
and black in about equal amounts ; thus leading directly into 
A. p. mexica/nus. (Lat. Mexican. Fig. 222.) Mexican Gouprincy. The upper parts con- 


218. 


72. 


219. 


356 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


tinuously-black, and the black of the crown extending below the eyes, enclosing the olive 
under eyelid. Mexican border and southward. This bird looks quite unlike typical psaltria, 
but the gradation through var. arizone is perfect; and mexicana, moreover, leads directly into 
var. columbiana, a Central American form in which 
the tail-spots are very small or wanting. The 
females of these several varieties cannot be distin- 
guished with certainty. 

A. nota’tus. (Lat. notatus, noted in any way.) 
BLACK-HEADED GOLDFINCH. ¢, adult: Bright 
yellow, obscured on the back, head all around glossy 
black, extending on fore-breast ; wings black, with 
large basal area on all the quills yeilow, forming a 
conspicuous pateh ; tail black, basal half or more of 
all the feathers but the middle pair yellow. Wing 
2.70; tail 1.80; bill extremely acute, much as in Fic. 222, — Mexican Goldfinch, reduced. 
Carduelis or Chrysomitris proper. South and Cen- (After Audubon.) 

tral Am. and Mexico, a straggler in U. 8. (? ‘ Kentucky,” Audubon.) 

PLECTRO/PHANES. (Gr. wAnkrpov, plectron, a certain instrument; gaivw, I appear; 
alluding to the hind claw.) Bill very small and truly conic, well exhibiting ‘‘ emberizine” or 
‘* bunting ” 
palatal knob. Culmen slightly eurved; gonys perfectly straight, and very short, less in length 
than width of bill; lower mandible heavier than upper. A dense nasal ruff. Wings very long 
and pointed; 1st or lst and 2d quills longest, rest rapidly graduated. Tail $ shorter than 
wings, nearly square. Tarsus longer than middle toe without claw; lateral toes of subequal 
lengths, and much shorter than the middle one. Claws slender and compressed, with deep 
lateral grooves at base ; hind claw lengthened and less curved than the rest, but not straight. 
Gullet very distensible. Sexes alike. Colors very different with season; in summer ¢ 
entirely black and white. Oue species, cireumpolar. Terrestrial, gregarious. 

P. niva/lis. (Lat. nivalis, snowy ; nix, nivis, snow. Fig. 223.) Snow Buntine. Snow- 
FLAKE. 4, in full dress: Pure white; the bill, feet, middle of back, scapulars, primaries 
except at base, most inner secondaries, bastard quills, and several tail-feathers, black. Length 
about 7.00; extent 12.50-13.00; wing 4.00-4.25 ; tail 2.50-2.75. In less perfect summer dress, 
black of the back, inner secondaries and tail- 
feathers varied with white. 9, in breeding 
plumage: The black impure or brownish, and 
most or all of the upper parts brownish-black, 
varied with white. Rather smaller. Dimen- 
sions of many specimens of both sexes : length 
6.50-7.00; extent 12.00-13.00; wing 4.00- 
4.25; tail 2.50-2.75; bill 0.40; tarsus 0.80; 
middle toe and claw 0.90; hind toe and claw 
0.67-0.75; claw alone 0.33-0.44. Adults, in 
winter, as generally seen in the U. S. (where 
black-and-white birds are rarely if ever 


characters; i. e., strong angulation of commissure; inflected cutting edges; a 


Fic. 223.— Snow Bunting, in summer, reduced. found): Upper parts overcast with rich warm 
(Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) chestnut-brown and grayish-brown, mixed 
with the black of the back, and clouding the other upper parts which are white in summer, 
becoming dusky or even blackish on the head; this brown also usually forming a patch on the 
ears, a collar on the breast, edging of the inner wing- and tail-feathers, and a wash on thc 
flanks; but specimens vary interminably; other parts white or black as in summer; 11?! 


73. 


220. 


FRINGILLIDA:: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. d0T 


yellowish, usually black-tipped, but drying reddish-brown.  Fledgliugs: Dark ashy-gray 
above, and on the fore parts below this color overlaid with brown, and streaked on the 
back with dusky; below, from the breast, white; lateral tail-feathers mostly white ; iuuer 
secondaries black with brown edging. A very notable bird, imhabitmg the northern hemi- 
sphere, breeding in arctic regions, whence migrating south in vast flocks with the snow, as if 
one with these pure erystallizations. Thousands whirl into the U.S. in the fall on the wings 
of the stomn, relieving by their animated presence the desolation of places exposed to the 
fury of the blast. South regularly only to the Northern States, but ofteu the roving flocks 
reach 35°. Nest on the ground in the sphaguum and tussocks of arctic regious, of a great 
quautity of grass and moss, lined profusely with feathers: eggs 4-6, very variable in size and 
color, about 0.90 X 0.65, white or whitish, speckled, veined, blotched, and marbled with deep 


5 


browns and neutral tints. 

CENTRO’/PHANES. (Gr. xévrpov, kentron, nail, claw; daivo, phaino, I appear; the hind 
claw lengthened and straightened.) Lonaspurs. Characters of Plectrophanes; hind claw and 
its digit more developed ; longer than the middle ; bill relatively and absolutely larger, rather 
‘ fringilline” than thoroughly ‘ emberizine,” but still with a palatal knob; no decided nasal 
roff, but antrorse plumules in nasal fossee ; a little tuft at base of rictus. Wings less acute, 
the point formed by 1st-3d primaries, 4th abruptly shorter; tail emarginate. Sexes very 
unlike: @ with a black hood and chestnut cervical collar. Gregarious, terrestrial. 


Analysis of Adult Males. 


Whole head and throat black; belly white ; bill yellow; feet black . . 1... . . ). . lapponicus 220 
Crown black; whole under parts fawn-colored ; feet flesh-colored. . 2 2... . . 1 2. . pictus 221 
Crown black; throat white; belly black or mahogany; feetdark . . . . . . . . . 4). ornatus 292 


C. lapponiicus. (Lat. lapponicus, of Lapponia, Lapp-laud. Figs. 43,224.) LarLtanp Lonxe- 
spur. 4, in full dress (seldom seen in U.8.): 
Whole head, throat and breast jet-black, bor- 
dered with buffy or whitish, which forms a 
post-ocular stripe separating black of crown 
from that of sides of head, sometimes contin- 
ued to the bill. A broad cervical chestnut col- 
lar, separated from the black cap by whitish 
or buffy line and nuchal spot. Upper parts 
brownish-black completely streaked with buff 
or whitish edges of the feathers ; under parts 
white, the sides streaked with black. Wings 
dusky, with pale or brownish edgings of the 
feathers, but no strong markings. Tail like 
wings, with large oblique white spaces on 
outer 3 feathers. Bill yellow, black-tipped. 
Legs and feet black. Length about 6.50; 
extent 11.25; wing 3.50-3.75 ; tail 2.50-2.75 ; Fig. 224. — Lapland Lensspin in summer, reduced. 
tarsus 0.75; middle toe and claw rather more; (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) 

hind claw about 0.50, slender, sharp, and little curved. g, adult, in winter: The black hood 
overcast with brown or gray tips of the feathers, or otherwise imperfect. Chestnut collar also 
overlaid with gray. Edges of secondaries and wing-coverts ruddy-brown; sides of flanks 
washed with brown. White tail-spots less extensive. Yellow of bill obscured. @, in breed- 
ing plumage: Upper parts of body, wings and tail, as in g. No continuous pure black on 
sides of head, chin, or throat. Cervical collar indicated, but dull and obscured. Black of 
crown overlaid with gray; superciliary and postocular stripe buffy ; sides of head blackish, 
overlaid with gray; throat similarly varied, but chin nearly white; on the whole, the pattern 


WAY Gry 
cd SSL B05 
age 


221. 


222 


358 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


of the @’s black hood clearly indicated, but interrupted and ill-defined. Sides of breast and 
belly with few small sharp dark streaks, instead of heavy black stripes; other under parts as in 
the ¢. Bill obscure yellowish, dusky-tipped; feet dark brown, not black. Rather smaller. 
& 2, young, in winter, as usually seen in U. 8., without any continuous black, resemble 
the adult Q as to coloration of head and fore parts, and are like winter ¢ in other respects. 
The cervical collar may be searcely appreciable, but usually shows a trace at least ; sides often 
quite brown. Fledglings: Continuously streaked on the upper and fore parts with blackish 
and brownish-yellow; wings and tail broadly edged with chestnut; bill dark; feet pale. A 
species of circumpolar distribution, like the last; breeding range and winter rovings much the 
same, but less commonly observed in the U.S. South irregularly to the Middle States, Ohio, 
Colorado, ete. Nesting like P. nivalis; eggs 4-6, 0.80 X 0.62, dark-colored, very heavily 
mottled and clouded with chocolate-brown, through which the greenish-gray ground scarcely 
appears. 

C. pic'tus. (Lat. pictus, painted.) Paintep Lonaspur. Adult ¢: Cervical collar and entire 
under parts rich fawn color; crown and sides of head black, bounded below by a white line, and 
iuterrupted by a white superciliary and auricular line and white occipital spot. Upper parts 
streaked with black and brownish-yellow. Lesser and middle wing-coverts black, tipped with 
white, forming conspicuous patches. One or two outer tail-feathers mostly white. No white 
onthe rest. Legs pale or tlesh-colored. Size of lapponicus. Length 6.50; extent 11.25; wing 
3.75; tail 2.50; tarsus 0.75; middle toe and claw, about the same; hind toe and claw, rather 
less (C. ornatus is much less in all its dimensions). Young, and generally in winter: Bill dusky- 
brown above and at tip, paler below; feet light brown (drying darker) ; toes rather darker. 
Entire under parts rich yellowish-brown, or buffy (in C. ornatus never thus); paler on the chin 
and throat, which, with the fore-breast, are obsoletely streaked with dusky; the tibize white. 
Tail white only on the two or three outer feathers (in C. ornatus all the feathers, excepting soime- 
times the ceutral pair, are white at the base). Upper parts much as in the adult, but the distinc- 
tive head-markings wanting, or only obscurely indicated. Interior N. Ai. from the region of the 
Yukon, McKenzie, Saskatehewan and upper Missouri to the prairies of Illinois in winter. It 
is not found in the Atlantic States, but is common on the prairies of Dakota, Montana, and 
southward, associated in the fall with C. ornatus, but breeding mostly farther north. Habits 
and general aspect of ornatus, but easily distinguished by larger size, buffy under parts, black 
and white wing-patech, and white only on some lateral instead of all of the tail-feathers. Nest 
on ground; eggs size of lapponicus, colored more like ornatus. 

C. orna/tus. (Lat. ornatus, adorned), CHESTNUT-COLLARED LonGspur. BLAcK-SHOUL- 
DERED LonGspuR. WHITE-TAILED Lonespur. 4, in full dress: Cervical collar intense 
chestnut. Crown black; a whitish spot on nape, and broad white superciliary stripe. Auricu- 
lars black, mixed with the color of the throat; throat and most of the sides of head below eyes 
rusty-white, changing to pure white which extends around sides of neck, partly bordering the 
chestnut collar. Breast and belly lustrous black, often mixed with intense ferruginous or 
mahogany feathers, sometimes largely overlaid with this rich sienna-color. Lining of wings 
pure white. Sides of body, flanks, lower belly and under tail-coverts, white, all but the last 
usually rusty-tinged. Back, rump, and scapulars brownish-black, varied with grayish-brown 
edges of the feathers. Wings dark brown without decided markings, though the feathers are 
pale-edged, excepting jet-black lesser coverts, with or without white tips. Tail like wings, 
but two or three lateral feathers entirely white, and all the rest basally white in decreasing 
amount: in flight, the ‘ white tail” is very conspicuous. Bill blackish-plumbeous ; feet dark. 
Smaller than the foregoing : Length 5.75-6.00, rarely 6.25 ; extent 10.25-10.75, rarely 11.00; 
wing 3.00-3.30; tail 2.00-2.30. 9, in full dress: Rather smaller ; size averaging about the lesser 
figures just given. Upper parts, wings, and tail as before, but lesser coverts not black; chest- 
nut collar obseured ; crown like back, separated from the back-markings by a slight rufous 


74. 


223. 


FRINGILLIDZA: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 359 


dusky-streaked interval. Sides of head, and throat, whitish, with dusky speckling on cheeks 
and ears. Under parts dull brown, fading to white on belly and crissum, the feathers some- 
times with dusky streaks. Thus an obscure bird: but observe generic characters, and exten- 
sively white tail. @, adult, after the fall moult: The full dress is confined to the breeding 
season ; afterward, the colors are much obscured. Cervical collar and black of head and belly 
veiled by gray ends of the feathers, but visible on raising the plumage. Crown like back, with 
concealed black; superciliary stripe and other distinctive head-markings obliterated ; bill 
brownish-plumbeous. The changes in the 9 are parallel, but there is less to be altered. 
Young ¢ Q, before first moult: Whole upper parts blackish-brown, with semicircular gray 
or whitish markings, and a slightly lighter cervical interval. Throat definitely white. Under 
parts dull brown, heavily streaked with dusky, especially on the breast. Much light brown 
edging and tipping of the quills and wing-coverts. Feet and bill pale. This stage is transi- 
tory; with the first moult the young acquire the characters above described for the winter. A 
beautiful species of the interior plains, British America and U. 8. and Mexico; breeds in pro- 
fusion on the prairies of Dakota, Montana, and whole upper Missouri and Saskatchewan 
regions, S. to Kansas or further; has occurred in New England; rarely W. of the Rocky Mts. 
Breeds in Juneand July; nest on ground, sunken flush with surface, of a few grasses and weed- 
stalks ; eggs usually 4, about 0.80 X 0.60, white clouded with purplish shell-markings, gray 
the prevailing tone, this irregularly dotted and veined with sharp dark-brown surface-marks. 
Young covered with whitish down. In the breeding season the birds are fond of soaring and 
singing as they fly, rising to great height and letting themselves down with the wings held like 
parachutes; they curiously resemble butterflies when so engaged. The white tail shows very 
conspicuously. Ordinary flight wayward and vacillating ; song weak and twittering, but pleas- 
ing. The birds flock as soon as young are fairly on wing, and leave the northern prairies in 
October. They are associated in the breeding season with R. maccownt, and joined in October 
by P. pictus and lapponicus from the north. 

RHYNCHO’PHANES. (Gr. puyyxos, rhugchos, beak, and daive, phaino, I appear; in allusion 
to the turgid bill.) Lonespurs. Similar to Centrophanes, but departing in the direction of 
Montifringilla (an exotic genus). Bill turgid, very stout and large in comparison; culmen rising 
high on forehead, its outline almost a little concave. Hind toe and claw less developed. Hind 
claw not longer than its digit, not notably straightened. Sexes dissimilar. No cervical collar. 
& with black pectoral crescent and red bend of wing. Habits of Centrophanes strictly. 
R. maceown'i. (To Capt. J. P. McCown, U.S. A. Fig. 225.) Buack-sreastep Lone- 
spur. Bay-wincep Lonespur. 4, in full dress: Upper parts slate-gray, streaked with 
dusky and grayish or yellowish- : 
brown, especially on the interscap- 
ulars. No cervical collar, but a 
chestnut patch on the wings, formed 
by the median coverts. Crown jet- 
black, bounded by a white super- 
ciliary line ; sides of head whitish, 
but auriculars more or less slaty. 
Throat white, bounded by firm 
black maxillary stripes. Breast 
jet-black, in broad crescentic form, 
sharply defined against the white 
throat, shading behind into slaty- 
blackish, becoming more and more 
mixed with white on the belly and 


: . . Fic. 225.— Black-breasted Longspur, reduced. hi ’ 
sides, till posteriorly the parts are Nichols sc.) gspur, uced. (Sheppard del 


75. 


22 


360 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


pure white; lining of wings white. All the tail-feathers, except the middle pair, and bases 
and tips of intermediate ones, white, ending squarely across both webs. Bill blackish-plum- 
beous, pale at base below; feet brownish-black. Length about 6.00; extent 11.00-11.50; 
wing 8.30-3.60; tail 2.25; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.67; middle toe and claw rather less. 9, in 
breeding plumage: Upper parts, wings, and tail asin the g— coverts with at least a trace of 
chestnut, and tail displaying the rectangular shape of the white area; crown like back in- 
stead of black ; no black inaxillary stripes, and breast-crescent slaty-gray ; throat whitish ; bill 
and feet yellowish-brown, more or less obscured. The seasonal changes of plumage, as well as 
the sexual differences, are parallel with those of P. ornatus; there is the same veiling of black 
parts by gray, ete. Though so different from ornatus in full dress, the bird is very similar in 
other conditions, age for age, and sex for sex: but larger; no trace of chestnut on nape ; trace 
at least. on wing-coverts; aud peculiar pattern of tail-feathers shown as soon as they sprout 
and never lost. Very young birds have curved edgings of the feathers of the upper parts ; 
the under parts quite purely white, with some dusky streaks, and a buff suffusion on the breast. 
Region of the upper Missouri and its tributaries; N. to the Saskatchewan ; not known W. of 
the Rocky Mts.; S. to Texas and Mexico; E. to Kansas and probably Iowa and Missouri. 
Breeds in profusion on the prairies from Colorado northward, in parts of Dakota and in 
Montana associated with P. ornatus; winters from Colorado southward. Its habits and man- 
ners are the same as those of P. ornatus. It has the same soaring singing flight, and para- 
chute-like descent, ‘‘ sliding down on the scale of its own music ;” nesting the same; eggs re- 
sembling the paler varieties of P. ornatus; 0.80 x 0.60. 

PASSER/CULUS. (Lat. passerculus, a little sparrow; diminutive of passer, a sparrow.) 
Savanna SPARROWS. GROUND Sparrows. Bill rather slenderly conical, culmen, commissure 
and gonys about straight (bill more turgid in P. rostratus and guttatus). Wings longer than 
tail, poimt formed by outer 4 primaries, of nearly equal lengths ; inner secondaries enlarged and 
flowing, reaching nearly or quite to end of primaries in the closed wing. Tail short, nearly even 
or little emarginate, of narrow pointed feathers. Feet slender, pale-colored, usually reaching 
when outstretched nearly or quite to end of tail; tarsus and middle toe with claw of about equal 
lengths ; lateral toes of equal lengths, their claws underreaching base of middle claw; hind toe 
rather longer than its claw, which has no special development. Plumage thickly streaked 
everywhere above, and below on breast and sides; crown with median light line and lateral 
dark ones ; no decided markings on tail-feathers. In most species edge of wing yellow, and 
traces at least of yellow on head; no red, blue, or greenish. Sexes alike. Embracing small 
plain streaked ground sparrows of slender build, most] y with a touch of lemon-yellow on edge 
of wing, long inner secondaries and pale slender legs; one species abounding in the East, others 


of more special distribution. 
Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


Bill typical. Crown with median light stripe. Inner secondaries seldom quite equalling primaries. No 
decided lemon-yellow on edge of wing. a of head with two black stripes, and suffused with rich 
brownish-yellow . . . . . bairdi 224 

Bill typical. Crown with median light stripe. Inner secondaries ‘at full length. ” Bdge of wing with 
lemon-yellow; same shade on head,if any. Upper parts much variegated; under white, with sharp 


streaking. 
Large, pale; little or no yellowish; length 6.00 or more; wing 3.25. Coast of New England princeps 226 
Large, dark, with decided yellow; length about 6.00; wing 3.00. Northwest coast . . sandvicensis 226 
Medium, of average coloration; length about 5.50; wing2.75. N.Am.atlarge... . . savana 227 
Medium; pale; size of savana proper. Interior and western. . . » . . . @laudinus 229 
Small, dark; yellow very decided. Length about 5.25; wing 2.50. West coast soe ee . anthinus 228 


Bill enlarged, turgid, with convex culmen. Crown-stripe obsolete. No yellow on head or wing. 
Larger: bill 0.50. Length 5.30; wing near 3.00. Pale brownish-gray, with obsolete streaking; the 
streaks below light brown. Coast of California + . » rostratus 230 
Smaller : bill 0.33. Length 5.00; wing 2.50. Darker, the streaks below dusky, L. ‘Cala. - guttatus 231 


P. baird'i, (To Prof. S. F. Baird. Fig. 226.) Barrp’s SAVANNA Sparrow. & 9, adult, in 
breeding plumage: With a general resemblance to P. savana. Inner secondaries less elon- 


225. 


PRINGILLIDA: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 561 


gated, rarely equalling the primaries in the closed wings. First 4 quills about equal and longest. 
Hind toe and claw about equalling the middle toe and claw, its claw about equalling the digit. 
Tail shorter than wing, lightly double-rounded (ceutral and outer pair of feathers both a little 
shorter than the intermediate ones). Top of head streaked with black and rich brownish- 
yellow, or buff, the former predominating laterally, the latter chiefly as a median stripe, but 
also suffusing the nape and sides of head in greater or less degree. Back varied with 
brownish-black and gray, together with a little bay, the two latter colors forming the edg- 
ings of the interscapulars and scapulars. Rump variegated with gray and chestnut-brown, 
different in shade from that of the back. Under parts dull white, usually with a faint 
ochrey tinge on the breast, but often without; a circlet of small, sharp, sparse, dusky streaks 
across the breast, continuous with others, longer and mostly lighter, along the whole sides, and 
with others, again, extending up the sides of the neck into small vague maxillary and auricular 
markings. When the feathers are perfectly arranged these lateral head-markings are seen to 
be a post-ocular stripe just over the auriculars, a post-auricular spot, a streak starting from the 
angle of the mouth, and another heavier one parallel 
with and below this, running directly into the pec- 
toral ones. Quills without special markings, except- 
ing the elongated inner secondaries, which correspond 
with the scapulars. Tail the same, slightly whitish- 
edged. Upper mandible mostly dark, lower pale. 
Feet flesh-colored. Length 5.10-5.85, averaging 
5.67; extent 8.60-9.85, average 9.50; wing 2.75- 
3.00; tail 2.00-2.25; culmen about 0.40; tarsus 
about 0.75 ; middle toe and claw, and hind toe and 
claw, each, rather less; Q averages ratheresmaller. 
Autumnal plumage: Soft, with brighter, more suf- 
fused colors, in bolder pattern. Whole top and sides 
of head, as well as nape and part of neck, suffused 
with rich buff, in many instances as bright a goldeu- \ 
brown as that on the head of Stwrus auricapillus. A eA h NE BS S 
paler, rather ochraceous shade of the same also suffus- Fic. 226.—Baird’s Savanna Sparrow, re- 
ing the whole fore wnder-parts. Pectoral and lateral @uced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) 

dusky streaks, as well as the two rows on each side of the throat, large, heavy, diffuse. Bay 
and whitish edgings of the secondaries broad and conspicuous, contrasting with the black central 
fields. Whitish edgings of tail-feathers the same ; aud, in general, the same character is stamped 
over all the upper plumage. Newly-fledged young have each feather of the dorsal plumage con- 
spicuously bordered with white, producing a set of semicircles, much as in Neocorys spragui. 
There is the same general buffy suffusion of the head and fore parts as in autummal adults, 
but the tint is dull and ochrey. The markings below have a short, broad, guttiform character. 
When just from the nest, the edging of the secondaries and tail-feathers is of a peculiar pinkish- 
rusty shade. Central Plains, U. 8.; N. to British Provinces; E. nearly to Red River of the 
North; 8. to Texas, N. Mex. and Arizona; W. to the Rocky Mts., and beyond. An interesting 
sparrow, long almost unknown till I found it breeding in profusion in Dakota, taking 75 speci- 
mens one season. In general habits and appearance in life quite like savanna sparrows ; mix- 
ing freely with these and Neocorys, Eremophila, and Plectrophanes ornatus. Song peculiar, of 
two or three tinkling syllables and a trill, like zip-zip-zip-zr-r-r-r. Nest on ground, a slight 
structure of grasses and weed-stalks, about 4 inches across ; eggs 5, 0.80 X 0.65, white, irregu- 
larly speckled and blotched with pale and dark reddish-browns, laid in June and July. 

P. prin’ceps. (Lat. princeps, chief.) Ipswicu Savanna Sparrow. ¢: General appear- 
ance of a large savanna sparrow, but with a resemblance to a bay-winged hunting. Upper 


ae 
= 
Lalit 


226. 


362 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


parts grayish-brown, with blackish rufous-edged centres of the feathers; median crown-stripe 
not strong, and scarcely yellowish ; a whitish superciliary stripe, not yellow auteriorly ; ear- 
coverts grayish, with a rufous tinge. Scapulars, coverts and secondaries blackish-brown, 
broadly edged with rufous, brightest on the secondaries ; scapulars also edged with white, aud 
both median and greater coverts white-tipped. Tail brownish, tipped and edged with whitish. 
Whole under parts white, breast and sides of throat and body streaked, the streaks dusky- 
centred, rufous-edged. Bill dark brown, base of under mandible paler; eyes and feet brown. 
Length 6.30; extent 11.00; wing 3.25; tail 2.60; bill 0.45; tarsus 0.95; middle toe and 
claw 1.05; hind toe and claw 0.72. (Foregoing condensed from original description of the 
type, taken in winter. Following as redescribed by Ridgway.) Bill of size and shape as in 
P. bairds exactly ; inner secondaries little lengthened. Outstretched feet not reaching to end 
of tail. In color almost exactly as in P. rostratus, but different in markings; above light 
ashy, the dorsal feathers light sandy-brown centrally, their shafts black. Surface of wings pale 
saudy-brown, the feathers darker-centred ; inner secoudaries with whitish outer webs, and con- 
spicuous black central field. Crown becoming darker brown anteriorly, where an indistinct 
median line of ochrey-white ; an indistinct superciliary stripe, and conspicuous maxillary stripe 
of the same, the latter bordered above by a narrow dusky stripe; lores and cheeks like the 
superciliary stripe; auriculars like crown. Below, white, slightly ashy on flanks ; whole breast 
and sides of body with narrow streaks of blackish-centred sandy-brown ; belly, crissum, and 
lining of wings immaculate; throat with a few minute specks, but on each side a bridle of 
sufluse streaks. Q: wing 2.90; tail 2.40; culmen 0.50; tarsus 0.85. (Following notes taken 
by me of a specimen received from Maynard; Q, Ipswich, Oct. 18, 1872: No. 73,553, Mus. 
8. 1.) ‘About size of largest P. sandvicensis from Alaska. No trace of yellow on head or 
wing. Upper parts even paler and grayer than extreme of P. alaudinus from the West — the 
streaks of upper parts having only shaft-lines of blackish-brown, brown-edged, the edges 
of the feathers finally gray; nape, rump, and upper tail-coverts gray, scarcely streaked at 
all. Crown streaked like interscapulars, but in smaller pattern; divided by a median light 
line. A long whitish (not yellowish) superciliary line; lore gray below this. Inner second- 
aries and greater coverts blackish, broadly edged on outer webs with bay, fading to whitish at 
tips ; median coverts similar, but more noticeably whitish-tipped; these edgings of wing- 
feathers making the strongest coloration of all the upper parts. Below, white; throat and 
middle of belly only immaculate, flanks a little shaded with gray ; whole breast, sides of neck 
and body, and crissum, with brown streaks, pale in comparison with those of P. savana, 
and rather suffuse. On the sides of head below auriculars the stripes tend to form two chains 
—a maxillary one and another above it separated by an immaculate interval. Resembles P. 
rostratus in diffuse grayish coloration and lack of yellow on head or wing. Looks as a hybrid 
between P. savana and Poecetes might be supposed to do.” Seems distinct, but not firmly estab- 
lished as a species. Coast of New England, especially sand-hills of the Massachusetts coast ; 
general range unknown; perhaps a local race. Curiously similar in some respects to the 
Californian litoral form P. rostratus. 

P. sandvicen’sis. (Of the Sandwich, one of the Aleutian Islands.) Similar to the ordinary 
savanna sparrow: averaging in size about the maximun of the latter: length about 6.00; wing 
3.00; tail 2.25; culmen 0.45 ; depth of bill at base 0.25; tarsus, and middle toe and claw, 
each, 0.80. Bill nearly twice as bulky as that of ordinary savana. A firm bright yellow super- 
ciliary stripe from nostril to eye, thence fading over auriculars (i. e., chrysops, Pall.) Under 
parts precisely as in savana; upper similar, but grayer—less rufous and more gray in the 
edgings of the feathers. Such are the peculiarities of a specimen from the very spot whence 
Latham and Pennant describe their bird; they are appreciable on laying the skin alongside a 
large varying series of Eastern savana. Alaska. But it does not follow that all the Alaskan 
and Aleutian savanna sparrows are like this. 


227. 


229. 


228. 


230. 


FRINGILLIDA: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 363 


P. s.sava/na. (Spanish sabana or savana, a meadow. Fig. 227.) CoMMoN SAVANNA SPAR- 
row. & 9, adult, in spring: Thickly streaked everywhere above, ou sides, and across breast ; 
a superciliary line, and edge of the wing, yellowish; lesser wing-coverts not chestuat; legs flesh- 
color; bill rather slender and acute; tail nearly even, its outer feathers uot white ; longest 
secondary nearly as long as the primaries in the closed wing. Above, brownish-gray, streaked 
with blackish, whitish-gray and pale bay, the streaks largest on interscapulars, smallest ou 
cervix, the crown divided by an obscure whitish line ; sometimes an obscure yellowish suffusion 
about head besides the streak over the eye. Below, white, pure or with faint butly shade, 
thickly streaked, as just stated, with dusky — the individual spots edged with brown, mostly 
arrow-shaped, running in chains along the sides, and often aggregated in au obscure blotch on 
the breast. Wings dusky, the coverts and 
inner secondaries black-edged and tipped 
with bright bay; tail-feathers rather nar- 
row and pointed, dusky, not unvticeably 
marked. Extreme dimensions of both 
sexes: Length 5.20-6.00; extent 8.50- 
10.00! wing 2.40-3.00; tail 1.75-2.25 ; 
tarsus 0.75-0.88 ; but such figures are rare. 
Average of both sexes 5.25; extent 8.75; 
wing 2.60; tail 2.00; tarsus 0.84. @ usu- 
ally 5.30-5.60; extent 9.00-9.50; wing 
2.67-2.75; Q usually 5.00-5.50; extent 
8.75-9.00; wing 2.50-2.67. Ordinarily, 
bill about 0.40; tarsus, middle toe and claw 
together 1.50. Fall and winter specimens 
much more brightly colored than spring 


. era 
and sumimer ones; the young particularly Fic. 227. — Common Savanna Sparrow, reduced. (Shep- 


having much ochrey or buffy suffusion, in- Pard del. Nichols sc.) 

stead of clean colors, more brown and bay, instead of dusky and gray. It is not easy for an un- 
practised person to discriminate the small sparrows, and so variable a one as this offers special 
difficulty ; attention to the points of form as well as of color is requisite. North Amer. at large, 
chiefly Eastern, very abundant everywhere in fields, on plains, by the wayside, and along the 
sea-shore ; a thoroughly terrestrial bird, migratory, and in the fall somewhat gregarious. Has 
an agreeable though weak song in the spring. Winters at least from Middle States southward, 
and breeds at least from New England to highest latitudes. Nest sunken in ground flush 
with surface, of a few grasses and weed-stalks; eggs 4-6, 0.70 X 0.50, varying interminably 
in their motley coloring; usually heavily clouded and blotched with dark brown; most. like 
those of Powcetes, but smaller. 

P.s. alaudi/nus. (Lat. alaudinus, lark-like; no applicability.) Lark SAVANNA SPARROW. 
So similar to the last as only to be distinguished by rather duller and paler coloration on an 
average, and weaker bill, about 0.35 long by 0.20 deep at the base. If the ‘savanna spar- 
row” be split into several races, this may possibly be allowed with the rest. Western U. 5. 
P.s. anthi‘nus. (Lat. anthinus, pipit-like ; no applicability.) Prrerr SAVANNA SPARRow. 
A form from the Pacific marshes, especially the coast of Cala., better marked than the last. 
Bill as long as in savana, but slenderer; under parts more sharply, closely, darkly and 
extensively streaked. Yellow eyebrow and bend of wing quite as well marked as in savana, 
and therefore contrasting with the paler and grayer alaudinus with which it is associated. 

P. rostra/tus. (Lat. rostratus, beaked; rostrum, beak.) BrakED SAVANNA SPARROW. 
San DieGo SAVANNA SPARROW. SEA-SHORE SPARROW. With the form of a Savanna, but 
the bill elongated as in Ammodramus, yet very stout and turgid, with decidedly convex 


231. 


76. 


232. 


364 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES. 


culmen 0.50 long. No yellowish over eye or on edge of wing; no evident median stripe on 
crown. Brownish-gray, obsoletely streaked with dark brown, most noticeable on erown and 
middle of back; entire under parts dull white, contluently streaked with clear brown every- 
where except on throat, middle of belly, and crissum. Wings and tail dusky-gray, the 
rectrices with paler edges, the primaries with whitish edges, the wing-coverts and secondaries 
broadly edged and tipped with grayish-bay. An obseure whitish superciliary line. Bill light 
brown, under mandible paler or yellowish ; legs pale. Length 5.25; wing 2.50-2.75 5 tail 2.00. 
Pacific coast, U. S., especially California ; a curious species, common, maritime, representing, 
with var. anthinus, the Ammodrami in the marshes of the seashore. 

P. gutta’tus. (Lat. guttatus, spotted; gutta, a drop.) Sv. Lucas SAVANNA SpaArnow. 
Bill shaped as in rostratus, relatively as stout, but smaller; culmen 0.45; depth at base 0.25. 
Bird sinaller: pattern of coloration the same, but tone darker; streaking of the under parts 
sharper, heavier, and darker. Tustead of the light brownish-gray of rostrates the upper parts 
are here dark, almost olivaceous, brown, so that the dark streaking of the erown and inter- 
scapulars is less noticeable. The same difference characterizes the under parts. Cape St. 
Lucas. 

Oxss. There is a sparrow of the L. Cala. Gulf coast and islands like guttatus : larger ; 
wing 2.75; bill 0.50, at base 0.30 deep, thus as large as that of rostratus, but regularly conic, 
with straight culmen suddenly deflected at end, and perfectly straight commissure; upper 
mandible and tip of lower blackish; rest apparently yellowish. An n. sp. ? P. sanctorum 
N., Mus. 8. I., San Benito Isl. (See Pr. U.S. Nat. Mus., March, 1883, p. 538.) 

POG 'CETES. (Gr. én, poe, grass; olkerns, oiketes, an inhabitant.) Grass SPARROWS. 
Bill moderate, culmen, gouys and commissure nearly straight. Wings long, longer than tail, 
tip formed by first 4 quills ; inner secoudaries somewhat clougate, less so than in Passerculus. 
Tail emarginate, with rather broad firm feathers, not acuminate at ends. Tarsus about as long 
as middle toe without claw; lateral toes of about equal lengths, their claws scarcely reaching 
base of middle claw; hind claw as usual, not longer than its di 


git. Plumage thickly streaked 
everywhere above, ou sides below and across breast; bend of wing chestnut; 1-3 outer tail 
feathers white ; crown without light median stripe; no trace of yellow anywhere. 

P. grami/neus. (Litt. yramineus, applied to a grass-loving bird; gramen, grass. Fig, 228.) 


GRAss Fincu. BAY-winakp BuNTING. 


Vesrer-birp. Above, grayish-brown, 
closely and uniformly marked with dusky- 
centred brown-edged streaks and further 
variegated by pale gray edging of the 
feathers. Crown quite like back, though 
the marking is in smaller pattern ; super- 
ciliary line and eye-ring whitish. Under 
parts dull white, usually noticeably buff- 
tinged in the streaked areas, thickly streaked 
across breast and along sides with dusky- 
ceutred brown-edged streaks, anteriorly 
tending to concentrate in lateral chains 
bounding the white throat; above this 


Fic. 228, —Bay-winged Bunting, reduced, (Sheppard chain a maxillary brown stripe ; auriculars 
del. Nichols sc.) varied with light and dark brown. Quills 
fuscous, the longer ones with grayish-white edging, the secondaries and greater and median 
, g { i] § 
coverts with broad firm brown and white edges and tips ; lesser coverts bright chestnut, whenee 
the name “bay-winged.” Outer tail-feather largely or wholly white, next. pair or two pairs 
largely white in deereasing amount. Upper mandible brown; lower, and the fect, flesh- 
gely § , ) ) 


233. 


77. 


234. 


FRINGILLIDZE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 365 


colored or yellowish. Length 5.75-6.25 ; extent 10.00-10.50 ; wing 2.80-3.25 ; tail 2.25-2.75. 
North Amer. at large, breeding throughout its range, but partially migratory, chietly nesting 
northward, and wintering southward. A large, stout, full-chested sparrow of plain appearance, 
but recognized on sight by the bay bend of the wing and white lateral tail feathers, — the latter 


conspicuous as it ties. Very abundant in fields, along roadsides ; terrestrial, gregarious to 
some extent when not breeding. Nest sunken in the ground, bulky, thick-rimmed, deeply 
cupped ; eggs 4-6, heavily colored, as in P. savana, 0.80 X 0.60; two or three broods may be 


reared. Oue of the sweetest songsters among the sparrows. 


*P.g. confi/nis. (Lat. confinis, near.) WESTERN GRASS Fixcu. The paler, grayer form from 


the dry western regions. 

COTURNI'CULUS. (Lat. coturniz, a quail; coturniculus, a little quail.) GRASSHOPPER 
Sparrows. Bill (in passerinus and henslowi) short and stout, with curved culmen (in 
lecontii slenderer and more elongate). Wings extremely short and rounded, so that the inner 
secondaries reach nearly to the tip when closed, without special elongation ou their part. Tail 
of variable length according to species, weak, of narrow, lanceolate feathers, in one species very 
tapering and acuminate. Feet stout, much as in Ammodramus. Plumage greatly variegated ; 
buffy tints conspicuous on under parts. Contains 3 remarkably distinet N. Am. species of queer 
little sparrows of grass, weeds, and reeds, with another of 8. Am. (C. manimbe). They show 
a greater range of variation in form than our finical modern genera usually allow, and shade 
through C. lecontii into Ammodramus. The uame is appropriate; C. passerinus curiously 


resembles a quail] in miniature. 
Analysis of Species. 


Tail shorter than wings; outstretched feet reaching to or beyond itsend. Bill stout, brown. Adult not evi- 


BS) 


dently streaked! below <c> 40h ge at Re SS AS passerinus 234, 235 
Tail equal to wings. Sharp maxillary, pectoral and lateral streaks. Bill stout, brown. . .  henslowi 23€ 
Tail longer than wings ; outstretched feet not reaching its end. Bill slender, bluish. Sharp lateral without 

pectoral or: maxillary Streaks: 4 4 2 4-s- 2 % £8 A BS woe Ro mS Ao es 2 ee, Vecontit) S37 


C. passerinus. (Lat. passerinus, sparrow-like. Fig. 229.) YELLOW-wiINGED SPARROW. 
QuAIL SPARROW. GRASSHOPPER SPARROW. J Q, adult: Edge of wine conspicuously yel- 
low; lesser wing-coverts greenish-yellow; a ww 

yellow loral spot; short line over eye buffy- 
yellow. Crown with median stripe of pale 
brownish-yellow. Below, ochraceous or pale 
buff or tawny, fading to whitish on belly, not 
evidently streaked, though a few dark touches 
may appear on sides of breast. Above, sin- 
gularly variegated with black, gray, yellow- 
ish-brown and a peeuliar purplish-bay, in 
short streaks and specks; the crown being 
nearly black with sharp median brownish- 
yellow stripe, the middle of the back chiefly 
black with bay and brownish-yellow edgings 
of the feathers, the cervical region and rump 
chiefly bay and gray. When the feathers 
are not disturbed, the peculiar pattern of the 
cervical region separates that of the crown 


and back ; the markings extend on the sides Fic, 229 — Yellow-winged Sparrow, reduced. (Shep- 
of the neck, but the sides of the head are pard del. Nichols se.) 

plain, like the under parts. Wing-coverts and inner secondaries variegated in intricate pattern, 
the general effect like the back. Primaries and tail-feathers plain dusky, with narrow light edg- 
ings ; outer tail-feathers paler, but not white. Feet flesh-colored. Small: length 4.80-5.25 ; 


23 


- 


566 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES— OSCINES. 


% 


extent §.00-§.50: wing 2 25-2.50: tail 2.00 or less, shorter than wing, outstretched feet 
reaching beyond it: rounded or rather double-rounded at end. the feathers narrow and lance- 
olate. Bill very stout and full. In autumn. fresh-moulted birds are as usual richer in color, 
the markings more blended and diffuse, the fore parts below and the sides rich buffy brown. in 
whieh vague lighter and darker markings usually appear. Young: before the moult. are 
whitish below, with decided dusky mayillary and pectoral streaks. thus resembling C. henslowi. 
Eastem U. 8. and Canada, but not far north: breeds throughout its range: resident in the 
uthern States. elsewhere a migrant and summer visitant. Abundant in the rank herbage of 
old fields, but less frequently observed than it would be did it not hide so persistently in the 
herbage: has a peculiar chirring note, like a grasshopper’s: nests on the ground: eggs 45. 
crystal white. flecked with reddish-brown, 0.72 x 0.64. 

C. p. perpallidus. (Lat. perpallidus, very pale.) BLEACHED YELLOW-WINGED SPARROW. 
Specimens from dry western regions are paler and grayer: less black and more slaty-gray 
on the upper parts, the ochrey crown stripe and edgings of the dorsal feathers, as well as the 
under parts generally, paler. 

C. hen slowi. (To Prof. J. 8. Henslow, of England.) HrNsiow’s GRAssHOPPER SPARROW. 
Somewhat resembling a young C. passerinus. Under parts whitish, tinged strongly along the 
whole sides, across the breast. and on the fanks and crissum with buff, all these buff parts 
sharply and distinctly streaked with blackish in fine pattern: the pectoral streaks connecting 
along the sides of neck with decided black maxillary stripes. The brownish-yellow shade is 
very variable in extent and intensity. but it usually leaves only the throat and belly decidedly 
whitish. Ground-color of head and hind neck a peculiar pale olive-gray., with a decided 
greenish-yellow tinge: top of head with broad lateral Glackish stripes, continued on the cervix 
in much smaller pattern, divided by a greenish-brownish-yellow median stripe. The peculiar 
color of the hind neck extending far around on sides of neck, and sides of head of much the 
same tint: a blackish post-ocular stripe bounding the auriculars above: below and anterior to 
them a black maxillary stripe starting from the angle of the mouth: below this usually other 
maxillary streaks: dark specks often behind auriculars. Dorsal and scapular feathers with 
bread black central field, then broadly chestnut, then mostly narrowly edged with whitish, 


these markings in bold pattern, and contrasting with the peculiar greenish-gray cervical region 
with its fine black streaks. Edge of wing yellow. Greater wing-coverts and most of the 
secondaries colored to correspond with the back, the closed wing showing chiefly chestnut with 
the black field of the three innermost secondaries. Tail-feathers extremely narrow and acute, 
brown, the inver at least with long blackish shaft stripe, and reddish-brown on inner webs. 
Bill brownish, usually quite dusky above, pale below; feet pale. Length scarcely 5.00; 
extent 7.50: wing and tail, each, 2.00-2.10; bill from extreme base of culmen 0.45 : 0.30 deep 
at base; tarsus or middle toe and claw 0.65. Eastern U. 8., strictly, N. to New England, 
uot very commonly; W. to Nebraska. Not abundant on the whole, nor easily observed. 
Common about Washington, where it breeds, in fields and meadows; nest on the ground, in 
tufts of grass. Eggs 4-5, greenish-white, profusely speckled with reddish, 0.75 X 0.57. 

C. lecon'tii. (To Maj. J. Le Conte, of Philadelphia.) Lr CoNnTE’s GRASSHOPPER SPARROW. 
Le Conte's Buntine. & Q, adult: Bill smaller and slenderer than in either of the foregoing, 
dark horn-blue above, paler bluish below; iris black. Tail long, decidedly exceeding the 
wings when full grown, and remarkably graduated; lateral feathers }-4 inch shorter than the 
central pair: all extremely narrow, tapering, and acuminate, even more so than in the sharp- 
tailed finch (Ammodramus caudacutus) ; outstretched feet not reaching to its end. Wings 
short and much rounded; primaries in closed wing hardly + inch longer than secondaries. 
Length 4.90-5.10; extent 6.90-7.10; wing 1.90-2.00; tail 2.00-2.25 or a little more: bill 
0.40; tarsus 0.67. No trace of yellow on bend of wing, nor any yellow loral spot. No black 
maxillary or pectoral streaks; markings of under parts confined to sparse, sharp, blackish 


78. 


238. 


FRINGILLIDA: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, LTC. 367 


streaks on the sides. General coloration more or less buff, according to age and season. 
Crown with black lateral stripes, separated by a whitish stripe becomiug ochrey ou forehead. 
Sides of head butt, brightest on the long broad superciliary line, cuclosing slaty-gray auriculars, 
which are bordered above by a black post-ocular lie, sometimes chiety appearing as a dark speek 
behind them. Cervical feathers bay, black-shafted and whitish-edged, forming a distinct inter- 
val between markings of back and crown. Dorsal feathers iu bold pattern, with black terminal 
ceutral field, little rufous and much whitish or buffy edging ; streaking extending ou rump and 
upper tail-coverts. Wing-coverts and inner secondaries colored boldly to correspond with the 
back. Under parts bufty-white, sometimes quite whitish, again much more butly, with season, 
usually quite buff with only belly whitish. Fresh moulted fall birds are often entirely deep 
buff below, excepting the belly, which is white, inmarked contrast. Young: Bill still smaller, 
reddish-brown instead of bluish ; general color butf above, whitish below, more or less buily on 
breast and sides; markings of upper parts black, without the bay and brown varicgation, except 
on wings and tail, which are nearly as in the adults; sparse black streaks of uuder parts usually 
appearing across breast as well as on sides. An interesting, long-lost species, recently redis- 
covered: Yellowstone R. (Audubon, 1843); Texas (Lincecum) ; Dakota (Cowes, 1873) ; 
Tlinois (Nelson, 1875) ; Towa (Newton, 1875); Minnesota (Zifany, 1878); South Carolina! 
(Loomis, 1881.) Approaching Ammodramus caudacutus in many respects, and inhabitiug 
similar resorts in the interior. Nest and eggs still unknown. 

AMMO’DRAMUS. (Gr. duos, ammos, sand; Spapeiv, dramein, to run.) SeA-sIDE SPAR- 
rows. Bill remarkably slender and lengthened for this family, with culmen decurved toward 
end, gonys straight, and sometimes an 
evident lobation of the cutting edge of 
the upper mandible. Wings short and 
rounded, yet longer than tail; inner sce- 
ondaries, though not elongate, reaching 
nearly to end of primaries when wing 
is closed ; point formed by 2d-4th quills. 
Feet large and stout, reaching out- 
stretched about to end of tail; tarsus 
about equal to middle toe and claw in 
length ; lateral toes of equal lengths, 
very short, their claws underreaching 
base of middle claw. Tail shorter or 
uot longer than wings, much rounded, 
of narrow, stiffsh, sharp-pointed feath- 
ers. Embracing small streaky marsh 
sparrows, especially of the sea-coast, 


but not exclusively maritime, as long Fira. 230 — Generic details of Ammodramus (A. caudacutus), 
supposed ; remarkable for slenderness ™** S26 (Ad. nat. del. E. C.) 
of the bil, sharp narrow tail-feathers, and stout fect fitted for grasping slender swaying reeds. 
Edge of wing bright yellow; a yellow spot or buff stripe on head ; upper parts olive-gray or 
quite blackish, streaky. 
Analysis of Species. 
Loral spot und edge of wing bright yellow. 


Upper parts olive-gray obscurely streaked . . . . soe ee ee ee ee . maritimus 238 
Upper parts quite blackish. 2... we ee le nigrescens 239 
A-long buffsuperciliary stripe. es ek we ee gee eR 6b a Sw gw CMaCUttis 940-041 


A. mari/timus. (Lat. maritimus, maritime, coast-wise; mare, the sea. Fig. 230.) Swa-sipr 
Fincu. Olive-gray, obscurely streaked on back and crown with darker and paler; below, whit- 
ish, often washed with brownish, shaded on sides with color of back, and with ill-defined dark 


239. 


240. 


241. 


368 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


streaks on breast and sides; maxillary stripes of the same; wings and tail plain dusky, with 
slight olivaceous edgings; wing-coverts and inner quills somewhat margined with brown ; 
edge of wing bright yellow ; a bright yellow spot on lore, and often some vague brownish and 
dusky markings on side of head; bill plumbeous, or dark horn-blue ; feet dark. Length 5.75- 
6.25; extent $.50; wing 2.25-2.50; tail about 2.00. Recognizable on sight by the bright 
yellow edge of wing and loral spot, with little varied olive-gray wpper parts. Salt marshes of 
the Atlantic and Gulf coast; abundant. North to Massachusetts; breeds throughout its range, 
and resident in the south, but screened from casual observation by the nature of its haunts and 
habits. Nest in a tussock of grass just out of water; eggs 0.75 X 0.55, grayish-white, thickly 
and pretty evenly marked. 

A. m. nigres/cens. (Lat. nigrescens, growing black.) FLoRIpA SEa-sipr Frxcu. Like 
al. maritimus; rather smaller bodied, though members not shorter, and conspicuously different 
in color, being almost entirely black and 
white. Upper parts sooty-black, slightly 
variegated with slate-colored edgings of the 
feathers, and some pale gray edgings of the in- 
terscapulars. Below white, heavily streaked 
with blackish everywhere excepting on the 
throat and middle of bey. A bright yellow 
loral spot, and bend of the wing bright yel- 
low (both very couspicuous in the black 
plumage). Wing-quills blackish, the inner 
secondaries quite black ; all narrowly edged 
with brownish. Tail black, with gray edg- 
ings of the feathers, — these edgings tending 
to form scallops with the black central field. 
Bill aud feet as in AL. maritimus. A euri- 
ous loeal race, resident in Florida. 

A. caudacu’tus. (Lat. cauda, tail; acutus, AOL 
sharp. Fig. 231.) SHanrp-Tartep Fincu. Fic. 231.—Sea-side Finch, reduced. (Sheppard del. 
Olive-gray, sharply streaked on the back Nichols sc.) 

with blackish and whitish, less so on the ramp with blackish alone. Crown darker than nape, 
with brownish-black streaks, tending to form lateral stripes and obscure olive-gray median line; 
no yellow loral spot, but long line over eye and sides of head rich buff or orange-brown, enclos- 
ing olive-gray auriculars and a dark speck behind them, or dark post-ocular stripe over them. 
Olive-gray of cervix extending around on sides of neck. Below, white; the fore parts and 
sides tinged with yellowish-brown or buff of variable intensity, the breast and sides sharply 
streaked with dusky. Greater coverts and inner secondaries with blackish field toward their 
ends, broadly margined with rusty brown and whitish. Tail-feathers brown, with dusky shaft- 
stripes and tendency to ‘‘water” with crosswise wavy bars. Bill blackish above, pale or 
not below, feet brown. Coloration in spring and summer clearer and paler, in fall and in 
young birds more brightly and extensively buff. Rather smaller than A. maritimus; bill still 
slenderer, and tail-feathers still narrower and more acute. Length 5.10-5.50; extent 7.50; 
wing 2.25; tail 2.00; bill 0.45-0.50; tarsus, or middle toe and claw, 0.75. Salt marshes of 
the Atlantic and Gulf States, N. abundantly to Maine; range similar to that of A. maritimus, 
but on the whole more northerly, especially in the breeding season ; nest and eggs similar and 
scarcely distinguishable. 

A. c. nel/soni. (To E. W. Nelson, of Illinois.) Similar to the last, but smaller, with 
bill sleuderer and longer; colors brighter and markings more sharply defined. Fresh marshes 
of Illinois and other portions of the Mississippi Valley at large ; N. probably to Canada. 


FRINGILLIDZ: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 369 


79. MELOSPI/ZA. (Gr. pédos, melos, song, melody, and amiga, spiza, name of some Finch in Aris- 
totle). Sona Sparrows. Bill moderate, conic, without special turgidity or compression, out- 
lines of culmen, commissure, gonys and sides nearly or about straight. Wings short and much 
rounded, folding little beyond base of tail; 1st primary quite short ; point of wing formed by 3d, 
4th, and 5th, supported closely by 2d and 6th; inner secondaries uot elongated. Tail Jong, 
about equalling or rather exceeding the wings, much rounded, with firm feathers broad to their 
rounded ends. Feet moderately stout; tarsus scarcely or not longer than middle toe and claw ; 
lateral toes slightly unequal, outer the longer, its claw searcely or not reaching base of middle 
claw. Embracing a large number of middle-sized and large sparrows, without a trace of yellow 
anywhere, and of brownish-yellow only in Mf. lincolni; upper parts, including crown, thickly 
streaked; under parts white or ashy, thickly streaked across breast and along sides (excepting 
adult M. palustris). No bright color anywhere, and no colors in masses. The type of the genus 
is the familiar and beloved song sparrow, —a 
pird of constant characters in the East, but which 
in the West is split into numerous geographical 
races, some of them looking so different from 
typical fasciata that they have been considered 
as distinct species, and even placed in other gen- 
era. This differentiation affects not only the 
color, but the size, relative proportion of parts, 
and particularly the shape of the bill; and it is 
sometimes so great, as in case of I. cinerea, that 
less dissimilar-looking birds are commonly as- 
signed to different genera. Nevertheless, the 
gradation is complete, and effected by impercep- 
tible degrees. Some Northwestern forms of 
great size and dark colors are easily discrimi- 
nated, but there are U.S. birds from Atlantic to 
Pacific which are uot readily told apart. The Fig. 232, —Lincoln’s Song-Sparrow reduced. 
student should not be discouraged if a subject (Sheppard del. Nichols se.) 
which has tried the chiefs perplexes him ; nor must he expect to find drawn on paper hard and 
fast lines which do not exist in nature. The curt antithetical expressions used in constructing 
the analysis of species and varieties necessarily exaggerate the case, and are only true as indi- 
cating the typical style of each; plenty of specimens lie ‘‘ between the lines” as written. In 
goivg over a large series of Western song sparrows — specimens picked to illustrate types of 
style rather than connecting links, it still seems to me that distinctions have been somewhat 
forced; and that, also, different degrees of variation are thrown out of proper perspective by 
reducing all the forms to the same varietal plane. Thus, the differences between cinerea 
and all the rest, or between rufina and fasciata, are much greater than between rufina and 
guttata for instance, or between fallax and fasciata. In any outline of the genus the curves and 
angles indicated by Baird in 1858 are as far as they go nicer qualifications than the dead-level 
varieties later in vogue. The several degrees of likeness and unlikeness may be thrown 
into true relief better by some such expressions as the following than by formal antithetical 
phrases: —1. The common eastern bird slightly modified in the arid interior into the duller 
colored 2. fallax. This, in the Pacific water shed, more decidedly modified by deeper 
coloration, — broader black streaks in 3. heermanni, with its diminutive local race 4. samuelis, 
and more ruddy shades in 5. guttata northward increasing in intensity, with increased size, 
in 6. rufina. Then the remarkable 7. cinerea, insulated much further apart than any of 
the others. A former American school would probably have made four ‘‘ good species.” 
1. fasciata; 2. samuelis; 3. rufina; 4. cinerea. The present British school might perhaps 

24 


242. 


243. 


3870 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


handle them as 1. fasciata and fallax, with a, heermanni; 2. samuelis; 3. rufina, with a, 
guttata. 4. cinerea. 
Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


Breast streaked, and with a transverse belt of brownish-yellow; tail nearly equal to wings . . lincolni 242 
Breast ashy, unbelted, with few streaks, or none; tail about equal to wings . . - . «palustris 243 
Breast white, or brownish-white, with numerous streaks; tail usually longer than they wings, both rounded. 
Thickly streaked above, on sides, and across breast . . . . . fasciata and its varieties 244-250: 
The streaks distinct, decidedly blackish-centred (in breeding plumage). 
Tone of upper parts grayish-brown or reddish-gray. Streaked from head totuil. Dorsal streaks black, 


rufous, and grayish-white. Wing 2.60; tail under 3.00. Eastern N. A. . . » . fasciata 244 
Tone of upper parts gray. Streaks obsolete on rump. Dorsal streaks narrowly blackish anil grayish- 
white, with little rufous. Tail about 3.00. Southern Rocky Mt. region . . . 5 a Jallarx 246 
Tone of upper parts ashy-gray. Streaks obsolete on rump. Dorsal streaks broadly black, with little 
rufous and scarcely any grayish-white. Size of the first. California . . .. . . . heermanni 248 
Tone of upper parts olive-gray. Streaks on rump and upper tail-coverts. Dorsal streaks as in the 
last. Very small. Wing 2.25; tail 2.50. Coast of California. . . .. . . . . . . samuelis 249 


The streaks diffuse, not black-centred nor whitish-edged. Bill slender. Pacific, coastwise. 
Tone of upper parts rufous-brown. Streaks above and below dark rufous. Medium-sized; wing 2.60; 


tail under 3.00. Pacific coast, U.S. and British Columbia . . . . . guttata 246 
Tone of upper parts olive-brown. Streaks sooty. Larger; wing and tail about 3. 00. Pacific coast, 
British Columbia and Alaska . . . . . » Tallis - oe. Tufina 247 


Tone of upper parts dark cinereous. Streaking reddish-brown. ‘Largest; wing and tail 3.25 or more 
cinerea 250 


M. lin/colni. (To Robert Lincoln. Fig. 232.) Lixcoin’s Sone Sparrow. ¢, 9: Below, 
white, with a broad brownish-yellow belt across breast, the sides of the body and neck, aud the 
crissum, washed with the same; extent and intensity of this buff very variable, often leaving 
only chin, throat, and belly purely white, but a pectoral band is always evident. All the buffy 
parts sharply and thickly streaked with dusky. Above, grayish-brown, with numerous sharp 
black-centred, brown-edged streaks. Top of head ashy, with a pair of dark brown Dblack- 
streaked stripes; or, say, top of head brown, streaked with black, and with median and lateral 
ashy stripes. Below the superciliary ashy stripe is a narrow dark brown one, running from eye 
over ear; auriculars also bounded below by an indistinct dark brown stripe, below which and 
behind the auriculars the parts are suffused with buff. Wings with much rufous-brown edging 
of all the quills ; inner secondaries and coverts having quite black central fields, with broad bay 
edging, becoming whitish toward their ends. Tail brown, the feathers with pale edges, and 
the central pair at least with dusky shaft-stripes. Bill blackish, lighter below; feet brownish. 
Length 5.50-6.00; extent 7.75-8.25; wing and tail, each, about 2.50, the latter rather shorter. 
There is little variation in color, except as above said. Fall specimens are usually most. buffy. 
Very young: Before the fall moult, birds of the year are much browner above, with consider- 
able brownish-yellow streaking besides the black markings; top of head quite like back, the 
ashy stripes not being established ; whole under parts brownish-yellow, merely paler on throat 
and belly, dusky-streaked throughout. North Am. at large; a peculiar species, not so well 
known as it might be, less numerous in the Atlantic States than in the interior and west; and 
keeping very close in shrubbery. Migratory; winters in the South; breeds at least from N. Y. 
and N. England to Arctic regions, and in the West S. at least to Mts. of Colorado. Nesting 
like that of the song sparrow, and eggs not distinguishable with certainty. 

M. palus'tris. (Lat. palustris, swampy; palus, aswamp. Fig. 233.) Swamp Sone Spar- 
Row. 9, perfect plumage: Crown bright chestnut, blackening on forehead, the red cap and 
black vizor as conspicuous as in a chipping sparrow; but oftener, crown with obscure median 
ashy line, and streaked with black. An ashy-gray superciliary line; a dark brown postocular 
stripe, bordering the auriculars; sides of head ashy, with grayish-brown auriculars, dusky 
speckling on cheeks and lores, and slight dusky maxillary spots or streaks. An ashy cervical 
collar separating the chestnut crown from the back, sometimes pure, ofteuer interrupted with 
blackish streaks. The general ash of the sides of head and neck spreads all over the breast 


244. 


PRINGILLIDA: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 371 


and under parts, fading to whitish on throat and belly; the sides, flanks, and crissum marked 
with brown, and obsoletely streaked with darker brown. Back and rump brown, rather darker 
than sides of body, boldly variegated with black central streaks of the feathers and their pale 
brown or grayish edges. Wings so strongly edged with bright bay as to appear almost mni- 
formly brownish-red when closed; but inner secondaries and greater coverts showing some 
black and whitish besides the bay. Tail likewise strongly edged with bay, and usually showing 
sharp black shaft lines. Thus well marked by the emphasis of black, bay, and ash. Length 
5.40-5.80, usually 5.60; extent 7.50-8.00 ; wing and tail, each, 2.20-2.40. Varies little except 
as above noted, and in extent and intensity of the ash on fore and under parts. In birds of the 
first autumn, the crown inay be quite blackish, with little chestuut aud au ashy median stripe. 
Very young birds may be conspicuous- 
ly streaked below, and a few streaks 
may persist on the sides of the breast. 
North Aimer. at large, W. to Utah, N. 
to Hudson’s Bay and Labrador, but 
chiefly Eastern U. 8. and Canada; 
breeding at least from New England 
northward, wintering entirely in the 
Southern States. Abundant, but a 
timid recluse of shrubbery, swamp, 
and brake, and seldom seen by the pro- 
fanum vulgus; a good musician, like 
all the genus. Nesting and eggs like 
those of the song sparrow. 

M. fascia/ta. (Lat. fasctata, bundled 
together ; fascis, a bundle of rods; fas- 
cia, a band; whence fasciata, banded, 
striped ; the allusion not to the body- 
streaks, but to the obsvlete bands on 
the tail-feathers. Fig. 234.) Sone Fic. 233.—Swamp Song Sparrow, suwacd, (Sheppard del. 
SPARROW. SILVER-TONGUE. Below, Nichols se.) 

white, slightly shaded with brownish on the flanks and crissum; with numerous black-centred, 
brown-edged streaks across breast and along sides, usually forming a pectoral blotch and 
coalescing into maxillary stripes bounding the white throat; crown dull bay, with fine black 
streaks, divided in the middle and bounded on either side by ashy-whitish lines; vague brown 
or dusky and whitish markings on the sides of the head; a brown post-ocular stripe over the 
gray auriculars, and another, not so well defined, from angle of mouth below the auriculars ; 
the interscapular streaks black, with bay and ashy-white edgings ; rump and cervix grayish- 
brown, with merely a few bay marks ; wings with dull bay edgings, the coverts and inner quills 
marked like the interseapulars ; tail plain brown, with darker shaft lines, on the middle feathers 
at least, and often with ubsolete transverse wavy markings. Very constant in plumage, the 
chief differences being in the sharpness and breadth of the markings, due,in part to the wear of 
the feathers. In worn midsummer plumage, the streaking is very sharp, narrow, and black, 
from wearing of the rufous and whitish, especially observable below where the streaks contrast 
with white, and giving the impression of heavier streaking than in fall and winter, when, in 
fresher feather, the markings are softer and more suffuse. The aggregation of spots into a 
blotch on the middle of the breast is usual. Bill dark brown, paler below; feet pale brown. 
Length 5.90-6.50, usually 6.30; extent 8.25-9.25, usually 8.50-9.00; wing 2.40-9.75, usually 
about 2.60; tail nearer 3.00. @ averaging near the lesser dimensions, but the species re- 
markably constant in size, form, and coloring. Eastern U. 8. and Canada, breeding through- 


245. 


248. 


249. 


246. 


247. 


250. 


372 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


out its range, wintering nearly throughout; one of the common winter sparrows of the Middle 
States. A very abundant bird everywhere in shrubbery aud tangle, garden, orchard, and park, 
as well as swamp and brake. A hearty, sunny sougster, whose quivering pipe is often tuned 
to the most dreary scenes ; the linpid notes being one of the few snatches of bird melody that 
enlivens winter. Nesting various, in a bush near the ground, ora grass tuft, or on the ground : 
eggs 4-6, 0.75-0.85 x U.55-0.60, greenish or grayish-white, endlessly varied with browns, from 
reddish to chocolate as surface-markings, and lavender or purplish shell-markings, either 
speckled, blotched, or clouded: uo general effect describable in few words. Two or three 
broods may be reared. 
M. f. fallax. (Lat. fallax, fallacious, deceitful: well named.) Gray Sone Sparrow. 
Extremely similar; the first and least departure from fasciata, and scarcely distinguishable ; 
tail rather longer; tone of upper parts paler, 
grayer ; the streaks not so obviously blackish 
in the centre and with less rufous; obsolete 
on rump. Southern Rocky Mt. region and 
Great Basin. 
M. f. heer‘manni. (To Dr. A. L. Heer- 
mann.) HEERMANN’S SonG Sparrow. Sim- 
ilar: tone of upper parts grayish, the streaks 
numerous, broad, distinct, with little rufous 
aud mostly lacking pale edging, obsolete on 
the rump. Size of fasciata. California. 
M. f. samue’lis. (To E. Samuels.) SAMUELS’ 
Sona SPARROW. Similar to the last, in dis- 
tinctness of the black streaks, which are not 
obsolete on rump; tone of upper parts ashy- 
gray. Very sinall, scarcely 5.00; wing 2.00; 
tail 2.30. California coast. 
M. f. gutta'ta. (Lat. guttata, marked with 
drop-like spots.) OREGON Sone SPARROW. 
Decidedly different. The streaking diffuse, 
the streaks above and below dark rufous- 
brown, without black centres or pale edges. _ FIG 234.—Song Sparrow, reduced. (Sheppard del. 
. Nichols sc. ) 
Coloration blended, the general tone ruddy ; 
under parts extensively shaded with brownish, except on belly. About the size of fasciata, 
or rather larger. Pacifie coast, U. 8. and British Columbia. This form was recognized as dis- 
tinct by Audubon, who wrongly called it Fringilla cinerea Gm. ; and by Nuttall, who named 
it F’. guttata, and compared it with the fox sparrow, from its resemblance in color tu Passerella 


ilaca. 

M. f. rufiina. (Lat. rufina, reddish.) Rusty Sona Sparrow. Quite like guttata; larger 
and darker; tone of upper parts smoky-brown, the streaking very dark. Wing and tail about 
3.00. Pacifie coast, British Columbia and northward. (Combined by Baird with the last, 
under name of M. rufina.) 

M. cinerea. (Lat. cinerea, ashy.) CINEREOUS SonG SPARROW. MKapi1AK Sone SPARROW. 
Peculiar in size, shape, and color. Above, brownish slate-color, more rufous on wings, the 
streaking broad and blended, very dark. Below, plumbeous-whitish, shaded with brown on 
sides, the streaks broad, diffuse, and’dark. Spring and fall plumages differ much, but the bird 
may be recognized by its great size. Length about 7.00; wing 3.30; tail 3.50; bill very long, 
slender for its length; culmen about 0.60; depth at base 0.30. Kadiak, Alaska; Aleutian 
Islands. (ringilla cinerea Gm. M. insignis Bd.) 


80. 


252. 


FRINGILLIDA!: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 3 


PEUCH’A. (Gr. meven, peuce, a pine; not well applied except to P. estivalis.) SumMER 
Fixcues. Bill of moderate size, rather elongate-conie, upper mandible declivous toward end, 
comiissure bent. Wings short and much rounded, folding little if any beyond base of tail, the 
inner secondaries not elongated. Tail little or much longer than wing, much rounded, the 
lateral feathers some 4 an inch shorter than the middle; of weak narrowly linear feathers with 
elliptically rounded ends. Feet small and weak, not reaching when outstretched nearly to end 
of tail; tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw; lateral toes equal, short, their claws not 
nearly reaching base of middle claw. Adults scarcely or not streaked below ; crown chestnut 
or (oftener) quite like back, streaked with rusty-brown, black, and gray. A superciliary and 
post-ocular stripe, but usually uone running under auriculars; more or less distinct black 
maxillary stripes. Edge of wing yellow (in most species. These nest on the ground and lay 
white eggs). 
J Analysis of Species (adults). 
Edge of wing yellow. Crown not uniform chestnut; no chestnut on lesser wing-coverts. Maxillary stripes 
slight. Nest on ground; eggs white. 
Broadly marked above with rufous streaks or blotches on ashy ground, with black centres of the 
streaks on middle of back. ‘ail-feathers plain, or only with obscure whitish area. . cestivalis 251-253 
Marked above with pale brown black-centred streaks, these black centres enlarged transversely at 
their ends on the middle of back. Tail-feathers shafted and barred with blackish, the outer broadly 


edged and tipped with white. 2... 2... ...., y ced dA os ae ke Bg, ey Semel. 254 
Edge of wing not yellow. Crownchestnut. Maxillary stripes heavy. 
No chestnut on lesser wing-coverts . 2... eee ee ee ee ee ee PUficeps 25) 


A chestnut patch on lesser wing-coverts . 2... 2 6 ee ee ee ee ee ew  carpalis 25) 


P. estiva/lis. (Lat. estivalis, like estivus, summery; @stas, summer.) BACHMAN’S SUMMER 
Fincu. Upper parts, including crown, continuously streaked with blackish, dull chestnut and 
ashy-gray ; no yellow about bead; wing-coverts and inner secondaries marked like the back ; 
edge and bend of wing yellow, as in Coturniculus passerinus. Below, dull brownish-ash, or 
brownish-gray, whitening on the belly, deepest on sides and across breast, nowhere obviously 
streaked in adult plumage. Some obscure dusky maxillary streaks, some vague dusky iark- 
ings on auriculars, a slight ashy superciliary line, and very obscure median ashy line on crown. 
Bill dark above, pale below; legs very pale; lateral claws falling far short of base of middle 
claw; hind claw much shorter than its digit; tarsus not longer than iniddle toe and claw ; tail 
much rounded, with obscure grayish-white area on the lateral feathers. Young have the breast 
and sides evidently streaked: Length 5.75-6.20, average 5.90; extent 7.60-8.30, average 8.00 ; 
wing 2.17-2.55, average 2.40; tail 2.25-2.68, average 2.50. South Atlantic States, strictly, 
and especially a bird of pine barrens, common in suitable localities ; a fine songster. Nest on 
the ground, of grasses; eggs 4, 0.75 0.60, pure white. As the first described species of the 
genus, this has been used as a standard of comparison; but it is the most modified offshoot of a 
genus which focusses in the Southwest and Mexico. 

P. 2. illinoén’sis, (Of Illinois.) ILnInois Summer Fincu. OaxK-woops Sparrow. Above, 
sandy-ferruginous, indistinctly streaked with light ashy-gray, the streaks broadest on the back 
and iniddle line of crown; interscapulars sometimes with narrow black streaks. Wings light 
ferruginous, the greater coverts less reddish and edged with paler; inner secondarics dusky, 
bordered at ends with pale reddish ash. Tail plain grayish-brown, with ashy edgings of the 
feathers. Sides of head, neck, and body and breast quite across, dingy buff-color, deepest on 
breast, paler on throat and chin; a post-ocular rusty-brown streak over the auriculars ; sides 
of neck streaked with the same ; an indistinct dusky streak on side of throat ; belly dull white ; 
crissum buff; edge of wing bright yellow; bill pale horn-color, darkest above; feet pale 
brown ; iris brown. Size of estivalis; wing a little longer, 2.35-2.60, average 2.50 ; tail 2.55- 
3.80, average 2.70; bill thicker; black streaks of upper parts, instead of being generally dis- 
tributed, few and confined to the interscapulars; breast aud sides more buffy. Illinois ta 
Texas. (Like estivalis proper, but quite different from any of the following forms.) 


253. 


254. 


255. 


874 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


P. x. arizone. (Of Arizona.) Arizona SuMMER Fincu. With a general likeness to P. 
estivalis, in pattern of coloration, streaking of all upper parts, similarity of back to crown, 
yellow edge of wing, and plain tail feathers; size same, wing and tail a trifle longer (as in 
illindensis). Colors duller and less variegated ; maxillary stripes obscure or obsolete. Upper 
parts light dull chestnut or reddish-brown, moderately streaked with plumbeous-gray, but 
reddish the prevailing tone; interscapular feathers, and sometimes those of the crown, with 
blackish centres; a poorly defined light superciliary stripe. Beneath, dull whitish, unstreaked, 
the breast and sides with a decided ochrey-brown tinge. Wings dusky, the inner secondaries 
darker and with more conspicuous rusty-brown edgiugs than those of the longer quills, and also 
some whitish edging or tipping. Bill blackish above, pale below; legs flesh color. Young: 
above, streaked with blackish and yellowish-gray, showing little reddish ; under parts more or 
less streaked with dusky. Western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and southward. (This is 
what I meant by P. var. cassint of the orig. ed. of the Key; but true cassiné is entirely differ- 
ent. Var. artzone is probably identical with Zonotrichia botterti Sel.) 

P. cas/sini. (To John Cassin.) CaAssmn’s Summer Fincu. Belonging to the estivalis 
group, with yellow edge of wing, and most resembling var. arizone; but perfectly distinct. A 
peculiar character of marking raises groundless suspicion of immaturity. & 9, adult: Entire 
upper parts, from bill to tail, alike in pattern of coloration —a peculiarly intimate variegation 
of ashy-gray, rufous-brown and blackish — the ruddy color occupying most of the feathers, 
which have a blackish central field and gray edging ; the blackish area on each feather, espe- 
cially of the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts, where it is most conspicuous, being hammer- 
headed, or widened toward the end of the feather. Pattern of markings smallest on the cervix. 
No special head-markings, though there is a tendency toward a lateral browner band on the 
side of the crown, and browner post-ocular stripe, separated by a gray interval. Variegation 
of the upper parts descending on sides of neck ; sides of head with some vague markings. 
Tnnermost secondaries showing quite blackish in the general field of the upper parts, and edged 
al] around with a firm border of ashy-white or hoary-white. Greater and middle coverts exaetly 
like the inner secondaries ; primaries similar, but the edging not so clear. Edge of wing clear 
yellow, and some of the least coverts tinged with this color. Tail curiously particolored ; 
middle pair of feathers light grayish-brown, with a strong dusky shaft-line throwing off numer- 
ous dusky cross-bars, so that these feathers seem ‘‘ watered” with lighter and darker shades. 
Other tail-feathers, except the outermost pair, are dusky-brown, with pale grayish-brown 
terminal spots increasing in size from the inner feathers outward. On the outermost feather 
this pale gray space is very large, and rimmed all around with white. An indistinct maxillary 
stripe on each side of the chin. A number of strong well-defined dusky stripes on the flanks ; 
otherwise, entire under parts unmarked, and of a dingy whitish color, clearest on the belly and 
throat, more grayish on the sides and across breast. Bill brown, pale below; feet pale. 
Length 6.00-6.25; extent about 8.25; wing 2.50; tail 2.75. Young: Described as very 
similar, but with a few drop-shaped streaks on the jugulum and along sides; feathers of upper 
parts with a more appreciable terminal border of buff. Texas to California, N. to Kansas, 8. 
into Mexico. Habits, nest, and eggs as in P. estivalis (eggs pure white). 

P. ru/ficeps. (Lat. ruficeps, red-headed.) Rurous-cRowNED SumMER Fincu. Belonging 
to a different section of the genus, without any yellow on edge of wing us in the estivalis group 
and cassint. Lesser wing-coverts not chestnut as in P. carpalis. Strong maxillary streaks. 
& @, adult: Crown bright chestnut, in perfect condition bright and continuous, blackening 
on forehead, where divided by a short whitish line (whole cap thus as in Spizella socialis or 
Melospiza palustris) ; crown, however, oftener streaked with olive-ash, especially along a 
median dividing line, thus assimilating more nearly with colors of other upper parts. An 
obscure olive-ashy superciliary line, whitening over the lores. Back streaked with olive-ash aud 
chestnut-brown, the latter sometimes distinct, as bold streaking with ashy edging of the 


257. 


81. 


FRINGILLIDE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 375 


feathers, sometimes spreading almost to extinction of the ashy; and the brown also varying in 
shade from a kind of purplish-bay to light rusty-brown, apparently according to wear and tear 
of the plumage. Wings and tail dusky, with varying amount of reddish-brown edgings of the 
feathers. Under parts dull whitish, strongly shaded with olive-gray or olive-brown, paler on 
belly, quite whitish on throat, which latter is bounded by strong black maxillary stripes. Size 
of P. cassini, or rather less. Young: Crown like back ; under parts streaked with dusky, 
especially the breast. California. Nest and eggs still unknown. 


. P. xr. boucar/di. (To Adolphe Boucard, a French, collector.) Boucarp’s SuMMER FINCH. 


From the typical Californian ruficeps the Arizona bird is said to differ in being darker, more 
brownish-plumbeous than olive-ash, the dorsal streaks scarcely rufous, and with black shaft- 
streaks. Few sparrows, if any, vary more than the species of Peucea, according to mere wear 
of the feathers, independently of any moult, and to some extent of season. Birds of very 
different aspect result, and it is not clear how the present alleged variety differs from ruficeps 
proper. Oxs. P. 1. eremeéca Brown, Texas, seems scarcely different. Peucea seems to be, 
like Junco, Melospiza, Passerella, etc., still unstable in its specific differentiations — to be 
“making species,” in fact. 

P. carpa/lis. (Lat. carpalis, relating to the carpus, or wrist-joint.) BAy-wINGED SUMMER 
Fincu. Belonging to the section without yellow on edge of wing. Lesser wing-coverts 
chestnut, forming a patch as conspicuous as in Poecetes or Auriparus. Strong black maxillary 
stripes. Whole crown rufous, or dull bay, divided on forehead by a short pale stripe, and 
bordered with a pale grayish-ash superciliary stripe. Cervix like crown, but mixed with ashy- 
gray. Middle of back and scapulars grayish-brown, mixed with a little bay, and sharply 
streaked with blackish ; lower back gray, with little or no black or brown. The general effect 
of the upper parts, crown, and back, is like that of Spizella socialis. Wings and their greater 
coverts dusky, with grayish-fulvous edging and tipping; primaries and tail-feathers with 
whitish edging ; one or two outer tail-feathers white-tipped. Under parts white, shaded on 
breast and sides with ashy, the throat pure white, bounded on each side by a sharp black 
maxillary stripe, above which is another dark line from angle of mouth. Bill apparently 
reddish flesh color below, dusky above; feet pale brown, the toes rather darker. Length about 
6.00; extent 8.50; wing 2.25-2.50; tail 2.75, graduated about 0.50; bill 0.40; tarsus 0.67. 
Less mature: Crown less different from back, being streaked with ashy, blackish, and rufous. 
Very young: No chestnut on wing-coverts, and under parts streaked with dusky; thus much 
like the earliest stage of Spizella socialis; after this first stage the chestnut bend of the wing is 
always conspicuous. Arizona; a very distinct and curious species, lately discovered. Farther 
peculiar in nesting in bushes and laying a greenish egg, all the other Peucee, as far as known 
nesting on ground and laying pure white eggs. (P. ruficeps, however, is not yet known in 
this particular.) Eggs 4-5, 0.72 X 0.58, June-September; nest in a fork of bush, deeply 
cupped, of grasses, rootlets, and hairs. 

AMPHISPI'ZA. (Gr. dui, amphi, on both sides; omifa, spiza, a finch: alluding to the close 
relation of the genus to those about it.) Sace Sparrows. Bill moderate, conical, not peculiar. 
Wings folding considerably beyond the base of the tail, without elongated inner secondaries ; 
point of wing formed by 2d—5th quill, the 1st between 6th and7th. Tail not shorter than wings, 
of rather broad firm feathers, rounded at ends. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw; lateral 
toes of unequal lengths, the outer (longer) not reaching to base of middle claw. Embracing two 
Southwestern species, with rounded blackish tail not shorter than the wings, plumbeous-black 
bill and feet, and few decided streaks, or none. These do not particularly resemble each other, 
and might not necessarily be associated ; nor is the genus well characterized, though different 
from the exotic Poospiza to which the species were formerly referred. The larger one of the 
two species, 4. belli, is sometimes placed in the genus Zonotrichia. 


258. 


259. 


260. 


376 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


Analysis of Species. 


Adult with throat black, sides not streaked, and no yellow on edge of wing. . . . . . . . bilineata 258 
Adult with throat white, sides streaked, and yellow on edge of wing. 
Smaller: wing and tail under 3.00; dorsal streaks obsolete . . . . .. 1... ss . « belli 259 
Larger: wing and tail 3.00 or more ; dorsal streaks distinct . . . ...... . =. mnevadensis 260 


A. bilinea’ta. (Lat. bilineata, two-lined; bis, twice, linea, a line; alluding to the stripes on 
the head. Fig. 235.) BLacK-THROATED Fincu. BLACK-FACED SAGE SPARROW. J, 
adult: Face, chin, and throat sharply jet-black ; a strong white superciliary line, and another 
bounding the black of the throat ; under eyelid white; auriculars dark slate. No yellow any- 
where. Below, pure white; the sides, flanks, and crissum shaded with ashy or fulvous- 
brownish, but no streaks. Above, uniform gray- 
ish-brown ; clearer ash in high plumage, other- 
wise browner, generally more ashy anteriorly than 
behind, and shading insensibly into the black of 
the face. Wings dusky; coverts and inner quills 
edged with the color of the back. Tail black, 
with narrow grayish edgings; the outer feather 
sharply edged and tipped with white, and several 
others similarly tipped. Bill and feet plumbe- 
ous-black. Small: length about 5.50; wing 
about 2.50; tail 2.75. Young: The head-mark- 
ings obscure ; little or no black on throat; a few 
pectoral streaks. Owing to absence of black on 
\ the throat, the white maxillary stripe is ill-de- 
Fic. 235.— Black-throated Finch, reduced. (Shep- fined, but the other stripe is conspicuous. Back 
Dardidel, Nichols 8¢:) rather brown than ashy; tail blackish, not pure 
black. A jaunty little sparrow, haunting the sage-brush and chaparral of the southwest, from 
Texas to California, N. to Utah and Nevada or farther, migratory northerly. An effective 
songster. Nest in bushes close to the ground; eggs 4-5, 0.72 & 0.58, whitish, unmarked. 
A. belli. (To J. G. Bell, of N. Y.) Bexy’s Fincn. CaLirornia SAGE Sparrow. No 
definite black about head, and edge of wing slightly yellowish. Forehead, line over eye, and 
edges of eyelids, inconspicuously white. Below, white, more or less tinged with pale brownish, 
the sides with slight sparse streaks that anteriorly become aggregated into slight maxillary 
stripes cutting off from the white throat a whitish line that runs from the corner of the bill; 
lores and cireum-ocular region dusky. Above, grayish-brown, ashier on head, the middle of the 
back with small obseure blackish streaks; wing-coverts and inner quills with much fulvous 
edging ; tail black with slight pale edgings, the outer web of the outer feather simply whitish. 
Bill and feet plumbeous-blue. Length under 6.00; wing and tail under 3.00. Southern 
California, resident. Nest in low bushes or on the ground; eggs greenish-blue, speckled. 
A. b. nevaden’sis. ARTEMISIA SPARROW. NEVADA SAGE SpaRRow. Similar to the last 
in coloration. Edge of wing, and sometimes the lesser coverts, yellowish. Above, ashy-brown, 
much as in P. bilineata, clearer ash anteriorly, more brownish behind; also clearer in high 
plumage, and more overcast with brown in less mature specimens; the middle of the back and 
the scapulars very notably streaked with fine black lines. Below, white ; the sides and some- 
times, especially in fall specimens, most of the under parts shaded with pale fulvous-brown ; the 
sides, and sometimes the breast, with dusky streaks, which on the side of the neck tend to run 
in a chain, partly distinguishing a pure white lateral stripe above them from the general 
whitish of the under parts. Sides of head slaty, becoming dusky on lores ; a conspicuous white 
eye-ring. A short white line above lores, and another on middle of forehead. Wings and tail 
as in the last; outer feather edged and tipped with white. Bill dark bluish-plumbeous, under 


82. 


261. 


7 


FRINGILLIDZ:: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. BTT 


mandible sometimes yellowish. Decidedly larger than bell: proper, though so little different in 
color; wing and tail fully 3.00, if not more; bill 0.35; tarsus 0.75. Southern Rocky Mt. 
region, N. to 40° and beyond, resident; abounding in the sage-brush deserts of Nevada, 
Utah, New Mexico and Arizona. Nesting as in P. belli; eggs 0.80 x 0.60, pale greenish, pro- 
fusely speckled with reddish-brown and blackish-brown, with purplish shell-markings. 
JUN'CO. (? Lat. guncus, a reed.) SNow SpaRRows. SNow-srrps. Bill small, strictly 
conic. Wings rather long, the primaries much surpassing the short inner secondaries in the 
closed wing; usually 2d, 3d, and 4th quills longest, 5th little shorter, then Ist and 6th. Tarsus 
a little longer than middle toe and claw; lateral toes subequal, their claws about reaching base 
of middle claw. Tail about as long as wings, slightly emarginate or about even, of rather 
narrow but firm feathers, rounded oval at ends. A beautiful genus; adults unspotted, 
unstreaked, the colors massed in large definite areas; belly, crissum, and 2-3 lateral tail-feathers 
white ; bill whitish, or black and yellow. Length 6 or 7 inches; wing and tail about 3 inches. 
Sexes subsimilar, but # clearer and purer in coloration; young entirely different, quite streaky. 
Nest on the ground; eggs speckled. One common Eastern species; in the West the Junco 
stock split into numerous forms, all of which intergrade with each other, and with the Eastern 
bird. Almost all late writers have taken a hand at Junco, shuffling them about in the vain 
attempt to decide which are ‘‘ species” and which ‘ varieties.” All are either, or both, as we 
may elect to consider them ; for the degree of difference between almost any two of the nearest 
related ones is about the same. The distinctions between the typical styles of each are very 
nice and easily perceived. The theory of hybridization advanced to account for the connecting 
links simply restates without explaining the case ; for interbreeding is just one of the conditions 
of intergraded species, keeping them from positive distinctness. Upon this understanding the 
recognizable styles of Junco may all be treated alike. Adult male birds of the several forms 
afford the following 


Analysis of Species or Subspecies. 
Bill flesh-color. 


Blackish-ash, without reddish tints; sides ashy. 


No white wing-bars. . . .. hiemalis 261 


wor white wing-bars: Gs. vs gecy ee Ge es es Swe che Ge ie as ks el ae eA nO) ten. 260) 

(mixed characters of first and next. . . . . . 1... 1 ee eee ee. CONNECHENS 262a, 
Sooty-black on head and breast; back reddish; sides pinkish . . . . . . . . 2. . oregonus 263 
(mixed characters oflastand next. . . . .. .. 0.0.0.4... 4. 4 4. . , @nnectens 264 

Ashy on head and breast; interscapulars alone reddish. . . . .... 0... caniceps 263 

Bill black and yellow. 

(mixed characters of last and next. . . 2... 1... we we ee dorsalis 266 

Ashy on head and breast; interscapulars and wing-coverts reddish . .... . . . . cinereus 267 


Setting aside aikent as a special offshoot, we have hiemalis connected with oregonus by 
birds possessing pink sides and ashy back, or reddish back and ashy sides; this style may be 
named connectens. Similarly, oregonus and caniceps are annexed by gray-headed red-backed 
birds with pink sides; this is annectens. And again, but more remarkably, the pink-billed 
caniceps is affixed with the black-and-yellow-billed cinereus by dorsalis, which has the bill of 
the latter, but otherwise resembles the former. 

J. hiema‘lis. (Lat. hiemalis, wintry ; hiems, winter. Fig. 236.) EASTERN SNOW-BIRD. 
Brack Syow-sirp. Blackish-ash, below abruptly pure white from the breast, the sides shaded 
with ashy. In the 9, and most fall and winter specimens, the upper parts have amore grayish, 
or even a decidedly brownish, cast, and the inner secondaries are edged with pale bay. @, in full 
dress : The slaty-black intense on the head; belly and crissum pure white, the line between 
the two transverse or convex forward; wings and tail blackish, with slightly hoary edging of 
some ofthe feathers ; 2-3 lateral tail feathers pure white, wholly or in greatest part. No rusty- 
brown on back or sides; any shade on the sides ashy, not pinkish. Bill pinkish-white, or 
flesh-color, usually black-tipped. Length 6.00-6.50 ; extent 9.50-10.00 ; wing 3.00-3.25; tail 
rather less. These extremes uncommon; average 6.25—9.75—3.10. 9, in summer: The 


262. 


262a, 


263. 


378 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


slate-color less intense, overlaid with brown (not reddish), sometimes quite brown; edging of 
inner secondaries rusty-brown ; average less white on the tail; rather smaller; average about 
at the lesser of the above dimensions: sometimes only 5.75—9.25—2.75. @ 9, in winter: 
Resembling the @ in summer. Young of the year: The general color rather brown than 
slate, with conspicuous bay edgings of inner secondaries; bill much obscured with dusky. 
The brown overcast, it should be observed, is a geueral shading, not of particular areas, and 
not pinkish. Young before first moult: Entirely streaked and spotted, like most very young 
sparrows. Upper parts streaked with blackish and rusty-brown, the secondaries and wing 
coverts conspicuously edged with the latter. Under parts streaked or speckled with dusky 
and ochrey brown, on all the fore parts and 
sides, the belly and crissum soiled whitish. Bill 
dusky, paler below. Eastern N. Amer., N. W. 
to Alaska, W. to the Rocky Mts. and even 
Utah and Washington Territories ; still chiefly 
Eastern. One of our most abundant and familiar 
winter birds, in flocks in the shrubbery, from 
October to April. Retires to high latitudes or 
altitudes to breed. Nests in mountains of the 
Middle and some of the Southern States, as Vir- 
ginia and North Carolina, and down to sea level 
from the limits of the Canadian fauna in Maine ; 
winters anywhere in the U. 8., most numerously 
from Massachusetts southward ; a cheery bright 
little bird, coming fearlessly to the threshold 
and window-sill in bad weather. Its snapping 
note is better known than is the pleasant song 
with which it takes leave in the spring. Nest 
on the ground; eggs 4-6, white, sprinkled 
Fic. 236.—Eastern Snow-Bird. (Sheppard del, With reddish and darker brown dots, about 
Nichols sc.) 0.80 & 0.60. 
J.h. ai/keni. (To C. E. Aiken, of Colorado.) WHITE-wINGED BLack Snow-pirp. Like 
the last: the wings crossed with two white bars formed by the tips of the greater and middle 
coverts ; and sometimes white edging of the inner secondaries. Rather large. Mts. of Colorado. 
J. h. connec’tens. (Lat. connectens, connecting ; con, with, necto, I join.) Hysrip Snow- 
BirD. Possessing in varying degree the characters of hiemalis and oregonus; rufous back of 
the latter and ashy sides of the former, or, oftener, the ashy back of the former and pink sides 
of the latter ; occurring wherever the breeding range of the two comes together, and elsewhere 
during the migration. 
J. hb. ore/gonus. (Lat. of the Oregon River.) OREGON Snow-Birp. Head and neck all round 
and fore breast sooty-black, ending sharply against white with a rounded outline convex back- 
ward; middle of back dull reddish-brown, and feathers of the wings much edged with the 
same; below from the fore breast abruptly white, tinged on the sides with pale reddish-brown 
—a peculiar “ pinkish” shade. Bill white, black-tipped. In the 2 and young the black is 
obscured by brownish, but the typical form may always be distinguished by an evident contrast 
in color between the interscapulars and head, and the fulvous or pinkish wash on the sides. 
The season and sexual changes of plumage are parallel with those of hiemalis. A specimen 
examined by me has imperfect white wing-bars, like atkent. Rocky Mts. to the Pacific; as 
abundant there as hiemalis is with us, and thence straggling eastward ; has occurred in Massa- 
chusetts; N. to Alaska. In the U.S. it is less. obviously migratory than hiemalis, owing to 
the broken mountainous regions it inhabits. 


264. 


265. 


266. 


267. 


83. 


268. 


FRINGILLIDZA: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 379 


J.h. annec’tens. (Lat. annectens, annexing ; ad, to, and necto, I join.) PINK-sIDED SNow- 
BIRD. Characters in general of J. caniceps (No. 265) ; differs by more abrupt detinition of the 
white belly from the ashy breast, and pinkish sides: by so much resembling oregonus. Southern 
Rocky Mt. region, from Wyoming, and especially Colorado, to New Mexico and Arizona; 
migrating latitudinally with season, but chiefly working up and down the mountains. 

J. hb. ca/niceps. (Lat. caniceps, gray-headed ; canus, gray.) GRAY-HEADED SNOW-BIRD. 
Clear ash, purest on head, paler below, and fading gradually into white on belly; interscapulars 
abruptly, definitely, chestnut or rusty-brown ; lores blackish ; bill Hesh-color ; iris brown ; no 
fulvous wash on sides ; no chestnut on wings in the typical form. Rather larger than hiemalis; 
length about 7.00; wing over 3.00; tail about 3.00. The sexual and seasonal changes are not 
so well marked as in the heavily-colored hiemalis and oregonus, but parallel as far as they go. 
Very young birds are streaked, like all the rest. Rocky Mts. of the U. 8., from Wyoming 
southward ; Wahsatch and Uintah Mts. Five or six of the styles of Junco, includiug J. 
hiemalis, oceur together in the mountains of Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona. 

J. h. dorsa/lis. (Lat. dorsalis, pertaining to the back; dorswm, the hack.) Rrp-BACKED 
SNow-BirD. Characters in general of J. caniceps; but with the bill black and yellow, as in 
cinereus. Mountains of New Mexico and Arizona. 

J. h. cine/reus. (Lat. cinereus, ashy; cinis, ashes.) CINEREOUS SNOW-BIRD. MEXICAN 
Snow-pirp. Like J. caniceps. Under parts paler ash, fading sooner and inore insensibly into 
white; chestnut of back inteuse, and spreading over the wing-coverts and inner secondaries ; 
upper mandible black ; lower yellow; iris yellow. Mexico to the U.S. border. Mt. Graham, 
Arizona. 

SPIZELLA. (Ital. diminutive form of Lat. spiza, from Gr. 
omi¢a, a finch.) CHIPPING Sparrows. Eimbracing small 
species, 5-6 inches long, with the long, broad-feathered, forked 
tail about equalling (more or less) ihe rather pointed wings ; 
with no yellowish anywhere, and no streaks on the under parts 
when adult ; interseapular region distinetly streaked ; rump plain 
(except atrigularis) ; young fully streaked. Point of wing formed 
by 2d to 4th or 5th quill; lst usually between 5th and 6th. Bill 
small, conic. Tarsus little if auy longer than middle toe and Fic. 237.—Chippy’s lead, as 
claw ; lateral toes about equal. Tail-feathers widening a little age aslife. (E. C.) 

to broadly oval tips. Numerous species, Eastern and Western, inhabiting shrubbery ; three 
of them familiar Eastern birds. 


Analysis of Species, 


Eastern and Western species with the crown of the adult chestnut. 
Bill black and yellow; forehead not black; two distinct white wing-bars; dark spot on breast; large: 


about 6.00long . . . . . .monticola 268 
Bill and forehead black ; wing-bars: net conapicugis: breast aghy-white, without spot: length under 6, 

Tail decidedly shorter than wing. . . . « domestica 269, 270 
Bill brownish-red; forehead not black; wing- “pane indistinct; breast buffy white, without spot. 

Length under6.00 . . . , als Nass *  « ‘agrestis. 271 


Western species, with the crown not basi snd streaked like the tice 
Crown divided by a median stripe, and its streaks separated from those of the back by an ashy 


interval. Tail equal to wings . . - 2. pallida 272 

Crown not evidently divided, and streaked sontinngnaly with the pack. Tail ones: - . .  breweri 272 
Western species, with the crown of the adult dark ash. Face and throat black. Tail decidedly longer 

Than wing 9p los ren sass ee Boy “ula DEE eG chy a) Bo te teh Geog ee op GOragularis: O14 


S. monti/cola. (Lat. monticola, inhabiting mountains; mons, montis, a mountain; colo, I 
dwell; incola, an inhabitant.) Tres Sparrow. Winter Curp-pirp. Bill black above, 
yellow below; legs brown; toes black. No black on forehead; crown chestnut. (in winter 
specimens the feathers usually skirted with gray), bordered by a grayish-white superciliary and 
loral line; a postocular chestnut stripe over auriculars, and some vague chestnut marks on 


269. 


270. 


271. 


380 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


cheeks; sides of head and neck otherwise ashy-gray. Below, impurely whitish, tinged with 
ashy anteriorly, washed with pale brownish posteriorly, the middle of the breast with an obscure 
dusky blotch. Middle of back boldly streaked with black, bay, and daxyen ; middle and greater 
wing-coverts black, edged with bay and tipped with white. forming two conspicuous cross-bars ; 
inner secondaries similarly variegated: other quills and tail-feathers plain dusky, with pale or 
whitish edges. Remarkably constant in coloration: sexes indistinguishable, and young very 
similar, the chief variation being in the veiling of the eap with gray. There is a very early 
streaky stage, however, as in other species. A handsome sparrow, the largest of the genus. 
Length 5.80-6.20, usually 6.00; extent $.75-9.75, usually 9.25: wing and tail 2.75-3.10. 
Abundant in the U. 8. in winter, Hocking in shrubbery: breeds in mountainous and boreal 
regions, even to the Arctic coast. Infrequent or casual west ef the Rocky Mts. Nest in low 
bushes or on the ground, loosely constructed of bark-strips, weeds, and grasses, wamnly 
lined with feathers. Eggs 4-6 or even 7, pale green, minutely and regularly sprinkled with 
reddish-brown spots. 
S. domes'tica. (Lat. domestica, domestic. Figs. 237, 238.) CHIPPING SPARROW. CHIP- 
BIRD OR CHIpPY. Harr-prrp. Adult: Bill black; feet pale: crown chestnut: extreme fore- 
head black, usually divided by a pale line: a grayish-white superciliary line; below this a 
blackish stripe through eye and over auriculars ; 


lores dusky. Below, a variable shade of pale ash, 
nearly uniform and entirely unmarked; back 
streaked with black, dull bay and grayish-brown ; 
inner secondaries and wing-coverts similarly vari- 
egated, the tips of the greater and median coverts 
forming whitish bars: rump ashy, with slight 
blackish streaks or none: primaries and tail- 
feathers dusky, with paler edges. Smaller: 
length 5.00-5.50; extent $.00-9.00; wing 2.66- 
2.75; tail less, about 2.50. Sexes alike, but very 
young birds quite different; the crown being 
streaked like the back, the breast and_ sides 


i 


Fig, 238. —Chipping-Sparrow, reduced. (Shep- thickly streaked with dusky, the bill pale brown, 


pard del. Nichols sc.) and the head lacking definite black. In this 


stage, which, however, is of brief duration, it resembles some other species, but may be known 
by a certain ashiness the others lack, and from the small sparrows that are streaked below 
when adult, by its generie characters. North America, extremely abundant, and the most 
familiar species about houses, in gardens, and elsewhere, nesting in shrubbery; nest of fine 
dried grass, lined with hair: eggs 4-5, bluish, speckled sparsely and chiefly about the larger 
end with blackish-brown, with purplish shell-markings ; size about 0.70 X 0.55. 

S.d.arizone. (Lat. of Arizona.) Arizona CHIPPING SpaRRoOw. Like an immature S._ 
domestica. Paler than this species, the ashiness in great measure brown; crown grayish-brown 
streaked with dusky like the back, and showing evident traces of rich chestnut, but never 
becoming wholly chestnut ; black frontlet lacking or obscure, and no definite ashy superciliary 
line, the sides of the crown merely lighter brown ; bill brown above, pale below. Arizona, and 
other portions of the Southern Rocky Mt. region. A curious form, as it were an arrested stage 
of domestica. Some specimens, with the least chestnut on the head, look remarkably like 
breweri, but this last is evidently smaller, without chestnut on the head, and otherwise different. 
S. agres’tis. (Lat. agrestis, pertaining to fields; ager, a field.) Fretp Sparrow. Bill pale 
reddish ; feet very pale; crown dull chestnut; auriculars and postocular stripe the same; no 
decided black or whitish about head. Below, white, unmarked, but much washed with pale 
brown on breast and sides; sides of head and neck with some vague brown markings; all the 


272, 


273. 


274. 


84, 


FRINGILLIDZ: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 381 


ashy parts of domestica replaced by pale brownish. Back bright bay, with black streaks and 
some pale flaxen edgings ; inner secondaries similarly variegated ; tips of inediau and greater 
coverts forming whitish cross-bars. Size of domestica, but more nearly the colors of monticola. 
Length 5.25-5.75; extent 7.75-8.40; wing 2.30-2.50 ; tail quite as much, or more, thus not 
shorter than wing, as it is in the last. Sexes alike ; young for a short time streaked below, as 
usual in Spizella. Eastern U.S., strictly; hardly N. throughout New England, W. only to the 
edge of the Plains ; migratory ; breeds usually from Virginia northward, and winters from the 
saine southward; very abundant in fields, copses, and hedges, in flocks when not breeding. 
Nest indifferently in low bushes or on ground ; eggs whitish, fully speckled with rusty-brown, 
0.68 x 0.50. 

S. pal/lida, (Lat. pallida, pale.) CLAY-COLORED SPARROW. Crown and back clay-colored 
or flaxen, distinctly streaked with black, without evident bay, the dorsal streaks noticeably 
separated from those of the crown, by an ashier, less streaked, cervical interval ; rump brown- 
ish-gray. Crown divided by a pale median stripe; a distinct whitish superciliary line; loral 
and auricular regions decidedly brown, with a dark postocular stripe over the auriculars, and 
another from the angle of the mouth, bounding the brown area inferiorly ; below this a dusky 
maxillary streak ; wing-coverts and inner secondaries variegated like the back, being black with 
broad flaxen-brown edging and whitish tipping. Below, white, soiled with clay-color. Bill 
dusky above, pale below ; feet pale. Small: Length 5.00-5.25, rarely 5.50; extent 7.40-7.75, 
rarely 8.00; wing and tail, each, about 2.50. Young birds lightly streaked below. Central 
region of the U. S. into British America, Saskatchewan and Red River regions; S. to Texas; 
E. to Towa and Tlinois. Abundant ; nest in bushes close to ground; eggs 3-4, pale green 
sparsely speckled with rich brown ; 0.62 x 0.50. 

S. brew'eri. (To Dr. T. M. Brewer, of Boston.) Brewer’s Sparrow. Similar; paler and 
duller, all the markings indistinct; streaks of crown and back small, numerous, not separated 
by a cervical interval ; no definite markings on sides of head. Upper parts grayish-brown, 
with marked dorsal area of brighter brown, and continuously streaked from head to tail. Size 
of the last, but tail relatively longer, exceeding the wings — about 2.66 long, thus equalling, if 
it does not somewhat exceed, that of domestica, although the latter is a larger bird. South- 
western U. §., especially New Mexico and Arizona; said to have occurred in Massachusetts ; 
habits those of pallida; nest aud eggs indistinguishable. 

8. atrigula’ris. (Lat. atrigudaris, black-throated; ater, black; gula, throat.) BLAacK- 
CHINNED Sparrow. , adult: Dark ash, fading insensibly into whitish on the belly, 
deepening to black on the face and throat; interscapulars bright bay, streaked with black ; 
wing-coverts and inner secondaries variegated with the same colors ; tail blackish, with pale edg- 
ings; bill coral red as in S. agrestis; feet dark brown. A small-bodied species, but full 6.00 
long, on account of the great 
length of the tail (2.75-3.00), 
which much exceeds the wings 
(2.25-2.50; extent 7.75). The 
young lack black on the face, 
have the crown washed with 
ashy-brown, the middle of the 
back duller chestnut, and the 
bill dusky above ; but may be 
known by the length of the tail. 


Fig. 239.— Crown Sparrow (white- 


Mexi j $ f Fie. 240.— Crown Sparrow, 
throated), nat. size (Ad nat. del. Mexico, Lower California, Ari- (white-crowned), nat. size. (Ad. 


E. C.) zona. nat. del. E. C.) 
ZONOTRICH'IA. (Gr. (avn, zone, a girdle, band; rprxids, trichias, name of a bird. Figs. 
239, 240.) Crown Sparrows. Embracing our largest and handsomest sparrows, 6.50 to 


382 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES. 


7.50 inches long, the rounded wings and tail each 3.00 or more; the under parts with very few 
streaks, or none, the middle of the back streaked, the rump plain, the wiugs with two white 
eross-bars, the head of the adults with black, and usually with white and yellow also, or both. 
Bill mederate, conical, culmen and gonys just appreciably curved, commissure very little angu- 
lated. Point of the wing formed usually by the 2d-4th quills, and 1st about equal to oth; 
folding decidedly beyond the inuer secondaries, and to near the middle of the tail. Tail-feathers 
of moderate width and consistency, rounded oval at the end: tail as a whole rounded. Tarsus 
about equal to middle toe and claw: lateral toes about equal to each ether. The Crown 
Sparrows are peculiar to North America, where they are represented by five beautiful and per- 
feetly distinet species. 


Analysis of Species (adul 


Crown black and white; no yellow on head; throat ash. 

Lores black. Dorsal streaks purplish-bay; uo yellow on Wing . . 

Lores gray. Do streaks purplish-bay , no yellow on wing. . . 

Lores gray. Dorsal strea ooty-black: edge of wing yellowish Ser ay Got 
Crown black and white; yellow spot before eye: throat white; edge of wing yellow . 
Crown black, yellow and ash; edge of wing yellow; throat ashy 
Crown, face, and throat black ; no yellow on head or wing 


280 


Z. albicollis. (Lat. albicollis, white-throated; albus, white: collum, ueck. Fig. 241.) 
WHITE-THROATED CROWN SpaRROW. PEABODY-BIRD. Adult ¢: Crown black, divided by 
a median white stripe, bounded by a white 
supereiliary line, and yellow spot from 
nostril to eye: below this a black stripe 
through eye: below this a maxillary 
black stripe bounding the detinitely pure 
white throat, sharply contrasted with the 
dark ash of the breast and sides of the 
neck and head. Edge of wing yellow. 
Back continuously streaked with black, 
chestnut, and fulvous-white : rump ashy, 
unmarked. Wings much edged with 
bay, the white tips of the median and 
greater coverts forming two conspicuous 
bars; quills and tail-feathers dusky, with 
pale edges. Below, white, shaded with 
ashy-brown on sides, the ash deeper and 


Fig 241. — White-throated. Crown Sparrow, reduced. purer on the breast; bill dark; feet pale. 
ASDeppardynel eichols es) Q, and immature birds, and specimens 
as generally seeu in the U. 8. in fall and winter, with the black of the head replaced by brown, 
the white of the throat less conspicuously coutrasted with the duller ash of surrounding parts, 
and frequently with obscure dusky streaks on the breast and sides ; but the species may always 
be known by the yellow over the eye and on the edge of the wing (these never beiug imper- 
ceptible), coupled with the large size and the generie characters. Length 6.50+6.90; extent 
9.20-9.90; wing 2.75-3.00; tail about the same. A fine sparrow, abundant throughout 
Eastern N. Am. to latitude 65° N.; W. to Dakota; breeds from the New England and 
other Northern States northward; winters from the Middle States southward. Found in 
all situations, but especially in shrubbery, generally in flocks, except when breeding; a 
pleasiug if not brilliant songster, with its limpid pea-peabody, peabody, peabody in cadence. 
Nest on the ground, rarely in bushes; eggs 4-6, about 0.90 X 0.66, with the endless diversity 
of tone and pattern of those of the song sparrow, from which they are only distinguished by 
their greater size. 


276. 


277. 


278. 


279. 


FRINGILLIDZ: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 083 


Z. leuco/phrys. (Gr. Aeuxds, leucos, white; ddpvs, ophrus, eyebrow. Fig. 242.) Wuirr- 
BROWED CROWN Sparrow. ¢ 2, adult: Crown pure white, enclosing on cither side a broad 
black stripe that meets its fellow on the forehead and descends the lores to the level of the eyes, 
and bounded by another narrow black stripe that starts behind the eye and curves around the 
side of the hind-head, nearly meeting its fellow on the nape ; edge of under eyelid white. Or, 
we may say, crown black, enclosing a median white stripe and two lateral white stripes, all 
confluent on the hind head. No yellow anywhere. General color a fine dark ash, paler below, 
whitening insensibly on chin and belly, more brownish on the ramp, changing to dull brownish 
on the flanks and erissum, the middle of the back streaked with dark purplish-bay aud ashy- 
white. No bright bay, like that of albicollis, anywhere, except suine edging on the wing- 
coverts and inner secondaries ; middle and greater coverts tipped with white, forming two bars. 
Bill and feet reddish. Length 6.25-7.00; extent 9.20-10.20; wing and tail 2.90-3.20; usually 
6.75—9.50—3.10. Young: Black of the head replaced by very rich warm brown, the white of 
the head by pale brownish ; the general ash has a brownish suffusion, and the back is more like 
that of albicollis, being streaked with dusky 
and ochrey-brown; but the two species 
cannot be confounded. Very young: Be- 
fore the first moult, there are indications of 
the head markings as last described ; but 
the whole upper parts, sides of the neck 
and fore under parts are streaked with 
blackish and ochrey-brown or whitish. 
North Amer., especially eastern and rather 
northerly ; W. to the Roeky Mts., where 
mixed with Z. Ll. intermedia; Greenland ; 
Cape St. Lucas. Not uearly so abundant 
in the U. 8. as albicollis, but common in 
many sections in winter and during the 
migrations. Breeds occasionally in North- 
ern New England, and plentifully in Lab- 
rador, where it is one of the commonest 


sparrows. Nesting the same as that of Fig. 242. — White-browed Crown Sparrow, reduced. 
albicollis, aud eggs undistinguishable. (Sheppard del. Nichols se.) 


Z.1. intermedia. (Lat. intermedia, intermediate, in the middle.) INTERMEDIATE CROWN 
Sparrow. Exactly like the last, but lores gray or ashy, continuous with the white stripe over 
the eye, 2. e., the black of the forehead does not descend to the eye. Perhaps averaging a trifle 
smaller, and duller colored. Some specimens resemble lewcophrys on one side of the head, and 
imtermedia on the other. Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, mostly replacing true leucophrys. (Z. 
gambeli Bd., 1858, Coues, 1872, nec Nutt.) 

Z. gam’beli. (To Win. Gambel, of Phila.) Gampet’s Crown Sparrow. Markings of the 
head much the sane as in Z. l. intermedia; body colors entirely different, and almost exactly as 
in coronata, No. 279. Streaking of the back sooty-black. Edge and lining of the wing yellow, 
as in coronata and albicollis. Bill in dried specimens blackish and yellow, not reddish. Size of 
coronata. Pacific coast, U. §., southerly. (Z. gambeli Nutt., 1840, nee Baird, Coues.) 

Z. corona‘ta, (Lat. coronata, crowned; corona, a crown.) GOLDEN Crown SPARROW. 
& 9, adult: Forehead and sides of the crown black, enclosing a dull yellow coronal patch 
anteriorly, an ashy one posteriorly ; a yellow spot over eye; lores black. Edge of the wing 
yellow. Above, much like albicollis, but with less bay and no whitish; two white wing-bars. 
Below, including sides of head and neck, ashy, passing insensibly into whitish on the belly, and 
much shaded with brownish on the flanks and crissum; thus much like lewcophrys, but the 


280. 


85. 


281. 


384 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


ashy not so pure; larger than leucophrys; length averaging 7.00; wing over 3.00. Young: 
black of the crown replaced by brown; but always traces of the yellow on crown and wings. 
The yellow eye-spot is small, and not always evident. Pacific coast (to the Rocky Mts. ?), 
from Alaska to Southern California, abundant, migratory. 

Z. que/rula, (Lat. querula, querulous, plaintive; queror, I complain, lament.) HoopEp 
Crown Sparrow. Harris’ Sparrow. Adult 4, in breeding plumage: Whole crown, face, 
and throat jet-black ; sides of head pale ash; auriculars darker ash, bounded by a black line 
starting behind the eye and curving around them. Under parts nearly pure white, but slightly 
ashy before and faintly brownish-washed behind, the sides with a few dusky streaks, the breast 
with a few black spots continued from the black throat-patch. Back nearly as in coronata, 
streaked with dusky and reddish-brown. Bill coral-red; toes dark ; tarsi pale. No yellow 
anywhere. Very large: Length 7.00-7.75 ; extent 10.75-11.25 ; wing 3.25-3.50; tail 3.40- 
3.60; bill 0.45 ; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw rather less. @ similar, but with much less 
black on head and throat, the hvod being restricted or imperfect ; but its outline usually trace- 
able. @ 9, in the fall: Bill light reddish-brown, usually obscured on ridge and at tip, and 
paler at base below ; feet flesh-colored, obscured on the toes; eyes brown. Crown grayish- 
black, every feather with a distinct, narrow, pale gray edge all around, producing a peculiar 
effect ; this area bounded with a light ochrey-brown superciliary and frontal line. Sides of head 
like the superciliary, but the auricular patch rather darker grayish-brown, and the loral region 
obscurely whitish. Chin pure white, bounded on each side by a sharp maxillary line of 
blackish, with a rusty-red tinge. On the lower throat, a large, diffuse and partially diseon- 
tinuous blotch of this same blackish-red, cutting off the white chin from the white of the rest 
of the under parts, connecting with the maxillary streaks, and stretching along the sides of the 
neck and breast in a series of rich dusky-chestnut streaks. On the middle of the breast the 
blotch generally rans out into the white in a sharp point, but its size and shape vary inter- 
minably. The markings here described are all included in the jet-black hood and breast-plate 
of the perfect spring dress; and between the two extremes every intermediate condition may be 
observed at various seasons. The rest of the plumage does not differ very materially from that 
of the adult ¢ insummer. This is the largest of our sparrows; a bird of imposing appear- 
ance — for a sparrow. Interior U.S. and British Provinces, especially the valley of the Missis- 
sippi, Lower Missouri, and Red River of the North; scarcely W. to the Rocky Mts.? E. to 
Minnesota, Missouri, Iowa, and probably Illinois; 8. to Texas. It is abundant in the line of 
its migration, as in Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, Dakota, etc., but its breeding resorts are still 
unknown. I found it in Dakota at 49° coming early in September from the North. 
CHONDESTES. (Gr. xévdpos, chondros, cartilage; also grain, seeds; éSecrns, edestes, an 
eater; badly formed.) Lark Sparrows. Framed for a 
single species, with long pointed wings exceeding the 
long rounded tail; point of the wing formed by 2d and 3d 
primaries, but Ist and 4th scarcely shorter; rest rapidly 
graduated. Tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw ; 
lateral toes short, tips of the claws uot reaching base of 
middle claw. Bill swollen-conic, with culmen slightly 
convex, and commissure little angulated. Species large, 
for a sparrow, streaked above, white below, the head and 
tail parti-colored. 

C. gram/mica, (Gr. ypappuxds, grammicos, marked with a 
yeaupa, gramma, a line, word; badly selected to indicate the Fic, 243, — Lark Sparrow, nat. size. 
stripes of the head. Fig. 243.) Lark Sparrow. Lark ‘44 at- del. B.C.) 

Fincu. ¢ 9, adult: Head variegated with chestnut, black, and white; crown chestnut, 
blackening on forehead, divided by a median stripe, and bounded by superciliary stripes, of 


86. 


282. 


283. 


FRINGILLIDZ: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 385 


white; a black line through eye, and another below eye, enclosing a white streak under the 
eye and the chestnut auriculars ; next, a sharp black maxillary stripe not quite reaching the 
bill, cutting off a white stripe from the white chin and throat. A black blotch on middle of 
breast. Under parts white, faintly shaded with grayish-brown ; upper parts grayish-brown, 
the middle of the back with fine black streaks. Tail very long, its central feathers like the 
back, the rest jet-black, broadly tipped with pure white in diminishing amount from the lateral 
pair inward, and the outer web of the outer pair entirely white. Length 6.50-7.00; wing 
3.50, pointed; tail 3.00, rounded. Very young: Crown, back, and nearly all the under parts 
streaked with dusky; no chestnut on head, nor are the black stripes firm; but with the first 
moult the peculiar pattern of the head-markings becomes evideut, and there is little variation 
afterward with age, sex, or season. A beautiful species, abundant from the eastern edge of 
the prairies, and even Iowa and Illinois, to the Pacific, U.8.; occasional in Ohio, and strag- 
glers have been taken in Massachusetts and about Washington. A sweet songster; breeds 
throughout its range ; nest usually on the ground, of dried grass; eggs 4-7, white, with strag- 
gling zigzag dark lines, as in many Icterid@; size 0.75-0.85 by about 0.65. 
PASSEREL'LA. (Ital. diminutive form of Lat. passer, a sparrow.) Fox SPARROWS. 
Remarkable for the size of the feet and claws: Lateral toes elongated to about equal degree, 
the ends of their claws reaching about half-way to the end of the middle 
claw ; claws all very large; middle toe and claw about as long as the tarsus. 
Wings long and pointed, folding about to the middle of the tail; point 
formed by the 2d-4th quills, 1st and 5th little shorter. Tail moderate, a 
little rounded or nearly even. Bill rather small, strictly conic, with straight 
outlines and scarcely angulated commissure. Large handsome reddish or 
slate-colored species, marked below with triangular spots and streaks of 
the color of the back. Habits terrestrial and somewhat rasorial. Nest 
indifferently in trees or bushes or on the ground; eggs greenish, fully Frc. 244. — Bill of 
speckled. The species, if more than one, are, like those of Junco, Melospiza, Fox Sparrow, nat. 
and Pipilo, still imperfectly differentiated. Pe 
P. ili/aca. (Lat. tliaca, relating to the ilia, or flanks, which are conspicuously marked. Figs. 
244, 245.) Eastern Fox Sparrow. 4, ? : General color above ferrugineous or rusty-red, 
purest and brightest on the rump, tail, and wings, on the other upper parts appearing in streaks 
laid on an ashy ground. Below, white, variously but thickly marked except on the belly and 
crissum with rusty-red—the markings anteriorly in the form of diffuse confluent blotches, on 
the breast and sides consisting chiefly of sharp arrow-head spots and pointed streaks. Tips of 
middle and greater wing-coverts forming two whitish bars. Upper mandible dark, lower 
mostly yellow; feet pale. One of the finest singers of the family; quite unlike any other Eastern 
species of sparrow. A large handsome species. Length 6.50-7.25 ; extent 10.50-11.50; wing 
3.25-3.60, averaging 3.40; tail little or not over 3.00, thus decidedly shorter than the wing; 
bill, along culmen, 0.40; tarsus 0.90; hind claw about 0.35. Sexes alike, and young not 
particularly different after the first moult, though in an early stage much darker; back rufous- 
brown with darker streaks; no wing-bars; all the under parts heavily marked. There is 
much individual variation in color, independently of age, sex, or season. Eastern N. Am. ; 
W. in the U. 8S. regularly only to the edge of the Plains, occasionally to Colorado; but in 
Alaska to the Pacific; N. to the Arctic coast. Breeds throughout the interior of British 
America and in Alaska ; not known to do so anywhere in the U. S. Winters from the Middle 
States southward. Nest on ground or in bushes or trees; eggs pale greenish-white, thickly 
speckled with rusty-brown, 0.95 x 0.70; general aspect of the egg as in Zonotrichia and 
Melospiza. 
P. i, unalascen’sis. (Of the Island of Unalashka.) Townsrnp’s Fox Sparrow. ¢@, ?: 
General color above dark olive-brown, overcast with a reddish-brown tinge, and the streaking 
25 


284. 


285. 


87. 


386 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


obsolete, — thus giving a uniform and continuous ruddy-olive tone, becoming more foxy-red on 
the rmup, wings, and tail. Wing-bars obsolete. Beneath, white, thickly marked, excepting 
on the middle of the belly, with triangular spots of about the same dark color as the back, — 
aggregated on the breast, and the entire sides of the neck and body almost like the back in 
uniformity of the color, but still showing ill-defined confluent dark reddish-brown streaks on a 
more olive-brown ground. Cheeks 
and auriculars with some whitish 
speckling. No obvious mark- 
ings on wings. Bill dusky above, 
apparently reddish or yellowish 
below; feet reddish-brown. Size 
of aliaca, but very different-look- 
ing in color, and somewhat differ- 
ently proportioned ; wing aver- 
aging 3.25, and tail scarcely or 
not shorter; bill about 0.50; 
hind claw the same, and as long 
as its digit. A curious form, re- 
lated to iliaca much as Melospiza 
rufina is to the Eastern song spar- 
row. Pacifie coast region, from 
Alaska to California, breeding in 


= mountaius and northward. (P. 
Fia. 245. — Fox Sparrow, reduced. (Sueppard del. Nichols se.) townsendi Aud. Auct ) 


= wan 


P. i. schista/cea. (Lat. schistacea, slaty ; Gr. oxiords, schistos, fissile or cleft, as slate-stone 
is; the allusion, however, is to the color.) SLATE-cOLORED Fox Sparrow. @, 9: General 
color above uniform slate with a slight olive tinge, becoming dull foxy-red on the wings and 
tail; the streaking of the back obsolete, but whitish wing bars sometimes indicated. Below, 
white, shaded along the sides with the color of the back, but not so as to obscure the decided 
markings of the parts; the under parts at large spotted and streaked with dusky-brown, usually 
aggregated into a blotch on the breast. This is the connecting link between tliaca and una- 
lascensis; the upper parts are nearly of the slaty-ash that forms the ground color of ¢liaca, 
only the foxy streaks of the back are obsolete. The spotting below is correspondingly darker. 
The form has, however, some peculiarities : tail decidedly longer in comparison with the wings. 
Length about 7.00; wing 3.00-3.25 ; tail 3.35-3.60; bill 0.45; tarsus 0.90. Rocky Mt. 
region, chiefly, but noted from Kansas to California. 

P.i. megarhyn’cha. (Gr. péyas, megas, great; plyxos, rhugchos, rhynchus, beak.) LARGE- 
BILLED Fox Sparrow. Coloration as in P. schistacea. Tail at maximum length, averaging 
at the extreme of that of schistacea; claws and beak very highly developed; bill very thick, its 
depth at base 0.50, rather more than its length from nostril to tip; hind claw longer than its 
digit. A local race of the last, in the mountains of California and Nevada. 

CALAMOSPI’ZA. (Gr. xddapos, kalamos, Lat. calamus, a reed ; omifa, spiza,a finch.) Lark 
Buntinas. Bill large and stout at base, the culmen a little curved, the commissure well 
angulated ; rictus bristly. Wing long and pointed: tip formed by the Ist-4th quills, rest 
rapidly graduated ; inner secondaries enlarged and flowing, one of them about reaching the 
point of the wing when closed. Tail shorter than wing, nearly even. Feet stout, adapted to 
terrestrial habits; tarsus about as long as middle toe and claw; lateral toes nearly equal to each 
other, scarcely reaching the base of the middle claw; hind claw about as long as its digit, but not 
straightened. A well-marked genus, with wing-structure reminding one of Anthus or Alauda; 
the turgid strongly-angulated bill resembles that of a grosbeak. Sexes very dissimilar; g 
black and white. 


286. 


88. 


287. 


FRINGILLIDZE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 387 


C. bicolor. (Lat. bicolor, two-colored. Fig. 246.) Lark Buntine. WuitTE-wIncep 
Buackbirp. ¢, in swomer. Black, with a large white patch on the wings; the quills and 
tail-feathers frequently marked with white; bill dark horn-blue above, paler below; feet brown. 
Length 6.00-6.75 ; extent 10.00-11.00; wing 3.25-3.50 5 tail 2.50-2.75 ; bill 0.50-0.55 ; tarsus, 
or middle toe and claw, 0.90-1.00. Sexes unlike: 9 more resembling a sparrow. Above, gray- 
ish-brown, streaked with dusky-brown, on the back the edges of the dark streaks often of a 
purer brown than the general ground-color. Below, white, shaded on the sides with grayish- 
brown, thickly streaked with blaeckish-brown everywhere excepting the throat and belly, the 
streaks mostly sharp and distinct, but blended on the sides, tending to aggregate on the breast, 
aud run forward as a maxillary chain. A poorly-defined light superciliary stripe. Wings 
dusky, with a large white or whitish speculum, much as in the g, but not so pure nor so 
extensive ; inner secondaries edged with brown and white. Tail- feathers, the middle excepted, 
blackish tipped with white. Young ¢ like the 9, but colors more suffuse and brighter ; 
upper parts pure brown; under parts tinged with fulvous, the wing-inarkings quite fulvous ; 
under surface of wing quite 
blackish. In very young 
birds the markings more 
motley than streaky ; the bill 
brownish, Hfesh-colored be- 
low. @ wears the black 
plumage only during the 
breeding season, like the 
bobolink; when changing, 
the characters of the two 
sexes are confused. In the 
forin of the bill, this interest- 
ing species is closely allied 
to the grosbeaks; and this, 
with the singularly enlarged 
secondaries, as long as the 
prinaries in the closed wing, 


renders it unmistakable in 
any plumage. A prairie Fic. 246.—Lark Bunting. g @, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) 
bird, abundant on the central plains; N. to 49° at least, in the Missouri and Milk River region, 
W. to the Rocky Mts., and southerly to the Pacific. The male has the habit of soaring and 
singing on wing like a lark; nest on the ground, sunken flush with the surface, of grasses ; 
eggs 4-5, 0.90 X 0.65, pale bluish-green, normally unmarked, oceasionally speckled. - 
SPI'ZA, (Gr. omifa, spiza, a kind of finch, probably F. celebs.) Stk Buntiyas. Bill 
much as in Calamospiza, but longer for its depth and not so strongly angulated. Wings very 
long and pointed; 2d primary usually longest, lst and 3d little shorter, 4th and rest rapidly 
graduated ; one inner secondary a little elongated, but not nearly reaching point of wing. Tail 
short, nearly even, but a little emarginate. Tarsus and middle toe and claw of about equal 
lengths ; lateral toes of nearly equal lengths, not reaching base of middle claw; hind toe with 
claw as long as the middle toe without claw. 

S. america/na. (Lat. of America. Fig. 247.) Buack-THROATED Buntina. o: Above, 
grayish-brown, the middle of the back streaked with black, the hind neck ashy, becoming on 
the crown yellowish-olive with black touches. A yellow superciliary line, and maxillary touch 
of the same; eyelid white; ear-coverts ashy like the cervix; chin white; throat with * large 
jet-black patch. Under parts in general white, shaded with gray on the sides, extensively 
tinged with yellow on the breast and belly. Edge of wing yellow; lesser and middle coverts 


388 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


rich chestnut, other coverts and inner secondaries edged with paler. Bill dark horn-blue; 
feet brown. Length 6.50-7.00; extent 10.50-11.00; wing 3.25-3.50, sharp-pointed ; tail 

: 9.50-2.75, emarginate. Q. Smaller; wing under 
3.00, ete.; above, like the %, but head and neck 
plainer; below, less tinged with yellow, the black 
throat-patch wanting, replaced by sparse sharp 
maxillary and pectoral streaks, the wing-coverts 
not chestnut, though so indicated by rufous edg- 
ings of the individual feathers. Young ¢: Larger 
than the 9, but in general similar; throat-patch 
indicated by blackish feathers ; wing-coverts chest- 
nut. An elegant species, of trim form, tasteful 
colors and very smooth plumage, abundant in the 
fertile portions of the Eastern U. 8.; N. to Massa- 
chusetts ; W. to Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and 
in the south to Arizona; rather southerly, scarcely 
reaching the N. border of the U. 8. anywhere; 
winters wholly extralimital; breeds throughout its 


Fic. 247 —Black-throated Bunting, reducea. U. 8. range. Not a good vocalist; the simple 


(Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) ditty sounds like chip-chip-chee, chee, chee. Nest 
on the ground, or in alow bush; eggs 4-5, normally plain greenish-white, rarely speckled ; 
0.80 & 0.65. 


288. S. town/sendi. (To J. K. Townsend.) Townsrnn’s Buntine. ‘ Upper parts, head and 
neck all round, sides of body and forepart of breast, slate-blue; back and upper surface of wings 
tinged with yellowish-brown ; interscapulars streaked with black ; superciliary and maxillary 
line, chin and throat and central line of under parts from breast to crissum, white; edge of 
wing, and gloss on breast and middle of belly, yellow; a black spotted line from lower corner of 
lower mandible down the side of the throat, connecting with a cresceut of streaks in the upper 
edge of the slate portion of the breast.” Pennsylvania ; one specimen known, a standing puzzle 
to ornithologists, in the uncertainty whether it is a ‘‘ good species,” or merely an abnormal plu- 
mage of the last, or a hybrid, possibly of S. americana 9 X $ Guiraca cerulea. While it is not 
improbable that the type came froin an egg laid by S. americana, even such immediate ancestry 
would not forbid recognition of ‘ specific characters ;” the solitary bird having been killed, it 
represents a species which died at its birth. 

89. ZAMELO'DIA. (Gr. (a, za, much, very ; ped@dia, melodia, 
melody. Fig. 248.) Sona Grospraks. Bill extremely 
heavy, with the lower mandible as deep as the upper or 
deeper, the commissural angle strong, far in advance of the 
feathered base of the bill, the rietus overhung with a few long 
stiff bristles. Wing with outer 4 primaries abruptly longer 
than 5th. Tail shorter than wing, even or scarcely rounded. 
Feet short and stout. Embracing two large species, of beau- 
tiful and striking eclors, the sexes dissimilar. @ black and 
white, with carinine-red or orange-brown; Q otherwise, but 


Fig. 248. — Bill of Zamelocia (Z 
é ox 2 se ‘ ludoviciana, nat. size.) (Ad. nat del. 
with lining of wings yellow. Brilliant songsters; nest in &. ¢.) 


trees and bushes; eggs spotted. 


Analysis of Species. 


od black and white, with carmine-red on breast and under wings. @ with lining of wings saffron-yellow. 
Wastenm +) so a ec eh ee ee a a a a a ee ee oiciana: -289 

d black and white, with orange-brown on breast: gf ? with lining of wings and belly yellow. Western 
melanocephala 290 


289. 


290. 


co 
(ie) 


FRINGILLIDZ: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 


Z. Yudovicia/na. (Lat. of Louisiana. Figs. 248, 249, 255.) Rosm-preastep Song Gros- 
Beak. Adult $ with the head and neck all around and most of the upper parts black, the 
rump, upper tail-coverts and under parts white, the breast and under wing-coverts exquisite 
carmine or rose-red; wings and tail black, variegated with white; bill white; feet grayish- 
blue; iris brown. Q above, streaked with blackish aud olive-brown or flaxen-brown, with 
median white coronal and superciliary line; below, white, more or less tinged with fulvous and 
streaked with dusky; wnder wing-coverts 
saffron-yellow ; upper coverts and inner 
quills with a white spot at end; bill brown. 
Young ¢ at first resembling the 9 ; but the 
rose color appears with the first full feather- 
ing. Two or three years are required to 
produce the perfect beauty. Sexes of same 
size. Length 7.75-8.50; extent 12.00-13.00; 
wing 3.90-4.25; tail 3.25; tarsus 0.90. 
Eastern U. 8S. and British Provinces, N. 
to Labrador and the region of the Saskatche- 
wan; W. in U.S. to the Red River Valley, 
and edge of the Missouri River plains ; win- 
ters extralimital; breeds from the Middle 
States northward. A splendid bird! Few 
combine such attractions for the eye and ear. 
Nest in bushes and low trees, chiefly of root- 
lets and slender fibres; eggs 3-4, 1.00 x 
0.75, dull greenish, fully splashed and dotted 
with dark brown, laid in June. Fic. 249. — Rose-breasted Grosbeak, reduced, (Shep- 
Z. melanoce/phala. (Gr. pédas, pédavos, Pard del. Nichols sc.) 

melas, melanos, black ; xepadn, kephale, head. Fig. 250.) BLACK-HEADED SONG GROSBEAK. 
Adult g with the crown, sides of head, back, wings, and tail black; the back usually varied 
with whitish or cimnamon-brown, the wings spotted with white on the ends of the coverts, and 
usually also towards the ends of the quills, and with a large white patch at base of primaries ; 
several lateral tail-feathers with 
large white spots on inner 
webs near their ends. Neck all 
arouud, rump, aud under parts 


rich orange-brown, changing to 
bright pure yellow on the belly 
and under wing-coverts; bill 
and feet dark grayish- blue. 
Size of the last. The 9 and 
young differ much as in the last 
species, but may be recognized 
by the rich sulphur-yellow under 
wing-coverts; the bill is shorter 
aud more tumid, 0.66-0.75 along 
culmen, 0.60 deep at base. 9, 
adult: Under parts like those of the g, but paler, though the belly and lining of wings 
are as pure yellow. Upper parts dark brown with an clive shade, varied with whitish or 
brownish-white, the head blackish with white or brownish coronal and superciliary stripes. 
Wings dusky, marked as in the ¢, but the basal white spot on primaries restricted ; tail as in 


Fig. 250. — Black-headed Grosbeak, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) 


90. 


291. 


91. 


390 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


6, but the white spots reduced or obsolete. Bill light-colored below. In the ¢ the ten- 
dency is to perfectly black head, back, tail, and wings, the two former pure and continuous, 
the two latter boldly spotted with white as described ; but such faultless full dress is not often 
seen. This stylish Western representative of the elegant rose-breast is common in suitable 
woodland from the Plains to the Pacific, U. S., wintering in Mexico, breeding throughout its 
U.S. range; its habits are the same; its nest and eggs are 
indistinguishable. 

GUIRA/CA. (Vox barb., Mex. or S. Am. name of some 
bird. Fig. 251) Brug Groszeaxrs. Bill with commissure 
strongly angulated far beyond base, with deep under mandible 
and bristly rictus as in Zamelodia, but not so swollen, the cul- 
men nearly straight. Wings long and pointed, folding about 
the middle of the tail; tip formed by the 2d-4th quills, 1st 
little shorter, 5th rapidly graduated. Tail shorter than wings, 
even. Tarsus rather less than middle toe and claw; outer 
lateral toe slightly longer than the inner, but scarcely reaching 


¥ Fic. 251. — Bill of Guiraca, nat. 
base of middle claw. One species, large, g blue, Q brown. _ size. (Ad nat. del. E.C.) 


G. cerwlea. (Lat. cerulea, cerulean. Fig. 252.) Briuz Grospeax. Adult $: Rich dark 
blue, nearly uniform, but darker or blackish across middle of back; feathers around base of bill, 
wings and tail, black; middle and greater wing-coverts tipped with chestnut; bill dark horn- 
blue, paler below; feet blackish. Length 6.50-7.00; extent 10.50-11.00; wing 3.30-3.60; tail 
2.75-8.00 ; bill 0.60-0.67 ; tarsus 0.75; middle toe and claw rather more. @ smaller, plain 
warm brown above, paler and rather flaxen-brown below, sometimes whitey-brown on throat 
and belly, or with slight streaks on 
belly and crissum; wings and tail fus- 
cous, sometimes slightly bluish-glossed 
or edged, the former with whitey-brown 
cross-bars ; billand feet brown. Young 
@ at first like 9; when changing, 
shows confused brown and blue; after- 
ward, blue interrupted with white be- 
low. U. 8., from Atlantie to Pacific, 
but southerly; rarely N. to Massachu- 
setts, and even Maine; winters wholly 
extralimital ; breeds throughoutits U. 8. 
range. Its limit of northward migra- 
; tion with regularity and in any numbers 

Ve A is about the latitude of Philadelphia. 

Fic. 252.— Blue Grosbeak, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sce.) Nest in bushes, vines or other shrub- 


bery, sometimes a low tree, of grasses and rootlets; eggs 4-5, averaging 0.90 X 0.65, palest 
bluish, normally unspotted ; quite like those of the indigo-bird, but larger. 

PASSERI/NA. (Lat. passerinus, sparrow-like: not well applied to these ‘‘inatchless ones.”) 
Painrep Fincues. Bill relatively smaller and weaker than in the last, with less conspicuous 
angulation, the culmen regularly a little convex, the gonys nearly straight. Outer 4 primaries 
longest ; 1st usually between 4th and 5th, the latter much shorter. ‘Tail little shorter than wing, 
about even or emarginate. Feet moderate; tarsus about equal to the middle toe and claw ; 
lateral toes about equal to each other, their claws falling short of base of middle claw. 
Embracing several clegant finches of small size; the males of very showy hues, especially 
blue, but also red, purple, yellow, and green, usually in masses; the females of simple and 
tasteful greenish or brownish shades. 


292. 


293. 


294. 


295. 


FRINGILLIDZ: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, EI. 391 


Analysis of Species. 


dg rich blue, intense red and golden-green ; greenish and yellow. Southern . . .... . . ciris 292 
d purplish-blue, dusky and reddish. @ brown. Southwestern .. toe ee ew versicolor 293 
¢ lazuli-blue and white, the breast brown ; @ brown and whitish. Western, woe ee eee MENA 294 
dg indigo-blue; @ brown. Eastern 2. ee ee ee et ee ee te - os + Cyanea 295 


P. ci/ris. (Gr. xeipis, keiris, name of a bird into which Scylla, daughter of Nisus, was traus- 
formed.) Pamnrep Fixcu. Parytep Buntinc. Nonpareziy. Pops. @, adult: Crown and 
hind neck and sides of head and neck rich blue; back and scapulars beautiful golden-green ; 
eyelids, rump, and entire under parts intense vermilion-red; wings dusky, glossed with green 
and reddish ; tail dusky reddish. Bill dark horn-color; feet dark brown. Size of C. amena; 
wing 2.75; tail 2.25, a little emarginate. 9: Above, plain yellowish-green, nearly uniform, this 
color glossing the dusky wings and tail; below, yellowish; bill brownish, pale below; thus 
quite different from the brown 2 Q of all the following species. Young ¢ at first like 9; 
acquiring the red and blue with every possible gradation between the colors of the two sexes. 
South Atlantic and Gulf States, abundant; up the coast to Carolina, and in the interior to 
Illinois; Texas and Mexico. An exquisite little creature of matchless hues, well named the 
“incomparable”; a fair songster, and a favorite cage-bird in Louisiana. Nest in bushes, 
hedges and low trees ; eggs pearly white, speckled with reddish and purplish browns. 

P. versi/color. (Lat. versicolor, various in color; verto, I turn; color, color.) PURPLE 
PamntEeD Fincu. Variep Buntinc. WESTERN NoNPAREIL. PRruSIANO. 6, adult: Hind 
head, throat, and fore breast brownish-red or claret-color, the former sometimes scarlet ; hind 
neck and middle of back similar, but more obscured; fore-part of crown purplish-red; rump and 
upper tail-coverts purplish-blue ; below, from the breast, and the wings and tail, dusky, tinged 
or glossed with purplish ; concealed white in feathers of side of ramp; lores and circumrostral 
feathers black. Bill horn-bluish, paler below, stouter than in the other species, with very 
convex culmen and concave cutting edge of upper mandible. Feet dark. The versicoloration 
is difficult to describe; the general aspect is that of a purplish-dusky bird, redder or bluer here 
and there. Size of the others. @ plain brown above, whitey-brown below, like amena and 
cyanea; no whitish wing-bars; no black stripe on gonys; concealed white on sides of rump ; 
bill stout. Lower California and Mexico, N. to U.S. border, especially in the Rio Grande 
Valley, where common in some localities. (Accidental in Michigan.) 

P. ame’/na. (Lat. amena, delightful, charming, dressy.) LazuLti Painrep Fincu. 4, 
adult: Head and neck all around, entire upper parts, and lining of wings, rich azure or lapis- 
lazuli blue, more or less obscured on the middle of the back; the lores black. Below, from the 
blue neck, chestnut-brown, changing to white on the belly and crissum. A firm white wing- 
bar across ends of the median coverts, and usually another weaker one across tips of greater 
coverts. Wings and tail dusky, glossed with blue. Bill and feet bluish-black. Length 5.25- 
5.50; extent 8.00-8.50; wing 2.75-3.00; tail 2.25-2.50; bill 0.37; tarsus 0.65. 9, adult: 
Above, flaxen-brown, nearly uniforin, but with slightly darker centres of the feathers, and some- 
times a faint bluish gloss. Below, buffy or brownish-white, most colored on the breast, palest 
on throat and belly. Wings and tail fuscous, with faint bluish edgings usually, crossed with two 
decided brownish-white bars, — the chief distinction from 9 cyanea. @, young: Like the 9 ; 
when changing, patched with brown and blue; when very young, ¢ 9 somewhat streaky, 
especially on under parts. Replacing P. cyanea from the Plains to the Pacific, common in 
suitable places ; habits, nest, and eggs the same. 

P. cya’nea. (Lat. cyanea, Gr. xudveos, kuaneos, dark blue. Fig. 253.) Inpico ParnrEep 
Fivcu. Inpico-pirp. Adult g: Indigo-blue, intense and constant on the head, glancing 
greenish with different lights on other parts; wings and tail blackish, glossed with greenish- 
blue; feathers around base of bill black ; bill dark above, rather paler below, with a curious 
black stripe along the gonys. 9: Above, plain warm brown, below whitey-brown, obsolctely 
streaky on the breast and sides; wing-coverts and inner quills pale-edged, but not whitish; 


92. 


296. 


98. 


297. 


892 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


no whitish wing-bars; upper mandible blackish, lower pale, with the black stripe just 
mentioned, — this is a pretty constant feature, and will distinguish the species from any of our 
Eastern little brown birds. Young ¢: Like the ?, but soon shows blue traces, and afterward 
is blue with white variegation below. 
Size of the foregoing. Eastern U.§., N. 
to Maine and Canada; W. to Kansas, 
Indian Territory, and Texas; winters 
wholly extralimital; breeds throughout 
its N. A. range. Abundant in fields and 
open woodland, in summer; a well mean- 
ing but rather weak vocalist, whose low 
rambling strain is delivered as if the little 
performer were tired or indifferent. Nest 
in the crotch of a bush, large for the size 
of the bird, and not at all artistic; eggs 
usually 4-5, averaging 0.72 X 0.52, white 
with a faint blue shade, and normally 
plain, though not seldom a little speckled. 
SPERMO/PHILA. (Gr. oméppa, sperma, seed; didos, philos, loving.) Pyamy FINcuHEs. 
Bill like that of a bullfinch in miniature, short and extremely turgid ; swollen in all directions, 
culmen convex nearly in the sextant of a circle; cutting edge of upper mandible very concave ; 
gonys short, about straight in outline. Wings short and greatly rounded; 2d-4th quills 
longest, 1st, 5th, and even 6th, little shorter, and secondaries nearly covering primaries in the 
closed wing. Tail rather shorter than wings, slightly rounded, with abruptly pointed tips of 
the feathers. Tarsus equal to middle toe and claw, and lateral toes to each other, their claws 
about reaching base of middle claw. A large C. and 8. Am. genus of pygmy finches, one of 
which reaches our border; our most diminutive fringilline (but Phonipara is about the same). 
S. morelet/i. (To one Morelet.) Morrxet’s Pyamy Fincu. Lirrne Srep-gatrer. ¢: 
Top and sides of head, back of neck, broad band across upper part of breast, middle of back, 
wings, and tail, black ; chin, upper throat, neck nearly all around, rump, and remaining under 
parts, white, the latter often tinged with pale buff; two wing-hands, and bases of all the quills, 
also white, that on the secondaries hidden by the coverts, that on the primaries forming an 
exposed spot; inner secondaries usually edged with white; tail-feathers sometimes with 
obscurely whitish tip. Bill blue-black; feet dark. 9 olivaceous-brown above, brownish- 
yellow or dull buff below ; wings with whitish bars, but no white bases of quills ; bill brown ; 
feet dark. Length about 4.00; wing 2.00-2.10; tail 1.90; tarsus 0.60. Mexico to Texas, in 
the Lower Rio Grande valley. 

PHONI/PARA. (Gr. dovn, phone, sound, voice; Lat. pario, I produce: badly formed.) Grass 
Quits. Bill small, acute, culmen slightly convex, commissure about straight to the angulation 
at base. Wings short, rounded, 2d-5th primaries subequal and little longer than Ist, 6th, 7th. 
Tail still shorter, about even. Tarsus if anything shorter than middle toe and claw; lateral 
toes subequal to cach other in length, scarcely reaching base of middle toe. A West Indian 
genus of diminutive finches, one of which occurs in Florida. 

P. zena. (Vox barb.; perhaps proper name.) Buack-raceD Grass Quit. ¢@, adult: 
Upper parts, including exposed surfaces of wings and tail, dull olivaceous, passing on the face, 
throat, and breast, into sooty-black, fading on other under parts into olive-gray, more or less 
varied with whitish; wings and tail unmarked; no decided demarcation of colors anywhere. 
Bill blue-black ; feet dark brown. Q lighter olivaceous, passing tu olive-ashy where the ¢ 
is black; bill pale below; feet light brown. Length about 4.00; wing 2.00-2.10; tail 1.75. 
West Indics and Florida. One of the common house finches in various West Indian Islands ; 


Fie. 253. — Indigo-bird, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) 


——— 


94, 


298. 


95, 


299. 


FRINGILLIDE: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 393 


nest in bushes and shrubbery, large, domed, with lateral entrance; eggs 3-6, 0.65 X 0.50, 
white, speckled with reddish. 

PYRRHULOXIA. (Lat. pyrrhula + loxia; pyrrhula, a bullfinch ; loawia, a cross-bill. Gr. 
muppds, purhros, ved ; Aogias, loxias, crooked.) BuLLFINCH CARDINALS. Bill very short and 
stout, hooked almost like a parrot’s: its depth at base exceeding its length; under mandible 
deeper than upper at nostrils; culmen curved almost to the quadrant of a circle ; commissure 
forcibly angulated in advance of uostrils; gonys about straight. Otherwise generally like 
Cardinalis. Colors grayish and red; head crested. One large species. 

P. sinua/ta. (Lat. sinwata, bent, bowed, curved; sinus, a bend, bay: alluding to the bill.) 
BULLFINCH CARDINAL. TEXAS CARDINAL. Conspicuously crested, and otherwise like the 
common cardinal in form, but the bill extremely short and crooked. @: Ashy-brown, paler 
or whitish below; the crest, face, throat, breast, and middle line of belly, with the wings and 
tail, more or less perfectly crimson or carmine red; bill whitish. Length 8.00-8.50; extent 
11.00-12.00; wing 3.50-4.00; tail 3.75-4.25. 9 similar to the #, more so than Q Cardinalis : 
red of crest, wings, and tail much the same; rather brownish-yellow below, usually with traces 
of red on the breast and belly, sometimes without. Young @ like the 9. At an early age, 
both sexes have the bill obscured. In this species the crest is long, but thin, consisting of a 
few coronal feathers, without general elongation of the head-plumage. The shade of red is very 
variable in equally adult males. In highest feather it is continuous on the under parts froin 
bill to tail along the median line; but it is often broken into patches on throat, belly, and 
crissum. The tint is always carmine, not vermilion as usual in the common cardinal. The 
intense rose-color is well displayed on spreading the wings. A singular bird, inhabiting the 
U.-S. near the Mexican border, from Texas to Lower California; abundant in the valley of 
the Lower Rio Grande. The habits, nest, and eggs are substantially the same as those of the 
common cardinal. 

CARDINA'LIS. (Lat. cardinalis, pertaining to cardo, 
a door-hinge; cardinal, that upon which something 
hinges or depends ; hence important, principal, cardinal 
point ; cardinal, a chief ecclesiastical official, wearing 
the red hat; hence cardinal-red, from which color the 
bird is named. Fig. 254.) CarpinaL GRrosppaks. 
Bill very large and stout, but quite conic ; culmen alittle 
convex ; gonys about straight ; commissure sinuate, not 
abruptly angulated; lower mandible about as deep as 
upper; rictus bristled. Wings very short and rounded ; 
usually 4th and 5th quills longest, others rapidly grad- 
uated both ways, —5th to Ist, 5th to 9th. Tail longer 
than wings, rounded, of broad feathers with obliquely 


; Fig. 254.— Head of Cardinal Grosbeak, 
oval tips. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw; nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


lateral toes subequal. Size large. Head crested. Color mostly red, including bill. Sexes 
subsimilar. 


C. virginia/nus. (Of Virginia; name inappropriate to Queen Elizabeth. Figs. 254, 255.) 
CARDINAL GRosBEAK. CarpInaL Rep-Brrp. Virernta NIGHTINGALE. 6, adult: Rich 
red, usually vermilion, sometimes rosy ; pure and intense on crest and under parts, darker on 
back, where obscured with ashy-gray, as it is also on upper surfaces of wings and tail; the 
feathers of the wings fuscous on inner webs. A jet-black mask on the face, entirely surround- 
ing the bill, extending on the throat. Bill coral-red ; feet brown. Length 8.00-9.00; extent 
11.00-12.00; wing 3.50-4.00 ; tail 4.25-4.75 ; bill 0.67-0.75 ; tarsus 0.90-1.00. @ rather less: 
Ashy-brown, paler and somewhat yellowish-brown below, with traces of red ; reddening much 


a 
asin the # on crest, wings, aud tail. Young g: At first like 9, but soon reddening ; at an 


394 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


early age, bill dark. Eastern U. 8., southerly, seldom N. to the Connecticut Valley; along the 
Mexican border shading into C. v. igneus. A bird of striking appearance and brilliant vocal 
powers, resident and abundant from the Middle States southward; inhabits thickets, tangle and 
undergrowth of all kinds, whence issue its rich rolling whistling notes while the performer, 
brightly clad as he is, often eludes observation by his shyness, vigilance, and activity. The 
nest, built loosely of bark-strips, twigs, leaves, and grasses, is placed in a bush, vine, or low 


Q oo 
eS Gi. 
IS RARKSRIS 


Fig. 255. — Cardinal Grosbeak, upper; Rose-breasted Grosbeak, lower; reduced. (From Brehm.) 


thick tree ; the eggs are 1.00-1.10 long, 0.70-0.80 in breadth, profusely marked with browns, 
from reddish to dark chocolate, with neutral tint in the shell, usually in fine dotting or mar- 
bling pattern. Two or three broods are reared in the South. Like the rose-breasted grosbeak, 
the cardinal is a favorite cage-bird. 

300. C. v.ig’neus. (Lat. igneus, fiery.) Frery-rEp CARDINAL. Like the last; not redder, but if 
anything lighter red; black mask narrowed on forehead, or so interrupted there that the red 
reaches to the bill; crest inclining to light red, more like that of belly than of back. Bill 


96. 


FRINGILLIDA: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. 395 


tending to swell, with more decidedly curved culmen. Tail rather longer, on an average. 
Valley of the Colorado and Gila, and Lower California, common. 

PIPILO. (Lat. pipilo or pipio, I pip, peep, chirp.) Towner Bunrinas. Embracing 
numerous species and varieties of large Fringillide, varying much in system of coloration and 
details of form, and therefore not easy to characterize concisely. Excepting one species, all are 
over seven inches long. Bill moderate in size, conic without extremes of turgidity or compres- 
sion, but varying much in precise shape with the species. Feet large and strong, fitted for 
ground work; tarsus about equalling or rather exceeding the middle toe and claw ; lateral toes 
subequal, outer usually a little the longer, its claw reaching, in some cases excceding the base 
of the middle claw; the claws all stout and much curved, in some species highly developed. 
Wings short and greatly rounded, about the 4th-5th primary longest, whence the quills are 
rapidly graduated to 1st and 9th; 1st very short. Tail long, exceeding the wings, rounded or 
much graduated, of broad firm feathers with rounded ends. Large species, inhabiting shrub- 
bery, and partly terrestrial. They fallin 3 sections or series. I. Black Towhees: of which the 
only Eastern species is a typical example. In this, the sexes are very unlike, but the difference 
is less in the Western varieties into which it runs: all the forms are black on head and upper 
parts, with black, white-marked wings or tail, the back also white-marked or not ; belly white, 
sides chestnut. II. Brown Towhees: variously brown above, paler, etc., below, the sexes 
alike. These are confined to the Southwest, where the numerous species stand in the same 
relation to Fringilhde that the Southwestern forms of Harporhynchus bear to Turdide. III. 
Green Towhees: one small species, standing alone. 

Oxs. I. The black series of Pipilo offers a case nearly parallel with those of Melospiza, 
Passerella and Junco already discussed. There is one Eastern form much more distinct from 
the several Western ones than these are fromm one another. It is uniform black above, seldom 
with a trace of white spotting on the scapulars: the 2 distinctively brown where the @ is 
black. The Western ones all have spotted scapulars and sometimes also interseapulars; and 
@ @ are blackish, munch like the § g. (These furthermore shade into an olivaceous Mexican 
form.) P. arcticus corresponds in a way with Melospiza heermanni, Passerella schistacea, and 
Junco caniceps ; P. oregonus with Melospiza guttata or rufina, Passerella unalasce and Junco 
oregonus ; P. megalonyx exactly with Passerella megarhyncha. It might be more consistent 
to treat all the black Towhees as races of one incompletely specified stock ; but it is not easy 
to so far ignore the sexual distinctiveness, nor the fact that though P. erythrophthalmus has 
occasional spots on the scapulars, its intergradation is searcely established. IT. The Brown 
Towhees afford one remarkably distinct species, P. aberti, to be likencd to Harporhynchus 
crissalis; and others incompletely separated from each other, like H. redivivus and H. lecontii. 


Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


1. Black Towhees. Colors of the male black, white, and chestnut in definite areas. 
No white on the scapulars or wing-coverts. Rene very unlike. 
Eyes red in the breeding season. Eastern U.S. atlarge . ...... erythrophthalmus 801 
Eyes white in the breeding season. Florida, veuifleat mi ivte henetee nie vo ese a aR Oe ena: SO0e 
Scapulars and wing-coverts with white spots; sexes more alike. Western. 
Little if any white at bases of primaries ; none on outer web of outer tail-feathers except at end. 
oregonus 303 
White on wings and tail as in erythrophthalmus, but interscapulars streaked - + + arcticus 304 
Like the last; claws highly developed; sexes nearly alike . megalonyx 305 
2, Brown Towhees. Colors not definitely black, white and chestnut; no greenish. sexes 5 alike. Southwestern. 
Grayish-brown, paler below, without blackish face ; throat and crisgsum fulvyous or rufescent. 
Light; belly whitening; crissum yellowish-brown; necklace of dusky streaks 
Similar; more white on throat . 
Dark ; belly only paler ; crissum einviarnantbrowin: throat ‘falvous, specleied 
Grayish-brown, paler below; face blackish ; no other decided markings . 
3. Green Towhees. Colors greenish ; sexes alike. 
Crown brown, throat white, breast ashy, edge of wing yellow, ete. 


mesoleucus 306 
albigula 307 
erissalis 308 

e+ + « . aberti 309 


. chlorurus 310 


301. 


302. 


303. 


304. 


396 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


P. erythrophthal/mus. (Gr. épvOpos, eruthros, red; dp@adpos, ophthalmos, eye.) 'TOWHEE 
Bunting. Marsu Rosin. CuHewinz. @, adult: Glossy black; belly white ; sides chest- 
nut; erissum fulvous-brown ; primaries and inner secondaries with white touches on the outer 
webs; outer tail-feather with outer web and nearly the terminal half of inner web white, the 
next two or three with white spots decreasing in size; bill black; feet pale brown; iris red in 
the adult, white or creamy in the young, and generally in winter specimens. Normally, the 
black pure and continuous ; occasionally, white touches on wing-coverts and scapulars. White 
on primaries contined to bases of outer 6, and their outer webs at about their middle; on 
secondaries to outer webs of inner 2 or 3. Black feathers of throat with concealed whitish 
bases. Length 7.50-8.75 ; extent 10.00-12.00; wing 3.20-3.90 ; tail 3.35-4.00; tarsus 1.00- 
1.12; but these extremes are rare; average length 8.00; extent 11.25; wing 3.75; tail 4.50. 
¢@: Rich warm brown where the male is black; otherwise similar, but smaller. Very young 
birds are streaked brown and dusky above, below whitish tinged with brown and streaked with 
dusky ; but this plumage is of brief duration; sexual distinctions may be noted in birds just 
from the nest, and they rapidly become much like the adults. Eastern U. S. and British 
Provinces ; N. to Canada, Minnesota and Dakota, where meeting P. arcticus; W. to Kansas, 
and in Missouri River region to about 43°. Northerly perfectly migratory ; winters from middle 
U. 8. southward; breeds nearly throughout its range. An abundant and familiar inhabitant of 
thickets, undergrowth, and briery tracts, spending much of its time on the ground, scratching 
among fallen leaves. Nest on the ground, bulky, of leaves, grasses and other fibrous material ; 
eggs 4-5, 0.95 & 0.70, white, thickly speckled with reddish. The curious names ‘‘ Towhee ” 
and “ Chewink” are from its ery; ‘‘ Marsh Robin” from its haunts and the chestnut of the sides. 
P.e. alleni. (To J. A. Allen, the eminent naturalist.) Wuirr-rvep Towner Buntine. 
Similar; smaller; less white on the wings and tail; claws longer; iris white. @, extremes: 
Length 7.25-8.50; extent 9.50-11.55 ; wing 2.80-3.50 ; tail 3.25-4.00; tarsus 0.80-1.10; aver- 
age length 7.90; extent 9.90; wing 3.12; tail 3.50; tail relatively longer than in Northern 
specimens, producing less difference in total length than there is in length and extent of wings. 
White on outer tail-feather about as much as on the next feather of P. erythrophthalmus. 
Florida ; resident; a local race. 

[P. macula/tus. (Lat. maculatus, spotted.) OLIVE-BLACK Sportep TowHexn. A Mexican 
species, with extensively olivaceous coloration and streaked back, into which the following three 
varieties shade imperceptibly, — oregonus being farthest removed and most like erythrophthal- 
mus, arcticus and megalonys successively nearing the Mexican stock-form. } 

P. m. ore/gonus. (To the Territory of the Oregon.) OREGON TowHEE. @: Very similar to 
erythrophthalmus; quite as black, but not continuously so; wing-coverts with small rounded, 
and scapulars with larger oval, white spots on the outer webs of the feathers near the end; 
interscapulars sometimes also with white touches? white marks on the primaries and inner 
secondaries very small or wanting, usually none at the bases of the former; white spots on tail- 
feathers very small, the outer web of the outer rectrix not white except at the end. Excepting 
these particulars, this form looks more like erythrophthalmus than like the typical maculatus, 
in which the body-colors are olivaceous. @Q dark umber-brown, but not quite blackish. 
Pacific coast region, N. to British Columbia, 8. to Southern California, melting eastward 
into arcticus, southeastward into megalonyx. 

P. m. arce’ticus. (Lat. arcticus, arctic.) Arctic TOWHEE. Similar to the foregoing ; less 
purely and continuously black, with tendency to olivaceous on back and rump; white spots of 
wing-coverts larger, those of scapulars still larger and lengthening into streaks ; interscapulars 
also streaked with white; white on the quills and tail-feathers at a maximum, as in erythro- 
phthalmus; usually, also, concealed white specks in the black of the throat. @ comparatively 
dark, but not quite blackish. In this form, the white on the wing-quills and tail-feathers, so 
much reduced in the glossy black oregonus, is as extensive as in erythrophthalmus; but the 


305. 


306. 


307. 


30. 


FRINGILLIDZ:: FINCHES, BUNTINGS, SPARROWS, ETC. B97 


wing-coverts, scapulars and interscapulars are fully marked with white; the black tends to 
olive, at least on rump, and the Q is not fairly brown. Central region of N. Am., from the 
limit of erythrophthalmus in Kansas, Nebraska, and Dakota, to that of oregonus in Oregon and 
Washington ; in the 8. Rocky Mt. region melting into megalonyz. 

P. m. megalo/nyx. (peydAn, megale, great ; dvvé, onux, claw.) SpurRED Towner Buntina. 
The prevailing form in the 8. Rocky Mt. region, New Mexico, Arizona and California. Pre- 
cisely like areticus, but feet larger, with highly-developed claws; hind claw decidedly longer 
than its digit ; lateral claws reaching to or beyond middle of middle claw. In this form at any 
rate, the 9 is hardly distinguishable in color from the ¢, being slaty-blackish with an appreci- 
able olivaceous shade, thus exhibiting a decided approach to the typical Mexican stock. The 
note is entirely different from that of the Eastern Towhee, being so exactly like the scolding 
“mew” of a cat-bird, that I have heard persons stoutly coutend that there are cat-birds in 
Arizona. The general habits, nest and eggs of all these Western Towhees are substantially 
the same as those of the Eastern. 

[P.fus/cus. (Lat. fuscus, dark brown.) Mexican Brown TowHee. An obscure Mexican 
stock form, carelessly described by Swainson, to which the three followmg N. Am. birds are 
probably referable as varieties. ] 

P. f. mesoleu'cus. (Gr. péoos, mesos, middle ; Aevkds, leucos, white; the middle under parts 
whiter than in crissalis.) Brown TowHrr. CaXon Townes. ¢, 9: Above, uniform 
grayish-brown with a slight olivaceous shade; crown brown in appreciable contrast; wings 
and tail like the back, unmarked, or some tail-feathers with rusty tips. Below, a paler shade 
of the color of the back, whitening on the belly, tinged with fulvous and streaked with dusky 
on the sides of throat and middle of breast, washed with rich rusty-brown on the flanks and 
crissum. The belly is usually quite white, contrasting with the rusty flanks and vent; the 
throat is ochrey, usually immaculate and embraced necklace-wise with dusky spots in series on 
each side, aggregated and blotched on the breast. Bill dusky, paler below ; feet brown, toes 
usually darker than tarsus. Sexes indistinguishable. In fresh fall specimens, the tawny 
suffuses nearly all the under parts except middle of belly, and the throat spots are diffused 
instead of being in series. In the very early streaked stage, there is no distinetion of a brown 
cap ; the wing-coverts are rusty-edged; and the whole under parts are dusky-streaked. Length 
8.00-8.50; wing 3.60-4.00; tail 4.25-4.60. 5. W. U. 5., chiefly New Mexico and Arizona, 
but also W. Texas, 8. Colorado, Utah and Nevada, and interior of Southern California. Nest 
in bushes ; eggs, as in all the Brown Towhees, specked and scratched with blackish on a pale 
greenish ground. (P. fuscus of the Key, orig. ed.) 

P. f. albi/gula. (Lat. albus, white; gula, throat.) WoHiTE-THROATED Brown TowHEr. 
Exactly like the last, but the white of the under parts extending further up the breast, the 
gular spots more restricted, sparser, and better detined. Lower California. Slightly distin- 
guished; but in good spring specimens the rusty is restricted to the crissum; the ochraceous of 
the throat is less extensive, paler, and mainly confined within the necklace. 

P. f. crissa/lis. (Low Lat. crissalis, relating to the crisswm, the under tail-coverts, which are 
highly colored.) CrissaAL TOWHEE BUNTING. CALIFORNIA TOWHEE. Similar to mesoleucus; 
crown like the back; rather darker above, with an olivaceous tinge, decidedly so below, the 
middle of the belly scarcely or not whitening, the gular fulvous strong, and, with its dusky 
streaks, definitely restricted to the throat; the flanks and crissum chestnut or deep cinnamon- 
brown. Rather larger: wing 4.00; tail 5.00; ? rather less. Coast region of California (and 
northward ?), abundant. Nest in bushes, probably also on ground; eggs 3-4, 0.95 x 0.72, 
pale greenish or bluish-white, fully spotted with blackish and neutral tints. This is the dark 
coast form, bearing the same relation to mesoleucus that the coast Harporhynchus redivivus 
bears to the paler H. lecontii of the interior. The crown is brownish, but not forming a cap 
contrasting with the back; the throat is fulvous rather than ochrey ; this color of very limited 


309. 


310. 


97. 


311. 


308 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES— OSCINES. 


extent, and speckled with dusky throughout; the crissum rich rusty. (It is the P. fuscus, 
Cass., Il, 1854, pl. 17; Bd., 1858; but not the true fuscus of Sw.; Fringilla crissalis, 
Vigors, 1839.) 

P. a/berti. (To Lieut. J. W. Abert.) AzBErT’s TOWHEE. GRAY TOWHEE. Somewhat 
simular to the foregoing species of this section of the genus, but entirely distinct; a very 
large, long-tailed form, with no decided markings anywhere excepting the dark face. Above, 
grayish-brown, with a slight fulvous tinge; wings and tail darker and purer brown, the tail- 
feathers slightly rusty-tipped. Below as above, but paler, by dilution with a peculiar pale 
pinkish-brown shade (like that on the side of an Oregon snow-bird), particularly on the throat ; 
erissum more cinnamou-brown; lores and chin blackish. Bill and feet brown ; under mandible 
paler than the upper. Young more rusty. There is much individual variation in shade, but 
this large dingy whole-colored bird with dark face is always easily recognized.’ Length about 
9.00; wing 8.40-3.70; tail 4.50-5.00; tarsus 1.00-1.10. New Mexico and Arizona, abundant, 
especially in the valley of the Gila and Colorado, where we find it a wild and shy inhabitant of 
thickets and chaparral; N. to Colorado and Utah. Nest in bushes, loose and bulky; eggs 3-4, 
1.00 x 0.75, bluish-white, sparingly speckled and scrawled with blackish. 

P. chloru'rus. (Gr. yAwpds, chloros, green; ovpa, oura, tail.) GREEN-TAILED TOWHEE. 
Buanpine’s Fincw. ¢, 9, adult: Above, grayish-green, sometimes quite olive-gray, at 
others bright olive-green, the exposed surfaces of the wings and tail with brighter greenish 
edgings. Edge of wing and under coverts and axillaries bright yellow. Crown rich chestnut ; 
forehead blackish, with a whitish loral spot on each side. Chin and throat pure white, bounded 
by dusky maxillary stripes as sharply contrasted as in the white-throated sparrow with dark 
surroundings. Whole breast and sides of head, neck and body fine clear ash, or slate-gray, 
obscured on the flanks and crissum with brownish, fading to white on the belly; completing 
the resemblance to Zonotrichia albicollis. Bill blackish-plumbeous; feet brown, toes darker. 
Length about 7.00; extent 9.50; wing 2.80-3.20; tail 3.40-3.70; tarsus 0.95. Less mature 
birds have the chestnut cap veiled by gray tips of the feathers. Young: Crown like back. 
Upper parts dull brown tinged with greenish in places, streaked throughout with dusky, but 
wings and tail as in the adult ; under parts forecasting the pattern of the adults, but dusky- 
streaked throughout. This stage is brief and the birds resemble the adults after the first fall 
moult. An interesting bird, of no intimate relations with any other; it has long been con- 
ventionally placed in Pipilo, for want of a better location; it is not easy to see how it differs in 
form from Zonotrichia or Embernagra. Southwestern U. 8., especially 8. Rocky Mts.; N. to 
Wyoming and Idaho; migratory ; winters over our border. A sprightly inhabitant of shrub- 
bery; nest in bush or on the ground; eggs 0.90 x 0.68, pale greenish or grayish-white, freckled 
all over with bright reddish-brown, usually aggregating or wreathing at the larger end. 
EMBERNA'GRA. (A villanous compound of emberiza, a bunting, and tanagra, a tan- 
ager; the former is only Latinized from Old German, the latter is South American.) The 
integrity of the genus is questionable. Said to contain several extralimital species not nearly 
allied to ours. It is difficult to see how the following species differs nore than specifically from 
Pipilo chlorurus. It offers the following details of form: Bill not notable in any way. Tarsus 
exceeding the middle toe and claw. Lateral toes short; outer a little longer than inner; claw 
of neither reaching base of middle claw ; fore claws all small and weak; hind claw about as 
long as its digit. Wings very short and much rounded; 4th to 7th primaries about equal and 
longest ; 2d as long as 9th; 1st equalling the 3d from the innermost secondary. Tail about as 
long as the wings, much rounded, the outer feathers half an inch shorter than the mmddle ones ; 
all broad to their rounded ends. Coloration olivaceous with yellow edge of wing and ineon- 
spicuous head-stripes. 

E. rufovirga/ta. (Lat. rufo, with rufous, virgata, striped; virga, a rod.) GREEN FINcu. 
Texas Sparrow. 4d, adult: Above, dull olive-green, brighter on wings and tail. Under 


ICTERIDH: AMERICAN STARLINGS; BLACKBIRDS, ETC. 399 


parts shading from color of the upper through grayish-olive and olive-gray to sordid whitish, 
purest on the middle of the belly. Inner webs of wing-quills fuscous ; tail the same, but more 
glossed with greenish, and sometimes showing traces of crosswise watering with darker waves, 
as often seen in the song sparrow. Whole bend and lining of wing bright clear yellow. Crown 
like back, with two broad stripes of dull rufous from nostrils to nape; a similar rufous stripe 
behind eye, sometimes traceable past eye to the lore, then defining a superciliary line of light 
olive-gray or whitish. A whitish eye-ring. Upper mandible light brown, lower drying 
yellowish ; feet pale. Length 6.25-6.75 (not 5.50, as in Baird); extent $.50-9.00; wing 
2.40-2.75 ; tail the same; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.90; middle toe and claw 0.75. Q said to differ 
immaterially, and young to lack the head-stripes. Young, first plumage : Above, mixed brown 
and olive-tawny; wings brown, edged with olive, the eoverts edged and tipped with tawny ; 
breast like back; belly tawny. Texas, in Lower Rio Grande Valley. Inhabits shrubbery, 
chaparral, and close cover of all kinds, where it is difficult to discover, owing to its quiet ways 
and greenish tints. Keeps near the ground, but builds a domed nest of twigs and grasses in 
bushes and low trees; two broods are reared in May-June, and Aug.—Sept. Eggs 2-4, pure 
white, unmarked, averaging 0.85 x 0.65, but from 0.75-0.90 by 0.60-0.70. 


17. Family ICTERID4): American Starlings: Blackbirds, etc. 


Cultrirostral Oscines with 9 prima- 
ries. — A family of moderate extent, 
confined to Aierica, where it repre- 
sents the Stuwrnide, or Starlings of 
the Old World. It consists of the 
Blackbirds and Orioles, among the 
former being included the Bobolinks, 
Cow-birds, and Meadow “ Larks.” 
It is nominally composed of 150 
species, half of which may prove 
valid, distributed among 50 genera 
or subgenera, of which one-fourth 
may be considered worthy of reten- 
tion. The relatiouships are very close 
with the Fringillide, on the one 

: hand; on the other, they grade 
Fig. 256. — A typical Icterus (I. bullocki). (After Audubon). toward the Crows (Corvide). They 
share with Fringilline birds the characters of angulated commissure and 9 developed pri- 
maries, and this distinguishes them from all the other families whatsoever; but the distinc- 
tions from the Fringillide are not easily expressed. In fact, I know of no character that 
will relegate the Bobolink and Cowbird to the Icteride rather than to the Fringillide, 
in the current acceptation of these terms. In general, however, the Icteride are cultrirostral 
rather than strictly conirostral Oscines, having that cutting rather than crushing style of 
bill seen in perfection in the crows, toward which some of the Icteride approach ; being thus 
distinguished by the length, acuteness, and not strictly conical shape of the unnotched, 
uubristled bill, which has a peculiar extension of the culmen on the forehead dividing the 
prominent antic of close-set velvety feathers that reach to or on the nasal scale — a character 
well exhibited in Stwrnella, for instance. In length, the bill usually equals if it does not exceed 
the head; the tip is unnotched, the rictus unbristled, the commissure obtusely but evidently 
angulated. The bill is shortest and most fringilline in Dolichonyx and Molothrus ; most acute 
in the Orioles (Icterus), where it is sometimes actually decurved; most crow-like in the 


98. 


312. 


400 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


Grackles (Quiscalus). (See any figs., beyond.) Excepting the arboreal orioles, the feet are 
large and strong, fitted for the more or less terrestrial life which all the species lead, walking 
on the ground with ease instead of hopping like most Fringillide. No specialties of wing or 
tail; former usually pointed, latter rounded, sometimes very large and fan-shaped. 

Amoug our moderate number of species are representatives of four of the subfamilies into 
which the Icterid@ are conveniently and quite naturally divisible. In most of the genera black 
is the prevailing color, — either uniform and of intense metallic lustre, or contrasted with 
masses of red or yellow. In Sternella alone the pattern is ‘“‘ niggled.” In nearly all, the sexes 
are conspicuously dissimilar, the female being smaller and brownish or streaky in the iridescent 
black species, greenish and yellowish in the brilliantly colored ones. AI are migratory in this 
country. Other details are best given under heads of the subfamilies. These groups, with 
their component geuera, may be analyzed as follows by the salient features more likely to 
attract the attention of the student than less obvious technical characters : — 

Analysis of Subfamilies and Genera. 


AGELZINEZ. Marsh Blackbirds. Terrestrial and gregarious. Bill conic-acute, sometimes quite fringilline, 
shorter or scarcely longer than head. Feet stout. 
Bobolinks. Sexes unlike in summer. Black and buff, or enim nored. Tail-feathers very acute. 


Tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw . . . «+ « . + « Dolichonyx 98 
Cowbirds. Sexes unlike. Lustrous black ¢', brown 9; no red or yellow «+. . . « Molothrus 99 
Blackbirds. Sexes unlike. Lustrous black g¢, red on wing; streaky 9; noyellow . . . dAgeleus 100 


Blackbirds. Sexes unlike. Lustrous black ¢, brown 9, both with yellow head . Xanthocephalus 101 
STURNELLINZG. Meadow Larks. Tetrestrial and imperfectly gregarious. ill of peculiar shape. Tail very 
short. Feet large and stout. 


Sexes alike. Motley-colored, extensively yellow below .. . » . . « Sturnella 102 
IcTERINA. Orioles. Arboreal, non-gregarious. Bill extremely asute, aometiniea decurved: Feet weak. 
Sexes unlike. 


Black, with yellow or orange or chestnut in masses, in the #; ¢? greenish and yellowish . .Jcterus 103 
QUISCALINE. Crow Blackbirds. Terrestrial and gregarious. Bill elongate, corvine. Feet stout. Color 
of f entirely iridescent black; 9 brown or blackish. 
Bill shorter than head ; even tail shorter than wings . . - soe + + ee . . Scolecophagus 104 
Bill not shorter than head ; graduated tail not shorter than ries Peel es dictate aa tae fen Quiscalus 105 


22. Subfamily AGELAINA: Marsh Blackbirds. 


Gregarious, grauivorous species, more or less completely terrestrial, and chiefly palustrine, 
not ordinarily conspicuous vocalists ; building rather rude, not pensile, nests, laying 4-6 spotted 
or curiously limned eggs. With the feet strong, fitted both for walking and for grasping 
swaying reeds ; the wings more or less pointed, equalling or exceeding the tail in length; the 
bill conic-acute, shorter or little longer than the head, its cutting edges more or less inflected. 
Four well-marked genera, the species of which abound in the United States, on plain and 
prairie, in marsh and meadow. In the West, they swarm about the settlements, stage stations, 
military posts and other detestable places. 

DOLICHONYX. (Gr. dodtyds, dolichos, long; drv€, onux, claw.) BosBoxinks. Sexes 
unlike, but only in the breeding season: black, buff and white; Q brownish and yellowish. 
Bill short, conic, fringilline, not nearly as long as head. Wings long and pointed, Ist and 2d 
quills longest, others rapidly graduated. Tail stiffened, with rigid very acute feathers, almost 
like a woodpecker’s, shorter than wing. Feet stout; tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw ; 
claws all very large. One remarkable species, though there are several others in tropica 
America; noted for the peculiar changes of plumage and the ‘‘mad music” of the ¢; abundant 
in marsh and meadow of the Eastern U. 8. 

D. oryzi/vorus. (Gr. dpufa, oruza, Lat. oryza, rice; voro, I devour. Fig. 257.) Bopoxinr. 
Mrapow-wink. Skunk BuacksirD, Northern States. Rerp-srrp, Middle States. Ricr- 
BIRD, Southern States. @, in breeding plumage: Black; cervix buff; scapulars, rump and 
upper tail-coverts ashy-white ; interscapulars streaked with black, buff, and ashy ; outer quills 


99. 


ICTERIDA —AGELZAINA): MARSH BLACKBIEDS. 401 


edged with yellowish ; bill blackish-horn ; feet brown. The faultless full dress of black, white, 
and buff is worn only for a brief period ; and even in spring and summer, most inales are found 
to have yellowish touches in the black, especially of the under parts. The “delirious soug v 
is only heard while the males are trooping their way to their breeding-grounds, and before the 
midsummer change of feather. ¢ in fall, 2, and young, eutirely different in color : Yellowish- 
brown above, brownish-yellow below ; crown and back conspicuously, uape, rump, and sides 
less broadly, streaked with black; crown with a median and lateral light stripe; wings and 
tail blackish, pale-edged ; bill brown, paler below. In this, the ordinary condition, the g is 
only known by superior size. Fall birds are more buffy than the spring 9. The g¢ changing 
shows confused characters of both sexes (see p. 89); but in any plumage the species may be 
recognized by the stiffish, extremely acute tail-feathers, in connection with its special dimensions, 
@: Length 7.00-7.50; extent 11.50-12.25; wing 3.50-3.80; tail 2.75-3.00; tarsus 1.00; 
middle toe and claw 1.25. 9Q: Length 6.50-7.00; extent 10.50-11.25 ; wing 3.25-3.50, ete., 
averaging 4 an inch less in length and an inch in extent. Chiefly Eastern U. 8. and Canada ; 
N. to 54° in the region of the Saskatchewan, W. not ordinarily beyond the central plains, but 
occurs in Montana, Idaho, Utah, and Nevada. Winters wholly extralimital. In May, the 
vivacious, voluble, and eccentric ‘f Bobo- 
links” pass North, spreading over the 
meadows of the Middle and Northern 
States from the Atlantic to Kansas and 
Dakota, perfecting its black dress, aud 
breeding in June and July. After the 
midsummer change the ‘ Reed-bird” or 
“‘ Rice-bird” comes back, thronging the 
marshes in immense flocks with the Black- 
birds; has simply a chirping note, feeds on, 
the wild oats and wild rice, and becomes 
extremely fat and is accounted a great 
delicacy. The name ‘ ortolan,” applied 
by some gunners and restaurateurs to this 


bird, as well as to the Carolina Rail (Por- Fic. 257. — Bobolink, do, reduced. (Sheppard del. 
zana carolina) is in either case a strange Nichols sc.) 

misnomer, the Ortolan being a fringilline bird of Europe, Emberiza hortulana L. (Lat. hortu- 
lanus, relating to a garden.) In the West Indies, where this bird retires in winter, as it does 
also to Central and South America, it is called ‘‘ butter-bird.” The names “ bobolink” and 
“ meadow-wink ” are in imitation of its ery; ‘skunk blackbird” notes the resemblance in 
color to the obnoxious quadruped. The migrations are performed mostly at night, when in 
May and early September one may hear the mellow metallic ‘ chink” of the invisible passen- 
gers. Nest on the ground, artfully concealed in the grass; eggs 4-6, 0.90 X 0.65, stone-gray, 
dotted, mottled, and clouded with dark browns. 

MOLO'THRUS. (Gr. pododpds, or podoBpds, vagabond, tramp, parasite.) Cowsnirps. Bill 
short, stout, conic and fringilline, about $ as long as head; but entirely unnotched and 
unbristled, with little bent of commissure, the broad culmen running well up on the forehead, 
the nostrils well in advance of the feathers. Wings long and pointed, the first 3 primaries 
entering into the tip, rest rapidly graduated. Tail shorter than wings, nearly even or a little 
rounded, tending to divaricate in the middle, the feathers broad and plane to their rounded ends. 
Feet strong; tarsus not shorter than middle toe. ¢ black and lustrous, without red or yellow ; 
Q plain black or brown. Terrestrial, but not specially palustrine ; eminently gregarious and 
polygamous, or rather communistic, never mating or building nests; thus parasitic, like the Old 
World cuckoos; no musical ability. To the single species long notorious in the U.S., a second 

26 


313. 


314. 


402 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES— OSCINES. 


e 


has lately been added; there are several others in the warmer parts of America, all of the same 
irregular and objectionable tendencies. 


Analysis of Species and Varieties. 
¢, steely black with brown head. 


Larger: #, wing over 4.00; tail over 3.00; 9, wing about 3.75; tail about 2.75... . . . . ater 313 
Smaller: ¢, size of 9 of the foregoing . . 2 1 6 1 1 ew ee ee ee ee ee ws «(ObSCUrUS 314 
¢, brassy black, including head; eyes red; wing near 5.00; tailnearly4.00 ...... . =. q@neus 316 


M. a’ter. (Lat. ater, black. Fig. 258.) Common Cowsirp. Cucxkoip. 4, adult: Lus- 
trous green-black, with steel-blue, purple, and violet iridescence. Head and neck deep wood- 
brown, with some purplish lustre. Bill and feet black. Length 7.50-8.00; extent 13.50; 
wing about 4.50, at least over 4.00; tail about 3.25; bill 0.70; tarsus 1.00-1.10. 9, adult: 
An obscure-looking bird, dusky grayish-brown, nearly uniform, but paler below than above, 
where inost of the feathers have dusky centres, and most of those of the under parts with dark 
shaft lines; giving a somewhat streaky appearance. There is some gloss on the upper parts, 
particularly on the wings and tail, where a slight greenish lustre is usually evident. Bill 
blackish-brown, paler below; feet blackish-brown. Smaller than the g. Length 7.00-7.50 ; 
wing about 3.75; tail 2.75. Young g @: Similar to the 9 adult; still duller, and more 
variegated ; upper parts dusky brown, the 
feathers skirted with gray, producing a set 
of semicircles on the back; below, pale 
grayish, or even ochrey-brown, everywhere 
streaked with dusky. The sexual difference 
in size soon appreciable, and the black of 
the g soon begins to appear in patches. 
N. Am. at large; migratory, abundant, 
gregarious, polygamous, parasitic. The 
singular habits of this bird, shared by others 
of the genus, form one of the most inter- 
esting chapters in ornithology. Like the 
ia i European cuckoo, it builds no nest, laying 
Fic. 258. — Cowbird, reduced. (Sheppard del. its eggs by stealth in the nests of various 
Nicholsss¢:) other birds, especially warblers, vireos, and 
sparrows; and it appears to constitute, furthermore, a remarkable exception to the rule of 
conjugal affection and fidelity among birds. A wonderful provision for the perpetuation of the 
species is seen in its instinctive selection of smaller birds as the foster-parents of its offspring ; 
for the larger egg receives the greater share of warmth during incubation, and the lustier young 
cowbird asserts its precedence in the nest; while the foster-birds, however reluctant to incu- 
bate the strange egg (their devices to avoid the duty are sometimes astonishing), become assid- 
uous in their care of the foundling, even to the neglect of their own young. The cowbird’s 
egg is said to hatch sooner than that of most birds: this would obviously confer additional 
advantage. The list of birds in whose nests cowbirds’ eggs have been found includes a large 
number of finches, warblers, greenlets, flycatchers, etc. ; there seems to be really little choice. 
While small species are usually victimized, this is not always the case. I have found eggs in 
nests of the kingbird and towhee bunting. Inthe West, where cowbirds swarm about the ranches 
and settlements, it is the rule, I almost said, to find their eggs in nests of the prairie Frin- 
gillide, etc. The egg is usually single; sometimes 2, 3, even 4 are found in a nest; they 
range from ().80-1.00 in length, by 0.65-0.70 in breadth, and are white, fully speckled and 
dashed with browns and neutral tints. 
M. a. obseu/rus. (Lat. obscurus, dark.) Dwarr Cowsirp. Similar; smaller; ¢& the size 
of Q M. ater; 2 under 7.00; wing 3.33; tail 2.338. The difference is strongly marked, and 


315. 


100. 


ICTERIDA —AGELASINZ: MARSH BLACKBIRDS. 408 


apparently constant. Southwestern U. 8., Texas to California, the resident form, breeding 
there, while M. ater passes on, though the two are associated during the migration of the latter. 
Swarming like M. ater; eggs as in that species, but smaller; only up to about 0.80 x 0.60. 
M. e/neus. (Lat. eneus or ahenius, brassy, bronzy; @s, brass.) Brass Cowpirp. BRronzED 
Cowszirp. Rep-kyep Cowsirp. 4, adult: Entire body and head black, splendidly lustrous 
with bronzy reflections, the tint much like that of the back of Quiscalus eneus. This rich 
brassy-black uniform over the whole bird, there being no distinction of color between the head 
and body, as in M. ater. The bronze only on the ends of the feathers, the covered. parts of 
which are violet-black, with plain dusky roots. Wings and tail black, with violet, purple, and 
especially green metallic lustre on the upper surfaces. Under wing- aud tail-coverts chiefly 
violaceous-black ; the purplish and violaceous tiuts most noticeable ou the upper coverts of 
both wings and tail, the reflections of the quill-feathers themselves beiug chiefly green. Bill 
ebony-black. Feet black. Irisred. Length 8.00-8.50; extent about 15.00; wing 4.50-4.75 ; 
tail 3.25-3.50; tarsus 1.15-1.25 ; bill 0.90 along culinen, very stout aud especially deep at base, 
much compressed ; lateral outlines concave; under outline straight; upper geutly convex 
throughout; tip very acute. 9 notably smaller: wing scarcely over 4 inches; tail about 3.00; 
culmen scarcely 0.75 ; tarsus 1.00. Color 
not brown, as in M. ater 9, but uniformly 
quite black, with considerable gloss, though 
nothing like the brassy splendor of the ¢. 
Wings and tail with greenish reflections. 
Young ¢: Uniform dull black, faintly 
violaceous on back and rump, greenish on 
wings and tail. Early spring birds, in im- 
perfect dress, are exactly like the adult ? 
in color, but much larger. Mexico to the 
Lower Rio Grande, abounding in some 
places; a large and very handsome Cow- 
bird, recently added to our fauna. Polyga- 
mous and parasitic like the others, but egg 
entirely different, being greenish-white, 
without markings; size 0.85-0.95 in length 
by 0.65-0.75 broad; average 0.90 x 0.70. pv 
Found in nests of Ieteria, Icterus, Cardi- Fic. 259. — Marsh Blackbird, g, reduced. (Sheppard 
é 5 del. Nichols sc.) 
nalis, Milvulus, Tyrannus, ete. 
AGELZ'US. (Gr. dyehaios, agelaios, gregarious; dyédn, a flock.) Rep-wInc MARSH 
Brackerrps. Bill about as long as head, stout at base, where deeper than broad, upper and 
under outlines on an average about straight; commissure variously sinuate or bent ; culmen high 
on forehead, where flattish and broadly parting the feathers; bill rapidly tapering to an acute 
tip. Wings pointed, but 1st primary not longest ; usually 2d—4th entering point of wing. Tail 
even or little rounded, of broad feathers widening a little to very obtuse ends, somewhat divari- 
cate in the middle. Tarsus a little longer than the bill. Our three forms are very closely 
related: the @ uniform lustrous black, with bend of wing red; 8.00-9.00 long; wing 4.50-5.00 ; 
tail 3.50-4.00. The 9 everywhere streaked ; above blackish-brown with pale streaks, inclin- 
ing on head to form median and superciliary stripes; below, whitish, with many sharp dusky 
streaks; sides of head, throat, and bend of the wing, tinged with reddish or fulvous; under 
8.00; wing about 4.00; tail 3.25. The young @ at first like the 9, but larger, apt to have 
a general buffy or fulvous suffusion, with bright bay edgings of the feathers of back, wings, and 
tail,and soou showing black patches. The ? 9 are scarcely distinguishable: the ¢ may be 
deterinined as follows: 


316. 


317 


318. 


101. 


319. 


404 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


Middle wing-coverts butt, bordering the bright red patch . . - + . . pheniceus 316 
Middle wing-coverts butt, but black-tipped, usually leaving red patch without buff border . gubernator 317 
Middle wing-coverts white, bordering the dark red patch . . . . . . bo 4 a mm me a a “Beteolor 318 


A. pheni/ceus. (Gr. howixeos, phoinikeos, Lat. pheniceus, red, of a color introduced in Greece 
by the Pheenicians. Fig. 259.) Bruackprrp. Marso Buackpirp. RED-wincep Biack- 
BIRD. RED-AND-BUFF-SHOULDERED Marsu Buackpirp. 4: Lesser wing-coverts scarlet, 
like arterial blood, broadly bordered by brownish-yellow, or brownish-white, the middle row of 
coverts being entirely of this color ; sometimes the greater row, likewise, are mostly similar, 
producing a patch on the wing nearly as large as the red one; occasionally, there are traces of 
red on the edge of the wing and below; in some specimens the bordering is almost pure white, 
instead of buff. Extremes: @, length 8.25-9.85; extent 13.60-15.30; wing 4.35-5.00; tail 
3.12-3.90; bill 0.75-1.00; average: Length 9.00; extent 14.50; wing 4.65; tail 3.60. 9, 
length 7.35-8.55 ; extent 11.85-13.55 ; wing 3.65-4.25 ; tail 2.65-3.20 ; bill 0.70-0.80; aver- 
age: Length 7.65 ; extent 12.35; wing 3.85; tail 3.00; bill 0.75. The extremes here given 
not often seen. Southern-bred birds are much smaller as well as glossier. Temperate N. Am., 
but chiefly E. of the Rocky Mts. ; breeding anywhere in its range, wintering from about 35° 
southward. From its general dispersion in low or wet thickets or fields, swamps, and marshes, 
the blackbird collects in August and September in immense flocks, thronging the extensive 
tracts of wild oats and other aquatic plants in marshes and along water courses, also visiting and 
doing much damage to grain-fields. Thousands are destroyed by boys and pot-hunters, but the 
hosts scarcely diminish, and every known artifice fails to protect the crops from the invasion of 
the dusky hordes. At other seasons the ‘maize-thief” is innocuous, if not positively beneficial, 
as it destroys its share of insects. Nest usually in reeds or bushes near the ground, or ina 
tussock of grass, or on the ground; occasionally in small trees, vines, and shrubbery ; a bulky 
structure of coarse fibrous materials, usually strips of rushes, sedges or marsh grass, lined with 
finer grasses; eggs 4-6, 1.00 X 0.75, May and July, pale blue, fantastically dotted, blotched, 
clouded, and scrawled over with dark or even blackish-brown, and paler or purplish shell-marks. 
The usual note is a guttural chuck ; in the breeding season the ‘‘ creaking chorus” makes an 
indescribable medley. 

A. p. guberna/tor. (Lat. gubernator, a governor, alluding to the red epanlettes, as if a sign of 
rank or command.) REp-SHOULDERED Marsu BLACKBIRD. Lesser wing-coverts scarlet, as 
before, narrowly or not at all bordered with buff, the next row having black tips for all or most 
of their exposed portion, so that the brownish-yellow of their bases does not show much, if any. 
Pacific Coast, U. 8. and British Columbia. Searcely different; Q indistinguishable from 9? 
pheenaceus. 

A. tri/color. (Lat. tricolor, three-colored; red, white, and black.) Rep-AND-WHITE- 
SHOULDERED Marsh BuacKksirp. Lesser wing-coverts dark red (like venous blood), bor- 
dered with pure white. Besides this obvious distinction from phaniceus, the bill is usually slen- 
derer and the tail is less rounded; the gloss of the plumage is bluish, not greenish (appreciably 
so in the 9 as well as in the ¢?). Q with median wing-coverts white-edged. California and 
Oregon, especially coastwise ; resident or scarcely migratory. General habits the same ; nest 
and eggs indistinguishable. 

XKANTHOCE’/PHALUS. (Gr. &av66s, xanthos, yellow; xepadn, kephale, head.) YELLOW- 
Herapep Buackpirps. General characters of Ageleus; claws more developed, the lateral 
reaching much beyond base of the middle. Tail more nearly even, with narrower feathers. 
Wings long and pointed; tip formed by outer 3 quills. Colors black, white, and yellow. 

X. icteroce/phalus. (Gr. ixrepos, ikieros, Lat. icterus, yellow. Fig. 260.) YELLOW-HEADED 
Buacxsirp. ¢: Black, including lores and small space around eye and bill; whole head 
otherwise, with the neck and breast, rich yellow, orange in high feather, the color extending 


102. 


ICTERIDZ — STURNELLINZE: MEADOW STARLINGS. 405 


interruptedly to or towards the belly; some feathers around vent, and the tibiee, usually yellow 
also. A large white patch on the wing, formed by the primary and many of the greater second- 
ary coverts, interrupted by black of the bastard quills. Bill and feet black. Length 10.00- 
11.00; extent 16.50-17.50; wing about 5.50; tail 4.50; bill 0.75-1.00 ; tarsus 1.25. In less 
perfect dress, the yellow overcast with dusky. @, adult: Dark brown, including back of head 
and neck; line over eye, throat aud breast dull yellow, with dusky maxillary streaks ; usually 
there are whitish feathers in the yellow, and sometimes the same in the black of breast. No 
white wing-patch. Bill dark brownish horn-color; feet blackish. Much sinaller. Length 
8.00-9.50; extent scarcely 14.00; wing under 5.00; tail under 4.00. Nestlings are snufty- 
brown; the sprouting wing-feathers black, already showing white; feet flesh-color. It is use- 
less to pursue the endless color varia- 
tions; the species is unmistakable. 
Western U. 8. and British Provinces 
to 58°; E. regularly to Illinois, Iowa, 
Wisconsin, ete., casually to Pennsyl- 
vania, Massachusetts and Greenland ; 
S. into Mexico; migratory, very abun- 
dant. Its distribution is general on the 
prairies, but irregular; it flocks about 
ranches and settlements, and collects in 
colonies to breed in marshy spots, any- 
where in its general range. Nest a 
light but large thick-brimmed fabric 
of dried reeds and grasses, slung to 
growing ones, 5-6 inches in diameter, 
about as deep; eggs 3-6, 1.00-1.15 iI 
long by 0.75 broad; grayish-green, ii np mn 

spotted, as in Scolecophagus, with red- Fic. 260.— Yellow-headed Blackbird, reduced. (Sheppard 
dish-brown, not scrawled as in Ageleus. el. Nichols sc.) 

A fine large species, conspicuous by its yellow head among the several blackbirds that troop 
together in the West. 


23. Subfamily STURNELLINAZE: Meadow Starlings. 


If the marsh blackbirds, orioles, and crow blackbirds be respectively entitled to represent 
subfamilies of Icteride, the meadow starlings seem to be equally entitled to such distinction ; 
and I find that by making Sturnella (with Trupialis) the type of a subfamily, the Ageleine are 
susceptible of better definition. The characters are included under head of the type genus. 
STURNELILA. (Irregular dimin. of Lat. sturnus, astarling. Fig. 261.) Mrapow Larks. 
(Name “lark” objectionable and misleading, but apparently imeradicable.) A remarkable 
genus of Icteride. Bill along culmen longer than head, shorter than tarsus; depth at base 
about 4 the length; outlines about straight above and below, and along commissure to the 
strong bend near its base. Culmen flattened throughout, extending broad and far into feathers 
of forehead ; laterally, the frontal feathers reaching the narrow scaled nostrils. Inner lateral 
toe rather longer than outer, claw of neither reaching base of middle claw. Hind toe long, with 
a great claw twice as large as the middle one. Feet very large and stout, reaching beyond the 
end of the tail when outstretched ; eminently fitted for terrestrial locomotion. Wings short and 
much rounded; little difference in lengths of Ist-5th quills; enlarged inner secondaries nearly 
covering them in closed wing. Tail very short, rounded, of narrow, acute feathers. Feathers 
of crown stiffish, bristle-tipped. No other genus approaches Sturnella, excepting Trupialis, 


320. 


321. 


322. 


406 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— OSCINES. 


which is much the same, with red instead of yellow. Contains several imperfectly differentiated 
conspecies, 3 of this country. 
Analysis of Conspecies. 


Common Characters. — Plumage highly variegated; each feather of the back blackish, with a terminal reddish- 
brown area, and sharp brownish-yellow borders ; neck similar, the pattern smaller ; crown streaked with black 
and brown, and witb a pale median and superciliary stripe; a blackish line behind eye; several lateral tail-feathers 
white, the others, with the inner quills and wing-coverts, barred or scalloped with black, and brown or gray. Edge 
of wing, spot over eye, and under parts generally, bright yellow, the sides and crissum flaxen-brown, with numer- 
ous sharp blackish streaks, the breast with a large black crescent (obscure in the young). 

Prevailing tone brown above: yellow of clfin confined to space between forks of the jaw; wings and tail with 

confluent black bars and gray scallops. 


Larger; black less predominant: wing4.500rmore. . . . . . 6. ee ee ee te) magna 320 

Smaller ; black more predominant; wing4.50orless . . . .... .. + 6 se + . mexicana 321 
Prevailing tone gray above: yellow of chin spreading on cheeks; wings and tail with alternating black 

ANOISPAY: DATB.6 ee alee. Lies ap ee es fe Sed, Lr ae Gen SW aa Gh re erate Ses wR een ateg lecla B23) 


S. mag/na. (Lat. magna, large.) Fir~pp Lark. Oup-rietp Lark. Mrapow Lark. 
The colors, as above described, rich and pure, the prevailing aspect brown; black streaks 
prevailing on crown; yellow of chin 
usually confined between rami of 
under mandible ; black bars on wings 
and tail usually confluent along the 
shaft of the feathers, leaving the gray 
in scallops. Sexes similar: 9 duller 
colored, the yellow paler. Young at 
first have little if any pale yellow, 
and the pectoral crescent indicated by 
a few streaks. Length of ¢ 10.00- 
11.00; extent about 17.00; wing 4.50 
Fic. 261.— Bill and foot of Sturnella, nat. size. (Ad nat. or more; tail 3.50; bill 1.35; tarsus 
del, EC.) 1.40.  Q: length 9.00-9.50; extent 
about 15.00; wing 4.25; tail 3.00. Varies greatly in size, like Ageleus ; southern-bred birds 
much smaller than northern. Eastern U. 8. and British Provinces; N. to about 54°; mixing 
in the Upper Mississippi valley with neglecta, and extending to edge of the plains; everywhere 
abundant in open country; winters usually from the Middle States southward; imperfectly 
migratory ; partially gregarious when not breeding ; strictly terrestrial ; an agreeable vocalist. 
Breeds throughout its range; nest of dried grass, on the ground, usually domed or covered in 
some way in the grass-clump. Eggs 4-6, crystal white, speckled with reddish and purplish ; 
very variable in size, averaging about 1.10 X 0.80. Two or three broods may be reared. 
S. m. mexica/na, (Lat. Mexican.) Mrxican Mrapow Lark. Very similar; the browns 
intense, approaching reddish-brown ; black at a maximum ; yellow very rich. Size smaller; 
wing of g about 4.25; bill and feet relatively larger; bill 1.20; tarsus 1.60. Mexico to 
Texas. 
S. neglec’ta, (Lat. neglecta, not selected, overlooked ; as the variety long was.) WESTERN 
Mrapow Lark. The colors duller and paler, the prevailing aspect gray; black at a mini- 
mum, not prevailing over gray on the crown; yellow of chin usually encroaching on sides of 
lower jaw; black on wings and tail usually resolved into distinct bars alternating with gray 
bars. Western U. 8., from Iowa, ete., to the Pacific. General habits, manners, and appear- 
ance the same, but song said to be different. 


eccceh 


24. Subfamily ICTERINZ: Orioles. 


Non-gregarious, insectivorous and frugivorous species, strictly arboricole; of brilliant or 
strikingly contrasted colors, and pleasing song ; distinguished as architects, constructing clabo- 


103. 


323. 


324. 


ICTERIDAs — ICTERIN 4: ORIOLES. 407 


rately woven pensile nests. With the bill relatively longer, as well as slenderer and more acute 
than in most of the Icteride; the feet weaker, exclusively fitted for perching. Three of our 
species are migratory birds, abundant in summer; the rest merely reach our southern border 
from tropical America. 

IC'TERUS. (Gr. ixrepos, tkteros, Lat. icterus, yellow. 
Fig. 262.) OrtoLtes. Our single genus of the sub- 
fainily: characters practically the same, Bill averaging 
as long as head (more or less); very acute, sometimes 
decurved. Feet fitted for perching, not for walking; 
tarsus not longer than middle toe and claw. Lateral 
toes, if not of equal lengths, outer longest (the rule in 
Fringilude; in Icteride the reverse). Wings usually 
pointed and averaging equal to (longer or shorter than) 
the rounded or graduated tail. A large and beautiful genus, the species of which vary much 
in details of form, but are not easily divided otherwise than specifically. The colors are strik- 
ing: the males black with orange or yellow, usually also with white; in one species, black 
and chestnut. The sexes very unlike. The 9 9 of several species closely resemble one 
another, though the ¢ g are very different. Two Eastern species; one Western; the rest 
Southwestern. 


Fic. 262. — Bill of an Oriole. 


Analysis of Species. 


The ¢ black and chestnut: spurius, affinis. 
The ¢ black and orange: galbula, bullocki, cucullatus. 
The ¢ black and clear yellow : parisorum, auduboni, vulgaris. 
Feathers of throat soft and normal. 
o black and chestnut ; @ olivaceous and yellowish. Length 7.00 orless . . . . . . spurius 324, 325 
of black and orange, or flame-color. 
Tail rounded, not longer than wings. 
¢ head and neck all around black; whiteon wingsin bars ....... . . .galbula 326 
od crown and throat black, sides of head orange. White patch on wings . . . .  bullocki 327 
Tail graduated ; outer feathers an inch shorter than middle ones; longer than wings. 
¢ head orange, with black mask 
¢ black and pure yellow. 
od head, neck, breast and back black. Sexes unlike; length about 8.00... . . parisorum 329 
oF head, neck, and breast black; body yellow, greenish on back; length about 9.00 . auduboni 330 
Feathers of throat elongate and lanceolate. Sexes alike. Length about 10.00. 
o¢ Black and yellow, with white on wings F 


cucullatus 328 


vulgaris 323 


I. vulga/ris. (Lat. vulgaris, vulgar, common.) TRovuPIAL. Bill acute, attenuated, elongate, 
and somewhat decurved. Throat-feathers lengthened, loosened, and lanceolate. Bare space 
around eye. Adult ¢ 9: Head and neck all around, fore breast, isolated dorsal area, wings 
and tail, black. Rump, upper tail-coverts, cervical collar, and under parts of the breast, rich 
yellow. Wings with white patch on coverts and much white edging of secondaries. Large: 
length about 10.00; wing and tail 4.50; bill over 1.00. A common and well-known species 
of Tropical America, said to have strayed to the Southern States. No late cases of so doing. 
(The species would be better enumerated next after No. 330.) 

I. spuwrius. (Lat. spurius, spurious; the species was formerly called “bastard Baltimore 
oriole,” whence the undeserved name.) ORCHARD ORIOLE. Adult @: Black and chestnut. 
Head and neck all around, fore breast and back, black. Rump and upper tail-coverts, lesser 
and under wing-coverts, and whole under-parts from the breast, chestnut or chocolate-brown. 
Wings and tail black, former except as said, and some white or whitish edging of the quills 
and tipping of the greater coverts, the latter forming a wing-bar ; outer tail-feathers sometimes 
with a touch of chestnut. Bill and feet blue-black. Length about 7.00; extent about 10.00; 
wing 3.00-3.25 ; tail nearly as long, much rounded, its graduation nearly 0.50 ; bill 0.70 along 
culmen, very sleuder and acute, somewhat decurved ; tarsus 0.90. 9, adult: Smaller than the 


408 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCLNES. 


&. Above, dull yellowish-olive, clearest on head, rump, and tail, obscured on the back. 
Below, sordid yellowish. Wings plain dusky, glossed with olivaceous, with whitish edging, 
much as in the g. An inconspicuous object, but known from other Q orioles by its small 
size and slender bill, a little curved. Young ¢: First year like Q, but larger; second year 
like 9, but with a black mask on the’face and throat. Afterward showing confused characters 
of both sexes. Three years required to assume the full dress. Eastern U. 8., strietly ; rarely 
N. to Maine, Canada; W. tothe high central plains. Breeds throughout its U. 8. range; winters 
extralimital. Abundant in orchards, parks, streets, the skirts of woods, ete. The nest is ove 
of the most perfect examples of a woven pensile fabric, even ina group of birds distinguished 
as the orioles are for the dexterity and assiduity they display in their elaborate textile rostrifac- 
tures. They antedate Howe in the expedient of placing the eye of a needle at its point — that 
which revolutionized hand-sewing, and made sewing-achines practicable * for their bill works 
to precisely the same effect. The orchard oriole’s nest is generally more compact and homo- 
geneous than the Baltimore’s, woven chiefly of slender grass-blades which cure in the sun like 
good hay, long retaining some greenness, which tends to its concealment in the foliage. It is 
smaller, less deep in proportion, and often not so strictly pendant from its forked twig. Eggs 
smaller than the Baltimore’s, scarcely 0.85 X 0.60, and spotty rather than serawly. 

Is. affinis. (Lat. afinis, atlined, allied.) Texas OrCcHARD ORIOLE. Smaller: ¢ little 
over 6.00; wing usually under 3.00. Texas: Southern race, scarcely distinguishable. 

I. gal/bula. (Lat. galqula or galbula, some small yellow bird of the ancients.‘ Baltimore ” 
is not from the city of that name, but from the title of Sir George Calvert, first baron of Balti- 
more ; the colors of the bird being cho- 
seu for his livery, or resembling those 
of his coat-of-arms. Fig. 263.) BAL- 
TIMORE ORIOLE. GOLDEN Ronin. 
Firesirp. Hanenesr. Adult ¢: 
Black and orange. Head and neck 
all round, and the back, black ; rump, 
upper tail-coverts, lesser and under 
wing-coverts, most of the tail-feathers, 
and all the under parts from the throat 
fiery orange, but of varying inteusity 
according to age and season. Middle 


tail-feathers black; wings black, the 


Fia. 263. — Baltimore Oriole, reduced. (Sheppard del. 
Nichols sc.) middle and greater coverts, and inner 


quills, more or less edged and tipped with white, but the white on the coverts not forming a 
continuous patch ; bill and fect blue-black, or dark grayish-blue. Length 7.50-8.00; extent 
11.50-12.50; wing 8.66; tail 8.00. smaller, and much paler, the black obscured by olive, 
sometimes entirely wanting. Above, mixed dusky and yellowish-olive, somewhat overcast 
with a gray shade. Below, dull orange, more or less mixed with whitish, and usually with 
black traces on the throat. Tail and its upper coverts dull yellowish, the central feathers 
usually blackish. Bill and feet lighter plumbeous than in the @. Young & entirely without 
black on throat and head, otherwise colored nearly like the Q. Below, dull orange yellow 
whitening on throat, shaded with olive on sides. Above, olive, more yellowish on rump and 
tail, but latter without black ; middle of back obscured with dusky centres of the feathers ; 
wings dusky, with two white bars and white edgings of the inner quills. In some splendid 
featherings, particularly from the Miss 
aud there is so much white on the wing 


ssippi valley, the orange becomes intense flame-color, 
s as to approach the character of I. bullocki. U.S. 
and adjoining British Provinces ; W. to the plains, and reaching toward the Rocky Mts. This 
is one of our famous beauties of bird-life, noted alike for its flash of color, its assiduity in sing- 


329. 


ICTERID.E — ICTERIN: ORIOLES. 409 


ing, and its skill at the loom: its elaborately fabricated and perfectly pensile nests swaying 
from the tops of our shade-trees, which have one charm added when fired with such brillaney 
as the oriole brings to contrast with verdure. Eggs 4-6, nearly 1.00 X 0.65, thus rather 
elongate; ground color a shaded white. irregularly spotted, blotched, clouded and especially 
serawled with blackish-brown and other heavy surface colors, together with subdued shell- 
markings. 

I. bullocki. (To Wm. Bullock, of London. Fig. 256.) Brnxiocr’s Ortore. Adult ¢: 
Similarly black and orange, the orange invading the sides of the head and neck and the fore- 
head, leaving only a narrow space on the throat, the lores, and a line through the eye, black: 
a large continuous white patch on the wing, formed by the middle and greater coverts. Larger 
than the Baltimore. Length §.00-8.50; extent 12.50-+-13.50: wing 4.00; tail 3.40. Q : Olive- 
gray. below whitish, all the fore parts of the body and head tinged with yellow: the wings 
dusky, with two white bars, but the tail and its under coverts quite yellowish. @ thus very 
closely resembling the Q Baltimore, and more detailed description may be desirable. Larger: 
length about $.00: extent 12.00; wing 3.75; tail 3.25. Above olive-gray, becoming quite 
gray on the rump, brightening into olive. Yellow on nape. upper tail-coverts and tail. 
Forehead, superciliary line, sides of head and neck. and large space on breast. bright yellow ; 
lores and throat white. Other under parts grayish-white. tinged with yellow on the under tail- 
eoverts. Edge and lining of wing yellow: middle coverts broadly edged and tipped with 
white: greater coverts and quills less conspicuously edged. Young & at first ike the Q, soon, 
however, showing black and orange: in one stage with a black throat patch. Western U. 8., 
in woodland, abundant, replacing the Baltimore, to which it is so closely allied, and with which 
it corresponds in habits and manners. 

I. cuculla'tus. (Lat. cucullatus, wearing the cuculla, a kind of hood or cowl.) Hooprep 
ORIOLE. Adult %: Orange and black. General color orange: from rich chrome yellow to 
flame-color. Middle of back (scapulars and interscapulars) black. A black mask, embracing 
eyes, a narrow frontal line, and patch on chin, cheeks. and throat. Wings black, with white 
edging of the quills and coverts. Tail black. some or all of the feathers usually with narrow 
whitish tips. Bill and feet blue-black, the former extremely slender and somewhat deeurved, 
0.80: tarsus 0.90. Length §.00: extent 10.50: wing 3.30; tail 3.50-4.00, thus longer than 
wings: the feathers narrow and lanceolate, the outermost an inch or so shorter than the central 
pair: such length, narrowness, and extreme graduation of the tail being a strong character. 
Q. adult: Above. dull grayish-olive: tail and under parts dull yellowish: wings dusky, the 
quills and coverts edged with dull white. The @ thus resembles other species, but the long 
slender graduated tail and attenuated decurved bill are diagnostic. Fairly smaller than the g. 
Young ¢: At first like 9. but bill pale at base below. Various intermediate states during 
Progress to maturity : sometimes the black dorsal band interrupted by yellowish-gray, and the 
general orange obscured with the same. A frequent condition, when the general plumage is 
like that of the Q. is to have a black frontlet and gorget, like I. spurius under the same 
circumstanees. Southern Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California, chietly near the Mexican 
border. Nest woven like that of other orioles, very substantial and durable: in places where 
the Spanish moss grows, it is usually made of this material, and placed in a truss of the same. 
Eggs 3-4, sometimes 5, varying from 0.80 to 0.90 long by 0.60 broad, usually quite pointed at 
both ends; color white, with the usual serawling. In the Lower Rio Grande valley this is the 
commonest oriole in some places. 

I. pariso'rum. (To the brothers Paris.) BLACK-AND-YELLOW ORIOLE. Parts’ ORIOLE. 
Adult @¢: Black and clear yellow. Below from the breast. rump. and upper tail-eoverts, 
lesser, middle and under wing-coverts. both above and below. and basal portions of all the 
tail-feathers, except the central ones, clear yellow: greater wing-coverts tipped, inner quills 
edged, with white. Head, neck, breast, and back, black. On the tail, the yellow ocenpies the 


330. 


410 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


basal half of the lateral feathers, but only the extreme base of the central pair. Length 8.00; 
extent 12.00; wing 4.00; tail 3.40-3.60, moderately rounded, the lateral feathers graduated 
about 0.50; bill 0.90, attenuate and slightly decurved; tarsus 1.00. Young ¢: The black 
parts all overcast with grayish-olive skirting of the feathers, giving the prevailing tone on the 
upper parts, but on the breast the black showing more clearly. The yellow likewise obscured 
with grayish-olive, especially on the ramp. Tail greenish-yellow, the middle feathers black- 
ening. Wings dusky, all the quills and the greater and middle coverts broadly edged and 
tipped with white. 2? resembling the last described; less white on the wings ; central tail- 
feathers simply fuscous like the ends of the others. Southern Texas, New Mexico, Arizona 
and Southern California, near the Mexican border. Not yet well known or found breeding in 
the U. S. Nesting essentially the same as that of other orioles, often in bunches of moss 
or vines hanging in ecactuses, quite near the ground; eggs 0.90 X 0.65, whitish, variously 
blotched and dotted with purplish and blackish-browns. 

I. melanoce’/phalus aud/uboni. (Gr. pédas, melas, gen. pédavos, melanos, black; keadn, 
kephale, head. To J.J. Audubon.) BLACK-HEADED ORIOLE. AUDUBON’S ORIOLE. Adult ¢: 
Black and clear yellow. Entire body rich gamboge-yellow, without orange or flame tint, but 
shaded with greenish on back, sides, and upper tail-coverts; under tail-coverts pure yellow, 
like the belly. Middle and lesser wing-coverts and lining of wings pure yellow, the former 
with black bases concealed by the yellow tips. Head all around, fore neck and breast, glossy 
jet-black, without any concealed yellow, except at edges of the black on the breast — the black 
there thus ending ragged, different from the clean-cut border of cucullatus. Wings black, the 
outer webs of the quills white-edged, especially on inner secondaries and outer primaries 
toward their end; greater coverts with white spot at end of outer web. Tail black, the outer 
feathers more or less edged and tipped with white. Bill and feet plumbeous-blackish, former 
paler at base below. Length 9.25-9.75; extent 12.50-13.00; wing 4.00; tail rather more, 
much graduated, the outer feathers 1.00 or more shorter than the middle. Bill stout, straight, 
almost asin Ageleus; culmen fully 1.00. Tarsus 1.10; middle toe and claw the same. Adult 9: 
Quite like the  ; not smaller, and little different in color, contrary to the rule in the genus 
and family. Back rather more olivaceous ; wings rather more edged with white; outer tail- 
feather edged and tipped with whitish. The sexual characters long remained undetermined. 
This fine oriole is little known: it is a large beautiful species, occurring in the U. S. only, as 
far as known, in the Lower Rio Grande valley ; thence southward running into the true Mexican 
melanocephalus. Said to be a magnificent songster, and a favorite cage bird. Nest half- 
pensile, woven of grasses; eggs 0.95-1.00 by 0.67-0.72, white dusted with fine brown specks, 
over which are stains and splashes of dark brown and lilac, with the coarse blackish hieroglyphs 
usual in this genus. 


25. Subfamily QUISCALINA: Crow Blackbirds; CGrackles. 


Closely resembling 
the Agelaine both in 
structure and in habits, 
these birds are distin- 
guished by the length 
and attenuation of the 
bill, with decidedly 
curved culmen, _ es- 
pecially towards the 
end, more or less sin- 


Fia. 264. — Foot of a Quiscalus (Q. macrurus, nat. size). (From Baird.) 


uate commissure, and 
strongly inflected tomia. The bill is quite cultrirostral, and the typical Quéscali have a certain 


104. 


331. 


332, 


ICTERIDZ — QUISCALINZA): CROW BLACKBIRDS. 411 


crow-like aspect ; but they are readily distinguished by several features, besides 9 instead of 10 
primaries. The feet are large and strong, and the birds spend much of their time on the 
ground, where they walk or run instead of advancing by leaps. They generally build rude, 
bulky nests, lay spotted or streaked eggs, and their best vocal efforts are hardly to be called 
musical. The & of all our species is lustrous black, with various iridescence, the Q merely 
blackish, or brown and much smaller. There is only one genus (Cassidir) besides the two 
of this country : in Scolecophagus the tail is slightly rounded and shorter than the wings; in 
Quiscalus the tail is graduated, and nearly equals or exceeds the wings. They are not specially 
palustrine. Individuals of all the species abound, especially in the South and West; only two 
are common Eastern birds. 

SCOLECO/PHAGUS. (Gr. cxadAné, gen. cxadnkos, scolex, scolecos, a worm: ayos, phagos, 
eating.) Rusty Grackies. TxHrusH Briacksirps. Bill shorter or not longer than head, 
slender for the subfamily, and somewhat like a robin’s, for instance; culmen little convex, if 
any, except at the decurved tip; gonys slightly convex; cutting edges inflexed, commissure 
little sinuated. Wings pointed, decidedly longer than the nearly even tail; point formed by 
the outer 4 primaries. Tail much as in Ageleus in size and shape. Tarsus rather longer than 
middle toe and claw. Lateral toes short, with moderate claws, scarcely or not reaching base 
of middle claw. Nest in bushes. Eggs spotty, not veiny and streaky. 


Analysis of Species. 


Smaller: wing under 5.00. Bill slender, thrush-like. g greenish-black, including head. Sexes very un- 


like: @ quite rusty-brown, even with chestnut ; a light line overeye . . . « ferrugineus 331 
Larger: wing 5.00 or more. Bill stouter, more blackbird-like. g greenish- black, head more violet. 9 
subsimilar, sooty-brown , no pale superciliary Stripe. % 3 « ¢ 4% % see ee 6 CYaNOCephalus 332 


S. ferrugi/neus. (Lat. ferragineus, rust-colored ; ferrugo, iron-rust: only applicable to @ and 
young.) Rusty Grackie. Turusu Buackpirp. Adult g, in summer: One lustrous black 
with green metallic reflections ; head not notably different from other parts in its iridescence. 
Bill and feet black. Iris creamy or lemon. (Not ordinarily seen in the U. 8. in this full dress 
— usually with some rusty.) Length 9.00-9.50; extent 14.00-15.00; wing under 5.00; tail 
4.00 or less ; bill 0.80, only about 0.35 deep at base; tarsus 1.20; middle toe and claw less. 
Adult @ in summer: Slaty-blackish, duller below, with greenish reflectious chiefly on wings 
and tail; nearly all the upper parts overlaid with rich rusty-brown, and under parts with a 
paler shade of the same; inner secondaries brown-edged ; a whitey-brown streak over eye; iris 
brown. Moderately smaller than the g. The young ¢ at first resembles the 9, but is 
larger, and shows more decidedly lustrous black, especially on wings and tail. As usually 
found in flocks in the U. §., in fall, winter, and early spring, young and old of both sexes 
are very rusty, with light line over eye. Eastern North Amer., N. W. to Alaska; in the 
U.8., W. to Dakota, Nebraska, ete., meeting and mixing in the fall with the next species. 
In winter, generally dispersed over the E. U. S.; breeds from N. New England northward. 
Nesting and eggs like those of Xanthocephalus ; breeding in loose colonies, in swampy tangle ; 
nest in bushes, of sticks and grasses mixed with mud, lined with fine grasses and rootlets; eggs 
usually 4, about 1.05 X 0.75, but very variable; dull greenish-bluish or grayish-white, flecked 
and mottled with dark brown, but with little or no line-tracery. 

S. cyanoce/phalus. (Gr. kvavos, kuanos, Lat. cyanus, blue; cepadn, kephale, head.) Buiun- 
HEADED GRACKLE. BreweEr’s BLACKBIRD. Similar to the last, but quite a different bird. 
Adult g, in summer: Very lustrous green-black, as before, but with purple-and violet irides- 
cence, especially on head, where the violet or steel-blue sheen contrasts with the general 
greenish hue. Bill and feet black. Iris creamy or lemon. Larger: length averaging 10.00 
— 9.75-10.25 ; extent 16.00 or more; wing 5.00-5.25; tail 4.00-4.25 ; bill 0.80, stout at base, 
where about 0.40 deep — more like an abbreviated Quiscalus-bill than a thrush’s; tarsus 1.25— 
1.30; middle toe and claw 1.10-1.15. 9, adult, in summer: Blackish, with dull greenish 


105. 


333. 


334. 


412 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


shade on back, wings, and tail; more slaty-blackish below. Fore parts of body above, head 
and most under parts overlaid with brownish-gray, lightest on head and throat, never rich 
rusty-brown. No light supereiliary line. Iris brown. There is thus much less sexual differ- 
ence than in S. ferrugineus. Smaller; size about that of ¢ ferrugineus ; length 9.00-9.50; 
extent 14.50-15.50; wing 4.50-4.90, ete. Young g resembling 9; soon, however, showing 
more lustre, overcast with grayish (not rusty) brown, in same style as ferrugineus, but differ- 
ent shade. Western U. S., and adjoining British Provinces; E. to eastern edge of the plains, 
overlapping the migratory range of S. ferrugineus; W.to the Pacific. Breeds nearly through- 
out its range, in suitable places; migratory to and from extremes of its range. Nest and eggs 
substantially the same as those of S. ferrugineus. 

QUIS'CALUS. (Span. quisquilla, Lat. quisqwillig? Vox barb., of uncertain meaning and 
application. See Coues, Check List, 2d ed., p. 64.) Crow Biacksirps. Bill about as long 
as head, quite cultrate and crow-like, but more attenuate and acute, with deflected cutting 
edges; upper and under outlines straightish to the terminal curve of culmen, but variable ; 
commissure variously sinuate. Wings relatively shorter and less acute than in Scolecophagus, 
usually pointed by the 2d—4th quills, lst and 5th shorter. Tail of varying development with 
the species; at its greatest, much longer than wings, at its least decidedly shorter; always 
graduated, the lateral feathers 1-3 inches shorter than the middle pair, in life capable of 
slanting upward on each side, so that the middle feathers make a keel below; whence the name 
“ hoat-tail.” (Tail usually described as ‘longer than wings” in Qutscalus; but in most 
species it is decidedly shorter.) Feet stout; tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw. The 
& @ in all the species “ black,” but so magnificently iridescent that little dead black is seen, 
beiug brassy, steel-blue, violet, purple, greenish, ete. @ subsimilar, or plain brown. 


Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


Tail decidedly shorter than wings, graduated 1.00-1.50. Sexes subsimilar. 


Tridescence various — green, blue, purple, violet. g usually over 12.00 . . . . . . . purpureus 335 
Iridescence of back brassy; head steel-blue. ¢f usually over 12.00 . . . . . +... « « . @neus 336 
Iridescence greenish, neck purple. of usually under 12.00 agleus 38T 


Tail about equal to wings, graduated about 2.50. Sexes very different. @ brown .... . . major 334 
Tail decidedly longer than wings, graduated 2.50-3.50. Sexes very different. @ brown . . macrurus 333 


Q. macru'rus. (Gr. paxpés, macros, long, large; ovpa, oura, tail.) FAN-TAILED Crow 
BLACKBIRD. TEXAS GRACKLE. Of largest size, with longest, most keeled and graduated 
tail. Sexes very unlike. Bill very stout at base, tapering to the strongly deflected tip. 
Adult @: Iridescence chiefly purplish and violet, more greenish posteriorly. Length about 
18.00; extent 23.00-24.00; wing 7.50-8.00; tail about 9.00, graduated 2.50-3.50; bill 1.75, 
Adult 2? : Dark brown; paler, grayish or whitish below. Length 13.00-14.00 ; extent 18.00- 
19.00 ; wing 5.50-6.00 ; tail little more. The species probably shades into the next, but pre- 
sents dimensions the latter has not shown. Lower Rio Grande of Texas and southward, very 
abundant, swarming in the towns, where conspicuous by its curious antics as well as great size 
and numbers. Breeds in colonies, either in reedy marshes, when the nest is placed in the 
rushes over water, or anywhere about the settlements in trees away from water; sometimes 
there are many nests in one tree; some nests at an altitude of 30 or 40 feet. Nests built of any 
trash, usually with mud. Eggs in April-May, usually 3, 1.12-1.45 by 0.82-0.95, averaging 
1.25 & 0.85 ; greenish or purplish-white, clouded oftener over smaller end than at the other, 
irregularly spotted, veined, and scratched with dark browns and blackish. 

Q. ma‘jor. (Lat. major, greater (than Q. purpureus).) Boat-TAILED CRow BLACKBIRD. 
Boat-TAILED GRACKLE. JAcCKDAW. Of large size, with long, much keeled and graduated 
tail. Sexes very unlike. Bill stout at base, tapering to the deflected tip. Adult ¢: Irides- 
cence mostly green, becoming purple or violet chiefly on the head and neck. Length 15.50- 
17.00, average 16.50; extent 21.00-23.50, average 22.50; wing and tail, each, 6.25-7.25, 


ICTERIDZ — QUISCALINZZ: CROW BLACKBIEDS. 413 


average 7.00, latter rather the longer of the two ; its graduation about 2.50; bill 1.50; tarsus 
nearly 2.00; middle toe and claw about the same. Adult: Astonishingly smaller than the g, 
lacking entirely the great development of the tail, and easily to be mistaken for another species. 
Length 12.00-13.50, average 13.00; extent 17.25-18.25, average 17.75; wing 5.25-6.00, average 
5.67; tail 4.75-5.50, average 5.25. Seneral color plain brown, only darker on wings and tail ; 
below brownish-gray, frequently whitening on the throat. South Atlantic and Gulf States, on 
the coast, abundant; N. regularly to the Carolinas, freyuently to the Middle districts, but not 
to New England, as far as certainly known, though very likely in exceptional cases. This 
species differs from the common crow blackbird in being strictly maritime, with the consequent 
modifieation in food and habits; it may be seen at times wading in the water, and small fish and 
crustaceans form much of its fare. Nesting and eggs as in @. macrurus; eggs averaging 
smaller, but not distinguishable with certainty. 

335. Q. purpur’eus. (Lat. purpureus, purple. Fig. 265.) PurpLe Crow BLackpirD. Com- 
mon Crow Buackpirp. Purpre GRACKLE. Of medium size, with moderately keeled and 
graduated tail, shorter than Bi 
wings. Sexes subsimilar. Bill BE Sgn Ev @l Jixskcares ae 
usually less tapering and de- : ieee , 
flected at tip, but very variable. : 
Adult @: Ividescence very : eE: Le PO 
variable with season, age, and : : 
sexual vigor, as well as on 
different parts of the body ; 
but always intense in healthy 
adults, and at its height during 
the love-ardor; variously pur- 
ple, green, blue, violet, and Ee : 
bronzy; not the extensive Fig. 265. — Purple Grackle, reduced. (Sheppard del./ Nichols sc.) 


green of the last species, nor usually the decided brassy of the next variety ; wings and tail 
mostly purplish ; dark purplish and stecl-blue on head, neck, and breast; back more green-/ ' “++ 
ish or bronzy. Bill and feet ebony black. Iris straw-yellow. Length 12.00-13.50; ex-! 
tent 17.00-18.50; wing 5.00-6.00, averaging 5.60; tail 4.50-6.00, usually under 5.50; bill 
1.25, very variable; tarsus 1.25 ; graduation of tail 1.00-1.50. Adult 9: Blackish, and quite ee 
lustrous ; sufficiently similar to the $; length 11.00-12.00; wing about 5.00; tail about 4.50.) — 
Birds of this character, without perfectly brassy back and steel-blue head, are the usual kind in 
the Atlantic States; abundant and generally distributed, migratory and gregarious, breeding 
anywhere in their range, but chiefly northerly. Nesting variable, in tree or bush, on bough orin 
a hollow, at any height; sometimes in an artificial retreat, or a fish-hawk’s nest. Nest bulky, 
of auy trash, usually with mud; eggs of the character and with all the indescribable variability 
of others of the genus; usually bluish or greenish, with purplish veining and clouding, zigzagged 
and flourished with dark browns or blackish ; averaging 1.25 « 0.90 in size; 5-6 in number. 
The grackles are absent from their breeding-grounds for ouly a sinall part of the year, when 
they flock southerly, often in immense bands scouring about for food. At times they are very 
injurious to the crops, but this is offset by their destruction of noxious insects. The courtships 
of the males look very curious to a dispassionate observer, being carried on with the most gro- }) 
tesque actions and ludicrous attitudes, as well as curious vocalization. 
336. Q. p. x/neus. (Lat. @neus, brassy.) Bronzep Crow BLacKBIRD. BrAss GRACKLE. 
Birds frown the interior U. 8., especially the Mississippi valley, acquire in full plumage a 
splendid iridescence of three kinds, in pretty distinct areas. Body uniform shining brassy. 
Hind neck and breast chiefly steel-blue. Wings and tail chiefly violet and purple. This pril- 
liant coloration is that represented by Audubon, pl. 221 of the 8vo. ed. Such birds ocew 


414 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


from New England, Hudson’s Bay, the Saskatchewan and Rocky Mts. to Texas and the 


Gulf States. 


337. Q. p. agle'us. (Gr. dyAaios, aglaios, splendid.) FLoripa Crow BLACKBIRD. GREEN 
GrackLe. Birds resident in 8. Florida are smaller than average purpureus, with relatively 
longer and slenderer bill more decurved at tip ; the body lustre chiefly greenish ; head and neck 
chiefly violaceous steel-blue ; wings and tail steel-blue, becoming violet on the coverts. Aver- 
aging an inch less in length than purpureus, and other parts in proportion, excepting the bill 
and feet, which are quite as long. (Q. baritus, Bd., 1858, nee auct. Q. agleus, Bd., 1866.) 


18. Family CORVIDAS: Crows, Jays, etc. 


aN 


, AY 
Pu es 
Su lif 
sal" 


Wi 


t 


Fic. 266. — European Jackdaw (Corvus monedula.) (From 
Dixon.) 


Cultrirostral Oscines with 10 prima- 
ries. — A rather large and important 
family, comprising such familiar birds 
as ravens, crows, rooks, jackdaws, 
magpies, jays, with their allies, and a 
few diverging forms not so well known; 
nearly related to the famous birds of 
paradise. There are 10 primaries, of 
which the 1st is short, generally about 
half as long as the 2d, and several 
outer ones are more or less sinuate- 
attenuate on the inner web toward the 
end. The tail has 12 rectrices, as usual 
among higher birds; it varies much 
in shape, but is generally rounded — 
sometimes extremely graduated, as in 
the magpie; and is not forked in any 
of our forms.* The tarsus has scutella 
in front, separated on one or both sides 
from the rest of the tarsal envelope 
by a groove, sometimes naked, some- 
times filled in by small seales. The 
bill is stout, about as iong as the head 


or shorter, tapering, rather acute, generally notched, with convex culmen; it lacks the com- 
missural angulation of the Fringillide and Icterida, the deep cleavage of the Hirundinide, 
the slenderness of the Certhiide, Sittide, and most small insectivorous birds. The rictus 
usually has a few stiffish bristles, and there are others about the base of the bill. An essential] 
character is seen in the dense covering of the nostrils with large long tufts of close-pressed 
autrorse bristly feathers (excepting, among our forms, in Gymnocitta and Psilorhinus). These 
last features distinguish the Corvide from all our other birds excepting Paride; the mutual 
resemblance is here so close, that I cannot point out any obvious technical character of external 
form to distinguish, for example, Cyanocttta from Lophophanes, or Pertsoreus from Parus. 
But as already remarked, size is here perfectly distinctive, all the Corvide being much larger 


birds than any of the Paride. 


Owing to the uniformity of color in the leading groups of the family, and an apparent 
plasticity of organization in many forms, the number of species is difficult to determine, and 
is very variously estimated by different writers. Mr. G. R. Gray adinits upwards of 200, 
which he distributes in 50 genera and subgenera; but these figures are certainly excessive, 


106. 


CORVIDE — CORVINE: CROWS. 415 


probably requiring reduction by at least one-third, in both cases. The Corvide have been 
divided into five subfamilies ; three of these are small and apparently specialized groups con- 
fined to the Old World, where they are represented most largely in the Australian and Indian 
regions ; the other two, constituting the great bulk of the family, are more nearly cosmopolitan. 
These are the Corvin and Garruline, or crows and jays, readily distinguishable, at least so 
far as our forms are concemed, by the longer pointed wings and shorter less rounded tail of the 
former as contrasted with the shorter rounded wings and longer more rounded or graduated tail 
of the latter. 


26. Subfamily CORVINAZ: Crows. 


With the wings long and puinted, much exceeding the 
tail; the tip formed by the 3d, 4th, and 5th quills; 2d 
much shorter, lst only about 4 as long as 3d. The 
legs stout, fitted for walking as well as perching. As 
arule, the plumage is sombre or at least unvaricgated, 
aS —pblue, the characteristic color of the jays, being here 
en rare. The sexes are alike, and the changes of plumage 

Bere ae NO ace aer n slight. Although technically oscine, corvine birds are 
highly unmusical; the voice of the larger kinds is raucous, that of the smaller strident, — witness 
the croak of the raven, the ‘‘caw ” of the crow, the screaming of jays. They frequent all situ- 
ations, and walk firmly and easily on the ground, where jays hop. They are among the most 
nearly omnivorous of birds, and as a consequence, in connection with their hardy nature, they 
are rarely if ever truly migratory. Their nesting is various, according to circuinstances, but 
the fabric is usually rude and bulky; the eggs, of the average oscine number, are commonly 
bluish or greenish, speckled. Although not properly gregarious, as a rule, they often associate 
in large numbers, drawn together by community of interest. In illustration of this may be 
instanced the extensive roosting-places in the Atlantic States, comparable to the rookeries of 
Europe, whither immense troops of crows resort nightly, often from great distances, recalling 
the fine line of the poet, — 

“ The blackening trains of crows to their repose.” 


Our three genera of Corvine are readily known by the black color of Corvus, the gray, 

white, and black of Picicorvus, and the blue of Gymnocitta. In the latter, as in Psilorhinus 
of Garruline, the nostrils are exposed, contrary to the rule in each subfamily. 
COR'VUS. (Lat. corvus, a crow. Fig. 267.) Ravens. Crows. The species throughout 
uniform lustrous black, including the bill and feet; nasal bristles about half as long as the bill, 
which exhibits the typical cultrirostral style. Nostrils large, but entirely concealed. Wings 
much longer than tail, folding about to its end. Several outer primaries sinuate-attenuate on 
inner webs. Tail rounded, with broad feathers, sinuate-truncate at ends, with mucronate shafts. 
Feet stout ; tarsus more or less nearly equal to middle toe aud claw, roughly scutellate in front, 
laminar behind, with a set of small plates between. 


Analysis of Species. 


Ravens, with the throat-feathers acute, lengthened, disconnected. 
About 2 feet long; wing 16-18 inches; tail about 10. Bases of cervical feathers gray... . coraxr 338 
Smaller; concealed bases of cervical feathers pure white (Southwestern) ... . . cryptoleucus 339 
Crows, with the throat-feathers oval and blended. 


Length 18-20; wing 12-14; tail7-8; bill 13-2, its height at base 3; tarsus about equal to the middle toe 


and claw, longer than bill; 1st quill not longer than10th . . . . . « Srugivorus 340, 341 
Small. Length 14-16; wing 10-11; tail 6-7; bill 13-2; tarsusrather Tonzen than bill or middle toe and 
claw ; Ist quill longer than 10th. (Northwestern) . . . +. . Caurinus 342 


Small; 14-16 inches long; wing 10-11 ; tail 6-7; tarsus shorter than middle ie pnd claw, longer than 
bill; 1st quill not longer than 10th . oe ee we ee tw wh ©6lMOritimus 845 


338. 


339. 


416 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


C. corax. (Gr. képa&, korax, Lat. curax, a croaker— the raven. Fig. 268.) AMERICAN 
Raven. Feathers of throat somewhat stiffened, lengthened, pointed, lying loose from one 
another; those of neck with gray downy bases, as elsewhere on the body. Color entirely lus- 
trous black, with chiefly purplish and violet burnishing. Length about 2 feet — at least over 
20 inches ; expanse of wings 4 or 44 feet — much over a yard. Wing about 14 feet— at least 
over 15 inches. Tail about 10 inches ; its feathers graduated 1.50-2.50 inches. Bill along chord 
of culmen, and tarsus, about 2.50. Varies much in size. Greenland and Labrador specimens 
are of great size, with immense bill touching 3.00. The bill is usually longer and relatively less 
deep in the American than in the European raven; whole bird more sturdy and robust. Ths 
usual wing-formula is: primary 4>3=5 >2>6>1=8; but these quills grow and moult 
so gradually the proportionate lengths differ much in specimens examined. The ? is undistin- 
guishable from the ¢, though averaging smaller. N. Amer. ; but now rare in the U. S. east 
of the Mississippi, and altogether wanting in most of the States ; Labrador, ranging southward, 


Fic. 268. — Head of a very large American Raven, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E.C.) 


rarely, along the coast to the Middle districts; very abundant in the West, where the sable 
plume and the bleaching skeleton, the ominous eroak and the Indian war-whoop, are not yet 
things of the past. Wherever in the West the raven abounds, the crow seems to be sup- 
planted. Nests high in trees and on cliffs, selecting the most inaccessible places. Eggs 4-8, 
oftener 4-5, about 2.00 & 1.30, greenish, dotted, blotched and clouded with neutral tints, pur- 
plish- and blackish-browns. 

C. cryptoleu/cus. (Gr. xpumros, kruptos, erypted or hidden; Aevkds, lewkos, white.) WHITE- 
NECKED RAvEN. Throat-feathers as in C. corax; but bases of the feathers of neck snowy- 
white. Smaller than the raven; about as large as a good-sized crow, and generally taken for 
one in those regions where it occurs with the raven, the difference between them being obvious 
in life; the accounts of ‘erows” in sume regions where C. americanus does not occur being 
based upon the presence of C. cryptoleucus. Southwestern U. 8., Llano Estacado and higher 
Rio Grande of Texas, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and portions of California. 


340. 


341. 


342. 


343. 


107. 


CORVIDAi— CORVINA: CROWS. 417 


C. frugi/vorus. (Lat. frugivorus, fruit-eating: frux, fruit; voro, I devour.) Common AMERI- 
cAN Crow. The common crow isa foot and a half long, or rather more; wing 12 to 14 inches; 
tail 7 to 8; bill 1.75-2.00, about 0.75 high at base ; tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw, 
rather exceeding the bill. First primary not longer than 10th. Feathers of the throat oval, 
soft, and blended ; no snowy-white under-plumage. The burnishing is chiefly on the wings, 
tail, aud back, the head being nearly dead-black. The 9 is decidedly smaller than the g, 
and under-sized cabinet specimens are not seldom labelled ‘ossifragus.” Eastern N. Amer., 
chietly U. S., not ordinarily found westward in the interior, where the raven abounds ; rare or 
wanting in the Upper Missouri and Southem Rocky Mt. regions ; common, however, in some 
parts of California. In settled parts of the country the crow tends to colonize, and some of its 
“roosts” are of vast extent. Mine is on the Virginia side of the Potomac, near Washington. 
Crows are always flying west over the city in the afternoon, and when as a boy I used to see 
the gray of the morning, crows were flying the other way. It is doubtless the same now ; but 
I oftener hear midnight migrants than see such ‘‘ early birds” these days. Nest in trees, any- 
where in the woods, usually concealed with some art, though so bulky; built of sticks and 
trash; eggs 4-6-7, 1.60 & 1.20, like the raven’s in color and markings, and equally variable. 
(C. americanus, Auct.) 

C. f. florida/nus. (Lat. of Florida.) Froripa Crow. Represents the greater relative size of 
the bill and feet shown by many resident birds of Florida and corresponding latitudes. 

C. cauri‘nus. (Lat. caurus, the N. W. wind, whence cawrinus, northwestern.) NortTH- 
WESTERN Fish Crow. Small: about the size of the common fish crow, but feet more as in 
C. americanus, the tarsus not being shorter than the middle toe and claw, though rather less 
than the bill; 1st primary longer than 10th. Length 14.00-16.00; wing 10.50; tail 6.50; 
bill 1.75-2.00. N. Pacific coast, Oregon to Alaska; maritime; piscivorous; voice said to be 
different from that of C. frugivorus. 

C. mari/timus. (Lat. maritimus, maritime; mare, the sea.) SouTH-EASTERN Fisu Crow. 
Small. Length 14.00-16.00; wing 10.00-11.00; tail 6.00-7.00; bill 1.50; tarsus 1.60; mid- 
dle toe and claw 1.75. First primary not longer than 10th; a bare space about the gape? 
South Atlantic and Gulf States, N. to New England. Common; maritime, piscivorous. 
Apparently a different bird from any of the foregoing, as it presents some tangible distinctions, 
although constantly associated with C. frugivorus. Nest and eggs not to be distinguished 
with certainty from those of the common crow, though averaging smaller. (C. ossifragus 
Wils.) 

PICICOR'VUS. (Com- 
pounded of picus, a wood- 
pecker, or pica, amagpie, 
and corvus, acrow. Fig. 
269.) AMERICAN Nut- 
CRACKERS. General 
characters of the Euro- 
pean Nucifraga. Bill 
slenderer, more acute, 
with more regularly 
curved culmen and com- 
missure, and straight in- Fig. 269. — Head of Picicorvus, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


stead of convex and ascending gonys ; as a whole somewhat decurved. Nostrils circular, con- 

cealed by a full tuft of plumules. Wings long and pointed, folding to the end of the tail; 5th 

quill longest ; 4th, 3d, 6th little less; 2d much shorter, 1st not half as long as 5th. Tail little 

over half as long as wing, little rounded. Tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw; the envelope 

divided into small plates on the sides behind toward the bottom. Claws very large, strong, 
27 


344. 


108. 


345. 


418 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


acute and much curved, especially that of the hind toe; the lateral reaching beyond base of the 
middle claw. Coloration peculiar; gray, with black-and-white wings and tail. Habits much 
the same as those of Nucifraga; alpine and sub-boreal, pinicoline, and pinivorous. One 
species, confined to W. Amer. 

P. columbia/nus. (Of the Columbia River. Fig. 270.) Cuarker’s Crow. ¢9, adult: 
Gray, often bleaching on the head; wings glossy black, most of the secondaries broadly tipped 
with white; tail white, including 
the under coverts; the central 
feathers and usually part of the 
next pair, together with the up- 
per coverts, black. Bill and feet 
black. Iris brown. Length 
about 12.50; extent 22.00; wing 
7.00-8.00; tail 4.00-5.00; tar- 
sus 1.35; bill averaging 1.67; 
feet from 1.25 to 1.75. Sexes 
alike in color, but ? smaller than 
&. Young similar, but browner 


? ash. There is great difference 
Fig. 270. —Clarke’s Crow, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) in the shade in adults, the 


plumage when fresh being more glaucous-ash, wearing browner, and also bleaching in patches, 
especially on head. Coniferous belt of the West, N. to Sitka, S. to Mexico, E. to Nebraska, 
W. to the Coust Ranges ; the American representative of the European nutcracker, Nucifraga 
caryocatactes ; abundant, imperfectly gregarious. A remarkable bird, wild, restless, and noisy. 
sometimes congregating by thousands in the pineries of the W., roving in search of food. 
Breeds high in pines, in alpine and northerly localities, concealing the nest with care; nest of 
sticks as a basis, on which bark-strips, grasses, and other fibrous substances are well matted 
together. Eggs 1.20 x 0.90, light grayish-green, speckled and blotched with grayish-brown 
and lilae, chiefly about the larger end. 

GYMNOCIT'TA. (Gr. yupvds, gumnos, naked, as the nostrils are ; xirra, kitta, ajay.) BLuE 
Crows. Bill of peculiar shape, with nearly straight culmen mounting on forehead, thus some- 
what as in Sturnella, between 
the prominent and somewhat 
antrorse antiee, which, how- 
ever, do not hide the nostrils ; 
slender, tapering, acute, not 
notched; gonys straightish, 
scarcely ascending. Nostrils 
small, oval, entirely exposed. 
Tail nearly square, much 
shorter than wings. Wings 
long, pointed, folding nearly 
to end of tail; 4th primary 
longest, 3d and 5th scarcely Fig. 271. — Blue Crow, nat. size; culmen too convex. (Ad nat. de). E.C.) 
shorter ; 2d shorter, 1st shorter still. Feet stout, indicating somewhat terrestrial habits ; tar- 
sus longer than middle toe without claw, the envelope subdivided behind towards the bottom. 
Claws all large, strong, and much curved. Color bluish, nearly uniform: sexes alike. Oue 
species. 

G. cyanoce'phala. (Gr. xtavos, kuanos, blue; xepadn, kephale, head. Fig. 271.) Biur 
Crow. g: Dull blue, very variable in intensity, nearly uniform, but brightest on head, fading 


109. 


346. 


CORVIDAI— GARRULINZZ: JAYS. 419 


on belly; the throat with whitish streaks ; wings dusky on the inner webs. Bill and feet 
black. Iris brown. Length 11.00-12.00; extent 16.50-19.00; wing 5.50-6.00; tail about 
4.50; bill 1.33, but from 1.25-1.50; Q smaller, duller. Rocky Mt. region ; much the same 
elevated distribution as the last, but apparently rather more southerly ; decidedly gregarious, 
and very abundant in some places. A remarkable bird, combining the form of a crow with 
the color and habits of a jay, and a peculiarly shaped bill. It roves about im noisy restless 
flocks, sometimes of thousands, in search of food, which is pine seeds, especially pifiones, juni- 
per berries, acorns, etc. Breeds in colonies ; nest in pifion pines and other evergreens, compact 
but bulky, of twigs, and fibrous bark-strips well worked together; eggs 3-1, 1.25 & 0.87, 
greenish-white, profusely spotted with light brown and purplish ; laid in April. 


27. Subfamily GARRULINZ:: Jays. 


With the wings much shorter than or about 
equalling the tail, both rounded; tip of the 
wing formed by the 4th-7th quills. The feet, 
as well as the bill, are usually weaker than in 
the true crows, and the birds are more strictly 
arboricole, usually advancing by leaps when on 
the ground, to which they do not habitually re- 
sort. In striking contrast to most Corvine, the 
jays are usually birds of bright and varied colors, 
among which blue is the most prominent; and 
the head is frequently crested. The sexes are 
nearly alike, and the changes of plumage do 


Fig. 272. — European Jay (Garrulus glandarius), not appear to be as great as is usual among 
(From Dixon.) highly-colored birds, although some differences 
are frequently observable. Our well-known Blue Jay is a familiar illustration of the habits and 
traits of the species in general. They are found in most parts of the world, and reach their 
highest development in the warmer portions of America. With one boreal exception (Pert- 
soreus), the genera of the Old and New World are entirely different. 

It is proper to observe, that, while the American Corvine and Garruline, wpon which the 
foregoing paragraphs are mainly drawn up, are readily distinguishable, the characters given 
may require modification in their application to the whole family, the different divisions of 
which appear to intergrade closely. Our six genera are easily discriminated. 


Analysis of Genera. 
Nostrils large, naked. 


Not crested. General color brown oe ew ee +). Psilorhinus 109 
Nostrils moderate, covered by feathers. 
First primary attenuated, falcate: tail exceedingly long, graduated. 
Not crested. Colors black, white, and iridescent . ee Gear ee ee a Pea TN) 
First primary not attenuated. Tail moderate. 
Crested. Blue: wings and tail barred with black . ee ee ew ew  Cyanocitta 111 
Not crested. Blue: wings and tailunbarred .... soe ee ew ww ©) Aphelocoma 112 
Green and yellow, with blue and black on head oe «ee ee ee a Kanthura. 113 
Gray, with slaty wings andtail . . oe: : . 1 ee « « . Perisoreus 114 


PSILORHINUS. (Gr. dds, psilos, smooth, bare, bald ; pis, pivos, hris, hrinos, nose.) 
Brown Jays. Smoxy Pies. Nostrils exposed, Jats, rounded. Bill stout, with very convex 
culmen, curved from the base. Wings and tail of about equal lengths, both rounded. Of 
large size, and smoky-brown color ; not crested. 

P. mo’rio. (Lat. morio, ‘a dark brown gem.”) Brown Jay. Smoky-brown, darker on 
head, fading on belly ; wings and tail with bluish gloss. Bill and feet black, sometimes yel- 


420 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


low. Length about 16.00; wing and tail about 8.00, the graduation of the latter about 2.00 ; 
pill 1.25. Rio Grande Valley and southward. 

110. PVCA. (Lat. pica, a pie.) Macpres. ‘Tail extremely long, when fully developed forming 
more than } the total length, graduated for about 4 its own length ; the feathers with rounded 
ends, the middle pair at least tapering, and specially lengthened beyond the rest. Bill of ordi- 

nary vorvine shape; nos- 
trils concealed by long na- 
sal tufts. Wings short and 
rounded, with very short, 
narrow, faleate first pri- 
mary. Feetstout; tarsus 
little longer than middle 
toe and claw. Head not 
crested. A naked space 
about eye. Plumage black, 
iridescent, with masses of 
white; bill black or yel- 
low. Sexes alike. Habits 
arboreal and somewhat ter- 
restrial, — very irregular, 
in fact, a magpie’s general 
character being none of 
the best, though the ge- 
neric characters are ex- 
cellent. 


347. P. rus/tica hudson‘ica. 


(Lat. rustica, rustic, rural ; 
rus, ruris, the country. 
Of Hudson’s Bay. Fig. 
273.) Maaprs. Lustrous 
black, with green, purple, 
violet, and even golden 
jridescence, especially on 
the tail and wings. Be- 
low. from the breast to the 
crissum, a scapular pateh, 
and a great part of the in- 
ner webs of the primary 
quills, white ; some whit- 
ish touches on the throat; 
lower back showing gray, 
owing to mixture of white 
with black; bill aud feet 

Fic. 273. — Magpie, reduced. (From Dixon.) black; eyes — blackish. 
Length 15 or 20 inches, according to the development of the tail, which is a foot or less long, 
extremely graduated ; extent about 2 feet; wing about 8.00, the outer primary short, slender, 
and faleate ; bill 1.25; tarsus 1.67; middle toe and claw 1.50. @ rather smaller than ¢@, but 
alike in color. Arctic Amer. and U. 5. from Plains to Pacific, except California ; common. 
The American magpie is extremely similar to the notorious bird of Europe, and attempts to 
establish specific characters have failed. It is a rather larger and ‘ better” bird, though quite 


348. 


1il. 


349. 


° 


350. 


CORVIDA! —GARRULINAE: JAYS. 421 


as much of arascal. The nest is placed in thick shrubbery, as big as a bushel, bristling with 
a chevaux-de-frise outside, with a lateral covered way leading to the nest within. Eggs 6-9, 
1.20 to 1.40 long by 0.90 to 1.00 broad, pale drab, dotted, dashed, and blotched with purplish- 
brown. 

P. nut/talli. (To Thos. Nuttall.) YELLOw-BitLep Macris. Bill and bare space about 
eye yellow. Otherwise, precisely like the last, of which it is a perpetuated accident! The 
European magpie sometimes shows the same thing, and in some other species, like P. morio, 
the bill is indifferently black or yellow. California, common. 

CYANOCIT'TA. (Gr. xvavos, kuanos, bluc; kitra, hitta, a jay.) Crestep Buiur Jays. 
Conspicuously crested ; wings and tail blue, black-barred ; bill and fect black. Length 11.00- 
12.00; wing or tail 5.00-6.00. Nostrils large, subcireular, but concealed. Wings and tail of 
equal lengths, both rounded. Hind claw large, equalling or exceeding its digit in length. 
There are two species of this beautiful genus, one light blue and white, Eastern, standing 
quite alone ; the other dusky-bodied, Western, running into several varieties. 


Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


Purplish-blue, whitening below, with ablack collar. . . . 1. 1. 1 1 ee ee ee. . eristata 349 
Sooty-brownish or -blackish, bluing on body behind, wings and tail; the latter black-barred. 
Sooty-blackish ; littlo if any blue on forehead; none about eye; wing-coverts unbarred . . stelleri 350 
Sooty-blackish; but blue on forehead and above eye; wing-coverts unbarred . . . .). a@nnectens SSL 
Sooty-brownish, blue on forehead; little if any blue about eye; wing-coverts unbarred. . frontalis 3853 
Sooty-brownish, the crest quite black. Bluish-white streaks on forehead and about eye; wing- 
coverts: black-barréed. 644,02 joe 8 eee we ee , 2 ee « macrolopha 352 


C. crista‘ta. (Lat. cristata, crested. Fig. 274.) Briur Jay. @: Purplish-blue, below pale 
purplish - gray, whitening on 
throat, belly, and crissum. A 
black collar across lower throat 
and up the sides of the neck and 
head behind the crest ; a black 
frontlet bordered with whitish. 
Wings and tail pure rich blue, 
with black bars, the greater 
coverts, secondaries, and tail- 
feathers, except the central, 
broadly tipped with pure white ; 
tail much rounded, the gradua- 
tion over an inch. Length 
11.00-12.00 ; extent 16.00- 
17.50; wing and tail, each, 
5.00-6.00; bill 1.25; tarsus 
1.35. Q similar, not so richly 
blue: smaller. There is much 
difference in size between north- 
ern and southern bred birds, as in the Ageleus. Florida specimens are particularly small, the 
bill relatively larger, the crest less, the white on wings and tail restricted; as worthy as 
some other Floridan races to be named (C. ¢. florincola, N.). Eastern N. A., especially U.S., 
but N. to Hudson’s Bay; W. to the central plains; a very abundant resident or half-migratory 
bird, breeding throughout its range; a well-known character! Nest in trees and bushes, or 
any odd nook, large and substantial; eggs 5-6 in number, 1.00 to 1.20 long by 0.80 to 0.90 
broad, drab-colored with brown spots. 

C, stel’leri. (To G. W. Steller.) Srenter’s Jay. g 9: Whole head, neck, and back sooty 
blackish, little if any lighter on throat, and with little if an y blue on forehead or about eyes ; 


Fic. 274. — Blue Jay, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) 


351. 


353 


352. 


422 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


this sooty color passing insensibly on the rump and breast into dull blue. Wings and tail 
richer blue, crossed with numerous black bars, not on the secondary coverts. Bill and feet 
black. Young more fuliginous, the wing-bars faint if not wanting. Size of the Eastern jay, 
or rather larger. Pacific coast region, Oregon to Alaska, E. to the Rocky Mts., where inosgu- 
lating with C. s. macrolopha. This is the typical form, with little or no blue, no whitish on 
head, and unbarred wing-coverts; running through annectens, frontalis, and macrolopha into 
some very different Mexican forms. Habits, nest, and eggs as described under macrolophu. 

C. s. annec’tens. (Lat. annectens, annexing.) BLACK-HEADED JAY. This name has been 
given to specimens directly connecting stelleri and macrolopha. General toue of the former ; 
quite blackish, short-crested, with plain wing-coverts; but blue frontal streaks and whitish 
eye-patch of the latter. N. Rocky Mts., U.S. 

C. s. fronta‘lis. (Lat. frontalis, pertaining to frons, the forehead.) BLUE-FRONTED JAY. 
Sierra Jay. An offset from stelleri ; the sooty color rather brownish than blackish ; the blue 
of different shade on body from the deep indigo on wings and tail; whole crest glossed with 
bluish, and conspicuous blue streaks on forehead; no whitish eye-patches ; wing-coverts 
obsoletely or not barred. Sierras Nevadas of California. 

C. s. macro’lopha, (Gr. paxpés, makros, long ; Ados, lophos, crest. Fig. 275.) Lona- 
CRESTED JAy. Better marked thau the connecting links. @ 9: Upper parts svoty umber- 
brown, with a faint blue 
tinge, blackening on 
head and neck all 
around in decided con- 
trast, passing on rump 
and upper tail-coverts 
into beautiful light co- 
balt-blue; passing on 
fore breast into the 
same blue which occu- 
pies all the under parts. 
Crest black, but faced 
on forehead with bluish- 
white, which, when the 
feathers are not dis- 
turbed, runs in two parallel lines from the nostrils upward — these colored tips of the feathers of 
firmer texture than their basal portions. One or both eyelids patched with white. Chin ab- 
ruptly whitish, streaky. Exposed surfaces of wings rich indigo-blue, most intense on the 
inner secondaries, which, with the greater coverts, are regularly and firmly barred across both 
webs with black; the outer webs of the primaries lighter blue, more like that of the rump or 
under parts. Upper surface of tail rich indigo, like the secondaries, and similarly black-barred ; 
these bands most distinct towards the ends and on the outer webs of the feathers ; tail viewed 
from below appearing mostly blackish. Ivis dark. Bill and feet black. Length 12.00-13.00; 
extent 17.00-19.00; wing 5.50-6.50; tail the same; bill 1.12; tarsus 1.50; middle toe and 
claw 1.33. Sexes quite alike, but 9 at the lesser dimensions given. Crest longer than in 
northern stelleri, sometimes 3.00. Young: Much more sooty; below entirely fuliginous, with 
the future blue indicated by an ashy or grayish shade. Wings and tail nearly as bright blue as 
in the adult, but the black bars faint or wanting. Crest shorter, not quite black, not faced with 
blue, and no white about eyes. This form melts into C. diademata of Mexico, which is 
bluer; and this is near the quite blue C. coronata. Rocky Mt. region, U. §., especially 
southerly; a common bird of the pine belt, displaying in marked degree the notorious attributes 
of its genus, or 


Fia. 275. — Long-crested Jay, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


genius. Nest in trees aud bushes, usually concealed with art, though bulky; 


112. 


354. 


355. 


CORVIDA— GARRULINZ: JAYS. 423 


eggs 5-6. 1.25 to 1.35 X 0.80 to 0.90, pale bluish-green, profusely spotted and blotched with 
dark olive-brown and lighter brown. _ 

APHELO/COMA. (Gr. dpedfs, apheles, smooth, sleek ; xoun, kome, hair: alluding to the 
lack of crest.) CresTrLess Bug Jays. Generally as in Cyanocitta. Head uncrested. Tail 
longer or shorter than wings, instead of about equal, graduated (in some extralimital forms 
about equal to the wing and even). Tarsus rather longer than middle toe and claw. Wings 
and tail blue, without black bars, and blue the chief body-color ; whitish underneath, with 
(usually) or without a gray patch on the back. All Southern and Southwestern. 


Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


Tail longer than wings, graduated. Above blue, with gray dorsal area; belly dingy whitish; a super- 
ciliary stripe, and the throat streaky. : 
Forehead hoary-white; superciliary stripe not well-defined. Dorsal patch well-defined. Crissum 


blue, contrasting with grayish under parts. © 2 6 6 es ee ot tt tt tts floridana 354 
Forehead blue; superciliary stripe distinct. Dorsal patch ill-defined, spreading and bluish. Crissum 
bluish, but not well contrasted with dingy under parts . ©... . ee ee te woodhousii 355 
Forehead blue; superciliary stripe distinct. Dorsal patch well-defined. Crissum whitish like other 
unter Paste: 4 es eS ee ee RR ee californica 356 
Tail rather shorter than wing, rounded. Blue, without definite dorsal area, or pectoral or superciliary 
streaks... . - + + arizone 35T 


A. florida/na. (Of Florida.) Friorma Jay. @@: Blue; back with a small well-defined 
gray patch not invading scapulars ; belly and sides pale grayish; under tail-coverts and tibie 
blue in marked contrast ; much hoary whitish on forehead and sides of crown, but no sharp white 
superciliary stripe; chin, throat, and middle of breast vague streaky whitish and bluish ; ear- 
coverts dusky; the blue that seems to encircle the head and neck well defined against the gray 
of back and breast. Bill comparatively short, very stout at the base. Length 11.00-12.50, 
average 11.75; extent 13.50-15.00, average 14.50; wing 4.00-4.75, average 4.40; tail 4.50- 
5.50, average 5.00, always longer than wing; Dill about 1.00. Florida (and Gulf States’), 
abundant. Very local, and not authentic as occurring outside of Florida. Usual habits of 
jays. Nest a flat structure, in bushes, of twigs lined with fibres. Eggs 4-5, bluish-green, 
sparingly speckled, chiefly at larger end, with brown, 1.00 X 0.80. 

A. f£. woodhou'sii. (ToS. W. Woodhouse.) Woopnouse’s Jay. The dorsal patch dark, 
glossed with blue, shading into the blue of surrounding parts; under parts rather darker than 
in C. floridana, somewhat bluish-gray ; the under tail-coverts bluish but not contrasted; on 
the breast the blue and gray shading into each other, the gular and pectoral streaks whitish 
and well-defined, the superciliary line definite white, but no hoary on forehead ; bill slenderer. 
&@, adult: General color blue, rich and pure on the wings, tail, ramp, crown, back and sides 
of neck, and on the breast surrounding the streaky white area. Middle of back and scapulars 
dark gray much tinged with blue, shading insensibly into the surrounding blue. Upper and 
under tail-coverts blue. Under parts from the breast gray, with blue tinge (in californica 
nearly white). Chin, throat, and breast with a series of whitish blue-edged streaks, enclosed 
in surrounding blue. Lores, orbits, and auriculars dusky. A series of sharp white streaks 
over and behind eye. Wings and tail blue; the inner webs of most of the quills, and the tail 
viewed from below, dusky. The inner secondaries and tail-feathers, closely examined, show 
obsolete barring, like that which becomes pronounced in Cyanocitta, but the traces are faint, 
and the feathers may be properly called plain. Iris brown; bill and feet black. Length of 3, 
about 12.00: extent 16.50; wing 5.00; tail 6.00; bill 1.12; tarsus 1.50; middle toe and claw 
1.33. 9 smaller: average 11.25; extent 15.50, ete. Young: Wings and tail as in the adult; 
upper parts mostly gray: under parts grayish-white, with little or no blue on the breast, the 
pectoral streaks undefined, as are those over the eye. Rocky Mt. region, from Wyoming and 
Idaho southward. Habits, nest and eggs as in other species. The eggs in this genus usually 
differ from those of Cyanocitta, by more greenish ground color and bolder marking, especially 


356. 


357. 


118. 


358. 


424 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — OSCINES. 


at the larger end. In regions where Woodhouse’s and the long-crested jays occur together, the 
latter lives chiefly in the pines, the former in the scrub-oak and other thickets. 

A. f. californica. (Of California.) Caxirornia Jay. The dorsal patch light and distinct 
as in A. floridana, but the under parts, including tail-coverts and tibie, nearly white; gular 
streaks very large, aggregated, and white, causing the throat to be nearly uniform; a white 
superciliary line, as in woodhousti, but no hoary on forehead; bill slender. Thus it is seen that 
each of the three forms presents a varying emphasis of common characters. 9, adult: 
General color blue. Scapulars and interscapulars gray, with little if any tinge of blue; rump 
and upper tail-coverts bluish-gray, usually mixed with some white. Forehead and nasal tufts 
blue like crown; a sharp white superciliary stripe over and behind eye; lores, eyelids, and 
auriculars blackish. Under parts from the breast soiled white, with little or no tinge of blue 
except on crissum; breast appearing as if blue, overlaid with broad white stripes, which become 
continuous on throat and chin; the breast is really white, in streaks edged with blue, and with 
a surrounding of blue in which the streaks are as if framed. Iris brown; bill and feet black. 
Length 12.00 or less; wing 5.00; tail 5.50; bill 1.00; tarsus 1.50; middle toe and claw 1.25. 
In comparison with woodhousii, differences are seen in the well-defined gray dorsal patch ; the 
nearly white underparts without decidedly blue crissum ; and the broader and more continuously 
white gular streaks. The general habits, nest, and eggs are the same. 

A. ultramari/na arizo'nz. (Lat. ultramarina, beyond the sea, name of a blue color.) ARI- 
ZONA JAY. Belonging to a different section of the genus, distinguished by having the tail 
rather shorter than longer than the wings, the upper parts uniform blue, and no throat-streaks. 
SQ, adult: Above, light blue, purer on head, wings, and tail than on back, where rather 
dull. Beneath, sordid bluish-gray, bluest on breast, paler on throat, whitening on belly, 
flanks, and crissum. Lores blackish ; orbits and auriculars dark. No superciliary stripe, nor 
decided streaks on throat or breast. Bill normally black, sometimes irregularly patched with 
whitish. Feet black. Length about 13.00; wing 6.25-6.75; tail 6.00-6.50, rounded, the 
lateral feathers graduated about 0.50; bill 1.25, 0.40 deep at base; tarsus 1.67; middle toe and 
claw 1.33. Young: Little if any blue excepting on wings and tail, being dull gray above; 
below, much like the adult. Bill flesh-colored on most of under mandible. Arizona, and 
probably New Mexico; N. to about 35°. (C. sordida, Bd., 1858; Coues, 1872, may be a 
variety of sordida, but it is probably going too far to bring in wltramarina, and make both 
this and artzone varieties of sordida.) 

XANTHURA. (Gr. fav66s, xanthos, yellow; odpa, oura, tail.) Green Jays. No crest. 
Wings short, much rounded, with lengthened inner secondaries folding nearly over the pri- 
maries. Tail longer than wings, graduated. Bill short and deep, with culmen curved from 
the base. Colors green and yellow, with black and blue on head. Several tropical species of 
these luxurious jays, one reaching our border. 

X. luxurio’sa. (Lat. luxuriosa, luxurious. Commonly written luxuosa.) Rio GRANDE 
Jay. Adult ¢: Back and exposed surface of wings yellowish-green ; inner webs of most of 
the quills blackish edged with clear yellow; their shafts black above, yellow or whitish 
below ; lining of wings clear yellow. Four middle tail-feathers greenish-blue, at base little 
different from back, bluing toward ends; these feathers, seen from below, quite black; other 
tail-feathers all clear rich yellow, including their shafts. Under parts from the breast light 
greenish-yellow, yielding to pure yellow on middle of belly. Top of head and nasal plumules 
beautiful rich blue, yielding on forehead to hoary-white. Sides of head to above eyes, and 
whole chin, throat, and fore-breast jet black, enclosing a large triangular patch of blue on 
the side of the lower jaw, and blue touches on the eyelids. Bill and fect black. Length 
11.25-12.00 ; extent 14.50-15.50; wing 4.50-5.00; tail 5.25-5.75; tarsus 1.50; middle toe 
and claw 1.25; bill 1.00, very stout. near the lesser of the dimensions given. This truly 
elegant bird is abundant in some localities in the Lower Rio Grande valley. Nest in bushes 


114. 


359. 


360. 


361. 


362. 


CORVIDZA — GARRULINZ: JAYS. 425, 


and small trees, bulky, of twigs with finer lining; eggs usually 3-4, 1.10 x 0.80, greenish- 
drab, marked as usual with browns. 

PERISO/REUS. (Gr. sepicwpedo, perisoreuo, I heap up; probably in allusion to the 
hoarding or thievish propensities of jays.) Gray Jays. Not crested. Plumage soft, full and 
lax, grayish or sooty. Bill very short, not deep but wide at base; culmen little curved ; 
gonys ascending. Wings and tail of approximately equal lengths; latter graduated. A 
circumpolar and boreal or alpine genus, of one species in America, with several varieties. 


Analysis of Varieties. 


Dark hood moderate; forehead white; back brownish-gray, streaked . . . ... . . . canadensis 359 
Dark hood extensive; forehead smoky ; back brownish-gray, unstreaked. . . . . . . . fumifrons 360 
Dark hood extensive ; forehead whitish; back brownish, with white shaft-lines . . . . . . obscurus 361 
Dark hood restricted; forehead extensively white; back ashy-gray, unstreaked . . . . . . capitalis 362 


P. canaden’sis. (Of Canada. Fig. 276.) CanapaA JAy. WHISKEY JACK. MoosE- 
BIRD. Gray, whitening on head, neck, and breast; a dark cap on hind head and nape, sep- 
arated by a gray cervical collar from the ashy-plumbeous back ; wings and tail plumbeous, 
the feathers obscurely tipped with whitish. Bill and feet black. Young: Much darker, 
sooty or smoky-brown; the bleaching progresses indefinitely with age. Length 10.00-— 
11.00; extent about 16.00; wing 5.25- 
5.75 ; tail rather more, graduated; tar- 
sus 1.33; bill under 1, shaped like a 
titmouse’s. Arctic Am. into the N. 
States, N. W. to Alaska; breeds in 
Maine and northward; resident, and 
seldom seen south of its breeding range. 
The “ Wisskachon” (wheuce ‘ whisk- 
ey John” and then ‘‘ whiskey Jack’) 
is noted for the familiarity and impu- 
dence with which it hangs about the 
hunter’s camp to steal provisions, for 
consorting with moose, and for nesting 
in winter or early spring. Nest usually 
on the bough of a spruce or other coni- FIG. 276. — Canada Jay, reduced. (Sueppard del. Nichols sc.) 


(t 


\ 
\ 
i 


fer, a large substantial structure, of twigs, grasses, mosses, and feathers ; eggs 3-4, 1.20 « 
0.85, yellowish-gray to pale green, finely dotted and blotched with brown and slate, or lavender, 
especially about the larger end; others more uniformly and largely blotched ; variation wide, 
as in other jays. 

P. c. fu'mifrons. (Lat. fumus, smoke; frons, forehead.) ALASKAN JAY. SMUTTY-NOSED 
Jay. Similar: coloration darker and dingier throughout ; white of forehead obscured or oblit- 
erated by smoky-gray. Coast region of Alaska. 

P. c. obsewrus, (Lat. obscurus, obscure.) OREGON JAY. More different: dark hood 
encroaching on crown, not well defined; upper parts umber-brownish rather than plumbeous, 
the feathers with white shaft-lines; tail not distinctly tipped with whitish. Pacific coast 
region, Oregon to Sitka. 

P. c. capita/lis. (Lat. capitalis, capital, relating to the head, caput.) Rocky Mountain 
Jay. General color ashy-plumbeous, or leaden-gray, paler below; wings and tail blackish, 
with a peculiar glaucous shade, as if frosted or silvered over. The body-color giving way on 
the breast and neck to whitish, established as hoary-white on the head, isolating the narrow 
well-defined nuchal band of sooty-gray. No white lines on back ; tail-feathers distinctly tipped 
with whitish, and much edging of the same on the wings. The clearer colors generally — back 
rather bluish-gray than brownish-gray, very white head with narrow nuchal: band — produce 


115. 


426 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — OSCINES. 


a bird differing visibly from the ordinary gray jay. The changes of plumage with age are _ 
parallel. Size ata maximum. Length about 12.00; extent 17.00; wing and tail, each, near 
6.00; bill 0.75; tarsus 1.30; middle toe and claw 1.00. 8. Rocky Mt. region, especially 
Colorado, Wyoming, N. New Mexico and Arizona, Idaho and Montana, northward shading 
into typical canadensis. The high mountains of Colorado furnish the extreme cases. 


19. Family STURNIDZ: Old World Starlings. 


A family confined to 
the Old World: difficult 
to characterize, owing to 
the variety of forms it 
includes. Apparently 
related to the Icteride, 
from which distinguished 
by the presence of ten 
primaries, the first short 
or quite spurious. The 
only form with which we 
have here to do is the 
genus Sturnus, belong- 
ing to the 


28. Subfamily 
STURNINA: Typical 
Starlings. 


STURNUS. (Lat. stur- 
nus, a stare or starling.) 
STARLINGS. Bill shaped 
somewhat as in Sturnella 
or Icterus, but widened 
and flattened; rather 
shorter than head; cul- 
men and gonys about 
straight, both gently 
rounded in transverse 
section, and at the tip; 
the culmen rising high 
on the forehead, dividing 
prominent antize which 
extend into the well- 
marked nasal fosse; a 
conspicuous nasal scale, 
overarching the nostrils ; 
tomial edges of mandibles 

Fria. 277. — The Starling. (From Dixon.) dilated, especially those 
of the upper mandible; commissure obtusely angulated; sides of lower mandible extensively 
denuded and somewhat excavated; feathers filling the interramal space; no bristles about the 


bill. Wings long and pointed; Ist primary spurious and very small; 2d and 3d longest, 


340. 


STURNIDA — STURNINZ: TYPICAL STARLINGS. 427 


rest rapidly graduated. Tail of 12 feathers, emarginate, little more than half as loug as the 
wing. Feet short; tarsus of strictly oscine podotheca, scutellate and Jaminiplantar, about. as 
long as middle toe without its claw. Lateral toes of subequal lengths, their claws falling 
short of base of middle claw; hind claw about as long as its digit. Plumage inctallic and 
iridescent, the feathers all distinctly outlined. 

S. vulga/ris. (Lat. vulgaris, vulgar, common. 
eral plumage of metallic lustre, iridescing dark green on most parts, more steel-blue on the 
under purts, and violet or purplish-blue on the fore parts ; more or less variegated throughout 
with pale ochraceous or whitish tips of the feathers. Wings and tail fuscous, the exposed 
parts of the feathers somewhat frosty or silvery, with velvety-black and pale ochrey margin- 
Bill yellowish; feet reddish. Young and in winter: 


Fig. 277.) Tue Srariina. Adult: Gen- 


ings, the former within the latter. 
Plumage more heavily variegated throughout, with larger tawny-brown spots on the upper 
parts, and white ones below; wings and tail strongly edged with brown; bill dark. Length 
about 8.50; wing 5.00; tail 2.75; bill 1.00; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw 1.25. Europe, 
etc., one of the longest and best known of birds. Has straggled to Greenland in one known 


instance. 


2. SUBORDER PASSERES MESOMYODI, OR CLAMATORES: 
NON-MELODIOUS OR SONGLESS PASSERES. 


Mesomyodian scutelliplantar Passeres with ten fully developed primaries. — Syrinx with 
fewer than four distinct pairs of intrinsic muscles inserted at the middle of the upper bronchial 
half-rings, representing the mesomyodian type of voice-organ, and constituting an uncompli- 
cated and ineffective musical apparatus. Side and back of tarsus, as well as the front, covered 
with variously arranged scutella, so that there is no sharp undivided ridge behind (as, e. g., 
in fig. 280, «). Ten fully developed primaries, the 1st of which, if not equalling or exceed- 
ing the 2d, is at least $ as long. (See p. 240, where the Oscines are defined as acro- 
myodian laminiplantar Passeres with 9 fully-developed primaries, or 10 and the lst short 
or spurious. ) 

The essential character of this group, as distinguished from Oscines, is thus seen to be an 
isting in the non-development of a singing apparatus; the vocal muscles of 


anatomical one, con 
the lower larynx (syrinx) being small and few, or else forming simply a fleshy mass, not sepa- 
rated into particular muscles; in either case inserted in a special manner into the brouchial half- 
rings. This character, though subject to some uncertainty of determination, corresponds well 
with the principal external character assignable to the group, namely, a certain condition of the 
tarsal envelope rarely if ever seen in the higher Passeres. If the leg of a King-bird, for example, 
be closely examined, it will be seen covered with a row of seutella forming cylindrical plates 


continuously enveloping the tarsus like a segmented scroll, and showing on its postero-internal 
face a deep groove where the edges of the envelope come together; this groove widening into 
a naked space above, partially filled in behind with a row of small plates. With some minor 
modifications, this scutelliplantar condition marks the Clamatorial birds, and is somethiug 
tangibly different from the typical Oscine or lamiuiplantar character of the tarsus, which consists 
in the presence on the sides of entire eorneous lamine meeting behind in a sharp ridge. And 
even when, as in the cases of the oscine Hremophila and Amwelis, there is extensive subdivision 
of the laminze on the sides or behind, the arrangement does not exactly answer to the above 
description. The Clamatores represent the lower Passeres, approaching the large order 
Picarie (see beyond) in the steps by which they recede from Oscines, yet well separated from 
the Picarian birds. The families composing the suborder, as commonly received, are few in 
number ; only one of them is represented in North America, north of Mexico. 


428 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — CLAMATORES. 


20. Family TYRANNID: American Flycatchers. 


While having a close general resemblance to some of the foregoing 
insectivorous and oscine Passeres, the North American representatives of 
this family will be instantly distinguished by the above-deseribed condi- 
tion of the tarsus; together with the presence of 10 primaries, whereof 
the 1st is long or longest. From the birds of the following Picarian 
order by the Passerine characters of twelve rectrices, greater wing-cov- 

Fig. 278, —Bin of a @TtS not more than half as long as the secondaries, and hind claw not 
Flycatcher (Tyrannus smaller than the middle claw. 
verticalis, nat. size). This family is peculiar to America; it is one of the most extensive 
and characteristic groups of its grade in the New World, the Tanagride and Trochilide alone 
approaching it in these respects. There are over 400 current species, distributed among about 
100 genera and subgenera. As well as I can judge at present, at least two-thirds of the species 
are valid, or very strongly marked geographical races, the remainder being about equally 
divided between slight varieties and mere synonyms. Only a small fragment of the family is 
represented within our limits, giving but a vague idea of the numerous and singularly diver- 
sified forms abounding in tropical America. Some of these grade so closely toward other 
families, that a strict definition of the Tyrannide becomes extremely difficult ; and I am not 
prepared to offer a satisfactory diagnosis of the whole group. Our species, however, are closely 
related to each other, and may readily be defined in a manner 
answering the requirements of the present volume. With a 
possible exception, not necessary to insist upon in this connec- 
tion, they belong to the 


a 


29, Subfamily TYRANNINZE: True Tyrant 
Flycatchers, 


presenting the following characters: Wing of 10 primaries, 

the Ist never spurious nor very short ; one or more frequently 

emarginate or attenuate on the inner web near the end. Tail 

of 12 rectrices, usually nearly even, sometimes deeply forficate. 

Feet small, weak, exclusively fitted for perching ; tarsus little 

if any longer than middle toe and claw; anterior toes, espe- 

cially the outer, extensively coherent at base. Bill very broad 

and more or less depressed at base, tapering to a fine point, 

thus presenting a more or less perfectly triangular outline when 

viewed from above; tip abruptly deflected and usually plainly 

oe notched just behind the bend; culmen smooth and rounded 

d transversely, straight or nearly so lengthwise, except towards 

the end; commissure straight (or slightly curved) except at 

the end; gonys long, flat, not keeled. Nostrils small, circular, 

strictly basal, overhung but not concealed by bristles. Mouth 

capacious, its roof somewhat excavated; rictus ample and 

deeply cleft ; commissural point almost beneath anterior bor- 

: der of eye. Rictus beset with a number of long stiff vibrissz, 

sometimes reaching nearly to end of bill; generally shorter, 

Fig. 279. — Emargination of pri- and flaring outward on each side; other bristles or bristle- 
maries in Tyrannine. a, Milvulus 5 i ; ee 

forficatus ; b. Tyrannus carolinensis; tipped feathers about base of bill. Bill very light, giving a 

ce. Tyrannus verticalis; d. Tyran- yesonant sound in dried specimens when tapped, and on being 


nus vociferans; all nat. size. (Ad : : x 
nat. jee. Cc.) broken open, the upper mandible will be found extensively 


TYRANNIDAG— TYRANNINA: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 429 


hollow. These several peculiarities of the bill (to most of which Ornithiwm offers signal ex- 
ception) are the most obvious features of the group; and should prevent our small olivaceous 
Flycatchers from being confounded even by the tyro with insectivorous Oscines, as the War- 
blers and Vireos. (See figs. 278, 280.) 

The structure of the bill is admirably adapted for the capture of winged insects; the broad 
and deeply fissured mandibles form a capacious mouth, while the long bristles are of service in 
entangling the creatures in a trap and restraining their struggles to escape. The shape of the 
wings and tail confers the power of rapid and varied aérial evolutions necessary for the successful 
pursuit of active flying insects. A little practice in field ornithology will enable one to reeog- 
nize the Flyeatchers from their habit of perching in wait for their prey upon some prominent 
outpost, in a peculiar attitude, with the wings and tail drooped and vibrating in readiness for 
instant action; and of dashing into the air, @ 
seizing the passing insect with a quick move- 
ment and a click of the bill, and then returning 
to theirstand. Although certain Oscines have 
somewhat the same habit, these pursue insects 
from place to place, instead of perching in 
wait at a particular spot, and their forays are 
not made with such admirable élan. Depend- 
ent entirely upon insect food, the Flycatchers 
are necessarily migratory in our latitudes; they 
appear with great regularity in spring, and 
depart on the approach of cold weather in the 
fall. They are distributed over temperate 
North America; many of them are common 
birds of the Eastern States. The voice, sus- 
ceptible of little modulation, is usually harsh 
and strident, though some species have no 
unmusical whistle or twitter. The sexes are 
not ordinarily distinguishable (remarkable ex- ) 


ception in Pyrocephalus), and the changes of 
plumage with age and season are not ordinarily 
great. The modes of nesting are too various 
ae "he ane Fic. 280.— Generic details of Tyrannine, a. Myi- 

to be collectively noted. The larger kinds of  grenus ; 6. Sayiornis; c. Contopus; d. Empidonaz ; 
Flycatchers are unmistakable, but several of all nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E. C.) 
the smaller species, of the genera Sayiornis, Contopus, and especially Empidonax, look much 
alike, and their discrimination becomes a matter of much tact and diligence. 

To the 8 genera of Tyrannide long known to be North American have lately been added 
3 from Mexico—the immense-billed Pitangus, the streaky, yellow-bellied, rufous-tailed 
Myiodynastes, and the curious little “‘ beardless” Ornithium. The 11 may be readily discrimi- 
nated by the following characters : — 


Z 


Analysis of Genera. 
Bill flattish, fully bristled and hooked as usual in Tyrannide. 
One or more outer primaries attenuate at end. A flame or yellow spot on crown. (Tyranni.) 


Tail deeply forficate, much longer than wings . . . .. .. 1... 1. . .) Milvulus 118 

Tail simple, not longer than wings. . ..... Tyrannus 119 
Outer primaries not attenuated. A yellow crown-spot. 

Wings and tail extensively rufous; belly yellow; no streaks exceptonhead . . . . Pitangus 116 


Tail but not wings extensively rufous; belly yellow. Streaked above and below . Mytodynastes 117 
Outer primaries not attenuate. Tail moderate. No yellow spot on crown. (Tyrannule.) 
Tail chestnut and dusky, in lengthwise pattern. Belly yellow; throat ashy . . . . Myiarchus 120 
Tail without chestnut. 
Tail about equal to or little shorter than wing, slightly or not forked. Bill narrow. Tarsus 


364. 


430 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — CLAMATORES. 


not shorter or rather longer than middle toe and claw. Coloration black and white, cinna- 


mon-brown, or olivaceous . . . hla bk be: bac AeA . . Sayiornis 121 
Tail decidedly shorter than wing, a ‘Tittle forked. Bill broad and flat. Tarsu us shorter than 
middle toe and claw. Olivaceous; length 6.25 or more . . - - . Contopus 12 


Tail a little shorter than wing, about even. Bill fat. Tarsus not chomer or rather longer 
than middle toe and claw. Coloration olivaceous and yellowish, but no red, buif or pure 


brown. Length 6.25 or less— usually under 6.00 . . - . . . Empidonar 123 
Tail, etc., as in Empidonaz, from which scarcely different. Coloration more brownish- 
olive, buffy below. Verysmall . . ... . . . . Mitrephanes 124 
Tail and tarsus asin Empidonar. Bill narrow. Hind not loneee than lateral toe. Sexes 
unlike. ¢ full-crested, vermilion and pure brown. . . - . . Pyrocephaius 126 
Bill compressed, quite parine in appearance, unbristled, unnotched. General color ashy, with yellow 
lining of wings. Very small: length under5.00 . . . ... 2 ob ee ee oh o.  Orneihion:. 125 


Obs. Besides the above, another genus and species doubtless occurs in Tex MYIOZETETES TEXENS Bill 
short, stout, very broad at base, with curved culmen. hooked and notched tip, and heavily-bristled rictus.  Pri- 
maries not emarginate; 2d, 3d, 4th longest, 5th shorter; Ist about equal to 6th. Tail shorter than wings, nearly 


square. Feet small; tarsus rather less than middle toe and claw. Above, olive; wings and tail brown, with yel- 
lowish edging of the quills. Under parts, including lining of wings. bright pure yellow; throat definitely white. 
Top and sides of head gray, hoary on forehead and over eyes, dusky on lores and auriculars, enclosing a flame and 
yellow crown-spot. Bill and feet black. Length about 7.00; wing 3.50; tail 3.00; bill 0.60; tarsus 0.75; middle 


toe and claw 0.85 


PITAN'GUS. (Vox barb.; a Mexican or 8. Am. name of some bird.) Drrpy FlycaTcHEers 
Outer primaries not emarginate. An orange crown patch. Bill as long as head, exceeding the 
tarsus, straight, stout, but narrow, as deep as broad at the nostrils, with ridged culmen straight 
to the hooked end: 7 
perfectly straight. Nostrils rounded, nearer commissure than culmen. Wings rounded, tipped 
by 3d-sth quills; 2d and 6th about equal and shorter, 1st only about equal to 9th. Tail 
shorter than wings, nearly even, but somewhat double-rounded. Tarsus about as long as 
middle toe and claw.  Largest-bodied of any N. Am. flyeatecher. Brown above, yellow 
below, with black, white, and orange head; quills and tail-feathers extensively chestnut, as in 
Miyiarchus. Mexican; lately found in Texas. 

P. derbianus. (To Lord Derby. Fig. 281.) Drersy Frycarcner. Upper parts light 
wood-brown, with an olive tinge; wings and tail the same, but the feathers extensively 
bordered without aud within with 
chestnut, forming a conspicuous 


gonys about straight, ascending; commissure and also lateral outlines 


continuous area on the wing- 
quills in the closed wing, and on 
most of the wing and tail-feathers 
more extensive than the brown 
pertion of the inner webs. Be- 
low from the breast, including 
lining of wings, clear and con- 
tinuous lemon-yellow. Whole 
chin and throat pure white, wid- 
ening behind up under ear-coy 
erts. Top and sides of head 
black, a eirele of white from fore- 
Fic. 281. —Derby Flycatcher, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) head over eyes to nape white, the 


enclosed black enclosing a lemon and orange pateh. Or, middle of crown yellow and orange, 
enclosed and partly concealed in black, this black enclosed in white, then the long and broad 
black bar on side of head, separating the white of side of crown from that of side of throat. 
The coronal feathers lengthened and erectile us in a king-bird, or more so; crown-patch of 
same character but more extensive. Bill and feet black ; iris hazel. Sexes alike. Length 
of male about 10.50; wing about 5.00; tail about 4.00; bill 1.20; tarsus 1.00. A great 


117. 


118. 


366. 


367. 


TYRANNIDA —TYRANNINA: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 431 


flycatcher of aggressive appearance, long known in Mexico, recently ascertained to occur on 
the Lower Rio Grande in Texas. 
MYIODYNAS'TES. (Gr. pvia, muia, a fly; dvvacrns, dunastes, a ruler.) STRIPED FLy- 
CATCHERS. Related to Myiarchus; tail extensively chestnut, as in that genus, but no chestnut 
on wings. No primaries emarginate. A yellow crowu-spot. Bill shorter than head, as long 
as tarsus, very turgid, uch broader than high at the nostrils, lateral outlines slightly convex, 
culmen nearly straight to the little hooked tip, gonys long, asceuding. ictus moderately 
bristled. Wings long and pointed; 3d quill slightly longer than 2d, 4th little shorter, 5th 
wiuch shorter, lst between 5th and 6th. ‘Tail shorter than wiugs, nearly even. Feet very 
small, relatively as weak as in Contopus; tarsus rather shorter than middle toe and claw. 
Several species of Mexico and tropical Am. flycatchers, with crown-spot, rufous tail, aud the 
whole plumage streaked. 
M. luteiven’tris. (Lat. luteus, yellow, ventris, of venter, the belly.) SULPHUR-BELLIED 
STRIPED FLycaTcHer. Entire upper parts, including the head, streaked; the feathers with 
broadly dusky centres and olive-brown borders, finally edged slightly with yellowish-brown. A 
yellow crown-spot, concealed as in the king-bird. Tail and its upper coverts rich chestnut, all 
the feathers with blackish shaft stripes — on the middle feathers about half the width of either 
web, on the outer narrowed to the shaft itself and a slightly clubbed end; from below, shafts 
of the feathers white except at ends. Wings blackish, the median and greater coverts and 
inner quills, both externally and internally, conspicuously edged with yellowish-white ; some 
rufous edgings also on lesser coverts. Under parts, including lining of wings, sulphur-yellow, 
fading to white on the throat; everywhere, excepting on middle of belly and crissum, heavily 
streaked with blackish, these dark stripes suffused and blended on the throat, particularly 
along its sides. Lores and auriculars dusky; forehead and streak over eye whitish. Bill 
blackish, pale at base below. Wing 4.40; tail 3.40; bill and tarsus 0.75; middle toe and 
claw rather more. Central Am. and Mexico to Arizona, where common, and breeding in 
southem parts of the territory. 
MIL/VULUS. (Lat. milvulus, diminutive of milous, a kite.) SWALLOW-TAILED Fry- 
CATCHERS. Tail in the adult deeply forficate, about twice as long as the wing. Outer primary 
or primaries abruptly attenuate, and other characters as in Tyrannus proper (beyond). A 
yellow or flaming crown-spot. 

Analysis of Species. 


Three or four primaries emarginate. Crown-spot yellow, in black cap 


* F tyrannus 366 
One primary emarginate. Crown-spot flaming, in ashy cap 


. forficatus 367 


M. tyran’/nus. (Lat. tyrannus, a tyrant.) Fork-TaILep FLycarcuer. SQ, adult: 
Outer 3 or 4 primaries emarginate. Crown-patch yellow. Above, clear ash ; below, white ; 
top and sides of head black ; tail black, the outer feather white on outer web for about half its 
length ; wings dusky, unmarked. Sexes alike. Young similar, but primaries not emarginate, 
nor tail lengthened ; no crown-spot ; wing- and tail-coverts edged with brown. Wing 4.50 ; 
tail up to a foot long, forked 6-8 inches. A beautiful bird of tropical Am., accidental in the 
U.S. (Louisiana, Kentucky, New Jersey !) 

M. forfica/tus. (Lat. Sorficatus, forked like forfex, a pair of scissors. Fig. 282.) Swar- 
LOW-TAILED FLycaTcHEer. Scrssor-TAIL. $2, adult: First primary alone emargi- 
nate (fig. 279, a). Crown patch orange or scarlet. General color hoary-ash, paler or white 
below; sides at insertion of wings scarlet or bloody-red, and other parts of the body variously 
tinged with the same, or a paler salmon-red. Wings blackish, with whitish edgings. Tail 
black, but several of the long feathers extensively white or rosy ; these are pantie and linear 
sometimes widening somewhat in spoon-shape. Wing 4.50-5.00; extent of wings 14.50- 


15.50; tail up to a foot long, usually 8.00-10.00 inches, forked 5.00-6.00. Q averaging 


L9; 


368. 


32 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — CLAMATORES. 


smaller than @, with the tail commonly less developed. Young: Similar; primary not 
abruptly emarginate; tail undeveloped; no crown-spot, and little or no red. Lower Missis- 
sippi valley and Texas; usually N. to Indian Terri- 
tory and Kansas, even 8S. W. Missouri; accidental in 
New Jersey and New England! <A most elegant, 
graceful, and showy bird, abundant in Texas, con- 
spicuous by the display it makes iu opening and clos- 
ing the tail, like scissor-blades ; very active, dashing 
and noisy, like a king-bird, 


all the large flyeatchers 
sharing this same impetuous, irritable disposition. 
Nesting like the king-bird’s; eggs 4-5, white, boldly 
blotched with reddish on the surface, and lilac shell- 
spots; laid in May. 

TYRANNUS. (Lat. tyrannus, a tyrant.) Kine Fiy- 
caTcHers. Tail moderate in size and shape, rather 
snorter than wing, even or little rounded, emarginate 
or lightly forked. Wings long, pointed by the 2d-3d 
quills, Ist and 4th little if any shorter, 5th and rest 
rapidly graduated. Several outer primaries abruptly 
emarginate or sinuate-narrowed on inner webs towards 
end. Bill stout, flattish, fully bristled, notehed, and 
hooked (fig. 278). Feet small and weak, the tarsus 
with seales obviously lapping around. Size large: 
Jength $ inches or more; wing over 4. Sexes alike ; 
@ sharing the faming crown-patch ; primaries less or 
not emarginate ? Young lacking the crown-spot and 


attenuation of primaries. Nest bulky, on a bough, 


compaetly woven and felted. Eggs white, boldly Fic. 282. — Swallow-tailed Flycatcher. 
inarked with oval or tear-shaped spots of reddigh- Sbeppard del. Nichols se.) 
brown. Contains numerous species, 5 of N. Am., which have been divided into several named 
subgenera, but are closely interrelated through various exotie species. They are the ‘‘ king- 
birds” proper. 
Analysis ef Species. 
No olive nor decided yellow; blackish and whitish. 
Only two primaries obviously emarginate. Tail about even, conspicuously white-tipped. Bill small, 
under 1.00. (Tyrannus) . F EO erm cy Sug h Bes iSe Payer iE Ga Yen eee ray carolinensis 368 
Five or six primaries emarginate. Tail emarginate, merely lighter at end. Bill big, 1.00 long. (J/eli?- 
RATCRUS) a) ok Lae he Cm cae ah Se a Rhee Ee ae Re ah a eS Be 
Olivaceous, with pure yellow on belly, ashy on head. Bill moderate. (Laphyctes.) 
Tail blackish, merely emarginate; wings dark brown. 
Several outer primaries gradually attenuate for a long distance. Outer web of outer tail-feather 
AVUMGE 24 oe vie See ceased ae va GG Le te aE ae) AEN, YS aie hol ee dee Seen cay aur bie) ee MET MAOUELAS UOTQ. 
Several outer primaries abruptly emarginate for a short distance. Outer web of outer tail-feather 
merely whitish-edged . tae ieee ct er 
Tail dark brown, like the wings, obviously forked 
Several outer primaries abruptly emarginate fora short distance... 2... we 


+ + dominicensis 369 


+ + . vociferans 371 


+ couchi 372 
T. carolinen’sis. (Of Carolina. Fig. 283.) Kaye-prrp. Bre-Martix. ¢9, adult: 
No olive nor decided yellow. Only two outer primaries obviously emarginate (tig. 279, b). 
Tail nearly even — if anything a little rounded. Blackish-ash, still darker or quite black on 
head, crown with a flaming spot. Below, pure white, the breast shaded with plumbeous. 
Wings dusky, with much whitish edging. Tail black, broadly and sharply tipped with 
white, the outer feather sometimes edged with the same. Bill and feet black. Young: 
Lacking emargination of the primaries, and no crown-spot; very young birds show rufous 


369. 


370. 


371. 


TYRANNIDH —TYRANNIN.E: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 455 


edging of the wings and tail. Length about 8.00; extent 14.50; wing 4.50; tail 3.50, 
even or slightly rounded; bill small, under an inch long. Temperate N. Am., but chietly 
E. U.S. to Rocky Mts.; rare or casual on the Pacitie slope: abundant in summer; breeds 
throughout its range; winters on the southern border and 
beyond. This trim and shapely * martinet,” in’ severe 
black and white but with fiery pompou, is familiar to all, 
and equally noted for its irritability, pugnacity, and intre- 
pidity, and its inveterate enmity to crows, hawks, and owls, 
which it does not hesitate to attack, either in defence of its 
nest or just to show its spunk. Nest a conspicuous object 
in the orchard or by the wayside, on the horizontal bough 
of a tree, large, cupped, compactly woven and matted with 
fibrous and disintegrated vegetable substances; eggs usu- 
ally 4-5-6, 0.90 to 1.00 long by 0.72 broad, white, rosy, or 
ereamy, variously spotted or blotehed in bold pattern with 


reddish and darker brown surface-spots and lilac shell- 
markings. Destroys a thousand noxious insects for every Fig. 283.—King-bird, reduced. (From 
bee it eats! Tenney, after Wilson.) 

T. dominicen’sis. (Of St. Domingo.) Gray KixG-prrp. 
primaries usually emarginate. Crown-spot as before. Grayish-plumbeous, rather darker on 
head, the auriculars dusky. Below, white, shaded with ashy on breast and sides, the under 
wing- and tail-coverts faintly yellowish ; wings and tail dusky, edged with whitish or yel- 
lowish ; the tail-feathers merely indistinetly lighter at the extreme tip. Larger than the last: 
Length about 9.00; wing 5.50; tail nearly 5.00, more or less emargiuate; bill very turgid, an 
inch long. West Indies; Florida regularly; N. to Carolina rarely, to Massachusetts acci- 
dentally. General appearance, habits and nesting of the king-bird. 

T. vertica lis. (Lat. verticalis, relating to the vertex, or top of head, whieh has a tlame-pateh. 
Fig. 278.) ArKANSAS Tyrant FiycatcHer. Several outer primaries gradually attenuated 
for a long distance (fig. 279, ¢). Coloration olivaceous and yellow; belly and under wing- 


42, adult: Five or six outer 


and tail-coverts clear yellow ; back ashy-olive, changing to clear ash on the head, throat, and 
breast, the chin whitening, the lores and auriculars dusky ; wings dark brown with whitish 
edging: tail black or blackish; bill and feet black: iris brown. Outer web of outer. tail- 
feather entirely white. Ash of the fore parts pale, contrasting with dusky lores and aurie- 
ulars, fading imsensibly into white on the chin, and changing gradually to yellow on the 
belly: olive predominating over ashy on the back. Length about 9.00; extent about 16.50: 
wing 9.00; tail £00; bill 0.75; tarsus 0.75. Young: Similar: general ash of the body 
dull, with a brownish east: little or no olivaceous on back; tail not quite black: yellow of 
under parts pale and sulphury, even whitish; bill light-colored at base below : no color on 
crown, and primaries searcely or not attenuate. Very young with rusty edgings, especially 
on wing- and tail-eoverts. Western U. 8., abundant: accidental in Louisiana, New Jersey, 
and Maine; E. regularly to Kansas, Towa, ete., N. to British Provinces in Missouri and Milk 
River region and westward. General traits those of the king-bird: nest similar, rather 
larger, with more fluffy and less fibrous material: eggs not distinguishable with certainty. 

T. voci'ferans. (Lat. rociferans, vociferous, voice-bearing ; vox, voice, and fero, I bear.) 
Cassty’s TyRayt Fiycatcuer. Several outer primaries abruptly emarginate for a short 
distance (fig. 279, d). Outer web of outer tail-feather barely or not edged with whitish. General 
coloration as in T. verticalis; but ash of fore parts dark, little different on the lores and auricu- 
lars, changing rather abruptly to white on the chin and to yellow on the belly ; ashy predomi- 
nating over olive on the back. The difference is decisive on comparison. The outer primaries 
are abruptly nicked and narrowed within half an inch of the end. The mere edging of the outer 

28 


372. 


120. 


373. 


434 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— CLAMATORES. 


tail-feather with white instead of the whole web being white is also a good character. 
Changes of plumage the same as in verticalis; size the same; bill rather stouter, about 0.85 ; 
tarsus slightly longer, on an average. Southwestern U. 8., and southward; N. to Wyoming 
and Idaho ; abundant in the Rocky Mt. region, there mostly replacing verticalis in the breeding 
season. Nesting and eggs the same. 

T. melancho/licus couch/i. (Gr. pedayxoduxds, melagcholikos, Lat. melancholicus, melan- 
choly, i. e., atrabilious ; pédas, pedavos, melas, melanos, black; yodos, cholos, gall, bile. To 
Lt. D. N. Couch.) Coucn’s Firycatcuer. Very similar to the last; primaries abruptly 
emarginate for a short distance, as in 7. vociferans, and outer web of outer tail-feather not 
white ; but tail dark brown, like the wings, and obviously forked (about 0.50; in vociferans 
the tail quite black, slightly emarginate or nearly even) ; all its feathers with slight pale 
edges, and their shafts pale on the under surface. Yellow of under parts very bright, reaching 
high up on the breast; throat as well as chin extensively white. Size of the foregoing, and 
changes of plumage coincident. A universally distributed South and Central Am. species, 
of which a slight variety reaches over our Mexican border. 

MYIAR/CHUS. (Gr. pria, muita, a fly; dpxds, archos, a ruler. Fig. 280, a.) CRESTED 
Fiycarcuers. ASH-THROATED Fiycatcurers. Rurous-TaIbep Frycarcners. No 
colored patch on the crown, but head slightly crested by lengthened erectile feathers. Pri- 
maries emarginate. Olivaceous; more or less yellow below, the throat ash, the primaries 
margined with chestnut, the tail-feathers the same or mostly chestnut — such coloration the 
best mark of the genus. Tail nearly even, if anything rounded, about as long as wings, of 
broad flat feathers with rounded ends. Wings rounded, the tip formed by 2d-4th quills 
(usually), the 5th shorter, 6th and 1st much*shorter. Tarsus about as long as middle toe and 
claw, —if any different, longer. Bill moderate, variable in shape and relative size. Next to 
the characteristic rufous on wings and tail, size is a good clue to this genus ainong our oliva- 
ceous flycatchers without colored crest; for the Mytarcht excepting M. lawrencii are much 
larger than any others excepting Contopus borealis and C. pertinax. Only one Eastern 
species, but four others in the southwest, requiring nice discrimination. Peculiar, all of them, 
in nesting in holes, and laying eggs scratched and snarled, but chiefly scrawled lengthwise, 
with dark brown, in close and intricate pattern. 


Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


Large: length 8.00 or more. Inner webs of tail-feathers largely rufous. 


Rufous occupying nearly or quite all the inner webs of several lateral tail-feathers . . . .crinitus 373 
Rufous occupying inner webs of same feathers in nearly equal amount with a fuscous stripe of equal 
width throughout. Bill nearly or quite 1.00 . . . . + + « cooperi 880 
Rufous occupying inner webs of same feathers in nearly equal amount with ; a fuscous stripe of 
equal width throughout. Bill about 0.75 . . . - .  erythrocercus 374 
Rufous occupying inner webs of same feathers in renin amount, than a fuscous stripe which widens 
atend. Billvery narrow... eersais so. + 4 « cinerescens 375 
Small: length 7.00 or less. Inner webs of tail- feathers seatcaly 6 or not rufous. soe ee ww. lawrencit 376 


M. crini/tus. (Lat. crinitus, haired, i. e., crested; crinis, hair. Fig. 284.) Great 
CRESTED FrycatcHer.  Q, adult: Decidedly olivaceous above, a little browner on head, 
where the feathers have dark centres; throat and fore breast pure dark ash; rest of under 
parts bright yellow, the two colors meeting abruptly; primaries margined on both edges with 
chestnut ; secondaries and coverts edged and tipped with yellowish-white; tail with all the 
feathers but the central pair chestnut on the whole of the inner web (excepting perhaps a very 
narrow space next the shaft); outer web of outer feathers edged with yellowish; middle 
feathers, outer webs of the rest, and wings except as stated, dusky-brown. The foregoing 
phrases are intended to be chiefly antithetical to those used in describing cinerescens, below, 
No. 375. Other diagnostic points are: bill dark but not quite black, pale at base below ; 
stout and comparatively short, hardly or not as long as tarsus, the latter perhaps never 0.90 . 


880. 


374. 


TYRANNIDA— TYRANNINZE: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 435 


the olive back, ash throat, and yellow belly severally pure in color; all tail-feathers but middle 
pair so extensively rufous on inner webs that a mere line, if any, of fuscous persists next 
the shaft (compare erythrocercus and cooperi), and this fuscous line, if any, runuing of same 
narrowness to ends of the feathers (compare cinerescens) ; 
never more than a trace of rufous on outer webs. Very 
young birds have rufous skirting of many feathers, in ad- 
dition to the chestnut above described, but this soon dis- 
appears. Large: length 8.00-9.00; extent about 13.00; 
wing and tail about 4.00 (3.80-4.20); Dill 0.75—-0.80 ; 
tarsus 0.70-0.80 ; middle toe aud claw 0.65-0.75 ; breadth 
of bill at base 0.33-0.40, or about % the length of culmen. 
Eastern U. S., west to Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, and 
Texas, N. to Massachusetts; Mexico and Central Am. in 
winter. An abundant bird, in woodland, of loud harsh 
voice and quarrelsome disposition, noted for its habitual 
use of cast-off snake-skins in the structure of its nest. 
Nest in hollows of trees and similar retreats ; eggs unique 
(outside this genus) in pattern: ground color buff or rich 
clay-color, with numbevless markings of purplish-chest- 
nut, or purplish-chocolate, and others paler, sharp and 
scratchy, mostly lengthwise, but especially at the butt 
tangled up; size about 0.85 X 0.62. Breeds throughout 


its U.S. range, but entirely withdraws in winter. Locally Fig 284.—Great Crested Flycatcher, 
reduced. (Sheppard, del. Nichols sc.) 


and irregularly distributed in woodland. 
(in addenda.) M. ¢. coo/peri. (To Win. Cooper.) Cooprr’s Larcr-BILLED CRESTED 
FiycaTcHer. Distinguished in its extreme development from crinitus by its rather greater 
size, aud especially the great size of the bill, which runs from 0.80 fully up.to 1.10 measured 
along culmen, equalling or even exceeding in length the tarsi, which are themselves usually 0.10 
longer than in crinitus. The olivaceous is usually not so pure, and the yellow not so clear ; 
but the chief difference is, that the inner webs of the tail-feathers have a fuscous stripe 4 to 
nearly 4 the width of the feather, as in erythrocercus ; froin which latter it differs mainly in the 
greater size, especially of the bill. Wings and tail 3.90-4.25 ; bill 0.80-1.00; tarsns 0.85-0.95 ; 
Mexico and over the U. 8. border; Arizona. (Z'yrannula coopert, Kaup, 1851? M. coopert 
Bd., 1858. UM. erinitus var. coopert, Coues, Pr. Phila. Acad., 1872, p. 67.) 

M. c. erythrocer'cus. (Gr. épvdpés, eruthros, reddish ; xepkos, kerkos, tail.) Rurous-TAILED 
CRESTED FLYCATCHER. On comparing this bird with typical MW. crinitus, it is immediately 
perceived to be different. The lateral tail-feathers have a stripe of fuscous on the inner web 
adjvining the shaft, this stripe equalling or exceeding the width of the whole outer web of the 
respective feathers, and being about half-and-half with the rufous; whereas in crinitus there is 
only the narrowest possible dusky stripe on the inner web, or none at all. This dusky stripe 
is of uniform width throughout, not enlarged at the end to occupy most or all of the feather, as 
is the case with cinerescens. The entire upper parts are darker than those of crinitus — that 
is, they have a sordid brownish-olive cast, instead of the clearer and purer greenish-olive of 
crinitus. The yellow of the belly is much paler. The ash of the throat is decidedly lighter 
and clearer, and it comes farther down the breast, yielding to the yellow without the interven- 
tion of the olivaceous pectoral area which is usually conspicuous in crinitus. The general 
aspect of the under parts is much as in cinerescens, both the distribution and shade of the colors 
being more as witnessed in the latter than as seen in crinitus. The light edgings of the wing- 
feathers are also paler than those of crinitus. The bill is black, not dark brown, slenderer than 
in crinitus; in size nothing like that of coopert, nor has it the very constricted shape of that of 


375. 


376. 


121. 


436 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — CLAMATORES. 


cinerescens. The general body-coloration is almost exactly as in cinerescens, from which it is 
at once distinguished by the different shape of the bill and different pattern of the tail-feathers. 
Agreeing very closely in colors with coopert, it is smaller than that species, and lacks in par- 
ticular the enormous development of the bill, which, in cooperi, is an inch or more in length of 
culmen, aud proportionately broad. It is clearly neither crinitus proper, nor crinitus coopert, nor 
yet cinerescens. Average length 8.75; extent about 12.75; wing 3.60-4.00; tail 3.75; bill 
0.755 tarsus 0.85 5 middle toe and claw 0.75. Lower Rio Grande of Texas, and southward. 
Common, breeding. Nest and eggs like those of erinitus. (MM. erinitus var. irritabilis, Coues, 
Pr. Phila. Acad., 1872, p. 65, nec Tyrannus trritabilis Vieill. M. crinitus erythrocercus, Coues, 
Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., iv, 1878, p. 32, and v, 1879, p. 402. JL. mexicanus var. cooperi, 
Ridg., Pr. Nat. Mus., i, p. 138, nee cooperi Bd. MM. mexicanus, Ridg., Pr. Nat. Mus., ii, 
p- 14.) 

M. cineres/cens. (Lat. cinerescens, ashy. Fig. 285.) AsH-THROATED CreEstTrp Fry- 
CATCHER. @@, adult: Rather olivaceous-brown above, quite brown on the head; throat 
very pale ash, sometimes almost whitish, changing 
gradually to very pale yellow or yellowish-white on 
the rest of the under parts. Primaries edged as in 
crinitus, but secondaries and coverts edged with gray- 
ish-white. Taail-feathers as in crinitus, but the rufous 
of the inner webs hardly or not reaching their ends, 
being cut off from the tip by widening of the fuscous 
stripe (in young birds, in which the quills and tail- 
feathers are wore extensively rufous-edged, the last dis- 
tinction does not hold). Size of crinitus, but tarsi 
longer and Dill slenderer; tarsi 0.80-0.90; bill 0.75- 
0.85, but only 0.27-0.33 broad at the base, where only 
about as wide as high, and obviously narrower than in 
cromitus; though in Cape St. Lucas specimens (JZ. 
pertinaz Ba.) shaped quite as in crinitus, but smaller. 
Southwestern U.5.; N. to Wyoming and Utah and 


Fic. 285. — Ash-throated Flycatcher, ‘ 
reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) Nevada; 8. through Mexico; E. and W. from Texas 


to the Pacific; said to winter in the Lower Colorado valley, U. 8. Though so similar to the 
foregoing, it is a different bird from any of them. Nesting and eggs as in the others. (JL. 
icanus Bd., 1858, nec Kaup, 1851. Zyrannula cinerascens, Lawr., 1851. M. cinerescens 


me: 
Coues, 1872.) 

M. lawren/cii. (To Geo. N. Lawrence.) LAWRENCE’S CRESTED FLYCATCHER. Sinnilar in 
color to M. crinitus, but much smaller. No chestnut on tail-feathers except a narrow border- 
ing on the ovter webs, and, in the young, an inner margining also. Wing-coverts and inner 
secondaries as well as the primaries edged with rufous (rarely yellowish on inner secondaries) ; 
pileum dark or quite blackish. Bill broad, flat, shaped much as in Contopus, about 4 its own 
length wide at the nostrils. Very small: length 7.00 or less; wing and tail only 3.00-3.33 ; 
hill 0.62-0.70; tarsus 0.65-0.75. Texas (?), Mexico, and Central Am., there running into 
M. nigricapillus. 

SAYIOR'NIS. (Name of Thos. Say, with Gr. épus, ornis, a bird.) Pawit FLYCATCHERS. 
The 3 following species do not particularly reseinble each other ; most authors place them in 
separate genera, and some even under different subfamilies, of Tyrannide. The discrepancies 


of form, however, are not startling, and for the purposes of this work the species may be properly 
put together, as they agree in presenting a certain aspect not shown by the other N. Am. 
groups. (Fig. 280, 6.) They are small species, about 7.00 or less in length. Head with a 
slight crest of erectile feathers. Tarsus rather louger than middle toe and claw (the reverse ° 


379. 


TYRANNIDA—TYRANNINA: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 437 


in Contopus). Bill narrower than in the other little Flycatchers, with nearly straight lateral 
outlines, its width at base about + the length of culmen. Wing pointed by 2d-5th quills, 1st 
shorter than 6th. Tail about as long as wing, emarginate, with broad feathers tending to 
divaricate in the middle. One Eastern, two Western species. Nest aflixed to rocks aud 
buildings, with mud; eggs normally white, unmarked. 
Analysis of Species. 
Ashy-brown, with cinnamon belly and black tail . 2. 1. / ee ee ee ee eee - sayi 3i7 
‘Blackishs with winte belly; . .2-. x aces, ee ees See bee See ae ee es ey) ee Mae ae ee, (OG TICaTS ~ 378: 
Olivaceous and yellowish « Fusea 379 


S. say'i. (To Thos. Say.) Say’s Pewir Fiycarcuer. ¢ 9, adult: Grayish-brown, soie- 
times with faint olivaceous tinge, rather darker on head, where the feathers have dusky ceutres, 
paler on throat and breast, then changing to cinnamon-brown on the rest of the under parts. 
Wings dusky, lined with tawny-whitish, edged with whitish on the coverts aud inner quills. 
Tail perfectly black. Bill and feet black. Iris dark brown. Length about 7.00; extent 11.00; 
} 


wing 3.75-4.35 ; tail 3.25-3.50; bill 0.50-0.60, narrow aud slender for a flycatcher: tarsus 


0; middle toe and claw 0.67. Young: More exteusively fulvons or paler cinuamon than the 


adults, this color extending far up the breast, skirting the feathers of the back and rinp, form- 
ing conspicuous cross-bars and edgings on the wings, and even tipping the tail. But no hird 
of our country resembles this one. Western U. 8. and adjoining British Provinces, E. to 
Kansas, Iowa, Wisconsin, ete., common in open or rocky country, where seen singly or in 
pairs; the principal flycatcher of unwooded regions, in weedy, brushy places, displaying the 
usual activity of its tribe, and uttering a melancholy note of one syllable, or a tremulous twitter. 
Nests naturally on rocks, but soon adapts itself to buildings like the Eastern Pewee. Nest of 
uiud, straw, moss, feathers; eggs 4-5, 0.80 X 0.62, white. 

8. nig'ricans. (Lat. nigricans, blackening.) Biuack PEewir FLYCATCHER. Sooty-brown or 
blackish, deepest on head and breast; belly and other under parts pure white, abruptly defined ; 
lining of wings, outer web of outer tail-feathers, and edges of inner secondaries, whitish; bill and 
feet black: iris red. The coloration is curiously like that of Junco hiemalis. Length about 
7.00; wing 3.50-3.75 ; tail 3.25-3.50; bill 0.50 or less, 
very weak ; tarsus 0.67 ; middle toe and claw 0.60. South- 
western U.S. and southward, but on the Pacifie to Oregon; 
chiefly in unwooded country, and especially along rocky 
streams, and in cafions—TI have seen it at the bottom of 
the Grand Cation of the Colorado, some 6,000 feet below 
the surface of the earth! Nest of mud, ete., on rocks and 
walls; eggs 0.75 X 0.56, white. 

S. fusca, (Lat. fusca, brown. Fig. 286.) Prewir Fry- 
CATCHER. WATER PEWEE. Pewir. PHeEse. Dull oli- 
vaceous-brown, the head much darker fuscous-brown, 
almost blackish, usually in marked contrast with the back ; 
below, soiled whitish, or palest possible yellow, particularly 
on the belly ; the sides, and the breast nearly or quite across, 
shaded with grayish-brown ; wings and tail dusky, the outer 
tail-feather, inner secondaries, and usually the wing-coverts, 
edged with whitish; a whitish ring round the eye ; bill and 
feet black. aries greatly in shade; the foregoing is the Fia. 286.— Pewit Flycatcher, reduced. 
average spring condition. As summer passes, the plumage (Sheppard del. Nichols se.) 

becomes much duller and darker brown, from wearing of the feathers: theu, after the moult, 
fall specimens are much brighter than in spring, the under parts being decidedly yellow, at 
least on the belly. Very young birds have some feathers skirted with rusty, particularly on 


122. 


380. 


438 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES — CLAMATORES. 


the edges of the wing- and tail-feathers. The sexes are alike, the 9 averaging at the lesser 
dimensions of the . The species requires careful discrimination, in the hands of a novice, 
from any of the little olivaceous species of the next two genera. It is larger; length 6.75- 
7.25 ; extent 10.75-11.75 ; wing 3.00-3.50, usually 3.40; tail about the same, slightly emargi- 
nate; bill 0.50 or slightly more, little depressed, not so broad for its length as is usual in 
Contopus and Hmpidonax, its lateral outlines straight; tarsus equalling or slightly exceeding 
the middle toe and claw, these together about 1.33 long; point of the wing formed by the 2d 
to 5th quill; 2d shorter than 6th; 3d and 4th generally a little the longest ; 1st shorter than 
6th. Eastern U.5., and British Provinces, very abundant in open places, fields, along streams, 
and almost as domestic as the barn swallow. One of the very earliest arrivals in spring, and a 
late loiterer in fall; winters abundantly in the Southern States. West to Dakota, Nebraska, 
ete. Its ordinary note is harsh and abrupt, unlike the drawling pe-a-wee/ of Contopus virens — 
sounding like pé-wit! phé'-bé, whence the name. The typical nest is affixed to the side of a 
vertical rock over water, often itself moist or dripping, and composed of mud, grass, and espe- 
cially moss, making a pretty object, lined with hay or feathers. The bird now builds anywhere 
about houses, bridges, and other buildings ; its attachment to particular spots is so strong that 
it will return year after year, and often persist in nesting under the most discouraging cireum- 
stances. Eggs 4-5-6, 0.80 x 0.60, normally pure white, not seldom sparsely dotted. 
CON’TOPUS. (ir. kévros, kontos, a pole or perch, and gots, pous, foot. Fig. 280, c.) Woop 
Pewee Fiycarcuers. With the feet extremely small; tarsus shorter or not longer than the 
bill, shorter than the middle toe and claw (except in pertinax) ; the tarsus, middle toe, and 
claw together, barely or not one-third as long as the wing ; bill flattened, very broad at base ; 
wings pointed, much longer than the emarginate tail, the proportions of the primaries varying 
with the species. Medium-sized and rather small species, brownish-olivaceous, without any 
bright colors or very decided markings ; the coronal feathers lengthened and erectile, but hardly 
forming a true erest. A small group of woodland species, near Hmpidonax, but characterized, 
as above described, by the feeble diminutive fect. Nest on boughs; eggs spotted. 
Analysis of Species. 
Species 7-8 long, with a tuft of white fluffy feathers on the flank. 
Under parts streaky. Wing pointed by 2d primary, supported nearly to end by 1st and 3d, 4th much 


shorter. ‘Tail about 3.00; wing about 4.00. Tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw. . . borealis 380 
Under parts more smooth in color. Wing pointed by 2d, 3d, and 4th quills, Ist much shorter; tail 
3.50 or more; wing about 4.00. Tarsus not shorter than middle toe and claw . .. . . pertinar 381 


Species under 7.00 long, without an evident cottony white tuft on the flank. 


Tarsus, middle toe, and claw together hardly or not 1.00 long . virens 382, 883 


C. borea/lis. (Lat. borealis, northern.) OLIVE-SIDED FLYCATCHER. Dusky olivaceous- 
brown, usually darker on the crown, where the feathers have blackish centres, and paler on the 
sides below; chin, throat, belly, crissum, and middle line of breast, white, more or less tinged 
with yellowish ; wings and tail blackish, unmarked, excepting inconspicuous grayish-brown 
tips of the wing-coverts, and some whitish edging on the inner quills ; feet and upper mandible 
black, lower maudible mostly yeHowish. The olive-brown below has a peculiar streaky appear- 
ance hardly seen in other species, and extends almost entirely across the breast. This ragged 
aspect of mixed dusky-olive and whitish, together with the large white fluffy flank-tufts, is 
diaguostic. Young may have the feathers, especially of the wings and tail, skirted with rufous. 
Length 7.00-8.00 ; wing 3.87-4.33, averaging 4.00, very long, folding to terminal third of tail, 
and remarkably pointed; 2d quill longest, supported nearly to the end by the Ist and 3d, the 
4th abruptly shorter; tail about 3.00, thus about } the wing, emarginate ; tarsus only 0.50, 
shorter than Dill, or than middle toe and elaw ; tarsus, middle toe, and claw together only about 
1.25; bill 0.67-0.75. N. Am. at large, apparently nowhere very abundant, rather common in 
some New England localities, very rare in the Middle and Southern States, less so in the West. 
N. even to Greenland; 8. to Central America in winter. Breeds from New England north- 


381. 


382. 


TYRANNIDA—TYRANNINZ: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 439 


ward, and much further south in the West. Generally seen high on some exposed outpost ; 
note querulous, but loud and harsh. Nest usually high, on a horizontal bough, rude and flat, 
of twigs, rootlets, grass, moss; eggs about 4, 0.85 X 0.65, buffy or creamy-white, fully spotted 
with lighter aud darker reddish-browns. A stocky, able-bodied, dark and streaky species. 
quite unlike any other. 

C. per/tinax. (Lat. pertinax, pertinacious; pertaining to C. borealis; per, and tenax, 
tenacious.) Cours’ FiycatcHer. Somewhat similar to C. borealis; colors more uniform 
and more clearly olive ; below, dull brownish-olive, lighter on throat, fading insensibly on belly 
into dingy yellowish-white ; lacking the peculiar streaky appearance of C. borealis. Cottony 
tufts on the flanks less conspicuous. Bill longer and comparatively narrower than in borealis; 
black above, yellow below; feet black. Wing-formula entirely different; 2d, 3d, and 4th 
quills nearly equal and longest, 1st abruptly 0.50 shorter, about as long as 5th, or between 5th 
and 6th. Feet small, weak, and properly “ contopine,” but tarsus if anything longer, not shorter, 
than middle toe and claw, about equalling the bill (the reverse proportion of bill, tarsus, and 
toe obtains in C. borealis). Length of ¢ about 8.00; extent 13.00; wing 4.00-4.30; tail 3.50- 
3.80; bill and tarsus, each, about 0.67; middle toe and claw 0.60. @ rather less. Young: 
Lower mandible and mouth orange-yellow ; feathers of wings and tail and their coverts skirted 
with rusty, and a shade of the same on the under parts generally. Midsummer adults wear 
browner, like the common wood pewee; and, in fact, the whole coloration of the species is the 
counterpart of a wood pewee’s. Mexico, N. into Arizona, where common in the pine woods. 
C. virens. (Lat. virens, virent, greenish. Fig. 287.) Woop Prwer. Olivaceous-brown, 
rather darker on head; below, with sides washed with a paler 
shade of the same, reaching nearly or quite across the breast ; 
throat and belly whitish, more or less tinged with dull yellow- 
ish ; under tail-coverts the same, usually streaked with dusky ; 
tail and wings blackish, the former unmarked, the inner wing- 
quills edged, and the greater and middle coverts tipped, with 
whitish ; feet and upper mandible black, under mandible usually 
yellow, sometimes dusky; iris brown. Spring specimens are 
purer olivaceous ; early fall birds are brighter yellow below ; in 
summer, before the worn feathers are renewed, the plumage is 
quite brown and dingy whitish. Very young birds have the 
wing-bars and edging of quills tinged with rusty, the feathers 
of the upper parts skirted, and the lower plumage tinged, with 
the same; but in any plumage the species ay be known from 
all the birds of the following genus, by these dimensions: Is 
Length 6.00-6.50; extent 10.00-11.00; wing 3.25-3.50; tail Fie. 287, — Wood Pewee, re- 
2.75-3.00 ; tarsus, middle toe and claw together hardly one inch, duced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) 
or evidently less; tarsus alone about 0.50, not longer than the bill. Bill very flat, its breadth 
at base more than one-half its length ; lateral outline bulging. Wings very long and pointed ; 
2d quill longest, 3d little if any less, 4th shorter, lst between 4th and 5th. Tail but little 
(about 0.50) shorter than wing, emarginate. Eastern N. Am., in woodland; extremely abun- 
dant in most U. S. localities, May-Sept., entering U.S. from the South usually in March, 
reaching its limit of dispersion by the end of April or early in May. Possibly winters along 
the southern border. West only to the high central plains. In the breeding season thd 
peculiarly plaintive, drawling note may be heard in almost any piece of woods, while the- 
dolorous little bird is at his post, perched on some exposed twig near his nest, and continually 
raiding after insects, which he captures with a quick twist in the air and a click of the bill, 
regaining his perch adroitly, and standing erect with hanging tail and wings. Nest a very 
pretty structure, saddled on a horizontal bough, flat and thin-bottomed, with thick walls and 


383. 


128. 


440 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PASSERES — CLAMATORES. 


well-turned brim, of fine fibres stuck over with lichens, the whole looking much like a nat- 
ural excrescence of the tree. Eggs 4-5, creaiy-white, marked with reddish-brown and 
lilac in various pattern, usually wreathing and blending about the larger end, sparser else- 
where; size about 0.75 X 0.65 —pé-d-wee! d-pée-wee!! 

C. v. rich/ardsoni. (To Sir John Richardson.) Western Woop PEwes. Similar; darker, 
more fuscous-olive above, the shading of the sides reaching almost uninterruptedly across the 
breast ; belly rather whitish than yellowish ; outer primary usually not obviously white-edged ; 
bill below cftener dusky than yellow, sometimes quite black. I fail to appreciate any reliable 
differences in size or shape ; or, in fact, any specific character. It isimpracticable to pronounce 
upon a pewee, in the closet, without knowing the locality ; but those familiar with both Eastern 
and Western birds in field, agree that they are not exactly the sae. Note not exactly like that 
of virens; nesting said to be different (Audubon, Allen). Rocky Mountains to the Pacific ; 
“Labrador” (Audubon). (Tyrannula richardsonii Sw., Fu. Bor.-Am., ii, 1831, p. 146? 
Contopus richardsonii Bv., B. N. Am., 1858, p. 189 ; Muscicapa phebe Auv., B. Am., Svo. ed., 
1, 1840, p. 219, pl. 61; Nurr., Man. i, 2d ed., 1840, p. 319. See Cours, B. N. W., 1874, 
p. 247.) 

EMPIDO'NAX. (Gr. éumis, gen. éumidos, empis, empidos, agnat; dvag, anax, king. Fig. 280, d.) 
Tue LirrLe OLIvAcEous FLYCATCHERS. Small olivaceous species, 5.00-6.00 (rarely 6.25) 
long ; wing 3.12 or less; tail 2.75 or less; whole foot at least $d as long as wing ; tarsus more 
or less obviously longer than middle toe and claw, much longer than bill; 2d, 3d and 4th quills 
entering into point of wing, 1st shorter or not obviously longer than 5th ; tail not over 4 an inch 
shorter than wings ; breast not buffy. (Compare Sayiornis, Contopus, Mitrephanes.) As in 
allied genera, several outer primaries are slightly emarginate on the inner web, but this character 
is obscure, often inappreciable, and may be disregarded. The coronal feathers are lengthened 
and erectile, but scarcely form a true crest. There are never any more conspicuous color-marks 
than in Sayiornis fusca or Contopus virens. The bill varies with the species in size and 
shape, from almost as broad and flat as in a wood pewee in acadicus, to the narrower shape of 
a pewit in obscurus; but it is always much shorter than the tarsus. It should not be difficult 
to recognize Empidonaz as different from Contopus, due attention being given to the nice points 
of diagnosis ; but it is a very difficult matter to discriminate the numerous species, requiring 
much tact, care, and patience. The following account, carefully prepared after examination of 
a great amount of material from all parts of the country, will probably suffice to determine 
ninety out of a hundred specimens ; but I confess it does not entirely satisfy me; and, as it does 
not fully answer all the requirements of the case, it must be regarded as provisional. How 
inuch alike are these interesting little birds may be inferred from the fact that Wilson knew 
but a single species, acadicus, to which Audubon added but one, trailli, until Baird showed him 
two more, minimus and flaviventris. Yet these four are perfectly distinct birds. Any experienced 
collector knows them to be different, not only when he has them in hand, but in life, by their 
haunts and habits, their notes, nests and eggs — indeed, the nests and eggs of each of them are 
readily discriminated. Three of them are common New England breeders — trailli, minimus, 
and flaviventris; while acadicus is the common breeder in the Middle States. The case is 
complicated, however, in the West. The two exclusively Western species, hammondi and 
obscurus, are pretty distinct — entirely so from each other; but the recognition of ‘ pusillus” 
and especially ‘ difficilis” is somewhat conventional. Since 1858, when Baird first fixed the 
species upon anything like a satisfactory footing, no changes whatever of his determinations 
and characterizations have been established; and as it is useless to exchange one doubtful 
opinion for another, the less obvious species may be suffered to remain as he left them. It is 
not reasonably possible to analyze all the forms in concise phrase ; the student must go at once 
to the detailed descriptions ; but the following may help him somewhat : — 


384. 


385. 


TYRANNIDZE:—TYRANNINZ: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 441 


Exclusively Eastern Species. 
Largest: rather overthan under 6.00; wing nearly or over 3.00; tarsus 0.67; middle toe and claw 0.50; 
bill nearly or quite 0.50, Clear light olive-green above, below whitish; wing-bars and eye-ring tawny. 
Nest gat in fork of a horizontal bough; eggs speckled. Not New England. . . . . acadicus 384 
Medium : rather under 6.00; wing 2.70; tarsus 0.67, but middle toe and claw 0.60; ‘ill hardly 0.50, 
Olive-brown above, below grayish; wing-bars and eye-ring whitish. Nest a bulky cup ina bush: 


eggs speckled. New England. . . . ates aos « tre@tlli (385 
Small: rather under 5.50; proportions and Galore neatly as in “trail Nest a neat £up in upright 

crotch of a free; eggs white. Commonest breeder in S. New England . . . . 2 minimus 387 
Medium ; under parts thoroughly yellow. Nest rear ground ina stump or log, ilies Eggs speckled, 

New Englands ho go 6 ab OR ee Ee i ee on a lenis 388 

Exclusively Western Species. 

The representative of trailli. Eggs speckled. ©. 6 6 6 ee ee ee pes? 386 
The representative of faviventr Eggs speckled. . me ao 1ditite 389 
Small, and otherwise like minimus; dark below, breast not very 5 different’ from Shank? bill extremely 

narrow. Eggstchite . ... Bo ey ek age Seog ds 2 oe ee Rhammondi 390 
Large, about the size of acadicus ; olive-brown above; breast dark: outer tail- feather white on outer 

web; bill very narrow. Eggswhite 2 2 6 6 6 ee ee ee ee Obscurus 391 


E. aca/dicus. (Lat. of Acadia.) SMALL GREEN-CRESTED ov ACADIAN FLYCATCHER. 
Above, olive-green, clear, light, continuous and uniform (though the erown may show rather 
darker, owing to dusky centres of the slightly lengthened, erectile feathers); below, whitish, 
olive-shaded on sides and nearly across breast, yellowish-washed on belly, tanks, erissum and 
axillars: wings dusky, inner quills edged, and coverts tipped, with tawny yellow; all the 
quills whitish-edged internally ; tail dusky, olive-glossed, unmarked ; a tawny eye-ring: feet 
and upper mandible brown, under mandible pale. In midsummer, rather darker ; in early fall 
brighter and especially more yellowish below ; in the young, the wing-markings more fulvous, 
the general plumage slightly buffy-suttused; when very young, said to be mottled transversely 
with pale ochraceous. Largest: 5.75-6.25 — rather over than under 6.00; extent rather over 
than under 9.50; wing 2.75-3.00 (even 3.12); tail 2.50-2.75 ; bill nearly or quite 0.50, about 
0.25 wide at nostrils, broad and flat, like a pewee’s: tarsus 0.66: middle toe and claw 0.50: 
point of wing reaching nearly an inch beyond the secondaries; 2d, 3d, and 4th quills nearly equal 
and much (4 inch or more) longer than Ist and 5th, which about equal each other ; Ist much 
longer than 6th. The Q near the lesser of all the dimensions given. Eastern U. 8., southerly, 
scarcely known in New England; abundant in the Middle and Western States in woodland : 
readily recognized by the points of size and shape, without regarding coloration. Nest in trees, 
in horizontal fork of a slender bough: thin and open-worked, shallow, flat, saucer-shaped: eggs 
2-4, 0.78 X 0.56, creamy-white, boldly spotted, resembling a wood pewee’s. (Auscicapa sub- 
viridis BARTRAM, 1791: ce vy subviridis Coves, 1$$2 (uame acadicus geographically 
false). Muscicapa querula Wits., ii, 77, pl. 13, £3; IL acadica Aup., B. Ain., Svo. ed. 1S40, 
i, 221, pl. 62; et lig ee Bp., B. N. A., 1858, p. 197.) 

E. trailli. (To T. 8. Traill, of Edinburgh.) Traimu’s Frycarcuer. Above, olive- 
brown, lighter and duller brownish posteriorly, darker on head, owing to obviously dusky 
centres of the coronal feathers ; below, nearly as in acadicus, but darker, the olive-gray shading 
quite across the breast; wing-markings grayish-white with slight yellowish or tawny shade ; 
under mandible pale; upper mandible and feet black. Averaging smaller than acadicus; 
length 5.50-6.00; extent under 9.50, usually $.75-9.00 ; wing 2.66-2.75, more rounded than 
in acadicus, its tip only reaching about 3 of an inch beyond the secondaries, formed by 2d, 3d 
and 4th quills, as before, but 5th not so much shorter (hardly or not } of an inch), the lst ranging 
between 5th and 6th; tail 2.50; tarsus 0.66, as before, but middle toe and claw 0.60, the feet 
thus differently proportioned, owing to length of toes; bill not so broad and flat as in acadicus. 
Eastern N. Am. to the Plains, common: an entirely different bird from acadicus, but dificult 
if not impossible to distinguish from the following variety ; almost the same in color as minimus, 
but larger, and otherwise perfectly distinct. A common breeder from New England and Canada 


386. 


387 


388. 


389. 


442 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PASSERES— CLAMATORES. 


to Dakota and Missouri; migrating through all the E. U.8., wintering beyond. Nest in trees 
or bushes, usually the latter, in New England at any rate; nest in an upright erotch, thick- 
walled, deeply-cupped, more or less compact-walled, sometimes slovenly and resembling that of 
an Indigo-bird; in any case different entirely from the flat pewee-like saucer of acadicus; eggs 
not distinguishable from those of acadicus, though averaging smaller; very different from those 
of minimus. Note a flat ke/-wink ke/-wink, slowly. 

E, pusil/lus. (Lat. puszllus, puerile, petty.) Lirrte WESTERN FLYCATCHER. Replaces 
true trail: from the Plains to the Pacific; may usually be recognized by its more fuscous color- 
ation, the olivaceous and yellowish shades of traiili being subdued ; by its larger bill, and the 
feet nearly as in acadicus. But are not specimens absolutely like trailli found in the West? 
The original Tyrannula pusilla of Sw., Fn. Bor.-Am., ii, 1831, 144; Aup., B. Am., 8vo. ed. 
ii, 1840, 236, pl. 66, is uncertain, just as likely have been minimus as this bird. I therefore 
pass over the name, which, if belonging here, autedates traiili, and adopt trailli for the eastern 
form (although Audubon says ‘‘ Arkansas to the Columbia”), taking pusilus of Baird for the 
Western variety. This is the usual “little flycatcher” in Western woodland, generally dis- 
tributed. Habits, nest and eggs counterparts of those of trail. 

E. mi/nimus. (Lat. minimus, smallest.) Least Fiycarcupr. Colors almost exactly as 
in trawl; usually, however, olive-gray rather than olive-brown; the wing-markings, eye-ring 
and loral feathers plain grayish-white; the whole anterior parts often with a slight ashy cast; 
under mandible ordinarily dusky ; feet perfectly black. It is a smaller bird than trailli, and 
not so stoutly built; the wing-tip projects only about half an inch beyond the secondaries ; the 
5th quill is but very little shorter than the 4th, the 1st apt to be nearer 6th than 5th ; the feet 
are differently proportioned, being much as in acadicus; the bill is obviously under half an 
inch long. Length 5.00-5.50; extent about 8.00; wing 2.60 or less; tail about 2.25. A 
series of g g, measured fresh, runs 5.20-5.50 long, by 7.60-8.30 in extent; several 9 ? are 
4.80-5.10 long, by 7.40-7.90 in extent. Although a large # may grade up to ? ¢trailli in 
size, aud there is no obviously different coloration, it is a different bird. Eastern N. Am. to the 
Plains, very abundant in the U. 8. during the migrations, in orchards, coppices, hedgerows, and 
the skirts of woods rather than in heavy forests. The commonest breeder in New England, 
especially Massachusetts; very common along Red River of the North, breeding at 49°. Ranges 
through E. U. 8. in migration; winters extralimital. Nest in upright crotch of tree, shrub, 
or sapling ; small, neat, compact-walled, deeply-cupped; eggs 3-4, white, normally unmarked, 
rarely speckled, 0.60-0.69 long, averaging 0.65 x 0.51. Note a sharp che-bec’, or se-wick’, 
quickly. 

E. flaviven/tris. (Lat. flavus, yellow, ventris, of the belly.) YELLOW-BELLIED FLycaTcHER. 
Above, olive-green, clear, continuous and uniform as in acadicus, or even brighter; below, not 
merely yellowish, as in the foregoing, but emphatically yellow, bright and pure on the belly, 
shaded on the sides and anteriorly with a paler tint of the color of the back ; eye-ring and wing- 
markings yellow; under mandible yellow ; feet black. In respect of color, this species differs 
materially from all the rest; none of them, even at their autumnal yellowes¢, quite match it. 
Size of trailli, or rather less; feet proportioned as in acadicus; bill nearly as in minimus, but 
rather larger ; 1st quill usnally equal to 6th. Eastern U. 8. and British Provinces, common, 
in woodland, swamps and shrubbery. Breeds probably from the Middle States northward. 
There has been much misunderstanding about the nest and eggs of this bird; the latter are 
described by Brewer and by Coues (1874) as white. Nest in swamps, close to ground, in a 
stuinp, log, or roots of an upturned tree, thick and bulky, of mosses, ete., deeply cupped ; 
eggs spotted. Note a low soft pe-a, slowly. 

E.f. diffi'cilis? (Lat. difficilis, dis-facilis, difficult, un-doable; very appropriate!) WrEsTERN 
YELLOW-BELLIED FrycatcuEr. Not tangibly distinct from flaviventris; coloration dingy, 
instead of pure olivaceous and yellow, the latter dulled with an ochrey shade; tail said to be 
longer. Western U. 8., abundant. Eggs speckled. 


390. 


391. 


124. 


392. 


125. 


TYRANNIDA)—TYRANNINE: TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 443 


E. ham‘mondi. (To Dr. W. A. Hammond, U.S. A.) Hammonn’s Fiycarcnrr. Dirty 
Littte Frycatcuer. Above, olive-gray, decidedly grayer or even ashy on the fore-parts ; 
the whole throat and breast almost continuously olive-gray but little paler than the back, the 
belly alone more or less decidedly yellowish ; wing-markings and eye-ring dull soiled whitish ; 
bill very smail, and extremely narrow, being hardly or not 0.20 wide at the nostrils ; this distin- 
guishes the bird from all but minimus and obscurus; under mandible usually blackish; tail usu- 
ally decidedly forked, more so than in other species (though in all of them it varies from slightly 
rounded to slightly emarginate) ; outer tail-feather usually whitish-edged externally (a character 
often shown by trailli and minimus), but not decidedly white. About the size of minimus ; 
wings and tail relatively longer. Plains to the Pacific, U. S., and British Am. This is the 
Western representative of minimus, but is tangibly distinet; the general tone of coloration is 
heavy, fall specimens in particular giving somewhat the effect of a dirty flaviventris; the tiny 
bill isa good mark. Nesting substantially like minimus; eggs white, unmarked. Note “a 
soft pit.” 

E. obsewrus. (Lat. obscurus, dark.) Wricut’s FtycatcuEer. GRAY LITTLE FLYCATCHER. 
Colors not very tangibly different from those of trailli or minimus, but outer web of outer tail- 
feather abruptly white in decided contrast. General tone quite gray; gray below quite across 
breast, giving the effect there of Contopus richardsoni; under mandible obscured ; eye-ring and 
wing-edgings quite whitish. General dimensions approaching those of acadicus, owing to 
length of wings and tail. Length doubtless up to 6.00, and extent to 9.50; wing 2.66—3.00 ; 
tail 2.50-2.75; tarsi about 0.75; bill about 0.50, extremely narrow (much as in Sayiornis 
fusca), its width at the nostrils only about 4 its length. The bird looks singularly like the 
Western Contopus, though of course immediately seen to be Hmpidonax. Rocky and other 
mts. of the West, N. to 49°, in woodland, groves and thickets. To complete the analogies 
between the Eastern and Western Empidonaces, this may be considered to represent acadicus. 
Nesting, however, substantially as in minimus: a neat, compact, deep-cupped nest in crotch of 
a sapling, and eggs 3-4, white, unmarked, but large, 0.75 X 0.58. Note ‘a weird sweer,” “a 
soft liquid whit.” (EB. obscurus, H. wrightii, Barrp, 1858 ; but qu. Tyr. obscura Sw. 1827?) 
MITRE’PHANES. (Gr. pitpn, mitre, a head-dress ; gaivw, I appear.) Lirrte Burr Fry- 
CATCHERS. Coronal feathers and rictal bristles longer than in Empidonax, and general cast of 
the plumage buffy or fulvous rather than olivaceous; otherwise (our species at any rate) not 
different from Hmpidonax. Several Mexican species, one reaching our border. (Mitrephanes 
CouEs, 1882, vice Mitrephorus Scu., 1859, preoccupied.) 

M. ful’vifrons palles/cens. (Lat. fulvifrons, fulvous-fronted ; pallescens, growing pale.) 
Lirtte Burr-preastep Frycarcurr. Above, dull grayish-brown tinged with olive, par- 
ticularly on the back ; below, pale fulvous, strongest across the breast, whitening on the belly ; 
no fulvous on the forehead ; sides of head light brownish-olive ; wings and tail dusky, outer 
web of outer tail-feathers, edges of inner primaries except at the base, and tips of wing-coverts, 
whitish ; iris brown; bill yellow below, black above ; feet black. Length 4.75 ; extent 7.33 ; 
wing 2.12; tail 2.00; tarsus 0.55; middle toe and claw 0.45; bill 0.40. New Mexico, Ari- 
zona, and southward. (Hmpidonax pygmeus Covers, Ibis, 1865, p. 5387; Matrephorus palles- 
cens Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad., 1866, p. 63. My original specimens, affording the descriptions 
quoted, and the first known to have been taken in the United States, do not appear to be 
specifically distinct from Muscicapa fulvifrons of Grraup (B. of Tex., 1841, pl. 2, f. 2); they 
are clean spring birds, and the species is more fulvous in fall plumage.) 

ORNITH'IUM. (Gr. dpvidior, ornithion, dimin. of dpus, a bird.) BrARDLESS FLYCATCHERS. 
General aspect of Hmpidonax, but remarkably distinguished by the parine shape of the bill, 
and almost entire absence of the rictal bristles so conspicuous in most genera of Tyrannide, 
though a few slight ones may be seen on close inspection. Bill much shorter than head, stout, 
compressed, not depressed as usual in Tyrannid@, with high-ridged arched culmen and scarcely 


393. 


126. 


394. 


444 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLZAL. 


overhanging tip; commissure gently decurved; gonys about straight. Head a little crested, 
as in Empidonax, Contopus, ete. Wings of moderate length, much rounded ; 2d to 5th prima- 
ries subequal and longest, 6th shorter, 1st about equal to 7th. Tail a little shorter than wings, 
even or searcely rounded. Tarsus long, exceeding the middle toe and claw ; lateral toes sub- 
equal, their claws about reaching base of middle claw; hind claw shorter than its digit. Of 
diminutive size, and dull plain colors, as in the small olivaceous flycatchers generally ; but for 
the bill, the species might be mistaken for an Lo mpidonaa. 
O.imber'be. (Lat. imberbis, beardless ; in, uot, aud barba, a beard.) TrExas BEarDLEss 
Frycatcuer. Adult ¢9: Above, dull olive-gray, a little darker (browner) on the length- 
encd erectile feathers of the crown, a little brighter (greener) on the ramp and upper tail-coverts. 
Below, pale dull gray, sometimes almost grayish-white anteriorly, clearing on the belly and 
under tail-coverts to pale yellowish. Wings and tail fuscous, with pale gray or whitish edgings 
of the middle and greater coverts and most of the quills of the wings, as in an Jmpidonax. 
Bill dark brown above, pale below. Worn specimens are quite brownish above, and whitish 
below, with little edging of the wings and tail. Young and fresh fall specimens are more clearly 
olivaceous above aud yellowish below, shaded with gray across the breast ; the young with the 
wing-bars tinged with buff or tawny — all quite as usual in Wmpidonax. Very small: length 
about 4.25; wing 2.10; tail 1.80; bill scarcely 0.30; tarsus 0.55 ; whole foot seareely 1.00. 
A curious little flycatcher of Mexico and Central Ain., lately discovered on the Lower Rio 
Grande of Texas. Nest and eggs unknown. 
PYROCE’/PHALUS. (Gr. mip, gen. mupos, pur, puros, fire ; kepadn, kephale, head.) Firre- 
CROWNED FLYCATCHERS. Sexes very dissimilar: head of g with a full globular crest (fig. 288), 
and all under parts (usually) scarlet-red ; other parts deep brown ; Q brown and whitish. Bill 
slender, narrow at base, much as in Sayiornis. Wings inoderate, pointed ; 2d-4dth quills 
longest, lst between 5th and 6th. Tail nearly even, shorter than wings, of broad feathers. 
Tarsus scarcely longer than middle toe and claw. A tropical genus of several species, one of 
which reaches our border. 
P. rubi/neus mexica/nus. (Lat. rubineus, ruby-red.) VERMILION FLycarcuer. Adult 3: 
Pure dark brown, including stripe along side of head; wings and tail blackish with slight pale 
edgings; the full globular erest, and all the under parts scarlet or vermilion; bill and feet 
black. 9 : Dull brown, including the little-crested crown; below, white, tinged with red, 
reddish or orange in some places; the breast and sides with slight 
dusky streaks. Jinmature ¢ shows gradation between the characters 
of both sexes; at first there is no red whatever, the bird otherwise 
resembling the 9, but pale yellowish where she is reddish ; upper 
parts gray ; all the feathers may be skirted with whitish, especially 
on the wing-coverts and inner secondaries; tail quite blackish; under 
parts more purely white than in the 9, and rather speckled than 
streaked with gray. But reddish soon replaces the yellow of the 
Fic. 288. —Head of Ver- crissum and axillars. Adult ¢ f are subject to much variation; the 
tailion Flycatcher, nat. size. red is sometimes rather orange. Length about 6.00; wing 3.25; 
tail 2.50; bill 0.45 ; tarsus 0.55; middle toe and claw 0.50. Valleys of the Rio Grande and 
Colorado, and southward; common in Arizona on the Gila; a very showy little bird, of the 
usual flycatcher habits. 


II.— Order PICARIZ: Picarian Birds. 


This is a miscellancous assortment (in scientific language, “‘a polymorphic group”) of 

birds of highly diversified forms, grouped together more because they differ from other birds in 
ghiy » SOUL s' hi 

one way or another, than on account of their resemblance to one another. As commonly received, 


PICARILZA: PICARIAN BIRDS. 445 


this order includes all the non-passerine Land Birds down to those with a cered bill (parrots 
and birds of prey). Excluding the parrots, which constitute a strongly inarked natural group, 
of equal value with those called orders in this work, the Picari@ correspond to the Strisores -- 
Scansores of authors; including, however, some that are often referred to Clamatores. (This 
“order” Scansores, or Zygodactyli, containing all the birds that have the toes arranged in 
pairs, two in front and two behind (and some that have not), is one of the most unmitigated 
inflictions that ornithology has suffered; it is as thoroughly unnatural as the divisions of my 
artificial key to our genera.) Ihave no faith whatever in the integrity of any such grouping 
as ‘‘ Piearie ” implies; but if 1 should break up this conventional assemblage, I should not 
know what to do with the fragments; not being prepared to follow Garrod to the length of 
a classification of birds based primarily upon the condition of certain muscles of the leg; and 
knowing of no available alternative. With this protest, and upon such understanding, I retain 
the Picarian group, as in the original edition of the Key, to include all the N. A. Land Birds of 
non-passerine character, without a hooked and cered bill, and without the proper characters of 
the Columbine and Galline families. 

Manifestly, from what has been said, the Picari@ are insusceptible of satisfactory definition ; 
but [nay indicate some leading features, mostly of a negative character, that they possess in com- 
mon. The sternum rarely conforms to the particular Passerine model, its posterior border 
usually being either entire or else doubly-notched. The vocal apparatus is not highly developed, 
having not more than three pairs of separate intrinsic muscles; the birds, consequently, are 
never highly musical. There are some modifications of the cranial bones not observed in 
Passeres. According to Sundevall, the Picaria, like lower birds, usually lack a certain special- 
ization of the flexor muscles of the toes seen in Passeres. The feet are very variously modified ; 
one or another of all the toes, except the middle one, is susceptible of being turned, in this or 
that case, in an opposite from the customary direction ; the fourth one being frequently capable 
of turning either way; while in two genera (of Picide the first, and in two others (of Alce- 
dinidg) the second, toe is deficient. The tarsal envelope is never entire behind, as in the 
higher Passeres. Another curious peculiarity of the feet is, that the claw of the hind toe is 
smaller, or at most not larger, than that of the third toe; and on the whole the hind toe itself 
is inconsiderable, weak if not wanting, not always perfectly incumbent and apposable. The 
wings, endlessly varied in shape, agree in possessing ten developed primaries, of which the first 
is rarely spurious or very short. (A notable exception to this occurs in the Pici.) A very 
general and useful wing-character is, that the coverts are larger and in more numerous series 
than in Passeres; the greater coverts being at least half as long as the secondary quills they 
cover, and sometimes reaching nearly to the ends of these quills. This is the common case 
among lower birds, but it distinguishes most of the Picarie from Passeres; it is not shown, 
however, in the Pecid@ and some others. The tail is indefinitely varied in shape, but the 
number of its feathers is a good clue to Picarig@. There are not ordinarily more than ten perfect 
rectrices, and occasionally there are only eight ; the Woodpeckers have twelve, but one pair is 
abortive ; there are twelve, however, in the Kingfishers, and some others. The bill shows 
numberless modifications in form, and has its own specialization in nearly every family ; it 
assumes some of the most extraordinary shapes, as in the hornbills and toucans, and is seldoin 
of the simple style seen in a thrush or finch ; it is never hooked and cered as in parrots and birds 
of prey, nor soft and swollen at the nostrils, as in pigeons. 

With this slight sketch of some leading features of the group (it will enable the student to 
recognize any Picarian bird of this country at least, and that is my main object), I pass to the 
consideration of its subdivision, with the remark that a precedent may be found for any con- 
ceivable grouping of the families that is not perfectly preposterous, and for some arrangements 
that are nearly so. As well as I can judge from the material at my command, and relying upor 
authority for data that I lack, the Picarie fall into three divisions at least. These I shall eall 


446 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLA. 


suborders, not however insisting in the least upon the question of taxonomic rank, but simply 
employing the terms conformably with my usage in other cases. The three groups may be here 
tabulated, with remarks calculated to give an idea of their composition :— 

I. CypseLirormMes — including only the three families Cypselide, Caprimulgide, and 
Trochilide —the Swifts, Goatsuckers, and Humming-birds. They are birds of 
remarkable volitorial powers ; the wing is pointed, and very long in its feathers and 
terminal portions, though the upper arm is very short. The feet are extremely small 
and weak, and are scarcely if at all serviceable for progression. The hind toe is 
somctimes versatile (among the Swifts) or somewhat elevated (in the Goatsuckers 
and some Swifts) ; the front toes are frequently connected at base by movable web- 
bing (Goatsnckers), and sometimes lack the normal number of phalanges (among 
Swifts and Goatsuckers) ; but the feet are never zygodactyle nor syudactyle. The 
variously-shaped tail has ten rectrices. One family (Humming-birds) shows the 
tenuirostral type of bill; the other two, the fisstrostral, on which account they used 
to be classed with the Swallows. The sternuin is broad, with a deep keel, entire or 
doubly notched (rarely singly notched) behind. The syrinx has not more than one 
pair of intrinsic muscles. 

II. Cucutirormes * —comprehending the great bulk of the order; in all, about fifteen fami- 
lies, rather more than less. They are only readily limited by exclusion of the charac- 
ters of the preceding and following groups. The sternum is usually notched behind ; 
the syringeal muscles are two pairs at most. The feet are generally short ; the dis- 
position of the toes varies remarkably. In the Coliida, or colies, of Africa, all the 
toes are turned forward. In the Zrogonide, the second toe is turned backward, so 
that the birds are zygodactyle, but in a different way from all others. Families with 
the feet permanently zygodactyle in the ordinary way by reversion of the fourth, or 
partially so, the outer toe being versatile, are — the Cuculide, or Cuckoos, with their 
near relatives the Indicatoride or Guide-birds of Africa; the Rhamphastide, or 
Toueans, confined to tropical America and distinguished by their enormous vaulted 
bill; the Musophagide, Plaintain-eaters or Touracos, of Africa; the Bucconide and 
Capitonida, or fissirostral and scansorial Barbets of the New and chiefly of Old World 
respectively ; and the Galbulide, or Jacamars, of America. (The Cuculide and 
Musophagide are by Garrod placed together with Gallinaceous birds.) In the 
remaining groups, the toes have the ordinary position, but sometimes offer unusual 
characters in other respects. Thus in the Alcedinide (Kingtishers), and Momotide 
(Motmots or Sawbills), the middle and outer toes are perfectly coherent for a great dis- 
tance, constituting the syngenesious, syndactyle or anisodactyle foot. The Bucerotide, 
or Hornbills, of the Old World, characterized by an immense corneous process on the 
bill, are relatives of the Kingfishers ; so are the Todid@, a group of small brightly- 
colored birds of Mexico and the West Indies. Other forms, all Old World, are the 
Meropide or bee-eaters, the Upupide or Hoopoes, and the Coractide or Rollers, with 
their allies the Leptosomatid@, of Madagascar. 

TL. Picrrormes — comprising ouly three families, the Zyngide, or Wrynecks, with one 
genus and four species, of Europe, Asia, and Africa; the Picumnide, with oue or two 
genera and nearly thirty species, chiefly American; and the Picid@ or true Wood- 
peckers. The digits are permanently paired by reversion of the fourth, except in 
two tridactyle genera, having no hind toe proper; there is a modification of the 


* While the Cypseliformes and Piciformes are each of them well characterized and perfectly defined groups 
of birds, the reverse is the case with the Cuculiformes, — a mixed lot requiring to be reconstructed by exclusion of 
some of the families here given as entering into its composition, The Trogonide have already been climinated 
by Sclater under the name of Heterodactyli. 


CAPRIMULGIDZ: GOATSUCKERS. 447 


lower end of the metatarsus, corresponding to the reversed position of the fourth toe, 
and the upper part of the same bone is perforated by canals fur flexor tendons. The 
basal phalanges of the toes are short. The wing has 10 primaries, and short 
secondary coverts (contrary to the rule in Picarie) ; the tail 10 rectrices, soft and 
rounded in Iyngide and Picumnida, rigid and acuminate in Picide, where also a 
supplementary pair of spurious feathers is developed, making 12 in all. The nostrils 
vary: they are large and of peculiar structure in [yngida@, usually covered with 
antrorse plumules in the rest. The bill is straight or nearly so, hard and strong, 
acute or truncate, the mandibles equal; the tongue is lumbriciform, and very gener- 
ally extensile to a remarkable degree, by a singular elongation of the bones and 
muscles (figs. 73, 74). The structure of the bony palate is unique among birds; it 
is called sawrognathous by Parker (see p. 173). The salivary glands have an 
unusual development, in the typical species at any rate. The sternum is doubly- 
notched behind. A very strongly-marked group ; in some respects it approaches the 
Passerine birds more nearly than other Picarie do. 

However impossible it is to define any such group as the conventional Picaria, and how- 
ever difficult it may be to make three or any other small number of subdivisions, the very 
diversity of the forms enables us to define the families with ease. The student can never be in 
doubt to which one of the six North American families his specimen belongs. 


3. SUBORDER CYPSELIFORMES: Cypse.irorm Birps. 


Fissirostral (Caprimulgide, Cypselida) or tenwirostral (Trochilide) Picarieg. Wings 
lengthened in the distal joints, shortened in the proximal, with 10 fully-developed primaries ; 
making an instrument of remarkable power. Feet never zygodactyle nor syndactyle; small, 
weak, scarcely fitted for progression; hind toe often elevated or versatile; front toes often 
webbed at base, or with abnormal ratio of phalanges, or both these modifications together 
(figs. 40, 41). Tail of 10 rectrices. Palate egithognathous (p. 172). Sternum deep-keeled, 
its posterior border usually entire, or doubly-notched or fenestrate. Syringeal muscles not more 
than one pair. The oil-gland nude. No ceca in Cypselide@ and Trochilide ; cceca present in 
Caprimulgide. Anomalogonatous; no ambiens nor accessory femoro-caudal muscle. 

Contains the 3 families named above, — Goatsuckers, Swifts, and Humming-birds. Not- 
withstanding the peculiarities of the latter, especially their long slender bill, they are really more 
nearly related to the fissirostral Swifts than these are to the fissirostral Caprimulgide, in essential 
structural characters. 


21. Family CAPRIMULGIDZ: Goatsuckers 


(So called from a traditional superstition). 
Fissirostral Picarie. Head broad, flattened ; 
neck inappreciable; eyes and ears large. Bill 
extremely small in its horny portion, which is 
depressed, and triangular when viewed from 
above, but with enormous gape reaching be- 
low the eye, and generally with bristles attain- 
ing an extraordinary development. Nostrils 


Fic. 289. — Whippoorwill, a setirostral Caprimul- basal, exposed, roundish, with a raised border, 
gine. (From Tenney, after Wilson.) 


sometimes prolonged into a tube. Wings 
more or less lengthened and pointed, deriving their sweep mainly from elongation of the distal 
joints and the feathers, the proximal segment being short; of 10 primaries and more than 9 
secondaries; the latter not so extremely short as in Cypselide. Tail variable in shape, of 10 


448 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARIZA — CYPSELIFORUES. 


rectrices. In certain genera, either wing or tail develops a pair of immensely lengthened 
feathers. Feet extremely small; tarsus usually short, and partly feathered; hind toe very 
short, commonly elevated and turned sideways; front toes connected at base by movable web- 
bing, and frequently showing abnormal ratio or phalanges, the 4th toe having but 4 joints 
(p. 127, fig. 41); middle toe lengthened beyond the short lateral ones, its claw usually pecti- 
nate (fig. 291). The oil-gland is nude, and cceca are present. The arrangement of the leg- 
muscles is anomalogonatous (p. 195); the ambiens and accessory femoro-caudal are both 
absent. 

A definitely-circumseribed, easily-recoguized group of about 14 genera and rather more 
than 100 species, of temperate and tropical parts of both hemispheres. They are all more or less 
nocturnal, and have a certain resemblance to owls, — particularly the genus Steatornis, which is 
quite owlish. The flight is perfectly noiseless ; the plumage is very soft and lax, as in owls, 
and the colors are usually blended in the most intricate pattern. The Caprimulgide are 
divisible, according to the structure of the feet, into two subfamilies: Podargine, chiefly Old 
World, with the normal ratio of phalanges, and Caprimulging (as below). Considering, how- 
ever, other points, particularly the shape of the sternum, a more elaborate division is into (1) 
Podarging, phalanges normal, tarsus naked and lengthened, sternum doubly-notched, with 
three genera (Podargus, Batrachostomus, and gotheles of the Old World; (2) Nyctibtine, 
phalanges normal, tarsus short, feathered, sternum doubly-notched, upper mandible toothed, 
containing one genus (Nyctibius) of tropical America ; (3) Steatornithing, phalanges normal, 
sternum singly-notched, with one remarkable genus (Steatormis) of tropical America, which 
might properly be made type of a separate family, so many are the peculiarities of this owlish 
bird ; and finally (4) Caprimalgine, comprising the rest of the family. The latter alone is 
represented in North Aimeriea. Our “‘ Whippoorwills ” are typically caprimulgine, and give a 
good idea of the essential characters of the family; our ‘‘ Night-hawks” are more aberrant, 
representing a particular section of the subfamily; but neither of these gives any hint of the 
singular shapes which some of the genera assume. 


30. Subfamily CAPRIMULCGINA: True Coatsuckers; Night-jars. 


Sternum singly-notched on each side bebind; its body not 
square. Ratio of phalanges abnormal. Outer toe 4-jointed ; 
middle claw pectinate; hind toe very short, elevated, semi-lateral ; 
anterior toes movably webbed at base (fig. 41); lateral toes not 
nearly reaching base of middle claw. Tarsus very short, com- 
monly much feathered (longer and naked in Nyctidromus and 
Phalenoptilus). Besides the semipalmation of the feet, there 
is another curious analogy to wading birds; for the young are 
downy at birth, as in Precoces, instead of naked, as is the rule 
among Altrices. The plumage is soft and lax, much as in the 
Owls; the birds have the same noiseless flight, as well as, in 
most cases, nocturnal or crepuscular habits; and some of them 
bear an odd resemblance to Owls. Besides this fluftiness and 
laxity of the plumage, the skin is very thin and tender; it is 
difficult to make good specimens of the whippoorwills, and the 
curiously variegated blended shades, of exquisite beauty, like 


the powdery coloration of a moth’s wings, are at best not easy 


Fig, 290. —Night-hawk, a glab- ; ‘ 5 : : 
rirostral Caprimulgine. (From Ten- to describe. An evident design of the capacious mouth is the 


ney, after Wilson.) capture of insects ; the active birds quarter the air with wide- 


open mouth, and their minute prey is readily taken in. But they also secure larger insects in 
other ways; and to this end the rictus is frequently strongly bristled, as in the Zyrannide. In 


CAPRIMULGIDZ — CAPRIMULGINZ : TRUE GOATSUCKERS. 449 


all our genera excepting Chordediles, the rictal bristles are an inch or more in length, in a firm 
regular series along the gape—they are relatively longer and stiffer than the whiskers of a cat. 
Our several genera are readily discriminated by good characters of the nostrils, enormous rictal 
bristles, and comparatively short wings of the Night-jars proper, in comparison with the slight 
bristles, forked tail and long pointed wings of Chordediles; they respectively represent two 
sections of the subfamily — Setirostres, bristled-billed (fig. 289), and Glabrirostres, smovth- 
billed (fig. 290). In both the feet are so extremely short that the birds cannot perch in the 
usual way, but sit lengthwise on a large branch, or crouch on the ground. They lay two 
leugthened. white or thickly spotted eggs, on or near the ground, in stumps, ete. The sexes 
are distinguishable, but nearly alike. The voice is peculiar, and has given several of the 
species their fanciful onomatopoetic names. Migratory. 

Oss. Since the orig. ed. of the Key was published, a fine genus and species, Nyctidromus 
albicollis, has been added to our Fauna. ‘‘ Nuttall’s Whippoorwill” has been made the type of 
a new genus, Phalenoptilus, on the ground of its naked feet, short square tail, and other good 
characters. The common whippoorwill has been referred back to the old genus Caprimalgus. 
While it certainly differs from the chuck-will’s-widow, type of Antrostomus, in not having the 
rictal bristles garnished with lateral filaments, and is not very obviously different from Capri- 
mulgus of the Old World, it may be best to keep it with Antrostomus, where all the New 
World species are usually referred, until the limits of the respective genera are better under- 


stood. 
Analysis of Genera. 
A, Setirostres. Long rictal bristles. Plumage very lax. 
Tarsus extensively feathered. Nostrils not extensively tubular. 
Tail rounded, much shorter than wing. Primaries all mottled, without white spaces. Eggs 
colored. Large and medium-sized . . . . soe ee ee « « Antrostomus 128 
Tarsus naked, except on joint above. Nostrils extensiv ly tubular. 
Tail square, much shorter than wing. Primaries all mottled, without white spaces. Eggs color- 


less. Small (Western.) . . Z . + Phalenoptilus 129 
Tail rounded, about as long as wing. Outer primaries mostly ‘aidles colored, with great white 
spaces. Eggscolored. Very large (Southwestern.). . . ... . . . . .«Nyctidromus 127 


B. Glabrirostres. No long rictal bristles. Plumage more compact. 
Tarsus moderately feathered. Nostrils not extensively tubular. 
Tail forked, much shorter than the pointed wing. Outer primaries mostly whole-colored, with 
great white spaces. Eggs colored. Medium-sized . . ........ . . Chordediles 130 


127, NYCTI'DROMUS. (Gr. wé, gen. 
vuktés, nux, nuctos, night; dSpdpos, 
dromos, act of coursing. Fig. 291.) 
Nicut Coursers. Nostrils prolonged 
as cylindric tubes opening forward and 
outward.  Rictal bristles immense, 
simple ; other bristle-tipped or bristle- 
bearded feathers about the bill. Tar- 
sus lengthened, but not exceeding the 
middle toe without claw, naked except 
just on the joint. Wing scarcely 
rounded; tipped by 2d, 3d, and 4th 
quills, 1st longer than 5th, folding to 
about the middle of the tail, which is 
rounded, and approximately of equal 
length with the wing. Plumage not Fic. 291. — Head, foot, and pectinated claw of Nyctidromus, 
so lax as in a whippoorwill; in this, as "> 8° [Otte eee) 
in the stiffish primaries with little marbling but great white spaces, and the under parts barred 
crosswise, is seen an approach to Chordediles, between which genus and Phalenoptilus Nycti- 

29 


395. 


128. 


450 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLAD — CYPSELIFORMES. 


dromus probably comes. One or two species, long well known in tropical America, lately 
found N. to Texas. 
N. albicol/lis. (Lat. albus, white; collum, neck.) WHITE-THROATED NIGHT-COURSER. 
Pavragus. Adult ¢: Assuming brownish-gray as the ground color of the upper parts: 
Crown heavily dashed with black streaks along the middle line, with narrow black shaft-lines 
at the sides aud on nape. Back more diffusely streaked with black in smaller pattern, tending 
to break up in chains of shaft-spots, and with lighter gray and brown marbling. Scapulars 
and tertiaries boldly and beautifully marked with firm, even, sharp lines of white or tawny- 
white — the arrow-headed edgings of angular black terminal fields. Wing-coverts curiously 
mottled with black, white, and tawny —the white and tawny conspicuous as large irregularly 
roundish spots. Five outer primaries with a large oblique white spot, on the Ist at about its 
middle, on the others nearing their ends; these primaries otherwise plain blackish, except a 
little marbling at their ends — the whole effect thus as in Chordediles. Other primaries and all 
the secondaries blackish, fully scalloped and barred with tawny in increasing amount and regu- 
larity from without inward. Four middle tail-feathers clouded with the same variegated colors 
as the other upper parts, but without definite white — the markings tending to wavy cross-burs. 
Next two lateral feathers on each side with great white spaces on one or both webs at end, 2-3 
inches long, the rest of these feathers chiefly barred with black and tawny; outer feather chiefly 
black, but with marbling, and with white and tawny. Ear-coverts rich- chestnut, well con- 
trasted with surroundings. Throat with a broad white collar, some of the white feathers black- 
tipped. Under parts ochraceous or pale tawny, varied with whitish, and pretty regularly 
barred crosswise with blackish-brown, thus somewhat as in Chordediles. Length 18.00; 
extent 25.00: wing and tail, each, 7.50; tail graduated 1.00; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and 
claw 1.25. Another Texas specimen (perhaps 2, but with even more white on the tail, but 
white on only 4 primaries) is much smaller: length about 10.50; wing 6.50; tail 6.00. The 
species is said to be very variable in size and markings; ? to have the collar buff. Tropical 
America, N. to Texas, where common in the valley of the Lower Rio Grande. Eggs 2, laid 
on the ground; 1.25 x 0.92, creamy-buff, spotted with pinkish, brown, and lilac. 
ANTRO/STOMUS. (Gr. dytpoy, antron, a cave; oropa, stoma, mouth; alluding to the cav- 
ernous mouth. Fig. 292.) AMERICAN 
Nicut-gars. Nostrils oval, with a raised 
tim not prolonged as a tube, opening up- 
ward and outward. Rictal bristles im- 
mense, with or without lateral filaments, 
and other bristly or bristle-bearded feathers 
about the bill. Tarsus not longer than 
middle toe without claw, feathered in front 
nearly to the toes. Wing rounded, tipped 
by 2d and 3d quills, folding to beyond the 
middle of the tail, which is rounded (not 
enough so in fig. 293) and much shorter 
than wing. Plumage very lax, with mi- 
Fig. 292. — Head and foot of Whippoorwill, nat. size. nutely marbled coloration, in some places 
(Ad natadel sisdide way.) as if dusted or frosted over; primaries 
weak, all mottled with tawny, without great white spaces; under parts mottled, with little 
tendency to regular crosswise barring; markings of crown longitudinal. Size medium and 
rather large; sexes distinguishable; eggs 2, heavily colored. Highly nocturnal. Containing 
those shadowy birds, consorts of bats and owls, —those scarce-embodied voices of the night, 
here, there, and everywhere unseen, but shrilling on the ear with sorrow-stricken iteration. 


396 


CAPRIMULGIDZ — CAPRIMULGINZE: TRUE GOATSUCKERS. 451 


Analysis of Species. 

Large: rictad bristles garnished with lateral filaments. Tail with large whole-colored spaces in 6 only 
(Antrostomus proper) . 6. ee ee ee CGrolinensis 396 
Small: rictal bristles simple. Tail with white spaces in both sexes (Caprimulgus?) . . . . vociferus 397 
A. carolinen’sis. (Lat. Carolinian.) CHUCK-WILL’s-wipow. The rictal bristles with 
lateral filaments. Singularly variegated with black, white, brown, tawny, and rufous, the 
prevailing tone fulvous ; a whitish or tawny throat-bar ; several lateral tail-feathers with large 
whole-colored space in the @, all variegated in the 9. Adult g : Taking dark wood-browu 
as the ground color of the upper parts, this is heavily dashed with black, lengthwise on the 
crown in large pattern, elsewhere similar in smaller styie, everywhere minutely punctulated 


Fig. 293. — Whippoorwill, } nat. size. (From Brehm. Tail not rounded enough.) 


with ochrey and gray, as if dusted over; wing-coverts and inner quills more boldly varied with 
black centre-fields and tawny or whitish edgings of the feathers. Four middle tail-feathers 
singularly clouded with gray and tawny on a seeming black ground, the pattern tending cross- 
wise. All the other tail-feathers with the inner webs having 2-3 inch long whole-colored 
spaces, white viewed from above, tawny seen from below (a curious difference, which has 
caused some confusion in descriptions of the sexes of this bird); their outer webs mottled with 
black and tawny. Primaries black, fully mottled with broken-up tawny-reddish cross-bars. 
General tone of the under parts ochraceous, becoming quite so posteriorly, with pronounced 
tendency to black cross-waves. Length 11.00-12.00; extent about 25.00; wing 8.00 or more ; 
tail 5.00 or more; whole foot 1.75. 9 only differs in lacking the whole-colored spaces on the 
tail, all the feathers being motley throughout; primaries more closely mottled with reddish ; 


397. 


881. 


129. 


He 
Or 
bo 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARILZA — CYPSELIFORMES. 


rather smaller. South Atlantic and Gulf States, Carolina to Indian Territory, Texas and N. 
Mexico, 8. to Central America ; resident on eur southern border. Twice as bulky as a whip- 
poorwill, the general tone rufous. Eggs 2, 1.45 x 1.05, heavily marked in intricate pattern 
with browns aud neutral tints. 

A. voci'ferus. (Lat. vociferus, voice-bearing. Figs. 289, 292, 293.) WHIPPOORWILL. 
Nicur-sar. The rictal bristles simple. Upper parts variegated with gray, black, whitish, and 
tawny; prevailing tone gray ; black streaks sharp on the head and back, the colors elsewhere 
delicately marbled, including the four median tail-feathers ; wings and their coverts with bars of 
rufous spots; lateral tail-feathers black, with large white (g) or small tawny (?) terminal 
spaces; a white (g) or tawny (@) throat-bar. Adult @: Assuming stone-gray as the 
ground-color of the upper parts: Crown with a purplish cast, heavily dashed lengthwise with 
black ; back darker, with sinaller streaks; tail beautifully marbled with slate-gray and black 
teuding crosswise on the 4 middle feathers ; scapulars with bold black centre-fields set in frosty 
marbling; hind neck with white specks, as if continued around from the white throat-bar. 
Primaries black, with a little marbling at their ends, fully broken-barred with tawny-reddish ; 
no white spaces. Three lateral tail-feathers mostly black, with pure white terminal spaces 
1-2 inches long. Under parts quite blackish, on the breast powdered over with hoary-gray, 
more posteriorly marbled with gray and tawny, tending crosswise. Lores and ear-coverts dark 
brown. It is only in perfect plumage that the colors are as slaty and frosty as deseribed ; 
ordinarily more brown and ochrey. Length 9.00-10.00; extent 16.00-18.00; wing 6.00 or 
more ; tail 5.00 or less; whole foot 1.40; the distance across from one corner of the mouth to 
the other about as much as length of gape. @, adult: General tone more brownish and ochrey ; 
throat-bar tawny-whitish ; tail-spaces very slight and ochraceous; rather smaller. Eastern 
U. 5. and British Provinces to the central plains, abundant, migratory ; breeds throughout, but 
chiefly northerly ; winters beyond. A shady character, oftener heard than scen, of recluse 
nocturnal habits and perfectly noiseless flight, in the breeding season ceaseless in uttering 
its strange uncouth cries with startling vehemence. The notes are likened to the phrase which 
has given the name; they are very rapidly reiterated, with strong accent on the last syllable; 
when very uear, a clicking sound, and sometimes low murmuring tones, may also be heard. 
No nest; 2 eggs on ground or log or stump, 1.25 X 0.90, creamy-white, heavily marked with 
browns and neutral tints. The young are helpless, shapeless, downy masses; both eggs and 
young are often removed in the parent’s mouth if disturbed, as a cat carries off her kittens, 
practice, however, habitual in this curious family of birds. Unlike the night-hawk, the whip- 


a 


poorwill rarely flies by day, unless flushed from its shady retreats. 

(addenda) A. v. arizone. ARIZONA WHIPPOORWILL. Similar: larger: rictal bristles longer. 
&@: Throat-bar and superciliary streak ochraceous; lores and ear-coverts tawny ; white spaces 
on tail short; under tail-coverts nearly unbarred. 
Length 10.20; extent 19.40; wing 6.65; tail 4.45; 
longest rictal bristle 1.80; longest tail-spot 1.55. 
Arizona. Perhaps approaching A. macromystax. 
PHALENO'PTILUS. (Gr. dadawa, phalaina, a 
moth; mridov, ptilon, feather: alluding to the pow- 
dery plumage, like the furriness of a moth’s wings. 
Fig. 294.) Poor-wiuis. Nostrils tubular, cylin- 
dric, opening forward and outward. Rictal bristles 
immense, but simple. Tarsus naked except just on 
the joint above (as in Nyctidromus), as long as mid- 
dle toe without claw. Tailsquare, much shorter 
than the rounded wings, which fold nearly to its Fig. 294, — Head and foot of Nuttall’s Poor- 
end. Plumage peculiarly soft and velvety, in hoar-  W#) nat. size, (Ad nat. del. R. Ridgway.) 


398. 


130. 


CAPRIMULGIDA — CAPRIMULGINA: TRUE GOATSUCKERS. 53 


frosted pattern of coloration. Markings of crown transverse; primaries barred with black aud 
tawny. Size small. Sexes alike. Note dissyllabic. Eggs white. 

P. nut'talli, (To Thos. Nuttall.) Nutrauy’s Poor-witt. 2¢@, adult: Assuming the 
upper parts of a beautiful bronzy-gray ground color, this is elegantly frosted over with soft 
silver-gray, and watered in wavy cross-pattern with black, these black double crescents cnlarg- 
ing to herring-bone marks on the scapulars and inner quills. Four iniddle tail-feathers patterned 
after the back ; others with firmer black bars on inotley brown ground, and short white tips. 
Primaries and longer secondaries bright tawny, with pretty regular black bars, aud marbled 
tips (the half-opened wing viewed from below is curiously lke that of the short-eared owl.) 
A large firm silky-white throat-bar. Under parts grounded in blackish-browu, giving way 
behind through ochrey with dark bars to nearly uniform ochrey. It is impossible in words to 
give an idea of the artistic blending of the colors iu this elegaut little uight-jar. The sexes 


Fie. 295. — Night-hawk, or Bull-bat, 3 nat. size. (From Brehm. Bill too bristly.) 


scarcely differ ; specimens before me marked Q have as purely white throat as the %, but the 
tail-tips are shorter and tinged with tawny. Length 7.00-8.00; extent 15.00; wing about 5.50: 
tail 3.50 or less; tarsus, or middle toe without claw, 0.65. Plains to the Pacific, U. S. and 


southward, abundant. Note of two syllables, the first of the ‘ whippoorwill ” omitted. Eggs 
2, 1.05 x 0.80, elliptical, white. - 


I 1 # . . . 
CHORDEDI'LES. (Gr. xop6n, chorde, a stringed musical instrument; deidn, evening : 


alluding to the crepuscular habits.) Nicur-Hawks. Glabrirostral: the rictus without long stiff 
bristles. Horny part of beak extremely small. Nostrils cylindric and rimmed about, hardly aoe 
lar, opening outward and upward. Tarsus feathered part way down in front. Tail lightly forked 
much shorter than the extremely long, pointed, stiff, and thin-bladed wing, with Ist prnAny 
as long as the next. Plumage more compact and smooth than in the night-jars ; prinaries 
mostly whole-colored (in C. texensis spotted), with large white (or tawny) spaces ce the outer 
4-6 ; under parts barred across; a large white (or tawny) V-shaped throat-bar. Bees 2 


heavily colored. Not strictly nocturnal. Remarkably volitorial. 


399. 


400. 


401. 


402. 


454 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLE — CYPSELIFORMES. 


Analysis of Species. 


Large: wing near 8.00. Primaries dusky, with large white spot on 5 of them, in both sexes, about half 


way from bend to point of the wing. . . - + popetue 399, 400, 40] 
Small: wing about 7.00. Primaries more or ies Spot ted with aa with janee white (¢) or tawny (?) 
spaces on 4 of them nearer point than bend of the wing. (Southwestern.) . . .. . . . .texensis 402 


C. popetue. (Vox barb., incog. Figs. 290, 295.) Nigur-Hawk. Buui-Bat. Above, mot- 
tled with black, brown, gray and tawny, the former in excess ; below from the breast transversely 
barred with blackish and white or pale fulvous ; throat with a large white (¢) or tawny (9?) 
cross-bar ; tail blackish, with distant pale marbled cross-bars and a large white spot (wanting in 
the  ) on one or both webs of nearly all the feathers toward the end; primaries dusky, unmarked 
except by one large white spot on outer five, about midway between their base and tip ; second- 
arics like primaries, but with whitish tips and imperfect cross-bars. Sexes nearly alike: Q 
with the white spaces on the quills, but that on the tail replaced by tawny or not evident. 
Young similar, with the wing-spots from the nest, but the markings finer and more intricately 
blended, in effect more like Antrostomus; quills edged and tipped with tawny. Length 9.00 or 
more; extent about 23.00 ; wing about 8.00; tail 4.50; whole foot 1.25 ; eulmen scarcely 0.25 ; 
gape about 1.25. Temperate N. Am., chiefly Eastern, abundant; migratory ; breeds through- 
out its range; winters beyond. This species flies abroad at all times, though it is perhaps 
most active towards evening and in dull weather; and is generally seen in companies, busily 
foraging for insects with rapid, easy, and protracted flight; im the breeding season it perforins 
curious evolutions, falling through the air with a loud booming sound. Eggs Q, elliptical, 1.52 
x 0.87, finely variegated with stone-gray and other neutral tints, over which is scratched and 
fretted dark olive-gray ; but the pattern and tints are very variable. The young hatch covered 
with fluffy down, whitish below, varied with blackish and brown above. It may be necessary 
in this family for the young to be covered from the first, to protect them from the cold ground. 
On being disturbed while brooding the female feigus lameness, dragging and fluttering about, 
moaning piteously, and will sometimes remove her young. 

C. p. hen’ryi. (To Dr. T. C. Henry.) Western Nigut-Hawk. The lighter-colored form 
prevailing in the dryer or unwooded portions of western United States; the gray and fulvous 
in excess of the darker hues, the white patches on the wing, tail and throat usually larger; the 
under tail-coverts more nearly uniform; but no specific character can be assigned. 

C. p. minor. (Lat. minor, smaller.) CuBAN NigutT-yAwK. A form found in the West 
Indies, similar to C. popetue in color, but rather more tawny, and decidedly smaller: wing 
7.00; tail 4.00. Florida. 

C. acutipen/nis texen’sis. (Lat. acutus, acute; penna, a feather: alluding to the sharp- 
pointed wings. Of Texas: our bird a northern race of the 8. Am. species.) TExas Nicut- 
HAWK. Smaller than the foregoing, and otherwise very distinct. General tone lighter, pattern 
more blended and diffuse, more as in an Antrostomus. @, adult: Assuming upper parts gray, 
this color intimately punctate with lighter and darker shades, more boldly marked with blackish, 
chiefly in streaks, and with tawny and white, largest on the scapulars and wing-coverts. 
Under parts barred, as in popetue, with blackish, tawny, and whitish, but the two former pre- 
vailing. A large white V on the throat. Four outer primaries with large white spot on both 
webs, nearer tip than bend of the wing; inner primaries and all the secondaries spotted with 
tawny in broken bars. Tail blackish, with broken gray or tawny bars, and a complete sub- 
terminal cross-bar of white on all the feathers but the central pair. @ lacking this white, all 
the tail-feathers being motley-barred with gray aud tawny throughout; the primaries all spotted 
with tawny, larger spots of this color replacing the white of the $; throat-V tawny. Young 
more suffused with tawny on a pearly-gray, black-speckled ground; but young @ with the 
white tail- and wing-spots from the first. Length 8.00 or more; extent 20.00-22.00; wing 
about 7.00; tail 4.00. S.W. U.S., valleys of Rio Grande and Colorado, Texas to California 


CYPSELIDA: SWIFTS. 455 


and southward, common. General habits and traits of a night-hawk, but the difference between 
the two is obvious when they aro flying. Eggs 2, heavily veined and marbled, 1.20 0.87. 


22. Family CYPSELIDA: Swifts. 


Fissirostral Picarie : 
Bill very sinall, flattened, 
triangular when viewed 
from above, with great 
gape reaching below the 
eyes; unnotched, unbris- 
tled, the gape about six 
times as long as the cul 
men. Nostrils exposed, 
superior, nearer culmen 
than ecominissure, the 
frontal feathers tending to 
reach forward under them. 
Wings extremely long, 
thin, and pointed (fre- 
quently as long as the 
whole bird); the prima- 
ries acute and somewhat 
faleate; the secondaries 
extremely short (nine ?). 
Tail of 10 rectrices, va- 
riable in shape, often 
mucronate. Feet small, 
weak, the envelope rather 
skinny than scaly; tarsi 
naked or feathered; hind 
toe frequently elevated, or 
versatile, or permanently 
turned sideways or even 
forward; lateral toes near- 
ly or quite as long as 
the middle; anterior toes 
deeply cleft, the basal 
phalanges extremely short, 
the penultimate very long, 
the number of phalanges 
frequently abnormal (2, 3, 
3, 3, instead of 2, 3, 4, 5; 
see p. 127, fig. 40); claws 
sharp, curved, never pecti- 
nate. Plumage compact, 
usually sombre and whole- 
colored, or only relieved 

we with white; sexes alike. 
Fie. 296. Northern Black Cloud Swift, nat. size. (E. H. Fitch.) Sternum deep - keeled, 


131, 


403. 


456 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARILA — CYPSELIFORMES. 


widening behind, its posterior margin entire; furculum stout, rather U- than V-shaped. Oil- 
gland nude. No ceca. Leg-muscles anomalogonatous (p. 195); femoro-caudal present, but 
accessory femoro-caudal, semitendinosus, accessory semitendinosus and ambiens absent. Eggs 
several, narrowly oval, white. 

“One of the most remarkable points in the structure of the Cypselide is the great devel- 
opment of the salivary glands. In all the species of which the nidification is known, the 
secretion thus produced is used more or less in the construction of the nest. In most cases it 
forms a glue by which the other materials are joimed together, and the whole nest is affixed to a 
rock, wall, or other object against which it is placed. In some species of Collocalia, however, 
the whole nest is made up of inspissated saliva, aud becomes the ‘edible bird’s nest’ so well 
known in the East.” (SCLATER.) 

A well-defined family of 6 or § generaand about 50 species, inhabiting temperate and warm 
parts of the globe. They are rather small birds, of plain plumage, closely resembling swallows 
in superticial respects, but with no real affinity to these Oscines. Notwithstanding the utmost 
difference in the shape of the bill, the real affinities are with the tenuirostral Trochilide in 
every structural peculiarity. They are birds of extraordinary volitorial ability, being only sur- 
passed in this respect by the hummers themselves. The family is divisible into two subfami- 
lies, according to the structure of the feet. 

Analysis of Subfamilies and Genera. 
CYPSELINZ. Front toes with 3 joints apiece. Hind toe lateral or versatile. Tarsi feathered. 
Toes feathered. Tail notspiny . . . . Panyptila 131 
CHEZETURINA. Front toes with 3, 4, and 5 "joints from i inner 6 outer. “Stina toe posterfor or lateral, but 
not reversed. Tarsi and toes naked. 


Tail emarginate, not mucronate . 2. 6. 6. ee ee ee ee ee ee es « Mepheecetes 132 
Tail rounded,mucronate . 2. 6s 2. 6 6 8 ee eee ee ee eee we ee os se Cheetura 133 


31. Subfamily CYPSELINAE: Typical Swifts. 


Ratio of the phalanges abnormal, the 3d and 4th toes having each 3 joints like the 2d; 
basal phalanges of all the anterior toes very short (fig. 40). Hind toe reversed (in Cypselus, 
where nearly all the species belong), or lateral (in Panyptila). Tarsi feathered (in Cypselus) ; 
toes also feathered (in Panyptila). Coutains only these two genera and nearly half the species 
of the family. Of Panyptila there are only three well-determined species, all American ; while 
Cypselus has upward of twenty, mostly of the Old World; the three or four American ones 
being sometimes detached under the naine of Tachornis. 

PANY’PTILA. (Gr. mavv, panu, much, very; mridov, ptilon, wing: in allusion to the length 
of wing.) Rock Swirts. Tail about $ as long as wing, forked, with stiffish and narrowed, 
but uot spiny feathers. Wing pointed by the 2d primary, the lst decidedly shorter. Tarsi 
feathered to the toes; these also feathered to some extent. Hind toe elevated, lateral, but not 
reversible. Front toes with slight basal webs. Eyelids naked. Colors black and white. 

P, saxa/tilis. (Lat. saxatilis, rock-inhabiting ; saxwm, a rock.) WHITE-THROATED Rock 
Swirr. Black or blackish; chin, throat, breast, and middle line of belly, tips of secondaries, 
edge of outer primary and lateral tail-feathers, and a flank-patch, white. Forehead and line 
over eye pale; a velvety black space before eye. Bill black; feet drying yellowish. The 
purity of the color varies with the wear of the feathers, some specimens being dull sooty 
brownish, others more purely and even glossy blackish. The extent of the white along the 
belly is very variable. The flank-patches are conspicuous, in life sometimes almost meeting 
over the rump. Length 6.50-7.00; extent about 14.00: wing the same as total length ; tail 
about 2.66, forked, soft. Southwestern U. 8. and southward, breeding in colonies on cliffs; a 
large and beautiful swift —a high-flier of almost incredible velocity, with a loud shrill twitter, 
nesting in the most inaccessible places, sometimes by thousands. The eggs do not appear to 
have been taken yet, but are presumed to be white, as in all the species the eggs of which are 
known. Found N. to Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada. 


132. 


404. 


133. 


405. 


CYPSELIDA — CHATURINA: SPINE-TAIL SWIFTS. 457 


32. Subfamily CHAETURINZ: Spine-tail Swifts. 


Toes with the normal number of phalanges; all but 
the penultimate ones extremely short. Anterior toes cleft 
to the base (uv webbing). Hind toe not reversed, but 
sometimes versatile; our species have it obviously ele- 
vated. Tarsi never feathered; naked and skinny, even 
on the tibio-tarsal joint. In the principal genus, Che- 
tura, containing about half the species of the subfamily, 
of various parts of the world, the tail-feathers are stiffened 
and mucronate by the projecting rhachis. The other 
genera are Collocalia and Dendrochelidon of the Old 


Fic. 297. — Cluelurinw. Wead and mu- x7 7 a 
cronate tail-feather of Chetura pelasgica, World; Cypseloides, and the scarcely different Nephace- 
nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) tes, of the New. 


NEPHG'CETES. (Civ. védos, nephos, a cloud; oikérns, otketes, an inhabitant: well applied to 
these high-flyers.) CLoup Swirts. Tail forked or emargiuate, with obtusely-pointed but uon- 
mucronate stiffish feathers. First primary longest. Tarsi naked, skinny. Hind toe elevated, 
but perfectly posterior. Front toes cleft to the base. Nostrils embedded in feathers. Uuicolor. 

N. ni'ger borea/lis. (Lat. niger, black; borealis, northern. Our species is a variety of the 
West Indian NV. niger. Fig. 296.) Norruern Buack CLoup Swirr. g 2, adult. Entire 
plumage sooty-black, with slight greenish gloss, little paler below than above, the feathers of 
head and belly with grayish edges. A velvety black area in front of eye ; forehead hoary; eye- 
lids partly naked. Bill black ; fect probably dusky-purplish in life. Length 6.50-7.00 ; wing 
the same; tail 2.75, forked nearly 0.50 in the adult ¢, merely emarginate in the 9? ; tarsus 
0.50; middle toe and claw about the same. Young: Tail rounded; plumage dull blackish, nearly 
every feather skirted with white, especially noticeable on belly, ramp, and upper tail-coverts and 
inner wing quills; crissum mostly white ; supposed to require several years to perfect the black 
plumage. Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, U. 8. and British Columbia; a great black swift still 
little known ; supposed to nest in cliffs up to 11,000 feet ; ranges to about 13,000; crops found 
filled with Ephemeride. 

CHETU/RA. (Gr. yxairn, chaite, a bristle; ovpa, oura, a tail. Fig. 297.) Sprnn-rar. 
Swirts. Tail short, less than half as long as wing, even or a little rounded, mucronate, — the 
stiff spiny shafts of the feathers protruding like needles beyond the webs. First primary longest. 
Tarsi naked and skinny. Hind toe elevated, but posterior. Front toes all of about the same 
length, cleft to the base. Feathers reaching to but not far below the nostrils. Unicolor or 
bicolor (our species one-colored, sombre). Sexes alike. 

C. pelas’/gica, (Gr. HeAacyoi, the Pelasgot, a nomadic tribe ; Lat. pelasgica, i. e., migratory.) 
Cuimney Swirr. Cuimney ‘Swatitow.” Sooty-brown, with a faint greenish gloss above ; 
below paler, becoming gray on the throat; wings black; a velvety black space about eyes. 

Length about 5.00; wing the same; extent about 12.50; tail 2.00 or less, even or a little 
rounded, spiny. Eastern U. 8., migratory, very abundant in summer. Like the swallows, 
which this bird so curiously resembles, not only in its form, but in its mode of flight, its food, 
and twittering notes, it has mostly forsaken the ways of its ancestors, who bred in hollow trees, 
and now places its curious open-work nest, of bits of twig glued together with saliva, inside 
disused chimneys, in settled parts of the country. In districts still primitive, however, it con- 
tinues to use hollow trees, to which it resorts by thousands to roost. Not impossibly winters 
in such retreats in a lethargic state! The twigs for its pretty basket-like nest are snapped off 
the trees by the birds in full flight. The eggs are 4-5, 0.75 to 0.80 long by 0.53 broad, thus 
narrowly elliptical, and pure white. So great are the volitorial powers of this bird, that the 
sexes can come together on the wing. 


406. 


458 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLE — CYPSELIFORMES. 


C. vaux/ii (To Wm. S. Vaux, of Philadelphia.) Vaux’s Swirr. Similar; paler, the ramp 
and upper tail-coverts lighter than the rest of the upper parts; the throat whitish. Smaller ; 
length 4.50; wing the same; tail 1.67. Pacific Coast, U. S., and southward. Scems to be 
different from pelasgica, but perhaps the same as a S. Am. species. Nesting and eggs as in the 
common species. 


23. Family TROCHILIDA2: Humming-birds. 


wif Tenuirostral Picarie. These beau- 
a< —> tiful little creatures will be known on 
sight; and as the limits of this work 
preclude any adequate presentation of 
the subject, I prefer merely to touch 
upon it. 

The Trochilide, in all essential struc- 
tural characters, are nearest related to 
the Cypselid@. These two groups have 
in fact been united by some in a super- 
family Macrochires, in allusion to the 
length of the hand and its feathers, and 
tersely described as schizognathous In- 
sessores. The flying-apparatus is as in 
the swifts: avery deep-keeled sternuin, 
for attachment of powerful pectoral mus- 
cles, a very short upperarm, but the 
distal segments of the fore limb length- 
ened, bearing a thin-bladed or even 
faleate wing; primaries 10, the lst 
usually longest ; secondaries reduced to 6, and very short. Tail of 10 rectrices, but otherwise 
too variable to be characterized, presenting almost every peculiarity in size and shape as a 
whole, in size and shape of individual feathers, and often differing in form as well as color in 
the opposite sexes of the same species. eet extremely small and weak, unfit for progression, 
formed exclusively for perching ; tarsi naked or feathered. Hind toe incumbent. Claws all 
large, sharp and curved. The bill exhibits the tenuirostral type in perfection, being long and 
extremely slender for its length ; it is usually straight, subulate or awl-shaped, or with lancet- 
shaped tip; it is often decurved, sometimes recurved, and again bent almost at an angle; in 
length it varies from less than the head to more than all the rest of the bird. The cutting 
edges of the mandibles are inflected: the rictus is devoid of bristles. The nostrils are linear, 
with a supercumbent scale or operculum, sometimes naked, oftener feathered. In size the 
Hummers average the least of all birds, the giants among them alone reaching a length of 6 or 
7 inches, the pygmies being under 3 inches; the usual stature is 3 or 4 inches. In a few the 
coloration is plain, or even sombre; most have glittering iridescent tints — ‘the most gor- 
geously brilliant metallic hues known among created things.” The sexes are usually unlike 


Fic. 298. —- Humming-birds. (From Michelet.) 


in color. 

The chief anatomical peculiarity is the structure of the tongue, which somewhat resembles 
that of woodpeckers, in being protrusible or capable of being thrust far out of the beak by a 
muscular mechanism connected with the long horns of the hyoid or tongue-bone, which curve 
up around the back of the skull. The tongue is in effect a double-barrelled tube, supposed to 
be used to suck the sweets of flowers. The character of the sternum and wing-bones has been 
already mentioned. How perfectly the feet are fitted for grasping and perching may be inferred 


TROCHILID A; — TROCHILINA!: HUMMING-BIRDS. 459 


from the fact that, as in Passeres proper, the flexor longus hallucis is independent of the flexor 
longus digitorum, — that is, the muscle which bends the hind toe works separately from that 
which flexes the other toes collectively. The arrangement of the thigh muscles is the same as 
in Cypselide. There is one earotid artery, the left; a nude oil-glaud ; no ceca. The pterylosis 
is characteristic. 

The food of the Hummers was formerly supposed to be the sweets of flowers. It is now 
known that they are chiefly insectivorous. Their little nests are models of architectural beauty. 
The eggs are always two in number. The young hatch weak and helpless, requiring to be fed 
by the parents, the Hummers being thus of altricial nature. The voice is not musical. 

The family is one of the most perfectly circumscribed in ornithology, and one of the largest 
of its grade. So intimately and variously are the genera interrelated that every attempt to 
divide it into subfamilies has proven unsatisfactory. The hummers are peculiar to America. 
Species oceur from Alaska to Patagonia ; but we have a mere sprinkling in this country. The 
centre of abundance is in 
tropical South America, 
particularly New Gra- 
nada. Nearly 500 spe- 
cies are current; the 
number of positively spe- 
cific forms may be esti- 
mated at about 400 or 
more. The genera or 
subgenera vary with au- 
thors from 50 to 150. 
The latest critical author- 
ity upon the subject gives 
426 species, assigned to 
125 genera. (Elliot.) 

None of the known 
N. A. Hummers exhibits 
the extremes of shape of 
bill or tail which some of 
the tropical genera illus- Fic. 299. — Ruby-throated Humming-birds, ¢, 2, and nest, nearly nat. size. 
trate; in only one (Calo- (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) 
thorax lucifer) is the bill decidedly curved. Only one species is as much as 4 inches long, — 
the magnificent Hugenes fulgens. Some curious shapes of tail, including marked sexual 
characters in this respect, are exhibited by certain genera. 

Only one species, the common Ruby-throat, is kuown to occur in the East; this was the 
only one known to Wilson. Audubon gave four species, but one of them erroneously. Since 
his time, however, new forms of these exquisite creatures have successively been brought to 
light over our Mexican border. In 1858, Baird gave seven (one of them Lampornis mango, 
erroneously, as Audubon had done). Jn 1872, in the ‘ Key,” I was able to increase the number 
to ten, but with two wrongly given (the Lampornis and Agyrtria linn@i). The same ten, with 
the two errors, were given by Baird and Ridgway in 1874. Within a few years the discoveries 
have been so many, that, after eliminating the two errors, I am able to describe no fewer than 
jifteen perfectly distinct species of United States Humming-birds; and I have no doubt that 
several others will in due time be found over our Mexican border. 

The discrimination of the females and young is difficult; but with the adult males there 
should be no trouble. The following table is intended to enable the student to tell the genus 
and species directly of any U. S. Hummer, if the specimen he has in hand be an adult male. 


134, 


407. 


460 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PICARLA — CYPSELIFORMES. 


If a female or young, he must refer to the detailed descriptions. He will be much assisted by 
the figures of generic details, drawn from nature by Mr. R. Ridgway for Mr. D. G. Elliot’s 
monograph, and kindly loaned to me by Prot. Baird. 
Analysis of Genera and Species of N. A. Trochilide (adult mates). 
Frontal feathers not fully covering nasal scale. Tarsi feathered. Tail emarginate. Bill broad, in part 


flesh-colored. 
Nasal scale entirely naked. 


White stripe on head. Crown, face, and chin, black. Tailrufous . . . . Basilinna xcantusi 407 
Nasal scale partly naked. 

Crown green; throat blue; tail blackish, . . . . . 2... 2... «+ dache latirostris 421 

Throat green; tailrufous; sidesrufous. . . . ... . .. . . . Amazilia cerviniventris 420 

Throat green; tailrufous; sidesgreen . . . . . . . 1 ew +. « Amazilia fuscocaudata 419 


Frontal feathers covering nasal scale. 
Bill not perfectly straight. 
Bill curved throughout. Tail forked, with almost filiform lateral feather . . Calothorax lucifer 418 
Bill nearly straight. Length over 4 inches. Throat and breast green . . . . Eugenes fulgens 408 
Bill perfectly straight. Length under 4 inches. 
Crown as well as throat with metallic scales. 
Scales lilac-crimson. Lateral tail-feather parallel-edged . » . . . Calypteanne 414 
Scales violet. Lateral tail-feather acutely falcate . . . 1... 2... . . Calyptecoste 415 
Crown simply glossy, like back; throat with metallic scales. 
Middle tail-feathers unlike back in color. 
Scales confined to ends of tliroat-feathers, their bases snow-white . . . Stellulacalliope 417 
Middle tail-feathers like back in color ; throat-scales forming a continuous surface. 
Lateral tail-feathers white-tipped ; none acuminate, Outer primary abruptly emarginate 
and acute. . . os. . . Atthis heloise 416 
Lateral tail- feathers not white- tipped | some or Pall acuminate 
Throat-scales coppery-red; back and tail greenish; outer two primaries acute, falcate; 


all the tail-feathers acuminate, the two outer acicular . . . . . Selasphorus alleni 412 
Throat-scales coppery-red; back and tail mostly chestnut; primaries as in S. rufus; 

next to middle tail-feather abruptly notched . . . . . . . Selasphorus rufus 411 
Throat-scales lilac-red ; back golden-green; 1st primary emarginate, turned outward, 

next obliquely ineised: atend . , . « . Selasphorus platycercus 413 
Throat-scales opaque black, becoming ‘violet & posteriorly back golden-green ; primaries 

not peculiar. . . . . . Trochilus alexandri 410 


Throat-scales ruby- red; back golden- reer Primaries not peculiar (Eastern) 

Trochilus colubris 409 

BASILINNA. (Gr. Baciiwva, basilinna, a queen.) QuEEN Hummers. Head appearing 
more globose than in any other N. Ain. genus, in consequence of the non-extension of the 
feathers on base of upper mandible, where they do not reach 
opposite those on chin, leaving the turgid nasal seale entirely 
exposed. Bill broad at base, tapering regularly to tip, with dis- 
tinct supra-nasal grooves; scarcely longer than head, straight. 
Tarsi feathered. Tail ample, all the feathers broad and 
rounded; nearly even, in g a little double-rounded by short- 
ness of both lateral and central pair of feathers, in Q simply a 
little rounded. No peculiarity of primaries. Sexes nearly alike 
in form; @Q lacking the green gorget of 3; bill in both sexes 
Fic. 300.—Xantus Humming- largely flesh-colored; g with white stripe on head; no white 
bird, nat. size. (From Elliot.) on tail of either sex. (N.B. This genus would be better 


ranged uext after Iache.) 

B. xan’tusi. (To L.J. Xantus de Vesey. Fig. 300.) Xanrus Hummine-sirp. Adult J: 
Above, and the throat, metallic grass-green; below, cinnamon-rufous; face blue-black; a 
white stripe through the eye ; wings purplish-dusky ; tail purplish-chestnut, the central feathers 
glossed with golden-green; bill flesh-colored, black-tipped. Q: Shining green above, including 
central tail-feathers; below, and the face, pale rufous, whitening about the veut, and the sides 
greenish ; head-stripe rufous, whitening on the auriculars ; tail-feathers, except the central, 


135. 


408. 


136. 


409. 


TROCHILID 4 — TROCHILINZE: HUMMING-BIRDS. 461 


chestnut, with a dark terminal spot. Length 3.50; extent 4.75; wing 2.10; tail 1.25; Dill 
0.72. Cape St. Lucas. 

KU/GENES. (Gr. evyevys, eugenes,well-born.) Futeentr Hummers. Of great size: about 5 
inches long. Bill much longer than head, not quite straight, flattened and slightly widened at 
base, subcylindrical in continuity, with lancet-pointed tip. Frontal feathers extending on nasal 
scale. Tail ample, in $ moderately forked, in 9 double-rounded, all the feathers broad, with 
rounded ends. ‘Tarsi feathered. A tuft of downy white at insertion of feet. Outer primary 
but little narrower or more faleate than the rest. Sexes nearly alike in form, unlike in color. 
Bill black ; no white on tail of ¢. 

E. ful’gens. (Lat. fulgens, glittering. Figs. 301, 302.) ReruLcenr HumMina-pirp. ¢@: 
Tail simply forked. General body-color shining golden-green above and below, duller on belly 
and crissum, on breast showing opaque black when viewed from before backward. Crown 
glittering metallic vio- 
let in proper light, ~ 
opaque black viewed 
obliquely from behind 
forward. Gorget glit- 
tering emerald-green 


in proper light, opaque 


greenish-black from Fic. 302. — Tail of the same, 3, 


Fig. 301. — Refulgent Humming-bird, head, 3 . 
nat. size. (From Elliot.) 


nat, size. (From Elliot.) the opposite direc- 
tion. White marks about eyes. Tail like body, but more brassy. Wing-coverts and lining of 
wings like body ; quills dusky-purplish. Large: length about 5.00; extent 6.50; wing 2.75: 
tail 1.75 ; bill over an inch from the feathers on culmen, nearly 1.50 along gape. @: Upper 
parts like those of the @, but crown like back. No emerald gorget, the whole under parts 
whitish, specked here and there with green, the throat with dusky specks. Wings as in @, but 
tail very different; double-rounded, both central and lateral feathers shorter than intermediate 
ones ; middle feathers brassy-green, others the same in decreasing extent, increasing in blackish 
towards ends, and squarely tipped with dull white. Smaller: length about 4.50; wing 2.50; 
tail 1.50; bill, however, about as long. Our largest and most magnificent species, lately 
discovered in Arizona. Texas? : 
TRO'CHILUS. (Gr. rpéyidos, trochilos, Lat. trochilus, a runner: a plover so named by 
Herodotus: by Linneus transferred to Humming-birds.) 
Gorcer Hummers. Bill slender and subulate, not widened 
at base; frontal feathers covering nasal 
scale. Tailin g forked or emarginate, 
with lanceolate feathers; in Q sim- 
ply rounded or double-rounded, with 
broader feathers. Outer four primaries 
; not peculiar; but the 1st one strongly 
Aeon See: curved or bowed at end inwards; inner 
bird, ?, tail, nat. size. six abruptly smaller and more linear (in 
ie romtalliot) & at least). Tarsi naked. Bill black. 
A metallic gorget in ¢, not prolonged into a ruff; no scales 
oncrown. @ lacking the gorget ; and tail white-tipped. 
T. co/lubris. (Latinized from the barbarous colibri. Figs. 
299, 303, 304.) Rusy-THRoaTep HumMina-sirp. od: Pre. 304, ~ Ruwythroadad’ wom. 
Tail forked, its feathers all narrow and pointed ; no scales ming-bird, 3, nat. size. (From Elliot.) 
on crown; metallic gorget reflecting ruby-red. Above, golden-green; below, white, the sides 
green; wings and tail dusky-purplish. 9: Lacking the gorget; throat white, specked with 


410. 


137. 


411. 


462 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLZ — CYPSELIFORMES. 


dusky; tail double-rounded, the central feathers shorter than the next, the lateral then gradu- 
ated; all broader than in ¢ to near the end, then rapidly narrowing with concave inner margin; 
tail with black bars, and the lateral feathers white-tipped; no rufous on tail in either sex. 
Length of $ 3.25; extent 5.00; wing 1.75; tail 1.25; bill 0.66.  @ smaller: length 2.80; 
extent 4.60. Eastern N. Am., especially U. S., abundant in summer, generally seen hovering 
about flowers, sometimes 7 flocks. Feeds on insects, and the sweets of flowers. Nest a beau- 
tiful structure, of downy substances, stuecoed with lichens outside; eggs two, white, 0.50 
xX 0.35. 
T. alexan’dri. (To Alexander. Fig. 305.) ALEXANDER HUMMING-BIRD. Size and general 
appearance of 7. colubris. @: Tail double-rounded, i. ¢., centrally emarginate, laterally 
rounded: central emargination about 0.10, lateral graduation 
j\ more; the feathers all acuminate, and whole-colored. Upper 
i yA\ parts, including two middle tail-feathers, as in 7. colubris. 
lk blll Gorget opaque velvety black, only posteriorly glittering with 
(| X/ violet, sapphire and emerald. Other under parts whitish, green 
ql ; on sides. Length 3.25; wing 1.75; tail 1.25; bill from frontal 
feathers 0.75. Q: Tail different from that of @, both in shape 
ming-bird, tailof young gand@, and color; simply slightly rounded (without appreciable central 
nat. size. (From Elliot.) emargiuation), the lateral feathers scarcely acuminate ; middle 
feathers like the back, darkening at ends; others with broad purplish-black space near end, 


and white-tipped; thus so closely resembling colubris 9 that the lack of decided emargina- 
tion of the tail is the principal character. No gorget, the throat whitish with dusky specks. 
California, Utah, Arizona, and probably other portions of SW. U. 8. 

SELAS’PHORUS. (Gr. cédas, light; gopds, bearing.) LiguTxinc Hummers. Bill slender 
and subulate; frontal feathers coveriug nasal scale. Tail in ¢@ graduated or rounded, not 
forked, and extensively rufous or tipped with white. The central much broader than the lateral 
feathers. Details of shapes of the feathers varying with the species, and with the sexes (sce 
descriptions, and figs. 306, 307). Outer primary, or two outer ones, of ¢ abruptly attenuate, 
the end bowed; inner six primaries not abruptly narrower than those further outward. 
Tarsi naked. Bill black. A metallic gorget in ¢, little or not produced into a ruff; no 
scales on crown. @ lacking the gorget, and tail white-tipped. 

S. ru/fus. (Lat. rufus, reddish.) Rep-BAckep RuFrous Hummiyxe-prrp. NoorKa Hum- 
MING-BIRD. @: No metallic scales on crown. Gorget glancing coppery-red, somewhat pro- 
longed into a ruff. Tail cuneate ; middle pair of feathers broad, narrowing rather suddenly to 
a point. Next pair broad, nicked or emarginate near end (fig. 306). 
Next three pairs successively narrowing gradually, but not even the outer 
becoming acicular. Two outer primaries narrow, fuleate, gradually very 
acute, the ends bowed inward. General color above and below cinnamon- 
red, becoming more or less green on the crown, and sometimes flaked 
with green on the hack, fading to white on the belly.  Tail-feathers 
cinnamon-red, deepening to dusky-purplish at ends. Quills dusky- 
purplish. Length about 3.50; wing 1.50-1.67, averaging 1.60; tail 
1.30; bill 0.65. Q showing the characters of the tail and wing, but less 
plainly. Coloration extensively rufous, but overlaid with green; no Fic. 306. Tail of S. 
gorget, replaced by a few dusky-greenish feathers; under parts exten- Tus, nat. size. 

sively white, but shaded with cinnamon on the sides and crissum. Middle tail-feathers glossed 
with greenish, darkening to black at end, and usually touched with cinnamon at base; other 
tail-feathers extensively rufous, then black, finally white-tipped. Length 3.20; wing 1.70; 
tail 1.20. (On comparing Q rufus with 9 platycercus, a great difference in the size of the 
outer feather is observable; in rufus this feather is only 0.12 broad, and under 1.00 long; in 


412. 


413. 


TROCHILIDA — TROCHILINZE: HUMMING-BIRDS. 468 


platycercus the same feather is 0.25 wide, and over 1.00 long.) Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, N. 
to Alaska; the commonest and most extensively distributed species in the West. Noted as 
the northernmost known species of the family. (This is S. rufus, Gm., the true ‘ Nootka 
Sound Humming-bird,” the ¢ easily known by its cimnamon-red back, and the nick in the 
next to the middle tail-feather. S. henshawi Elliot.) 
S. alleni. (ToC. A. Allen, of California. Figs. 307, 308.) GrEEN-BACKED Rurous Hummine- 
BIRD. ALLEN HumMING-BIrD. In generalities similar to the last. ¢: Two outer tail-feathers 
on each side very small and narrow, the 
outermost almost acicular; next little 
larger; third abruptly larger; fourth from 
the outer smaller than third or middle 
pair. Upper parts golden-green, dullest 
on crown. Under tail-coverts, belly and 
sides cinnamon, paler on the median 
line, white on breast next to the gorget. 
Fic. 307.—Tail Tail-feathers cinnamon, tipped and edged 
of S. alleni, nat. size. with dusky-purplish. Gorget fiery-red. 
Length about 3.00; wing 1.50; tail 1.18; bill 0.64 9 
similar to Q rufus; averaging smaller; tail-feathers nar- 
rower, especially the outer ones. Coast region of California 
and northward. (This is the bird of ten described as ? 
rufus ; carefully distinguished by Henshaw, Bull. Nutt. Frc. 308. — Green-backed Rufous 
Club, ii, 1877, p. 53; considered by Elliot to be true Se aaeadas d, nat. size. (From 
rufus Gm.) } 
S. platycer/cus. (Gr. mdaris, platus, broad; xépxos, kerkos, tail. Fig. 309.) Broap-TAILED 
HuMMING-BIRD. ¢: Noscales on top of head; crown like back. A gorget of seales, not 
prolonged into a ruff. Outer primary attenuate, acuminate, ending acicular, the point turned 
outward ; next primary also narrowed, not so much so as the first, its end obliquely incised with 
aslight nick. Tail ample; middle feathers scarcely or not shorter than the next, but the rest 
rapidly graduated ; middle and several lateral ones broad, briefly acuminate, the outermost nar- 
rowed linearly with rounded end. Above, 
including crown, golden-green; the two 
middle tail-feathers purer shining grass- 
green; lateral tail-feathers purplish- 
dusky, some of them with narrow longi- 
tudinal chestnut edging only on one or 
the other web (a strong character of the 
species: compare extensively rufous tail- 
feathers of the two foregoing species). 
Gorget glancing lilac-red: other under 
parts whitish, glossed with golden-green 
on the sides and sometimes elsewhere. 
Fic. 309. — Broad-tailed Humming-bird, g, 9, nat. size. Quills purplish-dusky. Length nearly 
(From Elliot.) or quite 4.00; extent 4.75-5.00; wing 
nearly or quite 2.00; tail 1.35; bill 0.70. 9: Outer primary narrow and falcate, but without 
special attenuation at end. Outermost tail-feather narrower than the rest, as in the @, but the 
others rounded at ends, not acuminate. Lateral tail-feathers chestnut at base quite across, then 
black for a space, then white-tipped. Above, like $; below, no gorget, the throat white with 
dark specks; no green on sides, which are more or less rufous, as in S. rufus 9, from which 
some care must be taken in discrimination. It is usually less rufous beluw; middle tail-feathers 


138. 


414, 


415. 


464 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLE — CYPSELIFORMES. 


entirely green, these having dark ends in rufus 9 ; rufous on lateral tail-feathers confined to 
their bases and of less extent than the black, while in rufus 9 the rufous equals or exceeds the 
black area. The next to the middle tail-feather in platycercus Q is green, with only rufous 
edging of outer web near base, short black end, and white tip; in rufus 9 the same feather is 
rufous on both webs to an extent equal to the green, black, and white spaces all together. 
Though such details are not absolutely constant, they suffice to distinguish all the many speci- 
mens I have examined. (See also S. rufus Q.) Southern Rocky Mt. region, U. 8. and south- 
ward. N. to Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Nevada; Sierras Nevadas of California. 

CALYP'TE. (Gr. Kadumryj, Kalupte, a proper name.) Hrtmer Hummers. Crown of & 
with metallic scales like the gorget, which is prolonged into a ruff; outer primary not attenu- 
ate; tail of ¢ forked, the outer feather abruptly narrow and linear, of 9 slightly double- 
rounded. No peculiarity of primaries. Bill ordinary, as in Selasphorus or Trochilus; black. 
No rufous color anywhere. Tail of unvaried; of 9 white-tipped. (Our only genus with bill 
ordinary and scales on crown of @.) 

C. an‘ne. (To the Duchess of Rivoli. Figs. 310, 311.) Anna Humine-Birp. : Top of 
head with inetallic scales like those of throat, the latter prolonged into a ruff; the iridescence 
lilac-crimson, covering 
whole head and throat, ee! 

except a separating line = 
through eye. Tail deeply 
forked; middle feathers 


very broad and rounded, Fig. 311. — Anna Humming-bird, ¢ 
. 311. g-bird, 3, 
the lateral all succes- nat. size. (From Elliot.) 


sively more narrowed and linear, especially the outermost, 
but all still with obtuse ends. Outer primary narrower 
than the next, but of no special peculiarity. Back and 
middle tail-feathers golden-green ; other tail-feathers, like 
| the wing-quills, purplish-dusky, without any rufous or 
Seer ieee et Humming-bird, 3, white; under parts whitish, nearly everywhere glossed 
Q, nat. size. (From Elliot.) over with green. Length about 3.50; wing 1.90; tail 
1.35; bill 0.75. @ like the # excepting on head and tail. No metallic scales on head; crown 
like back, golden-green ; throat whitish with dusky specks. Tail gently rounded, with slight- 
est central emargination, all but the middle feathers (which are like back) green (or gray) at 
base, then black for a space, then white-tipped (no rufous). Under parts gray, with much 
green gloss. California, common, resident. 
C. cos'te. (To—Costa. Fig. 312.) Costa Hummine-pirp. &: Metallic seales on top and 
sides of head as well as throat, latter prolonged into a flaring ruff; the iridescence violet, sap- 
phire, steel-blue or purplish, not red. Tail lightly forked; middle 
feathers broad and obtuse, lateral narrowing successively, but the 
outermost abruptly narrowest, faleate —very noticeable. Outer 
primary simple. Back and middle tail-feathers golden-green ; 
other tail-feathers like the wing-quills, purplish-dusky. Below 
whitish, the belly gray, glossed with golden-green. Small: length 
3.00-3.25 ; wing 1.75-1.80; tail 1.00; bill 0.67. 9: No scales Fi. 312. — Costa Humming- 
on head. Tail simply rounded, or with least possible central bird, g, @. nat. size. (Elliot.) 
emargination ; lateral tail-feathers narrowing, but outermost not noticeably different from the 
next. Crown like back; throat like belly, with dark specks. Middle tail-feathers like back, 
others green or gray, then black, then white-tipped. Entire under parts whitish. Compared 
with anne, the only other with scales on crown in g, coste is smaller: throat ruff much 
more flaring; glitter entirely different (not red at all); tail less forked, with almost. acicular 


139. 


416. 


140. 


AIT. 


TROCHILIDA! — TROCHILINZ: HUMMING-BIRDS. 465 


falcate outermost feather instead of straight linear parallel-sided rounded-ended ; and under 
parts less glossed with green. The Q coste lacks green gloss on under parts, which are 
more white, has much narrower tail-feathers, and is smaller, in comparison with Q anne. 
The 2 coste more closely resembles 9 Stedlula calliope, but the latter has traces at least of 
rufous on tail and under parts. Also resembles Q Vrochilus, but has all the lateral tail 
feathers white-tipped. Arizona and Southern California, and southward. 
AT'THIS. (Gr. ’Ar6is, Atthis, Attic; alsoa proper name.) AtTTic Hummers. Crown of ¢ 
not metallic like the gorget, which is prolonged into a ruff; outer primary of ¢ attenuate; tail 
graduated, the feathers rounded at the end, the lateral black-barred and white-tipped in both 
sexes (peculiar in this respect among N. Am. genera). Bill only about as long as head. Size 
very diminutive. 
A. heloi/se. (Fig. 313.) HexLoise HumMina-pirp. : Outer primary attenuate at end, 
with a needle-like point, as in &. platycereus, but not bowed outward. Tail graduated, the 
central feathers, however, slightly shorter than the next, all round-ended, none notably nar- 
rowed. No scales on crown ; 
those of throat — produced 
into a ruff. Bill diminutive. 
Above, including crown and 
middle  tail-feathers, golden- 
green, the tail-feathers rather 
more grass-green, sometimes 
darkening at end or with a 
Fic. 313.— Heloise Humming-bird, g, 2, nat. size.) From Elliot.) touch of rufous. Other tail- 


feathers rufous at base, then black-barred, then white-tipped — the only case of such parti- 
coloration in the made in United States species. Gorget glancing violet, sapphire, and 
lilac. Under parts snowy-white, glossed with golden-green, touched with rufous on flanks. 
Very small: length 2.75; wing 1.25; tail 0.75; bill 0.50. 9: No peculiarity of outer 
primary. Colors much as in the @, but no gorget, the throat being white, specked with 
dusky; the flanks and crissum more rufous. Texas and southward; probably also New 
Mexico and Arizona. 
STEL/LULA. (Lat. stellula, dim. of stella, a star.) Starry Hummers. No seales on Crown ; 
those of throat confined to the tips of the lengthened feathers, thus not forming a continuous 
metallic surface, but set like stars in a fleecy, snowy bed. Tail of & slightly double-rounded, 
the lateral feathers graduated, the central also shorter than the next; middle feathers unlike 
back in color; all broad, and rather widening to near the suddenly contracted ends; outer feather 
slightly incurved, the others ending about as acutely as a silver teaspoon. Outer primary 
simple. Bill longer than head, ordinary, but not entirely black. @ like & in form of tail and 
wings. Size very diminutive. De eee 
S. calli/ope. (Gr. Kaddtdmn, Kalliope, ‘ 
Lat. Calliope, one of the Muses. Fig. 
314.) CALLIopE Hummine-Birp. ¢: 
Crown and back golden-green. All 
tail-feathers dusky, with rufous at base 
and slightly pale tips. Gorget violet 
or lilac, set in snowy-white; sides of 
throat, and crissum, white. Below, Fig. 314. — Stellula calliope, #, nat. size. (From Elliot.) 
white, glossed with green on the sides. Bill yellowish below. Length 2.75; wing 1.60; tail 
1.00; bill 0.60. 9: Form of the $3 color of upper parts the same. No gorget; throat whitish 
with dark specks; other under parts quite strongly tinged with rufous. A white mark under 
eye; bill light at base below. Middle tail-feathers green, not so golden as the back, ending 
30 


141. 


418. 


142. 


419. 


420. 


466 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLE — CYPSELIFORMES. 


with dusky; others green (or gray) for a distance decreasing on successive feathers, crossed 
with black, tipped with white to reciprocally increasing extent, and touched with rufous at 
base, as in several allied species; but the small size, slight rufous on tail, and the extensive 
rufous on under parts, are characteristic. Mts. of whole Pacific slope, U. S.; E. to Nevada; 
S. into Mexico. 

CALOTHO/RAX. (Gr. xadés, kalos, beautiful ; @opaé, thorax, chest.) Luctrer HumMMERS. 
Very different from any of the foregoing. Bill curved throughout, longer than head; but nasal 
scale covered as usual by feathers, and color of bill black. Tail deeply forked ; lateral tail- 
feather shorter than next, and in our species filiform and acicular. Tarsi partly plumose. 
Sexes unlike. 

C. lu'cifer. (Lat. Lucifer, the light-bearer ; lux, light, fero, I bear. Fig. 315.) Lucrrrr 
Hummine-pirp. : Above, bronzy-green; gorget lilac- 
purple; wings and tail purplish-dusky. Below, white, 
bronzed with green on the flanks. Bill black. Length 3.25; 
wing 1.50; tail 1.35; bill 0.75. 9: Above, like $, but 
browner on head; no gorget; under parts rufous. Middle 
tail-feathers bronzy-green, next green tipped with black; 
the rest rufous basally, then crossed with black and tipped 
with white. Tail shaped as in the ¢? (My description is 
unsatisfactory; but the species should be known by the 


= curved bill.) Arizona: introduced into our fauna upon 
Fic. 315, — Lucifer Humming-bird, ® @ wrongly identified as ‘“‘Doricha enicura.” (See Bull. 
g nat. size, (From Eliot.) Nutt. Club, ii, 1877, p. 108.) 
AMAZILIA. (Latinized from amazili, vox barb.) AmAzitt Hummers. Belonging to a 
group which includes Basilinna and Iache; very unlike any of the others. Nasal seale large 
and tumid; nasal slit entirely exposed ; feathers extending in a point on the sides of the cul- 
men, sweeping obliquely across the basal part of the nasal scale, and forming at the angle of 
the mouth a deep re-entrance with those of the chin, which reach much farther forward on the 
interramal space. Bill light-colored, dark-tipped, quite broad and flattened at base, thence 
gradually tapering to the acuminate tip, slightly bent downward, the curve most noticeable 
just back of the middle. Tarsi appearing feathered nearly to the toes, but really naked except 
at the top in front. No lengthened ruffs or tufts about the head; no metallic scales on top of 
head, different from those of the upper parts at large ; no special head-markings. Tail ample, 
forked or emarginate, the feathers all broad and obtuse, with simply rounded ends. No peculiar 
primaries, though the outer ones are narrower and more falcate than the next. Of large size, 
usually 4-5 inches. Sexes alike in form and color. An extensive genus, covering some 25 
species, two of which are known to reach our border: above characters more particularly 
applicable to these. 
A. fuscocauda’ta. (Lat. fusco, with dusky, caudata, tailed.) Dusky-TAILED HuMMING-BIRD. 
62: Above, metallic grass-green, or golden-green, more brassy on crown and rump, the long 
upper tail-coverts cinnamon-rufous. Wings purplish-dusky, their coverts like back. Tail 
deep chestnut, the feathers edged and ended with bronzy-purplish. Throat, breast and sides 
metallic green, glittering emerald in certain lights on the former, on the latter duller and more 
bronzy; feathers gray beneath the metallic tips, and this color prevailing on the abdomen ; 
crissum rufous; flank-tufts fleeey white. Bill extensively light-colored, dusky at end. 
Length about 4.00; wing 2.25; tail 1.60; bill 0.80. Differs from the next in not having the 
under parts extensively fawn-colored. Lower Rio Grande of Texas, to §. Am. 
A. cerviniven’tris. (Lat. cervinus, like a deer, cervus; in this case meaning fawn-colored ; 
ventris, of the belly.) Rurous-BELLIED HuMMING-BIRD. £9 : Upper parts shining golden- 
green, nearly uniform from head to tail, but top of the head rather darker, and with a reddish 


148. 


421. 


TROCHILIDZ — TROCHILINZE: HUMMING-BIRDS. 467 


gloss in some lights, and upper tail-coverts somewhat shaded with reddish. Metallic gorget of 
ereat extent, reaching fairly on the breast, glittering green when viewed with the bill of the 
bird pointing toward the observer, dusky-green when seeu in the opposite direction. Less 
scintillating and more golden-green feathers extend a 
little farther on the breast and sides, and most of the 
under wing-coverts are similar. Belly and under tail- 
coverts dull rufous or pale cinnamon; flocculent snowy- 
white patches on the flanks. Wings blackish, with 
purple and violet lustre. Tail large, forked about one- 
third of an inch; color intense chestnut, having even a 
purplish tinge when viewed below, the middle feathers 
glossed with golden-green, especially noticeable at their 
ends, and all the rest tipped and edged for some distance 
from their ends with dusky. Length 4.00 or more ; 
extent 5.50; wing 2.30; tail 1.50; bill 0.90. Lower 
Rio Grande of Texas to Yucatan. 

VACHE. (Gr. ‘Iay7, Iache, a proper name. Fig. 
316.) Circe Hummers. Near Amazilia; with broad 
and not perfectly straight bill longer than head, reddish 
at base, and frontal feathers covering the nasal scale ; 
the supranasal groove very distinct. Tail ample, forked, 
with broad obtuse feathers; no wing- or tail-feathers 
peculiar in shape. Tarsi feathered. Sexes unlike in 
color. 

I. latiros'tris. (Lat. latus, broad; rostrum, beak.) 
Circe Humaixe-sirp. ¢: Above and below glit- 
tering green; more 
golden above, more 
emerald below ; throat 
sapphire - blue; __ tail 
steel-blue-black, the 
feathers tipped with 
gray; flanks and un- 
der tail-coverts white. 
Bill reddish, tipped 


Fic. 316. — Circe Humming-bird, with black. Length 
dg nat size. (From Elliot.) ie 


neatly 4.00; wing 
2.00-2.25 ; tail 1.30, forked 0.35; bill 0.80. @ above 
like g, but middle tail-feathers bronzy-green; others 
bronzed at base, then broadly bluish, then white-tipped. 
Under parts dark gray. Easily recognized among our 
species by the special coloration, as described, and by 
the peculiarities of the bill; in all our genera excepting 
Lache, Amazilia and Basilinna, the nasal scale is fully 
covered by the extensive frontal feathers. Arizona and 


Fic. 317. — Paralise Trogon. or Quesal 
(Pharomacrus mocinno), ¢, 9. (From 
Mexico. Michelet.) 


4. SuBporpeR CUCULIFORMES: Cucvurrory Brrps. 


The nature of this large group has been indicated on the preceding page (446). 


144, 


422. 


468 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PICARLA — CUCULIFORMES. 


Family TROGONID4: Trogons. 


Feet zygodactyle by reversion of the second toe (see p. 127). The 
base of the short, broad, dentate bill is hidden by appressed antrorse 
feathers; the wings are short and rounded, with faleate quills; the 
tail is long, of twelve broad feathers; the feet are very small and 
weak. The general plumage is soft and lax, the skin tender, the 
eyelids lashed. A well-marked family of about 50 species and 
perhaps a dozen genera, chiefly inhabiting tropical America. They 
are of gorgeous colors, and among them are found the most magni- 


Fic. 318. — Head of Cop- 
per-tailed Trogon, nat. size. —_ficent birds of this continent (fig. 317). 


TROGON. (Gr. rpayer, trogon, a gnawer: alluding to the dentate bill.) The leading genus, 
to which the above characters fully apply. 

T. ambi'guus. (Lat. ambiguus, ambiguous, as doubtfully distinct from 7. mexicanus. Fig. 318.) 
CopPER-TAILED Trogon. Metallic golden-green; face and sides of head black ; below from 
the breast carmine; a white collar on the throat ; middle tail-feathers coppery-green, the outer 
white, finely variegated with black ; quills edged with white. Length about 11.00; wing 5.25 ; 
tail 6.75. Valley of the Lower Rio Grande, and southward. 


[Family MOMOTIDA: Sawhbills. 


Feet syndactyle by cohesion of third 
and fourth toes (p. 129); tomia serrate. 
Avery small family of tropical American 
birds, comprising about 15 species, none 
having really rightful place here; but 
the Momotus ceruleiceps (fig. 319) comes 
near our border, and is included to illus- 
trate the suborder. In this species, the 
central tail-feathers are long-exserted, 
and spatulate by absence of webs along 
a part of the shaft —a mutilation effected, 
it is said, by the birds themselves; the 

Fig. 319. — Head of Blue-headed Saw-bill, nat. size. bill is about as long as the head, gently 
curved; the nostrils are rounded, basal, exposed; the wings are short and rounded ; the tarsi 
are scutellate anteriorly. It is greenish, with blue head. Mexico. ] 


25. Family ALCEDINID: Kingfishers. 


Feet syndactyle by cohesion of third and fourth toes (p. 129, fig. 44); tomia simple. Billlong, 
large, straight, acute (rarely hooked) ; somewhat “‘ fissirostral,” the gape being deep and wide. 
Tongue rudimentary or very small. Nostrils basal, reached by the frontal feathers. Feet very 
small and weak, searcely or not ambulatorial ; tibie naked below; tarsi extremely short, reticu- 
late in front; hallux short, flattened underneath, its sole more or less continuous with the sole 
of the inner toe; soles of outer and middle toe in common for at least half their length ; inner 
toe always short, in one genus rudimentary, in another wanting (an abnormal modification). 
Developed toes always with the normal ratio of phalanges (2, 3, 4,5; p. 127); middle claw not 
serrate. Wings long, of 10 primaries. Tail of 12 rectrices, variable in shape. 

“The Kingfishers form a very natural family of the great Picarian order, and are alike 
remarkable for their brilliant coloration and for the variety of curious and aberrant forms which 


145. 


ALCEDINIDZ —ALCEDININA: KINGFISHERS. 469 


are included within their number. . . . ‘Their characteristic habit is to sit motionless watching 
for their prey, to dart after it and seize it on the wing, and to return to their original position 
to swallowit’... The Alcedinide 
nest in holes and lay white eggs. It 
is, however, to be remarked that, in 
accordance with a modification of the 
habits of the various genera, a cor- 
responding modification has taken 
place in the mode of nidification, the 
piscivorous section of the family nest- 
ing for the most part in holes in the 
banks of streams, while the insectiv- 
orous section of the family generally 
nest in the holes of trees, not nec- 
essarily in the vicinity of water.” 
(SHARPE.) 

The nearest allies of the King- 
fishers are the Hornbills (Bucero- 
tide) and Hoopoes (Upupide) of 
the Old World, and the Toucans 
(Rhamphastide) and Barbets (Cap- 
itonide) of the New. All these 
fainilies, like the Woodpeckers 
(Picide), agree in being anomalo- 
gonatous, with two carotids, a 
tufted oil-gland, and noceca. The 
formula of the leg-muscles is the Fig. 320.— A typical Kingfisher, the European Alcedo ispida. 
same as in Trogonide, the acces- (From Dixon.) 
sory femoro-caudal, accessory semitendinosus and ambiens all being absent. (GARROD.) One 
would gain an imperfect or erroneous idea of the family to judge of it by the American fragment, 
of one genus and 6 or 8 species. According to the author of the splendid monograph above cited, 
there are in all 125 species, belonging to 19 genera; the latter appear to be very judiciously 
handled, but a moderate reduction of the former will be required. They are very unequally 
distributed. Ceryle alone is nearly cosmopolitan, absent only from the Australian region; the 
Northern portion of the Old World has only 2 peculiar species; 3 genera and 24 species are 
characteristic of the Ethiopian region; oue genus and 25 species are confined to the Indian ; 
while no less than 10 genera and 59 species are peculiar to the Australian. Mr. Sharpe recog- 
nizes two subfamilies; in the insectivorous Dacelonine (with 14 genera and 84 species), the 
bill is more or less depressed, with smooth, rounded, or suleate culmen. In the 


35. Subfamily ALCEDININA, Piscivorous Kingfishers, 


the bill is compressed with carinate culmen. The American species all belong here. It is the 
more particularly piscivorous section ; the Dacelonine feed for the most. part upon insects, rep- 
tiles and land mollusks. Ceryle is the only American genus, with 2 North American species. 
They are thoroughly aquatic and piscivorous, seeking their prey by plunging into the water 
from on wing ; and nest in holes in banks, laying numerous white eggs. 

CE/RYLE. (Gr. «ppudos, kerulos, a kingfisher.) Brtrep KinerisHers. Head with an 
occipital crest. Bill longer than head, straight, stout, acute. Wings long and pointed. Tail 
rather long and broad (in comparison with some genera), much shorter than wing. Tarsi 
short ; legs naked above the tibio-tarsal juint. Plumage belted below. 


423. 


424. 


_black shaft lines. Lower eyelid, spot before eye. a 


470 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLE —CUCULIFORMES. 


Large species, dull bloe above eR Raa ae Hae Peat x NHS 
Ssy green above 


C. alcyon. (Lat. aleyon, a kingfisher. Fig. 321.) 
BELTED KINGFISHER. Upper parts, broad pectoral 


} 


bar, and sides under the wings, dull blue with fine 


cervical collar and under parts except as said. pure 

white: the 9 witha 
of the same eolor. Q 
kled, blotehed or barred on the inner webs with white: 
-Te. 


belly-band and the si 
ills and tail-teathers black. spec- 


ies and t athers like the 


outer webs of the 


back: wing-coverts nee sprinkled with white. 
Bill black, pale at base below. Feet dark: tibie 
naked below. A long, thin. pointed occipital crest; 


t water, into which 


plumage compact and oily to re 
the birds constantly plunge after their finny prey. 
Length 12.00-13.00; extent 21.00-2 


6.50: tail 3.50-5.00: whole foot 1.53: culmen 1.75- 


00: wing 6.00- 


2.25. N. Am.. common everywhere. resident or only 


5 
foreed southward by freezing of the waters. This fine 
Fie. 21.—B 


bird. whose loud rattling notes are as familiar sounds é : 
(From Tenney 


along our streams as the noise of the mill-dam or the 

machinery, burrows to the depth of six or eight feet in the ground, and lays as many erystal 
white spheroidal eggs. 1.25 X 1.05, at the enlarged extremity of the tunnel. 
C. america’na caba‘nisi. (To Dr. Jean Cabanis, of Germany.) TEXAN GREEN Kinc- 
FISHER. Adult ¢: Entire upper parts glossy-green, with bronze lustre, the bases of nearly 
all the feathers snowy-white, which appears sometimes upon the surface ; crown, seapulars and 
wing-coverts superficially sprinkled with white. Wing-quills dusky on inner webs, green on 
the outer. both marked in regular double series with pairs of white spots, scallops or bars. 
Central tail-feathers dark green, usually touched with white along the edges, the others green 
with white bars becoming confluent at the bases of the feathers, where forming white spaces 
more extensive than the green portion. Cervical collar and entire under parts white, the breast, 
belly, sides and erissum spotted with glossy-green. Bill black, usually light at base below ; 
feet dark. A supposed Q differs in having the green-spotted plumage of the under parts and 
adjoining white area tinged with chestnut. Length about 8.00; wing 3.25-3.50; tail 2.50 
bill 1.67; whole foot 1.00. Valleys of the Lower Rio Grande and Colorado, and shathiaanis 
common. Nesting and eggs as in C. aleyon; eggs +6, very thin and smooth, like porcelain, 
rounded oval, 0.90-1.00 X 0.68-0.75. 


26. Family CUCULIDZ: Cuckoos. 


Feet zygodactyle by reversion of the fourth toe. This character, in connection with those 
given below, will answer present purposes: and, in my ignorance of some of the exotic forms, I 
cannot attempt to give a full diagnosis. The only other North American birds with the toes 
yoked in the same combination are the Picide and the Psittaci, whose numerous specialties will 
prevent any misconception regarding Cuculide. The latter are desmognathous in palatal struet- 
ure, and homalogonatous, having the ambiens and three or all four of the other leg-muscles used 
by Garrod for classifieatory purposes ; in these iinportant respects differing from all birds pre- 
viously treated in this work. There are two carotids. The oil-gland is nude, and eceea are 
present. The family is a large and important one. It comprehends quite a number of leading 


146. 


CUCULIDZE CROTOPHAGINZ:: ANIS. 471 


forms showing peculiar minor modifications ; these correspond in great measure with certain 
geographical areas of faunal distribution, and are generally held to constitute subfamilies. 
Three or four such are con- 
fined to America; about twice 
as many belong exclusively to 
the Old World; among them 
are the Cuculine, or typical 
cuckoos allied to the European 
C. canorus (fig. 322), famous, 
like our Cowbird, for their 
parasitism. This section com- 
prehends the great majority of 
the Old World species; the 
Couine are a peculiar Mada- 
gascan type; others rest upon 
a special condition of the 
claws or plumage. There are 
about 200 current species of 
the family. Many of them, 
besides the one just cited in 
instance, lay their eggs in 
other birds’ nests. The Amer- 
ican cuckoos have been de- 
clared free of suspicion of such 
domestic irregularities ; but, though pretty well-behaved, their record is not quite clean: they 
do sometimes slip into the wrong nest. The curious infelicity seems to be connected in some 
way with the inability of the 9 to complete her clutch of eggs with the rapidity and regularity 
usual among birds, and so incubate them in one batch. The nests of our species of Coccygus 
commonly contain young by the time the last egg of the lot is laid. 
We have three very distinct genera, usually referred to as many subfamilies. 


~~ 


yet 
\ 


Fic. 322. — European Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus. (From Dixon.) 


Analysis of Subfamilies and Genera. 
CROTOPHAGINE. Terrestrial. Tail of 8 feathers. Bill compressed, crested. Plumage lustrous black 
Crotophaga 146 
. Geococcyx 147 
Coccygus 148 


SAUROTHERINE. Terrestrial. Tail of 10feathers. Feet ambulatorial, with long tarsi. 
Coccyeinas. <Arboreal. Tail of 10 feathers. Feet insessorial, with short tarsi . 


36. Subfamily CROTOPHACINZ: Anis. 


Tail of etght feathers, graduated, longer than the rounded wings. Bill exceedingly com- 
pressed, the upper mandible rising into a thin vertical crest, the sides usually sulcate, the tip 
deflected. Plumage uniform (black), lustrous, the feathers of the head and neck lengthened, 
lanceolate, distinct, with scale-like margins; face naked. Terrestrial. 
genus, of three species, of the warmer parts of America. 
CROTO/PHAGA, (Gr. kporéy, kroton, a bug; ddyos, phagos, eating.) Ants. In addition 
to the characters of the subfamily: Bill about as long as head, with regularly convex or angu- 
lated culmen, its sides smooth, wrinkled, or suleate ; tip of upper mandible decurved over end 
of lower; gonys straight. Wings rounded ; 4th or 5th primary longest, 1st quite short. Tail- 
feathers broad, widening to very obtuse ends. Tarsus longer than middle toe, anteriorly 
broadly seutellate, the sides with large plates meeting in a ridge behind. According to the 
concurrent testimony of various independent observers, the cuculine irregularity of nesting is 
expressed in a very curious manner, in the case of C. ani at least; several birds forming a 


Nest in bushes. One 


472 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PICARLZ — CUCULIFORMES. 


sort of colony of Communists uniting to build a large nest to be used in common. The eggs: 
are greenish, overlaid with a white chalky substance, easily rubbed off when fresh. 

425, C.a/ni. (The Brazilian name. Fig. 323.) Ani. Buack Wircu. Savanna BLAcKBIRD. 
Bill smooth or with a few transverse wrinkles; culmen regularly curved. Color black, with 
violet and steel-blue reflections, duller below, the lanceolate feathers of the head and neck 
with bronze borders. Iris brown. Length 13.00-15.00; wing 6.00; tail 8.00; tarsus 1.50. 
Tropical America; West Indies; Florida; accidental near Philadelphia. 


Ze ine ey KJAWRHARGT 0 


Fic. 323.— Ani, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


426, C. sulciros/tris. (Lat. sulcus, a groove; rostris, pertaining to the beak.) GRoovE-BILLED 
Ani. Bill with three distinct grooves on upper mandible, parallel with the regularly curved 

rT culmen. Black, with steel-blue and violet reflections, more olive- 
brown on belly ; scaly feathers of head and neck bronzy, of breast, 
back and wings metallic greenish. Wings with 4th and 5th 
quills longest, 3d little shorter, 2d nearly an inch, lst nearly 2 
inches from point of wing. Bill more than twice as high as 
broad at the base; 0.85 high, 0.37 broad, 1.20 long. Bill and 
feet black, scaling grayish in some places. Ivis brown. Length 
14.50; extent 17.00; wing 5.50-6.00; tail 7.50-8.00, graduated 2 
inches; tarsus, or middle toe and claw, 1.50. Tropical America ; 
N. to Texas in the lower Rio Grande Valley. Eggs said to be 
RE wk - Heed ei Goreasen usually five, and no peculiarity of nesting noted; nest of twigs, 
(After Cassin.) lined with fibrous roots, in a tree or bush. 


147. 


CUCULIDA — SAUROTHERINZ: GROUND CUCKOOS. 473 


37. Subfamily SAUROTHERINAE: Cround Cuckoos. 


Tail of ten feathers, graduated, longer than the short, rounded, concave wings. Bill about 
as long as the head, compressed, straight at base, tapering, with deflected tip, gently curved 
eulmen and ample rictus. Feet large and strong, in adaptation to terrestrial life ; tarsus longer 
than the toes, scutellate before and behind. One West Indian genus, Sawrothera, with three 
or four species, and the following, with two:— 


GEOCOC/CYX. (Gr. yf, ge, the ground; kdéxkvé, kokkux, a cuckoo.) GROUND Cuckoos. 


a, S 
Fig. 325. — Ground Cuckoo, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 
Head crested ; most feathers of head and neck bristle-tipped; eyelids lashed; whole plumage 
coarse. A bare colored space around eye. Bill about as long as head, nearly straight, but with 
culmen and commissure much decurved toward end, gonys if anything a little concave. Wings 
very short and concavo-convex, with long inner secondaries folding entirely over the primaries; 
4th, 5th, and succeeding primaries longer than 3d, 2d, and Ist, which rapidly shorten. Tail of 
long tapering feathers, much graduated, making more than half the total length of the bird. 
Feet as above. Plumage lustrous and variegated above. Sexes substantially alike. Eminently 
terrestrial ; nest in bushes; eggs numerous. , 


427. 


121. 


474 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLA — CUCULIFORMES. 


G. california/nus. (Of California. Figs. 324, 325.) Grounp Cuckoo. CHAPARRAL Cock. 
Roap Runner. SNAKE Kinuer. Paisano. Most of the feathers of the head and neck 
bristle-tipped ; a naked area around eye; crown crested; plumage coarse. @ 9 : Above, lus- 
trous bronzy or coppery-green, changing to dark steel-blue on the head and neck, to purplish- 
violet on the middle tail-feathers; everywhere except on rump conspjcuously streaked with 
white, mixed with tawny on the head, neck, and wings —this white and buff streaking con- 
sisting of the edges of the feathers, which are frayed out, fringe-like, producing a peculiar 
effect. Breast, throat and sides of neck mixed tawny-white and black ; other under parts dull 
soiled whitish. Primaries white, tipped and with oblique white space on outer webs. Lateral 
tail-feathers steel-blue with green and violet reflections, their outer webs fringed part way with 
white, their tips broadly white. Lower back and ruinp, where covered by the folded wings, 
dark-colored and unmarked; under surface of wings sooty-brown. Bare space around eye 
bluish and orange. Bill dark horn-color; feet the same, the larger scales yellowish. Young 
birds are very similar, the iridescence developing with the first growth of the feathers, as in a 
magpie ; more white and less tawny in the streaking. Nearly two feet long ; tail a foot or less ; 
wiug 6-7 inches; tarsus 2.00; bill 1.66-2.00. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California and 
southward ; Colorado; Arkansas River. A bird of remarkable aspect, noted for its swiftness 
of foot ; aided by its wings held as outriggers, it taxes the horse in a race; feeds on fruits, rep- 
tiles, insects, and land mollusks. Nest in bushes; a slight, loose structure of twigs, as if the 
birds were just learning how to build. Eggs 6-8-9, white, elliptical, averaging 1.55 x 1.20. 
They are laid at considerable intervals, and incubation begins as soon as a few are deposited. 
The development of the chicks is rapid; perfectly fresh eggs and newly hatched young may be 
found together ; and by the time the last young are breaking the shell the others may be graded 
up to half the size of the adult. The birds are sometimes domesticated, making amusing pets. 
They are singular birds — cuckoos compounded of a chicken and a magpie ! 


38. Subfamily COCCYCINA: American Cuckoos. 
(ih, 

4! Tail of ten soft feathers, much graduated, 
Ea little longer than the wings, which are 
somewhat pointed, although the first and 
second quills are shortened. Bill about 
equalling or rather shorter than the head, 
stout at base, then much compressed, curved 
throughout, tapering to a rather acute tip ; 
nostrils basal, inferior, exposed, elliptical ; 
feet comparatively small, the tarsus naked, 
not longer than the toes. There are four or 
five genera, and perhaps twenty species, 
of this subfamily; one genus only is North 
American, with three distinct species. 


Fic. 326. —American Tree Cuckoo (Coccygus america- 
nus), reduced. (From Tenney, after Wilson.) 


COC'CYGUS. (An adjectival form derived from kéxxv€, a cuckoo.) TREE Cuckoos. Head 
not crested; all the feathers soft. Bill as above. Wings pointed, but not longer than the 
tail; inner quills not folding over much of the primaries; 3d and 4th primaries longest, 2d and 
5th shorter, lst much shorter still. Tail of soft rather tapering feathers, with very obtuse 
ends; much graduated. Tibial feathers flowing; tarsi naked, shorter than middle toe. Our 
species are strictly arboricole birds of lithe form, blended plumage and subdued colors; the 
head is not crested; the tibial feathers are full, as in a hawk; the sexes are alike, and the 
young scarcely different; the upper parts are uniform satiny olive-gray, or ‘‘ quaker-color,” 
with bronzy reflections. Lay numerous plain greenish elliptical eggs, in a rude nest of twigs 


428. 


CUCULIDZ — COCCYGINZ: AMERICAN CUCKOOS. 475 


saddled on a branch or in a fork. Though not habitually parasitic, they often slip an egg in 
other birds’ nests, or in each other’s. Oviposition is tardy or irregular; the nests usually con- 
tain eggs in different stages of development, or eggs and young together. They are well-known 
inhabitants of our streets and parks as well as of woodland, noted for their loud, jerky cries, 
which they are supposed to utter most frequently in falling weather, whence their popular 
name, ‘‘ rain-crow.” Migratory, insectivorous, and frugivorous. 
Analysis of Species. 
Bill black and bluish. 
White below. Wings with little or nocinnamon. Tail-feathers not broadly white-ended. 
erythrophthalmus 428 
Bill black and yellow. Tail-feathers broadly white-ended. 
White below. Wingsextensively cinnamon ...... . VA Oak hire . americanus 429 
Tawny below:. Ears dusky «<4 © @ @ @ 6 ea wi wk we bP we we we es a a emiedlus 430 


FIG. 327. — Yellow-billed Cuckoo, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


C. erythrophthal/mus. (Gr. épudpds, eruthros, reddish ; 6@Oaduds, ophthalmos, eye.) BLACK- 
BILLED Cuckoo. ¢ ?: Bill blackish except occasionally a trace of yellowish, usually bluish 
at base below. Above, satiny olive-gray. Below, pure white, sometimes with a faint tawny 
tinge on the fore-parts. Wings with little or no rufous. Lateral tail-feathers nut contrasting 
with the central, their tips for a short distance blackish, then obscurely white ; no bold contrast 
of black with large white spaces. Bare circumocular space livid; edges of eyelids red. Length 
11.00-12.00 ; extent about 15.50; wing 5.00-5.50; tail 6.00-6.50; bill under an inch. Very 


429. 


430. 


476 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLA — PICIFORMES. 


young birds have the feathers of the upper parts skirted with whitish; the bill and feet pale 
bluish. Eastern U.S. and Canada, west to the Rocky Mts., N. to Labrador, common ; rather 
more northerly than C. americanus, being the commoner species in New England; said to 
winter in Florida. Nest preferably in bushes, often quite near the ground; eggs1.10 & 0.80, 
greenish, deeper-colored, less elliptical and simaller than those of the yellow-billed cuckoo, 
though probably not to be distinguished with certainty. 

C. america/nus. (Lat. American. Figs. 326, 327.) YELLOW-BILLED Cuckoo. Bill black, 
extensively yellow below and on the sides of upper mandible. Feet dark plumbeous. Above, 
satiny olive-gray. Below, pure white. Wings extensively cinnamon-rufous on inner webs of 
the quills. Central tail-feathers like the back; the rest black with large white tips, the outer- 
most usually also edged with white. Very constant in color, the chief variation being in extent 
and intensity of the cinnamon on the wings, which sometimes shows through when the wings 
are closed, and even tinges the coverts. Young differ chiefly in having the white ends of the 
tail-feathers less trenchant and extensive, the black not so pure; this state approaches the con- 
dition of C. erythrophthalmus, but does not match it. Length 11.00-12.00; extent 15.50-16.50; 
wing 5.50-6.00; tail about 6.00; bill a short inch; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw rather 
more. U.S., rather more southerly than the last species, and chiefly Eastern; but also, Pacific 
coast and Southern Rocky Mts. Nest a slight structure of twigs, leaves and catkins, on a 
bough or in fork of a tree rather than in a bush; eggs 4 to 8, pale greenish, 1.25 x 0.90, laid 
irregularly, mostly in June. 

C. seni/culus. (Lat. seniculus, a little old man ; diminutive of senex, probably alluding to the 
gray on the head.) Mancrove Cuckoo. Bill muchas in the last. Above, the same quaker- 
color, but more decidedly ashy-gray toward and on head. Below, pale orange-brown. Wings 
suffused with the color of the belly. Auriculars dark, in contrast. Tail as in the last, but 
outer feather not white-edged. Size of the others, or rather less. West Indies; Florida, 
rarely. Eggs as in C. americanus, 


5. SUBORDER PICIFORMES: Pictrorm Brirps. 


See p. 446 for characters of this suborder. It is a perfectly homogeneous group, so much 
so as to be often reduced to the grade of a single family, Picide, then with Iyngine and 
Picumnine as subfamilies. In palatal characters the Piciform birds exhibit ‘(a simplification 
and degradation of the egithognathous structure” (Hualey), and this passerine affinity is borne 
out by the common reduction of the first primary to small size or even spurious condition, leav- 
ing but 9 functionally developed primaries; but the details of the construction of the bony 
palate, as worked out by Parker, are so extraordinary that he has proposed to make the Pici- 
formes one of the major divisions of Carinate birds (see p. 173, fig. 80). The greater secondary 
coverts are likewise as short as in Passeres. The feet are highly scansorial by reversion of the 
fourth toe. In typical Pict the bill is straight, hard, often strengthened by lateral ridges, and 
forming an efficient chiselling instrument. The salivary glands are highly developed, and the 
hyoidean apparatus is peculiar. The sternum is doubly-notched. Only the left carotid is 
present ; the oil-gland is tufted, and there are no ceca. The accessory femoro-caudal, accessory 
semitendinosus and ambiens muscle are absent. The nearest relatives of the Piciform birds are 
the Capitonide or Scansorial Barbets, and the Toucans (Rhamphastide) ; both of which are 
so closely affined that they might come under the above head, with little modification of the 
characters here assigned. Of the three families here meant to be included by the term Pici- 
Formes, the Old World Iyngide or Wrynecks are most unlike Woodpeckers, having a soft tail 
and various other peculiarities. The Picumnide are more Woodpecker-like, but still the tail 
is soft; in general superficialities they resemble Nuthatches quite curiously. Exclusion of these 
two families leaves us the 


PICIDZA!: WOODPECKERS. 477 


27. Family PICIDA®: Woodpeckers. 


Feet perfectly zygodactyle by reversion of the 
fourth toe (in two genera the first toe wanting) ; 
tail-feathers rigid, acuminate; bill a chisel. This 
expression will serve for the recognition of any 
woodpecker (compare diagnoses of previous Pica- 
rian families). Wing of 10 primaries, the 1st 
quite short or even spurious, the wing-formula 
being quite as in most passerine birds — a crow 
or thrush, for example. Greater row of second- 
ary coverts short, as in passerine birds at large. 
Tail of 12 rectrices, but the outermost pair rudi- 
t mentary, lying concealed at the base of the tail 

Fre. 328. — European Spotted Woodpecker (Picus between the penultimate (now exterior) and next 
major), reduced. (From Dixon.) pair, so that there appear to be but 10, as usual 
in Piearian birds (a strong peculiarity). Tail-feathers very stiff and strong, with enlarged 
elastic shafts, and acuminate at the end. Tarsi scutellate in front, on the sides and behind 
variously reticulate. Toes strongly scutellate on top. The usual ratio of the toes is: 1st 
(inner posterior) shortest; 2d (inuer anterior) next longer; 3d (outer anterior) longer; 4th 
(outer posterior) longest of all (in most typical species; in some, however, scarcely or not 
equalling the 3d in length). The basal joints of the toes are abbreviated. There is a very 
unusual arrangement of the flexor tendons of the toes (shared, however, among Toucans, 
Scansorial Barbets, and Jacamars). 

These birds have been specially studied, with more or less gratifying success, by Malherbe, 
Sundevall and Cassin. There are nearly 250 well determined species, of all parts of the world 
except Madagascar, Australia, and Polynesia. Their separation into minor groups has not been 
agreed upon; our species are commonly thrown into three divisions, which, however, I shall 
not present, as consideration of exotic forms shows how the genera are interrelated, and how 
nice is the gradation in form between the Ivory-bill and the Flicker, which stand nearly at 
extremes of the family ; the little diversity of which is thereby evident. One of our genera, 
without very obvious external peculiarities, stands apart from the rest in the character of the 
tongue. In ordinary Pici the “‘ horns” of the tongue are extraordinarily produced backward, 
as slender jointed bony rods curling up over the skull behind, between the skin and the bone, 
to the eyes or even further; these rods are enwrapped in highly developed, specialized muscles, 
by means of which the birds thrust out the tongue sometimes several inches beyond the bill 
(figs. 73, 74). This is not the case in Sphyropicus, where the hyoid cornua do not extend beyond 
the base of the skull, and the tongue, consequently, is but little more extensible than in ordinary 
birds. The tongue of Sphyropicus is beset at the end by numerous brushy filameuts, instead of 
the few acute barbs commonly observed in the family. The same or a similar condition of the 
parts is observed in Xenopicus. In most of our species the bill is perfectly straight, wide and 
stout at the base, tapering regularly to a compressed and vertically truncate tip, chisel-like, and 
strengthened by sharp ridges on the side of the upper mandible — an admirable tool for cutting 
into trees; and in all such, the nostrils are hidden by dense tufts of antrorse feathers. In 
others, like the Flicker, the bill is smooth and barely curved; the tip is acute and the nostrils 
are exposed. There is a regular gradation in form between those with the most and the least 
chisel-like bills. The former are more stocky-bodied birds, with larger heads in comparison 
with the coustricted neck, as any one may satisfy himself by skinning a Pileated or Hairy 
Woodpecker, and trying to pull the skin over the head — an operation which may be performed 
on a Flicker. The ridges of the bill, the bevelling of the end, the uasal tufts, and usually the 


478 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLA — PICIFORMES. 


length of the outer hind toe, are characters which diminish or are lost together as we pass from 
the Ivory-bill extreme to the Flicker end of the series. The claws are always large, strong, 
sharp, and much curved; the feet do not present striking generic modifications, except in the 
three-toed genus Picoides; the length of the outer hind toe is the most variable factor. The 


Oe 
Fig. 329, — Ivory-billed Woodpecker, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


rule; and the shortness of the first primary, which may fairly be called spurious; but these 
points and the remarkable character of the tail have been already mentioned. This member 
offers indispensable assistance in climbing, when the stiff strong quills are pressed against the 
tree, and form a secure support. To this end, the museles are highly developed, and the last 
bone (vomer or pygostyle) is large and peculiar in shape. Woodpeckers rarely if ever climb 
head downward, like Nuthatches, nor are the tarsi applied to their support. 


149. 


431. 


PICIDZE: WOODPECKERS. 479 


Species are abundant in all the wooded portion of this country, and wherever found are 
nearly resident. For, although insectivorous, they feed principally upon dormant or at least 
stationary insects, and therefore need not migrate; they are, moreover, hardy birds. They dig 
insects and their larve out of trees, and are eminently beneficial to the agriculturist and fruit- 
grower. Contrary to a prevalent impression, their boring does not seem to injure fruit-trees, 
which may be riddled with holes without harmful result. The number of noxious insects these 
birds destroy is simply incalculable ; what little fruit some of them steal is not to be mentioned 
in the same connection, and they deserve the good-will of all. The birds of the genus Sphy- 
ropicus are probably an exception to most of these statements. But Woodpeckers also feed 
largely upon nuts, berries, and other fruits; and those which thus vary their fare to the greatest 
extent are apt to be more or less migratory, like the common Red-head for example. Wood- 
peckers nest in holes in trees, which they excavate for themselves, sometimes to a great depth, 
aud lay numerous rounded pure white eggs, of which the shell has a smooth crystalline texture 
like porcelain, on the chips and dust at the bottom of the hole. The voice is loud and harsh, 
susceptible of little modulation. The plumage as a rule presents bright colors in large areas or 
in striking contrasts, and is sometimes highly lustrous. The sexes are ordinarily distinguishable 
by color-markings ; the young either show sexual characters from the nest, or have special 


markings of their own. 
Artificial Analysis of N. A. Genera of Picide. 


Toes3 .. oo ei ee ee ale en pas Sa Gh Ge A ee ee OLS Re Oe 1 
Toes 4. 
Tongue not decidedly extensible. 
Body entirely black; head white. . 2. 1 1 eee ee ee ee ee ee + Kenopicus 152 
Body variegated; head not white. . 2... 1 ee ee ee ee ee ee) 6Sphyropicus 164 


Tongue very extensible. 
Conspicuously crested; much over a foot long. 


Bill white; outer hind toe longer than outer front toe. . . . . .. . . « Campephilus 149 
Bill dark; outer hind toe not longer than outer fronttoe. . . . .. . . . . Aylotomus 150 
Not crested; a foot long or less. 
Sides of upper mandible distinctly ridged; wings spotted. . . . -..... . . Picus 161 
Sides of upper mandible indistinctly or not ridged. 
Back lustrous green; belly carmine . . . . . . 1... ee we ee .) AsYyNndesmus 157 
Back blue-black; belly white . 2... . . 2... e 1 ww ee . Melanerpes 156 
Back black-barred; belly black-spotted. . . . . 2... 1...» . Colaptes 158 
Back black-barred; belly not spotted . . 2... . 1. +... Conturus 155 


CAMPE'PHILUS. (Gr. kdymn, kampe, a caterpillar; Pidos, philos, loving.) IvoRy-BILLS. 
Of largest size, with very strict neck, conspicuously crested head and white bill; color black, 
with white on wings and neck, and scarlet crest. Bill longer than head, perfectly straight, 
with truncate tip, bevelled sides, with strong ridges; broader than high at the base. Gonys 
very long; more than half the commissure. Nostrils concealed by large nasal tufts ; antrorse 
feathers also at base of lower mandible. Outer hind toe much the longest. Wings pointed ; 
4th, 3d and 5th quills longest ; 2d much shorter; 1st very short and narrow. Tail very cuneate. 
Containing the largest and most magnificent known Woodpeckers, of several species, peculiar 
to America. 

C. principa/lis. (Lat. principalis, principal; princeps, chief. Fig. 329.) Ivory-BILLED 
WooppPEcKER. £9 : Glossy blue-black; a stripe down side of neck, one at base of bill, the 
scapulars, under wing-coverts, ends of secondaries and of inner primaries, the bill, and nasal 
feathers white ; feet grayish-blue; iris yellow. A long pointed crest, inthe @ scarlet faced with 
black, in the 9 black. Length 19.00-21.00; extent 30.00-33.00 ; wing 9.75-10.75 ; tail 7.00- 
8.00; bill 2.50; tarsus 2.00. Varies much in size; 9 smaller than the g. A large powerful 
bird of the 8. Atlantic and Gulf States, N. to No. Carolina along the coast, to the Ohio River in 
the interior; common in the dark heavily wooded swamps, but very wild and wary, and difficult 
to secure. Nests high in the most inaccessible trees ; eggs about 6, 1.35 1.00. 


150. 


432. 


151. 


480 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLZE — PICIFORMES. 


HYLO/TOMUS. (Gr. drdordpos, hulotomos, a wood-cutter.) PILEATED WOODPECKERS. 
General form as in Campephilus. Bill as in that genus, but not white, with shorter gonys 
only about half as long as commissure; nasal plumes as before, but no antrorse feathers on 
sides of lower mandible. Wings and tail substantially as in Campephilus. Feet peculiar: 
outer posterior shorter than outer anterior toe, and tarsus shorter than inner anterior toe and 
claw ; imner posterior toe very short (fig. 330). Bill dark; general color black, relieved by 
white, the @ with a pointed scarlet crest: Q crested, but with black only. Our single species 
is the representative of the famous black woodpecker of Europe, Picus martius ; a classic bird, 
by some considered the type of the Linnean genus Picus. There are several typical American 
species. 
H. pilea/tus. (Lat. pileatus, capped, i. e., crested; pileum, a cap.) PILEATED WOODPECKER. 
General color dull black; throat, post-ocular line, a long stripe from nostrils along side of 
head and neck, spreading on side of breast, 
lining of wing, and a great white space at 
the bases of the wing-quills, white, more 
or less tinged with sulphury-yellow. Feath- 
ers of flanks and belly often skirted, and 
some of the quills often tipped with the 
same. : Top of head, including the 
whole crest, and a cheek-patch, scarlet. 
: @: Posterior part of crest only scarlet, 
Fig. 330.— Right foot of Pileated Woodpecker, nat. size. and no cheek-patch. é Q: Bill dark 
(Ad. nat. del. E. C.) horn-color, paler below; feet blackish- 
plumbevous; iris yellow. Quite constant in coloration; very variable in size. Length 15.00- 
19.00 inches, usually 17.00-18.00 ; extent 25.00-30.00, usually 26.00-28.00; wing 8.00-10.00, 
usually §.50-9.00; tail 6.00-7.00; bill 1.50-2.00! Q averaging about 2 inches less in length 
than @, and other dimensions proportionally smaller. Northern individuals averaging much 
larger than southern ones. North Am. at large, common, resident anywhere in heavy timber; 
but this is a very wild, wary, and solitary bird,—one which grows scarce or disappears among 
the first with the clearing away of forests in advance of civilization. Nests in remote and 
secluded woods and swamps, usually at a great height; the taking of eggs is something of an 
exploit. The eggs measure about 1.25 x 1.00. Eggs of woodpeckers are proportioned rather 
to the bird’s bulk of body than its linear dimensions; those of Campeplilus and Hylotomus are 
relatively smaller than a flicker’s, for instance. 
PI'CUS. (Lat. picus, a woodpecker.) BLACK-AND-WHITE SPOTTED WOODPECKERS. Bill 
more or less nearly equal to head in length, stout, straight, truncate at tip, bevelled toward end, 
with sharp culmen and distinct lateral ridges on upper mandible; at base rather broader than 
high, with large nasal tufts hiding the nostrils; culmen, commissure and gonys straight or 
nearly so (fig. 333.) Feet with the outer posterior longer than outer anterior toe; inner anterior 
intermediate between these. Wing long, pointed by the 4th, 3d and 5th quills; 2d decidedly 
shorter (shorter than 7th, except in P. borealis) ; 1st fairly spurious. Species of medium and 
small size, all black-and-white (one brown- backed), the back striped or barred, the wings with 
numerous small round white spots on the quills; g with red on the head. 


Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


Back dark brown, neither striped nor fully barred with white . . . . . . . . . . . . stricklandi 437 
Back black, not striped lengthwise, but barred crosswise with white: ‘“‘ladder-backs ” (as in fig. 339). 
One large white space on side of head. Crown black . . . . . 2. 6 « «1 «© + © + « borealis 433 


Two white stripes on sides of head. 
Nasal feathers white; g crown black, nape red, both white-spotted . . . . . . . . nuttalli 435 
Nasal feathers brown; ¢ crown and nape red, both white-spotted. 
Outer web of outer tail-feather entirely black-barred . . ... +. +... . Scalaris 434 


433. 


434, 


PICIDA): WOODPECKERS. 481 


Outer web of outer tail-feather partly black-barred . . . . . . . lucasanus 436 
Back black, not barred crosswise, but striped lengthwise with white: “ poled -backs.” 
Outer tall-feathers wholly white. Length usually 9-10 inches. 


Greater coverts and inner secondaries profusely white-spotted . . 6. 1... 1 ees villosus 438 

Greater coverts and inner secondaries sparsely or not white-spotted . . . . . 1. + harrisi 439 
Outer tail-feathers barred with black. Length usually 6-7 inches. 

Greater coverts and inner secondaries profusely white-spotted . . . . 6 1 5 ee pubescens 440 

Greater coverts and inner secondaries sparingly or not white-spotted. . . . . . . gairdneri 441 


P. borea'lis. (Lat. borealis, northern; inappropriate for a U. 8. species. Fig. 331.) Rep- 
COoCKADED WoopprcKer. Body spotted and crosswise banded, but not streaked. Head 
black on top, with a large silky white auricular 
patch embracing the eye and extending on the side 
of the neck, bordered above in the g by a scarlet 
stripe not meeting its fellow on the nape; nasal 
feathers and those on the side of the under jaw 
white; black of the crown connected across the 
lores with a black stripe running from the corner of 
the bill down the side of the throat and neck to be 
dissipated on the side of the breast in black spots 
continued less thickly along the whole side and on 
the crisswm; under parts otherwise soiled white. 
Central tail-feathers black; others white, black- 
barred. Back and wings barred with black and Fig. 331.— Red-cockaded Woodpecker, nat. size. 
white, the larger quills and many coverts with the (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 

white bars resolved into paired spots. @Q lacking the red cockade. A peculiar isolated species ; 
wings longer and more pointed than usual in this, genus; 2d quill longer than 7th; spurious 
primary very short; bill smaller than usual, decidedly shorter than head. Length 8.00-8.50; 
extent 14.00-15.00; wing 4.50-4.90; tail 3.25-3.75. Pine swamps and barrens of the S. 
Atlantic and Gulf States; N. to Pennsylvania. Eggs 0.95 X 0.70. 

P. seala/ris. (Lat. scalaris, ladder-like; scala, a scale, flight of stairs, ete.; alluding to the 
black and white cross-bars on the back.) TExAN WoopprecKkeER. Entire back, from nape to 
upper tail-coverts, barred across in black and white stripes of equal width ; a narrow space on 
back of neck, upper tail-coverts, and 4 middle tail-feathers, entirely black ; wing-coverts with a 
round white spot at end of each feather, and a hidden spot or pair of spots further along the 
feather. Primaries regularly marked with white spots in pairs on the edges of the webs, those 
on the outer webs small and angular, on the inner webs larger and more rounded; on the 
secondaries these spots changing to broken bars ; so that the primaries and coverts are spotted 
alike, the secondaries and back barred alike. Crown black, speckled with white, in the g 
extensively crimson; the feathers being black, specked with white, finally tipped with red, 
which becomes continuous on the hind head, where the white specks cease. Side of head 
white, with a long black stripe from bill under eye, widening behind, there joining a black 
post-ocular stripe and spreading over side of neck. Nasal featherssmoky-brown. Under parts 
ranging from soiled white to smoky-gray, with numerous black spots on sides, flanks and cris- 
sun ; lateral tail-feathers perfectly barred with black and white in equal amounts. 9 lacking 
red on the crown. Small: length 7.00-7.50; extent 13.00; wing 3.50-4.00; tail 2.75-3.00; 
bill 0.66-0.87. Southwestern U. 8. and southward, abundant. It is obviously impossible, in 
the cases of these profusely spotted woodpeckers, to frame a description which will meet every 
case, without being too vague, or going into tedious particulars. The foregoing, taken from 
Rio Grande specimens, covers the usual style of the species as found along our southern border ; 


but the student must not be surprised if I fail to account for every spot of the particular speci- 
men he has in hand. 


31 


482 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLA — PICIFORMES. 


435. P.s. nut/talli. (To Thos. Nuttall. Fig. 332.) Nurraty’s WooprecKer. Similar; rather 

larger; more white, this prevailing on the back over the black bars; nape chiefly white ; nasal 
tufts white; lateral tail-feathers, especially, sparsely 
or imperfectly barred. The Californian coast race, 
differing decidedly in some respects, and constantly ; 
but connected with general series of ladder-backs. 
Barring restricted to the back proper, the hind neek 
being black, sueceeded anteriorly by a white space 
adjoining the red, wanting in scalaris, where red 
joims black. Red chiefly confined to the occiput, 
the rest of the crown black, spotted with white. 
Lateral tail-feathers white, not barred throughout, 
having but 1-3 black bars, all beyond their mid- 
dies, all but the terminal one of these broken. 
White postocular stripe running into the white 
nuchal area, but eut off from the white of the 
shoulders. White maxillary stripe enclosed in 


Fic. 332, —Nuttall’s Woodpecker, nat. size, black as in scalaris, but this black continuous with 
(From Elliot.) the cervical black patch, which is not the case in 
scalaris. No smoky-brown state of the under parts observed. 

436. P.s.lucasa/‘nus. (Of Cape St. Lucas.) Sr. Lucas Wooppecner. A local race of scalaris. 
Smoky-brown nasal tufts and style of head and back as in that species. Lateral tail-feathers 
imperfectly barred and only toward end, asin nuttall. Red of crown of ¢ broken up anteriorly. 
Peculiar in disproportionate size of bill and feet: bill 1.10; tarsus 0.75. 

437. P. stricklandi. (To H. E. Strickland.) Stricknann’s WooppecKker. Entirely different 
from any of the foregoing or following species. Adult ¢: Upper parts dark brown, immacu- 
late; top of head, rump, and 4 middle tail-feathers black ; the occiput with a scarlet band. 
Sides of head with white post-ocular and maxillary bands, expanded and more or less confluent 
on sides of neck. Wing-quills like the back, their outer webs with a few small white spots, 
the inner webs with more numerous larger white spots or broken bars. Outermost tail-feathers 
evenly barred throughout with blackish-brown and white; intermediate feathers partly so 
banded, but mostly blackish. Entire under parts sordid whitish, thickly spotted with dusky ; 
the markings few and somewhat linear on the throat, crowded and cordate on the breast, widen- 
ing and tending to become 
bars on the lower belly, 
flanks, and crissum. Bill 
and feet blackish -plumbe- 
ous. Size of a small P. 
villosus ; wing 4.50; tail 
3.25; bill 1.12; tarsus 
0.75; middle toe and claw 
0.90. @ similar: no red 
on nape; color of upper 
parts duller, and some 
feathers of middle of back 
barred with white. Young: 
Like adults of the respec- 
tive sex; but top of head 
brown like back, and spot- Fic. 833. — Hairy Woodpecker, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


ted with red. A Mexican species, lately ascertained to be of cominon occurrence in Arizona. 


438. 


439. 


440. 


441. 


152. 


PICIDZ!: WOODPECKERS. 483 


P. villo/sus. (Lat. villosus, hairy, shaggy, villous. Fig. 333.) Harry WooppecKker. Spotted 
and lengthwise streaked, but not banded. Usually 9-10 long ; outer tail-feathers wholly white. 
Back black, with a long white stripe down the middle. Quills and wing-coverts with a pro- 
fusion of white spots; usually 6-7 pairs on the primaries, several on all the secondaries, and 
one or more on each of the coverts. Four middle tail-feathers black ; next pair black and 
white; next two pairs white, as stated. Under parts white. Crowu aud sides of head black, 
with a white stripe over avd behind the eye; another from the nasal feathers running below 
the eye to spread on the side of the neck; a scarlet nuchal band in the g, sometimes broken 
in two, wanting in the 9. Young with the crown mostly red or bronzy, or even yellowish. 
Eastern N. Ain., abundant. Length usually 9.00-10.00; extent 15.50-17.50; wing 4.50-5.00 ; 
tail 3.50; bill 1.12; whole foot 1.66. Varies greatly in size, mainly according to latitude. In 
the West, shades directly into P. v. harrist, by disappearance of the spots from the coverts and 
inner secondaries; the change occurs on the Eastern slopes of the Rocky Mts. One of the 
common Eastern U. 8. woodpeckers, in British Am. trending westward to the Pacifie in 
Alaska; but not so often noticed as the little P. pubescens, as it is less funiliar, and keeps more 
in the woods. Resident wherever occurring. Eggs 4-6 or 7, 1.00 X 0.75. 

a. major. Northern: very large and hoary. Length up to 11.00; wing over 5.00; tail 
nearly 4.00; whole foot 1.90; bill 1.50! (BP. leucomelas Bodd.) 

b. medius. The ordinary bird, as above. 

¢c. minor, Southern: very small and dark. Grading down to 8.00, thus within an inch of 
the maximum of P. pubescens. (P. auduboni Sw.) 
P.v.barrisi. (To Edward Haris.) Harris’ Woopprcker. Exactly like villosus, except- 
ing fewer wing-spots; generally none on the coverts and inmer quills; with specimens enough 
we can see the spots disappear one by one. Generally white below, but in some regions 
smoky-gray (a thing not observed in Eastern birds), such being especially the case ou the 
Pacific slopes, where the smoky-bellied birds also sometimes acquire a few thin black stripes 
on the sides; those from the interior being quite purely white below. Size of an average 
P. villosus. Rocky Mts. to the Pacitic, U. 8. 
P. pubescens. (Lat. pubescens, coming to puberty; i.e. hairy. Fig. 334.) Downy Woop- 
PECKER. Usually 6-7 long; outer tail-feathers barred with black and white. Exactly like 
P. villosus, except in these respects. Length 6.00-7.00 ; 
extent 11.00-12.00; wing 3.50-4.00; tail under 3.00; 
bill about 0.66; whole foot 1.25. Eastern N. Am., 
abundant in orchards, and all wooded places. Range 
substantially the same as that of the hairy woodpecker, 
but in most U. 8. localities the more abundant of the 
two; on the whole rather more southerly. This is the 
little spotted bird that bores the apple-trees so persist- 
ently ; but it does not appear to hurt them. There is 
no such difference in the character of the plumage as 
the terms ‘ downy” and ‘‘ hairy ” imply. Eggs about Fie. 334. — Downy Woodpecker, nat. size. 
6, 0.85 & 0.70. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 
P. p. gaird’neri. (To Dr. Meredith Gairdner, a Scotch naturalist.) Bearing the same relation 
to P. pubescens that harrisi does to P. villosus ; the wing-spots few or wanting on the inner 
quills and the coverts, the belly smoky-gray in some localities. Rocky Mts. to the Pacifie, 
U. S., but much rarer than P. pubescens is in the East, and almost wanting in much of the 
Rocky Mt. region, where P. harrist abounds. 
XENOPI'CUS. (Gr. &évos, xenos, rare, foreign.) MAskED Woopprckers. Form as in 
Picus proper. Body uniformly black. Head white. Tongue said to be but little more 
extensible than in Sphyropicus (not verified by me). 


442. 


153. 


484 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PICARLA — PICIFORMES. 


X. albolarva’tus. (Lat. albo, with white, larvatus, masked.) WHITE-HEADED Woop- 
PECKER. Body not banded, streaked, nor spotted. Uniform black ; whole head white, in the 
&@ with a scarlet nuchal band; a large patch of white on the wing, formed by white spaces on 
both webs of the primaries, divided only by their black shafts; on the secondaries commonly 
resolved into a number of blotches. Bill and feet plumbeous-blackish. Iris red. Q without 
the red on the nape. Length 8.75-9.50; extent 15.75-16.25; wing 5.00-5.25; tail 3.50. 
Mountains of California, Oregon and Washington, common in pine woods. A remarkable 
species, unique in coloration, and still more peculiar in the little extensibility of the tongue, 
which can be pulled out scarcely an inch; that of P. villosus, for instance, extending 2 inches 
or more beyond the end of the bill. 


vy NM 
wert vs 


p) 


Fic. 335. — European Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus), 4 nat. size; hardly distinguishable in the 
cut from P. americanus. (From Brehm.) 


PICOIDES. (Lat. picus, a woodpecker; Gr. efSos, eidos, resemblance. Fig. 335.) THREE- 
TOED WoopPECKERS. Three-toed: the hallux (1st toe) absent, the 4th toe reversed as usual 
in the family. Bill as in Picus proper, about as long as the head, stout, straight, with bevelled 
end and lateral ridges, and nasal tufts hiding the nostrils; very broad and much depressed at 
base, with the lateral ridges very low down, in most of their length close to and parallel with 
commissure ; nostrils very near commissure ; gonys about as long as from nostrils to end of bill. 
Wings very long and pointed; Ist quill spurious ; 2d between 6th and 7th in length. Crown 
with a square yellow patch in the @; sides of head striped, of body barred, with black and 
white; under parts otherwise white; quills but not coverts with white spots; tail-feathers 


443. 


444, 


445. 


154, 


PICIDA): WOODPECKERS. 485 


unbarred, the outer white, the central black. All the species of this genus are unquestionably 
modified derivatives of one cireumpolar stock ; the American seein to have become completely 
differentiated from the Asiatic and European, and further divergence scems to have perfectly 
separated arcticus from americanus ; but dorsalis and americanus are still linked together. 
Analysis of Species. 
Back uniform black . «2 6 6 ee ee te es _arcticus 443 
Back with entirely interrupted lengthwise white stripe... . 
Back with nearly or quite uninterrupted lengthwise white stripe 


americanus 444 
. dorsalis 445 


P. are'ticus. (Lat. arcticus, arctic.) BLACK-BACKED THREH-ToED WooppeEcKER. Entire 
upper parts glossy blue-black, with only a few white spots paired ou the wiug-quills. Below, 
white from bill to tail, the sides, flanks, and lining of wings barred with black. A slight or 
coucealed white post-ocular stripe (often wanting) and a side-stripe on head from across fore- 
head to neck, eut off by black from the white of the under parts. Four middle tail-feathers 
black, the rest white, but the intermediate one usually touched with black. ¢ with a square 
yellow patch on crown, wanting in 9. Bill and feet blackish-plumbeous ; iris brown. Length 
9.00-10.00; extent 15.00-17.00; wing 5.00-5.50; tail 4.00; bill 1.25 or more. Northwestern 
Am., 8. in winter through New England aud generally along the northern tier of U. 8., in the 
mountains of the West to about 39° in Nevada and California. Habits of ordinary Picus. 
Eges 0.92 X 0.72. 

P. america/nus. (Of America.) Lapprr-BackKED THREE-TOED WoopPEcKER. Upper 
parts black, the middle line white, more or less completely barred across with black; the 
general effect thus of a ‘‘ ladder-back.” All the primaries and secondaries with paired white 
spots or bars. Four middle tail-feathers black, others white, the intermediate one usually 
touched with black. Below, white from Dill to tail, the sides, flanks, and lining of wings 
black-barred. A white post-ocular stripe to nape, and a larger white stripe froin lore to side 
of neck. 4 with a yellow square on crown, wanting in 9 ; in both, crown seldom uniform 
black. Bill and feet blackish-plunbeous; iris brown. Smaller than the last; length 8.00- 
9.00 ; extent 14.00-16.00; wing 4.50-5.00; tail under 4.00; bill 1.25 or less; whole foot 1.50. 
Northern N. Am., 8. to Massachusetts and along northern tier of States. 

P. a. dorsa/lis. (Lat. dorsalis, relating to dorsum, the back.) PoLr-BaAcKED THREE- 
TOED WOODPECKER. In extreine case, the back with an uninterrupted white lengthwise 
stripe, producing the effect of a ‘‘ pole-back,” as in P. villosus for instance; this is produced by 
such increase of white on the ends of the individual feathers that their black bases do not show, 
the subterminal black bars of P. hirsutus disappearing. Usually partly banded black and 
white, and grading bar by bar into hirsutus. The amount of spotting on the wings is about 
as in Picus harrist —on primaries and secondaries, not on coverts. Size of hirsutus. Rocky 
Mt. region, U. 8., 8. to New Mexico. 

SPHYROPUCUS. (Gr. chipa, sphura, a hammer; and Lat. picus.) Sap-suckinc Woop- 
PECKERS. Bill about as long as head, not so stout and chisel-like as in the foregoing genera ; 
pointed, with little bevelling at extreme end only, and lateral ridges running obliquely into the 
commissure at about its middle; culmen and gonys both a little curved ; nasal tufts moderate. 
Wing pointed by 4th primary; 3d and 5th nearly as long; 2d between 6th and 7th; spurious 
Ist very short. Tail-feathers long-acuminate. Outer hind toe little longer than outer front 
one ; inner hind toe extremely short. Plumage highly variegated with yellow and red. Sexes 
unlike. Tongue scarcely extensile ; the tip obtuse, brushy ; hyoid bones short. Birds of this 
remarkable genus feed much upon fruits, as well as insects, and also upon soft inner bark 
(cambium) ; they injure fruit-trees by stripping off the bark, sometimes in large areas, instead 
of simply boring holes. Of the several small species commonly called “‘sapsuckers,” they alone 
deserve the name. In declaring war against woodpeckers, the agriculturist will do well to 
discriminate between this somewhat injurious and the highly beneficial species. 


446. 


447. 


448, 


449. 


486 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARILA —PICIFORMES. 


S. varius. (Lat. varius, variegated. Fig. 336.) YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER. ¢: 
Crown crimson, bordered all around with black ; chin, throat, and breast black, enclosing a large 
crimson patch on the former (in the ¢; in the 9 this patch white) ; sides of head with a white 
line starting from the nasal feathers and dividing the black of the throat from a trans-ocular 
black stripe, this separated from the black of the crown by a white pest-ocular stripe ; all these 
stripes frequently yellowish. Under parts dingy yellow, brownish and with sagittate dusky 
marks on the sides. Back variegated with black and yellowish. Wings black with a large 
oblique white bar on the coverts; the quills with numerous paired white spots on the edges 
of both webs. Tail black, most of the feathers white-edged, the inner webs of the middle pair, 
and the upper coverts, mostly white. Bill 
brownish; feet greenish-plumheous; iris 
brown. Young birds lack the definite 
black areas of the head and breast, and the 
crimson throat-patch, these parts being 
mottled gray; but in any plumage the bird 
is recognized by its yellowness, different 
from what is seen in any other Eastern 
species, and the broad white wing-bar, to 
say nothing of the generic characters. 
Length 8.25-8.75 ; extent 15.00-16.00 ; 
wing 4.80-5.20; tail 3.50. Eastern N. 
Ain., abundant in most U. S. localities, 
resident in the South, migratory northerly ; 
N. to 61° at least ; W. to Dakota; 8. into 


1 ee | ti a 7 Tel 
Fic. 336, — Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, nat, s (aq Central Am. and W. I. The hyoid bones 
nat. del. E. C.) are the shortest of those of any N. Am. 


species ; the tongue is protrusible only about 4 inch beyond bill. Eggs 4-6, about 0.95 x 0.70. 

8. v.nucha‘lis. (Lat. suchalis, pertaining to nucha, the nape; not classic.) Nucian Woop- 
PECKER. Like the last; with an additional band of scarlet on the nape (where the white is 
seldom even tinged with red in S. varius) ; red throat-patch invading the surrounding black, and 
2 with this patch at least in part red ; all the yellowish variegation very pale, almost white on 
the belly (where varius is yellowest) ; bill slaty-black (not brownish). Size of varius. Rocky 
Mt. region, U.S., abundant. In S. varius 
the red rarely spreads on the nape, and the 
@ seldom has any on the throat. In 8S. 
nuchalis this extension of red is a step 
which culminates in S. ruber. 

S. v. ruber. (Lat. ruber, red.) Rep- 
BREASTED Woopreckenr. Like the last, 
but whole head, neck, and breast carmine- 
red, in both sexes, in which the markings 
of varius are more or less completely dis- 
solved, though usually traceable; gray in 
the young. Size of thelast. Pacific coast 
region, U.S. A remarkable extreme, long 
supposed to be perfectly distinct; now 


known to intergrade in every degree with Fia, 337. — Brown-headed Woodpecker (9), nat. size, 
nuchalis. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


8. thyroi’des. (Gr. Gupeoedys, thureoeides, shield-like; Oupeds, thwreos, a shield; «tdos, 
resemblance ; alluding to the black plastron of the @. Figs. 337, 338.) Brown-HEADED 


155. 


PICIDZ: WOODPECKERS. 487 


Wooprrcker (9). BraAck-BreasTED WOODPECKER (9). RED-THROATED WOoopPECcKER 
(f). Wrtiramson’s W0oDPECKER (fg). Adult g: Glossy black, including all the tail- 
feathers. Belly gamboge yellow. A narrow scarlet patch on the throat. Upper tail-coverts, 
a broad oblique bar on the wing-coverts, a post-ocular stripe, a stripe from nostrils below eye 
and ear, and small, in part paired, spots on the quills, white. Lining of wings, sides of body, 
flanks and erissumn varied with white, leaving the black in bars and cordate spots. Bill slate- 
color; feet greenish-gray ; iris reddish-brown. Length 9.00-9.50; extent 16.00-17.00 ; wing 
5.00-5.50; tail 3.75; bill 0.90; whole foot 1.67. Adult 9 : Altogether different ; only upper 
tail-coverts white and belly yellow as in g ; only continuously black in a shield-shaped area 
on breast of varying extent. Otherwise, entire body, including wing-coverts, inner secondaries 
and most tail-feathers, closely and regularly barred crosswise with black aud white, or brownish- 
white (most brownish on body, quite white on 
wings and tail). Whole head uniform hair- 
brown, invaded more or less with the varie- 
gation of the body, sometimes with traces of 
the post-ocular stripe of the @, and often 
touched with red on the throat. Quills more 
heavily white-spotted than in g, the spots 
paired on all the feathers, changing to bars 
on the inner ones. Two or three interme- 
diate tail-feathers black, but middle and one 
or two outer pairs barred. Size of the @. 
The extraordinary sexual differences long 
kept thyroides and ‘‘ williamsont” apart in 
the books as perfectly distinct species ; espe- 
cially as they begin with the first featherings, Fic. 338. —Red-throated Woodpecker (¢), nat. size. 
fledglings in the nest showing the opposite (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 

patterns perfectly. Young gf: Like adult; no red in the white throat-patch ; belly merely 
yellowish ; tail varied with white. Young 9: Like adult, but whole head, neck, and breast 
banded with dusky and gray, conformable with the general variegation of the body. The best 
@ 2 are those with the cleanest brown head and most black breast. Though the general 
effect of this beautiful woodpecker is so peculiar, in each sex, the coloration is referable to 
the pattern of S. varius. In both, yellow belly, red throat (3), white upper tail-coverts, 
spotted quills, varied flanks and crissum, stripes on head, black breast (only circumscribed in 
9), white oblique wing-bar (only developed in @), variegation of inner web of middle tail- 
feather (Q and young ¢); general variegation of back of varius repeated in 9, while gray 
head of young varius is met by brown head of Q thyroides. Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, U. 8., 
chiefly in the pine-belt, of which it is one of the characteristic species, like Clarke’s crow, 
Steller’s jay, and other birds; abundant in favorable localities. It is strictly a Sphyropicus, 
with little extensible, brushy and obtuse tongue, and feeds on juices of trees, as well as insects 
and berries. Eggs not yet taken: doubtless indistinguishable from those of S. varius. 
CENTU/RUS. (Gr. xévrpov, kentron, a prickle; ovpd, oura, tail; but the species not sharper- 
tailed than other woodpeckers.) ZEBRA WooDPECKERS. Bill about as long as head, com- 
pressed, little bevelled or truncate at end, with decidedly curved culmen ; lateral ridges near 
culmen, subsiding before reaching end of bill; nasal tufts moderate, partly concealing nostrils. 
Outer hind toe shorter than outer anterior one. Wings and tail ordinary. Sexes alike, except 
less or no red on head of 9. ‘‘ Ladder-backed;” back and wings, except larger quills, closely 
banded with black and white; primaries with large white blotches near the base, and usually a 
few smaller spots; below, immaculate, except sagittate black marks on the flanks and erissum ; 
the belly tinged with red or yellow; 9-10 long; wing about 5.00; tail about 3.50. 


450. 


451. 


452. 


488 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLA — PICIFORMES. 


Analysis of Species. 


Belly reddening ; no yellow about head; ¢ whole crownred; @ napered . . ... . . - carolinus 450 
Belly yellowing; gf crown-spot red; @ no red on head. 
Front and nape yellow; rump entirely white; tail almost entirely black . . . . . . . aurifrons 451 
No yellow on head; rump and tail much barred with black and white... . . . | uropygialis 452 


C. carolinus. (Of Carolina. Fig. 339.) Rep-BELLIED WoopPEcKER. Whole crown and 
nape scarlet in the  ; nape only so in the Q. Sides of head, and under parts, grayish-white, 
usually with a yellow shade, reddening on the belly; tail black, one or two outer feathers 
white-barred ; inner web of central feath- 
ers white with black spots, outer web of 
the same black with a white space next 
the shaft for most of its length; white 
predominating on the rump. Bill and feet 
dusky plumbeous. Irisred. Large; length 
nearer 10.00 than 9.00; extent 16.50-17.50; 
wing 5.00-5.50; bill over 1.00; 2 small- 
er. Varies much in size; Southern speci- 
mens smaller than Northern. Eastern 
U. S., somewhat southerly, rarely N. to 
New England, and Canada West; W. to 
the Rocky Mts.; Texas; common south- 
erly, where resident, less so northerly, 
where migratory. Eggs 4-6, 1.00 x 0.87. 
C. awrifrons. (Lat. aurum, gold; frons, 
forehead.) YELLOW -FRONTED Woop- 
PECKER. Somewhat similar to the last: 
belly yellowish, not reddish ; red of head 
in @ confined to a crown-patch, in 2? 
wanting. Forehead and nasal plumes 
golden-yellow ; nape with a golden, orange, 
or reddish band (in both sexes, besides the Fic. 339.— Red-bellied Woodpecker, reduced. (Shep- 
scarlet crown-patch of the $). Ladder- Pad del. Nichols sc.) 

rungs of back narrow, numerous, and distinct. Head and under parts clear ashy-gray, very 
different from the smoky-gray of C. wropygialis, the belly yellowish, the flanks and erissum 
whitish, varied with black. Upper tail-coverts white, not barred. Middle tail-feathers entirely 
black ; outermost not entirely barred; next black or only touched with white. Bill and feet 
bluish-black. Iris red. Length 9.50-10.50 ; extent 16.50-17.50; wing 5.00-5.50; tail 3.25- 
3.75. Q differsas said. Young ¢: Distinctively like the adult ; nearly all the crown bronzy- 
red; nasal plumes not yellow; nape dull yellowish; a few thin streaks of dusky on breast. 
Texas and southward ; very abundant in suitable localities on the Lower Rio Grande. Habits 
not peculiar. Eggs 4-6, 1.00 x 0.80. 

C. uropygia/lis. (Gr. odportyor, ouropugion, Lat. uropygium, the rump; banded in this 
species, not white as in aurifrons.) GILA WoopPECKER. SAGUARO WooprrcKkerR. Head 
all around and entire under parts fulvous-gray, with front and nape not notably different, the 
middle of the belly yellowish, the flanks and crissum whitish with black bars and cordate spots ; 
middle of crown crimson in g. Back, rump, upper tail-coverts, wing-coverts, and inner quills 
closely and regularly banded with black and white, latter not pure on dorsal region. Primaries 
blackish, not regularly barred or spotted like the inner quills, but slightly white-tipped and 
-edged, and with large white blotches at base, of irregular shapes and tending to resolve into 
sets of smaller spots. Middle pair of tail-feathers black, with long white shaft-space on outer 


156. 


453. 


454. 


PICIDA!: WOODPECKERS. 489 


web, on inner web white with black bars and spots; intermediate tail-feathers black; outer- 
most regularly barred with black and white ; next to outermost thus barred at end only. Bill 
blackish ; feet plumbeous; iris probably red. Size of the others, or rather less. @ without 
red on head. A peculiar species, abounding in the valley of the Gila and Lower Colorado, and 
southward, where it nests usually in the giaut cactuses. 

MELANER'PES. (Gr. péAas, melas, black; éprns, herpes, a creeper.) Tricotor Woop- 
PECKERS. Bill about as long as head, depressed at base, compressed beyond, culmen and gonys 
ridged but curved throughout, sides of upper mandible distinctly ridged but a little way, end of 
bill pointed with little bevelling ; nasal tufts small, not concealing nostrils. Outer posterior 
and anterior toes of equal lengths. Wings pointed by 3d, 4th, and 5th quills; 2d shorter than 
6th; lst spurious. Plumage lustrous and“ broad” in coloration, with black, white, and red in 
masses, little or not spotty or streaky. Sexes alike and young different, or sexes unlike and 
young similar. The two species are very different, requiring no analysis of their characters. 
M. erythroce/phalus. (Gr. épvOpés, eruthros, red ; cea, kephale, head. Fig. 340.) Rep- 
neADED Wooprecker. Tricotor. ¢ 2, adult: Beautifully tricolor with “ the red, white, 
and blue.” Back, wings and tail glossy blue-black; seconda- 
ries, upper tail-coverts, under wing-coverts, under parts from 
the breast, and ends of some outer tail-feathers, white. Whole 
head, neck and fore breast crimson, usually black-bordered 
where adjoining the white. The white of-the wings and rump 
is pure; that of belly usually tinged with ochraceous or red- 
dish ; the white quills have black shafts. The red feathers 
are stiffish and somewhat bristly in their colored portions. 
The gloss is sometimes green instead of blue. Bill and feet 
dusky horn-color. Iris brown. Length 8.50-9.50; extent 
16.00-18.00 ; wing 5.00-5.50 ; tail 3.50 ; bill 1.00-1.12 ; whole 
foot 1.67. 9, young: The red parts of the adult gray, 
streaked with dusky; the red appears in irregular patches. 
Feathers of back and wing-coverts skirted with light gray, 
and mixed with concealed whitish, in bars. Primaries and 
tail-feathers tipped and edged with white. White of seconda- 
ries broken with black bars or spots. At a very early age, 
whole under parts streaked with dusky much like the head, 
but these parts whiten before the head reddens. Eastern U. 8. 
and British Provinces, irregularly rare or common northerly, Fg. 340. — Red-headed Wood- 
abounding in most U. S. localities; common N. to 49° along ecker, reduced. (Sheppard del. 
Red River of the North; W. to Rocky Mts., sometimes to pcos ec 

Utah and California; migratory in most sections. A very familiar bird, in orchards and gar- 
dens as well as in the woods, conspicuous with its gay tricolor plumage, and a great genius, no 
less brilliant and versatile in character than in plumage — very accomplished, of endless re- 
sources, with tricks and manners enough to fill the rest of this volume with good reading 
matter! Feeds much on acorns, nuts, berries, and various fruits as well as upon insects, 
and sometimes lays up a store, like the Californian Woodpecker. Nest anywhere in wood, 
preferably the blasted top of a tree. Eggs 5 or 6, glassy and spheroidal as usual in the family, 
1.10 to 1.15 long, 0.80 to 0.90 broad. Two broods southerly. 

M. formici/vorus bairdi. (Lat. formica, an ant; voro, devour. ToS. F. Baird; our species 
a variety of the Mexican one. Fig 341.) CALIFORNIAN WOODPECKER. J 9: Glossy blue- 
black ; rump, bases of all the quills, edge of the wing, and under parts from the breast, white ; 
sides with sparse black streaks; forehead squarely white, continuous with a stripe down in front 
of the eyes and thence broadly encircling the throat, there becoming yellowish; this cuts off the 


455. 


157. 


456. 


490 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARIA — PICIFORMES. 


black around base of bill and on the chin completely; crown in the # crimson from the white 
front, in the Q separated from the white by a black interval; frequently a few red feathers in 
the black breast-patch, which is not sharply defined behind, but changes by streaks into the 
white of the belly. Bill black; eyes white, often rosy, creamy, yellowish, milky, bluish, or 
brown. Young not particularly differ- 
cut, but have the head-markings less 
defined, the red bronzy. In the 9, 
the succession of white, black, and red 
on the crown is very sharp and square. 
In some specimens of either sex, the 
secondaries are edged and tipped with 
white. The gloss is sometimes rather 
green than blue. Size ofthe last. Bill 
varies in size from 0.87 to1.12! Rocky 
Mts. to the Pacific, U. 8., abundant ; 
noted for its habit of sticking acorns in 
little holes that it digs in the bark for 


Fic. 841. — Californian Woodpecker, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. the purpose; whole branches are fre- 
E. C.) quently studded in this manner. Gen- 


eral manners and bearing those of the common red-head. Eggs 1.10 x 0.90. 

M. f. angus’tifrons. (Lat. angustus, narrow, straitened; frons, forehead.) NARROW-FRONTED 
WoopprckEr. Said to have the white frontal bar narrower ; bill somewhat differently shaped ; 
white bar narrower than the black one of the 9, both together less than the red. L. California. 
ASYNDES’MUS. (Gr. a privative, civ, sun, together ; decuds, desmos, a bond ; alluding to 
the loosened texture of the feathers of certain parts.) BRISTLE-BELLIED WOODPECKERS. Bill 
almost colaptine in general aspect, but with short distinct lateral ridges as in Melanerpes; as 
long as head, rather longer than tarsus, not broader than high at base, compressed and some- 
what curved toward end; pointed 
with scarcely any lateral bevellivg, 
culmen curved and scarcely ridged ; 
gonys straight. Wings of excessive 
length, folding nearly to end of tail, 
and peculiar in proportion of prima- 
ries: 4th quill longest, 8d and 5th 
about equal and shorter than 2d. 
Inner anterior claw reaching little 
beyond base of outer anterior. Feath- 
ers of under parts and of a nuchal col- 
lar with the fibrille of their colored 
portions enlarged in calibre, bristly, 
of silicious hardness, loosened and 


disconnected, being devoid of bar- 
bicels and hooklets. Dorsal plu- Fia. 342. — Lewis’ Woodpecker, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 
mage compact, of intense metallic lustre. Feathers of face soft and velvety. Sexes alike ; 
young different. Ido not see why my friends have snubbed this genus; it is a good one, as 
genera go now. 

A. torqua’tus. (Lat. torquatus, collared. Figs. 342, 343.) Lewis’ WooppecKEr. COoL- 
LARED WOODPECKER. § 9, adult: Upper parts, including wings and tail, flanks and erissum, 
green-black with intense bronzy lustre, especially on the back — this iridescence like that of 
Quiscalus eneus almost. Face dark crimson, in a patch of velvety feathers around Dill and eyes. 


PICIDZ: WOODPECKERS. 491 


A narrow distinct collar around back of neck, and breast, hoary bluish-gray, gradnally brighten- 
ing behind on the under parts to intense rose-red or lake, delicately pencilled in hair lines with 
the hoary-gray. No white on wings or 
tail, their under surfaces simply black. 
Bill blackish; feet greenish-plumbeous. 
Tris brown. Length 10.00-11.00; extent 
20.00-22.00; wing 6.50-7.00; tail 4.50; 
bill 1.20. Young: Little lustre at first, 
but this soon appears, before any red. 
Little or no trace of the hoary collar or 
crimson mask; face sooty-black; throat 
and breast mixed fuscous and gray, chang- 
ing on the belly to sooty-black, tinged or 
slashed here and there with red. The 
hoary and lake-red are established with 
the feathers that are of the bristly charac- 
ter above described. A remarkable bird, 
inhabiting wooded mountainous parts of 
the West, especially the pine-belt, Rocky 
Mts. to the Pacific, U. 8. and British Col- 
wnbia. It is found with Clarke’s crow if y 
and Steller’s jay; wild and wary, like our Fre. 343. — Lewis’ Woodpecker, reduced. (Sheppard del. 
Hylotomus ; keeps high up in the trees, Nichols sc.) 

and in flying looks more like a crow than a woodpecker. Its aerial excursions are very con- 
spicuous. Nest and eggs as usual; size of eggs 1.12 X 0.95. 

158. COLAP’TES. (Gr. xodamris, kolaptes, a chisel, hammer.) GILDED WoopprcKERS. FLIcK- 
ERS. Bill about as long as head, slender and weak for this fainily, without any lateral ridges or 
bevelling, pointed without truncation, culmen and commissure curved, gonys nearly straight, 
only about half as long as culmen, nostrils nut concealed by the slight nasal tufts; culmen and 


gonys, however, both ridged. 
Outer posterior toe shorter 
than the outer anterior; in- 
ner posterior very short. 
Wings long, pointed by 3d 
to 6th quills ; 2d shorter 
than 7th; lst about 2 the 
2d. Taillengthened. Sexes 
generally alike, but distin- 
guishable by positive marks 
about head. Plumage highly 
variegated and very showy. 
Under parts with numerous 
circular black spots on a 
pale ground. A large black 
pectoral crescent. Rump 
snowy-white. Back, wing- 
coverts and innermost quills 
brown with an olive or lilac shade, and thickly barred with black; quills and tail black, ex- 
cepting as below stated; red or black cheek patches in 3, wanting in 9. About a foot 
long ; wing about 6.00; tail 4.50. A beautiful genus, of 6 American species, 3 of N. Am. 


Uy - 
Fia. 344. — Flicker, nat. size. (Ad nat, del. E. C.) 


492 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PICARLZ — PICIFORMES. 


Analysis of Species. 


Red moustaches in g; nored on nape in f ?; wings and tail orange-red underneath; cap lilac-brown; 
throat ashy ; no yellow on belly ; back umber-brown (Western) . . ...... =. .  mexicanus 459 
(Mixed in every degree with) 
Black moustaches in ¢ ; red nuchal crescent in gf; wings and tail golden-yellow underneath; cap ashy; 
throat lilac-brown; yellow on belly; back olive-brown (Eastern). . . . . . . . . . . . @uratus 457 
(Not mixed with) 
Red moustaches in #; no red onnape in # ¢ ; wings and tail golden-yellow underneath; cap lilac-brown; 
throat ashy; yellow on belly; back umber-brown (Southwestern) . ...... . . . chrysoides 458 


; ‘ 
\ | | 
WY Hse 
UNS 


<A 


Fic. 345. — Golden-winged Woodpecker, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


Oxss. It will be noted, how curiously these species are distinguished mainly by a different 
combination of common characters. — Colaptes ayrest Aup., C. hybridus Barrp, C. aurato- 
mexicanus SUNDEVALL, isa form from the Missouri and Rocky Mt. regions in which the charac- 
ters of mexicanus and auratus are blended in every conceivable degree in different specimens. 
Perhaps it is a hybrid, and perhaps it is a transitional form, and doubtless there are no such 
things as species in Nature. Eastern specimens of auratus sometimes show red touches in the 
black maxillary patch, as is frequently the case with Kansas examples. In the West, you 


457. 


458. 


459. 


PICIDA):: WOODPECKERS. 498 


will find specimens auratus on one side of the body, mexicanus on the other, — tail gilded on 
some feathers, rubricated on others, etc. 

C. aura/tus. (Lat. auratus, golden, gilded. Figs. 344, 345.) GOLDEN-WINGED WOODPECKER. 
PigEON WoopPECKER. FLicker. YUCKER. JliGH-yoLpER. Back and exposed surfaces 
of wing-coverts aud secondaries olive-brown with numerous black bars. Rump snowy-white ; 
upper tail-coverts white, mixed with black. Primaries blackish, with golden shafts, and glossed 
with golden underneath, at their bases paler and more tawny yellow. Tail-feathers above black, 
their shafts and under surfaces golden, blackened at ends, the outermost with a few touches of 
yellow or white. Top of head, with back and sides of ueck, ash, with a scarlet nuchal band (in 
both sexes). Sides of head, whole chin, throat, and fore-breast lilac-brown, with broad black 
cheek patches, these ‘moustaches’ wanting usually in the 9. A broad black pectoral semi- 
lune. Other under parts shading from a lighter shade of the color of the breast into creamy- 
yellow, marked with numerous circular black spots. Bill and feet dark plumbeous. Iris brown. 
Length 12.00-13.00; extent 18.00-21.00, usually about 20.00; wing 5.75-6.25; tail 4.50; bill 
1.25-1.50; whole foot 2.33. Young similar: more red on head. Eastern North Am.; keeping 
pretty straight to the upper Missouri, where, as said, adulterating with mexicanus; pure to the 
Pacific in Alaska. The first deviation is the appearance of red feathers in the black maxillary 
patches ; these increase till they prevail, finally to the exclusion of the black, resulting in the 
wholly red patch of C. mexicanus. With this change occurs the diminution and final extinction 
of the scarlet nuchal crescent; when, coincidently, we find the characteristic golden-yellow on 
the wings and tail passing through an intermediate orange into the red of mexicanus, a change 
accompanied with another affecting the peculiar lilae-brown of the throat and olive-brown of 
the back, which become respectively ashen and purplish-gray. One of the most abundant and 
best-known species of the family, in any woodland, and sometimes foraging for food in open 
country far from trees; a great ant-eater. A lively bird, of sunny temperament, like its 
feathers, faithful and devoted, assiduous and successful in domestic affairs, and a good house- 
keeper. Eggs usually 6 or 7; under exceptional circunstances 18 to 23 have been taken from 
one hole; averaging 1.10 x 0.90. Migratory northerly. 

C. chrysoi/des. (Gr. ypvads, chrusos, gold; eidos, eidos, like.) GILDED WoopPECKER. Body, 
wings and tail, substantially as in awratus; head as in mexicanus; J with scarlet moustaches ; 
no red on nape in either sex; crown lilac-brown; chin, throat, and fore-breast ash; sides 
tinged with creamy-brown, belly with yellowish. There are, however, sume specialties. 
Golden of wings and tail less vivid than in awratus; tail-feathers black for about half their 
length. General tone of under parts pale, without the decided tints of either of the other 
species, the round black spots large and crowded. Top of head purer and more cinnamon 
brown than in mexicanus. Smaller: wing about 5.50; tail about 4.00. Gradation between 
this form and mexicanus has not yet been observed. Valley of the Colorado River, Lower 
California and southward. 

C. mexica/nus. (Of Mexico.) Rep-sHarrep WooprPECKER. MEXICAN FLICKER. Back, 
rump, and upper surfaces of wings and tail as in C. auratus, but a different shade of color, a 
faintly reddish replacing the olivaceous tinge of the ground-color. Wings and tail of the same 
pattern, but the auration replaced by rubefaction. Top of head rufous (like the throat of 
auratus) ; no occipital red crescent in either sex. Throat and sides of head and neck clear 
ash, with scarlet maxillary patches in the g. A black pectoral semilune. Under parts very 
pale lilac-brown, fading to whitish on the belly, marked with numerous round black spots. 
Bill blackish-slate ; feet dark plumbeous. Iris brown. Size of C. auratus. Westem North 
Am., mostly replacing the yellow flicker from the Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, Sitka into 
Mexico. In habits a perfect counterpart of the common flicker. 


494 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PSITTACI. 


III. Order PSITTACI: Parrots. 


Feet permanently zygodactyle 
by reversion of the fourth toe, 
covered with rugose granular 
scales or plates; bill short, ex- 
tremely stout, strongly epigna- 
thous, and furnished with a (fre- 
quently feathered) cere, as in the 
birds of prey; wings and tail 


variable. The parrots, including 


the macaws, cockatoos, lories, 
etc., form one of the most strong- 
ly marked groups of birds, as 
easily recognizable by their pecu- 
liar external appearance as de- 
fined by technical points of struc- 
ture. They were formerly in- 
cluded in an ‘‘order” Scansores 
on account of the paired toes, but 
this is a comparatively trivial cir- 
cmnstauce ; they have no special 
affinity with other zygodactyle birds, and their peculiarities entitle them to rank with groups 
called orders in the present volume. They might not inaptly be styled frugivorous Raptores; 
and in some respects they exhibit a vague analogy to the quadrumana (monkeys) among 
mammals. The tongue is thick and fleshy, in some genera peculiarly brushy ; it is used to 
some extent in prehension, objects being handled between the tongue and upper mandible. 
The upper mandible is uch more freely movable than is usual in birds, being articulated in- 
stead of suturally joined with the forehead ; and the bill is commonly used in climbing. The 
bony orbits of the eyes are frequently completed by union of the lachrymal bones with postor- 
bital processes, and in some genera develop a bony bridge across the temporal fossa. The 
symphysis of the lower jaw is short and obtuse. The sternum is entire or simply fenestrated 
posteriorly; the furculum is weak, sometimes defective, or wanting. _The principal metatarsal 
bone is short and broad, and its lower extremity is modified to suit the position of the fourth 
toe. The lower larynx is peculiarly constructed, with three pairs of muscles; the ability to 
articulate human speech is one of the most notorious faculties of some parrots. The plumage 
shows aftershafts; the oil-gland is wanting in certain genera; when present, it is tufted. 
There are no ceeea, and the gall-bladder is wanting. Though the family is so perfectly 
circumscribed that no one doubts of any bird whether it be psittacine or not, parrots differ re- 
markably among themselves in certain structural characters which have in most birds a high 
classificatory value. Thus, there are three decided modifications of the carotid arteries — of 
which right and left may both be present, and both running deep in the vertebrarterial canal ; 
or both may be present, but the left superficial ; or only the left is developed (in Cacatua), as 
usual in birds. The ambiens muscle, again, may be present and normal, present and incom- 
plete, or wanting altogether. The femoro-caudal muscle, semitendinosus, and accessory semi- 
tendinosus are present; the accessory femoro-caudal is absent. 


Fia. 346. — Carolina Parroquet, reduced. (From Tenney, after Wilson.) 


The division of the Psittact into family groups has taxed the ingenuity of ornithologists ; 
for so variously interrelated are the numerous forms, that the grouping fluctuates with almost 
every character or set of characters selected for use in classification. But Garrod’s admirable 
anatomical investigatious show that the Psittaci nay be ranged in two series, according to the 


PSITTACI: PARROTS. 495 


characters afforded by the carotid arteries and ambiens muscle. I. PALZORNITHIDA : Care tids 
two (except in Cacatua), the left normal, and no ambiens. II. Psrrractp#: Carotids two, 
the left superficial, the ambiens present in oue series of genera, abseut in others. In the sub- 
family (1) Palwornithine, there is no further deviation ; in (2) Cacatuine, besides the lack of 
a right carotid in Cacutua itself, the orbital ring is completely ossified, aud develops a bony 
process bridging in the temporal fossa; in (3) Stringopine, which includes the curious flightless 
ground Parrot or owl Parrot of New Zealand (Stringops habroptilus), the furculum and sternal 
keel are deficient or defective. Psittacidee include (4) the Arine, in which the ambiens muscle 


Fig. 347. — Carolina Parroquet, } nat. size. (From Brehm, after Audubon.) 


is present ; (5) Pyrrhwrine, in which it is absent, without further modification ; (6) Platy- 
cercing, no ambiens and no furculum; (7) Chrysotine, no ambiens, no furculum, and no oil- 
gland. There are thus 7 subfamilies of 2 families of Psittaci. 

‘Parrots abound in all tropical countries, but, except in Australia and New Zealand, 
rarely extend into the temperate zone. The Indian and Ethiopian regions are poor in parrots, 
while the Australian is the richest, containing many genera and even whole families peculiar 
to it.” (NewTon.) The highest authority, Fixscu, recognizes 354 species as well deter- 
mined, distributing them in 26 genera; 142 are American, 23 African, and 18 Asiatic; the 
Moluccas and New Guinea have 83, Australia 59, and Polynesia 29. 


159 


460. 


496 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES. 


28. Family PSITTACID4:: Parrots. 


See above. Two carotids, the left superficial. All New World Parrots belong here (but 

all Psittacide are not of the New World). 
39. Subfamily ARINAZ: Parrots. 

See above. Ambiens muscle, tufted oil-gland and complete furculum. Of this subfamily 
the Macaws (Ara) and our species of Conwrus are characteristic. 
CONU/RUS. (Gr. xévos, konos, a cone; otpda, oura, tail; cuneate-tail.) PARROQUETS. 
Tail lengthened, nearly equalling wings, cuneate, with tapering feathers. Face entirely 
feathered excepting a slight space about the eye. Nostrils in the feathered cere. Bill very 
stout, with bulging lateral outline, broadly rounded eulmen, and toothed or lobed commissure. 
Tarsi very short, much less than the inner anterior toe; outer anterior longer than outer pos- 
terior toe. Feet granular-reticulate, becoming scutellate on the toes. Wings pointed ; in our 
species the 2d and 3d primaries longest, the Ist and 4th subequal and shorter. A large genus 
of tropical America, with one U. 8. species. 
©. carolinen’sis. (Lat. Carolinian. Figs. 346, 847.) CArRoLina PARRoQUET. Green; head 
yellow; face red; bill white; feet flesh-color; wings more or less variegated with blue and 
yellow. Sexes alike. Young simply green. Length 12.50-13.50; extent 21.00-22.50; wing 
7.Q0-8.00 ; tail 6.00-7.00. Southern States ; up the Mississippi Valley to the Missouri region ; 
W. to Arkansas and the Indian Territory ; recently Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, etc. ; formerly 
strayed to Pennsylvania and New York, but of late has receded even from the Carolinas ; still 
abundaut in Florida. But it would seem that if the cruel and wanton slaughter to which the 
geutle creatures are subjected by idlers goes on, they must before long be exterminated. Gre- 
garious, frugivorous, and granivorous ; not regularly migratory, but roving. Said to breed in 
companies in hollow trees ; eggs whitish, 1.40 x 1.05, elliptical in shape, rough in texture. 


IV. Order RAPTORES: Birds of Prey. 


Bill epignathous, cered; and 
feet not zygodactyle. The rapa- 
cious birds (Raptores, Raptatores 
or Accipitres of authors, Aéto- 
morphe of Huxley) form a fairly 
natural assemblage, to which this 
expression furnishes a clew. 
(The parrots, probably the only 
other birds with strongly hooked 
and truly cered bill, are yoke- 
toed.) The Raptores presen’ 
several osteological and other an. 
atomical characters. The ster 
num is ample and deep keeled, 
its posterior margin doubly or 
singly notched or fenestrate on 
each side, or entire with central 
emargination; the fureulum an- 
chylosed or not. Angle of man- 
dible not recurved; mavxillo- 
palatines united to an ossified 


SSS SS septum ; rostrum arched and 
Fia. 348. — Death as a bird of prey. (From Michelet.) hooked 3 basipterygoid processes 


RAPTORES: BIRDS OF PREY. 497 


present or absent. Hallux always present, usually valid and insistent ; outer toe reversible in 
some cases, never permanently reversed. The ambiens is present (except in Striges) ; all ex- 
cepting Gypogeranides and some Cathartides possess the femoro-caudal muscle, but not its 
accessory, nor the semi-tendinosus nor its accessory (excepting Cathartides, which have the two 
last named, and Gypogeranides, which have these and the accessory femoro-eaudal). Coca 
are present (except in Cathartides). The oil-gland is present in all, and tufted except in 
Cathartides. Aftershafts are present (usually), lacking in some Accipitres, all Striges and 
Cathartides. There are two carotids; the syrinx, when developed, has but one pair of intrinsic 
muscles. The nature is altricial, yet ptilopedic, the young being downy when hatched, and 
long fed by the parents in the nest. The alimentary canal varies with the families, but differs 
from that of vegetarian birds, in adaptation to an exclusively animal diet. In the higher 
types, the whole structure betokens strength, activity, and ferocity, carnivorous propensities 
and predaceous nature. Most of the smaller, or weaker, species feed much upon insects ; 
others more particularly upon reptiles, and fish ; others upon carrion; but the majority prey 
upon other birds, and small mammals, captured in open warfare. To this end, the claws no 
less than the beak are specially adapted, by their development in the “ talons” which we con- 
stantly associate with our ideas of birds of prey. These weapons of offence and defence are 
as a rule of great size, strength, crookedness, and acuteness; and also peculiar in being con- 
vex on the sides, gradually narrowed to the point, and little or not excavated underneath. The 
inner claw is larger than the outer, and the hinder one smaller than the middle; and all are 
very flexibly jointed, so that they may be strongly bent underneath the toes, carrying to the 
extreme the grasping power of the feet. The legs are muscular and largely free from the 
body, feathered to the suffrago or beyond; when unfeathered, the tarsal envelope varies in 
character. The wings are ample, and, as usual in birds below Passeres, the coverts are long 
and numerous, covering three-fourths or more of the folded wing. The tail, very variable 
in shape, has twelve rectrices (with rare exceptions). 

Representatives of this order are found in every part of the world. They are divisible into 
four primary groups, of more classificatory value than that attaching to average families in 
ornithology, and therefore to be held as superfamilies or suborders. One of these, Gypogeranides, 
consists of the single remarkable species Gypogeranus serpentarius, the secretary-bird or serpent- 
eater of Africa; this shows a curious grallatorial analogy, being mounted on long legs like a 
Crane, and has several important structural modifications. The other three are the Striges or 
Owls; the Accipitres or Hawks, Eagles, etc., including the Old World Vultures; and the 
Cathartides or American Vultures, — these last more different from the others collectively than 
the rest are from one another. All are well represented in this country. They are recognizable 
at a glance, but the following analysis will serve to place the characters of the suborders and 
their respective families in strong relief. 


Analysis of Suborders and Families. 


Feet scarcely raptorial, with weak, blunt, lengthened, little curved or contractile claws. Hind toe ele- 
vated, not more than half as long as outer toe, with small claw; middle toe lengthened ; outer toe not 
versatile; front toes all webbed at base; basal joint of middle toe longer than either of the succeeding 
ones. Nostrils large, perforate. Bill little raptorial, lengthened and somewhat contracted in conti- 
nuity, tomia never lobed or toothed, tip blunt, little hooked. Head largely naked. Index digit with 
a large claw. No lower larynx, ceca, aftershafts, or tuft of oil-gland. Ambiens present; femoro- 
caudal present or absent; semitendinosus and its accessory present. . . . . . CATHARTIDES. 

Diurnal; gressorial; feed exclusively on carrion . ......, . . CATHARTIDA, 

Feet highly raptorial, with large, strong, sharp, curved, contractile claws. Hind toe not elevated, length- 
ened, more than half as long as outer toe, with large claw; outer toe often versatile; front toes with 
slight basal webbing between outer and middle, or none. Nostrils small, imperforate. Bill short, 
stout, very seldom contracted in its continuity, tomia often once or twice lobed or toothed, tip sharp, 
much hooked. Head feathered completely or in greatest part. Lower larynx with one pair of intrinsic 
muscles. Cozca present. Plumage with or without aftershafts. Ambiens present or absent. Femoro- 
caudal present. Semitendinosus and its accessory absent. As arule, saltatorial, and kill their prey. 


32 


498 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES— STRIGES. 


Physiognomy not peculiar; no great lateral expansion of the cranium or thickening of its walls 
with diploé; eyes looking sideways; no facial disc or only an imperfect one; base of bill not 
hidden by appressed feathers. Nostrils wholly in the cere. Tomia usually toothed or lobed. 
No external ear-conch. Outer toe not shorter than inner, and rarely versatile. Basal joint of 
middle toe longer than thenext. Feet with rare exceptions mostly or entirely naked of feathers, 
scutellate or reticulate, or both; toes always bare and scaly. Sternum commonly single- 
notched or -fenestrate on each side, sometimes entire. Oil-gland tufted. Plumage compact, 


usually aftershafted; flight audible. Ambiens present. Diurnal . . . . ACCIPITRES. 
Outer toe not reversible, and pluinage usually aftershafted . . . . . . FALCONID&. 
Outer toe reversible, and plumage without aftershafts . . . .. . . PANDIONID&. 


Physiognomy peculiar by reason of great lateral expansion, lengthwise contraction and diploic 
thickening of the often unsymmetrical cranium ; eyes looking forward, surrounded with a radi- 
ated disc of modified feathers, in front appressed, antrorse, hiding base of bill. Nostrils usually 
at edge of the cere. Tomia never lobed or toothed. A large external ear-conch often devel- 
oped. Outer toe completely versatile, shorter than inner toe. Basal joint of middle toe not 
longer than second, much shorter than the penultimate one. Feet usually feathery or bristly 
to or on thetoes. Oil-gland nude. Plumage without aftershafts, soft and lax; flight noiseless. 
Ambiens absent. Nocturnal . 2... 2... 1...) . STRIGES. 

Sternum entire behind, with central emargination; furculum anchylosed. Middle claw 
pectinate. Facial disc complete, triangular B tet de . ALUCONID-&. 
Sternum double-notched or fenestrate; furculum free. Middle claw not pectinate. Facial 
disc circular when complete... ..... 0... 4 + ss .)  STRIGIDA. 


6. SuporpER STRIGES: Noctrurnat Birps or Prey. 


Head very large, and especially broad from side to side, but shortened lengthwise, the 
“face” thus formed further defined by a more or less complete “‘ ruff,” or circlet of radiating 
feathers of peculiar texture, on each side. Eyes very large, looking more or less directly for- 
ward, set in a circlet of radiating bristly feathers, and overarched by a superciliary shield. 
External ears extremely large, often provided with an operculum or movable flap, presenting 
the nearest approach, among birds, to the ear-conch of mammals. Bill shaped much as in 
ordinary Accipitres, but thickly beset at base with close-pressed antrorse bristly feathers, 
and never toothed. Nostrils large, commonly opening at the edge of the cere rather than 
entirely in its substance. Hallux of average length, not obviously elevated in any case ; outer 
toe more or less perfectly versatile (but never permanently reversed), and shorter than the 
inner toe; its first three joints very short, altogether not as long as the succeeding one; basal 
joint of middle toe not longer than the next. Claws all very long, much curved and extremely 
sharp, that of the middle toe pectinate in some species. As a rule, the tarsi are more or less 
completely feathered, and the whole foot is often thus covered. Among numerous osteological 
characters may be mentioned the frequent want of symmetry of the skull, wide separation of the 
inner and outer tablets of the brain-case by intervention of spongy diploé, the spongy maxillo- 
palatines and lacrymals, which latter long persist distinct; the basipterygoid processes; the 
manubriated and commonly 4-notched (if not entire) sternum ; a peculiar structure of the tarso- 
metatarsus ; a particular arrangement of the bones about the shoulder-joint, and the weakness 
of the furculum when not anchylosed with the sternum. The gullet is capacious but not 
dilated into a special crop; the gizzard is only moderately muscular; the intestines are short 
and wide ; the ececa are extremely long and club-shaped. The syrinx has one pair of intrinsic 
muscles. The oil-gland is nude. The ambiens is absent. The feathers have no aftershaft, 
and the general plumage is very soft and blended. 

The Nocturnal Birds of Prey will be immediately recognized by their peculiar physiognomy, 
independently of the technical characters that mark them as a natural, sharply-defined group. 
They are highly monomorphic, without extremes of aberrant form; but the ease with which 
they are collectively defined is a measure of the difficulty of their rigid subdivision, which is 
not yet satisfactorily determined. Too much stress has been laid upon the trivial, although 
evident, circumstance of presence or absence of the peculiar ‘ horns” that many species possess. 


STRIGES: NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 499 


These are tufts of lengthened feathers rising over the eyes from the forehead, and commonly 
called “ ear-tufts”; but they have nothing to do with the ears, aud are more appropriately 
named ‘plumicorns,” or feather-horns. More reliable characters may be drawn from the 
structure of the external car and facial disc, the modifications of which appear to bear directly 
upon mode of life; these parts being as a rule most bighly developed in the iore nocturnal 
species ; some points of internal structure have been found correspondent. Thus, one group, 
of which the barn owl, Aluco flammeus, is the type, is very distinct in the angular contour and 


Fig. 349. — “ Est illis Strigibus nomen ; sed nominis hujus 
Causa quod horrenda stridere nocte solent.’? — OVID, Fasti, vi. 139. 


“ Sereech-owls they ’re called, because with dismal cry 
In darkling night from place to place they fly.” 


high development of the facial disc, pectination of the middle claw, and other characters upon 
which a family Aluconide may be established. Probably the rest of the suborder fall in two 
subdivisions of a single family Strigida, the essential characters éf which have already been 
contrasted with those of Aluconide. 

The nearest relatives of the Striges, outside their own order, are the Caprimulgi— the 
relationship being really very close through the genus Steatornis. As is well known, owls ants 
eminently nocturnal birds; but to this rule there are numerous striking exceptions. This 
general habit is correspondent to the modification of the eyes, the size and structure of which 


500 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES — STRIGES. 


enable the birds to see by night, and eause them to suffer from the glare of the sunlight. Most 
species pass the daytime secreted in hollow trees, or dense foliage and other dusky retreats, 
resuming their wonted activity after nightfall. Owing to the peculiar texture of the plumage 
their flight is perfectly noiseless, like the mincing steps of a cat; and no entirely fanciful anal- 
ogy has been drawn between these birds and the feline carnivora that chiefly prey stealthily in 
the dark. The nest is commonly a rude affair of sticks gathered in the various places of diurnal 
resort; the eggs are several (commouly 3-6), white, subspherical. The 9, as a rule, is larger 
than the @, but the sexes are alike in color; the coloration is commonly blended and diffuse, 
difficult of concise description. Owls feed entirely upon animal substances, and capture their 
prey alive — small quadrupeds and birds, reptiles and insects, and even fish. Like most other 
Raptores, they eject from the mouth, after a meal, the bones, hair, feathers, and other indigesti- 
ble substances, made up into a round pellet. They are noted for their loud outcries, so strange 
and often so lugubrious, that it is no wonder traditional superstition places these dismal night- 
birds in the category of things ill-omened. Besides the well-known lines which are set 
beneath two of the accompanying figures, the reader may recall the owl as among the ‘ portents 
weird’ which foretell the fate of the unhappy queen of Carthage, when, deserted by ‘ pious’ 
Afneas, she resolves to die. 
“ Solaque culminibus ferali carmine bubo 

Sezpe queri, et longas in fletum ducere voces.”” — VERG.. Jin., iv. 462. 

The hovt-owl, brooding ominous above 

Her fateful house, is wearing dismal night away 

With wild vociferation. Portents weird, etc. 

Owls are among the most completely cosmopolitan of birds; with minor modifications 
according to circumstances, their general habits are much the same the world over. <A diffi- 
culty of correctly estimating the number of species arises from the fact that many, especially of 
the more generalized types, have a wide geographical distribution, and, as in nearly all such 
eases, they split into more or less easily recognized races, the interpretation of which is at 
present a matter of opinion rather than a settled issue. About 200 species pass current; this 
number must be reduced by one-third; out of about 50 generic names now in vogue, probably 
less than one-half represent some structural peculiarity. 


29. Family ALUCONIDZ: Barn Owls. 


Two genera of Owls, Aluco and Phodilus, differ so much 
from other Striges that they may properly constitute a family 
apart from Strigide. The prime character is anchylosis of 
the fureulum with the sternum, which latter bone is entire 
behind (unusual; compare fig. 56). External characters 
are: facial disc and outer ear-parts highly developed, the 
former not circular, but rather triangular, the latter sym- 
metrical; middle and inner toes of about equal lengths ; inner 
edge of middle claw serrate or jagged, simulating the pecti- 
nation seen in Caprimulgide, to which birds these owls are 
curiously related through Steatornis. The pattern of color- 
ation is peculiar; the plumage is very downy; the habits 
of the species are eminently nocturnal. The leading genus, 
Aluco, of several species or races, is nearly cosmopolitan, 
being absent only from high latitudes and some insular re 
gions; the other, of one species, Phodilus badius, inhabits 
portions of Eastern Asia, Ceylon, Java and Borneo. —N. B 
Adoption of the name Aluco for the Barn Owls, instead of Strix, requires the present family tc 


Fig. 350.— Barn Owl. (From Dixon.) 


160. 


ALUCONIDA:: BARN OWLS. 501 


be called Aluconide, instead of Strigide ; which latter name is to be applied to the succeeding 
family. 

ALU/CO. (Ital. alocho, some kind of owl. Figs. 47,351.) Barn Owxs. To above characters 
add: Wings very long, pointed, folding beyond the tail, the 1st or 2d primary longest, and none 
emarginate. Tail short, nearly even or emarginate, about 4 as long as the wing. Tarsus nearly 
twice as long as middle toe without claw, closely feathered, the plumage becoming scant and 


i t : 
1 


li A Se 
il iu) H AAU Ae ERAN 
Fig. 351. — Barn Owls, } nat. size. (From Brelm.) 
‘“‘ From yonder ivy-mantled tower, 
The moping owl does to the moon complain 


Of such, as wand'ring near her secret bower, 
Molest her ancient solitary reign.”” — Gray. 


ii 
Ni 


bristly below, like that on the nearly naked toes, and reversed in direction on the posterior 
aspect ; claws extremely long and acute (see fig. 47). Bill lengthened, compressed, the cere 
nearly as long as the rest of the culmen; nostrils oval: no plumicorns ; eyes comparatively 
small, black ; bill light-colored; plumage flagrant, not dichromatie; size medium. One North 
Am. species. 


425. 


502 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES — STRIGES. 


A. flam/meus pratin'cola, (Lat. flammeus, flame-colored; pratincola, meadow-inhabiting.) 
Barn Own. Above, including upper surfaces of wings and tail, tawny, fulvous, or orange- 
brown, delicately clouded or marbled with ashy and white, and dotted with blackish, sometimes 
also with white ; such inarking resolved, or tending to resolve, into four or five bars of dark 
mottling on the wings and tail. Below, including lining of wings, varying from pure white to 
tawny, ochrey, or fulvous, but usually paler than the upper parts and dotted with small but 
distinct blackish specks. Face varying from white to fulvous or purplish-brown, in some shades 
as if stained with claret, usually quite dark or even black. About the eyes, aud the border of the 
dise, dark brown. Thus extremely variable in tone of coloration, but the patvern more constant, 
while the generic characters render the bird unmistakable. Nestlings are covered with fluffy 
white down. Length 15.00-17.00 ; extent about 44.00; wing 13.00-14.00; tail 6.00-7.00 ; bill 
0.95; tarsus 2.75. @Q larger than g. The superior size is the chief distinction from the Old 
World A. flammeus. U.S. from Atlantic to Pacific; somewhat southerly, only known N. to 
Massachusetts and corresponding latitudes ; 8. into Mexico, West Indies and Central America; 
abundant in wooded, settled, and especially maritime regions; usually resident. Breeds natu- 
rally in hollow trees, frequently in the barn, belfry, tower, or other building ; eggs 3-6 in 
number, colorless or soiled yellowish-white, about 1.75 & 1.25, nearly equal-ended, laid with 
little or no preparation upon the débris of the hole, commonly bones aud other refuse of the 
food, which is chiefly small quadrupeds and insects. 


30. Family STRIGID4: Other Owls. 


All other Striges, as far as 
known, have the sternuin once 
or twice notched on each side 
behind, and the furculum free 
from that bone. The outer ear- 
parts are sometimes as highly 
developed as in <Aluconide, or 
they may be quite small; the 
facial disc varies in size and per- 
fection, being largest, most. cir- 
cular, and most completely radi- 
ating from the eye as a centre in 
those species in which the ear- 
conch is best developed. These 
two characters would therefore 

= = seem to go together, and they 

F 1G. 352. —Mobbing an owl. (From Michelet.) are not correlated with the pres- 

ence or absence of plumicorns. The inner toe is shorter than the middle, and the middle 

claw is not pectinate. It may prove advisable to make these features the basis of a division 

of the Strigid@ into two subfamilies, Strigine and Bubonine, as proposed by Mr. Sharpe ; but 

I do not deem it expedient to present such arrangement on the present occasion. In the event 

of such final determination, our genera Strix, Asio, and Nyctala would fall in Strigine; the 
rest in Bubonine. 


Analysis of Genera. 


(40) Srricina: ? Eye centric in large complete circular disc, and ear-conch larger than eye, with well 
developed operculum. 
Plumicorns absent ; cere short. 
Ear-parts symmetrical. Large: length over12inches. . . . . .. . oo os . Strix 164 
Ear-parts asymmetrical. Small: length under 12inches. . . . . . 1... . « Nyctala 167 
Plumicorns present; cere longer than rest ofeulmen oo. 6 6 6 1 ee ee . . . «lsio 163 


STRIGIDZ: OTHER OWLS. 503 


(41) Buponinm ? Eye eccentric, nearer top than bottom of more or less incomplete disc, and ear-conch 
not larger than eye, without developed operculum. 
Plumicorns present, well-developed. 


Very large: length over 18 inches; tail about 3 the wing Bubo 161 
Small: length under 12 inches; tail about} the wing .......... 4... . Scops 162 
Plumicorns present, rudimentary. Very large: length over 18inches. White . . .. . MNyctea 165 
Plumicorns absent. 
Tarsus full-feathered. 
Tail graduated. Length over 12inches. Hawk-like . ....... 4.4... .Surnia 166 
Tail rounded. Length much under 12inches. . .......+.. =... .Glaucidium 168 
Tarsus naked or scant-feathered. 
Length under 8 inches... 2 26 8 ee ee ee ee es ww we = Micrathene 169 
Lengthover'Sinches: «6 6 & @ 6 4 8 8 eH ee ee wk we we 6 a Speotyto 170 


161. BU'BO. (Lat. bubo, the horned owl.) THe Great Hornep Owns. Hoor Owts. Skull 
and ear-parts symmetrical (of same size on both sides of head), the latter simply elliptical, 
non-operculate, not longer than the great yellow eye, which is eccentric in the moderately devel- 
oped facial dise (nearer its top than bottom). Plu- 
micorns highly developed. Nostrils oval, in the 
edge of the cere, which is not inflated, nor as long 
as the rest of the culmen; bill robust, black, not 
buried in the frontal bristles. Wings rather short, 
folding short of the end of the tail, the 3d or 4th 
primary longest, the first 2 or 3 emarginate near 
their ends. Tail rounded, more than } as long as 
the wing, its under coverts not reaching its end. 
Feet densely feathered to the last joint of the toes, 
but claws exposed. Of medium and very large size 
(some of the species are nearly the largest of the 
owls), and variegated, usually dark, colors ; plumage 
not dichromatic. Embracing numerous species, of 
all America and nearly all of the Old World ; only 
one, however, in N. Am. 

462. B. virginia/nus. (Lat. virginianus, Virginian. 
Fig. 353.) Great Horyep Own. Hoot Owt. 
Cat OwL. Distinguished by its large size and con- 
spicuous ear-tufts, our other species of similar stature 
being tuftless or nearly so. Length nearly or about 
two feet; extent 4 or 5 feet; wing 14.00-16.00 
inches; tail 8.00-10.00; tarsus 2.00-2.25; eulmen Fig. 353. — Great Horned Owl, much reduced 
without cere 1.10-1.20. @ averaging larger than &. (From Tenney, after Audubon. ) 
Plumage varying interminably, no concise description meeting all its phases. A white collar on 
the throat is the most constant color-mark. On the upper parts, the under-plumage tawny, but 
so overlaid with coarse mottling of blackish and white, that it shows chiefly on the head ripe 
and scapulars ; the mottling chiefly transverse, and resolving into 7 to 9 continuous or biden 
bars on the ange. and tail. Under parts white, indefinitely tawny-tinged, and for the most’ 
part barred crosswise with blackish, changing on the fore breast to ragged and rather length- 
wise blotches. Feathering of feet nearly plain tawny. Ear-tufts black and tawny; a dark 
mark over eye; border of the facial dise black, the face white or tawny, but the feathers mostly 
ie ga ean cera ae ‘ iris yellow ; pupil always circular; when fully dilated as 

g)¢ o the size of a pea. Young covered at first with white down: 
first plumage more uniformly tawny and lighter-colored than it becomes after the first sree 
when the white collar and other distinctive markings are assumed. This powerful bird, cae 


463. 


464. 


162 


504 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES — STRIGES. 


yielding to the great gray owl in stature, and to none in spirit, is a common inhabitant of 
North Am. at large, representing B. ignavus of Europe. It is non-migratory ; breeds in late 
winter, and early spring months (usually February or March), laying in hollows of trees or rifts 
of rocks, or in a bulky nest of sticks on the branches of tall trees, often appropriating that of 
a large hawk, as a Buteo. Eggs said to be 3-6, not known to me to be more than 2 in num- 
ber; colorless, subspherical, about 2.25 X 1.90 in size; duration of incubation said to be about 
three weeks. The young begin to hoot when about 4 months old. This owl preys upon 
birds and quadrupeds up to the size of domestic fowls and rabbits. It is habitually abroad in 
the daytime, apparently not at all inconvenienced by sunlight. Runs into the following vari- 
eties, which, however, are not as strictly geographical as the names would indicate : — 

B. v. are’ticus. (Lat. arcticus, northern.) Wuitre Hornep Ow.. Very pale colored, fre- 
quently quite whitish, and not distantly resembling the snowy owl. (See Swainson’s fig. in 
F. B. A., pl. 30.) Boreal and alpine North Am.; such specimens occasional in Northern 
U.S. in winter, and Rocky Mt. region. 

B. v. paci/ficus. (Lat. pacificus, of the Pacific ocean.) Dusky Hornep Own. Very dark 
colored, chiefly blackish and grayish, with little or no tawny. Apparently a littoral phase, sup- 
posed to be more particularly de- 
veloped on the Pacific coast; but 
the extreme of this style, in which 
the tawny is extinct, and which 
has been called B. saturatus, is 
from Labrador, where also occur 
the darkest specimens of Gyr- 
falcons. 

SCOPS. (Gr. oxo, Lat. scops, a 
kind of owl. Fig. 354.) Lirrie 
HORNED OWLS. SCREECH OWLS. 
Like a miniature Bubo in form 
(all our species under a foot long). 
Skull and ear-parts syinmetrical ; 
latter small, simply elliptical, with 
Tudimentary operculum; facial 
disc moderately developed; plumi- 
corns evident; nostrils at edge of 
the cere, which is not inflated, 
and shorter than the rest of the 
culmen. Wings rounded, but 
long, about twice the length of 
the short rounded tail, about to 
the end of which they fold; in 
our species the 4th and 5th primaries longest, the lst quite short; 3 or 4 outer primaries 
sinuate or emarginate on inner webs. Tarsus feathered (in our species), but toes only partly 
bristly (in the S. asio group) or quite naked (as in S. flammeola). Plumage dichromatic 
in some cases ; 7. €., some individuals of the same species normally mottled gray, while others 
are reddish, the two phases very distinct when fully developed, but shading insensibly into 
each other, and entirely independent of age, season, or sex. In normal plumage, a white or 
whitish scapular stripe; lower parts with lengthwise blotches or shaft-lines and crosswise 
bars or waves of blackish or dark color; upper parts with black or blackish shaft-lines on a 
finely-dappled brown or gray ground (more or less obliterated in the red phase) ; facial dise 
black-bordered nearly all around; wing-quills spotted or marbled on outer webs, barred on 


Fic. 354. — Screech Owl, reduced. (From Dall.) 


465. 


466. 


STRIGIDA): OTHER OWLS. 505 


inner webs. Tail with light and dark bars. A large and nearly cosmopolitan genus, especially 
rich in tropical species; but only two are known to inhabit N. Am., one of them running 
into several local races very difficult to characterize satisfactorily. 
Analysis of Species and Varieties. 
Toes bristly or partly feathered. Plumicornsconspicuous . . . - 6 6 6 ee ee ee es asio 465 
Dichromatic ; red phase bright rusty. Eastern. 
Medium in size: wing usually between 6.00 and 7.00; tail about 3.50. Markings of under parts 
coarse, irregular, and blotchy, usually wanting on middle of belly; of upper parts fine but 
irregular, without nuchal collar. Eastern U.S. and Canada. . . - . . asio 465 
Small: wing usually 5.50-6.00; tail about 3.00. Markings as in asio, but ionnes iieavier: Florida 
floridanus 469 
Small: size of floridanus. Markings of under parts fine, regular, of upper parts coarse, but reg- 
ular, with tendency toa nuchal collar. Texas... 1. 1 eee ee ee e+ maccalli 468 
Dichromatic; red phase rusty-brown. Northwestern. 
Large: wing usually over 7.00. In the gray phase like asio, but markings of under parts finer, 
more regular and continuous. Northwestern . . . .. 2... + es « + « « hennicotti 466 
Dichromatism not known to occur. Western. 
Medium: size of average asio. Markings of under parts thick, regular, continuous over the 


whole surface; of upper parts exactly asin asio. California. . . . . bendirii 466a 
Medium: size of average asio. Markings of all parts very light, the eray Bean. with much 

white, especially on wings and under parts Ge Chaaren pt ae None ae ot 9E . 2. .maxwella 467 

Toes perfectly naked. Plumicorns short. Southwestern. . . A 2. . ee .) flammeola 471 


S. a/sio. (Lat. asio, a kind of horned owl.) ae Hueue OwxL. SCREECH OWL. 
MortTLeD OwL. REDOwL. Of medium size; length 8.00-10.00; extent about 22.00; wing 
6.00-7.00, usually between these numbers ; tail 3.25-3.50. Gray or normal phase, adult ¢ Q: 
Upper parts brownish-gray in minutely dappled pattern of lighter and darker shades, every- 
where finely but irregularly streaked with black or blackish shaft-lines, usually most evideut 
on the crown. A conspicuous oblique scapular bar formed by the white or creamy outer webs 
of several scapulars, each usually touched with black at its end; a second similar bar on outer 
webs of several outer wing-coverts. Wing-quills dusky, the outer webs of the primaries with 
several distinct conspicuous white or buff spots; the inner webs of the primaries and both webs 
of the secondaries with numerous alternating lighter and darker bars; lining of wings mostly 
yellowish-white. Tail like the secondaries, but the light bars mostly ragged or dissipated in 
marbling. Facial dise set in a blackish frame nearly all around; mostly finely mottled, but 
the lores and chin usually whitish, immaculate. Taking white as the ground of the under 
parts, this is coarsely and irregularly blotched and streaked with thick shaft-lines giving off 
numberless finer curved or wavy cross-bars ; the general aspect patchy; the markings usually 
wanting on the middle of the belly. Iris yellow; bill livid or slate-gray, pale horn-color at 
tip ; claws blackish. From this stage the ‘ mottled owl’ passes by insensible degrees, through 
wood-brown, hazel-brown, and tawny into the ‘red owl.’ — Red or erythrismal phase : Bright 
rust-red, soinetimes even bronzed; most of the special markings dissipated or absorbed in the 
red, continuous and uniform above, showing only traces if any of the black shaft-stripes ; below, 
black stripes and blotches usually preserved, and the red also mixed with much white. The 
dark rim of the disc, and white scapular stripes, are usually preserved. The two phases are 
distinct from the first feathering. Nestlings are covered with white down. The first feather- 
ing, in the normal phase, is almost everywhere closely and regularly barred or waved cross- 
wise with dark gray and pale gray or whitish. Eastern U. 8. and Canada, W. to the Rocky 
Mts., on the confines of its range shading into the several varieties noted beyond; resident, and 
on the whole the most abundant owl, breeding about buildings as well as in hollow trees or 
stumps, and feeding on small quadrupeds, as mice and shrews, small birds, and insects ; nest a 
slight structure in the hollow selected for a resident ; eggs 5 or 6, white, subspherical, 1.30 to 
1.40 & 1.15 to 1.20. 

S. a. kennicot'ti. (To Robert Kennicott.) Krnnicotrr’s Screecu Own. The larger 
northern form. Length about 11.00; wing usually 7.00-7.50, but grading down in some cases 


466a. 


467. 


468. 


469. 


470. 


471. 


506 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES — STRIGES. 


to 6.50; tail about 4.00. In the gray phase, very similar to asio proper, the upper parts being 
in fact indistinguishable, but the markings of the under parts finer, more regular and continuous 
over the whole surface ; in the ‘red’ phase dusky umber-brown, quite unlike the bright rust- 
color of asto. This state was long supposed to be the only one, and characteristic of the bird ; 
it occurs chiefly coastwise and far north, while the gray phase, only distiuguishable from that 
of asio as above said, seems to be the rule in the U. 8. In size, some New England specimens 
are fully up to the average of kennicotti. West and Northwest N. Am., from Idaho to Sitka. 
S. a. bend/irii. (To Capt. Chas. Bendire.) CaLirornia SCREECH OwL. No red phase 
known to occur. Size of asio, and extremely like it, differing chiefly in the finer, more 
numerous and continuous cross-bars of the under parts, which cross the middle of the belly as 
elsewhere; the shaft-stripes also appear less blotchy. It is thus quite like the gray phase of 
kennicotti, but smaller. The plumicorns are said to be shorter. Coast region of California, 
common. I have gone carefully over a series of Scops, and appreciate the points lately made 
by Mr. Brewster and Mr. Ridgway. If these fine shades are to be recognized by name, the 
present seems entitled to be named with the rest. 

S. a. maxwelle. (To Mrs. M. A. Maxwell, of Boulder, Colorado, a noted huntress and 
taxidermist.) COLORADO ScCREECH OwL. Size of asio; no red phase observed ; but, on the 
contrary, the whole plumage very pale, almost as if bleached, the difference evident in nestlings 
even. Upper parts pale gray, with reduced black lines; lower whiter with reduced dark shaft- 
lines and cross-bars, the scapular bar very conspicuous ; much white on wing-coverts; white 
spots on outer webs of several primaries running into continuous areas only indented with small 
dark spaces. Mountains of Colorado, and doubtless adjoining ones ; an alpine form. 

S. a. maceal/li. (To Col. Geo. A. McCall.) Trxas ScrercH Own. A small southern 
form; size of floridanus; gray and red phases, as in asio proper. Very similar to asio; in 
the gray phase, the markings of the under parts finer, firmer, more regular and continuous, the 
shaft-lines strict, not blotchy, the cross-lines sharp; the stripes of the upper parts coarse, but 
regular, and the nape with a tendency to present a light nuchal collar. Texas and southward, 
to Guatemala. (S. maccalli Cass., 1854, 1858; Cours, 1872; S. asio var. enano LAawr., 
Rivew., Hist. N. A. B., iii, 1874, p. 48, but not maccallt, wbid., p. 52.) 

S. a. florida‘nus. (Of Florida.) FLorma Screech Own. A small southern form; wing 
5.50-6.00 ; tail about 3.00. Coloration as in asio; red phase frequent if not the usual one; in 
its full development, the rusty makes quite firm broad cross-bars on the under parts, which is 
not the rule in asto, though very evident in specimens from Southern Illinois, for example, 
where the red is by far the most frequent plumage. Florida, and adjoining regions. 

S. trichop’sis? (Gr. Opié, rpixds, thrix, trichos, hair, dus, opsis, aspect.) An alleged 
species, or a subspecies of asto, with which I am unacquainted. Described as having the bars 
of the lower surface fine, nearer together than in asio, and much more uniformly distributed ; 
the general aspect being paler than in asio, with much finer vermiculations (Ridgway). Cali- 
fornia, New Mexico, and southward. (S. a. maccalli, Ripaw., Hist. N. A. B., iii, 1874, p. 52; 
S. trichopsis, Ripaw., Pr. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1878, p. 114; but whether of WaGLER, 1832?) 
S. flamme/ola. (Lat. flammeola, here signifying a little reddish thing.) FLAMMULATED 
ScrREECH OwL. A small species, with much the general aspect of an ungrown S. asio; but 
the close feathering of the tarsus stops abruptly at the bases of the toes, which are naked, and 
the plumicorns are quite short. Length 6.50-7.00 ; wing 5.25-5.50; tail 2.75; tarsus 0.90; 
culmen, without cere, 0.35 ; middle toe, without claw, 0.55. Adult ¢ 9: Facial disc, some- 
times whole head, rusty-rufous, or light chestnut, speckled with black, on the top of the head 
also with white, tending to form a superciliary stripe. Ground of under parts white, but heavily 
overlaid with shaft-stripes or blotches of black giving off irregular ecross-waves, on the breast 
tinged with rusty-rufous here and there; tarsi white, speckled with dusky. Upper parts 
minutely dappled with dark brown and hoary-gray, and with ragged dark shaft-stripes ; a con- 


163. 


472. 


473. 


STRIGIDZ: OTHER OWLS. 507 


spicuous whitish scapular bar, asin S. asio. Tail like back, but with numerous narrow and 
ragged cross-bars of pale rusty or whitish. Wing-quills ‘ bitten in’ on outer webs with white 
or buff, conspicuously so on several primaries, their inner webs with regular but narrow, distant 
and weak bars, strengthening, however, toward the bases of the secondaries. Young birds, 
like those of S. asto, tend to a uniform cross-barring of the whole plumage, but especially of 
the under parts, with light and dark; the top of the head is finely vermiculated in this manner ; 
the chestnut first appears on the ear-coverts and about the eyes; but in any color-variation this 
interesting little Scops, only about as large as a Glaucidiwm, is unmistakable. 

A/SIO. (Lat. asio, a kind of horned owl.) EArED Owxis. Marsu Owxs. Skull and ear- 
parts more or less unsymmetrical ; the conch of immense size, about as long as the skull is high, 
furnished with a movable operculum for its full length. Eyes centric in the perfectly developed 
facial disc. Plumicorns more or less developed. Nostrils at edge of the cere, which is some- 
what inflated, and longer than the chord of culmen beyond it; bill rather weak. Wings about 
twice as long as tail, pointed, 2d primary usually longest, only 1 or 2 primaries emarginate on 
inner webs. Feet closely feathered to the ends of the toes. Of medium size; our species ]12- 
16 inches long. Embracing numerous species, and nearly cosmopolitan. Our long-eared owl 
is decidedly different from that of Europe, Asio otus, but the short-eared has not been satisfac- 
torily distinguished from the almost cosmopolitan A. accipitrinus. 

Analysis of Species. 


Plumicorns long, many-feathered (Asio proper). . . . 1. 1 6 ee ee ee we Wilsonianus 472 
Plumicorns short, few-feathered (Brachyotus) accipitrinus 473 


A. wilsonia/‘nus. (To A. Wilson. Fig. 56.) American Lona-EARED Ow. Ear-tufts con- 
spicuous, about as long as middle toe and claw, of 8-12 feathers. First primary only emargi- 
nate on inner web. Upper parts brownish-black, minutely mottled with grayish-white, and 
variegated with the tawny of basal portions of the feathers which comes to the surtace here 
and there; the general effect dark, quite different from the tawny streaking of A. otus of 
Europe. Under parts confused blackish-brown, grayish-white and tawny; on the breast 
marbled in large pattern, for the rest with dusky sbaft-lines throwing off dusky cross-bars 
(several on each feather) on a whitish ground, and the tawny bases of the feathers showing 
more or less; feet and crissam mostly immaculate, tawny or whitish. Quills blackish-brown, 
regularly barred with mottled gray, and towards their bases with tawny, which latter forms a 
conspicuous area on the outer webs of several primaries. Lining of wings tawny, separated 
by a dusky area from the similar bases of the inner webs of the primaries. Tail like the 
secondaries, dusky with gray marbled bars, and more or less tawny towards the base; but from 
below presenting quite light, with numerous firm narrow dusky bars. Facial disc mostly 
tawny, framed all around in a blackish border speckled with whitish, and more or less black- 
ened about the eye; usually a whitish superciliary line; bristles at base of bill mixed whitish 
and blackish ; plumbeous-blackish, basally tawny, edged on one side with whitish. Bill and 
claws blackish ; iris yellow. Length 14.60-16.00; extent about 39.00; wing 11.00-12.00 ; 
tail 5.50-6.50; tarsus 1.25-1.50; chord of whole culmen about 1.00. Less variable than 
many owls, and always easy to recognize. N. Am. at large, common and generally dis- 
tributed, resident ; perfectly nocturnal, and thus screened from casual observation, even where 
it is numerous, but often surprised in the daytime in shady resorts, as thick bushes along 
streams, cafious, caves, ete. Nesting various, in a hollow tree or stump, rift of rock, on the 
ground, or in deserted nests of other birds, as hawks, crows, magpies, or even herons ; usually 
constructed with little art, as when in a hollow or on the ground, sometimes better built in 
branches of a thick tree. Food small quadrupeds, birds, and insects. Eggs white, subspherical, 
1.50 to 1.60 X 1.30 to 1.40. : 

A. accipitrimus. (Lat. accipitrinus, hawk-like. Fig. 355.) Swort-narRED Own. Marsu 
Owx. Ear-tufts inconspicuous, much shorter than middle toe and claw, few-feathered. First 


164. 


508 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES — STRIGES. 


and 2d primaries cmarginate on inner webs. Above, completely variegated, chiefly in streaks, 
with fulvous or tawny, and dark brown; breast much the same, but other under parts paler 
ochrey, usually bleaching on the 
belly, which is sparsely but sharply 
streaked (never barred) with dark 
brown; feet pale tawny or whitish, 
usually immaculate; lining of wings 
interruptedly whitish. Wing-quills 
varied, mostly in large pattern, and 
tail pretty regularly barred (about 5 
bars) with the two colors of the 
upper parts. Facial area white or 
nearly so, but with a large black eye- 
patch; the dise minutely speckled 
with fulvous and blackish, bordered 
with white internally and usually 
having a blackish patch behind the 
ear; radiating feathers of the oper- 
culum streaked with blackish and 
fulvous. Iris bright yellow; bill 
and claws dusky-bluish ; the naked 
granular soles yellowish. The ear- 
opening of this species is extremely 
large, being two inches or more 
across the longest way. Length ofa 
f 14.50; extent 41.00; wing 12.00; 
tail 6.00; tarsus to end of middle 
claw 3.50; chord of culmen, cere 
included, 1.12; 9 averaging larger 
Fig. 355. — Short-eared Owl, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) that g. Inhabits N. Am. at large, 
and most other parts of the world. It appears to be somewhat migratory with us, and is 
sometimes seen in considerable flocks, especially in marshy places, which are its favorite 
hunting-grounds for the small quadrupeds and other animals upon which it preys. It is a 
great destroyer of shrews and field-mice, deserving on this account to be protected in the 
interests of agriculture. The nest is commonly built on the ground, sometimes in an under- 
ground burrow, consisting of a little hay and feathers; the eggs are 4-7 in number, dull white, 
roundish, about 1.55 1.25. This owl breeds indifferently in any latitude, and is one of those 
frequently abroad in the daytime. 

STRIX. (Gr. orpiyé, strigz, Lat. striv, a screech-owl.) Gray OwLs. Brown OwLs. 
Woop Owzs. Skull and ear-parts more or less unsymmetrical, the latter large, furnished 
with a moderate operculum scarcely reaching the whole length of the opening. Head very 
large, appearing as broad as the body, and perfectly smooth, there being no plumicorns : facial 
disc complete and of great extent, the comparatively small eyes centric in the radiating feathers. 
Nostril in edge of cere, which is shorter than rest of culmen. Bill yellow; iris yellow or 
black. Tail very long, 2 to # as long as the wings. Wings much rounded; 4 to 6 primaries 
sinuate on inner webs; 1st quite short. Feathering of feet variable ; tarsus always feathered, 
but toes wholly or partly feathered, or naked. A large genus of ‘earless’ owls, chiefly of the 
northern hemisphere, of medium to very largest size. North America has at least three per- 
fectly distinct species; the commonest one of these, S. nebulosa, represents the European 
tawny owl, S. aluco. 


474. 


475. 


476. 


STRIGIDZ: OTHER OWLS. 509 


Analysis of Species. 
Under parts streaked on the breast, elsewhere barred. Iris yellow. Six quills sinuate. ; 
Of immense size; length 2 feet or more; toes densely feathered. Northern... . . . cinerea 
Under parts barred on the breast, elsewhere streaked. Iris black. Five quills sinuate. 
Of medium size; length about 1} feet. 
Toes fully feathered. Eastern . 
Toes mostly naked. Florida EE Se ee ee 
Under parts barred everywhere. Iris black. Five quills sinuate. 
Of medium size; toes fully feathered. Western . 
S. cine’rea. (Lat. cinerea, ashy.) GRreaT GRAY OwL. SPECTRAL OWL. Feet completely 
feathered to the claws; bill and eyes yellow; 6 primaries cut on inner webs. Entire upper 
parts dark brown, mottled with grayish-white in confused and intricate pattern, reducible in 
gencral to dissipation of bars. Wings and tail similar, broken-barred with grayish-white 
marbling. Under parts of the same dark brown and pale gray, the pattern in streaks on the 
breast, in cross-bars on the belly and flanks, in spots on the feet. The great facial disc watered 
with dark brown and light gray in regular rings concentric with each eye, the outermost ring 
dark brown, and stronger than the rest, bounded below with a ragged white collar. Length 
2 feet or more; extent about 5 feet; wing 16.00-18.00 inches; tail 11.00-12.50; culinen 
1.00 without cere. An immense owl, one of the largest of all, inhabiting Arctic America, 
straying irregularly south into the U. S. in winter, even to New Jersey, [linois, and California ; 
said to be common from our northern border northward, and perhaps resident in Northern New 
England. Nest in trees, of sticks, mosses, and feathers; eggs usually 3 or 4, not equal-ended 
and rather small for the bird, 2.25 x 1.80. Like others of the genus it is a wood owl; while 
its prowess enables it to prey upon creatures up to the size of grouse and hares. 
S. c. lappo’nica. (Lat. lapponica, of Lapland.) Lap Ow x. Specimens from Alaska, lighter 
colored than ordinary, have been referred to the European rather than the American variety. 
S. nebulo’sa, (Lat. nebulosa, clouded. Fig. 356.) Barrep OwL. Hoot Own. AMERICAN 
Woop Own. Toes fully feathered, nearly or quite to the claws, which are blackish; bill 
yellow; iris black. Of medium size in the genus: length 
18.00-20.00; extent about 44.00; wing 12.50-13.50, rounded ; 
tail 9.00-10.00, rounded. Markings of back and breast in 
cross-bars, of belly in lengthwise stripes. Above, umber- 
brown or liver-color, everywhere barred with white or tawny, 
or both; breast the same; on the belly the pattern changing 
abruptly to heavy dusky shaft-stripes on a white or tawny 
ground; crissum the same; feet speckled with dusky ; wings 
and tail like the back or rather darker, regularly barred with 
gray, light brown or tawny, some of the bars usually making 
white spots at their ends, and the marking of the wing-coverts Fie. 356. — Barred Owl, reduced. 
rather in spots than bars. Lining of wings tawny, with some dusky spotting. Facial dise 
sct in a frame of black and white specks, with blackened eye-lids, and obscurely watered 
with lighter and darker colors in rings around the eye as a centre, the bristly feathers about 
the bill mixed black and white, or white at base, blackened terminally. A notably large and 
somewhat impressive owl of Eastern N. Am., common in woodland of the U. S., especially 
southerly ; not known to range much north of the U. 8., though occurring in parts of Canada, 
and not reported from the West, where apparently replaced by S. occidentalis. It is the com- 
monest ‘ hooting’ owl, the strange outbursts of midnight discord which one may hear about the 
farm-house or camp-fire proceeding oftener from this species than from the great horned owl; 
and it is strong enough to prey upon poultry, quail, rabbits and squirrels, as well as humbler 
game. Nest in a hollow tree, or a deserted hawk’s or crow’s nest ; eggs laid early in spring, 
white, subspherical, about 2.00 X 1.75. 


474 


. nebulosa 476 
. alleni 477 


. occidentalis 478 


ATT. 


478. 


165. 


479. 


510 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES — STRIGES. 


S. n. alleni. (To J. A. Allen.) Frormpa Barrep Own. Like S. nebulosa proper, but 
toes almost entirely naked. The feathering of the tarsus stops at the roots of the toes almost 
as abruptly as it does in Scops flammeola, in comparison with S. asio, though a slight strip of 
bristly feathers runs along the outside of the middle toe. The barring of the breast seems 
to be heavier, on an average. Florida; a local race. 

S. occidenta/lis. (Lat. occidentalis, western.) WESTERN BarreD OwL. Toes feathered as 
in S. nebulosa. Decidedly smaller than that species, and otherwise readily distinguished. 
Ground-color of upper parts much the same, but the barring broken up into spotting, for the 
most part; on the back and wing-coverts resulting in irregular variegation, on the head making 
small round white spots. Wings, tail, and facial disk much as in S. nebulosa. Under parts 
quite different, the markings being in bars everywhere, with little difference in pattern between 
the belly and the breast. The latter is closely and regularly barred with brown and white, as 
in S. nebulosa, and if the barring is at all different on the belly, it is from separation of the 
white bars into pairs of spots, in any event very different in appearance from the firm length- 
wise stripes of S. nebulosa. The difference between the two species in this regard is comparable 
to that between the k »g- and short-eared owls. The lining of the wings is fully spotted with 
dusky on a tawny grand. The general brown color of the bird is on the whole warmer than 
that of S. nebulosa. Length about 16.00; wing 12.00-13.00; tail 8.00-9.00. Western U. S., 
southerly ; a very distinct species, apparently replacing the barred owl, cominon in parts of 
California, Arizona, and New Mexico. Egg 2.00 X 1.75, yellowish-white, granular. 
NYC'TEA. (Gr. vuxrcts, nukteus, Lat. nycteus, 
nocturnal.) SNow Ow1s. Much the same gen- 
eric characters as Bubo, which see; but plumicorns 
rudimentary, and generally considered wanting ; 
facial dise quite incomplete, and eyes not centric 
to it; bil nearly buried in the frontal feathers ; 
feet densely clothed in long shaggy feathers which 
even hide the claws ; four outer quills emarginate 
on inner webs; under tail-coverts reaching end of 
tail, which is rounded, aud rather more than 4 as 
long as the wing. One circumpolar species of 
great size, and mostly white color; young covered 
with sooty down. 

N. scandia/ca. (Lat. scandiaca, of Scandinavia. 
Fig. 357.) Syowy Own. Pure white, spotted 
and barred with brownish-black markings, wholly 
indeterminate in size and number; but entirely 
white specimens are very rare. There is often 
more blackish than white; and in the darkest 
birds, the markings tend to bar the plumage with 
rows of spots, such pattern specially evident on the NE 

wings and tail. A common average plumage is Fig. 357.— Snowy Owl, reduced. (From Tenney, 
spotted all over the upper parts, broken-barred on fter Audubon.) 


the quills and tail-feathers, regularly barred on the under parts, and with white face and paws. 
The face, throat, and feet are usually whitest. Bill and claws black; iris yellow. Nearly or 
about two feet long; extent 4.50-5.00 feet; wing 16.00-18.00 inches; tail 9.00-10.00; culmen 
1.10 without cere; tarsus 2.00; middle toe without claw 1.25. This remarkable owl, conspic- 
uous in size and color, abounds in the boreal regions of both hemispheres, whence it comes 
southward irregularly in winter, sometimes raiding in large numbers. With us, it is of every 
winter occurrence in the Northern and Middle States, sometimes pushing its way even to the 


166. 


480. 


STRIGIDZ: OTHER OWLS. 511 


Carolinas and Texas; there being no part of the U. §. where it may not appear at that season. 
It is far from being exclusively nocturnal, and hunts abroad in the day-time as readily as any 
hawk. It has never been ascertained to breed in the U. 8., though it probably does so in 
Maine, as is certainly the case little further north. It is capable of enduring the rigors of 
Arctic winters. The nest is usually upon the ground or rocks; the eggs are 5 to 10, laid at 
intervals (as is the case with various other owls), so that the nest may contain fresh and incu- 
bated eggs and young birds at once; they are equal-ended, about 2.50 & 1.90. The bird preys 
upon grouse, ptarmigan, hares, and smaller game, especially the field-mice and lemmings 
which swarm in the Arctic regions. 

SURNIA. (Etym. of Surnia or Syrnium unknown.) Hawk Ow1s. Skull and ear-parts 
much as in Bubo or Nyctea; latter non-operculate, the opening of small size ; facial dise very 
little developed, and eyes not centric to it; no plumicorus. Wings folding far short of end of 
tail; third primary longest; first 4 emarginate on inner webs. Tail remarkably long, little 
shorter than the wing, much graduated, with lanceolate feathers. Feet thickly and completely 
feathered to the claws; tarsus scarcely or not longer than middle toe. Of medium size, with a 
peculiarly neat and dressy appearance, for an owl, the whole plumage being more strict than in 
other members of this family. There is but one species, common to northern portions of both 
hemispheres, as hawk-like in habits as in mien, though unmistakably au owl. 

S. fune’rea. (Lat. funerea, funereal. Fig. 358.) Amertcan Hawk Own. Day Owt. 
Bill and eyes yellow; claws brownish-black. Upper parts bistre-brown, darkest and almost 
blackish on the head, where profusely 
spotted with small round white marks, 
to which succeeds a nuchal interval less 
spotted or free from spots, then an area 
of larger and lengthened spots ; seapulars 
profusely spotted with white in large 
pattern, forming a scapular bar as in 
Scops; back and wing-coverts more or 
less spotted with white also; primaries 
and secondaries with white spots in pairs Se 
on opposite edges of the feathers. Tail au 
broken-barred with white or pale gray, 
usually narrowly and distinctly, on one 
or both webs, and tipped with the same; 
but there is great individual variation in 
this respect, as may also be said of the 
amount and character of the spotting of 
the whole upper parts. Under parts 
from the breast backward, including the 
erissum, closely and regularly cross- 
barred with rich reddish-brown, or even 
reddish-black, upon a white ground, the 
alternating bars of color usually of 
about equal widths —if anything, the 
white the broadest. The lining of the Fic. 358. — Hawk Owl, reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols sc.) 
wings shares the same character, but is more spotty ; the paws are mottled with brown and 
whitish, in different pattern. On the breast the regular barring gives way, the tendency being 
to form a dark pectoral band on a white or spotted ground, but. this disposition is seldom per- 
fected. Facial disc mostly whitish, bounded by a conspicuous blackish crescent behind the 
ear. When the dark nuchal collar is perfected, a second bar curves down behind the first on 


i RESTA eR 
RES 


RES 
Bs 


481. 


167. 


482. 


512 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES — STRIGES. 


the side of the neck, separated by a whitish interval; the edges of the eyelids, many of the 
loral bristles, a line just in front of the eye, and a chin-spot, are black or dusky ; the lower 
part of the dise below the ears has also dusky streaks. The exposed part of the bill is bright 
yellow, as said, but most of that hidden by the bristles is of a dark livid color. However vari- 
able in detail, the markings of this species are unmistakable ; those about the head are better 
defined than in most owls, and quite peculiar. Length 15.00; extent 33.00; wing about 
9.00; tail about 7.00; tarsus, or middle toe without claw, 1.00 or less; culmen without cere 
0.75. A handsome and spirited owl, abundant in northern portions of N. Am., 8. into 
northern U. 8. in winter, frequently and regularly ; apparently resident in Maine. Like the 
snowy owl, it endures the rigors of Arctic winters. Nest usually in trees, sometimes on rocks 
or stumps, of sticks, mosses, grasses, and feathers; eggs 4-7, April, May, about 1.55 1.25, 
whitish. The food of this species seems to be chiefly field-mice and other small rodents, 
hawked for in broad daylight, this owl being apparently the least nocturnal of its tribe. 

S.f. wlula. (Lat. wlula, a screech owl.) European Hawk Owu. Lighter-colored speci- 
meus from Alaska have been considered to represent this variety, just as darker-colored ones, 
from the British Islands, have been referred to the preceding variety. 

NYO'TALA. (Gr. vixrados, nuktalos, sleepy.) SAw-wHET Owxs. Skull and ear-parts 
highly unsymmetrical, the latter of great size, and fully operculate. Head very large (as in 
Strix), without plumicorns ; facial disc complete, with centric eye. Nostril at edge of the cere, 
which is inflated or not. Tail from $to $ as long as the wing, rounded. Third and 4th primaries 
longest ; lst quite short; 2 or 38 emarginate on inner webs. Feet thickly and closely feathered 
to the claws. In this interesting genus the ear-parts are of great size, and reach the extreme 
of asymmetry, the whole skull seeming misshapen. Three species are known, all of small 
size; one of circumpolar distribution, one peculiar to N. Am., the third of unknown habitat, 
probably American. They are notable for the unusual degree of difference between old and 
young ; and our species are readily distinguished by stronger characters than are ordinarily found 
between congeneric owls. The adults are umber or chocolate-brown above, spotted with white, 
below white, striped with brown; the young more uniform. Eyes yellow; bill black or 
yellow. 


Analysis of Species. 
Larger: wing about 7.00; tail 4.50. Bill yellow; cere not tumid; nostrils presenting laterally, and 


obliquely oval, Avett. «4 4 4 4 4 Be OS RR ew ee ee es  g Nohordsont 482 
Smaller: wing 5.50; tail 2.67. Bill black; cere tumid; nostrils presenting anteriorly, and about circular. 
nO Pant Peery Mr Oot aR cee ae Se (ghd, Sap ee ate a Uh ae . . acadica 483 


N. teng/malmi rich/ardsoni. (To P. G. Tengmalm, and J. Richardson.) ARcTIC AMERICAN 
Saw-wnet Own. Adult: Upper parts, including wings and tail, uniform chocolate-brown, 
spotted with white ; on the top of the head the spots small and profuse, on the nape larger and 
blended into a nuchal collar, on the back and wing-coverts large and sparse, but tending to 
form a scapular bar, on the wing-quills and tail-feathers in pairs, at the opposite edges of the 
webs, on the inner webs larger, more like bars, and more or less run together, especially on 
the inner secondaries. Under parts white, thickly and confusedly streaked lengthwise with the 
color of the back. Facial dise mostly white, but with blackish eyelids and loral spot, set in a 
frame of dark brown speckled with white. The general tone of the brown of this species is 
oftenest ruddy, nearly as in N. acadica, but sometimes dark and pure. Young not seen by me ; 
said to differ from the adult much as WN. acadica does. Length 11.00-12.00; extent 24.00; 
wing 7.00; tail 4.50; tarsus 1.00; middle toe without claw 0.67; culmen without cere 0.60. 
Said to be distinguished froin the European conspecies (fig. 859) by its darker coloration, ochrey 
feet spotted with brown instead of being nearly immaculate white, and more heavily streaked 
under tail-coverts. This fine species inhabits the Arctic regions, being seldom seen in the 
U. S., where only known in winter and not further south than New England, Wisconsin, 
Northern Ohio, and Oregon ; though it is probably resident in Northern Maine, like the snowy 


483. 


STRIGIDZE: OTHER OWLS. 513 


and hawk owls. The nest is said to be built in a tree ; the eggs are variously stated to be from 
2 to 6 in number; size 1.25 & 1.05. 

N. aca/dica. (Lat. acadica, of Acadia.) ACADIAN OwL. SAW-WHET Ow. Adult: 
Upper parts, including wings and tail, very similar to those of the last species, but the ground 
usually a ruddier brown, the spotting less extensive, the marks on the top of the head pencilled 
in delicate shaft-lines instead of round spots, those of the wings and tail exactly as in A. rich- 
ardsoni. Under parts white, diffusely streaked or dappled with a peculiar light brown, alinost 
piukish-brown. Feet immaculate whitish, tinged with buff. Facial dise mostly white, but 
blackened immediately about the eye and on the loral bristles, and pencilled with dusky on 
the auriculars; set ina frame of the color of the back, touched with white points behind the 


he 


Y= \ 
a ae 
“ 


resembling No. 484. Both nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


ear; this frame distinct on the throat where it separates the white of the disc from a white 
jugular collar, before the pectoral streaks begin. Bill black; claws dark; eyes yellow. Young 
quite different (NV. albifrons): Above, ruddy chocolate-brown, without any spots; wings and 
tail more fuscous brown, marked substantially as in the adults. Below, the color of the 
back extending over all the fore parts, the rest being brownish-yellow ; no streaks whatever. 
Facial dise sooty-brown, with whitish eye-brow, and some white touches on the rim behind 
‘the ear curving forward to the chin. Bill black, as before. Length 7.50-8.00; extent 17.00- 
18.00; wing 5.25-5.75 ; tail 2.60-2.90; tarsus 0.75 ; bill without cere 0.50; middle toe with- 
-out claw 0.60. This curious little owl, the most diminutive species found in Eastern N Am., 
inhabits the U. S. from Atlantic to Pacific, and goes somewhat further North into British 
America, and also 8. into Mexico. Though apparently common and generally distributed, it is 
33 


168, 


484. 


485. 


514 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES — STRIGES. 


not very well known, as it is shy and retiring, and quite nocturnal in habits. It is chiefly 
noted for its shrill harsh notes, which, being likened to filing a saw, have occasioned its name.. 
The nest is usually made in the hollow of a tree or stump, in April; the eggs are 8-6 in number, 
white, nearly globular, about 1.00 x 0.87. 

GLAUCI/DIUM. § (Gr. diimin. of yAavé, glaux, an owl.) GNoME OWLS. SPARROW OWLS. 
Pyamy Ow.s. Size very small. Head perfectly smooth ; no plumicorns; ear-parts small, 
non-operculate; facial dise very incomplete, the eye not centric. Nostril circular, opening in. 
the tumid cere; bill robust. Tarsus fully and closely feathered, but toes only bristly for the 
most part. Wings short and much rounded, the 4th primary longest, the 1st quite short, the 
3 outer ones emarginate, and next one or two sinuate. Tail long, about 2 as long as the wing, 
even or nearly so. Claws strong, much curved. A large genus of very small owls, mostly of 
tropical countries. The numerous species, chiefly of warm parts of America, are in dire con- 
fusion, but the only two known to inhabit N. Am. are well determined. The plumage of 
jnany or most species is dichromatic, as in Scops, there being a red and a gray phase indepen- 


. dently of age, season, or sex; but the red is not known to occur in our G. gnoma. The upper 


parts are marked with spots or lines; bars, or rows of spots, cross the wings and tail; the 
under parts are streaked ; there is a cervical collar. Notwithstanding their slight stature, the 
gnome owls are bold and predaceous, sometimes attacking birds quite as large as themselves. 
They are not specially nocturnal. The eggs are laid in holes in trees, and are not peculiar in 
character. 
Analysis of Species. 

Markings of upper parts in dots and round spots. Tail dark brown, with rows of white spots . .gnoma 484 

Markings of upper parts in sharp lines. ail reddish, with dark brown bars .. . . . ferrugineum 485- 
G. gno/ma. (Lat. gnoma, a spirit of the mines.) CALIFORNIAN GNOME OWL. 4 Q, adult: 
Tail concolor with the back, and markings of the upper parts, as well as those crossing the 
wings and tail, in the form of dots or round spots, not lines or bars. Upper parts one shade of 
dark brown, everywhere dotted with small circular spots of white; a collar of mixed blackish- 
brown and white around the back of the neck ; breast with a band of inottled brown, separating 
the white throat from the white of the rest of the under parts, which have irregular lengthwise 
streaks of reddish-brown. Wings and tail dusky-brown, the feathers marked on both webs with 
rows of round white spots, largest on the immer; under wing-coverts white, crossed obliquely 
by a blackish bar. Bill, cere, and feet dull greenish-yellow; soles chrome yellow ; -claws: 
black ; iris bright yellow ; mouth livid flesh-color. Length of ¢ 7.00 or a little less; extent 
14.50; wing 3.75; tail 3.00. Length of 9 7.50; extent 15.50, ete. In the ? the upper parts. 
are rather lighter, with fewer larger spots, and a nearly obsolete nuchal collar; but both sexes. 
vary in the tint of the upper parts, which ranges from pure deep brown to pale grayish, almost 
olivaceous, brown, probably according to age and season, the newer feathers being darker than 
they are when old and worn. The condition of erythrism, so well known in the next species, 
has not been observed in the present one, which is closely related to the sparrow owl of Europe 
(G. passerinum, fig. 359). Rocky Mts. to the Pacific, U.S. and southward, common in wooded 
regions ; an interesting little owl, crepuscular and rather diurnal than strictly nocturnal, preying 
chiefly upon insects, but also upon birds and quadrupeds sometimes about as large as itself. 
G. ferrugi‘neum. (Lat. ferrugineum, rusty-red.) FERRuGINEoUS GNoME OWL. 29, 
adult, normal plumage: Tail entirely ferrugineous, or light chestnut-red, crossed with 7 to §- 
bars of blackish-brown, — of the same width as the rufous interspaces, and both sets of mark- 
ings quite regular. (These tail-marks distinguish the species in any plumage from G. gnoma.): 
Entire top of the head, above the superciliary ridges, and sides of the head behind the auriculars, 
olivaceous-brown, streaked with small, distinct lines of white or fulvous-whitish ; these mark- 
ings being on the forehead and most of the crown like pin-scratches in their sharpness, and: 
though a little less so behind the ears, everywhere retaining their narrow linear character. (In 


169. 


STRIGIDZ: OTHER OWLS. 515 


G. gnoma, the head-markings are dots and spots, not lines.) Back like the head, olivaceous- 
brown, but without markings, except on the scapulars, most of which feathers have a large 
rouud white spot on the outer web near the end, and more or fewer pairs of fulvous spots on 
both webs. Color of back and head divided by an obvious cervical collar, consisting of a series 
of diffuse whitish, and another of fulvous, spots, separated by a nearly continuous line of black. 
Upper tail-coverts usually more or less rufescent, approximating to the color of the tail. 
Remiges olivaceous-fuscous, like the back, the primaries imperfectly and indistinctly, the sec- 
ondaries completely and decidedly, cross-barred with numerous rufescent bands, narrower than 
the dark intervals ; besides which markings some of the primaries have an incompleted series 
of small whitish or very pale fulvous spots along the outer edge, and all have large and deep 
indentations of white or whitish along the inuer web, increasing in size from the ends toward 
the bases of all the feathers, and also on individual feathers from the outer primaries to the 
inner secondaries, on which last they reach quite across the inner webs. Lining of wings 
white, with an oblique dark bar, and another curved dark bar, the latter across the ends of the 
under coverts. Under parts white, heavily streaked along the sides with the color of the back ; 
this color extending quite across the breast, where, however, the feathers have dilated shaft- 
lines of whitish ; chin and throat white, divided into two areas by a blackish or dark gular col- 
lar, which curves across from one post-auricular region to the other. The markings all diffuse. 
Auriculars dark, sharply scratched with white shaft-lines, bounded below by pure white. Eye- 
brows white, pretty definitely bounded above by the color of the crown. Region immediately 
about the bill whitish, but mixed with the long, heavy, black bristles that project far beyond 
the bill, which latter is greenish at base, growing dull yellowish at the end; sparsely-haired 
toes somewhat like the bill; claws brownish-black; iris lemon-yellow. Length of @ about 
6.50; extent 14.50; wing 3.50; tail 2.50; tarsus 0.75; middle toe without claw about the 
sane, its claw 0.40. 9 larger: length 7.00 or more; wing 4.00; tail nearly 3.00. Red 
phase: Entire upper parts deep rufous-red, with the lighter markings of the head, ete., obsolete 
or obliterated ; tail the same, with dark bars scarcely traceable. Dark cervical collar, however, 
conspicuous. White of under parts tinged with yellowish or fulvous; the markings of the 
under parts similar in color to the ground of the upper parts, but duller and paler; tibiee rufous, 
without markings. Gular collar blackish. Various intermediate stages have been observed, 
and the species is to be found in every degree of transition, from the slightest departure from 
the normal state to the completely erythritic condition. These color-conditions are common to 
both sexes. In extreme cases, the rufous becomes intense and almost uniform, a light rufous 
replacing even the white of the under parts, and there being no traces left of bars on the wings 
or tail. Texas to Arizona and Southern Califurnia, and southward. 

MICRATHE'NE. (Gr. pixpds, mikros, small; ’A@qun, Athene, goddess of wisdom, to whom 
the owl was sacred.) ELr Ow xs. Related to Glaucidium; of very diminutive size, including 
the smallest known species of owl, and one of the least of all raptorial birds. Head perfectly 
smooth; no plumicorns ; ear-parts small, non-operculate ; facial disc incomplete, with eye not 
centric. Nostril circular, opening in the tumid cere. Tarsi scarcely feathered below the suf- 
frago, being almost entirely naked and bristly, like the toes; this is as in Speotyto, though 
other characters are quite different. Claws remarkably small and weak; middle toe and claw 
about as long as the tarsus; outer claw reaching a little beyond base of middle claw; inner 
intermediate between middle and outer. Wings very long, rather more than 2 the total length 
of the bird, but much rounded, the 1st primary only % as long as the longest one; 3d and 4th 
longest, 5th but little shorter, 2d about equal to 6th; the outer four sinuate on inner webs. 
Tail of moderate length, $ as long as the wing, the feathers not graduated, and broad to their 
very tips. Bill small and weak, compressed at base, where hidden in dense antrorse bristly 
feathers; culmen and gonys only moderately convex; lower mandible obsoletely notched. 
One species known. 


486. 


170. 


487. 


516 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES — STRIGES. 


M. whit/neyi. (To Prof. J. D. Whitney.) Exr Own. 4, adult: Above, light umber- 
brown, thickly marked with irregular angular pale brownish dots, one on every feather, and 
minutely undulated with lighter and darker color. A concealed white cervical collar, this color 
occupying the middle of the feathers, which are brown at their ends and plumbeous at base. 
A white scapular stripe, the outer webs of the scapulars being almost entirely of this color. 
Wings like the back ; lesser coverts with two pale brownish spots on each feather; middle and 
greater coverts boldly spotted with white at the end of the outer web of each feather, and with 
pale brown spots near the end. Quills with 3 to 6 pale brown spots on each web, forming 
broken bars, mostly passing to white on the edge of the feathers, those on a few intermediate 
primaries almost white. Tail-feathers like the wing-quills, with 5 broken bars and one ter- 
minal, of pale brownish whitening on the inner webs. Lining of wings white, interrupted 
with dark brown. Face and region about eye white, below it barred with light and dark 
brown ; bristles at base of bill black on terminal half. Chin and throat white, forming a broad 
mark from side to side. General color of under parts whitish, the breast blotched and imper- 
fectly barred with brown, forming toward the abdomen large patches, the sides more grayish, 
the flanks plumbeous, tibize narrowly barred with light brown and dusky. Tarsal bristles 
whitish ; those of the toes yellowish ; bill pale greenish ; iris bright yellow. Length 5.75-6.25 ; 
extent 14.25-15.25 ; wing 4.25-4.50; tail 2.00-2.25; tarsus 0.80-0.90. Arizona and south- 
ward; a very curious little owl, not yet well known, few specimens having been secured. The 
general habits, nesting, and food, appear to be similar to those of the gnome owls. 
SPEO'TYTO. (Gr. oméos, speos, a cave; tur, tuto, a kind of owl.) Burrowing OwLs. 
Of medinm and rather small size. Head smooth; uo plumicorns ; ear-parts smnall, non-oper 
culate ; facial dise incom- 
plete. Nostril opeuing in 
the tumid cere. Wings of 
moderate length; 2d to 
4th quills longest; 1st 
about equal to 5th; two 
or three sinuate on inner 
webs near the end. Tail 
very short, ouly about 
half as long as the wing, 
even or scarcely rounded. 
Tarsi extremely long, 
about twice as long as 
the middle toe without its 
claw, very scant-feathered 
in front, bare behind; toes 
bristly. The long slim 


Fic. 360. — Bills and feet of Speotyto, nat. size. Lower, S. hypogea; upper, legs are quite peculiar (fig. 
S. floridana. (Ad nat. del. R. R.) 360). A genus confined 
to America, where there are several varicties of apparently a single species, of diurnal and 
terrestrial habits, noted for inhabiting underground burrows. 
S. cunicula/ria hypoge’a. (Lat. cunicularia, a burrower; Gr. imdyeos, hupogeios, under- 
ground. Fig. 361.) Adult ¢Q : Above, dull grayish-brown, profusely spotted with whitish ; 
the markings mostly rounded and paired on each feather, but anteriorly lengthened. Quills 
with 4 to 6 whitish bars, entire or broken into cross-rows of spots; tail-feathers similarly marked. 
There is much individual variation in the tone of the ground-color, and size and number of the 
spots, which may also be rather ochrey than whitish. Superciliary line, chin, and throat, white, 
the two latter separated by adark brown jugular collar; auriculars brown; facial bristles black- 


488. 


ACCIPITRES: DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 517 


shafted. Under parts white or pale ochf€y, the breast, belly, and sides barred with transverse 
spots of brown, in a pretty regular manuer ; legs and under tail-coverts unmarked. Lining of 
wings tawny-white, dusky-spotted on the primary coverts. Sexes indistinguishable in size or 
color: length 9.50; extent 23.00; wing 6.50-7.00; tail 3.00-3.25; tarsus 1.50-1.75; middle 
toe without claw 0.80; chord of culmen without cere 0.50-0.60. Young differ in much less 
spotting, or even uniform- 
ity, of the body above, 
and whitish under parts, 
excepting the jugular col- 
lar; wing- and tail-coverts 
largely white. A remark- 
able owl, abounding in suit- 
able places in Western N. 
Am., from the Plains to 
the Pacific, in the treeless 
regions inhabited by the 
‘‘ prairie dogs,” (Cynomys 
ludovicianus and C. gunni- 
sont) and other burrowing 
rodents, especially Spermo- 
philus richardsont in the 
north, and S. beecheyt in Fic. 301.— Burrowing Ow], reduced. (Sheppard del. Nichols se.) 
California. I have found colonies in Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Dakota, Montana N. to 
49°, Colorado, New Mexico and California, in all cases occupying the deserted burrows of 
the quadrupeds, not living in common with them as usually supposed. They also occupy the 
holes made by badgers and foxes. The eggs may be laid even 6 or 8 feet from the entrance of 
the burrow; they appear to vary in number up to 10; are white, subspherical, 1.30 x 1.10. 
The species has exceptionally occurred in Massachusetts. Its food is chiefly insects and sinall 
reptiles, birds and quadrupeds being apparently rarely taken. Wherever found, the species is 
resident, being able to endure extremely cold weather. 

S. c. florid/ana. (Of Florida. Fig. 360.) FiLoripA Burrowine Own. Like the last; 
rather smaller; wing 6.00-6.50; tail scarcely 3.00; shanks more extensively denuded, only 
feathered about half way down in front; fect and bill relatively longer. Upper parts darker, 
rather bistre-brown, more profusely and confusedly spotted with smaller and whiter marks; 
under parts more heavily and regularly barred with darker brown. Florida, an isolated local 
race, colonies of which are common in some places. 


7. SusorpER ACCIPITRES: Drurnau Birps or Prey. 


This large group, comprising the large majority of the order Raptores, may be most 
readily defined by exclusion of the particular characters of the other suborders. There is 
nothing of the grallatorial analogy shown by the singular Gypogeranides. The nostrils are 
not completely pervious, nor is the hallux elevated, as in Cathartides; while other peculiarities 
of the American vultures are wanting. Comparing Accipitres with Striges, we miss the peculiar 
physiognomy of owls, the eyes looking laterally as in ordinary birds, and the facial dise being 
absent (rudimentary in Circine) ; aftershafts are usually present, and the outer toe is not versa- 
tile nor shorter than the inner one (exc. Pandionide). The external ears are moderate and 
non-operculate. The eye is usually sunken beneath a much projecting superciliary shield, 
conferring a decided and threatening gaze. The bill shows the raptorial type perfectly, and is 
always provided with a cere im which (not at its edge as in most owls) the nostrils open ; the 


518 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


cutting edges are usually lobed, or toothed (see any figs.). The lores, with occasional excep- 
tions, due to nakedness or dense soft featherings, are scantily clothed with radiating bristly 
feathers, which, however, do not form, as usual in owls, a dense appressed ruff hiding the base 
of the bill. Wings of 10 primaries, and tail of 12 rectrices (with rare exceptions); both 
extremely variable in shape and relative and absolute lengths. The feet are usually strong and 
efficient instruments of prehension and weapons of offence or defence, with widely separable 


Fria. 362. —Shoulder-joint of Accipitres; after Ridgway. a, anterior end of coracoid; 0, upper end of clavicle; 
e, scapular process of coracoid, reaching b in the middle fig. (Falco peregrinus), but not in the left-hand fig. (Buleo 
borealis), nor in the right hand fig. (Pandion haliaétus); d, lower end of scapula. The tigs nat. size, left side, 
viewed from opposite side. 


and strongly contractile toes, cleft to the base or there only united by small movable webs, and 
generally scabrous underneath with wart-like pads or tylari to prevent slipping, as shown in 
fig. 46. The claws are developed into large sharp curved talons. The tarsal envelope (pod- 
otheca) varies; sometimes the whole tarsus is feathered, and it is usually so in part; the horny 
covering takes the form of scutella, or reticulations, or rugous granulations, and is occasionally 
fused. The capacious gullet dilates into a crop; the gizzard is moderately muscular; the 
ceca are extremely small. The oil-gland is tufted. The syrinx has one pair of intrinsic 
muscles. The ambiens and femoro-caudal muscles are present; the aecessory femoro-caudal, 
semitendinosus and its accessory are absent. There are good osteological characters: The 
phalanges of the hind toe are more than half as long as those of the outer toe; the basal joint 
of the middle or outer toe is longer than the next one. There are no basipterygoid processes. 
The sternum is manubriated, and when not entire behind is single-notched or fenestrate on each 
side (doubly so in most owls). Huxley has called attention to a character of the shoulder-girdle, 
afterward well elaborated by Mr. Ridgway (fig. 362): In certain genera, as Falco, Micrastur, 
Herpetotheres, and in the Polyborine, the scapular process of the coracoid, fig. 362, ¢, is pro- 
longed beneath the scapula, d, to meet the clavicle, b; which is not the case in other groups of 
genera of the Falconide, nor in Pandionde. This distinction has been made the basis of a 
primary division of the diurnal Accipitres into two subfamilies, Palconing and Buteonine, the 
former including Polyborus and its allies, the latter including Pandion; but some modification 
of this scheme is advisable, I think. It seems to me that the primary division should be made 
as on p. 498, by excluding Pandionide as a family distinct from Falconide proper, on the 
ground of its many peculiarities. This being done, the character of the shoulder-joint may 
properly be considered in dividing the I’alconid@ into subfamilies. I am perfectly willing to 
approximate Polyborus to Falco on this technical ground, notwithstanding the great outward 
dissimilarity of these two forms; but it is unlikely that ornithologists will allow the construe- 
tion of the shoulder-joint to outweigh all other characters combined. 

Diurnal Birds of Prey abound in all parts of the world, holding the relation to the rest of 
their class that the carnivorous beasts do to other mammals. With many exceptions, the sexes 
are alike in color, but the female is almost invariably larger than the male. The chauges of 


‘FALCONIDA : VULTURES, FALCONS, HAWKS, ETC. 519 


plumage with age are great, and render the determination of the species perplexing — the more 
so since purely individual, and somewhat climatic, color-variations, and such special conditions 
as inelanisin, are very frequent. The modes of nesting are various; the eggs as a rule are 
blotched, and not so nearly spherical as those of owls. The food is exclusively of an animal 
nature, though endlessly varied ; the refuse of the stomach is ejected in a ball by the mouth. 
‘The voice is loud and harsh. As arule, the birds of prey are not strictly migratory, though 
many of them change their abode with much regularity. Their mode of life renders them 
usually non-gregarious, excepting, however, the vultures and vulture-like hawks, which con- 
gregate where carrion is plenty, quite like the American Cathartides. There are upwards of 
300 species or good geographical races, justly referable to about 50 full genera, and divisible 
into two families — Falconide and Pandionide. 


31. Family FALCONID: Vultures, Falcons, Hawks, Eagles, etc. 


Characters as above, ex- 
clusive of those marking the 
fish-hawks, Pandionide, be- 
yond. No unexceptionable 
division of the family having 
been proposed, and the sub- 
families being still at issue, it 
may be best not to materially 
modify the arrangement pre- 
sented in the earlier edition 
of this work, further than 
to separate Pandionide from 
Falconide proper. 

The Old World Vultures 
form a group standing some- 
what apart from the rest in 
many points of superficial 
structure and habits, though 
so closely correspondent with 
ordinary Falconide, and es- 
pecially with Buteonine, in 
all essential respects, that 


Fia. 363. — The Vulture’s banquet; illustrating subfamily Vudturine of they can form at most a sub- 
family Falconid : i i Liche : i : % 
ly Lralconide, not represented in America. (From Michelet.) family Vulturine (fig. 363.) 


They have nothing to do with the American Vultures (suborder Cathartides), with which they 
have been wrongly united in a family Vulturide. They are a small group of some six genera 
and about twelve species, of which the most decidedly raptorial is the bearded griffin, Gypaétus 
barbatus; other characteristically ‘‘ vulturine” forms being Vultur monachus, Otogyps auricu- 
laris, Gyps fulvus, Neophron percnopterus, and Gypohierax angolensis. 

The South American genera, Micrastur and Herpetotheres, are each described as being 
so peculiar as to form a group of supergeneric value, counparable with those termed subfamilies 
in the present work. Their relationships are with Falconine. (Ridgway.) 

The North American Falconide with which we have here to do fall in several groups, 
which I shall call subfamilies, without insisting upon their taxonomic rank, or raising the 
‘question whether the family at large is divisible in this manner. These groups are six in 
number: 1. Cireine, harriers; 2. Milvine, kites; 3. Accipitrine, hawks; 4. Falconine, 


520 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES— ACCIPITRES. 


falcons; 5. Polyborine, caracaras; 6. Buteonine, buzzards and eagles. If it be urged that: 
these groups grade into one another, it may be replied that most large groups of like grade in 
ornithology do the same; and that ‘ typical’ or central genera of each of them offer practical 
distinctions which have been recognized from time out of mind, in popular opinion and ver- 
nacular language. Jn my recent revision of the North American Falconide, made to check 
and amplify the descriptions in this work, an interesting relation between the shape of the 
wings and their pattern of coloration presented itself. (a) If we take a ‘noble’ falcon, such as a 
peregrine or a lanner, we find a strong, yet sharp wing, with the second primary longest, sup- 
ported nearly to the end by the first and third; the nicking of the quills confined to a few, if 
occurring un more than one, and situated near the tip. Such a wing is as potent in its feathers: 
as in the construction of its shoulder-joint, and indicates the acme of raptorial power in its pos- 
sessor, a falcon being able to dash down upon its quarry with almost incredible velocity and 
violence. The markings of a falcon’s wing are no less characteristic, consisting of clean-cut, dis- 
tinct spots of light color on both webs of the primaries and secondaries, throughout their whole 
extent, or almost so. (b) Any true ‘hawk,’ as an Astur or Accipiter, has a rounded concavo- 
convex wing, conferring a rapid, almost whirring, flight, like that of a partridge at full speed ;: 
and such a bird captures its prey by chasing after it with wonderful impetuosity, but not at a 
single plunge like a falcon. Such a wing has more primaries cut, farther from their ends, and 
the markings are pretty regular and distinct bars. (¢) Any ‘buzzard,’ as a Buteo, a heavy and 
comparatively slow or even lumbering bird in flight, taking its prey by surprise and merely 
dropping on it without special address, has many or most of the primaries cut, far from their 
ends, and the tendency of the markings is to fuse and blend in large irregular masses of color, 
the sharp markings of Falco or Accipiter being thus dissipated. Of course there are exceptions, 
as well as every possible gradation, in the case ; but if one will compare the wing of Circus or 
Archibuteo with that of Accipiter and Falco, he cannot fail to perceive the point I raise. The 
tail is in somewhat like case. In the most noble birds of prey it is very stiff and strong, with 
almost lanceolate feathers, sharply spotted as a rule; in a hawk, longer and weaker, still 
regularly barred; in a buzzard generally (there are marked exceptions) of medium length and 
strength, with the markings tending to merge in large areas of color, just as those of the 
wings do. 

It may be remarked further, without special reference to what has preceded, that in large 
and difficult genera, as Buteo for example, the best specific characters may be afforded by the 
markings of the tail. These are usually quite different in young and old birds; but are among 
a hawk’s most specific credentials, after the mature plumage is assumed, even when the rest of 
the plumage varies greatly, or is subject to melanism, erythrism, etc. In fine, many hawks 
are best known by their tails. Melanism in frequent in Falconide ; erythrism is not (just the 
reverse of the case of Strigid@). The further generalization may be made, that the coloration 
of the under parts of Falconide is more distinctive of species than that of the upper parts; and 
that when these parts are barred crosswise in the adult they are streaked lengthwise in the 
young. Sexual differences are rather in size than in color, such a case as that of Circus being 
exceptional. 

Analysis of Subfamilies. 


Scapular process of coracoid reaching clavicle. 


Upper mandible toothed, lower mandible notched . . ......... =. =. . FALCONINE 

Mandibles without tooth or notch. . 2 1. 6 1. 6 ee ee ew ee eee ee 06 RPOLYBORINE 
Scapular process of coracoid not reaching clavicle. 

Face with a ruffsomewhat asinowls . . . 2 6 6 eee ee we we ee we we) 6UCIROCINE 


Face without ruff. 
Tarsus approximately equal to tibiain length; rounded wings little longer than tail AccIPITRINaS 
Tarsus decidedly shorter than tibia. 
Tail forked, or much shorter than the long pointed wings. . .... . . . . MILVINA 
Tail not forked, moderately shorter than the obtuse wings . . ... . . . BUTEONINAD 


171. 


489. 


FALCONIDZ — CIRCINZE: HARRIERS. : 521 


42. Subfamily CIRCINAE: Harriers. 


Face surrounded with an incomplete ruff (as in most 
owls); orifice of ear about as large as the eye, and in 
sume cases at least with a decided conch (tig. 364). Bill 
rather weak, not toothed or notched. Legs lengthened, 
the tarsus approximately equalling the tibia in length (as 
in Accipitrine). Wings and tail lengthened. Form light 
and lithe; plumage loose; general organization of the 
buteonine rather than of the falconine division of the 


Fra, 264. —Ear-partsof Cireus. (After family. Thus, the scapular process of the coracoid is not 
Macgillivray.) produced to the clavicle; there is no median ridge on 
the palate anteriorly; the septum nasi is less complete than in Falco, and the nostrils are not 
circular with a central tubercle. The harriers constitute a small group, of the single genus 
Circus and its subdivisions (to which some add the African Polyboroides), coutaining some 15 
or 20 species of various parts of the world. 

CIR'CUS. (Gr. kipxos, kirkos, Lat. circus, a kind of hawk ; from its circling in the air. Fig. 
364.) Harriers. Bill thickly beset with many curved radiating bristles surpassing in length 
the cere, which is large and tumid ; tomia lobed or festooned, but neither toothed nor notched. 
Nostrils ovate-oblong, nearly horizontal. Superciliary shield prominent. Tarsus long and 
slender, scutellate before and mostly so behind, reticulate laterally ; toes slender, the middle 
with its claw much shorter than the tarsus; a basal web between the outer and middle; all 
tuberculate underneath; claws very large and sharp, much curved. Wings very long and 
ample; 3d and 4th quills longest; Ist shorter than 6th ; outer 3-5 (in our species 4) emargi- 
nate on inner webs; 2d—-5th emarginate on outer webs. Tail very long, about 3 as lung as the 
wing, nearly even or rounded, the folded wings falling short of its end. In our species, which 
scarcely differs from the European C. cyaneus, the sexes are extremely unlike in color and size ; 
the old ¢ is chiefly bluish-gray 
and white; the 9 and young of 
both sexes are dark brown and 
reddish-brown or tawny, with 
while rump; the 9 is much 
larger than the g. The nest 
is placed upon the ground; the 
eggs are colorless or nearly so. 
The harriers are among the 
most “‘ignoble” of hawks, prey- 
ing upon humble quarry, chiefly 
small quadrupeds, reptiles, and 
insects, for which they hunt by 
quartering low over the ground 
with an easy gliding flight. 
They are ‘ light-weights ” in Fic. 365. — Marsh Hawk, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 
proportion to their linear dimensions, all the members being lengthened, and the wings espe- 
cially ample. The plumage is also loose and fluffy, somewhat like that of owls, to which the 
harriers are related in several respects. 

C. cya/neus hudson‘ius. (Lat. cyaneus, blue, the color of the old 3 ; haudsonius, of Hudson's 
Bay. Fig. 365.) American Marsa Hawk, or Harrier. Buus Hawk. Adult é: In 
perfect plumage pale pearly-bluish, or bluish-ash, above, with the upper tail-coverts entirely 
pure white ; but most specimens have a dusky wash obscuring the bluish, and retain traces of 


522 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


brown or rufous. Five outer primaries mostly blackish, all of them and the secondaries with 
large white basal areas on inner webs; tail-feathers banded with 5 or 6 obscure dusky bars, 
the terminal one strongest and most distinct, and marbled with white toward their bases. The 
bluish cast invades the fore under parts, the rest of which are white, with sparse drop-shaped 
rufous spots ; lining of wings white. From this blue-and-white state the bird is found grading 
by degrees into the very different plumage of the 9 and young: Above, dark umber-brown, 
everywhere more or less varied with reddish-brown or yellowish-brown, the upper tail-coverts, 
however, white, forming a very conspicuous mark; under parts a variable shade of brownish- 
yellow, or ochraceous, streaked with umber-brown, at least on breast and sides; tail crossed with 
6-7 blackish bars. The younger the bird the heavier the coloration, which is sometimes quite 
blackish and reddish, excepting the white upper tail-coverts. 4 Q: Iris, tarsi, and toes bright 
yellow; cere yellow or yellowish; bill blackish; claws black. @: length 17.50-19.003 
extent 40.00-44.00 ; wing 13.00-14.00; tail 9.00-10.00 ; tarsus 3.00 or less ; middle toe with- 
out claw 1.20. 9: length 19.00-21.50; extent 45.00-50.00; wing 14.00-16.00; tail 9.50- 
10.50; tarsus 3.00 or more; middle toe without claw 1.40. North Am. at large, one of the 
most abundant and widely-diffused of its family, especially in meadowy and marshy places, and 
easily recognized by its generic characters, in all its variation of size and color. The nest is 
placed upon the ground, and rather neatly built of hay, a foot in diameter, 3 inches high ; eggs 
3-6 ? commonly 4-5, broad and nearly equal-ended, 1.80 to 1.90 & 1.40-1.45, dull white, 
with more or less greenish or bluish shade; no decided markings, but frequently small spots 
and large blotches of very pale brownish on the surface, and some neutral-tint shell-spots. 
No specific difference from C. eyaneus of Europe ; averaging a little larger; old ¢ retaining a 
few rufous spots in white of under parts, and more evident barring of wings and tail. 


43. Subfamily MILVINA: Kites. 


No ruff or ear-conch. Loral 
bristles moderate, scanty or quite 
wanting, the head being then 
closely and softly feathered to 
the bill. Superciliary shield evi- 
dent or not. Bill usually weak, 
soinetimes extremely slender, 
the cutting edge of the upper 
mandible straight to the curve, 
or lobed or festooned, but not 
toothed, nor the under mandible 
truncate and notched. Nostrils 
not circular, nor with central 
bony tubercle. Wings very 
long, more or less narrowed 
and pointed, with several (in 
our genera 2 to 5) primaries 
emarginate on inner webs. Tail 
very variable in length and 
shape, in our genera nearly 
even or deeply forked. Feet 
very small; tarsus much shorter 
than tibia, approximately equal 
to middle toe without claw, — 
usually feathered above, the rest 


. 366. — A typical I s forjcatus). (From Michelet.) 


172. 


490. 


173. 


FALCONIDZA— MILVINZE: KITES. 528 


mostly or entirely reticulate in small pattern (with few or no large transverse scutella). The 
general organization is buteonine; the scapular process of the coracoid does not meet the 
clavicle, the septum nasi is incompletely ossified, and the anterior ridge of the palate is little 
developed if at all; the superciliary shield is in one or two pieces. The kites form a rather 
extensive group of hawks of no great strength and less than average size, though very active, 
generally of lithe and graceful shape, with long thin wings and often forked tail. They are 
‘Cionoble” birds, subsisting upon small game, especially insects and reptiles. In Pernis 
apivorus, the bee-eating hawk of Europe, the whole head is densely and softly feathered to the 
bill. The group is less homogeneous than the others here presented, and might be, perhaps, 
dismembered, or merged in Buteoning. The genera assigned differ with nearly every writer 
who recognizes the group at all. The type of the group is the genus Milvus, near which 
stands our Elanoides (fig. 366), and with which it may not be improper to associate Elanus, 
Ictinia, and Rostrhamus. 


Analysis of Genera. 


Tail nearly as long as the wings, deeply forked; head closely feathered . . . . . s+ ss Elanoides 175 

Tail nearly or about even. 
Five outer primaries emarginate on inner webs; bill and claws extremely slender . . Rostrhamus 172 
Two outer primaries emarginate; tarsus scutellate infront . . 2... 1. +e + + ~ + detinia 178 
—entirely reticulate. . . . . . . «ew es . Elomus 174 


ROSTRHAMUS. (Lat. rostrum, a beak ; hamus, a hook.) SICKLE-BILLED Kires. Bill 
extremely long and slender, the upper mandible hooked almost into a sickle-shape, the curva- 
ture also impressed to some extent upon the under mandible; cutting edges entirely without 
tooth or lobe, but simply curved like the culmen; gonys straight. Cere contracted ; nostrils 
narrowly oval, horizontal. Loral bristles slight. Space between bill and eye nearly naked 
and colored, as if a continuation of the cere. Wings long; 3d and 4th quills longest; 5th 
next; Ist shorter than 6th; outer 5 émarginate on inner webs. Tail about half as long as the 
wing, slightly emarginate or nearly even. Feet small; tarsus feathered about 4 way down in 
front, then secutellate, for the rest reticulate; middle toe and claw about as long as tarsus. 
Inver toe without claw shorter than outer ditto; inner toe and claw longer than ditto ; no evi- 
dent webbing between either of them; soles granular, but little tuberculate. Claws very long 
and acute, but slender and comparatively little curved; inner edge of the middle one dilated 
and jagged. A genus marked by the extreme hooking of the slender bill, otherwise near 
Elanus; containing two or three species of the warmer parts of America. 

R. socia/bilis plum/beus. (Lat. sociabilis, gregarious ; plumbeus, lead-colored.) Evrr- 
GLADE Kirr. Adult ¢ 2: General color blackish-plumbeous, blackening on wings and tail. 
Base of tail, with longer upper coverts and all under coverts white, increasing in extent on the 
tail from middle to lateral feathers ; tail also with a pale gray or whitish terminal zone. Bill 
and claws black; base of bill, cere and feet bright orange, drying dingy yellow; iris red. 
Length 16.00-18.00; extent about 44.00; wing 13.50-15.50; tail 6.50-7.50; bill 0.90-1.00; 
tarsus 1.75-2.25; middle toe without claw, rather less. Young birds are much varied with 
brown, yellowish, and white, but the species is unmistakable in any plumage. Florida and 
the West Indies ; said to be common in the “ everglades,” and to resemble the marsh hawk in 
habits; nest in a bush, eggs commonly two, whitish, irregularly spotted, blotched, or smirched 
with brown, about 1.72 X 1.45. Compared with the 8. Am. R. sociabilis, the Florida bird 
averages larger, lighter-colored, and weaker-billed. 

ICTIYNIA. (Gr. ixrivos, iktinos, a kite. Fig. 367.) Leap Kirrs. Bill rather small, but 
robust, very deep and wide for its length ; tip of upper mandible much overhanging, its cutting 
edge very prominently lobed, sometimes almost toothed like a falcon’s, sometimes irregularly 
sinuate-serrate; the nick just in front of the lobe usually permitting the median ridge of the 
palate to be visible from the side; culmen very strongly arched in nearly a quadrant of a circle; 


491. 


524 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES— ACCIPITRES. 


gonys convex, ascending ; cere short; nostrils small, subcircular ; loral bristling slight; super- 
ciliary shield sinall, in one piece. Wings of moderate length, ample ; 3d quill longest ; 2d but 
little shorter; Ist quite short, about equal to 6th; outer 2 emarginate on inner web, and next 2 
somewhat sinuate. Tail moderate, even or emarginate, the feathers broad to their obtusely 
rounded ends. Feet short and stout; tarsus scantily feathered about }way down in front, then 
scutellate, for the rest reticulate; middle toe without claw about as long as the tarsus; outer 
and middle toes connected by a basal web for the whole Jength of the basal joint of the latter ; 
inner toe without claw shorter than the outer, with claw longer, its claw being much larger 
than that of the outer toe, reaching beyond base of middle claw. Soles broad, especially under 


Fic. 367. — Left, Mississippi Kite, } nat. size; right, Swallow-tailed Kite, 3 nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


the hind toe, which is widely margined ; claws short, stout, much curved. A genus of two 
species, confined to temperate and tropical America ; of great volitorial power, spending much 
of their time on the wing in aérial gyrations; somewhat gregarious like other Milvine, and 
preying upon the humblest quarry, especially insects and small reptiles, often feeding from their 
talons, as they sail through the air, after sweeping down upon their prey and seizing it as they 
pass without staying their flight. 

I. subceeru/lea. (Lat. swbcerulea, bluish.) Mississtpr1 Krre. Adult $9: General plumage 
plumbeous or dark ashy-gray, bleaching on the head and secondaries, blackening on the tail 
aud wings, several primaries more (@) or less (9) suffused with chestnut-red ov the inner 


174. 


492. 


175. 


FALCONIDA) — MILVINZ:: KITES. 525 


web or on both webs. Forehead and tips of secondaries usually silvery-whitish ; concealed 
white spots on the scapulars; bases of feathers of head and under parts fleecy-white. Lores, 
eyelids, and bill, including cere, black; gape of mouth and feet, orange, the latter obscured on 
the front of the tarsus, and along the tops of the toes; iris lake-red. Feet and cere drying to a 
nameless dingy color. Length of ¢ about 14.00; extent 36.00; wing 10.50-11.50; tail 6.00- 
6.50; tarsus 1.45; 9 about 15.00; wing 11.00-12.50; tail 6.50-7.00. Young: Head, neck 
and under parts whitish, spotted with dark brown or reddish-brown, excepting on the throat 
and along a superciliary line; lining of wings tawny, spotted with rusty-brown ; upper parts 
blackish, most of the feathers edged with tawny-white; quills tipped with white; tail black, 
with about 3 pale ashy bands, and as many ruws of white spots on the inner webs. Southern 
U. S., regularly N. to South Carolina, Illinois and Indian Territory, casually to Pennsylvania, 
Iowa, and Wisconsin ; 8. into Mexico; replaced in Central and 8S. Am. by the related but 
quite distinct I. plumbea. Nest of sticks, etc., in trees; eggs 2 

E/LANUS. (Lat. elanus, a kite.) PEARL Kires. Related to the last; general form and 
aspect similar. Pattern of coloration entirely different. Bill rather weak and compressed, the 
tomia of the upper mandible devoid of lobe or festoon, but slightly sinuate to the overhanging 
tip; gouys about straight; culmen less strongly convex than in Ictinia; uostrils subcircular, 
near middle of the moderate cere. Feet very small; tarsus feathered half-way down in front, 
for the rest finely reticulate, like the tops of the toes to near their ends; hind toe very short; 
claws all small and little curved; basal web between middle and outer toes slight (compare 
feet of Ictinia). Wings nearly or about twice as long as tail; pointed, 2d and 3d quills longest, 
Ist about equal to 4th, lst and 2d emarginate on inner webs. Tail emarginate, but outer 
feather shorter than the next, all the feathers broad to their obtusely-rounded ends. A small 
genus of 4 or 5 species inhabiting the warmer parts of the world. 

E. glaw/cus. (Lat. glawcus, bluish.) BLACK-SHOULDERED Kirr. WHuit&-TAILeD KITE. 
Adult & 9: Upper parts pale bluish-ash; most of the head, the whole tail, and entire under 
parts, including lining of the wings, pure white ; lesser and middle wing-coverts black, forming 
a great black area; a patch on under wing-coverts, the shafts of most tail-feathers, and a loral 
spot, also black. The white of the under parts and middle tail-feathers often with a pearly 
bluish cast. Bill and claws black; cere and feet yellow or orange ; iris red or reddish. Length 
16.00-17.00 ; extent 39.00-41.50; wing 12.50-13.50; tail 7.00-8.00; tarsus 1.30; middle toe 
without claw about the same; 9 little larger than g. Young marked with dusky and 
reddish-brown, the wing-feathers white-tipped, the tail-feathers with a subterminal ashy bar. 
In this species the tail is emarginate to a depth of about 0.50, the outer tail-feather also about 
as much shorter than the next, which is the longest one. Southern U.S. from Atlantic to 
Pacific; N. to South Carolina, Iinois, Indian Territory, and Middle California; 8. through 
Central and most of S. Am.; common. With habits in general like those of the last species, 
this elegant kite is stronger and more predaceous, preying upon small birds and quadrupeds as 
well as insects and reptiles. It nests in trees and bushes; eggs 4-6, subspherical, 1.60 x 
1.45, whitish, blotched and smirched with mahogany color. 

ELANOIDES. (Lat. elanus, and Gr. eidos, eidos, resemblance.) SwALLOW-TAILED KITE. 
Prominently characterized by the extremely elongated and deeply forficate tail, the length of 
which nearly equals that of the wing, the narrow, acuminate lateral feathers being more than 
twice as long as the middle pair when full grown. Wings also very long, thin and acute; 
2d and 3d quills forming the point; 1st about equal to 4th; 1st and 2d emarginate on inner 
webs. Feet very short, but stout; tarsus feathered about 4 way down in front, elsewhere 
irregularly reticulate; toes mostly scutellate on top, but reticulate toward their bases, granular 
and padded underneath ; claws short, stout, strongly arcuate, scooped out underneath , With sharp 
edges, that of the middle dilated. Bill rather weak, with moderately convex culmen and small 
cere; the cutting edge festooned. Nostrils oval, ublique. Hezd closely feathered on the sides : 


493. 


526 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


a small superorbital shield of a single bone. A beautiful genus of a single species, related to 
the Old World Milvus (typical kites) and especially to Nauclerus, with which latter it has 
usually been associated. 

E. forfica/tus, (Lat. forficatus, deeply forked. Figs. 366, 367.) SWALLOW-TAILED Kite. 
Adult § Q: Head, neck, band on rump, and entire under parts, including lining of wings, snow- 
white; back, wings, and tail, glossy black, with various lustre, chiefly green and violet. Bill 
bluish-black ; cere, edges of mandibles, and feet pale bluish, the latter tinged with greenish ; 
claws light-colored. Length about 24.00, but very variable ; extent 50.00: wing 15.50-17.50; 
tail up to 14.50, cleft more than } its length; tarsus about 1.25; middle toe without claw 
tather less. Young: Similar; less lustrous; wing- and tail-feathers white-tipped; feathers of 
head and neck pencilled with delicate shaft lines of blackish. This most elegant kite, super- 
lative in ease and grace of the wing, floats, soars, and dashes over the greater part of America, 
and even crosses the Atlantic on its buoyant pinions. It is abundant in the Southern U. 5., 
sometimes winging its way to the Middle States, and regularly up the whole Mississippi valley, 
to Minnesota and Dakota, latitude 49°. Known to nest from Wisconsin and Iowa southward. 
The nest is placed on a tree, constructed of sticks, hay, moss, etc.; eggs 4-6, whitish, 1.90 x 1.50, 
irregularly blotched and specked with rusty and chestnut-brown. 


44. Subfamily ACCIPITRIN/AE: Hawks. 


General form strict, with small head, shortened wings, 
and lengthened tail and legs. Tarsi approximately equal 
to the tibia in length. Bill short, robust, high at base ; 
toothless, but usually with a prominent festoon ; no cen- 
tral tubercle in the broadly oval nostril, nor keel of palate 
anteriorly. Superciliary shield prominent. Coracoid ar- 
rangement as in Buteonine, into which group the present 
one grades. Wings concavo-convex, the 3d to 6th quills 
longest, the 1st very short and more or less bowed inward, 
the outer 3 to 5 emarginate or sinuate on inner webs. 
Tail quite long, square or rounded, sometimes emargi- 
nate, nearly equalling the wing in length. Tarsi slender, 
longer than middle toe without claw, usually extensively 
if not completely denuded of feathers, and scutellate 
before and behind. This is an extensive group of 
medium-sized and small hawks, little if at all inferior in 

Fic. 368.—A typical Accipitrine, (From spirit of audacity to the true falcons, though less power- 
Dixon.) fully organized and in fact conforming in anatomical 
characters with the Buteonine rather than with the Falconine. In the technic of falconry, 
the Accipitrine are styled ‘‘ignoble,” because these short-winged hawks rake after the quarry, 


instead of plunging upon it like the “noble” long-winged falcons. Their flight is swift and 
dashing; they capture their prey in open chase with amazing celerity and address, always 
killing for themselves and disdaining refuse. Their quarry is chiefly birds and quadrupeds. 
Astur and Accipiter are the typical and principal genera, of which some 50 species (chiefly of 
the former genus) are known, inhabiting most parts of the world. Our representatives of 
these venera are easily discriminated, but some exotic species connect them quite closely. 


Analysis of Genera. 


Small and medium-sized; length 20.00 or less. Tarsus more extensively denuded, and scutellate, some- 
times booted’, 2.2 «ae Xo ee en SO GP ee ee a ce a . adotpiter! 176 
Large; length over 20 00, Tarsus less extensively denuded, and scutellate, never booted . . . Astur 117 


FALCONIDA — ACCIPITRINA): HAWKS. 527 


176. ACCI'PITER. (Lat. accipiter, ahawk. Fig. 368.) Smarp-sHinnep Haws. Tarsi feathered 
about 4 way down in front, or less (in Astur about 4 way), and quite slender (whence the term 
“‘sharp-shinned ”) ; in one species prominently and continuously scutcllate before aud behind, 
the scutellation continued on to the toes; in the other the same, or finally fused in a continuous 
“boot.” Toes long, slender, the outer one much webbed at base and padded underneath; 
inner claw much larger than the middle one, approximately equalling the hind claw; height 


AA 


\D'y KISANBY 


; Fig. 369. — Accipiter nisus of Europe, adult od, } nat. size; not distinguishable i 
Gite Gee $ nat. size it would represent Cooper's Hawk yiaces welt i eas hy 
of bill at base greater than chord of culmen; 4th and 5th quills longest, 3d and 6th next 
2d shorter than 6th, lst very short. The two following species are exactly alike in color; one 
is a miniature of the other. The ordinary plumage is dark brown above (deepest on the hand 
the occipital feathers showing white when disturbed), with an ashy or plumbeous shade wick 
increases with age, till the general cast is quite bluish-ash ; below, white or whitish variously 
streaked with dark brown and rusty, finally changing to brownish-red (palest iictud aud 


494, 


495. 


del. E. C.) 


528 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


slightly ashy across the breast), the white then only showing in narrow cross-bars; chin, 
throat and crissum white, with blackish pencilling, the ecrissum, however, usually immaculate ; 
wings and tail barred with ashy and brown or blackish, the quills white-barred basally, the tail 
whitish-tipped ; bill dark; claws black; iris, cere and feet yellow. Sexes alike in color; @ 
much larger than 3. 

Analysis of Species. 

Feet extremely slender; bare portion of tarsus longer than middle toe; scutella frequently fused ; tail 
square. i 10.00-12.00; extent about 21.00; wing.6.00-7.00 ; tail 5.00-6.00. 2 12.00-14.00; extent about 
25.50; wing 7.00-8.00; tail 6.00-7.00; whole foot 3.50 or less. . . . » . «fuscus 494 

Feet moderately stout; bare portion of tarsus shorter than middle bobs contelia ee distinct ; tail 
rounded. ¢ 16.00-18.00; extent about 30.00; wing 9.00-10.00; tail 7.00-8.00. : 18.00-20.00; extent about 
35.00; wing 10.00-11.00; tail 8.00-9.00; whole foot 4.00 ormore ..... = = & 6 « « ‘Coopert 495 

A. fuseus. (Lat. fuscus, dark. Fig. 369.) SHARP-SHINNED Hawk. ‘ PIGEON” HAWKE, so- 
called, but not to be confounded with Faleo columbarius, No. 505. Adult g 9: Above, 
dark plumbeous, slate-color, or bluish-gray, somewhat more fuscous on the wings and tail 
than on the body, the feathers of the hind-head with fleeey white bases, the scapulars with 
concealed white spots. Tail crossed by about 4 blackish bars, the first under the coverts, the 
last subterminal and broadest; 
extreme tips of the feathers 
white. Primaries alsomarked 
with blackish bars or spots, 
and whitening at their bases, 
in bars or indents of the inner 
webs. Under parts barred 
crosswise with rufous on a 
white ground, the bars on 
some parts cordate and con- 
nected along the shafts of the 
feathers, which are blackish ; 
ear-coverts rufous; rufous 


Fic. 370. — Beak and talons of Accipiter (A. cooperi, nat. size). (Ad nat, mostly or entirely wanting 
on the cheeks, throat, and 
crissum, which are wore or less finely pencilled with the black shafts of the feathers; crissum, 
however, often pure white. Avxillars barred like other under parts; lining of wings white, with 
dusky spots. Dimensions as above. Young: Above, umber-brown, varied with rusty-brown 
edgings of most of the feathers; white spots of scapulars exposed. Below, white more or less 
tawny-tinged, striped lengthwise with dark brown or reddish-brown on most parts, the feathers 
mostly black-shafted. This state is oftener seen than the perfected plumage; every inter- 
mediate stage is seen; but there can be no misunderstanding the species, as our only other 
hawks (Falco columbarius and F’. sparverius) of similar slight dimensions belong to a different 
genus and subfamily. N. Am. at large, one of our most abundant hawks, and one which, 
notwithstanding its smallness, sustains the reputation of Accipitrine for nerve and prowess. 
The nest is usually built in the branches of a tree, sometimes in a hollow or on a ledge of 
rocks, being a platform of small sticks upon which rests a bed of hay, moss, leaves, or bark ; 

the eggs are generally laid in May, to the number of 4 or 5. The white ground-color has 
often a livid or even purplish tint, and is marked, often so thickly as to be obscured, with 
large, irregular splashes of various shades of brown, interminably changeable in number, size, 
and pattern, sometimes inclining to form masses or a wreath, sometimes more evenly dis- 
tributed. The egg is of nearly equal size at both ends, and measures about 1.45 & 1.15. It 
is not distinguishable with certainty from that of Falco columbarius. 

A. coo'peri. (To Wm. Cooper. Fig. 370.) Cooprr’s Hawk. Cuicken Hawk (aname shared 


FALCONIDA — ACCIPITRINA: HAWKS. 529 


by species of Buteo). The colors and changes of plumage of this species being practically 
the same as those of A. fuseus, need not be repeated. The chief difference is, that the crown 
of the adult is usually appreciably darker slate than the back; the white scapular spots are 
smaller, fewer, or wanting; in high plumage the upper parts are clearer bluish, while the 
breast has a fine glaucous bloom overlying the rufous and white ground-color; the tail is 
more decidedly white-tipped. A small ¢ cooper grades in size nearly down to a large Q 
fuscus, but there ap- 
pears to be constantly 
a difference of a couple 
of inches of total length 
at least; and in any 
event, the other char- 
acters above given will 
suffice for their discrim- 
ination. In either spe- 
cies, the yellow of the 
cere and feet is often or _, 
usually obscured with 
greenish. In coopert, 
the tarsal scutella are 
sometimes less distinct 
than is normal, but are 
not known to fuse into 
aboot. A large 9 not 
distantly resembles a 
young male Goshawk; 
but the difference in 
feathering of the tarsus 
is distinctive. Tem- 
perate N. Am. at large, 
and southward; one of 
the common ‘‘ chicken” 
hawks, and a fellow 
of great audacity and 
prowess, preying on 
birds up to the size 
of grouse and domestic 
poultry. Nesting as 
described for A. fuscus. 


Fie. 371. — European Goshawk, young ¢, } nat. size, not distinguishable in the 


The eggs I have ex- cut from the American Goshawk; change of scale to } or } would make it repre- 


amined measure from sent the young g' Cooper’s or Sharp-shinned Hawk. (From Brehm.) 


1.80 x 1.45 to 2.10 x 1.60 (figures showing the variation both in size and shape), averaging 
about 1.90 X 1.50. They resemble those of the marsh hawk so closely as not to be certainly 
distinguishable, but are usually more globular, and with a more granulated shell. The 
greatest diameter is at or very near the middle; difference in shape of the two ends is rarely 
appreciable. All are more uniform in color than those of most hawks, resembling the pale, 
scarcely-marked examples occasionally laid by most kinds; none are conspicuously dark- 
marked. The ground is white, faintly tinted with livid or greenish-gray; if marked, it is with | 
faint, sometimes almost obsolete, blotches of drab, liable to be overlooked without close inspec- 
tion; only an occasional specimen is found with decided, though still dull and sparse, markings 


34 


177. 


496. 


580 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


of pale brown. Three or four eggs are the usual nest-complement; in the Northern and 
Middle States they are laid in May. 

AS/TUR. (Lat. astur, a hawk.) Gosmawxs. Characters in general as above given for 
Accipiter; size superior, and organization more robust; feet stronger, the tarsus feathered 
about 4 way down in front and on the sides, leaving only a narrow bare strip behind; the 
scutellation discontinuous at the bases of the toes, which are finely reticulate ; resumed beyond ; 
never fused. These ‘‘ goose-hawks” or ‘‘ star-hawks” are a small genus of five or six ‘‘ignoble ” 
species, held in high estimation by falconers for their prowess in the chase. Ours appears to 
be quite distinct from A. palwmbarius, though closely related. 

A. atricapil/lus. (Lat. atricapilius, black-haired. Fig. 371.) AmrricAN GOoSHAWK. BLUE 
Hen Hawk (adult). Cnicken Hawk (young). Adult ¢ 9: Above, dark bluish-slate color, 
each feather black-shafted; top of head blackish, conspicuously different from other upper 
parts, the feathers there with fleecy white bases; a long white superciliary or rather post- 
veular stripe ; auriculars blackish. Ground color of under parts, including lining of wings, 
white, closely barred or vermiculated in narrow zigzag lines with slaty-brown, except on throat 
and crissum, and everywhere sharply pencilled with blackish shaft-lines, one on each feather. 
The barring is largest and most regular on the belly, flanks, and tibie, but is for the most part 
much dissipated in a fine mottling. It varies greatly in coarseness in different specimens, some 
of which approach A. palum- 
barius in this respect. Tail 
like back, banded with four 
or five blackish bars, the ter- 
minal one much the broadest. 
Bill dark bluish; iris yellow- 
ish; feet yellow, claws black. 
Wing-quills in similar pat- 
tern, and both these and the 
tail showing tendency to some 
whitish mottling of inner webs 
of the feathers. Young: The 
difference is substantially as 
in species of Accipiter: above, 

dark brown, varied with rusty- 

brown and whitish; below, 

white, more or less tawny- 

tinged, with oblong, lance- 

4 linear, clubbed or drop-shaped 
Fig. 372. — Prairie Falcon, 3 nat. size, (From life, by H. W. Elliott.) dark brown markings. Tail 
more distinctly barred than in the adult, and with white tip. But in any equivocal plumage, 

the goshawk may be recognized by its size, which is that of an average Budeo, together with 
the short rounded wings, very long fan-shaped tail, and other generic characters. Length of 
& 20.00-22.00; extent about 42.00; wing 12.00-13.00; tail 9.00-10.00; tarsus 2.75 ; middie 
toe without claw 1.75; chord of culmen without cere 0.90; 9, length 22.00-24.00; extent 
45.00 or more; wing 13.00-14.00; tail 11.50-12.50. A large, powerful, and when in perfect 
plumage, a very handsome hawk, of splendid spirit, the terror of the poultry-yard. A larger, 

brighter, and altogether better bird than the European. It inhabits northern N. Am.; the 
northern half of the U. 8. chiefly in winter, but is also resident in some parts, and breeds 
in mountainous regions as far south at least as Colorado, where I have seen it in summer. 
Its ordinary quarry is grouse, ptarmigan, and hares. The nesting and the eggs, as described, 
are most like those of Acctpiter coopert ; the eggs, probably only distinguishable by their supe- 


497. 


FALCONIDA — FALCONIN:: FALCONS. 531 


rior size, measuring about 2.30 X 1.90, soiled whitish, “marked irregularly with large but quite 
faint blotches of drab and yellowish-brown.” 

A. a. stria/tulus? (Lat. striatulus, finely striped.) WrsTeRN GosHawk. Described as 
having the markings of the under parts so fine and dense as to present a ucarly uniform bluish- 
ashy nebulation, pencilled with fine black-shafted lines. Rocky Mts. to the Pacific. (Probably 
untenable.) 


45. Subfamily FALCONINAZ:: Falcons. 


Bill furnished with a sharp tooth and notch near the end of 
the cutting edge of the upper mandible (sometimes two such 
teeth), and end of under mandible truncated, with notch near 
the tip (figs. 372, 374). Nostrils circular, high in the cere, 
with a prominent central tubercle (fig. 372). Inter-nasal 
septum extensively ossified. Palate with a inedian keel ante- 
riorly. Superciliary shield prominent, in one large piece. 
Shoulder-joint strengthened by union of scapular process of 
the coracoid with the clavicle (fig. 362) as in Micrastur, Her- 
petotheres, and the Polyborine alone of Falconide. Wings 
strong, long, and pointed, with rigid and usually straight and 
tapering flight-feathers; the tip formed by the 2d and 3d 
quills, supported nearly to their ends by the lst and 4th, 
both of which are longer than the 5th; only one or two outer 
primaries emarginate on inner webs near the end. Tail short 
and stiff, with more or less tapering rectrices. Feet strong, 
rather short, the tarsus of less length than the tibia, feathered 
more or less extensively, elsewhere irregularly reticulate in 
small pattern varying with the genera or subgenera; never 
scutellate in single series before or behind. Middle toe very 


aan ae : long; talons very strong. The true falcons are thus emi- 
Fig. 373.—A “noble” Falcon, vently distinguished from other members of the family; a 
(From Michelet.) glance at the toothed beak suffices for their recognition. 


They are birds of medium and small size, some kinds being not larger than a sparrow, but 
extremely sturdy organization, vigorous physique, and temerarious disposition. They capture 
their quarry with sudden and violent onslaught, and exhibit the raptorial nature in its highest 
degree. The typical and principal genus is Falco, of which there are several subdivisions 
corresponding to minor modifications. Upwards of fifty species are recognized. Our rather 
numerous species represent the several grades of gyrfalcons, lanners, peregrines, merlins, and 
kestrels. These I shall consider under one genus, Falco, with indication of the subgenera. 


re 
eat iben, 7 


"Senge yt « 


Fig. 374. — Peregrine Falcon, greatly reduced. (From Fic. 375. — Kestrel Falcon, like our Sparrow-hawk 


Tenney, after Wilson.) (Tinnunculus), reduced. (From Dixon.) 


532 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES— ACCIPITRES. 


L178. FALICO. (Lat. falco, a falcon or faucon.) Characters as above, with minor modifications as 
follows : — 
Analysis of Subgenera and Species. 


Tarsus more or less feathered above, elsewhere irregularly reticulate in small pattern (no large plates 
like scutella); 2d primary longest; 1st longer than 4th, and decidedly emarginate on inner web. (Gyr- 
falcons, lanners, and peregrines.) 

Gyrfalcons: Tarsus feathered fully } down in front and on sides, leaving but a narrow strip 
bare behind; longer than middle toe without claw; 1st quill shorter than 3d. Sexes alike. 
Very large ; about 2 feet long. (HIEROFALCO.) 


Prevailing color dark ; head and neck darker than back . .... . . . . Sacer 498, 499 
Prevailing color dark; head and neck lighter than back . ..... . . . islandicus 500 
Prevailing color white . . . - . « candicans 601 


Lanners: Tarsus feathered 4 way down in : front: broadly pare penind: onset than middle toe 
without claw,; 1st quill ShOrteE than 3d. Medium; eae brown above ; sexes alike. (GEN- 

WATAD): Go -s » 2. . mexicanus 502 
Peregrines: Tarsus feathered put ; a little ae down in front, raany. hake behind ; not longer 
than middle toe without claw; 1st quill not shorter than 3d. Medium: slaty-biuish above; 

sexes alike. (FALCO.). . . - . peregrinus 503, 504 
Tarsus scarcely feathered above, with the plates in ‘front enlarged, like a “double row of alternating 
scutella (and often with a few true scutella at base); 2d or 3d primary longest; 1st not longer thax. 

4th; Ist and 2d emarginate on inner webs. (Merlins and Kestrels.) 

Merlins: Tarsus longer than middle toe without claw. Sexes ane young of both like adult 


female. Small; wing 7.50-8.50. (dEsALON.) é - . . columbarius 505, 506, 507 
Kestrels: Tarsus longer than middle toe without claw. "Sexes very unlike at allages. Smallest: 
wing 7.00-7.50. (TINNUNCULUS.) 
Under parts white or tawny ; back of male and female rufous, barred or plain sparverius 508, 505 
Under parts rufous; back of male plumbeous, of femalerufous . . . . . sparrerioides 510 
Hobbies: Tarsus little longer than middle toe without claw. Sexes alike; young little different. 
Medium; wing 10.00 0r more (RHYNCHOFALCO.) .. .. . . . . . . fuscicwrulescens 511 


498. F.salcer. (Lat. sacer, sacred.) AMERICAN CONTINENTAL GYRFALCON. One of the largest 
and most powerful of the Falconing. Feet very stout; tarsus rather longer than middle toe 
without claw, feathered fully half-way down in front and on sides, with narrow bare strip 
behind; elsewhere reticulate. Wing pointed by 2d quill, supported nearly to the end by the 
3d; Ist rather shorter than 3d, only the 1st decidedly emarginate on inner web. Tail rounded. 
Sexes alike. Young little different. Wing of § 13.50-14.50; tail 8.50-9.50; wing of 9 
15.00-16.00; tail 9.00-10.00. Adults: General plumage of the upper parts barred with dark 
brown and pale ash, the former predominating, especially on the head and neck ; tail closely 
barred with light and dark in about equal amounts. Lower parts white, immaculate on 
throat, elsewhere streaked and variously spotted with dusky. Young darker than the adults; 
at an early stage, some of the lighter markings tinged with ochraceous. This is the stock- 
form of Continental N. Am., probably inseparable from 2’. gyrfalco of Europe; the distinctions 
from F’. islandicus being moreover not very apparent. I suspect the truth to be, in respect to 
all the gyrfalcons, that there is but a single cireumpolar species; that with specimens enough 
an uninterrupted series could be established connecting the blackest ‘‘ obsoletus ” with the 
whitest “ candicans” ; and that the races even, which most ornithologists recognize, are not 
coincident with geographical areas. But I defer in this case to those authorities who have 
formed the contrary opinion, upon much further investigation of the subject than I have 
ever made. Gyrfalcons of the present kind, or of Nos. 499, 500, not infrequently visit the North- 
ern States in winter, sometimes even reaching the Middle States and Kansas. They reside 
in summer beyond the U. 8.,and abound in the Arctie regions, nesting in trees or cliffs, preying 
upon hares, grouse, ptarmigan, ducks, auks, etc. The eggs range from 2.25 to 2.50 in length, 
X 1.60 to 1.90 in breadth, and are usually heavily colored with reddish and brownish pig- 
ments in interminable variety. 

499. F.s. obsole’tus. (Lat. obsoletus, unwonted.) LABrApoR Gyrratcon. A dark phase of 
the last, almost entirely dusky, the usual markings nearly obliterated ; from the foggy coast of 


on 
co 
w 


FALCONIDZE — FALCONINZE: FALCONS. 


Labrador into U.8. in winter. (F. labradora, Aud., folio pl. 196.) I have seen it perfectly 
dark, —no markings whatever. 

500. F. islan’dicus. (Lat. form of Icelandic.) ICELAND GYRPALCON. — 
above described, and probably not fairly separable ; on an average lighter colored, more ex- 
tensively white below, the head and neck lighter than the rest of the upper pane 
This form oceurs in Iceland aud southern Greenland, straggling in winter into the N. E. 


U.S. 


Resewbling FF. sacer as 


Fig. 376. — Lanner Falcon, } nat. size; not distinguishable in the cut from the Prairie Falcon. (From Brehm.) 


501. F. can/dicans. (Lat. candicans, whitening.) GREENLAND GyrRFALCoN. The extreme 
form, averaging when adult as white as a snowy owl. Head, neck, and under parts pure white, 
with few dark touchesif any. Back, wings and tail with white and dusky in about equal 
amounts, or former rather prevailing, giving the ground color, on which the dark appears in 
bars, crescents, and cordate spots. Bill and feet light. This form is characteri 
straying south in winter; but I know of no case of its occurrence in the U. § 


ic of Greenland. 


502. 


503. 


5384 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES— ACCIPITRES. 


F. mexica/nus. (Lat mecicanus, Mexican. Fig. 376.) AMERICAN LANNER FALcon. PRAIRIE 
Fautcon. A medium-sized species, distinguished from any gyrfaleon by the smaller size, 
different feathering of the tarsus, ete. ; from the duck hawk by the general much lighter color, 
which is dull brownish above instead of dark slate, ete. Adult @ 9: Upper parts brownish- 
drab, each feather with a paler border of brown, grayish, or whitish ; the top of the head more 
uniform, the occiput and nape showing more whitish. Under parts white, everywhere ex- 
cepting on the throat marked with firm spots of dark brown, most linear on the breast, then 
more broadly oval on the belly, enlarging and tending to merge into bars on the flanks, very 
sparse or obsolete on the crissum, in the maxillary region forming a broad firm moustache ; 
these markings corresponding with the ground color of the upper parts. Primaries ashy- 
brown, with narrow but firm pale edging of outer webs and ends, the inner webs regularly 
marked with white in form of barred indents or cireumseribed spots, most numerous and regular 
on the outer few primaries ; the white tinged with fulvous, next to the shafts; the outer web 
of the first primary either plain, or with whitish indents as iu J’. lanarius ; outer webs of sec- 
ondaries more or less marked with fulvous; axillars plain dark brown; lining of wings other- 
wise white, spotted with dark brown. Tail pale brownish-gray, nearly uniform, but with 
white tip, and more or less distinct barring or indenting with whitish, especially on the lateral 
feathers, producing a pattern not unlike that of the primaries. Bill mostly dark bluish horn- 
color, but its base, and much of under mandible, yellow ; feet yellow. Young birds have more 
fulvous in the dark ground of the upper parts; are more heavily spotted below, and the 
white is there tinged with buff or ochrey, feet plumbeous. Size very variable: length of @ about 
18.00, extent 40.00 ; wing 12.00-13.00 ; tail 7.00-8.00; tarsus about 2.00 ; middle toe without 
claw about the same; chord of culmen, including cere, 1.00. 9 larger: wing 13.00-14.00 ; 
tail $8.00-9.00, ete. A noble species, representing the Old World lanner and jugger, and scarcely 
separable therefrom ; abundant in Western N. Am., especially on the plains; E. occasionally to 
Tllinois. I have traced it from Montana at lat. 49° to Arizona and §. California, and found 
it very numerous in Wyoming, where it is the characteristic species of its genus; it extends 
into Mexico. In the region first named it was nesting on cliffs. Eggs 2-3, from 2.05 to 2.25 
x 1.55 to 1.65, white or creamy-whitish, irregularly but usually thickly clouded, mottled, and 
blotched with reddish-brown ; often with a purplish shade; thus indistinguishable from those 
of related species. (I". polyagrus Cass.) 

F. peregri/nus. (Lat. peregrinus, wandering. Fig. 377.) Prrecrinr Fatcon. Duck Hawk. 
Great-rooTtep Hawk. <A medium-sized falcon, about as large as the foregoing, but known 
at a glance from any bird of N. Am. by the slaty-plumbeous or dark bluish-ash of the upper 
parts, the black “moustache,” and other marks, taken with its particular size and shape. 
Wings stiff, long, thin, pointed by the 2d quill, supported nearly to its tip by lst and 3d; 1st 
quill alone abruptly emarginate on inner web, this about 2 inches from its tip; none cut ou 
outer webs. Tomium of upper mandible strongly toothed, of under mandible deeply notched. 
Tarsus feathered but a little way down in front, otherwise entirely reticulate ; toes very long, 
giving great grasp to the talons. Adult ¢ 9 : Above, rich dark bluish-ash or slate-color, 
—very variable, sometimes quite slaty-blackish, again much lighter bluish-slate; the tint 
pretty uniform, whatever it may be, over all the upper parts, but all the feathers with some- 
what paler edges, aud the larger ones for the most part obscurely barred with lighter and 
darker hues. Under parts at large varying from nearly pure white to a peculiar muddy buff 
color of different degrees of intensity; the throat and breast usually free from markings (or 
only with a few sharp shaft pencillings), and this white or light color mounting on the auricu- 
lars, so that it partly isolates a blackish moustache from the blackish of the side of the head; 
the under parts, except as said, and including the under wing- and tail-coverts closely and 
regularly barred, or less closely and more irregularly spotted, with blackish; the bars best 
pronounced on the flanks, tibia, and crissum, other parts tending to spotting, which may extend 


FALCONIDZA— FALCONINZE: FALCONS. 5385 


forward to invade the breast (this is the rule in European birds, the exception, though not a 
rare one, in American birds). Tail and its upper coverts regularly and ¢losely barred with 
blackish and ashy-gray, the interspacing best marked on the inner webs, and all the feathers 
narrowly tipped with white or whitish. Primaries all showing uniform blackish on their ex- 
posed surfaces, but on the inner webs seen to be marked with numerous regular and close-set 
spots of white, whitish, or muddy buff, for the most part isolated within the webs, but on the 


Fic 877. — Peregrine Falcon, or Duck Hawk, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


inner primaries and secondaries, and toward the bases of all, becoming or tending to become bars 
reaching the edge of the feather. Bill blue-black; cere and much of base of bill yellow; 
feet yellow; claws blackish. Size very variable; length of a good-sized 2, 19.00; extent 
45.00; wing 14.50; tail 7.00. @ averaging smaller; wing 12.50; tail 6.00; a usual range, 
sex not considered, is, wing 11.50-14.00; tail 6.00-8.00; tarsus 1.75-2.10; middle toe 
without claw rather more. Young: Recognizably similar to the adults in general characters ; 
not barred below, but there more or less extensively and heavily streaked lengthwise ; upper 


504. 


505. 


536 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


parts brownish or blackish, in either case without the glaucous bloom and appearance of 
transverse markings which the adults show, the variegation being chiefly in light gray or rusty 
edgings of individual feathers. This falcon is the central figure in the whole genus, and in 
one or another of its geographical guises is cosmopolitan; it is universally but irregularly dis- 
tributed in N. Am., scarcely to be considered common anywhere ; breeds as far south as Vir- 
ginia at least, usually in mountainous regions; nests indifferently on trees or cliffs or the 
ground; eggs 2-5, oftener 3-4, 2.10 to 2.35 x 1.60 to 1.75, averaging about 2.25 & 1.65; 
white or whitish, spotted, blotched, wreathed, clouded, ete., with the reddish-browns, from 
chocolate or even purplish to the ochres. The peregrine is a bird of noted prowess, habitually 
striking a quarry as large as itself or larger, as grouse, ducks, herons, hares, ete. 

F, p. peal'ii? (To T. R. Peale.) Praun’s Perecrine. A dark form, described from the 
N. W. coast. Dubious. 

F. columba/rius, (Lat. columbarius, a pigeon-fancier.) PigEon Hawk (a name also ap- 
plied to Accipiter fuscus). Smaller than any of the foregoing ; about the size of an Accipi- 
ter fuscus, but much stouter and differently proportioned. Tarsus mostly with a double row 
of alternating scutella in front, feathered but a little way down; middle toe without claw 
nearly as long as tarsus. Tail about $ the wings, lightly rounded. Wings pointed by 2d and 
3d quills, 1st about equal to 4th; Ist and 2d emarginate on inner webs near the end; 
2d and 3d sinuate on outer webs. Sexes unlike; old ¢ bluish above, 9 and young dark 
there. Old g: Above, some shade of bluish, from pale bluish-gray or bluish-ash to dark 
bluish-slate, each feather pencilled with a fine black shaft line. Tail banded with the color 
of the upper parts and black, about three zones of each, the subterminal black band broadest, 
all subject to much variation ; tail tipped with white. Primaries blackish, with lighter edges 
or tips, and numerous oval transverse spots of white or whitish on the inner webs; outer webs 
often showing traces of ashy markings ; a similar pattern continued on the secondaries. Un- 
der parts white, or whitish, generally pure and immaculate on the throat, elsewhere tinged with 
tawny or ochraceous, almost everywhere longitudinally streaked with dark umber-brown ; 
the individual streaks very variable in size and distinctness, generally blackish-shafted, as a 
rule heavy and thick on the breast, more strict on the flags and vent, changing to spots or 
even bars on the flanks; these latter markings sometimes involved in a bluish clouding. 
Side of head with fine dark pencilling on a light or whitish ground, not gathered into a 
maxillary stripe, but coalescing on the ear-coverts; a pretty well defined light superciliary 
streak ; markings of side of head confluent on nape, forming a nuchal band which interrupts 
the continuity of color of the upper parts. Iris brown; feet yellow; claws and most of Dill 
bluish-black; cere and base of bill greenish-yellow. This plumage is comparatively seldom 
seen. Length about 11.00; extent about 23.50; wing 7.50-8.00; tail 5.00-5.50; tarsus 
1.35; middle toe without claw 1.25. Adult 2, and specimens of either sex, as usually 
observed: Pattern of coloration as before, but upper parts and tail quite different. Above, 
the bluish shade replaced by dark umber-brown, nearly uniform, or only interrupted by the 
nuchal band of streaks, but the feathers usually with appreciably paler edges, and black shaft- 
lines, the latter especially on the head. Tail like back, and tipped with white, and crossed by 
about four other narrow whitish or Hight ochraceous bands, formed of bars or transverse spots 
on both webs of the feathers ; the uppermost of these bands lying under the coverts; there are 
generally only three exposed ones, besides the terminal one; the intervening dark zones are 
all of about the same width, say an inch, but the subterminal one is usually rather wider than 
the others. Pattern of quill-feathers as in the @, but the spots rather tawny or fulvous than 
whitish. Under parts as before, but the ground color ranging from nearly white to quite rich 
buff or even fulvous, and showing a wide range of variation in the heaviness of the streaking. 
Length of 9 about 12.50; extent about 26.50; wing 8.00-8.50; tail 5.50-6.00. In quite 
young birds, the edgings of the feathers of the upper parts may be tawny or rufous. A spir- 


506. 


507. 


508. 


FALCONIDA —FALCONINZE: FALCONS. 58T 


ited little falcon, generally distributed in N. Am., common, representing the merlin of 
Europe, F. «salon. Nests chiefly northerly, on branches or in holes in trees, or on rocks ; 
eggs ranging in size and shape from 1.50 to 1.80 X 1.30, some being subspherical, others clon- 
gate-oval. The coloration ranges from a nearly uniform deep rich brown (chestnut or burut 
sienna), to whitish or white, only marked with a few indistinct dots of dull grayish or drab. 
Such extremes are connected by every degree; a yellowish-brown ground-color, irregularly 
splashed with rich ruddy brown, is the usual style. The markings may be very evenly dis- 
tributed, or mostly gathered in a wreath around one or the other end, or even both ends. The 
quarry is chiefly birds, even up to the size of a ptarmigan. 

F. c. suck/leyi? (To Dr. Geo. Suckley.) A dark form, described from the N. W. coast. 
Dubious. 

F. c. rich/ardsoni. (To Sir J. Richardson.) Ricuarpson’s Picron Hawk. AMERICAN 
Meru. ‘Adult ¢ ; Upper plumage, dull earth-brown, cach feather grayish-uinber cen- 
trally, and with a conspicuous black shaft-line. Head above, approaching ashy-white ante- 
riorly, the black shaft-streaks being very conspicuous. Secondaries, primary-coverts, and 
primaries, margined terminally with dull white; the primary-coverts with two transverse 
series of pale ochraceous spots; primaries, with spots of the same, corresponding with those 
of the inner webs. Upper tail coverts, tipped and spotted beneath the surface with white. 
Tail, clear drab, much lighter than the primaries, but growing darker terminally, having 
basally a slightly ashy cast, crossed with sx sharply defined perfectly continuous bands (the 
last terminal) of ashy-white. Head froutally, laterally, and beneath —a collar round the nape 
(interrupting the brown above) — and entire lower parts, white, somewhat ochraceous, this 
most perceptible on the tibiee; cheeks and ear-coverts with sparse, fine, hair-like streaks of 
black ; nuchal collar, jugulum, breast, abdomen, sides, and flanks, with a median linear stripe 
of clear ochre-brown on each feather; these stripes broadest on the flanks; each stripe with a 
conspicuous black shaft-streak ; tibize and lower tail-coverts with fiue shaft-streaks of brown, 
like the broader stripes of the other portions. Chin and throat, only, immaculate. Lining 
of the wings spotted with ochraceous-white and brown, in about equal amount, the former in 
spots approaching the shaft. Inner webs of primaries with transverse broad bars of pale och- 
raceous — eight on the longest. Wing 7.70; tail 5.00; culmen 0.50; tarsus 1.30; middle 
toe 1.25; outer 0.85; inner 0.70; posterior 0.50. Adult 9: Differing in coloration from 
the male only in the points of detail. Ground-color of the upper parts clear grayish-drab, the 
feathers with conspicuously black shafts; all the feathers with pairs of rather indistinct rounded 
ochraceous spots, these most conspicuous on the wings and scapulars. Secondaries crossed 
with three bands of deeper, more reddish-ochraceous. Bands of the tail, pure white. In 
other respects exactly like the male. Wing 9.00; tail 6.10; eulmen 0.55; tarsus 1.40; mid- 
dle toe 1.50; Young @: Differing from the adult only in degree. Upper surface with the 
rusty borders of the feathers more washed over the general surface; the rusty ochraceous 
forming the ground-color of the head, —paler anteriorly, where the black shaft-streaks are 
very conspicuous ; spots on the primary coverts and primaries deep reddish ochraceous ; tail- 
bands broader than in the adult and more reddish; the terminal one twice as broad as the rest 
(0.40 of an inch), and almost cream color. Beneath, pale ochraceous, this deepest on the 
breast and sides; markings as in the adult, but anal region and lower tail-coverts immacu- 
late; the shaft-streaks on the tibie, also, scarcely discernible. Wing 7.00; tail 4.60.” 
(Ridgway.) Interior N. Ain., especially from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mts. ; very uear the 
last, both being closely related to F. esalon, the fewer bars on the wings and tail apparently 
the principal character. A @ I took in Dakota measures: length 19.75; extent 26.75; wing 
8.50. 

F. sparve/rius. (Lat. sparverius, a sparrower. Fig. 378.) Rusty-crownep FALcon. Spar- 
row Hawk. Smallest of our Falconine ; sexes unlike in color, but of nearly the same size, 


509. 


510. 


538 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


contrary to the rule in this family. Tail rounded, at least 3 as long as the wing, usually 
more. Wings pointed by 2d and 3d quills; 1st about equal to 4th; Ist and 2d emarginate 
on inner webs near the end; 2d and 3d sinuate on outer webs. Tarsus feathered but a little 
yay down in front, decidedly longer than middle toe without claw, usually surpassing middle 
toe and claw. Young differing less than usual from adults of their respective sexes. Adults: 
Crown ashy-blue, with a chestnut patch, sometimes small or altogether wanting, sometimes 
occupying nearly all the crown. Conspicuous black maxil- 
lary and auricular patches which, with three others around 
the nape, make seven places in all, usually evident, but some 
of them often obscure or wanting. Back cinnamon-rufous, 
or chestuut, like the crown-patch, in the ¢ with a few black 
spots or none, in the @ with numerous black bars. Wing- 
coverts of the @ fine ashy-blue, like the crown, with or 
without black spots; of the Q cinuamon-rufous and black- 
barred, like the back. Quill feathers in ¢, 9 blackish, 
Fic. 378.— Sparrow Hawk, nat. usually with pale edges and tips, and the inner webs with 
size, (Ad'nat. del... C.) numerous white indentations, or bars continuous along the 
inner webs, leaving the black chiefly in a series of dentations proceeding from the shafts; 
ends of secondaries usually also slaty-blue like the coverts. Tail bright chestnut, in the & 
with white tip, broad black subterminal zone, and outer feathers mostly white with several 
black bars, in the Q the whole tail with numerous imperfect black bars. Under parts white, 
variously tinged with buff or tawny, in the ¢ with a few black spots or none, in the 9 with 
many dark brown streaks; throat and vent usually immaculate. Bill dark horn; cere and 
fect yellow or orange. Length, either sex, 10.00-11.00; extent 20.00-23.00; wing 6.50- 
8.00; tail 4.50-6.00; tarsus 1.35; middle toe without claw 1.00. The young do not require 
to be separately described, as the species is a strongly marked one, and as the young speedily 
acquire recognizable sexual characters. They may be distinguished when just from the nest. 
N. Am., everywhere very abundant. Despite its great variation in markings, aside from the 
normal sexual differences, this elegant little falcon will be immediately recognized by the sub- 
generic characters of Tinnunculus, its small size, and entirely peculiar coloration. Its char- 
acteristic habit is to hover or poise in the air over some object which seems to promise a meal, 
and then pounce down upon the prey. The birds are very active and noisy during the breeding 
season. They build no nest, but lay in the hollows of trees, often deserted woodpeckers’ holes, 
or similar nooks in rocks or about buildings. Eggs 5-7, nearly spheroidal, about 1.383 x 
1.12; ground-color usually buffy, or pale yellowish-brown ; blotched all over with dark brown, 
the splashes of which are usually largest and most numerous toward the greater end, at or 
around which they may run into a crown or wreath. Some eggs are pale brown, minutely 
dotted all over with dark brown; some are white, with pale brown spots; and a few are whit- 


ish without any markings. 

F, s. isabelli/nus? (Low Lat. isabellinus, color of a dirty chemise.) IsaBEL SPARROW 
Hawk. A Middle American form of the last, occurring in the Gulf States, shading directly 
into sparverius proper: g without rufous on crown; several lateral tail-feathers variegated, 
and the black zone an inch wide; black spots on back and sides very sparse; breast ochra- 
ceous. @ with the black bars of the upper parts very broad, upon a ferrugineous ground. 
F. sparverioi/des. (Lat. sparverius, and Gr. eidos, eidos, likeness.) CuBAN SPARROW Haws. 
Closely related to F’. sparverius, and generally similar, but apparently a distinct species. g: 
“ Above, except the tail, entirely dark plumbeous, with a blackish nuchal collar; primaries 
and edges and subterminal portion of tail-feathers, black. Beneath, deep rufous (like the 
back of sparverius) with a wash of plumbeous across the jugulum; throat grayish-white. 
Inner webs of primaries slaty, with transverse cloudings of darker. Q differing from that of 


511. 


179. 


535. 


FALCONIDA — POLYBORINZE: CARACARAS. 539 


the above species in dark rufous lower parts, and dusky, mottled inner webs of primaries.” 
(Ridgway.) Cuba; Florida. 

F. fuscicerules’cens. (Lat. fuscus, dark; c@rulescens, bluish.) FrmoraL Fa.con. 
APLOMADO Faucon. Quite different from any of the foregoing species, though belonging to 
the sparrow hawk group (Tinnunculus) ; it has been made a separate subgenus (hyncho- 
falco). Bill robust, with large cere; irregular scutellation of tarsus continuous on the toes ; 
tarsus a little longer than middle toe without claw; 2d and 3d quills longest; Ist about equal 
to 4th; Ist and 2d emarginate on inner webs; 2d and 3d sinuate on outer webs. Size 
medium (among the smaller falcons); form slender; sexes alike. Adult ¢ 9: Above, uniform 
plumbeous; tail with about 8 narrow white bars, and tipped with white, as are the secondaries ; 
primaries with numerous narrow white bars on inner webs, mostly being isolated transverse 
spots, reaching neither shaft nor inner edge of the feathers; the same pattern less definitely 
continued on to the secondaries. Side of head with a broad white or tawny postocular stripe, 
continuous with the narrowly white forehead, shading into orange-brown on the uape, where 
confluent with its fellow ; auriculars mostly white, set in the black of the side of the head, but 
continuous with the white of the throat, so that a black supra-auricular stripe meets a black 
mystacial stripe under the eye. Sides of body and a broad belly-band black, with or without 
numerous narrow white bars; the extent of this black very variable; it usually leaves the 
breast white or tawny, but in younger specimens the whole breast is streaked with black on a 
tawny ground. Throat usually white. Lining of wings blackish, spotted with white, the 
border mostly white or tawny. Flauks, flags, and crissum uniform tawny or orange-brown. 
Young sufficiently similar, but upper parts rather dark brown than plumbeous. Length 15.00 
or more; wing 10.00-11.00; tail 7.00-8.00; tarsus 1.75; middle toe without claw 1.50. A 
handsome hawk, well-known and wide-ranging in S. and C. Am., reaching just over our Mex- 
ican border. Nest in trees or bushes; eggs 1.80 x 1.65, white, finely dotted with light brown, 
overlaid with blotches of dark brown. 


46. Subfamily POLYBORINZ-: Caracaras. 


Anatomical characters of Falconine proper, in the seapular arrangement by which a pro- 
cess of the coraeoid reaches the clavicle, the central tubercle of the extensively ossified nasal 
bones, the anterior keel of the palate, and the superorbital shield in a single piece; external 
characters very unlike those of Falconing, and general aspect vulturine. Bill toothless. 
Sternum single-notched on each side behind. Three or more primaries sinuate-emarginate on 
inner webs; 3d or 4th longest; Ist shorter than 5th. A small but remarkable group, com- 
bining some of the ess 


ntial characters of falcous with others more vulture-like ; the species are 
chiefly terrestrial, rather sluggish, and feed much on carrion. The geuera are Polyborus, 
Phalcobenus, Senex, Milvago, Ihycter, and Daptrius, all confined to America. 

POLY'BORUS. (Gr. wodvBdpos, polyboros, very voracious. Fig. 379.) Caracaras. Bill 
long, high, much compressed, little hooked, the commissure nearly straight to the deflected 
end; cere ending anteriorly in a nearly straight vertical line; nostril high in the front upper 
corner of the cere, linear, oblique, its posterior end uppermost, its tubercle concealed. Chin 
and sides of head bristly, extensively denuded; a naked pectoral area; an occipital crest. 
Tibiee shortly flagged. Tarsus nearly twice as long as middle toe without claw, almost 
entirely naked, chiefly reticulate, but in front broadly seutellate in single or double row; 
lateral toes of about equal lengths; hind toe much the shortest; cl n 
Wings very long, with 3d and 4th quills longest, 2d and 5th next, 1st shorter than 6th or 7th ; 
outer 4 or 5 emarginate. Tail rounded, about Zas long as wine. Comprising two or three 
species of large vulture-like carrion hawks, of terrestrial habits, and are Duluth not salta- 
torial, gait, P. cherivay, P. auduboni, and P. lutosus, of the w: 


armer parts of America. 
P. au/duboni. (ToJ.J. Audubon.) Common Caracara. Ad. & 2: General color blackish, 


aws long and little curved. 


540 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


the throat, neck all aruund, and more or less of fore back and breast whitish, spotted and chiefly 
barred with blackish ; upper and under tail-coverts and most of the tail white, the latter very 
nuinerously barred with blackish, of which color is the broad terminal zone; the shafts white 
along the white portion of each feather. Basal portion of primaries likewise barred with 
whitish. Bill variously pale colored; cere carmine; iris brown; feet yellow; claws black; 
soft parts drying to a dingy indefinable color. Young similar, but rather brownish, the mark- 
ings of the body in lengthwise streaks, not cross-bars; tail, however, barred. Length (either 
sex) 21.00-23.00; extent about 48.00; wing 14.50-16.50; tail 8.00-10.00; tarsus about 3.60; 


Fic. 379. — The Caracara, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


middle toe without claw 2.00. I describe the N. Am. bird, which is much less extensively 
barred than that of 8. Am. (See Cassin, Pr. Phila. Acad., 1865, p. 2.) The difference in 
several specimens handled is striking, nearly the whole body, wings, and tail of the 8. Am. bird 
being multitudinously rayed across, while in Texas and Florida specimens the body ana wing- 
coverts are mostly uniform, the barring being restricted to the neck and fore half of the body, 
and to the primaries and tail-feathers. If I have compared age for age, the bird is certainly 
different. P. lutosus is barred throughout, and otherwise different again. 8. border of U. 8., 
Florida to L. Cala. and southward, common, in some places abundant, gregarious like a 
turkey-buzzard where offal is exposed. Nests bulky, in trees and bushes, of sticks and 


180. 


FALCONIDA —BUTEONINA:: BUZZARDS. 541 


leaves; eggs commonly 2, broadly oval or subspherical, heavy colored with blotches and 
clusters of rich reddish-brown and smaller blackish over-spots ; size 2.20 to 2.40 by about 
1.85. The long neck and legs of this bird, its terrestrial habits and walking powers, give 
it peculiar character, almost suggesting Gypogeranus. Like our vultures, it is a constant 
feature of the scene in some southerly localities. 


47. Subfamily BUTEONINA: Buzzards and Eagles. 


Bill variable in size and shape, but without the toothing and notching of that of Falconine 
(with rare exceptions), the cutting edge being variously lobed or festooned, or sinple. Nos- 
trils not circular, nor with a central tubercle; nasal septum incompletely ossified. Super- 
ciliary shield more or less prominent, usually consisting of two pieces. Scapular process of the 
coracoid not produced to meet the clavicle. Wings and tail variable, but not presenting the 
special characters noted under Falconine, nor the relative lengths of those of Accipitrine. 
Tarsus obviously shorter than the tibize, generally scutellate before and behind, sometimes 
feathered to the toes. The buzzards form a large group, not easy to define except by exclu- 
sion; though quite distinct from Falconine and Polyborine, they grade into each of the other 
subfamilies here presented. They are hawks of medium and rather large size, heavy-bodied, 
of strong but measured flight, inferior in spirit to the true hawks and falcons, and as a rule 
feed upon humble game, which they rather snatch stealthily than capture in open piracy. 
The extensive genus Buteo with its subdivisions, and its companion Archibuteo, typify the 
buzzards ; they include, however, a great variety of forms. With them must be associated 
she eagles; for the popular estimate of these famous great birds as something remarkably 
different from ordinary hawks is not confirmed by examination of their structure, which is the 
same as that of other buzzards. Although usually of large size and powerful physique, they 
are far below the smallest falcons in raptorial character, prey like the buzzards, and often 
stoop to carrion. The genus Aguila may stand as the type of an eagle; its several species 
are confined to the Old World, with one exception. Haliaétus represents a decided modifica- 
tion, in adaptation to maritime and piscivorous habits. A celebrated bird of this group is the 
harpy eagle, Thrasyaétus harpyia, with immense bill and feet, and one of the most powerful 
birds of the whole family. There are several other genera in either hemisphere. 


Analysis of Genera. 
Tarsi feathered in front to the toes. 


Buzzards not over 2 feet long . . 2... 1 1 ee ee ee ee we ww ee 6 ArChibuteo 181 
Eagles about 3 feet long .. . yaa OP ar IE et ee ike ae Bonneau as Gam SAQUULLGS 186 
Tarsi naked and scutellate or reticulate below. 

Crested, Eagles about 4 feetlong . . soe ee ew ew . Thrasyattus 185 
Not crested. No basal webbing of toes. Bagles aout 3 feet long Sa Se .% 3... Haliattus 187 

A basal web between outer and middle toes. Buzzards not over two feet fisnes 
No tibial flag; outstretched feet reaching beyond tail . . . . + +. . Onychotes 184 
Tibie flagged; under parts of adult finely barred crosswise; wings rounded . - . . Asturina 182 
—otherwise; wings more pointed . . . Urubitinga, 183, or Buteo 180 


BUTEO. (Lat. buteo, a buzzard-hawk.) Buzzarps. Size medium and large; form heavy, 
robust. Bill of moderate size and ordinary shape. Wings rather long and pointed, exceed- 
ing the tail to a variable extent; 3d to 5th quills longest, lst to 5th emarginate on inner webs, 
Ist not longer than 8th. Tail of moderate length, probably averaging $ of the wing, a little 
rounded. Feet more or less robust; tarsi scutellate in front at least, feathered in front for a 
varying distance; tibie flagged. This is the central or typical genus of its subfamily, as 
Falco is of Falconine, embracing numerous (about 30) species of nearly all parts of the world 
excepting Australia; about half of them American. The type is B. vulgaris of Europe, to 
which the N. Ain. B. swainsoni is so closely related. Four of our species (BB. borealis, swain- 
sont, lineatus, and pennsylvanicus) are abundant “hen hawks” or ‘chicken hawks” of the 
U.S., the first named running into several varieties; the others are little known (BB. harlani, 


512. 


513. 


542 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


coopert), or of very partial distribution in N. Am. In all cases, the sexes are alike or similar; 
the @ is larger than the g; the young are different from the adults; melanism is frequently 
exhibited. 
Analysis af Subgencra and Species. 
Five outer primaries emarginate or sinuate on inner webs ; tail more than 3 the wing ; bill high at base ; 
nostrils oval, with eccentric tubercle. (Parabutco.) 3 
Tail blackish (with white base and tip); lesser wing-coverts and tibiz reddish ; general plumage 
blackish. Southwestern U.S.,common . . ee ee we ew we ee. . unicinetus 512 
Four outer primaries emarginate or sinuate on inner abe: 
Tail white, with a broad black subterminal zone and numerous very narrow, zig-zag, or broken, 


blackish cross-lines. Texas... - . . albocaudatus 513 
Tail mostly white, ashy-clouded ; marked long tlaoise with rutvas and darker ; and with dark sub- 
terminal zone ; under parts mostly white. Cala.,one specimen known .. . +. .coopert 514 


Tail mottled with dusky and white, and with subterminal blackish zone; showing also reddish 
touches. Plumage almost entirely blackish, with fleecy-white bases of feathers. Kas. to Tex., 
little known . . . stern ee es ae charlant 515 
Tail of adult chestnut- fed, cit "broad black adntemmanal pan, and “others or not: no reddish on wing- 
coverts ; white prevailing on under parts, especially breast. Tail of young closely barred with 
grayish and blackish. Largest and most robust ; us usually 14.00 or more; tarsus stout. 
N.Aimm.,abundant. ... +» « « borealis 516-519 
Tail of adult black, crossed by about 6 white bare? ; primaries ‘spotted ‘with white ; lesser wing-coverts 
reddish, like under parts. Tail of young dusky, numerously barred with whitish; under parts 
whitish, streaked with dusky. Less robust; wing Spy under 14.00 ; tarsus slender. N. Am., 
abundant .. . . - . + . lineatus 520, 521 
Tail of adult black, with 3 broad whiten zones on inner ewebs only of the featliers, ashy on outer webs ; 
plumage black, spotted or not with white. Tail of young dusky, inner webs mostly white, 
black-barred. Southwestern U.S. . .. .- ee ee we ww ew ww ws . abbreviatus 522 
Three outer primaries emarginate or sinuate on inner w mene! 
Tail numerously and narrowly cross-barred with lighter and darker. Plumage extremely variable, 
but not extensively reddish underneath, nor cheeks with a dark mustache. a a wing usually 
over 13.00. Chiefly western U.S., abundant . . . . . swainsoni 523 
Tail of adult blackish with about 3 light gray bands exooweds ; minder parts “extonatvely rufous ; 
a dark moustache. Small; wing under 12.00. Eastern U.S.,common .. . . pennsylvanicus 524 
Tail (of adult ?) crossed with numerous light and dark bars (6-8 of each); general color fuliginous, 
scarcely or not varied. Southwestern U.S... . . 2... + + + « .  . brachyurus 8x2, 883 
* Heavy-weights; 5 outer primaries cut. 
B. unicin’ctus har’risi. (Lat. uni-, once; cinctus, girdled. To Edw. Harris.) Harris’s 
Buzzarp. Adult @ 9: General plumage blackish, more or less intense, sometimes rather 
dark chocolate-brown, blackening on wings and tail, but in any case pretty uniform over the 
whole body. Lesser and part of middle wing-coverts, lining of wings, and the tibize, brownish- 
red, or rich chestnut. Tail-coverts and base of tail broadly white, thus girdling the whole 
figure ; end of tail also white for an inch or more. Length of about 20.00; extent 41.00- 
46.00; wing 12.50-13.50; tail 8.50-9.50; tarsus 38.00-3.25 ; middle toe without claw 2.00. 
Q larger; about 23.00; extent 43.00-47.00; wing 13.50-14.50; tail 9.50-10.50. Young: 
Less decidedly blackish, the upper parts varied with rusty-brown, lower quite tawny with 
dusky spots or streaks, chestnut of wings not unbroken, and white of tail less distinctly defined. 
Tibie tawny-white, distinctly barred with chestnut. But in any plumage the species is un- 
mistakable, forming a separate subgenus from Buteo proper, by some rauked as a genus; 
the loral region is extensively denuded to the eye, and furnished with short radiating bristles. 
In sone respects it resembles Polyborus, being a sluggish, carrion-feeding bird, usually found 
associated with the caracara, turkey-buzzard, and black vulture. It is a cominon inhabitant of 
the warmer parts of America and over our Mexican border; abundant in some parts of Texas. 
Nest in a tree or bush; eggs commonly 2, measuring 2.00-2.10 X 1.70, white or whitish, 
unmarked or with faint brownish-yellow. (Paralutco Ridg. Erythrocnema Sharpe.) 
** Heavy-weights ; 4 outer primaries cut. 


B. albocauda’tus. (Lat. albus, white; caudatus, tailed.) WHITE-TAILED Buzzarp. Adult 
& @: Tail and its coverts white, with a broad black subterminal zone, with numerous 


514. 


515. 


FALCONIDA —BUTEONINA:: BUZZARDS. 548 


very fine zig-zag or broken blackish cross-lines. Upper parts (excepting the rump, which is 
white like the tail), definitely including the sides of the head and neck, ash-color or plumbeous, 
lighter or darker in different cases, the feathers fleecy-white at bases so extensively as to show 
with the least disturbance of the plumage, and on the scapulars tinged with reddish. Most of 
the lesser wing-coverts (but not quite to the bend of the wing), chestnut, somewhat as in 
B. unicinctus. Entire under parts pure white, lightly touched with fine dusky cross-bars on 
the sides, lining of wings, and usually the tibiz. On the surface of the wings the plumbeous 
of the upper parts deepens to the blackish of the primaries, whosc inner webs are lighter and 
more brownish, crossed with numerous darker bars, and toward the base are cut, barred, or 
speckled with white, which increases in regularity, firmness, and extent on the secondaries. 
Shafts of wing-feathers brown or black, those of tail white along the white portion of the tail- 
feathers. Bill mostly dark, in part light; feet yellow; claws black. Length of g 23.00; 
extent 48.00: wing 16.00; tail 7.00; chord of culmen, including cere, 1.40; tarsus about 3.25; 
feathered about 1.00 down in front. 9 larger; length 24.00; extent 54.00; wing 17.50; tail 
8.00, etc. (Described from Sennett’s and Merrill’s Texas specimens. Young unknown to 
me.) A fine large hawk of the warmer parts of America, lately ascertained to reach the 
Rio Grande of Texas; it is very unlike any other of this country. 

B. coo/peri? (To Dr. J. G. Cooper.) Cooprer’s Buzzarp = Archibuteo ferrugineus ? “ Head, 
neck, and whole lower parts white; feathers of the head and neck with medial longitudinal 
streaks of black, the white prevailing on the occiput and superciliary region, the black pre- 
dominating over the cheeks, forming a ‘‘mustache;” throat with fine lanceolate blackish 
streaks ; sides of the breast with broader, more cuneate markings of the same; flanks with 
narrow, lanceolate stripes, these extending sparsely across the abdomen; tibize and lower tail- 
coverts immaculate, the inner face of the former with faint specks. Upper plumage in general 
dark plumbeous-brown, inclining to black on the back; plumbeous clearest on primaries, 
which are uniformly of this color, the inner ones inclining to fine cinereous. Scapulars aud 
wing-coverts spattered with white beneath the surface. Rump black; upper tail-coverts 
white, tinged with rufous, and with irregular, distant, transverse bars of blackish. Tail with 
light rufous prevailing, but this broken up by longitudinal daubs and washes of cinereous, 
and darker mottlings running longitudinally on both webs; basally, the ground-color 
approaches white; tips white, with a distinct but very irregular subterminal bar of black, into 
which the longitudinal mottlings melt; outer webs of lateral feathers entirely cinereous, and 
without the black band. Under side of the wing white, with a large black space on the lining 
near the edge; under surfaces of primaries white anterior to their emargination, finely mottled 
with ashy and with indistinct transverse bands terminally. 4th quill longest; 3d shorter than 
5th; 2d equal to 6th; 1st equal tol0th. Wing 15.75; tail 9.10; tarsus 3.25; middle toe 1.70.” 
Santa Clara Co., Cala., one specimen known, probably the last as well as the first; for I 
suppose this to be Archibuteo ferrugineus (with or without a mésalliance of Buteo borealis), 
with abnormally denuded tarsi. I have carefully examined the type specimen, but copy Mr. 
Ridgway’s description in preference to constructing a new one. 

B. har/lani. (To Dr. R. Harlan.) Harzan’s Buzzarp. “Buack Warrior.” ‘Form 
strong and heavy, like B. borealis, but still more robust; tibial plumes unusually developed, 
long and loose, their ends reaching to or beyond the base of the toes; lateral toes nearly equal. 
Four outer primaries with inner webs cut. Wing 14.25-15.75 ; tail 8.80-10.00; culmen 1.00; 
tarsus 2.75-3.25 ; middle toe 1.50-1.70. Nearly uniform black, varying from a sooty to a 
carbonaceous tint, with more or less of concealed pure white. Adult: Tail confusedly mottled 
longitudinally with grayish, dusky, and white, often tinged or mixed with rufous, the different 
shades varying in relative amount in different individuals; a subterminal band of black. 
Young: Tail grayish-brown, crossed by about 9 very regular and sharply defined broad bands of 
black about equal in width to the gray ones.” (Ridgway.) La. and Tex. to Kas.; an obscure 


516. 


544 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


species, variously interpreted by writers. Different ‘‘ black hawks” have been called ‘ har- 
lant,” such as the melanistic phases of both borealis and swainsont, and harlani has been 
supposed to be not different from borealis. A few specimens in the Smithsonian Institution, 
identified with Audubon’s bird by Mr. Ridgway, agree sufficiently with the plate and description, 
and the alleged species may, for the present, stand upon its own demerits. 

B. borealis. (Lat. borealis, northern. Fig. 380.) Rep-TAlLED Buzzarp. ‘‘ Hen Hawk.” 
Adult $9 : Upper surface of tail rich chestnut, with white tip and usually a black subterminal 
zone, with or without other narrower and more or less imperfect black bars; sometimes 
barred throughout. From below, the tail appears pearly whitish with a reddish tinge, either 
quite uniform, or barred throughout with the whitish and blackish. In general, it is the 9 
with the most barred or completely barred tail, the @ with the uniform tail, only subter- 
minally once-zoned. Upper parts blackish-brown, with a thoroughly indeterminate amount 
of light variegation, gray, fulvous, and whitish; feathers of hind head and nape with cottony 
white bases, showing when disturbed; those of hind ueck usually with fulvous edging; of 


Fia. 880. — Red-tailed Buzzard, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


scapular region showing most variegation with tawny or whitish, or both, the scapulars and 
adjoining feathers being largely barred, and only blackish on their exposed portions; upper 
tail-coverts showing much tawny and white. Ground color of under parts white, more or less 
buff-toned, the dark color of the upper parts reaching nearly or quite around the throat, the 
flanks and lower belly heavily marked with dark brown or blackish, but a large pectoral area, 
with the tibize and erissum, mostly free from markings, as a rule; but no description will 
cover the latitude of coloration. Primaries blackening on their exposed portions, for the rest 
lighter grayish-brown, dark-barred across both webs, and extensively white-areated on inner 
webs basally. Length of g 19.00-22.00; extent about 48.00; wing 18.50-16.50; tail 8.50 
-10.00; tarsus 2.50-3.00, feathered half-way down in front. Q larger; length 21.00-24.00 ; 
extent about 56.00; wing 14.50-17.50; tail 9.50-10.00. g 9, young: General character of 
the upper parts the same as in the adult, but less variegated, and that chiefly with whitish and 
buff, instead of grayish and fulvous; upper tail-coverts more regularly barred with dark and 
white. Tail entirely different, without any shade of red; light gray, with numerous (6-10) 
regular dark bars, and narrow white tips; the gray gradually yields to the chestnut shade 


517. 


518. 


519. 


520. 


‘ALCONIDA) —BUTEONINZ: BUZZARDS. 545 


with reduction, interruption, or extinction of all these bars except the last one. Under parts 
somewhat as in the adult, but, like the upper, without the fulvous or rufous shades; usually 
white, unmarked in a large pectoral area, with circlet of throat stripes, and pronounced abdom- 
inal zone of dark or blackish markings; tibize spotted or not; crissum immaculate. There 
should be uo difficulty in recognizing this hawk among those of the Eastern U. 8S. in any 
plumage; the red tail of the adult is of course distinctive; a weakly young male might raise a 
doubt with reference to B. lineatus; in that case, notice the stout tarsi, feathered about half- 
way down ; the decided white pectoral area, free from spots, circumscribed by dark markings, 
especially those of the abdominal zone; and absence of any reddishuess on the upper parts or 
wing-coverts. Such is the ordinary “hen hawk” so abundant in Eastern North America, 
where it is subject to comparatively little variation. In the West, however, where it is equally 
numerous, it sports almost interminably in color, and not always conformably with geograph- 
ical distribution. Several of these phases have received special names, as given beyond. 
Tam willing to spread them upon my page, but too much of my life is behind me for me to 
spend much time in such trivial mutabilities. The tendency is to melanism and erythrism, the 
extreme case of which is B. calwrus of Cassin. A pure borealis, exactly matching the normal 
Eastern type, is seldom seen in the West. But in all its color-variation, the bird preserves its 
specific characters of size and robust proportions, being thus readily distinguishable from the 
smaller and weaker species, B. swainsoni, in any of the endless and somewhat parallel varia- 
tions of the latter. The nest is usually built high in a tree, a bulky mass of sticks and smaller 
twigs, mixed toward the centre with grass, moss, or other soft material, and often some feathers. 
Eggs generally 3, about 2.40X2.00, dull whitish, sometimes with only a few pale markings, 
oftener boldly and richly blotched with warin shades of brown. The young are slow to acquire 
their perfect plumage, being long full-grown before the red appears upon the tail, and this 
usually precedes the fulvous of the under parts. 

B.b.calu/rus. (Gr. cadés, kalos, beautiful; odpd, oura, tail.) WrsTern Rep-ram. BuacK 
Rep-Tait. The extreme case is chocolate-brown or even darker, quite unicolor, with rich red 
tail crossed by several black bars; from which erythro-melanism grading insensibly into 
ordinary borealis. The usual case is increase over borealis of dark rufous and dusky shades 
in bars and spots underneath, particularly on the flanks, flags, and crissum, and presence of other 
than the subterminal black bar on the tail. One case is chocolate-brown, with a great reddish 
blotch on the breast. Western N. Am. at large, particularly U.S. from R. Mts. to the 
Pacific. 

B. b. lucasa/nus. (Of Cape St. Lucas.) Sr. Lucas Rep-ram. A light-colored form, like 
kridert, white below, tinged with rufous on the tibize, and no black subterminal bar on the tail. 
Lower Cala. 

B. b. kri/deri. (To John Krider.) Kriprr’s Rep-ram. A light-colored form, pure white 
below, with few markings or none, and the subterminal tail-bar reduced or obliterated. High 
central plains, U. 8. This and the last hardly tenable. 


*** Light-weights; 4 outer primaries cut. 


B. linea’tus. (Lat: limeatus, striped.) Rep-sHouLpERED Buzzarv. WINTER Hawk. 
‘CHICKEN Hawk.” Adult g 9: Feet and cere chrome yellow, the anterior tarsal scales 
tinged with greenish. General plumage of a rich fulvous cast. Above, reddish-brown, the 
feathers with dark brown centres, giving the prevailing tone, and black shafts; head, neck, 
and entire under parts orange-brown, mostly with dark shaft-lines and white bars, especially 
on the lower parts posteriorly ; lesser wing-coverts rich orange-brown or chestnut, forming a 
conspicuous area on the bend of the wing. Quills and tail-feathers black, beautifully marked 
with white; the primaries and secondaries with white spots or bars on both webs terminating 
on each edge of the feather, the light bars ne cross the feather, and the darker iitercening 
3 


521. 


522. 


546 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES— ACCIPITRES. 


spaces, being more or less touched with reddish. The same style of marking on the wing- 
coverts; the tail crossed with several narrow white bars, and the tip white. Young very 
different; little or no fulvous or orange-brown; above, plain dark brown, the wing-patch 
indicated or not; head, neck, and under parts white or buffy-white, fully streaked or arrow- 
headed with dark brown. Tail brown, crossed with many lighter and darker bars, the 
former mostly tawny on the outer webs, whitish on the inner webs; wing-quills extensively 
variegated in similar pattern. Length of ¢ 18.00-20.00; extent about 40.00; wing 11.50- 
13.50; tail 7.50-8.50; tarsus 2.75-3.25 ; 9 20.00-22.00; extent about 45.00; wing 12.00- 
14.00; tail 8.50-9.50. There is much variation in size; Florida and Gulf specimens are very 
small. Nearly as long as B. borealis, but not nearly so heavy; tarsi more extensively denuded. 
The adult of this handsome hawk is unmistakable; but the student may require to look closely 
after the young. Eastern N. Am., one of the commonest hawks of the U. S., especially in 
winter; not far N.in Brit. Am. Habits and nidification similar to those of B. borealis ; 
eges 2-4, 2.00-2.25 X about 1.75, with the usual range of color-variation. 

B. 1. elegans. (Lat. elegans, choice.) WESTERN RED-SHOULDERED Buzzarp. The 
erythrism of the last. In extreme case, the whole under plumage rich dark reddish, almost 
obliterating the usual markings; wings and tail, however, still elegantly barred with pure 
white. R. Mts. to the Pacific, U.S. 

B. abbrevia/tus. (Lat. abbreviatus, shortened.) BAND-TAILED Buzzarp. Adult g @: 
Coal-black, glossy and uniform over the whole body. Tail black; viewed above, it seems to 
be crossed with 3 zones of ashy-gray or slate-color, increasing in width and firmness from the 
proximal to the distal one, and is narrowly tipped with white; from below, there appear 3 pure 
white zones, since the ashy is on the outer webs only of the feathers (both webs of the middle 
pair, however), and the white is on the inner webs. The plumage of the head is snowy-white 
at the roots, and in some specimens, probably less mature, it is so extensive on the head, 
neck, and breast as to appear in spots on the least disturbance of the feathers. The wing- 
feathers appear quite black in the folded wing, but their inner webs basally acquire the 
usual light and dark spacing, with more or less whitish nebulation, or white areation. The 
fect. appear to be yellow, the bill mostly dark. Young recognizably similar? Length of my 
Arizona specimen 19.50; extent 47.50; wing 15.50-16.50; tail 8.50-9.00; tarsus 2.50; middle 
toe without claw 1.60. A peculiar hawk, very unlike any other of the U.S., slightly built 
with long wings and tail; not yet well known nor worked out in all its plumages. Cent. Am. 
and Mex. into Southwestern U. §.; Ariz., Cala. (B. zonocercus, Scl., Tr. Z. 8., 1858, pl. 59; 
Ridgw., Hist. N. A. B., iii, 1874, p. 272. B. albonotatus, Gray.) 


**** Light-weights; 3 outer primaries cut. 


B. swain/soni. (To Wm. Swainson.) Common American Buzzarp. Swainson’s Buz- 
zARD. Adult g 9: Upper parts dark brown, very variable in shade according to season or 
wear of the feathers, varied with paler brown, or even reddish-brown edgings of the feathers, 
but without the clear fawn-color of the young; the feathers of the crown showing whitish 
when disturbed, and usually sharp, dark shaft-lines; the upper tail-coverts chestnut and white, 
with blackish bars. Quills and tail-feathers as below, but the inner webs of the former 
showing more decided dark cross-bars upon a lighter marbled-whitish ground, and the latter 
having broader and sharper, dark wavy bars. These large quills, and particularly those of the 
tail, vary much in shade according to wear, the new feathers being strongly slate-colored, the 
old ones plain dark brown. The tail, however, never shows any trace of the rich chestnut that 
obtains in the adult B. borealis. Iris brown, never yellow ; feet, cere, gape, and base of under 
mandible rich chrome-yellow; rest of bill and claws bluish-black. Adult g: Under parts 
showing a broad pectoral area of bright chestnut, usually with a glaucous cast, and sharp black 
shaft-lines; this area contrasting sharply with the pure white throat. Other under parts white, 


FALCONID Ai -— BUTEONINZ: BUZZARDS. 54T 


more or less tinged and varied, in different specimens, with light chestnut. In some males, this 
chestnut is diminished to traces, chiefly in flank-bars and arrow-heads, and the white throat is 
immaculate ; in others, the throat shows blackish peucilling, and the rest of the under parts are 
so much marked with chestnut, chiefly iu cross-bars, that this color predominates over the 
white, and appears in direct continuation of the pectoral area itself. Some feathers of this area 
are commonly dark brown. Length 19.00-20.00; extent about 49.00; wing 15.00 or a little 
more; tail 8.50; tarsus 2.50; middle toe without claw 1.50. Adult @ : Much darker under- 
neath than the male; throat pure white, but other uuder parts probably never whitening 
decidedly. Pectoral area from rich dark chestuut or inthogany-eolor, mixed with still darker 


Fie. 381. — Buteo vulyaris of Europe, } nat. size; not distinguishable in the cut from one of the plumages or 
B. swainsoni. (From Brehm.) 


feathers, to brownish-black ; and other under parts heavily marked with chestnut, chiefly in 
cross-bars alternating with whitish, but on the flanks, and sometimes across the belly, these 
markings quite blackish. The general tone of the under parts may be quite as dark as the 
pectoral area of the male, but it lacks uniformity, and the increased depth of color of the 
pectoral area in this sex suffices to preserve the strong contrast already mentioned. Length 
20.00-22.00 ; extent 50.00-54.00; wing 15.00-16.50; tail9.00. Changes of plumage with age 
affect chiefly the under parts; the back, wings, and tail are more nearly alike at all times. 
Young ¢ @: Entire upper parts dark brown, everywhere varied with tawny edgings of the 
individual feathers. The younger the bird, the more marked is the variegation ; it corresponds 
in tints closely with the color of the under parts, being palest in very young examples. Under 
parts, including lining of wings, nearly uniform fawn-color (pale dull yellowish-brown). 


524. 


548 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES— ACCIPITRES. 


thickly and sharply marked with blackish-brown. These large dark spots, for the most part 
circular or guttiform, crowd across the forebreast, scatter on the middle belly, enlarge to cross- 
bars on the flanks, become broad arrow-heads on the lower belly and tibie, and are wanting 
on the throat, which is only marked with a sharp, narrow, blackish pencilling along the median 
line. Quills brownish-black, the outer webs with an ashy shade, the inner webs toward the 
base grayish, paler, and marbled with white, and also showing obscure dark cross-bars; their 
shafts black on top, nearly white underneath. Tail-feathers like the quills, but more decidedly 
shaded with ashy or slate-gray, and tipped with whitish ; their numerous dark cross-bars show 
more plainly than those of the quills, but are not so evident as they are in the old birds. 
Nestlings are covered with white fluffy down. Western N. Am., Mississippi Valley to the 
Pacific, abundant; in many regions the commonest and most characteristic of the large hawks ; 
occasionally eastward through the N. States to Canada and New England. Nests indifferently 
ou the ground, cliffs, bushes, trees ; nest indistinguishable from that of other large hawks; eggs 
usually 2, —I have never found more, sometimes only one; they are about 2.25 x 1.75, resem- 
bling hen’s eggs, being nearly colorless and unmarked, like those of the marsh hawk; some- 
times stained with rusty-brownish, probably never marked all over nor boldly blotched anywhere. 
This buzzard represents the European B. vulgaris (fig. 381) in N. Am., being, in fact, little 
different. (It is Falco buteo Aud., folio pl. 372; B. vulgaris Sw., F. B. A., pl. 27; Aud., 8vo, 
pl. 6; B. montanus Nutt., 1840, not of authors; B. bairdi Hoy (young); ? B. oxypterus Cass. 
(young); B. imsignatus Cass., Tl. pl. 31 (:nelanistic); B. gutturalis Maxim.; B. obsoletus 
Sharpe, 1874 (not Falco obsoletus Gm.). It is probably also B. ‘ vulgaris” of Maynard, Bull. 
Nutt. Club, i, 1876, p. 2; and of Ridg., ibid. p. 32.) 

B. pennsylva/nicus. (Lat. pennsylvamcus, of Wm. Penn’s woods.) Broap-wINGED 
Buzzarp. Adult ¢? : Above, dark brown, the feathers with blackish shaft-lines, and pale 
grayish-brown or even lighter edgings, those of hind head and nape cottony-white basally ; 
usually also some feathers with fulvous edgings, especially on the hid neck; upper tail-coverts 
barred or spotted with white. Primaries and secondaries blackish on outer webs and at ends, 
most of the inner webs white in large area, more or less perfectly barred with dusky; concealed 
parts of scapulars thus barred on both webs. Exposed portion of tail with three blackish 
zones, the terminal one broadest, alternating narrower pale gray or grayish-white zones, one of 
these terminal ; from below these zones appear whitish, but from above grayish. Under parts 
mixed white and fulvous-brown, or dull chestnut, the latter nearly as pronounced as in B. linea- 
tus, the pattern being rather that of Accipiter fuscus or A. coopert; the fulvous in excess ante- 
riorly, the white prevailing posteriorly and nearly or quite immaculate on crissum; the middle 
regions with the white in oval paired spots or incomplete bars on each feather, the flanks and 
tibie pretty regularly barred with the two colors; most of the feathers black-shafted, producing 
a fine penciling, this black increasing to decided streaking on the white throat, and forming 
noticeable maxillary patches. Lining of wings nostly white, but with some reddish and black- 
ish spotting. Bill mostly dark ; feet yellow; claws black. Length of 14.00; extent 33.00; 
wing 10.50-11.00; tail 6.50-7.00; tarsus 2.30; middle toe without claw 1.20. @ larger; 
wing 1].00-11.50; tail 7.00-7.50. Young: Differs as usual in the genus, in lacking the 
special coloration and pattern of the under parts, tail-pattern different, wing-pattern much the 
same. Upper parts blackish-brown, highly variegated with fulvous, tawny, or whitish edgings 
of all the feathers, on the head and neck the light and dark colors in streaks about balancing 
each other. Under parts white, more or less buff-toned, with more or fewer linear or clubbed 
fuscous markings on the breast and sides, changing to arrow-heads on the flanks and sides, 
the amount of this marking wholly indeterminate. Tail crossed with numerous light and dark 
bars (six or eight of each exposed), on both webs of middle feathers and outer webs of the others ; 
these on their inner webs largely white, with consequently better pronounced dark bars; all 
the feathers tipped with white. Eastern N. Am. and throughoue Middle America, common; 


882, 


18]. 


525. 


FALCONIDA! — BUTEONINZA: BUZZARDS. 549 


asmall but stout Bateo, with ample wings and tail, very different from any of the foregoing, 
aud easily recognized by its size aud proportions, aside from color. A large 2 resembles a 
small @ B. lineatus in some respects, but the difference is too great to require detailed com- 
parison. Nesting nowise peculiar ; eggs 38-5, 2.00 & 1.60, heavily marked. 

883 B.brachywrus. (Gr. Bpaxds, bruchus, short; ovpd, oura, tail.). FuLiarsous Buzzarp. 
Resembling B. abbreviatus in beiug blackish or fuliginous all over, but eutirely another bird, 
belonging to a different section of the genus. Only three primaries are abruptly emarginate on 
the inncr web, though the next one is sinuate. Adult 9? Color fuliginous, or dark umber- 
brown, nearly uniform, but barred on the under wing- and tail-coverts with white, and the 
feathers of the hind head and nape fleecy-white at base ; the color blackening on the exposed 
surfaces of the primaries, the inner webs of which are extensively whiteued, with the usual 
dark bars; little white, however, on the secoudaries, excepting the imner ones, wost of them 
being simply spaced gray or light brown between their dark bars. Tail-pattern as usual in 
young hawks of this genus, there being numerous (6 or 8 exposed) blackish and lighter grayish 
bars alternating, the subterminal one of each broadest, the whole tail tipped with grayish- 
white; the inner webs of all the feathers excepting the central pair whitening in the spaces 
between the dark bars. Length 16.00; wing 13.00; tail 7.00; tarsus 2.00. (Described from 
No. 12,117, Mus. Smiths. Inst., from Mazatlan, Mex., agreeing with B. fuliginosus Scl., P. Z.8., 
1858, p. 856; Tr. Z. §., 1858, p. 267, pl. Ixii; a bird supposed to be the young of the sane 
is B. oxypterus, Cass., ‘Ey, Phila. Acad., 1855, p. 283; both are treated as a variety of B. 
swainsom by Ridgway, Hist. N. A. B., iii, 1874, p. 266; but are now supposed to be melanistic 
adult, and young, of a good species, probably B. brachyurus Vieill., which vormally has the 
face and nost under parts white.) Mexican border, Florida, and southward. 
ARCHIBU'TEO. (Lat. archi-, from Gr. dpxds, archos, a leader, chief; buteo, a buzzard.) 
iarE-PooTeD Buzzarps. Chars. of Buteo proper, but tarsi feathered in front to the toes, 
naked and reticulate along a strip behind. Wings very long; 3d and 4th quills longest; 1st 
shorter than 7th; 4 or 5 emarginate on inuer webs. A small group, well marked by the char- 
acter of the feet. The species are among the largest of the buzzard-hawks, but are rather dull 
heavy birds, preying upon humble quarry, especially small quadrupeds, reptiles, and insects. 


Analysis of Species 
Below, white, variously dark-marked, and «ften with a broad black abdominal zone, but generally no 
ferruginous ; in melanotic state, whole plumage nearly uniform blackish. . lagopus sancti-johannis 525 
Below, pure white, scarcely or not marked, excepting that the legs are rich rufous with black bars, 
in marked contrast; above, varied with dark brown, chestnut and white ; quills brown, with much 
white ; tail silvery-ash and white, clouded with brown or rufous... .. . . . . ferrugineus 626 
A. lago’pus sancti-johan/nis. (Gr. Aayémous, lagopous, hare-footed ; Lat. sancti-johannis, 
of St. John, Newfoundland. Fig. 382.) Aamrican Rovau-Lteaerp Buzzarp. “BLACK 
Haws.” Adult $ Q: Too variable in plumage to be concisely described. In general, the 
whole plumage with dark brown or blackish and light brown, gray, or whitish, the lighter 
colors edging or barring the individual feathers; tendency to excess of the whitish on the head, 
and to the formation of a dark abdominal zone or area which may or may not include the tibice; 
usually a blackish anteorbital and maxillary area. Lining of wings extensively blackish. Tail 
usually white from the base for some distance, then with dark and light barring. The inner 
webs of the flight-feathers extensively white from the base, usually with little if any of the 
dark barring so prevalent among buteonine hawks. From such a light and variegated plum- 
age as this, the bird varies to more or less nearly uniform blackish, in which case the tail is 
usually barred several times with white. Our lighter-colored binds are not fairly separable 
from the normal European A. lagopus; but our birds aver age darker, and their frequent mel- 
anism does not appear to befall the European stuck. But in any plumage the rengh-leg is 
known at a glance from any Buteo by the feathered shanks; while the peculiar coloration of 


550 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


A. ferrugineus is highly distinctive of the latter. Length of a 9, 22.00; extent 54.00; wing 
17.50; tail 9.00; iris light brown; bill mostly blackish-blue, cere pale greenish-yellow, feet 
dull yellow, claws blue-black. This is about an average size; the ¢ averages smnaller; wing 
about 16.00, etc. The name adopted, it must be observed, is not intended to discriminate the 
black from the ordinary plumage, but to separate the American bird subspecifically from the 
European. N. Am., at large, common, especially in fertile, well-watered regions, as those of 


FiG. 382. — Rough-legged Buzzard, { nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


the Atlantic seaboard ; a large, heavy, and somewhat sluggish hawk, haunting meadows and 
marshes, to some extent crepuscular in habits, of low, easy, and almost noiseless flight ; prey- 
ing upon insignificant quarry, particularly small rodent and insectivorous mammals, reptiles, 
batrachians and insects. Nest usually in large trees, but frequently on a ledge of rocks or the 
edge of a cut-bank ; a bulky mass of interlaced sticks, with softer matted material of miscel- 
laneous kinds; eggs 3-5, laid late in May and in June, measuring 2.10-2 25 in length, by 
1.75-1.80 in breadth; varying in color from dingy whitish with scarcely any marking, or but 


526. 


182. 


527. 


FALCONIDZ—BUTEONINZ: BUZZARDS. 551 


faint clouding, to creamy-white boldly variegated with blotches and washes of dark brown on 
the surface, with neutral-tint markings in the substance of the shell. 

A. ferrugi/neus. (Lat. ferrugo, iron-rust.) Frrrucinous Roucu-LteceEep Buzzarp. 
“ CALIFORNIA SQUIRREL Hawk.” Adult ¢ Q: Below, pure white from bill to end of tail, 
the legs rich rufous or bright chestnut barred with black, in marked contrast ; usually a few 
chestnut bars or arrow-heads on the belly and flanks, and the breast with sharp shaft lines of 
black. The older the bird the purer white below, with more perfect contrast of the chestnut 
legs; the Q retaining marks of immaturity longer than the  ; these consisting in extension 
of the black-barred chestnut markings on to the belly, flanks, and even more of the under parts, 
and spreading of the fine shaft lines on the breast into ordinary streaks. Tail silvery-white 
below, above white at base and extreme tip, in most of its extent clouded with silvery-ash and 
more or less tinged with ferruginous. Back, rump, and wing-coverts mixed blackish and 
bright chestnut in varying but about equal amounts, the former color making central markings 
on the exposed portion of each feather, the chestnut yielding to white at the bases of the 
feathers. Top, back, and sides of head streaked with blackish and white in about equal 
amounts, the feathers being cottony-white, with dark streaks or spaces on their exposed por- 
tions. Primaries blackish, with a glaucous bloom on their outer webs, their shafts almost 
entirely white, several outer ones with extensive pure white areation on their inner webs ; 
inner primaries and secondaries continuing this pattern, but with more or less evident ashy 
spacing between blackish bars, as usual in buteonine hawks. Length of ¢, 22.50; extent 54.- 
50; wing 16.75; tail 9.25; tarsus 2.75; length of 9, 23.50; extent 56.50; wing 17.25; tail 
9.75. Iris pale brownish to light yellow; cere and feet bright yellow; bill dark bluish horn- 
color; mouth purplish flesh-color. Third and 4th quills subequal and longest ; 2d between 5th 
and 6th; 1st about equal to 8th; lst-4th abruptly emarginate on inner webs; 2d-5th sinuate 
on outer webs. The foregoing is from a fine pair I procured in Arizona in 1864. A younger 
bird is described as less rufous above, and almost entirely white below, the flags scarcely varie- 
gated or contrasted. The first plumage does not seem to be described; I have seen it in 
Dakota, but have no specimen at hand, and cannot trust my memory. One of the largest, 
handsomest and most distinctively marked hawks of N. Am., somewhat recalling Buteo albo- 
caudatus; common in the west, from the region of the Red River of the North and of the Sas- 
katchewan to Texas and into Mexico, and from the Plains to the Pacific; sometimes even E. 
of the Mississippi, as in Iowa. Nesting and habits in no wise peculiar, as compared with 
those of other large hawks; nest in trees, on ledges and banks, composed of sticks, with mat- 
ted lining of various softer materials; eggs not characteristic, but large, averaging 2.50 X 1.95. 
ASTURI'NA. (Modified from Lat. astur, a hawk.) Star Buzzarps. General chars. of 
Buteo, in proportions, but system of coloration as in Astur: sexes alike; adults ashy, with 
black, white-barred tail, the under parts closely barred crosswise with ashy and white; young 
different, the under parts marked lengthwise with blackish on a whitish ground. Wings short 
for this subfamily ; 3d, 4th, and 5th quills longest, Ist very short; outer 4 emarginate on inner 
webs; 2d—-5th cut on outer webs. Tail even, long, about ? the wing. Legs longer than usual 
in Buteonine, more nearly as in Accipitrine ; feet stout; tarsus scutellate before and half-way 
up behind, shortly feathered above in front, elsewhere strongly reticulate. A small group of 
handsome under-sized hawks, peculiar to America. 

A. plaga/ta. (Lat. plagata, striped.) Gray Star Buzzarp. Adult # 9: Upper parts 
nearly uniform ciuereous, or light plumbeous, the feathers dark-shafted, and with nearly obso- 
lete undulations of lighter ash; upper tail-coverts in part white. Tail black, with several 
white zones, sometimes broken, and white or whitish tip. Under parts, including tibize, white, 
beautifully and closely cross-barred with dark ash, except upon the throat and crissum; some 
of the feathers also dark-shafted. Lining of wings white, less closely barred with ashy. 
Primaries darkening from the color of the back, their inner webs spaced lighter and darker, and 


183. 


528, 


184. 


552 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


with extensive white areation, which characters increase on the secondaries. Iris brown; cere 
and feet bright yellow; bill and claws blue-black. Wing of ¢ 10.00; tail 7.00; tarsus 2.75 ; 
middle toe without claw 1.50. Wing of 9 11.00; tail 8.00. Young: Blackish-brown above, 
much variegated with reddish-buff, the white upper tail-coverts spotted with blackish; below, 
whitish, dashed with large blackish marks, the flags barred ; tail dark brown, with numerous 
narrow blackish bars. Cent. Am. and Mex., regularly into southwestern U. 8., occasionally 
up the Mississippi Valley to Tlinois. Nest in trees or bushes, not peculiar; eggs 2, round- 
oval, colorless, 2.00 & 1.60. 

URUBITINGA. (5. Am. wrubu, a vulture; tinga, bright.) ANTHRACITE Buzzarps. Gen- 
eral chars. of Buteo, but system of coloration peculiar, the adults being chiefly black and white, 
the tail typically broadly zoned. The limits of the genus vary with different writers; it 
contains several species, confined to America, one of them reaching our border. In this the 
tail is about # as long as the wing, emarginate or nearly even; the wing with 3d-5th quills 
longest, 2d about equal to 6th, lst very short ; outer 4 sinuate on inner webs; the point of the 
folded wing reaching but little beyond the longest secondaries; the bill lengthened and rather 
weak ; the tomia of the upper mandible strongly festooned or almost lubated back of the hook ; 
gonys convex ; nostrils large, subcircular ; lores extensively denuded ; tarsus much longer than 
middle toe and claw, feathered but a little way down in front, scutellate before and behind, 
reticulated laterally like the basis of the toes, which in the rest of their length are broadly 
scutellate. 

U. anthraci/na. (Lat. anthracinus, carbuncular; in this case coal-black.) ANTHRACITE 
Buzzarp. Adult ¢ 9: Coal-black ; feathers of head and neck with concealed white bases ; 
tail white at extreme base and tip, and crossed about the middle with a broad white zone; ends 
of coverts white ; quills of wing more or less mottled with rusty-brown ; cere, rictus, and base 
of bill, and feet, yellow; bill and claws blackish. Length about 23.00; wing 13.00-15.00 ; 
tail 8.00-10.00 ; tarsus 3.25 ; 9 larger than ¢. Young: Extensively varied with rusty or buff, 
which is gradually obliterated as the bird matures; tail numerously barred with black and 
white. There are 6-9 such bars, mostly broken or otherwise irregular. The whole under 
parts are white, more or less tinged with buff, pencilled on the throat, heavily striped on the 
breast and sides, closely barred across on the tibie and crissum, with blackish. The feathers of 
the head, nape, and foreback are largely white or whitish, appearing in streaks among the over- 
lying blackish of the ends of the feathers. The exposed portions of the primaries are blackish, 
obsoletely crossed with lighter; these feathers lightening basally and internally, where narrow 
blackish bars alternate with wider spaces of white tinged with brown and fulvous. The 
secondaries and larger coverts are brown with narrow dark bars, their inner webs also indented 
with whitish and tawny. The younger the bird the more the whitish or buff prevails over the 
dark colors. The contrast between the cross-barred tibiee and the lengthwise-striped breast 
and sides is always notable. The tail varies from rounded through square to emarginate. 
A remarkable hawk of Cent. Am., W. I., and Mex., lately ascertained to oceur in Arizona. 
ONY'CHOTES. (Gr. dvvé, dvuyos, onux, onuchos, a claw, and a suffix -rys, -tes.) CLAWED 
Buzzarp. ‘Bill short, the tip remarkably short and obtuse, and only gradually bent; cere 
on top about equal to culmen; very broad basally in its transverse diameter, and ascending in 
its lateral outline, on a line with the eulmen; commissure only faintly lobed. Nostril nearly 
circular, with a conspicuous (but not central or bony) tubercle ; cere densely bristled below the 
nostril, almost to its anterior edge ; orbital region finely bristled. Tarsus very long and slen- 
der, nearly twice the length of the middle toe; toes moderate, the outer one decidedly shorter 
than the inner; claws very long, strong, and sharp, curved in about one-quarter the cireumfer- 
ence of acircle. Tibial feathers very short and close, the plumes scarcely reaching below the 
joint. Feathers of the forehead, gular region, sides and tibiee with white filamentous attach- 
ments to the ends of the shafts. Wing very short, much rounded, and very concave beneath ; 


529. 


185. 


531. 


186. 


29 


FALCONIDZE —BUTEONINA: EAGLES. 5538 


4th quill longest; 1st shorter than 9th; 4 primaries emarginated, and one sinuated, ou inner 
webs; 5 sinuated on outer webs. Tail about $ as long as wing, rounded. Outstretched feet 
teaching beyond end of tail.” (Ridgway.) One species. 

O. grwhberi. (To F. Gruber.) Gruser’s Buzzarp. “Immature? General plumage dull 
dark bistre, with a grayish-umber cast in some lights, darkest on the head above aud back ; 
the posterior lower parts paler and more reddish; throat and neck much tinged with pale 
Tusty ; primaries uniform black. Tail like the rump, but with a more hoary tinge, not paler 
at the tip, and crossed with 7 or 8 very narrow obscure bars of darker, the last of which is 
distant an inch or more from the end. Lining of wiugs dark bistre, much tinged with rusty, 
this prevalent toward the edge ; under surfaces of primaries white anterior to their emargina- 
tion, beyond which they are ashy, approaching black at the ends; ashy portion with distant, 
very obsolete, dusky bars, but the cheeks and throat streaked obsoletely with this color. No 
distinct white anywhere about head or neck. Wing 10.00; tail 5.80; tarsus 2.70; middle toe 
1.40.” (Ridgway.) California? A second specimen has been discovered since the description 
here copied was made. ‘ Closely allied to, if not identical with, Urubitinga.” (Sharpe.) 
THRASYAE’TUS. (Gr. Opacis, thrasus, bold; derds, aétos, an eagle.) Harpy EAGLes. A 
genus containing one species of euormous size, the most powerful raptorial bird of America, if 
not of the entire sub-order. Head with a broad flowing occipital crest. Bill of great length 
and depth, much compressed, so hooked that the curve of the culmen is about a quadrant of a 
circle, the commissure about straight, the tomia festooned but not toothed; cere extensive, with 
nearly vertical fore-edge, close to which are the narrowly oval nostrils about midway between 
tomia and culmen; lores extensively naked and bristly; superciliary shield prominent; feet 
and talons of immense strength ; tarsus feathered a little way down in front; the covering of the 
feet reticulate, excepting a few scales on top of the toes; lateral toes much shorter than middle 
one; inner claw much larger than middle oue; binder one much the largest of all. W ings 
rather short, but very ample, the secondaries entirely covering the primaries when folded ; 
wing as a whole much vaulted, the outer quills strougly bowed. Tail long, } the wing, fan- 
shaped, vaulted. 

T. harpyi/a. (Gr. dpmua, harpwia,aharpy.) Harpy Eacur. The largest and finest speci- 
men before me I judge to have been nearly or about 4 feet long; the wing is about 2 feet; the 
tail 18 inches; chord of culmen, including cere, 2.75 inches ; depth of bill 1.50; tarsus over 
4.00; chord of hind claw nearly 3.00. Head and entire under parts dull white, more or less 
obscured with ashy or dusky, particularly on the crest, across the throat, and on the tibia, 
which latter are in some cases regularly barred with blackish. Upper parts at large ashy-gray, 
intimately but irregularly barred with glossy black, especially on the wing-coverts. Flight- 
feathers mostly blackish, but with more or less ashy nebulation, to which whitish variegation is 
added on the inner webs. Tail pretty regularly barred with black and ash, in other cases 
irregularly nebulated with light and dark ash. The bill appears to have been blackish, the 
fect of some yellowish color. Young birds are much darker. C. and §. Am. and Mexico, a 
well known and most formidable bird of prey, reaching the Texas border. 

A'QUILA. (Lat. aquila, an eagle.) GoLpEN Eacurs. Birds of great size, robust form and 
powerful physique, but in technical characters near Buteo and especially Archibuteo. Tibia 
extensively flagged. Tarsus closely feathered all around to the toes; toes mostly reticulate on 
top, margined, outer and middle webbed at base. Bill large, long, very robust; tomia lobed ; 
nostrils oval, oblique; superciliary shield prominent. Wings long, pointed by the 3d-5th quills, 
2d subequal to 6th, 1st very short, 5 or 6 emarginate on inner webs; 2d to 6th or 7th sinuate 
on outer webs. Tail moderate, rounded or graduated. Feathers of occiput and nape lanceolate, 
acute, discrete, like a raven’s throat-plumes. Sexes alike; changes of plumage not great. 
This extensive genus includes the eagles properly so called, of which there are numerous Old 
World species, but only one American. 


532 


187. 


bod SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES— ACCIPITRES. 


A. chrysaé/tus. (Gr. ypuoderos, chrusaétos, golden eagle. Fig.383.) GoLpEN Eacie. Rina- 
TAILED EAGLE. Adult g 9: Dark brown, with a purplish gloss, lighter on the coverts of the 
wings and tail and on the flags or tarsi; the cowl of lanceolate feathers guolden-brown. Quills 
and tail-feathers blackish, but basally more or less variegated or areated with light brown, gray, 
or whitish; at maturity these markings becoming extensive and definite. Young birds are 
blacker than the adults, which ‘ grow gray” with age, and are ‘‘ring-tailed,” that is, the basal 
portion and finally 
most of the tail is 
white, offset by a 
broad black termi- 
nal zone. Length 
about 3 feet; extent 
6 feet or more: wing 
2 feet (3) or more 
(2); tail 14.00- 
15.00 inches (@) 
or more (?); bill, 
without cere, 1.50- 
1.75; tarsus 3.50- 
4.00. This great 
bird inhabits N. Am. 
at large, as well as 
Europe, Asia, ete.; 
in this country rather 
northerly, 8. ordina- 
rily to about 35°. 
The American is not 
fairly to be distin- 
guished from the 
European, but on 
the whole is a larger 
and ‘ better” bird, 
like several others 
of the present fam- 
ily, as well as of 


the goose and duck 
Fic. 383. — The Eyrie of the Golden Eagle. (Designed by H. W. Elliott.) tribes. This I sup- 


pose to be owing to the fact that there is more rooin for them, more food, less persecution, and 
altogether less competition in the struggle for existenee. It breeds chiefly in mountainous or 
boreal regions, the eyrie being usually upon a crag, the nest an enormous platform of sticks, 
etc. The eggs are subspherical and equal-ended; four selected specimens measure: 2.65 X 
2.15; 2.90x2.40; 3.00% 2.35; 3.102.255 in 12 cases, only one is white like a bald eagle’s; 
the rest are whitish, wholly indeterminately spotted, splashed and smirched with rich sienna, 
umber and bistre browns, with neutral-tint shell-markings ; 2, 3, or 4 are laid. 

HALIAP’/TUS. (Gr. ddcderos, haliattos, a sea-eagle ; ¢. e., the osprey.) SEA EAGLES. F1sH- 
inG EaGies. General chars. of Aquila, as above, but the tarsi only feathered about half-way 
down, and no webbing between outer and middle toes. This nakedness of the shank is an in- 
fallible character: among the several different kinds of eagles popularly attributed to North 
America, only two have been found on the continent ; the one with the feathered shank is No. 
532; the one with scaly shank is No. 534, whatever its size or color. The scutellation of the 


533. 


534. 


FALCONIDA — BUTEONINZE: EAGLES. 555 


tarsus varies in this species; there is normally a short row of scales in front, discontinued 
about the bases of the toes, where are grauular reticulatious, the scutellation being resumed 
further on the toes. Wings pointed by 3d-5th quills; 2d nearly equal to 6th: Ist longer 
than 9th; 5 to 6 emarginate ou inner webs. Tail rounded, graduated or cuneate, of 12 rec- 
trices (14 in the Asiatic H. pelagicus). Feathers of neck all around lance-acute, discrete. 
About 8 species of this geuus are recognized; one of them is appropriate to this continent ; 
another occurs in Greenland; a third (ZZ. pelagicus) may be expected in Alaska. 
Analysis af Species. 


Adult with head and tail white . . .. 2... 1) 1 ee ee ew ee we) beucocephalus 534 
Adullt-with: tail) only white. 4.4 @ a 8 wma YB Hae RY Ra a eee ww colbigilla. B83 


H. albicilla. (Lat. albicilla, white-tailed.) Wurrr-TaILeD SEA Eacir. Adult @ 9: 
Dark brown, blackening on primaries, the head and ueck gray, the tail white. Bill and feet 


Fic, 384.— Bald Eagle. (From Tenney, after Wilson.) 


yellow. Young with tail not white, and otherwise different. Rather larger than the next 
species. Europe, ete., only North American as occurring iu Greenland. 

H. leucoceph’alus. (Gr. Aevxds, leucos, white; kepadry, kephale, head. Fig. 384.) Wurrr- 
HEADED Sra Eacun. ‘ Batp Eacur.” “ Birp or Wasnincton” (the young). Adult: 
$ @: Dark brown; quills black ; head and tail white; bill, eyes, and feet yellow. Length 
about 3 feet; extent 6 or 7 feet; wing 2 feet (9) or less (4); tail afoot, more (@ ) or less ( a). 
Three years are required for the perfection of the white head and tail of the “bald” eagle. 
The first year, the young are “ black” eagles; very dark colored, with fleecy white bases 
of the feathers showing here and there; bill black; iris brown ; feet yellow. The next 
year, they are “gray” eagles, and usually larger than the old birds, the largest known 
specimens being of this kind. Young in the down are sooty-gray. N. Am. anywhere, 
common — for an eagle; piscivorous; a piratical parasite of the osprey: otherwise notorious 
as the emblem of the republic. Nest on trees or cliffs; eggs ordinarily 2, white, unmarked, 
about 3.00 2.50. 


‘88. 


§30. 


556 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES — ACCIPITRES. 


32. Family PANDIONID4: Fish Hawks; Ospreys. 


See page 498. Plu- 
mage peculiar, close 
and firm, imbricated, 
oily, lacking  after- 
shafts; head densely 
feathered up to the 
eyes; occipital feath- 
ers lengthened; legs 
closely feathered, with- 
out any sign of a flag; 
quills of the wings and 
tail acuminate, stiff and 
hard, and the primary 
coverts of similar char- 
acter. Feet immensc- 
ly large and strong, 
roughly granular-retic- 
ulate; tarsi little feath- 
ered above in front; 
toes all free to the 
base, the outer versa- 
tile. Claws very large, 
all of equal lengths, 
subeylindrie or taper- 

Fic.-385. — The Fish Hawk, or Osprey. (After J. Wolf.) Hag senee ses bere 
scooped out under- 
neath, but all compressed, and the middle one sharply grooved on the inner face. Bill tooth- 
less, contracted at the cere, elsewhere inflated, with very large hook; gonys convex, ascending ; 
nostrils oval, oblique, without tubercle, aud in the edge of the cere. The peculiarities of the 
plumage and of the feet are in evident adaptation to the semi-aquatie piscivorous habits of 
these ‘fishing hawks,” which require a water-proof covering, and great talons to grasp their 
slippery quarry. The structural characters are rather those of the butconine than the falconine 
birds of prey, in the coracoid arrangement, ete. The supraorbital shield is rudimentary, 
leaving the eye flush with the side of the head. The family consists of a single genus, and 
probably but one cosmopolitan species, the well-known Osprey, Pandion haliaétus. 
PANDI/ON. (Gr. Haviior, Lat. Pandion, nom. propr. Fig. 385.) Ospreys. To the 
foregoing add: Wings very long, pointed ; 2d and 3d primaries longest; 1st between 3d and 
5th; 3 outer ones abruptly emarginate on inner webs, and 2d to 4th sinuate on outer webs. 
Tail short, scarcely or not half as long as the wing. Sexes alike; ? larger. Young similar. 
P. haliaé/tus. (Sce Haliaétus.) Fiso Hawk. Osprey. Adult ¢ 9 : Above, dark van- 
dyke-brown, blackening on the quills, the feathers of the upper parts more or less completely 
edged with white —the older the bird, the nore conspicuous the white markings. Tail dark 
brown with dusky bars, white tip and shafts, and inner webs of all but the middle pair of 
feathers regularly barred with white and dark. Head, neck, and under parts white, the crown 
more or less extensively streaked with blackish, and a heavy blackish postocular stripe to the nape ; 
the breast more or less spotted with dusky brown; the white more or less tinged with tawny in 
some places, especially under the wings and on the head. Coloration very variable in the relative 


CATHARTIDES: AMERICAN VULTURES. 557 


amounts of the dark and white colors; young darker, the upper parts without the white 
crescents. Bill blackish, bluing at base and on cere; feet grayish-blue; claws black ; iris : 
yellow or red. Length 2 feet or rather less; extent about 44 feet; wiug 17.50-21.50; tail 
8.50-10.50; tarsus 2.25; middle toe without claw 1.75; chord of culmen without cere 1.30; 
chord of claws nearly the same. Nearly cosmopolitan; entire temperate N. Am., over inland 
waters and especially aloug the sea-coasts, migratory, abundant. Few birds are better known 
than this industrious fisherman, so often the purveyor perforce of the bald eagle. Breeds 
anywhere in its range; nest bulky, finally acquiring enormous dimensious by yearly repairs and 
additions, placed usually in a tree or stout bush, sometimes on rocks or the ground ; sometimes 
hundreds together. Eggs usually laid in May, 2 or 3 in number, very variable in size, say 
2.501.75, running through all the variations in color common to hawks’ eggs, from a white to 
creamy, tawny or reddish ground, from few brownish markings to heaviest blotching with 
sienna, umber, bistre and sepia; coloration usually richly reddish or mahogany. Some nests 
grow to be 6 or 8 feet in diameter, and as much in depth, and smaller birds, such as purple 
grackles, frequently build theirs in the interstices of the mass. 


8. Susorper CATHARTIDES: American VULTURES. 


As already stated (page 497), the characters of this group are of more than family value, 
for which I lately proposed the above name (New England Bird Life, vol. ii, p. 135). In no 
event have these birds anything to do with the Old World vultures, which scarcely form a sub- 
family apart from Faleconide. In a certain sense, they represent the gallinacecous type of 
structure ; our species of Cathartes, for instance, bears a curious superficial resemblance to a 
turkey. They lack the strength and spirit of typical Raptores, and rarely attack animals 
capable of offering resistance ; they are voracious and indiscriminate gormandizers of ¢arrion 
and animal refuse of all sorts — efficient and almost indispensable scavengers in the warm 
countries where they abound. They are uncleanly in their mode of feeding; the nature of 
their food renders them ill-scented, and when disturbed they eject the foetid contents of the crop. 
Although not truly gregarious, they assemble in multitudes where food is plenty, and some 
species breed in communities. When gorged, they appear heavy and indisposed to exertion, 
usually passing the period of digestion motionless, in a listless attitude, with the wings half- 
spread. But they spend much of the time on wing, circling high in the air ; their Hight is cusy 
and graceful in the extreme, and capable of being indefinitely protracted. On the ground, 
they habitually walk instead of progressing by leaps. Possessing no vocal apparatus, these 
vultures are almost mute, emitting only a weak hissing sound. 


33. Family CATHARTIDA: American Vultures. 


See page 497. Head, and part of the neck, more or less completely bare of feathers, 
sometimes caruncular; eyes flush with the side of the head, not overshadowed by a super- 
ciliary shield ; ears small and simple. Bill lengthened, contracted toward the base, moderately 
hooked and comparatively weak. Nostrils very large, completely perforated, through lack of 
abony septum. Wings very long, ample, and strong; tail moderate. Anterior toes long for 
this order, webbed at base; hind toe elevated, very short; claws comparatively lengthened, 
obtuse, little curved and weak. To these external characters, which distinguish our vultures, 
I may add, that there are numerous osteological peculiarities. A lower larynx is not de- 
veloped. The capacious gullet dilates into an immeuse crop. Ceca are wanting. The caro- 
tids are double. The feathers lack an aftershaft; the plumage is sombre and unvaried ; its 
changes are slight ; the sexes are alike, and the Q is not larger than the g. The famous 
Condor of the Andes, Sarcorhamphus gryphus ; the King Vulture, Gyparchus papa, which 
probably occurs in Arizona, and species of the three following genera, compose the family. 


189. 


536. 


190. 


558 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —RAPTORES — CATHARTIDES. 


Analysis of Genera. 


Head and neck entirely naked; tail square . . . 1... 1 ee ee ee ee Pseudogryphus 189 
Head and upper part of neck naked; tailrounded. . . 2... 1 ee 1 ee ee es Catthartes 190 
Head naked, but feathers running up to it behind; tailsquare . . . . . . . . . . . + Catharista 191 


Pseudogry'phus. (Gr. wevddos, pseudos, false; Lat. gryphus, a griffin.) CALIFORNIAN 
Conpor. Size immense, about equalling that of the Condor. Head and neck entirely bare, 
smooth, without caruncular appendages. No cervical ruff of suowy, downy feathers ; plumage 
beginning over the shoulders 
with loose lance-linear feathers, 
and that of the under parts 
generally of similar character. 
Frontal region depressed below 
the level of the inflated cere, 
but the general profile straight- 
ish from the hook of the bill 
to the lind head. Bill wide 
and deep, comparatively little 
hooked. Nasal passage much 
more contracted than the nasal 
fossa. Wings of great ampli- 
tude, folding to or beyond the 
end of the square tail, the ends 
of the primaries uncovered by 
the secondaries; 4th or 5th 
quills longest. Tarsus about 
as long as iiddle toe. One 
species. 

P. california/nus. (Of Cali- 
foruia. Fig. 3886.) CALIror- 
NIAN Conpor. Adult  9Q: 
Blackish, the feathers with 
browner tips or edges, quite 
gray or even whitish on the 
wing-coverts and inner quills; 
primaries and _ tail - feathers 
Ileck; axillars and lining of 
wiugs white; bill yellowish, 
reddening on cere, and skin of the head orange or reddish; iris said by some to be brown, by 
others carmine. Length 4-44 feet; extent about 94 feet; wing 24-3 feet; tail 14-14 feet; 
tarsus 4.50-5.00 inches; middle toe without claw 4.00-4.50; middle claw 1.90; hind claw 
1.50; chord of culmen without cere about 1.50, but whole bill about 4.00, whole head about 
7.00; cere on top nearly 3.00. Young with the bill and uaked parts dusky, and more or less 
downy; plumage without white. Nestlings covered with whitish down.  Pacifie coast region, 
U.S. aud southward, common. This great creature rivals the condor in size, and like it is 


Fic. 386, — Californian Condor. (From Tenney, after Audubon.) 


powerful enough to destroy young or otherwise helpless animals, though its usual food is carrion. 
The nidification, as described, is like that of the turkey buzzard; but the eggs are whitish, 
unmarked. They measure about 4.502.50. The general habits appear to be the same as 
those of the turkey buzzard; the flight is similar. 

CATHAR'TES. (Gr. xaOaprns, kathartes, a purifier.) Turkey Buzzarps. Of medium 
size; body slender. Whole head and upper part of neck naked, the plumage beginuing as a 


CATHARTIDZ!: AMERICAN VULTURES. 559 


circlet of ordinary feathers all around the neck; the naked skin corrugated and sparsely beset 
with bristles, especially a patch before the eye. Bill long, moderately stout and hooked, the 
nostrils large, elliptical, completely pervious, the cere contracted opposite them. Wings 
extremely long, not particularly broad, pointed, folding beyoud the tail, which is short and 
rounded. Point of the wing formed by 3d or 4th quill; 2d and 5th nearly as long; Ist much 
shorter ; outer 4 or 5 emarginate on inner webs. Tarsus about as long as middle toe without 
claw. Of Cathartes as restricted there are several species described, but only one is estab- 
lished as N. Am. They are noted for their extraordinary powers of sailing flight. 


537. C. aura. (Vox barb., name of the bird. Fig. 387.) Turkey Buzzarp. Adult g 2: 


Blackish-brown, grayer on the wing-coverts; quills black, ashy-gray on their under surface; . 
tail black, with pale brown shafts. Head red, from livid crimson to pale carmine, with whitish 
specks usually; bill dead white; feet flesh-colored; iris brown. Length 24-24 feet; extent 
about 6 feet; wing 2 feet or less; tail a foot or less; tarsus 2.25 inches; middle toe without 
claw rather more; outer tue 1.50; inner 1.25; hind 0.75; chord of culmen without cere 1.00. 
Weight 4-5 pounds. Young darker than the adults; bill and skin of head dark, the latter 
downy. Nestlings covered with whitish down. U. S. and adjoining provinces, Atlantic to 
Pacific, and south clear through C. and 8. Aim.; N. to about 53°; resideut N. to about 40°, 
beyond which migratory, being starved out in winter. Nests on the ground, or near it in 
hollow stumps or logs, generally in communities. Eggs commonly 2, sometimes 1, about 


191. 


538. 


560 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — RAPTORES — CATHARTIDES. 


2.75 X 1.90, white or creamy, variously spotted and blotched with different browns, and with 
lavender or purplish-drab shell-markings. This species has a curious habit of “ playing 
possum,” by simulating death when wounded and captured; the feint is admirably executed 
and often long protracted. 

CATHARISTA. (Gr. xadapitw, katharizo, I purify.) Carrion Crows. Of medium size; 
body stout. Head naked, and geuerally as in Cathartes, but feathers of the neck running up 
behind to a point on the occiput, the outline of the plumage thus very different. Cere con- 
tracted ; nostrils narrow, less openly pervious than in Cathartes. Wings shorter and relatively 
broader than in Cathartes, not folding to the end of the tail, which is short, only about half the 


wing, and even or emarginate; 4th aud 5th quills longest. The difference in size and shape 
e 


= 
ues 
fuenveR 

ae” 


Fic. 388. — Black Vulture, } nat. size, (From Brehm.) 


between Cathartes and Catharista is strikingly displayed when the birds are seen flying together , 
there is also a decided difference in the mode of flight, as Catharista never sails for any distance 
without interrupting that easy motion by flapping the wings. 

C. atra/ta. (Lat. atrata, blackened. Fig. 388.) Carrion Crow. Buack Vutturs. Adult 
3 9: Entire plumage, including skin of head, and bill, blackish; shafts of the primaries 
white; bases of the primaries paling to gray or whitish. Tip of bill and feet grayish-yellow ; 
iris brown; claws black. Smaller than C. awra, in linear dimensions, but a heavier bird ; 
length about 2 feet; extent only about 44 feet; wing 17.00 inches; tail 8.00; tarsus 3.00; 
middle toe rather less; chord of culmen without cere 1.00 or less. Nesting like that of C. aura; 
eggs similar, but larger, or at any rate longer; about 3.25 2.00. Chiefly 8. Atlantic and Gulf 
States, especially maritime, there very numerous, out-numbering the turkey buzzards, and 
semidomesticated in the towns, where their good offices are appreciated ; N. regularly to N. C., 


COLUMBZ;: COLUMBINE BIRDS. 561 


thence straggling to Mass. and even Maine; not authenticated as occurring on the Pacific side, 
but of general distribution in C. and S. Am. 


No one can fail to observe with interest the great difference in the form and general appearance of the 
Turkey Buzzard and Carrion Crow when he compares them sitting side by side sunning themselves upon chimney 
or house-top ; and especially the discrepancy in their mode of flight as they wheel together overhead in endless 
inosculating circles. The Turkey Buzzards look larger as they fly, though really they are lighter weights ; they 
are dingy-brown, with a gray space underneath the wing ; the tail is long ; the fore-border of the wing is bent at 
a salient angle, and there is a corresponding reéntrance in its hind outline ; the tips of the longest quills spread 
apart and bend upward; and one may watch these splendid flyers for hours without perceiving a movement of the 
pinions. Comparing now the Carrion Crows, they are seen to be more thick-set, with less sweep of wing and 
shorter and more rounded tail, beyond which the feet may project; the front edge of the wing is almost straight, 
and the back border sweeps around in a regular curve to meet it at an obtuse point, where the ends of the quills 
are neither spread apart nor bentupward. The birds show almost black instead of brown ; in place of a large gray 
area under the wing, there is a smaller paler gray spot at the point of the wing. And, finally, the Carrion Crows 
flap their wings five or six times in rapid succession, then sail a few moments; their flight appears heavy, and 
even laborious, beside the stately motion of their relatives. 

Oxps.—Cathartes burrovianus Cass., B. N. A., 1858, p. 6 ; Eliot, B. N. A. pl. 36, a doubtful species, is said to 
inhabit Lower California. — From various accounts, it seems probable that the king vulture (Gyparchus papa) 
really occurs on our southern border, but this remains to be determined. (See Bartram, Trav. in Fla., p. 150 ; 
Cass., B. N. A., p. 6; Coues, Proc. Phila. Acad., 1866, p.49; Allen, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., ii, 1871, p. 313 ; Coues, 
Bull. Nutt. Club, vi, 1881, p. 248.) 


V. Order COLUMBZ: Columbine Birds. 


An essential character of birds typical of this group is found in the structure of the bill, 
which is horny and convex at the tip, somewhat contracted in the continuity, furnished at the 
base with a tumid membrane in which the nostrils open. There are four toes; three anterior, 
generally cleft to the base, but occasionally with slight webbing; one behind, with few excep- 
tions perfectly insistent or not obviously elevated. The feet are never much lengthened; the 
tarsus is commonly shorter than the toes, either scutellate or extensively feathered, reticulate 
on the sides and behind, the envelope rather membranous than corneous. (One N. Am. genus, 
Starnenas, has entirely reticulate tarsus and elevated hallux.) On the whole, the feet are inses- 
sorial, not rasorial; the habit is arboreal, not terrestrial ; but there are many ground pigeons, 
some quite fowl-like ; and progression is always gradient, never saltatory. The wings and tail 
do not afford ordinal characters; but it may be remarked that the rectrices are usually (not 
always) 12 or 14 instead of the higher numbers usual in gallinaceous birds; and that the wings 
are usually long and flat, not short and vaulted. The plumage is destitute of aftershafts (qu. 
Didus? small aftershafts in Pterocletes?). The syrinx has one pair of intrinsic muscles, if any 
(none in Péerocletes). The oil-gland is nude, when present (small in Treron, ete.; wanting in 
Goura, Starnenas). The gall-bladder is generally absent (present exceptionally in some true 
Pigeons). The ceca are absent; or present, but small. There are two carotids. The gizzard 
is muscular. There are many good osteological characters. The palate is schizognathous. 
The nasal bones are schizorhinal. The sternum is doubly notched, or notched and fenestrate, 
on each side; the pectoral ridge of the humerus is salient and acute, and does not receive the 
insertion of the second pectoral muscle. The ambiens muscle is normally present, the birds 
being unquestionably homalogonatous; but is sometimes lost; the femoro-caudal, accessory 
femoro-caudal, semitendinosus, and accessory semitendinosus are present; the fourth gluteal 
muscle, which in other schizorhinal birds covers the femur-head, is undeveloped (Garrod). 

Some ornithologists, like Liljeborg, enlarge the Columbine order, under name of .Pullas- 
tre, to receive the American Curassows, (Cracid@ — see beyond) and the Old World Big-feet 
or Mound-birds (Megapodide) ; mainly on account, it would appear, of the low position of 
the hallux in these families. But the balance of characters favors their reference to the galli- 
naceous series, where they are relegated by Huxley. While there is no question that the 
Columbine birds are very closely related to the Galline, in fact inosculating therewith, it 

36 


L 


562 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — COLUMBZ — PERISTERZ. 


seems best to draw the line, if one must be drawn, so as to include the Pterocletes in Columbe, 
and leave the Cracide and Megapodide with Galline. The Sand-grouse (better Sand-pigeons), 
or Pterocletes, represent the inosculation of the two series. They are terrestrial Columbines, 
modified for a grouse-like life; the digestive system is fowl-like (cceca several inches long, etc.); 
but the pterylosis, the sternum and humerus, the cranial and many other characters, are pigeon- 
like. The ouly alternative to reference of Pterocletes to the Columbine series is their elevation 
to independent ordinal rank, as proposed by Huxley. 

The Columbe, as above indicated, are intended to be made conformable to Huxley’s Periste- 
romophe plus Pterocletes. Assuming the imperfectly-known extinct Dodo, Didus ineptus, to 
have been a modified Columbine, and considering the Pterocletes to represent a rasorial modi- 
fication of the Columbine series, the Order Columbe may be separated into THREE groups, or 
suborders, Dip1, PrEROcLETES, and PERISTERs, the first two certainly, the last probably, of 
a single family. The Perister@ alone are American. 


9. SusorpER PERISTERZ: True CoLuMBINE Birps. 


(Equivalent to the Peristeromorphe of Huxley; the Gemitores of Macgillivray, or 
Columbe proper of most authors; the Gyrantes of Bonaparte, plus Didunculus; Columbe of 
Garrod minus Pterocletes; Pullastre of Liljeborg minus Cracide and Megapodide.) Skull 
schizognathous, schizorhinal; basipterygoids prominent; angle of mandible not produced ; 
rostrum externally as above said. Sternum doubled-notched or notched and fenestrate, on 
each side; pectoral crest of humerus salient, acute. Carotids two. Syringeal muscles one 
pair. Coeca coli small or wanting; gizzard muscular ; crop developed ; gall-bladder generally 
absent. Fourth gluteal muscle undeveloped; second pectoral specially inserted; ambiens 
normally present, or wanting. Oil-gland nude, small, or wanting. Plumage without after- 
shafts. Feet insessorial; hallux normally insistent; tarsus normally scutellate. Rectrices 
normally 12 or 14. (Rasorial tendency in more rectrices, hallux up, and tarsus reticulate.) 
Altricial; psilopedic ; monogamous; eggs few. One family? 


384. Family COLUMBID4: Pigeons. 


The family is here taken to be co-extensive with the 
suborder as defined. With one exception (Starnenas 
cyanocephala), all our species will be immediately recog- 
nized by their likeness to the familiar inmates of the 
dove-cot. One seemingly trivial circumstance is so con- 
stant as to become a good clue to these birds: the frontal 
feathers do not form antize by extension on either side of 
the culmen, but sweep across the base of the bill with a 
strongly convex outline projected on the culmen, thence 
rapidly retreating to the commissural point. The plumule- 
less plumage is generally compact, with thickened, spongy 
rhachis, the insertion of which will seem loose to one who 
skins a bird of this family. The head is remarkably 
small; the neck moderate ; the body full, especially in the 
pectoral region. The wings are strong, generally length- 
ened and pointed, conferring a rapid, powerful, whistling 
flight ; the peculiar aérial evolutions that these birds are 

F1G, 389.— European Ring Dove (Co- Wont to perform have furnished a synonym for the family, 
lumba palumbus). (From Dixon.) Gyrantes. The tail varies in shape, from square to grad- 
uate, but is never forked; as a rule there are 12 rectrices, frequently increased to 14, rarely to 


COLUMBIDZ: PIGEONS. 503 


16, exceptionally to 20; all the North American have 12, excepting Zenaidura, with 14. The 
fect show considerable modification when the strictly arboricole are compared with the more 
terrestrial species; their general character has just been indicated. The gizzard is large and 
muscular, particularly in the species that feed on seeds and other hard fruits ; the gullet dilates 
to form a capacious circumscribed crop, divided into lateral halves, or tending to that state. 
This organ at times secretes a peculiar milky fluid, which, mixed with macerated food, is 
poured by regurgitation directly into the mouth of the young; thus the fabled ‘pigeon’s milk” 
has a strong spice of fact, and in this remarkable circumstance we sce probably the nearest 
, approach, among birds, to the characteristic function of mammalia. ‘ The voice of the turtle 
is heard in the land” as a plaintive cooing, so characteristic as to have afforded another name 
for the family, Gemitores. Pigeons are altricial, psilopeedic, and monogamous — doubly 
monogamous, as is said when both sexes incubate and care for the young; this is a strong 
trait, compared with the preecocial, ptilopeedic, and often polygamous nature of rasorial birds. 
They are amorous birds, whose passion generally results in a tender aud constant devotion, 
edifying to contemplate, but is often marked by high irascibility and pugnacity — traits at 
variance with the amiable meekness which doves are supposed to symbolize. Their blandness 
is supposed to be due to absence of the gall-bladder. The nest, as a rule, is a rude, frail, flat 
structure of twigs; the eggs are usually two in number, sometimes one, white; when two, 
supposed to contain the germs of opposite sexes. (For anatomy of a pigeon, see frontispicce.) 

“The entire number of Pigeons known to exist is about 800; of these the Malay Archi- 
pelago already counts 118, while only 28 are found in India, 23 iu Australia, less than 40 in 
Africa, and not more than 80 in the whole of America.” They focus in the small district of 
which New Guinea is the centre, where more than a fourth of the species oceur. Mr. Wallace 
accounts for this by the absence of fruit-eating forest mammals, such as moukeys and squirrels; 
and finds in the converse the reason why pigeons are so scarce in the Amazon valley, and there 
chiefly represented by species feeding much on the ground and breeding in the bushes lower 
than monkeys habitually descend. ‘In the Malay countries, also, there are no great families 
of fruit-eating Passeres, and their place seems to be taken by the true fruit-pigeons, which, 
unchecked by rivals or enemies, often form with the Psittaci the prominent and characteristic 
features of the Avifauna.” (Newton.) 

There are several prominent groups of Pigeons ; but authors are far from agreed upon the 
subdivisions of the family. It is not probable that Garrod’s three subfamilies of Columbide, 
based upon characters of the ambiens, cceca, gall-bladder, and oil-gland, will not stand without 
modification, and I cannot adopt his arrangement. Scelater divided the suborder Columba as 
above defined into two families, Columbide and Carpophagide, to which he afterward added 
Gouride, and probably Didunculide. Bonaparte made five families, Didunculide , Treronide, 
Columbide, Calenadide, and Gouride three of them upon single genera), with twelve sub- 
families. Some of the leading groups may be thus indicated : — 

1. The extraordinary Tooth-billed Pigeon of the Samoan Islands, Diduneulus strigiros- 
tris, alone represents a subfamily or family, with its stout, compressed, hooked and toothed beak, 
and many other peculiarities. The length of intestine is excessive, being seven feet instead of 
about two, as usual in Columbide. The ambiens is present; the oil-gland and gall-bladder 
are absent. There are 14 tail-feathers. 

2. The singular genus Goura, with two New-Guinean species, is outwardly distinguished 
by its immense umbrella-like crest, and possesses anatomical peculiarities which entitle it to 
stand alone as type of a subfamily or family. The tarsi are reticulate ; there are 16 Tectrices ; 
ececa, gall-bladder, oil-gland, and ambiens muscle are all wanting ; the intestines are four or 
five feet long. 

3. The single genus and species, Calenas nicobarica, has a very tumid bill, and acn- 
minate, lengthened, pendulous feathers of the neck; but there are only 12 rectrices, as in 


192. 


564 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — COLUMBA — PERISTERZE. 


ordinary Pigeons, and the anatomy is conformable to a usual type, except that the lining of the 
gizzard is ossitied. 

4. The large Old World genera Treron and Ptilopus, with which latter another large 
genus, Caurpophaga, is closely related, are a group of fruit-eating, arboricole species, with a 
short, stout beak, short, soft, broad-soled and extensively feathered feet, normally 14 rectrices, 
and soft lustreless pluinage, of which green is the characteristic color. Of such Treronine or 
Treronide, ‘54 species are confined to the Austro-Malayan, while 28 inhabit the Indo- 
Malayan, subregion: In India 14, and in Africa a species are found; 30 inhabit the Pacific 
Islands, and 8 occur in Australia or New Zealand, while New Guinea has 14 species ” 
(Wallace). 

5. There area large number of Pigeons of both the Old and New World, possessing neither 
the peculiarities already stated nor those of the Columbine proper, to be presently given. 
They are the Zenaidine and Phapine of Bonaparte, with more or less lengthened naked tarsi, 
and of more or less terrestrial habits. They are exemplified by such genera as Chamepelia 
and Melopelia with 12 reetrices, and Zenaidura with 14, of America; by Lopholemus with 12, 
Geopelia, Phloganas and Ocyphaps with 14, and Phaps with 16, of the Old World. Nearly 
all possess the ambiens and oil-gland, without ecca or gall-bladder. Having many points in 
common, these ground-doves might form a subfamily Zenaidine or Phapine, notwithstanding 
the peculiarities of certain genera. Such a group would correspond to the two Bonapartian 
subfamilies just named, and closely with the Phapine of Garrod. 

6. Froin the Zenaidine thus composed our genus Starnenas differs more notably than 
authors, excepting Garrod, seem to have appreciated. It is a pullet-like ground-pigeon, with 
long reticulate tarsus, short and somewhat elevated hind toe; with ececa and without oil-gland 
or ambiens muscle, the reverse of the rule in Zenaidine as above noted. It can hardly be 
referred to the totally different Treronine on the single circumstance of lacking the aibiens, 
and must stand alone, in such division of the family as is here sketched, as type of a new sub- 
family Starnenadine. 

7. With the remaining Colwmbide there is no difficulty, as they form a well character- 
ized restricted subfamily Columbine. The leading genera are the square-tailed Columba, of 
both Worlds; the round-tailed Turtwr of the Old; the wedge-tailed Macropygia of the Old, 
matched by the wedge-tailed Hctopistes of the New. The species are arboreal, with short feet, 
scutellate or partly-feathered tarsi, and 12 tail-feathers; cceca, oil-gland, and ambiens present ; 
gall-bladder absent. 

Of the seven groups thus indicated, three are North American. They may readily be 
distinguished as follows. 


Analysis of North American Subfamilies of Columbide. 


Tarsi scutellate, feathered . . 2. 2. 1 2 ee ee eo ee ew tt we ww tw wt ew) 6 Columbine 
Parsuscutellatecnalced.) 35.4. jesse vp ge Be oak ok ee ase Re a Re ed Ge ae ee 8 Zenaidine 
Tarsireticulate,naked . . . 1. 1. 1 1 ee ee ew ee ee ww ee we) Starnenadine 


48. Subfamiiy COLUMBIN£: Typical Pigeons. 


Feet small; tarsus short, not longer than the lateral toes, scutellate in front, feathered 
above. Wing pointed, of 10 primaries. Tail variable in shape, of 12 rectrices. Bill typically 
as described above. Arboreal. (See above for anatomical characters.) 

Analysis of Genera, 

Tail nearly even, much shorter than the wing, with broad obtuse feathers . . . . . . . Columba 192 

Tail long, cuneate, equal to wings, with narrow tapering feathers . . . . . . . . . . Ectopistes 193 
COLUM’BA. (Lat. columba, a pigeon.) Bill short and comparatively stout, about half as 
long as head. Wings pointed, 2d and 3d quills longest. No black spots on seapulars. Lateral 
toes of about equal lengths, with claws about as long as middle toe without ; hind toe and claw 


con | 
oH 


COLUMBIDA — COLUMBIN4:: TYPICAL PIGEONS. ' 


about as long as lateral without. Contains the domestic Pigeon, C. livia, the Stock Dove, 
GC. enas, Ring Dove, C. palumbus (fig. 389), and several other species of both Hemispheres. 
) g 7 Ut s D 
Analysis of Species. 
A white band on nape; metallic scales of nape without borders. Tail with light terminal and dark sub- 
terminal bars; bill and feet yellow, former black-tipped. Sasciata §39 


No white on head ; no metallic scales on nape ; tail not banded ; bill and feet not yellow . . erythrina 540 
Top of head white; tail not banded ; metallic feathers of nape black-bordered . . . . . leucocephala 541 


539. ©. fascia/ta. (Lat. fasciata, banded; alluding to the bars on the tail.) BAND-TAILED 
Pigron. WHITE-COLLARED Pianon. Adult $: Head, ueck, and under parts purplish 
wine-red, fading to white on belly and crissum, the nape with a distinct white half-collar, the 
cervix with a patch of metallic, sealy bronze-green feathers. Rump, upper tail-coverts, lining 
of wings and sides of body slaty-blue. Back and scapulars dark greenish-brown, with con- 
siderable lustre, changing on the wing-coverts to slaty-blue, these feathers with light edging. 
Quills blackish-brown, with pale edging along the sinuous portion of the outer webs. Tail 
bluish-ash, paler beyond the middle on top and much paler below, crossed at the middle by a 
black bar. Bill yellow, tipped with black; feet yellow, claws black ; a red ring round eye — 
these colors very conspicuous in life. A large stout species: length 16.00; extent about 27.00 ; 
wing 8.00-8.50, pointed; tail 5.50-6.00, square; bill 0.75, stout for a pigeon; tarsus 1.00, 
feathered half-way down in front; middle toe and claw 1.67. Adult 9: Back, wings, and 
tail, asin ¢; imetallic scales and white collar obscure or wanting. Head and under parts 
much less purplish, the rich hue replaced by a rusty-brown wash on an ashy ground; yellow 
of feet and bill obscured; smaller; wing 7.50; tail 4.75. Young g: Resembling the @. 
Rocky Mts. to the Pacilic, U. $., common and of general but irregular distribution, chiefly in 
woodland, and especially where acorns, upon which it largely subsists, can be procured; some- 
times in flocks of great extent. Nest in trees and bushes; eggs 2, equal-ended, white, 
glistening, 1.50 1.20. 

540. C. erythrima. (Gr. épuOpivos, eruthrinos, reddish.) Rep-BILLED Picanon. Adult 3g: 
Mead, neck, and breast dark purplish wine-red, with a slight glaucous overeast, like the bloom 
on a grape; no metallic scales on neck. Middle wing-coverts like the head. Middle of back, 
and some inner wing-quills, dark olive-brown with a bronze-green gloss. Greater wiug- 
coverts, lining of wings, sides of body, belly, crissum, and rump, slate-colored, sometimes quite 
sooty, sometimes more bluish ; tail like rump, but more blackish. Quills of wing dark slate 
with narrow pale edging. Bill pink for basal half, rest pale horn-color; feet purplish-red, 
with pale claws; eye-ring red; iris orange. Bill and feet drying an undetinable color. Bill 
remarkable for forward extension of feathers on culmen, to with half an inch of tip, covering 
the nasal scale. Length 13.50-14.50; extent 23.00-25.00; wing 7.50-8.00; tail about 5.00: 
tarsus 0.87 ; middle toe and claw 1.50. 9 and young similar, duller and more dilute in color, 
the wine-red and slate-color more ashy. Texas, Mexico, Lower California. A dark, richly- 
colored pigeon, common in the Valley of Lower Rio Grande and southward. Nest in trees and 
bushes, of twigs, grasses, and roots, well-formed for a pigeon’s; egg single, equal-ended, 
glistening white; averaging 1.541.09; laid in Apr., May. 

541. C. leucoce/phala. (Gr. Aevds, leucos, white; xepadn, kephale, head.) Wuirr-cROowNED 
Piczon. Adult ¢ 9: Dark slaty, paler below, the quills and tail feathers darkest. Whole 
top of head pure white; hind neck above rich maroon-brown, lower down and laterally metallic 
golden-green, each feather black-edged, giving the appearance of scales. Bill and feet dark 
earmine or lake red, the tip of the former bluish-white; bill drying dusky with yellowish tip, 
feet dingy yellowish. Iris yellow or white. Length 13.00-14.00; extent 23.00; wing 7.50; 
tail 5.75. @ only duller than @. West Indies and Florida Keys. Nest in trees and bushes, 
of twigs, roots, and grasses; eggs 2, white, 1.40 < 1.05. 

198, ECTOPIS'TES. (Gr. ékromorns, ektopistes, a wanderer: very appropriate.) Passenacer 


543. 


566 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — COLUMBZA — PERISTERZE. 


Picrons. Tail long, equal to the wings, cuneate, of 12 tapering acuminate feathers, parti- 
colored. Wing acutely pointed by first 3 primaries, with black spots on the coverts. Bill 
small, with culmen less than half the head, short gonys, feathered far forward between the rami. 
Tarsi short, feathered part way down in frout, where scutellate, but not in one regular row of 
scales. Lateral toes unequal. Sexes unlike. 

E. migrato’rius. (Lat. migratorius, migratory. Fig. 390.) Passpncrr Pianon. Wu.p 
Piceon. Adult g: Upper parts, including head all around, slaty-blue, bright and pure on head 
and rump, shaded with olivaceous-gray on the back and wings; the back and sides of the neck 
glittering with golden 
and violet iridescence, 
the wing-coverts with 
velvety-black spots. 
Below, from the throat, 
light purplish-chestnut, 
paler behind and fad- 
ing into white on the 
lower belly and cris- 
sum. Tibia, sides of 
body, and lining of 
wings like upper parts. 
Quills blackish, with 
rufous - white edging. 
Two middle tail-feath- 
ers blackish; others 
fading from pearly - 
bluish into white, their 
extreme bases with black and chestnut spots. Bill black; fect lake red, drying an undefinable 
color; iris orange; skin about eye red. Length about 17.00, but very variable, according to 
development of the tail; extent 23.00-25.00; wing 8.00-8.50; tail about the same, the lateral 
feathers graduated rather more than half its length ; bill 0.75 ; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw 
1.25. Adult 9: Upper parts, wings and tail, as in g: below, brownish-gray, fading poste- 
riorly. Young: Like the 2, but still duller; little or no clear slaty except on ramp; plumage 
varied with white crescentic edges of the feathers, especially on the back and wings; quills 
edged about with rufous; most of the lateral tail-feathers gray. ‘‘ Wanders continually in 
search of food throughout all parts of N. Am. ; wonderfully abundant at times in particular 
districts ;” chiefly, however, temperate N. Am., East of the R. Mts. We do not have the 
“ millions” that the earlier writers speak of in the Eastern U. 8. now: but I remember one 
great tlight over Washington when I was a boy: the greatest roosts and flights we now hear 
of are in the upper Mississippi Valley. Nest in trees and bushes, a slight frail platform of 
twigs, so open as to leave the egg visible from below. Eggs 1] or 2, equal-ended, 1.45 X 1.05. 


Fia. 390. — Passenger Pigeon. (From Tenney, after Wilson.) 


49. Subfamily ZENAIDINAE: Cround Doves. 


Feet larger than in Columbine. Tarsus lengthened to exceed the lateral toes, entirely 
naked and scutellate in front (scarcely feathered in Scardafella). Tail-feathers normally 12, 
rarely 14 or more (Zenaidura the ouly North American Pigeon with more than 12). Seven 
North American genera, each of a single specics in this country. 

Analysis of Genera. 
Tailof 14feathers’ . a4 4 e ao ue ee kw R a  w . » . . Zenaidura 195 


Tail of 12 feathers. 


Outer primary attenuate, bistoury-like fen ae es i ve, Sep ce tn es Cage pivlay ASe 


194. 


542. 


COLUMBIDAE — ZENAIDINZE: GROUND DOVES. 567 


Outer primary normal. 


Tail longer than wing, double-rounded. . . » e 6 © « Scardafella 199 
Tail about equal to wing. Tarsus not shorter than sniadle toe an claw «ee « « Geotrygon 200 
Tail shorter than wing. Tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw. 
No blue-black spot nor metallic lustre on head or neck « . «e+ ee se oe Chamepelia 198 
A blue-black spot and metallic lustre on head or neck 
Black spots and no white patch on wing... 6 6 6 + ee ee ee ee Zenaida 196 
White patch and no black spotson wing... 1 6 ee et et te es Melopelia 197 


ENGY/PTILA. (Gr. éyyis, eggus, narrow, straitened ; mritov, ptilon, feather ; alluding to the 
outer primary.) Piy-wina Doves. First primary abruptly emarginate, attenuate and linear 
near the end. Wings of moderate length; 3d and 4th primaries longest ; first shorter than 
7th. Tail much shorter than the wings, rounded, of 12 broad feathers. Tarsus entirely naked, 
equalling or rather exceeding the middle toe and claw. Lateral toes nearly equal, the ends of 
their claws reaching about opposite the base of the middle claw. Hind toe shortest of all, but 
perfectly incumbent. Bill small and slender, much shorter than the head. A considerable 


Fia. 391. — Details of Engyptila albifrons; head and foot nat. size; wing and tail reduced. 
(Ad nat. del. R- Ridgway.) 


naked space about the eye, thence extending in a narrow line to the bill. Size medium or 
rather small. Body full and stout. Coloration subdued, but hind-head and neck iridescent. 
No metallic spots on wings or head. Lining of wings chestnut. (Only N. Am. genus with 
attenuate outer primary.) 

E, al/bifrons, (Lat. albus, white; frons, forehead. Fig.391.) WHITE-FRONTED Dove. ¢@, 
adult: Upper parts brownish-olive, with silky lustre (much as in Coccygus americanus for 
example). Hind-head, nape, and back and sides of neck with coppery-purplish iridescence. 
Top of the head of a bluish or glaucous ‘‘ bloom,” fading to creamy-white on the forehead. Under 
parts dull white or whitish, more or less shaded with olive-brown on the sides, deepening on the 
fore-breast and jugulum to pale vinaceous; belly, crissum, and chin quite purely white. Wing- 
coverts and inner quills like the back, and without metallic spots; other larger remiges 
slaty-blackish, with very narrow pale edging toward the end. Under wing-coverts and axilla- 
ries bright chestnut. Two middle tail-feathers like the back; others slaty-black, tipped with 
white in decreasing amount from the outer ones inward, the largest white tips about half an 
inch in extent. Bill black. Feet carmine-red. Iris yellow. Bare skin around eye red and 


195. 


644. 


196. 


568 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — COLUMBZA — PERISTERZE. 


livid blue. Length 12.00-12.50; extent 19.00-19.50; wing 6.00-6.30; tail 4.25-4.50; bill 
0.60-0.70 ; tarsus 1.25-1.35; middle toe and claw rather less. @ similar. (In printing the 
Check List, the No. of this species accidentally transposed with No. 543, Hctopistes.) 
ZENAIDU/RA. (Zenaida, nom. propr., and ovpa, oura, tail.) Prn-ram Doves. Tail long, 
about equalling wings, cuneate, of 14 narrow, tapering, obtuse-ended feathers (unique among 
N. Am. Columbide). Wings pointed; 2d primary rather longest, lst and the 3d about equa! 
and scarcely shorter. Tarsus naked, scutellate in front, in length intermediate between middle 
and lateral toes; the latter of unequal lengths, the outer shortest. Bill much shorter than 
head, slender and weak, the feathers running out far between the rami. A bare circum-orbital 
space. Velvety black spots on head and wings. Lining of wings not rufous. Sexes unlike. 
There is a curious mimiery of Hctopistes in form and even in color; but the technical characters 
are widely different. 
Z, carolinen’sis, (Of Carolina. Fig. 392.) Caro“ina Dove. Mourninc Dove. Wixp Dove. 
Adult ¢: Upper parts, including middle tail-feathers, grayish-blue shaded with brownish-olive, 
the head and neck ochrey-brown overlaid with glaucous-blue, the sides of the neck glittering 
with golden and ruby iridescence; a violet- 
black spot under the ear-coverts. Under parts 
glaucous-purplish, changing gradually to ochra- 
ceous on the belly and crissuin, to bluish on 
the sides and under the wings, to whitish on 
the chin; the purplish tint spreading up on the 
sides and front of the head to blend with the 
glaucous-blue. Black spots on some of the 
scapulars and wing-coverts, most of which are 
colored to correspond with the back, the larger 
Frc. 392. — Carolina Dove, nat. size. (Ad nat. del, Ones being rather bluish-plumbeous. Lateral 
E.C.) tail-feathers plumbeous-bluish, crossed with a 
black bar, the outer four on each side broadly ended with white. Bill black; angle of mouth 
carmine ; iris brown; bare skin around eye livid bluish ; feet lake-red, drying dull yellowish. 
Length about 12.50: extent about 18.00; wing 5.75; tail the same, the feathers graduated for 
half its length; culmen 0.60; tarsus 0.80; middle toe and claw 1.00. 9, adult: A little 
smaller, not purplish below, the rich color replaced by grayish-brown, like the back but paler; 
head and neck with little of the glaucous blue shade, and less iridescent. Young: Like the 9; 
but at an early age the velvety-black spots and iridescence are wanting, and the general tone 
is quite gray; many feathers with whitish edging, as in the wild pigeon, with which not only 
the colors but the sexual and juvenile differences are thus closely correspondent. Temperate 
N. A., anywhere, the most widely and equably diffused of its tribe, abundant in most localities, 
in some swarming; ‘millions” in Arizona, for example. Irregularly migratory, imperfectly 
gregarious; great numbers may be together, but scarcely in compact flocks. Terrestrial rather 
than arboreal, almost always feeding on the ground; where very numerous, they become famil- 
iar, like blackbirds in the West. Nest indifferently on the ground or in bushes; eggs 2, white, 
equal-ended, averaging 1.12 X 0.82; 2 or even 3 broods in the South. During the mating 
season, where these birds are numerous, their cooing resounds on every hand, but at other 


times they are silent. 

ZENAI/DA. (A proper name, that of Zéenaide, cousin and wife of Prince C. L. Bonaparte.) 
Love Doves. Tail rounded, shorter than wings, of 12 feathers. Wings long, pointed by 
2d and 3d quills; Ist little shorter. Bill short, slender, black. Feet as in other Zenaidine ; 
tarsus intermediate in length between the middle and lateral toes; these of unequal length, 
inner a little the longer. Circumorbital space little bare. Metallic iridescence on neck ; blue- 
black ecar-spot, and others on wings. Sexes similar. (West Indian.) 


545. 


197. 


546. 


198. 


547. 


548, 


COLUMBIDA|— ZENAIDINA!: GROUND DOVES. 569 


Z.ama/bilis. (Lat. amabilis, lovely.) ZenaipA Dove. Olive-gray with a reddish tinge ; 
crown and under parts vinaceous-red; sides aud axillars bluish; a velvety-black auricular 
spot, and others on the wing-coverts and tertiaries; secondaries tipped with white ; neck with 
metallic lustre; middle tail-feathers like the back, others bluish with whiter tips, a black bind 
intervening; bill black with crimson corners of the mouth ; iris brown; feet red; claws black. 
Length about 10.00; wing 6.00; tail 4.00. West Indies and Florida Keys. 
MELOPELI'A. (Gr. pédos, melos, melody ; médeva, peleia, a dove.) Wuitr-wing Doves. 
Tail rounded, shorter than wing, of 12 broad, rounded feathers. Wings pointed; 1st, 2d, and 3d 
primaries nearly equal and longest. Bill slender and lengthened, equalling tarsus, black. A 
large bare circumorbital space. A blue-black spot below auriculars, but uone on wings ; ueck 
with metallic lustre. A great white space on wing. Feet as in other Zenaidine. Sexes alike. 
M. leuco’ptera. (Gr. Aeveds, leucos, white; mrepdv, pteron, wing.) WHuHITE-wina Dove. 
Wiug with a broad white bar oblique from the carpal joint to the euds of the longest coverts, 
continued by white edging at and near ends of outer webs of the secondaries ; very couspicuons, 
recognizable at gun-shot range. Lower back and rump, some of the middle coverts, lining of 
wings, and entire under parts from the breast, fine light bluish-ash. Primaries blackish with 
narrow white edging. Tail, excepting two imiddle feathers, slaty-blue, becoming gradually 
slaty-black, then broadly and squarely tipped with ashy-white. General color of back, lesser 
wing-coverts, inner quills, and middle tail-feathers, olive-brown with some lustre; the tail- 
feathers browner; the top of head and back of neck purplish-vinous with a slight glaucous 
shade; sides of neck iridescent with golden-green ; a violet or steel-blue spot below auriculars. 
Bill black, very slender. Length 11.25-12.25; extent 19.00-20.00; wing 6.00-6.50; tail 
4.00-4.50 ; bill 0.87; tarsus 0.87; middle toe and claw 1.25. @ scarcely distinguishable. 
In the youngest, the white wing-bar appears, though there is little or no purplish, or iri- 
desvence, or blue-black below ears. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and S. Cala. and southward, 
abuudant in suitable localities. In the breeding “season, Apr.—May, the sonorous cooing is 
incessant. Nest in bushes and low trees, slight and frail, of sticks and weeds ; eggs 2, white 
or creamy, averaging 1.18 0.88. 
CHAMZEPELIA, (Gr. xayai, chamai, on the ground; méAeta, peleia, adove.) Dwarr Doves. 
Very small. Wings short and broad, with elongated inner secondaries, nearly overreaching 
pri:uaries in the folded wing. Tail still shorter than wing, nearly even, of 12 broad feathers. 
3ill slender, about half as long as head, mostly yellow. Feet largely zenaidine; tarsus as 
long as middle toe without claw. No iridescence nor blue-black spot on head; such spots on 
wings. Sexes unlike, but Arcades ambo. 
C. passeri‘na. (Lat. passerina, sparrow-like ; from the pygmy stature.) Grounp Dove. 
(xrayish-olive, glossed with blue on the hind head and neck, most feathers of the fore-parts 
with darker edges, those of the breast with dusky centres. Forehead, sides of head and neck, 
lesser wing-coverts and under parts purplish-red of variable intensity, paler or grayish on the 
belly and crissumn ; under surface of wings orange-brown or chestuut, this color suffusing the 
quills to a great extent ; upper surface of wiugs sprinkled with lustrous steel-blue spots. Middle 
tail-feathers like the back, others plumbeous, blackening toward ends, with paler tips. Feet 
yellow; bill yellow with dark tip. Diminutive: length 6.50-7.00; extent 10.00-11.00; wing 
3.50, with inner secondaries nearly as long as the primaries; tail 2.75, rounded; bill 0.45: 
tarsus 0.67; middle toe and claw 0.75. Q and young differ as those of the wild pigeon and 
carolina dove do, the purplish tints being replaced by gray or “ashes of roses,” the very young 
bird having whitish skirting of the feathers. Southern U. §., Atlantic to Pacific, but chiefly 
coastwise; N. to the Carolinas, and accidentally to Washington, D. C.; common. Nest on 
the ground or in bushes indifferently ; eggs 2, white, 0.87 0.63. 
C. p. palles’cens? (Lat. pallescens, bleaching.) Scarcely different ; described as paler. Cape 
St. Lucas. 


199. 


549. 


200. 


570 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — COLUMB4 — PERISTERZE. 


SCARDAFEL'LA. (Italian, signalizing the scaly appearance of the feathers, due to their 
color.) SHELL Doves. Tail of peculiar shape, double-rounded, median and lateral feathers 
both shorter than intermediate ones; all narrow and tapering; 12 in number. Wings as in 
Chamepelia. Bill very slender, rather long, black. Feet not typically zenaidine ; tarsus very 
short, slightly feathered above. No blue-black spots on head or wings ; no iridescence on neck. 
Size very small. Sexes similar. Remarkable genus, of 2 tropical Am. species, one reaching 
our border. 

S.in’ca. (Inca or yneas, a Peruvian title.) INcA Dover. Scatep Dove. ¢ 9, adult: 
Above, grayish-brown with the usual olive shade, anteriorly also with a slight ‘‘ashes of roses” 
hue ; below, pale ashy-lilac, changing to ochraceous on the belly and crissum —uearly all the 
plumage marked with black crescentie edges of the feathers, producing the shelly or scaly 
appearance. Primaries and bastard quills intense chestnut, with blackish ends; lining of 


Fic. 393, — Blue-beaded Quail Dove, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


wings black and chestnut; outer secondaries blackish with chestnut central areas, gradually 
diminishing till the inner secondaries assimilate with the color of the back. Middle tail- 
feathers like back ; three lateral ones basally plumbeous, then black, then broadly tipped with 
white — the black running ont into the white as a shaft line. @ similar to; young similar, 
but with little or no ashy-rosy, and sprinkled with white on upper parts. Length about 8.00 ; 
wing 3.75 ; tail more ; bill 0.45 ; tarsus 0.50; middle toe and claw 0.87. A very pretty little 
dove, with mahogany wings upholstered in shell-figured ashes-of-roses velvet; a curious mini- 
ature of the common dove in form. Mexico to Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, along the 
borders. Nest in bushes; eggs 2, white, 0.900.70. 

GEOTRY'GON. (Gr. yéa, gea, the earth; tpuyey, trugon, a cooer.) Lustre Doves. Tail 
about as long as wings, a little rounded, of 12 broad rounded feathers, with curved shafts. 


550. 


201, 


551. 


COLUMBIDH — STARNG@NADINZ: QUAIL DOVES. 671 


Wings short, rounded; 3d and 4th quills longest, 2d and 4th little shorter, Ist much shorter. 
Feet strongly zenaidine; tarsus not shorter than middle toe and claw; still, scutellate in front, 
and hind toe more than half as long as the middle, perfectly insistent. Bill rather long and stout ; 
frontal feathers obtuse on culmen. Head and wings without blue-black spots ; whole upper 
parts highly lustrous. Medium size; form stocky, somewhat quail-like, but tail long. Ap- 
proaching the next, but at a distance. West Indian and Tropical American. 

G. marti/nica. (Of Martinique.) Key Wrst Dove. Above, vinaceous-red with highly 
iridescent lustre of various tints; below, pale purplish fading to creamy ; au infra-ocnlar stripe 
and the throat white. Length 11.00; wing and tail about 6.00. West Indies and Key West. 
Florida, where not observed of late. 


50. Subfamily STARNGNADINZ:: Quail Doves. 


See p. 564. Hallux not perfectly insistent; short, only about half as long as the middle 
toe and claw. Feet large and stout; tarsus longer than the middle toe, entirely bare of 
feathers even on the joint, completely covered with small hexagonal scales. With coca, but 
without oil-gland or ambiens muscle, the reverse of the Zenaidine, of which it is a remarkable 
outlying form, grading toward gallinaccous birds in structure and habits; like some partridges 
even to the special head-markings. Including one isolated American genus and species, not 
referable to any established Old World group. 

STARNG NAS. (Starna, name of a genus of partridges; Gr. otvas, anas, a dove.) QUAIL 
Doves. In addition to the foregoing: Bill short, stout; frontal f€athers projected in a point on 
culmen. Wings short, broad, vaulted and inuch rounded ; first primary reduced. Tail short, 
broad, nearly even. Size medium ; whole form and appearance quail-like. West Indian. 

S. cyanoce'phala. (Gr. xvavés, kuanos, blue; xepadn, hephale, head. Fig. 393.) Biue- 
HEADED QuaiL Dove. Crown rich blue bounded by black; a white stripe under the eye, 
mecting its fellow on the chin; throat black, bordered with white. General color olivaceous- 
chocolate above, purplish-red below, lighter centrally. Length 11.00; wing 5.50: tail 4.50. 
West Indies and Florida Keys. 


VI. Order GALLINZ:: Gallinaceous Birds; Fowls. 


Equivalent to the old order Rasores, exclusive of the Pigeons — this naine being derived 
from the characteristic habit of scratching the ground in search of food; connecting the lower 
terrestrial pigeons with the higher members of the great plover-snipe group. On the one hand, 
it shades into the Columbe so perfectly that Huxley has proposed to call the two together the 
“ Gallo-columbine series ;” on the other hand, some of its genera show a strong plover-ward 
tendency, and have even been placed in Limicole. I have already (p. 562) noted the inoseula- 
tion of Galline with Columbe by means of the grouse-like Pigeons, Péerocletes ; it remains to 
indicate the limits of the Galline in other directions, by referring to two remarkable groups, 
one represented by Opisthocomus alone, the other cousisting of the Hemipods or Turnices. 
Both of these have usually been referred to Gallina. 

1. The wonderful Hoatzin of Guiana, Opisthocomus cristatus, is one of the most isolated 
and puzzling forms in ornithology, sometimes placed near the Musophagide, but assigned by 
maturer judgment to the neighborhood of the fowls, which it resembles in many respects, as an in- 
dependent order OpIsTHOCOMI, sole relict of an ancestral type. The sternum and shoulder-girdle 
are anomalous ; the keel is cut away in front; the furcula anchylose with the coracoids (very 
rare) and with the manubrium of the sternum (unique) ; the digestive system is scarcely less 
singular ; and other characters are remarkable. 

2. The bush-quails of the Old World, Turnicide, differ widely from the Galline, re- 
sembling the Grouse-pigeons and Tinamous in some respects, and related to the Plovers in 


572 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — GALLINZE — PERISTEROPODES. 


others. A singular cireumstance is a lack of the extensive vertebral anchyloses usual in birds, 
all the vertebree remaining distinct. The palatal structure is curiously like that of Passeres 
(egithognathous). The crop is said to be wanting in some ; as is also the hind toe, and one of 
the carotids. There are some 20 current species of the principal genus, Turnix, to which Gray 
adds the African Ortyxelos meiffreni, and the Australian Pedionomus torquatus. Late studies 
of the group have resulted in the view that it should represeut a distinct order, Hemrpopu. 

Elimination of these non-conformable elements renders the Galline susceptible of much 
better definition, as follows: — 

Bill generally short, stout, convex, with obtuse vaulted tip, not constricted in the con- 
tinuity, wholly hard and corneous except in the nasal fossa. Tomia of upper mandible over- 
lapping the lower; culmen high on foreliead, the frontal feathers there forming a re-entranee, 
with more or less salience on either side. Nostrils scaled or feathered, in a short abrupt fossa. 
Legs usually feathered to the suffrago, often to the tues, sometimes to the claws. Hallux 
elevated, excepting in Cracide and Megapodide, normally shorter than the anterior toes. 
Tarsus generally broadly scutellate, when not feathered. Front toes commonly webbed at 
base. Claws blunt, little curved. Wings short, strong, vaulted. Rectrices commonly more 
than 12 (not more in Cracide, beyond). Head and brain small in proportion to the body, as 
in Pigeons. Plumage with after-shafts. Oil-gland tufted. Carotids two (except in Megapodide). 
No intrinsic syringeal muscles. Sternum generally deeply doubly-notched, and fureulum with 
a hypocleidium. Palate schizognathous. Nasal bones schizorhinal. Sessile basipterygoid 
processes present. Angle of mandible produced into a recurved process. Pectoral muscles, 
three ; the second extensive ; femoro-caudal variable ; accessory femoro-caudal, semi-tendinosus, 
accessory semi-tendinosus and ambiens present. Intestinal cceea extensive; gizzard muscular. 
Nature preecocial and ptilopeedic, typically polygamous. Chiefly terrestrial. 

The order thus defined is equivalent to the Alectoromorphe of Huxley (1867), minus 
Pierocletes and Hemipodii. The birds composing it fall into two series or suborders, according 
to the structure of the feet and more essential characters. 


10. SuporpER PERISTEROPODES: PiaEon-Torp Fow s. 


Framed to accommodate the Old World Megapodide, or Mound-birds, and the American 
Cracida, or Curassows. 

The Mound-birds, Megapodide, as the name implies, have large feet, with little-curved 
claws, and lengthened insistent hallux. They share this last feature with the Cracide 
(beyond) ; and the osseous structure of these two families, except as regards pneumaticity, is 
strikingly similar. Both show a modification of the sternum, the inner one of the two notches 
being less instead of more than half as deep as the sternum is long, as in typical Galline. 
The Megapods do not incubate, and the young pass through the downy stage in the egg, 
hatching with true feathers (p. 226). They are confined to Australia and the East Indies ; 
Megapodius is the principal genus, of a dozen or more species; there are three others, each of 
a species or two. 


85. Family CRACID2: Curassows. 


This type is peculiar to America, where it may be considered to represent the Megapodide, 
though differing so much in habit and general appearance. The affinities of the two are indi- 
cated above, and some essential characters noted. According to the latest authority on the 
family, Messrs. Sclater and Salvin, it is divisible into three subfamilies: Cracine, curassows 
and hoccos, with four genera and twelve species: Oreophasine, with a single genus and 
species, Orcophasis derbianus, and the 


g 


02. 


CRACIDAi — PENELOPINZ: GUANS. 5738 


51. Subfamily PENELOPINA: Cuans, 


with seven genera and thirty-nine species, one of which reaches our border. 

OR'TALIS. (Gr. épradis, ortalis, a pullet.) Guans. Head crested ; its sides, and strips on the 
chin, naked, but no wattles. Tarsi naked, seutellate before and behind, with small scales 
between the scutellar rows. Hind toe insistent, about $ the middle toe. Tail graduated, 
ample, fan-shaped, longer than the much rounded wings, of 12 broad, obtuse feathers. Wings 
short, concavo-convex, with abbreviated outer primaries, the secondaries reaching about to the 
ends of the longest primaries when the wing is folded. Bill slender for a gallinaceous bird, 
without decided frontal antiz. Coloration greenish. Sexes alike. In some points of size, 
shape, and general aspect, there is a curious superficial resemblauce between this genus and 
Geococcyz, though the two genera belong to different orders of birds. 

O. ve'tula maccal/li. (Lat. vetwla, a little old woman. To Geo. A. McCall.) TExaAn 
Guay. CuacHataca. Dark glossy olivaceous, paler and tinged with brownish- yellow below, 
plumbeous on the head; tail lustrous green, tipped with grayish-white except on the middle 
pair of feathers ; bill and feet plumbeous; iris brown. Length 22.00-24.00; extent 24.00- 
28.00; wing 7.50-9.00; tail 9.00-11.00; tarsus 2.00 or more; middle toe and claw about the 
same. @ similar. Downy young: Above, mixed brown, ashy and tawny, with a black central 
stripe from bill to tail; below white, ashy on the jugulum. Mexico to Texas in the Lower 
Rio Grande Valley, abounding in some localities. A notable bird, unlike anything else in this 
country. Easily domesticated, said to be used as a game fowl. Very noisy in the breeding 
season (April), reiterating the syllables cha-cha-lac in a loud hoarse tone. Nest in bushes, 
a slight structure; eggs generally 3, with a thick, granular, and very hard shell, like a 
Guinea-fowl’s, oblong-oval, buff-colored or creamy-white, large for the bird, 2.35 X1.60. 


ll. Susporprr ALECTOROPODES: Trur Fow.s. 


The birds of this suborder are more or less perfectly terrestrial; the legs are of mean 
length, and stout; the toes four, three in front, generally connected by basal webbing, but 
sometimes free, and one behind, always short and elevated. The tibiee are rarely naked below; 
the tarsi often feathered, as the toes also sometimes are; but ordinarily both these are naked, 
scutellate and reticulate, and often developing processes (spurs) of horny substance with a bony 
core, like the horns of cattle. The bill asa rule is short, stout, convex, and obtuse; never cered, 
nor extensively membranous; the base of the culmen parts prominent antie, which frequently 
fill the nasal fosse; when naked the nostrils show a superincumbent scale. The head is 
frequently naked, wholly or partly, and often develops remarkable fleshy processes. The 
wings are short, stout, and concavo-convex, conferring power of rapid, whirring, but unpro- 
tracted, flight. The tail varies extremely; it is very small in some genera, enormously devel- 
oped in others; the rectrices vary in number, but are commonly more than twelve. The 
sternum without certain exception shows a peculiar conformation; the posterior notches seen 
in inost birds are inordinately enlarged, so that the bone, viewed vertically, seems in most of 
its extent to be simply a narrow central projection, with two long backward processes on each 
side, the outer commonly hammer-shaped. There are other distinctive osteological characters, 
as noted above. The digestive system presents an ample special crop, a highly muscular 
gizzard, and large ceca. The inferior larynx is always devoid of intrinsic muscles; the 
structure of the trachea varies with genera, presenting some curious modifications. There 
are after-shafts, and a cirelet around the oil-gland. Alectoropodes are precocial and ptilopeedic. 
A part of them are polygamous —a circumstance shown in its perfection by the sultan of the 
dung-hill with his disciplined harem; and in all such, the sexes are conspicuously dissimilar. 
The rest are monogamous, and the sexes of these are as a rule nearly or quite alike. The 


574 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — GALLIN Ai — ALECTOROPODES. 


eggs are very numerous, usually laid on the ground, in a rude nest, or none. The suborder is 
cosmopolitan; but most of its groups have a special geographical distribution. Its great eco- 
nomic importance is perceived in all forms of domestic poultry, and principal game-birds of 
various countries; and it is unsurpassed in beauty—some of these birds offer the imost 
gorgeous coloring of the class. 

Genetically, the Fowls 
—_ -- are nearer than most 


birds to a generalized, 
old-fashioned type. They 
have relations in the cu- 
riously ostrich-like Tina- 
mous of South America 
(Tinamide or Crypturt), 
the Hoatzin (Opisthoco- 
mus), and other antique 
relicts. Notice a quarter- 
grown Turkey with this 
idea in mind, and you will 
hardly fail to see that 
it looks like an ostrich 
in miniature. Leading 
types of existing Alec- 
toropod Galline are the 
Quail, the Grouse, the 
Guinea-fowl, the Tur- 
key, and the domestic 
Cock. The two former 
are very close to each 
other, and hardly sepa- 


rable as families; the 
three latter are nearer 
one another, and often 
placed together in a fam- 
ily. The families Tet- 
raomde, Grouse, Quail, 
and Partridges; and Me- 
leagridide, Turkeys, are 
indigenous to N. Am., 
aud fully treated beyond. 
A word on the others will 


not be misplaced here. 
The Guinea-fowl, Nu- 


Wie (ie nh 


ii Mh Pe as a : 
he ee H chara pee 
Wi A a il ) midide, of which a spe 


i 


cies, Numida meleagris, 
Fic. 394, — English Pheasant, Phasianus colchicus. (From Dixon.) is commonly seen in do- 
mesticatiou, are an African and Madagascan type. While the foregoing families are strongly 
specialized, this one, like the turkey family, more closely approaches the true fowl, and 
both may be ouly subfamilies of Phastanide. The bones of the pinion have a certain 
peculiarity ; the frontal generally develops a protuberance ; there are wattles, but no spurs ; the 
tail is very short; the head naked. There are six or cight species of Nuwmida, in some of 


PHASIANIDZ:: PHEASANTS. 575 


which the trachea is convoluted in an appendage to the furculum ; Acryllium vulturina, Agelas- 
tes meleagrides, and Phasidus niger, are the reinaining ones. 

The Phasianide, or Pheasants, are a magnificent family of typical Galline, of which the 
domestic fowl is a characteristic example. The feet, nasal fossee, and usually a part, if not the 
whole, of the head, are naked, and often combed, horned, or wattled. The tarsi commonly 
develop spurs. The tail, with or without its coverts, sometimes has an extraordinary develop- 
ment or a remarkable shape (p. 118). There are fifty cr sixty species, distributed in numerous 
modern genera, about 
twelve of which are 
well marked; they 
are all indigenous to 
Asia and neighbor- 
ing islands, focusing 
in India. In the 
Peacock, Pavo eris- 
tatus, the tail-coverts 
forin a superb train, 
capable of erection 
into a disk, the most 
gorgeous object in 
ornithology; in an 
allied genus, Poly- 
plectron, there are a 
pair of spurs on each 
leg. The Argus 
Pheasant, <Argusa- 
nus giganteus, is dis- 
tinguished by the 
enormous  develop- 
ment of the secon- 
dary quills, as well 
as ‘by the length of 
the tail-feathers and 
peculiarity of the 
middle pair. The 
combed, wattled, and 
spurred barn - yard 
fowl, with folded tail 
and flowing middle 
feathers, are descend- 
ants of Gallus bank- 
iva, type of a small 
genus. The Tragopans, Ceriornis, are an allied form with few species; the Macartneys, 
Euplocomus, with a dozen species, are another near form, as are the Impeyans, Lophophorus, 
with a slender aigrette on the head, like a peacock’s. The naturalized English pheasant, P. 
colchicus (fig. 394), introduced into Britain prior to A. D. 1056, is the type of Phasianus, in 
which the tail-feathers are very long and narrow ; in one species, P. reevesii, the tail is said 
to attain a length of six feet. The Golden and Amherstian Pheasants, Chrysolophus pictus and 
C. amherstie, are singularly beautiful, even for this group. The other genera are Crossoptilon 
and Pucrasia. 


Fig. 395.—Turkey. (From Lewis.) 


208. 


553. 


554. 


576 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — GALLINZ — ALECTOROPODES. 


86. Family MELEAGRIDIDA: Turkeys. 


Head and upper neck naked, carunculate; in our species with a dewlap and erectile pro- 
cess. Tarsi naked, scutellate before and behind, spurred in the g. Tail broad, rounded, of 
14-18 feathers. Plumage compact, lustrous; in our species with a tuft of hair-like feathers 
on the breast. One genus, two species. JZ. ocellatus is the very beautiful Turkey of Central 
America. 

MELEA/GRIS. (Gr. pedeaypis, Lat. meleagris, a guinea-fowl; transferred in ornithology to 
this genus.) TURKEYS. Characters of the family. 

M. gallipa’vo. (Lat. gallus, a cock, pavo, a pea-fowl. Fig. 395.) Turkey. Upper tail- 
coverts chestnut, with paler or whitish tips; tail-feathers tipped with brownish-yellow or 
whitish ; 3-4 feet long, ete. Wild in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and southward; domesti- 
cated elsewhere. The Mexican bird is the original of the domestic race ; it was upon this 
form, imported into Europe, that Linneeus imposed the name gallopavo (Fn. Suec. No. 198; 
Syst. Nat. i, 1766, 268), which has generally been applied to the following feral variety : 

M. g. america/na. EasreRN WILD Turkey. Upper tail-coverts without light tips, and ends 
of tail-feathers scarcely paler. This is the ordinary wild turkey of Eastern North America; 
N. to Canada, where it is said still to occur ; extirpated in New England. NW. to the 
Missouri, and SW. to Texas. The slight differences just noted seem to be remarkably con- 
stant, and to be rarely if ever shown by the other form; although, as usual in domestic birds, 
this last varies interminably in color. 


37. Family TETRAONIDZ: Grouse; Partridge; Quail. 


All the remaining gallinaceous birds are very closely related, probably constituting a 
single family ; although the term Yetraonide@ is usually restricted to the true Grouse as below 
defined (Zetraonine), the Partridges and Quails being erected into another family, Perdicide, 
with several subfamilies. But the Grouse do not appear to differ more from the Partridges 
and Quails than these do from each other, and they are all variously interrelated; so that no 
violence will be offered in uniting them. One group of the Partridges (Odontophorine) is 
confined to America; all the rest to the Old World. The leading forms among the latter are 
Perdix, the true partridge; Coturnix, the true Quail; Francolinus, the Francolins; with 
Rollulus and Caccabis. In all, perhaps a hundred species and a dozen genera. Without 
attempting to frame a family diagnosis to cover all their modifications, I will precisely define 
the American forms, as two subfamilies. 


Analysis of Subfamilies. 


TETRAONIN®E. Grouse. The shank (tarsus) more or less feathered. (Plenty more characters, but this 
is perfectly distinctive. ) 

ODONTOPHORINE. American Partridges and Quails. The shank entirely bare and scaly. (Plenty 
more characters, etc.) 


Oss. — The vernacular names ‘‘ pheasant,” ‘‘ partridge,” and ‘‘ quail,” as applied to our 


game birds in different sections of the country, are the cause of endless confusion and misun- 
derstanding, which it seems hopeless to attempt to do away with. (1.) The word ‘“ pheasant” 
(derived from the name of the river Phasis in Colehis) belongs to certain Old World Phasianide 
(see above; and fig. 394) having no representatives in America. But early settlers of this country 
applied it to the Ruffed Grouse, Bonasa umbella — and “ pheasant” is the Ruffed Grouse called 
to this day by the common people of the Middle and Southern States. (2.) “ Partridge” is an old 
English word, specifically desiguating the English Perdix cinerea, then enlarged in meaning tu 
cover all the family Perdicide (see beyond). In the Northern States, both the Spruce Grouse, 
Canace canadensis, and the Ruffed Grouse, are commonly called ‘“ partridge.” In the Middle 


TETRAONIDE —TETRAONINA:: GROUSE. 577 


and Southern States — wherever the Ruffed Grouse is called ‘‘ pheasant,” the Bob-white, Ortyx 
virginiana, is called “ partridge.” (3.) The term ‘ quail” is specially applicable to the Euro- 
pean Migratory or Messina Quail, Coturnia dactylisonans. But this resembles our Bob-white 
not distantly, causing the latter to be called ‘‘ quail” in the sections where the Ruffed and Spruce 
Grouse are called “‘ partridge ;” and in the Southwest, the species of Lophortyx, Oreortyx, and 
Cyrtonyx are universally called ‘ quail.” The following tabular statement should bring the 
matter clearly into view. 


Summary of North American TETRAONIDA — Grouse, Partridge, Quail. 
A. Grouse, with feathers on shank (Tetraonine). 

1. Sage Fowl: Sage Cock; Sage-Hen; Cock-of-the-Plains. Western. One species: 
Centrocercus wrophasianus. 

2. Sharp-tailed Grouse: Pin-tail Grouse; Prairie Hen or Prairie Chicken of the North- 
west: 1 species, 2 varieties: Pediccetes phasianellus. 

3. Pinnated Grouse: common Prairie Hen or Prairie Chicken of the Mississippi, Ohio, 
and Lower Missouri valleys. One species; two varieties: Cupidonia cupido. 

4. Tree Grouse : Spruce Grouse ; Black Grouse ; the Northern States species improperly 
called ‘‘ partridge.” One species, two varieties: Canace canadensis. 
Another species of 3 varieties, confined to the West: Canace obscura. 

5. Ruffed Grouse : improperly called “ partridge ” in the Northern and ‘ pheasant” in the 
Middle and Southern States. One species, Bonasa umbella, of 3 varieties. 

6. Snow Grouse, or Ptarmigan. Three species of Lagopus, boreal and alpine, turning 
white in winter: ZL. albus, L. rupestris, L. leucurus. 


B. PartripGE and Quam, without feathers on shank (Odontophorine). 

7. The imported Messina Quail, or Migratory Quail of Europe: one species: Coturnix 
dactylisonans. 

8. Bob-white: called “quail” in Northern States; called “partridge” in the Middle 
and Southern States. One species: Ortyx virginiana, with 2 varieties, one in 
Florida, the other in Texas. 

9. Helmet Partridges: of the Southwest, commonly called ‘ quail,” with a beautiful 
recurved top-knot. Two species of Lophortyx : L. gambeli, L. californica, commonly 
called ‘valley quail.” 

10. Arrow Partridge: with two long arrowy plumes on the head. One species, of Cali- 
fornia: Orortyx picta, commonly called ‘‘ mountain quail.” 
Tl. Shell Partridge: bluish-white markings, as if scaly. One species, Southwest. Calli- 
pepla squamata. 

12. Massena Partridge (not to be confused with the 
imported Messina Quail): with a soft crest and 
numberless white ‘‘eyes” on the belly. South- 
west. One species: Cyrtonyx massena. 

Tn all, 26 varieties, of 16 species, of 12 genera, of 2 
subfamilies, of 1 family. 


52. Subfamily TETRAONINZ: Crouse. 


Head completely feathered, excepting, usually, a 
naked strip of skin over the eye. Nasal fossee densely 
feathered. Tarsi more or less perfectly feathered, the 
2 ‘ feathering sometimes extending on the toes to the 

Fic. 396, — ‘Red Game’ of Britain, Lagopus claws; the toes, when naked, with horny fringe-like 
scoticus. (From Dixon.) processes. Tail variable in shape, but never folded, 
387 


204. 


555. 


578 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— GALLINZ — ALECTOROPODES. 


of 16-20 feathers. Sides of the neck frequently with lengthened or otherwise modified feathers, 
or a bare distensible skin, or both. 

The true Grouse are confined to the northern hemisphere, and reach their highest develop- 
ment, as a group, in North America, where singularly varied forms occur. The only Old World 
species are — the great Tetrao wrogallus, or Capercaillie of Europe, and its allied Asiatic species ; 
Lyrurus tetrix, the ‘black game” of Europe, with curiously curled tail-feathers; Canace 
faleipenms of Siberia, the representative of our Spruce Partridge ; Bonasa betulina of Northern 
Europe and Asia, like our Ruffed Grouse ; and two or three species of Ptarmigan (Lagopus). 

All the species of this subfamily used to be referred to a single genus Tetrao—the only 
generic nae familiar to sportsmen and others who make no technical study of birds. But such 
must not be surprised to find me discarding this well-known name, and adopting several different 
ones as generic designations of our Grouse, which differ much among theiselves, in points of 
form and structure, and are all widely diverse from Tetrao urogallus of Europe, type of the 
genus. 

Analysis of N. Am. Genera of Tetraonine. 


Tail stiff, pointed, wedge-shaped, equalling or exceeding the wings, of 20 aaa scaly and hair-like 


feathers on breast. Tarsi full-feathered. Verylarge . . . . . «Centrocercus 205 
Tail stiff, pointed, wedge-shaped, much shorter than wings, of 18 feathers; no ‘obviously peculiar feathers 

on neck. ‘arsifull-feathered . . . . » . Pediacetes 206 
Tail stiffish, rounded, much shorter than wing, of 18 feathers ; wing like tufts and eae bare space on 

neck. Tarsiscant-feathered . . . . 2... Cupidonia 207 
Tail soft, rounded, about as long as wing, of ‘ig feathers ; ‘umbrella- like tufts on eae but no obvious 

bare space. Tarsi bare below . . . » . . . Bonasa 208 
Tail stiffish, flat, square, shorter than wing, of 160 or 20 feathers ; ; no ev vidently peculiar feathers or obv iously 

bare space on neck. Tarsifull-feathered . . . . E elke an oe es ee Ge Ge oe A Ranace: 2204 
Tail, etc., asin Canace. Tarsi and toes fully feathered. White in winter oe Re & ea « dDagopus. :209 


CA'NACE. (Lat. Canace, a proper name.) Trem Grouse. Buack Grouse. No obvi- 
ously lengthened or otherwise peculiar feathers on neck or head. No obviously naked space on 
ueck: but there is a piece of skin capable of distension, especially in the Western species of 
Dendragapus. <A strip of bare colored skin over eye. No erest. Tarsi feathered to the toes. 
Tail little shorter than wing, stiffish, nearly square, of broad, obtuse feathers, normally 16 (in 
Canace proper) or 20 (in Dendragapus) in number. Of medium and large size, aud dark 
blended colors, inhabiting woodland, like the species of Bonasa, and quite arboreal ; northerly 
and alpine. Sexes distinguishable. Eggs heavily-colored. 


Analysis of Subgenera, Species, and Varieties. 


Tail normally of 16 feathers (exceptionally of 14 or 18, as an individual peculiarity). (Canace proper.) 


Tail with broad orange-brown end, its upper coverts without white spots. Eastern . . canadensis 555 
Tail without orange-brown end, its upper coverts with white spots. Western. . . . . fran klini 556 


Tail normally of 20 feathers (exceptionally 18 or 22 ?). (Dendragapus.) Western. 
Tail black, with broad slate-colored end. 


Under parts clear bluish slate color. Rocky Mts., etc., southerly. . . . . . . . . obscura 557 
Under parts sooty plumbeous. Alaska. . . . - oe. es fuliginosa 559 
Tail black, with narrow or no slate-colored end. Rocky Mts., fetes northerly . » 2 . + richardsoni 558 


C. canaden’sis. (Of Canada. Fig. 397.) Canapa Grousr. Sporrep GROUSE. SPRUCE 
Grouse. Spruce ‘ Partripce.” Adult cock: Head smooth, but feathers susceptible of erec- 
tion into a slight crest. A colored comb of naked skin over the eye, bright yellow or reddish 
when fully injected. Tail slightly rounded, of 16 feathers, a scant inch broad to their very ends. 
Tarsi full-feathered to the toes, which are naked, scaly, and fringed. Tail black, broadly tipped 
with orange-brown ; its upper coverts without decidedly white tips. Under parts glossy black, 
extensively varied with white; under tail-coverts tipped with white; sides and breast with 
white bars or semicircles ; white spots bounding the throat ; white spots on lore. Upper parts 
wavy — barred with black and gray, usually also with some tawny markings on the back and 
wings. In full feather, the appearance is of a black bird, grayer above, spotty with white 


556. 


558. 


TETRA ONIDZAZ—TETRAONINA): GROUSE. 579 


below, and orange tail-end. Length usually 16.00-17.00; wing 7.00; tail 5.50. Hen rather 
smaller. No continuous black below, where white aud tawny, latter particularly on breast, 
nearly everywhere pretty regularly wavy-barred with blackish. Above, more like the male, but 
browner. End of tail more narrowly orange. 
Pullets resemble the hen. N. Am., E. of the 
R. Mts., northerly, in woodland. N. nearly or 
quite to the limit of trees; N. W. to Alaska. 
S. into the northern tier of States, especially 
Maine, Michigan, and Minnesota; casually to 
Massachusetts. It is a very hardy bird, enduring 
the rigors of sub-aretic winters, and not properly 
migratory. Eggs numerous, 1.68 X 1.20, rather 
pointed, buff-colored, dotted, spotted, and boldly 
splashed with rich chestnut. Shape and pattern 


of eggs more like those of ptarmigan than of the Fic. 397. —Canada Grouse, nat. size. (Ad nat. 
os del. E. C.) 


prairie grouse. 
C.¢. franklini. (To Sir John Franklin.) FRanKirin’s Spruce Grouse. Size, shape, and 
whole appearance of the foregoing. Tail rather longer, more nearly even, with broader feathers ; 
lacking the terminal orange bar; tipped narrowly with white, its upper coverts tipped with 
white, making the upper side of the tail conspicuously spotty. Rocky and Cascade Mts., 
northerly, in U. 8., and northward about sources of the Saskatchewan, Athabasca, and 
McKenzie Rivers. A mere variety of C. canadensis: the variation parallel with that of C. 
richardsont as compared with C. obscura. 

C. obseu'ra. (Lat. obscura, dark.) Dusky Grouse. BLur Grouse. GRAY GROUSE. 
Pine Grouse. Old cock: Back and wings blackish-brown, finely waved and vermiculated 
in zigzag with slate-gray, mixed with more or less ochrey-brown and some white on the seapu- 
lars. Long feathers of the sides with white ends and shaft stripes; other under parts fine 
bluish-gray or light slate color, varied with white, especially on the lower belly, flanks, and 
vent-feathers. Cheeks black; chin and throat finely speckled with black and white. Though 
the lateral feathers of the neck are smooth and simple, forming no decided tufts as in Cupidonia 
or Bonasa, they are somewhat enlarged, covering a rudimentary tympanum: these feathers 
with snowy white bases and black tips. Tail brownish-black, veined and marbled with gray, 
and with a broad slate-gray terminal bar; of 20 feathers, broad to their very ends, the tail as 
a whole slightly rounded. Bill black; iris brown-orange ; comb over eye. Size very variable ; 
well-grown cocks usually 20, or 22 inches, sometimes up to 2 feet long; extent of wings about 
30 inches; wing 9 or 10; tail 7 or 8. Hen smaller, and more motley, lighter colored and more 
extensively varied with white and tawny; but showing the distinctive slate-gray of the under 
parts, and the slate bar at end of the tail. ‘Pullets like the hen, but the upper parts with ham- 
mer-headed white shaft-lines. Tail with white shaft-lines enlarged at the end, also marked on 
some of the feathers with wavy blackish crossbars. Rocky and other Mts., U. 8., to the Pacific. 
A species of general dispersion in elevated and wooded, especially coniferous, regions of the West. 
S. to New Mexico, and in the White Mts. in Arizona; in the R. Mts. northerly shading into 
var. richardsont. A large cuinbrous bird, usually displaying stolidity or indifference to the 
presence of man, taking to trees when disturbed, and very easily slaughtered. Eggs larger, 
more elongated, and less heavily colored than those of spruce grouse and ptarmigan ; creamy- 
buff, finely freckled all over with chocolate-brown, seldom with any large spots: 2.00 x 1.50. 
C. 0. rich’ardsoni. (To Sir John Richardson.) RicHarpson’s Dusky Grouse. Size, 
shape, and whole appearance of the foregoing. Tail rather longer, more nearly even, with 
broader feathers, having the terminal slate bar reduced or wanting: general color more uni- 
formly darker, black of throat more extensive. Rocky Mts., northerly, U. S. and northward. 


559. 


205. 


560. 


580 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — GALLINA) — ALECTOROPODES. 


A mere variety, only recognizable when fully developed; many intermediate specimens cannot 
be fairly referred to one rather than the other. 

C. o. fuligino’sa. (Lat. fuliginosa, sooty.) Soory Grousr. With the broad slate tail- 
bar of obscaura proper, but colors darker than in richardsoni even. Above, blackish, minutely 
freckled with gray and rusty-brown; below, dark plumbeous. The hen is more different, with 
prevailing rich rusty and chestnut-brown markings. Northwest coast mountains, Oregon to 
Sitka. 

CENTROCER'CUS. (Gr. xévtpov, kentron, a spine, prickle; xépxos, kerkos, tail.) SAGE 
Grouse. SpmINe-TAIL Grouse. Of great size. Tail very long, equalling or exceeding the 
wings, of 20 stiffened, narrow, acuminate feathers, much graduated in length. Neck suscept- 
ible of enormous distension by means of air-sacs covered with naked livid skin — not regularly 
hemispherical and lateral like those of Cupidonia, but forming a great protuberance in front of 
irregular contour; surmounted by a fringe of hair-like filaments, several inches long, springing 
from a mass of erect white feathers; covered below with a solid set of sharp white horny 
feathers, like fish-seales. (The affair is not easy to describe in few words, especially as it is 
constantly changing with the wear of the feathers, and is only fully exhibited by the cock 
during the amours. The anatomical arrangement for inflation is only a special exhibition of 
the air-sacs of other genera, as Cupidonia and Pediecetes ; the peculiarities of the feathers 
are the inherited results of habitual attrition, the birds rubbing the breast against the 
ground in their love-spasms ; and, as said, the state of the parts is always changing with the 
wear of the feathers. This accounts for the vague or conflicting statements of authors.) 
Tarsus feathered to the toes. Digestive system remarkable for the slight muscularity of the 
gizzard, which is rather a membranous paunch than a grist-mill; the bird browses rather than 
scratches for a living, feeding on wormwood and also extensively on insects. Sexes similar in 
color, unlike in size and to some extent in form. One prairie species, perfectly terrestrial. 

C. urophasia/nus. (Gr. ovpd, oura, tail; gacvavds, phasianos, a pheasant.) SAGE Cock. 
Sacp Hen. Cock or THE PuaAins. Largest of American Grouse. Full grown cock 2-24 
feet long; extent of wings 3 feet or more; wing and tail about a foot; weight upwards of 4 
pounds. Hen a third smaller. Above, varied with black, gray, brown and buff; below, 
chiefly white, with a large squarish black area on the belly. To describe the peculiar neck- 
feathering of the old cock more particularly: On each side is a patch of feathers, meeting in 
front, with extremely stiff bases, prolonged into hair-like filaments some three inches in length; 
with the wearing away of these feathers in the peculiar actions of the bird in pairing-time, 
their hard horny bases are left, forming the ‘‘fish-scales” above said. In front of these 
peculiar feathers is the naked tympanum, capable of enormous inflation under amatory excite- 
ment. Above them is a tuft of down-feathers, covered with a set of long soft filamentous 
pluines corresponding to the ruff of Bonasa. Many breast feathers resemble the scaly ones of 
the neck, and are commouly found worn to a bristly ‘‘ thread-bare” state. Scaly bases of the 
feathers soiled white; the thready ends blackish; the fluffy feathers snowy-white, like wool, 
the longer overlying filamentous plumes glossy black. Chin and throat blackish, speckled with 
white ends of the feathers, usually presenting a definite white half-collar. Lining of wings 
white. Hen: Length about 20 inches; wing 10 inches; tail 7 or 8, of same general character 
as the cock’s, but softer, shorter, less cuneate, with more rapidly tapering feathers. A small 
tympanam, but no obviously peculiar feathers on neck. Coloration quite like that of the cock. 
Pullet: No peculiar ueck-feathers ; tail beginning to show its special form; general coloration 
of the hen. Before the September moult, all the feathers of the upper parts with sharp 
white hammer-headed shaft lines, and circular spotting of the feathers of the breast. Sooty 
belly-patch showing with the first feathering. Chick in down altogether different from the 
dingy yellow chick of Pediecetes ; below grayish-white, above gray-brown inottled with black ; 
bill black. This remarkable bird, quite a Roland for the Capercaillie’s Oliver, inhabits the 


206. 


561. 


562. 


TETRAONID -—-TETRAONINA:: GROUSE. 581 


sterile sage-bush plains of the West; an abundant and characteristic species of those forbidding 
regions, beginning with the Eastern slopes and foot-hills of the R. Mts., South into New 
Mexico aud Arizona, sparingly N. to 49° or slightly further, in the Milk River region. Not in 
Dakota east of the Coteau, or in the Missowi Basin much below the Yellowstone country. 
Its centre of abundance is the artemisia tracts of Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, 
Eastern California, and Oregon. It straggles through the sage-bush, but I have seen packs of 
hundreds in the fall. In the breeding season its sonorous hullaballoo resounds on every hand 
where the birds are numerous. The flesh is edible or not, ‘as you like it.” The behavior 
towards man varies with circumstances; sometimes the birds may almost be knoeked over with 
a stick, at others it is difficult to get a shot. In walking, the tail is somewhat elevated, aud 
swings sideways with cach step. The flight is extremely vigorous, and at times greatly pro- 
tracted, with wings so widely expanded that the tips of the primaries stand apart; the course 
rapid and steady when the bird is once fairly on wing, accomplished with a succession of quick 
energetic wing-beats, alternating with sailing with stifly motionless wings until the innpulse 
is spent. From the nature of its resorts the bird is exclusively terrestrial. The egg is nar- 
rower and more pointed than that of any other grouse of our country, measuring from 2.05 to 
2.25 in length by 1.50-1.60 in breadth; grayish or greenish-drab color, thickly speckled with 
chocolate-brown, mostly in minute dots evenly distributed, occasionally with well-defined spots 
up to the size of a split pea, tending to circular shape. 

PEDIG@'/CETES. (Gr. mediov, pedion, a plain; otkérns, oiketes, an inhabitant.) Pin-rarn 
Grouse. Neck without obviously peculiar feathers, like those either of the piunated or 
ruffed grouse or sage cock, but with a hidden, definitely circumscribed space on each side of 
reddish, vascular, and distensible skin, constituting an undeveloped tympanum, over which 
lies a lateral series of slightly enlarged feathers. Head lightly crested, the longest feathers of 
the crown falling on the occiput; a crescentic naked patch over each eye of numerous orange 
or chrome-yellow fringe-like processes, in several parallel curved rows. Feet full-feathered to 
between the bases of the toes, with long, hair-like plumage reaching to or beyond the end of the 
hind claw; toes above with one row of broad, transverse scutella, a row on each side of smaller 
rounded scales, and a conspicuous fringe of horny processes; below, bossed and scabrous. 
Tail much shorter than the wings, normally of 18 true rectrices, of which the central pair are 
soft, parallel-edged and square-tipped, projecting an inch or two beyond the next pair; the 
rest rapidly graduated, stiffish, and crisp (inakiug a creaking sound when rubbed together) ; 
at first about straight-edged, soon becoming club-shaped (with a constriction near the apex) 
by mutual attrition. Sexes similar, but cock rather larger and darker than the hen, with more 
prominent supraciliary papille. One species, of two varieties, of prairie, perfectly terrestrial. 


Analysis af Varieties. 
Northern Sharp-tailed Grouse. The markings black, white and dark brown, with little or no tawny; 
spots on the under parts numerous, blackish, V-shaped; throat white, speckled. (Arctic America.) 


Dhasianellus 561 
Common Sharp-tailed Grouse. The markings black, white, and especially tawny ; below, the spots fewer, 
brown, U-shaped; throat buff. (U.S. and adjoining British Province). . . . . . . columbianus 562 


P. phasianel/lus. (Diminutive of Lat. phasianus, a pheasant.) NorTHERN SHARP-TAILED 
GrousE. As above, in comparison with the ordinary bird next described. Very dark-colored, 
in blackish and white variegation, with little buff, even in the fall. The markings below 
heavier, in sharper, more arrow-headed shape, quite blackish. The fect very heavily feathered, 
almost like a ptarmigan’s. Interior of British America, E. to Hudson’s Bay, N. and W. to 
the Yukon, southward shading directly into the U. S. bird, before reaching 49°. This is the 
true Tetrao phasianellus — a name commonly applied to the next variety. 

P. p. columbia/nus. (Of the Columbia River. Fig. 398.) Common SHARP-TAILED GROUSE. 
PRAIRIE CHICKEN OF THE NortHwest. Adult $9 : Upper parts closely and pretty eveuly 


582 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — GALLIN AI — ALECTOROPODES. 


variegated with blackish-brown, reddish-brown, aud grayish-brown, the pattern smallest on the 
rump and lower back, where the blackish is mostly in sharp-angled stars ; the reddish most con- 
spicuous on the upper back, and both the lighter colors everywhere finely sprinkled with blackish. 
Wing-coverts like the upper back, but with numerous conspicuous rounded white spots, one on 
the end of each feather. Crown and back of neck nearly like the back, but in smaller pattern, and 
the markings mostly transverse. An illy-defined white area on each side of the neck, over the 
tympanum, and slight whitish stripe behind the eye. Throat fine light buff, usually immac- 
ulate, but sometimes finely speckled 
quite across. Under parts white, more 
or less tinted with buff toward the 
throat; the breast with numerous regu- 
lar dark-brown U-shaped spots, one 
on each feather; similar but smaller, 
sharper, and fewer such spots thence 
scattered over most of the under parts, 
only the middle of the belly being left 
unnarked. Long feathers of the sides 
under the wings matching the upper 
wing-coverts nearly ; under wing-coy- 
erts and axillaries pure white, not 
marked; flanks with bars or U-spots 
of dark brown. Legs grayish-white, 
unmarked. Quills of the wings fus- 
cous; outer webs of the secondaries 
with equidistant, squarish, white or 
tawny spots, the secondaries tipped 
and imperfectly twice or thrice barred 
with white, and gradually becoming 
sprinkled with the varied colors of the 
back, so that the innermost of them are 
almost precisely like the greater coverts. Four middle tail-feathers variegated, much like the 
back; others white, or grayish-white, on the inner webs, the outer webs being mottled ; a few 
under tail-coverts spotted, the rest white; upper tail-coverts nearly like the rump. Iris light 
brown; bill dark horn-color; part of under mandible flesh-colored; claws like bill; toes on 
top light horn-eolor, the soles darker. Length, 18 or 20 inches; extent 24 to 30; wing 
8 to 9; middle tail-feathers 4 to 6; shortest tail-feathers (outermost), about 14; tarsi, 
2 inches; middle toe and claw about the same; culmen of bill about $; gape of bill 1 to 14; 
depth of bill at base 4 or rather less. Pullets, before first moult: Crown bright brown, varied 
with black. Sharp white shaft-lines above, which, with a black area on each feather, contrast 
with the fine gray and brown mottling of the upper parts. Wing-coverts and inner quills 
with whitish spots. Several inner tail-feathers with whitish shaft lines, and mottled with 
blackish and brown. Lower throat and breast with numerous dark brown spots; sides 
similar, the markings lengthening into streaks. Bill brown above, pale below. This lasts 
till the September moult is completed. Chicks hatch dingy yellow, mottled on the crown, 
back, and wings with brown and black. The Pin-tail Chicken inhabits the western portions of 
Minnesota, a small part of Iowa, all of Dakota, thence diagonally across Nebraska and Kansas 
to Colorado in the Laramie and upper Platte regions ; thence westward in suitable country to 
the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges; northern limit to be conventionally established along 
the N. border of the U. 8., beyond which it shades into the true phastanellus. In fine, this is 
the prairie chicken of the whole Northwest; usually occurring where C. capido does not, the two 


Fic. 398. — Head of Sharp-tailed Grouse, nat. size. (Ad 
nat. del. E. C.) 


TETRAONIDZ — TETRAONINZ: GROUSE. 583 


overlap to some extent. Formerly ranged in all the prairie of Minnesota, Michigan, and Iowa, 
but is pushed westward by the grain-fields — the same carrying cupido along. Eggs 5-10-12- 
13, in June; grayish-olive or drab-colored, uniformly dotted with brown points, rarely larger 
than a pin-head; always quite different from those of cwpido ; 1.60 to 1.80 long by 1.20 to 1.30 
broad; average 1.75 1.25. A fine game and table bird, in all respects like cuptdo. 

207. CUPIDO/NIA. (Name derived from cupido, which see below.) Prn-neck Grousr. Neck 
with a peculiar tuft on each side of loose, lengthened, acuminate feathers, like little wings 
beneath which is 
a circular patch of 
bare, yellow skin, 
capable of great 
distension, like the 
half of a small or- 
auge. Head with 
a slight soft crest. 
Tarsi scant-feath- 
ered to the toes in 
front and on sides, 
bare on a strip behind; toes extensively webbed at base. Tail short, rounded, of 18 broad 
stiffish feathers, with obtusely rounded ends. Sexes nearly alike in size, form, and color; 
plumage below barred transversely. One species, 2 varieties, of prairie, perfectly terrestrial. 


Fic. 399. — Foot of Prairie Hen, nat. size. (Ad nat, del. E. C.) 


Analysis of Varieties. 
THE COMMON BIRD. Tarsal feathers hiding the bare strip. Dark bars above black, and broad; top or 
headimostly blackish! <5, -s0. gr oo Use ae Ge Us a ON RO Oe Gh doe 8 eupido Br 
TEXAS BIRD. Tarsi very scant-feathered, the bare strip exposed. Dark bars above brown and narrow ; 

top of head little blackish © ww. ee ee ee ew . . pallidicinctus 564 

563. C. cupi/do. (The tufts on the neck likened to conventional “cupid’s wings.” Figs. 399, 400.) 
PINNATED GROUSE. 
Prairie Hen. @ Q: 
Above,variegated with 
black, brown, tawny, 
or ochrey, and white, 
the latter especially 
on the wings; below, 
pretty regularly barred 
with dark brown, 
white, and tawny; 
throat tawny, a little 
speckled, or not; vent 
and crissum mostly 
white; quills fuscous, 
with white spots on 
the outer webs; tail 
fuscous, with narrow 
or imperfect white or 
tawny bars and tips; 
Fie. 400. — Prairie Hen. (From Lewis.) sexes alike in color, 

but 9 smaller, with shorter neck tufts. Length 16.00-18.00; extent about 28.00; wing 
8.00-9.00; tail about 4.50; tarsus rather over, middle toe and claw rather under, 2.00; neck- 
tufts 2.00-3.50 inches long. This well-known bird formerly ranged across the United States, 


564. 


208. 


584 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— GALLIN 4 — ALECTOROPODES. 


in open country, from the Atlantic to the Eastern foot-hills of the R. Mts., in some latitudes, 
and now abounds on the prairies, from Iinois and Wisconsin, to Middle Kansas at least, if not 
found on the dryer plains westward. Its usual range includes Illinois, Jowa, Missouri, Eastern 
half of Minnesota, Southeastern Dakota, Middle and Eastern Kansas and Nebraska, Arkansas, 
and Eastern Texas. It is creeping westward 
with the grain fields. Ten years ago it mixed 
with the sharp-tails about St. Paul’s, Minne- 
sota, and up the Missouri to beyond Sioux 
City. The line of railroad is a favorite high- 
way for the birds. It has been almost ex- 
tirpated in the Middle and Eastern States, 
though it still occurs sparingly in isolated 
localities in New York, New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, Long Island, Nantucket, and Mar- 
tha’s Vineyard, etc. Its abundance, and the 
excellence of its flesh, render it an object of 
Fig. 401.— Head of Ruffed Grouse, nat. size. (Ad commercial importance. Though there may 
De) be little probability of its extinction, legisla- 
tion against its wanton or ill-timed destruction is a measure of obvious propriety. Eggs 
averaging shorter, rounder, and smaller than those of the sharp-tail; pale greenish-gray, with 
sometimes a glaucous bloom, usually unmarked, sometimes very minutely dotted with brown 
C. c. pallidicine/ta. (Lat. pallidus, pale; cinctus, begirt.) Pate PINNATED GROUSE. 
Above, the dark markings not in excess of the lighter markings, and rather brown than black ; 
below, the dark bars very pale and narrow. ‘Tarsi scant feathered, exposing the bare strip 
behind. Southwestern prairies; a local race, from warmer and dryer regions. 
BONA’SA. (Gr. Bdvacos, 
Lat. bonasus, a bison: the 
“drumming” of the bird 
being likened to the bel- 
lowing ofa bull.) Rurrep 
Grouse. Head with a 
full soft crest. Neck on 
each side with a tuft of 
numerous (15-30) broad 
soft glossy-black feathers, 
covering the rudimentary 
tympanum. Tail about as 
long as the wings, amply 
rounded or fan-shaped, nor- 
mally of 18 soft broad 
feathers, with truncate 
ends. Tarsi scantfeath- 
ered, naked below, with 
two or three rows of scu- 
tella in front. Plumage of 
blended and varied colors ; 
sexes alike. Woodland species, more or less arboreal, of common occurrence in suitable places. 


Fia. 402. — Ruffed Grouse. (From Lewis.) 


Analysis of Varieties. 
Brown, of mixed and varied shades of reddish and gray. Eastern and Northern. . . . . . wmbella 665 
Pale ; slaty-gray the prevailing shade. Rocky Mountain region . . . . . . . 1 1). . umbelloides 566 
Dark; chestnut-brown the prevailing shade. PacificCoastregion . . . .. . . . 0... sabinii 567 


565. 


566. 


567. 


209. 


TETRAONIDA — TETRAONINZE: GROUSE. 585 


B.umbella, (Lat. wnbella, au wnbel, unbrella; wmbra, shade, shadow; alluding to the neck- 
tufts. Figs. 401, 402.) Rurrep Grouss. ‘ ParrripGe;” New England. “ PHEASANT ;” 
Middle and Southern States. ¢ 9: Above, variegated reddish- or grayish-brown, the back with 
numerous, oblong, pale, black-edged spots. Below, whitish, barred with brown. Tail brown 
or gray, pumerously and narrowly black-barred, with a broad subterminal black zone, and 
tipped with gray. The neck-ruffle of the ¢ mostly glossy black, aud very full; of the 2 
smaller and more brown. The colors are endlessly varied as well as blended, and the prevailing 
tone of the brown birds of the East shades insensibly into that of the Western varictics. 
Length 16.00-18.00; extent 23.00; wing 7.00-8.00; tail about the same. A woodland bird, 
like the species of Canace, abundantly distributed over Eastern North America; in the U.S. 
to the central plains; in Brit. Am. to Alaska. It is well known under the above names in 
different sections; but it is neither a “partridge” nor a ‘‘ pheasaut,” being, in fine, a Ruffed 
Grouse. The ‘drunnning” sound for which this bird is noted, is not vocal, as some suppose, 
but is produced by rapidly beating the wings. Eggs very characteristic, from creamy white to 
creamy buff, usually immaculate, sometimes minutely dutted or even speckled with brown ; they 
resemble partridge eggs also in shape, which approaches the pyriform, broad and blunt at one 
end, pointed at the other; size about 1.66 x 1.20. 

B. u. umbelloi/des. (Lat. wmbella, as above defined, and Gr. «fos, eidos, resemblance.) 
Gray Rurrep Grouse. A variety of the last, of very different tone of color in its extreme 
development, but shading into the common Ruffed by insensible degrees in Brit. Am. When 
fully manifested, as follows: Lower back, rump, upper tail-coverts and tail slate-gray, with 
little if any brown tinge; the feathers of the back and rump with light gray cordate or arrow- 
headed spots narrowly bordered with black, the tail-feathers finely vermiculated with black, and 
with a broad subterminal black zone. Ruffle glossy greenish-black. Under parts whitish, more 
or less tinged with tawny-brown, with several broad brown cross-bars on each feather, largest 
and most distinct on the long feathers of the sides, some of which have also white shaft lines ; 
heavy feathers of flanks and vent mostly whitish, unmarked. Feathers of fore-neck and scap- 
ulars blended with gray, rich reddish-brown, ochrey-brown, and white, in indescribable con- 
fusion. Most of the wing-coverts with white shaft-lines. Hen with the ruffle less developed, 
varied with brown and white. General tone more rufous than in the cock. Rocky Mt. region, 
U. §., running into both the other varieties. 

B. sabi/nii. (To J. Sabine.) Rep Rurrep Grouse. OREGON RuFFED GROUSE. More 
nearly resembling the common ruffed grouse, but the coloration more heavily brown, — darker 
and richer. More blackish to the brown, and the latter almost chestnut in well-marked cases. 
Pacific coast region, Oregon to Alaska. 

LAGO’PUS. (Gr. Aayamous, lagopous, Lat. lagopus, hare-foot: the densely-feathered feet 
resemble those of rabbits.) Prarmicgan. Snow Grouse. No peculiar feathers on head or 
neck. Tarsi and toes densely feathered. Tail short, little rounded, normally of 14 broad 
feathers, with long upper coverts, some of which resemble rectrices, the central pair of these 
usually reckoned as rectrices, making 16. A naked red comb over eye. Boreal and alpine 
grouse, shaped nearly as in Canace, remarkable for the seasonal changes of plumage, becoming 
in winter snow-white (excepting the British insular race). There are only five or six species, 
at most, and probably fewer; we certainly have the three here given. 


Analysis of Species. 
Tail black at all seasons. 


The summer plumage mostly rich chestnut or orange-brown, and black. In winter, no black stripe 
on head. Bill stout . albus 568 


The summer plumage wholly brownish-yellow and black, except on wings and tail. ‘In winter a black 
stripe on head. Bill slender 4 

Tail white at all seasons. 

The summer plumage ochrey-brown and black. In winter entirely white . 


soe ee ww we ew . rupestris 569 


« . « « leucurus 570 


568. 


586 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —GALLINZE — ALECTOROPODES. 


L, al/bus. (Lat. albus, white. Figs. 403, 404.) Wiu~tow Grousg. WiILLOw PTARMIGAN. 
Bill very stout and convex, its depth at base as much as the distance from nasal fossa to tip; 
whole culmen 0.75; bill black at all seasons. @ 9, in winter: Snow white; 14 tail-feathers 
black, white-tipped; the middle pair (which most resemble and perhaps are true rectrices, hav- 
ing no after-shafts) together with all the coverts, one pair of which reach to end of tail, white; 
shafts of several outer wing-quills black; no black stripe on head. g, in summer: The head 


Fia, 403, — Willow Ptarmigan, summer plumage, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


and fore parts rich chestuut or orange-brown, more tawny-brown on back and rump; the richer 
brown parts sparsely, the tawny-brown more closely, barred with black ; most of the wings and 
under parts remaining white. 9 similar, wholly colored excepting the wings, the color more 
tawny than in the ¢, and more heavily, closely, and uniformly barred with black. Length 
15.00-17.00; wing about 8.00; tail 5.50. Arctic and Northern N. Am. from ocean to ocean, 
into the northernmost U. 8. Eggs very heavily colored, with bold confluent blotches of intense 
burnt sienna color, upon a more or less reddish-tinted buff ground. All the eggs of birds of this 
family are colorless when the shell first forms high in the oviduct, acquiring pigment as they 
pass down; in the ptarmigan, where the coloring is so heavy, an egg cut from the pigment- 


569. 


TETRAONIDZE — TETRAONINA!: GROUSE. 587 


secreting part of the passage is as if covered with fresh paint, soft aud sticky, which may be 
rubbed off before it ‘‘ sets” on the shell. Size 1.80 x 1.20. 

L. rupes/tris. (Lat. rupestris, relating to rupis, a rock; rupestrine.) Rock PTARMIGAN. 
Bill slenderer for its length than that of L. albus, its depth at base less than the distance from 
nasal fossa to tip; whole culmen 0.67; bill always black. g @, im winter: As iu L. albus, 
but a black transocular stripe on side of head. SQ, in summer: The whole plumage, excepting 
the wings and tail, barred with blackish-brown and brownish-yellow. Rather smaller than the 


Fic. 404. — Willow Ptarmigan, winter plumage, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


foregoing. Length 14.00-15.00; wing 7.00-7.50; tail 4.50. Arctic America, not 8. to the 
U.S. Eggs 13-15 or more, like those of ZL. albus, but darker and rather smaller; size 
1.70 & 1.18. ‘‘The summer plumage is assumed at variable periods of the months of April 
May, and even in early June, according to the locality. The moult for the summer is siaually 
shown first on the head and neck, followed by the lower back, sides, breast, middle back, flanks, 
and abdomen, in the order named. The abdomen and chin are the last areas to show the com- 
plete moult. The parts named also assume, in the order given, the white winter plumage. 
During the time of the summer plumage scarcely a single day passes that the general ilo BE 
the feathers is not modified by the appearance or loss of some feather.” (Turner.) Hence the 
difficulty if not impossibility of establishing races of this species upon color, as the amount of 
barring, vermiculation, or nebulation with dusky, tawny, and gray is incessantly changing in 


570. 


588 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — GALLIN Ai — ALECTOROPODES. 


the same individuals; and birds taken at different dates in the summer, in the same locality, 
may differ from one another more than specimens from different regions, representing several 
alleged varieties, are always found to do. The American bird, in 
fact, is scarcely distinguishable from the European L. mutus or alpinus. 
The Greenland bird has been called L. reinhardti by Brehm. That 
of the Aleutian Islands, 0. mutus atkensis, Turner. The latter is 
said to have the bill and claws about 0.10 longer than usual. 

L. leucwrus. (Gr. Aeukos, leucos, white ; otpa, oura, tail. Fig. 405.) 
WHITE-TAILED PraRMIGAN. Rocky Mountain SNow GRouse. 
f@,in winter: Entirely snow-white ; bill black, rather slender, and 
general size and proportions nearly as in L. rupestris. g 9, in sum- 
mer: Tail, most of the wing, and lower parts 
from the breast, remaining white; rest of the 
plumage minutely marked with black, white, 
and tawny or grayish-brown, varying in pre- 
cise character almost with every specimen; but 
there is no difficulty in recognizing this white- 
tailed species, of alpine distribution in West- 
ern N. A. from the Arctic regions to New 
Mexico (lat. 37°). In summer, inhabits the 
mountain ranges from timber-line to the high- 
est peaks, in winter ranging lower down. 
Eggs very different from the heavily-painted 
ones of L. albus, of dull creamy complexion, 
minutely dotted over the whole surface with 
burnt-sienna, few of the markings exceeding J 
a pin’s head in size, and not thick enough Fig. 405. — White-tailed Ptarmigan; upper, in sum- 
to obscure the ground-color; shape purely ™? Ap yrsee me fuintese, CEO SaaeSeG 


ovoidal, greatest diameter near the middle; size 1.70 X 1.14; number variable, about a dozen. 


53. Subfamily ODONTOPHORINAE: American Partridges and Quails. 


Head completely feathered, and usually crested, 
the crest frequently assuming a reinarkable shape. 
Nasal fossee not filled with feathers, the nostrils 
covered with a naked scale. Tarsi and toes naked, 
the latter scarcely or not fringed, the former scu- 
tellate. Size smaller than in Tetraonine. 

Our Partridges may be distinguished, among 
American Galline, by the foregoing characters, but 
not from those of the Old World; and it is highly 
z improbable that, as a group, they are separable from 

(pt’ all the forms of the latter by any decided peculiari- 
} YES l/ ties. The principal supposed character, namely, a 


IN RAGAN Ne x , : d 

7 . f 0 ° i. ver 4 
by | Var RNY \} wa toothing of the under mandible, is very faintly 
Fia. 406.— European Partridge. (From Dixon.) others. 


indicated in some forms, and entirely wanting in 
Pending final issue, however, it is expe- 
dient to recognize the group, so strictly limited geographically, if not otherwise. Several 
beautiful and important genera occur within our limits, but these Partridges are most numerous | 
in species in Central and South America. Odontophorus is the leading genus, with perhaps 
15 species; Eupsychortya and Dendrortyx are other extra-limital forms; and in all, some 


210. 


571. 


TETRAONIDZ —ODONTOPHORINZ: PARTRIDGES OR QUAIL. 589 


forty-odd species are known. In habits, they agree more or less completely with the well 
known Bob-white. Our species are apparently menogamous, and go in small tlocks, called 
“ eoveys,” usually consisting of the members of one family; they are terrestrial, but take to the 
trees on occasion; nest on the ground, laying numerous white or speckled eggs; are chiefly 
granivorous, but also feed on buds, soft fruits, and insects ; and are non-imigratory. 
Analysis of Genera. 
An inconspicuous crest, scarcely visible except in life. Tail about 3} as long as the wing. Coloration 
everywhere variegated. (One species) reesei tons rel Ce eee tat, haat ach Ree Cage Bo Nato ae . Ortyx 210 
A short, soft, full crest. Tail} the wing. Coloration much the same all over, showing curious semi- 
circular markings. (One species) ic EAL ae ak - ee Ge an a, oe, PR es eat Oph eae Callipepla 213 
A long, slender, arrowy crest, two or three inches long, of two narrowly linear feathers. Tail 3 as long as 
the wing. Parti-colored, but the coloration chiefly in masses. (One species). . , . . . . Orortyx 21) 
A long, recurved, helmet-like crest, of several imbricated plumes, enlarged at the extremity. ‘Tail? as 
long as the wing. Coloration chiefly in masses. (Twospecies) . ....... . Lophortyx 212 
A short, soft, full crest. Tail scarcely 3 as long as the wing. Coloration peculiar, in round, white spots 
on the under parts of the gf. (One species). . 2. 2. 2. 1 ee ee ee . Cyrtonyx 214 
As all these genera have each but a single species in this country, excepting Lophortyx, the foregoing is 
nearly equivalent to a determinativn of the species. 
OR'TYX. (Gr. dprvé, ortux, a quail.) 
Feathers of crown lengthened and eree- 
tile, but hardly forming a true crest. 
Tail about 3 as long as the wing. 
Outstretched feet reaching beyond end 
of tail. Coloration much variegated ; 
a reddish-brown varied with black 
and white the leading color. Eggs 


white, pyriform, numerous. Fic. 407.— Bill and foot of Ortyzx, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


Analysis of Varieties. 
Length of 3, 10 inches or rather more; extent 15 or more; wing 4.50 or more. Bill blackish-brown. 
Ground color dull pinkish-red with narrow black bars below soe ewe ew ew we virginiana 571 
Length of ¢, scarcely 10 inches; extent under 15; wing scarcely or not 4.50. Bill jet black. Ground 
color dark reddish, with much broader black bars below . Jloridana 572 


Length ete. as in floridana. Ground color paler than in virginiana, with numerous black bars, and 
increase of ashy and tawny . rae . texana 573 


Fia. 408. — Mr. and Mrs. Bob White, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E, C.) 


: : (Of ee Figs. 407, 408, 409.) Virerta PARTRIDGE, or ‘“ Quart.” 
OB-WHITE. QuaIL:” New England, wherever the Raffed Grouse is called ‘ 


O. virginia/na. 


partridge.” 


590 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — GALLINZE — ALECTOROPODES. 


“ ParTRIDGE:” Southern and Middle States, wherever the Ruffed Grouse is called ‘‘ pheasant.” 
&: Forehead, superciliary line, and throat, white, bordered with black ; crown, neck all round, 
and upper part of breast, brownish-red ; other under parts tawny-whitish, all with more or fewer 
doubly-crescentic black bars; crissuin rufous; sides broadly striped with brownish-red; upper 
parts variegated with chestuut, black, gray and tawny, the latter edging the inner quills, form- 
ing a continuous line when the wing is closed. Q : Known by having the throat. buff instead of 
white, less black about the fore-parts, and general coloration subdued. The reddish of this bird is 
of a peculiar dull pinkish shade. The black cresceuts of the under parts are scarcely or not half 
the width of the intervening white spaces; the bill is not jet black. Length of ¢ 10.00-10.50 ; 


Fia. 409. — The Bob White family. (From ‘Sport with Gun and Rod;” The Century Co., N. Y.) 


extent 15.00-15.50; wing 4.50 to nearly 5.00; tail 2.75-3.00. 9 9.50-10.00; extent 14.50- 
15.00; wing 4.25-4.50; tail 2.50-2.75. Among the thousands of Bob-whites yearly destroyed, 
albinotic or melanotic, and other abnormally colored specimens, are frequently found ; but the 
percentage of these cases is nothing unusual, and the sportsman must be cautioned against sup- 
posing that such birds have any status, in a scientific point of view, beyond their illustration of 
certain perfectly well known variations. Such specimens, however, are interesting and valuable, 
and should always be preserved. Eastern United States. North to Massachusetts and slightly 
beyoud ; Canada West; Minnesota. West to high central plains. Up the Missouri to White 
River. Salt Lake Valley (introduced). The characteristic game bird of this country. Eggs 
indefinitely numerous, pure white, pointed at one end and very blunt at the other, about 


1.30 X 1.00. 


572. 


TETRAONIDZE — ODONTOPHORINZE: PARTRIDGES OR QUAIL. 591 


O. v. florida/na, (Of Florida.) Fiorina Quam. Rather smaller, the f about the size of 
the Q virginiana, but bill relatively larger, and jet-black ; colors darker, all the black mark- 
ings heavier, those of the under parts nearly as broad as the intervening white spaces. Florida, 
and similar specimens in the lower Mississippi Valley; an approach to the Cuban form 
(0. cubanensis). 

O. v. texa/na. (Of Texas.) Trxas Quarn. Size of floridana ; colors paler, the prevailing 
shade rather gray than brown; upper parts much variegated with tawny. Eggs 1.20 X 0.93. 
These two are mere climatic varieties of one species. 

OROR'TYX. (Gr. dpos, ores, a mountain 5 dprv€, ortuc, a quail.) PLuMep Quain. Head 
adorned with an arrowy crest of two slender keeled plumes, 38-4 inches long in the g when 
full-developed ; present in Q, shorter. Bill and feet stout; tarsus equal to the middle toe aud 
claw. Tail about 4 the wing, broad, rounded, with long coverts. Size large; colors massed 
in large areas; sexes alike. Eggs colored. One species. 


574. O. picita. (Lat. picta, pictured, painted. Fig. 411.) PLumep Parrripce. MounTaAIN QUAIL 


212. 


of the Californians. 29, adult: Back, wings and tail 
olive-brown, the inner secondaries and tertiaries bordered 
with whitish or tawny, forming a lengthwise border in 
single line when the wings are folded; the primaries fus- 
cous, the tail-feathers fuscous, minutely marbled with 
the color of the back. 
Fore - parts, above 
aid below,  slaty- 
blue (above more or 
less glossed with 
the olive shade of 
the back, below ini- 
nutely inarbled with 
black) ; the throat 
chestnut, immedi - 
ately bordered lat- 
erally with black, 
then framed in a 
firm white line, 
broken through the 


Fig. 410.—Helmet Quail (Z. gambeli). around base of un- Fic. 411. — Plumed Quail. (From Ten- 


eye, reappearing 


nat. size, (Ad nat. del KE, C.) der mandible. Ex-  2&Y: after Audubon.) 


treme forehead whitish.» The arrow-plumes black. Belly chestnut, the sides banded with 
broad bars of black and white, or rufous-white ; middle of the lower belly, tibia, and flanks, 
whitish or rufous; crissum velvety-black, streaked with chestnut. Bill dusky, paler below; 
feet brown. Length 11.00-12.00; extent 16.00-17.00; wing 5.00-5.50; tail 3.00-3.50; tarsus 
1.67; middle toe and claw about the same. An elegant species, much larger and more beauti- 
ful than the Bob-white, inhabiting the mountainous parts of Oregon, California and Nevada. 
The relative extent of the olive and slaty parts is very variable. There is something of a 
grouse in the composition of this partridge. Egg a miniature of the ruffed grouse’s, only dis- 
tinguished by smaller size — 1.40 x 1.10. 

LOPHOR’TYX. (Gr. Addos, lophos, a crest; dprv&, ortux, a quail.) Hrumer Quart. 
With an elegant crest, recurved helmet-wise, of several (6-10) keeled, clubbed, glossy-black, 
imbricated feathers, more than an inch long when fully developed; in the 9, smaller, of fewer 
feathers. Tarsus slightly shorter than middle toe and claw. Tail about 4 as long as the wing ; 


592 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — GALLIN4i — ALECTOROPODES. 


outstretched feet not reaching to its end. Bulk of the Bob-white, but longer; 10.00-11.50; 
wing 4.00 or more; tail 3.00 or more. Coloration chiefly in masses; sexes unlike. @ with 
the chin and throat jet-black, sharply bordered with white; a white line across the vertex and 
along the sides of the crown, bordered behind by black; 9 without these head-markings. 
Eggs colored. Two elegant species in the U. 8. 

Analysis of Species. 


d middle of belly orange-chestnut ; sides like back, with white stripes ; hind-head smoky-brown ; fore- 
head chiefly whitish, with white loralline . .. . . californica 575 


gd middle of belly jet-black ; sides chestnut with white stripes; hind-head chestnut ; fore-head chiefly 
fede Bde ed teal, z . gambeli 576 


black ; no white loral line 


Fig. 412. California Helmet Quail, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


575. L. californica, (Lat. Californian. Fig. 412.) CALIFORNIAN PARTRIDGE. VALLEY QUAIL 
of the Californians. @: With a small white line from bill to eye ; forehead whitish with black 
lines; occiput smoky-brown ; nuchal and cervical feathers with very dark edging and shaft-lines, 
and fine whitish speckling. General color of upper parts ashy, with strong olive-brown gloss, 
the edging of the inner quills brownish-orange. Fore breast slaty-blue ; other under parts tawny, 
deepening centrally into rich golden-brown or orange-chestuut, all the feathers sharply edged 
with jet-black ; sides olive-ashy like the back, with sharp white stripes; vent, flanks, and 
crissum tawny, with dark stripes. Length 10.00-11.00; wing 4.25; tail 3.75; tarsus 1.25; 
middle toe and claw rather more. Besides lacking the definite head-markings, the 9 wants 
the rich sienna color of the under parts, which are whitish or tawny with black semicireles 


576. 


213. 


577. 


TETRAONIDZE — ODONTOPHORINZ: PARTRIDGES OR QUAIL. 593 


as in the @; the breast is olive-gray. The changes of plumage are parallel with those of ZL. 
gambeli. Lower portions of California and Oregon; KE. nearly to the Colorado River; abun- 
dant. A fine species, eutirely distinct from the next, but habits and manners in all respects 
the saine; replaces L. gambeli westward. Eggs speckled, as in the next. 
L. gam/beli. (To Wm. Gambel. Fig. 410.) Gamprr’s Parrripcr. ARIZONA QUAIL. 
&: Without white loral line; forehead black with whitish lines; occiput chestnut ; nuchal and 
cervical feathers with dark shaft lines, but few dark edgings or none, and no white speckling. 
General color of upper parts clear ash, the edgiug of the inner quills white. Fore-breast like 
the back ; other under parts whitish, the middle of the belly with a large jet-black patch; sides 
rich purplish-chestnut, with sharp white stripes; vent, flanks and crissum white with dusky 
streaks. Billblack; iris brown. Besides lacking the definite head-markings, the 9 wants the 
black abdominal area, where the feathers are whitish with dark lengthwise touches; crest dark 
brown, not recurved, and fewer-feathered than that of the cock. Top of head grayish-brown, 
nearly uniforin from bill to nape; throat grayish-white with slight dark pencilling. Chicks, 
in the down: Bill above reddish, nearly white below; feet dull flesh-color. Head dingy 
yellowish, with a large brown spot on the occiput, a few black, white-streaked feathers on 
crown, and the crest sprouting in a week or two. Upper parts grayish-brown mottled with 
black spots, and conspicuously striped with white lines. Outer webs of the sprouting quills 
marked with blackish and whitish. Throat white; other under parts narrowly barred with 
black and tawny-white, striped lengthwise with pure white. Sprouting tail-feathers like the 
primaries. Pullets, quarter-grown, 6-7 inches long: Leaden-gray, becoming tawny on the 
wings, which are still a little mottled as above described; below, light gray, nearly white on 
throat and belly. Breast waved with light and dark gray, with traces of the white stripes. 
Sides under the wings slightly fulvous or rufescent, but without definite stripes. Quills plain 
dusky; tail-feathers more plumbeous, marked with blackish and whitish. A broad white 
superciliary line. With the progress of the fall moult this dress changes for one like that of 
the adults, and the sexes are soon distinguishable. Eggs 1.25 1.00, pyramidal, narrow and 
pointed at one end, very obtuse the other; color buff or rich creamy, dotted and spotted all 
over with bright brown, splashed here and there with large blotches of the same; number in 
definite — 8-12 or more. Nest like that of any other partridge. New Mexico and Arizona, 
both in mountains and valleys, very abundant; E. to Pecos and San Elizario, Texas, beyond 
which replaced by the Massena partridge; W. to Colorado R. and slightly beyond; N. to 
Utah; 5. into Mexico. The characteristic game bird of Arizona. 
CALLIPEP'LA. (Gr. cadduném)os, kallipeplos, beautifully arrayed.) SHELL Quan. General 
character of Lophortyz, but head with a short, full, soft crest as in the Massena quail (fig. 413). 
Coloration of under parts producing a shelly or scaly appearance. Sexes nearly alike. Eggs 
not heavily colored. One U. 8. species. 
C. squama'ta. (Lat. squamata, squamous, seale-like.) Scatep Parrrincr. BLUuE 
Quam. g, adult: General color bluish-plumbeous, shading into olive-brown on the back 
and wings and to rufous on the under parts behind the wings, with a large abdominal area of 
orange-brown ; the feathers of the neck all around, and most of those of the under parts, 
sharply edged with black, producing a peculiar shell-like appearance; on the breast the 
feathers also with concealed reddish shaft-lines. Long feathers of the sides like the back in 
color, with white brown-edged stripes or long-oval spots. On the flanks and crissum the 
feathers lose the scaly appearance, becoming blended rusty-brown, with linear, sagittate, or 
cordate dark spots. Inner secondaries edged with buff or whitish, affording to the folded wing 
the lengthwise stripe so characteristic of N. A. partridges. Quills plain fuscous ; tail-feathers 
plumbeous. No definite stripes about the head; crest dark brown ending in pure white. 
Length 10.00-11.00 ; extent 14.50-15.50; wing 4.50; tail 3.50; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and 
claw 1.04. @ little different; head markings the same; the orange-brown of the belly 
38 : 


214. 


578. 


215. 


ood SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — GALLIN Ai — ALECTOROPODES. 


reduced or wanting ; size rather less. Texas, N.M., Ariz. and southward; generally dispersed, 
but far less numerous than the top-knot quails, and apparently more southern; extends along 
the Rio Grande to about 100 miles from the coast. Eggs 10-12-16, rather elliptical than con- 
ical, 1.25 0.98, white, minutely freckled with buff. 

CYRTO/'NYX. (Gr. xkuprés, kurtos, bent, crooked; éwv&, onux, nail, claw.) HarLEeQquin 
Quan. Bill very stout. Head with a full, soft, depressed occipital crest. Tail very short, 
soft, almost hidden by the coverts, scarcely or not half as long as the wings. Wing-coverts 
and inner quills highly developed, folding entirely over the primaries. Feet small; tarsus 
rather shorter than middle toe and claw ; toes short, but with remarkably developed claws. A 
very distinct genus. Plumage of head of ¢ curiously striped; of under parts ocellated. Sexes 
very unlike. 

C. masse’na. (To André Massena, Prince D’Essling and Marshal of France. Fig. 413.) Mas- 
SENA PARTRIDGE. (, adult: Upper parts intimately waved with black and reddish-brown 
and tawny-brown, and inarked with sharp buff or whitish shaft-lines ; on the wings the irregular 
black variegation changing to black bars and round spots, in regular paired series on each 
feather. Outer quills fuscous, their outer webs 
spotted with white or buff. Under parts crowded 
with innumerable round white spots on a dark 
ground, several pairs on each feather; the middle 
line of the breast and belly mahogany-colored, 
the flanks, vent, and crissum velvety-black. Top 
of head black in front, with slight white touches, 
changing on the crest to brown. Sides of head 
and throat fantastically striped with black and 
white; a broad black throat-patch; another on 
the cheeks, across lores and alongside of crown; 
a third on the ear-coverts ; a fourth bordering the 
white all around behind. Length about 9.00; 
extent 17.00; wing 4.75; tail 2.00; tarsus 1.20; 
middle toe and claw 1.60; its claw alone 0.50. 
Q, adult: Upper parts as in the g, but the markings of the wings less regular, more assimi- 
lated with the general variegation, and the tone more fulvous. No peculiar marks on head; 
throat whitish or buff; general tone of the under parts pale purplish-cinnamon, with fine 
mottling of black and white on each feather. Young ¢: Resembling the hen, but the under 
parts ochrey or whitish with black variegation. Chicks, scarcely fledged, 3-4 inches long: 
Bill reddish above, whitish below; feet dull brownish. Above, light warm brown, varied 
with black, boldly striped with white — each feather having a hammer-headed white shaft- 
line. Some inner wing-quills like the back ; others dusky with whitish shafts, broken-barred 
with buff, chiefly on outer webs. Below, buffy-white, with numberless spots of blackish paired 
on each feather, sharp and circular on breast, further back widening to bars. A singular 
species, very showy in full plumage, inhabiting portions ot Texas, N. M., and Ariz.; in the 
latter, W. to Fort Whipple at least. 


Fic. 413. — Massena Quail, g, nat. size. 


[Subfamily PERDICINE: Old World Partridges and Quail. 


It becomes necessary to introduce this group, in consequence of the naturalization of the 
imported Migratory or Messina Quail of Europe. I know of no characters to distinguish it 
from Odontophorine, and doubt that there are any. ] 

COTUR'NIX. (Lat. coturnix, a quail; from its note.) Bill smaller and much slenderer than 
that of any of the foregoing genera of Odontophorine; nasal fossee feathered, except on the 
tumid nasal scale. Wings of moderate length, little vaulted and not rounded, pointed by the 


579, 


TETRAONID AR — PERDICINA!: OLD WORLD QUAIL. 595 


1st-3d quills, the 1st not shorter than the next. First primary emarginate on inner web ; 2d 
and 3d sinuate on outer web. Tail extremely short and slight, not half as long as the wing, 
pointed, its feathers very soft, the central pair lanceolate. Feet small; tarsus shorter than iniddle 
toe and claw, slightly feathered above in front, with two rows of alternating large scutella in 
front, two rows of smaller rounded scales meeting in a ridge behind, the sides filled in with 
small plates. Size smaller than that of any of the foregoing species ; pattern of coloration 
somewhat as in Ortyx ; sexes nearly alike. 

C. dactyli/sonans. (Gr. ddxrvdos, daktulos, the finger; a metrical measure consisting of a 
long and two short syllables; Lat. sonans, sounding. Fig. 414.) Messina QualL. MiaRa- 


Fia. 414. —Common Quail of Europe, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


TORY QuaIL. Common Quay of Europe. Adult ¢ 9: Upper parts variegated with buff 
or whitish and black upon a mixed reddish-brown aud gray ground, the most conspicuous mark- 
ings being sharp lance-linear lengthwise stripes of buff or whitish over most of the upper parts, 
these dashes mostly edged with black ; other less prominent buff or whitish cross-bars, several 
to a feather, likewise framed in black. Crown mixed brown and black, with sharp median and 
lateral buff stripes. Throat white, bounded before by a dark bar curving down behind the 
auriculars ; behind, by a necklace of ruddy-brown, blackish, or whitish spots; chin varied with 
dark marks in advance of the auricular bar. Under parts fading to whitish from the buff or 
pale yellowish-brown breast, without any dark crossbars, but the long feathers of the sides and 
flanks with large and conspicuous white shaft-stripes and otherwise variegated with black, 


596 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZL. 


brown, and buff. Primaries fuscous, spotted with light brown on outer webs; secondaries 
similar, but the markings becoming bars on both webs. Tail-feathers brownish-black, much 
varied with shaft-lincs, cross-bars, aud edgings of buff; crissum immaculate, like the abdomen. 
Bill dark ; feet pale: iris dark brown. Length about 7.00; wing 3.75; tail 1.75; tarsus 1.00; 
middle toe and claw rather more. Europe, Asia, ete., recently imported and turned loose in 
considerable numbers in the U. 8., as in New England; but its permanent naturalization is 
stili open to question. If one will compare this bird with the bob-white he will see how very 
different is the Old World quail from our Ortyzx, or any other birds of this country called 
“ quail;” but that itresembles Ortyx more nearly than the European partridge, Perdix cinerea, 
does; so that, if we must borrow a name from any Old World birds for our species of Ortyz, 
Lophortyx, Callipepla, etc., the term ‘ quail’ is rather more appropriate than ‘ partridge.’ 


VII. Order LIMICOLZ: Shore-birds. 


Commonly known as the great ‘‘ plover-snipe group,” from the circumstance that the 
pluvialine and scolopacine birds form the bulk of the order, which is practically equivalent to 
the Charadriomorphe of Huxley. The species average of small size, with rounded or de- 
pressed (never extremely compressed) body, and live in open places on the ground, usually by 
the water's edge. With rare exceptions, the head is completely feathered; the general ptery- 
losis is of a nearly uniform pattern. The osteological characters are shared to some extent by 
certain swimming birds, as Gulls and Auks; the palate is schizognathous; the nasal bones are 
normally schizorhinal; the angle of the mandible is produced into a slender hooked process ; 
the maxillo-palatines are thin and scroll-like; there are prominent basipterygoid processes ; 
the rostral bones are slender, often much elongated ; the sternum is usually doubly, sometimes 
singly, notched behind ; the carotids are double ; the syringeal muscles not more than one pair. 
The physiological nature is precocial and ptilopeedic; the eggs, averaging four, as a rule are 
laid on the ground in a rude nest or bare depression; the young hatch clothed and able to run 
about. The food is insects, worms, and other small or soft animals, either picked up from the 
surface, or probed for in soft sand or mud, or forced to rise by stamping with the feet on the 
ground ; from this latter circumstance, the birds have been named Calcatores (stampers). 
With a few exceptions, the wing is long, thin, flat and pointed, with narrow stiff primaries, 
rapidly graduated from 1st to 10th; secondaries in turn rapidly lengthening from without 
inward, the posterior border of the wing thus showing two salient points separated by a deep 
emargination. The tail, never long, is commonly quite short, and has from 12 (the usual 
number) up to 20 or even 26 feathers (in one remarkable group of Snipe). The legs are 
commonly lengthened, sometimes extremely so; rarely quite short, and are usually slender ; 
they are indifferently scutellate or reticulate, or both. The feathers rarely reach the suffrago. 
The toes are short (as compared with the case of Herons and Rails), the anterior usually semi- 
palmate, frequently cleft to the base, only palmate in Recurvirostra and only lobate in Phalaro- 
podide. The hinder is always short and elevated, or absent. The length of the phalanges 
of the anterior toes decreases from the basal to the penultimate. The lower part of the crus 
never has feathers inserted upon it, though the leg may appear feathered to the suffrago, 
owing to the length of the feathers. The bill varies much in length and contour, but is almost 
always slender, contracted from the frontal region of the skull, and is as long as, or mueh longer 
than, the head, representing the ‘ pressirostral” (pluvialine) and ‘‘ longirostral” (scolopacine) 
types. Furthermore, it is generally in large part, if not entirely, covered with softish skin, 
often membranous and sensitive to the very tip, and only rarely hard throughout. The nostril 
is generally a slit in the membranous part, and probably never feathered. 

Most. of the families of this order are well represented in this country, and will be found 
fully characterized beyond. The position of Parride is in question, and it probably belongs here 
rather than among the families where it is ranged (beyond). There are several outlying or 


CHARADRIIDA— CHARADRHN 4): PLOVER. 597 


inosculating families in the vicinity of Limicole and Alectorides, of uncertain position. The 
largest of these is the Bustard family, Otidid@, which connects Limicole and A lectorides xo 
perfectly, that its position has long wavered between these two orders ; the balance of evidence 
favors its reference to the latter. The typical families are Charadruda aud Scolopacide. 


38. Family CHARADRIIDA#: Plover. 


This is a large and impor- 
tant family of nearly a huu- 
dred species, of all parts of 
the world. Its limits are nat 
settled, there being a few 
forms sometimes referred here, 
sometinies made the types of 
distinct families. The Glare- 
oles (Glareolida) are a re- 
markable Old) World form, 
like long-legged swallows, 
with a cuckoo’s bill; the tail 
is forked; there are four toes; 
the wings are extremely long 
and pointed; the tarsi are 
scutellate ; the middle claw 
denticulate. The  Coursers 
(Cursortine) are another Old 
World type, near the Bns- 
tards, of one or two genera 
and less than ten species. In both of these the gape of the mouth is longer than in the true 
plovers; the hind toe, as usual for this family, is absent in the Coursers. The thick-kuees, 
(Gidicnemine) are more plover-like birds, with one exception belonging to the Old World, 
comprising about eight species of the genera Gédicnemus and Esacus ; they are related to 
the Bustards, and most pluvialiue birds appear to fall in the 


Fie. 415. — A Plover, the European Lapwing, reduced. (From Dixon.) 


54. Subfamily CHARADRIINA: True Piover. 


Toes generally three, the hinder absent (excepting, among our forms, Squatarola, Vanellus, 
and Aphriza) ; tarsus reticulate, longer than the middle toe; toes with a basal web (cleft in 
Aphriza) ; tibie naked below. Bill of moderate length, much shorter or not longer than the 
head, shaped somewhat like that of a Pigeon, with a convex horny terminal portion, con- 
tracted behind this; the nasal fossee rather short and wide, filled with soft skin in which the 
nostrils open as a slit, not basal, and perforate. Gape very short, reaching a little beyond base 
of culmen. Wings long and pointed, reaching, when folded, to or beyond the end of the tail, 
and sometimes spurred ; crissal feathers long and full; tail short, generally nearly even and of 
12 feathers; body plump; neck short and thick; head large, globose, sloping rapidly to the 
small base of the bill, usually fully feathered. Size moderate or small. 

Our species (excepting Aphriza, if really belonging here) are very closely related, and will 
be readily recognized by the foregoing characters. There are in all perhaps sixty species. 
The most singular of them is the Anarhynchus frontalis, in which the bill is bent sideways. 
Thinornis zelandie of New Zealand, Phegornis mitchelli and Oreophilus totanirostris of Chili, 
are peculiar forms. Species of Chettusia, Lobivanellus and Hoplopterus have fleshy wattles, 
or a tubercle, often developed into a spine, on the wing, or both; some of these, and others, 


216. 


580. 


598 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLA. 


are crested. These are all near Vanellus proper, and a part of them are 4-toed. Our species 
are found along the seashore, by the water’s edge in other open places, and in dry plains and 
fields. They all perform extensive migrations, appearing with great regularity in the spring 
and fall, and most of them breed far northward. They are all more or less gregarious, except 
when breeding. They run and fly with great rapidity; the voice is a mellow whistle; the 
food is chiefly of an animal nature. The eggs are commonly four in number, speckled, very 
large at one end and pointed at the other, placed with the small ends together in a slight nest 
or mere depression in the ground. The sexes are generally similar, but the changes with age 


and season are great. 
Analysis of Genera. 


Toes 4. 
Head not crested. 
Tarsi scutellate in front ; toesclefttobase. . 2... 1... 1 1 ew ee ee  « Aphriza 221 
Tarsi reticulate ; toes with basalweb. . ........ 6. -+ 4... 6. .Squatarola 216 
Head with along flowing crest . 2. 2. 2. 1. 1 1 ew ew ee ww we we eee ww © )~©6Vaanellus 220 
Toes 3. 


Plumage of upper parts speckled; no rings or bands of color about head or neck . . . Charadrius 217 
Plumage of upper parts not speckled ; rings or bands of color about head and neck. 
Tarsus not nearly twice as long as middle toe without claw. . . . .. .. + . Ggialites 218 
Tarsus about twice as long as middle toe without claw. . . ... .. =. . + « Podasocys 219 
SQUATARO/LA. (Ital. squatarola, name of the species. Fig. 416.) Four-Trorp PLoveEr. 
A small but distinct hind toe, contrary to the rule in this family. Tail less than half as long as 
wing. Tarsus much longer than middle toe and 
claw. Tibia bare below, reticulate like the 
tarsus. Basal web between outer and middle 
toes. Upper plumage speckled, lower black or 
white ; no rings or bars of color about head or 
neck. Legs dark-colored. Tail fully barred. 
Seasonal changes of plumage very great; sexes 
alike. 
S. helve’tica. (Lat. Helvetica, Helvetian, Swiss. 
Fig. 417.) Swiss PLover. BLAcK-BELLIED 
Piover. BULL-HEAD PLOVER. WHISTLING 
FireLp PLover. Ox-EYE. ¢ 9, in summer: ‘bs 
Upper parts fretted with blackish and ashy-white, Fig. 416. — Bill and hind toe of Squatarola, nat. 
the feathers being white basally, then black, ‘ize (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 
tipped and usually scalloped with white. Upper tail-coverts mostly white, with few dark 
touches. Fore-head, line over eye and thence more broadly over side of neck, the lining of 
wings, tibia, vent and under tail-coverts, white. Sides of head to an extent embracing the 
eyes, axillary plumes, and entire under parts (except as said), black. Tail closely barred with 
black and white. Primaries dark brown, blackening at tips, with large basal areas and a 
portion of their shafts, white. Bill and feet black. Length 11.00-12.00; wing 7.00-7.50; 
tail 3.00; bill 1.00-1.25; tarsus 2.00; middle toe and claw 1.33; tibia bare 1.00. But such 
a bird as this rarely seen in the U.S. @ 9, old, in fall and winter, as usually seen in U. S. 
Under parts white or whitish, anteriorly speckled or mottled with grayish-brown; axillary 
plumes, however, black, as before; a good color-mark of the species, in any plumage, in com- 
parison with the golden plover. Birds changing show every mixture of black and white below. 
& @, young: Similar to winter adults, but upper parts speckled with golden-yellow, as in 
C. dominicus, most of the feathers having edgings of this color. Feet grayish-blue. A large 
stout plover, with a little hind toe, commonly diffused over most parts of the world: in America, 
breeding in Arctic regions, flocking south and north in fall and spring, preferably coastwise ; 
common, but less so than C. dominicus. Eggs 4, pyriform, 1.90 to 2.80 long by 1.40 to 1.45 
broad ; drab or dark brownish clay-color, very heavily marked, especially on the larger half of 


CHARADRIIDZE: CHARADRIINZ: PLOVER. 599 


the shell, with irregular blotches of brownish-black, smaller spots being more thinly distributed 
over the rest of the surface; the ees’ about the great end usually confluent and wreathy ; 
a few pale markings in the 
shell. 

217. CHARA’DRIUS. (Gr. 
xapabpt0os, charadrios, Lat. 
charadrius, a plover.) 
GOLDEN PLovers. Char- 
acters as in Squatarola, 
but no hind toe. (This 
is the type-genus of the 
whole family. The several 
species are closely related : 
to our long known golden 
plover have lately been 
added as birds of N. A. © 
both the European species 
and the Asiatic variety ; 


the former from its occur- 
reuce in Greenland, the Fig. 417. — Black-bellied Plover, in summer, reduced. (From Lewis.) 


latter in Alaska. U.S. birds are all C. dominicus, — the C. virginicus of most authors.) 


p Analysis of Species. 
Lining of wings ashy. 


Length 10.00-11.00 ; wing 7.00; tail3.00 ; targug1.75 . . . 1. 6 1 + ww wee . + dominicus 681 
Length 9.00-10.00; wing 6.50; tail 2.50; taraus 608 eee Ves a) he. Bee om Ge a efi. 582 
Lining of wings white . . ... Bs ieee tay CDS Hee . : C eh el | pluvialis 583 


581, C.domi/nicus. (Lat. sonia of St. Domingo. Fig. 418. 8.) ia GOLDEN PLOVER. 
FIELD PLOVER. BuLL-HEAD Plover. BuLi-HEAD. ¢ @, in summer: Upper parts black, 
everywhere speckled with golden-yellow, and mostly also with white, the brighter color in excess. 
The markings of individual feathers are a tipping and one or several paired scallops. Hind neck 
less strongly marked than crown or back. ‘Forehead, and long stripe over eye snowy-white. 
Region immediately around bill, sides of head to include eyes, and entire under parts, glossy 

brownish-black. Lining of wings, and aail- 

lars, sooty-gray or ashy. Tail dusky grayish- 
brown, with numerous irregular pale gray bars, 
and reddish-brown shafts; upper tail-coverts 
and rump like back. Primaries fuscous, black- 
ening at tips and whitening at bases of inner 
webs, though without definite white spaces ; 
shafts white for a space. Secondaries and 
many of the coverts, like the primaries, plain 
fuscous, without the golden and white fretwork 
of the back. Bill and feet black. Length 
10.00-11.00; extent 22.50; wing 7.00; tail 

3.00; bill 0.90; tibiee bare 1.00; tarsus 1.75; 

middle toe and claw 1.20. @ 9, in winter, 

and young, much alike, very different from the 
Fic. 418, — Golden Plover, in fall or winter, reducea, PT@eding dress: Upper parts much as before, 

(From Nuttall,after —?) but colors not so pure and intense; and spot- 

ting mostly golden, with little white if any. Front and line over eye not purely white, but 

tawny, with dusky streaks. Tail lacking transverse bars, the feathers being dark grayish- 


582. 


583. 


218. 


584 


600 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZ. 


brown with white or yellow edging and notching. Axillars and lining of wings ashy-gray as 
in summer ; but, as in Squatarola, the chief difference is in the under parts, which have no black, 
being grayish-white, clearest on chin, belly, and erissum, the throat and sides of head streaked, 
the breast and sides of neck and body mottled, with dark grayish-brown. Legs not perfectly 
black. This is the state in which the golden plover is generally seen in the U. S., though 
beautiful black-bellied birds may be found late in the vernal migration. N. Am. at large; 
breeds in the Arctic regions; passes N. and §. in great waves, in spring and fall, affording fine 
sport at the latter season. Eggs 4, similar to those of Squatarola, smaller, and usually paler 
clay color, sometimes whitish ; markings of same tone and pattern; size 1.80-2.00 « 1.35- 
1.40. This is the usual “field plover” of sportsmen; a well-known and highly-esteemed 
game-bird. 

C. d. ful/vus. (Lat. fulvus, yellowish.) AsIATIC GOLDEN PLOVER. Similar; more suffused 
with yellow on head, especially along the superciliary stripe; smaller; length about 9.50; 
wing 6.50 ; tail 2.60; tarsus 1.60 ; middle toe and claw 1.10; bill 0.95. Alaska, from Asia. 

C. pluvia/lis. (Lat. pluvialis, rainy.) EUROPEAN GOLDEN PLovEeR. Like C. dominicus, 
and of same size. Lining of wings white. Greenland, from Europe. 

JEGIA'LITES. (Gr. aiyiadirys, a doer by the sea.) Ring Provers. A genus not easy to 
define with precision, owing to the differences in details of form which the numerous species 
present. Best distinguished from Charadrius by color: upper parts not speckled; lower never 
extensively black. Bars or rings of color about head and neck. Sexes usually distinguishable, 
though similar. Tarsus not twice as long as middle toe without claw. Plates of front of tarsus 
tending to enlarge in two or three special rows, instead of uniform reticulation. We -have 5 
perfectly good N. American species, a variety of one of these (?), and two European estrays. 


Analysis of Species (adult males). 
Bill entirely black. 


Rump chestnut; two black bands on throat and breast . . ..... . 2... +. vociferus 584 
Ruwp plain; one black band on breast. Billstout. . . bs ee ee ee * o © 6Wilsoniis 585 
Rump plain; no complete black bars on breast. Bill aleuider Bebe ne HR dn ans Sen ce we Ma a EDOSUS HOI 


Bill orange or yellow, black-tipped ; or black with orange at base. 
Semipalmate; web between inner and middle toe evident, that between outer and middle reaching 
to end of second joint of middle. 
Heavy black bands on head and neck; colored ring roundeye. . . - « . semipalmatus 586 
No evident web between inner and middle toe; that between outer and middle only reaching to end 
of first joint of middle. 
Heavy black bands on head and neck; one on side of head. 


Nocolored ring round eye. Wingabout5.00.....4.4.4.4. 4... +... hiaticula 689 

A colored ring round eye; wing under 4.50. 2. 2. . 1 1. 1 6 1 ee + ew we . Curonicus 590 
No black band on side of head; colored ring round eye. 

Ring around neck incomplete. © 6 1 1 1 ee ew ee eee ee ee ee + melodus BET 

Ring around neck complete. . 1 1 ee ee we ew we we ee es ) Céreumcinetus 588 


J. voci/ferus. (Lat. vociferus, voice-bearing, noisy. Fig. 419.) Ki~pEER Puover. ¢ 9, 
adult: Above, grayish-brown, with an olive shade, and in high plumage a slight bronzy lustre. 
Rump and upper tail-coverts bright-colored, very variable in tint, from tawny or orange-brown 
to cinnamon-brown or chestnut. Forehead with a white band from eye to eye, more or less 
prolonged as a superciliary streak, and a black band above it. A white collar around hind 
neck, continuous with white of the throat. A black collar around back of neck, continuous 
with a black pectoral band. Back of the latter a black pectoral belt. Thus the fore-parts are 
encircled with one complete black ring, behind which is a black half-ring on breast, before 
which is a complete white ring. A white stripe over and behind eye; a dusky stripe below 
eye. Under parts entirely pure white, except the two pectoral belts. Primary quills blackish ; 
a white space on the outer webs of most of them, forming an oblique series, and a longer white 
space on their inner webs. Secondaries mostly white, but with black areas in increasing size 
from within outward. Long inner secondaries, or tertiaries, like the back. Tail-feathers singu- 


585. 


CHARADRIUDA — CHARADRIN 4: PLOVER. 601 


larly variegated; several inner pairs like the back, insensibly blackening towards ends, then 
lightening again, and usually with rusty tips ; lateral ones gaining more and more of the bright 
color of the rump, with more definite black subterminal bars, and pure white tips ; outermost 
pair mostly white, with the rufous shade, and several broken black bars. The effect of all this 
variegation is very striking when the parts are displayed in flight. Bill black ; eye black, 
with a bright ring around it; legs pale. Length 9.00-10.00 ; extent 20.00; wing 6.00; tail 3.50- 
4.00, proportionally longer and more rounded than usual in this genus; bill 0.80; tibie bare 
0.80; tarsus 1.40; middle toe and claw 1.12. ¢9,young: The black bands replaced by gray } 
upper parts duller and more grayish; and when quite young the feathers of the upper parts 
spotted with rusty brown; rump pale, markings of tail incomplete; but the birds speedily 
acquire a plumage like that of the adults. Downy young: Above, gray with a ruddy tinge ; 
a ring round top of head, aring round neck, 
a stripe down back, and another on each 
side of the colored area, black ; collar round 
back of neck, forehead, and ends of wing- 
tufts, white; tail-tuft and bill black — queer 
little creatures, readily recognized. N. Ain. 
at large, very abundant, breeding anywhere; 
abounds in the West. Not gregarious nor 
maritime ; extensively but somewhat ir- 
regularly migratory. A very noisy bird — 
the curious name is derived from its shrill 
two-syllabled whistle, like hil-deer! kil- 
deer! Nest anywhere in the grass or 
shingle near water. Eggs 4, about 1.50 x 
1.12, of usual wading-bird shape ; ground 
varying from drab through clay-color to 
creamy, marked in endless variation with 
blackish-brown. Kildeers’ eggs and those of Tringotdes macularius do excellent duty in boys’ 
and amateurs’ cabinets for those of most small waders. 

ZE. wilso/nius. (To Alexander Wilson.) Wuuson’s Prover. Adult ¢ 9: Above, pale 
ashy-gray (dry-sand color), the feathers with still paler edges, the shade tending to fulvous on 
the nape and hind neck. A narrow black band across vertex, not reaching to eyes, being cut 
off by white of the forehead which extends backward over each eye to nape. A blackish loral 
stripe, not prolonged behind eye, not meeting its fellow over base of bill, where the white fore- 
head comes down to the bill. A black half-ring on the foreneck, not completed around back 
of neck. White of throat passing around hind-neck as a slight collar. Under parts, excepting 
the black bar, entirely white. Primaries blackish, bleaching towards bases on inner webs, the 
short inner ones also with white on outer webs. Shaft of Ist primary almost entirely white ; 
of others brown, then a long white space, then blackening at end. Secondaries, excepting the 
long inner ones, mostly white on inner webs, dark on outer. Middle and intermediate tail- 
feathers like back, growing dusky toward ends, nearly all with white tips, and the outer one 
or two white. No colored ring round eye. Bill entirely black; extremely large and stout. Legs 
flesh-colored ; outer toe semipalmate, inner cleft. Length 7.00-8.00; wing 4.50-5.00; tail 
2.00, nearly square ; tarsus about 1.10; middle toe and claw 0.90; bill 0.90, not much shorter 
than head. Young: Similar; no black on vertex or lore; a broad band of the color of the 
back across the neck in front. Seacoast of 8. Atlantic and Gulf States, common; N. to the 
middle districts, and rarely to New England; also on the Pacific side to California? S. in 
winter intoS. Am. Eggs laid on the bare shingle of the beach ; usually 3, 1.22 to 1.45 long, 
1.00 to 1.05 broad, pale olive-drab, more greenish in some cases, more clay-colored in others. 


Fie. 419. — Kildeer Plover, nat. size. (Ad. nat. del. E.C.) 


586. 


587. 


588. 


602 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZ. 


thickly marked all over with blackish-brown in irregular sharply-defined spots, splashes and 
fine dots. Note low, piping, and rather plaintive. 

ZB, semipalma’tus. (Liat. semi, half; palmatus, palmated: the species is remarkably distin- 
guished by the extent of the half-webbing between the toes.) SEMIPALMATED PLOVER. 
Rina Prover. Rine-neck. @ 9, adult: Upper parts uniform dark ashy-gray (wet-sand 
color) ; under parts pure white. A broad black ring encircling the neck. In advance of this 
awhite half-collar around back of neck, spreading into the white of the throat. A white 
froutal bar, entirely surrounded by black: 7. e. a black coronal bar and black stripe along lore 
and side of head, meeting its fellow over base of upper mandible. Primaries blackish, with 
narrow white spaces reduced to a portion of the shaft alone on the outer primary ; secondaries 
largely white, and greater coverts white-tipped ; tertiaries like the back. Tail like back, 
the feathers insensibly blackening toward their ends, most of them white-tipped, the outer- 
most nearly all white. An orange ring round eye, very bright. Bill black, with orange base ; 
legs yellowish. Web between outer and middle toe reaching to end of the second joint of the 
latter. Length about 7.00; extent 15.00-15.50; wing 4.75-5.00 ; tail 2.25, rounded ; bill 0.50; 
tarsus 0.90; middle toe and claw the same. Young: No black coronal bar, the white of fore- 
head reaching bill and eyes, and prolonged over the latter; neck-ring and loral stripe gray, 
not black; bill mostly black. Upper parts with slight whitish or rusty edging of the feathers. 
Chick: Upper parts mottled with gray, black, and brown, in no special pattern. Collar round 
neck and under parts white. N. Am. at large, the most abundant and generally diffused of the 
ting-necks, especially plentiful in flocks on the beaches late in the summer and early autumn. 
Breeds northward; eggs 2 to 4, like the kildeer’s; only, of course, distinguishable by much 
smaller size: length 1.20 to 1.40, by 0.90 to 0.95 in breadth. 

B®, melo’dus, (Lat. melodus, melodious.) Piping PLoveR. Pae RinG-neck. @, adult. 
Above, very pale ash, lighter than any other N. A. species. A white half-collar round back of 
neck. A black ring behind this, tending to encircle the neck ; but I have seldom seen it com- 
plete on the cervix, and as a matter of fact it is seldom complete on the fore-neck either; ordi- 
narily a link only on each side of the neck. A black coronal bar from one eye to the other. 
Forehead, sides of head, and entire under parts snowy-white, excepting the black on sides of 
neck, there being no dark bars on lores or sides of head. Primaries dusky, with large white spaces, 
their shafts white for a corresponding extent. Secondaries and greater coverts mostly white ; 
long tertiaries like back. Upper tail-coverts and bases of tail-feathers white ; the latter black- 
ening towards their ends, the outer pair or two entirely white. A colored ring round eye. Bill 
yellow, the end beyond the nasal fossee black — very obtuse and short and stout for its length. 
Web between outer and middle toe not reaching to end of the basal joint of the latter. Rather 
smaller than the last; wing 4.50-4.75 ; tail 2.00-2.25 ; bill under 0.50; tarsus 0.87; middle 
toe and claw 0.75. 9, adult: The coronal bar reduced to a trace, dark brown; the ringing of 
neck reduced to a dusky-gray spot on each side. Young: Resembling ? as just said, but no 
trace of dark color on head and little if any on sides of neck. A very pretty little species, with 
its pale dry-sand colored upper parts and stumpy bill; perfectly distinct from the last, with which 
it is often associated. U.S. and British Provinces, E. of the R. Mts. (beyond which appar- 
ently replaced by A. nivosus) ; abundant along the Atlantic coast of the U. S., breeding N. to the 
St. Lawrence, wintering from the Carolinas southward. Eggs laid preferably on the shingle of 
the beach, while the semipalmated usually goes to some grassy or mossy spot back of the sand. 
Eggs pretty certainly distinguishable from those of the other ring-neck by their lighter color- 
ing — there is much the same difference in tone that there is between the birds themselves ; 
clay-color or palest creamy-brown, sparsely and pretty uniformly marked with blackish-brown 
specks, without spots of any size, or scratchy lines, sometimes mere points ; eggs of about same 
capacity as the ring-neck’s, but rather less elongate and pointed; 1.20 to 1.30 x 0.95 to 1.00. 
Z. m. cireumcince'tus? (Lat. circumcinctus, bound about.) BELTED PipInG PLOVER. A 


589. 


590. 


591. 


CHARADRUDA— CHARADRIINZ: PLOVER. 603 


variety (perhaps only some individuals) with the black necklace complete. Described from the 
Headwaters of the Platte, in Nebraska, July ; probably breeding there. 

. hiati/cula. (Dimin. of Lat. hiatus, a gape; hiaticula being a translation of xapadpros, 
charadrios, because the bird is found about the mouths (hiatus) of rivers.) EUROPEAN RING 
Piover. Size of No. 586, or rather larger, and general aspect he same; no evident web 
between inner and middle toe, that between outer and middle only reaching to end of first joint 
of the latter; no colored ring round eye; one description would answer for the head-markings 
of both, but black bars very heavy; white touches on eye-lids. Upper parts hair-brown. 
Primaries blackish-brown, the outer four or five with white only on the shafts for a space near 
their ends, the white beginning to invade the webs on the fourth or fifth, and evlarging in 
width with diminishing length on the rest. Secondaries white with dark ends of diminishing 
length inwards, till one or two of the short inner ones are almost entirely white ; the long flow- 
ing innermost ones, however, like the back. Tail as in AY. semipalmatus. Length about 
7.50; wing 5.00; tail 2.45 ; bill 0.60, orange, with black tip; tarsus 0.95 ; middle toe and claw 
0.85; feet orange; claws black. Young like that of 4. semipalmatus ; no black on vertex; 
that of side of head and around neck dusky-gray ; whitish front, line over eye, and under eyelid ; 
primaries quite dark with white spaces on shafts and webs well marked ; feathers of upper parts 
with pale beady tips; ends of even middle tail-feathers white. Widely distributed in the Old 
World; Greenland; Cumberland Sound, N. A. (Description from a N. A. specimen.) 

48. curo/nicus. (Lat. curonicus, of Courland, on the Baltic.) European Lesser RInG 
Piover. Closely resembling the last; smaller; black bands not so broad; black of vertex 
and auriculars bordered behind with white; shaft of lst primary alone white; bill extremely 
slender, black, yellow only at base of lower mandible; legs yellowish flesh-color ; a colored 
ring round eye. Length about 6.00; bill 0.60; wing 4.35; tail 2.30; tarsus 0.90. Inhabits 
much of the Old World; questionably N. Am., on the Pacific side. Young: Differs much as 
young hiaticula does. Ring around neck dusky-gray; that on side of head chiefly reduced to 
a loral stripe. No black across vertex; white of forehead soiled. Upper parts darker than in 
adult, in an early stage with pale or fulvous edgings of the feathers. (A. macrorhynchus Ridg.) 
4B. cantia’nus nivo’sus. (Lat. cantianus, Kentish; Lat. nivosus, snowy (white).) Snowy 
Ring Puover g, in breeding dress: Above, pale ashy-gray, little darker than in J. 
melodus. Top of head with a fulvous tinge. A broad black coronal bar from eye to eye. 
A narrower black post-ocular stripe, tending to meet its fellow on nape, and thus encircle 
the fulvous area. A broad black patch on each side of the breast ; no sign of its completion 
above or below ; no complete black loral stripe (as in 4. cantianus), but indication of.such 
in a small dark patch on either side of base of upper mandible. Forehead, continuous with 
line over eye, sides of head excepting the black post-ocular stripe, and whole under parts 
excepting the black lateral breast-patches, snowy-white. No white ring complete around back 
of neck. Primaries blackish, especially at bases and ends, the intermediate extent fuscous ; 
shaft of the Ist white, of others white for a space; nearly all the primaries bleaching toward 
bases of inner webs, but only some of the inner ones with a white area on outer webs. 
Primary coverts like the primaries, but white-tipped. Greater coverts like the back, but 
white-tipped. Secondaries dark brown, bleaching internally and basally in increasing extent 
from without inwards, their shafts white along their respective white portions. Tertiaries like 
back. Several intermediate tail-feathers like back, darkening toward ends ; two or three 
lateral pairs entirely white ; all the feathers more pointed than usual. Bill slender and acute, 
black. Legs black. Length 6.50-7.00; extent 13.50-14.00; wing 4.00-4.25; tail 2.00 or 
less; bill 0.60; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw 0.75. In winter (young ?): Upper plumage 
rather darker than as above said, and less uniform, the individual feathers with pale edges. 
Whole crown like back ; no black or fulvous on head ; forehead white ; lores slightly dusky : 
black of sides of breast replaced by a patch of the color of the back. Bill black ; tarsi livid 


219. 


592. 


220, 


604 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLA. 


bluish; toes blackish. U.S., chiefly west of the R. Mts.; Utah; Cala. coast, breeding and 
wintering; also, coast of Texas. A specimen (4, Corpus Christi, Texas, June 24, Sennett) 
though in midsummer plumage, has no fulvous on head ; no trace of Joral mark; the coronal 
bar, post-ocular stripe, and lateral pectoral blotch dark brown, not black. Eggs 3; tone and 
style of coloration about as in wilsonius; size as in melodus, but markings more numerous and 
scratchy ; 1.20 0.90. (Probably specifically distinct from 4. cantianus.) 

PODASO/CYS. (The Homeric epithet of Achilles, wédas dkvs, podas okus, swift as to his 
feet.) Mountain PiLover. In general, characters of Agialites ; but no black belt or 
patehes on neck or breast; a coronal and loral black bar. Size large. Tail short, half the 
wing, square. Legs very long; tibie nude for a distance $ the length of tarsus. Latter 
more than half as long again as middle toe and claw. Toes very short, the lateral of unequal 
lengths. Tarsus and tibia entirely reticulate. Sexes alike. One species. 

P. monta/nus. (Lat. montanus, of mountains. Badly named: it is a prairie bird.) 
Prairie Piover. “ Mounrain” Prover. ¢ 9, in summer: Upper parts uniform 
grayish-brown; in most breeding individuals the shade is pure, but in many cases the feathers 
are skirted with tawny or ochrey. Under parts entirely white (no black belt or patches); but 
the breast often shaded across with diffuse fulvous or gray. A sharp black loral line from bill 
to eye, cutting off the white forehead and superciliary line from the white of other parts. A 
coronal black bar across the sinciput, varying in width from a mere line to a band nearly half 
the length of crown in width. Quills blackish, the shaft of the first white, of the others white 
for a space ; some of the inner primaries with white spaces toward the bases of the outer webs, 
and the secondaries a little pale on their inner webs. Tertiaries and greater coverts like back, 
the latter white-tipped. Tail-feathers like back, blackening toward ends, the outermost pale 
throughout ; all tipped with whitish. Bill black, slender; legs pale; the toesdarker. Length 
9.50; extent 18.00; wing 5.50-6.00; tail 2.50-3.00; Dill 0.90-1.00; tibiae bare over 0.50; 
tarsus 1.67; middle toe and claw 0.90-1.00. The full breeding dress has not before been fairly 
described. @ 9, in winter: No black coronal or loral stripe; otherwise, generally as in 
summer; but the general plumage more rusty, with more decided wash of color on the breast. 
Young: As last said; whole upper parts rusty from extensive edgings of all the feathers; sides 
of head and neck similarly suffused with tawny. The ground-color of the upper parts is also 
darker than that of the adults. Chick in down: Forehead, sides of head and under parts 
white, with sulphury-yellow tinge. Crown, back and tibiz sulphury or tawny-yellow, closely 
and evenly mottled with black. Unmarked line over eye; black ear-spot. Bill light at 
extreme base below, and at the point. Livid patch of naked skin on neck. An interesting, 
isolated species, plentifully and generally distributed in western U. 8., Plains to the Pacific ; 
N. to 49° at least. I have shot it in Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, New Mexico (June), 
Arizona, Montana (49°, June), California coast (November), ete. It is not EHudromias, 
and sufficiently unlike Agialites. It inhabits the most sterile prairie as well as better watered 
regions, quite independently of water, and is not in the least aquatic ; even on the Cala. coast 
it hauuts the plain, never the marsh, mud-flat, or beach. Feeds chiefly upon insects, especially 
grasshoppers, and is generally seen in loose straggling companies of small extent. Nest any- 
where on the bare prairie; eggs 3-4; 1.40 to 1.50 long, by 1.10 broad, less pointed than 
plovers’ eggs usually are, olive-drab with a brown shade, profusely dotted all over, but espe- 
cially at the larger end, with blackish, dark brown and neutral tint; the markings all mere dots 
and points, the largest scarcely exceeding a pin’s head. June, July. 

VANEL'LUS. (Lat. vanellus or vannellus, diminutive of vannus, a fan.) Lapwines. Bill 
slender, shorter than head, perfectly pluvialine. Legs long ; tibia much denuded below ; tarsus 
greatly longer than middle toe and claw. A web between bases of middle and outer toes; inner 
toe cleft to the base. A small hind toe. Wings very long, folding to end of the long square 
tail, but rounded, 2d 5th primaries subequal and longest, Ast about equal to 7th; primaries 


593. 


221. 


594. 


CHARADRIIDE — APHRIZINZE: SURF-BIRDS. 605 


very broad, 3 or 4 outer ones much narrowed toward end. A long thin recurved occipital crest 
of filamentous feathers. Plumage of upper parts highly lustrous with metallic iridescence. 
V.crista'tus. (Lat. cristatus, crested. Fig. 415.) Crestep Lapwine. Adult $: Top and 
front of head, including the 2-3 inch long crest, throat-line, and large pectoral area, glossy black. 
Sides of head mostly, and sides of neck, white, on hind neck mixed with gray. Upper and 
under tail-coverts chestnut or orange-brown. Under parts, except as said, snowy-white. Tail 
white, with broad black bar at ends of feathers excepting outermost, tips of all narrowly white. 
Upper parts iridescent green, passing on wings to violet-purple and steel-blue. Quills glossy 
blue-black, several outer primaries fading to grayish-white on the narrow terminal portion, 
the secondaries white at base. Bill black; feet red. This splendid wanton of the crest 
inhabits Europe, etc., and has occurred in Greenland. 


55. ? Subfamily APHRIZINA: Surf-birds. 


The peculiarities of the single species seem to be super-generic, but the position of 
Aphriza is still open to question ; as may be judged from the following diagnosis. 
APHRUZA. (Gr. ddpés, aphros, sea-foam ; (aw, zao, I live: badly formed, but euphonious.) 
Surr-sirps. Bill plover-like, shorter than head, stout at base, contracted in continuity, with 
enlarged horny termination ; both mandibles deeply grooved to their horny ends; nostrils sub- 
basal, close to commissure, linear, perforate ; feathers reaching equally far forward on side of 
each mandible, much farther in interramal space. Wings very long and acute, folding to or 
beyond end of tail. 1st primary longest, all rapidly graduated; flowing inner quills not nearly 
reaching point of wing. Tail very short, square, less than one half as long as wing, 12- 
feathered. Feet scolopacine, with well-developed hind toe; short and stout, much as in Strep- 
silas ; tibiee naked below, but the feathers falling to the suffrago; tarsus little longer than 
middle toe and claw, reticulate, scutellate in front; toes cleft to the base, lateral of equal 
lengths, reaching base of middle claw ; inner edge of middle claw dilated and jagged. General 
character of plumage, in its pattern of coloration and seasonal changes, as in Tringee. One 
species; a remarkable isolated form, perhaps a plover and connecting this family with the 
next by close relationships with Strepsilas, but with hind toe as well developed as usual in 
Sandpipers, and general appearance rather sandpiper-like than plover-like. Aphrizine might 
go under Hematopodide next to Strepsilas ; or, perhaps better, Aphriza and Strepsilas might 
together coustitute a family APHRIZID&, next to, but apart from Hematopodide. 
A. virga/ta. (Lat. virgata, striped.) Surr-srrp. In summer: Dark ashy-brown, streaked 
with whitish on head and neck, varied with rufous and black on the back and wings. Upper 
tail-coverts and basal half or more of tail pure white; rest of tail black, white-tipped. Under 
parts white or ashy-white, variously marked with brownish-black; the throat and fore breast 
narrowly streaked, the streaks changing on the breast to curved bars, and there very profuse, 
on other under parts sparse and spotty. Bases and shafts of primaries, tips of most of them, 
greater part of the secondaries, and tips of greater coverts, white; exposed portions of primaries 
blackish. Bill black, flesh-colored at base below; legs dusky greenish? In winter: 
Plumage of the head, neck, breast, and upper parts nearly uniform dusky brown, unvaried 
with white or reddish, but with obsoletely darker shaft-lines; white under parts slightly 
spotty; quills and tail-feathers as in summer. Length 9.00-10.00; extent 17.00 or more; 
wing 6.50-7.00; tail 2.75; bill 1.00; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw 1.10. Varies greatly 
in plumage with age and season, but unmistakable in any guise. Extensively dispersed over 
the coasts and islands of the Pacific; along whole W. coast of N. A. In Alaska, according to 
Nelson, it occurs N. to Bering’s Strait ; and about St. Michael’s frequents in August the rocky 
shores of the small outlying islands, and the capes whose rugged shore-lines afford congenial 
resorts to the surf-birds and the Heteroscelus incanus. 


222. 


595. 


596. 


606 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZE. 


389. Family HAMATOPODIDZ: Oyster-catchers. Turnstones. 


A small family of two genera and six or eight species, with the bill hard, and either acute 
or truncate, the nasal fosse@ short, broad, and shallow; the legs short, stout, brightly-colored. 
The two following genera differ much — in fact, more than Aphriza does from Strepsilas ; it 
is unnecessary to give a formal analysis. Each should be type of a subfamily at least. 


56. Subfamily HEMATOPODINZ: Oyster-catchers. 


HA2MA/TOPUS. (Gr. aisaromois, haimatopous, red-footed ; aipa, haima, blood, mods, pous, 
foot.) OYSTER-CATCHERS. No hind toe. Front toes with basal webbing, conspicuous between 
middle and outer, and broadly fringed with membrane continuous with the webs to the ends. 
Tarsus longer than middle toe 
and claw, reticulate, the plates 
in front enlarged; shorter than 
bill. Tuibie briefly bare below. 
Legs as a whole very stout, 
coarse and rough, and light- 
colored. Wings long and 
pointed ; 1st and 2d quills sub- 
equal and longest. Tail short, 

Fig. 420. — Bill of Oyster-catcher, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) square, scarcely or not half as 
long as the wing. Bill peculiar —longer than tarsus, twice as long as head, constricted near 
the base, much compressed, almost like a knife-blade toward end, and truncate, something 
like a woodpecker’s (it is an efficient instrument for prying open the shells of bivalve mol- 
lusks), hard, straight or deflected sideways, highly colored (fig. 420.) Nasal groove very short, 
broad, and shallow; grooving of lower mandible slight; interramal space very short, scarcely a 
third the Jength of the long ascending gonys. Nostrils remote from the feathers, linear, close 
to edge of bill. Size large. Sexes similar. Coloration dark and white, in masses. Several 
species, inhabiting the sea-coasts of most countries. 


Analysis of Species. 

Head, neck and upper back glossy-black; belly white. . . . . . 1. 6 2. ee «© «© . . ostrilegus 595 

Head and neck glossy-black; back smoky-brown; belly white .. ......... . palliatus 596 

Head and neck glossy-black; back and belly smoky-brown . WS whi Sr ta ee Seo as niger 597 
H. ostri/legus. (Lat. ostre@a, an oyster; lego, I gather. Fig. 421.) EuRoPEAN OYSTER- 
CATCHER (oyster-opener would be a better name, as oysters do not run fast). Similar to the 
next to be described. Upper parts glossy-black, like the head and neck. Quills black, broadly 
margined with white on inner webs excepting towards end, and also with isolated white 
shafts and spaces near end. Back below, interscapulars, rump, and upper tail-coverts entirely 
white, as well as bases of the tail-feathers. Length about 16.00; bill about 3.00; wing 9.50; 
tail 4.30; tarsus nearly 2.00. Europe, Asia, Africa; N. Am. as occurring in Greenland. 
H. pallia‘tus. (Lat. palliatus, wearing the pallium, a cloak.) AMERICAN OYSTER-CATCHER. 
Brown-BACKED OystTER-cATCHER. Adult g 9: Bill vermilion or coral-red, changing to 
yellow at end. Feet pale purplish flesh-color, drying dingy yellowish. Eyes and ring around 
them red or orange. Whole head and neck all around glossy-black, frequently overcast with 
an ashy or glaucous shade. Back and wing-coverts smoky-brown —the contrast with the 
head and neck decided. Rump and central field of upper tail-coverts like back (not white) ; 
lateral and longest central coverts white. Tail-feathers white at base for nearly the space 
covered by the coverts, on the lateral feathers rather farther; then like back, blackening at 
ends. Tertiaries and long inner secondaries like back; next few secondaries pure white ; rest 
gaining dark color in increasing amount; the white of the secondaries forming with the long 


597. 


HAMATOPODIDA — HAMATOPODINZA: OYSTER-CATCHERS. 607 


white tips of the greater coverts a conspicuous broad oblique white bar. Primaries dusky, 
blackening toward end, touched with white at bases of the inner webs of longer ones, with white 
on outer webs of the short inner ones, but no isolated white subterminal spaces. (Thus much 
less white on wings and tail than in ostrilegus, besides the difference in color of the buck ; 
though some allowance in either case must be made for nurmal variation from the minuteness 
of my description.) Entire under parts pure white, including lining of wings, where, however, 
a few dusky feathers commonly show along the edge. Length 17.00-21.00; extent 30.00-36.00 ; 
wing 10.00 or more; tail 4.00 or more; tarsus 2.00 or more; middle toe and claw under 2.00. 
Bill 3 or 4 inches long, varying in shape with almost every specimen, with wear and tear under 


Fic. 421. — European Oyster-catcher, 4 nat. size, (From Brelim.) 


the rough usage to which it is subjected; ordinarily both mandibles truncated ; often the lower, 
sometimes buth, acute. Bills worn thinnest and most knife-blade-like towards end are often 
bent sideways, as if from habitual use of them in a particular direction. N. Am., C.andS. Am. 

almost entirely coast-wise, and chiefly along the Atlantic, but also on the Pacific side. Mie 
tory all along, wintering from the middle districts southward, breeding in abundance ae 
irregularly at different points. There are extensive breeding resorts along the Virginia coast 

H. niger. (Lat. niger, black.) Buack OysTER-caTcHER. Size and shape of the fone 
going. Head and neck the same, but no white on eye-lids, and no white anywhere; rest of 
plumage dark smoky-brown, blackening on wings-quills and tail-feathers. Pacific ne 


2238. 


608 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LIMICOLZA. 


57. Subfamily STREPSILAINAE: Turnstones. 


The character of the subfamily should be constructed to 
include Aphriza, unless Strepsilas and Aphriza may con- 
stitute two subfamilies of a family Aphrizide. (See p. 605, 
under Aphrizine.) 

STREP'SILAS. (Gr. orpéyus, strepsis, a turning over, 
has, las, astone. Fig. 422.) Turnsrones. Bill shorter 
than head, not longer than tarsus, constricted at base, then : 
tapering to an acute tip, almost a little recurved. Culmen Fic. 422,— Bill of Turnstone, nat. 
straight or a little concave, especially over nostrils; com- fines (Ad nat, del. B.C.) 

missure straight or slightly recurved; under outline curving up from the base, or straight to 
angle, then gonys ascending. Nasal fossee short and broad, about half the length of the bill; 


Fia. 423. — Turnstone, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


grooving of under mandible short and shallow. Gonys longer than mandibular rani. Wings 
long and pointed. Tail short, a little rounded, scarcely or not half as long as wing. Legs 
short and stout ; tibiz little denuded ; tarsus scutellate in front, reticulate on sides and behind, 
about as long as middle toe and claw. Toes 4, the hinder short, but as well developed as in 
sandpipers generally, the front toes cleft to the base. Claws curved, compressed, acute. 
There is probably but one cosmopolitan species, the scientific and vernacular names of which 
are both derived from its habit of turning over pebbles along the shore in search of food. 


HAVMATOPODIDA — STREPSILAINA): TURNSTONES. 609 


Analysis of Species. 
Pied with black, white, and chestnut ; feetorange . . ...... +... + ss s + « interpres 598 
Blackish and white ; feetdark?. . 1. 1. 6 ee ee ee ee ee we we . melanocephatus 599 


598. S. inter/pres. (Lat. interpres, a factor, agent, go-between. Fig. 423.) TurnsTone. Brant 


599. 


Birp. Carico-pack. Adult @, in breeding dress: Pied above with black, white, brown, 
and chestnut-red; below, snowy, with jet breast. Top of head streaked with black and white. 
Forehead, cheeks, sides of head and back of neck, white, with a bar of black coming up from 
the side of neck to below eye, then coming forward and meeting or tending to meet its fellow 
over base of bill, enclosing or nearly enclosing a white loral, and another black prolongation 
on side of neck; lower eye-lid white or not. Lower hind neck, interscapulars and seapulars, 
pied with black and chestnut ; back, ramp, and upper tail-coverts, snowy-white, with a large 
central blackish field on the latter. Tail white, with broad subterminal blackish field, 
narrowing on outer feathers and incomplete, widening to usually cut off white tips of central 
feathers. Wiug-coverts and long inner secondaries pied like the scapulars with black and 
chestuut, the greater coverts broadly white-tipped or mostly white, the short inner secondaries 
entirely white, the rest acquiring dusky on their ends to increasing extent, with result of a 
broad oblique white wing-bar. Primaries blackish, the longer ones with large white fields on 
inner webs, the shorter ones also definitely white on outer webs for a space, the shafts white 
uuless at end; primary coverts white-tipped. Under parts, including under wing-coverts, 
suowy-white, the breast and jugulum jet-black, enclosing a white throat-patch, and sending 
limbs on sides of head and neck as above said. Bill black ; iris black; feet orange. @ similar, 
lacking much of the chestnut, replaced by plain brown, especially on the wing-coverts; the 
dark parts in same pattern, but restricted somewhat, the black not jet and glossy. Adults in 
winter, and young, lacking the chestnut entirely, the black mostly replaced by browns and 
grays, that of the breast especially restricted or very imperfect. Length 8.00-9.00; extent 
16.00-19.00 ; wing 5.50-6.00; tail 2.50; bill 0.80-0.90 ; tarsus, or middle toe and claw, about 
1.00. Nearly cosmopolitan ; in N. Am., both coasts abundantly, and infrequently on the larger 
inland waters ; migrating through and wintering in the U. 8., breeding in high latitudes. 

S. melanoce’/phalus. (Gr. pédas, melas, black; xepady, kephale, head.) BLACK-HEADED 
TuRNSTONE. Without any of the chestnut coloration of the last, the parts that are pied in 
interpres being blackish; the white parts, however, and the distribution of the colored areas, 
nearly the same. In the most perfect cases I have seen, the entire head, neck, and breast are 
dark smoky-brown, the color extending further along the breast than the jet plastron of 
interpres, and not uniform, but the dark brown nebulated with sooty centres of the feathers, 
and shaded by mixture of white-tipped feathers into the white of the under parts. White lower 
back, rump, and upper tail-coverts, with black central field of the latter, as in interpres; black 
and white of wings substantially the same, but most of the primaries narrowly white-tipped. 
Feet apparently of some obscure dark color. Other specimens have a distinct white loral spot, 
and indication of the white of head and neck of in- 
terpres in white speckling. No trace of chestnut 
seen inany. Size and forin precisely as in interpres. 
Apparently a permanent melanism; if so, a very 
curious case, and a good species. Pacitic coast. 


40. Family RECURVIROSTRIDZ: 
Avocets. Stilts. 


Another small family, characterized by the ex- 
=p treme length of the slender legs, and the extreme 

Fie, 494, — Toad and foot of Avocet abont} slenderness of the long acute bill, which is either 
Hatv ise: straight or curved upward. Recurvirostra is 4-toed, 
39 


610 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZE. 


and full-webbed ; the bill is decidedly recurved, flattened, and tapers to a needle-like point ; 
the body is depressed; the plumage underneath is thickened as in water-birds. The species 
swim well. Himantopus is 3-toed, semipalmate, the bill nearly straight, and not flattened ; in 
relative length of leg it is probably not surpassed by any bird whatsoever. These two genera, 
each of three or four species of various parts of the world, with the Cladorhynchus pectoralis 
of Australia, compose the family. 


224, RECURVIROS'TRA. (Lat. recurvus, bent upward; rostrum, bill. Fig. 425.) Avocers. 


INO 


Fra. 425. — European Avocet, Recurvirostra avocetta, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


Bill excessively slender, more or less recurved, then the upper mandible hooked at the extreme 
tip; much longer than head, more or less nearly equalling tail and tarsus; flattened on top, 
without culminal ridge. Wings short (for a wader). Tail very short, square, less than half 
the wing. Legs exceedingly long and slender; tibiae long-denuded ; tarsus nearly twice as 
long as middle toe and claw; covering of legs skinny. Fect 4-toed; the front toes full-webbed, 
hind toe short, free. Body remarkably depressed and feathered underneath with thick duck- 
like plumage; altogether, as in swimming rather than as in wading birds. It is a modification 


600. 


225. 


601. 


RECURVIROSTRIDZ: AVOCETS AND STILTS. 611 


like that seen in the lobe-footed phalaropes. Sexes and young alike; winter and summer plu- 
mage different (in the North American species at any rate). 

R. america/na. (Lat. americana, American. Fig. 424.) AMERICAN AVOCET. BLUE- 
svockine. Adult ¢ 9, in summer: White, changing gradually to cinnamon or chestnut- 
brown on ueck and head, excepting, usually, the parts about base of bill. Interscapulars and 
part of the scapulars black ; wings black, with the lining, and most of the secondaries, white. 
Tail pearl-gray. Iris red (sometimes brown). Legs dull blue (drying blackish), much of the 
webs flesh color; bill black, often pale at base below. Size extremely variable: length 
16.00-20.00; extent 28.00-38.00! wing 7.00-9.50; tail 3.00-4.00; bill 3.50, more or less, trom 
nearly straight to strongly recurved and hooked; tibice bare 2.50; tarsus 3.50 or more ; middle - 
toe and claw 2.00 or less. Adult $ 9, i winter: Head and neck ashy or pearl-gray, like the 
tail; this has been called R. occidentalis; afterward considered the young. Young: The 
head and neck strongly washed with cinnamon-brown; rusty or tawny edgings of the black 
feathers. I have shot scarcely fledged birds in this state ; 
the shank is also peculiarly swollen. U. 5. and British 
Provinces ; rare now in E. U. §8., only casual in New Eng- 
land; abounding in the west, especially in the alkaline 
regions, as those of the Yellowstone and Milk River regions, 
Utah, ete. Its appearance is striking, as might be sup- 
posed ; its clamor is incessant when the breeding places are 
invaded. It is not a wary bird, and may easily be ap- 
proached when wading about in small flocks in the shal- 
low alkaline pools it loves so well. Feeds by immersing 
the head and neck for some moments whilst probing about 
with the curious bill in the soft slimy ooze. On getting 
beyond its depth, it swims with perfect ease, and often 
alights from on wing in deep water. Eggs 3-4, as variable 
in size, shape, and markings as the parents; from 1.80 to 
2.10 long by 1.25 to 1.45 broad; ground color from dark aS 
olive to brownish-drab, thence to creamy-brown or buff, Fic. 426.—Stilt (From Tenney, 
like those of Shanghai fowls; pretty uniformly and pro- *¢* Wilson.) 

fusely marked with small sharp spots of different shades of chocolate-brown, with neutral- 
tint shell-markings; on the buff eggs usually smallest and most numerous, bolder on the 


_ SNR 


olive ones. 

HIMAN'TOPUS. (Gr. inavrdmous, himantopous, strap-leg. Fig. 426.) Srivrs. Bill ex- 
tremely slender, but not flattened, nor turned up, nor hooked ; longer than head, rather shorter 
than tarsus. Wing long and pointed, folding beyond the short and square tail, which is less 
than half the wing. Legs of unique length and slenderness, the bare part about as long as 
the wing ; tibiee denuded for a great distance ; tarsus about twice as long as toes. Feet 3-toed, 
semipalmate ; but the species scarcely swim. Sexes similar ; young different. 

H. mexica/nus. (Lat. mexicanus, Mexican. Fig. 427.) Srirt. Lone-syanks. LAWYER. 
Adult $2 : Mantle, constituted by the interscapulars, seapulars, and wings (above and below) 
glossy-black, prolonged up the back of the neck and on top and sides of head, embracing the 
eyes. A spot over and behind eye, one on under eyelid, forehead to opposite eyes, sides of head 
below eyes, sides of neck and entire under parts, together with the lower back, rump, and 
upper tail-coverts, white ; tail pearl-gray. In life the long black wings fold entirely over the 
white upper parts and tail, so that the bird looks entirely black above. Bill black ; eyes and 
legs carmine, latter drying yellowish. Length about 15.00; extent about 30.00; wing §.50- 
9.50; tail 2.75-3.25 ; bill 2.50-2.75 ; tibia bare 3.00-3.50 ; tarsus 4.00-4.50; middle tale and 
claw 1.75-2.00. Adults, not in perfect dress: Some of the dark parts brown, not glossy-black. 


226. 


602. 


612 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZ. 


Young: Mantle ashy-brown, each feather edged with whitish; wings black, but some of the 
quills white-tipped, the edge of the wing white, the coverts edged with pale ochre. Tail not 
so pearly gray as in the 
adults, with some irreg- 
ular dusky markings. 
Legs probably different 
(skins afford no crite- 
rion). Chick, in down: 
Bill apparently blackish ; 
legs pale. Under parts 
white ; above, prettily mottled with black, brown, and tawny 
or orange. U. 8. generally, like the avocet rare eastward, 
abundant in the west, rather more southerly than the avocet. 


(a , 
My ina 4 
mh \ 


Nest at the water’s-edge or on heaped vegetation just above 
the surface in shallow water; eggs 4, pyriform, 1.60 to 1.85 x 
1.15 to 1.25; greenish-drab or pale brownish-olive to dark 
ochraceous, boldly marked all over with spots and splashes of 


Fig. 427.— Black-necked Stilt, : 
3 nat. size. (From Sclater.) blackish-brown. 


41. Family PHALAROPODIDZ: Phalaropes. 


This is likewise a small family; the three species comprising it resemble sandpipers, but 
are immediately distinguished by the lobate feet ; the toes are furnished with plain or scalloped 
membranes, like those of coots and grebes, but not so broad. The body is depressed, and the 
under pling thick and duck-like to resist water, on which the birds swim with perfect ease 
and grace. The wings and tail are like those of ordinary sandpipers ; the tarsi are much com- 
pressed ; there is basal webbing of the toes besides the marginal membrane ; the bill, and some 
other details of form, differ in each of the three genera. These birds inhabit the northern por- 
tious of both hemispheres, two of them at least breeding only in boreal regions, but they all 
wander far southward in winter. There are but three species, one peculiar to America, the 


others of general distribution. 
Analysis of Genera. 


Membranes plain; bill very slender, subulate . ©. 2. 2. 6. 1 we ee ee ee ee Steganopus 226 
Membranes scalloped; bill very slender, subulate . z Se, sr ipa ae: ei Ge er) ODIPES- <227 
Membranes scalloped; bill stouter, flattened, with lancet- shaped ‘tip toe @ 2 os ew 2 2 Phalaropus. 228 


STEGAN/OPUS. (Gr. oreyavémovs, steganopous, web-foot.) FRINGE-roor PHALAROPES. 
Bill long, equalling the tarsus, exceeding the head, extremely slender, terete and acute. Culmen 
and gonys broad and depressed. Lateral 
grooves long and narrow, reaching nearly 
to tip of bill. Interramal space narrow and 
very short, extending only half way to end 
of bill. Nostrils at extreme base of bill. 
Wings of moderate length. Tail short, 
deeply doubly-emarginate ; legs greatly 
elongated; tibiee bare for a considerable 


distance ; tarsus exceeding middle toe. Fria. 428.— Head of Wilson’s Phalarope, nat. size. (Ad 
nat, del. E. C.) 


Toes long and slender, broadly margined 
with an even, unsealloped membrane, united but for a brief space basally. Claws moderately 
long, arched, and aente. 

8. wil/soni. (To A. Wilson. Fig. 428.) Wutson’s Puanaropr. Adult 9, in breeding 
dress: Bill and feet black. Crown of head pale ash, passing into white along a narrow stripe 


227. 


603. 


PHALAROPODIDZ: PHALAROPES. 613 


in the nape. A narrow, distinet, pure white line over the eye. Sides of neck intense purplish- 
chestnut, or dark wine-red; anteriorly deepening upon the auriculars into velvety-black ; pos- 
teriorly continued, somewhat duller in tiut, as a stripe along each side of the back to the tips 
of the seapulars. Other upper parts pearly-ash, blauchiug on the rump aud upper tail-coverts. 
Wings pale grayish-brown ; coverts slightly white-tipped ; primaries dusky-brown, their shafts 
brownish-white, except at tip. Tail marbled with pearly-gray aud white. All the under parts 
pure white, but the fore part and sides of the breast washed with pale chestuut-brown, as if with 
a weak solution of the rich color on the neck, and a faint tinge of the sane along the sides of the 
body to the flanks. Bill and feet black. Iris brown. Length 8.50-9.00 ; exteut 15.50-16.00 ; 
wing 5.00-5.25 ; tail 2.25; bill 1.33; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw 1.12. Adult ¢: Less 
richly colored, and smaller ; length 8.00-8.50; extent 15.00; wing 4.75-5.00. Adult ¢ 9, in 
winter: No rusty red or pure black. Above, pure ashy-gray, each feather usually skirted with 
whitish ; frequently some blackish, pale-edged feathers. Wiug-quills fuscous, usually with 
light edgings; tail as in summer; upper tail-coverts, line over eye, parts about bill, and whole 
under parts, white, the jugulun aud sides usually shaded with ashy. Young, before first moult : 
Bill blackish, about 1.10 long; legs dull yellow (tarsus 1.20; middle toe and claw 1.05). 
Upper parts, including crown and upper surface of wings, brownish-black, each feather edged 
with rusty-brown, very conspicuous on the long inner secondaries, and giving a general aspect 
like that of a sandpiper of the genus Actodromas. Upper tail-coverts pure white. Tail clear 
ash, edged and much marbled with white, the ash darker at its line of demarcation from the 
white. Line over eye, and whole under parts white, the breast with a faint rusty tinge, and 
the sides slightly marbled with gray. Quills dusky, the secondaries white-edged, and the shafts 
of the primaries whitish. This stage is of extremely brief duration, beginning te give way. 
almost as soon the bird is full grown, to the clear uniform ashy of the upper parts of the fal 
and winter condition. The change, in some specimens shot early in August, is already very 
evident, clear ashy feathers being mixed, on the crown and all the upper parts, with such as 
just described. Size of the smallest specimen only 8.25 in length by 14.50 in extent ; the wing 
4.60. Chicks are covered with buff-colored down, spotted with black above. In full plumage 
this is the handsomest and largest of the phalaropes, and one of the most elegant of the waders. 
U.S. and British Provinces, N. to the Saskatchewan; rare in U. 8. E. of Illinois and Lake 
Michigan ; abundant in the Mississippi Valley at large and westward. Migratory, leaving U.S. 
in winter ; breeds in suitable places throughout its range. Nest in low grassy meadows and 
marshes. Eggs 3-4, 1.20 to 1.35 long by 1.90 broad, thus elongate pyriform, clay-color to 
brownish-drab, heavily marked with large splashes and sizeable spots, with numberless specks 
and scratches, of dark bistre or chocolate-brown ; some eggs much less painted than others, in 
finer pattern ; incubated by the @. 

LO/BIPES. (Lat. lobus, a flap, pes, foot.) Lose-roor Puauaropss. Bill generally as in 
Steganopus, but shorter, basally stouter, and tapering to a very acute, compressed tip ; ridge of 
culmen and gonys less depressed ; interraimal space longer and 
broader. Wings long. Tail short, greatly rounded. Legs 
and feet short; tibize denuded for but a brief space ; tarsus 
not longer than middle toe. Toes very broadly margined with 
a membrane which is scalloped or indented at each joint, and 
united basally to second joint between outer and middle toe, P 
to first joint between the inner and middle toe; feet thus Fic. 429.— Foot of Red-necked 
semipalmate. Claws small and short. Phalxope, nat. size, TAU pat. dbl Be 0.) 
L. hyperbo/reus. (Lat. hyperboreus, beyond the north wind. Fig. 429.) Nortuern 
PHALAROPE. ReED-NECKED PHaLaropp. Adult ¢ 9, in summer: Above, sooty-gray, with 
lateral stripes of ochraceous or tawny; neck rich rust-red, nearly oy quite all around; under 
parts otherwise white, the sides marked with the color of back. Upper tail-coverts like back, 


228. 


604. 


614 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLA. 


some lateral ones white. Wings blackish, the ends of the greater coverts broadly white, form- 
ing a conspicuous cross-bar, coutinued on some of the inner secondaries. Bill and feet black. 
Length 7.00; extent 13.50; wing 4.25-4.50; tail 2.00; bill, tarsus, middle toe and claw, each, 
under 1.00. Varies much in plumage with age and season, but easily recognized by the small 
size and generic characters. Chicks in down rich buff above, silvery-gray below; crown mixed 
black and yellow; a long black stripe down back, another over each hip, one across the rump, 
and a shoulder-spot. N. hemisphere at large, breeding in Arctic regions, migrating into the 
tropics sometimes ; generally distributed, but especially maritime. Eggs 3-4, June, average 
1.20 X 0.80 (from 1.30 & 0.75 to 1.10 x 0.82), very variable in size, shape, and color; greenish- 
olive, brownish-olive to various drab and buffy shades of ground color, usually very boldly 
spotted and splashed sometimes in finer pattern, with bistrous, chocolate, and lighter brown. 
PHALA/ROPUS. (Gr. qadapomous, phalaropous, coot-foot.) CooT-Foor PHALAROPES. 
Bill scarcely longer than head or tarsus; very stout for this family; much depressed, so broad 
as to be almost spatulate, the tip only moderately acute, lancet-shaped. Upper mandible with 
the ridge broad and flattened, its apex arched and decurved, its lateral grooves wide and shallow. 
Interramal space broad and very long, extending nearly to the end of the bill. Nostrils sub- 
basal, at some distance from the root of the bill. Wings long and pointed. Tail long, 
rounded, the central rectrices projecting, rather acuminate. Legs and feet much as in Lobipes, 
but the semipalmation of less extent. 

P. fulica/rius. (Lat. fulicarius, coot-like; fulica, a coot; fuligo, soot.) CoorT-FOOoTED 
Trinca. Rep PuaLARope. GRAY PHALAROPE. Adult ¢ 9, in summer: Under parts, with 
sides of neck, and upper tail-coverts, dark purplish or wine-red, with a glaucous bloom. Top 
of head and around bill, sooty. Sides of head white, this color meeting on nape. Rump 
white. Back black, all the feathers edged with tawny or rusty-brown. Quills brownish-black, 
with white shafts and much white at bases of webs; the coverts dark ash, the ends and inner 
webs of the greater row white; some of the secondaries entirely white. Bill yellowish, with 
dusky tip; feet yellowish. Length 7.50; extent 14.50; wing 5.00; tail 2.50; bill 0.90; 
tarsus 0.75; middle toe and claw rather more. Adult @ 9, in winter: Head all around, 
and entire under parts, white, —with a dusky cireumocular area and nuchal crescent, and a 
wash of ashy along sides of body. Above, nearly uniform ash. Wings asby-blackish, the 
white eross-bar very conspicuous ; bill mostly dark ; feet obscured. A species of cireumpolar 
distribution in summer, wandering far south in winter, chiefly coastwise. Nesting and eggs not 
distinguishable froin those of the last ; eggs averaging larger, — 1.15 -1.30  0.90-0.95. 


42. Family SCOLOPACID4: Snipe, etc. 


Snipe and their allies 
form a well-defined and 
perfectly natural assem- 
blage, one of the two 
largest limicoline faiilies, 
agreeing with Plover in 
most esseutial respects, 
yet well distinguished from 
the pluvialine birds. In 
general, the bill is much 
elongated, frequently sev- 
eral times longer than the 
head, and in those cases 
in which it is as short as 


: Z i ; Fia. 431. — Wilson’s Snipe. (From 
Fie. 430. — English Suipe. (From Dixon.) in plover, it does not show Tenney, after Wilson.) 


SCOLOPACIDZ: THE SNIPE FAMILY. 615 


the particular, somewhat pigeon-like, shape described under Charadrine, being slender and 
soft-skinned throughout. It is generally straight, but frequently curved up or down. The 
nasal grooves, always long and narrow channels, range from one-half to almost the whole 
length of the bill; similar grooves usually occupy the sides of the under mandible; the inter- 
ramal space is correspondingly long and narrow, and nearly naked. This length, slenderness, 
grooving, and peculiar sensitiveness, are the prime characteristics of the scolopacine bill. The 
gape, never ample, is generally very short and narrow, reaching little, if any, beyond the base 
of the bill. The nostrils are short narrow slits, exposed. The head is completely feathered 
to the bill (except in one species), at the base of which the ptilosis stops abruptly without 
forming projecting antie. The wings commonly show the thin pointed contour described under 
Limicola, but they are occasionally short and rounded. The tail, always short and soft, has 
as a rule 12 rectrices; in one genus, however, there are from 12 to 26. The crura are rarely 
feathered to the suffrago. The tarsi are scutellate before and behind, and reticulate on the 
sides, except in the curlews, where they are scutellate only in front; they are probably never 
entirely reticulate (the normal state in plover). The hallux is absent in only two or three 
instances; the anterior toes commonly show one basal web, and often two, but in many species 
they are entirely cleft. The scolopacine birds are of medium and small size, ranking with 
plover in this respect ; none attain the average stature of Herodiones. 

The general economy of these birds is similar to that of plover; a chief peculiarity being 
probably their mode of procuring food, by feeling for it, in the majority of cases, in the sand 
or mud with their delicately sensitive, probe-like bill. The eggs are commonly four, parti- 
colored, pointed at one end and broad at the other, placed with the small ends together in a 
slight nest or mere depression on the ground; the young run about at birth. The sexes, with 
very rare exceptions, are alike in color or nearly so, aud the 9 is usually a little larger than 
the @; but the sexual distinctions are very rarely strong enough to be perfectly reliable 
(remarkable exception in Machetes). Color distinctions with age, likewise, are rarely marked ; 
but on the contrary, seasonal plumages are in many cases, as throughout the sandpipers, very 
strongly indicated, the nuptial dress being entirely different from that worn the rest of the year. 
Excepting a few species that frequent dry open places like many plover, these birds are found 
by the water’s edge where the ground is soft and oozy — in moist thickets, low rank meadows, 
bogs and marshes, by the riverside, and on the seashore. Some are solitary, but the majority 
are gregarious when not breeding, and many gather in immense flocks, especially during the 
extensive migrations that nearly all perform. The voice is a mellow pipe, a sharp bleat, or a 
harsh scream, according to the species. Few birds surpass the snipe in sapid quality of flesh, 
and many kinds rank high in the estimation of the sportsman and epicure. The family is 
cosmopolitan, but the majority inhabit the northern hemisphere, breeding in boreal regions. 
There are about ninety well-determined species of scolopacine birds, referable perhaps to 
fifteen tenable genera, although many more than this are often employed. Various attempts 
to divide the group into sub-families have met with little success, owing to the close inter- 
gradation of the several types. All the leading forms of the family, with most of the lesser 
genera, are represented in this country, and are indicated by the specific descriptions given 
beyond; while its entire composition may be pointed out and rendered perfectly intelligible by 
a brief summary : — 

a. In Woodcock (Scolopax and Philohela) and true Snipe (Gallinago) the ear appears below 
and not behind the eye, which is placed far back and high up; and if the brain be examined, 
it will be found curiously tilted over so that its anatomical base looks forward. The bill is 
perfectly straight and much longer than the head, deep-grooved to the very end, which is 
either knobbed, or widened just behind the tip, where there is a furrow in the flattened cul- 
men. The membranous covering is abundantly supplied with nerves; this organ constitutes 
a probe of delicate sensibility, an efficient instrument of touch, used to feel for food below the 


616 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZ. 


surface of the ground. Inethe dried state, the soft skin shrinks tight like parchment to the 
bone, and becomes studded with small pits. The gape of the mouth is extremely short and 
narrow ; the toes are cleft ; the legs, neck, and wings are comparatively short, and the body is 
rather full. There are no obvious seasonal or sexual differences in plumage. Not completely 
gregarious ; no such flights of woodcock and true snipe occur as are usually witnessed among 
sandpipers and bay-snipe; they inhabit the bog and brake rather than the open waterside : 
they cannot be treacherously massacred by scores, like some of their relatives ; they are know- 
ing birds, if their brains are upset, and their successful pursuit calls into action all the better 
qualities of the true sportsman. There is but one species of Philohela ; two or three of 
Scolopax, and about twenty of Gallinago. The curious circumstance occurs, among the 
latter, that the tail-feathers range from 12 to 26 in different species; and in those with the 
higher numbers, several pairs are narrow and linear—a character upon which the genus 


Fia. 432. — American Woodcock, about 3 nat. size. (From American Field.) 


Spilura rests— The singular genus Rhynchea, with two species, R. capensis (Africa) 
and BR. semicollaris (S. America), may belong here. — Macrorhamphus, containing only our 
species, and one other, M. semipalmatus of the Old World, has a bill exactly as in Gallinago, 
but is distinguished by more pointed wings, and differently proportioned legs, with basal web- 
bing of the toes. It stands exactly between the true snipe and 

b. The Godwits (Limosa), in which we find the same very long, wholly grooved, and 
extremely sensitive bill, which, however, is not dilated at the end, nor furrowed on the culmen, 
and is bent slightly upward; the gape, as before, is exceedingly constricted. The toes show 
a basal web. These are rather large birds, with the colors and general aspect of curlews, 
but the bill is not decurved and the tarsi are scutellate behind. They frequent marshes, bays 
and estuaries, and are among the miscellaneous assortment of birds that are collectively 
designated ‘‘ bay-snipe.” There are only five or six species, of the single genus Limosa. 


SCOLOPACIDA: THE SNIPE FAMILY. 617 


The Terekia cinerea of various parts of the Old World, with the bill recurved almost as in an 
avocet, stands between the godwits and tattlers. 

c. The Sandpipers (Tringa, etc.) are a rather extensive group, notable for the variation 
in minor details of form, that it shows with almost every species — a circumstance that has 
caused the erection of a number of unnecessary genera. Here the bill retains much of the 
scusitiveness of a suipe’s, and the gape likewise is much restricted; but the bill is much 
shorter, averaging about equal to the head. One trivial cireumstance affords a good clue to 
this group: the tail-feathers are plain-colored, or with simple edgings, while in almost all 
the species of other groups these feathers are barred crosswise. In this group the seasonal 
changes of plumage are very great; the proportions of the legs, and webbing of the toes, are 
variable with the species, but, as a rule, the toes are cleft to the base (not so in Micropalama 
and Erewnetes), and four in number (except Calidris). The sandpipers belong particularly 
to the northern hemisphere, and breed in high latitudes; they perform extensive migrations, 
and in winter spread over most of the world. Among them are the most diminutive of waders. 


Fic. 433. — American Snipe, abont 2 nat. size. (From American Field.) 


They are probably without exception gregarious, and often fleck the beach in vast multitudes ; 
they live by preference in open wet places, rather than in fens and marshes, and feed by prob- 
ing, like snipe; the voice is mellow and piping. They are pretty well distinguished from 
both the foregoing, though Micropalama connects with the snipe through Macrorhamphus; 
but shade directly into the Tattlers, through such genera as Tryngites and Tringoides. Nearly 
all the forms of sandpipers are described in detail beyond. There are in all about 20 species. 
The only generic form not represented in this country is the Limicola platyrhyncha, the 
peculiarity of which is expressed in its name. The Hurynorhynchus pygmeus, a wonderful 
and exceedingly rare species, in which the bill is expanded and flattened at the end, somewhat 
as in the spoonbill, has lately been stated to occur on our Arctic coast. The singular Machetes 
gougnax should perhaps rather come here than among 


618 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZA. 


d. The Tattlers (Totanus, etc.), with which it is ranged, beyond. In this, the largest and 
most varied group, the bill has comparatively little of the sensitiveness of that of all the fore- 
going, and the gape is longer, extending obviously beyond the base of the culmen, and some- 
times to nearly below the eyes. It varies much in length and shape, but it is wswally longer 
than the head, and very slender, not often grooved to the tip, and is either straight, or bent 
slightly upward. The body and its members are commonly more elongate than in the foregoing, 
the toes have a basal web or two, and the hinder is always present. The tail is usually barred. 
These are noisy, restless birds of the marshes and sand-flats and mud-bars of estuaries, and 
apparently do not probe for food to any extent; they gain their name from their harsh voice. 
The Yellowshanks is a typical example of the group; most of the species cluster close about 
this type, and might go in the single genus Totanus. The only extra-limital forms are 
AEchmorhynchus parvirostris and Prosobonia leucoptera, of the Pacific Islands; curious species 
apparently near Zryngites. There are about 18 species in all, universally distributed. Finally. 

e. The Curlews (Numenius) are distinguished by the downward curvature, extreme slen- 
derness, and usually great length of the bill, with the slight scutellation of the tarsus. In size 
and general appearance they are near the Godwits ; they inhabit all parts of the world. They 
all belong to the genus Numenius, which has about a dozen species —excepting the Ibidor- 
hyncha struthersi of Asia, which is a three-toed Curlew, not showing the coloration character- 


istic of the rest. Analysis of North American Genera of Scolopacide. 


TOES33> 9 (Sand pipers) nek Getisd ee Re e  soe Oe Me SA se “a es ON ee a ae aris: 2240 
Toes 4. 
Bill spoon-shaped . 2 6. 6 6 6 ee ew ee ee eee ee ew ew we + Burynorhynchus 241 
Bill not spoon -shaped. 
One outer primary emarginate, narrowed. (Woodcock.) . . So) tf we « he « «@ §©Scolopax 230 
Three outer primaries emarginate, narrowly linear. (Woodcock. i oi ee ee ee +e ©) 6©Philohela 229 


No outer primaries emarginate. 
Toes cleft to the base. 
Tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw. 
Bill about twice as long as head ; tibia naked below. (Snipe.) . . - . .Gallinago 231 
Bill little longer than head ; tibis feathered to the joint. (Sandpiper. ) . . .Arquatella 236 
Tarsus about equal to or longer than middle toe and claw. (Sandpipers.) 
Bill slightly curved, longer than head. 


Tarsus evidently longer than middle toe andclaw. . . . . . . . . Aneylochilus 238 
Tarsus equal to or barely longer than middle toe and claw . . . . . . Pelidna 237 
Bill perfectly straight, much shorter than head. Primaries mottled . . . . Tryngites 249 
Bill perfectly straight, equal to or longer than head. 
Tarsus much longer than middle toeandclaw . . . . . 1... . . . + Lringa 239 
Tarsus about equal to middle toeandclaw ....... . . . . detodromas 235 
Toes semipalmate, with one or two evident webs. 
Tarsus scutellate in front only; bill very long, decurved. (Curlews.) . . . . . Numenius 251 
Tarsus scutellate in front only; bill barely longer than head, straight . . . . Heteroscelus 250 
Tarsus scutellate in front and behind. 
Tail not barred. One minute web. Primaries mottled. . . . .. . . . Zryngites 249 
Tail not barred. Two full basal webs. Primaries plain. (Sandpipers. ) 
Bill shorter or scarcely longer than head. . . ...... =. =... Ereunetes 234 
Bill much longer thanhead. . . . . soe oe ee ee ee » Micropalama 233 


Tail barred crosswise with light and dark cdior, 
Gape not reaching beyond base of bill. 
Culmen furrowed at end. Under a foot long. (Snipe.). . . . Macrorhamphus 232 
Culmen not furrowed. Bill if anything recurved. Over a foot long. (Godwits.) 
Limosa 242 
Gape longer. Length under 9 inches. (Tattlers.) 
Bill grooved nearly to tip. . . Ub ee eA eel get ge a Dringoides: 2246 
Bill grooved about half-way to tp toe ee ee we ew ee . Rhyacophilus 245 
Gape longer. Length over 9 inches. (Tattlers.) 
Bill not longer than head, grooved three-fourths its length. 
Tail about half aslongas wing ....... ++ + «+ . Bartramia 248 
Tail not halfaslongas wing . . . . . 6 +s + 6 « « « « «Machetes 247 
Bill longer than head 
Legs bluish. Toes semipalmate. Bill stout. (Willet.) . . . . Symphemia 243 
Legs green or yellow. Bill slender. (Yellowshanks.) ... . . Yotanus 244 


SCOLOPACIDA:: WOODCOCK. 619 


29, PHILO'HELA. (Gr. dios, philos, loving; éos, helos, a bog.) AMERICAN Woopcock. 
First three primaries emarginate, attenuate and faleate, abruptly shorter and narrower than the 
4th. Wings short and rounded; when folded, the primaries hidden by the coverts and inner 


Fic. 484. — Head and attenuate outer 3 primaries of Phi/ohela, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


quills. Legs short; tibiz feathered to the joint ; tarsus shorter than iniddle toe and claw, scu- 
tellate before and behind ; toes long and slender, cleft to the base. Bill much longer than head, 
perfectly straight, stout at base, where the ridge rises high, knobbed at end of upper mandible, 
very deeply grooved nearly all its length, the culmen and line of gonys also furrowed toward 
end; very soft and sensitive ; gape very short and narrow. Head large; neck short; ear under 
the eye, which is very full, set in back upper corner of the head. Sexes alike; 9? largest. 
605. P. minor. (Lat. minor, smaller— than the European Woodeock. Figs. 432, 434, 435. 

Woopcock. Boa-suckEeR. Colors above harmonivusly blended and varied black, brown, 
gray, and russet; be- 
low, pale warm brown 
of variable shade, not 
barred. A dark stripe 
fron bill to eye. 
Crown from opposite 
eye with black and 
light bars; along the 
inner edges of the 
wings a bluish-ashy 
stripe; lining of wings 
rust- brown; quills 
plain fuscous; tail 
black, spotted, and 
tipped ; bill brownish 
flesh-color, dusky at 
end; feet pale red- 
dish flesh-color. The 
woodeock is 10 or 11 
inches long, and 16 
or 17 in extent; wing 4.50-4.75 ; bill 2.50-2.75 ; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw 1.50; and 
weighs usually 5,6, or 7 ounces. The woodhen, as some esthetic market-women prefer to call 
her, is larger, 11 or 12 inches long; extent 17 or 18; wing 4.75-5.00; bill 2.75-3.00; some 
good fat ones up to 8 or 9 oz. in weight. Bogs, swamps, wet woodland and fields, Eastern 
U.S. and Canada; N. to Nova Scotia; N.W. to Minnesota and up the Missouri to Fort Rice; 


Fi. 435. — American Woodcock, much reduced. (From Lewis.) 


230. 


231. 


620 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZ. 


Kansas, Nebraska, Indian Terr. and Texas; no extralimital record; migratory, but breeds 
throughout its range; winters in the south. This is the game bird, after all, say what you 
please of Snipe, Quail, or Grouse. Eggs more rotund than those of most small waders, cor- 
responding to the plump form of the bird, averaging 1.50 & 1.18; a short broad one 1.40 & 1.20; 
a long narrow one 1.55 X 1.15 ; brownish clay-color, wore buffy or more grayish, with number- 
less chocolate-browu surface-markings and stoue-gray shell-spots, none very large or bold; size 
and inteusity of markings generally corresponding to depth of ground color; usually laid in 
April, earlier in the south. The woodcock has many curious actions during the mating season. 
The young are sometimes removed from danger by the parent, carrying them with the feet. 
Very erratic and capricious in its movements. 

SCO'LOPAX. (Gr. cxodora€, skolopax, Lat. scolopax, name of this very bird.) EuRopEAN 
Wooncock. No outer primaries shortened or peculiar, the 1st narrowed somewhat on inner 
web near end; Ist and 2d longest, 3d little shorter, 4th much shorter; wings long, com- 
paratively, the point of the wing extending beyond the inner secondaries, which only fold about 
to end of 5th quill. Generie characters, excepting those of the wiug, much as in Philohela; 
saine style of bill and feet and configuration of body and head; plumage similarly variegated 
above, but below barred crosswise throughout ; size much superior. Of all the snipe-like birds 
of this country, loosely called “‘ Scolopax,” this straggler from Europe is the only one to which 
the naine is strictly applicable. 

S. rusti/eula. (Liat. rusticus, a rustic; rusticula, a little countryman.) EuropEAN Woop- 
cock. Cockbird: Colors above harmoniously blended and varied black, brown, chestnut, and 


yellowish-gray; under parts brownish-white, regularly wavy-barred throughout with dark 
brown. A dusky stripe from bill to eye. Top and back of head brownish-black and brown, 
divided by three or four evoss-bars of brownish-white and brown. Each feather of upper parts 
chestuut and black, im variegation, the black usually forming a large subterminal spot. Yel- 
lowish-gray tending to form a scapular stripe ou each side of the back. Quills and coverts of 
wing blackish, pretty regularly varied with dark chestuut bars, on the larger quills this 
chestnut paler and reduced to narginal indentations ; outer web of first primary plain whitish. 
Upper tail-coverts rich chestuut, little varied with black, with pale tips. Tail-feathers black, 
with angular chestuut indeutations of outer webs; their tips gray from above, viewed from 
below glistening silvery-white. Under parts brownish-white, more or less suffused with 
chestnut-brown on the breast, the regular dusky barring only giving way on the whitish throat, 
changing to lengthwise streaks on the under tail-coverts. Heu: Unmistakably similar— sub- 
stantially the same; grayer above, much of the russet mottling of the ¢ replaced by hoary- 
gray. A much “better bird” than our woodcock; a third larger; weight 12-15 oz. Over a 
foot long ; wing seven inches or more ; tail 3.50; bill only about as long as in our woodcock ; 
tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw more. I describe this species with particularity, and sports- 
men who get a bird of this sort will do well to report the fact at once. It was formally 
introduced to our fauna in the original edition of the ‘ Key.” There are several authentic 
instances of its capture in this country, and it is unquestionably entitled to such place, as a 
straggler from Europe, of which country it is the common woodcock. See Lewis, American 
Sportsmen, ed. of 1868, p. 169, footnote (New Jersey) ; Lawrence, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y., 
1866, p. 292 (Rhode Island and New Jersey); Baird, Am. Journ. Sci., xli, 1866, p. 25 (New- 
foundland) ; Coues, Am. Nat., x, 1876, p. 372 (Virginia). 

GALLINA/GO. (Lat. gallina, a hen, whence gailinago, like virago from vir.) TRUE SNIPE. 
Bill much longer than head, perfectly straight, soft to the end, where it is somewhat widened, 
grooved on top, vascular and sensitive, in the dried state pitted ; lateral grooves running more 
than half-way to tip; gape narrow, not reaching beyond base of culmen. Ear under eye. 
Tibiz feathered not quite to the joint. Tarsus a little shorter than middle toe and claw; toes 
perfectly free, cleft to the base, slender and not fringed. Wings rather short and rounded (for 


607. 


608. 


SCOLOPACIDA: SNIPE. 621 


this family), less so than in Scolopaxr or Philohela; no primaries attenuate. Tail short, 
rounded, of numerous (in our species 16) feathers, of which the lateral are narrowed ; tail 
barred crosswise. Sexes alike; seasonal changes of plumage uot pronounced. Numerous 
species of all countries; one N. American, and another straggling to Greenland from Europe. 
Analysis of Species. 

Axillars and flanks white, incompletely or imperfectly barred with blackish . . . . . 2. . . media 607 

Axillars and flanks fully and regularly barred with white and blackish. . . . . 1. . . . wilsoni 608 
G. me’dia. (Lat. media, mediuin (in size, between two other European species.) Fig. 430.) 
EvuROPEAN SNIPE. ‘‘ ENGLISH SNIPE” proper. In size, form, and general coloration indistin- 
guishable from No. 608, but the axillary feathers almost entirely white, with slight and sparse 
dark markings, and the feathers of the flanks and sides less frequently aud less regularly barred 


Fia. 436.— The Snipe’s family. (From “ Sport with Gun and Rod.” The Century Co., N. Y.) 


with dark gray. (In the lesser European Snipe, G. gallinula, the sides and living of wings are 
fully barred as in our S. wilsoni, but the tail-feathers are 14, the outer ones little shorter and 
not abruptly narrower than the rest.) Europe: Only N. American as occurring in Greenland. 

G. wil'soni. (To A. Wilson. Figs. 431, 433, 436.) American Syipp. Witson’s 
Supp. ‘“ ENGLISH” Snipe (so-called). Jack-Snipz. Adult ¢ 9: Crown black, with a 
pale ochrey middle stripe. Upper parts brownish-black, varied with bright bay and tawny, 
the scapular feathers smoothly and evenly edged with tawny or whitish, forming two length- 
wise stripes on each side when the wings are folded. Quills and greater coverts blackish- 
brown, usually with white tips, and outer web of first primary usually white. Lining of 
wings and axillars white, fully and regularly barred with black. Rump black, the feathers 
with white tips. Upper tail-coverts tawny with numerous black bars, and tail-feathers black 


232. 


609. 


622 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZ. 


basally, then bright chestnut, with a narrow subterminal black bar, their tips fading to whit- 
ish; some of the lateral ones white, with little rufous tinge and several instead of one black 
bar. Belly white; jugulum and fore-breast light brown speckled with dusky brown; chin 
nearly white; sides of body shaded with brown, and with numerous regular dusky bars 
throughout ; crissum more or less rufous, with numerous dusky bars. Length of @ 10.50- 
11.50; extent 17.50-19.50; wing 4.75-5.25; bill 2.50 (more or less); tail 2.25; tarsus 
1.25; middle toe and claw 1.50. Q averaging smaller. Weight of various specimens 
3 oz. 4 dr. to 402. 3dr. Bill greenish-gray, dusky on terminal third ; iris brown; feet green- 
ish-gray. This is the genuine snipe, of all the birds loosely so-called ; its name of ‘ English” 
snipe is a misnomer, as it is indigenous to this country, and distinct from any European 
species, though closely resembling two of them (G. media or celestis and G. gallinula). In 
our species the tail is normally composed of 16 feathers, the two lateral of which on each 
side are abruptly smaller, shorter, and much narrower, resembling the under coverts somewhat ; 
aud the whole sides of the body from breast to tail, as well as the axillars and lining of the 
wings, are completely and regularly barred, as is also the crissum. Open wet places’ of 
North America, at large; migratory ; breeds fron N. U.S. northward; S. into 8. Amer. in 
winter, though many remain in U.S. The general habits of this favorite game-bird are 
too well known to require remark. Eggs 3-4, moderately pyriform, grayish-clive, with more 
or less brownish shade; markings bold and numerous, most so on the larger end, of varying 
shades of umber-brown ; usually also sharp scratchy lines of black; shell-spots not notice- 
able. Nest a mere depression in grass or moss of the bog; chicks mottled with white, ashy, 
ochrey and dark brown. 

MACRORHAM’PHUS. (Gr. paxpés, makros, long, paupos, hramphos, beak.) WEB-TOED 
Snipg. Bill as in Gallinago, Wings longer and more pointed, more as in Tringa. Tibie 
naked below for a space about half the length of tarsus. Tarsus longer than middle toe and 
claw. Anterior toes webbed at base; webbing most extensive between middle and outer. 
Tail doubly-emarginate, of only 12 stiffish (as compared with Gallinago) feathers; all the 
feathers closely and regularly barred. Sexes alike; summer and winter plumages different 
(as in sandpipers). Thoroughly suipe-like in the bill, but otherwise like long-legged sand- 
pipers; near Micropalama, for example. Two alleged species, or varieties. 

Analysis of Varieties. 


Length 10.00 to 12.50; extent 17.50-20.00; wing 5.30-6.00, average 5.70; bill 2.00-3.00; tarsus 1.25-1.75, 
average 1.53; middle toe without claw 0.90-1.10, average 1.00. 
Wing 5.25-5.90, average 5.65; Lill, 2.00-2.55, average 2.80; tarsus, average, 1.35; middle toe alone, 
average 0.95. In summer: Belly whitish; breast and sides speckled with dusky . . . . griseus 609 
Wing 5.40-6.00, average 5.75; bill, 2.20-3.20, average 2.80; tarsus, average, 1.60; middle toe alone, 
average 1.00. In summer: Belly cinnamon-brown; breast scantily speckled with dusky; sides 
arned: With QUSK ys eM e econ: «b> Cart ces at War Meee ny a ge ee are oe ee scolopaceus 610 


Measurements of nine individuals, shot out of one flock in Dakota, formerly supposed to include both 
species, and to show their perfect gradation in size; now supposed to show individual variation in M. 
scolopaceus alone. 


Totallength. . . . 10.25 10.50 11.00 11.25 11.50 11.75 11.90 12.25 12.50 
Extent ofwings. . . 17.50 18.00 18.50 19.25 19.00 19.50 19.75 20.25 19.50 
Wings * se % 4 A a (040 5.50 5.65 5.80 5.75 5.90 6.00 6.10 5.85 
Whole naked leg . . 3.40 3.40 3.40 3.35 4.00 4.10 4.00 4.10 4.15 
Billig, ec ae “es; a ese 22520 2.40 2.50 2.85 2.90 2.90 2.95 3.05 3.25 


M. gri/seus. (Lat. griseus, gray. Fig. 437.) Rep-BReasten SNIPE (summer). GRAY 
SNIPE (winter). Brown-pack. Dowircurr. Adult 9 g, in summer: Under parts rich 
rusty-red, paler or whitish on the belly ; jugulum, breast, and sides fully speckled with dusky. 
Axillars and lining of wings white, with angular dusky markings. Wing-quills fuscous, the 
shaft of the Ist primary white, of the others brown; secondaries conspicuously tipped with 
white. Above, black, varied everywhere with the reddish color of the under parts, and on 


610. 


233. 


611. 


SCOLOPACIDAE: SNIPE. 623 


the back and scapulars with white; the rump snowy-white, unmarked, very conspicuous iu 
flight. Tail and its upper coverts black, closely barred with white or rufous. A dusky line 
from bill to eye. Bill and feet greenish-black. In winter: Dark gray above, the feathers 
with dusky centres and pale gray or whitish edges; lower back pure white; superciliary 
line and spot on under eye-lid white ; below, white, the jugulum, fore-breast, and sides heavily 
shaded with gray, leaving chin whitish ; the flanks and crissum with wavy dusky spots or bars. 
(For dimensions see above.) This variety is supposed to be restricted to E. N. A. (?), along 
the Atlantic coast, where it abounds during the migration, in proportion of 1,000 to one of the 
next variety. Breeds in high latitudes. Among the shore birds, this is a great favorite with 
gunners. 

M. g. scolopa/ceus, (Lat. scolopaceus, snipe-like.) Wrstrrn Dowi1rcHer. RED-BEL- 
LIED SNIPE. GREATER LoNG-BEAK. Like the last; averaging larger, the bill especially 
longer (see above). Weight 2 oz. 7 dr. to 40z. 4 dr. Entire under parts rich rusty-red, 
including belly; throat and breast scantily speckled, sides and flanks thickly barred, with 
dusky. Winter and immature specimens indistinguishable from the last, excepting those sur- 
passing the maximum size of the latter. N. Am. at large, supposed to be rare or casual on 
the Atlantic side, and to be the only representative of the genus in the West (?). Like the 
other, it is abundant; migratory; breeds in high latitudes. Both generally fly in large com- 
pact flocks, like the sandpipers and shore-birds generally, rather than singly or in wisps like 


Fi. 437. — Bill of Macrorhamphus griseus, nat. size, in profile, and its end from above. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


the true snipe ; and prefer the shores of bays and estuaries, instead of wet meadows. Eggs of 
this variety or the last are not peculiar among their allies; 3-4 in number; length 1.55 to 
1.75, by 1.10 to 1.15 broad; ground-color as in Gallinago, and general tone and style of mark- 
ings the same. 

MICROPA'LAMA. (Gr. puxpés, mikros, small; maddun, palame, a web.) Stitt Sanp- 
PIPERS. Bill much as in the last genus, but shorter, less evidently widened at the end and not 
so distinctly furrowed on top, sometimes perceptibly curved. Wings long, pointed, Ist 
primary longest, rest. rapidly graduated. Tail about half as long as wings, slightly doubly- 
emarginate. Legs very long; tibie bare an inch; tarsus as long as the bill. Feet semipal- 
mate, the front toes being connected by two evident basal webs. Plumage resembling that 
of Macrorhamphus in general character; its changes the same; sexes alike. These two 
genera are perfect links between snipe and sandpipers. One species. 

M. himan’topus. (Gr. izayrémous, himantopous, strap-legged. Fig. 438.) Stir SAnpv- 
piper. Adult ¢ 9, in summer: Above, blackish, each feather edged and tipped with white 
and tawny or bay, which on the scapulars becomes scalloped. Auriculars chestuut; a dusky 
line from Dill to eye, and a light reddish superciliary one; upper tail-coverts white with 
dusky bars. Primaries dusky with blackish tips; tail-feathers 12, ashy-gray, their edges and 
a central field white; under parts mixed reddish, black, and whitish, in streaks on the jugulum, 
elsewhere in bars; bill and feet greenish-black. Length 8.50-9.00; extent 16.00-17.00 ; 


234, 


612, 


624 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZE. 


wing 5.00; tail 2.25; bill 1.50-1.70; tarsus the same; middle toe and claw 1.00; tibia bare 
1.00. Young, and adults in winter: Ashy-gray above, with or without traces of black and 
bay, the feathers usually with white edging; line over the eye and under parts white, the 
jugulum and sides suffused with the color of the back, and streaked with dusky; legs usually 
pale greenish-yellow. The full breeding dress is of brief duration ; the birds are usually ashy 
and white from September to 
April, both inclusive. N. Am., 
generally ; not observed W. of 
the R. Mts.; rare. Breeds in 
high latitudes; migrates to W. 
I. and C. and 8. Am. 

EREUNE'TES. (Gr. épevy- 
Ths, ereunetes, a searcher, pro- 
ber.) SEMIPALMATED SAND- 
PIPERS. Bill normally about as 
long as head, straight, quite 
stout for this family, both man- 
dibles deeply grooved to the ex- 
panded vascular and sensitive 
tip. Wings long, pointed; sec- 
ondaries obliquely incised. Tail 
moderate, doubly-emarginate, 


Fic, 438.—Stilt Sandpiper, in breeding dress, reduced. (From 
Nuttall, after Swainson.) 


with pointed and projecting cen- 
tral feathers. Tarsus rather 
longer than middle toe and claw, equal to the normal bill in length. Bare portion of tibie 
# as long as tarsus. Toes connected by broad basal webbing, and broadly margined. A true 
sandpiper, chiefly distinguished from Tringa proper by the semipalmate feet (fig. 48); from 
Micropalama, which is similarly webbed, by the shortness of the bill and feet. Very small; 
sexes alike; summer and winter plumages different. 

E. pusilius. (Lat. pusillus, puerile, petty). SrmrpaLMATED SANDPIPER. Prep. Bill, 
tarsus, and middle toe with its claw, about equal to each other, an inch or less long, but bill very 
variable, and apt to be shorter — 0.66-0.87 ; feet semipalmate, with two evident webs; length 
5.50-6.50; extent about 11.75; wing 3.25-3.75; tail 2.00, doubly-emarginate, the central 
feathers projecting. Adult ¢ 9, in summer: Above, variegated with black, bay, and ashy or 
white, each feather with a black field, reddish edge and whitish tip; rump, and upper tail- 
coverts except the lateral ones, blackish. Tail-feathers ashy-gray, the central darker; pri- 
maries dusky, the shaft of the first white. A dusky line from bill to eye, and a white 
superciliary line. Below, pure white, usually rufescent on the breast, and with more or less 
dusky speckling on the throat, breast, and sides. In winter: Upper parts mostly plain ashy- 
gray. Young in July and August have scarcely any traces of the spots beneath, being there 
almost entirely white, with a light buff wash across breast ; there is also more white edging of 
the feathers of the upper parts; but in any plumage and under any variation, the species is 
known by its small size and semipalmate feet. The extreme variation in the length of the bill 
is from 0.50 to 1.25, or 86 per cent of the average (0.88). N. Am., everywhere; an abundant 
and well-known little bird, thronging our beaches during the migrations, which extend to the 
West Indies and §. Amer. It is only known to breed in high latitudes, though it commonly 
appears in the U. 8. in August, and may sometimes be seen in other summer months. The 
size, general appearance, and changes of plumage are much the same as those of Actodro- 
mas minutilla, and the habits of these two birds are very similar. Eggs 3-4, 1.220.84, of 
usual shape; ground from celay-color (usual) to grayish or greenish-drab or decidedly 


613. 


235. 


614. 


615. 


SCOLOPACIDA: SANDPIPERS. 625 


olivaceous, usually boldly spotted and splashed with umber or chocolate brown, massed at 
larger end; sometimes more uniformly spotted in smaller pattern. 

E. p. occidentalis? (Lat. occidentalis, western.) WESTERN SEMIPALMATED SANDPIPER. 
An alleged variety, probably untenable, ascribed to Western N. Am. 

ACTODROMAS. (Gr. d«rn, akte, the seashore; dpouas, dromas, running.) PECTORAL 
SANDPIPERS. SPOTTY-THROAT SANDPIPERS. Bill about equal to head or tarsus, short, 
straight, very slender, somewhat compressed, the tip punctulate, scarcely expanded, acute. 
Grooves on both mandibles very deep, and extending nearly to the tip. Nostrils situated very 
near the base of the bill. Feathers extending on the lower mandible much beyond those on 
the upper, and half as far as those between the rami. Wings long, pointed, first primary 
usually longest ; tertials long, slender, flowing. Tail rather long, deeply doubly-emarginate 
(in one species cuneate), the central feathers much projecting ; upper tail-coverts moderately 
long. Tibia bare for more than half the length of the tarsus; the feathers very short, making 
the exposed portion nearly as great. Tarsus equal to the middle toe and claw. Toes long, 
slender, very narrowly margined, entirely free at base. A group of several species, including 
the smallest representatives of the family, agreeing in form and also in having the jugu- 
lum and fore-breast thickly streaked or spotted, usually also with a brownish or ashy suffusion. 


Analysis of Species. 
Tail graduated, with acuminate feathers. 
Jugulum ruddy brown, with very small sharp dark streaks. Upper tail-coverts and rump with black 
centralitield. a cs 4 eH Doe BRR Be ee ee RS ee Rw ww Aw S Macuminala 619 
Tail not graduated ; its feathers, except central pair, not acuminate. 
Jugulum with brownish or ashy suffusion, thickly streaked. Upper tail-coverts and rump with black 
central field. 
Largest ; length 9.00 ; wing 5.25. Crown much darker than hind neck, the transition abrupt. 
Chin immaculate. Edgings of feathers on upper parts light chestnut-red, not making inden- 
tations toward the shaft. Suffusion on jugulum very deep, the darker streaks narrow, distinct. 
Bill:and feetilusky-green. «2.404. Bm we Re OD we ee a . maculata 616 
Medium; length 7.25; wing 4.80. Crown not conspicuously darker than hind neck. Edgings of 
feathers on upper parts light reddish-yellow, scarcely brighter on the scapulars, making inden- 
tations toward the shaft. Suffusion on jugulum very light, the darker markings rounded, some- 


what obsolete. Billandfeet black. . . 2... 2... . 1... ee ew  .  bairdi 615 
Smallest; a miniature of the preceding; length 5.75; wing 3.40. Edges of feathers chestnut-red, 
usually more or less indented, their tips lighter. Bill black; legsdusky-green . . . minutilla 614 


Jugulum with little or no brownish or ashy suffusion. Upper tail-coverts white. 

Medium ; length 7.50; wing 4.80. Jugulum thickly streaked with narrow dark lines. Upper tail- 
coverts immaculate, except the outermost. Central tail-feathers nearly black . . . bonapartii 617 

Large ; length 9.50; wing 5.75. Jugulum thinly marked with oval spots or streaks. Upper tail- 
coverts with dark arrow-heads. Central tail-feathers scarcely darker than the lateral. . cooperi 618 
A. minutil/la. (Lat. minutilla, very minute; dim. of minutus, small.) AMERICAN STINT. 
Wison’s Stint. LeastSanppirer. Prep. Smallest of the sandpipers ; length 5.50-6.00 ; 
extent about 11.00; wing 3.25-3.50 ; tail 2.00 or less ; bill, tarsus, and middle toe with claw, about 
0.75. Bill black; legs dusky greenish. Upper parts in summer with each feather blackish cen- 
trally, edged with bright bay and tipped with ashy or white; in winter, and in the young, simply 
ashy. Quills blackish, the shaft of the first white, the secondaries and greater coverts tipped 
with white. Tail-feathers gray with whitish edges, the central ones blackish, usually with reddish 
edges. Crown not conspicuously different from hind neck; an indistinct whitish line over eye, 
and dusky one from eye to bill. Chestnut edgings of scapulars usually scalloped. Below, 
white; jugulum and sides of body for some distance with ashy or brownish suffusion, thickly 
spotted and streaked with dusky. This species and the last are usually confounded under the 
common name of ‘‘sandpeeps,” and look much alike; but a glance at the toes is sufficient to 
distinguish them. N., C. and S. America and W. I., anywhere ; very abundant during the 

migrations. Breeds in high latitudes, returning to the U. 8. in August. Eggs unknown. 
A. bair/di. (ToS. F. Baird.) Barrp’s Sanppiper. Form and proportions typical of the 
genus. Bill small, slender, rather shorter than the head, equal to the tarsus, the tip scarcely 

40 


616. 


626 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LIMICOLZL. 


expanded, its point very acute. Grooves in both mandibles very long and deep, that of the 
lower very narrow. Feathers extending on the side of lower mandible much farther than those 
on the upper, about half as far as those between the rami. Wings long; first and second 
primaries about equal, but varying, third much shorter; tertials long, slender, flowing. Tail 
rather long, but slightly duubly-emarginate, the central feathers rounded, projecting but little. 
Toes long, slender, slightly margined, the middle with its claw about equal to tarsus. Adult 
in breeding plumage: Entire upper parts a very dark brownish-black, deeper on the rump and 
lighter on the neck behind, each feather bordered and tipped with light reddish-yellow ; on the 
scapulars the tips broader and nearly pure white, and the margins brighter, making several deep 
indentations towards the shaft. Upper tail-coverts long, extending to within half an inch of 
the tips of the central tail-feathers, black, except the outer series, which are white with dusky 
markings. Central tail-feathers brownish-black, the rest successively lighter, and all with a 
narrow border of white. Jugulum with a very decided light brownish suffusion (much as in 
A. maculata), and, together with the sides under the wings to some distance, with rounded 
obsolete spots and streaks of dusky. Throat and under parts generally white, immaculate. 
Bill, legs, and feet black. Young in August: Dimensions and proportious as in the adult. 
Upper parts a nearly uniform light ashy-brown, deeper on the rump, each feather with a 
ceutral dark field and with a light edge, these whitish edgings usually conspicuous. Traces of 
the brownish-black of the adult on the scapulars. Breast and jugulum with the suffusion very 
light reddish-brown, the streaks sparse and very indistinct. Length 7.00-7.50; extent 15.25- 
16.50; wing 4.25-4.75 ; tail 2.25 ; bill, tarsus, and middle toe with claw, about 0.87. Colors almost 
exactly as in the last species ; edgings of upper plumage rather tawny than chestnut; jugular 
suffusion pale, rather fulvous, the streaks small and sparse, sometimes almost obsolete. Size 
of bonaparti, but not easy to confound with that white-rumped species. North and South 
America; rare on the Atlantic coast, common in the interior; the most abundant small sand- 
piper in some parts of the west, during the migrations. Breeds in Arctic regions ; eggs 3-4, 
1.30 X 0.92, clay-colored, grayer or more buffy in different specimens, spotted with rich umber 
and chocolate-browns of varying shades; in some cases the markings fine and innumerable, in 
others massed at the greater end, sometimes with black tracery also; pale shell-spots usually 
evident. June, July. 

A. macula’ta. (Lat. maculata, spotted.) PrcroraL SANDPIPER. GRASS-SNIPE. JACK- 
sNIPE. Bill a little longer than the head, about equal to the tarsus or middle toe, moderately 
stout, straight or very lightly decurved, the tip more expanded and punctulate than in the type 
of the genus. Grooves in both mandibles long and deep. Wings long, pointed, first primary 
decidedly longest ; tertials very long, narrow, and flowing. Tarsus equal to middle toe, both 
about equal tothe bill. Tail rather long, deeply doubly-emarginate, the central feathers pointed 
and greatly projecting. Adult in spring: An ill-defined white line over the eye, and a more 
distinct one of dusky between eye and bill. Crown streaked with brownish-black and light chest- 
nut, conspicuously different from the neck behind, which is streaked with dusky and light ochre- 
ous. Upper parts generally, a very dark brownish-black, every feather edged with ashy or dark 
chestnut-red, brightest on the scapulars, the tips usually lighter, and the margins never making 
deep indentations toward the shaft. Rump and upper tail-coverts black, the outer series of the 
latter white, with sagittate spots of dusky. Primaries deep dusky, almost black, the shaft of the 
first white, of the others brown. Secondaries and greater coverts dusky, edged and tipped 
with white. Lesser coverts dusky, fading into light grayish-ash on their edges. Central tail- 
feathers brownish-black, lighter on their edges, the lateral light ashy, margined with white. 
Jugulum and breast with a heavy wash of ashy-brown, and with very numerous well-defined 
streaks of dusky; the suffusion extending on the sides under the wings to some distance, where 
the dusky streaks are mostly shaft-lines. Chin, and under parts generally, white, immaculate. 
Bill and feet dusky greenish. Young in September: Edges of the feathers of the upper parts 


617. 


618. 


SCOLOPACIDA: SANDPIPERS. 627 


generally, and of the tertials and central tail-feathers, light bright chestnut, and the tips pure 
white. Lesser wing-coverts broadly edged and tipped with light ferruginous. Suffusion on 
the breast and jugulum with a yellowish ochreous tinge not seen in the adult, and the streaks 
less distinct. Other parts as in the adult. Not known to have a plain ashy and white winter 
plumage like most sandpipers. Length 9.00-9.50 inches; extent 16.50-18.00 ; wing (average) 
5.50; bill, tarsus, and middle toe with claw about 1.10. N., C. and S$. Am., W. I. Green- 
land, Asia, and Europe; thus of wide and general dispersion; in U. S., chiefly during the 
migrations, when abundant in wet grassy meadows, muddy ponds and flats, ete. It goes very far 
north, quite to the Arctic Ocean, and is supposed to breed only in high latitudes; the nest and 
eggs are still unknown. Jn some respects of habit it is quite snipe-like; it never flocks on the 
beaches with the smaller sandpipers, and it has at times a wayward towering flight, like that 
of a snipe. During the amours, this sandpiper has the power of inflating the throat to a won- 
derful extent, forming a swelling which hangs like a great goitre upon the breast. ‘ Pectoral 
sandpiper’ is a book-name, seldom spoken, the bird being better known as the ‘ grass-snipe,’ 
and ‘jack-snipe’; but both these names are objectionable, as it is not a, snipe; aud ‘jack- 
snipe,’ moreover, is the proper name of an English species of Gallinago (G. gallinula), not 
found in this country, where G. wilsont sometimes takes the same designation. 

A. bonapar'tii. (To C. L. Bonaparte.) WuiTE-ruMPED Sanppiper. Bill quite stout, 
moderately long, equal to the head or tarsus, the tips somewhat expanded. Grooves on both 
mandibles long and deep. Feathers extending on the lower mandible but little beyond those 
on the upper. Wings long, pointed, first primary decidedly longest; tertials long, narrow, 
and flowing. Tail moderate, quite deeply doubly-emarginate, the central feathers somewhat 
poiuted and considerably projecting. Tarsus rather longer than the middle toe. Toes long, 
slender, and slightly margined. Crown and upper parts generally light brownish-ash, each 
feather with a large field of dusky towards its end, and on the erown and iniddle of the back 
edged with light yellowish-red, deepening into bright sienna on the scapulars. Lesser wing- 
coverts dark brownish-ash, fading into light ashy on the edges, and with shaft-lines of blackish. 
Secondaries and greater coverts light grayish-ash, edged and tipped with white. Tertials very 
dark brownish-ash, fading into light ashy on the edges. Primaries deep dusky, their shafts 
white in the central portions, and the innermost edged with white. Runp brownish-black. 
Upper tail-coverts white, their outer series with sagittate spots of dusky. Central tail-feathers 
brownish-black, the rest very light grayish-ash, broadly edged and tipped with white. Jug- 
ulum and breast with a scarcely appreciable wash of light ashy, with numerous, distinct, linear- 
oblong streaks of dusky brown; these extend as minute dots nearly or quite to the bill, and as 
narrow shaft-lines along the sides to the vent. Rest of under parts white, immaculate. 
Lower mandible flesh-colored for half its length; rest of bill, with the legs and feet, black. 
Length 7.50; extent 15.00; wing 4.80; bill, tarsus and middle toe with claw rather less than 
1.00. Young in August: Upper parts a nearly uniform dark ash, the black of the adults show- 
ing at intervals, but principally on the scapulars, where also the reddish margins of the feathers 
are apparent. Jugulum and sides under the wings with an ashy suffusion, more conspicuous 
than in the adult, but much more restricted, and the streaks more obsolete and indistinct. 
Central pair of upper tail-coverts usually dusky. Other parts as in the adult. America at large, 
but not yet observed W. of the R. Mts., nor in Alaska; Greenland, Europe. Breeds from 
Labrador northward ; migratory through the E. U. 8. 

A. coo/peri? (To Win. Cooper.) Cooprr’s SANpprirer. Bill considerably longer than the 
head, exceeding the tarsus, straight, rather stout, tip scarcely expanded. Feathers extending 
on side of lower mandible scarcely further than those on the upper. Wings long, pointed, first 
primary decidedly longest ; tertials moderately long and rather slender. Tail moderate, slightly 
but decidedly doubly-emarginate, the central feathers projecting. Tarsus rather longer than 
the middle tue; tibia bare for half the length of the tarsus; toes all long, slender, aul slight] 


619. 


236. 


628 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LIMICOLZ. 


margined. Adult in spring: Upper parts a nearly uniform light grayish-ash, each feather 
with a central brownish-black field, deepening into pure black on the scapulars, where also the 
edgings of some of the feathers have a reddish tinge. Tertials sooty-brown, fading into light 
ashy ou the edges. Secondaries and greater coverts dark grayish-ash, edged and broadly 
tipped with white. Primaries deep dusky, almost black on the outer vanes and at the tips, 
the innermost edged with white; shafts of all brown at base and black at tip, the central 
portion being white. Upper tail-coverts white, with sagittate spots of dusky. Tail-feathers 
ashy-brown, the central pair darkest. Under parts white; the jugulum, breast, and sides of 
the ueck with a slight reddish tinge, and, together with the sides, with numerous streaks and 
oval spots of dusky, which become large and V-shaped on the flanks. Length 9.50; wing 
5.75; tail 2.75; bill 1.25; tarsus 1.12. Long Island; only one specimen known. It is still 
uncertain whether this is a good species or an unusual state of Z. canutus or A. maculata. 
A. acumina/ta. (Lat. acuminata, acuminate.) SHARP-TAILED SANDPIPER. A large species, 
of the size and with somewhat the general aspect of the pectoral sandpiper. Tail graduated, 
almost cuneate, all the feathers more or less acuminate, the projecting middle pair particularly 
so. Bill about as long as head; tarsus equal to middle toe and claw; toes perfectly free. Crown 
bright chestnut, streaked with black, bounded by decided whitish superciliary lines; different 
from the hind neck. Upper parts with the pattern of coloration of those of A. maculata, the 
feathers being black, with bright chestnut edges, and many of them also with whitish tips, the 
edgings not making scallops, and particularly straight and firm on the long tertials. Central 
field of ramp and upper tail-coverts black, scarcely or not varied with reddish tips of the feathers, 
the sides of this area white with dusky touches. Tail-feathers dusky, the middle ones darker 
or black, all firmly rimmed about with chestnut, buff, or whitish edging. Primaries blackish, 
their shafts mostly white; secondaries dusky, successively acquiring white tips and edges; 
greater coverts dusky, white-tipped. Entire under parts white, more or less suffused on the 
jugulum, breast, and sides with a light ruddy brown (much as in Podasocys montanus), the 
jugulum alone with a set of small sharp dusky touches, being an extension across the throat of 
better pronounced streaks of the sides of the head, neck, and breast, leaving the chin definitely 
pure white. The effect is quite different from that produced by the heavy streaking of A. ma- 
culata. Bill and feet blackish. Length probably 9.00-9.50; wing 5.25; tail 2.50; bill 1.00; 
tarsus 1.20; middle toe and claw the same. (Described from several late summer and early 
fall specimens, taken in Alaska.. An Australian specimen before me is smaller (wing under 
5.00, etc.), and, excepting the crown, lacks any reddish of the upper parts, all the edgings 
being simply gray; the ruddy suffusion of the breast is scarcely seen.) An interesting species, 
widely diffused in the Old World, lately found in Alaska, where it is common in summer in 
some localities, as Saint Michael’s, and where it doubtless breeds; extent of its migration in 
America, if any, unknown. 
ARQUATEL'LA. (Lat. arquatella, dim. of arquata, for arcuata, bowed.) FEATHER-LEG 
SANDPIPERS. Bill, tarsus, and middle toe, obviously not of equal lengths. Tarsus shorter 
than bill or middle toe; tibia feathered, the feathers reaching the suffrago. Toes very long, 
broadly margined, and flattened underneath. Hind toe very short; claws short and blunt. 
Tail moderate, wedge-shaped. Bill variable, always longer than head, straight or slightly 
decurved, very slender, much compressed, tip scarcely expanded, groove on lower mandible 
shallow or obsolete. A generic group established upon the well-known “purple” sandpiper, 
to which two other species or varieties have recently been added. The following analysis is 
taken from B. N. O. C., v, 1880, p. 162. 

Analysis of Species or Varieties. 


Breeding dress: Crown streaked with yellowish-gray, or grayish-white; scapulars and interscapulars 
irregularly spotted and indented with dull buff, or whitish, and tipped with white ; fore-neck dis- 
tinctly streaked with dusky; breast dull gray, everywhere spotted with darker. JWinter dress: Back 
and scapulars sooty-black strongly glossed with purplish ; the feathers bordered terminally with dirk 


620. 


621. 


SCOLOPACIDZ: SANDPIPERS. 629 


plumbeous-gray; fore-neck uniform mouse-gray, or brownish-plumbeous. Wing 5.06; culmen 1.20; 
tarsus 0.99; middle toe without claw 0.90 - 2. e+ 6 ee ee ee ee ts : maritima 620 
Breeding dress: Crown streaked with deep rusty ; scapulars and interscapulars broadly bordered with 
bright ferruginous ; fore-neck irregularly clouded with dull pale puff or soiled white and sooty- 
plumbeous, the breast more coarsely clouded, with more or less of a black patch on each side. 
Winter dress: Like that of maritima, but the plumbeous borders of dorsal feathers broader and 
lighter, or more bluish. Jugulum streaked or otherwise varied with white. Wing 4.86; culmen 1.13; 
tarsus 0.95; middle toe without claw 0.86... 2-6 ee ee ee et coucsi 623 
Breeding dress: Crown broadly streaked with ochraceous-buff; scapulars and interscapulars broadly 
bordered with bright ochraceous-rufous; fore-neck pure white, sparsely streaked with brownish-gray ; 
breast white, streaked anteriorly and clouded posteriorly with dusky, latter forming more or less of a 
patch on each side. Winter dress: Similar to the corresponding stages of each of the foregoing, but 
very much paler, the whole dorsal aspect being light cinereous, the scapulars and interscapulars with 
gmall, nearly concealed, central spots, the wing-coverts very broadly edged with pure white ; fore-neck 
with white largely predominating. Wing 5.16; culmen 1.33; tarsus 0.98; middle toe without claw 
O20 vegs ey ce. So ee ts ea eae as cs Oe ee a RO ae ite eh Sah aes ya eb as Sar, cstaas . . ptilocnemis 622 


A. maritima. (Lat. maritima, maritime.) PurpLte Sanppriper. Bill little longer than 
head, much longer than tarsus, straight or nearly so; tibial feathers long, reaching to the 
joint, though the legs are really bare a little way above ; tarsus shorter than middle toe and 
claw. Length about 9.00; extent about 16.00; wing 5.00; tail 2.66, much rounded ; bill 1.20; 
tarsus 0.90-1.00 ; middle toe 1.00 or a little more. The breeding dress, little known: Upper 
parts black, conspicuously varied on the head, neck, back, and scapulars, with chestnut or 
cinnamon, and pale buff or whitish, the darker reddish colors edging or indenting the sides 
of the feathers, the paler colors chiefly tipping their ends; the rusty-red also suffusing the 
sides of the head, separated from the black and reddish crown by a pale or whitish superciliary 
stripe. A lighter tawny shade invades the jugulum and breast; otherwise, under parts 
white, streaked on the breast with blackish, elsewhere uebulated with dusky-gray, but no 
definite blackish area formed. Rump and upper tail-coverts brownish-black, unmarked. 
Wings plain fuscous, the lesser coverts narrowly, the greater broadly, tipped with white, 
the secondaries mostly white in increasing amounts from without inwards, and the shaft of 
the first primary white. Tail-feathers plain dusky. Adult in winter: Entire upper parts a 
lustrous very dark bluish- or blackish-ash, with purple and violet reflections, and each feather 
with a lighter border. Greater and lesser wing-coverts, tertials and scapulars edged and tipped 
with white. Secondaries mostly white. Primaries deep dusky, the shafts dull white except at 
tip, where they are black. Upper tail-coverts and central tail-feathers brownish-black with 
purplish reflections, the outer pairs of the former white-barred with dusky. Lateral tail-feathers 
light ashy. Jugulum and breast bluish-ash, each feather of the latter edged with white, and 
the ash extending along the sides beneath the wings. Rest of under parts white, immaculate. 
Legs, feet, and bill at base light flesh-color; rest of bill greenish-black. Most immature birds 
of the first fall and winter resemble this, but are duller, without the gloss. Young: Upper 
parts much the color of the adult, but with each feather broadly edged and tipped with light 
buff or reddish-yellow. Light edging of wing-coverts ashy instead of pure white. Under 
parts everywhere thickly mottled with ashy and dusky, deepest on the breast and jugulum. 
Chicks in down are very pretty: grayish-brown, mottled with black, the back, wings, and 
rump spangled with white points; head grayish-white, tinged with fulvous, variously marked 
with black ; lores with two parallel black stripes ; below, grayish-white. A species of circuin- 
polar distribution, breeding and often wintering in Arctic regions; in America S. to the Middle 
States; chiefly maritime, but also occurring on the Great Lakes. Egg of usual pyriform shape, 
about 1.40 X 1.00, clay color with olive shade, with large bold markings of rich umber-brown 
of varying shade, with neutral tint shell-markings; markings over all the surface, but largest 
and most massed at the greater end. 

A. coues/i. (To E. Coues.) ALEUTIAN SANDPIPER. Very near the last. The following 
is the original description, in substance. Breeding dress: Above fuliginous-slate ; feathers of 


622. 


630 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZE. 


crown, back, and seapulars broadly edged with rusty-ochraceous, or bright cinnamon, the 
central field of each feather nearly black, much darker than wings or rump, some of the seap- 
ulars and interscapulars tipped with white in some specimens. Lesser coverts narrowly, 
greater coverts broadly, bordered terminally with white ; greater coverts broadly tipped with 
white, forming a conspicuous cross-bar; several inner secondaries chiefly white; the others, 
also the inner primaries, narrowly skirted and tipped with white. Rump. upper tail-coverts, 
and middle tail-feathers, uniform fuliginous dusky, the other rectrices paler, or dull cin- 
ereous. A conspicuous long whitish superciliary stripe, reaching to nape, and confluent 
with whitish of under side of head, thus posteriorly bounding a large sooty-brown auricular 
area; anterior portion of lores, and forehead dull smoky-grayish; neck, jugulum, and breast, 
dirty whitish, sometimes soiled with dingy buff, and clouded or spotted with dull slate, sooty- 
plumbeous, or dusky-blackish, this sometimes forming a large patch on each side of breast. 
Other under parts pure white, the sides with a chain of slaty spots and streaks, the crissum 
streaked with dusky ; lining of wing pure white. Bill and feet brownish-black in the dried 
skin; iris brown. Winter plumage: Above, soft smoky-plumbeous, the scapulars and inter- 
scapulars glossy purplish-dusky centrally, the plumbeous borders of the feathers causing a 
squamous appearance; head and neck uniform plumbeous, excepting the throat and a supra- 
Joral patch, which are streaked whitish ; jugulum squamated with white, the breast similarly, 
but more broadly marked. Wing, tail, and rump, asin summer. Young, first plumage: Scap- 
ulars and interscapulars black, broadly bordered with bright rusty and buffy-white, the latter 
chiefly on the longer outer seapulars and lower back ; wing-coverts broadly bordered with buffy- 
white ; pileum streaked black and ochrey; jugulum and breast pale buff, or buffy-white, streaked 
with dusky. Downy young: Above, bright rusty-fulvous, irregularly mottled with black, the 
back, wings, and rump flecked with yellowish-white papilla ; head above deep fulvous-brown, 
striped with velvety black from forehead to oceiput, where confluent with a cross-bar of the 
same; lores with two parallel stripes of same. Lower parts white, distinctly fulvous on sides. 
Wing 4.50-5.15 inches, average 4.86; culmen 0.95-1.25, average 1.13; tarsus 0.88-1.00, 
average 0.95; middle toe without claw 0.78-0.90, average 0.86. Aleutian Islands and Coast 
of Alaska all the year round; extent of migrations unknown, if any. 

A, ptilocne’/mis. (Gr. mridov, ptilon, a feather ; xvnpis, knemis, a greave ; the crus being feath- 
ered.) PRYBILOV SANDPIPER. BLACK-BREASTED SANDPIPER. Different. Adult in breeding 
dress: With somewhat the appearance of a summer Pelidna alpina, but the black area pec- 
toral, not abdominal. Crown, interseapulars, and seapulars black, completely variegated with 
rich chestnut, ochrey, and whitish, the body of each feather being black, with one or another 
or all the lighter markings; the coronal separated from the dorsal variegation by a grayish- 
white, dusky-streaked cervical interval. Lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts blackish, 
little variegated with chestnut. Secondaries nearly all pure white, a few of the outermost and 
innermost touched with grayish-brown near end. Primaries grayish-brown with white shafts 
except at tip, fading to white on inner webs toward base ; several of the inner ones also largely 
white on outer webs, and tipped with white. Central tail-feathers brownish-black ; next pair 
abruptly paler, grayish ; rest white or whitish with pale gray tint. Front and sides of head, 
superciliary line, tufts of flank-feathers, and entire under parts, white, interrupted on the 
breast with a large but not well defined nor perfectly continuous blackish area, and marked 
on the upper breast and sides with a few sharp blackish shaft-lines. A dusky auricular patch. 
Legs and bill dark. Length apparently about 9.50; wing 4.80-5.30; tail 2.30-2.70; bill 
1.10-1.40! tarsus 0.90-1.00; middle toe and claw 1.05-1.20; 9 averaging less than @. 
Winter plumage as above said. First plumage: Upper parts much as in the adults, but the rusty 
markings in curved rather than angular lines, and much narrower; edges of wing-coverts ochrey. 
Interior tail-feathers rusty-edged. Throat and breast more or less suffused with rusty; no black 
pectoral area, but the jugulum, breast, and sides suffused with rusty. Chicks in down (July): 


237, 


623. 


624. 


238. 


SCOLOPACIDA: SANDPIPERS. 631 


Below, silvery-white ; above, rich reddish-brown, varied with white, with curious little round 
dots, like mildew. Each such spot is as large as a pin-head, and, under a lens, is seen to be 
the enlarged brushy end of a down-feather, whence several tiny bristles sprout. Each such 
plume is white at base, then black, then white-tufted as said; the dotted areas thus correspond 
to the areas of black variegation, but there are, also, a black undotted frontal line, loral stripes, 
and some other markings. Only known from the Prybilov or Fur Seal Islands, where it breeds, 
and northward tu St. Matthew and St. Lawrence Islands. Eggs 4, like those of A. maritima. 
PELIDNA. (Gr. medidvds, pelidnos, gray?) Dunin Sanpprpers. Bill stout, much 
longer than head or tarsus, slightly decurved, tip somewhat expanded and punctulate ; grooves 
in both mandibles deep and distinct. Wings moderate; tertials long and flowing. Tail 
moderate, doubly-emarginate, the central feathers projecting. Legs rather long; tarsus not 
shorter than middle toe and claw, if anything longer. Bare portion of tibia more than half 
the tarsus. Toes rather long, cleft to the base, narrowly margined. Contains a few species 
or varieties in summer reddish above, with a great black abdominal area. 


Analysis of Varieties. 
Smullest: length about 8.00; bill, average, 1.40; tarsus little if any longer than middle toe and claw; 


tarsus and middle toe together 1.75... . . . . . alpina 623 
Medium: length about 8.50; bill, average, 1.70; disproportionately jonger; stouter, more decurved ; tarsus 

decidedly longer than middle toe and claw; tarsus and middle toe together 2.00 . . . . americana 624 
{Largest: bill and legs still longer than in the last. Pacific Coast,N.A.. . . . . 1. « .? pacifica] 


P. alpina. (Lat. alpina, alpine.) Europran DuNnLIN. PurRReE. Differing as above said from 
the N. A. species. Straggler to Greenland. 

P.a,america’na, (Fig. 439.) AmericAN DuNLIN. BLACK-BELLIED SANDPIPER. ReED- 
BACKED SANDPIPER. Ox-BirD. Bill longer than head or tarsus, compressed at the base, rather 
depressed at the end, and usually appreciably 
decurved. Length 8.00-9.00; extent 15.00; 
wing 4.50-5.00; tail 2.00-2.33; bill 1.50- 
1.75; tibiw bare about 0.50; tarsus 1.00 or 
rather more; middle toe and claw 1.00 or 
rather less. Adult in summer: Above, chest- 
nut-red, each feather with a central black 
field, and most of them tipped with whitish ; 
rump and upper tail-coverts blackish ;  tail- 
feathers and wing-coverts ashy-gray, the ch eur deh ac ee ae LED eID ADORE, 
greater coverts tipped with white; quills 

dusky with pale shafts; secondaries mostly white, and inner primaries edged with the same ; 
outer webs of primaries blackish, some of the inner ones white-edged toward the base; 
secondaries mostly white. Under parts white; belly with a broad, jet-black area; breast 
and jugulum thickly streaked with dusky. Bill and feet black. Adult in winter, and 
young: Above, plain ashy-gray, with dark shaft lines, with or without red or black traces. 
Below, white, with little or no trace of black on belly; jugulum with few dusky streaks and 
an ashy suffusion. White edgings of inner primaries very conspicuous. The summer dress is 
long worn; it is assumed more or less perfectly in April, and many come from the north still 
wearing it. All of N. Am., breeding in high latitudes, migrating through and wintering in the 
U.S., preferably coastwise ; common, in flocks on the beaches and elsewhere. 
ANCYLOCHILUS. (Gr. dyxvddxeidos, agkulocheilos, having a curved Dill.) Curtew 
SANDPIPERS. Bill much longer than the head, slender, compressed, considerably decurved, 
the tip not expanded, and rather hard. Grooves in both mandibles very narrow but distinct. 
Wings long, pointed. Tail very short, nearly even. Legs long, slender; tarsus and tibia 
both lengthened, the latter exposed for nearly or quite half the length of the former, which is 


625. 


239, 


626. 


632 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LIMICOLZ. 


nearly as long as the bill. Toes moderate, slender, slightly margined, the middle one about 
three-fourths the tarsus. One species, noted for its resemblance to a ininiature curlew. 

A. subarqua/tus. (Lat. subarquatus or subarcuatus, littled curved, as the bill is.) CuRLEW 
SANDPIPER. Frrruainsous SAnppiprr. Adult: Crown of head and entire upper parts 
lustrous greenish-black, each feather tipped and deeply indented with bright yellowish-red. 
Wing-coverts ashy-brown, each feather with a dusky shaft-line and reddish edging. Primaries 
deep dusky, their shafts brown at base and black at tip, the central portion nearly white. 
Upper tail-coverts white with broad bars of dusky, and tinged at their extremity with reddish. 
Tail light gray with greenish reflections. Sides of the neck and entire under parts uniform 
deep brownish-red. Under tail-coverts barred with dusky. Avxillars and under wing-coverts 
white. Bill and legs greenish-black. Young in autumn: Crown of head and back brown- 
ish-black, with a slight greenish lustre, each feather edged with white or reddish-yellow. 
Rump plain dusky ; upper tail-coverts white. Wing-coverts with broad grayish-white borders. 
Tail light ashy, edged and tipped with white, the central feathers with a subterminal dusky 
border in addition. Under parts entirely white, the breast and sides of the neck finely streaked 
with dusky, the former with a light buff tinge. Length 8.50; wing 4.90; bill (average) 1.50; 
tarsus 1.30; toe 0.90; tibia bare 0.70. Inhabits most of the Old World; in America very 
rare, little more than a straggler along the Atlantic Coast. (For particulars of a dozen or 
more instances of its occurrence, see New England Bird Life, vol. ii., p. 224.) 

TRIN’GA. (Lat. tringa or trynga or tryngas, a sandpiper.) Rosin Sanppirer. Bill 
about as long as, or rather longer than, the head, straight, stout, somewhat compressed, 
widening uniformly from the middle to the slightly expanded, rather hard tip; the culmen 
depressed on the terminal half to the expansion at tip, and obsoletely furrowed. Both mandi- 
bles deeply grooved to the tip. Nostrils very large and placed far forward in the upper groove. 
Feathers extending on the lower mandible much further than on the upper, and nearly as far 
as those between the rami. Wings long, pointed, first primary decidedly longest. Secon- 
daries moderately incised. Tertials short, broad, and comparatively stiff. Tail rather short, 
nearly even, the central feathers projecting but little if any. Legs short and very stout; 
tarsus usually shorter than the bill; longer than the middle toe. Tibial feathers reaching 
nearly to joint; tibiz bare for nearly two-thirds the tarsus. Toes very short and stout, free 
at base, widely margined ; outer lateral longer than inner. Hind toe present, well developed. 
Claws short, stout, blunt, much curved, dilated on the inner edge. Size large, forin stout. 

T. canu’/tus. (Named for King Canute.) RED-BREASTED SANDPIPER. ASH-COLORED 
SANDPIPER. GRAY-BACK. RosIn-snipE. Knot. Largest of North American Tringee. 
Bill stout, straight, rather longer than the head, upper mandible widely and deeply grooved to 
the expansion at tip. Feathers extending on lower mandible much farther than on upper, 
and nearly as far as those between the rami. First primary decidedly longest ; tail short, 
nearly even; legs short, stout; tarsus usually shorter than the bill, but much exceeding the 
middle toe. Adult in summer: Upper parts brownish-black, each feather broadly tipped and 
edged with ashy-white, tinged with reddish-yellow on the scapulars. Rump dark ash, barred 
with dusky ; upper tail-coverts white, with transverse sagittate or erescentic bars of brownish- 
black. Tail grayish-ash, edged with ashy-white. Outer webs and tips of primaries deep 
dusky, the inner much lighter. Secondaries and coverts grayish-ash, broadly edged and tipped 
with ashy-white. Line over the eye and entire under parts uniform brownish-red, fading into 
white on the flanks and under tail-coverts, which latter are marked with sagittate spots of 
dusky. Bill and feet greenish-black. Young in autumn: Upper parts a uniform dark ash, 
or cinereous, each feather tipped with ashy or pure white, and having a subterminal edging of 
dusky-black, producing a conspicuous set of black and white semicircles, very characteristic of 
the species in this plumage. Indistinct line over the eye, and whole under parts, white, more 
or less tinged with light reddish, the throat, breast, and sides with rather sparse, irregularly 


240. 


627. 


SCOLOPACIDZA:: SANDPIPERS. 633 


disposed lines and spots of dusky, which become transverse waved bars on the latter. Length 
10.50; extent 20.50; wing 6.40; tail 2.70; bill about 1.40; tarsus 1.20; middle toe 1.00; 
tibia bare 0.60. A large handsome species, inhabiting most of the World; in America, 
chiefly along the Atlantic coast, but also in the interior, about the large lakes and rivers. 
Migratory ; breeds only in high latitudes. 

CALI/DRIS. (Gr. cadidpes, kalidris, Lat. calidris, name of some beach bird, perhaps this 
one.) SANDERLINGS. Bill stout, straight, about as long as head or tarsus; tip thickened, 
expanded and rather hard, the culmen just behind it somewhat concave. Nostrils far forward. 
Wings long, pointed ; tail short, doubly-emarginate, central feathers projecting. Tibice bare 
for two-thirds the length of the tarsus; toes very short, widely margined. No hind toe 
(General characters of Tringa proper, but 3-toed. See fig. 39.) One species. 


i 


: 
Ss ae _— ee FS 


Fig. 440, —Sanderling, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


C. arena/ria. (Lat. arenaria, relating to arena, sand. Fig. 440.) SaNDERLING. Ruppy 
“PLOVER.” Adult in summer: Entire upper parts and neck all round variegated with black 
light ashy and bright reddish; on the back and seapulars each feather having a central black 
field, and being broadly margined and tipped with ashy or reddish. Under parts white, immac- 
ulate. Outer webs and tips of primaries deep brownish-black, inner light ashy. A white spot at 
base of inner primaries. Secondaries mostly pure white; the outer vanes and part of inner on 
the latter half dusky. Greater coverts dusky, broadly tipped and narrowly edged with pure 
white. Rump, upper tail-coverts and central tail-feathers dusky, tipped and narrowly edged 
with ashy-white ; lateral tail-feathers very light ash, nearly white. Bill and feet black. 
Length 7.50-8.00; extent 15.00-16.00; wing 4.90; tail 2.25; bill about 1.00; tarsus rather 


241. 


884. 


242. 


634 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLA. 


less; middle toe and claw 0.75. Young in autumn: No traces of the reddish. Upper parts 
very light ash, each feather fading into white on the edges, and with a narrow shaft-line of 
dusky. Entire under parts pure white. Scapulars dusky, edged with whitish. Other parts 
asin summer adults. In a usual winter dress, there are traces of the reddish on the upper 
parts generally, and on the breast. Each feather above is brownish-black, regularly indented 
and tipped with ashy-white, thus giving to the upper parts the appearance of being evenly 
mottled. There is a buff tinge on the breast, and also on the tips of the rump-feathers. The 
bend of the wing is nearly as dark as in the adult. At all times the under parts from the 
jugulum are pure white. Inhabits the sea coasts of nearly all countries; N. A. at large, 
abundant coastwise, also in the interior on large bodies of water. Migratory; breeds in high 
latitudes. 
EURYNORHYN’CHUS. (Gr. eipiva, eurwno, I dilate; piyxos, hrugchos, beak.) Spoon- 
BILLED SANDPIPER. Bill about as long as head, straight, spatulate at end, the ‘‘ spoon” being 
about as wide as long, lozenge-shaped, with the distal angle well marked, the lateral angles 
rounded off, the proximal one of course running into the rest of the bill; both mandibles share 
this extraordinary dilation to about equal extent. The shape is not exactly as in the accom- 
panying sketch; but the expansion is remarkably vascular, doubtless changes somewhat in 
drying, and may not be quite alike in different specimens. Excepting this prodigy of a bill, 
the characters are those of ordinary sandpipers, especially the smaller species of Actodromas. 
Toes entirely free; hind toe extremely small; middle toe and claw a little shorter than tarsus. 
One species. 
(addenda) E. pygme/us. (Lat. pygmaeus, dwarf. Fig. 441.) Spoon-BILLED SANDPIPER. 
Adult 9, im breeding plumage: General appearance of a stint (as dctodromas minutilla, for 
example), and size little greater. Coloration of upper parts 
almost exactly as in the species just named, the feathers 
being black, with indented light chestuut-red edgings, and 
mostly grayish-white tips; crown simply streaked with the 
reddish color and black. Under parts white, the whole throat, 
breast, and sides of the neck overlaid with bright chestnut (as 
_in a highly-plumaged sanderling), the breast, back of this 
colored area, and the sides of the body, spotted with dusky. 
Primaries plain dusky, with blackish outer webs and ends, 
and mostly white shafts; secondaries mostly white from the 
base; greater coverts white-tipped. Bill and feet black. 
Length probably 6.00; wing 3.90; tail almost gone, probably 
1.75; tarsus 0.90; middle toe and claw 0.80; bill 0.90, the 
spoon 0.45 wide; this singular instrument probably acting as 
a sifter or strainer rather than as a shovel, in dabbling in soft 
eT ee mire. (Described from No. 92,281, Mus. Smiths. Inst., 
nat, size. (By Shufeldt, from Ridg- Plover Bay, E. Siberia, June 26, 1881, E. W. Nelson, figured 
way, after nature.) in colors in Nelson’s Birds of Bering Sea, etc., Voyage of the 
‘Corwin,’ Washington, 4to, 1883, p. 87. Only one other specimen in this plumage is known 
to exist; figured in Ibis, 1869, p. 462, pl. 12; see also P. Z.$. 1871, p. 111. A plain ashy 
and white plumage is more usual.) Asia, especially India, breeding on the eastern Aretic 
coast of Siberia, and also on the Arctic coast of Alaska; one of the rarest of birds in collections, 
only some 25-30 specimens being known, mostly from India; in this country, there is prob- 
ably at present searcely another specimen known than the one here described. 
LIMO/SA. (Lat. limosa, muddy, miry; limes, mud, slime.) Gopwrts. Bill much longer 
than head, longer than tarsus, curved a little upward. Culmen flattened toward end, but not 
furrowed; end of bill not notably enlarged or punctulated. Lateral groove of both mandibles 


628. 


29. 


SCOLOPACIDZE: GODWITS. 635 


reaching nearly to end of bill; symphyseal groove less extended. Gape of mouth moderate, 
scarcely cleft beyond base of culmen, as in Snipes and Sandpipers, not as usual among Tattlers. 
Wing long and pointed; tail short and square. Tibia denuded below for a moderate space. 
Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw, scutellate before and behind, reticulate on sides. ‘Toes 
short and stout, much flattened underneath, and widely margined; outer and middle semi- 
palmate, inner and middle with a slight web. Size large; general aspect curlew-like, but 
bill recurved, not decurved. In character of bill approaching Snipes, especially Macrorhamphus, 
to which it is nearly related in some other respects, as seasonal changes of plumage of most 
species. Sexes similar. Two N. Am. species, and two others, occurring in Alaska and 


Greenland, from Asia and Europe. 
Analysis of Species. 


Rump, tail and its upper coverts barred thronghout with blackish and rufous. Lining of wings chestnut. 
No extensive barring on under parts. No great seasonal changes of plumage ? Feathers not extend- 
ing on side of under mandible far beyond those on upper. Sy teksts Peyton er aes Pas Seda 628 
Rump, tail, and its upper coverts barred throughout with white and black. Lining of wings and axillars 
white, with dusky marks! 45. ke a Ske ter ew, uropygialis 631 
Rump blackish, upper tail-coverts mostly white, tail black with white base and tip. Under parts in 
summer intense ferruginous, barred throughout. Lining of wings mostly blackish. Feathers extend- 


ing on side of lower mandible to a point beyond those on upper . . . . .... . - hemastica 629 
Similar to L. hemastica ; rump, tail and its coverts substantially the same. Lining of wings and axillars 
WHICO ie sa Tue id oe ie he MAS ET ay Ae BL es A Wa SE Ge en be cae ets wo eel re MBG OCep Ile. 1680 


L. fe’da. (Lat. feda, ugly, ungainly, unseemly. Fig. 442.) Great MarBLep Gopwit. 
Maruin. Feathers not extending ou side of lower mandible to a point far beyond those on upper. 
No white anywhere; rump, tail, and its coverts barred 
throughout with blackish and the body-color. Lining 
of wings chestnut; axillars the same, more or less 
barred with black. General color rufous or light dull 
cinnamon-red, uniform and nearly uninterrupted on 
all the under parts, richer and more chestnut on the 
lining of the wings and axillars; somewhat marked 
with dusky on the sides of the breast and body; on 
the whole upper parts variegated with the bruwnish- 
black central ficld of each feather, the blackish pre- 
dominating, leaving the rufous chiefly as scallops and 
tips of the feathers. This rufous very variable in in- 
tensity ; usually paler on upper than on under parts, 
and strongest under the wings. Primaries rufous, 
successively darkening from last to first, the outer 
webs and ends of the few outer ones blackish, the Fig. i42.— Godwit, greatly reduced. (From 
shaft of the first white. Bill livid flesh-colored, 7° after Audubon.) 

blackish on about terminal third; legs ashy-blackish. Large: length 16.00-22.00 inches; 
extent 30.00-40.00; wing somewhere about 9.00; tail 3.00-4.00; bill 3.50-5.50, generally 
about 4.00; tarsus 3.00, more or less; middle toe and claw 1.50; few birds vary more in 
size. Sexes not distinguishable; no ashy and whitish plumage known. Temperate N. Am.; 
the largest of the “bay-birds” excepting the long-billed curlew; conspicuous by its size and 
red color among the waders that throng the shores and muddy or sandy bars of bays and 
estuaries during the migration. Known to breed chiefly in the upper Mississippi and Eastern 
Missouri regions, in Towa, Minnesota, and Dakota, to the Saskatchewan; does not appear to 
go far along the Atlantic coast northward. Nests anywhere on the prairie, not necessarily 
near water; eggs 3-4, about 2.28 x 1.60, light olive-drab, numerously but not very boldly 
spotted with various umber-brown shades, and the usual stone-gray shell-spots. 

L. hemas'tica. (Gr. aivagrixds, haimastikos, of bloody-red color.) Hupsontan Gopwit. 


630. 


631. 


243. 


636 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LIMICOLZ. 


AMERICAN BLACK-TAILED Gopwit. RiInG-TAILED MaRLIN. Feathers on side of lower 
mandible reaching to a point far in advance of those on upper. Rump blackish. Most upper 
tail-coverts conspicuously white ; longest coverts and the tail-feathers black with white bases, 
those of the tail-feathers most extensive, and the latter also white-tipped. The appearance 
of the parts connectively is therefore of a black rump, then a broad white bar, then a broad 
black bar, then a narrow white bar. Lining of wings sooty-blackish, mixed with some white; 
axillars black. Under parts rich ferruginous or chestnut-red, everywhere crossed with numer- 
ous irregular black bars, several on each feather, and usually also crossed, especially behind, 
with similar white bars, such variegation of black, white, and red most pronounced on the 
under tail-coverts. Upper parts blackish (brownish-black with greenish gloss), intimately 
mixed with rufous and ochrey or whitish, these lighter colors forming indentations on the edges 
of each feather. Primaries blackish, with white shafts and white basal spaces; their coverts 
the same, with white tips. Bill light, probably orange or reddish, the terminal third black ; 
legs black. Length 14.50-16.50; extent 24.00-26.50; wing 7.50-8.50; tail 3.00-3.50; bill 
2.75-3.50; tibia bare 1.00 or more; tarsus 2.25-2.55; middle toe and claw 1.30-1.70. 9 
averages larger than ¢; weight 9.00-9.500z.; ¢ 7.50-8.00 oz. Immature or winter specimens: 
Specific characters of wings and tail much the same. Upper parts dark ash, with black shaft- 
lines, the back varied more or less with black patches and whitish or rufescent markings. 


Fig. 443. — Willet, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


Under parts whitish, more or less rufescent, with traces of black barring. N. Am. generally ; 
C. and 8. Am. and W.1.; not noted W. of the R. Mts., and apparently not common any- 
where in the U. 8.; breeds in high latitudes. The American representative of L. egocephala. 
Eggs 4, average 2.18 X 1.40, very heavy brownish-olive, with the usual markings. 

L. egoce'phala. (Gr. alyoxépados, aigokephalos, goat-headed ; name of some bird.) EvRo- 
PEAN BLACK-TAILED Gopwit. Very like the last; characters of rump and tail substantially 
the same; at once distinguishable by white (not black) lining of wings and axillars. Europe, 
ete. ; only American as occurring in Greenland. 

L. uropygia'lis. (Lat. wropygialis, relating to wropygium, the rump.) WHITE-TAILED 
Gopwir. Paciric Bar-TaIbep Gopwit. Rump, tail, and its upper coverts, white, more 
or less tinged with rufous, barred throughout with black. Lining of wings and axillars white, 
former varied, latter barred, with dark gray. In summer, upper parts blackish, everywhere 
varied with rusty-red; head, neck, and under parts rusty-red. In winter, grayish-brown 
above, the feathers with darker centres and blackish shaft-lines; below, whitish ; sides and 
crissum with sagittate black marks. Averaging less than L. feeda ; bill 3.50-4.50. A widely 
distributed Old World species, very near the bar-tailed godwit of Europe, Z. lapponica, and 
probably identical with L. nove-zealandie ; lately ascertained to occur in Alaska, where it is 
common, and known to breed. Eggs like those of other godwits, 2.22 x 1.47. 
SYMPHEMIA. (Gr. cippnu, sumphemi, I speak with.) SrmipaALMaTr TaTriers. Bill 


SCOLOPACIDZ!: TATTLERS. 63 


longer than head, straight, its tip not expanded, knobbed, nor notably sensitive; grooved 
about half its length only; culmen not furrowed. Gape of mouth reaching beyond base of 
culmen. Bill much stouter than usual in Tattlers. Legs stout. Feet semipalmate, with 
decided web between inner and middle as well as outer and middle toes. Tarsus longer than 
middle toe and claw, seutellate before and behind. (General characters of Totanus at large, 
but bill and feet stout, latter bluish, and toes semipalmate. See fig. 49.) One N. Ar. species. 
S. semipalma’ta. (Lat. semipalmata, half-webbed. Fig. 444.) SemrpALMATED TATTLER. 
Wier. Adult g Q, in summer: Upper parts ashy, confoundedly speckled to greater or 
less extent with black- 
ish; this sometimes 
giving the prevailing 
tone, but in lighter col- 
ored cases the blackish 
restricted to an irregu- 
lar central field on each 
feather, throwing out 
angular processes and 
tending to become 
transverse bars. When 
such dark fields pre- 
vail, the upper parts 
become quite blackish, 
speckled with ashy- 
white, like Totanus 
melanoleucus, for ex- 
ample. Furthermore, 
there is often aslight ru- 
fescence. Under parts 
white, sometimes with a rufous or brownish tinge, the jugulum and breast spotted and streaked, 
the sides barred or arrow-headed, with brownish-black. Axillars and lining of wing, edge of 
wing and primary coverts, sooty-blackish. Primaries blackish, with a great space white at 
base, partly overlaid and concealed by the primary coverts, partly showing conspicuously as a 
speculum; shafts white along this space. Most secondaries white; most upper tail-eoverts 
white, the shorter ones dark like rump, the longer ones barred like tail. Tail ashy, incom- 
pletely barred with blackish ; lateral feathers pale, or marbled with white. Bill dark ; legs 
bluish. It is evidently a mistake to describe the willet as merely gray and white. Length 
about 16.00; wing 8.00; tail 3.00; bill 2.25-2.75; tarsus the same; middle toe and claw 
1.67. @ Q in winter, and young: Character of wing as before. Above, light ashy, nearly 
or quite uniform ; tail corresponding with this gray state; upper tail-coverts white. Below, 
white, shaded with ashy on the jugulum, breast, and sides. Every stage occurs between the 
two here described. Temperate N. Am. at large, N. to 56° at least, but chietly U. S.; breeding 
throughout its U. S. range, and resident in the Southern States. A large, stout tattler, known 
at a glance by its white-mirrored black-lined wings and blue legs, too plentiful for such a wary, 
restless, and noisy bird in marshes for the convenience of gunners, as its shrill reiterated cries, 
incessant when its breeding places are invaded, alarm the whole neighborhood. Breeds by 
pairs or in small companies in fresh or salt marshes ; nest a slight affair in a tussock of grass 
or reeds just out of the water; eggs 3-4, 1.90 to 2.12 X 1.45 to 1.55, average 2.00 x 1.50, 
less pointedly pyriform than usual in this family, brownish or buffy-olive or clay color, boldly 
and distinetly spotted and splashed with umnber-brown shades, little massed at the great end, 
with the usual shell-markings. 


a 
Orvwerccys, 


Fig. 444. — Willets. (From Lewis.) 


244, 


633. 


634. 


638 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLAL. 


TO'TANUS. (Ital. totano, some bird of this kind.) Tartiers. Bill longer than head, 
straight or nearly so, if anything rather bent up than down, very slender, without expansion at 
tip or furrow on culmen, the lateral grooves little if any more than half its length; gape reach- 
ing beyond base of culmen. Wings long, pointed; tail short, even or little rounded, barred in 
color. Legs very long and slender ; tibiee much denuded below; tarsi longer than middle toe 
and claw, scutellate before and behind. Toes with decided basal webbing between outer and 
middle toe, that between inner and middle slight. Legs green or yellow. Numerous species 
of various parts of the world. 


Analysis of Species. 


Legs yellow. 
Length over 12; wing over 7; tail 3 or more; bill over 2, bentupalittle . . . . . . melanoleucus 633 
Length under 12; wing under 7; tail under 3; bill under 2, straight ...... . . . flavipes 331 
Legs greenish; size and form nearly asin T. melanoleucus. . . 2. 1... 1 6 ee es) glottis 635 


T. melanoleu'cus. (Gr. peédas, melas, black ; Nevkds, leucos, white. Fig. 445.) GREATER 
TELL-TALE. GREATER YELLOW-SHANKS. LONG-LEGGED TATTLER. STONE-SNIPE. Bill 


Fig. 445. — Greater Ycllow-shanks, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


straight or slightly inclined upward, not with regular curve, but as if bent near the middle 
black or greenish-black. Legs very long and slender, chrome-yellow. Length 13.00-14.00 ; 
extent 23.00-25.00; wing over 7.00, nearer 8.00; tail 3.00 or more ; bill 2.00 or more ; tarsus 
about 2.50; middle toe and claw 1.70. Length from end of bill to end of outstretched feet 17 
or 18 inches. & 9, adult: Above, blackish, more or less ashy according to season, everywhere 
speckled with whitish, in a series of indentations along edge of each feather; the markings 
spotty on the back and wings, streaky on the head and neck. A slight white superciliary line 
Upper tail-eoverts mostly white. Under parts white, the jugulum and fore-breast streaked 
the sides and flanks, lining of wings and axillars barred and arrow-headed with the color of thy 
back. Tail like back, with numerons white bars, generally broken on the middle feathers 
Primaries blackish, with black shafts, mostly with white tips; secondaries and thcir coverts 
the same, but their edges marbled, spotted, or broken-barred with white. The seasonal 
changes of plumage are incousiderable, consisting chiefly in the tone of the upper parts, more 
blackish and white in summer, more gray and ashy in wiuter and in the young; and in the 
emphasis of the dark markings of the under parts. N. Am. at large; in U. &. chiefly as a 
migrant, and in winter; breeds in high latitudes; abundant, like the last a ncisy, restless 
denizen of the marshes, bays, and estuaries. 

T. fla'vipes. (Lat. flavipes, yellow-foot.) Lrssper TELL-TALE. YELLOW-sHANKS. A 
ininiatwre of the last; colors precisely the same; legs comparatively longer; bill grooved 
rather farther, perfectly straight. Length under 12.00, usually 10.00-11.00; extent 19.00- 
21.00; wing under 7.00; tail 2.50; bill always under 2.00, about 1.50; tarsus about 2.00; 


635. 


245. 


636. 


637. 


SCOLOPACIDA): TATTLERS. 639 


middle toe and claw, and bare tibia, each, 1.25. N. Am., abundant, in the same places as 
the last. Breeds from the N. States northward, and winters in the U. 8. Eggs 3-4, pointedly 
pyriform, 1.58 to 1.78 X about 1.16; ground clay-color, buffy or creamy, not olivaceous, the 
markings showing boldly on the pale ground, but in great diversity, some eggs being heavily 
splashed with blotches confluent about the great end, others having sinall clean-edged spots all 
over the surface ; markings rich umber, chocolate, or blackish, with neutral-tint shell-spots. 
T. glot/tis. (Gr. yAérra, glotta, the tongue; i.e. noisiness.) GREEN-SHANKS. Size and 
form almost exactly as in J. melanoleucus ; rather smaller; bill about 2.25; wing 7.50; tail 
3.25; tarsus 2.50; colors nearly the same, but bill and legs greenish ; rump and lower back, 
as well as the tail and its coverts, white with more or fewer dark marks, chietly broken bars 
or other variegation on the tail-feathers alone. ‘ Florida.” 7. glottis Aup., B. Am., 8vo ed, 
v, 321, pl. 346. There is no reason to suppose that this bird is anything more than a strag- 
gler to this country ; Audubon’s specimen is absolutely identical with European ones. 
RHYACO/PHILUS. (Gr. pva€, gen. praxos, hruax, hruakos, a brook ; ides, philos, loving.) 
Green TaTriers. Bill moderately longer than head, perfectly straight, very slender, 
grooved a little beyond its middle. Legs not very long for this group; tarsus little exceeding 
middle toe and claw; bill and legs both dark-colored. Only the most rudimentary web 
between inner and middle toe; a moderate one between outer and middle. Upper parts dark- 
colored ; tail rounded, fully barred with white. Small. 
Analysis of Species. 

Length over 9.00; upper tail-coverts white; legs grayish-blue , ae GENE ter 2m ochropus 636 

Length under 9.00; upper tail-coverts like back ; legs greenish, drying blackish . . . . . . solitarius 637 
R. och/ropus. (Gr. dxpds, ochros, pale, sallow, wan; mots, pous, foot; not well chosen.) 
GREEN Sanpprper. Upper parts blackish-brown, with faint olivaceous metallic gloss, 
streaked on the head and neck, speckled on the back and wings, with white; upper tail-coverts 
white. Tail white at base; lateral pair of rectrices white, others marked with white and 
blackish in bars. Below, white, jugulum and sides marked with dusky. Bill blackish ; iris 
brown ; feet grayish-blue, greenish on the joints. Length about 10.00; wing 5.50; tail 2.50; 
bill 1.50; tarsus 1.30. Nova Scotia; a straggler from Europe (one instance, Bull. Nuttall 
Club, iii, 1878, p. 49). 
R. solita’rius. (Lat. solitarius, solitary ; solus, alone. Fig. 446.) Soxrrary TATTLER. AMER- 
ICAN GREEN SANDPIPER. ¢ @, adult: 
Above, dark lustrous olive-brown, streaked 
on the head and neck, elsewhere finely speck- 
led, with white; no continuous white on rump 
or upper tail-coverts. Below, white; the jug- 
ulum and sides of neck shaded with brownish 
and streaked with dusky; sides, axillars, and 
lining of wings regularly barred with dusky. FiG. 446.—Solitary Sandpiper, nat. size. (Ad nat, 
Rump and upper tail-coverts like back; tail el: E. ©-) 
beautifully and regularly barred throughout with black and white; white prevailing on the 
outer feathers, where the dark bars may be broken, and white reduced to a series of marginal 
spots on the middle feathers. Primaries and edge of wing blackish, unmarked ; secondaries 
like back, mostly unmarked, the inner ones gradually gaining white spots. Bill blackish ; 
legs dull greenish (drying quite black, like many scrophulariaceous plants). Length 8.00- 
ce Aviat botarbes pei figures ; extent 15.50-17.00; wing 4.75-5.40; tail 2.95; bill 

-12-1.24; tarsus 1.20-1.380; middle toe and claw 1.12-1.20. Young: Above, lighter and 

less olivaceous brownish, without gloss, the speckling less, or else of a rusty tinge. Suffusion 
of jugulum paler and more restricted. White around and over eye better defined. Bill and 
feet ashy-greenish. N. America, the representative of R. ochropus; N. to Alaska. Breeds 


246. 


638. 


247. 


639. 


640 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZ. 


in N. U.S. and northward, if not also through most of its U. 8. range; winters altogether 
or chiefly extralimital. Abundant during the migrations; a shy, quiet inhabitant of wet woods 
and meadows and secluded pools, rather than of the marshes. Eggs still (1883 !) desiderata ; 
but see Bull. Nuttall Club, iii, 1878, p. 197; New England Bird Life, ii, 1883, p. 240; and 
Bull. U. 8. Nat. Mus. No. 26, p. 97. 
TRINGOIDES. (Gr. tpvyyas, truggas, Lat. tryngas, or tringa, a sandpiper ; efSos, eidos, re- 
semblance.) SPOTTED SANDPIPERS. Bill straight, only about as long as head or tarsus, grooved 
for about three-fourths its length. Tibize scarcely denuded for half the length of tarsus. Tar- 
sus about as long as middle toe and claw. Outer and middle toes webbed for the length of 
their first joints; inner cleft. Tail fully half as long as the wing. Upper parts glossy, 
under spotted on white ground; bill and feet pale. Of small size. 
T. macula/rius. (Lat. macularius, spotted. Fig.447.) Sporrep SANppirrr. ¢ 9, adult: 
Above, silken ashen-olive (quaker-color — as in our 
cuckoos) with a coppery lustre, finely varied with 
blackish, in streaks on head and ueck, elsewhere in 
wavy or otherwise irregular cross-bars. Line over 
eye, and entire under parts, pure white, with nu- 
merous sharp circular black spots, larger and more 
a crowded in the Q than in the ¢. Secondaries and 
Fic. 447.—Spotted Sandpiper, nat. size. their coverts broadly white-tipped; some white feath- 
eee ers along bend of wing; axillars and lining of wings 
white, the latter with an oblique dusky bar. Primaries and most of the secondaries brownish- 
black, with brown shafts and large white basal spaces, concealed in the folded wing, conspicuous 
in flight. Upper tail-coverts and middle tail-feathers like back; lateral ones successively acquir- 
ing white tips; outer with several incomplete white bars. Feet pinkish-white, drying yellow- 
ish. Bill flesh-color, black-tipped; sometimes much of culmen dusky; sometimes much of 
under mandible orange. @: Length 7.25-7.60; extent 13.00-13.50 ; wing 3.80-4.00 ; bill, 
tarsus, and middle toe with claw, each 0.95-1.00. 9: Length 7.60-7.90; extent 13.50-14.00; 
wing 3.90-4.10. Young: Above, less glossy, with little if any blackish variegation. Below, 
white, entirely free from spotting. Downy young: Below, white; above, mottled with dark 
brown and buff; a sharp black stripe from top of head down middle of back, and another 
through eye. N. Am. at large, extremely abundant everywhere near water, and breeding 
throughout the country; winters in Southern States and beyond; familiarly known as the 
sandlark, peetweet, teeter-tail, tip-up, etc., these last names being given in allusion to its 
habit (shared by allied species) of jetting the tail as it moves; a custom as marked as the 
continual bobbing of the head of the solitary tattler and others. Nest a slight affair of dried 
grasses, on the ground, often in a field or orchard, but generally near water; eggs 4, pointed, 
creamy or clay-colored, blotched with blackish and neutral tint; about 1.30 < 1.00. 
MACHE'TES. (Gr. paxyntys, machetes, a fighter.) FIGHTING SANDPIPERS. Bill straight, 
about as long as head, shorter than tarsus, grooved nearly to tip. Gape reaching behind 
culmen. Outer and middle toe webbed at base; inner cleft. Tarsus longer than middle toe 
and claw. Tail about half as long as wing, barred. ¢ in the breeding season with the face 
bare and beset with papilla, and the neck with an extravagant frill or ruffle of elongated 
feathers. 9 without these ornaments. 
M. pug’nax. (Lat. pugnax, pugnacious. Fig. 448.) Rurr, ¢. Reve, 9. COMBATANT. 
GAMBETTA. Adult g, in wedding dress: Varied above with black, brown, buff and chestnut, 
the sides of rump white; under parts white, breast and sides and erissum black, spotted with 
white ; tail brown, barred with chestnut and white; quills dusky, with white shafts; wing 
coverts ashy-brown. Bill blackish, flesh-colored at base ; legs dingy yellow; warty exeres- 
cences yellow; feathers of the ruff endlessly varied in color. Length about 12.00; wing 7.00 ; 


248. 


6410 


SCOLOPACIDA’: TATTLERS. 641 


tail 3.00; bill 1.50; tarsus 2.00. @ smaller, lacking the ruff and tubercles, ete. A widely 
distributed bird of the Old World, noted for its pugnacity ; occasionally killed on the coast of 
New England and the Middle States. (Lawrence, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y., v, 1852, p. 220, 
Long Island. Coues, Pr. Essex Inst., v, 1868, p. 296; New England. Brewster, Am. Nat., 
vi, 1872, p. 306; Massachusetts. Brewster, Bull. Nuttall Club, i, 1876, p. 19; Maine. 
Wheaton, Bull. Nuttall Club, ii, 1877, p. 83; Ohio. — Forest and Stream, Oct. 7, 1880, p. 
186; Massachusetts. See Freke, Zoologist, Sept. 1881, p. 376.) 

BARTRA/MIA. (To Wm. Bartram.) Bill rather shorter than head, much shorter than tar- 
sus, about equal to middle toe; straight, the culmen a little concave in most of its length, the 


Fig. 448. — The Ruff, ¢, in full feather, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


upper mandible grooved for three-fourths its length. Gape very wide and deep, reaching below 
eyes. Feathers on side of lower mandible scarcely or not reaching opposite those on upper, and 
not filling the interramal space. Tail very long, more than one-half the wing, graduated. 
Wings moderate, pointed. Tibie denuded for nearly the length of the middle toe. Tarsi 
scutellate before and behind, much longer than middle toe and claw. Outer toe moderately 
webbed ; inner cleft to the base. Size medium; neck and legs long ; head small; coloration 
highly variegated; sexes alike; no great seasonal changes. One species. 

B. longicau’da. (Lat. longus, long ; cauda, tail.) BARTRAMIAN SANDPIPER. BARTRAM’S 
TATTLER. UPLAND Puover. Freip Prover. Grass Puover. Prarrre Prcron. Adult 
$ @: Above, blackish, intimately variegated with tawny or whitish edgings of all the 
feathers ; blackish prevailmg on crown and back, the lighter colors on the hind neck and 

41 


249. 


641. 


642 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOL. 


wings; on the scapulars and long inner secondaries the black resolved in regular angulai bars 
on a greenish-brown field. Rump and most upper tail-coverts brownish-black, unvaried; a 
few of the longer coverts barred to correspond with tail. Middle tail-feathers dark ashy- 
brown, with paler or rufescent edges, and irregular or broken bars, throughout; other tail- 
feathers becoming orange-brown, with numerous irregular or broken bars or spots of black ; 
with one broad, firm, subterminal black bar, and tips white for a distance increasing 6n succes- 
sive feathers. Under parts dull soiled white, or tawny-white, the rufescence strongest on 
jugulum and breast, the juguluin streaked with blackish, and sides with sharp arrow-heads 
of the same. Axillars and lining of wings pure white, regularly barred with black. Prim- 
aries brownish-black; the lst at least, and sometimes all of them, barred with white on the 
inner webs; shaft of the first white, of the others brown. Secondaries like primaries, but 
usually barred with white on both webs, the inner ones gradually assimilating with the back 
in character of markings. Bill yellow, with black ridge and tip; feet dull yellowish, drying 
darker; iris dark brown. Length 11.75-12.75; extent 21.50-23.00; wing 6.25-7.00; tail 
about 3.50; tarsus 1.75; bill, and middle toe and claw 1.00-1.25. Downy young: Varie- 
gated above with white, brown, or black; white below; bill bluish with dark tip; legs clay- 
color. They are 5 or 6 inches long before any feathers sprout. N. Am. at large, rare W. of 
the R. Mts., in profusion on the prairies of the interior, and common eastward; N. to the 
Yukon. Breeds from the middle districts northward; winters extralimital. A fine game 
bird; but those who only know it when its fears are excited by incessant persecution have 
little idea what a gentle and confiding creature it is on the western prairies. Nest any- 
where on the prairie, in June; eggs normally 4, averaging 1.75 x 1.28; clay-color or pale 
creamy-brown without olive shade; spotted all over, but most thickly at the large end, with 
small, sharp, rounded surface marks of umber-brown, among which are the purplish-gray shell- 
spots; the spots rarely if ever larger than a split pea, and seldom confluent. 
TRYN'GITES. (Gr. tpiyyas, truggas, a sandpiper, with suffix -rys, -tes.) MARBLE-WING 
Sanppipers. Bill shorter than head, very slender, tapering, and acute, grooved nearly its 
whole length, and thus much as in Tringa ; but gape of mouth extensive, and end of Dill not 
dilated and sensitive. Frontal feathers embracing base of upper mandible in nearly transverse 
outline, and extending quite to nostrils; those on side of under mandible reaching further still, 
and those of chin completely filling the interramal space; such extension of the feathers 
making the bill appear remarkably short. Wings of ordinary shape. Tail about one-half 
as long as wings, rounded, with projecting central feathers. Tibiee denuded below for a 
space less than length of middle toe. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw. Toes cleft to 
the base, or with only the most rudimentary basal webbing. Primaries peculiarly marbled in 
color. Tail not barred. Related to Tringa in many respects; but the acute and hardened 
tip of the bill, and long gape, are totanine, and on the whole the affinities seem to be with 
the last genus. One species. 
T. rufes/cens. (Lat. rufescens, rufescent, reddish. Fig. 449.) Burr-BREASTED SANDPIPER. 
& Q, adult, in breeding plumage: Above, brownish- 
black with a greenish gloss, every feather broadly mar- 
gined with tawny or yellowish-brown, the latter the 
prevailing tone. Under parts buff or fawn-colored, with- 
out markings except a few small blackish spots on sides 
: of breast. Central tail-feathers greenish-brown, blacken- 
i ing at ends; others paler, often rufescent, with white or 
Fra. 449, — Buff-breasted Sandpiper, tawvy tips and subterminal black bar; and usually, also, 
mat size.” (Ad nats del: BC) some black marbling or streaking. Primaries and sec- 
ondaries ashy-brown blackening at end, the extreme tip white— most of the inner webs 
of the primarics, and both webs of the secondaries pearly white, speckled and marbled with 


250. 


64%. 


251. 


SCOLOPACIDZ: TATTLERS. 643 


black. This curious tracery, best seen from below, is diagnostic; though the precise pat- 
tern varies interminably. The patch of under coverts at the bases of the primaries have 
the saine character. Axillars white; lining of wings white or rufescent. Iris brown. 
Bill brownish-black ; legs greenish or yellowish. Length 7.50-8.25; extent about 16.00; 
wing 5.00-5.25; tail 2.50; bill along culmen 0.67-0.75, along gape 1.00; tarsus 1.20; 
aiddle toe and claw under 1.00. Fall plumage: Under parts less rufescent, frequently simply 
awny-whitish; and the broad ochrey or tawny edgings of the feathers of the upper parts 
replaced by narrow whitish streakings, in a set of semicircles. Wings and tail as in spring, 
N. Am. at large, and a frequent European straggler, but apparently nowhere abundant ; 
migratory in the U. §.; S. in winter through 8. Ai.; breeds in high latitudes. Eggs usually 
4, pointedly pyriform, 1.40 to 1.50 & 1.02 to 1.10; the ground clay, sometimes slightly oliva- 
ceous, often quite grayish ; markings extremely bold and sharp, in heavy blotches and indeter- 
minate spots all over the eggs, but largest and most numerous at the greater eud; colors rich 
umber-brown, of varying shade. Nearest these blotched samples are the splashed ones, with 
markings massed at greater end, elsewhere splattered in small pattern. Others are spotted with 
narrow markings radiating from the large end, almost wreathing about the greatest diameter. 
All with the usual neutral-tint shell-markings; most with scratchy blackish marks over all. 
HETERO'SCELUS. (Gr. érepos, heteros, different, otherwise ; oxéAos, skelos, leg.) Suort- 
LEGGED TATTLER. Bill totanine, longer than head or tarsus, straight, rather stout, much com- 
pressed, both mandibles grooved for about two-thirds their length, with inflected tomia beyond. 
Gape of mouth extending beyond base of column; feathers of equal extent on sides of both 
mandibles, those of chin reaching much farther. Wings long, pointed, folding about to end of 
tail; 1st and 2d quills subequal and longest. Tail short, less than half the wing, nearly even. 
Legs short, somewhat rugous, reticulate except on front of tarsus, where imperfectly or incom- 
pletely scutellate ; tibie denuded for a space about half as long as tarsus; tarsus longer than 
niddle toe and claw, shorter than bill; outer longer than inner lateral toe; a large basal web 
between outer and middle, a rudimentary one between middle and inner; hind toe long, about 
equalling Ist joint of inner toe. One species, remarkable for the character of tarsal envelope 
and perfect uniformity of color of upper parts. 

H. inca/nus. (Lat. mceanus, quite gray.) Wanperinc TartTLer. Upper parts perfectly 
uniform dark plumbeous, or slaty-gray, including the wholly unmarked tail, wing-coverts, and 
inner quills, the longer quills gradually blackening, the shaft of the first primary nearly all 
white ; a white line over eye. Lining of wings, axillars, and sides of body colored like the back, 
but varied with white. Under parts in general white; in one plumage without markings, but 
heavily shaded on neck, breast, and sides with the color of the back; in another, heavily 
marked with blackish-plumbeous— speckled on throat, streaked on neck, wavy-barred on breast, 
sides, and crissum. Bill black, apparently pale at base of under mandible. Length about 
10.00; wing 6.50; tail 3.00; bill 1.50; tarsus 1.25; mid- 
dle toe and claw a little less. A species of almost universal 
distribution on the coast and islands of the Pacific, com- 
mon in summer on the shores of Alaska; described under 
at least twelve different names. 

NUME'NIUS. (Gr. véos, neos, new; prvy, mene, the 
moon: the long curved bill, like a crescent. Fig. 450.) 
CurLews. Bill of very variable length, always longer 
than head, probably always exceeding the tarsus, some- 
times more than length of entire leg; slender, curved Fy. 450, —Long-hilled Curlew, greatly 
downward, the tip of the upper mandible knobbed and reduced. 

overhanging the end of the lower; obsoletely grooved nearly to end. Gape of mouth 
extended beyond base of culmen. Feathers reaching about equally far on sides of each man- 


644 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LIMICOLZA. 


dible. Wings and tail ordinary; latter barred in color. Legs rather stout; tibie largely 
denuded below; tarsus much longer than middle toe and claw, scutellate in front only, else- 
where reticulate. Toes short and thick, flattened underneath, broadly margined on sides. 
Of large and medium stature, and plump form. Coloration variegated; rufous usually prevail- 
ing. Sexes alike; changes of plumage not pronounced. A cosmopolitan genus of several 
species ; in character of bill unique, in that of the legs very similar to Limosa. In fact, 
barring the bill, Nwmenius longirostris closely resembles Limosa farda. It is a curious fact 
that Old and New World representatives of both these genera differ from each other in a simi- 
lar manner, the former having the rump, tail and its coverts, and lining of wings white, barred 
or not, while some or all of these parts in the latter are dark. Compare Limosa feda with L. 
wuropygials ; L. hudsonica with L. lapponica ; Numenius hudsonicus with N. pheopus, ete. 


Fig. 451. — The European Curlew, Nwmenius arquatus, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


Analysis of Species. 
Feathers of belly bristle-tipped.. 6. 6 6 6 ee eee ee ee ee eee we ew ee titensis BAT 
Feathers of belly normal. 
Rump white, more or less spotted with dusky. 
Upper tail-coverts and under wing-coverts white spotted and barred with dusky . . pheopus 644 
Rump, upper tail-coverts and Jining of wings not white. 
Primaries varied with rufous. General coloration strongly rufous, especially below; lining of 


wings deepest rufous, little or not varied. Large; bill4-G-Sinches. . . . . . Jlongirostris 643 
Primaries varied with rufous or whitish. General coloration scarcely or not rufous; lining of 
wings entirely varied. Medium-sized; bill3-4 inches. . . . . . « . Rudsonicus 645 


Primaries not varied with rufous or whitish. General coloration scarcely or not rufous; lining 
of wings entirely varied. Smallest; billunder3inches . . ..... +. +. . borealis 646 


643. 


644, 


645, 


SCOLOPACIDA: CURLEWS. 645 


N. longiros'tris. (Lat. longus, long; rostrum, beak.) LONG-BILLED CURLEW. SICKLE-BILL. 
Bill of extreme length and curvature, measuring from 4 to 6 or $ inches. Of largest size: length 
24.00 or more; extent 38.00; wing 10.00-12.00; tail about 4.00; tarsus 2.75-3.50. Plumage 
very shnilar to that of the godwit, Limosa feda: prevailing tone rufous, of varying intensity 
in different specimens, usually deepest on the lining of the wings, which are little varied with 
other color. Primaries varied with rufous. Top of head variegated with blackish and rufous 
or whitish, without distinct pale median and lateral lines. Upper parts brownish-black, 
speckled with tawny or ciunamon-brown, each feather having several indeutatious or broken 
bars of this color; rufous prevailing on wing-coverts. Tail-feathers and secondaries cinnamon- 
brown, with pretty regular dark bars throughout. Under parts rufous or cinnamon of varying 
intensity, usually deepening to chestnut. under the wings, fading to whitish on throat; the 
juguluin and fore-breast with dusky streaks which tend on the sides of breast and body to arrow- 
heads or more or less complete bars ; lining of wings, axillars, and crissum, mostly wumarked, 
though some spots may appear. No white on rump, tail, or wings. Bill black, much of under 
mandible pale-flesh-color or yellowish ; legs dark. Little variation in plumage with sex, age, 
or season. Chicks hatch in whitish down, thickly blotched above with brownish-black; the 
bill straight, an inch long. Like other exceptional developments of parts of birds, this member 
grows to indetermi- 

nate length. Up to 

the time it is not over 

3 or 4 inches long, 

the species may be 
distinguished from NV. \ 
hudsonicus by the \\\ \ 
strong rufescence of a 
the under parts, which (yf 
are nearly clear of \ 
dark markings.  En- 
tire temperate N. 
Am.; breeds nearly 
throughout its range; 
migratory northward, 
resident in the south, 
but also 8. in winter 
to C. Am.; uncom- 
mon in New England. 
Nests aboundingly on 
the 8. Atlantic coast, and on the prairies of the Northwest. Eggs 3-4, not very pear-shaped, 
more like hen’s eggs; 2.45 to 2.80 long by 1.80-1.90 broad; clay-colored, tending either to 
darker olivaceous shades or to buff; spotting generally pretty uniform and of small pattern, 
in some cases blotched or massed at the greater end, of sepia, chocolate, or umber-brown, the 
paler shell-markings usually numerous and evident. 

N, phe/opus. (Gr. daids, phaios, dusky, swarthy; mods, pous, foot.) EuRopEAN WHIMBREL. 
In stature and general character resembling the Hudsonian eurlew ; at once distinguished from 
that species by the white rump, upper-tail coverts and lining of wings, spotted or barred with 
dusky. An extensively distributed Old World species, only N. American as occurring in 
Greenland. = 

N. hudson/icus. (Of Hudson’s Bay. Fig. 452.) Hupsonran Curtew. Jack Curtew. Of 
medium size; bill moderate in length, stout, curved. Bill 3 or 4 inches long. Length 16.00- 
18.00 ; extent 32.00; wing 9.00-10.00; tail 3.50 ; tarsus 2.25-9.50. General tone of coloration 


\\ 
\ 


oy YW af, a HY 
iy Ds 
LWT E 

YN ce 


SR si Vas 


vp e 
VOT REALL —vorruntN-56 2S 


Fig. 452. — Hudsonian Curlew, much reduced. (From Lewis.) 


646. 


647. 


646 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LIMICOLZ.. 


scarcely rufous, the under parts, and the variegation of the upper, being whitish or ochraceous. 
No white on rump, tail, or lining of wings. Top of head uniform blackish-brown, with well- 
defined whitish median and lateral stripes (as in pheopus, but neither longirostris nor borealis). 
Upper parts brownish-black, speckled with whitish, ochraceous or pale cinnamon-brown, in 
same pattern as in longirostris, but the dark in excess of the light colors, and these never 
strongly rufescent. Tail ashy-brown (not rufous), with numerous narrow blackish bars. Prima- 
ries fuscous, marbled or broken-barred with pale color (pattern as in longirostris, tone not 
strongly rufous). Lining of wings and axillars rufescent, but spotted or barred throughout with 
dusky. Under parts soiled whitish or somewhat ochraceous, only obscurely rufescent on cris- 
sum, if anywhere; the jugulum and fore-breast with dusky streaks which, as in other species, 
change to arrow-heads or incomplete bars on sides of breast and body. Bill blackish, some 
part of lower mandible pale; feet dark. The N. Am. representative of N. pheopus, but 
obviously different ; generally distributed, not so common as either longirostris or borealis ; 
breeds in high latitudes, migratory through the U.8., wintering in the 8. States and far beyond. 
Eggs of intermediate size, but not distinguishable with certainty, the markings being as in 
other species; 2.12 to 2.30 long, by about 1.60 broad. 

N. borea/lis. (Lat. boreals, northern.) Eskimo CurLEw. DovuGu-sirp. Of smallest 
size ; bill short, slender, and little curved. Bill 2.00 or more, perhaps never 3.00. Length 
12.00-15.00 ; extent 28.00; wing under 9.00; tail 3.00; tarsus 2.00 or less. General tone 
little rufescent, the under parts and the variegation of the upper rather ochraceous than rufous. 
Top of head variegated throughout, without median line, but with tolerably well defined 
whitish superciliary stripes. Upper parts brownish-black, speckled with ochraceous or very 
pale cinnamon brown, the general effect as in hudsonicus ; dark coloration in excess of the 
pale. Tail barred much as in hudsonicus, the broader light bars often rufescent. Primaries 
and most secondaries plain fuscous, entirely lacking the variegation seen in the foregoing. 
Under parts ochraceous, or somewhat rufescent, very variable, frequently whitish, marked as 
in other species with dusky streaks, arrow-heads, or bars, but these more numerous, frequently 
occupying all the under parts, excepting chin and middle of belly. Axillars and lining of 
wings rufescent, barred throughout with dark brown. Bill black, with base of lower mandible 
pale or yellowish ; feet greenish-black. In handling perhaps a hundred fresh-killed birds, I 
have noted much variation in tone, but the species is unmistakable. N. Am. at large, breeding 
within the Arctie circle, migrating through the U.8., where rarely if ever known to winter, 
never to summer, and wintering in C. and 8. Am. Extraordinarily abundant in some places 
during the migration, as in Labrador, where it fairly swarms in August. In the northern 
regions, feeds chiefly on the Lmpetrum nigrum. Nest in open plains. Eggs 4, from 1.90 to 2.12 
long, by 1.33 to 1.40 broad ; olive-drab, tending to green, gray, or brown in different cases, with 
large, bold and numerous markings of bistre, chocolate and sepia-brown, tending to aggregate 
on the greater end, with the ordinary stone-gray shell-marks. 

N. taiten’sis. (Of Otahiti.) OTaniTi CuRLEW. BRISTLE-BELLIED CURLEW. Of medium 
size, about equalling N. ph@opus ; wing 9.00 or more; tail 4.00; bill about 3.50; tarsus about 
2.25. Crown with light median and superciliary lines; upper parts brownish-black, with the 
usual tawny variegation ; no white on rump, tail, or lining of wings ; tail and its coverts tawny, 
the coverts spotted or streaked with dusky, the rectrices pretty regularly and firmly barred with 
about 6 dusky bands, and tipped with tawny-white; lining of wings and axillars fully barred 
with tawny and dusky. Primaries blackish, varied to some extent on inner webs, the shaft of 
the first white. Under parts pale tawny, the chin white, the jugulum thickly streaked, the 
sides more loosely barred with dusky, but most of under parts immaculate, and many feathers, 
especially of the flanks, ending in long glistening bristles. Bill and feet dark. Alaska, not 
common, perhaps only a strageler from Asia; a well-known and abundant curlew of various 
Pacific islands, only recently added to our fauna. 


HERODIONES: HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES. 647 


VIIL Order HERODIONES: Herons and their Allies. 


Altricial Grallatores: including the Herons, Storks, 
Ibises, Spoonbills, and related birds. The species 
average of large size, some standing among the tall- 
est of Carinate birds, with compressed body and ex- 
tremely long neck and legs. The neck has usually 
15-17 vertebre, and is capable of very strong flexion 
in S-shape. The tibia are naked below; the podo- 
theca varies. The general pterylosis is peculiar, in 
the presence, in central groups of this order, of 
powder-down tracts, and in some other respects. The 
oil-gland is present, and tufted. A part if not the 
whole of the head is naked as a rule, as much of 
the neck also frequently is. The toes, usually long 
and slender, are never fully webbed. The hallux is 
more or less lengthened, and either little elevated, or 
else perfectly insistent. A foot of insessorial character 
results; the species frequently perch on trees, where 
the nest is usually placed. The physiological nature 
is altricial and usually psilopeedic ; the young hatch- 
ing uaked, unable to stand, and being fed in the nest. 
The food is fish, reptiles, mollusks, and other animal 
matters, generally procured by spearing with a quick 
thrust of the bill, given as the birds stand in wait, 
or stalk stealthily along; hence they are sometimes 
called Gradatores (stalkers). The bill normally rep- 
resents the ‘‘cultrirostral” pattern; it is as a rule of 
lengthened wedge shape, hard and acute at end if not 
hard throughout, with sharp cutting edges; enlarging 
regularly to the base where the skull contracts gradu- 
ally in sloping down to meet it; but deviations from 
such typical shape are frequent and striking. It is 
firmly affixed to the skull, and always longer than the 
head. The nostrils are small, elevated, surrounded 

Fic. 453.—The Bittern’s Bog. (From by bone and a horny sheath, with little if any soft 
Michelet.) skin. The wings normally show a striking difference 
from those of Limicole, in being long, broad, and ample. The tail is short and few-feathered, 
usually having 12 rectrices. 


The cranial characters, though varying to some extent, agree in several important respects. 
The palatal structure is desmognathous, but without keel along line of junction; the maxillo- 
palatines are large and spongy. The nasal bones are typically holorhinal; schizorhinal in 
Ibides ; in which, also, the angle of the mandible is produced and recurved, being normally 
truncate. The sternum is ample, once or twice notched on each side behind. The cervical 
vertebrae are numerous; usually 15-17. The trachea and bronchi present some remarkable 
dispositions, but here and there only, such conformations being therefore not characteristic of 
the order. The carotids are double (in Botawrus (fig. 93) unique, as far as known, in uniting at 
once). An intestinal coscum or two cceca, present. Different genera vary in the classificatory 
muscles of the leg, the ambiens, femoro-caudal, and its accessory being present or absent. 


648 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— HERODIONES — IBIDES. 


The group here noted corresponds to the Pelargomorphe of Huxley, the Cicontiformes of 
Garrod (minus Cathartide !), the Grallatores altinares of Sundevall, aud includes the Herodix, 
Pelargi, and Hemiglottides of Nitzsch, — respectively the Heron series, the Stork series, and the 
series of Ibises and Spoonbills. The first of these differs more from the others than these do 
from one another. As usual, there are certain outlying genera, types of families or subfamilies, 
the position of which is not assured. But appearances are that the questionable forms will 
fall in one or another of the three series indicated. All of these series, to be conventionally 
rated as suborders or superfamilies, are represented in North America, where also all the large 
and leading families occur. 


12. SusorpER IBIDES: Tue Isis Series. 


Skull schizorhinal. Angle of mandible produced and recurved. Ambiens muscle, femoro- 
caudal and accessory, semitendinosus and accessory, and post-acetabular portion of tensor fascia, 
present; pectoralis major simple; biceps cubiti connected with tensur patagii longus. Sternum 
double-notched on each side. Carotids double, normal. Two intestinal ceca. Tongue ex- 
tremely small. A tufted oil-gland. Plumage without powder-down; feathered tracts broad. 
Tarsi reticulate (rarely seutellate). Hallux uot fairly insistent. Claws resting upon a horny 
“shoe.” Inner edge of middle claw not, or not fairly, pectinate. Side of upper mandible with 
a deep narrow groove for its whole length; bill otherwise very differently shaped in the two 
families, Ibidide and Plataleide, of which this series consists. 


43. Family IBIDIDZ: Ibises, 


Bill very long and slender, compressed-cylindric, curved throughout, deeply grooved 
nearly or quite to tip, which is rather obtuse, not notched; end of culmen rather broad and 
depressed, in the rest of its extent the culmen narrow and rounded; interramal space narrow, 
acute, produced nearly to tip of bill. (Whole bill thus closely resembling a Curlew’s; one of 
our species is frequently called ‘‘Spanish Curlew.”) Legs rather short (for Herodiones). 
Claws compressed, acute; the middle may be dilated and jagged, but is not fairly pectinate. 
Hallux sub-insistent. Tarsi reticulate, or scutellate in front only. Anterior toes more or less 
webbed at base. Pterylosis more or less completely stork-like, lacking the powder-down 
tracts of Herons; head more or less extensively denuded. Birds of medium and large size 
(among Herodiones}, long-legged, long-necked and small-bodied, with ample more or less 
rounded wings, of which the inner quills are very large; tail very short, usually if not always 
of 12 broad rectrices. Chiefly lacustrine and palustrine inhabitants of the warmer parts of the 
globe, feeding on fish, reptiles, and other animals. The sexes are alike; the young different. 
There are about 24 species of Ibises, among which the minor details of form vary considerably, 
nearly every one of them having been made type of some genus, according to shape of bill, 
character of head-feathering, condition of tarsal envelope, ete. The two leading modifications 
are, tarsus entirely reticulate, and tarsus scutellate in front; our genera illustrate the latter. 

Ogs. Our Wood “Ibis,” so called, isa Stork. See beyond, p. 652. 


Analysis of Genera and Species. 


Head bare on sides and beneath. Claws scarcely curved. Colors dark, metallic, greenish and chestnut. 
PLEGADIS 252 
Face without white feathersinadult . . . 2. 1. 6. 2 1 we ee ee we we. fetleinellus 649 
Face surrounded by white feathers in adult Sy es oie ae. ere ee es guarauna 650 
Head extensively bare on front, sides, and beneath. Claws curved. Colors light, dull, red or white. 
Evpocimus 253 
Adalts whites, 2: so) we veo hi agi cee ae at (a gee Ro uta cies ey a aire es ce se, ge aks og LES) BI 
Adulte *s¢anlet> so ce since. Met Gein Ld sete: Gen Gypcie! “elmo! eh ier kes @ Ces ue > i> weg WE). a Gr CoD ENO GBD 


252. 


649. 


IBIDIDZE: IBISES. 649 


PLE'/GADIS. (Gr. mAnyds, plegas, a scythe, sickle.) GLossy Iptses. Bill twice as long 
as head, or more, regularly decurved ; both mandibles grooved on sides for their whi le length; 
culmen prominent from uear base for most of its length, flattened and grooved on terminal ture 
fifths; symphysis of lower mandible grooved to tip. Thus each mandible, toward the end of 
the bill, has 3 grooves, one median and two lateral; 6 in all. Nostrils linear, in advance of 
base of upper mandible, in its lateral grooves. Frontal feathers sweeping with strongly convex 
outline across forehead, near but not quite at base of bill; lores broadly naked, the bare space 
embracing eyes; a pointed projection of feathers on side of lower mandible ; another median 
one advancing farther and more acutely on bare space of chin, which is thus forked behind. 
Tibize bare for a distance equal to half or more of the length of tarsus ; mostly reticulate, but 
with smooth bare skin for a space above in front. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw, 
reticulate, scutellate in front. Lateral toes unequal, the inner shortest. Hind toe somewhat 
elevated, without claw not half as long as middle toe without claw. Claws all long and 
slightly curved; inner edge of middle one dilated and cut three or four times, but without the 
regular “comb” of a heron’s. Wings and tail ordinary, latter of 12 feathers. Colors dark 
glossy-green and chestnut; bill and feet dark. Two or three species, oue cosmopolitan, one 
or two confined to America. Sexes alike; young different. Eggs whole-colored. 

P. falcinellus. (Lat. falcunculus or falcinellus, alittle scythe.) GLossy Iss. & Q, adult: 
No white feathers around face. General color rich dark purplish=chestnut, opaque, changing 
on head, back, wings (excepting lesser coverts), and tail, to glossy dark purplish-green ; sides 
and lining of wings and crissum dusky greenish; primaries greenish-black. Bill blackish ; 
legs grayish-black ; iris brown; bare skin of head slaty-bluc. Young: Head, neck, and under 
parts grayish-brown, the two former streaked with whitish ; upper parts glossy dusky-green. 
Length about 2 feet; extent about 3 feet; wing 10.00-11.00 inches; tail 4.00; bill 4.50— 
5.50; tibiee bare about 2.50 ; tarsus 3.50; middle toe and claw rather less. This bird is chiefly 
Old World, not common or regular in America, found occasionally anywhere E. of the Missis- 
sippi, especially coastwise and southerly ; N. casually to New England. The next species is 
much more abundant in its proper range. Eggs with shell rougher and heavier than that of 
heron’s eggs, ovoidal, not elliptical, greenish-blue, 1.90 to 2.10 long, by about 1.48 broad. 

P. guarau’na. (Vox barb., 8. Am.) WuitTE-rAcep GuLossy Ipis. Adult ¢: A white 
margin of feathers entirely surrounding the bare space on head. Head otherwise, neck, and 
entire under parts of the body, including the tibie, rich purplish-chestnut, quite uniform on 
the under parts, obscured with dusky on the head and nape, there iridescent with violet. Back 
and wings intensely iridescent with various metallic tints ; back, wing-coverts, and inner quills 
shining with violet, green, and purple; scapulars more like under parts, being of a rich deep 
wine-red and less lustrous than the wing-coverts. Primaries green, with brassy or alinost 
golden lustre. Rump, upper tail-coverts and tail chiefly green, but with various violet and purple 
reflections ; lower tail-coverts similar, contrasting with the chestnut of the belly. Lining of 
wings brassy-green, like the primaries; axillars violet, like the upper wing-coverts. Bare 
facial area apparently reddish. Bill blackish, reddening toward end; legs and feet dusky- 
reddish; claws blackish; iris red. Length 22.00-24.00; extent 38.00-40.00; wing 10.00- 
11.00; tail 3.75-4.25 ; bill 5.00-5.50; tibiee bare 2.50; tarsus 3.75; middle toe and claw 3.25; 
inner do., 2.50; outer do., 2.90; hind do., 1.60. similar, averaging smaller ; length 21.50; 
extent 36.00, ete. In this beautiful species, the feathers sweep down on the forehead with 
regular convexity, nearly but not quite to the base of the culmen, thence retreating around 
back of the eye, which is wholly in bare skin, then running forward to a point on the side of 
the lower mandible ; retreating again, then running forward in a point on the middle line of 
the chin, further than on jaw or forehead; there being thus enclosed, on each side of the 
head, a broad naked space, widest forward, narrowing behind to embrace the eye ; and between 
the rami of the jaw another bare space, forked behind to receive the projecting feathers of the 


650 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —HERODIONES — IBIDES. 


chin, and not quite separated from the bare loral space, because the feathers on the side of the 


jaw stop a little short of the hard base of the mandible. Young, first plumage (with traces of 
down still) : Remarkably lustrous. Plumage entirely green ; legs black ; bill blackish, irreg- 
ularly blotched or regularly banded with pinkish-white. This green unicolor plumage, consti- 
tuting Ibis thalassimus of some, is retained till full growth, gradually giving way through a 


er 


LU 


yy 
Zé 


Wy 


(From Brehm.) 

Chicks hatch clothed in 
; N. to Kansas; W. 
far 8. in tropical America. 
Nest in vast heronries with 
rising in air by ‘hundreds of acres ” when a gun 
affixed by twining to broken down 


Fic. 454. — European Spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia, } nat. size. 
brownish or grayish to the purple-chestnut and iridescent plumage. 
blackish down, with whitish bill. Southwestern U.S., especially Texas 
through New Mexico and Arizona to California (to Oregon?), and 
Swarming by thousands at some points along the Rio Grande. 
various herons, in the beds of reeds and rushes, 
is fired. Nest strongly and compactly woven of dead reeds, 


53. 


651. 


652. 


54, 


653. 


PLATALEIDZ: SPOONBILLS. 651 


or upright living ones, about a foot in diameter and nearly as deep, well cupped, thus unlike 
the frail platforms herons build. Eggs 3-4, rarely 5, deep bluish-green, not elliptical, from 
1.72 X 1.30 to 2.20 & 1.50, averaging 1.99 x 1.42. 

EUDO'CIMUS. (Gr. eddéxpos, well-tricd, approved, famous.) WHtre Isis. SCARLET 
Ints. General character of Plegadis. Face more denuded, with whole chin bare (in the adults). 
Claws stout, obtuse, curved. Plumage not metallic. Color white or red. Eggs spotted (in 
E. albus at least). 

E. al/bus. (Lat. albus, white.) Wits Isis. Spanish Curtew. Adult 9: Plumage pure 
white ; tips of several outer primaries glossy black. Bare face and most of bill, and legs orange, 
red, or carmine; bill tipped with dusky. Iris pearly blue. Length about 26.00 ; extent 4.0.00 ; 
wing 11.50-12.50; tail 5.00; bill 5.00-7.00; tarsus 3.50; middle toe and claw 2.50. Sexes 
alike; @ averaging smaller. Young: Dull brown, rump and under parts white ; bare parts of 
head of less extent, yellowish, bill the same ; legs bluish ; iris brown. Younger: Dull brown all 
over, with whitish rump and gray tail. §. Atlantic and Gulf States, N. to the Ohio, rarely to 
the Middle States, casually to New England; W. to Texas; resident in Florida. Breeds in 
communities by thousands in tangle and brake and tulé of the S. coast; nest similar to that 
above described, but of twigs, etc. Eggs 3, 2.25 1.60, dull chalky white, blotched and 
spotted with pale yellowish and dark reddish-brown. 

E. ru’ber. (Lat. ruber, red.) Scaruet Isis. Adult #9: Plumage scarlet; tips of several 
outer primaries glossy black. Bare parts of head, bill, and legs pale lake red. Young brownish- 
gray, darker above, paler or whitish below. Size and proportions nearly as in the last. This 
splendid creature is a native of Tropical America: accidental in the U. S. (Seen at a distance, 
not procured, Louisiana, July, 1821, Audubon; fragment of a speciinen examined, Los Pinos, 
N.M., on the Rio Grande, June, 1864, Coues ; ‘‘ Florida,” specimen in Museum of Charleston 
College, S. C., Brewster.) 


44, Family PLATALEIDZ2: Spoonbills. 


Bill long, flat, remarkably widened, rounded, and spoon-shaped at the end. Birds of this 
group are known at a glance, by the singularity of the bill; they closely resemble the foregoing 
in structure and habit, being simply spoon-billed Ibises. Two genera, with five or six species 
of various countries. The American genus differs notably from the type of Platalea, in having 
the trachea simple, bifurcating into the bronchi high in the neck; the bronchi with fusiform 
partly membranous dilatation before enteriug the thorax. In Platalea leucorodia (fig. 454) the 
trachea is peculiarly convoluted within the thorax. 

Aja‘ja. (Vox barb., 8. Am.) AmErRIcAN SPoonBILLS. Character as above said. In addi- 
tion: Head entirely bald, in the adult. Throat somewhat pouched. Nostrils basal, linear- 
oblong. Tibize and tarsi reticulate with hexagonal plates. Toes semipalmate ; hind toe well 
down. Tail of 12 feathers. Bill broader than head at the greatest width of the spoon. A 
lateral groove the whole length of the upper mandible. A nail at end of bill; much of bill 
rugous and skinny. A recurved tuft,of feathers on the foreneck below. Colors white and red. 
Sexes alike; young different. One species. 

A. ro/sea. (Lat. rosea, roseate.) RoseEaTe Spoonsity. Adult 9 : Ground color white; 
back and wings delicate rose-color ; under parts more rosy; plumes of the lower Psevneee: 
lesser wing-coverts, upper and under tail-coverts, rich carmine ; shafts of wing- and tail- feathers 
earmine. Tail brownish-yellow, anda patch of the same color on the sides of the breast; neck 
white. Bald head varied with green, yellow, orange, and black; bill varied with greenish 
bluish, yellowish, and blackish tints. Legs lake red. Iris carmine. Claws blackish. Taek 
31.00-35.00; extent 50.00-55.00; wing 15.00-16.00; tail 4.00-5.00; bill 7.00, 2 thelios ot 
more across the spoon; tibia bare 3.00; tarsus 4.00; middle toe and claw 3.50 ; hind do, 


652 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — HERODIONES— PELARGI. 


2.00. Q similar, smaller; length 30.00 or less; extent 48.00. Young: Head mostly feath- 
ered, and general color grayish-white ; acquire white with rosy the second year; full plumage 
the third. Weight of adults 3 or 4 lbs. This bird, so singular in form and magnificent in 
color, inhabits the South Atlantic and Gulf States, and southward in Tropical America ; resi- 
dent in Florida; N. only to the Carolinas. Breeds in communities in trees and bushes of 
tangled swamps. Nest a platform of sticks like a heron’s ; eggs usually 3, laid in April, nearly 
elliptical, 2.60 1.90, white. 


13. SuBorpER PELARGI: THe Stork SERIEs. 


Skull holorhinal. Angle of mandible truncate. Ambiens muscle and accessory femoro- 
caudal absent; femoro-caudal present or absent ; semitendinosus and its accessory present ; 
pectoralis major double; biceps cubiti and tensor patagii longus disconnected. Carotids double, 
normal. Two intestinal ceca. <A tufted oil-gland. Plumage without powder-down; feath- 
ered tracts broad. ‘Tarsi normally reticulate. Hallux not fairly insistent. Claws resting upon 
a horny ‘‘shoe.” Inner edge of middle claw not pectinate. Side of upper mandible ungrooved, 
without nasal fossa, the nostrils bored directly in its substance; bill very stout, compressed, 
tapering, straight or recurved or decurved. 

The Storks belong chiefly to the Old World, the warm and temperate portions of which 
they inhabit. There are about a dozen species, representing nearly as many genera of authors; 
among these Anastomus and Hiator are remarkable for a wide interval between the cutting 
edges of the bill, which only come into apposition at the base and tip. The singular African 
Scopus wmbretta, type of a funily, is often placed among the Herons, but its pterylosis is that 
of Storks. 


45. Family CICONIID2: Storks. 


Bill longer than head, very stout at base, not grooved, tapering to the straight, recurved or 
decurved tip. Nostrils pierced directly in the horny substance, without nasal scale or mem- 
brane, high up in the bill close to its base. Legs reticulate. Hallux not or not completely 
insistent. Claws not acute. 

The family falls in two American subfamilies, that of the Storks proper, and that of the 
so-called ‘‘ Wood Ibises.” Both are represented 
in N. America. 


58. Subfamily TANTALINAE: Wood Ihbises. 


Bill long, extremely stout at base, where it is as 
broad as the face, gradually tapering to the de- 
curved tip, without nasal groove or membrane, the 
nostrils directly perforating its substance, high up 
at base of upper mandible. Toes lengthened, the 
middle not less than half as long as the tarsus, the 
outer longer than the inner; hind toe nearly insist- 
ent ; claws less nail-like than in Ciconting. One 
American genus and species, and one genus with 
3 or 4 species of Africa, Southern Asia, and part 
of the East Indies. As these birds have been as- 
certained to be Storks, it is unfortunate that the 
name of ‘ This,” tending to proimote confusion, 
should be too firmly attached to them to leave any 


Fra. 455. — Wood Ibis, greatly reduced. (From ‘ s jk : 
Tenney, after Audubon.) hope of its being abolished from such connection. 


255. 


648. 


256. 


654. 


CICONIIDZA — CICONUIN: STORKS. 653 


Just as we saw the American Spoonbill distinguished from Platalea of the Old World, so 
does the American Wood Ibis differ from Old World Tantalus to a marked degree in the 
structure of the windpipe; but this time it is our bird which has that organ simple, it being 
remarkably complicated in the other. In Tantalus ibis, typical of the genus, the trachea is 
several times folded and doubled upon itself in the thorax. In Tantalus loculator, the trachea 
is short, straight, and simple in its lower part, with numerous reduced and modified rings, and 
flattened from side to side, producing a ridge in front. It has been made type of a genus 
Tantalides, but that name being preoceupied, a new one seems to be required. 

TAN’TALOPS. (Gr. Tdvrados, Lat. Tantalus, a mythical character; op, ops, aspect.) 
AMERICAN Woop Stork or Woop ‘Iprs.” Character as above. In addition: Whole head 
and part of the neck bare, rugous and scaly in the adult. Nasal fussce not continued beyond the 
nostrils. Anterior toes webbed at base. Tibiw bare for half their length. Claws com- 
pressed, but obtuse. Head feathered in the young. Sexes alike. Color white and black. 

T. locula/tor. (Lat. locus, a place; loculus, a little place, but qu. loculator in its application 
to this bird? Fig. 455.) Ammrican Woop Stork. Woop Isis. Conrorapo TuRKEY. 
Adult § 9 : Plumage white, the wing-quills, primary coverts, alula, and tail, glossy black. 
The bald head livid bluish and yellowish. Bill dingy yellowish. Legs blue, becoming blackish 
on the toes, the webs tinged with yellow. Iris dark brown. Length nearly 4 feet; extent 
5.50 feet; wing 1.50; tail 0.50; bill 9 inches, 2 or more deep at base: tibiw bare 6.00; 
tarsus 8.00; middle toe and claw 4.75. Weight 10 or 12 Ibs. @ smaller than @. Young : 
Head downy-feathered; the plumage dark gray, with blackish wings and tail; plumage 
whitening and head becoming bald after the first month. South Atlantic and Gulf States, 
and across in corresponding latitudes to the Colorado River, where abundant. N. to the 
Carolinas; up the Mississippi to the Ohio; casually straying to Penn., N.Y., and even New 
England (?).1 W. 1, Mex., C. and 8S. Am. Resident in the 8. States; abundant ; gregarious ; 
frequents the most thickly wooded swamps and bayous, fairly swarming in its heronries; flight 
performed with alternate flapping and sailing; at times mounts high in air and performs the 
most beautiful evolutions, with motionless wings, like a turkey buzzard. Eggs 2-3, elliptical 
in contour, shell rough with flaky substance ; color white; size 2.75 & 1.75. 


59. Subfamily GICONIINAE: True Storks. 


Bill as above described, but end not decurved (straight or recurved). Nostrils nearly 
lateral. Toes short, the middle less than half the tarsus. Lateral tues nearly equal. Hind 
toe not insistent. Claws short, broad, obtuse, flattened like nails. Several Old World and 
two American genera, Dissoura (D. maguart) and Mycteria. 

MYCTE’RIA. (Gr. puxrijp, mukter, the snout; puxrnpite, mukterizo, I turn up the nose.) 
Japinus. Bill immensely large, recurved. Whole head and neck bare, except a hairy patch 
on the occiput. Tail not peculiar. (In Dissowra, bill moderate, straight, head mostly feathered, 
tail forked, and its under coverts stiffened and lengthened, resembling rectrices.) 

M. america/na. AMERICAN JABiruU. Adult: Plumage entirely white. Bill, legs, and feet, 
and bare skin of head and neck, black, the neck with a broad bright red collar round the lower 
portion. Immature (transition plumage): Rump, upper tail-coverts and tail, white; rest of 
upper parts, including feathered portion of lower neck, soft light brownish-gray, irregularly 
mixed, except on lower neck, with white feathers of the adult livery; lower parts entirely 
white. Bill, ete., colored as in the adult. Wing 24.50-26.00; tail 9.50; culmen 9.75-12.30 ; 
depth of bill through base about 2.50; tarsus 11.25-11.50; middle toe 4.20-4.50. Tropical 
America, N. to Texas. 


1 Mr. Allen informs me that the alleged New England case is doubtless erroneous (Bull. Nuttall Club, viii 
July, 1883, p. 187). 5 


654 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —HERODIONES — HERODIL. 


14. SuBorper HERODII: Tue Herron Serizs. 


Skull holorhinal. Angle of mandible truncate. Aibiens muscle, and accessory femoro- 
caudal, absent ; femoro-caudal, semitendinous and its accessory, present. Carotids double, 
sometimes abnormal (p. 198). One intestinal cecum. Tongue moderate. A tufted oil-gland. 
Plunage with 2-4 pairs of powder-down tracts; feathered tracts very narrow. Tarsi normally 
scutellate. Hallux long and perfectly insistent, with long claw. Inner edge of middle claw 
distinctly pectinate. Bill variable with the faiilies, normally narrow and wedged, with long 
nasal fossee. 

The extraordinary Baleniceps rex, the Shoe-bill or Whale-head, of Africa, with an 
enormous head and bill, thick neck, and one pair of powder-down tracts, is the type of a family 
Balenicipitide, which may belong here; but it approaches the Storks, and its peculiarities are 
so great that it may constitute a separate superfamily group. The Boat-billed Heron (Cancroma 
cochlearia) of Central America, with a singular shape of bill that has suggested the name, and 
four pairs of powder-down tracts, constitutes one family of Herodit (Cancromide). The dis- 
puted cases of Hurypyga and Scopus have already been mentioned. These and some other 
doubtful forms aside, the Heron series is represented by the single 


46. Family ARDEID: Herons. 


It is in this family, as in Cancromide, that powder-down tracts reach their highest devel- 
opment; and although these peculiar feathers occur in some other birds, there appears to be 
then only a single pair; so that the presence of two or three pairs is probably diagnostic of 
this family. In the genus Ardea and its immediate allies (Ardeine) there are three pairs, 
the normal number; one on the lower back over the hips, one on the lower belly under the 
hips, and one on the breast, along the track of the furcula. In the Bitterns (Botaurine) the 
second of these is wauting. (In the Boat-billed Heron, Cancroma cochlearia, there is still 
another pair, over the shoulder-blades.) There are other pterylographic characters; in gen- 
eral, the tracks are extremely narrow, often only two feathers wide; there are lateral neck 
tracks ; the lower neck is frequently bare behind. More obvious characters are, the complete 
feathering of the head (as compared with Storks, etc.) except definite nakedness of the lores 
alone — the bill appearing to run directly into the eyes; a general looseness of the plumage 
(as compared with Limicole), and especially the frequent development of remarkably length- 
ened, or otherwise modified, feathers, constituting the beautiful crests and dorsal plumes that 
ornament many species, but which, as a rule, are worn only during the breeding season. 
These features will suffice to determine the Ardeida, taken in connection with the more general 
ones indicated under head of Herodiones, and the following details : — 

Bill longer than head, usually about as long as tarsus, straight, or very nearly so, more 
or less compressed, acute, cultrate (with sharp cutting edges); upper mandible with a long 
groove. Nostrils more or less linear, pervious. Head narrow and elongate, sloping down to 
the bill, its sides flattened. Lores naked; rest of head feathered, the frontal feathers extending 
in a rounded outline on the base of the culmen, generally to the nostrils. Wings broad and 
aiwnple; the inner quills usually as lovg as the primaries, folding over them when the wing is 
closed. Tail very short, of twelve (usually) or ten (in Zebrilus and Botawrine) soft broad 
feathers. Tibie naked below (except Zebrillus), sometimes for a great distance. Tarsi 
scutellate in front (except Tigrisoma), and sometimes behind, generally reticulate there and 
on the sides. Toes long and slender; the outer usually connected with the middle by a basal 
web, the hinder very long (for wading birds), inserted on the level of the rest. Hind claw 
larger and more curved than the iniddle one (always?) ; the middle claw pectinate. 

The group thus defined offers little variation in form; all the numerous gencra now 


ARDEIDA): HERONS. 655 


in vogue have been successively detached from Ardea, the typical one, with which many 
of them should be reunited. The ‘Night Herons” (Nyctiardea and Nycterodius) differ some- 


Fia. 456. — Herons, idealized from Ardea cinerea. (From Michelet.) 


what in shortness and especially stoutness of bill; while the Bitte 


rs (Botaurus and Ardetia), 
the South American genera Tigrisoma, 


Zebrilus, and a few others, are still better marked. 


656 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —HERODIONES-— HERODIL. 


There are about seventy-five species, very generally distributed over the globe, but especially 
abounding in the torrid and temperate zones. Those that penetrate to cold countries in 
summer are regular inigrants; the others are generally stationary. They are maritime, 
lacustrine and paludicole birds, drawing their chief sustenance from animal substances taken 
from the water, or from soft ground in its vicinity; such as fish, reptiles, testaceans, and 
insects, captured by a quick thrust of the spear-liké bill, given as the bird stands in wait 
or wades stealthily along. In conformity with this, the gullet is capacious, but without 
special dilatation, the stomach is small and little muscular, the intestines are long and ex- 
tremely slender, with a large globular cloaca and a cecum. Herons are altricial, and 
generally nest in trees or bushes (where their insessorial feet enable them to perch with ease), 
in swampy or other places near the water, often in large communities, building a large flat 
rude structure of sticks. The eggs vary in number, coincidently, to some extent, with the 
size of the species; the larger herons generally lay two or three, the smaller kinds five or six; 
the eggs are somewhat elliptical in shape, and usually of an unvariegated bluish or greenish 
shade. The voice is a rough croak. The sexes are nearly always alike in color (remark- 
able exception in Ardetta) ; but the species in which, as in the Bittern, the plumage is nearly 
unchangeable, are very few. Indeed, probably no birds show greater changes of plumage, 
with age and season, than nearly all the herons. Their beautiful plumes are only worn 
during the breeding season; the young invariably lack them. There are still more remark- 
able differences of plumage in many cases, constituting dichromatism, or permanent normal 
difference in color, like that of the “red” and “ gray” specimens of Scops Owl. Thus, some 
species are pure white at all ages and seasons, in both sexes, other individuals of the same 
species being variously colored. Such dichromatism appears in our Ardea occidentalis, Di- 
chromanassa rufa, and Florida cerulea. It was formerly believed in the cases of the two 
latter, that the white were the young, the colored the adults; but it now appears that the 
difference is permanent, and independent of age, sex, or season. Many species are pure white 
at all times, and to these the name of ‘egret” more particularly belongs; but I should 
correct a prevalent impression that an egret is anything particularly different from other herons. 
‘‘aigrette,” simply refers to the plumes that 
ornament most of the herons, white or otherwise, and has no classificatory meaning; its 
application, in any given instance, is purely conventional. The colors of the bill, lores, and 
feet are extremely variable, not only with age or season, but as individual peculiarities ; some- 
times the two legs of the same specimen are not colored exactly alike. The 9 is commonly 
smaller than the g. The normal individual variability in stature and relative length of parts 
is very great; and it has even been uoted that a specimen may have one leg larger than the 
other, and the toes of one foot longer than those of the other —a circumstance perhaps result - 
ing from the common habit of these birds of standing for a long time on one leg. 

The North American Ardeide, if not the whole family, are divisible into the two subfamilies 
of Ardeine, or Herons proper, and Botaurine, or Bitterns. 


The name, a corruption of the French word 
’ 1 


Analysis of Subfamilies, Genera, and Subgenera, 


BoTAURINZ”E. Tail-feathers 10. Two pairs of powder-down tracts. (Bitterns.) 
Very small; length about a foot. Sexes unlike : ee ee . Ardetta 267 
Medium sized; length about 2feet. Sexesalike . . 2 6 1. 6 1 ee ee ew ew we . 6Botaurus 266 
ARDEIN®. Tail-feathers 12. Three pairs of powder-down tracts. (Herons.) 
Bill stout and comparatively short, not longer than very short tarsus, which is not perfectly scutel- 


late in front. (Night Herons.) 


Gonys convex, like the culmen; tarsus longer than middle toe and claw . . . . . Nycterodius 265 

Gonys about straight; tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw . . .. . . . Nyctiardea 264 
Bill ordinary. Tarsus scutellate in front. 

Length under 20 inches. Tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw. Green . . . . Butorides 263 


Length over 20 inches, under 30. Blue, white, or variegated. 
Blue or white. Adult without decomposed feathers onback. . . .... . . Florida 262 


257. 


655. 


ARDEIDAH — ARDEINZ): HERONS. 657 


Always white. Adult with decomposed recurved feathers onback .... . - Garzetta 259 
Ashy-blue, white below. Billlonger thantarsus ........4.. . Hydranassa 260 
Length 30, not 36inches. Blueor white. Tarsus twice as long as middle toe. Bill shorter than 


€AYSUS. cee a Ow ae we ee ee, ~Diehromanassa 26) 
Leugth 36 or more, Entirely white; no crest ; long decomposed feathers on back . . Herodias 2658 
Length 42 or more; of dark varied colors, or white; crested, without dorsal plumes . . Ardea 2H7 


60. Subfamily ARDEINAE: True Herons. 


Tail-feathers 12 (in all N. 
Am. genera), broad and stiff- 
ish. Powder-down tracts 3 
pairs. Tibie naked below. 
Outer toe not shorter than in- 
uer. Claws moderate, curved. 
(Embracing most of the spe- 
cies of the family, and all our 
species excepting the Bit- 
terns.) 

AR/DEA. (Lat. ardea, a 
heron.) Great Herons. Of 
largest size. Neck and legs 
very long, former well feath- 
ered all around. Tuibiw exten- 
sively denuded below. Tarsus 
longer than middle toe and 
claw. Outer lateral toe longer 
than inner. Bill shorter than 
tarsus, equal to or longer than 
middle toe and claw. Colors 
dark and varied, exceptionally 
white; back without length- 
ened loosened plumes; scapu- 
lars lanceolate, lengthened, but 
not loosened; lower fore-neck 
with lengthened feathers; head 
crested, in breeding season with 
two long, slender, flowing, oc- 
cipital plumes. Sexes alike; 
young similar, but lacking all 
lengthened feathers. Dichro- 
matic. (Genera 258-263 should 
be reduced to subgenera of 


‘ Fic. 457. —Great Blue Heron, greatly reduced. (From Tenney, after 
Ardea.) Audubon. : 
Analysis of Species. 
Tibiz and edge of wing white; occiput and plumes black. (Europe)... ....,.., cinerea 657 
Tibiz and edge of wing rufous; or whole plumage white. 
Occiput and plumes black; whole plumage varied. Bill 6 or less; tarsus 8 or less . - + « herodias 655 


Occiput and plumes white; or, whole plumage white. Bill 6 or more; tarsus8 or more occidentalis 656 


A. hero/dias. (Lat. herodias, a proper name ; Gr. épddias, erodias, aheron. Fig. 457.) Great 

Biue Heron. Of large size, and varied dark colors; not dichromatic. Back without peculiar 

plumes at any season, but seapulars lengthened and lanceolate ; an vecipital crest, two de- 
42 


656. 


657. 


258. 


658. 


658 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —HERODIONES — HERODII. 


ciduous feathers of which in the breeding season are long and filamentous; long loose feathers 
on the lower neck. Length 42.00-50.00; extent about 70.00; wing 18.00-20.00; tail 7.00- 
8.00; bill 4.50-6.25, usually between 5.00 and 6.00; tibiz bare 3.00-4.00; tarsus 6.00-8.00, 
usually 6.50-7.00; middle toe and claw about 5.00. Q average smaller than g. Weight 6 or 
8 lbs. Adult ¢ @, in breeding dress: Bill yellow, more or less blackened on culmen; lores 
blue ; iris chrome-yellow ; legs and feet blackish, the soles yellowish. Tibia and edge of wing 
chestnut-brown. Forehead and middle of crown white; sides of crown and occipital crest 
black. Neck pale purplish-gray, with a mixed white, black, and rusty throat-line, yielding 
to white on chin and cheeks. Plumes of lower neck, the breast, and belly, black, more or less 
interrupted with white streaks on the middle line; crissum white. Upper parts in general 
slaty-blue; tail the same; long scapular feathers more pearly-gray; wing-quills deepening 
from this color to the black primaries. Young: Without any long feathers. Crown and front 
without white; whole top of head blackish. Tibia and edge of wing paler rufous, or whitish. 
General color of upper parts paler and more grayish-blue, more or less tinged with rusty. 
Black of under parts replaced by ashy. Upper mandible mostly blackish; lores and most of 
lower mandible greenish, rest of the latter and the eyes, yellow; tibize greenish. There are 
endless variations in plumage and colors of the soft parts, but this great species cannot be 
mistaken, being only closely related to the colored phase of the next. N. Am. at large, and 
much of C. and 8. Am., N. to Labrador, Hudson’s Bay, and Sitka in Alaska; northerly migra- 
tory; elsewhere resident. Breeds in suitable places throughout its range, sometimes singly, 
oftener in great heronries to which the birds resort year after year, shared usually with other 
species of its tribe. Nest usually in trees or bushes, in the West sometimes on cliffs; eggs 
3-6, oftener 3-4, pale dull greenish-blue, ellipsoidal, about 2.50-1.50. 

A. occidenta/lis. (Lat. occidentalis, western.) FLORIDA HERON. GREAT WHITE HERON. 
WtrpemMann’s Heron. Similar to the last; larger; dichromatic. Length 54.00; extent 
83.00; wing 19.00-21.00; tail 8.00; bill 6.50; tarsus 8.00-8.50; tibie bare 5.50. @ 9, 
adult, colored phase (wurdemanni Bd.): Head, with the crest, white, the forehead streaked 
with black edges of the feathers. Under parts white, the sides streaked with black ; lower 
plumes of neck white, mostly streaked with black edges of the feathers. Neck purplish-gray, 
darker than in A. herodias, with a similar throat-line of white, black, and rufous. Under 
wing-coverts streaked with white; rufous of edge of wing less extensive than in A. herodias, 
that of the tibiee paler. Tibiz and soles of feet yellow ; tarsi and top of toes yellowish-green. 
Young: Like young herodias ; top of head dusky, the feathers with whitish shaft-lines and 
bases. Lesser wing-coverts speckled with rusty, the under ones with white. Adult # 9? in 
white phase (occidentalis Aud.): Color entirely pure white; bill and eyes yellow; culmen 
greenish at base; lores bluish; legs yellow, greenish in front. Southern Florida; Cuba; 
Jamaica; ‘‘S. Illinois and Indiana.” Eggs 3, 2.75 X 1.67. 

Ops. — A. wardi is described as indistinguishable in its white phase from the last; in its 
colored phase exactly like the last, but head colored as in herodias ; bill 6.50-7.00; tarsus 
§.50-9.00. Florida. (Bull. Nutt. Club, vii, Jan. 1882, p. 5.) 

A, cine’rea. (Lat. cinerea, ashy. Fig. 456.) EurRopEAN BLUE Heron. Character similar 
to that of A. herodias ; easily distinguished by the white (not chestnut) tibizw and border of 
wings, and ashy neck. Europe; only N. American as a straggler to Greenland. 

HERO'DIAS. (Lat. herodias ; see above, No. 655. Fig. 458.) Great Earet Herons. 
Character of Ardea proper, excepting in plumage; color white; no crest; a long depending 
train of stiff-shafted loose-webbed scapular feathers in the breeding season. Size large, only 
exceeded hy the species of Ardea. (See fig. of the European species, H. alba.) 

H. egret’ta. (O. H. G. hiegro, a heron; Fr. aigrette, a plume; Engl. egret.) GREAT 
Waitt Earer. Warrt Heron. No obviously lengthened feathers on the head at any time; 
in the breeding season, back with a magnificent train of very long plumes of decomposed, fas- 


ARDEIDZA — ARDEINZ: HERONS. 659 


tigiate feathers drooping far beyond the tail; neck closely feathered. Plumage entirely white 
at allseasons. Bill, lores, and eyes, yellow; legs and feet black. Length 36.00-42.00 (not in- 
cluding the dorsal train, which is a foot or more longer) ; extent 55.00; wing 16.00-17.00; tail 
5.50-6.50; bill 4.50-5.00; tarsus about 6.00; tibize bare 3.50. 9 averaging smaller than @. 
U.S. southerly, and much of W.L., C. and 8. Am. ; straggling northward to Nova Scotia, 


Fig. 458. — European Great White Egret, Herodias alba, 3 nat. size. (From Brelim.) 


Canada, Minnesota, etc.; resident in the south. Breeds like other herons; eggs 3-4, 
2.20-1.55. 


259. GARZET'TA. (lItal. name of aheron. Fig. 459.) Smaty Eerer Herons. Form of the 


preceding, but size small; length about 2 feet. Color white; an oecipital crest, and short 
recurved train of stiff-shafted loose-webbed feathers in the breeding season ; lower neck-feathers 
lengthened, depending. (See fig. of the European species, G. nived.) 


659. 


260. 


660 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — HERODIONES — HERODII. 


G. candidis'sima, (Lat. candidissima, very white; candida, white.) LirrLeE WHITE 
Eeret. Snowy Heron. Adults with a long occipital crest of decomposed feathers, and 
similar dorsal plumes, latter recurved when perfect; similar, but not recurved plumes on the 
lower neck, which is bare behind. Lores, eyes, and toes yellow; bill and legs black, former 
yellow at base, latter yellow at the lower part behind. Plumage always eutirely white. 
Length about 24.00; extent 36.00-40.00; wing 9.50-11.00; tail 4.00; bill 3.00 or more; 


Fic. 459. — European Little White Egret, Garzetta nivea, } nat. size. (From Brehm,) 


tibiee bare 2.50; tarsus 3.75; middle toe 2.75. §. States; Cala.; Middle States, in suinmer ; 
N. occasionally to New England, Canada, and Nova Scotia. Abundant in its regular range ; 
resident in the South and beyond; breeds throughout. Eggs about 4, 1.67 x 1.25. 

HYDRANAS'SA. (Gr. vdep, hudor, water, giving in Lat. hydr-; dvacca, anassa, a queen.) 
DEMOISELLE Eerets. Of medium size: length under two and a half or three feet. Bill 
very slender, contracted from the base toward the middle, with almost a little concave upper 
and under outline, then tapering to a point; iu length equalling or exceeding the tarsns. 


660. 


261. 


661. 


262. 


662. 


ARDEIDA — ARDEINZ): HERONS. 661 


Toes comparatively short, the iniddle little more than half the tarsus. Adult with feathers 
of the head and neck lengthened, lanceolate, with well-defined edges; an occipital crest of 
several long plumes, and splendid dorsal train of decomposed, friuge-like feathers depending 
beyond the tail. Dichromatism not known. 

iL. tri/color. (Lat. tricolor, three-colored.) Lourstana Ere. ‘ Lapy or THE WATERS.” 
Adult: Slaty-blue on the back and wings, mostly white below and along the throat-line ; crest 
and most of the neck reddish-purple, mixed below with slaty; the longer narrow feathers 
of the erest white ; lower back and rump white, but concealed by the dull purplish-brown feath- 
ers of the train, which whiten towards the end. Bill black and yellow; lores. yellow ; legs 
yellowish-green, dusky in front. Iris red. Young variously different, but never white; 
lacking the long occipital plumes and dorsal train ; neck and back bright brownish-red ; 
rump, throat-line and under parts white; quills and tail pale purplish-blue; legs dusky- 
greenish. Length 24.00-27.00 (exclusive of the long train) ; extent 37.00-39.00 ; wing 10.00- 
11.00; tail 3.50; bill 4.00-5.00; tibiee bare 2.25; tarsus 4.00; middle toe and claw 3.00. 8. 
Atlantic and Gulf States, chiefly maritime, very rarely N. to the Middle districts ; S. in tropical 
Am. Resident along our southern coasts. Breeds in communities like other herons. Nest and 
eggs scarcely distinguishable from those of the snowy heron; eggs rather less elliptical, 
usually 4 in number, averaging 1.78 X 1.30. 

DICHROMANAS/SA. (Gr. dis dis, twice; xpapa, chroma, color; and dvacca; alluding 
to the dichromatism of D. rufa.) Dicurorc Earers. Of medium size; length about two and 
a half feet. Bill slender, much as in the last, but shorter than the very long tarsus, which 
is about twice as long as the middle toe and claw. Toes extremely short (for this family). 
Feathers of head and neck elongate, lance-linear and stiffish, distinct; the longest forming 
occipital and jugular tufts. A dorsal train of long decomposed fastigiate feathers, with stifi- 
eued shafts. Dichromatic; pure white or colored; in latter state, without the white throat- 
line of most herons. 

D. rufa, (Lat. rufa, reddish.) ReppisH Egret. Praun’s Ecret. In the colored phase: 
Adult grayish-blue, rather paler below; no white throat-line; head and neck lilac-brown ; 
ends of the train yellowish. Bill black on the terminal third, the rest flesh-colored, like the 
lores ; iris white ; legs blue, the scales of the tarsus blackish. In the white phase: Plum- 
age entirely pure white. Bill, lores, and eyes as before; legs dark greenish, the soles 
yellowish ; in which state the bird is ‘‘ Peale’s Egret,” long held for a distinct species, then 
long decided to be the young. Length 28.00-31.00; extent about 46.00; wing 12.50-14.50; 
tail 4.50; bill 4.00; tibie bare 4.00; tarsus 5.50-6.00 ; middle toe and claw 3.00. Gulf 
States strictly; maritime; resident, abundant. Nests in communities, with other species, 
upon low bushes, sometimes on the ground; eggs 3-4, of usual shape and color, from 1.90 X 
1.48 to 2.12 x 1.55, averaging 2.00 x 1.50. 

FLO/RIDA. (Named for the State.) BLUE anp WuiITE Herons. Of small size; length 
about 2 feet. Bill slender, very acute; culmen gently curved from near base; under outline 
straight or slightly concave; about as long as tarsus. Head of adult with lengthened de- 
composed feathers; those of lower neck, and the scapulars, lengthened and linear-lanceolate, 
but compact-webbed; no dorsal train of fringed feathers. Neck bare behind below. Di- 
chromatic ; color blue or white, or both. 

F. coerulea. (Lat. cerulea, blue.) Lirtte Brus Heron. Lirtie Waite HEron (not 
to be confused with Little White Egret). In the colored phase: Slaty-blue, or dark grayish- 
blue, becoming purplish-red or maroon-colored on the neck and head. Bill and loral space 
blue, shading to black toward the end; legs and feet black; eyes yellow. Length about 
24.00; extent 40.00-42.00; wing about 11.50; tail 4.25; bill 3.00-3.40; tarsus about the 
same, rather more; tibie bare 2.00. In one phase, entirely white; but generally showing 
traces of blue. Pure white birds require a second glance to distinguish them from immature 


2638. 


663. 


264, 


664, 


662 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —HERODIONES — HERODIL. 


Garzetta candidissima, as they are of the same size, and not strikingly different in form; 
notice lores and basal half of bill greenish-blue, the rest blackish; most of lower mandible 
yellowish ; legs greenish-blue, with yellow traces, or bluish-black; the snowy heron has no 
bluishness about the soft parts. §. Atlantic and Gulf States, resident, abundant; N. in 
summer often to the Middle States, casually to New England. Nesting as usual; eggs 3-4, 
1.75 X 1.25, of usual shape and color. 
BUTORI/DES. (Lat. butor, a bittern; Gr. efSos, eidos, resemblance.) GREEN HERONS. 
Size small; length one and a half feet. Bill moderate, longer than tarsus, with gently convex 
culmen and gonys. Legs short; tibie little denuded; tarsus scarcely or not longer than 
middle toe and claw. An occipital crest of lengthened, lanceolate, not decomposed, feathers ; 
neck-feathers long but blended, those below depending in a tuft, those on sides hiding an 
extensive bare space behind. In the breeding season, feathers of back lengthened, lance- 
linear, but compact-webbed, and not forming a train. Upper parts glossy green. 
B. vires/cens. (Lat. virescens, growing green.) GREEN HERON. Adult in the breeding season 
with the crown, long soft occipital crest, and lengthened narrow feathers of the back lustrous 
dark green, sometimes with a bronzy iridescence; the dorsal plumes in high plumage with 
a glaucous bluish cast. Wing-coverts green, with conspicuous tawny edgings; neck rich dark 
purplish-chestnut, the throat-line variegated with dusky and white. Under parts mostly dark 
brownish-ash ; belly variegated with white. Quills and tail greenish-dusky with a glaucous 
shade; edge of the wing white; some of the quills usually white-tipped. Bill greenish-black, 
much of the under mandible yellow; lores and iris yellow; legs greenish-yellow; lower neck 
with lengthened feathers in front, a bare space behind. Young: Head less crested; back with- 
out long narrow plumes, but glossy-greenish ; neck merely reddish-brown ; whole under parts 
white, variegated with tawny and dark brown. Length 16.00-18.00; extent about 25.00; 
wing 6.50-7.50; bill 2.50; tarsus 2.00; middle toe and claw about the same; tibiae bare 1.00 
or less. U.5., and a little beyond, abundant in summer; resident in the South, and beyond. 
This is a very pretty and engaging little heron, in spite of the ridiculous nickname by which it 
is so well known to the great unwashed democracy of America. Breeds anywhere in its range, 
sometimes in communities with larger species, often by itself in pairs. Nest a rude platform 
of twigs, on tree or bush ; eggs 3-6, elliptical, 1.37 1.12, pale greenish. 
NYCTIAR'DEA. § (Gr. wi, gen. vuxrds, nua, nuktos, night: Lat. ardea, a heron. Fig. 460.) 
Nicur Herons. Of medium size; length about 
2 feet. Bill very stout for this family; bill, tarsus, 
and middle toe with claw, of approximately equal 
lengths. Tarsus reticulate in front below. Tibia 
briefly naked below. Neck short, corresponding to 
the short legs; body stout. No peculiar plumes, 
excepting two or three extremely long filamentous 
feathers springing from the hind head, generally 
imbricated in one bundle. Sexes alike; young 
very different. A better genus than any of the 
foregoing, as distinguished from Ardea, but very 
Fie. 460.— Night Heron. (From Lewis.) near the next, which might be combined with it. 
N. gri/sea ne'via. BLAcK-crownep NicutT Heron. Qua-Birp. Squawk. Adult ¢ 
@: Crown, scapulars and interscapulars very dark glossy green; other upper parts, wings 
and tail, pale bluish-gray with a lilac or lavender tinge, most decided on the neck. Fore- 
head and throat-line white, shading into the lilaceous of the neck; under parts whitish, | 
tinged with lilac. The long occipital plumes white. Eyes red; lores greenish; bill black ; 
legs yellow; claws brown. Length 23.00-26.00; extent about 44.00; wing 12.00-14.00; 
tail 5.00; bill, tarsus, middle toe with claw, each 3.00 or a little more; tibia bare about an 


265. 


665. 


ARDEIDA): BOTAURINZ: BITTERNS. 668 


inch. Young very different; grayish-brown above, the feathers with paler edges, and con- 
spicuously spotted with whitish; the lower parts paler or dull whitish, streaky with darker; 
green of head replaced by chocolate-brown ; quills chocolate-brown, white-tipped; no occip- 
ital plumes. U. S. and British Provinces, common; migratory; resideut in the south. 
Breeds in heronries, sometimes of vast extent, resorted to year after year. Nest large and 
frail; eggs 3-4, of usual shape, very pale sea-green color, averaging 2.00 X 1.50. Our 
species is only a variety of the European N. grisea, whence the trinomial name; ‘ nevia” 
is only applicable to the young in the spotted stage. 

NYCTERO'DIUS. (Gr. wé, nua, night; ¢pwdids, erodios, a heron.) THick-BiLL Nicut HEr- 
ons. Of medium size; length about 2 feet. Bill extremely stout for this family ; eulmen curved 
throughout; gonys convex, ascending ; commissure and lateral outlines of bill straight; bill 
much shorter than tarsus. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw, reticulate exceptiug above 
in front. Feathers of occiput lengthened, the longest of great extent, and linear, forming a 
hanging crest ; feathers of back lengthened and lanceolate, the longest loose-webbed, extending 
beyond the tail. Sexes alike; colors variegated ; young very different. 

N. viola/ceus. (Lat. violaceus, violet-colored: straining a point.) YELLOW-CROWNED NIGHT 
Heron. Adult ¢ 9: General color grayish-plumbeous, or light grayish-blue, darker on the 
back, where the feathers have black centres and pale edges, and rather paler below. Head and 
upper neck behind black, with a cheek-patch, the crown, aud most of the crest, white, more 
or less tinged with tawny. Quills and tail dusky plumbeous. Bill black; eyes orange; lores 
greenish ; feet black and yellow. Length about 24.00; extent 44.00; wing 12.00; tail 5.00; 
bill scarcely 3.00, over 0.50 deep at base; tibiee bare 2.00; tarsus 4.00; middle toe and claw 
2.75. Young: Above, grayish-brown, with an olive shade, streaked and spotted with brown- 
ish-yellow ; below, streaked with brown and whitish ; sides of head and neck yellowish-brown ; 
streaked with darker; top of head and neck above behind blackish, variegated with white. 
Bill blackish, with much of the lower mandible, and the lores, greenish-yellow; legs the same, 
obscured on front of tarsus; iris yellow. S. Atlantic and Gulf States, and southward, occa- 
sionally N. to the Middle States ; not abundant, and chiefly confined to the coast. Resident in 
Florida. Nest as usual in trees and bushes, in communities ; eggs 3, pale greenish-blue ; 2.00 
x 1.45. 


61. Subfamily BOTAURINZ: Bitterns. 


Tail-feathers 10, broad and very soft. Powder-down tracts 2 pairs. Outer toe shorter 
than the inner. Claws long and little curved. The Bitterns form a well-marked section of 


Fie. 461.— Bill of Bittern, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


the family, if not one of subfamily value. They are retiring and solitary birds of the marsh, 
not gregarious, not nesting in communities on trees, but by separate pairs, and on the ground ; 
and the eggs have not the characteristic color of those of true Herons. 


266. 


666. 


267. 


667. 


664 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — HERODIONES — HERODII. 


BOTAURUS. (Late Lat. botaurus, a bittern; said to be not equal to bos-tawrus; from 
the hollow guttural cry?) Brrrerns. Of medium size; length about 24 feet. Bill mod- 
erately longer than head, shorter than tarsus, which is shorter than middle toe and claw. 
Tarsus broadly scutellate in front. No crests or peculiar dorsal plumes; neck-feathers long 
and loose; plumage blended, spotty and streaky. Neck in part bare behind. Sexes and 
young alike. 

B. mugi’tans. (Lat. mugitans, bellowing. Figs. 461, 462.) American Birrern. INDIAN 
Hen. STAKE-DRIVER. BoG-BuULL. Plumage of the upper parts singularly freckled with brown 
of various shades, blackish, tawny, 
and whitish ; neck and under parts 
ochrey or tawny-white, each feather 
marked with a brown dark-edged 
stripe, the throat-line white, with 
brown streaks. A velvety-black 
patch on cach side of the neck 
above. Crown dull brown, with 
buff superciliary stripe. Tail brown. 
Quills greenish-black, with a glau- 
cous shade, brown-tipped. Iris yel- 
low. Bill on the ridge brownish- 
black, the rest pale yellowish; a 
dark brown loral stripe. Legs 
dull yellowish-green; claws brown. 
Length from 23.00 to 34.00! extent 
32.00-45.00 ! wing 9.50-13.00; bill 
about 3.00; tarsus about 3.50; middle toe without claw about the same; its claw above 
an inch long. Q smaller than ¢ ; but few birds differ so much in size as this species, indepen- 
dently of sex. Entire temperate N. Am., N. to 58° or 60°, 8. to C. Am. ; accidental in Europe. 
Regularly migratory; resident in the South. The bittern is a bird of very marked character. 
It inhabits bog and brake, singly or in pairs; has a hoarse gurgling outcry of alarm, and a 
note sounding like the strokes of a mallet on a stake. Nests on the ground ; eggs 3-5, brown- 
ish-drab with a gray (not green) shade, 1.90 to 2.00 long by about 1.50. 

ARDET'TA. (Ital. diminutive of Ardea.) Dwarr Birrerns. Very small, least of the whole 
family ; length about a foot. In form very nearly as in Botaurus. Bill slender. Tarsus about 
equal to middle toe and claw. No peculiar feathers ; those of lower neck long and loose ; head 
slightly crested. Colors of back in large areas. Sexes dissimilar; young similar. There are 
several species of these queer little herons, of America and the Old World ; they mostly inhabit 
reedy swamps, and somewhat approach rails. 

A. exi'lis. (Lat. exilis, for exigilis, exiguous, slight, small.) Least Birrern. Adult ¢ 
with the slightly crested crown, back, and tail, glossy greenish-black. Neck behind, most of 
the wing-coverts, and outer edges of inner quills, rich chestnut; other wing-coverts brownish- 
yellow. Front and sides of neck, and under parts, brownish-yellow, varied with white along 
the throat-line, the sides of the breast with a blackish-brown patch. Bill mostly pale yellow, 
the culmen blackish ; lores light green; eyes and toes yellow; legs green, the hinder scales 
yellow. @ with the black of the back entirely, that of the crown mostly or wholly, replaced 
by rich purplish-chestnut; the edges of the scapulars forming a brownish-white stripe on either 
side. Length 11.00-14.00 ; extent somewhere about 18.00; wing 4.00-5.00; tail, bill, tarsus, 
middle toe and claw, each, 2.00 or less. U.S. and Brit. Provinces, common; migratory ; 
resident in the South ; breeds throughout its range. Found also in W. I. and C. Am. Inhabits 
reedy swamps and marshes, such as rails frequent; nest on ground or in bush or reed patch, 


Fic. 462. — American Bittern. (From Tenney, after Audubon.) 


ALECTORIDES: CRANES, RAILS, AND THEIR ALLIES. 665 


a mere platform of dead rushes. Eggs 3-5, elliptical, about 1.92 X 1.22, white, with faintest 
tinge of bluish. 


IX. Order ALECTORIDES: Cranes, Rails, and their Allies. 


A portion of these birds, representing the Crane type, have a general resemblance to the 
foregoing, but are readily distinguished by the technical characters given beyond under the head 
of Gruide, and in essential respects accord with the rest, representing the Rail type. The latter 
are birds of medium and small size, with compressed body, and the head feathered. The neck 
and legs are not particularly lengthened, but as a rule the toes are remarkably long, enabling 
the birds to run lightly over the soft oozy ground and floating vegetation of the reedy swamps 
and marshes they inhabit. This length of the toes has given a name, Macrodactyli, to the 
group; their shy retiring habit of skulking among the rushes has caused them to be sometimes 
called Latitores (skulkers). Their nature is preecocial; the eggs are numerous, usually laid 
on the ground, in a rude nest. The nourishment is essentially the same as that of the Limicole, 
but it is simply picked up from the surface, not felt for in the mud, nor stamped out of the 
ground. The hallux is usually lengthened, and but little elevated, but may be short and well 
up, or even absent. The feet are conspicuously lobate in some forms, but never extensively 
palmate ; the phalanges of the front toes diminish in length from first to penultimate. The 
lower part of the crus is bare of feathers. The wings are usually short, rounded, and concave; 
the tail is very short, few-feathered, often held cocked up, and wagged in time with a bobbing 
motion of the head that occurs with each step taken. 

The Alectorides are schizognathous in palatal structure. The nasal bones are schizorhinal 
in the Crane type, holorhinal in that of the Rails. The angle of the mandible is truncate. The 
maxillo-palatines are not spongy, but thin and laminate. There are normally no basipterygoid 
processes. The sternum is typically long and narrow, and may be entire, or deeply notched; 
it is sometimes excavated to receive folds of the windpipe. There are two carotids; and two 
intestinal cceca are present. While the general pterylosis is not peculiar, the Alectorides nor- 
mally lack the powder-down tracts so characteristic of Herons and their allies. As to the 
classificatory muscles of the thigh, all five are present nearly throughout the order; exception- 
ally the femoro-caudal or its accessory is wanting. 

These normally preecocial and ptilopeedic (with whatever exceptions) birds are more sharply 
distinguished from the perfectly altricial Herodiones than they are from the completely preecocial 
and ptilopedic Lumicole ; with which latter, in fact, the Alectorides are directly connected 
through the Bustards (Otidide) and the Thick-knees ((dicnemide) — the line between the 
two orders being probably to be drawn between these two families. 

This country affords typical representatives of the two leading forms of the order, that of 
the Cranes, to which Aramus belongs, and of the Rails, Coots, and Gallinules, as given beyond. 
There are, however, a number of remarkable outliers that may be briefly mentioned, as fol- 
lows: The large and important Old World family of the Bustards, Otidide, has already been 
mentioned as the connecting link between Alectorides and Limicole. The Kagu, Rhinochetus 
jubatus of New Caledonia, and the Carle, Eurypyga helias of Guiana, each the type and single 
representative of a family, are near the Cranes in principal osteological characters, although 
pterylographically they are more like Herons, both possessing powder-down tracts; and Hury- 
yg, in particular, resembles Herons in other respects. More closely allied to the Cranes are 
the Trumpeters, Psophiide, of one genus and few species of South America; with the Cariamas, 
Cariamide, of the same country, represented only by the Cariama cristata and the Chunga 
burmeistert. The Horned Screamers, Palamedeide, of South America, consisting of three 
species, Palamedea cornuta, Chauna chavaria, and C. derbiana, seem to be nearer the Rails, and 
also to closely approach some water birds ; one of them is by some considered the nearest living 


268. 


668. 


666 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — ALECTORIDES — GRUIFORMES. 


ally of the mesozoic Arch@opteryx ; they should probably constitute an order apart. Some 
gigantic extinct birds belong in the neighborhood of the rails and coots. Apparently rail-like, 
but probably more truly plover-like birds are the Jagands, Parrid@, noted for the length of the 
tues, and especially of the claws; they have a sharp spur on the wing. There are less than 
12 species, usually referred tu several genera, of various parts of the world; one of them lately 
ascertained to occur in our country. Finally, the Sun-birds, Heliornithide, are a small but 
remarkable family of one or two genera and about four species of tropical America, Africa, and 
southern Asia. They have been classed, on account of their lobate feet and a certain general 
resemblance, with the grebes ; but the feet are like those of coots, and their whole structure 
shows that they belong with the ralliform birds. 

Waiving consideration of certain disputed forms, the Alectorides may be ranged in two 
series, suborders, or superfamilies, according as they are crane-like or rail-like. 


15. SusporpER GRUIFORMES: Cranes anp THEIR ALLIES. 


Represented in N. Am. by two families, Gruid@ and Aramide. 


47. Family GRUIDZ: Cranes. 


As already explained, Cranes are related to Rails in essential points of structure, though 
more resembling Herons in their general aspect. They are all large birds, some being of im- 
mense stature ; the legs and neck are extremely long (the latter with about 17 vertebree); the 
wings ample, but incised along posterior border, from shortness of the outer secondaries ; the 
tail short, usually of 12 broad feathers. The head is generally, in part, naked and papillose or 
watiled in the adult, with a growth of hair-like feathers, or, in some cases, an upright tuft of 
curiously bushy plumes. The general plumage is compact, in striking contrast to that of 
Herons ; but the inner wing-quills, in most cases, are enlarged and flowing. In some species, 
the sternum is enlarged and hollowed to receive a fold of the windpipe, as in Swans, and some 
of the Storks and Tbises (p. 202). Bill equalling or exceeding the head in length, straight, rather 
slender but strong, compressed, contracted opposite the nostrils, obtusely pointed ; nasal fosse 
short, broad, shallow ; nostrils near the middle of the bill, large, broadly open and completely 
pervious ; tibiz naked for a great distance ; tarsi scutellate in front; toes short, webbed at 
base ; hallux very short, highly elevated ; inner anterior claw large. About 15 species of various 
parts of the world; only 3 of them American. Most of them fall in the genus Grus ; the 
elegant ‘‘ demoiselle ” cranes of the Old World, Anthropoides (or Tetrapteryx) virgo and para- 
disea, and the African Balearica (or Geranarchus) pavonina, are the principal exceptions. 
GRUS. (Lat. grus, fem., a crane.) CRANES. Of maximum size and length of neck and 
legs ; color white or gray. Head without crest; more or less bare of feathers in adult, carun- 
culate, with hair-like bristles; forehead low. Character of bill, legs, and wings, typically as 
above said. Tail short, 12-feathered. Tarsus broadly seutellate in front. Toes short, the 
middle about third as long as tarsus ; inner rather exceeding outer, with enlarged claw. Inner 
wing-quills lengthened, curved, pendent beyond primaries when the wing is folded. Nest on 


the ground ; eggs few. 
Analysis of Species. 


Adult white, with black area Nakedness extending backward in a point on top and side of 


Deads-,4 24 es +. . americana 668 
Adults gray. Nakedness forked on Stop of head by: a Soin of feathers, nay ioe reaching on side below eye. 

Smaller: wing under 20.00; bill 4.00 or less; tarsus 8.00 orless . . . . . . 1. . . canadensis 669 

Larger: wing over 20.00; pill 5.00 or more; tarsus 9.000rmore .. . 3 » os + . pratensis 670 


G. america/na. Waitt CRANE. Whuooprnc Cranp. Adult with the bare part of the head 
extending in a point on the occiput above, on each side below the eyes, and very hairy. Bill 
very stout, gonys convex, ascending, that part of the under mandible as deep as the upper 


669. 


670. 


GRUIDZ: CRANES.— ARAMIDE: COURLANS. 667 


opposite it. Adult plumage pure white, with black primaries, primary coverts and alula; bill 
dusky greenish ; legs black ; head carmine, the hair-like feathers blackish. Young with the 
head feathered; general plumage gray? varied with brown. Length about 50 inches; exteut 
90.00; wing 24.00; tail 9.00; tarsus 12.00; middle toe 5.00; bill 6.00. In the adult, the 
windpipe is quite as long as the bird itself — 50 inches or more, aud over two feet of it is. cviled 
away in the keel of the breast-bone, which is entirely hollowed out to receive these extraordi- 
nary convolutions (fig. 99): the voice is singularly raucous and resonant. Temperate N. Aun., 
but apparently of irregular distribution, not well made out; said to be or to have been common in 
the South Atlantic and Gulf States, and to have extended up the coast to the Middle States. 
Now searcely known in the Eastern and Middle States. The chief line of migration appears to 
be in the interior, along the Mississippi Valley, Texas to Minnesota and Dakota, where the bird 
breeds, and thence spreading in the interior of the Fur Countries. So wild and wary a bird 
must be much influenced by the settlement of the country. Eggs 2 (or 3?), about 3.75 X 
2.65, light brownish-drab, rather sparsely marked, except at great end, with large irregular 
spots of dull chocolate-brown, with paler obscure shell-markings ; shell rough, with numerous 
warty elevations, and punctulate. 

G. canaden’sis. (Of Canada.) NORTHERN Brown CRaNe. General character of the 
species uext to be described; nakedness of head, and color of plumage substantially the same. 
Smaller; wing 18.00-19.00; tail 7.00; tarsus 6.75-8.00; bill along culmen 3.00-4.00! middle 
toe scarcely 3.00. Alula, edge of wing, primaries, and their shafts, black? Head of adult 
less naked? Supposed to be confined in the breeding season to Arctic America, thence 
migrating through Western U. 8. to W. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and southward. 
(Supposed to be the true G. canadensis Linn., 1758, ex Edw. Is G. fraterculus Cass. ? 
I inust retain my doubts about this bird.) 

G. praten'sis. (Lat. pratensis, relating to pratum, prairie, field.) SovTHERN SAND-HILL 
CRANE. Common Brown or SaND-HILL CRANE. Adult with the bare part of the head 
furking behind to receive a pointed extension of the occipital feathers, not reaching on the 
sides below the eyes, and sparsely hairy. Bill moderately stout, with nearly straight and 
searcely ascending gonys, that part of the under mandible not so deep as the upper at the same 
place. Adult plumage plumbeous-gray, never whitening; primaries, their coverts, and alula, 
ashy-brown, little darker than the general plumage, the shafts of the primaries white. Young 
with head feathered, and plumage varied with Tusty brown. Nestlings quite reddish. Smaller 
than G. americana; larger than No. 669; length 44.00; extent 80.00; wing 22.00; tail 
9.00; tarsus 9.50-10.00; bill along culmen 5.00-6.00; middle toe 3.50-4.00. This species 
has been said to lack tracheal convolutions, which is not true of the adult. The trachea is at 
first simple and straight, not entering the sternum; in the adult, about 8 inches of windpipe 
is coiled away in the breast-bone, the anterior half of the keel of which is excavated to receive 
the folds (fig. 100). The disposition is the same as in G. americana, but much less extensive — 
§ inches as against about 27 —a difference in degree, not of kind. Temperate N. Am., rare or 
irregular in the east, very abundant in the south and west: apparently breeds in sufficiently 
wild places throughout its range. Eggs (2) cannot be distinguished from those of G. americana 
by color or texture of shell, or dimensions ; the specimens examined average less capacious, 
and relatively more elongate; from 4.10 x 2.40, down to 3.65 X 2.10; average nearer 3.90 X 
2.60 ; series probably including eggs of No. 669. (G. canadensis Auct., an Linn. ?) 


48. Family ARAMIDZ: Courlans. 


Consisting of a single genus, with probably only one species, of the warmer portions of 
America; closely allied to Gruid@ in essential points of structure, and forming a connecting 
link with Rullide. The osteological and pterylographic characters are completely crane-like; 


269. 


671. 


668 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — ALECTORIDES — GRUIFORMES. 


the digestive system is as in the Rails; the ceca are two, situate close together. Carotids two; 
syringeal muscles one pair; femoro-caudal absent. 

A/JRAMUS. (Etym. ignot.) CourRLans. Bill twice as long as the head, slender but strong, 
compressed, grooved for about half its length, contracted opposite the nostrils, the terminal 
portion enlarged and decurved. Nostrils long, linear, pervious. Head completely feathered 
to the bill; tibiew half bare; tarsus scutellate anteriorly, as long as the bill, longer than middle 


Fig. 463. — Parra jacana, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


toe; toes cleft, the hinder short, elevated, the outer longer than inner; wings short, rounded, 
with falcate lst primary, the inner quills folding over the primaries when closed; tail short, 
of 12 broad feathers. 

A. pic/tus. (Lat. pictus, painted, spotted.) ScoLopactous CouRLAN. CRYING-BIRD. 
Carau. Limpxin. Chocolate-brown with a slight olivaceous or other gloss, paler on the 
face, chin, and throat, most of the plumage sharply streaked with white. Length 24.00-28.00; 
extent 40.00-44.00; wing 12.00-14.00; tail 6.00-7.00; bill and tarsus, each, about 5.00. 
Florida, and West Indies. 


270. 


672. 


PARRIDZ: JAGANAS. 669 


16. SusorperR RALLIFORMES: Raxuirorm Brirps. 


Represented in North America by the three leading groups of Rallide—the Rails, Galli- 
nules, and Coots. (For position of Parrida, see below.) 


49. Family PARRIDZ: Jagands. 


A small family of small wading-birds, of 3 genera and fewer than 12 species, combining 
characters of Plovers and Rails, outwardly distinguished from either by the excessive develop- 
ment of the toes and especially of the claws. These are slender, compressed, acute, nearly or 
quite straight; that of the hind toe much exceeding its digit inlength. The spread of feet thus 
acquired enables the birds to run with ease over the floating vegetation of the marshes they 
inhabit. The American genus is Parra (fig. 363); the Old World genera are Metopodius, 
Hydralector, and Hydrophasianus. The systematic position of the family has been much 
questioned. On nearly all counts, it would appear to be Limicoline, not Alectoridine, and 
should be removed to the other order, next to Charadriide. The bill of Parra is quite plover- 
like; the spur on the wing and skin-flaps about the bill are like those of Hoplopterus and 
Lobivanellus (Plovers). With this understanding, I leave the family where I find it. 
PAR/RA. (Lat. parra, name of some bird.) JaganAs. Bill plover-like, contracted in 
continuity, enlarged terminally; with culmen depressed to end of nasal groove, then convex 
and decurved; outline of mandibular rami about straight to the gonys, which is ascending; 
commissure about straight to the decurved end. Nasal grooves along the contracted portion 
of the bill; nostrils small, elliptical, situate in advance of the base of the bill. Angle of mouth 
with a leaf-like lobe of skin (rudimentary in our species). Forehead with a large leaf-like 
lobe of skin, with free lateral and posterior edges, adherent centrally and anteriorly where 
reaching base of upper mandible. A sharp horny spur on bend of wing. Primaries 10, not 
peculiar in structure; outer 3 about equal and longest, overlaid by the inner quills in the 
closed wing. Tail very short, with soft rectrices concealed by the coverts. Tibiz bare below, 
and with the tarsus scutellate before and behind, the scutella tending to become confluent in a 
continuous sheath. All the toes, claws included, longer than tarsus; middle toe alone nearly 
as long as tarsus; outer toe alone about as long as middle, its claw shorter than that of middle 
toe; inner toe a little shorter than outer, its claw longer; hind toe only about as long as basal 
joint of middle toe, but its claw much longer than itself; all the claws sleuder, about straight, 
very acute. 

P. gymno'stoma. (Gr. yupvds, gumnos, naked: ordua, stoma, mouth. Fig. 53 ter.) MpxIcan 
Jagan&. Adult: General plumage rich purplish-chestuut, brightest on wings and tail, darkest 
on back, breast, and sides, fading on lower belly. Quills pale yellowish-green, with dusk y 
edging in increasing extent from the secondaries to the outermost primary; alula and primary 
coverts blackish. Bill, frontal leaf, and wing-spur yellow; base of upper mandible whitish, 


_and space between it and the frontal leaf carmine; feet greenish ; iris brown. Young: Grayish- 


brown above, streaked with brownish-yellow; below, bufty-whitish, darker across breast, the 
sides and lining of wings dusky ; a light superciliary and dusky postocular stripe ; wing-quills 
greenish-yellow as in adult; tail-feathers like upper parts. Frontal leaf rudimentary. 
Wing about 5.00; bill 1.25; tarsus, and middle toe without claw, 2.00. West Indies, Mexico, 
to Texas on the Lower Rio Grande. 


50. Family RALLID: Rails, ete. 


This is a large and important family, abundantly represented in most parts of the world. 
They are birds of medium and small size, generally with compressed body and large strong 
legs (the muscularity of the thighs is very noticeable), enabling them to run rapidly and thread 


670 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — ALECTORIDES— RALLIFORMES. 


with ease the mazes of the reedy marshes to which they are almost exclusively confined ; 
while by means of their long toes they are prevented from sinking in the mire or the floating 
vegetation. The wings are never long and pointed as among Limicole, being in fact of the 
shortest, most rounded and concave form found among waders; and the flight is rarely pro- 
tracted to any great distance. The tail is always very short, generally of 10 or 12 soft 
feathers. Details of the bill and feet vary with the genera; but the former is never sensitive 
at the tip, and the latter have the hallux longer and lower down than it is in the shore-birds. 
The nostrils are pervious, of variable shape. The head is completely feathered ; the general 
plumage is ordinarily of subdued and blended coloration, lacking much of the variegation 
commonly observed in shore-birds ; the sexes are usually alike, and the changes of plumage 
not great with age or season. The food, never probed for in the mud, but gathered from the 
surface of the ground or water, consists of a variety of aquatic animal and vegetable substances. 
The nest is a rude structure, placed on the ground, or in a tuft of reeds or other herbage; the 
eggs are numerous, generally variegated in color; the young are hatched clothed. The 
general habit is gregarious, and migratory ; many species occur in vast multitudes, though 
their skulking ways, and the nature of their resorts, withdraw them from casual observation. 
Some species swim habitually. 

There appear to be upward of 150 species of the family, falling in several well-marked 
groups. The Ocydromine are an Old World type of some 35 species, ranking with some 
authors as a distinct faiily. Mr. Gray makes the African Himantornis hematopus the type 
and single representative of another subfamily. Excluding the Parride and Heliornithide, 
both of which are sometimes brought under Rallide, as subfamilies, the three remaining 
groups are represented in this country. 


Analysis of Subfamilies and Genera. 


RALLIN#’. Mails. No frontal shield, the feathers of forehead reaching bill. Toes simple. Body com- 


pressed. 
Bill slender, longer than head, curved, with long narrow nasal groove and linear nostrils . . Fallus 271 
Bill stout, not longer than head, straight, with broad nasal groove and as nostrils . . Porzana 272 
As in the last; wings longer, folding nearly toend oftail. . . . soe ae «Crew 213 


GALLINULINZ. Gallinules. A bare horny frontal shield. Toes simple. or iaorely margined. Body 
less compressed. 
Toes without evident lateral margins; nostrilsoval . . . .... ... =... . . Zonornis 275 
Toes with lateral margins; nostrilsnarrow. . ....... . . »- Gallinula 274 
Fuuicinz. Coots. A bare horny frontal shield. Toes lobate. Body “depressed. Nostrils narrow 
Fulica 276 


62. Subfamily RALLINZ: True Rails. 


This is the largest, and central or typieal, group, to which 
most of the foregoing paragraph is especially applicable. The 
species are strictly paludicole; the compression of the body is at 
a maximum; the form is blunt and thick behind, with a very 
short tip-up tail, and tapers to a point in front; the whole fig- 
ure being thus adapted to wedge through narrow places. The 
wings are extremely short and rounded, and the ordinary flight 
- appears feeble and vacillating, though the migrations of many 

Fie. 464, —Carolina Rail. (From SPecies are very extensive. The tail has 12 feathers. The 
Tenney, after Wilson.) flank-feathers are commonly enlarged and conspicuously col- 
ored; the thighs are very muscular; the tibia are generally if not always naked below; the 
tarsi scutellate in front; the toes are long, cleft, without lobes or any obvious marginal mem- 
branes. The bill occurs under two principal modifications : in Rallus proper it is longer than 
the head, slender, compressed, slightly curved, long-grooved, with linear nostrils ; in Porzana 
and most genera, however, it is shorter or uot longer than the head, straight, rather stout, 


71. 


RALLIDA — RALLINA: RAILS. 671 


with short broad nasal fosse, and linear-obloug nostrils — altogether somewhat as in gallina- 
ceous birds. The culmen more or less obviously parts antial extension of the frontal feathers, 
but never forms a frontal shield, as in the Coots and Gallinules. Of about 35 American species 
or varieties only 10 occur in this country, to which must be added one straggler from Europe. 
There are some 25 Old World species. 

The Rails inhabit all temperate countries; they are remarkably distinguished by the 
extreme narrowness or compression of the body, which enables them to thread a way through 
the closest reeds and rushes of the marshes where they always live. Instead of long, flat, 
pointed, narrow wings, with flowing tertials, characteristic of the great Plover-snipe group, 
they have short, concave, rounded wings, and their flight is consequently of a different sort. 
They are neither swift nor vigorous on wing. When flushed, a matter of some difficulty, 
they fly in so feeble and vague a way that it is not very easy to understand how they make 
the extensive migrations for which, nevertheless, they are noted. The legs, as well as more 
particularly the feet, are large and strong; the thighs extremely muscular; they trust rather 
to these members than to their wings in avoiding pursuit or escaping danger; probably no 
birds are more accomplished pedestrians than they are. There is generally, if not always, a 
slight membrane between the base of the toes, but nothing amounting even to semipalmation ; 
nevertheless, some of the species swim short distances with ease. While not exactly grega- 
rious, since they do not go in flocks that are actuated by a common impulse and the instinct of 
socialism, nevertheless they frequent, through community of tastes and wants, the marshes 
in immense numbers; where they breed, and where they appear during the migration, par- 
ticularly the autumnal, the marshes appear full-stocked with them. Their cries are loud, 
dry, and harsh; in the spring-time the marshes resound. They scream piteously when 
wounded and caught, and fight as well as they can with their strong claws. Their food 
consists of all sorts of aquatic animals small enough to be swallowed — little crabs, snails, 
and other small mollusks, grubs, worms, and insects. They probably all live at times, and 
in a measure at least, upon the seeds and tender shoots of aquatic plants. They lay many 
white or whitish, much-spotted, oval or elliptical eggs, in a rude flat nest, built of sticks, 
rush-stalks, and grasses, upon the ground. The young, of which more than one brood may 
be annually raised, are generally black in the downy state, whatever the color of the adults. 
They appear to be of somewhat nocturnal habits, and probably migrate mostly by night. 
The flesh of some of our species is esteemed good eating, and great numbers are annually 
destroyed for the table, in the fall, when they are generally very fat. 

RAL'LUS. (Low Lat. railus, a rail, from rasle, rdle, a rattling cry.) Rais. Marsu Hens. 
Bill longer than head, slender, compressed, decurved, with long nasal groove extending beyond 
middle of bill. Nostrils linear, sub-basal. Hind toe not half as long as tarsus. Wings, tail 
and legs as in Ralline at large. Plumage variegated above, plain below, excepting the con- 
spicuously barred flanks, and lining of wings and tail. Sexes alike; young little different. 
Swamps and marshes exclusively. Eggs numerous, buff and spotted. Very clamorous in 
breeding season. We have 3 good species, one of them of 8 varieties. 
Analysis of Species and Varieties. 
Large: length 12.00 or more ; wing 5.00 or more; bill 2.00 or more. 
Flanks gray, with narrow white bars. 
wings; below, pale rufous or ashy. 


Upper parts olive-brown obscurely varied with olive-gray edges of the feathers; below with 
little rufous. Atlantic A 
Upper parts olive-gray, with obscure dark stripes below, breast quite hafeus: 
Upper parts olive-gray with distinct dark stripes; below dullrufous. Gulf . + saturatus 675 
Flanks dusky, with broad white bars. Above, ee with olive-brown and blackish; wing- 

coverts quite chestnut; below, rich rufous. . 
Small: length under 12.00; wing under 4.50; bill under 1. 00. 

Colors as in segues inti Fo een gs 


Above, olive-brown or olive-gray without chestnut on 


‘ + + erepitans 673 
Pacific obsoletus 674 


soe ee ee www ee . elegans 676 


se ee we ew ws Virginianus CTT 


673. 


674. 


675. 


676. 


672 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — ALECTORIDES — RALLIFORMES. 


R. longiros'tris cre/pitans. (Lat. longirostris, long-billed. Lat. crepitans, crepitating, 
clattering. Fig. 465.) Cuapper Ram. Sayt-wATER MARsH-HEN. Mup-HEN. @ 9, adult: 
Above, variegated with dark olive-brown and pale olive-ash, the latter edging the feathers, 
the variegation dull and 
blended. Below, pale dull 
ochrey-brown, whitening 
on the throat, frequently 
ashy-shaded on the breast, 
without decided cinnamon- 
brown shade. Flanks, ax- 
illars, and lining of wings, 
fuscous-gray, with sharp 
narrow white bars. Quills 
and tail plain dark-brown, 
without chestnut on the 
coverts. Eyelids and short 
superciliary line whitish. 
The general tone is that 
of a gray bird, without 
any reddishness. Young 
mostly soiled whitish below; when just from the egg entirely sooty black. Length 14.00- 
16.00; extent about 20.00; wing 5.00-6.00; tail 2.00-2.50; bill 2.00-2.50; tarsus 1.67-2.00; 
middle toe and claw 2.00-2.33. 9 smaller than the g. Salt marshes of Atlantic States, ex- 
tremely abundant southerly ; N. regularly to the middle districts, sometimes to Massachusetts. 
Resident from the Carolinas southward. Breeds in profusion in the marshes of the Carolinas, 
etce., where its clattering is almost incessant during the mating season. Nest a rude platform 
of reeds and grasses just out of the water on the ground. Eggs 6 to 12, averaging 1.67 x 1.12, 
whitish, creamy, or buff, variously speckled and blotched with reddish-brown, with a few 
obscure lavender marks. 

R. 1. obsole’tus. (Lat. obsoletus, obsolete; referring to the markings of the upper parts in 
comparison with those of R. elegans.) CALIFORNIA CLAPPER Raiu. Back and scapulars 
erayish-olive, indistinctly striped with dusky; breast deep cinnamon. General aspect of the 
last, but quite reddish below. Wing 6.50; bill 2.25-2.50, its least depth 0.33; tarsus 2.10- 
2.25. Salt marshes of the California coast. 

R. 1. satura/tus. (Lat. saturatus, saturated, satiated, i.e. dark-colored.) LouImsiaAna 
CLAPPER Ratu. In general similar to crepitans; above, olive-gray or ashy, broadly striped 
with brownish-black; breast dull cinnamon. ‘ Louisiana.” 

R. elegans. (Lat. elegans, choice.) King Rai. FResH-waTER MarsH-HEN. With 
a general resemblance to crepitans, but larger and much more brightly colored. Adult ¢ 9: 
Above, distinctly streaked with brownish-black and tawny-olive, the darker color being the 
central field of each feather ; becoming rich chestnut on the wing-coverts, and plain dark brown 
on the hind-neck and top of head. Below, rich rufous or cinnamon-red, brightest on breast, 
fading on throat and belly; a ling of the same over the eye, and dusky line through eye; lower 
eyelid white. Flanks and lining of wings blackish, broadly and distinctly barred with white ; 
some of the crissal feathers similar. Specimens vary much in the richness of the tints and 
distinctness of the markings, but the reddish and streaky tone is always quite different from 
the dull blended colors of crepitans. Length 17.00-19.00; extent 23.00-25.00; wing 6.00- 
7.00; bill 2.10-2.50; tarsus 2.30; middle toe and claw about the same. U. S8., rather south- 
erly, Texas to the Middle States regularly, to Connecticut casually ; in the interior to Kansas 


Fia, 465, — Clapper Rail, reduced. (Altered from Lewis.) 


677. 


272. 


678. 


679. 


RALLIDA—RALLINZ:: RAILS. 673 


and Missouri at least. Winters in the South.. Inhabits preferably swamps and marshes 
above tide-water. Nesting the same as crepitans; eggs not distinguishable. 
R. virginia‘nus. VirGintA Raw. Coloration exactly as in elegans, of which it is a perfect 
miniature. Length 8.50-10.50; extent about 14.00; wing 4.00, always under 4.50; tail 
1.50; bill 1.35-1.65; tarsus 1.25-1.50; middle toe and claw 1.50-1.75. Temperate N. Am., 
chiefly eastern U. 8., migratory, abundant, both in fresh and salt marshes. Breeds commonly 
in New England; winters in the 8. States and beyond. Although a regular migrant along’ 
the Atlantic coast, it never occurs in such immense numbers as the Carolina Rail. Eggs like 
those of the foregoing in color, but much smaller, about 1.25 x 0.95. They agree in size nearly 
with those of Porzana carolina, but the latter are greenish or drab, not buffy. 
PORZA'NA. (Ital. porzana, Venetian name of P. maruetta.) Craxes. Bill shorter or 
not longer than head, stout, high and compressed at base, tapering, obtuse ; nasal fosse ample. 
Nostrils linear-oblong, near middle of bill. Otherwise generally as in Rallus; hind toe longer. 
Tarsus moderately shorter than middle toe and claw. Plumage of upper parts spotty as well 
as streaky. Small. Sexes alike. The 3 N. Am. species are very different (subgenerically), 
but carolina closely resembles maruetia of Europe. 
Analysis of Species. 
Small: length 8.00 or more. Face of adult blackish, the breast slate-gray. 
Bill orange, with red base. Breast spotted. (European.). . . . . . maruetta €78 
Bill not orange, without red base. Breast not spotted . . . 2... 1... - carolina 679 
Smaller: length about 6.00; wing over 3.00; yellowish-brown, barred with white . . mnoveboracensis 686 
Smallest: length about 5.50; wing scarcely 3.00; blackish, speckled with white and chestnut 
Jamaicensis 661 
P. maruet'ta, (Fr. marouette, name of this species.) EUROPEAN SPOTTED CRAKE. 9, 
adult: Above, dark red- 
dish-brown shaded with 
olive; hind neck fine- 
ly dotted, other upper 
parts spotted and short- 
ly striped with white, 
and marked with black- 
ish. Below, slate-gray, 
fading to whitish on 
belly, the breast spot- 
ted with white, the 
flanks barred with 
white, the crissuin buff. 
Top and front of head, 
and upper throat black- 
ish, the crown streaked 
with this color and dark 
brown. Quills and tail 
dark olive-brown. Iris 
reddish - brown; bill 
orange, red at base; 
legs yellowish-green, 
livid on the joints. Length about 8.50; wing 4.75; tail 2.00; bill 0.85; tarsus 1.45; middle 
toe and claw 1.75. Young lack the black face; chin whitish. Europe. Only N. Am. as 
occurring in Greenland. 
P. carolina. (Fig. 466.) Carotina Crake. Common Rar. Sora. “ ORTOLAN.” Above, 
olive-brown, varied with black, with a a white streaks and specks; flanks, axillars 


Fic. 466.— Carolina Rail. (From Lewis.) 


680. 


681. 


682. 


2738. 


674' SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — ALECTORIDES — RALLIFORMES. 


and lining of wings, barred with white and blackish; belly whitish; crissum rufescent. Adult 
& 2: Face aud central line of throat black, the rest of the throat, line over eye, and espe- 
cially the breast, more or less intensely slate-gray, the sides of the breast usually also with 
some obsolete whitish barring and speckling. Young: Without this black, the throat whitish, 
the breast brown. Length 8.00-9.00; extent 12.00-13.00; wing 4.00-4.50; tail about 2.00; 
bill 0.67-0.75 ; tarsus 1.33; middle toe and claw 1.67. Temperate N. Am., exceedingly 
abundant during the migration in the reedy swamps of the Atlantic States, in August and 
September, when tens of thousands are killed every year. Breeds from the Middle States 
northward: winters in the 8. States and beyond. Has occurred in Greenland and Europe. 
The eggs are spotted just like those of the foregoing Ralli, but are readily distinguished by 
their strong drab ground-color instead of the white or creamy and pale buffy of the former. 
They are rather smaller than those of R. virginianus, and perhaps more obtuse, measuring 
about 1.20 by 0.90. This is the rail of sportsmen. It is also called sora or soree; the word 
is colloquial and local. The word ‘ ortolan” has a curious connection with this species. 
It is Italian and French, equal to the Latin hortulanus, relating to a garden: the “ ortolan” 
is Emberiza hortulana, a bunting, esteemed a great delicacy by gourmands; and our crake 
has been called ortolan for no better reason than that it is also edible and sapid! The same 
name is frequently applied to the bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus, because it is found abun- 
dantly in the same marshes in the fall, and sells in the same restaurants as the same bird as 
the rail, the two being brought in together by the gunners. 

P. noveboracen/sis. (Low Lat., of Noveboracum: i. e., New York.) YELLOw Crake. 
Yew~Ltow Ram. Adult $ 9: Above, streaked with blackish and brownish-yellow, thickly 
marked with narrow white semicircles and transverse bars. Below, pale brownish-yellow 
fading on belly, deepest on breast, where many feathers are dark-tipped; flanks blackish with 
numerous white bars ; crissum varied with black, white, and rufous. Lining of wings white. 
A brownish-yellow superciliary line, and dark transocular stripe. Simall; about 6.00 long ; 
wing 3.25; tail 1.50; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.87; middle toe and claw 1.12. Eastern N. Amn., 
not abundant; N. to Hudson’s Bay: winters in the 8. States. Does not appear to have beeu 
observed in N. England N. of Mass., nor anywhere W. of the Mississippi Valley, Texas to 
Minnesota ; but it is not common, is very secretive like other Rails, and readily eludes obser- 
vation; its distribution may be more general than it is known to be. Eggs about 6, rich, 
warm, buffy-brown, marked at the great end with a cluster of reddish-chocolate dots and 
spots; 1.15 by 0.85, to 1.05 by 0.80; shape as in the foregoing. 

P. jamaicen’sis. (Of Jamaica.) Lirrte Buack Crake. Adult ¢ 9: Upper parts 
blackish, finely speckled and barred with white, the hind neck and fore back dark chestuut. 
Head and under parts dark slate color, paler or whitening on the throat, the lower belly, 
flanks, and under wing and tail-coverts barred with white. Quills and tail-feathers with 
white spots. Very small: length about 5.50; wing 2.75-3.00; tail 1.35; tarsus 0.75. 8. and 
C. America and W. I., not often found in the U. 8., being one of the rarest of our birds. 
Observed N. to Mass., W. to Kan., and probably occurs across to the Pacific. Eggs from New 
Jersey are altogether different from those of the sora, or the yellow crake, being creamy- 
white, sprinkled all over with fine dots of rich, bright reddish-brown, and with a few spots of 
some little size at the great end; most like the more finely-speckled examples of the eggs of 
the large Ralli; dimensions 1.05 X 0.80. 

P. j. coturni/culus. (Lat. dim. of cotwrnix, a quail.) FARRALLONE BLACK CRAKE. Like 
the last; rather sinaller, the wing 2.50; more uniform in color, the back without white specks. 
Farrallone Islands, coast of California. 

CREX. (Gr. xpé£, krex, Lat. crex, a crake; referring to the creaking notes.) Lanp Ratzs. 
General character of Porzana. Wings much longer, folding nearly to end of tail. Tarsus 
relatively shorter. Plumage above streaky, but not spotty. 


683. 


274. 


684. 


275. 


RALLIDZE — GALLINULINZ!: GALLINULES. 675 


C. pratensis. (Lat. pratensis, of fields.) Europzan Lanp Raw. Corn Crake. Adult 
& @: Upper parts blackish-brown, variegated with brownish-yellow, the wing-coverts both 
above and below rusty-reddish, the quills rafous-browu. Below, bluish-gray of varying 
intensity, more ashy-whitish on throat and belly, the flauks and crissum barred with reddish- 
brown. Line over eye like under parts; a dark brown stripe through eye. Bill and eyes 
brown; legs pale. Length about 10.50; wing 5.50-6.00 ; tail 2.00; bill 0.$0-1.00; tarsus 
1.60. Europe; casually in Greenland ; accidental in New Jersey and Bermudas. (Wedderb., 
Zool., 1849, p. 2591; Cass., Pr. Phila. Acad., vii, 1855, p. 205; Reinh., Ibis, 1861, p. 11; 
Bd., Am. Journ. Sci., xli, 1866, p. 339; Freke, Zool., v, 1881, p. 374.) 


63. Subfamily GALLINULINZ: Callinules. 


Forehead shielded by a broad, bare, horny 
plate, a prolongation and expansion of the culmen. 
Bill otherwise much as in the shorter-billed rails, 
like Porzana ; general form much the same, 
though the body is not so compressed ; toes long, 
simple, or slightly margined. The Gallinules 
are somewhat Rail-like birds, of similar habits, 
inhabiting marshes; they agree with the Coots 
in possessing a frontal shield, but the feet are 
not lobate, nor is the body depressed, and the 
species swim uo better than Rails. Some are of 
the richest and must elegant coloration. Tere 
are about 30 species of various parts of the 


Fre. 467.—Enronean Gallinule, Gallinula chlo. World, constituting several genera, two of which, 
oropus. (From Dixon., very distinct from each other, occur iu N. Am. 
GALLYVNULA. (Lat. gallinula, dimin. of gallina, a hen. Fig. 467.) GALLINULES. WaAT=R 
Hens. Mup Hens. Billnot longer than head, stout at base, tapering, compressed, the culmen 
running directly up on the forehead and expanding into a frontal plate of different shape in 
different species. Nostrils near middle of bill, near. Feet large and stout; tibiae naked 
below ; tarsus moderately compressed, scutellate; toes very long, the outer longer than the 
imner, with an evident though slight marginal membrane; claws long, slender, little curved, 
acute. Wings short and rounded, but ample. Tail very short, of 12 weak feathers, with 
long ample under coverts, as in Rails. Plumage not rich blue, ete. Several species of 
various countries. 

G. galea'ta. (Lat. galeata, helmeted.) ComMMON GALLINULE. FLORIDA GALLINULE. 
Rep-Bittep Mup-HEen. Adult g 9: Head, neck, and under parts, grayish-black, darkest 
on the former, paler or whitening on the belly. Back brownish-olive. Wings and tail dusky ; 
crissum, edge of wing, outer web of first primary, and stripes on the flanks, white. Bill, 
frontal plate, and ring round tibiae, red, the former tipped with yellow; tarsi and toes 
greenish, the joints bluish; eyes red or brown. Young: Similar, but lacking the bright 
colors of the bill and legs, the former simply greenish; under parts extensively whitish. 
Length 12.00-14.00; extent 20.00-22.00; wiug 6.50-7.50; tail 3.00; gape of hill about 
1.50; tarsus about 2.00. §. Atlantic and Gulf States, N. sometimes to New England, to 
Canada West, Minnesota, Kansas, ete., and on the Pacifie side to San Francisco; W. I., 
C. Am., and much of 8. Am. Resident in the Southern States, and abundant coastwise. 
Nidification exactly that of the coot (beyond). Eggs 10-12-14, 1.75 & 1.25. 

IONOR'NIS. (Gr. tov, ion, a violet; épms, ornis, a bird; alluding to the rich blue color.) 
Suttan GALLINULES. Hyacinrus. General character of Gallinula ; bill very stout and 


685. 


276. 


686. 


7 


fon) 
far) 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — ALECTORIDES — RALLIFORMES. 


high, shorter than head, the nostrils near its middle, oval. Toes without lateral margins. 
Plumage beautiful with rich blue, ete. 

I. marti/‘nica. (Of Martinique.) PurrLte GALLinute. Adult g 9: Head, neck, and 
under parts beautiful purplish-blue, blackening on the belly, the sides and lining of wings 
bluish-green, the crissum white. Above, olivaceous-green, the cervix and wing-coverts tinted 
with blue. Quills and tail-feathers blackish, glossed on the outer webs with greenish. 
Frontal shield blue; bill carmine, tipped with yellow; legs yellow. The frontal shield is 
obovate, with a point behind. Young with the head, neck, and lower back brownish, the 
under parts mostly white, mixed with ochrey. Length 10.00-12.00; extent about 22.00; 
wing 6.50-7.00; tail 2.50-3.00; bill from gape about 1.25 ; tarsus 
about 2.25; middle toe and claw about 3.00. S. Atlantic and Gulf 
States, N. casually to New England, etc.; resident in the South. 
Also inhabits much of C. and 8. Am., and W. I. 


64. Subfamily FULICINAE: Coots. 


Bill and frontal plate much asin the Gallinules. Body depressed; 
the under plumage thick and duck-like, to resist water. Feet 
highly natatorial ; toes, including the hinder, lobate, being furnished 
with large semicircular membranous flaps. The Coots are emi- 
nently aquatic birds, swimming with ease, by means of their lobate 
feet, like phalaropes and grebes ; but this ability results from very 
slight modification of a structure shared by the Rails and Gallinules. 
There are about ten species, of both hemispheres, distinguished, 
among other characters, by the size and shape of the froutal shield. 
That, for instance, figured (fig. 468) is of an exotic species, much 
larger than that of ulica americana, and differently shaped. One 

Fic. 468. — Frontal shield of Species is remarkable for haying the forehead singularly carun- 
a species of coot. culate; the others closely resemble our common species. 

FU'LICA. (Lat. fulica, or fulix, a coot, from the sooty color; fuligo, soot.) Character 
essentially as above. Tarsi shorter than middle toe, stout, very broadly scutellate. Nostrils 
linear, in a broad fossa, towards middle of bill. Tibize bare below. Wings moderate, rounded, 
the 2d and 3d quills usually longest. Tail very short, 12-feathered. Plumage dark slaty 
color ; sexes alike. 

F. america/na, AMERICAN Coot. WHITE-BILLED Mup-HEN. Crow DucKk. Dark 
slate-color, paler or grayish below, blackening on the head and neck, tinged with olive on the 
back. Crissum, whole edge of wing, and tips of secondaries, white. Quills dusky, the outer 
edge of the first primary white. Tail blackish. Bill white or flesh-color, marked with 
reddish-hlack near the end and at base of frontal plate; feet dull olivaceous or livid yellowish- 
green; iris carmine; claws black. Young similar, paler and duller. Length 14.00-16.00 ; 
extent 23.00-27.00; wing 7.00-8.00; tail 2.00; bill from the gape 1.25-1.50; tarsus about 
2.00; middle toe and claw about 3.00. The frontal plate is much smaller in this than in some 
other species, in which it covers all the forehead. Entire temperate N. Am., even to Aiaska 
and sometimes Greenland; Mexico, Cent. Am. and W.I.; abundant, and breeds throughout 
its range; migratory northerly ; resident in the South. Inhabits during the breeding season, 
and mostly, reedy sloughs, pools, and sluggish streams, seeking safety in concealment rather 
than by flight. Nesting most like that of grebes; a hollowed heap of bits of dead reeds, 
just out of the water, sometimes “‘ floating” in the sense that the mass of broken-down reeds 
upon which it rests lies on the water. Eggs about a dozen, 1.75 to 2.00 long by 1.20 to 1.35 
broad, shaped like an average hen’s egg, clear clay-color, uniformly and minutely dotted with 


885. 


LAMELLIROSTRES: ANSERINE BIRDS. 6TT 


} mes |: rhea The act 1S S oe 
dark brown, the spots usually mere pin-heads, sometines large blotches. The nest is some 
times on dry ground a little away from water. The young hatch covered with black down, 
fantastically striped with bright orange-red, with yermilion bill tipped with black. oe 
(addenda.) F. a/tra, (Lat. atra, black.) Evropran Coor. Like the last. Bill, ivelud- 
ing frontal plate, entirely white; edge of wing, and of first primary, white, but no white on 
the crissum. Europe; only N. Am. as occurring in Greenland. 


X. Order LAMELLIROSTRES: Anserine Birds. 


es with series 


Bill lamellate: that is, both mandibles furnished aloug their tomial ed 
of laminar or tecth-like projections, alternating aud fitting within each other. Covering of 
bill membranous, wholly or in greatest part. Tongue fleshy, usually with horny tip, and 
serrate or papillate edges corresponding to the denticulatious of the pill. Feet palmate ; hallux 
clevated, free, simple, or lobed (rarely absent). Wings never exceedingly long, rarely very 
short. Tail generally short and many-feathered. Cisophagus narrower than in the lower 
flesh-eating orders, usually with a more or less specially formed crop; gizzard strongly 
muscular; intestines and their coeca long ; cloaca capacious. Legs near centre of equilibrinin ; 
position of body in walking horizontal or nearly so. Reproduetion precocial. Sexual habit 


frequently polygamous. Diet various, commonly rather vegetarian than animal. There are 
< Ys 3 g 


two remarkably diverse types of lamellirostral birds, of more than family value, by some now 
made the bases of separate orders. The matter at issue may be here compromised by the 
recognition of two series, or suborders, as was done in the somewhat parallel cases of Columba, 
Galline, and Alectorides. 


17. Susorper ODONTOGLOSS 4: GRALLATORIAL ANSERES. 


Consisting of the single family of the Flamingoes; the Odontoglosse of Nitzsch, the 
Amphimorphe of Huxley, the Phenicopteride of most authors. ‘The genus Phenicopterus 
is sv completely intermediate between the Auserine birds on the one side, and the Storks and 
Herons on the other, that it can be ranged with neither of these groups, but must stand as the 
type of a division by itself. Thus the skull has the long lacrymo-nasal region, the basi- 
pterygoid facets, the prolonged and recurved angle of the mandible, the laminated horny sheath 
of the Chenomorphe [Anatide] ; but the maxillo-palatines are spongy, and the general structure 
of the rostrum is quite similar to that found in Storks and Herous. The lower end of the erns 
is hare, but the feet are fully webbed; and the pterylosis is said by Nitzsch to be completely 
stork-like.” (Huxley.) According to Garrod, two carotids are present, but the right is much 
larger than the left, which joins it low down in the neck (unique in detail, but similar to the 
disposition found in Bitterns and certain Parrots; fig. 94). The femoro-caudal is absent; the 
ainbiens, accessory femoro-caudal, semitendinosus and accessory scinitendinosus are present 
(differmg both from Herodiones and Anatide). The tongue is thick, fleshy, papillate, with 
terminal nail, and closely tied down; cesophagus extremely narrow, with special crop; gizzard 
very muscular ; intestines ample, both in length and ealibre ; two long cceea, constricted at 
base; a capacious cloaca. Bill of unique shape, but perfectly lamellate. General configur- 
ation of body and members grallatorial ; legs and very slender neck exceedingly long, exhibit- 
ing even an exaggeration of the proportions of Cranes, Storks, and Herons; but toes webbed. 
The external characters are so nicely balanced between those of wading and swimming birds, 
that the Flamingoes have been placed indifferently in both groups; but nearly the whole 
organization corresponds essentially with that of the duck tribe, the grallatorial relationship, 
in form and habits, though so evident, being rather of analogy than of affinity. The physi- 


ological nature is said to be precocial; the young hatching clothed and taking directly 
to the water. 


277. 


678 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— LAMELLIROSTRES — ODONTOGLOSSZ. 


51. Family PHCRNICOPTERIDA:: Flamingoes. 


Bill unique in shape, abruptly bent in the middle, so that the upper surface faces the 
ground in the act of feeding; in length much exceeding the head, very large and thick, 
entirely invested with membrane (without the distinct terminal horny nail of Anatide). 
Mandible narrower than maxilla at base, broader in the rest of its extent, ridged near the end. 
Edges of upper mandible furnished with a great number (some 150) of oblique lamine ; of lower 
incurved, similarly furnished. Nostrils sub-basal, nearer commissure than culmen, linear, 
long. Tibiz bare below for a great distance, and with the tarsi broadly scutellate before 
and behind. Toes short, the anterior palmate with incised webs; the hallux elevated, free, 


Fria. 469.— American Flamingoes. (From a photograph of a group mounted by F. S. Webster.) 


very small, or absent. Wings moderately long, ample, with enlarged inner secondaries 
folding over and beyond the primaries when closed. Tail short. There are about 7 species of 
Flamingoes, inhabiting the warmer parts of both Hemispheres; three of America besides 
ours, and three or four Old World. They represent several genera of late systematists, the 
most marked being that represented by P. andinus, which is three-toed. Our species falls in 
the restricted genus Phanicorodias of Gray. 

PHNICO/PTERUS. (Gr. doukdrrepos, phoinikopteros, Lat. phenicopterus, a flamingo: 
i. e. red-wing.) FuAmincors. Character as above. Head bare between bill and eyes. 
Hind toe present. Claws flattencd, obtuse. Wings ample, pointed ; 1st three primaries sub- 


equal and longest; inner secondaries clongated and tapering. 


PHG@NICOPTERIDZ: FLAMINGOES. 679 


687. P. ru’ber. (Lat. ruber, red. Fig. 469.) Amurican Rep Friaminco. Adult #9 : Plu- 
mage scarlet, the primaries and most of the secondaries black. Legs lake-red. Bill black on 
the terminal part, orange in the middle, the base and bare skin of head yellow. Young the 
first year white or rosy. Stature nearly 5 feet; weight 6 or 8 lbs. Length about 4 feet; extent 
of wings 5 feet or more; wing 16 inches ; tail 6; bill 5; tibia bare 9; tarsus 13; middle toe and 
claw 34. @ like @ in color, but smaller. Florida and Gulf coast, and southward; said to 
have been N. to 8. Carolina. Eggs 2, 3.25 X 2.10, with thick shell, roughened with white 
flaky substance, bluish when this is scraped away. The nest is described as a heap of earth 
and other material, which the birds bestride in an ungainly attitude; but it is not high enough 
to permit their long legs to dangle, as represented in some popular accounts and pictorial 
efforts. A recent writer upon one of the Old World species states positively that the incubating 
bird doubles her legs under her in the usual way ; so that, unless the American species does 
differently, the accompanying illustration must be considered conventional. The young are 
said, on good authority, to take to the water as soon as hatched. 


18. SusorpER ANSERES: ANSERINE Brrps PROPER. 


Simply equivalent to Lamellirostres as above defined, minus the Grallatorial type. For 
further characters, see on, under head of the single 


52. Family ANATIDA:: Geese, Ducks, etc. 


Bill lamellate, stout, more or less elevated and compressed at 
base, widened or flattened at the obtuse tip, invested with soft, 
tough, leathery membrane, except at the end, which is furnished 
with a hard, horny ‘‘nail,” generally somewhat overhanging, 
sometimes small and distinct, sometimes large and fused ; that is, 
changing insensibly into the general covering. (This soft cover- 
ing is regarded by some as a prolonged cere; but this is purely 
theoretical.) Body full, heavy, flattened beneath; neck of variable 
length; head large; eyes small. No antiz; the frontal feathers 
encroaching on the culmen with a convex or pointed outline, and forming other projections on 
the sides of the bill, and in the interramal space, which latter is broad and long, the mandib- 
ular crura being united only at the end by a broad short bridge; no culininal ridge nor keel 
of gonys. Nostrils subbasal, median, or subterminal, elevated, open, naked, usually broadly 
oval. Wings of moderate length (rarely very short), stiff, strong, pointed, conferring rapid, 
vigorous, whistling flight; a wild duck at full speed is said to make ninety miles an hour. 
Tail of variable shape, but usually short and rounded, never forked, sometimes cuneate, of 
12-24 feathers, usually 14-16, the under coverts very long and full, forming a conspicuous 
crissal tuft. Legs short; knees buried in the general integument ; tibie feathered nearly or 
quite to the suffrago; tarsi reticulate or scutellate, or both ; toes palmate, the hinder always 
present and free, simple or lobate. Wing occasionally spurred. 

Like the gallinaceous, the anserine type is a familiar one, comprising all kinds of ‘ water- 
fowl,” among which are the originals of all our domestic breeds of swans, geese, and ducks, 
that vie with poultry in point of economic consequence, ornament our parks, or furnish exquisite 
material for wearing apparel, as well as the filling of our pillows and couches. But additional 
information respecting the structure of this, the largest and most important family of swimming 
birds, may be desirable. It is definitely characterized by many important points besides those 
external features just stated. In palatal structure, Anatide are desmognathous (fig. 78) ; “the 
laerymal region of the skull is remarkably long [the lacrymal bone itself is large]. The basi- 
sphenoidal rostrum has oval sessile basipterygoid facets. The flat and lamellar maxillo-palatines 


Fic. 470, — Wild Duck. 


680 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


unite and form a bridge across the palate. The angle of the mandible is produced and greatly 
recurved” (Husxley). The interorbital septum is more or less completely ossified, and the 
orbits are better defined than in many birds, by well-developed lacrymal and post-frontal pro- 
cesses. The premaxillary is large, and its three prongs are so extensively fused that only a 
slight nasal aperture remains. Sometimes the top of the skull shows erescentic depressions for 
lodgment of the supraorbital gland, the secretion of which lubricates the nasal passages; but 
this feature is never so marked as in most of the piscivorous swimmers (fig. 63). The sternum is 
long and broad, more or less transverse posteriorly, with a simple notch or fenestra on cach 
side; sometimes its keel is curiously hollowed out for a purpose stated beyond. The vertebrae 
vary a good deal in number, owing to the variability of the cervicals, which run up to 24 in 
some swans. The pelvis is ample, arched and extensively ossified, with small foramina, showing 
nothing of the straight, constricted, largely fenestrated figure prevalent among lower water- 
birds. The oil-gland is present, tufted. The carotids are two. The ambiens, femoro-caudal 
and its accessory and semitendinosus are present. The tongue is large and fleshy; its main 
bone (glosso-hyal ; fig. 72) is highly developed; its sides show processes corresponding to 
the lamelle of the bill. The gullet is not so ample as in the flesh-eating swimmers. The 
gizzard resembles that of a fowl in its shape and great muscularity; the muscles are deep- 
colored, and well show the typical disposition of large hemispherical lateral masses converging 
to central tendons. The cceca vary with the genera according to food; they are very long — 
12 or 15 inches—in some of the herbivorous species. The male genital armature merits 
special notice. ‘‘In some Natatores which copulate on the water there is provision for more 
efficient coitus than by simple contact of everted cloacee; and in the Anatide a long penis is 
developed. It is essentially a sacular production of a highly vascular part of the lining mem- 
brane of the cloaca. . . . In the passive state it is coiled up like a screw by the elasticity of 
associated ligamentous structure. . . . A groove commencing widely at the base follows the 
spiral turns of the sac to its termination; the sperm ducts open upon papille at the base of this 
groove. This form of penis has a muscle by which it can be everted, protruded and raised.” 
(Owen.) Among the most interesting structures of the Anatide are the curious modifications 
of the windpipe, prevailing almost throughout the family. In a number of swans, this organ 
enters a cavity in the keel of the sternum, doubles on itself and then emerges to pass to the 
lungs, forming either a horizontal or a vertical coil. In some geese the windpipe coils between 
the pectoral muscles and the skin. These vagaries of the windpipe are not, however, confined 
to the present family, oceurring in some of the cranes, ibises, certain Galline, and also, it is 
said, in the curious snipe, Rhynchea capensis. In most of the ducks, furthermore, and in the 
mergansers, the lower larynx is a singularly enlarged and complicated affair; several of the 
lower rings of the trachea being soldered together and greatly magnified to produce a large 
irregularly shaped capsule. Its use is not known; in some sense it is a sexual character, 
since it is only fully developed in the male; it varies greatly in size and shape in different 
species (figs. 3, 98). Finally, it should be added, that the pterylosis of the family is perfectly 
definite, a certain type of tract-formation prevailing throughout, with very slight minor modi- 
fications. 

It is not easy to overrate the economic importance of this large family. It is true that the 
mergansers, some of the sea ducks, and certain maritime geese, that feed chiefly upon animal 
substances, are scarcely fit for food; but the great majority afford a bounteous supply of sapid 
meat, a chief dependence, indeed, with the population of some inhospitable regions. Such is 
the case, for example, in the boreal parts of this continent, whither vast bands of water-fowl 
resort to breed during the fleeting arctic summer. Their coming marks a season of compara- 
tive plenty in places where hunger often pinches the belly, and their warm downy covering 
is patched into garments almost cold-proof. 

The general traits of the anserine birds are too well known to require more than passing 


: ANATIDA — CYGNINZEE: SWANS. 681 


notice. They are salacious to a degree remarkable even in the hot-blooded, passionate class of 
birds; a circumstance rendering the production of hybrids frequent, and favoring the study of 
this subject. If we recall the peculiar actions of geese nipping herbage, and of ducks “ dab- 
bling” in the water, and know that some species, as the mergansers, pursue fish and other live 
prey under water, we have the principal modes of feeding. Nidification is usually on the 
ground; sometimes in a hollow tree; the nest is often warmly lined with live feathers ; the 
eggs are usually of some plain pale color, as greenish, drab, or creamy ; the clutch varies in 
number, commonly ranging from half a dozen to a dozen and a half. The young are clothed 
with stiffish down, and swim at once. Among the ducks and mergansers, marked sexual diver- 
sity in color is the rule; the reverse is the case with swans and geese. A noteworthy color- 
ation of many species, especially of ducks, is the speculum; a brightly colored, geuerally 
iridescent, area on the secondary quills. Most of the species are migratory, particularly those 
of the northern hemisphere ; the flight is performed in bands, that seem to preserve discipline 
as well as companionship ; and with such regularity, that no birds are better entitled to the 
claim of weather-prophets. 

There are upward of 175 species of this family, inhabiting all parts of the world. They 
differ a good deal in minor details, and represent « number of peculiar genera aside from the 
ordinary types, though none are so aberrant as to endanger the integrity of the group. It is 
difficult to establish divisions higher than generic, because the swans, geese, and ducks, if not 
also the mergansers, are closely united by intermediate genera. But the five groups presented 
as subfamilies in the following pages, aud representing the whole of the family, may be con- 
veniently recognized, and are readily distinguished, so far as our species are concerned, by the 
characters assigned. The genera will be found analyzed under heads of their respective 
subfamilies. 

Analysis of Subfamilies. 


Cy@ninaz. Swans. Lores partly naked. Tarsi reticulate. Hallux simple. Sexes alike. 

ANSERINA. Geese. Lores feathered. Tarsi reticulate. Hallux simple. Sexes alike. 

ANATINAE, River Ducks. Lores feathered. Tarsi scutellate in front. Hallux simple. Bill flattened. Sexes 
unlike. 

FULIGULINE, Sea Ducks. Lores feathered. Tarsi scutellate in front. Hallux lobate. Bill flattened. 
Sexes unlike. 

MeERGIN2Z. Mergansers. Lores feathered. Tarsi scutellate in front. Hallux lobate. Bill cylindric. Sexes 
unlike. 


65. Subfamily CYCNIN/AE: Swans. 


A strip of bare shin between the eye and bill ; tarsi 
reticulate, and shorter than middle toe and claw ; 
and toe simple, or with very slight lobe. In the 
Swans, the neck is of extreme length and flexibility, 
exceeding the trunk, with up to 22 or 26 vertebree; 
the movements and attitudes on the water are pro- 
verbially elegant and graceful. The bill equals or 
exceeds the head in length; it is high and com- 
pressed at base (where sometimes tuberculate), flat- 
ter and widened at the end; the nostrils are median. 
The lores are naked in the adults, though usually 
: feathered in the young. Some of the inner remiges 

Sl are usually enlarged, and when elevated in a pecu- 

_Fia. 471. — Mute Swan, Cygnus olor, (From liar position of the wing, they act as sails to help the 
Dixon.) course of the bird over the water. The reticulate 
tarsi are shorter than the middle toe and claw. The hallux is scarcely or not lubate. The legs 
are placed rather far back for this family, so that the gait is awkward and constrained. The 


278. 


688, 


689. 


682 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


tail is short, of 20 to 24 feathers. Although the voice is sonorous at times, an habitual reti- 
ceuce of Swans contrasts strongly with the noisy gabbling of Geese and Ducks; it is hardly 
necessary to add, that their fancied musical ability, either in health or at the approach of 
death, is not confirmed by examination of their vocal apparatus; this is in many cases con- 
voluted as already described, but there are no syringeal muscles nor other apparatus for modu- 
lating the voice. There are eight or ten species, of various countries, among them the cele- 
brated black swan of Australia, Chenopsis atrata, the black-necked swan of South America, 
Sthenelus melanocorypha (Cygnus nigricollis of authors). The Coscoroba anatoides of the 
same country, a species with feathered lores, often referred here, is perhaps better placed 
among Anating. In none of these does the trachea enter the breast-bone. The Paleocycnus 
Jalconeri is a large fossil species from Malta. Our two species belong to the restricted genus 
Olor, distinguished from Cygnus proper by absence of a tubercle at the base of the bill 
(seen in fig. 471). The sexes are alike throughout the group. 

CYGNUS. (Gr. kixvos, kuknos, Lat. cyenus or cygnus, a swan.) WHITE Swans. Neck of 
extreme length. Trachea normally entering sternum. Bill tuberculate or not, the skinny 
covering in the adults reaching to the eyes; not shorter than head, very high at base, where 
deeper than wide, broader and flattening toward the rounded end; culminal ridge at base 
about horizontal, very broad and flat or even excavated, the sides of the bill there nearly 
vertical. Nostrils near middle of bill, high up. Legs behind centre of equilibrium when 
the body is horizontal. Tibiz bare below. Tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw, entirely 
reticulate; toes long, with full webs, the anterior reticulate on top for a distance, then scu- 
tellate. Hallux small, elevate, with slight lobe. Wings very long and ample. Tail short, 
rounded (in Olor) or wedged (in Cygnus proper), of twenty or twenty-four feathers. Size 
large: adults entirely white, with black Dill and feet, former usually in part yellow: young 
rusty on head; younger gray or ashy. Sexes alike. Our species 4-5 feet long. They all belong 
to Olor, having non-tuberculate bill, rounded tail, the young with the down on the sides 
of the bill forming distinct antiee; and the inner webs of the outer three primaries, with outer 
webs of the 2d, 3d, and 4th, sinuated. 

Analysis of Species. 
Tail of 24 feathers(normally) Bill entirely black, rather longer than head, nostrils fairly in its basal half 


bucoinator 688 
Tail of 20 feathers (normally). Bill normally with a small yellow spot not reaching the nostrils, scarcely 


or not larger than head, nostrils at the middle . . . . . . 1. 1. 1 1 ee ee. 6columbianus 689 
Tail of 20 feathers (normally). Bill normally with a great yellow space extending beyond the nostrils, 
scarcely or not longer than head, nostrils at the middle. . . . . .. .. . 4. « « musicus 690 


C. buccina'tor. (Lat. buccinator, a trumpeter; buccina, a trumpet; bucea, the cheek.) 
TRUMPETER Swan. Adult ¢ 9: Plumage white, with or without wash of rusty on head. 
Bill and feet entirely black. Bill more developed in the terminal portion than that of C. 
americanus, throwing the nostrils fairly within the basal half, and making the distance from 
the anterior angle of the eye to the hind edge of the nostril equal to the distance thence to 
the end of the bill. Tail-feathers normally 24. Largest: length 5 feet or more when full 
grown, and extent about 8 feet; wing 2 feet or more; tail 8-9 inches. Bill about 4.50 inches 
along culmen, from eye to tip nearly 6.00; tarsus 4.50-5.00; middle toe and claw 5.50-6.00. 
Young smaller; bill and feet not perfectly black; plumage grayish, the head and upper neck 
rusty-brown. This swan chiefly inhabits N. Am. from the Mississippi valley westward, Texas 
to the fur countries; Great Lakes; Hudson’s Bay; Canada; casual on the Atlantic Coast. 
Breeds from Towa and Dakota northward; in winter south to the Gulf. 

C. columbia’/nus. (Of the Columbia River. Fig. 472.) Common AMERICAN Swan. WHIST- 
Linc Swan. Adult ¢ 9: Plumage as before. Bill with a yellow spot or blotch in front of 
eye, usually small, sometimes wanting. Bill Jess lengthened and expanded terminally than in 
C. buccinator, the nostrils across the middle; the distance from the anterior angle of the eye 


690. 


691. 


ANATIDA — ANSERINZ: GEESE. 683 


to the hind edge of the nostril more than thence to the end of the bill. Tail-feathers normally 
90. Length under 5 feet; extent 6 or 7 feet; wing under 2 feet; tail 7 or 8 inches. Bill about 
4.00 along culmen ; 
from eye to tip of bill un- 
der 5.00; tarsus 4.00; 
middle toe and claw 
5.50. Young smaller; 
plumage ashy - gray, 
with reddish - brown 
wash on head and upper 
neck ; bill in part flesh- 
colored, the lores plu- 
mulose; feet yellowish 
flesh-color. N. Am. at 
large, U. 8. in winter 
and during the migra- 
tion; the usual species 
along the Atlantic coast, 
and more numerous on 
either coast than in in- 
terior U. 8.; rare or 
casual, however, in 
New England and eastward. Breeds only in the high north. Eggs 2-5, from 4.00 & 2.25 
to 4.50 & 2.50, with rough dull white shell, with more or less brownish discoloration. 

C. mu'sicus. (Gr. povoikds, mousikos, Lat. musicus, musical.) WHooping Swan. Similar 
to C. columbianus, and having the same shape of the bill, but instead of a small yellow spot 
behind the nostrils there is a great yellow blotch, oceupying one half or more of the bill and 
extending beyond the nostrils. Only N. Am. as occurring in Greenland: Reinh., Ibis, 1861, 
p. 13 of the reprint; Freke, Zool., v, 1881, p. 372. 

[C. be/wicki. (To Thos. Bewick.) Brwicx’s Swan. A European species, incorrectly 
attributed to N. A. in the 2d ed. of the Check List, which see, p. 111.] 


Fria. 472. — Whistling Swan. (From Lewis.) 


66. Subfamily ANSERINZ: Geese. 


Lores completely feathered ; tarsi entirely 
reticulate; hind toe simple. Neck in length 
between that of swans and of ducks; cervical 
vertebrae about 16; body elevated and not so 
much flattened as in the ducks; legs relatively 
longer; tarsus generally exceeding, or at least 
not shorter than, the middle toe; bill generally 
rather short, high and compressed at base, and 
tapering to tip, which is less widened and flat- 
tened than is usual among ducks and almost 
wholly occupied by the broad nail. The 
species as arule are more terrestrial, and walk 

Fie, 473. — Common (a) and Black (b) Brant. better, than ducks; they are generally herbiv- 
orous, although several maritime species (Philacte, and an allied South American group) are 
animal-feeders, and their flesh is rank. Both sexes attend to the young. A notable trait, 
shared by the swans, is their mode of resenting intrusion by hissing with outstretched neck, 


279. 


692. 


&93. 


684 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


and striking with the wings. With some exceptions the plumage is not so bright and variegated 
as that of ducks, and the speculum is wanting ; there is only an annual moult, and no seasonal 
change of plumage; the sexes are generally alike. Most of the geese full in or very near the 
genera Anser and Bernicla, and are modelled in the likeness of the domestic breeds. The more 
notable exotice forms are: the Australian Anseranas melanoleuca and Cereopsis nove-hollandia, 
the former having the feet little more than semipalmate, the latter scarcely aquatic, with very 
long legs, much bare above the suffrago, and the bill small, very membranous; the African 
Plectropterus gambensis, a purplish-black bird with spurs on the wings and a tubercle at the 
base of the bill; the Asiatic Cynopsis eygnoides, frequently domesticated, a true goose with 
a swan-like aspect; the Egyptian goose, Chenalopex egyptiaca. The geese appear to pass 
directly into the ducks through the rather large shieldrake group, the species of which resemble 
the latter in many external features, but are more essentially like geese. Characteristic exam- 
ples of this group are the European Tadorna vulpanser and Casarca rutila; there are several 
others in the southern hemisphere; our long-legged arboricole genus Dendrocygna belongs 
in the immediate vicinity, while the domesticated musk duck, Catrina moschata, is not far 
removed. Through such forms as these we are brought directly among the ducks proper. 


Analysis of Genera. 


Bill pink; feet yellow; under parts enaiaes black. Bill tapering, not longer than head. Lamelle 


moderately exposed. . . : Bete Ee a bec ts ae a Se ee ate a cen ese? 2279 
Bill and feet pink. Plumage w hite, or ran qaited, Bill ee not longer than head. Lamelle 
completely exposed . . . . Oe! el ad nw, lean te: ce eat at a GEN 2280 
Bill and feet black ; head and neck black, with, Ww hite spaces Bill tapering, shorter than head. Lamellze 
hidden. . . . ee ee Sa ee eee Se & BernIela, -282 
Bill and feet light; plumage bluish, with lack cr reacenta: Bill tapering, not longer than head. Lamelle 
partly exposed . . Philacte 281 


Bill and feet various; plisne Age Taney variegated. Bin scares: tapering: lames than head "Denar ocygna 283 
Obs. — These characters only indicate the N. Am. species. 
AN/SER. (Lat. anser, a goose.) GRAY GEESE. Bill shorter or not longer than head, 
very stout, tapering to obtuse tip, at base rather higher than broad. Lateral lamelle soine- 
what exposed by bevelling of tomia. Nostrils in basal half of bill, their anterior edge only 
reaching its middle. Tibia naked below. Tarsus rather shorter than middle toe and claw, 
entirely reticulate. Anterior toes full-webbed, on top reticulate at base, then scutellate. 
Hind toe moderate, reaching the ground. Tail of 16-++ feathers. Color not white, nor 
with black head, neck, bill, or feet; the bill pink, the feet yellow (in our species). 
Analysis of Varieties. 

BilltsmallisGulmenUsSOLU Oe coh ee S35) Gas es See, te SBA RR Gh a ee, ee LDU rans: 692) 

Bill largescul menay75=2100) 6 cae OS a a a a ae ee ee eee ambelt “693 
A. al/bifrons. (Lat. albus, white; frons, forehead.) EUROPEAN WHITE-FRONTED GOOSsE. 
The above is the slight character which appears to separate this from the next. Only N. Am. 
as occurring in Greenland. 
A. a. gam/beli. (To Wm. Gambel.) AMERICAN WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE. SPECKLE- 
BELLY. Tail normally 16-feathered. Bill smooth; the laminee moderately exposed. Adult ¢ 
Q: Bill pink, pale lake or carmine, the nails white. Feet yellow. Eyes brown. Claws 
white. A white band along base of upper mandible, bordered behind by blackish ; upper tail- 
coverts white. Under parts whitish, the breast and belly more or less extensively patched or 
blotched with black, in high plumage perhaps mostly black, the sides of the rump, and the 
crisstumn, white. Head and neck dark grayish-brown, paler on the lower neck in front, where 
passing into the whitish black-blotched breast. Back dark ashy-gray, the feathers anteriorly 
tipped with brown, farther back with pale gray. Secondaries and ends of primaries dusky, 
more ashy toward base, the primary coverts and outer webs of primaries ashy, the greater 
coverts and secondaries bordered with whitish, the primaries and coverts edged and tipped 


280. 


694, 


695. 


ANATIDHi— ANSERINZE: GEESE. 685 


with white ; shafts of quills white. Young: Darker, browner; the gray and ashy colors rather 
brown, the base of the tail not pure white, no white on forehead, which is darker than rest 
of head, no black on under parts, the bill obscured, the nail blackish, the feet pale. Length 
about 27.00 inches; extent 60.00; wing 16.10-17.00; tail 5.50; tarsus 2.75; middle toe 
and claw rather more; bill up to 2.00. N. Am. at large, breeding in the far north, wintering 
in the U. S., in greater numbers on the Pacific side than in the interior or along the Atlantic. 
Eggs 6-7, 2.90 to 3.30 long by 2.10 broad, elliptical, smooth dull yellowish with an olive 
shade, in places discolored with a darker tint. 

CHEN. (Gr. xq, chen, a goose.) Snow GerxEsx. Bill about as long as head, very stout 
and high’ at base, where higher than broad, the under mandible very deep. Tomial edges 
of much bevelled off, and receding from each other, leaving an elliptical space, in which the 
large prominent teeth are fully exposed. Nostrils in basal half of bill. Feet as in Anser, but 
tarsus if anything longer than middle toe and claw. Color white, at least on head. Bill and 


feet reddish. 
Analysis of Species. 
Not white. Nearly the sizeofthenext ...... 
Pure white, with black wing-tips; head rusty or not. 
Large: length about 30.00; wing 17.00 or more. Billsmooth. . .......4.., hyperboreus 695 
Small: length about 25.00; wing 16.00 or less. Billsmooth . . . ....,... . .albatus 696 
Very small: under 24.00; wing 15.00 or less. Bill studded with papilla. rossi 697 


+ cerulescens 694 


C. cwrules'cens. (Lat. cerulescens, bluish.) BLuE SNow Goosr. Bill and feet flesh-pink, 
former with the recess between the mandibles black, the nails whitish 3 iris dark brown; 
claws dusky. Head and neck above white, the neck below, passing on to the back and 
breast, dusky-gray, then fading into whitish on the under parts, changing on the wings into 
fine bluish-gray, or silvery-ash ; rump and upper tail-coverts whitish ; quills and tail-feathers 
dusky, edged with whitish, the primaries black. Size of the snow goose or rather less, and 
closely resembling the 
young of that species. 
Length about 25.00; 
wing 16.00; bill 2.25; 
tarsus 3.00. N. Aim. 
at large, not very com- 
mon or well-known. 

C. hyperbo’reus. (Lat. 
hyperboreus, beyond 
the north wind.) Snow 
GOosE. WHITE 
Brant. Bill car- 
mine-red or pale pur- 
plish with a salmon 
tinge, the nails white, 
the recess between the 
mandibles black. Eyes 
dark brown. Feet dull 
lake-red, the claws 
blackish. Adult plu- 
mage pure white, the Fig. 474. — Emperor Goose. (From Dall.) 

head usually washed with rusty-brown, like a swan’s, the ends of the primaries blackening. 
Young resembling the last, but the head not white while other parts are colored. Large: 
length 27.00-31.00; extent 57.00-62.00; wing 17.00-19.00; tail 6.50; bill 2.35-2.60; tarsus 
3.00-3.50; middle toe and claw the same. Weight 5 or 6 Ibs. The dimensions grade down 


696. 


697. 


281. 


698. 


282. 


686 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


to those of the next. N. Am. at large; breeds in high latitudes, migrating and wintering in 
the U.S. Abundant in the interior and along the Pacific coast, less so on the Atlantic. 
Casual in Europe. Eggs about 3.00 & 2.00, yellowish- white. 

C. hb. alba/tus. (Lat. albatus, whitened.) Lesser Snow Goose. Covloration precisely 
as in the last; size less, but grading up to that of hyperboreus. Length about 25.00; wing 
15.50; tail 5.50; bill 2.00-2.12; tarsus 2.90-3.00. Western N. Am., probably also Eastern ; 
accidental in Ireland. 

C. ros'si. (To B. R. Ross.) Ross’ Goosz. Hornep Wavey. Least Snow Goose. 
Coloration as in the foregoing. Bill with the outline of the feathers on the side nearly straight 
instead of strongly convex, studded at base with numerous papille, and less exposure of the 
teeth. Very small, uo larger than a mallard duck. Length about 21.00; wing 14.50; tail 
5.00; bill 1.50; tarsus 2.50. Arctic America, U. S. in winter, western. A curious little white 
goose, so different from the other species of Chen as to have been made type of a genus 
Exanthemops. 

PHILAC'TE. (Gr. didos, philos, loving; dxrn, akte, the seashore.) PAINTED GEESE. 
Superficial aspect of Chen. Skull with superorbital depressions (wanting in other N. Am. 
geese). Teeth of bill 
exposed posteriorly ; 
the nail prominent ; 
bill moderately ro- 
bust. Tarsus not 
longer than middle 
toe and claw. Plu- 
mage variegated, but 
no metallic tints; bill 
and feet light-colored. 
Webbing of the toes 
incised. Sexes alike. 
Arctie and inaritime. 
P. cana/gica. (Of 
the island of Kanaga. 
Fig. 474.) PaintTep 
Goose. EMPEROR 
Goosg. Wavy blu- 
ish-gray, with laven- 
der or lilac tinting, Fic. 475. — Common Brant. (From Lewis.) 


and sharp black crescentic marks ; head, nape, and tail white, former often washed with amber- 
yellow; throat black, white-speckled; quills varied with black and white; eye brown; feet 
flesh-color. Length 25.00-28.00 ; wing 15.00-17.00 ; tail 5.00-6.00; bill 1.50; tarsus 3.00. 
N. W. coast; abundant at mouth of Yukon; wintering chiefly in 8. Alaska and the Aleutian 
Islands, breeding N. to Behring Strait at least; also on the Siberian side. A remarkable 
species, unlike any other goose of our country; strictly maritime. Its flesh is rank, and 
scarcely fit for food. Eggs about 5, 3.35 & 2.00, white, with fine pale brown dotting, giving a 
general pale dirty-brown color. 

BER'NICLA. (Latinized from English barnacle.) BARNACLE GEESE. Brant GEESE. 
Bill short, the nostrils at its middle. Laminz of bill not exposed, the commissure being 
straight. Head and neck black, with white spaces. Bill and feet black. Hind toe very 
small. Tail of 16-18 feathers. Sexes alike. Several species, of both Hemispheres. (The name 
“barnacle ” commemorates the fable that these birds sprouted from the little cirripeds called 
barnacles; ‘ brent” or ‘ brant” is simply ‘‘ burnt ” goose, from the dark color, as if charred.) 


ANATIDH — ANSERINA!: GEESE. 687 


Analysis of Species and Varieties. 


Forehead, cheeks, and chin white. (Burdpean.) woe ok So as BA ee Lest ee es es leucopsis 699 
Forehead, cheeks, and chin black; white stripes on neck. 
Black of neck well defined against light lower Parts: zg. ewe Se Ee brenta 700 


Black of neck extending over breast tee ee eee «nigricans 701 


Forehead black; cheeks and chin white; no white stripes on neck. 
Tail normally 18-feathered. Large. 


No white collar in black oflowerneck «6 6 ee ee ee ht te tt tt canadensis 702 

A white collar in black oflowerneck © 6 6 ee ee ee st tt tt occidentalis T02a 
Tail normally 16-feathered. Small. 

No white collar in black oflowerneck. © ee ee ee et eh tt hutchinsi 104 

‘A white collar in black of lowerneck « - 6 6 ee toe tor ot st tt leucoparia 7103 


699 B. leucop'sis. (Gr. Aevkds, leucos, white; dyes, opsis, appearance : the face white.) 


700. 


Barwacts Goose. Tail normally of 16 feathers. Bill, feet, aud claws black. Iris brown. 
Front and sides of head 
and chin white, with a 
dark line at base of bill, 
and thence to eye. Rest 
of head and neck all 
around black, prolonged 
on the back and wings, 
the feathers of the latter 
bluish, gray at base and 
edged at end with whit- 
ish ; rump and tail black. 
Upper and under tail- 
coverts, sides of rump, 
belly, and hind breast, 
white or whitish, the 
sides shaded with gray. 
Quills dusky, blackening 
at ends, tinged on the 
exposed surfaces with 
ashy. Sexes similar; ? 
duller colored and smaller 
than g@. Length of ¢ 
28.00; extent 55.00; 
wing 17.00; tail 6.00; 
bill 1.50; tarsus 2.75 ; 
middle toe and claw the 
sane. Europe; very rare 
and casual in N. Am. ex- 
cepting Greenland,where 
regular. (Hudgon’s Bay, 
Am. Nat., ii, 1868, p. 49. 
N. Carolina, Am. Nat., Fic. 476.— Black Brant. (From American Field.) 

v, 1871, p. 10. Long Island, Bull. Nutt. Club, ii, 1877, p. 18. Illinois, Forest and Stream 
Nov. 23, 1876.) : 
B. bren'ta. (Quasi-Lat. brenthus, brentus, burnt. Fig. 475.) Branr Goose. Bill, feet, and 
claws black ; iris brown. Head and neck all around, and a little of fore part of body, nes 
black, well defined against the color of the breast ; on each side of the neck a small pateh of 
white streaks; frequently also white touches on eyelid and chin. 


Breast ashy-gray, beginning 


701. 


702. 


702a. 


688 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


abruptly from the black, fading on the belly and crissum into white, shaded along the sides 
of the body; upper parts brownish-gray, the feathers of the dorsal region with paler gray 
tips; rump darker; upper tail-coverts white. Tail-feathers, wing-quills, and primary-coverts 
blackish, the inner quills whitish toward base. Length 24.00; extent 48.00; wing 13.00; 
tail 4.50; bill 1.33; tarsus 2.25; middle toe and claw about the same. Europe. In Norty 
America, chiefly along the Atlantic Coast, being more maritime than other U.S. geese, but 
still found inland on the great lakes and rivers. U.S. only in winter, and during the migra- 
tions, when abundant. Breeds in high latitudes, to the Arctic Coast. 

B. b. nig/ricans. (Lat. nigricans, being blackish. Fig. 476.) Buack Brant. Similar to the 
last; black of jugulum extending over most of under parts, fading on belly and crissum, without 
abrupt line of demarcation on breast; white neck-patches usually larger and meeting in front. 
Size of the last. Both coasts; very abundant on the Pacific side, not common on the Atlantic. 
Migrations and breeding resorts the saine. 

B. canaden’sis. (Of Canada. Fig. 477.) Canaps Goose. Common WILD Goose. Tail nor- 
mally 18 - feathered. 
Bill, feet, head, and 
neck black; on the chin 
a broad white patch 
mounting on sides of 
head behind eyes, some- 
times broken on chin; 
not extending forward 
to jaws ; white touches 
usually on eyelids. Up- 
per tail-coverts definite- 
ly white ; rump black- 
ish ; tail-feathers black. 
General color brown- 
ish-gray, paler or more 
ashy-gray below, all 
the feathers with paler 
r gray or whitish edges, 
those of sides of body 
usually darker than 
rest of under parts, the 
lower belly and crissum 
detinitely white. Tris 
brown. Length 3 feet 
or more; extent 5 feet; 
wing 18-20 inches; tail 7.00; tarsus 3.00-3.50; middle toe and claw more; bill about 2.00. 
N. Am. at large. This is the most generally distributed and on the whole the most abundant 
goose of our country. It breeds in various parts of the U.8., sometimes 7 trees, but the 
greater number of individuals pass further north to nest. Eggs 5 to 9, usually 5 or 6, ellip- 
soidal, smooth, pale dull greenish, about 3.50 & 2.50. 

B. c. oecidenta‘lis. (Lat. occidentalis, western.) LARGER WHITE-CHEEKED Goose. Similar 
to the last ; of equal size, and tail 18-feathered. Coloration averaging darker than in the last, 
the under parts especially, against which the white of the anal and erissal region is well-defined. 
Black of veck bounded below in front by a white half-collar. Bill averaging shorter, and 
tarsus relatively louger. The best samples are well marked; others shade into the common 
form. Pacific coust, especially Alaska. (The bird here indicated is B. occidentalis Bd. Whether 


Se eS Nn 


Fic. 477. — Canada Goose. (From Lewis.) 


q 


703. 


704. 


288. 


705. 


706. 


ANATIDZH — ANATINZE: RIVER DUCKS. 689 


leucoparia Brdt.? But not leucoparia Cass. Not in the Check List, 1882, not having been 
there formally recognized as a subspecies. ) : 
B. c. leucopari’a. (Gr. Acuxds, lewkos, white; maped, pareia, cheek.) SMALLER WHITE- 
CHEEKED GoosE. Similar to the last in color; but much smaller, and tail 16-feathered, thus 
resembling No. 704, from which distinguished as occidentalis is from canadensis. Length 24.00 
or less; wing about 15.00. This is the small ‘white-necked goose” figured by Cassin, Il., 
pl. 45, as B. leucoparia, Brandt. Pacific coast, especially Alaska. 
B. c. hut/chinsi. (To Mr. Hutchins.) HurTcuins’ Goose. Tail normally 16-feathered. 
Coloration as in the Canada goose. Size much less. Length 25.00-30.00; extent about 
4 feet; wing 15.00-17.00; tail 5.00-6.00; bill 1.50; tarsus under 3.00. There seems little 
probability of establishing good character of more than one species of the canadensis group, 
with probably four varieties: large, no collar (702); small, no collar (704) ; large, collared 
(702a) ; small, collared (703). 
DENDROCY GNA. (Gr. 5é8pov, dendron, a tree; Lat. cygnus, a swan.) Tree DUCKS. 
Duck-like arboricole geese, with the bill longer than the head, terminated by a prominent 
decurved nail, the lamellz not projecting ; nostrils small, oval, in basal half of bill; legs very 
long, the tibize extensively denuded below ;. hind toe lengthened, more than one-third as long 
as the tarsus; tarsi entirely reticulate, as in geese proper. Wings ample, rounded; Ist quill 
shorter than 4th. Coloration variegated. Sexes similar. Nest in trees. In addition to the 
two following species, a third, D. arborea, of the West Indies, may occur in the South. 
Analysis of Species. 

Bill and feet blackish; coloration largely cinnamon; no white wing-patch . . . . . +... Sulva 105 

Bill and feet reddish; coloration largely blackish ; a large white wing-patch. . . .... autumnalis 706 
D. ful/va. (Lat. fulva, fulvous, reddish.) Funvous Tree Duck. Bill bluish-black ; 
feet slaty-blue. Pale cinnamon or yellowish-brown, extensive and uniform on the lower parts, 
darker on head; nape and hind-neck with a black line; scapulars and fore-back blackish with 
pale cinnamon edgings of the feathers. Rump and tail black; upper and under tail-coverts 
white. No white speculum on wing; lesser wing-coverts chocolate-brown ; rest of wing black 
on both surfaces. Length about 20.00; extent 36.00; wing 9.50; tail 3.25; tarsus 2.25; bill 
1.50, with hooked nail. §S. W. U.S. and southward, in summer, Louisiana to Cala.; common 
on the Rio Grande. 
D. autumna’lis. (Lat. autwmnalis or auctumnalis, of the period of increase, of harvest ; auctus, 
increased, augmented.) AuTumNaL TREE Ducx. Bill coral-red, with orange above, and 
bluish nail; feet pinkish-white. A large white speculum, consisting of greater wing-coverts 
and basal parts of most of the quills, as well as spurious quills and outer webs of one or two 
primaries. Head and neck reddish-chocolate, paler on cheeks and chin, with black stripe 
down nape and hind-neck, passing through more yellowish-brown on the fore-parts of the 
body to blackish on lower back, rump, tail, belly, sides of body and lining of wings; flanks 
and crissum mostly white. Length about 20.00; extent 36.00-38.00; wing 9.50-10.50; 
tail 3.00; bill along gape 2.00; tarsus 2.25. S. and C. Am. and Mex. to Texas, abundant 
from April to October on the Rio Grande, where called “cornfield duck ;” a common market- 
bird in some places. Nest in hollows of trees, often at a great distance from water, to which 


the young are transported by the parents in the bill. Eggs 12-16, 2.10 1.50, of usual duck 
shape, buffy-white.. 


67. Subfamily ANATINAE: River Ducks. 


Tarsi scutellate in front ; hind toe simple (in Fuliguline, the hind toe with a flap or 
lobe.) This expression separates the present group from all the North American examples 
of the foregoing and succeeding subfamilies, although it is not a perfect diagnosis. The neck 
and legs are shorter than they average in geese, while the feet are smaller than in the sca- 

44 


690 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


ducks, the toes and their webs not being so highly developed. None of the Anatine are 
extensively maritime, like most of the Fuliguline ; yet they are by no means confined to 
fresh waters, and some species constantly associate with the seaducks. They feed exten- 
sively, like most geese, upon succulent aquatic herbage, but also upon various animal 
substances; their flesh is almost without exception excellent. They do not dive for their 
food. The moult is double; the sexes are almost invariably markedly distinct in color; 
the young resemble the 
Q; the wing has~-usu- 
ally a brilliant speculum, 
which, like the other 
wing-markings, is the 
same in both sexes. Un- 
like geese, these and oth- 
er ducks are not doubly- 
monogamous, but simply 
so if not polygamous ; 
the male pays no atten- 
tion to the young. Ex- 
eluding the  shieldrake 
group, already mentioned 
as pertaining rather to 
the geese than the ducks, 
there are about fifty spe- 
ee cies, generally distrib- 
; Fic. 478.— Mallards. (From Lewis.) uted over the world. 
They are split into a large number of modern genera, most of which indicate little more than 
specific characters; the majority are represented in this country. Of those here following, 
two, Spatula and Aix, represent decided structural peculiarity; the rest might all be referred 
to Anas, type of the group. The Malacorhynchus membranaceus, of Australia, is a notable 
exotic form. 


Analysis of Genera. 


Head crested ; bill narrow, the tip formed widely by thenail . . . . . . 2... ew + - Ate 290 
Head not crested; bill greatly wider at end than at base. . . 2. 1... 2 + ew we ee ) Spatula 289 
Head not crested ; bill not spoon-shaped. 

Tail cuneate, with narrow central feathers more than halfaslongas wing. . . . .. . & Dafila 285 


Tail not cuneate, not half as long as wing 
Bill shorter than head ; tail-feathers lance-acute; head not white; belly white yg.and 9 Dafila 283 


Bill shorter than head ; tail-feathers not acute; crown and belly white . . . . . . .Mareca 287 
Bill about as long as head, or longer. 
Wing-speculum white; wing-coverts chestnut; bill dark; feet orange . . . Chaulelasnus 286 
Wing-speculum violet, black-bordered; bill greenish, or dusky and orange; feet orange Anas 284 
Wing-speculum green; lesser coverts blue or not; billdark. Verysmall . . Qwerquedula 288 


Oss. — The old males of all our species are unmistakable, having strong marks of color, 
size, and form; but the females and young may not always be recognized at a glance. In 
examining any ‘‘duck” of which you are in doubt, first notice the bill ; if it is narrow and 
cylindrical, with sharp saw-like teeth, very conspicuous, the bird is one of the Mergansers, 
or ‘‘ Fishing Ducks,” scarcely fit for food. Next, examine the hind toe; if it has a flap or 
lobe hanging free, the bird is one of the Fuliguline, which may or may not be good for the 
table; if the hind toe is simple and slender, it is one of the Anating, and sure to make a 
good dish, if in order. All the red- or orange-footed species are Anatine (excepting the 
Mergansers); but not all the Anatine have the feet thns colored. In determining female 
and young Anating, look to the wing-markings rather than the body-colors. The species 
of Querquedula are very small ‘‘teal” ducks, 16 inches or less in length. 


284. 


107. 


708. 


ANATIDA— ANATINA:: RIVER DUCKS. 691 


A'NAS. (Lat. anas, a duck.) Common Ducks. MaAuiArp anp Buacx Ducks. Bill 
not shorter than head, rather longer than tarsus, broad and about parallel-sided, higher than 
wide at base, then much depressed and flattened, the end rounded, the wail narrow, less than 
one-third as wide as the end of the bill. Nostrils high up, in basal half of bill. Feathers 
reaching to about the same distance on forehead, cheeks, and chin. Tail rounded, less than 
half as long as wing, of 16-18 pointed feathers. Bill greenish, or blackish blotched with 
orange. Feet bright-colored. Speculun violet, ete., framed in black and white (in both 
sexes). Sexes unlike (boscas) or alike (obscura). 
Analysis af Species. 


¢o Head and neck green, neck with white ring, breast purplish-chestnut, etc. 9? variegated with dusky 
and yellowish-brown . . . : boscas T0T 


o entirely dusky, variegated with yellowish-brown ; lining of wings white. . . . . . obscura 708, 709 
A. bos/cas. (Gr. Booxds, boskas; Lat. boscas or boscis, probably this very species. Fig. 478.) 
MALiarp. WILp or Domestic Duck. GREEN-HEAD. Adult ¢: Bill greenish-yellow. Feet 
orange-red. Iris brown. Head and upper neck glossy-green, succeeded by a white ring. Breast 
purplish-chestnut. Lower back, rump, aud tail-coverts glossy-black. Tail-feathers mostly 
whitish. Under parts from the breast, and scapulars, silvery-gray, finely undulated with 
dusky; crissum black. Speculum violet, purplish and greenish, framed in black and white 
tips of the greater coverts, and black terminal border. @, adult: Feet and wings as in the @, 
Bill blackish, blotched with orange, especially at base, tip and along edges. Entire body- 
colors with dusky-brown and tawny-brown; the tone paler and in finer pattern on the head, 
neck, and under parts than on the back. Length 22.00-24.00; extent 32.00-36.00; wing 
10.00-11.00; tail 3.00-4.00; bill about 2.00; tarsus rather less; middle toe and claw more. 
In the drake, a tuft of curly feathers on tail. Weight 2 or 3 pounds. Habitat nearly cos- 
mopolitan; nearly everywhere domesticated, being the well-known original of the barn-yard 
duck. Wild in abundance throughout N. Am., breeding sparingly in the U. S. as well 
as farther north; rare in New England, and scarcely found beyond Massachusetts, being 
replaced. farther N. E. by the dusky duck. Nest on ground, of trash and feathers; eggs 
usually 8-10, 2.25 X 1.60, smooth, dingy yellowish-drab. 

Oxs. —An anomalous duck, with the general aspect of a mallard, but nearly as large as 

a goose, is occasionally taken on the Atlantic coast; it is unquestionably part mallard, the 
balance of its parentage supposed to be muscovy; Anas maxima Gosse; Fuligula viola Bell. — 
A supposed hybrid of mallard x gadwall is Anas glocitans or A. brewert Aud.; A. audubont 
Bp. The mallard is known to x with various other species. Upwards of 50 kinds of hybrid 
ducks are recorded; some of them prove fertile. There is even a Clangula x Mergus. 
A. obsewra. (Lat. obscura, dark.) Dusky Duck. Buack Ducx. Size of the mallard, 
and resembling the Q of that species, but darker and without white anywhere except the 
lining of the wings in g 9, and a narrow white line along proximal border of speculum 
of g. Sexes alike. Bill yellowish-green, with dusky nail; feet orange-red, with dusky 
webs. Iris brown. General plumage dusky-brown, paler below than above, variegated 
with pale rusty-brown edgings of the feathers; top of head darker than sides and throat, 
the former blackish with pale brown streaking in fine pattern, the latter grayish-brown with 
dark streaking. Wing-coverts .dusky-gray; the greater tipped with black, edging the 
purplish-blue or violet speculum. The general blackish color, contrasting with white lining 
of wings, and the violet speculum framed in velvety-black, are diagnostic.  boscas is much 
lighter in tone, and more variegated with tawny-brown. Chiefly Eastern N. Am. ; Western ? 
Abundant along the Atlantic Coast, Texas to Labrador. One of the commonest ducks in 
summer in New England and N. E.-ward. W. to Kansas, Iowa, ete., but not positively 
known beyond. Nest on ground, of weeds, grass, and feathers ; eggs 8-10, dirty pale yellowish- 
drab, about 2.380 * 1.75. One of the best table ducks. 


709. 


285. 


710. 


692 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


A. 0. fulvi/gula, (Lat. fulvus, reddish; gula, throat.) FLormpa Dusxy Duck. Similar; 
lighter-colored; throat plain pale brownish; bill olive, with black nail and base of commissure. 
A local race, resident in Florida. 

DA/FILA. (A non-sense word.) Purn-ram Ducks. Tail (in adult ¢) narrow, cuneate, 
when fully developed nearly as long as wing, the 2 central feathers long-exserted, linear-acute : 
in @ and young the tail merely 
tapering, with acute feathers; tail- 
feathers 16, including the long mid- 
dle pair. Bill shorter than head, 
longer than tarsus, nearly paralle: 
sided, widening a little to the end, 
the nail small, the narrow nostrils 
high up in basal third of bill. 
Feathers of cheeks sweeping in 
strongly convex outline along side 
of upper mandible, beyond those 
on side of lower mandible. Wing 
acute, the Ist and 2d primaries 


subequal and longest, rest rapidly 
graduated. Neck unusually long Fic. 479.— Head of Dayila, , nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


and slender, and form less “‘stocky” than that of most ducks. Sexes and young very unlike 


in color, even to the wing-markings, as well as in shape of tail. Bill and feet dark. Under 
parts white or whitish. Speculum of ¢ framed in buff, white, and black. 

D. acu'ta, (Lat. acuta, acute, as the tailis. Figs. 479, 480.) Pry-ram, Duck. Spric-Tatu. 
Adult ¢: Bill black, 
with grayish - blue 
edge of upper man- 
dible; feet grayish- 
blue ; claws black; 
iris brown. Head and 
neck above rich dark 
brown, glossed with 
green and purple ; 
side of neck with a 
long white stripe run- 
ning up from the 
white under parts ; 
back of neck with a 
black stripe passing 
below into the gray 
color of the back; 
the lower fore-neck, 
breast, and under 
parts usually, white, 
the sides finely waved 
with black, the crissum black, white-bordered. Fore back finely waved with narrow bars of 
black and white or whitish ; the scapulars and long tertiaries firmly striped lengthwise with 
velvety-black and silvery-gray. Lesser wing-coverts plain gray; greater tipped with reddish- 
buff, framing the speculum anteriorly; this is of eoppery- or purplish-violet iridescence, framed 
posteriorly with black sub-tips and white tips of the secondaries, internally with silvery and 


Fig. 480 — Pin-tail Duck, 9 ¢. (From Lewis.) 


286. 


711. 


287. 


ANATIDA — ANATINZE: RIVER DUCKS. 693 


black stripes. Tail-feathers gray, the long central ones blackish ; sides and roots of tail varied 
with blackish and buff. It is thus a very handsome duck in full plumage, aside from the trim 
and clipper-like build. Length very variable, up to 30 inches, according to development of 
tail, which is sometimes 9 inches long, usually 5 or 6; extent 36.00; wing 11.00; bill 2.25; 
tarsus 1.67; middle toe and claw 2.25. Adult 9: Smaller; lacking the development of the 
tail; length 24 or less. Only traces of the speculum, in green specks in a brown area between 
white or whitish tips of the secondaries and those of the greater coverts. Bill blackish ; feet 
dull grayish-blue ; iris brown. Whole head finely speckled, and whole neck finely streaked, 
with dusky-brown and grayish-brown or yellowish-brown ; under parts pale ‘ochrey-brown, 
freckled with dusky; upper parts variegated with brownish-black and yellowish-brown, on the 
fore parts the lighter color in angular or rounded bars on each feather. Young drake like the 
duck. Though the resemblance is close to some other species, observe color of bill aud feet, tips of 
secondaries and greater coverts, and size and generic characters. Northern hemisphere; N. Am. 
at large, wintering and migrating in U. 8. and beyond, breeding from northern borders northward ; 
more numerous in the interior than along either coast. I have found it breeding abundantly 
in parts of N. Dakota and Montana. Nest on ground; eggs 6-10-12, smooth, elongated 
ellipsoidal, 2.10 to 2.30 long by about 1.52; uniform dull grayish-olive, without any buff tint. 
CHAULELASMUS. (Gr. yavAcos, chaulios, protuberant; éAacpds, elasmos, a layer, plate ; 
referring to the teeth of the bill.) Gapwauts. Bill about as long as head, rather exceeding 
tarsus, the sides parallel to the rounded tip, the lamellz not concealed, the nostrils high up near 
the base, the reéntrance between the feathers on culmen and those on side of bill short and 
open, in advance of feathers on side of lower mandible. Wings pointed, lst primary longest. 
Tail short, rounded or cuneate, with pointed feathers. @ with most of the plumage barred or 
half-ringed with black and white, or whitish ; middle wing-coverts chestnut, greater coverts 
black, speculum white ; Q with similar white speculum. Feet yellowish. 

C. stre/perus. (Lat. streperus, noisy, ‘obstreperous.’) GapWaLL. Gray Duck. Adult g: 
Bill blue-black; feet dull orange, with dusky webs and claws; iris reddish-brown. Head and 
neck brownish-white, darker on crown and nape, barred and specked with dusky. Lower neck, 
breast, sides of body and fore-back waved with crescentic bars of blackish and white, the cres- 
centic marks giving a scaly appearance most distinct on the neck and breast, elsewhere finer, 
more undulatory and transverse. Lower back dusky, passing to black on the rump and tail- 
coverts. Belly white, minutely marbled with gray. Scapulars tinged with rusty brown ; longest 
inner quills hoary gray; lining of wings white; lesser upper coverts gray; middle coverts 
chestnut-red ; speculum white, formed by part or the whole of the outer webs of the second- 
aries, framed in velvet black of the greater coverts, terminally bordered with black and hoary 
gray. Length about 22 inches; extent 34.00; wing 10.50-11.00; tail 4.50; tarsus 1.60; bill 
1.75; middle toe and claw 2.20. Adult 9: Smaller than g. Bill dusky, blotched with 
orange. Feet dingy yellowish, with dusky webs and claws. Lacking the regular crescentic 
and wavy markings of the g; variegated with dusky and tawny brown, like 2 of other 
species ; the chestnut of the § wanting or restricted ; but the wing-markings are sufficiently 
distinctive. Young drake resembling the Q. One of the most widely diffused of ducks, in 
most parts of the world; in N. Am. nearly throughout, but not specially arctic in the breeding 
season, nesting anywhere in the U.S. Nest on ground, sometimes in trees ; eggs creamy-buff, 
a trifle over 2.00 by about 1.50. 

MARE/CA. (8. Am. mareca, Brazilian name of a kind of teal.) Wutcron. Bill shorter 
than head, rather high and narrow at base, parallel-sided, with rounded end, the nail occupy- 
ing the middle third; the upper lateral reéntrance short and open; nostrils high up and aoe 
base. Tail pointed, of 16 feathers, not half as long as wing. Bill and feet dark colored; 
belly and middle and greater wing-coverts white ; top of head white or light ; speculuin green, 
black-bordered. 


712, 


713. 


288. 


694 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LAMELLIROSTRES —ANSERES. 
3 Analysis of Species. 
Head and neck cinnamon-red, scarcely varied ; with mere traces of green, if any; top of head creamy or 


brownish-white . . + +» penelope 712 
Head and neck grayish, speckled with dusky, the cides of ihe head with, a prone pateh of green, the top 
white or nearlyso. . .. 2 eee . oie ae - +. americana 713 


M. pene/lope. (Penelope, a Setnelseten caries ere Wrtason. Size and general 
character of the next species; differing as above. Europe; Greenland; rare or casual along 
the whole Atlantic coast ; more numerous on the N. Pacific coast and S. to California. 

M. america/na. (Fig. 481.) American WiGron. Baup-pars. Adult g: Bill grayish-blue, 
with black tip and extreme base; feet similar, duller, with dusky webs and claws; iris brown. 
Top of head white, or nearly so; sides the same, or more buffy, speckled with dusky-green, 
purer green forming a 
broad patch from and 
below eye to hind 
head; chin dusky. 
Fore neck and breast 
light brownish - red, 
or very pale purplish - 
cinnamon, each feath- 
er with paler grayish 
edge; along the sides 
of the body the same, 
finely waved with 
dusky ; the breast and 
belly pure white, the 
crissum. abruptly 
~ black. Lower hind 
neck aud fore back 
and scapulars finely 


waved with the same 
Fia. 481.— American Wigeon. (From Lewis.) reddish color and with 
dusky; lower back and rump similarly waved with dusky and whitish. Lesser wing-coverts 
plain gray; middle and greater coverts pure white, forming a large area, the greater black- 
tipped, forming the fore border of the speculum, which is glossy green, bordered behind by 
velvety black, internally by the black and white stripes on the inner secondaries. Tail brown- 
ish-gray, the lateral upper coverts black ; axillary feathers white. Only old drakes have the 
crown immaculate white, the chin dusky, the auricular patch definitely green; generally the 
whole head and upper neck are pale brownish-yellow or reddish-white, speckled with greenish- 
dusky. 2 resembling the immature ¢ on the head; the peculiar brownish-red is interrupted 
with dusky and whitish bars. The wing-pattern is nearly as in the ¢; but the white is re- 
stricted or interrupted with gray, the greater coverts may lack black tips, the speculum is faint, 
and the black stripes of the inner secondaries are replaced by brown. The normal variability 
in coloration, aside from age or sex, is great, but the bird cannot be mistaken under any 
conditions ; the extensive white of the under parts and wings is recognizable at gun-shot 
range. Length 18.00-21.00; extent 30.00-35.00; wing 10.00-11.00; tail 4.00-4.50; bill 
1.60; tarsus 1.50; middle toe and claw more. N. Am. at large, breeding anywhere ; Europe, 
casually. Eggs 8-12, 2.00 x 1.50, dull pale buff. 
QUERQUE'DULA. (Lat. querquedula, a small kind of duck; related to English quack.) 
TreaL Ducks. Bill nearly or quite as long as the head, longer than tarsus, narrow and par- 
allel-sided, the nail narrow, 4 to } of the tip. Size smallest among our ducks. Sexes more or 
less unlike. Speculum glossy-green. Bill blackish. The genus contains two sections, perhaps 
as worthy of distinction as some of the foregoing genera. 


ANATIDZ --ANATINZ): RIVER DUCKS. 695 


Analysis of Subgenera and Species. 

NeEtTrum. Head sub-crested. Bill very narrow; nail about } its tip. Reéntrance of feathers on sides of 
culmen in advance of base of bill below. Head and neck chestnut, with a broad glossy green band on 
each side behind eye, bordered with whitish, blackening where meeting on nape. Under parts white, 
with circular black spots; crissum black, varied with white or creamy; upper parts and sides of body 
closely waved with black and white. Speculum rich green bordered in front with buff tips of the cov- 
erts, behind with white tips of the secondaries; no blue on wing; feet dark; bill black. 9 differing 
especially in the head markings, those of wings similar. 

No white on side of body in front of wing; long scapulars black externally, creamy white inter- 
Maly? 3. ak Val se SA ck Gs a he te See es Se se a et as . erecea 714 
A white crescent on side of body before wing; scapulars plain .... . carolinensis 715 
QUERQUEDULA proper. Head close-feathered. Bill broader than in Nettiwm, the nail about } its tip. 
Reéntrance on sides of culmen not in advance of base of bill below. Wing-coverts in ¢ 2 sky blue, 
the greater white-tipped; scapulars of ¢ striped with blue and buff. 
¢ Head and neck blackish-plumbeous ; a large white crescent in front of eye. . . . . discors 716 
¢ general color purplish-chestnut; no whiteonhead . . . ..... =... . ecyanoptera 717 


714. Q(N.) crec’ea. (Lat. crecca, formed like crex, crake, quack, ete., to express the sound.) Euro- 


715. 


PEAN GREEN-WINGED TEAL. ‘Like the next to be described: No white crescent before wing ; 
green band in chestnut of side of head bordered with decided whitish ; barring of sides and upper 
parts broader and coarser; long scapulars as well as inner secondaries creamy white, black- 
bordered externally. Europe; Greenland; casually on N. Am. Atlantic coast. 
Q. (N.) carolinen’sis. (Fig. 482.) AmERICAN GRERN-WINGED TEAL. Adult g: Bill black; 
feet bluish-gray; iris brown. A white crescent iu front of wing. Head and upper neck rich 
chestnut, blackening 
on chin, with a glossy 
green patch behind 
each eye blackening 
on its lower border 
and on the nape 
where it meets its 
felow among the 
lengthened feathers 
of the parts, bordered 
below by a more or 
iy, less evident whitish 
oY) j y line, which may often 
eee esi be traced to the angle 
of the mouth. Up- 
per parts and flanks 
waved with narrow 
: black bars on a whit- 
Fic. 482, — AmericanGreen-winged Teal. (From Lewis.) ish ground. Under 


parts white, becoming buff or fawn-colored on breast, nebulated with gray, on the breast 
with numerous sharp cireular black spots; fore neck and sides of breast waved like the upper 
parts. Crissum black, with a buff or creamy patch on each side. Primaries and wing-coverts 
leaden gray; speculum velvety purplish-black on outer half, the inner half rich green ; bor- 
dered in front with chestnut, fawn or whitish tips of the greater coverts, behind by white tips 
of the secondaries, interiorly with purplish-black stripes on the outer webs of the lengthened 
secondaries. Adult 9: Nearly like g on the wings, the green speculum less perfect; no 
erest ; head and neck streaked with light reddish-brown on a dark brown ground ; upper parts 
mottled with dark brown, barred and streaked with tawny or grayish ; lower parts white, more 
or less buffy-tinged on lower fore neck and breast, which have nebulous dusky spotting. A 
very small species, one of the most prettily colored of all, of unsurpassed excellence of flesh: 


716. 


T17. 


289. 


718. 


696 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


length about 14.00; extent 23.00; wing 7.00-7.50 ; tail 3.00; bill 1.50; tarsus 1.20. N. Am. 
at large, extremely abundant; casual in Europe. Breeds from the N. borders of the U.S. It 
is one of the earliest arrivals among the hordes of water-fowl that come thronging from the 
north in fall. Nest on the ground, of weeds, grass, and feathers: eggs about §, 1.75 to 1.90 
by 1.20 to 1.30, pale dull greenish in color. 

Q. dis/cors. (Lat. discors, discordant.) BLuE-wincEeD Tea. Adult g: Bill grayish- 
black ; feet dingy yellow, with dusky webs and claws; iris brown. Head deep leaden-gray, 
with purplish gloss, blackening on top; a large white black-edged crescent in front of eye. 
Under parts purplish-gray, with innumerable black spots, rounded or oval on the breast, 
changing to bars ou the flanks, becoming nebulous on the belly. Crissum black, a patch on 
each side of rump, the axillars and most of the lining of the wings, white. Lower hind neck 
and fore back varied with brownish-black and yellowish-brown ; lower back and rump dark 
brown with a greenish tinge. Wing-coverts and outer webs of some of the seapulars sky-blue ; 
speculum rich green, set between white tips of the greater coverts and secondaries, some of 
the inner secondaries and longest scapulars velvety greenish-black on outer web, greenish- 
brown on inner web, striped lengthwise with reddish-buff. 9 retaining the sky-blue on 
the wing-coverts and much of the other wing-markings, hence easily distinguished among our 
ducks, excepting 9 cyanoptera. Bill greenish-dusky; feet very pale or flesh-tinted. Head 
and neck streaked with brownish-black on a dull buff ground, the cheeks and chin whitish, 
uninarked. Above, dark brown, with pale edges of the feathers; below, whitish-gray, 
mottled with obscure spots. Length 15.00-16.00; extent 26.00-30.00; wing 7.00-7.50 ; 
tail 3.50; bill 1.50; tarsus 1.20. N. Am., chiefly E. of the R. Mts., to the Pacitic in Alaska; 
goes to high latitudes, but also breeds indefinitely throughout its range; abundant in the 
U. S. in winter and during the migrations. 

Q. cyano’ptera. (Gr. xvavds, kuanos, blue; mrépor, pteron, wing.) CINNAMON TEAL. Adult 
é: Bill black; feet orange, joints and webs dusky; iris orange. Head, neck, and entire 
under parts rich purplish-chestnut, darkening on crown and chin, blackening on middle of 
belly; crissum dark brown. Fore back lighter cinnamon, varied with brown curved bars, 
several on each feather; lower back and rump greenish-brown, the feathers edged with paler. 
Wing-coverts sky-blue, as in discors; some of the scapulars blue on outer webs and with a 
central buff stripe, others dark green, with buff stripe. Speculum green, set between white 
tips of greater coverts and white ends of the secondaries. Wings thus quite as in discors, but 
the body-colors and head entirely different ; rather larger; length 16.00-17.00; extent 25.00; 
wing 7.50-8.00; bill 1.60-1.75, along commissure about 2.00. Adult 9: Similar to 2 discors, 
and not easy to distinguish ; larger; bill longer ; under parts at least with a tinge of the pecu- 
liar chestnut color; head and especially chin more speckled, without the immaculate whitish 
of those parts of Q discors. Bill dusky, paler below and along edges; iris brown; feet yel- 
lowish-drab. A generally distributed S. Am. teal, now abundant in U. 8S. west of the R. 
Mts., and of casual occurrence in the Gulf States. Nest on ground, of grass and feathers, 
anywhere in its U.S. range; Colorado, Utah, Nevada, California, Idaho, Oregon, ete. Eggs 
9-12, laid in June, oval, one end smaller than other, creamy white or pale buff; 1.90 x 1.30 
to 2.10 x 1.40. 

SPA/TULA. (Lat. spatula or spathula, a spoon, spathe, spatula: shape of the Dill.) 
Spoon-BitL Ducks. Bill much longer than head or tarsus, twice as wide at end as at base, 
broadly rounded spoon-fashion at end; the nail narrow and prominent, the lamine very numer- 
ous and protrusive. Tail short, pointed, of fourteen acute feathers. Feet small, red. The 
peculiarity of the bill characterizes this genus almost as strongly as Platalea among ibises, 
or Eurynorhynchus among sandpipers ; the form is otherwise that of ordinary Anatine. 
There are several species, one N. American. 

S. clypea’ta. (Lat. clypewm, a shield: shape of the bill. Fig. 483.) SHovELLER Duck. 


290. 


ANATIDAZ—ANATINZ!: RIVER DUCKS. 697 


Broav-siu. Adult 3: Bill blackish ; iris orange-red: feet vermilion-red. Head and neck dark 
glossy green. Lower neck and fore breast pure white. Abdomen purplish-chestnut. Wing- 
coverts sky-blue ; speculum rich green, set between white tips of greater coverts, and black sub- 
tips and white tips of secondaries ; inner secondaries greenish-black, with long white stripe ; 
long scapulars blue on outer webs, striped with white and greenish-black on inner; short 
anterior scapulars white. Rump and upper and under tail-coverts black ; a white patch on 
each side at root of tail. Adult 9: Bill dull greenish; iris yellow; feet orange. Wing- 
markings similar to those of ¢, though imperfect; traces of chestnut on belly. Head and 
neck brownish-yellow, speckled with dusky. In any plumage the species is of course at once 
recognized by the peculiar bill. Length 17.00-21.00; extent 30.00-33.00; wing 9.50; tail 
3.00; bill about 2.70; along commissure 3.00; tarsus 1.33. Europe, Asia, ete.; in N. Aim. 
at large, breeding throughout, and wintering in abundance from the middle districts to C. Am. 


Fic. 483. — Shoveller Duck, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


Eggs about 8, averaging 2.10 x 1.50, smooth, elliptical, in color dull pale greenish-gray 
sometimes faintly bluish. In full dress, which is comparatively infrequent, since it Chawacty- 
izes only the breeding season, this is a very smart and jaunty drake, tricked out in parti-color ; 
the great majority of specimens, however, are found in a plumage more like that of the diel 
The bird is among the best of the ducks for the table. 

AIX. (Gr. aié or ae, atx or dix ; application not obvious.) Bripau. Ducks. Head crested. 
Bill shorter than head, no longer than tarsus, very high at base, the reéntrances at sides of 
culmen much prolonged towards the forehead. Nostrils large, oval, set little in advance of the 
feathers on culmen. Terminal nail occupying the whole end of the bill, and much eurved 
downward. Lamelle small, few, and distant. Tarsus incompletely scutellate in front, much 
shorter than middle toe. Claws compressed, curved, and acute, that of the middle toe ‘dilated 


on inner edge. Tail half as long as wings, rounded, of sixteen rounded feathers, and very 


719. 


698 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


long coverts. A peculiar as well as most beautiful genus; the Chinese Mandarin Duck, A. 
galericulata, is still more remarkably, though not more elegantly, colored than ours. 

A. spon’sa. (Lat. sponsa, betrothed: i. e., as if in wedding dress. Fig. 484.) Woop Duck. 
Summer Ducr. “Tue Bripvg.” Adult ¢: Bill pinkish-white, with lake-red base, black 
ridge, tip, and under mandible ; iris and edges of eyelids red; feet orange, with black claws. 
Upper part of the head, including crest, glistening green and purple ; a narrow white line over 
eye from bill to occiput, and another behind eye to nape, these white lines mixing in the crest. 
A broad white patch on the throat, forking behind, one branch mounting head behind eye, the 
other passing to side of neck. Sides and front of lower neck and fore breast rich purplish-chest- 
nut, prettily marked with several chains of angular white spots. A large white black-edged 
crescent of enlarged feathers in front of the wing. Under parts pure white, the sides yellow- 
ish-gray vermiculated with black and white wavy bars; the enlarged flank-feathers broadly 
rayed with black and white; the lining of the 
wings white barred with grayish-brown, of 
which color is the crissum. Upper parts gen- 
erally lustrous with bronzy-green and purple ; 
scapulars and inner secondaries velvet-black, 
glossed with purple and green ; a green spec- 
ulum, succeeded by white tips of the seconda- 
ries; primaries frosted on outer webs near end. 
Adult 9: Little or no crest, but lengthened 
feathers on nape; no enlargement or special 
colorings of feathers about the wings. Bill 
dusky: feet yellowish-dusky. Head and neck 
gray, darker on crown, the chin and parts 
about bill and eyes white. Fore neck, breast 
and sides of body yellowish-brown, mottled 
with dark gray, the breast spotted with brown, 
the belly white. Upper parts dark brown Fic. 484.— Wood Duck. (From Tenney, after Audubon.) 
with cousiderable gloss; wings much as in the male, but the velvety-black reduced. Length 
18.00-20.00 ; extent about 28.00; wing 9.00; tail 4.50; bill 1.40; tarsus the same; middle 
toe and claw 2.00. N. Am. at large, but especially U. S., breeding throughout its range, 
wintering chiefly in the South. This exquisite bird is commonly dispersed in wooded portions 
of the country near water; it nestles usually in the hollows of trees, whence the young are 
transported in the bill of the parent. Eggs about a dozen, very variable in number, of pale 
drab color and the usual smooth shell and elliptical shape, about 2.00 x 1.50. 


68. Subfamily FULICULINA: Sea Ducks. 


Tarsi scutellate in front ; hind toe 
lobate. The large membranous flap 
depending from the hind toe dis- 
tinguishes this group from the pre- 
ceding, probably without exception. 
While the general form is the same 
as that of the Anatine, the feet 
are notably larger, with relatively 
shorter tarsi, longer toes (the outer 
searcely or not shorter than the mid- 
dle), and broader webs; they are 


Fic. 485. — Canvas-back. (From Fic. 486, — lved-head. (From 
Lewis.) Lewis.) also placed somewhat further back, 


ANATIDAI — FULIGULINZ:: SEA DUCKS. 699 


in consequence of which the gait is still more awkward and constrained than the ‘‘ waddle” of 
ordinary ducks; but swimming powers are enhanced, and diving is facilitated. A large 
number of the species are exclusively maritime, but this is no more the case with all of them, 
than is the reverse with the river ducks. These birds feed more upon mollusks and other 
animal snbstances (not, however, upon fish, like the mergansers) than the river ducks do, and 
their flesh, as a rule, is coarser, if not entirely too rank to be eaten; there are, however, signal 
exceptions to this, as in the case of the canvas-back. The sexes are unlike, as ainong the 
Anatine ; and besides the difference in color, the 2 is often distinguished hy the absence or 
slight development of certain tuberosities of the bill that the ¢ of several species, as of scoters 
and eiders, possesses. A large majority of the species inhabit the Northern Hemisphere; there 
are some forty in all, exhibiting a good deal of diversity in minor details, really requiring 
recognition of many genera. Among notable exotics, we have the soft-billed Hymenolemus 
malacorhynchus of New Zealand, and the short-winged Micropterus cinereus of South America, 
both related to our genus Camptolemus ; there are but few others. The genus Hrismatura is 
the type of a sinall group remarkable for the character of the tail, as described beyond, and 
sometimes considered as a subfainily apart. Biziura lobata of Australia, with a Heshy appen- 
dage under the bill, the African Thalassornis leuconota, the Nesonetta aucklandica, and several 
species of EHrismatura and Nomonyx, compose this group. 


Analysis of Genera and Subgenera. 


Tail-feathers rigid, narrow, linear, exposed to their bases by shortness of coverts. 
Nailof bill ordinary . . oe ee ew « «© Nomonyx 299 
Nail of bill narrow above, overhenging ana: widened patent io ‘of bil soe ee we . Erismatura 298 
Tail-feathers and their coverts ordinary (central pair very long, however, in Harelda @). 
Bill variously gibbous, or appendaged, or feathered beyond nostrils. 
Bill gibbous at base, then broail, depressed, with large fused nail, without frontal processes. 
Gibbosity of bill superior, circumscribed; feathers not projected on culmen. 
Tail 16-feathered. ¢: Color entirely black (GEpEM1A) ca aie 
Gibbosity of bill superior, circumscribed ; feathers projected on ealmien, Tail 14- 
feathered. g: Color black or dark, with white wing-patch (MELANETTA) . 
Gibbosity lateral as well as superior; feathers projected on culmen. 
Tail 14-feathered. g: Color black, with white head-patches (PELIONETTA) 
Bill gibbous at base, with large frontal processes. 
Frontal processes in line with culmen (SOMATERIA proper) . . . . 
Frontal processes bulging out of line with culmen (ERIONETTA). . . . 
Bill not gibbous, but feathered on culmen beyond nostrils (ARCTONETTA) 
Bill not gibbous, but appendaged with leathery expansion of side of upper mandible, 
cheeks not bristly (HENICONETTA) 


Gdemia 297 


Somateria 296 


Bill not gibbous, but appendaged with a lobe at pase of commissure. . . . . . . Histrionicus 295 
Bill not gibbous, but appendaged with a leathery expansion of side of upper mandible; cheeks 
RIAN ree oF peerage ma A gen ek Ae pte er MeL tenets Me re ig Camptolemus 294 
Bill ordinary. 
Nail of bill large, fused. Tail (of #) about aslongaswing . ....... . + Harelda 293 


Nail .f bill narrow, distinct. Tail of ordinary length and shape. 
Bill shorter than head, high at base. Head of ¢ puffy or crested, iridescent, with 
white patches; crissum white; colors black and white, in masses . 
od, white spot before eye (CLANGULA proper) 
d, white patch behind eye (BUCEPHALA) . F 
Bill about as long as head. Head of ¢ black, red, or bats without spots cris- 
sum dark . ee enn 
Bill dusky. Head of ¢ docks reddish “(Ghetamerng ‘ 
Bill bluish or blackish. Head of ¢ black or red. (FULIX) 
Bill red. Head red, crested (European). (FULIGULA proper) . 


zs langula 292 


| Fuliguia 291 


Nore. — See further analyses of the subgenera (some of which are of generic value) under heads of @demia, 

Somateria, and Fuligula. 
291. FULIGULA. (Lat. fuligula or fulicula, dim. of fulix or fulica, a coot; fuligo, soot.) 
Buack-wEAD and Rep-HEAD Ducks. Scavups and Poctarps. Bill ordinary, without 
special gibbosity or peculiar outline of feathers at base, only in one species (F. vallisner 7a) 


700 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


not shorter than head and rising high on forehead; nail at end distinct, decurved, narrow, 
less than one-third as wide as end of bill; frontal feathers extending to approximately equal 
distances on top and sides of upper mandible, with a well-marked reéntrance between them 
reaching back to about opposite angle of the mouth, those of chin advancing rather farther. 
Nostrils in basal two-fifths of bill (nearly median in F. vallisneria). Outline of upper man- 
dible gently concave to the decurved nail; sides nearly parallel, or widening toward end (whole 
bill much as in ordinary Anating). Tail short, rounded, less than half as long as wing, 
14-16-feathered. Tarsus less than }# (4-2) as long as middle toe and claw. Head not crested 
or notably puffy (in our species). Head and neck black, brown or chestnut (not green with 
great white patches). Sides and back finely waved with black and white. Lining of wings 
white. Crissum black. Bill blackish, or black and blue. Legs dark. Speculum white or 
gray. (Comprising several species of ‘‘black-head” and ‘‘ red-head” ducks, including the 
“‘canvas-back ”; characters drawn up on consideration of these species; requiring modifica- 
tion, especially as-to color, to include the European F’. rufina, by some considered type of 
the genus. Equivalent to Fulix, Aythya and Aristonetta of Baird, 1858, and apparently sepa- 
rable into three full genera — one for the crested pochards of Europe ; one for the black-heads 
and red-heads together; and one for the canvas-back alone. The type of Fuligula is said by 
Sundevall to be F. cristata ; in which case Callichen is available for rufina.) 


Analysis of Species. 


Conspicuously crested; bill and feet red (Fuligula) . . .. 1... see ww we 6Tufina 886 
Not crested; bill and feet dark. 
Bill not longer than head, with concave line of culmen, not notably high on forehead; chord of 
culmen under 2 inches. Nostrils fairly in basal half of bill. (Fuliz.) 
Black-heads: gf with head, neck, body anteriorly, lower back, rump, tail and its coverts, black, 
the head glossy; below, including lining of wings, white, with fine black waving on sides and 
lower belly; bill black and blue, or dusky ; feet dark. @ with head and neck brown, with or 
without white around bill, and other black parts of gf rather brown. (Fulix proper.) 
No ring around neck. 
¢ Speculum white; back and sides finely waved in zig-zag with black and whitish ; bill 
blue, with black nail. @ with the face white. 
Length about 20.00; wing 9.00; glossofhead green . . . . .... =. +. marila 720 
Length about 16.00; wing 8.00; gloss ofhead purple. . . ..... . . «ffinis 721 
An orange-brown ring round neck of ¢. 
Speculum gray; back nearly uniform blackish ; bill black, pale at base and near end; 
@ without collar; lores and chin whitish, and ring roundeye. . . . . + collaris 722 
Red-heads: g with head and neck chestnut, in ? plain brown; body anteriorly, rump, tail, and 
its coverts, black, in 9 brown; back, scapulars, and sides finely waved with black and white or 
ashy-white in equal amounts; speculum gray, Bill blue with black belt at end. Back dis- 
tinctly vermiculated with black on an ashy-white ground (Athyia). . . +. 6 americana 723 
Bill longer than head, with scarcely concave culmen rising high on forehead ; ahord of culmen over 2 
inches. Nostrils reaching middle of bill. 
Canvas-back: g head dark chestnut-brown, much obscured with dusky on top and about bill. 
Silvery-whitish of back prevailing over the black waved lines, which arenarrow and much 
broken into chains of dots (Aristonetta) . 2. 6 6 1 1 we ew ee we ww ws vallisneria 724 


FULIGULA. 


886. (addenda.) F. rufiina. (Lat. rufina, reddish.) Rep-crestep Pocuarp. Adult ¢: 


Conspicuously crested. Bill vermilion, white-tipped; feet orange-red; eyes brown. Head 
and upper neck rusty-red, with a rosy tint. Lower- and hind-neck, fore-back, breast, and 
middle of belly black. Back grayish-brown, with a large white patch on each side, blacken- 
ing on rump and upper tail-coverts. Tail ashy-gray. Primaries whitish, edged and tipped 
with dusky-gray; speculum and sides of belly white. 9: Bill dusky with pink tip, and feet 
pinkish, with dusky webs. Upper parts generally rufous-brown, under parts brownish- 
white, the throat and upper fore-neck whitish; crown and rump darker than other upper 
parts, the dorsal feathers with pale edges; quills brown, edged and tipped with darker, the 


720. 


721. 


722, 


ANATIDH — FULIGULINZ: SEA DUCKS. 701 


speculum gray, bounded terminally with brown. Europe, etc. One found in Fulton Market, 
New York, Feb. 1872. (See Check List, 2d ed., 1882, p. 136.) 


FuLix. 


F. mari/la. (Qu. proper name? Qu. Gr. papidn, marile, charcoal, from the pitch-black 
fore-parts?) GREATER Scaup Duck. Bic Buack-weap. Buuz-piry. Rarr Duck. 
Friocxing Fowxu. SHuUFFLER. Adult g: No ring around neck. Speculum white. Bill 
dull blue, with black hooked nail, broad and flat at end, where considerably wider than at 
base. Iris yellow. Feet livid blackish, or dark plumbeous, with darker webs. Whole head, 
neck, and fore-parts of body pitch-black, on the head with chiefly green iridescence. Lower 
back, rump, tail, with both upper and under coverts, black or blackish. Middle of back, 
scapulars, and most of under parts, white, the interscapulars, scapulars, sides of body, flanks, 
and lower belly waved with fine zig-zag cross-lines of black, quite in ‘‘canvas-back” style. 
Wing-coverts similar to back, but darker gray and more obscurely marked; the greater 
coverts tipped with black, forming the anterior border of the white speculum, which is formed 
by the secondaries, the white extending quite across them, their tips black. Primaries 
brownish-black, becoming gray inwardly. Axillars and most of under wing-coverts white. 
Q: Bill, eyes and feet as before. The black parts of the ¢ replaced by dusky or dark brown, 
which latter is the color of the head. A broad belt of pure white around base of upper 
mandible, forming a conspicuous white ‘‘face.” The black-and-white vermiculation less 
distinctly developed. Length of g 2 18.00-20.00; extent 30.00-35.00, usually over 30.00; 
wing 8.50-9.00 ; tail 3.00; bill 2.00; tarsus 1.50; iniddle toe and claw 2.60. Europe, Asia, 
etc., and N. Am. at large; on the whole more northerly than F’. affinis, not proceeding so 
far south in winter, though breeding no farther north — from N. borders of U. §., northward. 
The more frequent U.S. scaup in winter is F. affinis. Nest on ground, down-lined; eggs 
drab-colored, 2.45 & 1.72. 

F. affinis. (Lat. agjinis,ad and finis, allied, affined.) Lesser Scaup Ducs. Lirrte 
BLaCK-HEAD (with other names of the foregoing). Extremely similar to the last; gloss of 
head chiefly purple, sides and flanks less closely waved with black? Smaller: length 15.50- 
17.00; extent under 30.00; wing 8.00 or less; tail 2.50; bill 1.75; tarsus 1.50; middle toe 
and claw 2.30. It is difficult to define this bird specifically, but it appears to preserve its 
characters, though constantly associated with the last. N. Am. at large ; breeds from the 
N. borders of the U.S. northward; winters in and migrates through the U.S. to C. Am. 
and W. I. 

F. colla/ris. (Lat. collaris, pertaining to collum, the neck: collared.) Rina-neck Ducx. 
Adult @: A chestnut or orange-brown ring round neck. Speculum gray (not white). Bill 
black, the base and edges, and a belt near end of upper mandible, pale bluish. Iris yellow. 
Feet grayish-blue, with dusky webs. Head and neck above the collar lustrous black, with 
green, violet, and purple iridescence, the extreme chin white. Lower neck, fore-breast, 
upper parts generally, blackish, the scapulars scarcely waved or only dotted with grayish. 
Crissum black; under parts generally, including lining of wings, white, the lower belly and 
sides finely waved with black. Wings plain dark brown, with an ashy-gray speculum 
formed by outer webs of some of the secondaries. Tail of 16 feathers. Adult 9: No collar; 
head umber-brown darker on top, with whitish cheeks and chin, and white eye-ring ; other 
black parts of $ dark brownish ; under parts less extensively and less purely white ; wing 
and its speculum as before. Length 16.00-18.00; extent 30.00 or less; wing abont 8.00; tail 
2.75 ; tarsus 1.25 ; bill 1.75, not so much widened at end as that of the scaups. N. Am. at 
large ; breeds from N. border of U. 8. to far north, winters in and migrates through U. S. 


to C. Am. and W. I. Nest on ground, of grass and moss; eggs about 9 
2.25 1.60. 


, pale greenish. 


123. 


702 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


F. ferina america/na. (Lat. ferina, feral, wild. Figs. 486; 487, 488.) REep-HEAD. 
AMERICAN PocHarp. Adult #: The feathers of the head somewhat full and puffy, though 
forming no crest. Bill broad and flattened, 
a little widened toward end, running into 
the forehead which arches abruptly over 
and away from it, not rising gradually into 
line with forehead; shorter or not longer 
than head, 2 inches or less in length aloug 
culmen, the nostrils within its basal half; 
the forward end of nostril about 2 the way 
from upper corner to end of bill. Bill dull 
blue with a black belt at the end. (Compare head and bill of 
canvas-back.) Iris orange. Feet dull grayish-blue, with dusky 
webs and black claws. Head and neck all around rich pure 
chestnut, not obscured with dusky-brown, but with bronzy or 
coppery red reflections. Lower neck and fore parts of body 
above and below, with rump and tail-coverts above and below, 
blackish. Back mixed whitish and blackish in about equal 
ainounts, the dark wavy lines distinct and unbroken. (In the 
European pochard, F. ferina, from which our bird differs, the 
back is also distinctly and completely waved with black, but the 
ground is quite white, as in our canvas-back, in which the dark 
lines are much broken up, the white thus prevailiug. This tine 
vermiculation, when not too closely examined, gives a delicate 
silvery-gray tone, of different shade in the different species.) \ 
Sides of body under the wings vermiculated much like the back, Fre. 487. — Red-head, } nat. size. 
the undulations subsiding in the grayish-white of the middle (ftom nature by J. L. Ridgway.) 
under parts. Wing-coverts ashy-gray, minutely dotted with white; speculum hoary-ash, 


bordered internally 
with black ; lining of 
wings mostly white. 
@: Bill obscured blu- 
ish, with black belt 
uear end; iris yellow ; 
feet asin g. Same 
shape of bill and 
head. Head and up- 
: per neck dull reddish- 
brown, paler or whit- 
ish on cheeks and 
behind eye; upper 
parts brownish, the 
feathers paler edged. 
Wings much as in 
&, the white lining 
restricted. Length 
20.00-23.00; extent 
about 33.00; wing 

Fic. 488. —Red-heads. | Fro Lewis.) 9.00-10.00; tail 3.00, 
of 14 feathers; tarsus 1.50; middle tue and claw 2.75. N. Am. at large, but particularly 


724. 


ANATIDA — FULIGULINZ: SEA DUCKS. T03 


E. of the Mississippi and along Atlantic Coast; breeds in high latitudes, winters in U. 8. 
One of the commonest market-ducks in eastern cities in winter, selling readily for canvas- 
back, and more likely to be distinguished 
therefrom with the feathers on than off! 
Nest on ground, or among reeds over water 
like a coot’s, down-lined. Eggs 7-8, buff, 
2.25 X 1.70. 
ARISTONETTA. 


F. vallisne/ria. (Name of a genus of 
aquatic plants, the wild celery, V. spiralis, dedicated to 
Antonio Vallisneri, an Italian naturalist. Figs. 485, 489, 490.) 
Canvas-BAck. Adult ¢: The head close-feathered. Bill 
high at the base and narrow throughout or scarcely widened 
toward end, sloping gradually up to the top of the head in line 
with the sweep of the forehead, altogether somewhat like a 
goose’s in shape; decidedly longer than head, 24 inches to 
nearly or quite 3 in length, measured along the culmen; the 
nostrils reaching the middle of the bill, their fore end half-way 
from upper corner to end of bill. Bill not blue, black-belted, 
but blackish throughout. Eyes red. Feet grayish-blue. 
Head and upper neck not coppery brownish-red, but dark 
reddish-brown, further much obscured with dusky or quite 
blackish about the bill and on top. Ground color of back 
white, very finely vermiculated with zigzag blackish bars 
much narrower than the intervening spaces, and tending to 
break up, or mostly broken up, into little chains of dots across 
the feathers; the resulting silvery-gray tone consequently 

several shades lighter than in the red-head. Other characters Oe ee a ae 
substantially as in that species. Q differs as 9 red-head does; way.) 

head dark snuffy-brown, etc., but the bill is colored as in the g, and sufficiently preserves its 
peculiar shape; eyes 
reddish-brown. Size 
of the red-head, or a 
little larger; tarsus 
1.75; bill longer, as 
above ; culmen much 
over 2 inches; gape 
about 2.67; line from 
upper corner to tip 
nearly or quite 3.00, 
of which distance the 
nostrils reach half 
way. N. Am. at 
large; breeds from 
the northern tier of 
States northward, in 
the R. Mts. further 
south, and in upper 
California; winters in 
the U.S. and south- 


WW 


Fic. 490. — Canvas-back. (From Lewis.) 


292. 


T25. 


726. 


704 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


ward to Guatemala; abundant along the Atlantic coast, from the middle districts to Texas, 
especially in the Chesapeake. When feeding on the wild celery the flesh acquires a peculiarly 
fine flavor, which has gained for the bird great renown among gastronomers; but its flesh is of 
no special excellence under other circumstances, in fact inferior to that of most River Ducks 
(Anatine). There is little reason for squealing in barbaric joy over this over-rated and gen- 
erally under-done bird; not one person in ten thousand can tell it from any other duck on the 
table, and then only under the celery circumstance just said. 

CLAN/GULA. (Lat. clangula, dim. of clangor, a noise.) WHISTLERS. Garrots. Bill 
much shorter than head, about as long as tarsus, very high at base, tapering to end with definite 
nail, and acute upper corners; frontal and mental feathers little in advance of loral. Nostrils 
median. Tail about half as long as wing, 16-feathered, pointed. Body plump; neck short; 
feet far back. with the head puffy or slightly crested, dark-colored, iridescent, with great 
white patches; lower neck all around, under parts including sides, and most of the wing- 
coverts, scapulars, and secondaries, white; lining of wings dark; most of upper parts black ; 
no waving on back or sides; crissum not black; bill dark; feet light or bright. 9 with less 
puffy dark brown or gray head, and traces or not of the white patches. Medium-sized and small 
ducks, mostly black and white. They include two types of at least subgeneric value ; one 
(Clangula proper) represented by the garrots, the other (Bucephala) by the butile-head. 


Analysis of Species. 

Nostrils rather before middle of bill. ¢ head uniformly puffy, the gloss green; a round or oval white 
spot before eye, not reaching upper corner of bill; white of wings continuous; lining of wings entirely 
dark; eye yellow; feet orange. @ head dark brown, unmarked. (Clangula) . . . . . . glauciwm 725 

Nostrils as before. gf head somewhat crested, the gloss purple and violet; an angular or crescentic white 
space before eye, applied against whole base of bill; white of wings divided by a dark line; lining of 
wings entirely dark; eye yellow; feet orange. 9 head dark brown, unmarked. . . . . . islandica 126 

Nostrils rather behind middle of bill. g head extremely puffy, the gloss various. No white before eye, 
but great whitc space on side of head behind, meeting its fellow on nape; white of wing continuous; 
lining of wing with some white; eye brown; feet flesh-color; ? head dark gray, with trace of the white 
auricular patch. (WBuceplala) es: os Rr a RS a he gs We owe SR ge es (LDEOL A: “127T, 

C. glawecium. (Gr. yAavxiov, glaukion; Lat. glaucium, a duck, perhaps this one.) GOLDEN- 
EYE. WuisTLer. Garrot. Bill with nostrils rather before than behind its middle line. 
Head moderately uniformly puffy. Adult ¢: Gloss of head chiefly green. A large round or 
oval spot before eye, not touching base of bill throughout; no white behind eye. Bill black, 
or greenish-dusky. Iris golden-yellow. Feet orange, with dusky webs and black claws. 
Lower neck, under parts at large, middle and greater wing-coverts, many secondaries, and 
shorter scapulars in part, white, that of the wings perfectly continuous. Shorter scapulars in 
part, long scapulars, inner and outer secondaries, edge of wing, primary coverts, primaries, 
and back at large, black, the latter glossy. Lining of wings dusky, as are some feathers at 
insertion of legs and on sides of ramp. The white greater coverts have dark bases, not exten- 
sive enough, however, to divide the white wing-surface. @ : Bill, eyes, and feet as in Q, 
but former usually varied with yellowish at end. Head less puffy, snuffy-brown, without 
white loral space. Black parts of ¢ inclining to brownish ; white of wings less extensive and 
complete, often waved with gray tips of some of the coverts ; white of under parts often waved 
with gray or brown on lower neck and along sides. Length 17.00-20.00; extent 27.00- 
32.00; wing 8.00-9.00; tail 3.00-4.00 ; tarsus 1.30-1.50; middle toe and claw 2.50; bill 
1.30 along culmen, about 2.00 along gape. @ smaller than g. Europe, etc.; N. Am. at 
large, a common winter duck of the U. 8., breeding chiefly in high latitudes, but also in 
U.S. An expert diver. Meat bad—rank and fishy. Nest in trees. 

C. islan'dica. (Of fsland or Iceland.) Barrow’s GOoLpEN-EYE. Rocky Mounrain 
Garror. Very similar to the last. Bill with nostrils as before. Head moderately puffy, 
and with lengthening of coronal and occipital feathers into a slight crest. Gloss of head 


727. 


ANATIDZ —FULIGULINZ: SEA DUCKS. 705 


chiefly purple and violet. A large triangular or crescentic white spot before eye, running up 
in a point, applied against the whole side of base of bill. White area on wing more or less 
divided by a dark bar resulting from extension of the dark bases of the greater coverts. 
Averaging larger than the last ; length 19.00-22.50; extent 30.00 or more ; wing 9.00-10.00 ; 
tarsus 1.60; bill as before, thus relatively shorter. Europe, Iceland; Greenland; N. Ain., 
northerly; in winter 8. to N. Y. and Utah; breeds in the R. Mts. of U. S. and in high lat- 
itudes. Not common with us. Seems well distinguished from C. glawciwm, though the 9 
is not easily discriminated. It may usually be recognized by the occipital crest, the division 
of the white area on the wing, and the extensively parti-colored bill, which is blotched with 
reddish. 

C. albelola, (Lat. albeola or albula, dim. of albus, white. Fig. 491.) BurrLE-Hrap. 
BUTTER-BALL. Sprrit-puck. Dipper. Bill with nostrils rather behind than before its 
middle line. Adult g : Head particularly puffy with much lengthened feathers of lateral and 
hind parts, splendidly 
various with purple- 
violet and green irides- 
cence; a large snowy 
patch on each side be- 
hind eye, blending on 
nape with its fellow. 
Bill dull bluish with 
dusky nail and base. 
Eyes brown. Feet 
pale flesh-color, with 
blackish claws. Up- 
per parts at large 
black, fading to gray- 
ish-white posteriorly. 
Lower neck allaround, 
under parts at large, 
scapulars in part, 
nearly all the wing- =a P 
coverts, and most of Fic. 491.—Buffie-head. (From Lewis.) 


the secondaries, white. Outer seapulars white, edged with black; inner secondaries velvet- 
black; sides and sometimes across lower belly shaded with dusky ; lining of wings mixed 
dusky and white. 9 much smaller than 3; head scarcely puffy, but a thin compressed nuchal 
elongation of the feathers; dusky gray, with trace at least of the white space of the #, and 
commonly a white touch under eye. Bill dusky ; feet livid bluish-gray, with dusky webs. 
Above at large dusky-gray or blackish, with white speculum on outer webs only of five or six 
secondaries; below white, shaded into dark along sides and across fore-breast and lower belly. 
Thus a very small insignificant-looking duck, but easily recognized on that very score ; notice 
flap of hind toe, livid feet, dark bill, white spot on dark head behind eye, etc. Length of #9 
12.75-15.00; extent 22.00-25.00; wing 6.00-7.00; tarsus 1.10-1.24; middle toe and claw 
2.00-2.25 ; bill 1.00, along gape 1.40. 9 at or about the lesser of these dimensions. N. Am. 
at large, and casual in Europe; U. 8. in winter, one of the most abundant ducks 3 breeds from 
N. border of U.S. to high latitudes. The drake jn full feather is one of the handsomest 
ducks, dressed in broad black and white in artistic contrast, to say nothing of the brilliancy of 
the head. Noted for its adroitness in diving to escape a shot, as smartly as a grebe, and on 
that account known in some of our elegant vernacular as “hell-diver.” The flesh 48 little 
esteemed, so it is just as well there is so little of it. Nest feathery, in a tree; eggs up to 14, 
45 


298. 


28. 


294, 


129. 


706 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


ellipsoidal, about 2.00 1.50, in tint buffy-drab (between grayish-olive and rich creamy- 
white.) 

HAREL’/DA. (The Icelandic name.) Lone-rai~n Duck. Bill shorter than head, about as 
long as tarsus, high at base, nearly parallel-sided to the rounded end oceupied by the broad 
nail; the upper lateral angles of most ducks obsolete, the feathers sweeping obliquely down-. 
ward from those on culmen; those of chin reaching about opposite nostrils, which are placed 
high up in basal half of bill; the commissure ascending near end, then decurved into the 
prominent nail. Tail of 14 teathers, in g as long as wing by excessive elongation of the 
narrow middle feathers (more so than in Dafila of Anating): % scapulars also long lance- 
linear, produced straight over the wing. Sexual and seasonal plumages unlike. Crissum 
white; no white on wing nor any speculum; coloration chiefly black, white, and brown, with 
reddish on back in swnmer. 

H. glacia/lis. (Lat. glacialis, icy.) Lonc-Taitep Duck. SoUTH-SOUTHERLY. OLD- 
WIFE. OLD-sQuaw. 6, in breeding dress: Bill black, broadly orange toward end; iris 
carmine ; feet livid bluish, with dusky webs and black claws. Head on top and behind black- 
ish, with a great patch of silvery-gray, whitening around and behind eye. Neck all around 
and fore breast, very dark chocolate-brown, almost blackish; quills and lining of wings the 
same; under parts from the breast abruptly white. Upper parts at large, and long tuail- 
feathers, blackish, the long scapulars varied with bright reddish; the shorter tail-feathers 
whitish, the lateral wholly so, the intermediate ones in part dark. Length very variable, 
according to development of the tail, up to 23 inches; middle tail-feathers up to 8 or 9 inches 
long, the lateral only about 2.50; wing 8.50-9.50; extent 30.00; bill 1.25; tarsus the same ; 
middle toe and claw twice as much. Adult @, in winter: No reddish on upper parts; the 
scapulars pearly-gray. Head, neck, and fore back white or whitish, with gray cheek-patch, 
and dark brown or blackish patch below ear. Fore breast of the latter color, set squarely 
bciween white of neck and belly. Upper parts except as said, and four middle tail-feathers 
(less developed than in summer) blackish; the rest white. Bill extensively orange, with nail 
and broad saddle on mandible black. Young ¢ in first winter with bill and feet dusky. Adult 
@: No elongation of tail or scapulars; length about 18.00; extent under 30.00; wing 8.00- 
9.00; tail about 3.00. Bill and feet dusky-greenish; iris yellow. Head, neck, and upper parts 
dark grayish-brown, paler on throat, with large grayish-white patch around eye and another 
ou side of neck; under parts white, shaded along the sides. Thus an obscure medium-sized 
duck ; notice generic characteristics of bill, 14 tail-feathers, no white on wing, gray head and 
neck-patches in dark surroundings. N. Hemisphere, northerly, especially maritime; also or 
large inland waters; U. 8. in winter only, breeding in high latitudes. A lively voluble duck, 
called by Sundevall melodious: “ Anas canora, ob cantum vernalem suavem et sonorum”: ar 
expert diver, rank animal feeder; meat bad. Nest on ground; eggs 6-7, smooth, drab-coloreé 
2.20 X 1.50, to 1.90 x 1.40. 

CAMPTOLZ/MUS. (Gr. xayaros, kamptos, flexible; Aapos, laimos, throat; referring to 
the leathery expansion of the bill.) Prep Duck. Bill nearly as long as head, longer than 
tarsus, not higher than broad at the base, nearly parallel-sided, but widened toward end by 
a leathery expansion of edge of upper mandible, the nail distinct. Teeth of upper mandible 
slight, oblique; of under mandible very prominent, vertical. Frontal angles slight. Nostrils 
high up in basal third of bill. Cheek-feathers stiffish and bristly, with enlarged horny ends, 
extending on side of upper mandible in moderately convex outline, to about opposite those of 
chin. Wings short, vaulted, with curved primaries, the 1st and 2d subequal and longest ; inner 
secondaries long and tapering. ,Tail short, about two-fifths the wing, 14-feathered. Colora- 
tion of ¢ black and white: Q brown, gray, and white. One remarkable species. 

C. labrado’rius. (Of Labrador. Fig. 492.) Lasrapor Duck. Prep Duck. Adult ¢: 
Bill black with orange at base and along edges, and grayish-blue along the ridge ; iris reddish- 


295, 


730. 


ANATIDA —FULIGULINZE: SEA DUCKS. TOT 


brown; feet grayish-blue, with dusky webs and claws. Head and upper neck white, with a longi- 
tudinal black stripe on the crown and nape. Neck below ringed with black continuous with 
that of upper parts, then half-collared with white continuous with that of scapulars. Below, 
from this white, entirely black, excepting white axillars and lining of wings. Above, black, 
except as said; the wing-coverts and secondaries white, some of the latter margined with: 
black ; some of the long scapulars pearly-gray ; primaries and their coverts and tail-feathers 
brownish-black. 9: Bill, eyes, and feet as in g; several secondaries white, forming a 
speculum, but no white on wing-coverts or scapulars; axillars and lining of wings mostly 
white ; inner secondaries edged with black; general color dappled brownish-gray, paler and 
more ashy or plumbeous on wing-coverts and inner secondaries. Length 18.0J-20.00; 
extent about 30.00; wing about 9.00; tail 3.50; tarsus 1.50; middle toe and claw 2.50; 
bill along culmen 1.75, along gape 
2.25. N. Am., along Atlantic 
Coast; breeds or did breed from 
Labrador northward, in winter 
ranging or did range 8. to the 
Chesapeake. Extremely rare 
now, and appareutly in fair way 
to become extinct. ‘The same 
pair, procured by Daniel Web- 
ster, has served for Audubon’s 
and. Baird’s descriptions, and for 
the present one; two fine mounted 
specimens have been lately ac- 
quired by the National Museum. 
Iu England, $200 has been offered 
for a good pair. 

HISTRIO/'NICUS. (Lat. his- 
trionicus, histrionic, relating to 
histrio, a stage-player, the bird 
being tricked out in various colors, 
as if to play a part.) Har Le- 
Quins. Bill very small and short, 
shorter than head or tarsus, rap- Fic. 492. — Labrador Duck. (From Ency. Brit.) 


idly tapering to rounded tip which is wholly oceupied by the large fused nail; but higher than 
wide at base, and with lateral upper comers as in Fulhiguling generally, and convex sweep 
across its side of feathers, intermediate in extent between the frontal and meutal projections, 
former reaching farthest. A inembranons lobe at base of commissure formed ly production of 
skin of cheeks. Nostrils in basal half of bill. Wings and tail short, latter pointed and about 
half as long as former. Longer seapulars and tertiaries curving outward over the wing as in 
eiders, with which this genus connects by means of Heniconetta, though in both these genera 
the bill is simple, as usual in Fuliguline, without the peculiar gibbosity and special outlines 
of feathers characteristic of eiders. One species, remarkable for its fantastic markings, being 
patched with different colors; a metallic speculun, here only among our Fuliguline, excepting 
S. stellert. 

H. minu'tus. (Lat. minutus, very small: not well chosen.) Hartequin Duck. Adult oe 
Bill olivaceous ;_ iris reddish-brown ; feet grayish-bluc, with dusky webs and pale claws, 
Aside from the definite markings to be given, general color deep leaden-blue with a purplish 
tinge, blackening on top of head, on lower back, rump, and tail above and below, darker on 
head and neck than on breast and back, changing from breast backward, including lining of 


296. 


T08 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


wings, to sooty brown, on the flanks to chestnut-brown. A white patch between bill and eye, 
curving upward and backward to margin the black coronal stripe, changing to chestnut from 
over eye to nape. A round white spot on side of hind-head; a long white spot on side of 
upper neck; a white collar around neck, interrupted or not before and behind; a white 
crescent on side of breast in front of wings; these marks black-bordered. A white spot on 
wing-coverts ; a white bar across ends of greater coverts and some of the secondaries; outer 
webs of inner secondaries mostly white; scapulars mostly white. A white spot on each side 
of root of tail. Speculum me- 
tallic purplish or violet. Two 
or three years appear to be 
required to perfect this plu- 
mage; the ¢ is found in almost 
every condition between this 
and the plumage of the 9 ; the 
final stage is the completion of 
the white ring around neck and 
white tips of secondaries. 9Q : 
Bill dusky; feet dull bluish- 
gray. Iris brown. A whitish 
spot before eye and behind ear. 
General plumage on head and 
upper parts dark brown, dark- 
est on head and rump, the 
lower parts similar, more gray- 
ish, passing through gray mot- 
tling to whitish on belly. Thus 
the @ is a very small and 
obscure duck, widely different 
froin the ¢ ; observe the small 
size, very short bill, ouly about 
1.00 along culinen, higher than 
wide at base; plumage without 
definite markings excepting the 
two spots on each side of the 
head; extent of dappled gray 
and white on the under parts 
very variable. Length of ¢ 
16.00-17.00; extent 24.00- 
27.00; wing 7.00-8.00; tail 
3.00-4.00; tarsus 1.30; Dill 
Fi. 498, — Bills of Eiders, } nat, size, viewed from above and in profile, along culmen 1.10, along gape 
1, S. mollissima; 2, S.m. dresseri. (From Sharpe.) 1.50. Europe, Asia, N. Am., 
northerly and chiefly coastwise, but also in interior; 8. in winter to Middle States and Cala. ; 
breeds in R. Mts. of U. 8., and northward, as from Newfoundland to Alaska. Nest in the 
hollow of a tree or stump, of weeds and grasses and parents’ down; eggs 6-8, 2.10 1.60, 
greenish. The harlequins are in some places called “lords and ladies.” 
SOMATE'RIA. (Gr. cdpa, cdparos, soma, somatos, the body; éprov, erion, wool, down.) 
Erers. Bill varying in conformation with the species; in one simple, much as in Histrio- 
micus for example, without special gibbosity or peculiar outline of feathers; in the rest 
variously tumid or gibbous, with very various dispositions of frontal processes and outlines of 


731. 


ANATIDA — FULIGULINZAD: SEA DUCKS. 709 


feathers. This is as in the scoters, @demia ; in both of which genera the particulars of the bill 
being specific and in a measure sexual characters, to found genera upon them would be to make 
one for almost every species. Nevertheless, I am now satisfied that I have gone too far in uniting 
Heniconetta and Arctonetta with Somateria. The subgeneric rank accorded to these in the 
followiug analysis is to be considered as generic; and among the eiders proper I would now 
separate the king eider subgenerically, under the name of Lrionetta, from Somateria proper. The 
characters are given below. In the whole group here preseuted under the name of Somateria, 
some further characters may be noted as follows: Nostrils averaging median, variable in posi- 
tion; feathers reaching over, under, or not to them. Frontal angles of bill in one species as 
normally in Fuligudine, in others variously exaggerated. Nail of bill large, fused, formiug the 
whole tip. Inner secondaries aud scapulars sickle-shaped, curved outward and falling ob- 
liquely over the wing. Sexes very unlike. @ chiefly black and white, with sea-green on the 
head; feathers of head in part short, elose-set, and erect, like pile of velvet, in part usually 
stiffish and bristly. Several remarkable species, of the Northern Hemisphere. 


Analysis of (Genera), Subgenera, Species, and Varieties. 


od ¢ Bill not gibbous, without frontal processes, not feathered to the nostrils, its cutting edge dilated 
and leathery; no unusual shape or outline of frontal feathers. (HENICONETTA.) 
A VOT POMONA. eel en Be Oe me a Re ek a OR a On me Go y Se TR 
oY Bill not gibbous, without frontal processes, feathered on culmen to a point beyond nostrils, and 
thence in line sweeping behind nostrils to angle of mouth. (ARCTONETTA.) 
No speculum; an elevated roundish white black-bordered area about eye . aces Jischeri 732 
¢& Bill gibbous at base of upper mandible; outline of culmen variously curved; with long, acute or 
clubbed, tumid process extending in line with culmen on each side of forehead, divided by extension of 
feathers on culmen; feathers of side of bill advancing to about under nostrils, far beyond those op 
culmen. Nospeculum, (SOMATERIA proper.) 
o No black V-mark on chin. 


Frontal processes short, narrow, acute, parallel. Smaller... . . 3... . . mollissima 733 
Frontal processes long, broad, clubbed, divergent. Larger. . . . . . . . . . . .dresseri 
gd Ablack V-markonchin . . . soe. V-nigrum 


od Bill extremely gibbous at base of upper mandible, with broad squarish nearly vertical frontal processes 
bulging angularly out of line of culmen, on each side of forehead, divided by extreme projection of 
feathers on culmen far beyond those on sides of mandible, which do not nearly reach nostrils. 

(ERIONETTA N.) 
¢@ A black Vemarkoncchine ag 2 A Rok sas ee a eb ek A ew a hee - spectabilis 736 


(HENICONETTA.) 


8. (H.) stel’leri. (To G. W. Steller.) Srernner’s Exper. Adult ¢: Bill and fect dull 
grayish-blue, the webs rather darker; iris brown. Top and sides of head and collar on 
neck silvery-white, washed across forehead and hind-head with sea-green, the chin with a 
black patch narrowing to run down breaking through the white collar and continuous with 
abroad black ring around neck; a similar patch around eye, these black areas with various 
lustre. Upper parts at large glossy purplish-blue-black 3 Wing-coverts white; secondaries 
violet in their exposed portions, tipped with white, the rest, and the tertials and outer 
scapulars, silvery-white, the inner scapulars violet, striped with white edges ; lining of wings, 
mostly, and axillars, white. Under parts dull chestnut-brown, passing to sooty black on the 
belly and crissum, with an isolated black spot on each side of the breast. The young & closely 
resembles the 9. In both sexes the bill and feet are of an undefinable dark color in dviad 
specimens. @ differs as in all the eiders: dark reddish-brown, blackening on belly and eris- 
sum, much mottled and barred with black; no white except on lining of wings and tips of 
greater coverts and of secondaries, these forming two white bars enclosing the imperfect spec- 
ulum. Length 18.00-19.00; wing 8.00-8.50; tail 3.50; bill 1.50 along culmen, 1.75 along 
gape; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw 2.20. Northern regions of Europe, Asia, and W. 
America; not yet common in collections, though abounding and sometimes gathering in enor- 
mous flocks on the islands and both shores of Behring’s Sea and the Aaitic coast of N. E. 


732. 


733. 


710 SYSTEMA TIC SYNOPSIS. —LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


Siberia; wintering mainly on the Aleutian Islands; usually found in company with Pacific, 
spectacled, and king eiders. Being observed to breed in a plumage resembling that of the 9, 
this eider probably requires at least two years to acquire the complete dress. The most beau- 
tiful of many specimeus I have handled have been winter birds. Eggs 7-9, 2.25 X 1.60, 
exactly like those of the common eider in shape, color, and texture of shell. 


(ARCTONETTA. ) 


S. (A.) fis‘cheri. (To Gotth. Fischer, a Russian naturalist. Fig. 494.) SpecracLep EIpeEr. 
Bill (in both sexes) peculiar in the extension upon it of dense velvety feathers which reach to a 
point on the culmen beyond the nostrils, thence sweeping past the nostrils obliquely downward 
and backward to the commissure, the nostrils opening just beneath the line of feathers. Feathers 
of chin extending in a point nearly as far as those on culmen. A peculiarly dense and pufty 
patch of velvety feathers 
about the eye, suggesting 
spectacles; frontal feath- 
ers erect, pilous, in the g 
somewhat stiffened; oc- 
cipital feathers lengthened 
into a crest; these char- 
acters of the head-feather- 
ing best marked in the g@, 
but indicated also in the 
@. Nail of bill distinct. 
Adult ¢: General color 
grayish-black, the neck 
and most of the back 
white; lesser and median 
wing-coverts, the curved 
tertials, the lining of wings 
and axillars, white; flanks 
white. On the head, the 
white of the neck gives 
way to rich sea-green, especially on the occipital crest; the frontal feathers are also tinged with 
greenish; but the ‘spectacles’ are pure silvery white, framed in black. Bill, in the dried state, 
dingy yellowish; feet the same, with dusky webs. Smaller than the common eider; wing 
10.00; tail 4.00; tarsus 1.75; middle toe and claw 2.75; Dill only about an inch long on 
culmen, but about 2.25 along gape. Q: Greatly different, as in all the eiders. Bill black, 
with whitish nail of under mandible; feet quite dark. General plumage like that of the com- 
mon eider, barred almost throughout with black, chestnut-brown, and yellowish-brown, giving 
way on the belly to dull brownish nebulated with dusky; on the head to pale brown streaked 
or otherwise obscured with dusky. Axillars white. Though thus so similar to the common 
eider in plunage, the peculiar feathering of the head and bill suffices to distinguish the bird at 
aglance. Northwest coast, common in some localities, from Unalashka northward to Norton 
and doubtless Kotzebue Sound; but its ordinary range appears to be a restricted one, nearly 
coincident with that of the emperor goose. 


Fic. 494. — Spectacled Eider. (From Dall.) 


(SoMATERIA. ) 


S. mollis'’sima. (Lat. mollissima, very soft ; referring to the down of the eider. Figs. 493, 495.) 
European Erper Duck. Bill (in both sexes) with lateral frontal process extending on each 
side of the forehead, between the short pointed extension of the feathers on the culmen and the 


ANATIDA — FULIGULING: SEA DUCKS. Til 


much greater extension of those on the sides of the bill, which reach to below the nostrils, about 
opposite those on the chin. The general upper outline of the bill nearly straight, and the 
frontal processes narrow, acute, and nearly parallel (see figs. and compare description of next 
subspecies). Adult g : Plumage almost entirely black and white. Top of bead glossy blue- 
black, including eyes, and forking behind to receive the white of the hind-head. Occiput more 


y 


if : (8 gg 


Aaas aad i al) 
Fig. 495, — Eider Ducks, 34 nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


( 
; = | A 
yt te or (ih 


or less washed with sea-green. Neck all around, fore breast, most of the back, most of the 
wing-coverts above and below, the curly tertials, and sides of rump, white, on the breast tinged 
with pale creamy-brown. Middle line of rump, upper tail-coverts, and under parts from the 
breast, black or blackish. Length about 24.00; extent 40.00; wing 11.00; tail 4.00; tarsus 
1.75 ; middle toe and claw 3.75; culmen of bill 2.00 or less, from apex of frontal ae to 
tip 2.60; along gape 2.40. Adult 9: Sufficiently similar to the & in character of bill, and 


734. 


735. 


736. 


712 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


feathering of its base; plumage entirely different, being nearly everywhere varied, chiefly in 
bars, with black, chestnut-brown, and yellowish-brown, giving way on the under parts to 
grayish-brown with dusky nebulation. Size less than that of the g. This is the common 
eider of Europe, semidomesticated in some places, so famous for yielding the prized down of 
commerce, which the parent plucks from her breast to cover the eggs. It is also found in N. 
Am., as on Cumberland Sound ; but the common American eider is of the following character. 
S. m. dres/seri. (To H. E. Dresser, of England. Fig. 493.) American Erper Ducs. Like 
the last; plumage the same; form of the bill different, exhibiting an approach to the structure 
of that of S. spectabilis. General profile of culmen concave, the frontal processes being wider, 
higher, more obtuse, and more divaricating than in S. mollissima proper (compare figs. and 
foregoing description). The difference is very obvious on comparison of specimens, and may 
be held of specific value if no intermediate specimens are forthcoming. Culmen 2.00 or more ; 
from apex of frontal processes to tip of bill about 3.00; along gape 2.50. 9 differs as in the 
case of S. mollissima proper. N. Am., northerly, especially on the Atlantic coast; also on 
large inland waters ; not noted from the N. Pacific ; 8. usually in winter to New England, more 
rarely to the Middle States; breeding from the Maine coast northward, abundantly in New- 
foundland and Labrador, where it is one of the characteristic birds. Nest on the ground, of 
mosses, lichens, hay, and sea weed, to which feathers are added; eggs 6-10, usually fewer, 
plain dull greenish-drab, about 3.00 X 2.00, laid in June and July. 

S. v-nig’rum, *(Quasi-Lat. v-nigrum, noting the black V-shaped mark on the throat). PAcrFic 
Ewer. Like the two preceding, but with a large black V-shaped mark on the throat, pointing 
forward and forking behind, as in S. spectabilis. While the plumage is otherwise as in the com- 
mon eider, the shape of the bill and character of its feathering are appreciably different, furnish- 
ing useful characters, especially in the case of the 9. The frontal processes are acute and parallel, 
as in S. mollissima, but the gibbosity of the bill is greater than in 8. dressert ; while the feathers 
upon its sides do not extend so far (searcely or not reaching opposite the hind end of the nos- 
trils), and have rounded instead of acute termination; their lower border is also more nearly 
parallel with the edge of the commissure. The extension of the feathers on the chin equals or 
even surpasses that on the side of the bill, rather the reverse being the case with S. mollissima 
and dresserit. Pacific coast from the Arctic Ocean to California, common in suitable localities 
on both coasts and islands of Behring’s Sea, and the polar coasts of Siberia; replacing the 
common eider, and associated with the king, spectacled, and Steller’s eiders. 

S. (E.) specta’bilis. (Lat. spectabilis, conspicuous, spectacular.) Kine Erper. Characters 
of bill and its feathering quite differing from those of other eiders, and moreover varying much, 
not only in the two sexes, but in the ¢ at different seasons. In the adult g, in the breeding 
season, the bill develops immense rounded or squarish lateral frontal processes, bulging high 
out of line with the rest of the bill; these processes are soft, and moreover depend for their 
prominence upon the development of a mass of fatty substance upon which they are supported ; 
they shrink and become more depressed in winter, when the general formation of the parts is 
not very different-from that of other eiders. The frontal feathers extend in a definite line along 
the elevated culmen to about opposite the hind end of the nostrils; those of the side of the 
bil, on the contrary, fall far short of the nostrils; those of the chin reach about opposite 
those of the culmen; the whole feathered outline of the bill being thus very different from 
that of any other cider. In the 9, though all the parts concerned are less developed, the same 
relative extension of feathers obtains, so that the bird is distinguished easily from the 2 of 
any other eider; the culminal and mental feathers both reaching about opposite the nostrils, 
those on the side of the bill not extending nearly so far. Adult ¢: Black; the neck and 
fore part of the body, most of the wing-coverts and lining of wings, and a spot on each side of 
the rump, white ; the white of the breast tinged with creamy brown; the curly tertials black 
(white in other eiders). A black V-shaped mark on the chin, as in S. v-nigrum. Top of head 


297. 


ANATIDA)—FULIGULINE: SEA DUCKS. 713 


and nape beautiful pearl-gray; sides of the head washed with sea-green ; eyelids black ; pro- 
cesses of the Dill framed about with glossy black. Bill reddish; feet reddened, with dusky 
webs; iris brown. Length about 22.00; wing 11.00; tail 4.00; bill along culnen 1.25 ; along 
gape 2.25; from apex of processes to tip about the same; from feathers on side of upper 
mandible to tip about 1.60. Adult 9 : Indistinguishable from other female eiders in plumage, 
but readily recognized by the bill, as above said. Bill and feet blackish ; dimensions of bill, 
aside from the frontal processes, nearly as in the @. This beautiful cider is a circumpolar 
species, abounding at various points along the shores of the Arctic Ocean, thence south in 
winter on the Pacific side in great numbers to the Aleutian Islands and beyond, though rare on 
the Alaskan coast of Behring’s Sea; on the Atlantic side south rarely and irregularly to New 
York. 

CGEDEMIA. (Gr. ofdnpa, oidema, Lat. edema, a swelling.) Scorers. Surr Ducks. 
Bill tumid or gibbous in various character according to the species, and sexes of same species, 
and outline of feathers equally variable, but always farther on ridge than on sides of upper 
mandible, without angular reéntrance; terminally expansive, with large, elevated, and de- 
curved nail, fused with and occupying whole tip. Nostrils in middle of bill or beyond. 
Feathers of chin running far forward, more or less nearly opposite nostrils. Color of @ black, 
relieved or not with white patches on head or wings, or both; bill singularly gibbous at base, 
parti-colored. Q sooty-brown, bill simply turgid, much widened at end. Young @ like 9. 
Embracing the black sea-ducks, surf-ducks, scoters, or coots, as they are variously called ; 
maritime mollusk-eating species, scarcely fit for food. Our three species inhabit both coasts, 
sometimes the larger inland waters, breeding northward, occurring abundantly in winter 
aloug the whole U.S. coasts. 

Analysis of Subgenera, Species, and Varieties. 


od Bill scarcely encroached upon by frontal feathers, which sweep directly across the base; gibbosity 
superior, circumscribed, orange. Nostrils median. Nail narrowed anteriorly. Color entirely black. 
Feet dark. Tail normally 16-feathered. (CEDEMIA.) 
2 Sooty-brown, paler below, whitish on throat and sides of head; bill not gibbous, black americana 73 
¢& Bill broadly encroached upon by frontal feathers, on culmen nearly or quite to nostrils, on sides to 
less extent, shorter than head, the gibbosity superior, circumscribed. Nostrils beyond middle. Nail 
broad and obtuse. Bill black, orange-tipped : feet orange. Color black, with white wing-patch and 
eye-spot. Tail normally 14-feathered. (MELANETTA.) 
¢ Sooty-brown, with white wing-patch; billall black, lesstumid. . ......4... Jusca 738 
do Bill narrowly encroached upon by frontal feathers; on culmen nearly or quite to nostrils, on the sides 
not at all; about as long as head, the gibbosity lateral as well as superior. Nostrils beyond middle. 
Bill orange and white, with black lateral spot. Color black, with white frontal and nuchal patch, but 
none on wing; feet orange. Tail normally 14-feathered. (PELIONETTA.) 
 Sooty-brown, paler below, whitish on head, chiefly in loral and auricular patches; bill black; 
feet dark. 
Frontal white patch reaching eyes; culminal feathers reaching opposite nostrils. Bill about as 
long as head Bea SS CP ite eh ee iy week Hep he ah Nana aw he. ee OPS mciteate . perspicillata 739 
Frontal white patch restricted; culminal feathers not reaching opposite nostrils. Bill rather 
MRC COMING MERA gon Gee ee ae ae ee eR ee .trowbridgit T40 


a 


737, GE. america/na. (Fig. 496.) AmErRicAN Buack Scorer. Sea Coot. Bill, etc., as above said. 


Adult g: Plumage entirely black, less glossy and jetty below than above, grayish on the inner 
webs of the quills. Iris brown. Feet blackish. Young 3 resembling 9. Q : Sooty-brown, 
paler below, becoming grayish-white on belly, there dusky-speckled, on sides and flanks 
dusky-waved; throat and sides of head mostly continuous whitish, not in special spots; 
bill blackish, not bulging ; feet livid olivaceous with black webs. Ducklings covered with 
black down. Length 17.00-20.00; extent 30.00-36.00 ; wing 8.00-10.00; tail 4.00; tarsus 
1.75; middle toe and claw 3.25; bill 1.75-2.00. @ much smaller than # ; near about these 
lesser figures. Differs from the European @. nigra in shape and color of the protuberance 
on the bill of g. N. Am., chiefly coastwise, where abundant; also on large inner waters; 
U.S. generally in winter; breeds in high latitudes. Eggs 6-8, 2.25 X1.60, buff; nest on the 


738. 


739. 


714 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


ground, in June, July. (N.B. The upper fig. 496 shows extent of feathers under bill — to 
first acute angle from the left—and shape of mandibular rami, reaching to next obtuse 
reéntrance.) 

GE. fusiea. (Lat. fusca, dusky; adult ¢ is black.) VeLveT ScoTER. WHITE-WINGED 
Surr Ducx. Sera 
Coot. Bill, ete, as 
above. Adult $: Plu- 
mage black, paler be- 
low; a white speculum, 
formed by most of the 
secondaries and tips of 
greater coverts; a small 
white spot under eye. 
Iris yellow. Feet or- 
ange or carmine-red, 
with black webs. Young 
& resembles 9. Q: 
Bill less bulging, en- 
tirely dark; eyes and 
feet as before, less 
bright. Sooty-brown, pale grayish below, but retaining the white speculum; whitish on head 
tending to form loral and auricular spots, as in 739, not 737. Largest: length 19.00-22.00 ; 
extent about 36.00; wing 11.00-12.00; bill along gape 2.50 or more; tarsus about 2.00; 
middle toe and claw 3.50. Q<g. Said to differ from European in greater encroachment 
of feathers on bill; but the ascribed feature is not tangible (var. velvetina). N. Am. at 
large, chiefly coastwise; also on large inland waters; abundant. Winters in U. §., breeds 
in high latitudes. 

GS. perspicilla/ta. (Lat. perspicillata, conspicuous, spectacular. Fig. 497.) Surr Ducx. 
Sea Coor. Adult g: 
Bill, ete., as above, 
singularly variegated 
in color, mostly white 
or pinkish, and or- 
ange, with a great 
round or  squarish 


Fic, 496. — Female Black Scoter. (Ad nat. del. E C.) 


black spot on side 
near base; iris pale 
yellow; feet orange, 
with dusky webs. Plu- 
mage glossy black, 
duller below; no white 
on wings, but a tri- 
angular white patch 
on forehead, pointing 


Fie, 497. — Bill of young g Surf Duck, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


forward, reaching to 
or beyond opposite eye, and another on nape, pointing downward. Young ¢ resembles Q, 
before the bill acquires distinctive shape and color. @ : Bill blackish, not tumid, feathers of 
culmen restricted, not reaching opposite nostrils; feet dark, tinged with reddish, the webs black- 
ish. Plumage sooty-brown, below silvery-gray; side of head with much whitish, chiefly in two 
patches, loral and auricular ; no frontal or nuchal white. Length 18.00-21.00; extent 31.00- 


740. 


298. 


741. 


299. 


742. 


ANATIDAI— FULIGULINE: SEA DUCKS. 715 


36.00; wing 9.00-10.00; tarsus 1.67; middle toe and claw 3.25 3 bill 2.25-2.50 along gape. 
N. Am. at large, casual in Europe; chiefly coastwise, also on larger interior waters; U. 5. in 
winter, abundant, breeding in high latitudes. (N. B. In upper fig. 497 the first reéntrance 
indicates extent of feathering under the bill, the next the mandibular rami.) 

GH. p. trowbrid/gii? (To W. P. Trowbridge. Fig. 498.) With the bill longer, exceed- 
ing the head, and of slightly dif- 
ferent shape; feathers falling short 
of nostrils; gape about 2.75; white 
frontal patch small, its posterior 
border anterior to a line between 
eyes, instead of reaching or pass- 
ing beyond this. Coast of Cala. 
Searcely tenable. 
ERISMATURA. (Gr. Zpewpa, 
ereisma, a stay, prop, pier, and 
ovpa, oura, tail, as the stiffened 
member might seem to be.) RuppER Ducks. Remarkably distinguished from other 
Fuliguline excepting Nomonyx by the stiffened, linear-lanceolate tail-feathers, 16-20 in 
number, exposed to the base by reason of extreme shortness of the coverts, their shafts 
enlarged, channelled underneath; appearance of tail strikingly like that of a cormorant. Bill 
about as long as head, scarcely higher than broad at base, widened and depressed at end, 
which is almost turned up. Nail as viewed from above very small, narrow, and linear, greatly 
expanding on a decurved part bent under the end of the bill (unique). Head small, and neck 
thick; you can draw the skin of the ruddy duck over the head, which is impracticable with 
most ducks. Tarsus short, toes very long, the middle with claw twice as long as tarsus. 
One species. 

E. rwbida. (Lat. rwbida, ruddy.) Ruppy Duck. 4, in perfect plumage: Neck all around 
and the upper parts and sides of body rich brownish-red, or bright glossy-chestnut. Lower 
parts silky silvery-white ‘watered’ with dusky, yielding gray undulations. Chin and sides of 
head dead-white; crown and nape glossy-black. Wing-coverts, quills, and tail, blackish- 
brown. Bill and edges of eyelids grayish-blue; iris reddish-brown; feet bluish-gray, with 
dusky webs. Not often seen in this faultless dress in the U. 8. As generally observed, and 
Q, brown above, finely dotted and waved with dusky; below paler and duller, more grayish, 
with dark undulations, and often a tawny wash, as also oceurs on the white of the head; crown 
and nape dark brown; crissum white; bill dusky. Length 15.00-17.00; extent 20.00-24.00; 
wing 5.50-6.00; tail 3.50; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw 2.60; bill 1.50. A curions and 
interesting duck, abundant in N. Am. at large, wintering in U. S., breeding from N. border of 
U.S. northward. It is an expert diver, and swims well under water, when its rudder comes 
into use, like a cormorant’s; it is held cocked up when not in use, so that this duck does not slope 
down behind as most do on the water. When alarmed, it sometimes sinks quietly backward 
into the water, like a grebe; but some other sea ducks, as the harlequin, will do the same. 
The tail well illustrates a method in which early down-feathers are supplanted by true quills. 
Up to the time the flappers are 8 or 10 inches long, the true tail-feather bears at its end the 
simple stem of the down-feather, terminating in a bushy tuft of loose barbs; the whole affair 
then breaks off and falls. (See Am. Nat., xii, 1878, p. 123, fig.) 

NOMO'NYX. (Gr. vdpos, nomos, law, order; dvvE, onux, nail: nail of Dill ordinary.) Rup- 
DER Ducks. Character of Erismatura, but nail of bill not peculiar. Inner secondaries so 
lengthened as to fold over the primaries in the closed wing. 

N. domi/nica. (Of St. Domingo.) Sr. Domingo Duck. General color ferruginous, or 
chestnut-red, more or less extensive and continuous on under parts and around neck, varied 


Fic. 498. — Trowbridge’s Surf Duck, reduced. (From Elliot.) 


300. 


743. 


T16 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LAMELLIROSTRES — ANSERES. 


with black on the back; crown of head black; a large white area on the wing formed by many 
of the coverts and bases of the secondaries ; axillars also white. A ? or young ¢ specimen 
has the back blackish, spotted with yellowish-brown ; the general ferruginous color dappled 
with dusky ; and two blackish stripes on each side of head. Length about 13.00; wing 5.00 ; 
tail 3.00; tarsus 1.00; culmen 1.40. A-small and curious duck of C. and §. Am. and W. L, 
accidental in the U. 8., as on Lake Champlain and in Wisconsin (see Proe. Bost. Soc. Nat. 
Hist., vi, 875; xiv, 154; Amer. Nat., v, 441; and Baird, B. N. A., 1858, 925). 


69. Subfamily MERCINAE: Mergansers. 


Bill narrow, more or less nearly cylindrical, the nail hooked and overhanging, the 

lamellee highly developed into prominent serrations, the uasal fossee lengthened and narrowed. 
Excepting the character of the bill, the ‘saw-bill’ or ‘fishing-ducks’ are simply Fuliguline, 
somewhat modified in adaptation to a more exclusively animal regimen; the lamella of the 
bill become detainers of large objects, not sifters or strainers of minute things. The principal 
point in their economy is ability to pursue fish under water, like Cormorants, Loons, and 
other birds of lower orders. The nature of their food renders their flesh rank and unpalatable ; 
in buying a ‘duck,’ notice the bill, that it be not cylindric, hooked, and saw-toothed; the 
flap of the hind toe is as in any Sea Duck; the tarsi are much compressed. The gizzard 
is rather less muscular than in most ducks ; the intestines and their cceca are shorter; the 
syringeal capsule of the ¢ is very large, irregular, partly membranous; the trachea has 
other dilatations (fig. 3). Birds of this group inhabit fresh as well as salt water, and are 
abundant in individuals if not in species. There are about 8 species, chiefly of the Northern 
Hemisphere, but several occur in South America: we have 3, commonly and perhaps properly 
referred to 2 genera, Mergus and Lophodytes. 
MER/GUS. (Lat. mergus, a diver; mergo, I mergein.) MERGANSERS. Fisuinc Ducks. 
Saw-BiIuLus. Bill as above said. Nostrils median or sub-basal. Tarsi compressed, anteri- 
orly scutellate, with smaller plates on sides and behind, one-half to two-thirds as long as middle 
toe and claw. Hind toe lobate. Tail rounded, usually one-half or more the length of the 
pointed wings. Head usually crested. 


Analysis af Subgenera and Species. 


Bill not shorter than head, mostly red. Serrations of bill acute, recurved, claw-like. Tarsus about two- 
thirds aslong as middle toe. Tail about half as long as wings. Crest low, flimsy, occipital, if any. 
Head green or brown. (MERGUS.) 

Nostrils near middle of bill. Frontal feathers beyond those on side of bill. Crest scarcely developed. 

df with breast uncolored Sbcyal. cietg Sey Si bee Dak yao sae Nh aie Gopher FEM Gene Ss Mee IL . merganser 743 
Nostrils near base of bill. Frontal feathers not beyond those on side of bill. Crest better developed. 

g with breast and sides colored Be BAN eR E Ace. cote epd Gh tp Une dS he ea Sones . serrator T44 

Bill shorter than head, mostly black. Serrations of bill low, oblique, not hooked. Tarsus about half as 
long as middle toe. ‘ail more than half as long as wing. Crest of ¢ highly developed, erect, com- 
pressed, semicircular, coronal as well as occipital. (LOPHODYTEsS.) 

Nostrils near base of bill. Frontal feathers produced beyond those on sides of bill . . . cucullatus 745 


M. mergan’ser. (Lat. mergus and anser, diver-goose. Fig. 499.) MercGanser. Goos- 
ANDER. Nostrils near middle of bill. Frontal feathers extending acutely on culmen about 
half way from those on side of bill to nostrils; loral feathers sweeping in nearly vertical line 
across side of base of upper mandible, about opposite those on side of lower mandible. Head 
scarcely crested, merely a line of little lengthened feathers along occiput and nape, better 
developed, however, in 9 than in g. Adult ¢: Bill and feet vermilion-red in breeding 
season, with black hook; iris carmine. Head and neck splendid dark green. Under parts 
salmon-colored, the flanks and lower belly marbled or watered with dusky. Upper parts 
glossy-black, fading to ashy on rump and tail; surface of wing mostly pure white, crossed by 
a black bar formed by bases of greater coverts. Primaries and outer secondaries black, inter- 


744. 


ANATIDZAE -— MERGINZE: MERGANSERS. 717 


mediate secondaries white, inner secondaries and seapulars black and white. @ : Bill red with 
dusky enlmen, iris yellowish, feet chrome or orange with dusky webs, crest better developed than 
ing; still flimsy, however long. Head and neck reddish-brown ; throat white; under parts 
less salmon-tinted. Black parts of $ ashy-gray; seapulars without white; white of wing 
restricted to secondaries and greater coverts, which are Ilack at base ; smaller coverts ashy. 
Length 23.50-27.00; extent 34.00 or more; wing 10.00-11.00; tail 5.00; bill 2.00 along 
culnen, 3.00 along gape; tarsus 1.75 ; middle toe and claw 2.75; @ much smaller than @, at 
the lesser or below the single dimensions here given. N. Am. bird said to differ in slighter and 
lower crest, and evident black bar in white of wing, couccaled in European. N. Am. at large, 
common; U. §. in winter, and breeding from N. States northward. Nest on ground, down- 
lined; eggs 6-8, elliptical, buff-colored, 2.75 X 2.00. 


Fic. 499. — Merganser, ¢, } nat. size. (From Brehm.) 


M. serra/tor. (Lat. serrator, a sawyer. Fig. 500.) Rep-BREASTED MERGANSER. Nostrils 
near base of bill. Frontal feathers extending obtusely on culmen, and not beyond those on 
sides of upper mandible; the loral sweeping forward convex beyond those on side of lower 
mandible. A long, thin, pointed occipital and nuchal crest in both sexes. Adult @: 
Head and neck all around splendid dark green. A white ring round neck. Under parts 
white, more or less salmon-tinged, the fore-breast brownish-red streaked with dusky, the 
sides finely waved with dusky. A white black-bordered pateh of broad feathers in front of 
the wing. Fore-back, interseapulars, and long inner scapulars, black ; middle and lower back 
gray, waved with whitish and dusky. Surface of wing mostly white, including outer scap- 
ulars ; inner secondaries edged on outer web with black, and wing crossed by two black bars 
at bases and just beyond ends of greater coverts. Bill carmine-red, dusky along the top; 
eyes carmine; feet bright red. 9: Bill and feet duller colored; head grayish-chestnut ; 


745. 


718 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — STEGANOPODES. 


throat and under parts white, shaded with ashy-gray along the sides. Upper parts plumbeous- 
gray, the feathers with paler edges; white of wing restricted to a patch formed by the ends 
of the greater coverts, and much of the outer secondaries; not divided by a black bar. No 
peculiar feathers in front of wing. Length about 24.00 ; extent 34.00; wing 8.50-9.50; tail 
4.00; tarsus 1.60; iniddle toe and claw 2.60; bill 2.20 on culmen, 2.60 on gape. Young 
@ like @. Nestlings in down curiously patched. N. Am. at large, more numerous than 
the goosander. U. S. abundantly in winter, and breeding in many places as well as farther 
north. Also European, ete. Nest on ground, down-lined; eggs 8-10, elliptical, buff, 2.50 
x 1.65. 

M. (L.) cuculla/tus. (Lat. cucullatus, wearing a hood). Hoopep Mercanser. Bill 
shorter than head. Nostrils in its basal half. Froutal feathers extending far beyond those on 
side of bill, these beyond 
those on lower mandi- 
ble. A inagnificent erect 
crest, compressed, semi- 
circular in outline, in 


both sexes, but in 9 
smaller, and less strict. 
Adult ¢: Bill black; 
eyes yellow; feet light 
brown, with dusky claws. 
Head, neck, and upper 
parts black, changing to 
brown on lower back; 
crest elegantly centred with snowy white; lower fore-neck and under parts white, the sides 
regularly and finely waved with brownish-red and black; crissam waved with dusky. Lining 
of wings and axillars white. Enlarged white doubly black-barred feathers in front of wing. 
A white speculum, with two black bars, the white being on outer webs of secondaries and ends 
of these and greater coverts; inner secondaries with white central stripe. Young ¢@ like 9. 
Q: Bill dusky, with orange base below. Head and neck gravish-chestnut, darker brown on 
crown, the throat and under parts whitish; back and sides dusky-brown, the latter not undu- 
lated, the feathers generally with paler edges. No black and white bars before wing; white 
of wing restricted or impure. Length 16.50-18.00; extent about 25.00; wing 7.00-8.00; 
tail 4.00; tarsus 1.20; middle toe and claw 2.25; bill 1.50 along culmen, 2.00 along gape. 
N. Am. at large; common; breeds at large in U. 8., as well as farther north; winters in 
U.S. Europe, ete. This beautiful species appears to usually if not always nest in trees, like 
the wood duck and some others, the young being transported to the water in the beak of the 
mother. Eggs 6-8, 1.75 X1.35, elliptical, buff-colored. 


Fia. 500.— Bill of Red-breasted Merganser, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


XI. Order STEGANOPODES: Totipalmate Birds. 


Feet totipaliate, with three full webs (as in fig. 52, for example) ; hind toe semi-lateral, 
larger and lower down than in other water birds, connected with the iiner toe by a complete web 
reaching from tip to tip. Nostrils minute, rudimentary, or entirely abortive. A gular pouch. 
Bill not membranous nor lamellate; tomia sometimes serrate ; usually, a long sulcus on upper 
mandible reaching alongside the culmen nearly to tip of bill, which is commonly hooked with 
a more or less distinct nail; mouth much cleft. 

This is a definite and perfectly natural group, which will be immediately recognized by 
the foregoing characters, one of which, the complete webbing of the hallus, is not elsewhere 


STEGANOPODES: TOTIPALMATE BIRDS. 719 


observed among birds. It is represented by six genera, all North American, each the type of 
a family. 

The nature is altricial. The eggs are very few, frequently only one, usually if not always 
plain-colored, and encrusted with a peculiar white chalky substance ; they are deposited in a 
rude bulky nest on the ground, on rocky ledges, or on low trees and bushes in the vicinity of 
water. The dietetic regimen is exclusively carnivorous, the food being chiefly fish, sometines 
pursued under water, sometimes plunged after, sometimes scooped up. In accordance with 
this, we find the alimentary canal to consist of a capacious distensible esophagus not develop- 
ing a special crop, a large proveutriculus with numerous solvent glands, a sinall and very 
moderately muscular gizzard, rather long and slender intestines, with small ceca, if any, and 
an ample globular cloaca. The tungue is extremely small, a mere knob-like rudiment (as in 
the piscivorous kingfishers). The characteristic gular pouch varies greatly in development. 
The condition of the external nostrils is a curious and unexplained feature; they appear to be 
open at first, and in some species, like the tropic-bird, they remain so; but they are generally 
completely obliterated in the adult state. There are probably no intrinsic syringeal muscles 
in any birds of this order. But the most notable fact in connection with the respiratory system 
is the extraordinary pneumaticity of the body, which reaches its height in the pelicans and 
ganuets. The interior air receptacles are of an ordinary character, but the anterior of these 
cells are more subdivided than usual; from them, the air gets under the skin through the 
axillary cavities, and diffuses over the entire pectoral and ventral regions, in two large parallel 
inter-communicating cells on each side, over which the skin does not fit close to the body, but 
hangs loosely. It is further remarkable that the skin itself does not form a wall of these 
cavities, a very delicate membrane being stretched from the inwardly projecting bases of the 
contour-feathers. Thus there is yet another, although a very shallow, interval between this 
membrane and the skin, this also containing air, admitted from the larger spaces by numerous 
minute orifices close to the roots of the feathers. This subcutaneous areolar tissue is that 
which, in ordinary birds and mammals, holds the deposit of fat, no trace of which substance 
is found in these birds. 

The pterylosis adheres throughout to one marked type, there being little variation except 
in the density of the plumage, which would seem to accord with temperature, the tropical 
forms being the more sparsely feathered. Excepting Phaéthon, the gular sac is wholly or in 
part bare. The contour feathers appear to always lack aftershafts. The remiges are from 
26 to 40 in number, of which 10 are always long, strong, pointed primaries. There are 
usually 22-24 tail-feathers in the pelicans, but 12, 14 or 16 in the other genera. All have the 
oil-gland large, with a circlet of feathers and more than one orifice ; sometimes, as in the 
pelicans, it is protuberant, heart-shaped, as large as a pigeon egg, with two sets of six orifices ; 
in the gannets it is flat and disc-like. 

The palatal structure is extremely desmognathous; there are no basipterygoids; the 
maxillo-palatines are large and spongy; the mandibular angle is truncate; other cranial 
characters appear under two aspects, one peculiar to the pelicans, the other common to the 
rest of the order. The sternum is short and broad, with transverse, entire or emarginate, 
posterior border; the apex of the fureulum commonly, if not always, anchyloses with the 
sternal keel. The upper arm bones are very long; the tibia does not develop the very long 
cnemial apophysis or so called ‘rotular process’ seen in many Pygopodes. (See fig. 502.) 
The carotids are double; tufted oil-gland, ececa and ambiens muscle are present. 

The species of this order are few — apparently not over fitty, of which the Cormorants 
represent half — very generally distributed over the world. 


3801. 


746. 


747. 


720 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — STEGANOPODES. 


53. Family SULIDA:: Gannets. 


Bill rather longer than head, cleft to beyond eyes, very stout at base, tapering and a 
little decurved toward tip, which however is not hvoked, the tomia irregularly serrate, or 
rather lacerate. An evident nasal groove. Nostrils abortive. Gular sac little developed, 
but naked. Wings rather long, pointed. Tail long, stiff, wedge-shaped, 12-14 feathered. 
Feet stout and serviceable, more nearly beneath ceutre of equilibrium than in some other 
families of this order. General configuration somewhat that of a goose; body stout; neck 
rather long ; head large, uncrested ; plumage compact. Marine. 

Two carotids. Oil-gland dise-like. Cceca very small. Gall-bladder large. Pneu- 
maticity extreme, even to intermuscular air-cells. Ambiens, femoro-canudal, and semitendi- 
nosus present; accessories absent ; former with a peculiarity of insertion. The relationships 
of the family are decidedly with the Cormorants. 

Gannets are large heavy sea-birds of various parts of the world. There are only five or 
six well-established species, of which the two following, with the S. piscator of the Indian 
Ocean, and the Australian S. eyanops, are the principal ones. They are piscivorous, and feed 
by plunging on their prey from on high, when they are completely subinerged for a few 
moments; but they do not appear to dive from the surface of the water like Cormorants. The 
gait is firm; the flight vigorous and protracted, performed with alternate sailing and flapping. 
Although so heavy, they swim lightly, owing to the remarkable pneumaticity of the body, 
already noticed. They are highly gregarious; the common Gannet congregates to breed in 
almost incredible numbers on rocky coasts and islands, of high latitudes, while the Booby 
similarly*assembles on the low shores of warmer seas. The nest isa rude bulky structure of 
sticks and seaweed, placed on the rock or in low thick bushes; the egg, generally single, is 
plain in color and encrusted with calcareous matter. Both sexes appear to incubate ; they are 
alike in color, the young being different. 

SU'LA. (Norse sule,a booby.) Ganners. Character of the family, as above. The white 
Gannet, type of Sula, differs subgenerically from the brown Boobies (Dysporus). 


Analysis of Species. 
White, with black primaries, head washed with amber-yellow; bill not yellow; lores, sac, and feet black- 
ish. Young spotted . . . ss 2 os » « « bassana T46 


Brown, below from the neck white; pill ana feet yellow. Young not spotted . . . . . . lewcogastra 747 
S. bassa/na. (Of Bass Rock, Firth of Forth.) Common GanyeT. WHITE GANNET. 
Souan Goosr. Adult ¢ 9: Bill pale grayish, tinged with greenish or bluish; the nasal 
groove, lores and gular sac blackish, as are the fect ; iris white. Plumage white, the prim- 
aries black, the head washed with amber-yellow. Length 3 feet or more; extent 6 feet, nore 
or less; wing 17-21 inches; tail 9.00-10.00, pointed, 19-feathered ; bill along culmen 4, along 
gape 6; tarsus 2.00; middle toe and claw 4.00. Young: Bill brownish, the lores livid bluish ; 
feet dusky ; iris green. Plumage dark brown, spotted with white, below from the neck grayish- 
white, each feather darker-edged (character much as in a young night-heron) ; wing-quills 
and tail-feathers blackish. Atlantic Coast, swarming in summer at certain northern breeding 
places, as at “Gannet Rock” in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, S. to the Gulf of Mexico in winter. 
Nest of seaweed; egg single, 3.00 X 2.00, pale greenish-blue flaked over with white chalky 
substance. Young hatch naked, blackish, pot-bellied; then are covered with thick yellowish 
down. 
8. leucogas/tra. (Gr. devxds, leucos, white; yaorhp, gaster, belly.) Brown GANNET. 
Boosy. Adult ¢ 9: Bill and bare spaces about head, and fect yellow, former paler or 
flesh-color toward end. Iris white. Plumage dark brown, below white from the neck. 
Young: Bill dusky; feet dark; plumage grayish-brown, paler below. Length about 30.00 ; 


PELECANIDZ: PELICANS. 721 


extent 48.00; wing 16.00; tail 8.00, pointed, 12-feathered; tarsus 1.50; middle toe and claw 
3.50; bill along culmen 3.75, along gape 5.00. 8S. Atlantic and Gulf States, very abundant, 
swarmiug at its breeding places along the low shores and keys; nest of sticks and weeds, in 
bushes ; egg single, character as before, 2.50 X 1.75. 


54. Family PELECANIDA: Pelicans. 


Bill several times as long 
as the head, comparatively 
slender, but strong, straight, 
broad, flattened, grooved 
throughout, ending with 
a distinct claw-like hook. 
Mandibular rami joining 
only at their apex; the long 
broad interramal space, and 
the throat, occupied by an 
enormous membranous sac. 
Nostrils abortive. Wings 
extremely long, in the up- 


Fig. 501. — Bill of North American White Pelican. 


per- and fore-arm portions, as well as the pinion, with very numerous remiges. Tail very 
short, of 20 or more feathers. Feet short, very stout. Size large. 

The remarkable pneumaticity of the body (shared however by the gannets) has been 
already described. A principal osteological character is, that ‘‘ the inferior edge of the ossified 
interorbital septum rises rapidly forward, so as to leave a space at the base of the skull, which 
is filled by a triangular crest formed by the union of the greatly developed ascending processes 
of the palatines.” The sternum is short and broad, with shallow emargination on each side 
behind: the fureulum is firmly anchylosed with it. The cceca are au inch long. The tongue 
is a mere rudiment. But the most obvious peculiarity of these birds is the immense skinny 
bag hung to the bill, capable of holding several quarts when distended; its structure is as fol- 
lows: The covering is ordinary skin, but very thin; the lining is skin modified somewhat like 
mucous membrane; between these ‘is interposed an equally thin layer, composed of two sets 
of very slender muscular fibres, separated from each other, and running in opposite directions. 
The outer fibres run in fascicles from the lower and inner edge of the mandible, those from its 
base passing downward, those arising more anteriorly passing gradually more forward, and 
reach the middle line of the pouch. The inner fibres have the same origin, and pass in a con- 
trary direction, backwards and downwards. From the hyoid bone to the junction of the two 
crura of the mandible, there extends a thin band of longitudinal muscular fibres, in the centre 
of which is a cord of elastic tissue. By means of this apparatus, the sac is contracted, so as to 
occupy but little space. When the bill is opened, the crura of the lower mandible separate from 
each other to a considerable extent (in their continuity —not at the symphysis], by the action 
of muscles inserted into their base, and the sac is expanded.” This organ is used like a dip-net, 
to catch fish with ; when it is filled, the bird closes and throws up the bill, contracts the pouch, 
letting the water run out of the corners of its mouth, and swallows the prey. Pelicans feed in 
two ways; most of them, like our white one, scoop up fish as they swim along on the water; 
but the brown species plunges headlong into the water from on wing, like a gannet, and makes 
a grab, often remaining submerged for a few seconds. Neither species often catches large fish ; 
they prefer small fry of which several hundred may be required for a full meal. The prevalent 
impression that the pouch serves to convey live fish, swimming in water, to the little pelicans 
in the nest, is untrue; the young are fed with partially macerated fish disgorged by the parents 

46 


802. 
748. 


749. 


722 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —STEGANOPODES. 


from the crop. As Audubon remarks, it is doubtful whether a pelican could fly at all with its 
burden so out of trim. 

The gular pouch varies in size with the different species, reaching its greatest development 
in the brown pelican, where it extends half-way down the neck in front, is a foot deep wher 
distended, and will hold a gallon. Besides this singular adjunct, the bill of our white pelican 
has another curious structure, not found in other species. The culmen is surmounted near the 
middle by a high thin upright comb or crest, the use of which is not known. It is found 
during the breeding season alone, being shed and renewed in a manner analogous to the casting 
of deer’s horus. Its structure explains how this can be: ‘‘ The crest-like excrescence on the 
ridge of the upper mandible is not formed of bone, nor otherwise connected with the osseous 
surface, which is smooth and continuous beneath it, than by being placed upon it, like any 
other part of the skin; and when softened by immersion in a liquid may be bent a little to 
either side. It is composed internally of erect slender plates of a fibrous texture, externally of 
horny fibres, which are erect on the sides, and longitudinal on the broadened ridge ; these fibres 
being continuous with the cutis and cuticle.” 

Pelicans are found in most temperate and tropical countries, both coastwise and inland ; 
they are gregarious birds at all times, and gather in immense troops to breed. A large rude 
nest is prepared on the ground, or built of sticks in a low bush near the water; the eggs appear 
to be one to three, plain dull whitish, with a thick roughened shell. The gait of these cum- 
bersome birds is awkward and constrained; but their flight is easy, firm, and protracted, and 
they swim lightly and gracefully, buoyed up by the interior air-sacs. The sexes are alike; the 
young different ; most species are white, with yellow or rosy hue at times, and a crest or length- 
ened feathers, at the breeding season; while nearly every one of them has a peculiar contour 
of the feathering at the base of the bill, by which it may be known. There are only six un- 
questionable species, although some authors admit eight or nine. The four exotic ones are: 
P. onocrotalus of Europe, Asia, and Africa (including the P. minor and javantcus of authors), 
with the frontal feathers extending in a point on the culmen; P. crispus of the same countries, 
the largest of the genus, aud P. rufescens (with philippinus) of various parts of the Old World, 
in both of which the frontal outline is concave on the base of the culmen; and finally, the 
Australian P. conspicillatus, in which a strip of feathers cuts off the naked eireumoeular region 
from the base of the bill. This is an entirely peculiar feature; and our white pelican shows 
another, having the sides of the under mandible feathered at base for a short distance. 
PELECA‘NUS. (Gr. pelecanus, a pelican.) PELIcAN. Character as above. 

P. trachyrhyn’chus. (Gr. rpayvs, trachus, rough; puyxos, hrugchos, beak. Fig. 501.) 
AMERICAN WulteE Perican. Adult $9: Plumage white, with black primaries, their eoverts, 
alula, and many of the secondaries, the shafts of the quills white. Lengthened feathers of occiput 
and breast, and some of the lesser wing-coverts, pale straw-yellow. Tail-feathers said to he 
rosy at times; and a dark spot to appear on the occiput after the breeding season. Iris pearly 
white, at times or in young, brown or dusky. Bill and feet ordinarily yellow; much reddened 
in the breeding season, when the general tone of the bill is reddish salmou color, the under 
mandible brighter than the upper, which has the ridge whitish; pouch passing from livid 
whitish anteriorly through yellow and orange to red at base; bare skin about eye orange ; eye- 
lids red; feet intense orange-red. Length 5 feet; extent S—-9 feet; wing 2 feet or more; Dill 
a foot or more; fore-arm about 15 inches ; tail 6.00, 24-feathered ; tibia bare 1.00; tarsus 4.50 ; 
middle toe about 5.00. This magnificent bird ranges over temperate N. Am. at large, but 
irregularly ; rare, casual, or wanting in Middle and Eastern States and beyond; 8. Atlantic 
and Gulf States, common; and generally in the West abundant in suitable places, inland as 
well as coastwise, up to 61° N. at least. Breeds in colonies, sometimes of vast extent; nest 
merely a heap of earth; egg single. 

P. fus/cus. (Lat. fuscus, brown.) AMERICAN Brown Prxican. Adult ¢: Bill mottled 


PHALACROCORACIDZ: CORMORANTS. 723 


with light and dark colors, much tinged in places with carmine ; eyes white; bare space around 
them blue; eyelids red; pouch blackish; feet black. Plumage dark and much variegated. 
Head mostly white, tinged with yellow on top, the white extending down the neck as a border- 
ing of the pouch and somewhat beyond ; rest of neck dark chestnut. Upper parts dusky, each 
feather pale or whitish-centred, the paler gray color prevailing on the wing-coverts. Prima- 
ries blackish, their shafts basally white; secondaries dark, pale-edged ; tail-feathers gray. 
Lower parts grayish-brown, striped with white on the sides; the lower fore-neck varied with 
yellow, chestnut, and blackish. @ said to lack the chestnut coloring of the neck (?) Length 
about 4.50 feet; extent 6.50 feet; wing 2 feet; bill a foot or more, the gular pouch extending 
about the samme distance along the neck. Tail 7.00, 22-feathered; tarsus 2.50; middle toe and 
claw 4.50. The bill and soft parts very variable in color with age or other circumstance. Young 
lack the special coloration of the neck, which is simply dark brown. At first, covered with 
whitish down. The feathers of the neck of the adult are peculiarly soft and downy ; there is 
a slight nuchal crest, with stiff bristly feathers on the forehead, and lengthened acute feathers 
on the lower foreneck and breast. The brown pelican is exclusively maritime, inhabiting both 
coasts of America from tropical regions to Carolina and California. It plunges for its prey like 
a gannet, not scooping it up swimining like the white pelican. Breeds in colonies, indiffer- 
ently on the ground or on bushes and low trees. Eggs 2-3, white, chalky, elliptical, 3.00 x 
2.00. 


55. Family PHALACROCORACID: Cormorants. 


Bill about as long as head, stout 
or slender, more or less nearly terete, 
always strongly hooked at the end; 
tomia generally found irregularly 
jagged, but not truly serrate ; a long, 
narrow, nasal groove, but nostrils 
obliterated in the adult state; gape 
reaching below the eyes, which are set in naked skin. 


Gular pouch small, but forming au evident naked space 
under the bill and on the throat, variously encroached 
--Fb upou by the feathers. Wings short for the order, stiff 
and strong, the 2d primary usually longer than the 3d, 
both these exceeding the Ist. Tail rather long, large, 
more or less fan-shaped, of 12-14 very stiff, strong 
feathers, denuded to the base by extreme shortness of 
the coverts; thus almost “ scansorial” in structure, 


recalling that of a woodpecker or creeper, and used in a 
similar way, a8 a support in standing, or an aid in 


_ Fig. 502. — Knee-joint of Phalacrocoraz scrambling over rocks and bushes. The body is com- 
bicristatus, nat. size, from nature by Dr. R. : e £ 3 e 
W.Shufeldt, F, femur; P, patella; T, tibia; Pact and heavy, with a long sinuous ueck; the general 


Fb, fibula. configuration, and especially the far backward set of the 
legs, is much like that of pygopodous birds. While other Steganopodes can stand with the 
body more or less nearly approaching a horizontal position, the cormorauts are forced into a 
nearly upright posture, when the tail affords with the feet a tripod of support. They also, like 
the birds just mentioned, dive and swim under water in pursuit of their prey, using their wings 
for submarine progression, which is not the case with the other families, excepting Plotide. 
In both these families the body is not in the least pneumatic under the skin — quite the reverse 
of Pelicans and Gannets. 


Among osteological characters, aside from the general figure of the skeleton, a long bony 


724 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— STEGANOPODES. 


style in the nape, in the position of the ligamentum nuche of many animals, and articulated with 
the occiput, isthe most remarkable (fig. 505). It occurs in the Anhinga also, but is there much 
smaller. The desmognathous structure is seen in its highest development; the palatines being 
not ouly soldered, but sending down a keel along their line of union; the interorbital septum is 


very defective, with hori- 
zontal inferior border (a 
general character of the 
order except in the Peli- 
cans). The sternum and 
shoulder- girdle, and the 
knee, are shown in figs. 504, 
502. In the knee-joint, 
there is a bulky free patella, 
coexistent with a short cne- 
mial apophysis or rotular 
process of the tibia, but per- 
fectly distinct therefrom, as 
in Podiceps. The muscles 
of the legs are as in Sulide. 
The pterylosis agrees essen- 
tially with the ordinal ptery- 
lographic characters, but the 
plumage is peculiar in cer- 
tain details. Excepting a 
few speckled species, and 
some others that are largely white below, 
the plumage is glossy or lustrous black, often 
highly iridescent with green, purple, and violet 
tints, commonly uniform on the head, neck, and 

Fic. 503.— The nest of the Cormorant (P. bicris- Wnder parts, but on the back and wing-coverts, 
tatus). (Designed by H. W. Elliot.) where the feathers are sharp-edged and distinct, 
the shade is more apt to be coppery or bronzy, each feather with well-defined darker border. 
This concerns, however, only the adult plumage, which is the same in both sexes; the young 
are plain brownish or blackish. The Cormorants have other special featherings, generally of 
a temporary character, assumed at the breeding season and lost soon after; these are curious 


PHALACROCORACIDZ: CORMORANTS. e 725 


long filamentous feathers (considered by Nitzsch filoplumaceous), on the head and neck, and 
even, in some cases, on the upper and under parts too. These feathers are commonly white, as 


(From nature by Dr, R. W. Shufeldt.) 


is also a large silky flank-patch acquired by several 
species. Many Cormorants are also crested with 
ordinary long slender feathers; the crest is often 
double, and when so, the two crests may be either 
one on each side of the head, or they may follow 
each other on the middle line of the hind head 
and nape. Our species illustrate all these various 
featherings. The naked parts about the head : 
vary with the species and afford good characters, 


Fia. 504. —Sternum and shoulder-girdle of Phalacrocorax bicristatus, nat. size. 


Fig. 605. — Skull of Phalacrocorar bicristatus, showing sto, occipital style or nuchal bone; nat. size. (From 
nature by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, The style is somewhat tilted upward from its natural position.) 


3808. 


726 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — STEGANOPODES. 


especially considering the shape of the pouch; the skin is usually brightly colored, and some- 
times carunculate. The eyes, as a rule, are green —a color not common among birds. These 
birds are highly psilopzdic as well as altricial; the young are for some time blind, naked, and 
perfectly helpless. 

Twenty-five species of Cormorants may be considered established. Their study is difficult, 

owing to the great changes in plumage, the high normal variability in size, and their close 
inter-relation, which is such that the single genus Graculus does not appear capable of well- 
founded division. Species are found all over the world, excepting the uttermost polar regions, 
and are usually very abundant in individuals; they are all very much alike in their habits. 
Many are maritime, but others range over fresh waters as well. They are eminently grega- 
rious, especially in the breeding season, when they congregate by thousands —the boreal 
kinds generally on rock-begirt coasts and islands, those of warm countries in the dense fringes 
of shrubbery. They often migrate in large serried ranks. The nest is rude and bulky; the 
eggs are commonly two or three, of elliptical form and pale greenish color, overlaid with a 
white chalky substance. The Cormorants feed principally upon fish, and their voracity is 
proverbial, though probably no greater than that of allied birds. Under some circumstances 
they show an intelligent docility; witness their semi-domestication by the Chinese, who train 
them to fish for their masters, a close collar being slipped around the neck to prevent them 
from swallowing the booty. 
PHALACRO/CORAX. (Gr. dadaxpoxopa€, phalakrokorax ; Lat. phalacrocorax, a cormo- 
rant, sea-crow, corvus marinus: qadakpds, phalakros, bald, and xopa€, korax, a raven.) 
Cormorants. Character as above said. There appears to be but one genus in the family, 
but several groups of species nay be cited subgenerically. There are three such groups among 
our species, respectively exemplitied by P. carbo, P. dilophus, and P. violaceus. 


Analysis of Species. 
Tail of 14 feathers. 
Gular sac heart-shaped behind, bordered with white... . 1... 6... 1 ee ee . carbo 150 
Tail of 12 feathers, 
Gular sac convex or nearly straight-edged behind. 
No white border behind gular sac. 
Lateral crests of curly feathers on sides of head. 
Largest: length about 36.00. Developing white filaments on head in breeding season. 
De WieCGaeh sy, ee wt Se ek BO ee ee 8 SOE ew 4 Olean TEE 
Medium: length 30 00-33.00. Scarcely or not developing white filaments on head in breed- 
ing season. At large Renn aie eA ie Mrninns, Wiking a Pree are c, dilophus 751 
Small: length 30.00 or less. Probably not developing white filaments. S. E. Coast 
Jloridanus 753 


Small: size of the last. Developing white filaments. 8. W. Coast. . . . albociliatus 58a 
A border of white feathers behind the sac. 
Very small: length about 24.00 . . 2. 2... ew ee ee. mevicanus 754 


Gular sac heart-shaped behind. (No lateral crests.) 
Sac dark-blue, bordered by a fawn-colored gorget. Feathers of back distinct, dark-edged 


penicillatus 755 
Sac not bordered with a colored gorget. No distinct colored edges of feathers of back. 


Shafts of tail-feathers said to be white . . 2... 1. 2 1 ee ew . . perspicillatus 756 
Shafts of tail-feathers not white. 
Frontal feathers not reaching bill, which is entirely surrounded with red skin; base of 


BUDS: yolk eRe et el em es ee a DRS TAHUS <T6T: 
Frontal feathers reaching bill. 

Larger: wing 10.000rmore . . . . . 1 1 6 + 6 ee ew we es . violaceus 75B 

Smaller: wing under 10.00 . . . . 2... 1 4 1 6 we we ws. bairdi 759 


150. P.car'bo. (Lat. carbo, carbon: from the black color.) Common Cormorant. SHAG. 


Adult g Q: Tail of 14 feathers (here only among our species). Gular sac heart-shaped 
behind. Bill blackish, whitish along edges and at base below. Iris green. Skin about eyes 
livid greenish, orange under the eye; sac yellow, bordered behind by a gorget of white 
feathers. General plumage glossy greenish-black ; feathers of back and wing-coverts distiuet: 


751. 


753. 


PHALACROCORACIDZ:: CORMORANTS. 727 


bronzy-gray, black-edged; quills and tail grayish-black ; feet black. In summer, when 
breeding, a white flank-patch, numerous long thready white plumes scattered ou head and 
neck, and a small black occipital and nuchal crest. Length 36.00; extent 60.00; wing 
19.00-14.00; tail 6.00-7.00; tarsus over 2.00; bill 3.40 along ridge, 4.00 along the gape. In © 
winter no erests or white feathers on neck or flanks. Young: Bill grayish-brown, black on 
top and at tip; bare skin and sac yellow. Top of head and hind neck brownish-black ; back 
and wing-coverts brownish-gray, the feathers with dark margins, some of them also edged 
finally with whitish. Throat brownish-white, and under parts generally whitish, blackish 
along the sides, dusky under the wings and across lower belly. The naked young in the nest 
are unpleasant livid purplish objects, with protuberant bellies, and large feet; the first down is 
blackish. Eggs 3, sometimes 4, bluish-green coated with white chalky substance, 2.60 x 1.75; 
nests of sticks, moss, and seaweeds, very filthy and offensive. Atlantic Coast of Europe and 
North America; breeds in great numbers on the rocky shores of Labrador and Newfoundland ; 
S. to the Middle States in winter. 

P. dilo’phus. (Gr. dis, dis, twice; Ados, lophos, crest. Fig. 506.) DoupLe-cRESTED 
CormoRANT. Tail of 12 feathers. Gular sac convex behind. No colored gorget. Glossy 


Fic. 506. — Double-crested Cormorant, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E.C.) 


greenish-black ; feathers of the back and wings coppery-gray, black-shafted, black-edged. 
Adult with curly black lateral crests in the breeding season, but few if any other filamentous 
white ones, over the eyes and along the sides of the neck; white flank-patch not observed in 
any specimens examined, probably not occurring; iris green; gular sae and lores orange. 
Wiuter spec. with bill bright yellow, blackening along culmen, gular sac red anteriorly, ochrey- 
yellow posteriorly ; legs dull black. Length 30.00-33.00 inches ; extent 50.00; wing 12.00- 
13.00; tail 6.00-7.00; bill along gape 3.50; tarsus a little over 2.00. Young: Plain dark 
brown, paler or grayish (even white on the breast) below, without head-plumes. N. Am., at 
large, the commonest species, the only one diffused over the interior ; eggs 3-4, 2.50 1.35. 


. P.d. cincinna/tus. (Lat. cincinnatus, having curly hair.) WHITE-TUFTED CORMORANT 


General character of the preceding, of which it appears to be a large northern variety. White 
lateral crests, of a superciliary bundle of long curly filamentous feathers. Larger: size of 
P. carbo. Alaska. ; 

P. d. florida‘nus. FLorIDA CormoRANT. Similar to, smaller than P. dilophus. Length 
30.00 or less; extent 45.00; wing 192.00 or less; tail 6.00 or less; tarsus a little under 2 00; 
but bill as large if not larger; gape nearly 4.00. The plumage is exactly the same There 
are said to be certain differences in the life-colors of the bills (blue instead of yellow _ under 
mandible and edges of upper— Audubon), but none show in my specimens. This is simpl 
a localized seuthern race of dilophus, smaller in general dimensions, with relatively larger bill 


53a. 


154, 


155. 


756. 


157. 


728 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — STEGANOPODES. 


as usual in such cases; the sac seems to be more extensively denuded. Resident on the 
Floridan and Gulf coast, breeding by thousands on the mangrove bushes; in summer, ranging 
up the Mississippi valley to Ohio, and along the coast to North Carolina. 

P. d. albocilia/tus. (Ridgw. MS.) Small: like floridanus, but with white nuptial crests as 
in cincinnatus. Pacific coast, breed from the Farallone Islands to Cape St. Lucas. 

P. mexica/nus. MExICAN CORMORANT. Resembling the last; lustre more intense, rather 
violet-purplish than green; long filamentous white feathers on head and neck (but no definite 
black lateral crests?) ; sac orange, white-edged with feathers. Small: length about 24.00; 
extent 40.00; wing about 10.00; tail 6.00-6.50, thus relatively long; tarsus under 2.00; 
gape of bill under 3.00. The sae is not strongly convex in outline behind, the feathers 
passing across in a straight or even convex line. Central America and West Indies; Texas; 
up the Mississippi to Illinois and Kansas. 

P. penicilla/tus. (Lat. penicillatus, pencilled, brushy.) TurrEep CoRMoRANT. BRaANnpT's 
CorMORANT. Deep lustrous green, changing to violet or steel-blue on the neck; the back 
proper like the under parts, but the scapulars and wing-coverts showing narrow dark edgings 
of the individual feathers (much less conspicuous than in any of the foregoing species; nothing 
of the sort is seen in any of the following ones). Sac dark blue, surrounded by a gorget of 
fawn-colored or mouse-brown plumage; heart-shaped behind, owing to a narrow pointed forward 
extension of the feathers on the middle line, as in P. carbo, but largely naked, the feathers ex- 
tending on it little if any in advance of those on the lower mandible. White filamentous plumes, 
2 inches or more long, straight and stiffish, spring in a series down each side of the neck; 
afew others are irregularly scattered over the back of the neck; many others, still longer, 
grow on the upper part of the back. No black crests, nor white flank-patch, observed. 
Wing nearly 12.00; tail scarcely or not 6.00, thus relatively very short; bill along culmen 
9.75; tarsus 2.50. Does not particularly resemble any other species here described. Young: 
Blackish-brown, rustier below, the belly grayish; scapulars and wing-coverts with edges 
of the feathers paler than the centres; gorget fawn-colored, as in the adult (P. townsendii! 
Aud.). Pacific Coast, U. $., common. 

P. perspicilla‘tus. (Lat. perspicillatus, conspicuous, spectacular.) PALLAS’ CORMORANT. 
Deep lustrous green, above and below, with blue gloss on the neck, and rich purplish on the 
scapulars and wing-coverts, the dorsal feathers not sharp-edged nor bordered, as in all the 
foregoing. Shafts of tail-feathers (said to be) white; if this holds, it is a unique character 
among our species. Adult with coronal and occipital crests (not lateral paired crests) ; a 
white flank-patch in the breeding season; face and neck with long sparse straw-yellow 
plumes ; sac orange, heart-shaped ; bill blackish. Large: length 36.00; wing 13.00; tail 7.00? 
9.00? tarsus 3.00; bill (along gape?) 4.00, very stout, two-thirds of an inch deep at base. 
N. Pacific Coast. I have not seen this species, which seems to be well marked. There are 
no known specimens in this country, and none of the ornithologists who have lately visited 
Alaskan shores have found the bird. 

P. bicrista/tus. (Lat. bicristatus, twice-crested. Figs. 502, 508, 504, 505.) Rrp-FrACED 
Cormorant. Frontal feathers not reaching base of the culmen, the bill being entirely sur- 
rounded by naked red skin which also encircles the eyes, somewhat carunculate, forming a kind 
of wattle on each side of the chin; base of under mandible blue ; feet black, blotched with 
yellow. Crown with a median bronzy black crest, and nape with another, in the same line. 
In the specimens examined, a large white flank-patch, but few if any white plumes on neck. 
Plumage richly iridescent, mostly green, but violet and steel-blue on the neck, purplish, violet, 
and bronzy on the back and wings, the feathers there without definite dark edgings. Length 
33.00; extent 48.00; wing 12.00; tarsus 2.97; gape of bill 3.00. Alaska, both on the coast 
and islands; swarming on the Seal Islands of Behring’s Sea, where resident. Nests on the 
rocky cliffs; habits in all respects those of other species. Eggs as usual 3-4, 2.50 X 1.50. 


758. 


759. 


PHALACROCORACIDZE: CORMORANTS. 729 


P. viola/ceus. (Lat. violaceus, violet.) VIOLET-GREEN CORMORANT. Frontal feathers 
reaching culmen; gular sac inconspicuous, very extensively feathered, the feathers reaching on 
the sides of the under mandible to below the eyes, and running in a point on the sac far in 
advance of this. Small: length 24.00-28.00; extent about 40.00; wing 10.00-11.00; tail 
6.00 or less; tarsus 2.00 or less; bill along gape 3.00 or less, very slender, and smooth on 
the sides, its depth at base about 0.33. Deep lustrous green, including the back, the feathers 
of which are not margined; the scapulars, wing-coverts, and sides of the body iridescent with 
purplish or coppery, the neck with rich violet and blue; gular sac orange; feet black. Two 
median lengthwise crests as in the last two species. Among the specimens before me, one 
has no white flank-patch, but a few white scattered plumes on the neck; another, marked 92, 
has none of these, but a large snowy tuft on the flanks. Pacifie Coast of N. Am., very abun- 
dant in suitable places along the Alaskan coast; breeding on cliffs. (P. resplendens, Aud.) 
P. v. bair'di. (To S. F. Baird.) Barrv’s Cormorant. Like the last; very small, the 
wing being under 10.00, the tarsus 1.67, the gape 2.67; the bill extremely slender. Has 
both the fank-tufts and the neek-plumes; the sac in life said to be dusky studded with red. 
Possibly represents a small southern race, bearing somewhat the relation to violaceus that 
floridanus does to dilophus. Farallone Islands, Cala. 


56. Family PLOTIDZ: Darters. 


Bill about twice as long as the head, straight, slender, very acute, paragnathous, the 
tomia with fine serratures. Gular sac moderate, naked. Nostrils minute, entirely obliterated 
in the adult. Wings moderate, the 3d quill longest. Tail rather long, stiff, broad and fan- 
shaped, of 12 feathers widening towards the end, the outer web of the middle pair curiously 
crimped (in our species). 

There is an occipital style, as in cormorants, but it is very small. There are remarkable 
peculiarities of the cervical vertebrée, in their conformation and articulation, the passage of 
tendons through bony eyelets, etce.,— a mechanism producing the strong kink observable 
near the middle of the neck, and the ability of the bird to thrust forward and retract the head. 
There are 20 cervical vertebree in P. anhinga. The digestive system shows a remarkable 
feature ; instead of the lower part of the wsophagus being occupied by the proventricular 
glands, these are placed in a small distinct sac on the right side of the gizzard, which, as 
in other Steganopodes, develops a special pyloric cavity, the orifice of which ‘‘is protected 
by a mat of lengthy hair-like processes, much like cocoa-nut fibre, which nearly half fills 
the second stomach.” There is a single small cecum, as in herons. The tongue is very 
rudimentary. The carotid is single in P. anhinga. Sternum as in Cormorants. 

The darters are birds of singular appearance, somewhat like a cormorant, but much more 
slightly built, and with exceedingly long slender neck and small constricted head that seems 
to taper directly into the bill, the head, neck, and bill resembling those of a heron. As in the 
Cormorants, there are long slender feathers on the neck ; the sexes are commonly distinguish- 
able, but the Q is said sometimes to resemble the ¢. Other changes of plumage appear 
to be considerable, but not well made out. The feet are short, and placed rather far back, 
but the birds perch with ease. Unlike most of the order, they are not maritime, shunning 
the seacoast, dwelling in the most impenetrable swamps of warm countries. They fly swiftly, 
and dive with amazing ease and celerity. They are timid and vigilant birds; when alarmed 
they drop from their perch into the water below, noiselessly and with searcely a ripple of 
the surface, and swim beneath the surface to a safe distance before reappearing. When 
surprised on the water, they have the curious habit of sinking quietly backward, like grebes; 
and they often swim with the body submerged, only the head and neck in sight, looking Kika 
some strange kind of water serpent. They feed on fish, which they do not dive down aeons 


304, 
760. 


730 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — STEGANOPODES. 


but dive for and pursue under water like cormorants and loons. The eggs are three or four, 
pale bluish, with white chalky incrustation. There are only three or four species: the 
African P. levaillanti ; the P. melanogaster of Southern Asia, with the Australian P. nova- 
hollandie, if distinct from the last; with the following: 

PLO'TUS. (Gr. mhords, plotos, swimming well.) Darrers. Character as above. 
P..anhin’ga. (Portuguese anhina, Lat. anguina, snaky.) DarrEeR. ANHINGA. SNAKE- 
BIRD. WATER-TURKEY. ¢@: Glossy greenish-black; a broad silver gray wing-band formed 
by most of the coverts; lower neck behind spotted, and scapulars and tertiaries striped 
with silvery-gray; tail pale-tipped; filamentous feathers of neck purplish-ash. 9: with 
parts of the head, neck, and back brown, the jugulum and breast fawn-color sharply 
margined with rich brown. Bill yellow, dusky-greenish on the ridge and tip; sac orange; 
eye-space livid; eye carmine; feet dusky and yellow. Length about 36.00; extent nearly 
4.00 feet ; wing 13.00-14.00 ; tail 10.00-11.00 ; bill 3.25 along culmen; tarsus 1.33. S. Atlantic 
and Gulf States, common; in summer to North Carolina, and up the Mississippi to Illinois and 
Kansas ; New Mexico. Nest bulky, placed on trees and bushes over the water, of sticks, 
leaves, roots, noss, ete.; eggs 3-4, like cormorant eggs in color and texture, but narrow and 
elongate, 2.60 & 1.25. Young with buff-colored or white woolly down. Fed in the nest 
by regurgitation, like cormorants. 


57. Family TACHYPETIDZ: Frigates. 


Bill longer than the-head, 
epignathous, stout, straight, 
wider than high at the base, 
thence gradually compressed 
to the strongly hooked extrem- 
ity, where the under as well as 
upper mandible is decurved. 
Nostrils very small, linear, 
almost entirely closed, in a 
long narrow groove. Gular 
sac small, but capable of con- 
siderable distension. Wings 
exceedingly long and pointed, 
of about 34 remiges, of which 
the 10 primaries are very pow- 
erful, with stout quadrangular 
shafts; upper and middle por- 
tion of the wings greatly 
lengthened. Tail very long, 
deeply forked, of 12 strong 
feathers. Feet exceedingly 
small, the tarsus, in particu- 
lar, extraordinarily short, feath- 
ered; webbing restricted, that 
between inner and next toe 
very slight; middle claw pec- 
tinate. Bulk of body slight 
compared with the great length 
of the wings and tail. Hene 
only in this order is found the 


Fic. 507. — Frigate, with Tropic Bird in the distance. (From Michelet.) 


305. 


761. 


PHALACROCORACIDZ: CORMORANTS. 731 


os uncinatum, a peculiar skull-bone occurring in nearly all the petrels, the turacous (itoeep hie: 
gide), and many cuckoos; and here only the stomach develops no pyloric cavity. Coca 2, 
but very small. Sternum very broad for its length, the furculum firmly anchylosed, the poste- 
rior border entire. The femoro-caudal and ambiens are present ; the accessory femoro-caudal, 
semitendinosus, and its accessory are absent. 
The frigates are maritime and pelagic birds of most warm parts of the globe. Their 
general contour is unique among water-birds, in the immense length and sweep of the wings, 
length of the forked tail and extreme smallness of the feet. In command of wing they are 
unsurpassed, and but few birds approach them in this respect. They are more nearly 
independent of land than any other birds excepting albatrosses and petrels, being often seen 
hundreds of miles at sea, and delight to soar at an astonishing elevation. They cannot 
dive, and scarcely swim or walk; food is procured by dashing down on wing with unerring 
aim, and by harassing gulls, terns, and other less active or weaker birds until they are forced 
to disgorge or drop their prey. Their habit is gregarious, especially during the breeding 
season, when thousands congregate to nest in low 
thick bushes by the water’s edge. The nest is a 
shallow flat structure of sticks; the eggs, two or 
three in number, are greenish-white with a thick 
smooth shell. ‘The young are covered with yel- 
lowish-white down, and look at first as if they had 
no feet. They are fed by regurgitation, but grow 
tardily, and do not leave the nest until they are able 
to follow their parents on wing.” The following is 
the principal if not the only species. 
TACHY'PETES. (Gr. raxumérns, tachupetes, fly- 
ing rapidly.) Frigates. Character as above. 
T. a‘quilus. (Lat. aqwilus, dark, swarthy. Figs. 
507, 508.) Fricare. Man-or-war Birp. Fie. 508. — Gular pouch of Frigate. 
brownish-black, glossed with green or purplish, duller on the belly, wings showing brown 
and gray; 9 with white on neck and breast. Length about 3.50 feet; extent 7.00-8.00 ; 
wing 2.00; tail 1.50; bill 5 or 6 inches; tarsi 1 inch or less! S. Atlantic and Gulf Coast. 
Eggs 2-3, 2.90 x 2.00. 


58. Family PHAETHONTID AZ: Tropic Birds. 


Bill about as long as the head, stout, straight, compressed, tapering, acute, paragnathous. 
Gular sac rudimentary, almost completely feathered. Nostrils small, linear, but remaining 
patulous. Tail with the two middle feathers in the adult filamentous and extraordinarily 
prolonged, the rest short and broad. Among anatomical characters it is to be noted that the 
muscles of the leg are asin Laride, as might be expected from the outward resemblance of 
these birds to terns; they having the accessory semitendinosus, lacking in other families of 
the order. 

The tropic bird resembles a large stout tern in general figure; the bill, especially, being 
almost exactly like that of a tern. The principal external peculiarity is the development 
of the middle tail-feathers ; the feathering of the gular sac and the permanent patulance of 
the nostrils are other features. They are graceful birds on the wing, capable of protracted 
flight, venturing far from land. They are gregarious at all times, and nest in communities 
along coasts and on islands, in rocky places or among low trees and bushes. As implied in 
their name, they are birds of the torrid zone, though in their extensive wanderings they visit 
Southern seas, and have even been reported from beyond latitude 49° N. There are but three 
well-determined species: P. flavirostris, P. athereus, and P. rubricauda. 


806. 
762. 


763. 


732 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LONGIPENNES. 

bak Ge tatlys. Tike Rettwcavny, 
PHAETHON. (Gr. ac6wy, Phaéthon, son of the sun.) Tropic Brrps., Character as above. 
P. ethe’reus. (Lat. @thereus, pertaining to the upper air.) Rep-BiLLED Tropic Brrp. 
Bill red; tarsi and part of toes light colored; rest of toes black. Plumage pure white, on 
nearly all the upper parts finely barred with black; black markings on sides under wings; a 
transocular fascia, outer webs and part of inner webs of most of the primaries, most of several 
inner secondaries, and most of the shafts of the tail-feathers, black, the shafts of the long middle 
pair, however, white in most of their extent. Length about 36.00 inches, including the long 
tail-feathers ; without these, about 18.00; wing 12.00; long middle tail-feathers up to 18.00; 
tarsus 1.00 ; middle toe and claw 1.75 ; bill 2.50 along culmen, nearly 1.00 deep at base. Trop- 
ical and subtropical America, accidental in N. Am.; said to have straggled to Newfoundland 
in one instance (Ireke, Pr. Roy. Soc. Dublin, 1879). 
P. flaviros/tris. (Lat. flavirostris, yellow-billed.) YELLOW-BILLED Tropic Birp. Bill 
and tarsi yellow ; toes black. Plumage white, tinged with salmon or rosy on the under parts 
and long tail-feathers; lacking the barring with black of the last species, but with definite 
black areas —a transocular fascia, an oblique band on lesser wing-coverts and thence on scap- 
ulars and inner secondaries, shaft-stripes on outer five or six primaries, stripes on the flanks, 
and most of the shafts of the tail-feathers, including the middle pair. Smaller than the last; 
development of middle tail-feathers about the same; wing 11.00; bill notably smaller, only 
about 2.00 along culmen and 0.75 deep at base. This is the species figured by Audubon (8vo, 
pl. 427) under the wrong naine of P. ethereus, which belongs to the foregoing. Tropical and 
subtropical Aierica, rare or casual in the U. 8., as on the Gulf coast. Has strayed to Western 
New York in one instance (Cowes, Bull. Nutt. Club, v, 1880, p. 63). 


XII. Order LONGIPENNES: Long-winged Swimmers. 


Long-winged Natatores with open nostrils and small free or no hind toe. — Wings long, 
pointed, reaching when closed beyond the base, in many cases beyond the end, of the tail, which 
is usually lengthened and of less than 20 rectrices (oftenest 12). Legs more or less perfectly 
beneath centre of equilibrium when the body is in the horizontal position ; the crura more nearly 
free from the body than in other Natatores, if not completely external. Anterior toes palinate ; 
hallux never united with the inner toe, highly elevated, directly posterior, very small, rudi- 
mentary, or absent; tibia naked below. Bill of variable form, but never extensively membra- 
nous nor lamellate, the covering horny throughout, sometimes discontinuous. Nostrils variable, 
but never abortive. No gular pouch. Altricial. 

This order, which may be recognized among web-footed birds by the foregoing external 
characters, is Jess substantially put together than either of the two preceding, — not that its 
components are not sufficiently related to each other, but because the essential points of structure 
are shared to a considerable extent by other groups. Thus the osteological resemblances of 
longipennine birds with loons, auks, and plover, are quite close, while the digestive system 
agrees in general characters with that of other fish-eating birds. In some of the lower mem- 
bers of the order, the tibia develops an apophysis, as in the loons; while even in external 
characters, one genus at least (Halodroma) resembles the Alcide. It is not certain that the 
order must not be broken up, or rather enlarged and differently defined, to include some of the 
genera now ranged under Pygopodes. 

The palate has the schizognathous structure; ‘the maxillo-palatines are usually lamellar 
and concavo-convex, but in the Procellariide they become tumid and spongy” (Hucley) ; 
basypterygoid processes may be wanting, but they are certainly present in many cases. The 
nasal bones are schizorhinal in Laride, holorhinal in Procellartide. There is apparently one 
pair of syringeal muscles throughout the order. The cesophagus is capacious and distensible ; 
there is no special crop ; the proventiculus is a bulging of the gullet; the gizzard is small and 


LARIDZ: GULLS, TERNS, ETC. 733 


little muscular ; the cceca are variable; the cloaca is large. Certain genera offer peculiarities 
of this general type of alimentary canal. According to Nitzsch, the pterylosis of the gulls 
‘approaches very closely that of the Scolopacide, and can hardly be distinguished therefrom 
with certainty by any character.” In the terns, ‘‘in consequence of the slender and elegant 
form of the body, the tracts are very narrow, and perfectly scolopacine.” The jagers differ 
“in having the outer branch of the inferior tract united with the main stem in the first part of 
its course, and all the tracts still broader and stronger than in” the gulls ; while in the petrels, 
“the tract formation of the jaigers is elevated into the type of a group, undergoing scarcely 
any change in the form of the inferior tract, but showing some little modification of the dorsal 
tract.” 

As here constituted, the order embraces two superfamilies or suborders, to be known by 
the character of the nostrils; both are well represented in this country, where occur all the 
leading genera excepting Halodroma. 


19. SuBorpER GAVIA: Siit-nosep LONGWINGS. 


The character of this group is the same as that of its single 


59. Family LARIDZ. Gulls, Terns, etc. 


Nostrils not tubular (linear, linear-oblong, oval or drop-shaped), sub-basal or median, 
lateral, pervious. The hallus, though very small and elevated, with its tip hardly touching 
the ground, is, except in Rissa, better developed than in the petrels. The habitat is fuviatile, 
lacustrine and maritime, rather than pelagic. The family contains four leading genera, each 
of which may be assumed as the basis of a subfamily ; all four occur in North America. Fuller 
characters are: Bill of moderate length, entire, or furnished with a cere, the upper mandible 
louger than, as long as, or shorter than the under; the culmen convex; the commissure very 
large, the cutting edges without lamellw, the symphysis of the inferior mandibular rami com- 
plete for a considerable distance, an eminence being formed at their junction. No gular sae. 
Feathers usually extending farther on the sides of the upper mandible than on the eulmen, and 
farther between the rami thau on the sides of the under mandible. Nostrils linear or oval; 
direct, pervious, lateral, opening on the basal half of the bill. Eyes of moderate size, placed 
about over the angle of the mouth. Wings long, broad, strong, pointed, with little or no eon- 
cavity. Primaries very long, more or less acute, the first longest, the rest rapidly graduated. 
Secondaries numerous, short, broad, with rounded or excised tips. Tertials ofsmoderate length, 
straight, rather stiff. Legs placed well forward on the abdomen, more or less perfectly ambu- 
latorial. Thighs entirely covered and concealed. Tibiz projecting ; feathered above; a con- 
siderable portion below naked, covered with more or less dense, sometimes reticulated, skin. 
Tarsi of moderate length or rather short ; compressed ; rather slender ; anteriorly transversely 
scutellate, posteriorly and laterally reticulate. Anterior toes of moderate length, the middle 
usually about equal to the tarsus; the outer shorter than the middle, intermediate between it 
and the inner; scutellate superiorly; all of normal number of segmeuts (3, 4, 5). Hallux 
present ; very small, short, elevated above the plane of the other toes; entirely free and dis- 
connected ; of the normal number of segments (2) — except in Rissa. Webs broad and full, 
extending to the claws; their surfaces finely reticulated, their edges usually more or less incised, 
sometimes rounded. Claws fully developed, compressed, curved, more or less acute, the edge 
of the middle dilated, but not serrated. Tail very variable. Body generally rather full, and 
sometimes slender. Neck rather long. Head of moderate size. Plumage soft, close, thick ; 
its colors simple — white, black, brown, or pearl-blue predominating ; bright tints hardly found, 
except on the bill or feet, or as a temporary condition ; the sexes alike in color, but the plumage 
varying greatly with age and season. Eggs generally three, light-colored, with numerous 


3807. 


764. 


734 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LONGIPENNES — GAVIZ. 


heavy dark blotches. Nidification normally terrestrial; reproduction altricial; young ptilo- 
peedic. 
Analysis of Subfamilies. 


Bill epignathous, cered. (Jigers). . 2. 2. 6 1 1 1 1 ee ww ee ee we ) 6. 6LESTRIDINE 
Bill epignathous, not cered. (Gulls). . . . 6 2 6 1 ee we ee ee ee we ws . DARIN 
Bill paragnathous. (Terns) Wa rey iets ik PaO ae bc cat | raihcen Soa tele “OPO SC, poh Uhre Gd adi nat Gast es OI EEN Lhe 


Bill hypognathous. (Skimmers) ... . et Hee a Se ee Bie “OG ah a ee? & GREY NOHOPIN AD 


70. Subfamily LESTRIDINA: Jagers, or Skua Culls. 


Covering of bill discontinuous, the upper mandible being saddled with a large horny 
“‘eere,” beneath the edges of which the nostrils open (unique, among water-birds) ; bill epigna- 
thous. Tail nearly square, but the middle pair of feathers abruptly long-exserted. Feet 
stroug; tibiee naked below, the podotheca granular or otherwise rougheued behind, scutellate 
in front; webs full; claws large, curved, acute. Certain pterylographic characters have been 
already noted. A leading anatomical peculiarity in the large s 


of the ececa, as compared 
with the cases of the other subfamilies. Another is that the sternuin is single-notched behind, 
there being two uotches on each side in the other subfamilies. There is but one genus, and 
only four species are well determined. They belong more particularly to the northern hemi- 
sphere, although some also inhabit southern seas; they mostly breed in boreal regions, but 
wander extensively at other seasons. They iuhabit sea coasts, and also large inland waters; 
the nidification resembles that of the gulls; eggs 2-3, dark-colored, variegated. The sexes 
are alike ; the young differeut, excepting one species ; there is also a particular melanotie plum- 
age, appareutly a normal special condition. At first the central tail-feathers do not project, 
and they grow tardily. The skna gulls are emiucutly rapacious, whence their name of ‘ jiiger” 
(hunter) ; they habitually attack aud harass terns and the smaller gulls, autil these weaker and 
less spirited birds are forced to drop or disgorge their prey. Their flight is vigorous ; lashing 
the air with the long tail, they are able to accomplish the rapid aud varied evolutions required 
for the successful practice of piracy. Thus in their leading traits they are marine Raptores ; 
whilst the cered bill furnishes a curious analogy to the true birds of prey. 
STERCORA/RIUS. (Lat. stercorarius, a scavenger.) JAGERS. Character of the subfamily, 
as above. The species of Megalestris ditieys decidedly from the rest, and might form a genus 
apart. 
Analysis of Species 
Bill shorter than middle toe without claw; tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw ; central rectrices little 
projecting, broad to the tip. (MWcgulestris.) 
Of great size, and robust form. Bill about 2 incheslong . . . 2. . Shue T64 
Smaller; bill and tarsi relatively longer than in the foregoing, latter not shor few than middle toe and claw; 
central rectrices finally projecting fur beyond the rest. 


Central rectrices projecting about 4 inches, broad to the end woe ee ee ee pomatorhinus 765 
Central rectrices projecting ubout 4 inches, acuminate. 2... 0. 6. 2 2 ew we we parasiticus 766 
Central rectrices projecting 8-10 inches, acuminate . . . . 1. ee wee ee buon TOT 


S. sku/a. (Feroése name.) SxKua. Bill shorter than the middle toe without the claw ; 
exceedingly robust ; width at base about equal to the height, which is a third of the length of 
culmen. Striz and sulci numerous and well marked. Encroachment of feathers ou bill 
moderate, and nearly the same on both mandibles. Occiput scarcely crested. Wings ouly 
moderately long for this subfianily ; the primaries very broad, and rounded at their tips. Tail 
very short, broad, nearly even, the feathers truncated ; central pair projecting but little, and 
broad to their very tips, which are also truncated. Feet large and stout; tarsi shorter than 
the middle toe and claw. Size large; form robust and heavy; general organization very 
powerful. Colors much the same over the whole body ; not subject to any very remarkable 
changes with age, sex, or season. Adult $ 2 ; Latero-nuchal feathers elongated, rigid, with 
long disconnected fibrilla. Above, blackish-brown, more or less variegated with chestnut and 


a 


LARIDA— LESTRIDINA: JAGERS. 735 


whitish ; each feather being dark-colored, with a spot of chestnut toward its extremity, whicl: 
in turn fades into whitish along the shaft toward the tip of each feather. On the latero-nuchal 
region and across the throat the chestnut lightens into a decided reddish-yellow, the white 
being as a well-defined, narrow, longitudinal streak on each feather. The crown, post- ocular, 
and mental region have but little whitish. Inferiorly the plumage is of a blended fusco-rufous, 
lighter than on the dorsum, with a peculiar indefinite plumbeous shade. The wings and tail 
are blackish ; their shafts white, except toward the tips; the remiges and rectrices white for 
some distance from the bases. This white on the tail is concealed by the long tail-coverts, 
but appears on the outer primaries as a conspicuous spot. Bill and claws blackish-horn ; 
feet black. Bill from base to tip 2.10; to end of cere 1.20; gape 3.00; height at base 0.75 ; 
width a little less; gonys 0.50; wing 16.00; tail 6.00; tarsus 2.70; middle toe and claw 
3.10. Young-of-the-year: The size much less, bill weaker and slenderer ; cere illy developed; 
striz not apparent, and its ridges and angles all want sharpness of definition. Wings short and 
rounded, the quills having very different proportional length from those of the adults; the 2d 
being longest, the 3d next and but little shorter; the 1st about equal to the 4th. The inner 
or longest secondaries reach, when the wing is folded, to within an inch or so of the tip of the 
longest primary. Central rectrices, if anything, a little shorter than the next. Colors 
generally as in the adult, but everywhere duller and more blended, having few or no white 
spots; the reddish spots dull, numerous, and large, especially along the edge of the forearm 
and on the least and lesser coverts. On the under parts the colors are lighter, duller, and still 
more blended than above. The prevailing tint is a light, dull rufous, most marked on the 
abdomen; but there and elsewhere more or less obscured with an ashy or plumbeous hue. 
The primaries, secondaries, and tertials, together with the rectrices, are dull brownish-black ; 
their shafts yellowish-white, darker terminally. At the bases of the primaries there exists the 
ordinary large white space, but it is more restricted than in the adults, and so much hidden by 
the bastard quills that it is hardly apparent on the outside of the wing, though very conspie- 
uous on the inferior surface. Legs and feet parti-colored, —brownish-black, variegated with 
yellowish. Bill along culmen 1.75 ; along gape 2.75; height at base 0.50; length of gonys 
0.35; tarsus 2.60; middle toe and claw the same; wing 12.25; tail 5.75. N. Am., north- 
erly, rare or casual.  ‘‘ California.” 

S. pomatorhi/nus. (Gr. mépa, mouaros, poma, pomatos, a flap, lid; pis, pevds, hris, hrinos, 
nose.) PoMATORHINE JAGER. Adults, breeding plumage: Bill shorter than the head, or 4 
the tarsus, about 24 times its own height at the base; width about the same as the height. 
Tail somewhat less than half the wing. Ist primary but little surpassing the 2d. Oceiput 
subcrested. Feathers of the neck rigid and acuminate, their fibrille disconnected.  Tail- 
feathers, including the central, broad quite to their tips, which are truncated, the rhachis 
projecting as a smnall mucro. The central pair project about 3 inches ; are broad to near the 
tip, where they form an angle of 45° with the rhachis; their fibrillee exceedingly long (22 
inches), while those of the lateral feathers are only 12. Tail slightly graduated. Tibize bare 
for } of an inch, scutellate for 4 inch. Tarsi very rough; anteriorly covered with a single 
row of scutella, except toward the tibio-tarsal articulation, where these seutella gradually 
degenerate into small, irregular polygonal plates, with which the whole of the rest of the 
tarsus is reticulated. These plates largest on the sides of the tarsus externally ; on the heel- 
joiut, and posterior aspect of the tarsus generally, they become raised into small conical pyr- 
amids, acutely pointed. The seutella of the anterior portion of the tarsus are continuous with 
the superior surface of the toes, while the polygonal reticulation occupies both surfaces of the 
webs, and the inferior surface of the toes. Hallux extremely short, its nail stout, conical at 
the base, acute, little curved. Anterior claws all very strong and sharp ; inner most so; the 
middle expanded on its inferior edge, not serrated. Webs broad, full, unincised, their free 
margins a little convex. The ‘ cere” has a straight, smooth, convex culmen; its inferior 


766. 


736 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES — GAVLZE. 


border curves gently upward to give passage to the nostrils. The union of the two lateral 
halves leaves a well-marked acutely-angular recess over the culmen. There is a well-marked 
lateral longitudinal groove. Curve of nail regular, gradual. Commissure straight to the 
nostrils, then gradually declinato-convex. Eminentia symphysis slightly marked; commissure 
long, gonys short, a little concave, gape wide. Outline of feathers on the bill much as in the 
Larine, but supero-laterally they do not run so far forward, nor with so acute an angle. Nos- 
trils placed far forward, lateral, linear, direct, pervious, their opening a little club-shaped. 
Bill horn, deepening into black; feet black. Pileum and occipital crest brownish-black ; this 
color extending much below the eyes, and occupying the feathers on the ramus of the inferior 
maxilla. Acuminate feathers of the neck light yellow. Back, wings, tail, upper wing-coverts, 
under tail-coverts as far as the flanks, deep blackish-brown. Under parts, trom chin to abdo- 
inen, and neck all round (except the acuminate feathers), pure white. Length about 20.00; 
extent 48.00; wing 14.00; bill 1.75; tarsus 2.00. Nearly adult: Generally as in the 
preceding, but with a row of brown spots across the breast; the sides under the wings 
transversely barred with white and brown; the purity of the dark color of the abdomen 
interrupted by some touches of white. The legs wholly black, and the tail-feathers project- 
ing as much as in the fully adult. Intermediate stage: The band of dark spots across the 
breast is widened and enlarged, so that the whole breast appears brown, mottled with white ; 
the sides under the wings are conspicuously barred with white and brown; the white of the 
under parts is continued down over the abdomen to the under tail-coverts; the pure brown 
of these parts which obtains in the adult now only appearing as transverse bars among the 
white. Upper tail-coverts and some of the wing-coverts barred with white. Bases of pri- 
maries inferiorly white. Central tail-feathers only project an inch. Tarsi irregularly blotched 
with chrome-yellow —the hind toe and nail being of this color. Young-of-the-year: Bill 
much smaller and weaker than in the adult, light-colored to beyond the nostrils, when it 
becomes brownish-black. Feet and toes mostly bright yellow, the terminal portions of the 
latter black. The whole body everywhere transversely waved with dull rufous. On the head, 
neck, and under parts, this rufous forms the predominating color; and the bands are ex- 
ceedingly numerous, of about the same width as the intervening dark color. On the flanks 
and under tail-coverts the bars become wider, and almost white in color. On the back and 
wing-coverts the brownish-black is the predominating color; and if any rufous is present, it 
is merely as narrow edging of the feathers. Quills and tail-feathers brownish-black, darker 
at tips; whitish toward bases of primaries on inner webs. Light rufous predominating on 
head and neck; a dusky spot before eye. All the above stages traceable from one to another. 
Dusky state: The bird is very nearly unicolor ; blackish-brown all over; this color deepening 
into quite black on the pileum; lightening into fuliginous-brown on the abdomen, with a 
slight gilding of the black on the sides of the neck. The whitish bases of the primaries 
exist. The feet are in the chromo-variegated condition. The central tail-feathers scarcely 
project half an inch. N.N. Am., ranging to the Middle States in winter ; not common. 

S. parasi/ticus. (Lat. parasiticus, parasitic.) Parasitic JAGER. Adult, breeding plum- 
age: Bill much shorter than head or tarsus; as high as broad at the base. Culmen broad, 
flattened, scarcely appreciably convex to the unguis, which is moderately convex. Rami very 
long; gonys very short; both somewhat concave in outline. Eminentia symphysis small but 
well-marked. Tomia of superior mandible at first ascending and a little concave; then 
descending and a little convex; very concave toward the tip. Cere without oblique strie ; 
with a straight longitudinal suleus on each side of the culmen. Feathers extending far on 
superior mandible, with a curved free outline, so broad that the feathers of the sides meet over 
the culmen. Feathers on lower mandible also projecting considerably, almost filling the tri- 
angular sulcus on the side as well as the angular space between the rami. Wings moderately 
long, strong, pointed ; first primary much the longest; rest regularly and rapidly graduated ; 


LARIDZA—LESTRIDINZ: JAGERS. 737 


all rather narrow and tapering to an acute apex, somewhat rigid and falcate. Secondaries 
short and inconspicuous ; broad, the tips of the outer ones nearly square, of the inner obliquely 
incised, the apex being formed by the inner web alone. Tertials long, soft, flexible. Tail 
moderately long, contained not quite two and a half times in the wing; very slightly rounded, 
the graduation being only half an inch. Feathers moderately broad quite to their tips, which 
are truncated. The central pair project three to four inches. They begin to taper about four 
inches from their apices, and regularly converge to a very acute tip. Feet rather short and 
quite slender; tarsi as long as the middle toe and claw. Tibia naked half an inch above the 
joint. The scutellation and reticulation is the same as that already described, but the nails are 
weaker and less arched, though fully as acute. A decided occipital crest and a calotte. 
Nuchal region with the feathers acuminate and rigid, with loosened fibril. Pileum, occipital 
crest, and whole upper parts deep brownish-black, with a somewhat slaty tinge, and a slight 
but appreciable metallic shade; this color deepening into quite black on the wings and tail. 
Rhachides of primaries and rectrices whitish, except at their tips; the inner vanes albesceut 
baso-internally. Chin, throat, sides of head, neck all round, and under parts to the vent, pure 
white; the feathers of the latero-nuchal region rigid, acuminate, with disconnected fibrille, 
light yellow. Under tail-coverts like the upper parts, but somewhat of a fuliginous tint; the 
line of demarcation from the white of the abdomen very trenchant. Smaller than No. 765. 
Wing 12.00-13.00; tarsus 1.75-1.87; bill 1.35-1.50; tail 5.00-6.00, the long feathers up to 
9.00. Nearly mature: Pileum and latero-nuchal region, and whole upper parts, as in the 
adult. The under parts white (as in the adult), but clouded everywhere with dusky patches, 
most marked across breast, on sides, flanks, and under tail-coverts, and leaving the middle of 
the belly and throat nearly pure. Varying degrees of this dusky nubilation approach in some 
specitnens nearly to the uniform dusky below characterized ; in others fade almost into the pure 
white of the adult, connecting the two states perfectly. The tarsi of the most dusky specimens 
have small yellow blotches; the others not. Dusky stage: Wholly deep dusky; darker and 
more plumbeous superiorly ; lighter, and with a fuliginous tinge, inferiorly ; the pileum quite 
black ; the latero-nuchal region yellow; the remiges and rectrices quite black; feet black. 
Immature: Size and general proportions nearly of the adult. Bill and cere perfectly formed ; 
feet mostly black, but with some yellow blotches. The upper parts unadulterated with any 
rufous bars; the deep brownish-black pileum has appeared, and the sides of the neck have 
obtained their yellow shade, which contrasts conspicuously with the fuliginous back-ground. 
Evidences of immaturity, however, are found on the under parts, where the dark color is mixed 
with the illy-defined transverse bars of ochraceous. Rufous is also found at the bend of the 
wing and on the under wing- and tail-coverts. The primaries are still whitish at the outside, 
as are also the rectrices. The central rectrices project 24 inches, and have the tapering form 
of those of the adults. Younger: Small size, delicate bill and feet, little projection of the 
central rectrices, general mollipilose condition of plumage, etc. The rufous of the very young 
bird, instead of giving way everywhere to dusky, yields to this color only on the upper parts 
and crown ; on the sides of the head, neck, and the whole under parts, whitish being the pre- 
dominating color; the continuity of this last being interrupted by indistinetly marked dusky 
bars. The yellow of the sides of the neck has not yet appeared. There is the same white 
space on the bases of the wings and tail that exists in the very young. The central tail- 
feathers only project about 24 inches. Young-of-the-year in August: Size considerably less 
than that of the adult, form every way more delicate. Wings more than an inch shorter; bill 
and feet much slenderer and weaker. Bill in some specimens light bluish-horn; in others 
greenish-olive, the terminal portion brownish-black. Tarsi and greater part of the toes 
yellow. The bird is everywhere rayed and barred with rufous and brownish-black. On the 
head and neck the rufous has a very light ochraceous tinge, and is the predominating color, 


dark only appearing as a delicate line along the shaft of each feather. Proceeding down the 
47 


167. 


738 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES—GAVLZE. 


neck to the back, the longitudinal lines become larger, and gradually spread wider and wider,. 
until between the shoulders they occupy the whole of each feather, except a narrow border of 
rufous, which latter is of a deeper tint than on the head. Passing down the throat to the 
breast, the rufous becomes decidedly lighter — almost whitish — while the brown, which on 
the throat exists only as a light longitudinal line, changes on each feather to transverse bars of 
about equal width with the light rufous bars with which it alternates. This pattern prevails 
over the whole under parts, the transverse bands being broadest on the flanks and under tail- 
and wing-coverts, narrowest in the middle of the belly. The primaries are brownish-black, 
narrowly tipped with rufous, their shafts yellowish, their inner webs fading basally into white. 
The tail has the same coloration as the wings. The central feathers project about # of an inch. 
Northern N. Am.; U. 8. in winter; chiefly coastwise, but breeds in interior Arctic Am. 
Eggs resembling those of Numenius borealis, and quite as variable in ground-color and mark- 
ings ; size from 2.00 to 2.40 long, by 1.50 to 1.70 broad, averaging nearer the larger of these 
dimensions; pointed, but not so pear-shaped as those of the Curlew. 

S. buf‘foni. (To the Count de Buffon.) Arctic JAGER. LONG-TAILED JAGER. Adult, 
breeding plumage: Bill shorter than the head, less than the middle toe without the claw ; 
stout, compressed, higher than broad at the base, its sides regularly converging. Ceral por- 
tion of culinen broad, flat, depressed, slightly concave in outline; ungual portion very de- 
cidedly declinato-convex to the greatly overhanging tip; narrower than the ceral. Tomia of 
superior mandible sinuate; at first concave and ascending ; then convex and descending ; again. 
very concave as they decurve toward the deflected tip, just posterior to which there is an im- 
perfect notch. Tomia of inferior maxilla nearly straight to the tip, where they are decurved. 
Gonys very short, slightly concave in outline. Eminentia symphysis acute, but not very large; 
raini very long as compared with the gonys, but absolutely rather short, from the encroach- 
meut of the feathers. Cere very short, being scarcely if at all longer than the unguis; its 
lower border curving upward to give passage to the nostrils. The encroachment of the feathers. 
on the bill is greater than that of any other species; on the upper mandible they extend within 
half an inch of the distal end of the cere, having a broad, rounded termination, the feathers of 
the two sides meeting on and covering the culmen some distance from its real base. The 
feathers on the sides of the lower mandible extend nearly as far as on the upper, and those- 
between the rami quite to the symphysis. Wings exceedingly long; first primary much the 
longest ; rest rapidly graduated ; all rather narrow, tapering, faleate, actually pointed, their 
rhachides stiff and strong. Secondaries short and inconspicuous; rather broad; their apices. 
as in the other species. Tertials moderately long, very straight, flexible, rounded at. their 
extremities, the edges of their vanes convoluted. Tail very long; longer, both absolutely and. 
relatively, than in any other North American species, being half as long as the wings; gradu- 
ated, the lateral feather being $ of an inch shorter than the next to central pair; all the 
feathers moderately broad, converging somewhat to their rather broad, rounded tips. Central 
rectrices extremely lengthened, exceeding the wings ; projecting 8 to 10 inches beyond the tips 
of the lateral ones. They are extremely rigid at the base, being there much stiffer than the 
other feathers, but gradually become flexible, and at length filamentous in character, but pre- 
serve great elasticity throughout. Feet quite slender; tarsus equal to middle toe and claw. 
Tibie bare of feathers for $ of an inch. The reticulation of the fect identical with that already 
described under other species. The scutella of the anterior face of the tarsus, however, show 
a tendency to degenerate into minute plates near the tibio-tarsal joint. Proportions of the 
toes as in other species, but the claws are comparatively small and weak, and but moderately 
curved and acute. Occiput decidedly subcrested. The latero-nuchal region has its feathers: 
lengthened, with disconnected fibrille, but they are hardly acuminate or rigid. The plumage 
about the bill is short, thick, and compact; that of the upper parts is soft and flexible, only 
moderately imbricated and compact; that of the under parts is long, soft, and very thick. Bill 


LARIDZA—LARINZ: GULLS. 739 


dusky, its nail almost black. Tarsi deep leaden-blue; tibie, phalanges, interdigital mem- 
branes, and claws black. Occiput subcrested, more decidedly than in any other species, form- 
ing a calotte of brownish-black, which color extends downward on the cheeks, the feathers 
before and below the eye and on the sides of the bill being of this color. Neck all round, but 
especially the sides of the head and the peculiarly-formed feathers on the latero-nuchal region, 
light straw-yellow. Whole upper parts, with upper wing and tail-coverts, deep slate, which, 
on the primaries, secondaries, lateral tail-feathers, and distal half of central pair, deepens into 
a lustrous brownish-black. Under surface of wings and tail deeper slate than the black, but 
not so deep as the upper surfaces. Chin, throat, and upper breast white, gradually becoming 
obscured with dusky-plumbeous, which deepeus posteriorly, so that the abdomen and under 
tail-coverts are nearly as dark as the back. Rhachides of first two or three primaries pure 
white, deepening into brownish-black at their tips; of the other primaries, and of the tail- 
feathers (including the central pair), brown, except just at the base, blackening terminally. 
Under surfaces of all the rhachides white for nearly their whole length. Length of culmen 
1.15 inches; gape 1.70; cere 0.60; unguis about the same; gonys 0.30; from feathers on 
sides of bill to tip 0.90; wing 12.50; tail 6.25; central pair 14.00 to 16.00; the projection 
8.00 to 10.00 inches; tibiee bare 0.75; tarsus 1.60; middle toe without claw 1.40. All 
changes and states of plumage identical with those of No. 766. N. Ai., northerly ; breeds 
in Arctic regions. Eggs not distinguishable from those of No. 766, averaging smaller but 
dimensions overlapping ; a fair specimen is 2.10 X 1.50; from this down to 1.90 1.40. 


71. Subfamily LARINA: Culls. 


Covering of bill continuous, horny throughout; bill more or less strongly epignathous, 
compressed, with more or less protuberant gonys; nostrils linear-oblong, median or sub-basal, 
pervious. Tail even or nearly su, rarely forked or cuneate, without projecting middle feathers. 
Certain of the smaller slenderer-billed species alone resemble terns, but may be known by the 
not forked tail (except Xema); in all the larger species, the hook of the bill is distinctive. 
Gulls average much larger than terns, with stouter build; the feet are larger and more 
ambulatorial, the wings are shorter and not so thin; the birds winnow the air ina steady 
course unlike the buoyant dashing flight of their relatives. They are cosmopolitan ; species 
occur in abundance on all sea-coasts, and over large inland waters; in general, large numbers 
are scen together, not only at the breeding-places, but during the migrations, and in winter, 
when their association depends upon community of interest in the matter of food. This is 
almost entirely of an animal nature, and consists principally of fish; the birds seem to be 
always hungry, always feeding or trying to do so. Many kinds procure food by plunging 
for it, like terns; others pick up floating substances; some of the smaller kinds are adroit 
parasites of the pelicans, snatching food from their very mouths. They all swim lightly — 
a circumstance explained by the smallness of the body compared with its apparent dimensions 
with the feathers on. The voice of the larger species is hoarse, that of the smaller shrill ; 
they have an ordinary note of several abrupt syllables during the breeding season, and a 
harsh cry of anger or impatience ; the young emit a querulous whine. The nest is commonly 
built on the ground; the eggs, 2-3 in number, are variegated in color. 

Several circumstances conspire to render the study of these birds difficult. With some 
exceptions, they are almost identical in form; while in size they show an unbroken series. 
Individual variability in size is high; northerly birds are usually appreciably larger than 
those of the same species hatched further south; the g exceeds the ? alittle (usually) ; 
very old birds are likely to be larger, with especially stouter bill, than young or middle-aged 
ones. There is, besides, a certain plasticity of organization, or ready susceptibility to modify- 
ing influences, so marked that the individuals hatched at a particular spot may be appreciably 
different in some slight points from others reared but a few miles away. One pattern of eolor- 


308. 


740 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES—GAVILE. 


ation runs through nearly all the species: they are white, with a darker mantle (stragulum), 
and in most cases with black crossing the primaries near the end, the tips of the quills white. 
The shade of the mantle is very variable in the same species, according to climate, action 
of the sun, friction, and, other causes; the pattern of the black on the quills is still more so, 
since it is continually changing with age, at least until a final stage is reached. Incredible 
as it may appear, species and even genera have been based upon such shadowy characters. 
One group of species has the head enveloped in a dark hood in the breeding season, the under 
parts tinted with peach-blossom hue. The sexes are always alike; the moult appears to be 
twice a year, so that a winter plumage more or less different from that of summer results ; 
while the young are never like the old. The change is slow, generally requiring 2-3 years ; 
in the interim, birds are found in every stage. They are always darker than the old, often 
quite dusky; usually with black or flesh-colored bill; and if with black on the primaries 
when adult, the young usually have these quills all black. There being no peculiar extra- 
limital species, those of our country give a perfect idea of the whole group. Some 75 species 

are current ; there are certainly not over 50 good ones. 

Analysis of Genera. 
Tail square, 
Head never hooded; under parts never rosy-tinted; size medium and large; bill stout. 
Hallux well developed, with perfect claw. 
Adult white, with a colored mantle, or dark, with whitehead . . . . . .. . . Larus 308 
Adult entirely white; feet black ee ee ee ee ae oe . Pagophila 310 
Hallux usually defective. (Tailemarginate inthe young)... ... .... . . Rissa 309 
Head in summer hooded, and under parts rosy-tinted; size medium and small; bill slender 

Chrotcocephalus 311 


Tail wedge-shaped; neck collared ; small BEd ae Bar dae Hons Ger ca ee) Soe setae Se aes Gy SereeHOdosten lia: 312 
Tail forked; head hooded . . . . . » Xema 313 


LA'RUS. (Gr. Adpos, daros, Lat. larus, a gull.) Guus. Bill shorter than the head or 
tarsus, large, strong, more or less robust, usually very stout, deep at the base, higher than 
broad, compressed throughout, the apex not very acute and never much attenuated or decurved. 
Culmen about straight to beyond the nostrils, then convex, the amount of curvature increasing 
toward the end, varying in different species. Commissure slightly sinuate at its extreme base, 
then about straight to near the end, where it is more or less arcuato-declinate. Eminentia 
symphysis always large, prominent, and well-defined, rather obtuse, seldom acute. Nostrils 
placed rather far forward in a well-defined nasal fossa, lateral, longitudinal, pervious, rather 
broader anteriorly than posteriorly. Feathers of forehead extending considerably farther on 
the sides of the upper mandible than on its culmen, but falling considerably short of the 
nostrils. Wings when folded reaching beyond the tail, the remiges strong, not very acute, 
first longest, second but little shorter, rest rapidly graduated. Tail of moderate length, always 
even, never forked nor rounded. Legs rather slender, of moderate length ; tibiee bare for a 
considerable distance above the joint, the naked part smooth. Tarsi about equal to or a little 
longer than the middle toe and claw, varying but slightly in proportions among the different 
species ; anteriorly scutellate, posteriorly and laterally reticulate. Hallux fully developed 
and always present. Anterior claws stout, strong, little curved, rather obtuse, the inner edge 
of the middle one dilated. Webs full and broad, scarcely incised. Of very large or medium 
size, never very small. Robust and powerful. Comprising the largest species of the subfamily 
and those typical of it. White, with a darker mantle, without a hood; the head and neck in 
winter streaked with dusky ; one species dark with white head and red bill. 


Analysis of Species. 


i. Tail and under parts white in adult; bill and feet not reddish. (Larus.) 
A. Large and robust: mantle whitish or pale pearly ; no black on primaries at any age. 
Mantle very pale; primaries the same, fading insensibly into white far from the tips. 
Larger: length about 30.00 inches; wing 18.00 or more; bill and tarsus, each, about 3.00 
glaucus 768 


LARIDA —LARINZ: GULLS. 741 


Smaller: length about 24.00 inches; wing 17.00 or less; bill about 2.00; tarsus 2.25 leucopterus 769 
Mantle light blue; primaries the same, with detinite white tips . . . . glaucescens 7710 
Mantle very pale blue, as in leucopterus; primaries with slate-gray markings. . . . kumlieni 70a 

B. Very large: mantle slaty-blackish; primaries crossed with black; size ofthe first . . marinus 771 
Cc. Large: mantle some shade of blue, darker than in 4, lighter than in B ; primaries crossed with black. 
Mantle grayish-blue ; bill moderately robust; feet flesh-colored argentatus or smithsonianus 172, 773 


Mantle slaty-blue; bill very robust; feet flesh-colored . . ....... . . occidentalis T74 
Mantle dark grayish-blue; bill moderately robust; feet yellow; eye-ring orange . cachinnans 775 
afinis Ti16 


Mantle dark slate; bill moderately robust; feet flesh-colored. . . . 2... . 
D. Medium and small: primaries crossed with black; feet dark-greenish; webs yellow. 
Tarsus obviously longer than the middle toe and claw ; bill of adult greenish-yellow, encircled 
with a black band; first primary usually with a sub-apical white spot ; length about 18.00-22.00 
delawarensis 178 
Tarsus little if any longer than middle toe and claw; bill with a red spot, but an imperfect black 
band, if any; first primary usually with the end broadly white; length about 20.00-22.00 
ealifornicus TTT 
Tarsus little if any longer than the middle toe and claw; bill slender, greenish, without a black 


band or red spot ; size very small; Jength 16.00 or 18.00 . . . . canus or brachyrhynchus 779, 780 
II. Tail and under parts darkin adult. Head white; bill and feet reddish. (Blasipus.) 
Back slaty-lead color. . . 1. 1. ECL oh chavo sear celle sakes ae heermanni 781 


768. L. glau'cus. (Gr. yAavkds, glaukos, Lat. glaucus, bluish.) GLaucous Gut. Ice Gun. 


769. 


770. 


Buregomaster. Very large: length about 30.00; extent 60.00; wing up to 18.50; bill 2.75- 
3.00 (chord of culinen), along gape 3.75, its depth opposite nostrils 0.80, at angle 0.85 5 tarsus 
3.00-3.25 ; middle toe and claw 2.75. No black anywhere at any age. Adult & Q: Bill large 
and strong, very wide, but not so deep at angle nor so convex at end as in marinus, about as 
long as middle tue and claw; chrome yellow, the tip diaphanous yellow, a vermilion spot at 
the angle. Legs and feet pale flesh-color or yellowish. Ivis yellow. Primaries eutirely white, 
or palest possible pearly-blue, fading insensibly into white at some distance from their tips, their 
shafts straw-yellow. Mantle very pale pearl-blue. Otherwise, wholly white. In winter: 
Head and hind neck lightly touched with pale browuish-gray. An immature stage: Entirely 
white; bill flesh-colored, black-tipped. Young: Bill flesh-colored, black-tipped ; plumage 
impure white, mottled with pale reddish-brown, sometimes quite dusky on the back ; tinder 
parts a nearly uniform pale shade of brownish; quills and tail imperfectly barred with the same. 
Smaller: wing 17.50; bill 2.40; tarsus 2.40, etc. Northern and Arctic seas, ciremnpolar ; &. 
in winter in N. Am. to the Middle States, coastwise ; breeds only in the high north. This te pie 
of the very largest and most powerful birds of the whole family, fully equalling LD. marinus in 
these respects. 
L. leucop’terus. (Gr. Aeuxés, leucos, white ; nrepdv, pteron, wing.) WHITE-wINGEp GULL 
Precisely like the last, but smaller. Leugth 24.00, rather less than more; wing 16.00-17.00 
bill along culmen 1.75-2.00, along gape about 2.75 ; depth at angle 0.65 ; tarsus 9,00-2 25, 
not longer than middle toe and claw. This counterpart of D. glaucus inhabits the same tiorth- 
erly regions, coming south to the same degree in winter. It appears to be much less character- 
istic of N. Am. than of Europe. 
L. glaucesicens. (Lat. glaucescens, growing bluish.) GLaucous-wINcED GuLL. Like a 
ee sas seen ee ie i arin had ce } primaries of the color of the mantle 
white sub-terminal spot. Bill je a Pie 1 agit at eaahae : nes 
considerably beyond tip of the under the eave eo ee ven a ae 
; xity near the end comparatively slight; angle 
pretty well defined, the outline between it and the tip about straight. Tarsus rather ] i : 
than middle toe and claw. Length about 27.00; wing 16.75 : bill along culmen Mee 
gape 3.25; depth at angle 0.70; tarsus 2.60; middle toe and elie 2.50. Adult in su 
Bill light yellow, an orange spot at angle of lower mandible, and a dusky one j st ps 
Mandible pearl-blue, much the same shade as in argentatus. Prit i : ie ee 
L naries scarcely darker than 
the back, all with well-defined, rounded apical spots of white. First, the base not appreciably 


770a. 


eae 


142 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LONGIPENNES — GAVIZ. 


lighter than the body of the feather, with a well-defined white spot on both webs near the end, 
separated from the white tip by a transverse band of the color of the body of the feather ; second, 
third, and fourth, basal portions notably lighter than the terminal, fading into pure white at 
their juncture with the latter, without spots except at the apex; fifth, sixth, basal portions the 
color of the back, fading into white near the eud, separated from the white apices by a hand, 
narrowest on the sixth, of the color of the outer primaries. Inner primaries like the secoud- 
aries, with plain broadly white ends. Feet light flesh-color. Adult in winter: Head, neck, 
and breast thickly nebulated with light grayish-dusky, the throat mostly immaculate. Approach- 
ing maturity: Bill dark-colored, yellowish along the culmen and gonys. Wings and tail light 
grayish-ashy, the former without sharply-defined white tips or spots. Under parts generally 
marked with dusky, the wing-coverts marked with dusky and white. Feathers of the back 
narrowly edged with gray. Intermediate: Bill flesh-colored, the terminal portion black. Wings 
and tail darker than in the preceding especially on the outer webs of the former. Everywhere 
dusky-gray, more or less mottled with white, the gull-blue of the upper parts appearing in 
patches of greater or less extent. Young-of-the-year: Bill black. Everywhere grayish-dusky, 
somewhat mottled with whitish ; the feathers of the back, wings, and upper tail-coverts edged, 
tipped, and crossed with more or less regular transverse bars of grayish-white. Downy young: 
Bill and feet black; head and neck dull whitish, spotted with blackish ; upper parts spotted 
with grayish-black and grayish-white ; under parts more uniformly gray, the abdomen white. 
Pacific coast of N. Am., of U. 8. in winter, breeding northerly; common. Also on the 
Asiatic coast. 

L. kumlieni. (To L. Kumiien.) Gray-wincrp Guiu. Adult ¢: Like glaucescens ; 
rather smaller, with lighter mantle and different color and pattern of the primaries. Mantle 
about as in leucopterus ; primaries and secondaries mostly white on their exposed surfaces, 
with markings of dull slate-gray. First primary white on both webs at end for about two 
inches, the inner web white to the base excepting a slate-gray strip next the shaft, the outer 
web (except at end) slate-gray fading into white toward the base. Second primary with the 
gray confined to a space of about four inches on the outer web, and both webs tinged with the 
color of the mantle which, on the inner web, fades into white about three inches from the tip, 
but on the outer web is deepest where it joins the darker gray area. Third primary with sub- 
apical gray bar on both webs, half an inch wide on inner web, but running along the outer web 
for two inches; the tip of this feather white, the rest tinged with the color of the mantle. 
Fourth primary with a slate-gray subterminal bar, but narrower and paler; fifth with a pair 
of subterminal gray spots ; remaining primaries and all the secondaries plain and concolor with 
mantle to within about two inches of their tips, where the pearl-blue changes rather abruptly 
into white. Iris cream-color; bill yellow with red spot, as usual; orbital ring ‘reddish; feet 
flesh-color. Length 24.00; extent 50.00; wing 16.00-17.00 ; tail 6.50; chord of culmen 1.75; 
gape 2.60; tarsus, or middle toe and claw, about 2.30. Young said to be even darker than 
that of argentatus(?) Cumberland Sound and Greenland, 8. in winter to New England, the 
citations of ‘ glaucescens” from Maine belonging here. (Description compiled from Brewster, 
Bull. Nutt. Club, viii, 1883, p. 216. The bird is probably L. chalcopterus of Bruch, Lawrence, 
and Coues.) 

L. mari/nus. (Lat. marinus, marine). GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL. SADDLE-BACK. 
CoFFIN-CARRIER. Coss. Adult, breeding plumage: Size very large; general form strong, 
compact, and powerful. Bill very stout, deep at the angle, rather short for its height; culmen 
toward the end exceedingly convex, so much so as to make a tangent to it at the point where 
the tip of the lower mandible touches it perpendicular to the commissure. Symphyseal emi- 
nence very prominent; tarsus but little if any longer than the middle toe and claw, compressed, 
rather slender for the size of the bird. Bill bright chrome, the tip of both mandibles diapha- 
nous. <A large bright vermilion spot oceupies nearly the terminal half of the lower mandible 


“TTR. 


“‘TT3. 


LARIDA —LARINE: GULLS. 743 


and encroaches a little on the upper. Edges of jaws bright vermilion. Palate and tongue pale 


orange-red. Eyelids vermilion. Iris pale lemon-yellow. Legs and feet pale flesh-color. 
Mantle intense slate-color, nearly black, with a purplish reflection; secondaries and tertials 
broadly tipped with white, the line of demarcation distinct. Primaries: first, black, scarcely 
lighter at its base, its tip white for 24 inches, its shaft white inferiorly, and superiorly aloug the 
white portion of the feather ; second, like the first, but its base lighter, the white tip less exten- 
sive, and interrupted by a narrow bar of black on one or both webs ; third, fourth, fifth, broadly 
tipped with white, their bases of a lighter shade of slate than the second, and fading into white 
at the junction with the broad black subterminal band. Adult in winter: As in summer, but 
the head and neck streaked with dusky. Young-of-the-year: As large as the adult; the bill. 
as large, but not so strong, nor the eminence so well developed; wholly black. Upper parts 
wholly dusky chocolate-brown, mottled with whitish and light rufous, the latter on the back 
and wings, the feathers being tipped and the wing-coverts deeply indented with this color. 
Under parts mottled with white or rufous-white and dusky, the throat mostly immaculate. 
Primaries and tail deep brownish-black, the former tipped, subterminally barred, and its outer 
feather mottled, with whitish. Dimensions: length 30.00 inches ; extent 65.00; wing 19.00; 
bill above 2.50; riectus 3.50; height at nostril 0.85; at angle 0.95 ; tarsus 3.00; middle toe 
and claw slightly less. This great bird, the dark rival of the ice-gull, inhabits the Atlantic 
coasts of Europe and N. Am., ranging south coastwise in winter to Florida, breeding beyond 
the U. S., especially in Labrador. Found on the larger inland waters as well as coastwise. 
Nest on the ground, of moss and seaweed; eggs 3, 2.90 x 2.15, pale drab or olive-gray, irreg- 
ularly blotched with dark brown and blackish, with purplish or neutral-tint shell-spots. 

L. argenta/tus. (Lat. argentatus, silvered, silvery.) EUROPEAN HErrina GULL. Precisely 
like the next to be described, excepting the following particulars: Average smaller size; wing 
averaging 1.50 inches shorter ; feet about 0.50 shorter on an average; bill shorter and slenderer, 
particularly at base. The 1st primary has usually a white terminal space 2 inches long; the 
2d a large rounded sub-terminal white spot, occupying both webs. The lst primary of the 
American bird has usually a rounded white subterminal spot much like that on the 2d primary 
of the European, almost always separated trom the white apical spot, and if a spot is present 
on the 2d primary it is small. A variety is predicable upon these average differences. Birds 
typically like the European occur in N. Am., where the next is the ordinary “ herring gull.” 
L. a. smithsonia’nus. (To the 8. I.) American Herring Guiu. Adult: Bill rather less 
than tarsus, shorter than head; robust, its height at the angle slightly more than at the base. 
Cnlmen nearly straight at the nostrils; then rapidly convex to the stout, deflected, overhanging 
apex. Outline of rami slightly coneave ; gonys about straight; eminence at symphysis large 
and prominent, but its apex not very acute. Breeding plumage: Bill bright chrome, its tip 
diaphanous , a vermilion spot at the angle, with sometimes a small black one just anterior to it. 
Legs and feet pale flesh-color ; claws blackish. Mantle typical “ gull-blue,” much lighter than 
in occidentalis ; lighter than in brachyrhynchus ; of much the same shade as in delawarensis or 
glaucescens ; darker than in glaucus or leucopterus. The bases of the primaries are the same 
as the back, or very slightly lighter, not so light, nor of so great extent (being exceedingly 
short on the first primary), nor so broad at the end, as in californicus. On the first primary 
this light basal portion is very short, hardly reaching within six or seven inches of the tip of 
the primary. It is not lighter at its junction with the black, nor does it extend further on the 
central portion than on the edge of the feather. On the second, third, and fourth primaries the 
bluish of the basal portions of the feather extends about the same distance on each (within 
four inches of the tip of the second), and runs up further on the centres of the feathers than on 
their edges, and grows nearly white at its junction with the black portion of the feathers. 
First primary with a subapical white spot near its tip; small, rounded, not much over an inch 
in diameter ; generally not longer on the outer vane than on the inner; sometimes wanting on 


174, 


T44 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— LONGIPENNES—GAVIE. 


the former; in oldest birds this spot enlarging to coalesce with the white tip of the feather; 
second primary usually without a subapical spot, or if one is present it is small. All the pri- 
maries with small rounded white apices, and black from these apical spots to their bluish-white 
bases; this band of black growing narrower from the first toward the seventh, where it is a 
mere point. Winter plumage: Head and neck streaked with dusky; bill less brightly colored. 
Otherwise as in summer. Immature: The feathers of the back have gray margins; the upper 
wing-coverts mottled with dusky-gray. An imperfect subterminal bar of dusky on the tail. 
Young of first winter: Head, neck, and whole under parts more or less thickly mottled with 
dusky, as are the wing-coverts, secondaries, and tertials. The gull-blue of the upper parts 
appears in irregular patches, mixed with gray. Remiges and rectrices brownish-black, with 
very narrow whitish tips, the former wanting both apical and subapical white spots. Bill flesh- 
color, its terminal third black. Feet dull flesh-color. Younger: Entirely a deep dull brown- 
ish; the throat lightly streaked and the rump transversely barred with whitish; the feathers of 
the back with yellowish or grayish-white edges; wings and tail black; bill black; legs and 
feet dusky flesh-color. Dimensions of adult: length, 24 to 25 inches; extent 54 to 58; 
wing 17.00 to 18.00; bill along culmen, 2.40; height at nostril, 0.75; at angle 0.80; tarsus 
2.75; middle toe and claw the same. Female a little, and young considerably less than the 
above. Wing down to 15.50; bill to 2.20; tarsus to 2.40. N. Am. at large, abundant, both 
coastwise and in the interior, especially numerous along the Atlantic coast in winter; casually 
on the Pacific coast. Breeds from New England and the great lakes northward, especially 
about the St. Lawrence, Newfoundland, and Labrador; but not specially arctic. Nest on 
the ground, exceptionally in trees; eggs normally 3, averaging 2.80 X 1.95; ground-color from 
light bluish- or greenish-white to dark brownish-olive; markings of every size and shape, very 
irregularly disposed, dark brown and blackish, paler brown and neutral-tint; June and early 
July. Nestlings covered with whitish down, mottled with angular dusky spots. 

L. occidenta/lis. (Lat. occidentalis, western.) WrsTERN HERRING GULL. Bill large, very 
stout and deep; culmen unusually convex at the end; angle strongly developed, making the 
under outline doubly-concave. Feet large and stout; tarsus equal to middle toe and claw. 
Adult, summer plumage: Bill bright chrome-yellow ; a vermilion spot, more or less exteusive, 
at the angle. Mantle dark bluish-ash, almost slate-color; the tips of the secondaries and ter- 
tials white; the line of demarcation distinct. Primaries: first three black throughout their 
exposed portions, the outer white for some distance at the tip (1.75 inches), crossed near the 
end with an irregular black bar, the shafts entirely black; second, without a white spot, but 
its tip, and the tips of all the others, white. Legs and feet flesh-color. Approaching matu- 
rity: As in the preceding, but the upper parts rather lighter, and the tail with an imperfect 
subterminal bar of black. Intermediate: Bill much as in the adult. White of the head, 
neck, and under parts, more or less mottled with dusky; ‘‘ gull-blue” of the upper parts ap- 
pearing in irregular patches ; most of the feathers tipped with light gray. Primaries and tail 
uniform deep blackish-brown, with scareely lighter tips, the former without spots. Young-of- 
the-year: Bill entirely black, rather shorter than in the adults, but at the same time with 
great comparative depth at the angle. Everywhere a deep blackish-brown, inottled with 
grayish-white, the feathers of the upper parts being tipped and edged with that color. Rump 
and upper tail-coverts barred with whitish and dusky. Wings and tail as in the preceding. 
Winter plumage: This species seems to form an exception to the rule which obtains so exten- 
sively among large gulls, since in winter the head and neck behind are not, ordinarily at least, 
streaked with dusky. Dimensions of adult: length 24 inches; extent 55.00; wing 16.50; 
bill above 2.30; along gape 3.10; height at nostril 0.75; width 0.40; height at angle 0.85 ; 
tarsus, and middle toe and claw, 2.75. Pacific Coast of N. A., very common. 

L. cachin/nans, (Lat. cachinnans, laughing immoderately.) PALLas’s GULL. Size, pro- 
portions of parts, pattern of primaries, etc., as in a common Herring Gull. Feet yellow (not 


716, 


TTT. 


178. 


LARIDE—LARINZ: GULLS. 745 


Jesh-color) ; ring round eye in the breeding season orange-red (not yellow). Mantle dark 
Lluish — much darker than that of argentatus, yet not slate-colored as in occidentalis. Europe, 
Asia, and N. W. coast of N. A. 

L. affiinis. (Lat. afinis, allied to L. fuscus.) Remuarpt’s GuLL. Unknown to me; 
Described as a slaty-backed bird, resembling DL. fuscus, but belonging to the herring gull 
vroup in the pattern of the primaries; feet fesh-colored, small, toes shorter than tarsi. Asia ; 
only N. American as oceurring in Alaska and accidentally in Greenland. 

L. califor/nicus. CALIFORNIAN GULL. Adult, summer plumage: Bill moderately stout, 
the angle well developed; varying in size, longer than in delawarensis, sometimes nearly equal- 
ling argentatus. Tarsus equal to or slightly longer than middle toe and claw. Bill chrome- 
yellow, tinged with greenish; a vermilion spot on lower mandible at angle; a black spot just 
above, forming, with a very small black spot on the upper mandible, an imperfect transverse 
band. Feet dusky Ulwish-green, the webs yellow. Mantle pearl-blue, much as in brachyrhyn- 
chus, lighter than in canus, slightly darker than in argentatus. Primarics: bases of all light 
bluish-white, internally almost white, especially on outer webs, and of great extent on all; Ist 
with a white space at the end for about 2 inches, the shaft white along the white portion of 
the feather; 2d with a white spot near the end on the whole of the inner and most of the 
outer web, divided by the black shaft ; tips of all white; black forming merely a narrow sub- 
terminal band on the 6th. Tips of inner primaries white, as are also the tips of the second- 
aries and tertials, the line of demarcation between the white and the blue of the mantle pretty 
distinct. In breeding plumage: Eyelids bright saffron-yellow or red. Eyes brown. Upper 
mandible bright chrome, the greater part of the lower vermilion, the rest chrome. Gape of 
mouth deep crimson. Feet green. Winter plumage: Bill dully colored. Head and neck 
behind streaked and mottled with dusky. Nearly mature: As in the preceding. Tail with 
an imperfect subterminal black bar. Some of the feathers of the upper parts edged with gray. 
White space at end of Ist primary crossed by a transverse black bar ; no spot on 2d primary. 
Young: Bil yellowish flesh-color, black on the terminal half. Head, neck, rump, wing- 
coverts, tertials and secondaries, mottled with dusky. Primaries and tail uniformly brownish- 
black, seareely lighter at the tips. Back as in the adults, but the feathers with grayish edges. 
Dimensions: Length 20.00-23.00; extent 50.00-54.00; wing 15.00-17.00; bill 1.60-2.00; 
depth at eminentia symphysis 0.56; tarsus 2.00-2.25; middle toe and claw about the same. 
Adults near the larger of these dimensions. Western and Arctic N. Am., breeding abundantly 
in U.S. 

L. delawaren’sis. (Of Delaware.) RinG-BILLED GuLL. Common AMERICAN GULL. 
Adult in summer: Bill rather stout, as long as the middle toe and claw; the upper mandible 
considerably convex at the end; under mandible much thickened at the angle, which is prom- 
inent; the outline from base to angle, and from angle to tip, both concave. Middle toe and 
claw scarcely more than $ the tarsus. Bill greenish-yellow, at tip chrome, encircled at the 
angle with a broad band of black. Legs and feet dusky bluish-green. Mantle light pearl- 
blue, fading into white at the ends of the secondaries and tertials, the line of demarcation in- 
distinct. Primaries: 1st black, the basal portion of the inner web very light bluish-white, 
(almost white), with a spot of white about 1.25 inches long near the end, of equal extent on both 
webs, divided by the black shatt; 2d with a small white spot on the inner web, and the inner 
web whitish at base for a longer distance; the whitish of the bases of the primaries regularly 
increases inward and the black decreases, until on the 6th it is merely a trausverse bar. Apex 
of Ist primary black, of others white, the spot being very minute on the 2d, and gradually in- 
creasing ; 7th and innermost primaries without any black, like the secondaries. Adult in 
winter: Asin summer, but the head and neck behind spotted (not streaked nor nebulated) 
with dusky. Young, first winter: Upper parts irregularly mottled with dusky brown and the 
pearl-blue of the adults, the wing-coverts being almost entirely dusky, with lighter margins 


779. 


780. 


746 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES— GAVLE. 


to the feathers. Head, neek, and under parts, mottled with white and dusky. Primaries 
uniformly black ; secondaries with a patch of brownish-black near the ends; tertials wholly 
browuish-black, narrowly tipped with whitish. Tail with a broad subterminal band of black, 
narrowly tipped with white. Terminal half of bill black, the extreme tip yellowish. Young- 
of-the-year in August: Everywhere mottled thickly with brownish-black, on the upper parts 
the feathers with yellowish-white edges, the pearl-blue of the adults scarcely apparent, except 
on the wing-coverts. Terminal two-thirds of bill with the tip blaék, the rest light flesh- 
color. Dimensions: length 19.75; extent 48.50; wing 14.75; bill above 1.70; gape 2.30; 
height at nostril 0.45; at angle 0.50; tarsus 2.10; middle toe 1.80. N. Am. at large, on 
the whole the commonest species, both coastwise and in the interior; breeds in the U. S. as 
well as far north. 

L. ca/nus. (Lat. canus, hoary gray.) Europran Mew Guu. Assigned to N. A. on 
strength of a specimen shot by me in Labrador in 1860. It is entirely like the next to be 
described excepting the following particulars: Tarsus a fourth longer than the middle toe and 
claw. Bill stouter, with less convex culmen and better developed angle. The bluish bases of 
the primaries darker, not fading into white at their junction with the black, not running so far 
along the feathers, nor farther in the centres than along the edges of the inner webs. Size 
greater. Probably uot more than varietally distinct from the next to be described. 

L. brachyrhyn'chus. (Gr. Bpayis, brachus, short; piyyos, hrugchos, beak.) AMERICAN 
Mew Gut. Bill small, somewhat stout for its length, much shorter than the head or tarsus. 
Upper mandible straight to the end of the nostrils, moderately convex to the tip, rather more 
so than in canus. Angle of lower mandible pretty well-developed, comparatively more so than 
in canus ; the lower outline considerably concave posterior to it, somewhat so before it. 
Commissure about straight to near the tip. Tarsus and middle toe and claw about equal, the 
former but little if any longer than the latter. Adult in summer: Bill bluish-green, its ter- 
minal third bright yellow. Legs and feet dusky bluish-green, the webs yellowish. Mantle light 
grayish-blue or dark pearl-blue, a shade darker than in canus, much darker than in delawa- 
rensis. Primaries: the bluish-gray bases rather lighter than in canus, much darker than in 
delawarensis, but fading into nearly pure white on all but the first at the juncture with the 
black portion; these bluish-gray bases of the feathers extend toward the ends much further 
than in canis, as far as in delawarensis, and, as in that species, on the 2d, 3d, and 4th, extend 
further along the central portions of the inner web than at the edges, so that they are bordered 
for some distance with the black of the terminal portions of the feathers. The black takes in 
the outer web of the lst primary and nearly the whole of the inner, but rapidly becomes nar- 
rower, till it is merely a subterminal transverse bar on the 6th. The 7th has frequently a spot 
of black on one or both webs. First, with a large white spot near the end two inches long, 
longer on the outer than on the inner web, not divided by the black shaft, the tip of the feather 
black ; 2d, with a similar spot, but smaller, not longer on the outer than on the inner web, 
and divided by the black shaft; the extreme apex white, as are the apices of all the other 
primaries except the 1st. Adult, high breeding plumage: Eyelid, ocular region, and gape of 
mouth, bright orange-yellow, which color extends over the tip and cutting edges of the bill. 
The green of the bill with a peculiar hoary glaucescence. Legs and feet bluish-green, the 
webs bright gamboge-yellow. Sometimes a faint pink blush of the plumage of the under 
parts. Adult in winter: The head and neck all round, with the upper part of the breast, mot- 
tled with dusky. Approaching maturity: Head and neck faintly mottled. Primaries brown- 
ish-black, without decided white tips; the spots on the lst and 2d restricted. Tertials with a 
dusky spot on each web near the end. Tail with a more or less perfect subterminal band. 
Young, first winter: Bill flesh-color; black on the terminal half. Legs and feet light yellow- 
ish. Head, neck, rump, and whole under parts, mottled irregularly with dusky. Back as in 
the adult, but the feathers with grayish edgings. Wing-coverts, secondaries, and tertials 


781. 


309. 


LARIDA—LARINZA): GULLS. T4T 


dusky; darkest on the latter; all with light edgings. Primaries uniform brownish-black, 
without white spots, tips, or lighter bases. Tail almost entirely brownish-black, with a 
narrow border of white. Young in August: Bill and legs as in the preceding. Everywhere 
whitish-gray ; the white of the under parts appearing as mottling, and the blue of the upper 
parts as irregular patches. Dimensions: length 17.50; extent 42.00; wing 13.75; Dill 
above 1.40; gape 2.00; width at nostrils 0.25; height 0.35, height at angle 0.35; tarsus, 
and middle toe with claw, 1.80. Interior of Arctic America, and Pacific coast generally. Not 
authenticated as occurring on the Atlantic coast. The American representative of L. canus. 
L. heer‘manni. (To Dr. A. L. Heermann. Fig. 509.) Waurre-HEADED GULL. Very different 
from any of the foregoing, belonging to a different section of the genus (Blasipus). Bill shorter 
than head or tarsus, rather slender, moderately compressed, the tip rather acute; its color red in 
part in the adult. Folded wings reaching beyond the tail. Tail of moderate length, even, slightly 
emarginate in the young. Feet rather large. Tarsus equal to the middle toe and claw. Gen- 
eral colors dark ; tail mostly blackish. Adult, breeding plumage: Bill bright vermilion red, 
black for its terminal third, sometimes wholly red; a red ring around eye. Head white; this 
color gradually merging on the neck into plumbeous-ash, which extends over the whole under 
parts, being lighter on the abdomen and under tail-coverts than elsewhere. The back is deep 
plumbeous-slate, lighter on 
the rump. Upper tail-cov- 
erts clear ashy. Upper sur- 
faces of wings like the back; 
the primaries black ; the tips 
of all, except the two or 
three outer ones, narrowly 
white. Tail black, nar- 
rowly tipped with white. : 
Legs and feet reddish-black. ae 

Young-of-the-year : Smaller Fie. 509. — White-headed Gull, 3 nat. size. (From Sclater and Salvin.) 
than the adult. Bill and feet brownish-black. Entire plumage deep sooty or fuliginous- 
blackish; all the feathers, but especially those of the back and upper wing-coverts, edged 
with grayish-white. Primaries and secondaries black, as in the adults, with only traces of 
white tips on the former. Tail black, very narrowly tipped with dull white. Immature: 
Bill as in the adult. Head all round, and the throat, mottled with brownish-black and dull 
white, the latter color predominating on the forehead and throat. Upper tail-coverts lighter 
than in the adult, and the white tips of the tail-feathers broader; otherwise generally as in the 
adult, but with all the colors rather deeper. Dimensions: ‘length about 17.50; wing 13.50; 
tail 5.50”; length of skin 18.50; wing 14.00; tail 5.75; bill along culmen 1.80; along gape 
2.40; depth at base 0.55; at angle, about the same; tarsus 2.20; middle toe and claw a little 
less. Young: wing 12.25; tail 4.75; bill along culmen 1.00; depth at base 0.50; at angle 
0.45; tarsus 1.90. Length of some skins up to about 20 inches. Pacific coast of N. Am., from 
British Columbia to Guatemala; singular among all our species in dark lead-color with white 
head and red bill; common on the California coast. 

RIS/SA. (Icelandic name, rissa or ritsa.) KirriwAxkes. Bill stout, rather short, little com- 
pressed at the base, shorter than the head, equal to middle toe without claw, longer than tarsus; 
tip decurved and attenuated; convexity of cnlmen regular and gradual from base to tip; gonys 
concave, in consequence of the great deflection of the apex of lower mandible; outline of raini 
slightly concave; eminentia symphysis well marked and acute, but not large. Wings very 
long, pointed, reaching beyond the tail; the primaries pointed, first longest. Tail moderately 
long, even or (in young) emarginate. Legs stout and short. Tarsus remarkably short, less 
than middle toe alone ; anterior toes all long, and united by broad, full webs with unincised mar- 


783. 


784. 


748 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES — GAVIZE. 


gins. Hallux rudimentary or not well developed, the ungual phalanx being generally obsolete 
Pattern of primaries and livery of the young, peculiar. Nests on crags. 


Analysis of Species. 
Feet dark; bill clouded with olivaceous, about 1.50 long; wing 12.00. 


Hallux rudimentary, without a claw-bearing phalanx . . . . . . 6. 1 6 « © ©  tridactyla 782 
Hallux better formed, bearingaclaw . . oy ee es 6 ew we 6Rotzebuit 183 
Feet coral red (drying yellow); bill clear yellow, about 1. 20; wing 1. 00 oe ee ew ©) revirostris 784 


R. tridac/tyla. (Lat. tris, thrice; dactylus, digit.) ComMOoN KiITTIWAKE. Hind toe ouly 
appearing as a minute knob, its claw abortive. Adult, breeding plumage: Bill light yellow, 
clouded with olivaceous. Head and neck all round, under parts and tail, pure white. Mantle 
rather dark bluish or cinereous-blue, the tertiaries and secondaries of the same color nearly to 
their tips, which are white. Primaries: the first very light bluish-white, without white apex, 
its outer web, and its inner web for about two inches from the tip, black ; second like the first, 
but without the black outer web, its tip being black for nearly the same distance as the first, 
its apex with a minute white spot; on the third and fourth the black tips grow shorter, while 
the apices are more broadly white; this lessening of the black on each feather is exactly pro- 
portional to the shortening of the successive quills, bringing the bases of all the black tips in 
the same straight line (a pattern peculiar to the species of Rissa). A sub-apical black spot is 
usually present on one or both webs, but is sometimes absent. Legs and feet blackish. Iris 
reddish-brown ; eye-ring red. Adult in winter: Occiput, nape behind, and sides of the breast, 
clouded with the color of the back, deepening into slate over the auriculars. A very sinall but 
well-defined black erescent before the eye. Otherwise asin summer. Young: Bill black; an 
ante-ocular crescent, and a post-ocular spot, dusky-slate. A broad transverse bar across the neck 
behind, the whole of the lesser and nedian wing-coverts, the bastard quills, the tertiaries, except 
at their edges, and a terminal bar on the tail, black. The outer four primaries with their outer 
webs, outer half of inner webs, and tips for some distance, black, the rest of the feathers pearly 
white. Tips only of the fifth and sixth black, their extreme apices with a white speck. Length 
16.00-18.00; extent 36.00; wing 12.25; bill above 1.40 to 1.50; along rictus 2.10; height 
at base 0.50; at angle 0.40; tarsus 1.30; middle toe and claw 1.80. Arctic America and 
Europe, chiefly coastwise, very abundant; breeds from New England northward; ranges in 
winter 8. to the Middle States. Nests preferably not on the ground like most gulls, but on the 
ledges of rocks and cliffs overhanging the water, such as the guillemots select; nest of sea- 
weeds, ete. Eggs like those of other gulls, 2.25 x 1.80. 

R. t. kotzebui/i. (To Otto von Kotzebue, the Russian navigator.) Korzesur’s Kittt- 
WAKE. It is a curious fact that the common kittiwake of the North Pacifie usually has the 
hind toe better formed — sometimes nearly if not quite as long as in ordinary gulls, with a 
nearly or quite perfect, though sinall, claw. But I cannot predicate a specific character on this 
score, since the development of the toe is by insensible degrees. (See Covers, Proc. Phila. 
Acad., 1869, p. 207 (footnote) ; Birds N. W., 1874, p. 644.) N. Pacific coast, abundant. 

R. breviros'tris, (Lat. brevirostris, short-billed.) SHorT-BILLED KiTTiwAkE. ReEpD- 
LEGGED KirtiwAke. Adult, breeding plumage: Bill very short, stout, wide at the base, the 
upper mandible much curved, though not attenuated nor very acute. Convexity of culmen 
very great toward the tip; the culmen being, from the nostrils to the apex, almost the are of a 
circle, whose centre is the symphyseal eminence. Outline of rami of under mandible and gonys 
both somewhat concave; the eminentia symphysis but slightly developed. Tarsus very short, 
hardly more than two-thirds the middle toe and claw. Wings exceedingly long, reaching, 
when folded, far beyond the tail. Tail of moderate length, even. Bill a uniform clear light 
straw-yellow, with little or no tinge of olivaceous; iris hazel ; eye-ring red. Head and neck 
all round, under parts and tail, pure white. Mantle deep leaden or bluish-gray, much darker 
than in R. tridactyla ; the color on the wings extending to within half an inch of the apices of 


310. 


785. 


311. 


LARIDZ—LARINZA: GULLS. 749 


the secondaries, which terminal half-inch is white. Primaries: the first has its shaft and outer 
vane black, but has on its inner vane a space of dull gray (not white), which at the base of 
the feather occupies nearly all the vane, but gradually grows narrower until it ends by a well- 
defined rounded termination half as broad as the vane itself, about 24 inches from the tip of the 
feather, these 24 inches being black, like the outer vane. Second: the outer vane is of the 
sane leaden gray as the back, to within four inches of the tip; the inner vane is of a rather 
lighter shade of the same color, to within three inches of the tip, the gray ending abruptly, being 
in fact almost truncated. Third: like the second, but the gray extends further, leaving only 
a space of two inches black; and the tip has also a minute apical gray spot. Fourth: wholly 
bluish-gray to within 14 inches of the tip, which has a larger gray apical spot than has the 
third, so that the black is less than 13 inches long. Fifth: the gray extends so far that it is 
separated from the well-defined white apical spot by a band of black less than 14 inch wide. 
Sixth » gray, fading into white at the tip, and with the black reduced to a small subapical spot 
on one or both webs; other primaries like the sixth, minus the black spot. (This ‘‘ gray” of 
the primaries is the color of the mantle.) Legs and feet coral-red, especially the toes and webs 
(the tarsi not quite so bright) ; drying yellow. Claws black. Young not seen. Bird at times 
said to have a black eye-ring and dark spot behind eye. Nestlings covered with white down, with 
whitish bill and feet. Dimensions: Bill along culmen 1.20 inches; along rictus about 1.70; 
from nostril to tip 0.60; depth at base 0.50; width 0.42; depth at symphyseal eminence 0.42; 
wing 13.00; tail about 5.00; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw nearly 2.00; length of the whole 
bird, apparently about 14 inches. A beautiful and very distinct species, swarming by thou- 
sands in islands in Bering’s sea, where it is a permanent resident; nests on shelves of the most 
inaccessible crags, building a substantial structure of grass, moss, and seaweeds, mixed with 
mud; eggs 2-3, size and shape of a hen’s eggs, of the usual pattern of coloration: June, July. 
PAGO/PHILA. (Gr. aayos, pagos, ice; pidos, philos, loving.) IcE Guus. Bill very short, 
inuch less than the head, only about equal to the short tarsus, very stout, little compressed, the 
nasal fossa deep, the nostrils placed far forward. Legs and feet very short and stout, the scales 
of the tarsus and toes large and rough. ‘Tibia feathered to near the joint; tarsus short, about 
as long as middle toe without claw; claws large, strong, and much curved; webs narrow and 
much incised; a slight connection of hind with inner toe. Size moderate; form stout; color 
entirely white. One species. 

P. ebur’nea. (Lat. ebwrnea, of or like ebur, ivory.) Ivory GuLu. Adult, breeding plu- 
mage: Culmen straight to the nostrils, then regularly convex ; commissure gently curved to the 
tip, where it is considerably decurved; gonys straight to near the angle, whieh is well defined, 
the outline from angle to tip perfectly straight. Feathers extending between the rami nearly to 
the angle. Wings long and pointed, reaching beyond the tail; primaries gradually attenuated 
to the tip. Color entirely pure white, the shafts of the primaries straw-yellow. Bill dusky 
greenish, yellow at tip and along the cutting edges. Legs and feet black. Eye brown, the 
edges of the eyelids red. Young: Front, chin, and sides of the head, grayish-dusky; the upper 
part of the neck, all round, irregularly spotted with the same. Scapulars, and upper and under 
wing-coverts, spotted with brownish-black, the spots most numerous along the lesser coverts. 
Tips of the primaries and tail-feathers with a dusky spot. Dimensions: Length 19.00; extent’ 
41.00; wing 13.25; bill above 1.40; along gape 2.10; height at nostrils 0.45; tarsus about 
1.45; middle toe and claw 1.75. Arctic seas of both hemispheres, coming southward in win- 
ter, but rarely to the U. 8. 

CHROICOCE'PHALUS. (Gr. xparkds, chroikos, colored ; xebadn, kephale, head.) Hooprep 
Guus. Rosy Guus. Form as in Larus, but general organization averaging less robust, 
size smaller, and bill usually weaker, slenderer, more acute and less hooked. Head enveloped 
in a dark hood in the breeding season, when white of under parts usually blushing pink or 
rosy. Markings of the primaries varying with the species, but different from that of the larger 


786. 


750 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— LONGIPENNES — GAVIZE. 


gulls. Tail square, or nearly so. There are no marked peculiarities of form of this genus, 
the pattern of coloration being mainly its basis. The numerous species average much under 
those of Larus in size (though one at least is among the largest of Larine); they approximate - 
toward Xema and Khedostethia in some respects, but the tail is neither forked nor cuneate. 


Analysis of Species. 
Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw. 


Bill reddish, feet the same. Length 16.00 0rmore . ............ .. .atricilla 786 
Tarsus not longer than middle toe and claw. 

Bill reddish, feet the same. Lengthabout14.00inches . . . ......... =.= franklini 787 

Bill black, feet red or yellow. Length about 14.00inches . . . . . 2... . . philadelphia 788 


C. atriciVla. (Lat. atricilla, black-tail: only applicable to the young. Fig. 510.) Lauauine 
Gutt. BuLacK-HEApDED GULL. Bill longer than middle toe and claw, shorter than tarsus or 
head, moderately compressed, rather stout for this genus. Culmen and commissure both decurved 
at the end, the latter somewhat sinuate at the base. Gonys considerably concave in front 
of the angle, somewhat so between the angle and tip; although the angle is well defined, 
the tip of the bill is so decurved that a chord from tip to base does not touch it. Middle toe 
barely three-fourths the tarsus. Adult in summer: Bill and edges of eyelids deep carmine ; 
legs and feet dusky-red; iris blackish. Hood 
deep plumbeous grayish-black, extending further 
on the throat than on the uape. Eyelids white 
posteriorly. Neek all round, rump, tail, broad - 
tips of secondaries and tertials, and whole under 
parts, white, the latter with a rosy tinge (like tlr 
tint of peach-blossoms). Mantle grayish-plun- 
beous. Outer six primaries black, their extreme 
: tips white; their bases for a very short distance 
Fig, 510.— Bill of Laughing Gull, nat. size. (Ad on the first, and only on the inner web, and for a 
pais ace successively increasing distance on both webs of 
the others, of the color of the back. Adult in wiuter: Under parts simply white, not rosy ; 
hood lost, the head being white, mixed with blackish. Bill and feet more dull in color. Imma- 
ture: Bill and feet brownish-black, tinged with red. Plumbeous of the upper parts more or 
less mixed with irregular patches of light grayish-brown. Primaries wholly brownish-black, 


fading at the tip. Secondaries brownish-black on the outer web.  Tail-feathers more or 
less tinged with plunbeous, and with a broad terminal band of brownish-black, the extreme 
tips of the feathers white. Upper tail-coverts white. Young-of-the-year: Entire upper 
parts, and neck all round, light brownish-gray ; the feathers tipped with grayish or rufous- 
white, broadly on the scapulars and tertials, the blue of the adults appearing on the wing- 
coverts. Eyelids whitish ; a dusky space about the eye. Forehead, throat, and under parts, 
dull whitish, more or less clouded with gray, especially on the breast, where this is the 
prevailing color. Wings and tail as before. Length about 16.50; extent 41.00; wing 13.00; 
tail 5.00; bill 1.75, along gape 2.25, its height at nostril 0.45 ; tarsus 2.00; middle toe and 
claw 1.50. Tropical Am. and temperate N. Am.; in the U. 8. north coastwise in summer to 
Maine, in the interior to Ohio or beyond; on the Pacifie side to California; Central America, 
both coasts, and various W. I. islands; 8. Am. to the Lower Amazon; casual in Europe. 
By thousands along the Atlantic coast during the migrations, breeding in colonies anywhere 
along, wintering in the South. Nest on the ground, of eel-grass, seaweeds, and other vege- 
table material; eggs mostly 3, sometimes 2; 2.10 X 1.55; ground color some olive shade, 
ranging from dull grayish to dark greenish, thickly marked all over with spots and irregular 
splashes of brown, blackish, dull reddish and pale purplish ; sometimes the markings chiefly 
wreathed about the large end. 


187. 


788. 


LARIDAI—LARINA: GULLS. 751 


C. frank/lini. (To Sir John Franklin.) Franxrin’s Rosy Guty. Adult in breeding 
plumage: Bill rather slender, attenuated and a little decurved at the tip, which is acute ; 
outline of both rami and gouys concave. Bill shorter than head; tarsus equal to middle toe 
and claw. Bill red (carmine, lake, or vermilion), crossed with black near the end. Legs 
dusky-reddish. Edges of eyelids orange. yelids white, this color also reaching a little 
behind the eye. Hood deep slaty or plumbeous-black, encircling the upper part of the neck 
as well as the head, and extending further on the throat than on the nape. Mautle not quite 
so dark as in atricilla (more blue), darker than in philadelphia. First primary with the outer 
yane black to within an inch of the tip; the inner pearly-white, crossed an inch or more from 
the tip by an isolated black bar an inch broad, thus leaving the feather white on both webs 
for an inch or more from the tip. The next five primaries are basally of the color of the back, 
paler on the immer web, and both webs fading toward their tips into white ; each is crossed by 
a black bar near the end, two inches wide on the second primary, narrowing on successive 
feathers to a small bar or pair of little spots on the sixth ; the tips of all these primaries pure 
white. Other primaries, with secondaries and tertials, colored like the back, fading at the tips 
into white ; shafts white, sometimes black aloug the black portion of the feather. Tail very 
pale pearly-blue, the three lateral pairs of rectrices white — or rather tail white, lightly washed 
with pearly on the six central feathers. Neck all around, rump, broad tips of secondaries and 
tertials, and whole under parts white, the latter rosy. Younger, that is to say, in summer 
plumage, and with a perfect hood, red bill, ete., but the primaries not yet having attained 
their perfect pattern: General coloration exactly as before. Shafts of first three primaries 
black, of the rest gray, except along the black portion of the feathers; 1st primary with the 
outer web wholly black, the inner web pearly-gray, much like the back but lighter, to within 
two or three inches of the tip, then black for the rest of its extent; 2d like the Ist, but the 
base of the outer web like the inner; on the 3d, 4th, and 5th, successively, the black decreases 
in extent, till on the 6th it is merely a little bar, or pair of spots; tips of all the primaries 
white; that of the lst primary smallest, that of the others successively increasing in size. 
Winter plumage: As in summer; the hood wanting or indicated by a few slaty feathers about 
the eyes, on the auriculars and nape; the rosy wanting; the bill and feet dull-colored. 
Young: Bill blackish, with pale base of under mandible; feet flesh-colored; eye black. 
Traces of a hood, or nape largely slaty, etc., according to precise age. Outer five or six 
primaries wholly black in their continuity, rather lighter and somewhat slaty at base, with 
or without a minute white speck at the tip. Mantle gray or brown, more or less mixed with 
blue, according to age. Tail ashy-white, with a broad black subterminal bar. Under parts 
white. This appears to be the usual plumage of birds of the first autumn. Dimensions: 
Length about 14.00 inches; extent 35.00; wing 11.25; tail about 4.50; bill along culmen 
1.30; along gape 1.75; height at nostril 0.35; tarsus 1.60; middle toe and claw the same. 
Young smaller than adults; bill 1.10-1.20; wing 10.00, ete. S.and C. Am. in winter; in 
N. Am. migrating through the interior, chiefly west of the Mississippi, to the Arctic regions, 
abundant ; has never been observed in the Atlantic States. Breeds from the N. border of 
the U.S. northward. Eggs 2.12 x 1.40, closely resembling those of the Eskimo curlew in 
size, shape and color; though the dark splashes are more evenly distributed over the surface. 

C, philadel’/phia. (To the city of that name.) Bonaparte’s Rosy Guuy. Adult, breeding 
plumage: Bill shorter than the head or tarsus, much compressed, very slender, like a tern’s ; 
both mandibles with a slight but distinct notch near the tip. Convexity of culmen slight, 
gradual from base to apex; rami slightly concave; gonys about straight. Nostrils very narrow. 
Tarsus equal to middle toe and claw. Tail somewhat emarginate in the young. Bill 
black. Mouth and eyelids carmine. Legs and feet coral-red, tinged with vermilion. Webs 
bright vermilion. Hood plumbeons-slate, not so deep as in franklini, enveloping the head 
and upper part of the neck, reaching further before than behind. White patches on eyelids 


312. 


752 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LONGIPENNES — GAVIZ. 


narrow, and half posterior to the eye. Mantle pearl-blue, much lighter than in franktlini. 
Ends of the tertials and scapulars scarcely lighter than the back. Primaries: shafts of the 
first five or six white, except at their extreme tips, the others dark-colored ; first, outer web . 
and extreme tip black, rest white; second, white, its tip black for a greater distance than the 
first, and on one or both webs, for a greater or less distance (sometimes half way down the 
feather) narrowly bordered with black ; third, fourth, fifth, sixth, black at the ends for about 
the same distance on each, the black bordering the inner web much further than the outer ; 
the inner webs of the third and fourth, and both webs of the fifth and sixth, of a rather lighter 
shade of the color of the back. Other primaries like the back, the seventh and eighth with 
a touch of black on one or both webs near the tip. The third to sixth primaries with a white 
or pearly-white speck at extreme tip. As is not the case with either of our other species of 
the genus, the primary wing-coverts, bastard quills, ete., are wholly or in great part white, 
causing the whole wing to be bordered with white as far as the carpus. Neck all around, 
and under parts, including under wing-coverts, pure white ; the belly rosy in breeding time. 
No difference in color between the sexes. Adult, winter plumage: Bill light colored at base 
beluw; feet flesh-color. Crescent before the eye, and patch below the auriculars, deep slate. 
Crown and occiput mottled with grayish-black and white. Back of neck washed over with 
the color of the mantle. Forehead, sides of the head and throat, white, continuous with the 
white of the under parts. Young, first winter: Bill dusky flesh-color, except toward the 
end; legs and feet light flesh-color. ~° Without the slaty mottling of the crown. Auricular 
patch distinct. Lesser wing-coverts and tertials dusky-brown, lighter along their edges. 
Secondaries with a patch of dusky near the end, which on the innermost three or four becomes 
restricted to the outer web. First primary, with about half the inner web along the shaft, 
black ; second and third with the outer webs wholly black, and a narrow line of black on 
the inner, along the shaft. Tail witha subterminal brownish-black bar. Very young: Bill 
flesh-color, dusky on the terminal half. Crown of head, and neck behind to the interscapulars, 
clouded with dusky bluish-gray, heightening on the sides of the neck into light grayish- 
ochreous. Scapulars and middle of the back light gull-blue, as in the adult, but the feathers so 
broadly (for + inch) tipped with grayish-brown, fading into dull white at tip, that the original 
color is nearly lost. Lesser wing-coverts and tertials brownish-black, the latter edged with 
the color of the edgings of the back. Bastard quills and feathers along the edge of the wing 
variegated with black and white. Primaries black; the outer two-thirds of the inner vane 
of the first four bluish-white to near the end; both vanes of the others of that color for a little 
distance ; the extreme tips of all but the two first, white. Secondaries light gull-blue, each 
with a large terminal blackish spot continuous with the black ends of the inner primaries. 
Tail with a broad terminal bar of black, and very narrowly tipped with dull white. Dimen- 
sions: Length 14.00 inches; extent 32.00; wing 10.25; bill above, 1.20; gape 1.75; height 
at nostrils 0.25 ; tarsus, or middle toe and claw, 1.40. N. Am. at large, both coastwise and 
in the interior, migrating through and wintering in the U. S., breeding in high latitudes ; 
abundant; especially numerous along the Atlantic coast during the migrations; accidental in 
Europe. One of the most airy, graceful, and elegant of the family. Eggs rare and scarcely 
known; one has been described as 1.80 X 1.30, olive-gray, with a close wreath of very 
dark and lighter brown splashes around the larger end, and other scratches and spots of the 
same scattered over the whole surface. In the interior this species and the last may often be 
seen winnowing over ploughed land, probably after earth-worms. 

RHODOSTE'THIA. (Gr. 5d8ov, hrodon, the rose; o7O0s, stethos, the breast.) WEDGE- 
TAIL Guy. Tail cuneate (here only among Laride). Otherwise, form much as in other 
small gulls; bill weak and slender, with little salience of the angle; wings folding beyond 
the tail. No colored hood, but a black collar round neck. Under plumage blossoming in 
breeding season. 


789. 


313. 


790. 


791. 


LARIDZ — LARINZ: GULLS. 753 


R. ro/sea. (Lat. rosea, rosy.) WEDGE-TAILED, 07 Ross’ Rosy Guuy. Adult: White, 
rosy-tinted; a black collar, but no hood; mantle pearly-blue; primaries marked with black ; 
bill black, gape and edge of eyelids red; feet vermilion. Length 14.00; wing 10.50; bill 
0.75, very slender; tarsus little over 1.00; tail 5.50, cuneate, the graduation being one inch. 
Young extensively mottled with blackish. Arctic regions; a circumpolar species, chietly 
inhabiting the Arctic coasts of N. Am. and Siberia, though known to come southward to the 
Feroes and Heligoland in Europe, and to St. Michael’s in Alaska. This exquisite gull, famed 
for the beauty of its plumage, remained until recently one of the rarest of birds in collections ; 
only about a dozen being known to exist, not one of them in any American museum. In 1879, 
Mr. R. L. Newcomb, naturalist of the ill-fated ‘“‘ Jeannette,” secured eight specimens on the 
Siberian coast, only three of them, however, being preserved. Mr. E. W. Nelson took one at 
St. Michael’s, Alaska. More recently, a very large number of specimens have been secured at 
Point Barrow, on the Arctie coast of Alaska. 
XE/MA. (A nonsense word — sonus sensu carens.) Forx-TaIL GULLS. Tail forked (here 
only in Larine). Head hooded, with a more or less evident darker collar. Bill black, with 
light tip. Size moderate and small. With a general bearing toward Chroicocephalus, in the 
hooded head and other features, the genus is distinguished from this or any other ‘group of 
Larine by the tern-like character of the forked tail. 
Analysis of Species. 

Small: Wing 11 inches or less; tail lightly forked; a definite black collar bounding the hood; feet black 

Large: Wing 16 inches or more; tail deeply forked; black collar inconspicuous; feet reddish . . Pine a 
X. sabi/nii. (To E. Sabine.) ForK-TaILep GuLL. Adult, breeding plumage: Bill black 
to the angle, abruptly bright chrome from angle to tip. Mouth bright orange; eyelids 
orange; legs and feet black. Hood uniform clear deep slate, bounded inferiorly by a ring, 
narrowest on the nape, of velvety-black. Lower part of neck all round, tail and its coverts, 
four inner primaries, secondaries, greater part of greater coverts, tips of tertials except the 
innermost, and whole under parts, pure white. Mantle slate-blue, extending quite to the tips 
of the inner tertials. Edge of wing from the carpal joint with the bastard wing, black. First 
five primaries, with their shafts, black; their extreme tips, and the outer half of the inner 
webs, to near the end, white. Other primaries white, the sixth with a touch of black on the 
outer web. Emargination of tail 1.25 inches. Length 13.75; wing 10.75; bill 1.00; along 
gape 1.50; height at angle 0.30; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw same, Adult in winter: 
Without the hood. Young-of-the-year: Tail forked, nearly as in the adult. Bill small 
and weak, flesh-color and dusky. Legs apparently flesh-colored. No hood nor collar. 
Most of the head, the back of the neck, and upper parts in general, slaty-gray, transversely 
waved with brownish-white; each feather being tipped with this color. Under parts white. 
Tail white, with a broad terminal bar of black, an inch wide on the central rectrices, 
growing narrower on the others successively; on the outermost sometimes invading only 
one web. This black bar very narrowly edged with white. Wings surprisingly similar to 
those of the adult, but the white on the inner webs more restricted, and the white tips very 
small or wanting altogether. Dimensions a little less than those of the adult. Young not 
distinctly resembling the same age of Ch. philadelphia. Arctic America, both coastwise and 
in the interior, irregularly south in winter through the U. 8.; Bermudas; Peru! Europe. 
Common enough in high latitudes, but seldom seen in the U. S., and still rather rare in col- 
lections. Eggs 3, 1.75 X 1.25, much like a curlew’s in general aspect, brownish-olive, sparsely 
splashed with brown. 
X. furea’ta. (Lat. Furcata, forked.) SwaLLow-TAILED GuLy. Immature? Head and 
nearly all the neck grayish-brown ; a white mark on each side of the forehead; mantle gray- 
ish-white ; tail white, much forked; lesser wing-coverts white; greater slate, white-bordered ; 

48 


T54 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES — GAVLE. 


bill black at base, white at end; eyes and feet red; eyelids orange; claws black. Length 
about 2 feet. ‘California’ (?) The foregoing is compiled from the original description. 
Only three specimens of this excessively rare gull are known: one ascribed to Monterey, Cali- 
fornia; another, adult, from Chatham island, one of the Galapagoes. The latter, in the 
British Museum, is thus described: ‘‘ Head, neck, and throat, of a sootier color than in X. 
sabimit, darkening toward the base of the hood, but not forming a distinct black collar, as in 
this species; a white frontal band; under parts and tail pure white, the latter more deeply 
forked than in sabinii ; mantle pale pearl-gray, somewhat darker on the wing-coverts; prima- 
ries blackish-brown on outer webs and continuation of inner webs, thence white, except at tip; 
secondaries white, tinged with gray at their tips; bill blackish, tipped with horn-yellow from 
the angle. Wing 16.50 inches; tarsi nearly 2 inches; middle toe the same; hind toe very 
sinall, but bearing a well-developed claw.” A third has lately been announced from Paracas 
Bay, Peru; this is a young one, with black bill, reddish feet, the mantle spotted and the tail 
barred with blackish. Adult and young are figured by Saunders, P. Z. 8., 1882, p. 523, pl. 
34; see also P. Z. 8., 1878, p. 210. The species is very questionably N. Am. 


72. Subfamily STERNINE: Terns. 


Covering of bill continuous (no cere), hard and horny 
throughout. Bill paragnathous, relatively longer and slenderer 
than in the gulls, very acute, the commissure straight or nearly 
so to the very end. Curve of culmen gentle and gradual from 
base to apex. Symphysis of inferior mandibular rami much 
more extensive than in Lestridine or Larine, but the eminentia 
symphysis less marked. Interramal space narrow. Encroach- 
ment of feathers on the bill as in Larine. Nostrils linear- 
oblong, lateral, direct, pervious, varying with genera as regards 
degree of approximation to the base of the bill. Wings ex- 
tremely lengthened, narrow, and acute, the first primary much 
the longest, the rest rapidly graduated. Secondaries short and 
inconspicuous. Tail usually much elongated and deeply forked, 

F1q.511.—Roseate Tern. (From the lateral feathers being more or less attenuated and filiform ; 
Tenney, after Audubon.) only occasionally short and broad (Gelochelidon), or graduated 
(Anoiis, etc.). Legs placed rather further back, and less decidedly ambulatorial than in 
Laring. Tibia denuded for a varying distance. Tarsi short and usually slender; scutellate 
and reticulate, as in Larine. Toes of moderate length, and of the usual relative proportions. 
Webs rather narrow, and (except in Anotis, etc.) more or less incised. Claws small, com- 
pressed, but much curved and acute. Size moderate, or very small. General form slender 
and delicate. Plumage as in other subfamilies, but the pteryle narrow; the sexes hardly 
differing in coloration, but the variations with age and season very great. 

The terns are not distinguished from the gulls by any strong structural peculiarities, but 
they invariably show a special contour, in the production of which the longer, slenderer, and 
acutely paragnathous bill is a conspicuous element. Only one species has the bill in any no- 
ticeable degree like that of a gull. A few of the terns are as large as middle-sized gulls, but 
the normal stature is much less; and they are invariably of a slenderer build, more trim in 
shape, with smoother, closer-fitting plumage. The great length and sharpness of the wing 
relative to the bulk of the body confer a dash and buoyancy of flight wanting in the gulls; in 
flying over the water in search of food, they hold the bill pointing straight downward, which 
makes them look curiously like colossal mosquitoes ; and they secure their prey by darting 
impetuously upon it, when they are usually submerged fora moment. The larger kinds feed 
principally upon little fish, procured-in this way; but most of the smaller ones are insectivo- 


LARIDA — STERNINZE: TERNS. 755 


rous, and flutter about over marshy spots like swallows or night-hawks. The general appear- 
ance and mode of flight have suggested the name of ‘“ sea-swallow,” the equivalent of which 
is applied in nearly all civilized languages. A forking of the tail is an almost universal char- 
acter. In the Caspian and marsh terns, the black tern and its allies, and some others, the 
forking is moderate, and not accompanied by attenuation of the lateral feathers; but ordi 

narily, these are remarkably lengthened and almost filamentous, as in the barn swallow. It 
should be observed that in all such cases the narrowing elongation is gradual, and consequently 
less evident in the young; and that it is very variable in its development. The noddies offer 
the peculiarity of a tail lightly forked centrally, but rounded laterally. The feet are small and 
relatively weak throughout the group; the terns walk but little, and scarcely swim at all. 
Ordinarily the webbing is rather narrow, and incised, particularly that between the middle and 
inner toe; in Hydrochelidon, this occurs to such extent that the toes seem simply semipalmate. 
The webs are fullest in Anoiis, where also the hallux is unusually long; in some species, this 
toe is slightly connected with the tarsus by a web. The inner toe is shorter than the outer, 
and much less than the middle, which, especially in Hydrochelidon, is much lengthened, and 
has the inner edge of its claw dilated, or even slightly serrate. The coloration is very con- 
stant, almost throughout the subfamily. Most of the species are white (often rosy-tinted be- 
low), with a pearly-blue mantle, a black cap on the head, and dark-colored primaries, along 
the inner web of which usually runs a white stripe. These dark-colored quills, when new, are 
beautifully frosted or silvered over; but this hoariness being very superficial, soon wears off, 
leaving the feathers simply blackish. The black cap is often interrupted by a white frontal 
crescent; it is sometimes prolonged into a slight occipital crest ; in a few species, it is replaced 
by a black bar on each side of the head. One species, Inca mystacalis, has a curious bundle of 
curly white plumes on each side of the head. Another, Gygis alba, is pure white all over; 
Procelsterna cinerea is wholly ashy; the noddies are all fuliginous; the upper parts of Hali- 
plana are dark; the species of Hydrochelidon are largely black. These are the principal if 
not the only exceptions to the normal coloration just given. The sexes are never distinguish- 
able, either by size or color; but nearly all the species, in the progress toward maturity, 
undergo changes of plumage, like gulls; while the seasonal differences are usually consider- 
able. As arule, the black cap is imperfect in young and winter specimens, and the former 
show gray or brown patching instead of the pure final color of the mantle. In all those species 
in which the bill is red, orange, or yellow, it is more or less dusky in the young. The changes 
are probably greatest in the black terns. 

The general economy is much the same throughout the group. The eggs are laid in a 
slight depression on the ground, — generally the shingle of beaches, or in a tussock of grass in 
a marsh, or in a rude nest of sticks in low thick bushes; they are 1-3 in number, variegated 
in color. Most of the species are maritime, and such is particularly the ease with the noddies ; 
but nearly all are also found inland. They are noisy birds, of shrill penetrating voice ; and no 
less gregarious than gulls, often assembling in multitudes to breed, and generally moving in 
company. Species occur near water in almost every part of the world, and most of them 
are widely distributed; of those occurring in North America, the majority are found in corre- 
sponding latitudes in the Old World. Some seventy species are currently reported; the true 
number is apparently just about that of the Gulls (about fifty). 

The generic and subgeneric groups of the Sternine are rather better marked than those 
of the Larine. Phethusa, Gygis, and several subgenera near Anotis are extralimital. The 
North American forms may readily be distinguished by the following analysis. Hydrochelidon 
and Anotis may be regarded as genera, the remainder being subgenera of Sterna. 


Analysis of the North American forms of Sternine. 


Nostrils sub-basal. Frontal antis prominent, embracing base of culmen. Tail more or less forked. 
Tarsus not shorter than middle toe without the claw. Lateral toes much shorter than the middle. 


756 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES — GAVIZE. 


Webs incised (Group STERNEZ). 
Webs moderately incised. Tail well-formed, generally more than half as long as the wing. Under 
parts white or light. 
Upper parts pearl-gray. Cap in summer black, or a black bar through eye. 
Bill short and very stout, somewhat gull-like, black. Tarsi much longer than the toes, 


black. Tail lightly forked. Medium size . . - + Gelochelidon 
Bill long, large, bright colored, or with yellow tip. “ky escipital crest. Feet black. 
Forking of tail variable. Of large size . . soe + e « . Thalasseus 
Bill moderate, slender, usually bright colored, like the feet, Nocrest. Tail long, deeply 
forked. Size medium andemall 2 6 2%: 8 © 8 © ee 8 we ee ew 4 Sterna 
Upper parts dusky. Cap like the back. 
Bill and feet black. A white frontalcrescent . . . . . « . Haliplana 
Webs deeply incised (feet little more than semipalmate). Tail merely omarginate, hardly or not half 
as long as the wing. Under partsinsummer black . . . . . . Hydrochelidon 


Nostrils nearly median. No frontal antie, the feathers extending further on euliien than at the sides. 
Tail double-rounded. ‘Tarsi very short. Toes lengthened, the lateral nearly as long as the middle, with 
full webs. (Group ANOEZ.) 

ColonsfaligimOus’ eye" uh eosci9n Lae We he CANKER can Ge Sa oe Jed eal be elec gs atl Sac pid dehy ae") SANUS 


314 


315 


316 


814. STER'NA. (Latinized from English stern or tern.) TERNS. Form typical of the sub- 
family. Nostrils sub-basal. Frontal antiz prominent. Tail more or less forked. Tarsus 
not shorter than middle toe without claw. Lateral toes much shorter than middle. Webs 
moderately incised. Under parts of adult white, or like back. (Characters of the subfamily, 


exclusive of Hydrochelidon and Anoiis.) 


Analysis of Subgenera and Species (adults). 


GELOCHELIDON. Bill very stout, almost gull-like, black. Tarsus much longer than toes, black. Tail 
lightly forked, contained about 24 times in wing. Size moderate. 
Head crested. Cap black. Pearly mantle extending overrumpandtail . .. » . . anglica 
THALASSEUS. Bill long, large, tern-like, bright colored or with yellow tip. Feet black. Head crested. 
Size large to largest. 
Tail merely emarginate, contained nearly or about 3 times in wing. Primaries without white space 


on inner webs. Billred. Largest: wing about 16.00; tail 5.50; billnearly 3.00 . . . . . caspia 
Tail forked. Primaries with white space on inner webs. Bill orange, stout, about 2.50, 0.50 or more 
deep at base; gonys about 1.00 long. Wing 14.50. . . . + maxima 
Tail forked. Primaries with white space on inner webs. Bill Grange: blender about 2.50, under 0.50 
deep at base, gonys about 1.50long. Wing12.50. ... . - « . elegans 
Tail deeply forked, with narrow outer feathers. Primaries with white apace. on inner webs. Bill 
slender, black, yellow-tipped. . . . . - .  cantiaca 


STERNA proper. Bill long, slender, acute. Tarsus not longer ‘han, middle ‘toe and. claw. Tail more or 
less forked, with acute or very narrow lateral feathers, one-half or more as long as wing. Head not 
decidedly crested. Size medium to smallest. 

Mantle pearly-blue. 
No black cap. 
Head whitish, with black bar through eye; under parts like the mantle . . . . .trudeaui 
A black cap. 
No white frontal crescent; black cap reaching bill. 
Bill wholly or mostly red or reddish. 
Bill red, blackening at end; feet coral-red. Outer web of outer tail-feather white; 
inner gray or dark. Tarsus0.900rmore. . . . « forsteri 
Bill red, blackening at end; feet coral-red. Outer net of outer tail- “feather gray or 
dark, inner white; under parts paler than upper. Tarsus about 0.75. . hirundo 
Bill wholly red; feet vermilion; outer tail-feather as in the last. Tarsus 0.65 or less. 
Under parts nearly like upper. . . ae tera. a, ae at eho ah a ey i CTU 
Bill black, or only red at base. Feet reddish ee ee ew ew ww ww we Aougalli 
A white frontal crescent. 
Bill yellow, tipped with black. Feet yellow. . ......... =... antillarum 


Bill and feet black .. . + « « « Gleutica 

Mantle dusky. A white frontal crescent. Bill ana: feet black. (HALIPLANA. se 
Mantle blackish-brown; capthesame. .. . > ee soe ee ew we ee Steliginosa 
Mantle sooty-gray; capblack . . . . ay + + « anesthetica 


Oxss. Above analysis based on adult summer birds, ‘and not entirely avaliable for vOune and winter ones, 
in which the chars. of the cap, and colors of bill and feet, may be entirely different. These must be de- 
termined by reference to the detailed descriptions. 


802 


iz 


LARIDA — STERNINA!: TERNS. T5T 


7192. S.(G.) an/glica. (Lat. anglica, Anglican, English.) GuLu-BmLep Tern. Marsu Tern. 


793. 


& Q, in summer: Bill rather shorter than head, robust, not very acute, compressed ; culmen 
nearly straight to beyond nostrils, then very declinato-convex to the tip; gouys about straight ; 
rami slightly concave ; symphyseal eminence well marked ; tomia of lower mandible inflected ; 
commissure gently curved. Height of bill at base a third of total length. Nasal groove 
short and broad, not deep; nostrils short, widely oval, placed very near base of bill, just 
beyond the termination of the feathers. Wings exceedingly long and acute, each primary 
surpassing the next by a full inch; the secondaries short, soft, obliquely incurved at their 
extremities. Tail short, contained 24 times in the wing; deeply emarginate, but its lateral 
feathers not elongated nor attenuated. Feet long and stout for this subfamily. Tarsus 
shorter than bill, longer than middle toe and claw. Hind toe remarkably developed; inner 
shorter than outer; interdigital membranes deeply incised, especially the inner. Tibia naked 
for half an inch. Crown and long occipital crest glossy greenish-black, extending on to lower 
border of eye, leaving only a very narrow line of white to run along the edge of the feathers 
on side of upper mandible. Neck all round and under parts, white. Mantle light pearl- 
blue, this color extending on rump and tail, quite to the tips of the rectrices; tail-feathers, 
indeed, deepest colored at their tips, fading into nearly pure white toward their bases, on that 
portion of each feather which is covered ‘with the next one. The color of the mantle extends 
quite to tips of tertials, but dilutes a little toward the tips of the secondaries. Shafts of 
primaries yellowish-white. Primaries all grayish-black, deepest on the outer vane of the 
first; but this color so heavily silvered as to appear much lighter. All the primaries have 
on their inner webs a space of white, which extends toward their apices for a varying distance 
on each; on the first the white is largest, purest, and exteuds furthest; is distinctly defined 
from the black, and has not a margin of black along its inner border, except just at its apex. 
The amount of the white diminishes in length and breadth with each successive primary, 
until on the last one it is inconspicuous; still it is quite perceptible on all. Bill black, 
with or without a minute yellowish tip; legs and feet greenish-black ; iris brown. In winter : 
Differs in restriction of the black cap, chiefly to the hind head and nape, on sides of head 
reaching forward to eye; sometimes extinct, except in dusky eye-stripe and spot before eye, 
when whole head otherwise white. Young: Bill blackish-brown, pale at base below; feet 
dull brownish. Upper parts pearl-blue, interrupted by numercus ecrescentic or hastate spots 
of dull brownish, one on each feather, the extreme tip of which is whitish. A brownish- 
black bar along lesser wing-coverts. Forehead and most of crown white, with dark sbaft- 
lines, increasing to exclude white on hind head and nape; blackish spot before and behind 
eye. Neck all around, upper tail-coverts, and whole under parts, white. Tail-feathers 
whitening at ends, each with a dusky space. Length 13.00-15.00; extent 33.00-37.00 ; 
bill 1.40; along gape 2.00; its height at base 0.45; tibia naked 0.50; tarsus (average) 1.30; 
middle toe and claw 1.10; hind toe and claw 0.40; wing 11.75-12.25; tail 5.50, forked 
1.20-1.75. Nearly cosmopolitan; in N. Am., not abundant, and chiefly in Eastern U. s., 
Texas to New England. Not a beach-nester; breeds in marshes, like the black tern ; 
eggs 3, laid on broken-down reeds or grasses, 1.75 X 1.30, olivaceous, largely and irregularly 
splashed with umber-brown and blackish, especially about the largest part, but very variable, 
like all terns’ eggs. 

s. (T.) cas'pia. (Of the Caspian Sea. Fig. 512.) Caspran Tern. Important Tern. Of 
maximum size. Length 20.00-23.00; extent 50.00-55.00; wing 15.00-17.00, usually about 
16.00 ; tail only 5.00-6.00, forked about 1.50, middle feathers broad to their rounded ends, rest 
growing successively more acute, but lateral without any slender filamentous development. 
Bill extremely large, 2.75 along culmen, 4.00 along gape, 0.90 deep at base, 0.50 wide at 
nostrils ; about as long as head, with culmen regularly curved from base to tip; outline of 
mandibular rami slightly concave; gonys about straight; angle not very well marked. 


758 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— LONGIPENNES — GAVIE. 


Tibie bare about 0.75; tarsus 1.75, rather exceeding middle toe and claw, the scutella in 
front replaced by polygonal scales similar to but larger than those on its sides, which are 
rough ; hind toe extremely small; outer lateral nearly as long as middle toe and claw, which 
is 1.65. Bill dark vermilion red, growing lighter and somewhat ‘‘diaphanous” toward the 
tip. Pileum and occipital crest glossy greenish-black, extending to below the lower level of 
the eyes, and occupying the termination of the feathers on the side of the mandible to the 


S 
SS, 
=— SS = 


Ae 


Fig, 512. — Caspian Tern, 2 nat. size. (From Brelun.) 
exclusion of the white; lower eyelid white, forming a noticeable spot on the greenish; a 
white streak along sides of upper mandible, not extending to the end of the feathers. Mantle 
pearl-blue, the line of demarcation between it and the white rather indefinite, both on nape 
and rump; most of the tail-feathers, and especially the central ones, retaining a more or less 
pearly tint. Shafts of the primaries yellowish-white; primaries grayish-black, but, when 
new, so heavily silvered over as to appear of a light hoary gray, especially on their superior 
aspects. On the inner web of all there is a central light field; this is very narrow, even on 
the first primary, although it runs for some considerable distance, and on the others it rapidly 
grows less; and it has no trenchant line of division on any of the primaries from the darker 
portions of the feather. Whole inner web of secondaries pure white, outer pearl-blue. Legs 
and feet black. Adult, winter plumage: Chiefly distinguished by a diminution in the bright- 
ness of the bill, and by a change in the character of the pileum. The vermilion is replaced 
by light orange-red, growing still yellower toward the tip of the bill and along the tomia. 


794. 


LARIDA — STERNIN: TERNS. 759 


The forehead is white, usually quite pure; crown white, with small, narrow, distinct streaks 
of brownish-black, along the shaft of each feather. On the sides of the head, before and 
behind the eyes, and over the auriculars, the black is more largely intermixed with the white ; 
and on the nape of the neck, that is, toward the termination of the occipital crest, the black 
is the predominating color, being only slightly variegated with white. Young-of-the-year : 
Everyway much smaller than the adult, the bill especially smaller, shorter, and. weaker, 
and of a duller red, more inclining to orange. Upper parts as in the adult, but the pearl- 
blue everywhere spotted with rather small roundish or hastate spots of brownish-black, 
largest on the tertials. Forehead grayish-white; vertex speckled with grayish-white and 
black, the latter color increasing in amount until it becomes nearly or quite pure on the short 
occipital crest. Wings much as in the adult. Tail much shorter and less forked; the rectrices 
with brownish spaces near their tips, chiefly ou their inner webs. Under parts dull white. 
Legs and feet rather shorter and weaker than those of the adult, but of much the same color. 
Downy young: Grayish-white above, faintly mottled with blackish not aggregated into spots ; 
white below, dusky across throat. Northern Hemisphere: In N. Am. irregularly distributed, 
chiefly in Arctic regions, and along whole Atlantic coast; has lately occurred in various locali- 
ties in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys; known to breed on coasts of Virginia and Texas. 
Eggs 2, in hollow scooped in dry sand without nest, 2.65 to 2.75 & 1.80 to 1.90, broader and 
more elliptical than those of S. maxima, with smoother and harder shell; ground-color pale 
olive-buff, evenly marked all over with small spots of dark-brown and lavender. Breeds 
commonly by single or few pairs, not in great colonies like S. maxima. 

S. (T.) max/ima, (Lat. maxima, largest: not true. Fig. 513.) Cayenne TERN. ROYAL 
Tern. Bill about as long as that of S. caspia, but of very different shape, much slenderer, its 
height at base only 
from a fourth to a 
third of its length. 
Culnen gradually de- 
clinato-convex from 
base to tip, the amount 
of curvature increas- 
ing but slightly tow- 
ard the apex, which 
is not very acute. 
Commissure some- 
what sinuate basally, regularly declinato-convex for the rest of its length. Rami decidedly a 
little concave along their edges. Gonys straight, shorter than the rami, the prominence 
between the two illy developed. Tibize bare for a considerable distance (0.90 of an inch). 
Tarsus not longer than middle toe and claw; its anterior aspect shows a tendency toward 
Teticulations instead of transverse scutella, but there are usually some scales which extend 
quite across it. The lateral and posterior aspects are thickly reticulated, as in caspia, but 
the plates are not so rough nor elevated. Tail long for this subgenus, quite deeply forked ; 
central feathers broad to their very tips, which are rounded ; lateral ones successively more 
elongated and narrower toward their tips, the external pair slender and quite filamentous for 
some distance. Adult in summer: Pileum glossy greenish-black, not extending below eyes, so 
narrow on side of upper mandible that a broad white streak extends to extreme tip of the 
feathers. Mantle exceedingly light pearl-blue, fading imperceptibly into white on the rump and 
toward the extremities of the tertials. Tail white, with a faint tinge of pearly, especially on the 
central feathers and inner webs of the others. Secondaries pure white for their whole length ex- 
cept asmall space on the outer web near the tip, which is grayish-blue, deeper than the mantle. 
Outer web of first primary grayish-black ; the inner web of the same has a space of black 


Fia. 513. — Royal Tern, $nat. size. (From Sclater and Salvin.) 


795. 


760 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LONGIPENNES — GAVIA. 


extending the whole length of the feather, very narrow at the base, widening as it runs toward 
the tip, within 14 inches of which it occupies the whole web; the rest of the web white, sep- 
arated from the black by a straight distinct line of division. The second, third, fourth, and 
fifth primaries have the same general characteristics, but the white space rapidly grows nar- 
rower and shorter, and runs up further in the centre than along the edge of the web, so that for 
a little way from its end it has a border of blackish along its outer margin; other primaries 
wholly pearl-blue, their inner webs margined with white. Bill coral or orange-red, with a 
slightly lighter tip; feet blackish, their soles dull yellowish. Winter plumage: Bill less brightly 
colored, its apex and tomia dull yellowish. Front white; crown variegated with black and 
white, the former color increasing on the occiput and nuchal crest, which latter, though shorter 
than in summer, is almost or quite unmixed with white. This black extends forward on the 
sides of the head to the eye, which it includes. (But frequently found breeding in this 
imperfect condition of the black cap, which is much more usual than the complete black.) 
Tail not pure white, but glossed over with the bluish of the mantle, which deepens toward 
the tips of the feathers into dusky-plumbeous ; also considerably less forked, the lateral featbers 
having little or nothing of a filamentous character. Young-of-the-year in August: Bill con- 
siderably smaller and shorter than in the adult; its tip less acute, and its angles and ridges less 
sharply defined; mostly reddish-yellow, but light yellowish at tip. Crown much as in the 
adults in winter, but the occipital crest scarcely recognizable as such. Upper parts mostly 
white; but the pearl-gray of the adults appearing in irregular patches, and the whole back 
marked with small, irregularly shaped, but well-defined spots of brown. On the tertials the 
brown occupies nearly the whole of each feather, a narrow edge only remaining white. Lesser 
wing-coverts dusky plumbeous. Primaries much as in the adults, but the line of demarcation 
of the black and white wanting sharpness of definition. Tail basally white, but soon becoming 
plumbeous, then decidedly brownish, the extreme tips of the feathers again markedly white. 
Otherwise as in the adults. Dimensions of the adults: length 18.00-20.00; extent 42.00- 
44.00; wing 14.00-15.00; 
tail 6.00-8.00; the depth 
of forking 3.00-4.00; Dill, 
along culinen, 2.50 to 2.75; 
along commissure 3.75; its 
height at base 0.70; its 
width 0.50; gonys 1.00- 
1.25; tibiz bare 0.90; tarsus 
1.37; middle toe and claw 
1.40. Tropical and temperate America; Brazil and Peru to California and New England, 
chiefly coastwise, sometimes in the interior, as in Nevada. A fine species, second in size 
only to S. caspia; linear measurement nearly as great as in that species, owing to elongation 
of tail, but bulk much less. Breeds in great colonies along our Atlantic coast, dropping 2 
eggs on the sand, 2.67 long, as much as in caspia, about 1.70 or less broad, narrower and 
especially more pointed than those of caspia, rougher, yellowish-drab irregularly blotched 
with dark umber and pale purplish. Chicks spotted boldly above with dusky. 

S. (T.) elegans. (Lat. elegans, choice. Fig. 514.) Execanr Tern. Princety TERN. 
Similar to the last; smaller and differently proportioned ; billas long, much slenderer ; tarsus if 
anything longer than middle toe and claw; mantle very pale ; under parts rosy in high plumage. 
Bill much longer than head, exceeding the tarsus, middle toe and claw together; much com- 
pressed, very slender, scarcely $ as deep at base as long; culmen quite straight to beyond nos- 
trils, then slightly convex for the rest of its length ; commissure declinato-convex for nearly its 
whole length; mandibular rami very short, decidedly concave in outline, their angle of divergence 
very acute. Gonys extremely long, exceeding the crura of the mandible, its outline straight. 


Fia. 514, — Elegant Tern, 3 nat. size. (From Sclater and Salvin.) 


796. 


LARIDA — STERNINZ: TERNS. 761 


Tomia of both mandibles sharp and much inflected. Nasal groove long, fully half the culmen, 
narrow, not deep, directed obliquely downward and forward toward the tomia. A few oblique 
indistinct strize on both mandibles. The outline of the feathers on the billis as usual. Adult in 
summer: Bill bright red, salmon-colored toward tip. Feet black; soles and under surfaces of 
claws slightly yellowish. Crown of head, including long-flowing occipital crest, pure black, 
reaching down on the sides of the head to a straight line just on a level with the lower border 
of the eye; the white of the cheeks accompanying the black to the foremost point of extension 
of the feathers in the nasal fossee. All the under parts rosy-white, with satin gloss. Tail 
entirely pure white, longer and more deeply forked than in winter. Back and wings pale pearl- 
blue; the usual pattern of coloration of the primaries. ‘Length 19; extent 48” (label) ; 
culmen 2.75; gape nearly 4.50; depth of bill at base 0.50; gonys 1.50, not shorter than man- 
dibular rami; wing 12.25; tail 7.50; depth of fork 3.50; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw 
the same, or rather less. In winter: Bill orange, fading to yellow at tip and along cutting 
edges. Forehead and feathers on side of bill entirely white; crown varied with dark and white, 
black prevailing on hind head, complete on the occipital crest and sides of head to eyes. No 
pink blush of under parts. Tail shorter than in summer, 5.00 or less, forked only about 2.00, 
washed over with pearly-blue. Total leugth less, owing to less development of tail, 16.00- 
17.00. Young not seen. A truly elegant species, resembling the royal tern, but easily dis- 
tinguished. §. and C. Am. to California; unknown on our Gulf or Atlantic coast. 

S. (T.) canti/aca, (Of Kent, England. Fig. 515.) Saxpwicn Tern. Duca Tery. Bill 
much longer than head, exceeding the tarsus, middle toe, and claw together; quite slender 
and attenuated for this sub- 
genus, tip excessively acute ; 
convexity of culmen, from 
tip to base, regular, but 
slight ; commissure gradual- 
ly declinato-convex through- 
out; outline of mandibular 
cerura decidedly concave ; that 
of gonys about straight ; 
eminentia symphysis hardly 
appreciable. Adult, breed- 
ing plumage: Bill black, 
the tip for to ¢of an inch bright yellow, sharply defined against the black; “inside of 
mouth deep blue.” Feet dull black. Pileum and occipital crest glossy black, with a tinge of 
green; the color extending just below the eyes, but leaving a space along the side of the 
mandible white to the extremity of the feathers. Mantle exceedingly light pearl-blue, fading 
on the rump and upper tail-coverts into pure white; but the rectrices themselves bave a 
slight shade of pearly-bluish. Primaries colored as in maxima. On the inner web of the 
first the black space is broad and deep in color; when about 14 inches from the apex of the 
quill it quite suddenly grows wider, so as to exclude the white portion from the tip altogether. 
The second, third, and fourth primaries have the same general pattern, but the white runs 
up further on the central portion than on the edge of the web, so that toward its end it 
receives a narrow edging of blackish. The other primaries have no blackish, but are simply 
pearl-blue, with broad white margins along the whole length of their inner webs. The outer 
primaries are all heavily silvered when the quills are new. Dimensions of the adult: length 
15.00-16.00 inches ; extent 34.00; wing from the carpus 12.50; tail 6.00; depth of emargi- 
nation 2.35 ; bill along culmen 2.25 ; along gape 3.00; its height at base 0.48 ; width, ditto, 
0.37 5 length of rami from feathers on side of lower mandible 1.00; gonys 1.20 (longer than 
rami); tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw, slightly longer. Adult, winter plumage: Yellow 


Fig. 515. — Sandwich Tern, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 


97. 


762 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LONGIPENNES-— GAVIA. 


tip of bill less in extent and intensity of color ; front white, either pure or speckled with black ; 
crown variegated with black and white, the former color consisting of small, narrow, distinct 
streaks along the shaft of each feather; but the long-occipital crest, which does not entirely 
disappear at this season, usually remains of an unmixed brownish-black. Lateral tail-feathers 
shorter than in summer. Young-of-the-year: Considerably smaller than the adult, as is usual 
in this subfamily, the wing being a full half-inch shorter. Bill shorter and weaker, and 
without sharply-defined angles and ridges, brownish-black, the extreme point only yellow- 
ish. Crown, front, and occiput brownish-black, variegated with white; white touches very 
small on the forehead. Upper parts as in adult, but everywhere marked with irregularly- 
shaped but well-defined spots and transverse bars of brownish-black. No well-formed occipital 
crest until after the first moult. Primaries like those of adult. The tail, however, is very different. 
The feathers for three-fourths their length are of the color of the back; this color gradually 
deepens, until toward the tips it becomes brownish-black, each feather having a terminal irreg- 
ular edge left whitish. Tail simply deeply emarginate, the outer feathers being but slightly 
longer than the second. A fine species, alone among the large terns, with its black yellow- 
tipped bill, of wide distribution in both Hemispheres; in N. Am. observed along Atlantic 
coast, New England to Texas; both coasts of C. Am.; 8. Am. Eggs 2-3, dropped on the dry 
sand; 2.10 X 1.40; rather pointed, yellowish-drab, most irregularly spotted with dark brown 
and reddish-brown, with lilac shell-spots. Breeds in large colonies, like most terns. 

S. hirun/do. (Lat. hirundo, a swallow.) Common TERN. Wiuison’s TERN. SEA 
SwaLiow. Adult, summer plumage: Bill as long as head, about equalling tarsus and middle 
toe without claw, of moderate robustness; height at base contained a little more than five 
times in length of eulinen; gonys as long as rami, measured from feathers on side of mandible 
to eminentia symphysis, which latter is but slightly marked ; bright coral, or light vermilion, 
on basal half or rather more, the remainder black, except the extreme tips, which are yellow- 
ish. Pileumn lustrous velvety-black, with tinge of glossy-green ; it extends to lower level of 
eyes, but leaves the lower lids white, and it is so broad on the lores that the white line of 
feathers along side of mandible hardly reaches to their extremity. Whole upper parts pearl- 
blue, this color commencing insensibly on back of neck, deepening on dorsum, and extending 
quite undiluted almost to the extreme apices of the tertials; ending abruptly and distinetly 
on rump, the upper tail-coverts being pure white. Under parts of a considerably lighter 
shade of the color of the back. On the throat, toward the chin and along the borders of the 
black pileum, it fades into nearly or quite pure white, as it does also on the lower tail-coverts 
and the cireumanal region; inferior surfaces of wings and axillary feathers pure white. 
Shafts of all the primaries white, deepening into blackish toward their apices. Outer web of 
first primary black, with scarcely any hoariness. The first four or five primaries are grayish- 
black, with a very strong silvery hoariness ; their inner webs with a space of white along their 
inner margins. This space on the first primary at the base occupies the whole web, becomes 
narrower as it ascends, and ends, or becomes a mere line, about an inch from the apex of the 
quill. On the other primaries it is of less extent, and runs up along the centre of the shaft a 
little further than on the edge. On the innermost primaries, again, it is very narrow, but 
forms an entire margin to the inner webs, running quite to their tips. The inner primaries 
have scarcely any grayish-black, but are rather of the color of the mantle. Secondaries mostly 
pure white, but toward their ends have a space grayish-blue of about equal extent on both 
webs. Tail moderately elongated and forked, contained about 12 times in the wing; the 
folded wings reach one to two inches beyond it; central feathers broad to their evenly rounded 
tips; the lateral ones successively narrower, more tapering and acute; their outer webs light 
pearl-gray (very like the back), their inner webs nearly pure white. The external pair, how- 
ever, are on most of their inner webs, especially terminally, grayish-blue, while their outer 
webs are dark grayish-black. Legs and feet light coral-red. Dimensions: length (average) 


798, 


LARIDA—STERNINZ: TERNS. 763 


14.50 inches; extent about 31.00; wing from the carpus 10.50; tail 6.00; depth of fork 3.50 
(average) ; bill along culmen 1.35 ; height at base 0.33; from feathers on side of lower man- 
dible to tip 1.60; gonys 0.80; gape 2.10; tibia bare 0.50; tarsus 0.80 to 0.85 ; middle toe 
0.75, its claw 0.30; outer 0.70, its claw 0.18; inner 0.48, its claw 0.14; hallux with its claw 
0.28; whole foot about 1.75. Extreme range: length 13.00 to 16.00; extent 29.00 to 32.00; 
wing 9.75 to 11.75; tail 5.00 to 7.00; tarsus 0.66 to 0.87; bill 1.25 to 1.50. Females average 
a little less than the males. Young fall under the above minima; length down to 12.00, wing 
to 9.00, tail to 4.00, bill to 1.12, ete. Young-of-the-year in August: Upper mandible brown, 
becoming blackish on the culmen toward the tip, and somewhat flesh-colored basally along 
the tomia. Under mandible light yellow, darkening into brown toward tip. Mouth yellow; 
feet dull yellow, with scarcely a tinge of reddish. Forehead grayish-white ; om the vertex this 
gray intermixed with large, roundish, illy-defined spots of blackish ; on occiput and nape black 
is the prevailing color, the extreme tips of the feathers only being gray; on sides of head, as 
far as eyes, the black also nearly pure. The ground-color of the upper parts is a rather lighter 
shade of the pearl-blue of the adults, but every feather is tipped with dull light gray, and has 
a subterminal spot (generally a crescent or semicircle) of light brown. These spots and tips 
are quite conspicuous, and give perhaps the predominating color to the upper parts; but they 
are not so distinctly defined, nor so dark, as in macrura. Lesser wing-coverts along the edge 
of the fore-arm form a continuous band of nearly pure brownish-black. Lesser and median 
coverts are conspicuously tipped with yellowish-gray; greater secondaries, however, fade into 
nearly pure white at their tips. The secondaries are white, with the outer web, except at tip, 
and the median portion of the inner web, dark plumbeous or 
ashy-gray. Primaries colored almost exactly as in the adults. 
Rump white, with a tinge of pearl-blue. Tail slightly forked, 
the emargination being but little more than an inch; inner 
webs of all the rectrices nearly pure white, but the outer webs 
are plumbeous-gray, increasing in intensity from within out- 
ward; so that the outer pair of rectrices, which are but little 
tapering or elongated, have their outer webs grayish-black, 
deepest toward their tips. Entire under plumage, including 
the under wing-coverts, pure white, with no trace of the 
plumbeous wash of the adults. The winter range and changes 
of plumage of this familiar species are not well known; it 
does not appear to lose the black cap, which nevertheless is 
imperfect at that season. North America at large, Europe, 
etc. Breeds and winters variously in its N. A. range. 
Eggs 3, 1.65 x 1.25, not distinguishable from those of allied 
species. 

S. for/steri. (To J. R. Forster. Figs. 50, 516.) Forsrmr’s 
TeRN. Similar to the last; larger; bill longer, stouter ; 
wings shorter, tail longer; feet longer. Length about 15.00; Fig. 516, — Tail of Forster’s Tern, 
extent 30.00; wing 9.50-10.50; tail 5.00-8.00, forked 9.50- bout é nat. size. (From Elliot.) 
5.00; bill along culmen 1.50-1.75, averaging 1.60, its depth at base 0.40; tarsus 0.90-1.00 ; 
middle toe and claw 1.00-1.10; whole foot averaging 2.00. Adult, spring plumage: Bill 
orange-yellow, black for nearly its terminal half, the extreme points of both mandibles yellow- 
ish ; robust, deep at base ; culmen declinato-convex, eminence at symphysis well developed ; 
length from +; to ~ of an inch longer than that of S. hirundo. Black pileum not extending 
so far down on sides of head as in hirundo, barely embracing eye (the lower lid of which is 
white), and leaving a wider white space between the eye and edge of superior maxilla than 
in hirundo. The color of the back hardly differs from that species ; perhaps a shade lighter. 


799. 


T64 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— LONGIPENNES — GAVLZ. 


Wings comparatively shorter than those of hirundo, being absolutely a little shorter, though 
forstert is a larger bird; very light colored, being strongly silvered; outer web of the first 
primary is not black, but silvery like the others; all the primaries want the very decided white 
space on the inner webs which exists in hirundo and macrura; there are indications of it on 
the three or four outer primaries, but the others are a nearly uniform dusky gray, moderately 
hoary. Entire under parts white, with scarcely a trace of the plumbeous so evident in 
hirundo, and so decided a color in macrura. Tail a slightly lighter shade of the color of 
the mantle, separated from the latter for a short space by the decidedly white rump ; lateral 
feathers much more lengthened than in hirundo, the elongation generally quite equalling that 
of macrura, and sometimes even exceeding it. These two lateral feathers are white on the 
outer web, dusky-gray on the inner. This being exactly the reverse of hirundo, and a very 
noticeable feature, was the first to draw attention to the bird; and this character being so 
tangible and convenient, writers have perhaps laid too much stress upon it, to the exclusion 
of others quite as evident. Feet bright orange, tinged with vermilion ; tarsus shorter than 
middle toe and claw ; feet longer and stouter by over 0.10 of an inch than the same parts in 
hirundo. Adult, winter plumage: The black of the bill increases so much that nearly the 
whole bill becomes dusky, except a small space at the base of the under mandible, anda 
terminal space of varying extent. The feet lose their vermilion tinge and become dusky 
yellowish. The black pileam more or less variegated with white on forehead; but there 
is always considerable black left on the nape, and a more or less broad and distiuct bar 
always extends along the sides of the head, embracing the eyes. The lateral tail-feathers 
have not the elongation and attenuation of those of summer, being but little, if any, longer 
than those of hirwndo during the breeding season. The color of the inner web is usually 
darker, and sometimes extends on the outer as well as the inner, especially toward the tip of 
the feather. (S. havelli Aud.) At the time of the moult the old primaries lose their 
silvering and become plain brown and white, their shafts being of a decided yellow. The 
inner webs at this season have white spaces, with uearly as distinctly defined margins as are 
found in hirundo and macrura. Young: Bill in all its proportions considerably smaller and 
weaker than that of the adults; brownish-black, fading into dull flesh-color at base of under 
mandible. Front white, but the crown and nape show traces of the black that is to appear, 
which is now mixed with light brown. Pearl-blue of back and wing-coverts interrupted by 
irregular patches of light grayish-brown, showing a tendency to become transverse bars; this 
grayish-brown on the tertials deepeus into brownish-black, and oeeupies nearly the whole 
extent of each feather. The primaries differ from those of the adult in having less silvery 
gloss, and the inner white spaces more marked, being in fact like those of the adult hirundo. 
Rump and under parts pure white. The tail intensifies, so to speak, its adult characters as 
regards color; and, independently of any other feature, will always serve to identify the 
species. It is deeply emarginate, but the lateral feather is not greatly produced, surpassing 
the second by searcely more than the latter surpasses the third. Its inner web, for an inch or 
so from the tip, and both webs of the other feathers, grayish-black ; the intensity of this color, 
and also its extent, decreasing successively on each feather from without inward, so that the 
central pair scarcely deepen their color at the tips. The outer web of the lateral feather white, 
but sometimes is just at the tip invaded by the darker color of its inner web. N. Am. at large, 
common ; breeds from Texas to the Fur countries; abundant along Atlantic coast during the 
migrations; 8. in winter to Brazil. Nest in marshes; eggs 2-3, 1.85 X 1.35, yellowish-drab, 
freely but irregularly spotted and dashed with different shades of brown. 

S. macru'ra. (Gr. pakpdés, makros, long; odpd, oura, tail.) Arctic TERN. Adult in 
breeding plumage: Bill shorter than head, equal to middle toe and tarsus together, slender, 
compressed, acute, deep carmine, or lake red; usually without any black, but this color 
sometimes appearing in a limited degree. Feet remarkably small and weak; tibiae bare for 


LARIDA — STERNINE: TERNS. 765 


a moderate distance; tarsi exceedingly short, being less than middle toe without claw, or 
only equal to it; toes rather long for the size of the feet; the outer falls but little short of 
the middle one, while the tip of the claw of the inner hardly reaches beyond the third articula- 
tion of the middle one. The feet are a lighter tint of the color of bill, tending toward vermilion, 
or coral-red, but not so light as those of hirwndo. Wings very long; primaries narrow, 
tapering to their roundish but slender tips; shafts white, with scarcely darker tips. Outer 
web of first primary grayish-black, lightening into silvery-gray at tip; inner web white, 
with only a very narrow line of grayish-dusky along the shaft; this dusky space much 
narrower and lighter than in hirwndo ; next four or five primaries silvery-gray, darkest 
toward their tips; their inner webs mostly white (wholly so at their bases) ; but the white 
does not extend so far toward the tips of the feathers as on the first primary, and it runs up 
farther in the centre of the web than on the edge of it. Inner primaries of the color of 
the back, broadly tipped and margined internally with white. Tail exceedingly long, the 
exterior fe@ther being as much lengthened, and as narrow, tapering and acute, as in S. dougalli. 
The tail-feathers reach beyond the tips of the folded wings. Tail pure white, the outer web 
of its exterior feather being grayish-black, lighter basally, and its inner web, and the outer 
webs of the next two rectrices, having a considerable wash of pearl-blue. Cap pure, lustrous 
greenish-black, so broad on the cheeks as to leave only a slender line of white to extend along 
the edge of the feathers on the side of the upper mandible. Upper parts pearl-blue, of about 
the same shade as in hirundo ; this color, however, fading into white at tips of tertials and 
inner secondaries. Under parts but a little lighter shade of the color of the back, fading 
insensibly into whitish on the chin, throat, and edges of the black cap, and ending abruptly at 
the under tail-coverts, which are pure white, in marked contrast to the rest of the under parts ; 
lining of wings and axillars also pure white. Winter plumage of adult: Differs from the 
above chiefly in the color of the cap; forehead white ; crown white, but marked with narrow 
shaft-lines of black, which increase from before backward until, on the nape, the black is 
nearly or quite pure. A lateral stripe, more or less pure and distinct, extends forward on 
sides of head over the auriculars, to just in front of eye, leaving, however, the eyelids white. 
Upper parts much as in summer, but under parts from chin to vent, much lighter. The 
carmine of bill and feet lighter and duller, but not the coral-red tint of the feet of hirundo or 
forstert. Plumage of the young-of-the-year: Bill much smaller than in the adult, being 
only 1.08 inches long; brownish-black toward tip; gonys and sides of lower mandible toward 
the angle of the mouth dull orange ; feet only orange-colored on the soles, otherwise brownish- 
red. Tail much shorter than in adult, only 4.75 to 5.00 inches long, and the outer pair 
of rectrices broader and scarcely at all tapering in form. Forehead white; the crown 
streaked with narrow, longitudinal spots of white upon a black ground color, which extends 
as far as the eyes, andruns back over the temples and auriculars as far as the nape. Whole 
under parts from the chin, including under tail-coverts and under surfaces of wings, pure 
white. On the back there predominates everywhere a uniform, light bluish-gray (somewhat 
darker than in S. hirwndo), all the feathers tipped with yellowish-white or white, most of 
them with a blackish-brown streak or crescent-shaped spot near the end ; these spots darkest 
on the tertials and inner secondaries, and aggregated into a single, broad, slate-colored streak 
on the least wing-coverts. The ashen-blue primaries deepen into slate-color toward their 
tips; their shafts white, their inner webs with a longitudinal space of white, the outer web 
of the first slaty-black. Inner tail-feathers white, as are their shafts ; their tips white, each 
with a subterminal crescent-shaped spot of brownish-black. Dimensions of the adult: 
length (extremely variable from varying length of tail) 14.00-17.00 inches ; extent 29.00-~ 
33.00 ; wing 10.00-10.75 ; tail usually 7.00-8.00, sometimes 6.50-8.50 ; depth of fork 4.00- 
5.00; tibiee bare 0.45; tarsus 0.55-0.65; middle toe and claw 0.80-0.85; inner toe and 


? 


claw 0.55; whole foot about 1.50; bill along culmen 1.20-1.40; height at base 0.30; 


800. 


801. 


766 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LONGIPENNES—GAVIZ. 


from feathers of side of lower mandible to tip 1.40; gape 1.90; gonys 0.75. A beautiful 
species, easily recognized by points of size and form, aside from color; this varies much with 
age and season, giving rise to many nominal species; among American synonyms are S. pikei 
Lawr., S. longipennis Coues, S. portlandica Ridg. Europe, Asia, Africa; N. Am. at large, 
northerly ; breeds from Massachusetts northward; 8. to Middle States and California, and 
probably farther. Eggs 2-3, not distinguishable from those of the two foregoing species, 
but averaging smaller. 

S. dow/galli. (To Dr. McDougall. Fig. 511.) Roseats TERN. PARADISE TERN. Adult in 
breeding plumage: Bill about as long as head or foot, straight, slender, compressed, very acute; 
gonys longer than rami, former straight, latter concave in outline, with acute but not 
prominent angle between them. Wings shorter than usual, lst primary little longer than 
next, all rounded. Tail exceedingly long and deeply forked, with very narrow filamentous 
outer feathers. Tibi slightly denuded; tarsus a little sborter than middle toe and claw. 
Whole form trim and elegant. Bill black, the extreme point yellowish, the base for a little 
distance, and inside of mouth, red. Feet bright yellowish-red; claws black. Cap lustrous 
black, very ample, reaching to lower border of eyes; under eyelid white, as is a streak to end 
of feathers on bill. Neck all around and entire under parts snowy white, tinted with lovely 
rose-pink. Mantle delicate pale pearly, over all the upper parts from the neck, including 
rump and base of tail, fading however to white on tips of tertials and inner webs of secondaries, 
Long tail-feathers white, with a faint pearly tint. Primaries grayish-black, strongly silvered 
when fresh; outer web of the first blackish; inner webs of all pure white for more than half 
their breadth, this white stripe broadest on the first, toward the base of which it occupies the 
whole web, and on all of them continued to and usually around the very tips; shafts of all 
the quills white both sides nearly to end. Adult in winter: Bill dull black, with yellowish 
tip and brown base. Forehead and cheeks white ; crown, hind-head, nape, and sides of head, 
brownish-black, mixed with white on vertex. No rosy tint. Lesser coverts along edge of 
fore-arm brownish. Tail without much elongation or forking, and pearly like the back. 
Young, newly fledged: Bill small, weak, slender, greenish-black, hardly 1.10; wings like 
those of adults. Tail merely forked an inch or so, pearly-blue on outer webs, almost white 
on inner, with subterminal edging of blackish. General color of upper parts light pearly- 
blue, variegated on most parts with a delicate mottling of black and buff, the black chiefly 
in narrow zig-zag cross-bars, broken by the fawn-color; on the wings the variegation in 
larger pattern, the feathers mostly black with yellowish border. Forehead and cheeks soft 
light grayish-brown, resolved on crown and hind-head into streaks of blackish and tawny, 
lost again in blackish on the nape. A silvery-white spot before and above eye; eye sur- 
rounded by black. A band of black along edge of forearm, where some of the feathers have 
yellowish tips. Under parts pure white, a little obscured with gray on the breast. Length 
of adult 14.00-15.00; extent about 30.00; wing 9.25-9.75 ; tail 7.00-8.00, forked 3.50-4.50; 
bill along culmen 1.50; height at base 0.35 ; length of gonys 1.00, of mandibular rami 0.75; 
tibie bare 0.40; tarsus 0.85; middle toe and claw 1.00. This exquisite species inhabits 
Enrope, etc., and in N. Am. is known to occur along the whole extent of the Atlantic and 
Gulf States, in various W. I. Islands, and C. Am.; breeds apparently throughout its range, 
wintering extralimital. Eggs as in other beach species. 

S. supercilia/ris antilla/rum. (Lat. swperciliaris, relating to the eyebrow, i. e. to the white 
frontal crescent; Antillarwm, of the Antilles.) Least Tern. Much smaller than any of 
the foregoing; length about 9.00; extent 20.00; wing 6.60; tail 3.50, forked 1.75; bill 
along culmen 1.20; depth at base 0.28; tarsus 0.60; middle toe and claw 0.75. Young 
smaller; length 8.50; wing 6:25; tail 3.00; bill 1.00. Tail moderately forked, the lateral 
feathers scarcely filamentous, rapidly narrowing to acute tip. Bill about as long as head, 
rather shorter than whole foot, yellow tipped with black for $+ inch. Cap glossy greenish- 


802. 


LARIDZ — STERNINE: TERNS. T67 


black, with a narrow white frontal crescent the horns of which reach over the eyes, fhe 
convexity quite to the bill, but cut off from the white of the cheeks by a line of black through 
eye to end of feathers on bill. Entire upper parts, including tail, pearly-blue, rather dark 
and of a leaden shade, reaching quite to the black cap, fading on sides of neck and head into 
the snowy satiny-white of all the under parts. Tail-feathers like back, but paler basally 
and white on their under surfaces, and outer web of the outer feather. Mantle extending to 
very tips of the tertials and secondaries, but inner webs of these feathers nearly white toward 
the base. Shafts of first two primaries black on top, white underneath, the webs black, the 
inner with a white space, distinctly outlined from the black, not reaching ends of the feathers ; 
other primaries like back, but darker plumbeous, fading to white on their inner borders. 
Feet orange-yellow, claws black. Adult in winter: Bill black; feet dull yellowish. Fore- 
head and lores white; crown white, with black shaft-lines; occiput and nape blackish, 
sending forward a band through eye. Mantle darker than in summer, and more restricted, 
leaving hind-neck white; a band of grayish-black along fore-arm, and whole edge of the 
wing of this color. Most of the primaries blackish, without silvering. Young of first winter: 
Similar, forehead not pure white, nor hind-head quite blackish, mantle varied with lighter 
tips of most of the feathers; tail with traces of dark spots. Young in August: Bill brownish- 
black, pale at base below. Forehead mostly white; crown and hind-head varied with white 
and brownish-black, the latter color especially forming an auricular patch. Pearl-gray 
mautle of the adults appearing, but interrupted with brown hastate or crescentic spots, one 
or more on each feather, mottling the whole upper parts. Primaries grayish-black, growing 
lighter from first to last, margined on inner webs with white, broadly and briefly on outer 
primaries, more narrowly and lengthily on successive ones; outer web of first primary, and 
shafts of all on upper side, black. Tail merely emarginate, without elongation of outer 
feathers; pearly-blue, shading towards the ends of the feathers to dusky-gray, the tips white. 
Whole under parts pure white. A pretty little ‘‘ sea-swallow,” inhabiting temperate N. Aim., 
especially along the Atlantic coast of the U.S., but also on larger inland waters; Pacific 
side to California; South into the Antilles and Middle America; very intimately related to 
the S. Am. superciliaris and European minuta. Eggs dropped on bare dry sand of beaches, 
or in a little shelly depression, 1, 2, or 3 in number, 1.20 to 1.30 by 0.99; ground color 
varying from pale clear greenish to dull pale drab, speckled all over with small splashes, 
irregular spots and dots of several shades of clear brown, with paler and more lilaceous 
shell-spots; the markings often evenly distributed, more frequently tending to wreathe at 
or around the larger end, the point often free from marks or with only a few dots. 

S. trudeau/i. (To Dr. James Trudeau.) TRupEav’s TERN. WHITE-HEADED TERN. Size 
and proportions nearly as in S. forsteri, the bill especially of same size and shape. Coloration 
very different, unique in the subfamily. Adult: Bill straw-yellow at end, apparently bright 
colored, probably reddish, at base, with a broad black intervening band. The whole head pure 
white, including all the parts about the base of the bill; this deepens insensibly into the pearly 
color all around. A narrow distinct bar of slaty-black on side of head, passing through eye 
from a point just in advance of the auriculars, where the fascia widens and bends down a little. 
All the rest of the plumage, below as well as above, of a uniform lustrous pale pearly, with 
the following exceptions: Under surfaces of wings pure white; tail, with its coverts and the 
rump, white, still with an appreciable pearly tint ; tips, and part of inner vanes of secondaries 
and tertials, white; primaries with the picture common to most terns, with a white space on 
the inner webs; their darker portions beautifully silvered over with hoary gray, which makes 
them appear paler than usual; shafts white above and below, except at extreme tips; feet 
appear to have been reddish or yellowish, certainly of some bright color. Wing 10.25; tail 
6.50; depth of the fork 2.75; bill along culmen. 1.50; its depth at base 0.38 ; length of gonys 
1.75; tarsus 0.90; middle toe and claw 1.05. A rare and remarkable species belonging te 


803. 


804, 


768 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES — GAVIZ. 


South America, questionably occurring in N. Am.; ‘‘ New Jersey and Long Island” (Audu- 
bon). 
S. aleu’tica. (Of the Aleutian Isles. Fig. 517.) ALeuTiaAN Tern. Adult: Bill of ordinary 
shape, as in hirundo, macrura, ete., entirely black. Feet small, as in the species just named, 
but the webs more deeply incised ; emargination not so great, however, as in Hydrochelidon ; 
much as in Haliplana. Tibia bare to the usual extent. Wings 
and tail exactly as in Sterna proper, the latter, in its length and 
depth of fork, recalling macrura and forstert. Crown and nape 
black ; a large white frontal crescent, the horns of which reach to 
: the posterior border of the eyes, the convexity of which extends into 
Fra. 517. — Aleutian Tern, the nasal fosse, the concavity of which is opposite the anterior 
much reduced. border of the eyes; thus broader than in most species similarly 
marked. The black vertex sends through the eye a band that crosses the cheeks and reaches 
the bill just posterior to the point of greatest extension of the feathers on the latter. The 
chin, auriculars, and other parts of the head bordering this vitta below, are pure white, 
presently deepening insensibly into the hue of the under parts. Tail wholly pure white; no 
pearly wash on either vane of any of the feathers. Upper parts at large dark pearl-gray, with 
a dull leaden hue, different from the clear pearly of macrura, etc., yet not of the smoky cast 
of panayensis, ete. ; it is a tint intermediate between these, that I find difficult to name satis- 
factorily. The whole under parts, from the white of the chin, just noticed, to the under tail- 
coverts, paler and more decidedly pearly, more nearly as in full-plumaged macrura, yet more 
grayish. Both under and upper tail-coverts, like the tail, white. The color of the back 
mounts on the neck behind to the 
black of the nape without interven- 
tion of white. Under wing-coverts 
and edge of wing pure white; as are 
all the shafts of the primaries. Pri- 
maries blackish lead-color, with 
silvery hoariness, and each with a 
large white space on inner web; this 
white space on the first primary oc- 
eupies at the base the whole width 
of the inner web, but grows nar- 
rower toward the tip of the feather, 
ending about an inch from the tip, 
which is wholly blackish lead-color, 
this color running down as a narrow 
margining of the inner vane for two 
inches or more. On the other pri- 
maries successively this white space Fig. 518.— Foot of Sooty Fia. 519. — Foot of Bridled 
diminishes in size, and is also less Tern, nat. size. (From Saunders.) Tern, nat. size. (From Saunders.) 
distinctly defined. Secondaries colored much like the back, but the greater part of the inner 
web of all white, and a narrow oblique touch of white on outer web near its end, which forms 
a bar across the wing when closed. Bill along culmen 1.40; along gape 1.70; height at base 
0.30; length of gonys 0.80; wing 9.75; tail 6.50; depth of fork 2.40; tarsus 0.60; middle 
toe alone 0.80; its claw nearly 0.30. Alaska and Aleutian Islands; a notable late discovery, 
coming between the species of Sterna proper and the sooty tern group; related to S. lunata. 
8. fuligino’sa. (Lat. fuliginosa, sooty. Fig. 518.) Sooty Tern. Representing a small 
group apart from any of the foregoing, named Yaliplana by some; approaching the noddies 


slightly. Bill as long as head, scarcely exceeded by whole foot, straight, stout at base, taper- . 


805. 


LARIDA — STERNINZE: TERNS. 769 


ing, acute, gonys ascending, commissure not decurved; nostrils rather far forward. Tail 
deeply forked, as in Sterna ; feet stout ; toes short, with much incised webs. Plumage Dicolor. 
Bill and feet black ; iris red. On the forehead a white crescent, reaching over eyes, separated 
from white of cheeks by a black bridle from eye obliquely downward and forward to bill. En- 
tire upper parts black, deep and uniform, with slight greenish gloss. Entire under parts white, 
reaching on sides of head to eyes, and more than half-way around neck. Primaries blackish, 
lighter on inner webs, their shafts brown above, white below; secondaries like primaries, but 
most of their inner webs whitish ; lining of wings white. Tail like back, duller on under sur- 
face, the long lateral feathers white, with white shafts, blackening toward end, especially on 
inner webs. Young entirely different: Bill black above, dull reddish below; eyes and feet 
dull reddish. Whole plumage smoky-brown, darkest above, paler and grayish or whitish on 
belly, almost black on primaries, upper wing-coverts and scapulars broadly tipped with white, 
giving a peculiar spotty appearance ; feathers of back, rump, and upper tail-coverts margined 
with dull rufous. Tail like wings in color, little forked, lateral feathers not elongated. 
Length about 16.50; extent about 34.00; wing 12.00; tail 7.50, forked 3.00-3.50; bill along 
culmen 1.80, gape 2.50; depth at base 0.50; tibia bare 0.70; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and 
claw 1.20; outer do. 1.05; inner do. 0.75; hind do. 0.30. A well-known inhabitant of most 
of the warmer parts of the globe. In N. Am. N. along Atlantic coast regularly to the Caro- 
linas, casually to New England; breeding so numerously on our S. coast that the eggs are or 
were an article of commerce. Eggs 3, dropped on the sand, 2.12 x 1.50, buff or creamy, 
sparingly marked with spots and splashes of light brown and pale purplish. 

S. anesthe'tica. (Gr. dvai@nrixds, anaisthetikos, stolid, apathetic. Fig. 519.) BripLEep 
TERN. Form of 8. fuliginosa, but webbing of the toes less extensive, being nearly as deeply 
incised as in Hydrochelidon. Bill and feet black. Crown, and stripe through eye to nostril, 
black. A white frontal lunula, narrower than in fuliginosa, extends some distance behind the 
eye. The black pileum is, on the nape, sharply defined against ashy-white, which, as it pro- 
ceeds backward, deepens into cinereous-brown, the prevailing color of the upper parts. Wings, 
and especially the primaries, darker than the rest of the upper parts, and with scarcely a shade 
of cinereous ; tail, with its coverts, much lighter and more ashy, approaching the nape in color. 
The primaries have well-defined, pure white spaces running for a considerable distance from 
their bases along the inner web, while in fwliginosa the inner webs are simply grayish-brown, 
with no well-marked pictura. A large part of inner webs of secondaries and tertials white. 
All the under wing-coverts pure white. Central tail-feathers brownish-ashy, concolor with 
their coverts. The lateral ones have much white toward their bases, especially on the inner 
webs, and this increases on each feather successively to such an extent that the next to the 
outer one is wholly white except a small space at its tip, while the outermost is entirely white. 
Shafts of primaries brownish-black above, white beneath; of the rectrices, dark along the 
cinereous, and white along other portions of the feathers. Below, the bird is entirely pure 
white. Dimensions: length 14.00 to 15.00 inches; wing 10.50; tail 6.00 to 7.00; bill 1.04 
to 1.60; height at base 0.35 to 0.40; width slightly less; tarsus 0.85; middle toe the same, 
with the claw 1.20; outer toe and claw 1.00; inner 0.75. Immature plumage: Black of 
pileum imperfect, largely mixed with white on the vertex, so that it fades insensibly into the 
white of the lunula, which latter is thus obscured. The black bridle is correspondingly imper- 
fect. Upper parts paler and grayer, some of the feathers being margined with whitish. Liat- 
eral rectrices not wholly white. Under parts pure white, as before. This is probably not the 
youngest plumage (of which I have yet to see specimens; described as being light-colored 
below from the very first), but rather represents a plumage that closely resembles, if it be 
not identical with, the ordinary winter plumage of the adult. This perfectly distinet species 
inhabits warmer parts of the globe in both hemispheres; West Indies and Florida. (Haliplana 
discolor, Coues.) 

49 


315, 


806. 


807. 


TT0 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES—GAVLE. 


HYDROCHELI'DON. (Gr. vdwp, hudor, water; xeddov, chelidon, a swallow.) BLack 
Terns. Bill a little shorter than head, longer than middle toe and claw; very delicate, slender, 
acute; culmen and commissure decidedly declinato-convex, the amount of curvature increasing 
toward the tip; outline of rami and gonys both concave, the former most so; eminentia sym- 
physis prominent and very acute. Wings exceedingly long, pointed, of same color as back, 
without distinct markings on either web. Primaries broad and not very tapering, not acute ; 
tertials very short, rounded, not slender nor flowing, reaching in the folded wing only half-way 
to tip of longest primary. Tail rather short, contained 24 times in the wing, only moderately 
emarginate (much as in Gelochelidon), the lateral feathers but little exceeding the next, not 
tapering and acuminate; all the feathers broad and rounded. Feet slender and short; tarsi 
much abbreviated, rather less than the middle toe alone. Toes moderately long ; the webs 
rather narrow and very deeply incised (fig. 51). Size small, general form delicate; colors 
mostly black, the wings and tail pluinbeous. 


Analysis of Species. 


Wings and tailabove like back . ..... SAAT Ree yi ou he ee . lariformis 806 
Wings whitening along border of forearm; upper tail-coverts white . . .. +... . . . leucoptera 807 


H. larifor‘mis. (Lat. lariformis, gull-shaped.) Buack TERN. SHORT-TAILED TERN. 
Adult, in summer: Head and neck all around and under parts to the vent, jet black; under 
tail-coverts pure white. On back of ueck, and between shoulders, the black lightening into 
leaden-gray, which extends over all the upper parts to the very tips of the tail-feathers. Ter- 
tials like back; secondaries darker, tending to the color of the primaries, which are grayish- 
black, silvered, with paler margins of inner webs, their shafts white except at tips. Lining of 
wings ashy-white, reaching a little over border on to lesser coverts. Bill and claws black, 
angle of mouth lake red; feet reddish-brown ; eyes brown. In winter: Very different ; fore- 
head, sides of head, neck all round, and entire under parts, white; under wing-coverts only 
ashy-gray. Upper parts generally as in summer, but paler, many feathers with whitish edges. 
A grayish-black bar along lesser coverts. On the crown, white varied with grayish or ashy, 
darker on nape, with bar through eye. While changing, head and under parts patched with 
white and black. Young: Bill brownish-black, base below flesh-color ; mouth yellow ; feet 
light brown. Forehead grayish-white, deepening on crown and nape to grayish-brown which 
reaches down to the back, obscuring the plumbeous; interscapulars quite brown; on other 
upper parts the brown edges the feathers. Lesser wing-coverts grayish-black. A black cres- 
cent before eye. Under parts pure white, the sides of the breast ashy-brown, the sides of the 
body and lining of the wings ashy. Quills as in the adults, but the shafts of the primaries 
brown. Length about 9.25; extent 25.00; wing 8.25; tail 3.75, forked 1.00; bill along cul- 
men 1.10; along gape 1.60; height at base 0.25 ; gonys 0.60. Young smaller, about 8.00; 
bill 1.00 ; tail shorter and less forked. N. Am. at large, interior and coastwise, abundant. 
Breeds in large colonies anywhere, in marshes and reedy sloughs, in June. Eggs on débris of 
dead reeds, often wet and floating, without any nest; 2-3, 1.35 X 0.95 average, pointed, yet 
with considerable bulge of the sides; ground color brownish-olive, rather pale and clear, 
thickly marked with spots and splashes of every size from dots to masses, but mostly large 
and bold, of light brown and blackish-brown, and the usual neutral-tint shell-markings; ten- 
dency to aggregate at or around the larger end. 

H. leuco’ptera. (Gr. Aeuxos, leukos, white; mrépov, pteron, wing.) WHITE-WINGED BLACK 
Tern. Adult in summer: Bill black, tinged with red; feet red; claws black. Head and 
neck all around and under parts pure black, shading on back and scapulars into dark slaty 
plumbeous; wings dark silvery-plumbeous, fading to white along border of forearm, the quills 
silvered-dusky with white shafts and dull white area on inner webs of the primaries ; lining of 
wings sooty blackish, varied with white along the border. Tail and its coverts, above and 


816. 


808. 


LARIDA — STERNINZ:: TERNS. 771 


below, white, abruptly contrasting with dark slate of the rump and black of the belly, the tail- 
feathers shaded with pearly-gray toward their ends. Length (of skin) 8.00; wing 7.50; tail 
2.75, forked under 0.50 ; bill along culmen 0.90, along gape 1.20, height at base 0.20 ; tarsus 
0.75; middle toe and claw 0.87. Resembling the last, and changes of plumage correspondent ; 
distinguished in any plumage by white upper tail-coverts and lesser wing-coverts. Europe; 
accidental in N. A. in one instance (Wisconsin). 

ANOUS. (Gr. dvovs, anous, mindless, regardless; i. e. stupid.) NopprEs. Bill about as 
long as head or longer, much longer than tarsus, moderately robust or very slender, depressed, 
as broad as high at base; elsewhere depressed, tapering to an acuminate and somewhat de- 
curved tip. Fore end of nostrils nearly half-way to end of bill, the fossze long and deep. No 
frontal antize; outline of feathers on base of bill convex (reverse of Sterna). Wings but mod- 
erately long for this subfamily, the second primary but little shorter than the first. Tail very 
long, broad, fan-shaped, double-rounded, i. e., graduated laterally, yet with central feathers 
shorter than the next. Tarsi very short, robust, less than the middle toe without its claw. 
Lateral toes, especially the inner, unusually lengthened ; hallux well developed. Webs broad 
and full, not incised. Claws short, stout, little curved, but very acute. Podotheca nearly 
smooth, from tendency to fusion of the plates, there being but a single defined row of scutella 
in front, with delicate reticulations elsewhere ; soles of the webs perfectly smooth. Edges of 
middle claw dilated and somewhat pectinate. Plumage dark or nearly unicolor. A remark- 
able genus. There are several species of warmer parts of the world, all alike sooty-brown, 
with hoary or whitish head. They alight with ease on trees and bushes, where the nest is 
usually placed. 

A. sto/lidus. (Lat. stolidus, stolid, stupid.) Noppy Tern. Adult, breeding plumage: 
Both mandibles marked with more or less distinct longitudinal strie ; their tomia inflected. 
Nasal suleus deep and long, formed by the rounded culmen and a prominent ridge, which runs 
along the upper mandible from its base to beyond the nostrils, where it is gradually lost. Just 
above the base there is a small but distinct fossa, separated by an oblique ridge from the large 
nasal suleus. Culmen about straight for half its length, regularly decurved toward the tip, 
basally broad and flat. Commissure slightly declinato-convex. Outline both of rami and gonys 
concave, the former most so; eminentia symphysis illy defined and not acute. Primaries uni- 
color, very broad alinost to their tips, which are rounded ; first primary scarcely surpassing the 
second. Tail very long and much graduated ; but there is also a slight emargination, the two 
central rectrices being a little shorter than the next pair. Bill and claws black. Mouth black 
to a little beyond the angle of the jaws, the fauces yellowish. Eyes brown. Tarsi and toes 
dark reddish-brown, nearly black in the dried skin. Occiput bluish-plumbeous, becoming 
pure white on the front. Sides of the head and neck all round with a decided wash of bluish- 
plumbeous. The whole body is a deep fuliginous brown, growing almost black on the remiges 
and rectrices, with a very dark spot anterior to and just above the eye. Dimensions: length 
16 inches; extent of wings 31.00; wing from flexure 10.00 to 11.00; tail about 6.00; bill 
along culmen 1.75; height or width at base 0.38; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw 1.45; 
outer ditto but slightly shorter; inner ditto 1.20; hallux 0.40; breadth of webs 0.90; diam 
eter of eye 0.30. Widely distributed over warmer parts of the globe; in N. Am., 8. Atlantic 
and Gulf States, breeding by thousands on the low mangrove and other bushes, where the 


bulky nest of sticks is placed. Eggs 3, about 2.00 x 1.35, warm buff, spotted and splashed 
with reddish-brown and neutral tints. 


T72 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES — GAVLZE. 


73. Subfamily RHYNCHOPIN/E: Skimmers. 


ssa Bill hypogna- 
thous. Among 
( the singular bills 
\. of birds that fre- 
quently excite 
our wonder, that 
of the skimmers 
REN RAMI HY YS ; is one of the most 
anomalous. The 
under mandible 
is much longer 
than the upper, compressed like a knife-blade; its end is obtuse; its sides come abruptly 
together and are completely soldered; the upper edge is as sharp as the under, and fits a 
groove in the upper mandible; the jawbone, viewed apart, looks like a short-handled pitch- 
fork. The upper mandible is also compressed, but less so, nor is it so obtuse at the end; its 
substance is nearly hollow, with light cancellated structure, much as in a toucan ; it is freely 
movable by means of an elastic hinge at the forehead. There are cranial peculiarities. Con- 
formably with the shape of the mouth, the tongue differs from that of other Longipennes in 
being very short and stumpy, as 1m kingfishers, and the Steganopodes. The wings are exceed- 
ingly long, and the flight more measured and sweeping than that of terns; the birds fly in close 
flocks moving simultaneously, rather than in straggling companies. They seem to feed as they 
skim low over water, with the fore parts inclined downward, the under mandible probably 
grazing or cutting the surface; but they are also said to use their odd bill to pry open weak 
bivalve mollusks. The voice is very hoarse and raucous, rather than strident. They are 
somewhat nocturnal or at least crepuscular; their general economy is the same as that of terns, 
as are all points of structure excepting those above specified. Besides the following, there are 
only two species: A. flavirostris and BR. albicollis, of Asia. 
RHYN’CHOPS. (Gr. puyyos, hrugchos, beak ; dy, ops, the face; well applied to the bird 
whose beak is such an extraordinary feature.) Skimmers. Character as above. 
R. ni/gra. (Lat. migra, black. Fig. 520.) Buack Skimmer. Adult ¢ 9: Bill with basal 
half carmine-red, rest black. Iris hazel. Feet carmine-red, drying yellowish, with black claws. 
Crown of head, its sides to just below eyes, back of neck and whole upper parts, glossy 
jet-black. Forehead, sides of head below eyes, sides of neck and whole under parts, pure 
white, tinted rosy or creamy in the nuptial season. Lining of wings and the bordering 
under wing-coverts, black. Primaries black, with black shafts, their inner webs duller 
blackish, the inner four with inner webs and tips of both webs, white; secondaries white, 
with a space of dark color on outer and small part of inner webs, increasing in amount 
inwards, till the inner four are dark with only white tips. Tail-feathers white, the inner 
webs more or less obscured with dark brown. Length 16.00-20.00; extent 42.00-50.00 ; 
wing 13.00-16.50; tail 4.00-6.00, forked about 1.50; tibie bare 1.00; tarsus 1.45; middle 
toe and claw 1.30. Length of under mandible 3.50-4.50, of upper about 3.00; height opposite 
nostrils 0.65 ; width 0.45; gape 4.50 or more; fused tomia or gonys of under mandible 4.00 
or less; greatest depth of under mandible 0.60. 9 smaller than g. Young at minimum 
dimensions given. Young-of-the-year: Bill smaller than in adult, thinner, weaker, its 
ridges less sharply defined, and the two mandibles of less unequal lengths. Bill brownish- 
black for three-fourths of its length, fading into dull horn-color just at its tip, lightening into 
more or less intense flesh-color, or light reddish, toward the base. The striee on the sides 
of the lower mandible are as numerous as, but much less distinct than, in the adult. Tail 


Fia. 520. — Bill of Skimmer, nat. size. 


PROCELLARUDZ: PETRELS. 173 


shorter and less deeply emarginate. Legs and feet dull light reddish. Entire upper parts 
arather light grayish-brown, deepest on the wing-coverts and tertials; each feather with 
a tolerably broad margin and tip of white, broadest and most conspicuous on the wing-coverts 
and tertials. Forehead, sides of the head below the eyes, the neck all round, the edge of 
the fore-arm, inferior surfaces of the wings, and whole under parts, white. Primaries almost 
exactly as in the adults, except that the innermost have more white, and there is a slight 
white terminal margin as far as the fourth or fifth. Secondaries about as in the adults, but 
their brown portions lighter and duller. Tail white; the greater part of the two central 
rectrices, and the inner webs of the others, with a tinge of dull grayish-brown, deepest on 
the middle pair. §. Atlantic and Gulf States, strictly maritime, abundant; casually N. to 
New England. Nesting like that of terns, in communities; eggs dropped on the sand, 
3 in number, pure white, spotted and splashed with dark browns and blackish, and pale 
neutral-tint. 


20. SusorpeER TUBINARES: TuBE-NoseD LoNGWwInGcs. 


Character and definition of this group the same as of the single 


60. Family PROCELLARIIDZ: Petrels. 


Nostrils tubular. 
Bill epignathous ; its 
covering  discontin- 
uous, consisting of 
several horny pieces 
separated by deep 
grooves. Hallux 
small, elevated, fune- 
tionless, appearing 
merely as a_ sessile 
claw, often minute, or 
absent. 

These are oceanic 
birds, rarely landing 
except to breed, un- 
surpassed in powers 
of fight, and usually 
strong swimmers. Ex- 
cepting the Sea-run- 
ners (Halodromine), 
none of them dive. 
With the same excep- 
tion, the wings are 
long, strong, and 
pointed, of 10. stiff 
primaries and numer- 
ous short secondaries; 


; the humeral and anti- 
brachial portions are sometimes extremely lengthened. The tail is short or moderate, of less 


than 20 feathers, variable in shape. The feet are usually short, with long full-webbed front 
toes, aud a rudimentary hallux, or none. In size, these birds vary remarkably, ranging from 


Fig. 521.— Nest of the Fulmar. (Designed by H. W. Elliot.) 


318. 


774 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES — TUBINARES. 


that of a swallow up to the immense albatrosses, probably unsurpassed by any birds whatever 
in alar expanse, and yielding to few in bulk of body. The plumage is compact and oily, to 
resist water; the sexes appear to be always alike, and no seasonal changes are determined ; 
but some variation with age, or as a matter of individual peculiarity, certainly occurs in many 
cases. The food is entirely of an animal nature, and fatty substances, in particular, are eagerly 
devoured. When irritated, many species eject an oily fluid from the mouth or nostrils, and 
some are so fat as to be occasionally used for lamps, a wick being run through the body. 
The eggs are few, or only one, laid in a rude nest or none, on the ground or in a burrow. 
Petrels are silent birds, as a rule, contrasting with gulls and terns in this particular; many 
or most are gregarious, congregating by thousands at their breeding places or where food 
is plenty. 

Birds of this family abound on all seas; but the group is yet imperfectly known. Bona- 
parte gave 69 species, in 1856 ; my memoirs upon the subject (1864-66) present 92, of which 
17 are marked as doubtful or obscure; in 1871 Gray recorded 112; there are probably about 
75 good species. They are sharply divided by the character of the nostrils into three groups ; 
two represented in North America, as beyond, and the Halodroming. These last, consisting 
of one genus and three species or varieties, are remarkably distinguished from the rest, 
resembling Auks in external appearance and habits; the wings and tail are very short; there 
is no hind toe; the skin of the throat is naked and distensible; the tubular uostrils, in fact, 
are the principal if not the only outward petrel-mark, and these organs are unique in opening 
directly upward, the nasal tube being vertical instead of horizontal as in all the rest. 


74. Subfamily DIOMEDEINA: Albatrosses. 


Nostrils disconnected, placed one on each side of the 
bill near the base. Hallux rudimentary, so small as 
to be usually called wanting. Of largest size in this 
family. There are eight unquestionable species, with 
two or three doubtful or obseure ones. Only three 
have proven their right to a place here. There is no 
well authenticated instance of the occurrence of the 
great Wandering Albatross, D. exulans, off our coasts ; 
but it has been taken in Europe, and is liable to ap- 
pear at any time. It is distinguished from the first 
species following by its great size, and the outline of 
the frontal feathers; deeply coneave on the culmen, 
strongly convex on the sides of the bill toa point nearly 

Fic. 522,— Bill and Foot of Short-tailed opposite the nostrils. The Yellow-nosed Albatross, 
Albatross. (After Cassin.) D. chlororhyncha (of Audubon, not of Gmelin), is the 
D. culminata, a species of Australian and other Southern seas, said to have been taken ‘ not 
far from the Columbia river,” but there is no reason, as yet, to believe it ever comes within a 
thousand miles of this country. It has the bill black, with the culmen and under edge yellow. 
Other well-known species of Southern seas are D. chlororhyncha, cauta, and melanophrys. 


Analysis of Genera. 


Tail rounded, contained 3 or about 3 times in length of wing. Bill stout, evenly encircled by feathers at hase 
Diomedea 318 

Tail cuneate, contained about twice in length of wing. Bill compressed, with frontal reéntrance and 
lateral salience of feathersat base 2... 1 1 1 ew ee ee et we we we es 2 Pheedetria 319 
DIOMEDE’A. (Gr. Acoundns, Diomedes, a Grecian hero, Jove-counselled.) _ALBATROSSES. 
Bill thick, stout, and heavy, especially broad at base, without colored groove along lower 
mandible, or other special parti-coloration. Nasal tubes ample. Tail short, rounded, less 


PROCELLARUDZ: DIOMEDEINZ:: ALBATROSSES. 175 


than half the wing (in one species about one-third the wing). 
white and black, or uniformly fuliginous. 
type of this group ; our two species fall in a subgenus Phebastria. 


Analysis of Species. 


Adult white, with dark wings and tail; bill and feet light 
Adult fuliginous ; bill and feet dark ie he : 


Coloration variegated with 


Of largest size in the subfamily. D. exulans is 


. brachyura 810 
-nigripes 811 


810. D.brachyu’ra. (Gr. Bpayis, brachus, short; ovpd, owra, tail.) SHORT-TAILED ALBATROSS. 
Bill 5.00 or 6.00 inches long, with moderately concave culmen and prominent hook. Frontal 
feathers forming almost no reéntrance on culmeu, running nearly straight around whole base 
of upper mandible, and extending scarcely farther on sides of under inandible, with hardly 
any convexity. Tail very short, contained rather more than 3 times in length of wing. 
Total length about 3.00 feet, with spread of about 7.00 feet; wing 20.00 inches; tail 5.50- 


6.00 inches; tarsus nearly 4.00 inches. 


Adult plumage white, the head and neck usu- 


ally washed with shining rusty-yellow; wings and tail dark or blackish, with a wholly 
indeterminate amount of white ou the coverts and inner quills — sometimes nearly all the 
wing-coverts white excepting a line along the border of the fore-arm — sometimes the white 


restricted to a small space at the elbow. 


Bill pale reddish-yellow, drying pale dingy- 


yellowish ; feet flesh-color. Young dark-colored, resembling nigripes, but easily distinguished. 


Pacific Ocean at large; abundant off our coast. 


This albatross drops a single egg on the 


ground, nearly equal-ended, white, 4.20 2.60; both sexes incubate. 


811. D. ni/gripes. (Lat. sigripes, black-footed.) 


BLACK-FOOTED ALBATROSS. Bill about 


4.00 (never 5.00) inches long, extremely stout, with the culmen almost perfectly straight 
to the hook, which is comparatively small and weak, scarcely rismg above level of the eulmen. 


SE = 
PES Sine oa 


Fig. 523. — Sooty Albatross, mnch reduced. 


(From Tenney, after Audubon.) 


The horny piece forming 
the culmen very broad, 
especially at base, where 
it widens and descends to 
overlap the lateral piece. 
Outline of feathers much 
as in brachyura, yet a 
slight reéntrance on fore- 
head, and feathers on sides 
of under mandible salient 
with a slight convexity. 
Commissure about straight 
to the hook. Bill about 
one-third longer than head, 
slightly longer than tarsus, 
equal to middle toe with- 
out claw; 1.50 deep and 
1.25 wide at base. Tail 
contained 3 times in the 


wing. Bill dark-colored; feet black. Plumage dark chocolate-brown, paler and grayer, 
rather plumbeous, below, lightening or whitening on head; feathers of the upper parts with 
paler edges, as if faded; spot before eye and streak over eye quite black. Primaries black 
duller on inner webs, with yellow shafts to near the eud; tail blackish, duller below, with 
whitish shafts except at tip. A final plumage may be lighter than as described, but is never 
white, and other characters prove the validity of the species. Chord of culmen 4.00, its curve 
4.60; distance from feathers on side of upper mandible to tip 3.50; ditto lower mandible 3.20 ; 


319, 


812, 


TT6 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LONGIPENNES — TUBINARES. 


tarsus 3.70; middle or outer toe and claw 4.50; inner do. 4.00. Wing 19.00-20.00; tail about 
6.50. Pacific coast of N. Am., abundant. 

PHEBE'TRIA. (Gr. doSyrpia, phoibetria, a soothsayer, presager.) BLACK ALBATROSS. 
Bill comparatively slender, strongly compressed, with sharp culmen; side of under mandible 
with a long colored groove. Frontal feathers forming a deep acute reéntrance on culmen; 
a long acute salience on side of lower mandible. Nostrils low and strict. Tail cuneate, 
coutained twice in the length of wing. Plumage uniformly dark. One species. 

P. fuligino’sa. (Lat. fuliginosa, sooty. Fig. 523.) Soory Axparross. Bill with shape 
and outline of feathers as above said; chord of culmen 4.00-4.50; height of bill at base 1.50, 
at hook 1.00; width at base 0.75; from feathers on side of upper mandible to tip 3.50, ditto 
lower mandible 2.50. Wing 20.00-22.00; tail 10.00-11.00, graduated 3.50-4.50; tarsus about 
3.00; middle toe and claw 4.75, outer do. 4.50, inner do. 4.00. Plumage ordinarily uniform 
sooty-brown; quills and tail blackish with white shafts; eyelids white; bill black, with 
long yellow (perhaps in life pink or red) groove; feet pale or flesh-color, drying yellow. 
In some cases the plumage lightens to a clearer more ashy-gray coloration on various parts. 
The head and neck frequently washed with rusty-yellow. Pacific ocean at large; off coast 
of N. Am. 


75. Subfamily PROCELLARIINZ: Petrels. 


Nostrils united in one double-barrelled tube laid horizontally on the culmen at base. 


' Hallux present, though it may be minute. Five groups of petrels may be distinguished, 


although they grade into each other; four of them are abundantly represented on our coasts. 
The fulmars are large gull-like species (one of them might be taken for a gull were it not 
for the nostrils), usually white with a darker mantle, the tail large, well formed (of 14-16 
feathers), the nasal case prominent, with a thin partition. They shade into the group of 
which the genus @strelata is typical, embracing a large number of medium-sized species, 
chiefly of Southern seas, in which the bill is short, stout, very strongly hooked, with prominent 
nasal case; the tail rather long, usually graduated. The shearwaters (Puffinus) have the 
bill longer than usual, comparatively slender, with short low nasal case, obliquely truncate 
at the end, and the partition between the nostrils thick; the tail short and rounded; the 
wings extremely long; the feet large. The elegant little ‘‘ Mother Carey’s chickens” or 
“stormy petrels” (‘‘ Thalassidroma” of authors; Procellaria proper and its relatives) are 
a fourth group, marked by their small size, slight build, and other characters; their flight 
is peculiarly airy and flickering, more like that of a butterfly than of ordinary birds; they 
are almost always seen on wing, appear to swim little if any, and some, if not all, breed 
in holes in the ground, apparently like bank swallows. Like other petrels they gather in 
troops about vessels at sea, often following their course for many miles, to pick up the refuse 
of the cook’s galley. Some of them, as the species of Oceanites, have remarkably long legs, 
with fused scutella, flat obtuse claws, and the hallux exceedingly minute; in the rest, the 
fect. are of an ordinary character. The exotic genus Prion typifies a fifth group, of five or 
six species; here the bill is expanded, and furnished with strong lamine, like a duck’s; the 


colors are bluish and white. 
Analysis of Genera. 


Fulmars, with prominent nasal tube, vertically truncate and with thin partition; under mandible not 
hooked at end. Length 16.00 or more. 


Tail 16-feathered. Length about 3 feet . . . . 1. 1. 1 ee ee ee we ew Ossifraga 320 
Tail 14-feathered. Length 15-20 inches. 
Bill very stout, much shorter than tarsus. . . . . 1. 1 ewe ew es. Fulmarus 321 
Bill slenderer, little shorter than tarsus . . . . Priocella 322 
Petreis, with nasal tubes as before, the bill very stout and atedusly: hogked> Length 10. 00 to 16.00. 
Plumage spotted above, white below . . ss 4. « Daptium 323 


Plumage uniformly dark above, and white patont on ‘entirely fliNcinous + « + « « &strelata 324 


320. 


813. 


321. 


814, 


PROCELLARUD: PROCELLARIINA: FULMARS. TTT 


Stormy Petrels, with nasal tube as before, the bill variable. Length under 10.00. 
Claws hooked, acute; tarsus little if any longer than middle toe and claw. 


Tail cuneate. Color uniform fuliginous .... . Halocyptena 325 


Tail nearly square. Color fuliginous, with white... ....... +. Procellaria 326 
Tail forked. Color fuliginous, or dark with white. . . . . . 1 6 «© « + « Cymochorea 327 
Tail forked. Color bluish or grayish, with white . .. . soe ee « «© Oceanodroma 328 


Claws flat, obtuse; tarsus much longer than middle toe and claw. 

Color fuliginous; upper tail-coverts white; webs yellow Oceanites 329 

Color dark, the underparts white; webs black . . . .. 1... Fregetta 330 
Shearwaters, with low broad nasal case, and end of under mandible hooked like the upper. Length 12.00 


or more. 
Nasal tube truncate, with the partition thin, asinfulmars. . ..... .. . . Priofinus 331 
Nasal tube obliquely truncate, the partition thick . . ........... . Pufinus 332 


OSSIFRAGA,. (Lat. ossifraga, bone-breaking; os and frango.) Giant Futmar. Of 
immense size and powerful organization; as large as most of the albatrosses. Bill longer than 
head, about as long as tarsus, very robust, deeply grooved; nasal tube very long, depressed, 
carinate, with contracted orifice; reaching half way or more from base to tip of bill. Hook 
of bill large and strong. Commissure sinuate; gape restricted, not reaching under eye. 
Frontal feathers extending obtusely upon root of nasal case; mental feathers extending to 
gonys. Outline of lower mandibular rami about straight; gonys straight, ascending, with 
obtuse angle. Feet large; tibie bare below ; tarsus short, much less than middle toe without 
claw, reticulate; outer and middle toes with claws of equal lengths; hind toe merely a stout 
claw ; webs full. Wings short, not very acute, folding short of end of tail. Tail moderate, 
graduated, 16—-feathered. One species. 

O. gigan’tea. (Lat. gigantea, gigantic.) GIANT FutMAR. BONE-BREAKER. The largest 
of the petrels, equalling most of the albatrosses in size. Length about 3.00 feet; spread 
7.00 feet; wing 20.00 inches; tail 8.00; bill 3.50-4.00, the nasal case nearly 2.00; tarsus 
3.50; middle or outer toe and claw nearly 6.00; inner do. 4.50. Plumage very variable 
with age or other circumstances; usually dark dingy gray, or uniform fuliginous above, paler, 
whitish or white below; wings and tail uniform dusky; bill mostly yellow (dried) ; feet 
dingy yellowish or brownish-black. Pacific Ocean ; ‘‘ common off Monterey.” 

FUL/MARUS. (Latinized from Eng. fulmar.) Fuitmars. Of moderate size, and general 
gull-like aspect; white with pearly-blue mantle. Bill shorter than tarsus, about two-thirds 
as long as head, very robust, especially at base, with turgid sides; hook short, stout, very 
convex, rising almost from the end of the nasal case; commissure greatly curved ; outline 
of mandibular rami a little concave; gonys ascending; grooves of both mandibles profound. 
Nasal tube long, nearly half the culmen, prominent, turgid, with straight upper outline, 
truncate emarginate end and thin partition. Wings of moderate length, folding about to end 
of tail; primaries broad, tapering rapidly to rounded ends, 2d nearly as lene aa Ist. Tail 
of 14 feathers broad to their ends, somewhat graduated. Feet rather small, gull-like 5 tibiee 
bare below; tarsus compressed, three-fourths as long as middle toe and claw. Outer and 
middle toes with claws of about equal lengths; hind toe appearing as a stout sessile claw. 
One species, of several varieties. 

F. glacia/lis. (Lat. glacialis, icy.) FuLMAaR. Length 15.00-20.00 inches, averaging 16.50; 
wing 11.00-13.00 ; tail 4.00 or 5.00; chord of culmen 1.50 (1.80-1.80); bill about 0.75 deep 
at base, and nearly as wide; nasal tube 0.60 long; tarsus 2.00 (average); middle toe without 
claw 2.25. Adult g¢ 9: White; mantle pale pearly-blue, restricted to back and wings, or 
extending on head and tail; usually a dark spot in front of eye; quills dark Sehayprowte 
Bill yellow, tinged with sea-green on culmen and lower mandible, the opening of the nostrils 
black; feet drying dingy yellowish, said to be delicate French gray in life; iris brown. 
Young: Smoky-gray, paler below, the feathers of the upper parts with darker stim tai 
primaries as in the adult; colors of bill and feet obscured. Extraordinarily abundant in the N. 


815. 


816. 


322. 


817, 


178 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— LONGIPENNES. — TUBINARES. 


Atlantic, swarming at some of its favorite breeding places, especially St. Kilda, wide ranging at 
other seasons; 8. to U. 8. in winter. Nest on crags over the sea; egg single, white, with 
rough brittle shell, resembling a hen’s egg in size and shape; young covered with whitish 
down; fed in the nest by regurgitation of an oily fluid. The fulmars are very greedy of fatty 
substances, and constantly attend the whale-fishery to feed upon the blubber. 

F. g. paci/ficus. (Lat. pacificus, pacific.) Paciric Fupmar. Averaging darker than No. 
814, the mantle bluish-cinereous rather than pale pearly-blue; the bill rather weaker and 
less strongly hooked. N. Pacific, in vast numbers. Changes of plumage, habits, etc., the 
same as those of the common species. 

F. g. rod'gersi. (To Comm. John Rodgers, U. 8. N.) RopcGErs’ Futmar. The mantle 
dark, as in pacificus, but much restricted, most of the wing-coverts and inner quills being 
white; primaries mostly white on inner webs, their shafts yellow. Size and shape as before. 
N. Pacific, swarming on some of the rocky islands in Behring’s sea. Nest on the crags; 
single egg white, nearly equal-ended, rough with innumerable pits and points, 2.90 X 1.90; 
chick hatches like a puff-ball of white down. 

PRIOCEL'LA. (Prion + Procella.) GuLu Fuutmars. Character of Fulmarus proper ; 
bill little shorter than head or tarsus, about 2 the middle toe and claw, compressed, higher 
than broad at base, not very robust, sides regularly tapering to rather narrow tip; grooves 
not so well marked as usual; hook moderate ; commissure a little curved; outlines of inferior 
mandibular rami and gonys both slightly concave; nasal tube $3 the culmen, depressed at 
base, high and narrow at end. Feet, wings, and tail as in Fulmarus. Two species; ours 
curiously resembling a gull. 

P. tenuiros’tris. (Lat. tenwirostris, slender-billed. Fig. 524.) SLENDER-BILLED FULMAR. 
Adult ¢ Q : Plumage white, with clear pearly-blue mantle, and black primaries, just like a 


NS 


AS 


SNS 
WS WN . 


wWwS 


Fic. 524, —Slender-billed Fulmar, nat. size. (From Elliot.) 


gull; the mantle beginning faintly on the nape, continuing over whole back, rump, tail, wing- 
coverts and inner quills; edge of the wing slaty-gray ; primaries black, their shafts yellowish- 
white at base, their inner webs pearly-white to near the ends; white of first primary extending 
to within two inches of the tip, further on the rest successively, reaching the end on the 6th; 
outer webs of secondaries slaty-black, inner white; a small dusky spot before eye; a faint 
pearly shade on sides of breast and body. Bill and feet (dry) yellow; nasal tube and hook 
obscured with bluish horn-color. Length about 18.50; extent about 36.00; wing 13.00 ; 
tail 5.25; tarsus 2.00; middle toe and claw 2.60; outer do. 2.70; inner do. 2.25; chord of 


323. 


818. 


324. 


819. 


PROCELLARIIDA! — PROCELLARIINE:: PETRELS. 779 


culmen 2.00; height or width of bill at base 0.75; nasal tube 0.67; the bill is really very 
stout, only “slender” in comparison with the short robust organ of the common falmar. 
Young not seen; changes of plumage probably coincident with those of Fulmarus. A species 
described under a large and not select assortment of names, both generic and specific, but easy 
to identify; wide ranging over much of the water of the world; occurs on the Pacific coast 
of N. Am., as at Kotzebue Sound. 

DAP’TIUM. (Gr. ddrrw, dapto, I devour.) Pignon Prtrey. Bill much shorter than 
head or tarsus, very stout and especially wide, as broad as high as far as the hook, where ab- 
ruptly compressed; culmen nearly straight from tube to hook, which latter is neither large nor 
much decurved; sides of bill turgid, with convex outline from base to hook ; forks of lower 
mandible wide apart, enclosing a flat-iron shaped space ; rictus ample ; skin of throat loose and 
distensible, partly naked; gonys very short, with slight angle; inside the edge of the upper 
mandible a series of oblique ridges; nasal case ¢ as long as culmen, broad, depressed, with cir- 
cular truncate orifice. (Chars. of bill approaching those of Prion.) Wings folding about to 
end of the short rounded tail, which is contained 24 times in length of wing. Tibie little bare 
below ; tarsus much shorter than middle toe and claw, stout, compressed, reticulate with small 
circular plates outside, large inside ; outer toe without claw longer than middle toe alone ; hind 
toe well developed for this family. Small; plumage spotted. One species. 

D. capen’se. (Of the Cape of Good Hope.) Piytapo Perret. Cape PIGEON. DAMIER. 
Spotted above with blackish and white; white below; tail black-barred; bill black. Length 
15.00; wing 11.00; tail 4.50; bill 1.33; tarsus 1.67. Southern Seas at large; accidental on 
coast of California and of Maine. (See especially N. Eng. Bird-Life, ii, 1883, p. 386.) 
GESTRE'LATA. (Gr. oicrpyAaros, oistrelatos, goaded on by a gad-fly.) GADFLY PETRELS. 
Diapo.ic Perres. Bill about as long as tarsus, stout, compressed throughout, with nearly 
straight converging lateral outlines, the hook particularly large, high-arched, long-decurved, 
rising almost immediately from the end of the nasal tube, leaving but a short concave culmen 
proper. Lateral horny piece of the bill very large, turgid, rismg high at root of nasal case, 
convex along under outline; commissure strongly sinuate throughout; outline of mandibular 
rami nearly straight, of gonys a little concave, the tip of the under mandible being curved 
down to fit the arch of the hook. Grooves of both mandibles distinct. Nasal case of moderate 
length, high, not carinate, about straight, truncate at end, with thin partition between the 
tubes coming well forward. Interramal space narrow, fully feathered. Wings pointed, very 
long, folding beyond end of tail. Tail long, with graduated feathers, wedge-shaped or much 
rounded. Feet of moderate size; tarsus reticulate, about as long as, or little shorter than, 
middle toe without claw; outer toe alone rather longer than middle; with its claw, about as 
long as middle toe and claw; tip of inner claw reaching base of middle. Hallux a short ses- 
sile claw. A genus of numerous (about 20) medium-sized and rather small species, inhabiting 
the southern seas; some bicolor, others uniform fuliginous. Our four are mere stragglers to 
N. Am., unless @. fisher should prove otherwise. 

GE. hesita/ta. (Lat. hesitata, stuck ; the describer was in doubt about it.) BLACK-cAPPED 
Perret. Adult: Forehead, sides of head, neck all round, upper tail-coverts, base of tail and 
all under parts, white; back clear bistre-brown (nearly uniform, but the feathers often with 
paler or ashy edges), deepening on the quills and terminal half of tail; crown with an isolated 
blackish cap, and sides of head with a black bar (younger birds with the white of the head and 
neck behind restricted, so that these dark areas run together) ; bill black; tarsi and base of 
toes and webs, flesh-colored (drying yellowish) ; rest of toes and webs black. Young exten- 
sively dark below? Length 16.00; wing 12.00; tail 5.25, cuneate, its graduation 1.50; tarsus 
1.40; middle toe and claw 2.12; bill 1.40, 0.66 deep at base, 0.40 wide ; tube 0.33. Of casual 
occurrence on the Atlantic Coast, U.S. (P. meridionatis, Lawr., Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y., 
iv, p. 475; v, p. 220, pl. 15.) 


887. 


887a. 


820. 


325. 


821. 


326. 


1 
ie 2) 


0 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES — TUBINARES. 


(addenda). &. gula/ris. (Lat. gularis, pertaining to the throat.) PEALE’s PETREL. 
Form typically of Gstrelata as above given; size smaller. Adult: Upper parts, including 
tail-coverts and exposed surfaces of tail-feathers, pure cinereous, deepening to plumnbeous on 
hind-head, rump, and lesser wing-coverts, the feathers of the back and greater and middle 
wing-coverts tipped with ashy-white. Under parts pure silky white, the ash of the upper 
coming down the sides of the neck and deepening as it extends more broadly along sides and 
quite across abdomen, which is plumbeous, this color with vague and nebulous boundaries ; 
under wing- and tail-coverts white. Sides of head white, with a distinct narrow dark bar 
through eyes; a white superciliary line; forehead and crown mixed white and ashy. Primaries 
and secondaries with distinct pure white areas on inner webs; on the primaries these areas 
occupying the whole webs at base, sending a narrow wedge forward, included between dark 
areas of the webs; primaries lightening from without inward, secondaries abruptly darkening 
again. Bill black; tarsus livid flesh-color; basal third of toes and contained webs yellowish, 
the rest black. Young: Darker; especially more cloudy below ; throat and crissum white. 
Chord of culmen 1.05 ; height of bill at base 0.45-0.50; width 0.40-0.45; tarsus 1.35; middle 
toe and claw 1.68; outer do. 1.65; inner do. 1.40. Wing 9.80; tail 3.90; graduated 0.75. 
Southern Seas; a waif caught in N. Y. State, Livingston Co., Apr. 1880. (Bull. Nutt. Club, 
vi, 1881, p. 91.) 
GS. fisheri. Fisnrer’s Perre. Closely related to the last; perhaps requiring confirmation. 
Above plumbeous-gray, blackish on lesser wing-coverts, the edges of the secondaries hoary 
white; head and lower parts white, the crown spotted with blackish, the belly overlaid by a 
wash of smoky plumbeous. Wing 10.15; tail 4.00; culmen 1.00; tarsus 1.35; middle toe 
1.40. Off coast of Alaska (Kodiak). (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., v, 1883, p. 656.) 
qd, bul’weri. Buxtwer’s Perret. A small sooty-colored species, with cuneate tail more 
than half as long as wings, not typical of Gstrelata, perhaps forming a genus apart (Bulweria). 
Length about 10.00; wing 8.00; tail 4.50, graduated 1.75; bill 0.85 (chord of culmen), ot 
ordinary Gstrelata shape; tarsus 0.90-1.00; middle or outer toe and claw 1.10; inner do. 
0.85. Plumage entirely fuliginous, almost black on wings and tail, lighter and more brown- 
ish below, somewhat ashy on head, gray on greater wing-coverts. Canary Islands, etc. ; has 
once occurred in Greenland (or Labrador). (Pr. Phila. Acad., 1866, p. 158; Zodl., 1881, p. 
378.) Egg white, 1.60 to 1.75 by 1.20, laid in rocky burrows; young covered with sooty 
down. 

Ogs. There isa Jamaican species, @. carribea N., which should fly to N. Am. some 
time. 
HALOCYPTENA. (Gr. dds, hals, the sea, aks, okus, swift, mrnvds, ptenos, winged.) 
Pyamy Petre. Like a miniature @strelata or Pterodroma; unicolor, fuliginous. Bill much 
shorter than head, about 4 the tarsus, weak and slender, acutely hooked; nasal tubes as in 
Procellaria proper. Wings folding beyond tail, 2d primary longest, 3d nearly equal, 1st 
about equal to 4th. Tibia briefly bare below; tarsus little longer than middle toe and claw ; 
outer toe without claw as long as middle ; tip of inner claw reaching base of middle; hallux 
minute; webs moderately full; claws compressed, curved, acute. Tail rather long, wedge- 
shaped ; central feathers projecting ; lateral regularly graduated, narrowly rounded. One species. 
H. microso/ma. (Gr. pixpos, mikros, small; c@pua, soma, body.) Lrast Perret. Plumage 
lustrous brownish-black, darker above, blackening on wings and tail, browning on under parts, 
graying on greater wing-coverts and inner quills; bill and feet black; no white anywhere. 
Length 5.75; wing 4.75; tail 2.50, graduated 0.35; bill 0.50; gape 0.62; height at base 
0.19, width 0.21; nasal tube 0.22; tibia bare 0.30; tarsus 0.90; middle toe and claw 0.82 ° 
outer do. 0.80; inner do. 0.68. A queer little bird, from the coast of Lower Cala. 
PROCELLA/RIA. (Lat. procella, a tempest.) Stormy Perrets; ‘ MorHer CaAREyY’s 
CHICKENS.” Diminutive, fuliginous, with white. Bill small, short, compressed, sides rapidly 


822. 


327. 


823. 


824. 


825. 


PROCELLARIIDZ — PROCELLARIINZE: PETRELS. 781 


couverging to narrow tip; less than half as long as head, about half the tarsus. Wings 
fulding beyond tail; 2d primary longest, 3d little shorter, lst less than 4th. Tibia brietly 
bare below; tarsus equal to middle toe and claw; claws compressed, curved, acute. Tail 
rounded or nearly square, with broad feathers ; under tail-coverts very ample. Several species, 
distinguished by shape of tail from those of the preceding or following genus. 
P. pela/gica. (Gr. meAayids, pelagikos, oceanic.) Srormy Perren. Above, glossy brown- 
ish-black, below more fuliginous ; upper tail-coverts white, with black tips; white streaking 
on crissum, and usually white touches under the wings. Bill and feet black; no yellow on 
webs. Size of the last; wing about 4.50. Common (?) off the Atlantic Coast ; not known to 
breed on our side. This is the rarest of the three little black white-rumped ‘‘ Mother Carey’s 
chickens” of our Atlantic Coast, easily distinguished by its short legs and square tail; Leach’s, 
the most numerous, is also short-legged, but larger and forked-tailed ; Wilson’s is interme- 
diate, with square tail, but very long stilt-like legs, flat claws, and a yellow spot on the webs. 
CYMOCHORE/A. (Gr. kiya, kuma, a billow; yopya, a dancing.) Soory ForK-Tarn 
PeTreLs. Bill much shorter than head, about $as long as tarsus, rather stout, as high 
as or higher than wide at base, the hook strong and acute; nasal tube less than half as long 
as culmen. Wings moderately long, folding little beyond tail; 2d primary longest; 1st longer 
than 4th. Tail very long, deeply forked, the feathers all broad, obtusely rounded. Legs 
short; tibia little bare below; tarsus equal to middle toe and claw, or slightly longer. Of 
rather large size (for this group) and robust form. Color fuliginous, unicolor or nearly so. 
Three or four species are known. 

Analysis of Species. 


Upper tail-coverts white. 


General plumage sooty-brown . . . . . 1... ee ee wee soe se es .  leucorrhoa 823 
No white anywhere. 

Sooty-brown; large; wing 6.75; tail4.00, forked 1.000rmore .......,.... melena 824 

Sooty-gray; small; wing 5.00; tail 3.25, forked about0.50 . ........0484 homochroa 825 


C. leucor/rhoa. (G. Acuxds, leukos, white; épos, orhros, rump. Fig. 525.) Leacu’s Perret. 
WHITE-RUMPED Perret. Coloration as in the last species, with white upper tail-coverts, 
forming a conspicuous mark; but apt to be lighter—rather 
of a grayish or even ashy hue on some parts; but easily 
recognized, whatever the shade of color. Bill and feet 
black; iris brown. Length about 8.00; extent 17.50; 
wing 6.00-6.50; tail 3.00-3.50, forked about 0.75; tarsus 
1.00; middle toe and claw the same; bill 0.67. N. Am., 
both coasts, and W. coast of Europe. Abundant on our 
N. Atlantic coast, breeding from New England northward. 
Nest in burrows in the ground; egg single, white. 

C. melw/na. (Gr. péAawa, melaina, black. Fig. 526.) 
Buack Prtrey. Form of the last very nearly ; bill more 


: ; Fie. 525.—Leach’s Petrel, much re- 
robust; tarsus a little longer than middle toe and claw. No duced. (From Tenney, after Audubon.) 


white anywhere. Plumage sooty brownish-black, darkest above and on head, more smoky- 

brown on under parts, grayer on wing-coverts, quite black on wing- and tail-feathers ; bill and 

feet black ; iris brown. “‘ Length 9.00; extent 18.50 ;” wing 6.75 ; tail 4.00, forked 1.20; tibia 
20; ¢ 


bare 0.50; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw 1.10 ; bill 0.60; gape 0.95; height or width at 
base 0.25; nasal tubes 0.30. Cape St. Lucas, L. Cala.; a rare and little known species 

C.homo'chroa. (Gr. duds, omos, like, equal ; xpda, chroa, color.) Somewhat like fie 
smaller, with short, weak, compressed bill, and tarsus no longer than middle toe and alan 
No white anywhere. Plumage dull plumbeous or slaty-blackish, more amid p-hrawnieh ae 


lower parts, lighter grayish-brown on greater wing-coverts; wings and tail black. 2d primary 


3828. 


826. 


827, 


3829. 


828. 


330. 


782 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —LONGIPENNES— TUBINARES. 


longest, 3d nearly equal, 1st longer than 4th. The general plumbeous or bluish-ashy cast 
of the plumage is quite different from the sooty shade of C. melena, approaching the condition 
seen in species of Oceanodroma. Length about 7.25; wing about 5.00; tail 3.25, forked 0.60; 
tarsus 0.90; middle toe and claw the same; bill 0.50; gape 
0.75; height or width at base 0.20; nasal tubes 0.24. Faral- 
lone Islands, Cala.; another rare and little known species. 
OCEANO'DROMA. (Gr. ’Qxeavds, Okeanos, Lat. Oceanus, 
the divinity of the sea; dpduos, dromos, running.) GRay 
Fork-TalL Perrers. Bill small, weak, much compressed. 
Wings short; 2d and 3d primaries equal aud longest, 1st shorter 
than 4th. Tail long, deeply forked, with broad medium and 
narrow external feathers. Feet as in Cymochorea. Colora- Fig. 526, — Black Petrel, nat. 
tion peculiar; bluish or grayish, and white. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 

O. furca/‘ta. (Lat. furcata, forked.) Gray Forg-TAILep Perre. Bluish-ash, paler 
or whitish below and on the greater wing-coverts, dusky about the eyes; lesser wing-coverts 
sooty; quills and tail brownish, the primaries pale or white on their inner edges, outer web 
of outer tail-feather white; bill and feet black. Length about 8.00; wing 6.00; tail 4.00, 
deeply forked; bill 0.60; tarsus 0.87; middle toe and claw the same. N. Pacific coast, 
common. 

O. horn’/byi. (To Admiral Hornby, R. N.) Horney’s Fork-TAILED Prerren. Front, 
cheeks, throat, collar round neck, breast, and abdomen, pure white; crown, hind head, a broad 
baud in front of neck, bend of wing and lesser wing-coverts, sooty-gray ; upper part of back 
gray; lower part of back, and tail ashy-gray; greater wing-coverts brownish-gray; tertiaries 
and quills black. Length 8.25; tail 3.75; tarsus 1.00; middle toe about the same; bill along 
culnen 0.60; along rictus 0.90. N. W. coast. Ihave never seen this rare species, of which 
there are not to my knowledge any specimens in this country. 

OCEANI'TES. (Gr. ’Oxeavirns, Okeanites, son of the sea.) Wui~sontan Stormy PETRELS. 
Very different from any of the foregoing ‘‘stormy” petrels in great length of the legs, like 
stilts. Bill short, weak, compressed, not $.as long as head, about 2 the tarsus, with sides 
a little concave, hook small, and nasal tubes perfectly horizontal. Wings very long, 2d 
primary much the longest; 1st aud 3d about equal; 4th much shorter. Tail moderate, about 
square (as in Procellaria) ; ample, with feathers broad to their very tips. Tibia denuded an 
inch or more. Tarsi presenting the character, remarkable if not unique among water birds, 
of being covered in front and on sides by a continuous plate or “boot,” as in a thrush, the 
ordinary scutella being fused. Toes, though long, only about $ the greatly lengthened tarsi; 
hind toe so minute as to be liable to be overlooked. Claws broad, flat, obtuse. There are 
several species of this notable genus. 

O. ocea/nicus. (Lat. oceanicus, oceanic.) Wuitson’s StorMy PETREL. Coloration much 
as in P. pelagica or C. leucorrhoa ; dark svoty-brown, pale gray on the wing-coverts, black 
on wings and tail; the upper tail-coverts, and frequently the crissum and sides of rump and 
base of tail, white; bill and feet black, but webs with a yellow spot; iris brown. Length 
7.00-8.00; extent about 16.00; wing about 6.00; tail 3.00, nearly even; tibia bare 1.00; 
tarsus 1.30; middle toe and claw 1.10; bill 0.50. One of the commonest and best known 
species, widely dispersed over the globe; said to breed on our N. Atlantic coast. Nest in 
burrows in the ground; egg single, white. 

FREGETTA. (Ital. fregata, a frigate.) Stir Srormy PErrEts. Resembling Oceanites 
in the great length of leg, flat obtuse claws, and other characters. Bill stout, about as high 
as broad at base, half as long as head, with long high nasal tube. Wings moderately long, 
folding just beyond the tail; 2d primary longest; 3d nearly equal; 1st between 3d and 4th. 
Tail ample, square, with broad feathers, square-tipped. Tibiew bare an inch or more; tarsus 


829. 


331, 


830. 


832. 


534 


PROCELLARIUDA — PROCELLARIINZE:: SHEARWATERS. 783 


nearly half as long again as middle toe. Toes short, with small narrow webs; claws fat, 
broad, rounded. Colors blackish and white. Several species of Southern Seas, one straggling 
to our country. 

F. gralla/ria. (Lat. graila, stilts.) Lawrence’s StTirt Perret. WHITE-BELLIED 
Perrey. Blackish-gray of variable intensity, blackening on the quills and tail, the whole 
under parts from the breast, the upper tail-coverts, most of the under wing-coverts, and bases 
of all the tail-feathers, except the middle pair, white; bill and feet black. Length about 
8.00; wing 6.00-6.50; tail 3.00, about even, with very broad, square-tipped feathers ; bill 
0.50; tarsus 1.33; longest toe (outer) and claw 1.00 or less; tibiz bare 1.00 or more. 
Florida, accidental, one instance (Lawr. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y., v, 117). 

PRIO/FINUS. (Prion + Puffnus.) FuLtMar SHEARWATERS. Of large size and robust 
form. Bill a little shorter than head, about # as long as tarsus, broad and stout at base, nar- 
rowing regularly to the strong, much compressed and hooked tip; under mandible hooked to 
correspond with the upper, with concave gonys (as in Puffinus). Nasal tubes long, very 
broad, depressed (as in Puffinus), but vertically truncate and with thin partition (as in Ful- 
marus). Wings rather short, the primaries broad and stiff, 2d as long as lst. Tail rather short, 
of 12 feathers, the central projecting and a little acuminate, lateral more rounded, and rapidly 
graduated. Feet large and stout, as in Puffinus ; tarsus shorter than middle toe and claw ; 
outer toe longer than middle; tip of outer claw about reaching base of middle. A genus re- 
markably connecting the fulmars with the shearwaters ; nearest the latter. A few species, if 
more than one, chiefly of Southern Seas. 

P.melanu/rus, (Gr. péAdas, melas, black; otpa, oura, tail.) SmuTTY-NOSED SHEARWATER. 
BLACK-TAILED SHEARWATER. Upper parts cinereous, nearly uniform, but some of the feathers 
with paler edges ; under parts white, without line of demarcation from the color of the upper 
parts; taal, crissum, and vent blackish ; lining of wings, axillars, and some feathers on the 
sides of the body, brownish-cinereous; quills blackish-cinereous on outer webs and tips, paler 
internally and basally, with brown shafts. Bill yellow, the nasal case, culmen as far as the hook, 
cutting edge and groove of lower mandible, black, these varied colors very conspicuous in life ; 
feet (dried) dingy greenish with yellow webs. Large: 19.00; wing 13.00; tail 5.00-5.75, 
wedge-shaped, 12-feathered, the outer feathers an inch or more shorter than the middle ; bill 
1.80, 0.67 high and 0.60 wide at base, the nasal tubes nearly 0.50; tarsus 2.40; middle toe and 
claw 2.88. Accidental off the coast of California. A peculiar species, very different from any of 
the following, approaching the fulmars. Proc. melanwra Bonn. Proc. hesitata Forst., 
Descr. Anim., 1844, p. 208; Gould, B. Aust., pl. 67. Puffinus hesitatus Lawr., Aun. Lye. 
Nat. Hist. N. ¥., vi, p.5. Proc. adamastor Schlegel. Adamastor typus Bonap. Puffinus 
cinereus Lawr. in Bd., B. N. A., 1858, p. 835. Adamastor cinereus Coues, Proce. Phila. Acad., 
1864, p. 119; Priofinus cinereus Coues, Proc. Essex Inst., v, 1868, p. 303. Priofinus mela- 
nurus, Coues, 2d ed. Check List, 1882, p. 127. Puffinus kuhlii Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad., 
1862, p. 327 (err.) 

PUF'FINUS. (Latinized from Eng. puffin.) SHeARwateRS. Bill nearly or about as long 
as head, 3-2 as long as tarsus, varying in slenderness, a little higher than broad at base, 
compressed for the rest of its extent; the end much hooked, tips of both mandibles decurved, 
making the gonys concave. Nasal tubes short, only about 4 the length of culmen, broad and 
depressed, obliquely truncate at end, the partition thick, the nostrils oval. Wings long, thin, 
and pointed, folding beyond the tail; Ist primary longest. Tail more or less lengthened, 
rounded or rather wedge-shaped, of 12 feathers. Feet very large and stout; tarsus compressed, 
equal to middle toe with or without claw; outer toe about as long as middle, but its claw 
much smaller ; tip of inner claw scarcely or not reaching base of middle ; hind toe a mere 
knob. Embracing numerous species, of moderate and small size ; a portion of them bicolor, 
dark above and white below, the others uniformly sooty. 


184 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LONGIPENNES— TUBINARES. 


Analysis of Species. 
Two-colored; white below, dark above. 
Large; length 16.00 or more; wing 12.00 or more. : 
Pale brownish-ash ; under tail-coverts white, upper largely dark. Atlantic . . borealis or kuhli 831 


Dark brown; under tail-coverts dark, upper largely white. Atlantic. . . . .. . . .major 832 

Dark brown; under and upper tail-coverts dark; feet flesh-color. Pacific. . . . . creatopus 833 
Medium ; length under 16.00, over 13.00; wing 9.25. Above blackish, Atlantic . . . . anglorum 834 
Small: length 13.00 or less; wing 9.00 or less. 

Under tail-coverts mostly white. Atlantic. . 2... . 6 1 6 © 2 ee we e . ) 6ObScUrus 835 

Under tail-coverts mostly black. Pacific . . . . 2. 2 + © «© © «© « © © « « Opisthomelas 836 


One-colored; sooty. 
Large: length 16.00 or more ; wing 11.00 or more. 


Under wing-coverts mostly dark. Atlantic . . . 2. 2 6 6 + ee 6 + es . Sueliginosus 837 
Under wing-coverts mostly white. Pacific . . 2. 2. - + 6 6 « © «© 6 « « Gmaurosoma 838 
Small: length about 14.00; wing 10.00. Pacific .... ri - « « + » tenuirostris 839 


831. P. kuhl'i. (To Dr. H. Kuhl.) Crnrergous Suman waran. Manraianiinnise SHEAR- 
water. Bill scarcely or not shorter than head, equal to tarsus, moderately hooked for a 
shearwater, with short nasal tubes, about ¢ as long as culmen, but rather high for this genus, 
with trace of a median ridge ; nostrils opening roundish ; wings folding a little beyond the tail, 
which is graduated, with lengthened middle feathers; feet rather weak; outer toe and claw 
longer than middle toe and claw; tip of inner claw about reaching base of middle. Upper 
parts light smoky-gray, or pale brownish-ash, uniform on crown and nape, interrupted on back 
by white or grayish-white edges of the feathers, especially on the scapulars, darkening on the 
wing-coverts and tertials to grayish-brown. Rump like back; upper tail-coverts successively 
acquiring white till the longest ones are mostly of this color, only touched with brown. Pri- 
maries grayish-black, with large white spaces on basal half or two-thirds of inner webs. Outer 
webs and tips of secondaries grayish-plumbeous; most of their inner webs white. Entire 
under parts, from chin to ends of under tail-coverts, pure white, excepting some slight touches 
of gray on the flanks; lining of wings and axillars white, except just along the edge. On 
sides of head and neck, no line of demarcation between color of upper and under parts, the 
two merging through a cloudy or wavy area; under eyelid white. Bill yellowish, darker on 
culmen and hook; feet yellowish, the webs clearer. Length about 18.00; wing 13.00; tail 
5.50, graduated 0.75; chord of culmen 1.90, gape 2.60; height of bill at base 0.70, width 0.60; 
tarsus 1.90; middle toe and claw 2.50, outer do. 2.55. (Described from a European speci- 
men.) N. Atlantic, European coast, especially of the Mediterranean. Greenland? I am 
not yet satisfied that bird really occurs on our coast. I introduced it to our Fauna in 1872. in 
the orig. ed. of the Key, but upon strength of its general range, and Schlegel’s aseription of it 
to Greenland; and have never seen an unquestionable N. Am. specimen. It probably occurs, 
however. 

ggs. (addenda). PP. borea/lis. (Lat. borealis, northern.) Cory’s SHEARWATER. ‘ Above 
brownish-ash, the feathers of the back becoming pale at the tips, those on the nape and sides 
of the neck narrowly tipped with white ; on the sides of the head and neck the ash and white 
gradually mingling as in P. kuhhi. Tips of the upper tail-coverts, white. Under eyelid, 
white, showing clearly in contrast with the ashy-gray of the head. The first three primaries 
are light ash on the inner webs. Wings and tail brownish-gray. Under parts white, slightly 
touched with ash on the flanks, lining of wings white. Under tail-coverts white, the longest 
tinged with ash near the ends, which extend nearly to the tips of the longest tail-feathers. 
Outside of foot greenish-black, inside and webs dull orange; bill pale yellowish at the base, 
shading into greenish-black, but again becoming pale near the tip. Length 20.50 inches; 
wing 14.50; bill (straight line to tip) 2.25; depth at base 0.75; tail 6.50; tarsus 2.20.” 
Coast of Massachusetts; several specimens now known. I copy the original description. 
(Bull. Nutt. Club, vi, 1881, p. 84.) The bird is perfectly distinct from P. major, but very 
near P. kuhli, if really different. 


PROCELLARIIDA —PROCELLARIINZE:: SHEARWATERS. 785 


832. P. ma/jor. (Lat. major, greater.) GREATER SHEARWATER. WANDERING SHEARWATER. 


833. 


Common ATLANTIC SHEARWATER. Bill scarcely shorter than head or tarsus, stout and sub- 
cylindrical at base, then more and more compressed to the strong hook. Nasal tube straight, 
about + as long as culmen, with widely separated subelliptical openings. Culmen rising with 
slight continuous concavity from nostrils to top of the hook; commissure a long regular curve, 
convex downward, from feathers to curve of the hook. Outline of inferior mandibular rami 
about straight. Bill about 3 times as long as high at base, not so wide as high. Wings long 
and pointed; 1st and 2d primaries nearly equal. Tail contained about 24 times in length of 
wing, much rounded, almost wedged. Tarsus as long as middle toe without claw; outer toe 
as long as or longer than middle, but its claw smaller, falling short of tip of middle claw; tip 
of inner claw not reaching base of middle. Above, dark bistre-brown, on head inclining a 
little to plumbeous or grayish-brown ; usually lighter on hind neck, darkest on tertials and 
rump; cach feather of back, ramp, and wing-coverts, edged with pale brownish-ash or even 
ashy-whitish. On the head the color uniform, without these light margins, extending below 
eyes to level of the gape, with distinct line of demarcation from white of the throat. On side 
of neck the white reaches further around, and is less distinctly outlined; further back, on sides 
of breast, the dark color encroaches on the white. The upper tail-coverts, especially the long 
posterior ones, are mostly white, with dark bars on central fields. Primaries brownish-black, 
lightening on inner webs towards base. Under parts white from chin to anus, with large dark 
brown patches on flanks; under tail-coverts dark grayish-brown, with whitish tips; lining of 
wiugs white, mottled with dark along the border and on ends of axillars. Tail-feathers like 
primaries. Bill dark blackish horn color; outside of tarsus and outer toe brownish ; rest of 
feet and webs yellowish flesh-color ; iris brown. The intensity and uniformity of coloration of 
the upper parts varies much with age of the plumage. Fresh plumages are deep plumbeous- 
brown with narrow pale or whitish margins; old worn feathers are duller brown with broader 
less distinct grayish-brown edgings. Observe line of demarcation of dark and white on head, 
neck and breast; uniform feathers of head; dark under and partially white upper tail-coverts. 
Audubon gives ‘ bill yellowish-green, the tips brownish-black, tinged with green ; feet light 
greenish-gray, webs and claws yellowish flesh-color.” Length 18.00-20.00; extent 42.00- 
45.00; wing about 13.00; tail 5.75, graduated 1.00; tarsus 2.40; middle toe and claw 2.90 ; 
outer do. 2.75 ; inner do. 2.30; chord of culmen 2.00; depth of Dill at base 0.65, width 0.60. 
Wanders over the whole Atlantic, Greenland to Cape Horn and Good Hope. Abundant, 
sometimes seen in flocks of thousands, shearing the crests of the waves, and skimming the bil- 
lows with marvellous ease, without a visible motion of the pinions. 

P. crea/topus. (Gr. xpéas, kreas, flesh, mois, pous, foot.) FLESH-FOOTED SHEARWATER. 
Resembling the last, but quite distinct. Bill short, less than head or tarsus, turgid at base, 
where as wide as high. Nasal tubes short, hardly + the length of culmen, turgid, with slight 
median furrow and very oblique truncation. Frontal feathers running forward on median line. 
Form otherwise as in P. major. Bill pale yellowish flesh-color, the nasal tubes, culmen, and 
tip blackish. Feet flesh-colored; claws whitish with brown ends. Upper parts about the 
same shade of brown as in P. major ; upper tail-coverts entirely dark. No white on inner 
webs of primaries. On sides of head and neck, the color of the upper parts extends entirely 
around, without any distinct line of demarcation, the chin and throat mottled with dark and 
white in about equal amounts. On the sides of the breast the color more restricted than on the 
neck. Lower eyelid white. Sides of body and lining of wings mottled with dusky and white 
in about equal amounts ; long axillars entirely dark except just at base. Middle of belly and 
vent region variegated with dusky and white. Under tail-coverts entirely fuliginous black. 
“Length 19.00; extent 45.00;” wing 12.50; tail 5.00, graduated 1.00; tarsus 2.10; outer 
toe and claw 2.50; middle do. 2.65; inner do. 2.60; chord of culmen 1.60; gape 2.30; height 
or width of bill at base 0.60; nasal tubes 0.40. San Nicholas Tsland, Coast of Cala.; a curious 
species of which little is known. 

50 


834. 


835. 


836. 


786 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — LONGIPENNES — TUBINARES. 


P.anglo/rum. (Lat. Anglorum, of the English.) Manx SHEARWATER. Sinaller and other- 
wise very different from any of the foreguing. Upper parts uniform lustrous black, or blackish 
with slight brown shade, rather ashy across hind neck; the dark color extending on sides of 
head much below eyes, but there marbled with white; under eyelid white, set in black. On 
sides of neck the white reaches part way around; on sides of breast the dark extends some 
distance, dilute and marbled with white. Primaries black, with black shafts, their inner webs 
dull grayish-brown ; tail-feathers like primaries. Entire under parts, from chin to anus, pure 
white, except a few feathers of the flanks, and the outer webs of the outer under tail-coverts, 
which are plumbeous-black. Lining of wings and axillars white, mottled with black just 
along the edge. Length about 13.50; extent 30.00; wing 9.25; tail 4.00, graduated 0.75 ; 
tarsus 1.80; middle toe and claw 1.90; outer do. 2.00; inner do. 1.55; chord of culmen 1.40; 
gape 2.10; height or width of bill at base 0.45. Varies much, but the small size and black- 
ishness are distinctive. This species chiefly inhabits the Atlantic coast of Europe, and the 
Mediterranean ; it is the commonest British species of the genus, said to range the N. Atlantic 
at large, and to occur on our coast ; but those who suppose it to be one of our common species 
are apparently mistaken. Nest in burrows in the ground, dug by the birds; egg single, dead 
white, smooth, 2.35 x 1.60. 

P. obseu/rus. (Lat. obscurus, dusky.) Dusky SHEARWATER. Bill small and weak, 
about # as long as head, = as long as tarsus; stout only at base, where higher than wide ; 
hook rising abruptly from line of culmen; commissure lower, and outline of bill almost 
straight from feathers to hook. Wings folding to end of tail, which is comparatively long, 
and much graduated. Tar- 
sus as long as middle toe 
without claw; outer toe 
and claw equal to middle 
toe and claw; tip of inner 
claw reaching base of mid- 
dle. Blackish of upper 
parts with much grayish 
or plumbeous cast, with 
lighter borders of the feath- 


Fig. 527. — Black-vented Shearwater, nat. size. (From Elliot.) ers) especially on the scap- 
ulars and tertials; darkest 
on rump and upper tail-coverts; on sides of head not extending below eyes, and even there 
marbled with whitish ; both eyelids white, and there is indication of a light superciliary stripe. 
Quills and tail-feathers as in P. anglorwm. Under parts from chin to vent, white, as are lining 
of wings and axillars, only a few plumbeous black feathers on flanks. The lougest and outer- 
most under tail-coverts are black, the rest white, pure or with a plumbeous shade. Bill dull 
leaden-blue, blackening at tip ; iris bluish-black ; edges of eyelids bluish ; outside of tarsus and 
outer toe bluish-black, inside and webs of all yellowish flesh-color. Small: length 11.00- 
12.00; extent 26.00; wing 7.50-8.00; tail 4.25, graduated nearly 1.00; tarsus 1.60; middle 
toe and claw 1.80; chord of culmen 1.25; gape 1.70; nasal case to tip 0.90; depth of bill at 
base 0.40; width 0.35. A small bicolor species, readily distinguished from any of the foregoing. 
S. Atlantic and Gulf coast, common, straying N. to the Middle States. (P. obscurus Gm. ? 
P. auduboni Finsch.) 
P. opistho'melas. (Gr. dmoe, opisthe, backward; pedas, melas, black. Fig. 527.) BLacK- 
VENTED SHEARWATER. Resembling the last, and little larger. Bill about 4 as long as tarsus. 
Tail relatively shorter, less graduated. Tarsus as long as middle toe and half its claw. Froutal 
feathers extending in a point on culmen. Dark color of upper parts extending farther on sides 
of head than in obscurus, leaving no white about eye. Under tail-coverts entirely sooty- 


837. 


838. 


839. 


PROCELLARUDZE: PROCELLARUNZ: SHEARWATERS. 187 


blackish, except a few of the shortest just at the vent. More dark color on flanks, on lining 
of wings and axillars than in obscurus. In the dry state, bill yellowish or reddish-brown, the 
nasal tubes and culmen blackish, the hook mostly bluish-white. Outside of tarsus for the 
most part, outer toe and edges of webs, blackish ; rest of foot pale yellowish flesh-color; ‘‘iris 
brown.” Wing about 9.00; tail 3.75, graduated 0.60; tarsus 1.80; middle toe and claw 2.10 ; 
chord of culmen 1.40; gape 2.00; end of nasal tubes to tip 1.05; height at base 0.42, at hook 
0.32. Cape St. Lucas, L. Cala. Decidedly different from P. obscurus. (P. gavia Forst. ?) 
P. fuligino’sus. (Lat. fuliginosus, sooty. Fig. 528.) Soory SHEARWATER. Very different 
from any of the foregoing. Nearly uniform dark sooty-brown, blackening on quills and 
tail-feathers, more sooty-gray below, paler still on the throat; lining of wings mixed sooty 
and whitish. Bill drying an 
undefinable dark color, in life 
dusky bluish-horn color, the 
tube, ridge, and hook black- 
ish; feet drying dark outside, 
pale inside; in life the inside 
of tarsus and upper side of feet 
livid flesh-color, the outside of 
outer toe and under side of 
feet blackish; eye blackish. 
Length about 18.00, rather 
less than more; extent about Fic. 528.— Sooty Shearwater, nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) 
40.00; wing 12.00; tail 4.00; tarsus 2.25; middle toe and claw 2.50; chord of culmen 1.75- 
2.00; gape 2.33; feathers on side of lower mandible to tip 1.67; depth of bill in front of nasal 
tube 0.40. A wide-ranging species; common off our Atlantic coast, especially northerly. It 
is perfectly distinct from any of the two-colored species, of several of which it has at times 
been considered to be the 9 or a special state of plumage. Breeds in colonies, often of great 
extent, laying a single egg in holes burrowed several feet deep in the ground. 

P. amauroso’ma. (Gr. dyaupds, amauros, dark; capa, soma, body.) DARK-BODIED 
SHEARWATER. Similar to the last, from which perhaps not specifically distinct. Under 
wing-coverts white, only interrupted by some dusky marbling. Bill (dry) brownish-black, 
horn-colored at tip. Feet (dry) light yellowish flesh-color, tinged with brown on outside of 
tarsus, outer toe, and tips of claws. Smaller: wing 11.00; tail 4.25, graduated 0.90; tarsus 
2.00; middle toe and claw 2.40; outer do. 2.80; chord of culmen 1.70. Cape St. Lucas, 
Cala. 

P. tenuiros'tris. (Lat. tenwis, slight, thin; rostrum, beak.) SLENDER-BILLED SHEAR- 
WATER. Distinct: a small, weak-billed, short-tailed, very dark-colored species, sooty-black 
above, quite black on quills and tail-feathers, beneath smmoky-gray, palest on throat, the 
under tail-coverts nearly as blackish as the upper parts. Groove of under side of primary- 
shafts yellow. Bill (dry) dusky greenish-yellow, brighter along edges and at tip; feet (dry) 
yellowish, the hinder edge of tarsus and under surface of webs blackish. Length about 
14.00; wing 10.00; tail 3.50, graduated 0.75; chord of culmen 1.20; depth of bill at base 
0.30; width 0.40; tarsus 1.90; middle or outer toe and claw 2.25. N. Pacific, Sitka to 
Japan. 


XIII. Order PYGOPODES: Diving Birds. 


In the birds of this order the natatorial plan reaches its highest development. All the 
species swim and dive with perfect ease; many are capable of remaining long submerged, 
and of traversing great distances under water, progress being effected by the wings as well 


788 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PYGOPODES. 


as by the feet. Few other birds, such as cormorants and anhingas, resemble the Pygopodes 
in this respect. The legs are so completely posterior, that in standing the horizontal position 
of the axis of the body is impossible; the birds rest upright or nearly so, the whole tarsus 
being often applied to the ground, while the tail affords additional support; progression 
on land is awkward and constrained, only accomplished, in most cases, with a shutting 
motion, when the belly partly trails on the ground. One species of auk could not fly at all, 
because the wings, although perfectly formed, were too small to support the body. The rest 
of the order fly swiftly and vigorously, with continuous wing-beats. The rostrum varies 
in shape with the genera; but it is never extensively membranous, nor lamellate, nor 
furnished with a pouch. The nostrils vary, but are neither tubular nor abortive. The 
wings are short, never reaching when folded to the end of the tail. The tail is short, never 
of peculiar shape, generally of many feathers; there are, however, no perfect rectrices in 
the grebes. The crura are almost completely buried, and feathered nearly or quite to the 
heel. The tarsus is usually compressed, sometimes, as in the loons, extremely so. The front 
toes are completely palmate in the loons and auks; lobate, with basal webbing, in the grebes; 
the hallux is present and well formed, with a membranous expansion, in loons and grebes, 
wanting in the auks. The plumage is thick and completely waterproof: once observing 
some loons under peculiarly favorable circumstances in the limpid water of the Pacific, I saw 
that bubbles of air clung to the plumage whilst the birds were under water, giving them a 
beautiful spangled appearance. The pterylosis shows both contour and down-feathers, both 
after-shafted; there are definite apteria; the auks have free outer branches of the inferior 
tract-bands, wanting in the loons and grebes. The oil-gland is large with several orifices. 
Among osteological characters should be particularly mentioned the long apophysis of the 
tibia found in the loons aud grebes, but not in the auks. In auks, the elbow has two 
sesamoids. The thoracic walls are very extensive; the long jointed ribs grow all along 
the backbone from the neck to the pelvis, and form with the long broad sternum a bony 
box enclosing much of the abdominal viscera as well as those of the chest, perhaps to prevent 
their undue compression under water. The top of the skull has a pair of crescentic depres- 
sions for lodgment of a large gland; the palate is schizognathous. The sternum has a 
different shape in each of the families. There are two carotids, except among the grebes, 
and in Alle. The digestive system shows minor modifications, but accords in general with 
the piscivorous regimen of the whole order. The sexes are alike; the young different; the 
seasonal changes often great. The auks are altricial, the loons and grebes precocial. 
There are three families of Pygopodes, sharply distinguished by external characters ; all of 
them are fully represented in this country, where all the known species of loons and aulks 
oceur. The penguins (Spheniscomorphe), formerly included in this order, are better left to 
stand by themselves; they are confined to the Southern Hemisphere, where they are represented 
by several genera (as Aptenodytes, Pygoscelis, Hudyptes and Spheniscus) and about 13 species. 
The wings are reduced to mere flippers, without true remiges, unfit for flight, but very efficient 
as fins in swimming under water. Much of the plumage is harsh and scaly. There are numerous 
osteological characters, among them the flatness and solidity of the wing-bones, and the incom- 
plete fusion of the metatarsals. The elbow has a pair of sesamoids, and the knee a large 
irregularly shaped patella. The feet are four-toed, and palmate. 


Analysis of Families. 


Toons. Feet 4-toed, palmate . . 6. 6 1 6 6 ee ee ee te we ee we ee we 6 COLYMBIDE 
Grebes. Feet 4-toed, lobate . . 2 6 6 ew ee ee ke ew ww ww we ee 6 PODICIPEDIDE 
Auks, Feet3-toed, palmate. ©. 6 2. 3 es 48 6 2% He we HH Se we ee ALOE 


COLYMBIDA: LOONS. 789 


61. Family COLYMBID@€: Loons. 


Bill stout, straight, com- 
pressed, tapering, acute, parag- 
nathous, entirely horny. Nos- 
trils narrowly linear, their upper 
edge lobed. Head completely 
feathered, the antize prominent, 
acute, reaching the nostrils; no 
crests nor rufis. Wings strong, 
with stiff primaries and short 
inner quills. Legs completely 
posterior, buried, feathered on to 
the heel-joint; tarsi entirely re- 
ticulate, extremely compressed, 
the back edge smooth; toes 
four, the anterior palmate, the 
posterior semilateral and having 
a lobe counecting it with the 
base of the inner. Tail short, 
but well formed, of many feath- 
ers. Carotids double. Tibia 
with long apophysis. Sternum 
with long, broad, central projec- 
tion backward, and shorter lat- 
Fic. 529. — Loons. (From Michelet.) eral processes. Coca present. 


Accessory semitendinosus absent. Back spotted. Head of young not striped. Loons are 
large heavy birds with broad flattened body and rather long sinuous ueck, abundant on the 
coasts and large inland waters of the Northern Hemisphere. They are noted for their powers 
of diving, being able to evade the shot from a gun by disappearing at the flash, and to swim 
many fathoms under water. They are migratory, breeding in high latitudes, being generally 
dispersed further south in winter. They are precocial, and lay two or three dark-colored 
spotted eggs in a rude nest of rushes by the water’s edge. The voice is extremely loud, harsh, 
and resonant. The sexes are alike, the 9 smaller than the ¢; the young different. There 
is but one genus, with only three well-determined species. 
333, COLYM'BUS. (Gr. xd\upBos, kolumbos, a diver.) Loons. Character as above. 


Analysis of Species and Varieties (Adults). 


Head and neck black, with green, blue, and purple reflection, and patches of white streaks. 

Bill mostly or wholly black, the culmen, commissure, and gonys all gently curved; feathers falling 
short of middle of nostrils; culmen 3.00 or less; gape 4.00 or more; height of bill at nostrils usually 
under 1.00. Gloss of head and neck mostly green; white spots of back nearly square . . torquatus 840 

Bill mostly yellow; culmen nearly straight; commissure straight; gonys straight; feathers reaching 
middle of nostrils ; culmen about 3.75; gape about 5.00; height of bill at nostrils usually over 1.00. 


Gloss of head and neck mostly blue; white spots of back longer than broad. . . . . . .adamsi 841 

Top of head bluish-ash, front of neck blue-black; neck with white stripes. 
Larger: wing about 12.00; bill about 2.50, stout, with convex culmen ..... . . . arcticus 842 
Smaller: wing about 11.00; bill about 2.00, slender, with straight culmen. . . . . . . pacificus 843 
Throat and sides of head bluish-ash; front of neck with red patch . . . . . . . . . septentrionalis 844 


840. C. torqua'tus. (Lat. torquatus, collared. Figs. 529,530.) Common Loon. Great Nortu- 
ERN Diver. Adult: Bill black, the tip and cutting edges sometimes yellowish. Feet black. 
Tris red. Head and neck deep glossy greenish-black, with lustrous purplish reflections on the 


841. 


790 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PYGOPODES. 


front and sides of the head. A patch of sharp white streaks on the throat, and another larger 
triangular patch of the same on each side of the neck lower down, the two last nearly or quite 
meeting behind, separate in front. Sides of breast striped with black and white. Entire upper 
parts, wing-coverts, inner secondaries, and sides under the wings, glossy black ; all except the 
sides thickly marked with white spots; those of the scapulars, tertials, and middle back, large, 
square, and regular; those of other parts smaller, oval, smallest on ramp, most numerous on 
wing-coverts. Upper tail-coverts greenish-black, immaculate. Wing-quills brownish-black, 
lighter on inner webs. Under surface of wings, axillars, and under parts geverally from the 
neck, pure white ; the lower belly with a dusky band. The white throat-pateh consists usually 
of five or six streaks; in 
this, as in the lateral 
neck-stripes, the individ- 
ual feathers are broadly 
black, with sharp white 
edges toward their ends. 
The texture of these 
feathers is peculiar, — the 
outer surface is hollowed, 
with raised edges of spe- 
cially firm, smooth, pol- 
ished character, so that 
these patches may be felt 
as well as seen. The 
white spots on the back 
occur in a pair on each feather near its end, their aggregation in any region being therefore 
determined by the size of the feathers themselves. Young: Bill smaller than in the adult, 
bluish-white, with dusky ridge. Iris brown. Crown and hind neck dull brownish-black ; 
other upper parts similar, but the feathers, especially of the fore back, with light gray edgings. 
Primaries black, with brown inner webs. Tail-feathers with gray tips. Traces of lighter and 
darker lineation on sides of breast. Sides of head mottled with ashy and whitish; chin, throat, 
neck in front, and whole under parts, white. Dimensions: length 31 to 36 inches; extent 
about 52.00; wing 12.50 to 14.25; bill 2.75 to 3.00 along culmen; gape 4.00 to 4.25; height 
at nostrils, about 0.80; width there about 0.40: tarsus 3.00 to 3.50; middle toe and claw 
4.25 to 5.00. Inhabits the Northern Hemisphere. In winter, generally dispersed in the U.S. ; 
breeds in portions of the U.S. and thence northward. Eggs 2, 3.50 x 2.25, elongate and 
pointed, dull greenish-drab, with dark brown spots. Young covered with stiffish black down. 
C. t. adamsi. (To Dr. C. B. Adams.) YELLOW-BILLED Loon. Larger than C. torquatus, 
with the bill rather larger and somewhat differently shaped and colored. Bill about equalling 
head, longer than tarsus, much compressed, tip very acute, not at all decurved, the culmen 
being almost perfectly straight, as the commissure also is. Gonys straight or nearly so to the 
angle, which is very prominent. (Fig. 530 shows the shape of the bill better than it does that 
of No. 840, for which it is intended.) Frontal antize reaching beyond middle of nostrils. Bill 
light yellowish horn-color, only dusky at base. Head and neck deep steel-blue, with purplish 
and violet reflections, glossed only on the cervix with green. Throat-pateh of white streaks 
smaller than in torquatus, but the individual streaks larger, as are those of the neck-patches. 
White spots of upper parts larger than in torquatus, longer than broad instead of square on the 
scapulars and tertials. Bill along culmen 3.50 to 3.75; along gape 5.00 to 5.25; height at 
nostrils 0.95 to 1.10; width 0.40 to 0.50; tarsus 3.50; outer toe 4.65 to5.10. General dimen- 
sions somewhat exceeding those of torquatus. Arctic America, common; perhaps specifically 
distinct from the last. 


Fic. 530. — Common Loon. (After Wilson.) 


842. 


843. 


844. 


COLYMBIDZ: LOONS. 791 


©. are’ticus. (Lat. arcticus, arctic.) BLACK-TnROATED Driver. Bill generally as in tor- 
quatus, but smaller; color black. Chin, throat, and neck in front, black, with purplish and 
violet reflections on the sides of the head, gradually fading into a fine, clear bluish-gray, deep- 
est on forehead, lightest behind, and separated from the black of the throat by a series of white 
streaks. A crescent of short, white streaks across upper throat; sides of breast striped with 
pure white and glossy black, these stripes nearly meeting in front. Entire upper parts deep, 
glossy greenish-black, each feather of scapulars and interseapulars with a white spot uear end 
of each web; those of the scapulars largest, forming four patches in tranverse rows. Wing- 
coverts thickly speckled with small ovate white spots. Inner webs of quills, and tail-feathers 
below, light grayish-brown. Sides under wings like back. Lining of wings and entire under 
parts from the neck, pure white, with a narrow dusky band across lower belly; under tail- 
coverts dusky, tipped with white. Young: Bill light bluish-gray, dusky along the ridge. 
Tris brown. Feet dusky. Upper part of head and neck dark grayish-brown ; sides of head 
dull grayish-white, minutely streaked with brown. Upper parts with a reticulated or scaly 
appearance, the feathers being brownish-black with broad bluish-gray margius; the rump 
dull brownish-gray. Primaries and their coverts brownish-black ; secondaries and tail-feathers 
dusky margined with gray. Fore-part of neck grayish-white, minutely and faintly dotted with 
brown; its sides below streaked with the saine. Lower parts, including under surface of 
wings, pure white, the sides of the body and rump, with part of the lower tail-coverts, dusky, 
edged with bluish-gray. (Audubon.) Dimensions: length about 30.00; extent 40.00 ; 
wing 12.00; bill along culmen 2.45; along gape 3.40; its height at nostrils 0.65; its width 
there 0.35; tarsus 2.90; outer toe and claw 3.80. N. Hemisphere ; not common in the U. 8. 
C. a. paci’/ficus. (Lat. pacificus, pacific.) Paciric BLACK-THROATED Diver. Like the 
last; colors the same. Size less; length 24.00; wing 11.00. Bill shorter, slenderer, somewhat 
differently shaped, with straight culmen — much like the difference between chmophorus 
oceidentalis and 4&. clarki. Bill along culmen 1.90-2.20; gape 3.00; length of bill 0.50 or 
less; tarsus about 2.50. N. W. America; abundant on Pacifie coast of U. 8. in winter. 

C. septentriona'lis. (Lat. septentrionalis, northern.) Rep-THROATED Diver. Bill usually 
slenderer than in the foregoing; culimen slightly concave at the nostrils, gently convex to tip, 
which is rather obtuse and a little decurved. Outline of rami nearly straight; gonys slightly 
convex. Frontal antie scarcely extending beyond base of nostrils. Tarsus relatively rather 
longer than in foregoing species, about four-fifths the middle toe. Adult: Bill black, rather 
lighter at the tip. Crown and broad cervical stripe glossy greenish-black, the latter thickly 
streaked with white, which streaks, on the sides of the breast, spread so as to nearly meet in 
frout. Throat and sides of head clear bluish-gray. A large, well-defined, triangular, chest- 
nut-brown throat-patch. Entire upper parts and sides under the wings deep brownish-black, 
with greenish gloss, everywhere profusely spotted with white, the spots small, oval. Prim- 
arics blackish, paler on the inner webs. Tail narrowly tipped with white. Under parts and 
lining of wings white, the axillars with narrow dusky shaft-streaks, and the lower belly, with 
some of the under tail-coverts, dusky. Young: Bill mostly light bluish-white, with dusky 
ridge. Crown of head and neck behind bluish-gray, the feathers of the former bordered with 
whitish. Entire upper parts brownish- or grayish-black, everywhere profusely marked with 
small oval and linear spots of white. Throat without red patch, its sides and those of the 
head mottled with dusky. Other parts as in the adult. Length 25.00; extent 44.00; wing 
11.00 or less; bill along culmen 2.00; along gape 3.00; height at nostril 0.50; width there 
9.35 ; tarsus 2.75 ; outer toe 3.50. Varies greatly in size, and in the size and shape of the bill; 
recognized by the profuse spotting of the upper parts, as well as, when adult, by the red throat- 
patch. The spots are smallest and most numerous on the wing-coverts and upper back, where 
they grade into the streaks of the hind neck ; largest on the tertials, scapulars, and sides under 
the wings, where they are rather lines than spots, and are fewest, or almost wanting, on the 


792 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PYGOPODES. 


middle of the back. The marking results from a small spot or stripe near the end of each 
feather, on the edge of each web; there is occasionally a second pair nearer the base of the 
feather. The amount of spotting is very variable with individuals; in the young the spots are 
always larger and more numerous than in the adults, and usually lengthened into oblique 
lines, producing a regular diamond-shaped reticulation. Northern Hemisphere at large; most 
of the U. 8. in winter; breeds in high latitudes. Eggs 2-3, 3.00 X 1.75. 


62. Family PODICIPEDIDA: Grebes. 


Bill of variable length, much longer or shorter than head; culmen usually about straight, 
sometimes a little concave, or quite convex, especially at the end. Commissure nearly straight, 
but more or less corresponding with the curve of the culmen, usually sinuate at base. Under 
outline of bill in general convex, with slight gonydeal angle or none. Sides of bill more or 
less striate. Nasal fossee well marked, the nostrils near their termination. Nostrils linear and 
pervious (broader in Podilymbus), upper edge straight, not lobed. Frontal extension of 
feathers considerable, and usually antiz run still further into the nasal fossa. A groove along 
the symphysis of the mandible extends often nearly to the tip. Eyes far forward, with a loral 
strip of bare skin running thence to base of upper mandible, very narrow in the typical forms, 
troader in Tachybaptes and Podilymbus. Head usually adorned in the breeding season with 
variously lengthened colored crests or ruffs; when these are wanting the frontal feathers may 
be bristly. Neck usually long, slender, and sinuous. Plumage thick and compact, smoothly 
imbricated above, below of a peculiar smooth, satiny texture. Wings short but ample, very 
concavo-convex ; primaries eleven, narrow, somewhat falcate, graduated, the three or four 
outer ones attenuate on one or both webs; secondaries short and broad; tertials very long, 
hiding the rest of the quills when the wing is closed. Bastard quills unusually long, their tips. 
reaching over half-way to the ends of the primaries. Greater coverts also very long. Tail 
rudimentary, represented by a tuft of downy feathers. Characters of the feet peculiar; for in 
other lobe-footed birds, as Phalaropes and Coots, the lobation is of a different character. Tarsi 
exceedingly compressed, with only a slightly thickened tract within which the tendons pass. 
Front edge a single smooth row of overlapping, the hinder ser- 
rate with a double row of pointed, scales; sides regularly trans- 
versely scutellate, as are the upper surfaces of the toes, the latter 
being inferiorly reticulate, with an edging of peetinated scales.. 
Toes flattened out and further widened with broad lobes, espe- 
cially wide toward the end, and at base connected for a varying 
distance by interdigital webs. Hind toe highly elevated, broadly 
lobate, free. Claws short, broad, flat, obtuse, of squarish shape 
that of the hallux minute. 

The Grebes are strongly marked by the foregoing charac- 
ters, especially of the feet and tail, though they agree closely with 
the Loons in general structure and economy. Principal internal 
characters are the absence of one carotid, and of the ambiens, 
femoro-caudal and accessory semitendinosus muscles, the greater 
number of cervical vertebre (19 instead of 13) and shortness of 
the sternum, with lateral processes reaching beyond the transverse 


Fig. 530 bis. —F. fibula; T 
tibia, with a, its cnemial process, main part (the reverse of the case in Loons). There is a long 
and P, large patella, of a grebe; 
nat. size. 


enemial process of the tibia, reaching high above the knee-joint, 
backed by a large patella of about equal altitude (fig. 530 bis.). 
The gizzard has a special pyloric sac; there are cceca and a tufted oil-gland. These birds are 
expert divers, and have the curious habit of sinking back quietly into the water when alarmed, 
like Anhingas. Owing to the virtual absence of the tail, the general aspect is singular, ren- 


334. 


845. 


PODICIPEDIDZ: GREBES. 193 


dered still more so by the almost grotesque parti-colored ruffs and crests that most species 
possess. These ornaments are very transient; old birds in winter, and the young, are very 
different from the adults in breeding attire. The eggs are more numerous than in other pygo- 
podous birds, frequently numbering 6-8 ; elliptical, of a pale or whitish color, unvariegated ; 
commonly covered with chalky substance. The nest is formed of matted vegetation, close to 
the water, or even, it is said, floating among aquatic plants; the young swim directly. Grebes 
are the ouly cosmopolitan birds of the order, being abundantly distributed over the lakes and 
rivers of all parts of the world, though they are less maritime than the species of either of 
the other families. There are not over twenty-five well determined species. 


Analysis of Genera, 


Bill slender or only moderately stout, paragnathous, acute. Nostrils narrow or linear. Loral bare strip 
narrow. Frontal feathers normal. Tarsus generally but little, if any, shorter than the middle toe — at 
least three-fourths as long. Semipalmation of toes moderate. Lobe of hallux broad. Usually with 
conspicuous crests or ruffs during the breeding season. 

Bill longer than head, extremely slender and acute. Tarsus equal to the middle toe and claw. 


Crests and ruffs slight. Large .. . » . 2. Echmophorus 334 
Bill not longer than head, moderately stout, Tarsus shorter cian indie toe and claw. Crests 
and ruffs decided. Sizeover10inches .. . » . . . Podicipes 335 


Bill much shorter than head, not two-thirds the bemaliee mites ‘stants Tarsus about three-fourths 

the middle toe. Outer and middle toes equal. No decided crests or ruffs. Small; length 10 

inchesorless . . . Esa MEG; Ata e alge GAL ANE at arias Meat ale cht Pathe » . + . Tachybaptes 

Bill stout, epignathous, aibnse: Nostrils broadly oval. Loral bare strip broad. “Fy ontal feathers bristly. 

Tarsus not three-fourths the middle toe. Semipalmation of toes extensive. Lobe of hallux moderate. 
No decided crests orruffs . 6 6 ee ee ee ee ee ee ew ws . Podilymbus 336 


ZZCHMO/PHORUS. (Gr. aixun, aichme, a spear; dopos, phorus, bearing.) SPEAR-BILL 
Greses. Bill very long, exceeding the head, straight or slightly recurved, very slender and 
acute; culmen straight or slightly concave; commissure about straight, or slightly sinuate 
at base; under outline concave at base, without protuberance at symphysis. Bare loral space 
extremely narrow. Wings comparatively long, with inuch attenuated outer primaries. Legs 
long; tarsus not shorter than bill, as long as middle toe and claw; basal webbing of toes 
slight. Size large; neck very long; body slender. Crest and ruffs inconspicuous, not 
specially colored in our species. One species, western, of which two varieties may usually 
be recognized by the following characters : 
Analysis of Varieties. 

Large ; length (extreme) about 29.00 inches; wing about 8.00; bill and tarsus each about 3.00. Bill equal 

to tarsus, straight, mostly dark olivaceous, brighter yellowish at tip and along cutting edges. Under 

outline of bill straight from base to the slight augle, gonys thence straight to tip. Lores ashy-gray. 
occidentalis 845 

Small: length about 22.00 inches; wing about 7.00; bill 2.25; tarsus 2.75. Bill shorter than tarsus, 


slightly recurved, under outline almost regularly convex from base to tip, with barely appreciable angle. 
Tors pute white 4 * 6 4 4 4 #4 SR wR ROE eG ee ee ee Se ee & o Cl BAG 


A. occidenta/lis. (Lat. occidentalis, western.) WESTERN GREBE. Bill obscurely oliva- 
ceous, brighter along edges and at tip. Iris orange-red, pink or carmine, with a white ring. 
Hard parts of palate like bill; soft parts purplish or lavender. Outer side and sole of foot 
blackish, rest dull olivaceous, more yellowish on webs. Forehead and lores dark silvery-ash. 
A short occipital crest and puffy checks, but neither bright-colored, agreeing with white and 
dark colors of the respective parts. Top of head and line down back of neck sooty-blackish, 
changing on upper parts into a lighter, more brownish black, the feathers of the back with 
grayish margins. Primaries mostly dark chocolate-brown, with white bases, their shafts 
white at base. Secondaries mostly white, but more or fewer of them dark on most or all 
of the outer webs. Sides under the wings washed with a pale shade of the color of the back. 
Lining of wings and whole under parts from the bill pure white, with satiny gloss. Length 
24.00-29.00; extent 40.00 or thereabouts; wing about 8.00; bill, tarsus, middle toe and 


846. 


335. 


847. 


794 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PYGOPODES. 


claw, all about 3.00; gape of bill 3.60; height at base 0.50. Western U. 8., common. 
As here described, the bird is given in its purest character; but it grades in size directly into 
the next, and some of the larger individuals have a mostly yellow and somewhat recurved bill, 
with white lores. 
ZE. 0. clark'i. (To J. H. Clark.) Cuarx’s Grepe. Bill about as long as head, shorter than 
tarsus, slightly recurved, extremely slender and acute; eulmen a little concave; under outline 
almost one unbroken curve from base to tip. Adult in breeding plumage: Under mandible, 
and tip and cutting edges of the upper, chrume-yellow, in marked contrast to black of culmen. 
Loral bare strip leaden-blue. Crown, occiput, and hind-neck deep grayish-black; almost 
pure black on the hind-head, fading gradually along the neck into the lighter blackish-gray 
of the upper parts generally. Lores broadly pure white, as are the entire under parts, with 
a sharp line of demareation along the sides of the head and neck. A decided occipital crest, 
the feathers about an inch long and quite filiform, but not colored apart from the general 
coloration. No decided ruffs —no colored ruffs at all; but the white feathers of the sides 
of the head behind and across the throat are longer and fuller than elsewhere — about as in 
griseigena. Wings and general coloration (except the white lores) exactly as in occidentalis. 
Winter dress not materially different. Dimensions: length about 22.00 inches; extent 28.50; 
wing 7.00; bill along culmen 2.30; along gape 2.75; height at nostrils 0.40; tarsus and 
middle toe with claw, each about 2.75. Thence grading up to occidentalis. With only 
extremes before us of the two varieties, one might well consider them distinct species; but 
other specimens show the intergradation; we frequently find specimens as small as typical 
elarki, and with equally slender bill, yet with the color of the bill wholly olivaceous and the 
lores ashy, as in typical occidentalis. Western U. S. 
PODI'CIPES. (Lat. podex, gen. podicis, the rump; pes, foot.) GREBES. Bill moderately 
stout, usually more or less compressed, equalling or shorter than the head or tarsus. Tarsus 
obviously shorter than the middle toe and claw. Outer lateral toe a little longer than the 
middle. Head in the breeding season with lengthened colored crests or ruffs, or both. 

Nott. — Believing P. cristatus may have been hastily eliminated from our fauna, I analyze and describe it 
with the rest, without number assigned. 

Analysis of Species (adults). 


Large: length over 15 inches. Dill more or Jess nearly equalling the head or tarsus in length. 
Crests, and especially ruffs, long and conspicuous. Neck without red or gray in front; under parts 


pure silky-white. Tarsus averaging equal to the middle toe without itsclaw . . . . .cristatus 
Crests moderate; ruffs inconspicuous. Neck with red or gray in front; under parts watered with 
dusky (sometimes but slightly). Tarsus averaging less than the middle toe and claw . . holbelli 847 


Small: length under 15 inches. Bill much shorter than head; little over half the tarsus. 
Bill compressed, higher than broad at the nostrils. Crests and ruffs very conspicuous ; neck red in 
frontie woe ae ey oy be as Cal Viner, ta Ss aw le en See es Sa see ee a, -cornutus 848 
Bill depressed, broader than high at the nostrils. Crests in form of auricular tufts; neck black in 
fronts ak ow a Re Re ee ee eR ee Ge ee GUMNbUS SHO, Or californicus: 850 
P. crista’/tus. (Lat. cristatus, crested.) CRESTED GREBE. Adult, breeding plumage: Crown and long 
occipital crests glossy black; end of ruff the same, the rest reddish-brown, fading into silky-white of throat and 
sides of head. Neck behind and upper parts dark brown, the feathers with gray margins. Primaries chocolate- 
brown, with black shafts, the tips of the inner ones white, as are all the secondaries and tertinries, excepting a 
little of the outer webs of the former; greater wing-coverts white on inner webs. Under parts pure silky white, 
without a traceof dusky mottling, the sides of the neck and body tinged with reddish, and on the flanks mixed 
with dusky, where the feathers have dark shaft-lines, Length about 24.00; extent 33.00; wing 7.00; bill 2 00, 
the gape 2.70; tarsus 2.50, Europe, etc. N. Am.? 


P. griseige/na holboelli. (Low Lat. griseus, gray; gena, cheeks. ToC. Holbdéll.) American 
RED-NECKED GrREBE. Adult, breeding plumage: Crests short, and ruffs scarcely apparent. 
Iris carmine. Bill black, the tomia of upper mandible at base and most of lower mandible 
yellowish. Crown and occiput glossy greenish-black ; back of neck the same, less intense, 
and upper parts generally the sane, with grayish edgings of the feathers. Wing-coverts and 


848. 


849, 


PODICIPEDIDA’: GREBES. 795 


primaries uniform chocolate-brown, the shafts of the latter black. Secondaries white, mostly 
with black shafts and brownish tips. Lining of wings and axillars white. A broad patch 
of silvery-ash on the throat, extending around on sides of head, whitening along line of 
juncture with the black of the crown. Neck, except the dorsal line, deep brownish-red, which 
extends diluted some distance on the breast. Under parts silky-white, with a shade of silvery- 
ash, each feather having a dark shaft-line and terminal spot, producing a peculiar dappled 
appearance. Winter plumage, and young: Crests scarcely appreciable. Bill mostly yellow- 
ish, the ridge more or less dusky. Red of the neck replaced by brownish-ash of variable 
shade, from quite dark to whitish. Ash of throat and sides of head replaced by pure white. 
Under parts ashy-white, the mottling not so conspicuous as in summer. Dimensious: Length 
about 19.00; extent 32.00; wing 7.60; bill along culmen 1.90-2.40, along gape 2.40-3.10 ; 
height at nostrils 0.55; tarsus 2.50; middle toe and claw 2.85. This bird could only be 
confounded with cristatus in immature dress: it is smaller, stouter, more thick-set, with 
stouter bill, nebulated under plumage, less white on the wing, and usually has rather shorter 
tarsi, — only about four-fifths the middle toe and claw, instead of about equal to the middle toe 
alone, as in cristatus. The American bird is a larger variety of the European, the bill, 
especially, disproportionately longer, differently shaped and colored; tarsus longer, both 
absolutely and relatively to length of toes. N. Am. at large and Greenland; common in 
the U. S. in winter, breeding northerly. Eggs 2.10 to 2.35 & 1.25 to 1.45, rough, whitish, 
either inclining to pale greenish or with buffy discoloration, of the narrow-elongate shape 
usual in this family. 
Ozs. Specimens more like the typical griseigena from the N. W. coast. 

P. cornu'tus. (Lat. cornutus, horned.) Hornep GrREBE. Adult, breeding plumage: 
Bill black, tipped with yellow. Feet dusky externally, internally yellowish. Iris carmine, 
with a fine white ring. A brownish-yellow stripe over eye, widening behind and deepening 
in color at the ends of the long crests, and being dark chestnut between eye and bill. Crown, 
chin, and the very full ruff glossy greenish-black. Upper parts brownish-black, with paler 
edges of the feathers. Primaries rather light chocolate-brown, with black shafts, except at 
the base. Secondaries white. Neck all round, except stripe down behind, and sides of the 
body, rich dark brownish-red or purplish wine-red, mixed with dusky on the flanks. Under 
parts pure silky-white. Winter plumage, and young: Bill dusky, much of the under 
mandible bluish or yellowish-white. Indications of crests and ruff in the length and fulness 
of the feathers of the parts. Crown and neck behind, and sides of the body, sooty-blackish. 
Other upper parts and the wings as in the adult. Chin, throat, and sides of head, pure white, 
this color nearly encircling the nape. Neck in front and lower belly lightly washed with 
ashy-gray. Under parts as before. Newly-fledged young are curiously striped on the head 
with rufous, dusky, and white. Dimensions: length about 14.00 inches; extent 24.00; 
wing 5.75 ; tarsus 1.75; middle toe and claw 2.10; bill along culmen about 0.90, along gape 
1.30; its height at the nostrils 0.30, its width there 0.25. Bill compressed, tapering, with 
considerably curved culmen, — quite different from the broad depressed bill with straight tip 
and much ascending gonys of P. auritus. It varies much in size, even among equally adult 
examples; in the young it is always smaller and weaker than in the old. Black, yellow- 
tipped in the old, we find it variously lighter in the young, — usually dusky on the ridge, 
elsewhere tinged with olivaceous, yellowish, or even orange or extensively bluish-white. 
In breeding plumage this bird is conspicuously different from any other; but the young are 
much like those of P. auritus, requiring careful discrimination. N. Am. at large, abundant, 
and generally diffused. Eggs laid on soaking or floating beds of decayed reeds, white or 
slightly shaded, elliptical, 1.70 X 1.20. 

P, auri/tus. (Lat. auritus, eared.) EuRopEAN EARED Gresr. Like the next to be de- 
scribed, excepting more white on the wing; inner four primaries entirely white, all the rest 
more or less white, secondaries all entirely white. Only N. Aum. as occurring in Greenland (?). 


850. 


851. 


336. 


796 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PYGOPODES. 


P. a, califor‘nicus. AMERICAN EarED Gress. Adult, breeding plumage: Bill shorter 
than head, rather stout at base, much depressed, broader than high at the nostrils, tip acute, 
uot decurved, gonys straight, ascending, culmen a little concave basally, nearly straight termi- 
nally. Tarsus about equal to middle toe without its claw. Bill entirely black. Feet dull 
olivaceous, blackish outside and on sole. Eye scarlet. Eyelid orange. Conspicuous long 
auricular tufts, golden-browu or tawny, finely displayed upon a black ground. Crown, chin, 
and neck all round, black. All the primaries entirely chocolate-brown, with usually a wash 
of dull reddish-brown externally. Secondaries white, but the bases of all, and a considerable 
part of the two outer ones, dusky; their shafts mostly all dusky. Sides deep purplish-brown 
or wine-red ; this color washed across the breast, behind the black of the neck, and also across 
the anal region. Under parts silky-white, the abdomen grayish. Young: Bill shaped gener- 
ally as in the adult, but smaller, with less firm outlines, so that its distinctive shape is some- 
what obscured. Little or no trace of the auricular tufts. Crown, sides of head, and neck all 
around, sooty-grayish, paler and more ashy on the foreneck. Upper parts rather lighter and 
duller colored than in the adults. Primaries as in the adults, but without the reddish tinge; 
a few of the innermost ones sometimes white-tipped. Sides under the wings washed with a 
lighter shade of the color of the back; lower belly grayish. Dimensions: length 12 to 14 
inches, usually 13 or less; extent 21.50-24.00; wing 4.75-5.25; bill 1.00 or less; along 
gape 1.25; height at nostril 0.22; width there 0.26; tarsus 1.60; middle toe and claw 1.95. 
While the breeding plumages of P. cornutus and the present species are widely different, 
there is much similarity between the young and winter dress of the two species. As a rule, 
auritus is smaller; even traces of ruffs are less appreciable; the fore neck is scarcely lighter 
than the hind neck; the back is rather deeper colored and more uniform. The shape and pro- 
portions of the bill, however, furnish the most reliable characters. Western N. Am., the com- 
mouest species of grebe breeding in the pools west of the Mississippi; E. to Illinois. Eggs 
not distinguishable froin those of P. cornutus. 

P. domi/nicus. (Of St. Domingo.) Sr. Dominco Gress. Representing a genus or subgenus 
apart from the foregoing (Tachybaptes). Bill-very short, much less than the head, scareely 
over half the tarsus ; stout, little compressed, rather obtuse. Lateral outlines nearly straight ; 
culmen slightly concave at the nostrils, elsewhere convex ; commissure straight, except a little 
sinuation at base; under outline straight to angle, gonys thence straight to tip, the angle 
well defined. Wings short, and with abrupt attenuation of the outer primaries. Tarsus 
stout, little over three-fourths the middle toe and claw ; outer lateral about equal to the mid- 
dle toe. Size very small; body full; neck short; no decided crests or ruffs. Adult: Crown 
and occiput deep glossy steel-blue. Sides of head and neck all around dark ashy-gray, darkest 
behind, where tinged with bluish. Chin varied with ashy and white. Upper parts brownish- 
black, with glossy-greenish reflections. Primaries chocolate-brown, the greater portion of the 
inner vanes of all, and nearly all of the inner four or five, together with all the secondaries, 
pure white. Under parts silky-white, thickly mottled with dusky. Upper mandible dusky, 
the lower mostly yellowish. Dimensions: length about 9.50; extent 16.00; wing 3.60; bill 
along culmen 0.70; along gape 1.00; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and daw 1.75. Warmer parts 
of America, N. to the Rio Grande of Texas. 

PODILYM’/BUS.  (Podicipes+Colymbus.) TuHiIck-BILLED GREBES. Bill shorter than 
head, stoutest in the family, compressed, with obtuse and hooked tip; culmen about straight 
to the nostrils, thence declinato-convex; gonys regularly convex without decided angle; com- 
missure slightly sinuate at base, then straight, then much deflected. Upper mandible covered 
with soft skin to the nostrils, between which are two fosse, the anterior shallow, oblong, the 
other deep, triangular, separated from the bare loral space by an intervening ridge. Nostrils 
broadly oval, far anterior. No crests or ruffs, but shafts of frontal feathers prolonged into 
bristles. Eyelids peculiarly thickened. Outer three or four primaries abruptly sinuate near 


852. 


ALCIDZ: AUKS. 797 


the end. Tarsus much abbreviated, comparatively stout, about three-fourths as long as middle 
toe and claw. Middle and outer toes nearly equal. Basal semipalination of toes more exten- 
sive than in Podicipes. Lobe of hind toe moderate. 

P. podifcipes. (For podicipes, see above.) PIED-BILLED GREBE. Dagscnick. DIPPER. 
Diepapper. WaAtTERWwITCH. Adult, breeding plumage : Bill light dull bluish, or bluish- 
white, dusky ou ridge or at tip, encircled with a broad black band. Iris brown and white ; 
eyelids white. Feet greenish-black outside, leaden-gray inside. Frontal and coronal bristles 
black. Crown, oeciput, and neck behind, grayish-black, the feathers with slightly lighter 
edges. Sides of head and neck brownish-gray. A broad black throat-patch, extending on 
sides of lower mandible. Upper parts brownish-black, the feathers with scarcely lighter edges. 
Primaries and secondaries chucolate-brown, the latter frequeutly with a white area on the inner 
webs. Under parts ashy, washed over with silvery-gray, thickly mottled with dusky; these 
dark spots most numerous and evident on the sides. Lower belly uearly uniformly dusky. 
Winter plumage: Bill light dull yellowish, without a dark band, more or less dusky on the 
ridge. No gular patch. Crown and occiput dusky brown. Upper parts with more evident 
pale edgings of the feathers than in summer. Neck, breast, and sides, light brown, darker 
posteriorly, where more or less conspicuously mottled with dusky. Under parts otherwise pure 
silky-white, immaculate; lower belly grayish. Young-of-the-year: White gular patch in- 
vaded by streaks of the brownish of the head, and the latter much streaked with white. 
Dimensions: length about 13.00; extent 24.00; wing about 5.00; bill along culmen 0.75 ; 
along gape 1.20; height at nostrils 0.40; width 0.25; tarsus 1.50; middle toe and claw 2.15. 
Varies greatly in size. Inhabits the greater part of 8. and C. Am. and all temperate N. Am. ; 
the most abundant species of the family in Eastern U. 8S. 


63. Family ALCIDZ:: Auks. 


Feet palmate, three-toed (hallux wanting). Tarsi reticulate or partly seutellate. Tibio- 
tarsal joint naked. Claws ordinary. Bill of wholly indeterminate shape, often much as in 
Colymbide or Podicipedide ; often curiously shaped, with various ridges, furrows, or herny 
protuberances. Tail perfect, of few feathers. Lores completely feathered. Nostrils wholly 
variable in shape and position, naked or feathered. Legs very variable. Coloration vari- 
able; head often with long curly crests. No tibial apophysis. Usually (always?) au anconal 
sesamoid, sometimes double. Carotids usually double (single in Alle). Cceca coli pres- 
ent; ambiens muscle present, accessory semitendinosus absent; oil-gland tufted. Palatal 
structure schizognathous; nasal schizorhinal. Nature altricial and ptilopedic. Eggs few or 
single, plain or variegated. The numerous species confined to the Northern Hemisphere. 

Birds of this family will be immediately recognized by the foregoing circumstances, taken 
in connection with general pygopodous characters. Agreeing closely in essential respects, they 
differ among themselves to a remarkable degree in the form of the bill, with every genus and 
almost every species; this organ frequently assuming an odd shape, developing horny pro- 
cesses, showing various ridges and furrows, or being brilliantly colored. It is the rule that 
any soft part that may be observed on the bill will finally become hard, or form an outgrowth, 
or both ; and such processes, in some cases at least, are temporary, appearing only during the 
breeding season. 

The last sentence, reprinted as it stands in the original edition of the Key (1872) hints at 
the extraordinary changes undergone by the bill in several genera of Alcide, so ably elucidated 
in 1877 and 1879 by L. Bureau, who showed that in many species parts of the horny covering 
of the bill are regularly shed or moulted, in a manner analogous to the casting of deer’s antlers, 
quite as shown by R. Ridgway in the case of our White Pelican, which drops the ‘centre- 
board.” In the Common Puffin, for example, no fewer than nine pieces of the bill fall of 


798 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PYGOPODES. 


separately, after the breed- 
ing season, to be renewed 
again from the soft basement membrane. 
The absence, in winter, of the horny plate 
at the angle of the mouth of Simorhynchus 
cristatellus, had been noted (Key, p. 342), as 
well as the presence or absence of the horn of 
Ceratorhina ; but we had no knowledge of the 
process by which the change was effected, prior 
to Bureau’s studies. In the Puffins there is also 
a moult of the excrescences upon the eyelids, 
and a shrivelling of the colored rosette at the 
corner of the mouth. 

The Auks are confined to the Northern 
Hemisphere. Some representatives have been 
found as far north as explorers have penetrated. 


The great majority live in more temperate lati- 
tudes. A morc or less complete migration takes 
place with most species, which stray southward, 
sometimes to a considerable distance, in the au- 
tumn, and return north again to breed in the 
spring. <A few species appear nearly stationary. 
The most southern recorded habitat of any 
member of the family is about latitude 21° N., 
on the Pacific coast of North America, but this 
is rather exceptional. The species are very 
unequally divided between the two oceans. The 
Atlantic has but few representatives compared 
with the Pacific. On the northern coasts of 
the latter the family reaches its highest devel- 
opment; the greatest number of species, of the 
most diversified forms, are found there, though 
the number of individuals of any species does 
not surpass that of several Atlantic species. 
Comparatively few species are common to both 
oceans. All the members of the family are ex- 
clusively marine. They are decidedly grega- Cauih ae se 
rious, particularly in the breeding season, when Fro, 531, —Egging in Alaska on cliffs inhabited by 
some species congregate in countless numbers. Kittiwakes (p. 748), Auks, ete. (Designed by H. W. 
Usually one, often two, rarely three eggs are pen cane eases 

laid, either upon the bare rock or ground, or in crevices between or under rocks, or in burrows 


ALCIDA:: AUKS. 799: 


excavated for the purpose. Auks 
are all altrices, and are believed 
to be chiefly monogamous. The 


young are at first covered with 
long soft woolly down; rarely 
stifish hairs appear on some parts. 
The moult is double. The young 
of the year usually differ from the 
adults ; the latter usually differ in 
their summer and winter plumages. 
A very prevalent feature is the 
possession of crests or plumes, or 
elongated feathers of a peculiar 
shape on the sides of the head. 
All the species walk badly ; 
some scarcely walk at all. 
The position of the legs with 
reference to the axis of the 
body necessitates an upright 
position when standing. The 
birds appear to rest on their 
Trumps, with the feet extended 
horizontally before them, most 
of the tarsus touching the 
ground. The Puffins, how- 
ever, and a few others, stand 
well on their feet. All the 
species but one fly well, with 
rapid vigorous motion of the 
wings, iu a straight, firm, 
well - sustained course. All 
progress on or under the 
water with the utmost facility. 
They are very silent birds; 
the voice is rough and harsh ; 
the notes are monotoned. 
SEES They feed exclusively upon 
Fic. 532.— A needle rock tenanted by Cormorants (p. 728, No. 757), Auks, animal substances procured 
etc. (Designed by H. W. Elliott. From Harper Brothers.) from the water. 
The family is divisible into two subfamilies according to the feathering of the nostrils 
and other characters. 
Analysis of Subfamilies and Genera, 


PHALERIDINE. Nostrils naked. remote from featbers. Bill of variable shape, always compressed, 
higher than wide, as far as known appendaged with deciduous elements. Head nearly always crested. 
No great seas nal changes of plumage. 

Eyelids with deciduous appendages. No crests. Bill extremely high and thin; culmen with one 
curve; both mandibles grooved. A rosette at angle of mouth. Covering of bill moulted in 7-9 
pieces. Inner lateral claw enlarged. Tarsusscutellateinfront . . .... +... Fratercula 337 

Eyelids simple Long lateral crests. Bill extremely high and thin; culmen with two curves; upper 
mandible grooved, under smooth. A rosette at angle of mouth. Covering of bill moulted in 7 pieces. 
Jnmer lateral claw enlarged. Tarsus scutellatein front . 2... 6 + ee ee Lunda 338 

Eyelids simple. Lateral crests. Bill with a deciduous horn at base of upper mandible. No rosette. 


800 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PYGOPODES. 


Neither mandible grooved. rises of bill moulted in 2 epee Inner lateral claw normal, 
Tarsus scutellate in front. . . » . . + Ceratorhina 339 
Eyelids simple. Variously crested. Bin of tnaetorminate shape. various ‘parts moulted in 1-7 pieces. 
No soft rosette. Inner claw normal. Tarsusreticulate .. . » + . + . Simorhynchus 840 - 
Eyelids simple. Not crested ? Bill acute; upper mandible stlate:- no Sorts of bill known. No 
rosette. Innerclaw normal. Tarsus reticulate... . . 2 6 . «Ptychorhamphus 341 
ALOIN.£. Nostrils more or less completely feathered. Bill of "variable shape, as far as known not 
appendaged with deciduous elements. Head not crested (except one species). Seasonal changes of 
plumage usually marked. 
Bill elongate, more or less slender, without vertical grooves. 
Nostrils nearly circular, incompletely feathered. Bill short and stout for this group. Tarsus 
scarcely compressed, scutellate in front:. . . oa « « Alle 242 
Nostrils broadly oval, incompletely feathered. Bill arachs compressed. Tail nearly even. Tarsus 
extremely compressed, scutellate in front andinternally. . . . . . . Synthliborhamphus 348 
Nostrils oval, feathered. Bill very small, slender, acute. Tarsus reticulate. .Brachyrhamphus 344 
Nostrils narrow, feathered. Bill about equal to tarsus. Tarsusreticulate . ... . . Uria 345 
Nostrils narrow, densely feathered. Bill longer than tarsus. Tarsus scutellate in front Lomvia 346 
Bill elongate, stout, high, narrow, vertically grooved. Nostrils linear, densely feathered. 
Wings fully developed, fit for flight . 2. 2... 1 ee 1 ee ee ee eee . Utamania 347 
Wings reduced in size, unfit for fight . . . . + . Alea 348 
Oss. Many additional characters of these remarkable genera are oplvat imder their respective heads. 


Subfamily PHALERIDINAZ: Parrot Auks, etc. 


Characters as above. This subfamily contains a number of curious birds of the Auk 
family for which there is no single English name. With one exception (that of the Common 
Puffin or Sea Parrot of the Atlantic) all are confined to North Pacifie and Polar waters. 
Without known exception (but qu. Ptychorhamphus ?) all these birds have the bill appendaged 
with deciduous elements, which is not the case with the Alcine proper; but the subfamily is 
not very sharply distinguished from Alcina, such forms as Ptychorhamphus and Alle being 
connecting links. The genera Fratercula and Lunda are together so different from the rest 

that some authors separate them as a family Mormonide ; but this seems scarcely advisable. 
337. FRATER'CULA. (Dimin. of frater, a brother: what application?) Spa Parrots. 
MasxinG Purrins: the grotesque bill being likened to the comic mask of revellers at a 
carnival, and be- 
ing as it were put 
on for the nuptial 
festivities, and af- 
terward removed. 
Bill about as long 
as head, about as 
high as _ long, 
extremely com- 
pressed, with 
nearly vertical 
sides, its lateral 
profile somewhat 
triangular, its 
depth at base 
Fia. 533, — Head of Sea Parrot (F. arctica), nat. size. (Ad nat. del. E. C.) equal to that of 


the head ; culmen beginning on a level with the forehead, thence curving downward with regular 
convexity to the overhanging tip, its ridge sharp and unbroken throughout ; commissure straight 
and horizontal to the decurved tip; gonys sharp, ascending, gently sinuous. Terminal portions 
of both mandibles hard, horny, and persistent, depressed with several oblique curved grooves, 
convex forward. Basal portion of upper mandible forming a narrow obtuse-angled triangular 


853. 


ALCIDA — PHALERIDINA: PUFFINS. 801 


space, or nasal fossa, its short base horizontal, its long sides rising and sloping backward 
to meet at an acute angle at base of culmen; the linear nostrils horizontal, close to com- 
missure at base of this space, which in winter is naked and membranous, in summer covered 
with a symmetrical horny ‘‘saddle” sheathing the nasal fossa; with a basal raised “ collar” 
surrounding base of upper mandible, through numerous perforations of which protrude rudi- 
mentary feathers; with a small narrow horizontal horny strip on each side below nostrils; 
with usually, also, a long, narrow, obliquely vertical strip bounding the triangular space 
anterior. Basal portion of under mandible contracted and membranous in winter, in summer 
with a symmetrical horny ‘‘ shoe” which carries the line of the gonys downward and backward 
to a point, and a narrow horny strip along base. These deciduous elements thus forming 
three symmetrical pieces, surrounding the bill, and three or two pairs of lateral pieces; in all, 
9 or 7 pieces (9 in arctica and glacialis, 7 in cormiculata) which are regularly moulted. 
Angle of mouth with a rosette of naked skin, festooned in summer, shrunken in winter. 
Eyelids surmounted above by a triangular, obtuse or acute, below by a horizontal, lengthened, 
eallosity. No crests on head, but a furrow in plumage behind eye. Wings not peculiar. 
Tail rounded, but central feathers shorter than the next, contained about 24 times in length 
of wing, 16-feathered. Tarsus very short, only equal to inner toe without claw, stout, little 
compressed, reticulate except for a small space in front, which is scuteHate. Outer toe about 
equal to the middle; its claw shorter than the middle claw, both slightly curved, not very 
acute, upright; middle claw dilated on inner edge; inner claw enlarged, curved to a semi- 
circle, very acute, usually lying horizontal. Sexes alike; seasonal changes of plumage slight, 
those connected with the moult of the bill very great. Egg single, white or scarcely marked, 
laid in rocky crevices or burrows in ground. y 
Analysis of Species. 


Excrescence of upper eyelid forming a slender acute horn. Height of bill much greater than length of 
commissure. Black of throat reaching bill. . . . . . .corniculata 853 
Excrescence of upper eyelid forming an obtuse process. ” Black ref throat hob reaching pill. 


Culmen moderately convex, its chord about 2.00; its arc 2.10; bill under 1.50 deep at base. Wing 
under7.00 .... - + « aretica 854 


Culmen very convex, its chord about “9.40; its are 9, ‘60; pill over ae 50 risen at base Wing 7.00 or 

POORER Here Wee Fone wc sake iepieicre et Vee a | ah hat Mie Meare ne Joe eek he pw raee Se Madina ade Men dar® acu -glacialis 855 
F. cornicula/ta. (Lat. corniculata, having a little horn (over the eye). Fig. 534.) Horner 
MasxinG Purvin. Adult in sununer: Appendage of the upper eyelid produced into a long, 
slender, acute, upright horn; that of lower eyelid linear-obtuse, horizontal. Bill very large, 
especially high for its length, its height about equal to chord of culmen exclusive of the basal 
collar, much greater than length of gape; base of culmen and point of gonys both produced fat 
backward, giving a very convex outline of feathers alongside the bill; sides of bill not 
distinctly divided into nasal compartment and grooved portion, uearly smooth, with only 
three short shallow grooves; culmen very convex, almost the sextant of a circle; tip of upper 
mandible much hooked; rictus short, that portion in advance of the basal rim of upper man- 
dible only about as long as upper mandible is deep; outline of gonys sinuate, at first convex, 
then more ascending, with slight concavity; chord of gonys nearly as long as that of upper 
mandible, exclusive of the basal rim or collar. Form otherwise not peculiar in the genus. 
Crown of head grayish-black, narrowing to a point at base of culmen. Sides of head white; 
the postocular furrow and sides of lower jaw ashy. A distinct narrow line of white along 
edge of fore-arm. Entire upper parts glossy blue-black; a sootier shade of black encircling 
the fore-neck, running forward on throat to bill. Other under parts white, except a few 
elongated blackish feathers on sides of flanks. Lining of wings pearly-ash. Bill entirely 
vermilion-red, even the basal collar; edges of eyelids red; excrescences of eyelids bluish- 
gray; iris brown; feet orange-red, the webs tinged with vermilion; claws brownish-black ; 
rosette of mouth bright yellow-orange. Length 14.50; extent 24.50; wing 7.25; tail 2.75; 

61 


802 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PYGOPODES. 


tarsus 1.10; middle toe and claw 2.00; outer do. 1.90; inner do. 1.35 ; chord of culmen 2.00 5; 
curve 2.25; gape, from basal collar to tip, 1.20; chord of gonys 1.75; depth of bill at base 
1.80; greatest width 0.60; nostril 0.40; horn over eye 0.35. In winter: The moult of the 
bill not known; supposed with good reason to shed 3 symmetrical pieces and two pairs of 
pieces, in all 7, namely, the collar at base of upper mandible; the saddle of nasal fossa ; 
the shoe of under mandible; the pair of sub-nasal strips ; the pair of mandibular strips ; if so, 

_all the samme as in F’. arctica, excepting the pre-nasal strips. The processes of the eyelids 
fall; the colored ring round eye pales; the rosette of mouth shrivels and pales; feet yellow; 
the denuded membranous part of bill doubtless blackish. In any state, the species is easily 
recognized by extension of the black collar to the bill. N. Pacific, both coasts, and adjoining: 
polar seas; not known in N. Atlantic ; 5. to Sitka at least. Economy in all respects that 
of the better known species. The single egg seen is dead white, rough, 2.75 & 1.75. 


854, F. arctica, (Lat. arctica, arctic. Fig. 533.) Common Purrin. Sea Parrot. Adult in- 


summer: Appendage of upper eye- 
lid upright, obtusely triangular ; 
of lower eyelid linear, obtuse, hori- 
zontal. Bill moderately large, with 
moderate convexity of culmen, its. 
height less than chord of culmen, 
little more than from posterior bor- 
der of nostril to tip; base of cul- 
men and point of gonys not pro- 
duced far backward, leaving but 
moderately convex outline of feath- 
ers along side of bill; sides of bill 
distinctly divided into an anterior, 
hard, horny, deeply grooved por- 
tion, differently colored from the 
smooth basal portion; rictus long, 
that portion in advance of the basal 
rim of upper mandible much longer 
than upper mandible is deep ; out- 
line of under mandible regularly 
curved from base to tip; chord of 
gonys much shorter than that of 
culmen. Crown of head grayish- 
black, sharply defined against color 
of sides of head, separated by a 
slight ashy cervical collar from the 

Fic. 534. — Left, Horned Puffin ; right, Tufted Puffin, (Drawn dark color of the upper parts. Sides. 
by H. W. Elliott. From Harper Brothers.) of head, with chin and throat, ashy- 
white, nearly white between eyes and bill, with a dark ashy patch on side of throat. Upper 
parts glossy blue-black, continuous with a broad collar around the neck in front, not extending 
to the bill. A narrow line of white along border of fore-arm. Under parts from the neck 
pure white, the long feathers of the sides and flanks blackish. Under surface of wings pearly- 
gray; inner webs of primaries and secondaries grayish-brown, the shafts brown, with black 
ends and whitish bases. Iris brown. Eyelids vermilion-red, the excrescences grayish-blue. 
Basal collar of bill and first ridge dull yellowish; nasal saddle and corresponding shoe of lower 
mandible grayish-blue ; rest of bill vermilion-red, the tip of the lower mandible and two ter- 
minal grooves often yellowish ; rosette of mouth orauge-yellow ; feet coral or vermilion-red ; 


855. 


338. 


ALCIDA — PHALERIDINZ : PUFFINS. 8038 


claws black. Length 13.50; extent 24.00; wing 6.50; tail 2.25; tarsus 1.00; middle toe 
alone 1.40, its claw 0.40; outer do. 1.40, its claw 0.30; inner do. 1.00, its claw 0.40 (its chord 
— the curve more) ; chord of culmen 2.00, its are 2.10, the ordinate 0.30; depth of bill 1.40; 
gape 1.25; gonys 1.45; greatest width of bill (at base of nostrils) 0.60; nostrils 0.35. Q av- 
eraging less than g. In winter: No colored eye-ring nor appendages of eyelids. Rosette of 
mouth shrunken and pale. Feet orange, not red. Face blackish around eye, the ashy-white 
obscured with dusky. Basal parts of bill membranous and blackish, and whole base of bill 
contracted, the point of the gonys cut off. The following pieces have been shed: 1, the basal 
rim or collar ; 2, the nasal case or saddle ; 3, the mandibular case or shoe; 4, 5, the strips at 
base of mandible, one on each side; 6, 7, the subnasal strips, one on each side; 8, 9, the pre- 
nasal strips, one on each side (3 symmetrical pieces, 3 paired pieces, 9 in all). Young, first 
fall and winter: Resemble the adults in wiuter, but bill still weaker and less developed; the 
plumage is the same, with blackish face. This long kept us in ignorance of the moult of the 
bill, the adults in winter being mistaken for young birds by all authors till Bureau explained 
the case. Inhabits the coasts and islands of the N. Atlantic, breeding in Iceland, Southern 
Greenland, Labrador, Newfoundland and §. to Bay of Fundy ; rare in the N. Pacific (Pallas), 
where chiefly replaced by F’. corniculata ; replaced on most of the European coast by a smaller 
weaker-billed variety, and in Polar Seas by the larger stouter-billed EF’. glacialis. In winter, 
ranging or driven south irregularly along most of the U.8.; not regular beyond New England. 
The moult of the bill as well as of the plumage occurs in August and September, when the 
birds are unable to fly for a period, and many perish if caught at sea in storms at this time. 
Nest by thousands on coasts and islands, burrowing in the ground like rabbits, to arm’s length 
or more. The single egg is laid late in June and in July, on a slight grassy nest at the end of 
the burrow ; in shape rounded ovate, with greatest diameter nearly at the middle; average size 
2.50 X 1.75; shell granular, white or brownish-white, colorless or marked with obsolete 
spots, dots, and scratches of pale purplish, sometimes with a few splashes of pale yellowish- 
brown. Nestlings are covered with blackish down, whitish below from the breast. 

F. a. glacia/lis. (Lat. glacialis, icy.) LARGE-BILLED Purrin. Specifie character of 
I’. arctica ; size greater, the bill especially larger, and differently shaped. Protuberance 
of upper eyelid higher and sharper. Bill very deep, rising high on forehead, with very convex 
culmen, dropping nearly perpendicularly at end. Four grooves of upper and three of lower, 
distinct; gonys quite convex. Length 14.50; extent 26.00; wing 7.25; tail 2.25; tarsus 
1.20; middle toe and claw 1.90, outer do. 1.90, inner do. 1.45; chord of culnen 2.40, its are 
2.60, the ordinate 0.45; depth of bill at base 1.70; gape 1.50; gonys 1.60; greatest width 
of bill 0.65; nasal slit 0.45. Polar Seas; Spitzbergen; N. Greenland. Not authentic as 
occurring in the U. 8. The seasonal changes are in all respects the same as those of 
FF. arctica. 

LUNDA. (Vox barb.) Turrep Masking Purrin. Generic character of Fratercula, ex- 
cepting crest, eyelids, and details of bill. A long tuft of feathers on each side of head. Eye- 
lids not appendaged. Nostrils very small, linear, marginal. Upper mandible divided into 
distinct but not differently colored compartments; its base with a deciduous raised rim or 
collar, perforated for the passage of feathers as in Fratercula, but this collar not so prominent, 
and the deciduous smooth basal saddle not so distinetly separated from the ridged part of the 
bill beyond, where are three well marked, widely separated curved grooves, concave forward 
(the reverse of F'ratercula). Culmen arched in two separate curves, the basal one surmounted 
by a prominent widened ridge-pole, ending abruptly, the terminal one sharp, strongly convex 
to the hooked tip of the bill. Lower mandible with the sides perfectly smooth throughout, the 
outline of gonys at first descending, then rounding upward and thence about straight to tip of 
bill; the base of the mandible with a narrow deciduous border ; ordinarily no evidence of the 
existence of the deciduous shoe of the lower mandible. The parts of the bill moulted are the 


856. 


804 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PYGOPODES. 


basal collar, the nasal saddle and pair of subnasal strips; the mandibular shoe and basal strip; 
three large symmetrical pieces and two pairs of small lateral pieces, in all seven. (Thus as in 
F. arctica, lacking only the pair of prenasal strips; thus exactly as supposed to be the case in 
F. corniculata. The loss of the pieces of the upper mandible makes the same difference in the 
bill as occurs in F. arctica ; but the moult of the mandibular shoe effects less change in the 
appearance of the bill). 
L. cirra/ta. (Lat. cirrata, having curly locks. Figs. 534, 535.) Turrrp Purrin. Adult 
in summer: Crests about 4 inches long, straw-yellow, some of the posterior feathers black at 
base; these bundles of silky, glossy 


SS) feathers with very delicate shafts and 


loosened webs; they chiefly sprout 


from what corresponds to the furrow 

in the plumage of F. arctica. Face 

j white, broadly of this color on sides 

= of head to beyond eyes (as far as the 
crests), narrowly across forehead and 

chin, the bill being thus entirely sur- 

> rounded by white. Crown between 
the crests, and entire upper parts, 

excepting the extreme forehead and 

a line along the forearm, glossy blue- 

black. Entire under parts, excepting 


Fria. 535. — Bill of young Tufted Puffin, nat. size. 


© 


extreme chin, and including sides of 
hind head and sides of neck, sooty brownish-black, more grayish on the belly, the lining of 
wings smoky-gray, the under tail-coverts quite black. Wings and tail black, their inner 
webs brownish-black, the shaft of the first primary whitish underneath near base. Bill, feet, 
and eye-ring vermilion-red; the basal parts of the bill when about to desquamate showing 
more yellowish or enamel color, or even showing the livid color of the subjacent membrane. 
Rosette of mouth yellow. Claws black. Eyes ‘ brownish-yellow.” Length 15.00-16.00 ; 


Fia. 536. — Horn-billed Auk, adult in summer, nat. size. (From Elliot.) 


extent 27.00; wing 7.75 ; tail 2.75; tarsus 1.30; middle toe 2.00, its claw 0.50; outer do. 1.80, 
its claw 0.40; inner do. 1.25, its claw 0.50; greatest depth of bill 1.90; greatest width 0.90; 
chord of culmen 2.40, of which the terminal part is 1.40; gape about 1.90; gonys 1.60; greatest 
depth of upper mandible 1.15 ; nostrils 0.25. Adult in winter: Plumage as in summer ; crests 
retained; iris ‘‘pale blue.” Basal part of bill dark-colored, without the above-named deciduous 


339, 


857. 


ALCIDA — PHALERIDINE: AUKS. 805 


pieces; the change in upper inandible is decided, as in F. arctica, but the difference in the 
lower mandible is comparatively slight. In birds of the first spring the terminal portion of the 
bill may be smooth, like the under mandible, and the bill and feet rather orange-red than ver- 
inilion ; at this time the face whitens and the crests sprout. Youug: No crests, and no white 
about the face 
The bill like that 
of the adults in 
winter after the 
moult, saddled 
with soft dark-col- 
ored skin at base, 
but every way 
smaller, weaker, 
aud quite smooth 
( ‘* Sagmatorhine 
lathami,” tig. 535,) 
and, like the feet, 
Fic. 637. — Horn-billed Auk, adult in winter, nat. size. (From Elliott.) rather yellow or 


orange than red; the plumage entirely blackish above, sooty- brown below, the feathers of the 
belly and flanks whitish at the base; iris brown. Coasts and Islands of the N. Pacific, 8. in 
winter on the American side to California; of casual occurrence on the Atlantic Coast to New 
England. General habits and economy of the common puffin; nesting similar. Egg single, 
rough, dead-white, but showing, besides frequent discolorations, obsolete shell-markings of 
pale purplish-gray ; size from 2.65 to 2.85, hy 1.92 to 2.00; broader and more capacious than 
that of F. corniculata, though no longer. 

CERATORHI'NA. (Gr. xépas, xépatos, keras, keratos, a horn; pis, pds, hris, hrinos, the 
nose.) Rurnoceros Auks. Related to Lunda and Fratercula ; no peculiarity of eyelids or 
inner claw; bill smooth; 
base of upper mandible 
with a large upright 
horn, and under iwnandi- 
ble with an accessory 
horny piece lying be- 
tween its rami; this 
piece and the horn decid- 
uous, when base of up- 
per mandible covered 
with a soft cere. Bill 
shorter than head, stout, Fia. 538. — Horn-billed Auk, young, nat. size. (From Elliot.) 


deep at base, much compressed and rapidly tapering to acute decurved tip, sides erect, smooth, 
culmen very convex, gape gently curved, gonys nearly straight, with angle at symphysis. 
Nostrils short, linear, subbasal, marginal, impervious, at base of the horn or cere. Two 
series, postocular and maxillary, of lengthened, straight, stiffish lance-acute white feathers on 
each side of head. General form of Fratercula.* Size large. One species. 

C. monocera/ta. (Gr. pdvos, monos, only, single; képas, keras, horn. Figs. 536, 537, 538.) 
Unicorn Auk. Horn-pini AuK. Adults in summer: Bill orange-yellow. Culmen and 
base of upper mandible dusky ; feet some yellow color, the tarsi behind and the soles blackish ; 
claws black. The sharp feathers of the head white, about an inch.long. Entire upper parts 
glossy blue-black; a line of white along edge of forearm. Sides of head and neck, of body 
along under the wings, with chin, throat, and fore-breast, clear grayish-ash, or pale bluish- 


340. 


858. 


806 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PYGOPODES. 


gray; under parts from the breast pure white, shading insensibly into the color of the sides and 
flanks. Inner webs of wing- and tail-feathers grayish-brown, paler toward base, the shafts of 
the primaries dull whitish at base. Length 15.50; extent 26.00; wing 7.25; tail 2.50; tarsus 
1.20; middle toe and claw 1.85 ; outer do. 1.70; inner do. 1.40; chord of culmen without horn 
1.00, with horn 1.40; gape 2.00; nostril to tip of horn 0.75; total depth of bill, including horn, 
1.25. In winter: Pluinage the same; iris white; no horn nor accessory piece under the bill, 
these being shed; place of horn occupied by a soft dark-colored basement menibrane or cere 
(4 Sagmatorhina suckleyt,” Fig. 537). Young: Bill like that of adults in winter, lacking 
horn, but every way weaker, hardly more than half as large. Mostly dark-colored. No white 
feathers on side of head. White of under parts overlaid and marbled with dark-gray ends of 
the feathers ; black of upper parts brownish. The first spring the horn grows, the accessory 
piece develops, and the plumage clears up. Nestlings are covered with smoky-brown down. 
Both coasts and islands of N. Pacific, to Lower California and Japan; not specially arctic; 
e. g., breeds on the Farallone Islands. 

SIMORHYN'CHUS. (Gr. cos, simos, snub-nosed; piyyxos, hrugchos, beak.) SNUB-NOSED 
Avuxs. Of moderate and very small size, and stocky shape. Head usually crested or with 
peculiar feathers. Bill of indeterminate shape, differing with each species, furnished with a 
varying nuinber of deciduous horny elements. Nostrils entirely unfeathered. Wings and tail 
ordinary. Feet small; tarsi shorter than middle toe, entirely reticulate; toes long, middle and 
outer of about equal lengths, claw of the former longest ; inner claw reaching base of middle ; 
all curved and compressed. Four species, very distinct; the queerest little auks in the world. 
Each has been made type of a genus; S. psittaculus differs more from the rest than these do 
from one another, and might stand apart as a genus (Phaleris), the others being rated as sub- 
genera (Simorhynchus proper, Tylorhamphus, and Ciceronia). 


Analysis of Species. 


Upper mandible oval, lower mandible falcate, rictus curved upward. No crest (Phaleris) . psittaculus 85S 
Upper mandible triangular, lower straight, rictus horizontal, sinuate. 
A long frontal crest, curling over forward. 


One series of white feathers on each side of head (Simorhynchus proper) . . . . . cristatellus &B9 
More than one series of white feathers on each side of head (Tylorhamphus) . +. . . pygmaeus 860 
Short white hair-like feathers over the forehead; no crest (Ciceronia). . . . . . . . . pusillus 861 


S. psitta/culus. (Lat. psittaculus, a little parrot. Fig. 489.) Parroqurt AuK. Puc- 
NOSED Aug. Bill moderately large, uch compressed, densely feathered for some distance at 
base, but not to the nostrils, which are narrowly 

oval, overhung by a projecting scale or shield, 

which is deciduous. Profile of bill oval; of 

upper mandible narrowly oval; culmen gently 

convex, declinate, tomial edge more convex, ac- 

clinate, mecting at an obtuse tip; lower mandi- 

ble extremely slender, faleate, curved upward, 

with concave tomia, very convex gonys, and 

acute point. Frontal feathers embracing cul- 

men with a reéntrance, thence dropping per- 

- pendicularly to commissure; those on lower 
Fig. 539. — Parroquet Auk, nat. size. (Adnat.del. mandible not reaching quite so far; interramal 

H. W. Elliott.) space fully feathered. Adult: In summer with 
the nasal saddle, moulted in one piece in winter; shape of bill not inaterially altered, however, 
the piece being small and flattish. Bill vermilion or coral-red, usually enamel-yellow at tip 
and along edges. No curly crest on forehead, but a series of long white filamentous feathers 
from the eye downward and backward. Entire upper parts, with chin, throat, breast, and 


859. 


ALCIDA)— PHALERIDINE:: AUKS. 807 


flanks sooty brownish-black, grayer below than above; other under parts white; lining of 
wings dark. Feet dull greenish or yellowish, darker behind and below. Length about 9.00 ; 
wing 5.40-5.75; tail 1.55; tarsus about 1.00; middle toe alone 1.10; chord of culmen or 
gonys 0.60; gape 1.00; depth of bill 0.45; width 0.30. Young: No white filamentous feath- 
-ers on head; a white spot on lower eyelid; upper 
parts as before, under parts white, marbled and 
mottled with dusky ends of the feathers. N. 
Pacific and polar seas, highly arctic, apparently 
not coming much south. This quaintly-beaked 
bird resorts to cliffs and crags to breed, laying its 
single egg deep in the cavities of the most inac- 
cessible rocks overhanging the sea; it resembles 
a sinall narrow hen’s egg, being white, variously 
soiled aud discolored, minutely granular and rough 
to the touch, 2.25 to 2.35 long by 1.45 to 1.50. 

S. eristatel/lus. (Lat. cristatellus, dimin. of 
cristatus, crested. Figs. 540, 541, 542.) Cresrep 
Aux. Snub-nosep Auk. — Bill fundamentally 
small and simple, coinpressed-conic, with eonvex 
culmen and little sinuate horizontal commissure ; 
but in the breeding season developing several 
corneous appendages, which alter its shape great- 
ly, make it singularly irregular, and modify even 
the outline of the feathers at its base. These 
accessory pieces are: a nasal plate, filling the 


nasal fossa, separate from its fellow of the oppo- Fic. 540. — Crested Auk, reduced. (Ad. nat. del 
H. W. Elliott.) 


site side ; a subuasal strip prolonged on the cutting 
edge of the upper mandibles backward from the nostrils; a rosette-like plate at base of upper 
mandible just over angle of the mouth ; a large shoe encasing the posterior part of the under 
mandible ; the latter single, the other three pieces in pairs, making seven in all which are 
moulted; all these elements vermilion or coral-red; end of the bill enamel-yellow. (Before 
acquiring these growths the young bird is tetraculus of authors; the adult in winter, after 


Fig. 541. — Crested Auk, in summer, nat. size. Fie. 542. — Crested Auk, in winter, nat. size. 


‘shedding them, is dubius.) A beautiful crest of 12-20 slender feathers springing from the fore- 
‘head, curling over forward in are of a circle to fall gracefully upon the bill; this helmet is 
‘Liickish ; at full length about 2 inches long; the feathers are not filamentous, but have well- 
formed webs, and are bundled or impacted together, owing to the oblique divergence of the 


860. 


861. 


808 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PYGOPODES. 


webs from the shaft, as in the genus Lophortyx. A slender series of white filamentous feathers 
over and behind each eye, drooping downward and backward. The whole pluinage otherwise 
sooty — more brownish-black above, more brownish-gray below. Feet bluish, with dark 
webs. Aside from the transformation of the bill, the young only differ in lacking the crest and 
white filaments ; but both are early acquired; there is a white spot below eye. The summer 
and winter plumages are alike. Ivis said to be in winter white, in summer with a blackish 
outer and bluish inner ring; in the young, brown. Length 8.50-9.00; wing 5.25-5.50; tail 
1.55; tarsus 0.90-1.00; middle toe and claw 1.35: chord of culmen 0.45. N. Pacific, both 
coasts aud islands, on the Asiatic side to Japan, but not known to come 8. to U. 8. Nesting 
in every respect like S. psittaculus ; single egg, similar, smaller, 2.10 1.40. 

S. pygme’us. (Lat. pygmaeus, dwarf. Figs. 543, 544.) WHiskERED AUK. RED-NOSED 
Aux. Bill small and simply conic-compressed, little longer than high, resembling the young 
or winter bill of the preceding ; having but one pair 
of accessory pieces, the small shields which fill the 
nasal fossz, and are doubtless shed in winter. “Adult: 
A very long curly crest of slender filamentous feath- 
ers curving over forward in are of a circle to droop 
upon the bill; the crest dark-colored and of same 
general character as that of S. cristatellus, but of 
fewer and more thready feathers. A maxillary series 
of slender filaments from the commissure of the bill 
along the side of the jaw: another series from base 


of culmen to eye; a postocular series adown the side — Fre. 543. — Whiskered Auk, young, nat. size. 
of the’ neck, all these white or yellowish-white. (Frem Elliott.) 
Crest and general plumage as in the last. Bill (dry) orange-red, more salmon color or yellow 
enamel at end; feet (dry) undefinably dark. Length 
8.00 or more; wing 5.60; tail 1.25; tarsus 1.00; 
middle toe and claw 1.55; outer do. 1.60; inner 
do, 1.10; chord of culmen 0.45; depth of Dill at 
base 0.80; gape 0.90; crest outstretched 1.50; 
longest white filaments on head 1.00. Young: 
Bill very small and weak, much compressed. No 
sign of crest nor of white feathers on head. Above 
blackish-cinereous, quite black on head, wings, 
and tail; under parts lighter and more grayish- 
plumbeous, bleaching on the belly and crissum. 
Bill reddish-dusky; tarsi behind and soles black ; 
eye black and white. (S. cassini, Coues.) N. 
Fic, 544,—Whiskered Auk, adult, nat. size. Pacific ; apparently rare in most localities ; there 
(From Elliot.) are as yet but few specimens in any inuseums. 
S. pusil’lus. (Lat. pusillus, puerile. Figs. 545, 546, 547.) Least AuK. Kwyos-nosep AUK. 
Adult in summer: Bill small and simple, but stout for its length, scarcely higher than wide at 
base, rather obtuse at tip. A small knob or tubercle at the base of the culmen, which is 
deciduous. No crest; but front, top, and sides of head more or less thickly lined with delicate 
white thready feathers; a similar series, exceedingly fine, from the eye along sides of hind head 
and nape. Excepting these filaments, the entire upper parts glossy black ; region about under 
mandible, and a few feathers along the sides of body and flanks, blackish ; under parts white, 
more or less extensively mottled or clouded with blackish. Lining of wings white, with dark 
feathers along the edge. Bill red, the knob and base of upper mandible dark. Legs (dry) 
undefinably dark, the front of tarsus and tops of toes lighter. Length 6.50; wing 3.75; 


ALCIDA —PHALERIDINA): AUKS. 809 


tail 1.25; tarsus 0.70; middle toe and claw 1.00; chord of culmen, including the node, 0.40; 
gape 0.60; height of bill at base 0.30, width scarcely less. In winter: The knob gone ; 
the little white bristles of head retained ; white of under parts extensive, reaching far around 
sides of neck ; humeral and scapular feathers and many of the secondaries marked with white, 
producing patches of this color ou the upper parts, unknown in other Phaleriding ; such 
seasonal change of plwmage indicating an approach to Mergulus or Brachyrhamphus. Young : 
Like the adults, but the white of the under parts nebulated with dusky ends of the feathers; 
this clouding does uot clear up until the knob of bill and bristles of head have been acquired. 


hee ie aS 
ss # © 
© y 


a 
vA 


Fia. 545. — Least Auk, adult, nat. size. Fic. 546. — Least Auk, young, nat. size. 
This curious little bird, the smallest of all the auks, and one of the least of all water birds, 
inhabits the coasts and islands of the N. Pacific, resorting to favorite breeding places by 
millions, with S. pstttaculus and S. cristatellus. The nesting is similar, the single egg being 
laid in the recesses of rocky shingle over the water; size 1.55 X 1.12. The bird is not known 
to come 8. so faras the U.S. 


Rive! LL a EEN 


Fig. 547. — Group of Least Auks. (Designed by H. W. Elliott.) 


841, PTYCHORHAMPHUS. (Gr. rrvé, rrvyds, ptux, ptuchos, afold; sdudos, hramphos, beak.) 
WRINKLE-NOSED AUKS. Size moderate; form stout; no crests nor any peculiar feathers 
about head. Bill about # as long as head, stout, straight, little compressed, conic-acute ; 
culmen little convex, broad at base, where in the dried state transversely corrugated; in place 
of which wrinkles there may be some formation now unknown; sides of upper mandible 


862 


342. 


863. 


810 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS.— PYGOPODES. 


turgid, with inflected tomial margins; of under upright, grooved lengthwise; gape straight; 
gonys straight or nearly so, very long. Nasal fuss large, shallow, covered with soft skin 
in the ouly state known; which flares over the rather long, narrowly oval sub-basal nostrils 
at the bottom of the fossa. Outline of frontal feathers nearly transverse across culmen, thence 
retreating obliquely to the commissure. Tarsi reticulate, much shorter than middle toe 
without claw. This genus apparently connects the Phaleridine with the Alcing, having 
much the aspect of Mergulus or Brachyrhamphus, with sui generis shape of bill; its position 
will only be settled by learning what, if any, are the transformatious of the bill. 

P.aleu'ticus. (Of the Aleutian Islands.) ALEurIAN AuK. Bill black, the skinny part 
pale in the ouly state observed; feet blackish behind and below, bluish in front of tarsus and 
on tops of toes. A touch of white about eye. Upper parts blackish-plumbeous, the head, 
wings, and tail nearly black. This dark color, diluted to grayish-plumbeous, extends around 
the head, neck, and fore-breast, along the sides, and on lining of wings, fading to white on 
belly and crissum. No special states of plumage are known. Length 8.00-9.50; extent 
16.00-18.50; wing 4.75-5.25; tail 1.50-1.75; tarsus about 1.00; middle toe and claw 1.40; 
outer do. 1.30; inner do. 1.10; culmen 0.75; gape 0.90; gonys 0.60; depth of bill at base 
0.40, width 0.30. Pacifie coast of N. A., Aleutians to L. Cala., thus not specially Arctic. 
Breeds as far south at least as the Farallones. 


77. Subfamily ALCINA: Guillemots, Murres, and Auks proper. 


See analysis on p. 799, and characters of subfamily Phaleridine. Among the Alcine, 
that is to say, Auks with feathered nostrils and unappendaged Dill, there is a gentle gradation 
from those genera in which the bill is simplest and slenderest, as in the Guillemots and Murre- 
jets, to those in which it is stoutest, as in some of the Guillemots, and in the razor-billed and 
great auks, in which it is greatly compressed and suleate, recalling that of a puffin. Some of 
the genera are confined to the North Pacific, as Synthliborhamphus and Brachyrhamphus ; 
others are circumpolar, as Uria and Lomvia; several, as Alle, Uria, Lomvia, Utamania and 
Alca, represent the family in the North Atlantic, together with Fratercula of the Phaleridine. 
AL'LE. (A local name of the bird.) Spa Dove. Size small; form squat and bunchy. 

Acer Bill very short, stout, and obtuse, as wide as high at base, 

Pe ae “~~ the sides of both mandibles turgid, the edge of the upper 
Cc) much inflected; culmen very convex; rictus ample, de- 

curved at end; gonys straight, very short, the mandibular 

rami correspondingly long, and widely divaricated ; nasal 

fossee short, wide, deep, partly feathered. Nostrils sub 

NS basal, more nearly circular than in any other genus except- 

: ing the next. Wings rather long for this family; tail 

BiG. D48 — Seaxdove; matssize: much rounded, with narrow pointed feathers. Feet small 
and weak; tarsus scarcely compressed, broadly seutcllate in front, finely reticulate behiud. 
One species. 

A. ni/gricans. (Lat. nigricans, blackening. Fig. 548.) Spa-povs. Dovexim. ALLE. 
Adults in summer : Head and neck all around, and entire upper parts, very glossy blue-black ; 
scapulars edged and secondaries tipped with white, forming two conspicuous patches; touches 
of white about eyes. Under parts from the neck pure white, some of the long feathers of the 
flanks rayed with black ; lining of wings dusky. Bill black ; mouth yellow ; feet black behind 
and below, in front and above flesh-colored ; eyes brown. In winter: The white of under 
parts extending to the bill, and on sides of neck nearly around. Young like adults in winter, 
but upper parts duller; bill smaller; fect dusky greenish, the scales obscured. Length 8.50; 
extent 15.50; wing 4.75-5.25; tail 1.50; tarsus 0.89; middle toe and claw 1.20, outer do. 


43. 


864. 


ALCIDA — ALCINA!: MURRELETS. 811 


1.15, imer do. 0.85; chord of culmen 0.50, gape 1.00, gonys 0.20; height or width of bill 
at base 0.35. N. Atlantic, both coasts. In winter 8. to the Middle States or beyond. 
Overtaken by storms at this season this little bird is not seldom blown inland. It is very 
abundant at its breeding grounds in the far north, being one of the most boreal of birds. 
Egg single, 1.60 1.10, pale greenish-blue. 
SYNTHLIBORHAM’/PHUS. (Gr. cuvOd\iBo, sunthlibo, I compress; paydos, hramphos, 
beak.) NIPPER-NOSED MURRELETS. Of moderate size and stout form; general aspect of 
Alle ; with or without a crest. Bill somewhat as in Brachyrhamphus, but stouter and 
deeper for its length; greatly compressed throughout, its depth at base about half as much as 
length of culmen; culmen moderately convex, gouys ascending. Nostrils sub-basal, broadly 
oval or nearly circular; nasal fossee small and shallow, feathered to nostrils. Feathers to 
about opposite points on culmen and keel, thence retreating rapidly backwards. Secondaries 
very short, as in Brachyrhamphus, the longest not reaching much more than half way from 
carpal joint to the point of the closed wing. (This style of wing is characteristic of the 
murrelets, which ‘‘ paddle” the air ina peculiar way.) Tail short, nearly square, with broadly 
rounded feathers. Tarsi much compressed, like the bill; transversely scutellate in front and 
on the side, reticulate behind; about as long as middle toe without claw. With the general 
character of Brachyrhamphus, this genus differs in the deeper, stouter bill, and much com- 
pressed scutellate tarsi; it includes two very stylish species of the N. Pacific, very different 
froin each other. 
Analysis of Species. 
Head closely feathered; depth of bill more than half its length; white of sides of crown not advancing 
before eyes . . . 2 . antiquus 864 
Head crested ; depth of bill shout half its length; white of sides of crown advance nearly to bill 
umizusume 865 

S. anti/quus. (Lat. antiquus, ancient; i. e. gray-headed. Fig. 549.) BLAcK-THROATED 
Murrevet. Adult in breeding dress: Bill whitish or yellowish, its base and ridge black. 
Feet whitish or yellowish, the tarsus behind and both surfaces of webs, black. Head all around, 
and throat, black, pure above, sooty on chin and throat. A 
conspicuous white stripe from over each eye to sides of nape, 
where connected by some white feathers with its fellow, and ©) 


' spreading on the sides and back of neck into a set of sharp 


white streaks; trace of white on each eyelid. Upper parts dark 

plumbeous, blackening on tail; upper surface of wing the same, 

the edging of the wing all along from the elbow, and the ex- = 

posed parts of the primaries, blackish; secondaries like the cov- ‘Fra. 649. — Black-throated Mur- 
erts, or rather darker; basal portion of inner webs and shafts Telet, nat. size. 

of primaries whitish; under surface of wing white, mottled with dusky just along the edges. 
Sides of body under the wings velvety-black; these black feathers lengthening behind, and 
overlying the Hanks, which are seen to be white on raising them. Anteriorly this black extends 
in front of the wings and continues on to the nape of the neck, where it mixes with the white 
streaks above said. The sooty-black of the throat is continuous with that of the sides of the 
head as far as the auriculars, beyond which it narrows to a point on the throat, being separated 
from the black of the nape by a large white area, an extension to the auriculars of the white 
which is the color of the whole under parts, except as said. Length 9.50-10.50; extent 16.75- 
18.25 ; wing 5.50; tail 1.60; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw 1.25, outer do. 1.15, inner do. 
1.00; bill along culmen 0.60, gape 1.20, gonys 0.40; depth at base 0.30, width 0.20. Young 
or winter: Upper parts darker, the plumbeous being abecuwed by dusky, especially on the wing- 
and tail-coverts and rump. Forehead, crown, nape, sooty-black, not relieved by white streaks, 
or only with traces of the latter; eyelids sometimes largely white. No black ou throat, only 


865. 


344, 


812 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PYGOPODES. 


some dusky mottling about base of bill; the white of the under parts extending on head nearly 
to eyes, and far around on sides of uape, so that only a narrow median line is left dark. Sides 
of body under wings merely dusky, not continuous over the flanks, where the feathers are 
partly white, and searbely advancing in front of wings. The course of the seasonal plumages, 
or those dependent upon age, is not yet fully traced for this species ; the clarity of the ash, the 
intensity of the black, and the purity and distinctness of the white striping, indicate the more 
perfect feathering, and conversely. N. Pacific, both Asiatic and American, 8. in winter to 
the U. 8., breeding from Sitka, Alaska. Accidental in one instance in Wisconsin. 

S. umizu’/sume. (The Japanese name. Fig. 550.) JAPANESE MURRELET. TEMMINCK’S 
Aux. Bill more elongate and acute than in the type of the genus, less compressed, not so deep 
for its length. Bill yellow, with black ridge ; feet livid-bluish, with dusky webs. A large crest, 
of a dozen (more or fewer) feathers springing from extreme forehead, not recurved, but 
drooping backward over the occiput. A conspicuous series of white feathers on each side 
of head, from origin of the crest over eye to nape, 
where more or less confluent with those of oppo- 
site side, and then dispersed in streaks over the 
sides of the neck to the shoulders. Rest of head, 
including throat, sooty or ashy-blackish, this color 
extending as far as the interscapulars, whence the 
upper parts are more plumbeous, only darker on 
wings and tail. Sides under the wings plumbeous- 
black to the flanks, this color advancing in front 
of wings and continuous with that on the sides of 
neck and head. Lining of wings white, except some dark mottling along the edge; bases of 
primaries, and most of their inner webs, white, shading through gray to their dusky tips. 
Whole under parts white, except as said. Length 10.50-11.00; extent 18.00-18.50; wing 
5.50; tail 1.75; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw 1.25, outer 1.20, inner 1.00; bill along 
culmen 1.00, gape 1.10; gonys 0.40; height or width at base 0.25-0.30. Younger: No crest ; 
bill obscured; little or no trace of white about head, which is dusky plumbeous ; other upper 
parts similar, the back lighter; white of under parts extending to bill and far around on sides 
of neck. There is much variation in different specimens, the full significance of which remains 
to be determined; but the species is unmistakable. N. Pacific, both Asiatic and American ; 
S. to U. 8. and Japan. 

BRACHYRHAM'PHUS. (Gr. Bpayds, brachus, short; papdos, hramphos, beak.) PEAKED- 
Nosep Murrevets. Approaching Uria in generic character. Bill small, slender, much 
shorter than head, not longer than tarsus, compressed, very acute; culien gently curved, 
rictus and gonys straight ; tomial edge of upper inandible much inflected toward base, notched 
near tip. Nasal fossce small and shallow, nearly filled with feathers, reaching to the broadly 
oval nostrils. Wings very narrow, faleate, pointed, with extremely short secondaries. Tail 
nearly square, with obtuse feathers. Feet very small and short; tarsus of variable length 
relative to the toes, entirely reticulate. Outer and middle toes of equal lengths, the claw 
of the former smaller; inner toe short, its claw not reaching base of middle claw. Claws all 
small, compressed, acute. Containing several species of diminutive murres, all confined to 
the Pacific. 


Fic. 550. — Japanese Murrelet, nat. size. 


Analysis of Species. 


Tarsus shorter than middle toe without claw. 
Upper parts blackish and chestnut, lower blackish and white (summer), or upper parts cinereous and 
white, lower white (winter) . . » . marmoratus 866 
Upper parts ashy, barred and spotted with dull yellowish; under: parts whitish barred with dusky. 
kittlitzi 867 
Tarsus as long as middle toe without claw. 


866. 


867. 


868, 


ALCIDA — ALCINA): MURRELETS. 813 


r) 
Lining of wings white . 2... 1 1 1 we ew wee we et ww ew ww ew ee) AYypoleucus 868 
Lining of wings dark Baas Gn te ews Gee) GH AY csr) Soe Wea we OLA ca ee er ote . eraverii 869 
Tarsus said tobe longer thanmiddle toe . . . .. . . 1. we ee ee eee . Orachypterus 870 


B. marmoratus. (Lat. marmoratus, marbled.) MarsBLiep MURRELET. WRANGEL’S 
Murrevetr. Adult iu summer: Bill black; tarsi behind and both surfaces of webs blackish ; 
tarsi in front and top of toes livid flesh-color, or dull bluish-gray; iris brown. Above, 
brownish-black, barred crosswise with chestnut-brown, or bright rust-color, except on the 
wings, which are uniform brownish-black, the primaries darker, their inner webs gray toward 
the base. Liniug of wings smoky brownish-black. A few whitish feathers, varied with 
chestnut and dusky, on the scapulars. Entire under parts, including sides of head and neck, 
marbled with sooty brownish-black and white, the feathers being white with dark ends. 
Adult in winter: No chestnut, and eutire under parts pure white, immaculate, excepting 
some dusky streaks on the long feathers of the sides and flanks. Upper parts very dark 
cinereous, the centres of the feathers, especially of the back and rump, blackish; the crown, 
wings, and tail almost black, the greater coverts narrowly edged with white; the scapulars 
almost entirely white, forming two conspicuous patches. On the lores, the white invades 
to the level of the eyes, and extends into the nasal fossee; it then dips, leaving the eyes in 
dark color; on the nape it reaches nearly across the middle line; on the sides of the rump 
it leaves a band of dark color about an inch wide. Specimens are found in every 
stage intermediate between the two here described. Young, first plumage, with bill only a 
third as long as head: Resembling the winter adult, in absence of chestnut. Upper parts 
blackish, with only a shade of cinereous, therefore darker than in the winter adult ; white on 
scapulars present, but restricted, and interrupted with dusky. Entire under parts white, as 
before, but thickly marked with fine wavy dusky lines, most numerous across throat, largest 
on sides and flanks, finest on lower breast, the chin, middle of belly and ecrissum unmarked. 
Lining of wings as before. Length 10.00; extent 18.00; wing 5.00; tail 1.50; tarsus 0.70; 
middle toe alone, 1.00, its claw 0.20; outer toe and claw 1.15; inner do. 0.90; bill along 
culmen 0.60-0.70, gape 1.25-1.35, gonys 0.45-0.55, height at base 0.24, width 0.20. Coasts 
and islands of the N. Pacific; on the American side, S. in winter to 8. Cala.; breeds as far 
south at least as Vancouver, and apparently does not penetrate far north. 

B. kittlit/zi. (To F. H. v. Kittlitz.) Kirrziirz’s Murrevet. Related to the last, and 
belonging to the same section of the genus, having the tarsi shorter than middle toe without 
claw. Bill about one-third as long as the head. Length about 9.00. Above, cinereous of 
lighter and darker shades, spotted and barred with dull yellowish. Below, whitish, undulated 
with dusky. Wings blackish. This is the substance of Brandt’s description of this species, 
which is quite distinct from the foregoing. The bird was originally described from 
Kamtschatka; two specimens have lately been taken from the Aleutian Islands by Mr. E. W. 
Nelson and Mr. L. M. Turner. They are preserved in the National Museum, where I have 
handled one of them, but are not at present accessible to me for description. 

B. hypoleu'cus. (Gr. t6, hupo, below, Aevkés, leukos, white.) WHITE-BELLIED MURRELET. 
Adult in winter: Bill $ the head, } the tarsus, as long as middle toe and half its claw, very 
slender. Tarsus equal to middle toe without claw. Entire upper parts unvaried cinereous, 
slightly darker on head; this color extending on head to include eyelids, and a little farther down 
on the nape; thence in a straight line along middle of side of neck to shoulders, thence along 
sides of body in a strip nearly an inch broad, the elongated flank-feathers being also of this color ; 
other under parts pure white, including lining of the wings. Primaries black, the greater part 
of their shafts and inner webs whitish. Bill black, the base of lower mandible pale; feet whit- 
ish-blue, black below. Length 10.00-10.50; extent 16.00-17.50; wing 4.75; tail 1.75; tarsus 
0.95; middle toe without claw 0.95, its claw 0.20; outer toe and claw 1.10; inner do. 0.90; 
bill 0.80; gape 1.30; gonys 0.45; depth of bill at base 0.22; width 0.19. S. and L. Cala. 


869. 


870. 


345. 


871. 


814 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PYGOPODES. 


B. crave'rii? (To F. Craveri. Fig. 551.) Craveri’s MURRELET. Resembles the last; 
questionably distinct ; differs in having the under surface of the wing dark. lL. California, 
both sides. 

B. brachy'pterus? (Gr. Bpaxyis, brachus, short; mrépov, pteron, wing.) SHORT-WINGED 
MurRRELET. Tarsus said to be longer than middle toe. Bill about 4 as long as head 
Above, cinereous, the wings and tail 
blackish. Neck on sides and below, 
breast and belly white. Length 9.00. 
Unalashka. (This is the substance of 
Brandt’s original description. The al- 
leged species is unknown to me, and no 
specimens are known to exist in this 
country.) 

U/RIA. (Gr. otpia, owria, a kind of 
water fowl.) BLAack Gurtuemots. Bill 
much shorter than head, about equal to 
tarsus, straight, rather stout, moderately 
compressed ; culinen at first straight, then 
decurved; gape straight to near tip; 
gonys short, straight, ascending, about 4 Fa. 551. — Craveri’s Murrclet, nat. size. (From Elliot.) 


Os ara 
jp 


bs 


as long as culmen. No nick or groove near tip of upper mandible ; its tomial edge scarcely 
inflected. Nasal fossee large and deep, partially filled with feathers which do not entirely 
cover the nostrils. Feathers salient iu rounded outline on side of lower mandible. Tail little 
rounded, contained 2% times in length of wing. Tarsus entirely reticulate, slightly shorter than 
middle toe without claw. Claws compressed, arched, acute, the outer grooved on outer side, 
the middle dilated on inner edge. No postocular furrow in plumage. Color black, relieved 
with white on head or wing, bill black, feet red; in winter, largely white. Eggs plural, 
colored. Three or four species. 


Analysis of Species. 


A large white mirror on wing above and below, entire; no white about head . . .... . . grylle 871 
A large white mirror on wing above, partly divided; none below; no white about head . . . .columba 872 
No white mirror on wing; parts about eye and bill white . 2... 6 2. eee ee ee Carbo 813 


U. grylle. (N. European name of the bird. Fig. 552.) Buack Guintemor. SEA-PIGEON. 
Adult in full dress: Plumage sooty-black with a tint of ‘ invisible” green; wings and tail pure 
black ; former with a large white mirror on both surfaces; bill and claws black; mouth and 
feet carmine, vermilion or coral red; eyes brown 

This faultless dress-suit is only worn about twe 

months. In August, the wings and tail fade te 

@) gray; the body-color loses the green gloss; the 
white mirror is soiled with brown. When the 
quills and tail-feathers have fallen, and new ones 
pes partly grown, the progress of the moult gives a 
new clean white mirror, smaller than in midsum- 
mer; head and neck all around, rnp and under 
parts, marbled with black and white, the bird 
looking as if dusted over with flour; back black, 
the feathers mostly edged with white. Completion of the moult gives the following winter 
plumage: Wings and tail black, the white mirror faultless; head and neck all around, ramp 
and under parts, white; back and more or less of the hind neck and head black, variegated 
with white. Young in first plumage: Bill black, feet dusky reddish. Upper parts plumbeous 


Fig. 552. — Black Guillemot, nat. size. 


872. 


873. 


ALCIDA — ALCINZA: GUILLEMOTS. 815 


or sooty, little varied with white; under parts white, marbled, rayed and waved with dusky; 
incipient mirror spotty. Nestlings are covered with sooty brownish-black down; Dill and feet 
brownish-black. Perfectly white and entirely black birds are rarely seen. The mirror on the 
upper surface of the wings is composed of the terminal half (more or less) of the greater coverts, 
the rest dark ; of the several next rows excepting their dark bases, the white of these coverts 
normally overlying and concealing the dark basal portions of the greater coverts, so that the 
oval mirror is usually unbroken; the anterior border of the mirror is the line through the union 
of white tips with dark bases of the row of lesser coverts about $ an inch from the fore-arm 
edge of the wing. When, as not selduin happens, the row of greatest coverts are dark beyond 

the extent of the next row, this dark being thus 


be ais uncovered, shows as a wedge partly splitting the 
mirror, as normally occurs in U. columba. Or, 
D the greater row of coverts may be eutirely dark, 


when the mirror is unbroken, as before, but much 


smaller ; or, again, the middle row of coverts may 
be tipped with dark, making a break across the 
mirror, but in a different method from that first 
described. Finally, the mirror may be only in- 
dicated by isolated white feathers, or wholly want- 
ing. Length, average, 13.00; extent, average, 
22.50; wing 5.50-6.25; tail about 2.00; tarsus 1.25; middle toe and claw 1.75; bill 1.30; 
gape 1.75; gonys 0.65; depth of bill at base 0.45, width 0.35. Eur. and N. Am. coasts and 
islands of the N. Atlantic, very abundant; rare or casual in the N. Pacific, where replaced by 
the succeeding species; occurring in the Arctic Ocean, but apparently mostly replaced by U. 
mandti ; in N. A. occurring in Hudson’s Bay, and 8. in winter to the Middle States. Gregari- 
ous; flying in close flocks low over the water; nesting scattering in rifts of rock near the 
water; eggs 2-3, sea-green, greenish-white or white, spotted and blotched most irregularly 
with blackish-brown, and with purplish shell-markings; size 2.25 to 2.50 X 1.50 to 1.60; 
shape nearly elliptical, not pyriform like those of Guillemots ; laid in June, July. 

U. colum/ba. (Lat. colwnba, a pigeon. Fig. 553.) Piason Guitiemor. Bill stouter than 
that of grylle, and more obtuse. No white on under surface of the wing. White mirror of 
upper surface nearly split in two by an oblique dark line, caused by the extension of the dark 
bases of the greater coverts, in increasing 

amount from within outward, till the outer- 

most are scarcely tipped with white; con- 

sequently there is a dark wedge between 9) 
the white ends of the greater and middle 

rows of coverts. Plumage and its changes 
otherwise as in the foregoing; general 
habits and nesting the same. Asiatic and 

Ain. coasts and islands of the N. Pacific; 
breeds as far south as California. ° 

U. car’bo. (Lat. carbo, a coal; i.e. Fie. 554. — Sooty Guillemot, nat. size 

black. Fig. 554.) Soory Guirtemor. Sprcractep Guitiemot. Like the last; larger, 
especially the bill. No white on either surface of wings. A pair of white spectacles on the 
eyes, and whitish about base of bill. General plumage and its changes as in others of the 
genus; bill and feet the same. Length 14.00-15.00; wing 7.75; tail 2.50; tarsus 7.35; 
middle toe and claw 2.10; bill 1.55-1.70 along culmen, along gape 2.20, from feathers on 
side of lower mandible 1.50; depth at base 0.50; width 0.38. N. Pacific, in higher latitudes; 
British Columbia to Japan. An interesting species, still rare in collections. 


Fia. 553. — Pigeon Guillemot, nat. size. 


816 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. —PYGOPODES. 


346. LOM'VIA. (N. European name of birds of this kind.) Murres. Gurittemots. Eac- 
BIRDS. Bill shorter than head, longer than tarsus, straight or slightly decurved, much com- 
pressed; culmen regularly curved throughout; rictus curved in most of its length; gonys 
straight, or little curved, nearly as long as culmen; upper mandible grooved on the side near 
tip, its commissural edge greatly inflected. Nasal fossee fully feathered. Feathers on lower 


Fig. 555. — Gathering Murre’s eggs in Alaska. (Designed by H. W. Elliott.) 


mandible retreating in straight oblique line from interramal space to rictus. Tail short, much 
rounded, contained over 3 times in length of wing. Tarsus compressed, much shorter than 
middle toe and claw; outer claw not grooved on outer face. A furrow in plumage behind eye. 


Colors dark above, white below. Egg single, pictured, pyriform. 
Analysis of Species. 


Depth of bill opposite nostrils not more than } the length of culmen. 
Bill comparatively slender, not dilated along ack of upper mandible at base, the culmen, commissure 


and gonys curved. Atlantic . . - « » « troile. 874 
Bill stouter, somewhat dilated along edges ‘of apne mandible at Base; the eulnvens rictus, and gonys 
nearly straight. Pacific. . . . he BR ee eR oe eahfornica-<876 


Depth of bill opposite nostrils more than ; the length of Guinier: 
Bill very stout, thick, deep, much dilated along edges of upper mandible at base ; culmen, commissure 

and gonys‘curved 4. 2. oe & 8 ww oh a Boe we ee we ee A em ew « ere 876 

874 L.troile. (Nom. propr., of uncertain reference. Figs. 556, 557,560.) CoMMON GUILLEMOT, or 
Murre. Adult in summer: Head and neck all around rich dark maroon brown, changing on 
upper parts into dark slaty-brown, nearly uniform, but most of the feathers of the back and rump 

with slightly lighter, more grayish-brown, edges. Secondaries narrowly but distinctly tipped with 
white. Under parts from the throat pure white, the sides and flanks marked with dusky or slaty, 

the lining of the wings varied with white and dusky. Bill black ; mouth yellow ; eyes brown; 

feet blackish. In some cases, not in most, a white ‘‘ eye-glass,” consisting of a rim around eye 


875, 


876. 


ALCIDA — ALCINE: MURRES. 817 


and handle back of eye in the furrow of the plumage. In winter: White of under parts reaching 
to the bill, on sides of head to level of the commissure, farther around on sides of neck, leaving 
only a narrow isthmus of dark color; the two colors shading without distinct line of demarea- 
tion; usually a spur of dark color in the furrow behind eye. Young, first winter, like the 
adults at that season ; bill shorter and weaker, and, like the feet, in part light-colored. Fledg- 
lings dusky brownish, with white breast and belly, and whitish about head and neck. Length 
17.00; extent 30.00; wing 8.00; tail 2.25; tarsus 1.40; middle toe and claw 2.10; outer do. 


2.00; inner-do. 1.70; bill along culmen 1.75; 
gape 2.50; gonys 1.15; depth at base 0.55; 
width 0.30. European and American coasts 
and islands of the N. Atlantic, to or beyond 80° 
N.; on the Amer. side breeding from Nova 
Scotia northward ; in winter to the Middle States. Fig. 556. — Common Guillemot, or Murre, nearly 
Myriads of murres congregate to breed on rocky Mabe sizeu:< EEOM ENON) 
islands, incubating their single eggs as closely together as they can find standing-room on the 
shelves of the cliffs; their ranks serried on ledge after ledge, and clouds of birds whirling 
through the air. The eggs, so numerous as to haye commercial value, are notorious for their 
variability in coloration. The size is great for that of the bird, averaging 3.25 x 2.00, run- 
ning unusually from 3.00 to 3.50, with half as much variation in breadth. The ground color 
ranges from creamy to pure white, then through 
earthy, grayish, bluish, or greenish-white to 
sea-green and every darker shade of green. The 
markings of the creamy and white varieties are 
generally spots and blotches of different shades 
of brown, pretty uniformly dispersed, and eggs 
of this type resemble those of the razor-bill, 
but may usually be distinguished by larger size 
Fig. 557. — Common Guillemot, nat. size. (in length) and more pyriform shape. The 
green eggs are endlessly varied, in pattern of the markings, but are normally more streaked in 
sharp angular zigzag lines, inextricably confused, reminding one of Chinese literature. 
L. t. califor’nica. (Fig. 558.) CALIFORNIAN GUILLEMOT. Like the last. Bill averaging 
somewhat longer, about 1.90; culmen, commissure, and gonys nearly straight; upper mandible 
somewhat dilated toward the base along the cutting edges, and less feathered; gonydeal angle 
prominent. The bill consequently approaches that of the next species, in width and depth, but 
exaggerates the length and straightness of that of the last species. Pacific coast of N. Am., 
breeding from islands in Behring’s sea to California. 
L. ar’ra. (Russian name, arrie. Fig. 559.) THIcK-BILLED GUILLEMOT. ARRIE. Like the 
foregoing in plumage and its changes. Form very robust. Bill short, stout, wide, deep ; culmen 
curved throughout; commissure decurved at end; gonys if anything concave in outline, the angle 
very protuberant; cutting edges of the upper mandible dilated and denuded toward the base, 
52 


347 


877. 


818 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PYGOPODES. 


this bare turgid space flesh-colored in life, drying pale yellowish. Length 18.00; extent 32.00; 
wing 8.50; tarsus 1.25; bill along culmen 1.40, along gape 2.20; gonys 0.90; depth at angle 
0.55, width at base of nostrils 0.30, at angle of mouth 0.80. N. Atlantic and Polar and 
N. Pacific shores and islands, in myriads; on the Atlantic S. in winter to the Middle States, 
breeding from the Gulf of St. Lawrence northward. The N. Pacific form, unquestionably 
of the “ thick-billed” species, does not exhibit the extreme of shortness and stoutness as just 
described for the At: 
lantic; with a cul- 
men of about 1.67, 
the depth opposite 
nostrils is hardly 0.67, 
thus less than half 
the length of culmen, 
instead of about half; 
gape nearly 3.00. 
The sides of the up- 
per mandible are char- 
acteristically dilated 
and denuded, of a 
glaucous bluish color; the tip of the bill is less detlexed, though more so than in the common 
guillemot. This is the great ‘‘egg-bird” of the high N. Pacific; on St. George’s, one of the 
Prybilov group, for example, the birds ‘go flying around the island in great files and platoons, 
always circling against or quartering, on the wing, at regular hours in the morning and the 
evening, making a dark girdle of birds more than a quarter of a mile broad and thirty miles 
long, whirling round aud round the island, and forcing upon the most casual observer a lasting 
impression.” The N. Pacifie form is Z. arra proper; that of the N. Atlantic is ‘ Briinnich’s 
guillemot,” differing as said, and perhaps constituting a subspecies apart (L. a. svarbag). 
UTAMANIA. (Cretan name of the bird.) Razor-BitL AuK. Size, form, and general 
aspect of the last genus. Bill about as long as 

head, densely feathered for half its length, the 

feathers extending on upper mandible beyond mid- 

dle of commissure, those on lower somewhat far- 


ther. Bill greatly compressed, cultrate, sulcate, : tae wae 


hooked; culmen ridged, regularly convex; com- i mo 

missure straight to the hook ; gonys about straight. 

Nostrils linear, marginal, densely feathered. Tarsi 

scutellate in front. Tail short, pointed, of stiffish, << 
acute feathers. Wings normal, effective for flight. Fig. 559. — Thick-billed Guillemot, nat. size 
Bicolor. Egg single, colored. One species. 
U. tor’da. (Name of the bird.) Razor-BILLED AUK. TINKEER. Adult in summer: Bil? 
and feet black, the former with a white line occupying the length of the middle sulcus on both 
mandibles; mouth yellow; eye bluish. A strict, sunken line of white from eye to base o. 
culmen. Head and neck all around and upper parts black, glossy and intense on the latte: 
lustreless opayue brownish-black on the sides and front of the former. Tips of secondaries 
and entire under parts from the neck, including lining of wings, white. In winter: White 
reaching to bill, and invading sides of head and neck ; the dark parts duller. Young: Like 
the adults in winter; smaller; duller; bill unformed, and like the feet not black. Nestlings 
clothed with sooty down, paler or whitish below. In the adults, the sharp white line from 
bill to eye is very characteristic, appearing with the first feathering, but sometimes fails in 
winter birds. Length about 18.00; extent 27.00; wing 7.75; tail 3.50, graduated 1.25; 


Fia. 558, — Californian Guillemot, nat. size. 


348. 


878. 


ALCIDAt — ALCINZ: GREAT AUK. 819 


tarsus 1.25; middle or outer toe and claw 2.00, inner 1.40; chord of culmen 1.30, are 1.50; 
gape 2.25; gonys 0.75; greatest depth of bill 0.90. This auk abounds in the N. Atlantic, 
both coasts, and parts of the Polar seas; casual in the N. Pacific; Japan. On our coast, 
breeds in great numbers in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, about Newfoundland and Labrador 
strays 8. in winter to the 
Middle States, like other 
Alcide. The eggs are 
usually laid in caverns 
and fissures of the rocks 
along precipitous shore- 
lines, often with those of 
sea-pigeons and puffins ; 
about 3.00 X secant 2.00, 
white with creamy or 
milky-bluish tint, never 
green like those of murres, 
spotted and blotched, but 
not fantastically traced 
over, with different shades 
of umber - brown ; less 
pointed ; laid in June and 
July. 

AL/CA. (Lat. from alk 
or auk.) His GRacr, 
Tue AUK, who lost the 
use of his wings, and per- 
ished off the face of the 
earth in consequence. 

A. Impen’nis. (Lat. 
impennis, wingless. Fig. 
561.) Tae Great AUK. 
Largest of the family: 
length about 30.00 inches; 
wing 6.00; tail 3.00; bill 
along gape 4.25; chord Fig. 560. — Murres. 

of culmen 3.15; greatest depth of upper mandible 1.00, of lower 0.67; greatest width of Dill 
0.67; tarsus 1.67; middle toe and claw 3.25; onter do. 3.00; inner do. 2.25. A great white 
oval spot between eye and bill. Hood and mantle dark; under parts white, extending in a 
point on the throat; ends of secondaries white. Bill black, with white grooves; fect dark 
Special interest attaches to this bird, which is now doubtless extinct, largely through hunan 
agency. It formerly inhabited this coast from Massachusetts northward, as attested by earlier 
observers, and by the plentiful occurrence of its bones in shell-heaps; also Greenland, Iceland, 
and the N. W. shores of Europe, to the Arctic Circle. On our shores it was apparently last 
alive at the Funks, a small island off the S. Coast of Newfoundland; while in Iceland, its 
living history has been brought down to 1844. For some years, it was currently, but prema- 
turely, reported extinct. Mr. R. Deane has recently recorded (Am. Nat. vi, 368) that a speci- 
men was ‘‘ found dead in the vicinity of St. Augustine, Labrador, in November, 1870;” this 
one, though in poor condition, being sold for $200, and sent to Europe. But there appears to 
be some question respecting the character, date, and disposition of this alleged individual; and 
it seems very improbable that the species lived down to 1870. I know of only four speci- 


820 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS. — PYGOPODES. 


mens in this country,—in the Smithsonian Institution, in the Philadelphia Academy, the 
Cambridge Museum, and Vassar College, Poughkeepsie (the latter the original of Audubon’s 
figures). There is an egg in each of the first two mentioned collections. In pattern of 
coloration the egg is like that of the razor-billed auk, though it is of course much larger, meas- 
uring about 5.00 x 3.00. About 70 skins appear to be preserved in various museums, with 
as muny eggs, some half dozen more or less complete skeletons, and other boues representing 


perhaps a hundred individuals. 


Fia. 661.—Great Auk. (From Sport with Gun and Rod. The Century Co., N, Y.) 


Part IV. 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS 


OF THE 


FOSSIL BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA. 


There is at present no satisfactory evidence that Birds existed in North America before the 
Jurassie period ; the footprints in the sandstone of the Connecticut Valley attributed to Birds 
having probably all been made hy Dinosaurian Reptiles (p. 63). A number of Cretaceous 
Birds have been known for some years, as given in the original edition of this work (1872) ; 
but it is only since 1881 that this class of vertebrates has been traced back to the Jurassic 
by the discovery of Laopteryx priscus on a geologic horizon nearly that of the famous 
Archeopteryx. 

The Tertiary Birds of North America belong to genera identical with, or nearly related 
to, those now living (p. 64). The case is otherwise with the earlier forms from the Cretaceous 
and the Jurassic, which represent different primary divisions of the class Aves (p. 237), com- 
parable in taxonomic value to that one (Saurure) which is based upon the Archgopteryx, or 
to those affurded by the Ratite and the Carinate birds respectively. Most of these forms are 
Odontornithes, or Birds with teeth; having the teeth implanted either in grooves (Odon- 
tolce), or in sockets (Odontotorme), as illustrated by the genera Hesperornis and Ichthyornis 
respectively. 

In the original edition of the Key these Cretaceous types were ranged with those from the 
Tertiary, their characters not having been fully worked out at that time. They have since 
become well known, through Professor Marsh’s splendid restorations and illustrations, in his 
great work entitled ‘Odontornithes’ (4to, Washington and New Haven, 1880). 

It is deemed advisable to present the Fossil Birds of North America under the three 
categories of the Tertiary, the Cretaceous, and the Jurassic forms; the first-named being 
ranged under the several orders to which they are supposed to belong, as described in this 
work ; the remainder, with few exceptions, being Odontornithes. 


822 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF FOSSIL BIRDS. 


A.— Tertiary Birds. 
CARINATH (p. 238). 


PASSSRES (p. 238). 


PALZZOSPIZA BELLA. 

Pal@ospiza bella, ALLEN, Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr., iv., no. 2, May 3, 1878, pp. 443- 
445, pl.i, figg. 1, 2.— Am. Journ. Sei.. xv, May, 1878, p. 381.— Amer. Nat., xv, Mar., 
1881, p. 253. 

Based upon some beautifully preserved remains, from the insect-hearing shales of Floris- 
sant, Colorado, now deposited in the Museum of the Boston Society of Natural History. They 
consist of the greater part of the skeleton, including all the bones of the wings and legs ex- 
cepting the femurs, but unfortunately lacking the bill. The impression of the feathers of the 
wings aud tail are remarkably distinct, showing not only the general shape of these parts, but 
the shafts and barbs of the feathers themselves. The bones are all in situ, ‘‘ and indicate be- 
yond question a high ornithic type, probably referable to the oscine division of the Passeres. 
The lack of the bill renders it impossible to assign the species to any particular family, but the 
fossil on the whole gives the impression of Fringilline affinities.”. The approximate length of 
the speciien is seven inches. 


PICARIZ (p. 444). 
UINTORNIS LUCARIS. 
Uintornis lucaris, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., iv, Oct., 1872, p. 259. — Cours, Key, 1872, 
p. 347. 
This bird was about as large as a robin, and apparently related to the woodpeckers. The 
only known remains are from the Lower Tertiary formation of Wyoming Territory. They are 
preserved in the Museum of Yale College. 


RAPTORES (p. 496). 


AQUILA DANANA. 

Aquila danana, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., ii, Aug., 1871, p. 125. — Cours, Key, 1872, 
p. 347. 

This species was nearly as large as the golden eagle (A. chrysaétus). The only known 
remains were found in the Pliocene of Nebraska, and are preserved in the Yale Museum. 
BUBO LEPTOSTEUS. 

Bubo leptosteus, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., ii, Aug., 1871, p. 126. — Cougs, Key, 1872, 
p. 347. 

A species about two-thirds as large as the great horned owl (B. virginianus). The re- 
mains were discovered in the Lower Tertiary beds of Wyoming, and are now in the Yale 
Museum. 


. PALXOBORUS UMBROSUS. 


Cathartes umbrosus, Copp, Proe. Phila. Acad., xxvi, 1874, p. 151. — Aun. Rep. Chief of 
Engrs. U. 8. A., 1874, p. 606. 

Vultur wumbrosus, Cops, Proc. Phila. Acad., xxvii, 1875, p. 271.— Ann. Rep. Chief of 
Engrs. U. 8. A., 1875, p. 993. — Rep. Surv. W. 100th Merid., iv, pt. ii, p. 287, pl. xvii, figg. 
10-18, pl. Ixviii, figg. 1-19. 

From the Pliocene of New Mexico; remains found in the sands north of Pojuaque, repre- 
senting a rapacious bird in size intermediate between the golden eagle and the turkey vulture; 


10. 


11. 


12. 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF FOSSIL BIRDS. 823 


referred at first to the genus Cathartes, afterward provisionally to the genus Vultur. As the 
description and figures clearly indicate a bird generically distinct from Cathartes, and as the 
iinprobability of the occurrence of a true Vultur in North America is extreme, it is suggested 
that this species be made the type of a new genus, Paleoborus, based upon the characters 
given by the describer. 


GALLINZ (p. 571). 


MELEAGRIS ANTIQUUS. 

Meleagris antiquus, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., ii, Aug., 1871, p. 126.—Couns, Key, 
1872, p. 347. 

This species was nearly as large as the wild turkey (AL. gallipavo). The remains repre- 
seuting it were found in the Miocene of Colorado, and are preserved in the Yale Museum. 


. MELEAGRIS ALTUS, 


Meleagris altus, MArsu, Proc. Phila. Acad., Mar., 1870, p. 11. — Amer. Nat., iv, July, 
1870, p. 317. — Am. Journ. Sei., iv, Oct., 1872, p. 260.— Cougs, Key, 1872, p. 348. 

Meleagris superbus, Corn, Syn. Ext. Batrach., ete., p. 239. 

‘Represented by portions of three skeletons, of different ages, which belonged to birds 
about the size of the wild turkey, although proportionally much taller. The tibiee and tarso- 
metatarsal bones were, in fact, so elongated as to resemble those of wading birds.” From the 
Post-pliocene of New Jersey. The remains are mostly in the Museum of Yale College. 


. MELEAGRIS CELER. 


Meleagris celer, Marsn, Am. Journ. Sci., Oct., 1872, p- 261. — Cougs, Key, 1872, p. 348. 
A species much smaller than the foregoing, but with legs of slender proportions. Also 
from the Post-pliocene of New Jersey, and preserved in the Yale Museum. 


LIMICOL@ (p. 596). 


CHARADRIUS SHEPPARDIANUS. 
Charadrius sheppardianus, Corr, Bull. U. 8. Geol. Surv. Terr., vi, no. 1, Feb. 11, 1881, 
pp. 83-85. — Amer. Nat., xv, Mar., 1881, p. 253. 


ALECTORIDES (p. 665). 


GRUS HAYDENI. 

Grus haydeni, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sei., xlix, March, 1870, p. 214.— Cougs, Key, 1872, 
p. 348. 

A species about as large as the sandhill crane (G. canadensis). From the Pliocene of 
Nebraska. Remains preserved in the Museum of the Philadelphia Academy. 
GRUS PROAVUS. 

Grus proavus, MARSH, Am. Journ. Sci., iv, Oct., 1872, p. 261. —Couss, Key, 1872, 
p. 345. 

This species was nearly as large as a sandhill crane. The remaius representing it were 
found in the Post-pliocene of New Jersey, and are now in the Yale Museum. 
ALETORNIS NOBILIS. 

Aletornis nobilis, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., iv, Oct., 1872, p. 256. — Cougs, Key, 1872, 
p. 348. 

Nearly as large as the preceding species. Found in the Eocene deposits of Wyoming, 
and now in the Museum of Yale College. 


13. 


14, 


15. 


16. 


17. 


18. 


19. 


20. 


21. 


824 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF FOSSIL BIRDS. 


ALETORNIS PERNIX. 

Aletornis perniz, MArsu, Am. Journ. Sci., iv, Oct., 1872, p. 256. — Cougs, Key, 1872, 
p. 348. 

About half the size of the above, and from the sawe locality. Also in the Yale Museum. 
ALETORNIS VENUSTUS. 

Aletornis venustus, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., iv, Oct., 1872, p. 257. Cougs, Key, 1872, 
p. 348. 

A smaller species, about as large as a curlew (Numenius). From the same locality, and 
likewise in the Yale Museun. 
ALETORNIS GRACILIS. 

Aletornis gracilis, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., iv, Oct., 1872, p. 258. — Covzs, Key, 1872, 
p. 348. 

A bird about the size of a woodeock (Philohela minor). From the same formation and 
locality, and now preserved in the Museum of Yale College. 
ALETORNIS BELLUS. 

Aletornis bellus, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., iv, Oct., 1872, p. 258. —Couzs, Key, 1872, 
p. 349. 

A still smaller species, probably belonging to a different genus. From the same locality, 
and also in the Yale Museum. 


LAMELLIROSTRES (p. 677). 


CYGNUS PALOREGONUS. 
Cygnus paloregonus, Cops, Bull. U. 8. Geol. Surv. Terr., iv, no. 2, May 3, 1878, p. 388. 
Represented by numerous bones, especially by four metatarsals, two of which are nearly 
perfect, indicating a species very near those now existing, but apparently distinct. From the 
Pliocene of Oregon. Remains in Prof. Cope’s Collection. 
BERNICLA HYPSIBATES. 
Anser hypsibates, Cops, Bull. U. 8. Geol. Sury. Terr., iv, no. 2, May 3, 1878, p. 387. 
Based upon a inetatarsal bone lacking the bypotarsus, indicating a goose nearly related to 
Bernicla canadensis, but probably larger or with longer legs. Froin the Pliocene of Oregon. 
Remains in Prof. Cope’s Collection. 


STEGANOPODES (p. 718). 


SULA LOXOSTYLA. 

Sula loxostyla, Copr, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., xiv, Dec., 1870, p. 236.— Couns, Key, 
1872, p. 349. 

A gannet, not so large as the common living species (S. bassana), from the Miocene of 
North Carolina. The remains are preserved in Professor Cope’s Collection. 
PHALACROCORAX IDAHENSIS. 

Graculus idahensis, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., xlix, Mar., 1870, p. 216.— Cougs, Key, 
1872, p. 349. 

A typical connorant, rather smaller than P. carbo. From the Pliocene of Idaho. Most 
of the known remains are deposited in the Yale Musewn. 

PHALACROCORAX MACROPUS. 

Graculus macropus, Corr, Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., iv, no. 2, May 3, 1878, p. 386. 

From the Pliocene of Oregon, in which it appears to have been numerous; represented by 
various bones, those upon which the species is based being three nearly perfect metatarsals in 
the collection of Prof. Cope, indicating a bird somewhat larger than the living Phalacrocorax 
dilophus, and agreeing closely iu size with Ph. idahensis. 


22. 


23. 


24. 


25. 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF FOSSIL BIRDS. 825 


LONGIPENNES (p. 732). 
PUFFINUS CONRADI. 
Puffinus conradii, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., xlix, Mar., 1872, p. 212.— Cours, Key, 
1872, p. 350. 
A shearwater about the size of P. cinereus. From the Miocene of Maryland, and now 
preserved in the Museum of the Philadelphia Academy. 


PYGOPODES (p. 787). 


LOMVIA ANTIQUA. 

Catarractes antiquus, MARSH, Am. Journ. Sci., xlix, Mar., 1870, p. 218. — Cours, Key, 
1872, p. 350. 

A guillemot rather larger than the common iurre (LZ. troile). Froin the Miocene of 
North Carolina. Deposited in the Philadelphia Academy. 
LOMVIA AFFINIS. 

Catarractes affinis, MARsH, Am. Journ. Sci., iv, Oct., 1872, p. 259.— Cougs, Key, 1872, 
p- 350. 

A species about as large as the preceding, and nearly related. From the Post-pliocene of 
Maine. The original specimen is in the Philadelphia Academy. 


RATITE (p. 238). 


GASTORNIS GIGANTEUS. 

Diatryma gigantea, Cope, Proe. Phila. Acad., 1876, p. 11.— Rep. Surv. W. 100th Merid., 
iv, pt. ii, 1877, pp. 69-71, pl. xxxii, figg. 23-25. 

From the Eocene of New Mexico, of the Wahsatch epoch; based upon a tarso-metatarsal 
bone lacking a part of the shaft and the external condyle. The species was of great size, the 
proximal end of the bone being nearly twice the diameter of that of the ostrich. “Its discovery 
introduced this group of Birds [Ratite] to the known faunz of North America, and demon- 
strates that this continent has not been destitute of the gigantic forms of birds now confined to 
the southern hemisphere faune” (Cope). The proximal end of the bone is described as resem- 
bling the same part in the ostriches (Struthiontd@) and moas (Dinornithide) ; while the distal 
end, as far as that is preserved, is similar to that of Gastornis of the corresponding horizon in 
France. 


B.— Cretaceous Birds. 


The following synopsis is based upon that given in the appendix of Marsh’s great work 
already cited (‘ Odontornithes’). The nine genera and nineteen species presented are supposed 
to be referable to one or the other of the two types exemplified by Ichthyornis and Hesperornis 
respectively ; but, as many of them are still known only by remains so fragmentary that it is 
impossible to say whether they are Odontotorme or Odontolc@, an alphabetical arrangement 
of the genera is followed. 

Most of the known remains of Cretaceous birds of North America have been discovered 
on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, in beds of iniddle Cretaceous age which have 
been termed by Marsh ‘‘Pteranodon beds,” from the genus of toothless Pterodactyles found 
in them. These Western Cretaceous birds were all found in Kansas, excepting some from 
corresponding strata in Texas. The Eastern Cretaceous forms from the green-sand of New 
Jersey, all of which are distinct from the western ones, are from a higher horizon, representing 
a division of the upper Cretaceous. No jaws or teeth of these birds having been found, it is 


26. 


27. 


29. 


30. 


826 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF FOSSIL BIRDS. 


impossible to say as yet whether or not they are odontornithic. All the deposits of Cretaceous 
age in North America, in which birds have been found, are marine, and the species appear to 
have all been aquatic. 

APATORNIS CELER. 

Ichthyornis celery, MArsu, Am. Journ. Sci., v, Jan., 1873, p. 74. 

Apatornes celer, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., v, Feb., 1873, p. 162.—Ip., zbid., v, Mar., 
1873, p. 230. — In., ibid., x, Nov., 1875, p. 404.—Ip., Am. Nat., ix, Dec., 1875, p. 626.— 
Ip., Geol. Mag., iii, Feb., 1876, p. 5U.—Woopw., Pop. Sci. Rev., Oct., 1875, p. 349. — 
Marsu, Odont., 1880, p. 192, pll. xxvili-xxxiii. 

A bird about the size of a pigeon, from the middle Cretaceous of Western Kansas ; related 
to Iehthyornis. The two knowu specimens are preserved in the Yale Museum. 

BAPTORNIS ADVENUS. 

Baptornis advenus, Mansy, Am. Journ. Sci., xiv, July, 1877, p. 86.—Ip., Journ. de 
Zool., vi, 1877, p. 887. —Ib., Odont., 1880, p. 192, figg. 37-39. 

Based upon a nearly perfect tarso-metatarsal, closely resembling the same part of Hesper- 
ornis, and indicating an aquatic bird about as large as a loon. From Western Kansas, in the 
same Cretaceous beds with Odontornithes and Pteranodontia. The type, and a second speci- 
men referred to the same species, are preserved in the Museum at Yale College. 
GRACULAVUS VELOX. 

Graculavus velox, MArsu, Am. Journ. Sei., iii, May, 1872, p. 363. —Ip., ibid., v, Mar., 
18738, p. 229. —Ib., Odont., 1880, p. 194. — Cougs, Key, 1872, p. 349. 

A bird about two-thirds as large as a cormorant. The remains were found in the green- 
sand of the middle marl bed, or upper Cretaceous, near Hornerstown, New Jersey, aud are all 
preserved in the Museum of Yale College. 

GRACULAVUS PUMILUS. 

Graculavus pumilus, MARSH, Am. Journ. Sci, iii, May, 1872, p. 364. —Ip., ibid., v, 
Mar., 1873, p. 229. —Ip., Odont., 1880, p. 195. — Cougs, Key, 1872, p. 350. 

A smaller species than the foregoing, from the same formation and locality. Remains 
also in the Yale Museum. 

Nore. Several western species, provisionally referred to the genus Graculavus, have since 
been identified with Ichthyornis, which see. 

HESPERORNIS REGALIS. (See p. 63, fig. 15.) 

Hesperornis regalis, MArsH, Am. Journ. Sci., iii, Jan., 1872, p. 56.—Ip., ¢bid., iii, 
May, 1872, p. 360. —Ib., ibid., x, Nov., 1875, p. 403. —In., ibid., xiv, July, 1877, p. 85, pl. 
v.—Inb., Am. Nat., ix, Dec., 1875, p. 625.—Ib., Geol. Mag., iii, Feb., 1876, p. 49, pl. ii. — 
Ip., Odont., 1880, pp. 1-117, p. 195, pll. i-xx. —Cousrs, Key, 1872, p. 195.— Woovw., Pop. 
Sci. Rev., Oct., 1875, p. 337. —Survey, Joum. Geol. Soc., xxxii, 1876, p. 510. — Huxu., 
Pop. Sci. Monthly, x, 1876, pp. 215-218. —Voar, Revue Scient., xvii, 1879, p. 247.—Dana, 
Man. Geol., 1880, pl. iv. 

Reference to p. 238, antea, will show the essential characters of the order or subclass 
Odontolee, of which the present species is a type. Hesperornis may be tersely characterized 
as a gigautic diver, some six feet in length from the point of the bill to the end of the toes, 
standing over three feet high in the position represented in the above-cited figure. While the 
general configuration of the skeleton may be likened to that of a loon, the conformation of the 
sternum is ratite, like that of struthious birds, and the wings are rudimentary or abortive, only 
a reinnant of a humerus being left; other struthious characters are noted in various parts of 
the skeleton ; the jaws are long and furnished with sharp recurved teeth implanted in grooves, 
but the vertebrae are heterocwlous, or saddle-shaped, and the coccyx is short, as in ordinary 
birds ; most of these characters separating this odontoleous type of Odontornithes sharply from 
both Odontotorme and Saurure. Comparison of the three Mesozoic genera, Hesperornis, 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF FOSSIL BIRDS. 827 


Ichthyornis and Archeopteryx, shows greater diversity from one another than that existing 
ainong all known birds of later geologic and of the present epoch. : 

The first remains of this now famous species were found by Prof. Marsh in November, 
1870, in the yellow chalk of the Pteranodon beds, near the Smoky Hill river in Kansas. The 
type specimen was found in July, 1871, on the south bank of the same river, about twenty 
miles east of Fort Wallace, imbedded in gray calcareous shale. Many other remains have 
also been collected, representing in all some forty different individuals, all from the same 
geologie horizon in Western Kansas, and most of them near the locality of the original ones. 
They are all preserved in the Museum of Yale College. 

81. HESPERORNIS CRASSIPES. 

Lestornis crassipes, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., xi, June, 1876, p. 509. 

Hesperornis crassipes, Marsu, Odont., 1880, p. 196, figg. 40 a-d, pll. vii, xvii. 

Based upon a nearly complete skeleton from the yellow chalk of Western Kansas, indicat- 
ing a bird considerably larger than H. regalis, and one that may prove to be generically 
distinct. Deposited in the Yale Museum. 

82, HESPERORNIS GRACILIS. 

Hesperornis gracilis, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., xi, June, 1876, p. 510. — Ip., Odont., 1880, 
pp. 99, 197. 

A third species, from the same horizon and locality, represented hy two specimens, one of 
them a nearly complete skeleton. Deposited in the Yale Museum. 

88. ICHTHYORNIS DISPAR. 

Ichthyornis dispar, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., iv, Oct., 1872, p. 344. — In., abid., v, Feb., 
1873, p. 161. —Ib., ibid., Mar., 1873, p. 230. — Cougs, Key, 1872, p. 350.— Owen, Journ. 
Geol. Soe. Lond., xxxix, 1873, p. 520.—Woopw., Pop. Sci. Rev., Oct., 1875, p. 348. —Marsu, 
Am. Nat., ix, Dec., 1875, p. 625. —In., Geol. Mag., iii, 1876, p. 49. — Huxt., Pop. Sci. 
Monthly, x, 1876, pp. 215-218. — Marsu, Journ. de Zool., iv, 1875, p. 494, pl. xv; vi, 1877, 
p. 385. —Ib., Odont., 1880, pp. 119-183, 197, pll. xxi-xxvi. 

This remarkable bird, forming a type of the whole group Odontotorme (p. 237) of Odont- 
ornithes, with general characters of the skeleton like those of ordinary birds, yet with socketed 
teeth and biconcave vertebree, was discovered in 1872 near the Solomon river in Northwestern 
Kansas, in the Pteranodon beds of the middle Cretaceous. It was about as large as a pigeon. 
The remains of about nine individuals, all from the same region, are preserved in the Museum 

, at Yale College. 
34, ICHTHYORNIS AGILIS. 

Graculavus agilis, Mars, Ain. Journ. Sci., v, Mar., 1873, p. 230. 

Ichthyornis agilis, Mars, Odont., 1880, p. 197. 

From the same horizon in Western Kansas, on Butte Creek, a tributary of the Smoky 
Hill river, where discovered in October, 1872. The remains are preserved in the Yale College 
Museum. 

35, ICHTHYORNIS ANCEPS. 

Graculavus anceps, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., iii, May, 1872, p. 364. Cougs, Key, 
1872, p. 350.—Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., v, Mar., 1873, p. 229. —Ip., Odont., 1880, pp. 
124, 198. 

Resembling I. dispar, but with slenderer jaws and more teeth. The right lower jaw of 
the type specimen of J. dispar shows twenty-one distinet sockets. Discovered in November, 
1870, in the gray shale of the middle Cretaceous, on the north fork of the Smoky Hill river in 
western Kansas, where other specimens have since been found. All are preserved at Yale. 

36. ICHTHYORNIS LENTUS. 
Graculavus lentus, Marsy, Am. Journ. Sci., xiv, Sept., 1877, p. 253. 
Ichthyornis lentus, Marsu, Odont., 1880, p. 198. 


37. 


38. 


39. 


40. 


41. 


42. 


43. 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF FOSSIL BIRDS. 


(og) 
bo 
(oe) 


Based upon part of a tarso-metatarsus from near Fort McKinney, Texas, in beds of middle 
Cretaceous age. Deposited in the Yale Museum. 

ICHTHYORNIS TENER. 

Ichthyornis tener, MArsH, Odont., 1880, p. 198, pl. xxx, fig. 8. 

From the Pteranodon beds of the middle Cretaceous, Wallace County, Kansas; two speci- 
mens, secured in 1876, and now preserved at the Yale College Museum. 

ICHTHYORNIS VALIDUS. 

Ichthyornis validus, Marsu, Odont., 1880, p. 198, pl. xxx, figg. 11-14. 

Discovered in 1877, in the yellow chalk of the middle Cretaceous, near Solomon River, in 
northwestern Kansas. The known specimens are deposited in the Museum of Yale College. 
ICHTHYORNIS VICTOR. (Sce p. 64, fig. 16.) 

Ichthyornis victor, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., xi, June, 1876, p. 511. —Ip., Odont., 1880, 
p- 199, pll. xxvii-xxxiv. — Dana, Man. Geol., 1880, pp. 466-468, pl. v. 

A species of the genus rather larger than a pigeon, of which more than forty specimens 
have been found in various localities in Kansas, all apparently from the same geological horizon 
in the middle Cretaceous. These are preserved in the Museum of Yale College. 

LAORNIS EDVARDSIANUS. 

Laornis edvardsianus, Marsu, Proce. Phila. Aecad., Jan., 1870, p. 5.—Ip., Am. Journ. 
Sci., xlix, Mar., 1870, p. 206.— In. ibid., v, Mar., 1873, p. 230.— A. Mitng-Epw., Rech. 
Ossemn. Foss., ii, 1871, p. 540.— Cougs, Key, 1872, p. 350.— Marsu, Odont., 1880, p. 199. 

This species was nearly as large as a swan. The remains by which it is represented were 
found in the middle marl bed, of upper Cretaceous age, at Birmingham, New Jersey, and are 
now in the Museum of Yale College. 

PALZV\OTRINGA LITORALIS. 

Paleotringa littoralis, MArsn, Proc. Phila. Acad., Jan., 1870, p. 5. —Ip., Am. Journ. 
Sci., xlix, Mar., 1870, p. 208. — A. MinnzE-Epw., Rech. Ossem. Foss., ii, 1871, p. 540.— 
Cougs, Key, 1872, p. 8349. — Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., v, Mar., 1873, p. 229. —Ipb., Odont., 
1880, p. 199. 

A bird about as large as acurlew. The remains representing it were discovered in the 
green-sand of the upper Cretaceous, near Hornerstown, New Jersey, and are preserved in the 
collection at Yale College. 

PALZXOTRINGA VAGANS. 

Paleotringa vagans, Marsu, Am. Journ. Sei., iii, May, 1872, p. 365.— Cougs, Key, 
1872, p. 349. — Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., v, Mar., 1878, p. 229. 

From the same formation and locality as the last; of smaller size, being intermediate 
between the other two species of the genus. The specimens upon which this species is based 
are preserved in the Yale College Museum. 

PAL:ZOTRINGA VETUS. 

Scolopax, Morton, Syn. Organic Remains of the Cret., U. §., 1834, p. 32. — HARLAN, 
Med. and Phys. Res., 1835, p. 280. 

Paleotringa vetus, Marsu, Proc. Phila. Acad., Jan., 1870, p. 5.—Ipv., Am. Journ. Sci., 
xlix, Mar., 1870, p. 209. — A. Mitnz-Epw., Rech. Ossem. Foss., ii, 1871, p. 540. — Cougs, 
Key, 1872, p. 349.— Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., v, Mar., 1873, p. 229. — In., Odont., 1880, 
p- 200. 

The first fossil bird of North America appears to have been noted by Dr. Morton in 1834, 
as that of a snipe-like species. The specimen, consisting of a femur imperfect at the upper 
extremity, was presented by S. W. Conrad to Dr. Harlan, who remarks that ‘the bone 
appears to be perfectly mineralized.” It was found near Arneytown, New Jersey, in the lower 
marl bed of the Cretaceous formation. This same specimen (which meanwhile had been 
generally regarded as of a recent species, notwithstanding its condition and the position in which 


45. 


46. 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF FOSSIL BIRDS. 829 


it had been found) furnished Prof. Marsh the basis of his Palotringa vetus, a smaller species 
than either of the others of this genns. The known remains are in the Philadelphia Acadeimy. 
TELMATORNIS PRISCUS. 

Telmatornis priscus, MARSH, Proc. Phila. Acad., Jan., 1870, p. 5. — Ip., Am. Journ. Sei., 
xlix, Mar., 1870, p. 210. —A. Mitnz-Epw., Rech. Ossem. Foss., ii, 1871, p. 541. — Cougs, 
Key, 1872, p. 349. — Marsu, Am. Journ. Sci., v, Mar., 1873, p. 229.— Ib., Odont., 1880, p. 
200. 

A species about as large as the king rail (Rallus elegans) ; from the middle marl hed of 
the upper Cretaceous formation. The remains were found near Hornerstown, New Jersey, and 
are preserved in the Museum of Yale College. 

TELMATORNIS AFFINIS. 

Telmatornis afinis, Marsu, Proc. Phila. Aead., Jan., 1870, p.5.—Ip., Am. Journ. Sci, 
xlix, Mar., 1870, p. 211.— A. Minne-Epw., Rech. Ossem. Foss. ii, 1871, p. 541. — Cougs, 
Key, 1872, p. 349. —Marsu, Am. Journ. Sei., v, Mar., 1873, p. 229. —Ip., Odont., 1580, 
p. 20]. 

The known remains are in the Yale Museum. 


C.— Jurassic Birds. 


The single representative of birds at present known from this formation is odontornithic. 
LAOPTERYX PRISCUS. 

Laopteryx priscus, MARSH, Am. Journ. Sci., xxi, Apr., 1881, p. 341. 

Fron the upper Jurassic beds of Wyoming. The known remains are deposited in the 
Museum of Yale College. 

The interest attaching to this fossil induces me to transcribe the original description : — 


“The type specimen of the present species is the posterior portion of the skull, which 
indicates a bird rather larger than a blue heron (Ardea Herodias). The braincase is so 
broken that its inner surface is disclosed, and in other respects the skull is distorted, but it 
shows characteristic features. The bones of the skull are pneumatic. The occipital condyle 
is sessile, hemispherical in form, flattened and slightly grooved above. There is no trace of a 
posterior groove. The foramen magnum is nearly circular, and small in proportion to the con- 
dyle. Its plane coincides with that of the occiput, which is slightly inclined forward. The 
bones around the foramen are firmly co-ossified, but the supra-occipital has separated somewhat 
from the squamosals and parietals. Other sutures are more or less open. On each side of the 
condyle, and somewhat below its lower margin, there is a deep, rounded cavity, perforated by 
a pneumatic foramen. 

“The cavity for the reception of the head of the quadrate is oval in outline, and its longer 
axis, if continued backward, would touch the outer margin of the occipital condyle. This cav- 
ity indicates that the quadrate had an undivided head. The braincase was comparatively 
small, but the hemispheres were well developed. They were separated above by a sharp 
mesial crest of bone. A low ridge divided the hemispheres from the optic lobes, which were 
prominent. 

“The following measurements indicate the size of the specimen : — 


“Width of skull across occiput (approximate). . . 2... 1 1. ee ee ee ew 24M 
“Transverse diameter of occipital condyle . . . 2... 2... 1 ee eee ee eee BU 
UN OPtiGal Game tery ses esc ce) ist RS Se See ay ee ce ah PSO GWA, mw ee ee 
‘“ Width of foramen magnum .......... 2.4 6.8 © ee ew ee we ew ws OB UE 
“Height .. . . 6“ 


“ Distance from occipital condyle to top of supra-occipital . . . ........2. : ; 11 -¢ 


830 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF FOSSIL BIRDS. 


“Tn its main features, the present specimen resembles the skull of the Ratita, more than 
that of any existing birds. Other parts of the skeleton will doubtless show still stronger 
reptilian characters. 

“Tu the matrix attached to this skull, a single tooth was found, which most resembles the 
teeth of birds, especially those of Ichthyornis. It is probable that Laopteryx possessed teeth, 
and also biconcave vertebree. 

“The speciinen here described, and others apparently of the same species, were found in 
the upper Jurassic of Wyoming Territory, in the horizon of the Atlantosaurus beds.” 


INDEX. 


Nore. —(1) Scientific names of birds consisting of two terms are entered but once, under the genus; as, 
Turdus mustelinus. (2) But vernacular names of two terms are entered twice; as, Wood thrush, and Thrush, 
wood. (3) Anatomical and other technical terms are fully indexed as occurring in Part II., where they are 
defined and explained; but not as occurring in Parts II]. and IV., where they are simply used in describing 
birds. (4) Names of birds, both scientific and vernacular, are fully indexed as occurring in Parts ILI. and IV. 
but usually not as incidentally occurring in Parts I. and II. in illustration of the zoological and anatomica 
characters there noted. (5) Names merely appearing in the text, not as headings, are usually not indexed; many 
such, however, will be found, especially such as are not elsewhere formally treated. (6) Synonyms, both scientitic 
and vernacular, are indexed. (7) Matters of field-work and taxidermy treated in Part I. are fully indexed by 
one or more leading words; as, Insect pests, and Pests, insect. (8) Names of persons mentioned or of authors 
quoted are not indexed. (9) The whole work is so fully indexed that the Index will serve as a glossary of the 
terminology of ornithology. (10) All the figures refer to pages. 


ABDOMEN 95, 96 ZEgialites Alaudine 282 
Abducent nerves 177 curonicus 603 Albatross 
Abduction of wing 108 hiaticula 603 black 776 


Abert’s towhee 398 melodus 602 black-footed 775 
Acadian owl 513 microrhynchus 603 short-tailed 775 
Acanthisitta 269 nivosus 603 sooty 776 
Accentor semipalmatus 602 Albatrosses 774, 776 
aquatic 309 vociferus 600 Alea 819 
golden-crowned 308 wilsonius 601 impennis 819 
Accessory Agiothus 352 Alcedinide 468 
bone of shoulder 107 exilipes 353 Alcedinine 469 
metatarsal 119 holboelli 353 Alcedo ispida 469 
Accidents from the gun 19 hornemanni 353 Alcide 797 
Accipiter 527 linaria 252 Alcine 810 
cooperi 528 /Egithognathism 172 Alcohol, use of 21 


fuscus 528 
nisus 194, 527 
Accipitres 496, 498, 517 
Accipitrinie 526 
Accommodation of eye 178 
Acetabulum 119, 148 
Acromial process 146 
Acromion 146 
Acromyodi 240 
Acromyodian 205, 239 
Acropodium 124 
Acrotarsium 124 
Acryllium vulturinum 575 
\ctodromas 625 
acuminata 628 
bairdi 625 
bonapartii 627 
cooperi 627 
maculata 626 
minutilla 625 
Adduction of wing 108 
Adrenals 46, 216 
Achmophorus 793 
clarki 794 
occidentalis 793 


Aichmorhynchus parvirostris 618 


&gialites 600 
cantianus 603 
cireumcinctus 602 


Agithognathous skull 172 
AEgotheles 448 
ZEpyornis maximus 65, 221 
Aétomorphee 496 
Afferent function of nerves 174 
After-shaft 84 
Age, recognition of a bird’s 46 
Agelwine 400 
Ageleus 403 
gubernator 404 
pheeniceus 404 
tricolor 404 
Agelastes meleagrides 575 
Agyrtria linnzi 459 
Air-bone 168 
Air-cells 200 
Air-gun 3 
Aix 697 
galericulata 698 
sponsa 698 
Ajaja 651 
rosea 651 
Alaskan 
jay 425 
winter wren 279 
Ala spuria 109 
Alauda 282 
arvensis 283 
Alaudide 69, 239, 280 


Aleyone 126, 127 
Alectorides 665, 823 
Alectoromorphe 171, 572 
Alectoropodes 573 
Aletornis 
bellus, 824 
gracilis 824 
nobilis 823 
pernix 824 
venustus 824 
Aleutian 
auk 810 
sandpiper 629 
tern 768 
Alexander humming-bird 462 
Aliethmoid 153 
A imentary canal 209 
Alinasal 153 
Aliseptal 153 
Alisphenoid 158 
Alle 810 
nigricans 810 
Allen’s rosy finch 350 
Allied robin 244 
Altrices 88 
Aluco 501 
flammeus 502 
pratincola 502 
Aluconide 500 


832 


Alula 106, 107, 109 
Amazili hummers 466 
Amazilia 466 


cerviniventris 466 
fuscocaudata 466 


Ambiens 193 
American 


avocet 611 

bittern 664 

black ecoter 713 
black-tailed godwit 636 
brown pelican 722 
continental gyrfalcon 5382 
coot 676 

crow 417 

ceuckoos 474 

dipper 255 

dunlin 631 

eider duck 712 
flycatchers £28 
golden plover 599 
goldfinches 354 
goshawk 530 

green sandpiper 639 
green-winged teal 695 
harrier 521 
hawfinches 342 

hawk owl 511 
herring gull 743 
jabiru 653 

lanner falcon 534 
long-eared owl 507 
marsh hawk 521 
mealy red-poll 353 
merlin 537 

mew gull 746 
oyster-catcher 606 
night-jars 450 
nutcrackers 417 
partridges 588 
pochard 702 

quail 588 

raven 416 

red cross-bill 349 

red flamingo 679 
red-necked grebe 794 
redstart 316 
rough-legged buzzard 549 
shrike 338 

siskin 354 

snipe 617, 621 
spoonbills 651 
starlings 399 

stint 625 

swan 682 

titlark 286 

vultures 557 
warblers 287 
white-fronted goose 684 
white pelican 722 
wigeon 694 
woodcock 619 

wood owl 509 

wood stork 653 


Ambherstian pheasants 575 
Ammodramus 367 


caudacutus 368 
maritimus 367 
nelsoni 368 
nigrescens 368 


INDEX. 


Amphiccelous vertebrae 138 
Amphimorphe 677 
Amphispiza 375 
belli 376 
bilineata 376 
nevadensis 376 
Ampullaw 189 
Analogy 67, 68 
Anarhynchus frontalis 597 
Anas 691 
auduboni 691 
boseas 691 
breweri 691 
fulvigula 692 
glocitans 691 
maxima 691 
obscura 691 
Anastomus 652 
Anatide 679 
trachea of 50 
Anatine 689 
Anatomical structure 133 
Anatomy 133 
Anchylosis 134 
Ancon 106 
Ancylochilus 631 
subarquatus 632 
Angeiology 195 
Angle of the 
jaw 98 
mandible 166 
mouth 105 
wing 109 
Angular bone 166 
Angulus oris 105 
Ani 472 
groove-billed 472 
Animalia 81 
Animation 174 
Anis 471 
Ankle joint 120 
Ankylosis 184 
Anna humming-bird 464 
Anoex 756 
Anomalogonatous birds 195 
Anorthura 278 
alascensis 279 
hiemalis 278 
pacificus 279 
troglodytes 278 
Anois 771 
stolidus 771 
Anser 684 
albifrons 684 
gambeli 684 
hypsibates 824 
Anseranas melanoleuca 684 
Anseres 679 
Anserine 683 
Anserine birds 677 
proper 679 
Anteorbital region 97 
Anthracite buzzard 552 
Anthine 285 
Anthus 285 
ludovicianus 286 
pratensis 285 
spinoletta 285 
Anthrenus scrofularie 55 
Athropoides 666 


Antrostomus 450 
arizone 452 
carolinensis 451 
vociferus 452 

Aorta 197 

Apatornis celer 826 

Aphelocoma 423 
arizone 424 
californica 424 
floridana 423 
sordida 424 
ultramarina 424 
woodhousii 423 

Aphriza 605 
virgata 605 

Aphrizid 605 

Aphrizinz 605 

Aplomado falcon 539 

Apophyses 134 

Appendicular skeleton 134 

Apteria 87 

Aquatic accentor 309 

Aqueous humor 179, 183 

Aquila 553 
chrysaétus 554 
danana 822 

Arachnoid 176 

Aramid 667 

Aramus 668 
pictus 668 

Arch 
pectoral 145 
pelvic 147 
post-oral 152 
pre-oral 152 
scapular 145 
visceral 152 


Archxopteryx lithographica 62, 


63, 237, 821 
Archetypes 76 
Archetypic characters 76 
Archibuteo 549 

ferrugineus 551 

lagopus 549 

sancti-johannis 549 
Archsaurian 112 
Arctic 


american saw-whet owl 512 


blue-bird 258 
jager 738 
tern 764 
towhee 396 
Arctonetta 710 
Ardea 657 
cinerea 655, 658 
herodias 147, 657 
occidentalis 658 
wardi 658 
Ardeida 654 
Ardeinz 654, 656, 657 
Ardetta 664 
exilis 664 
Argus pheasant 575 
Argusanus giganteus 575 
Arinz 495, 496 
Aristonetta 703 
Arkansaw 
goldfinch 355 
tyrant flycatcher 433 
Arizona 


Ammunition 4 
Amotus 128 
Ampelide 325 
Ampelis 325 
cedrorum 327 
garrulus 326 


paradisxa 666 chipping sparrow 380 
virgo 666 goldfinch 355 
Antia 105 Jay 424 
Antibrachium 106, 107 quail 5938 
Antitrochanter 148 summer finch 3874 
Antrorse 105 thrasher 252 


Arizona 
whippoorwill 452 
Arm-bone 107 
Arquatella 628 
couesi 629 
maritima 629 
ptilocnemis 630 
Arsenic 26, 57 
Arsenical soap 26 
Arrie 817 
Artemisia sparrow 376 
Arterial system 195 
Arteries 197 
Articular bone of jaw 166 
Articulation of bones 134 
Artificial “ Keys’? 227, 230, 231 
Arytenoids 204 
Ash-colored sandpiper 632 
Ash-throated 
crested flycatcher 436 
flycatchers 434 
Asiatic golden plover 600 
Asio 507 
accipitrinus 507 
otus 507 
wilsonianus 136, 507 
Astragalinus 354 
arizonee 3855 
lawrencii 355 
mexicanus 3855 
notatus 356 
psaltria 355 
tristis 854 
Astragalus 120 
Astur 530 
atricapillus 530 
palumbarius 530 
striatulus 531 
Asturina 551 
plagata 551 
Asyndesmus 490 
torquatus 490 
Atlas 139 
Atmosteon 168 
Atthis 465 
heloise 465 
Attic hummers 465 
Attypic characters 76 
Audition 184 
Auditory 
meatus 97 
nerve 177, 187 
Audubon’s 
oriole 410 
thrush 247 
warbler 302 
Auk 
aleutian 810 
crested 807 
great 819 
horn-bill 805 
least 808 
Knob-nosed 808 
parroquet 806 
pug-nosed 806 
razor-billed 818 
red-nosed 808 
snub-nosed 807 
temminck’s 812 
unicorn 805 
whiskered 808 
Auks 797 
parrot 800 
rhinoceros 805 
snub-nosed 806 
wrinkle-nosed 809 


INDEX. 


Aural region 97 
Auricles of heart 196 
Auricular region 97 
Auriculars 97 
Auriparus 269 
tlaviceps 269 
Auris 97 
Autumnal tree duck 689 
Aves (see also Birds) 237 
definition of the class 61 
aérew 81 
aquatic 81 
terrestres 81 
Avian 
foot, modifications of 129 
sternum 143 
Avocet, american 611 
Avocets, 609, 610 
Axial skeleton 134, 135 
Axilla 111 
Axillars 111 
Axis 139 
Azure warbler 301 


BacHMAN’S 
summer finch 373 
warbler 294 
Bahaman honey creeper 317 
Baird’s 
cormorant 729 
rosy finch 351 
sandpiper 625 
savanna sparrow 360 
Baking birdskins 57 
Baleniceps rex 654 
Balenicipitidee 654 
Balwarica pavonina 666 
Bald eagle 555 
Bald-pate 694 
Baltimore oriole 408 
Band-tailed buzzard 546 
Bank 
pigeon 565 
swallow 324 
Baptornis advenus 826 
Barbicels of feathers 84 
Barbs of feathers 84 
Barbules of feathers 84 
7 r 
owls 500, 501 
swallows 321 
Barnacle geese 686 
Barred owl 509 
florida 510 
western 510 
Barrow’s golden-eye 704 
Bartramia 641 
longicauda 641 
Bartramian sandpiper 641 
Bartram’s tattler 641 
Basal phalanges 127 
Basibranchial 167 
Basihyal 167 
Basilinna 460 
xantusi 460 
Basioccipital 156 
Basipterygoid processes 159, 163 
Basis cranii 149 
Basisphenoid 158 
Basisphenoidal rostrum 158 
Basitemporal 155, 156 
Bastard 
baltimore 407 
quills 109 
wing 109 
Batrachostomus 448 


53 


833 


Bay-breasted warbler 304 
Bay-winged 
bunting 364 
longspur 359 
summer finch 375 
Beak of birds 100 
Beaked savanna sparrow 363 
Beardless flycatcher 443 
Beards 99 
Bee-martin 432 
Bell’s 
finch 376 
greenlet 335 
Belly 95 
Belted kingfisher 470 
Bend of the wing 109 
Benzine 57 
Bernicla 686 
brenta 687 
canadensis 688 
hutchinsi 689 
hypsibates 824 
leucoparia 689 
leucopsis 687 
nigricans 688 
occidentalis 688 
Bewick’s 
swan 683 
wren 277 
Bicarotidine 
abnormales 198 
normales 197 
Big black-head 701 
Bile 215 
Bill of birds 100 
Bill-hook 52 
Bills classified 101 
Binomial nomenclature 79 
Biogen 192 
Biogenation 192 
Biology 65 
Birdskins 
baking 57 
how to make 28 
instruments for making 25 
Bird of washington 555 
Birds and reptiles 60 
Birds of prey 496 
Birds 
anatomy of 
classification of 80 
carrying home safe 18 
class of 61 
contour of 91 
cretaceous 825 
definition of 60 
exterior parts of 82, 92 
fussil 821 
geologic succession of 62 
handling bleeding 17 
how many of a kind wanted 12 
how to approach 15 
how to find 10 
how to mount 40 
how to skin and stuff 28 
Tee 829 
silling wounded 16 
recovering 16 
structure of 59 
synopsis of n. american 237 
tertiary 822 
topography of 91 
Bittern 
american 664 
least 664 
Bitterns 663, 664 


884 


Bitterns 

dwarf 664 
Biziura lubata 699 
Black 

albatross 776 

brant 688 

duck 691 

grouse 578 

guillemot 814 

hawk 549 

oyster-catcher 607 

petrel 781 

pewit flycatcher 437 

rail 674 

red-tail 545 

scoter 713 

skimmer 772 

snow-bird 877 

tern 770 

white-winged tern 770 

vulture 560 

warrior 543 

witch 472 
Black-and-white 

creeper 290 

spotted woodpeckers 480 
Black-and-yellow 

oriole 409 

warbler 304 
Black-backed _three-toed wood- 

pecker 485 

Black-bellied 

plover 598 

sandpiper 631 
Black-billed cuckoo 475 
Blackbird 404 

brewer’s 411 

marsh 404 

red-winged 404 

red-winged marsh 404 

red-and-buff shouldered marsh 


404 

skunk 400 

red-shouldered marsh 404 

red-and-white shouldered 

marsh 404 

savanna 472 

thrush 411 

white-winged 387 

yellow-headed 404 
Blackbirds etc. 399 

crow 410, 412 

marsh 400, 403 

thrush 411 

yellow-headed 404 
Black-breasted 

longspur 859 

sandpiper 630 

woodpecker 487 
Blackburnian warbler 302 
Black-capped 

flycatching warbler 313 

gnat-catcher 261 

greenlet 336 

petrel 779 

titmouse 265 
Black-chinned sparrow 381 
Black-crested titmouse 265 
Black-crowned night heron 662 
Black-eared bush-tit 268 
Black-faced 

grass quit 392 

sage sparrow 376 
Black-headed 

ducks 699 

goldfinch 356 


INDEX. 


Black-headed 

gull 750 

Jay 422 

oriole 410 

song grosbeak 389 

turnstone 609 
Black-footed albatross 775 
Black-necked stilt 612 
Black-poll warbler 303 
Black-shouldered 

kite 525 

longspur 358 
Black throated 

blue warbler 300 

bunting 387 

diver 791 

pacific 791 

gray warbler 300 

green warbler 298 

murrelet 811 
Black-vented shearwater 786 
Black-whiskered greenlet 332 
Bladder 217 
Blade-bone 146 
Blanding’s finch 398 
Blasipus 741, 747 
Blastoderm 225 
Blastodermic membrane 225 
Blastula 225 
Blastulation 225 
Bleached yell.-wing’d sparrow 366 
Blood 196 

corpuscles 196 

stains 37 
Blowing eggs 51 
Blow-gun 3 
Blow-pipe 51 
Blue 


crow 418 

golden-winged warbler 294 

grosbeak 390 

grouse 579 

hawk 521 

hen hawk 530 

jay 421 

quail 593 

snow goose 685 

yellow-backed warbler 290 
Blue and white herons 661 
Blue-bill 701 
Blue-bird 

arctic 258 

mexican 258 

rocky mountain 258 

western 258 
Blue-birds 256, 257 
Blue-eyed yellow warbler 298 
Blue-fronted jay 422 
Blue-gray gnat-catcher 261 
Blue-headed 

grackle 411 

greenlet 333 

quail dove 571 

quake-tail 284 

saw-bill 468 
Blue-stocking 611 
Blue-throat, red-spotted 258 
Blue-throated redstart 258 
Blue-throats 258 
Blue-winged 

teal 696 

yellow warbler 293 
Boat-billed heron 654 
Boat-tailed 

crow blackbird 412 

grackle 412 


Bea Syria 33 


Bobolink 400 
Bob-white 
Body proper 92, 93 
‘topography of 94 
Bog-bull 664 
Bog-sucker 619 
Bohemian waxwing 326 
Bonaparte’s rosy gull 751 
Bonasa 584 
betulina 578 
sabinii 585 
umbelloides 585 
umbella 585 
Bone, structure of 134 
Bone-breaker 777 
Bone-tissue 149 
Bones 
of the hind limb 118 
of the wing 106 
Bony basis of the tail 114 
Booby 720 
Book-keeping, Ca 22 
Booted tarsus 124, 
Botaurinz 654, eb, 603 
Botaurus 664 
mugitans 664 
Boucard’s summer finch 375 
Bow-billed thrasher 252 
Bower-birds 224 
Brachial plexus 177 
Brachium 106 
Brachyotus 507 
Brachyrhamphus 812 
brachypterus 814 
craverii 814 
hypoleucus 813 
kittlitzi 813 
marmoratus 813 
Brain of birds 175, 176 
Brandt’s 
cormorant 728 
rosy finch 351 
Brant 
geese 686 
goose 686 
Brant, white 685 
Brant-bird 609 
Brass 
cowbird 403 
grackle 413 
Breast 95 
Breast-bone 143 
Breech-loader 2 
Brewer’s 
blackbird 411 
sparrow 881 
Brewster’s linnet 353 
Bridal ducks 697 
Bride 698 
Bridled 
tern 769 
titmouse 265 
Bristle-bellied 
curlew 646 
woodpeckers 490 
Broad-tailed humming-bird 463 
Broad-winged buzzard 548 
Bronchial syrinx 205 
Bronchiales 205 
Broncho-tracheal syrinx 205 
Broncho-tracheales 205 
Bronzed 
cowbird 403 
crow blackbird 413 
Brotherly-love greenlet 332 
Brown crane 667 


Brown 

creeper 273 

gannet 720 

jay 419 

lark 286 

owls 508 

thrush 251 

towhee 397 
Brown-back 622 
Brown-backed oyster-catcher 606 
Brown-headed 

cactus wren 275 

nuthatch 271 

woodpecker 486 
Bubo 503 

arcticus 504 

leptosteus 822 

paciticus 504 

saturatus 504 

virginianus 504 
Bubonine 503 
Bucconidee 445 
Bucephala 704 
Bucerotidie 212, 446 
Budytes 284 

flavus 284 

taivanus 285 
Buff flycatchers 443 
Buff-breasted sandpiper 642 
Buftle-head 705 
Bugs 55 

to destroy 57 
Bulla ossea 50 
Bull-bat 454 
Ballfinch 

cardinal 393 

cardinals 393 

cassin’s 344 
Bullfinches 344 

pine 343 

purple 346 
Bull-head 599 
Bull-head plover 598, 599 
Bullock’s oriole 409 
Bulweria 780 
Bulwer’s petrel 780 
Bunting (see Finch) 

bay-winged 364 

black-throated 387 

lark 386 

le conte’s 366 

painted 391 

silk 387 

snow 356 

towhee 395 

townsend’s 388 

varied 391 
Buntings (see Finches) 

lark 386 

towhee 395 
Burion 347 
Bush warblers 309 
Bush-quails 571 
Bush-tit 

black-eared 268 

least 268 

plumbeous 268 
Bush-tits 267 
Bustard, gular pouch of 210 
Bustards 597, 665 
Butcher-bird 337 
Buteo 541 

abbreviatus 546 

albocaudatus 542 

albonotatus 546 

bairdi 548 ' 


INDEX. 


Buteo 
borealis 544 
brachyurus 
calurus 545 
cooperi 543 
elegans 546 
fuliginosus 549 
gutturalis 548 
harlani 543 
harrisi 542 
insignatus 548 
krideri 545 
lineatus 545 
lucasanus 545 
montanus 548 
obsoletus 548 
oxypterus 548 
peunsylvanicus 548 
swansoni 546 
unicinetus 542 
vulgaris 547 
zonocercus 546 
Buteoninx 541 
Butter-ball 705 
Butorides 665 
virescens 662 
Buzzard 
american rough-legged 549 
anthracite 552 
band-tailed 546 
broad-winged 548 
common american 546 
cooper’s 543 
ferrugineous rough-legged 551 
fuliginous 549 
gray star 551 
gruber’s 553 
harlan’s 543 
harris’s 542 
red-shouldered 545 
red-tailed 544 
rough-legged 549 
swainson’s 546 
turkey 559 
western red-shouldered 546 
white-tailed 542 
Buzzards 541 
anthracite 552 
clawed 552 
hare-footed 549 
star 651 


CABINETS 56 
Cacatuine 495 
Cactus wren 

brown-headed 275 

st. lucas 275 
Cactus wrens 274 
Caducous parts of bill 103 
Ceca or cwcum 214 
Cairina moschata 684 
Calamospiza 386 

bicolor 387 
Calamus 84 
Calandritinz 281 
Calcaneum 120 
Calear 114, 133 
Calico-back 609 
Calidris 633 

arenaria 633 
California 

clapper rail 672 

condor 558 

gnome owl 514 

gull 745 

Jay 424 


835 


California 

partridge 592 

sage sparrow 376 

screech owl 506 

squirrel hawk 551 

thrasher 254 

towhee 397 

woodpecker 489 
Caliology 227 
Callichen 700 
Calliope humming-bird 465 
Callipepla 593 

squamata 593 
Calcenas nicobarica 563 
Calothorax 466 

lucifer 466 
Calypte 464 

anne 464 

costee 464 
Calyx of ovisac 221 
Campephilus 479 

principalis 479 
Camphor 57 
Camptolemus 706 

labradorius 706 
Campylorhynchine 274 
Campylorhynchus 274 

aftinis 275 

couesi 275 

brunneicapillus 275 
Canace 578 

canadensis 578 

falcipennis 578 

franklini 579 

fuliginosa 580 

obscura 579 

richardsoni 579 
Canada 

goose 688 

grouse 578 

Jay 425 

nuthatch 271 

warbler 314 
Cancroma cochlearia 654 
Cancromide 654 
Cane-gun 3 
Cafion towhee 397 
Cafion wren 

dotted 276 

mexican 276 

speckled 276 
Cation wrens 276 
Canthus of eye 97, 180 
Cantores 204 
Canvas-back 703 
Cape may warbler 305 
Cape pigeon 779 
Capercaillie 578 
Capitonide 446 
Capitulum of rib 143 
Caprimulgida 447 
Caprimulgine 448 
Caps for gun + 
Capsules, supra-renal 46 
Caput 97 
Caracara 539 
Carau 668 
Cardellina 314 

rubra 314 
Cardinal 

bullfinch 393 

grosbeak 393 

red-bird 393 

fiery-red 394 

texas 393 
Cardinalis 393 


836 


Cardinalis 
igneus 394 
virginianus 393 
Care of a collection 54 
Cariama cristata 665 
Cariamida 665 
Carinx 103 
Carinatie 238, 822 
Carinate 
birds 238 
sternum 143 
Carle 665 
Carolina 
chickadee 266 
crake 673 
dove 568 
nuthatch 269 
parroquet 496 
rail 673 
waxwing 827 
wren 277 
Carotid 
arteries 197 
canal 159 
Carpal 
angle 109 
bones 106, 107, 108 
Carpodacus 346 
cassini 347 
frontalis 347 
purpureus 346 
rhodocolpus 348 
Carpophaga 564 
Carpus 106, 107, 108 
Carrion crow 560 
Cartilage 134 
Cartridges 2 
Caruncles 98 
Caruncule 103 
Casarca rutila 684 
Cases for storage 56 
Caspian tern 757 
Cassidix 411 
Cassin’s 
bullfinch 344 
greenlet 333 
purple finch 347 
summer finch 374 
tyrant flycatcher 433 
Casuarius 170 
Catarractes 
affinis 825 
antiquus 825 
Cat-bird 250 
Catharista 560 
atrata 560 
Cathartes 558 
aura 559 
burrovianus 561 
umbrosus 822 
Cathartida 557 
Cathartides 497, 557 
Catharus 243 
Catherpes 276 
conspersus 276 
mexicanus 276 
punctulatus 276 
Cat owl 503 
Caudal vertebra 141 
Cayenne tern 759 
Cecomorphe 171 
Cedar-bird 327 
Cedar waxwing 327 
Centre of gravity 91 
Centrocercus 580 
urophasianus 107, 580 


INDEX. 


Centrophanes 357 
lapponicus 357 
ornatus 358 
pictus 358 

Centrum of vertebra: 137 

Centurus 487 
aurifrons 488 

carolinus 488 
uropygialis 488 

Ceral 102 

Cerato-bronchial 167 

Cerato-hyal 167 

Ceratorhina 805 
monocerata 805 

Cere 102 

Cerebellum 175 

Cerebral vesicles 175 

Cerebro-spinal system 174 

Cerebrum 175 

Cereopsis novewe-hollandia 684 

Certhia 273 
americana 273 
britannica 273 
fusca 273 
mexicana 273 
montana 273 
occidentalis 273 
rufa 273 

Certhiida 272 

Certhiina 272 

Certhiola 317 
bahamensis 817 
flaveola 316 

Cerulean warbler 301 

Cervical 
region 96 
ribs 138 
vertebrae 92, 138 

Cervix 96 

Cervle 469 
alcyon 470 
americana cabanisi 470 

Ceyx 126, 127 

Chachalaca 573 

Cheetura £57 
pelasgica 457 
vauxi 458 

Cheturins 457 

Chattinch 339 


inves 1 262 
henshawi 262 
Chamvida 262 
Chamzpelia 569 
passerina 569 
pallescens 569 
Chaparral cock 474 
Characters 
anatomical 71 
attypic 76 
archetypic 76 
embryological 70 
etypic 76 
prototypic 76 
seasonal 71 
teleotypic 76 
valuation of 74 
zoological 70 
Charadriida 597 
Charadriinse 597 
Charadriomorphe 171, 596 
Charadrius 599 
dominicus 599 
fulvus 600 


Charadrius 
pluvialis 600 
sheppardianus 323 
virginicus 599 
Chat 
long-tailed 312 
yellow-breasted 312 
Chats 242, 256, 311 
Chatterers 325 
Chaulelasmus 693 
streperus 693 
Chauna 665 
chavaria 665 
derbiana 665 
Cheek 98 
Chelidon urbica 320 
Chelonia 62 
Chen 685 
albatus 686 
ccerulescens 685 
hyperboreus 685 
rossi 686 
Chenalopex xgyptiaca 684 
Chenomorphx 677 
Chenopsis atrata 682 
Cherry-bird 327 
Chestnut-backed titmouse 267 
Chestnut-collared longspur 358 
Chestnut-headed warbler 298 
Chestnut-sided warbler 304 
Chettusia 597 
Chewink 396 
Chiasm of optic nerves 176 
Chickadee 265 
carolina 266 
long-tailed 266 
mexican 266 
mountain 266 
western 266 
Chicken hawk 528, 530, 545 
Chimney 
swallow 457 
swift 457 
Chip-bird 380 
winter 379 
Chipping sparrow 380 
arizona 380 
Chipping sparrows a79 
Chippy 380 
Chlamydodera maculata 224 
Cholornis 126, 127, 238 
Chondestes 384 
graminica 384 
Chordediles 453 
acutipennis texensis 454 
henryi 454 
minor 454 
popetue 454 
Choroid membrane 182 
Chroicocephalus 749 
atricilla 750 
franklini 751 
philadelphia 751 
Chrysolophus 575 
amherstiw 575 
pictus 575 
Chrysomitris 353 
pinus 354 
Chrysotine 495 
Chuck-will’s-widow 451 
Chunga burmeisteri 665 
Chyme 212 
Cicatricle of egg 221 
Ciceronia 806 
Cichlopsis 328 
Ciconiidee 652 


Ciconiiformes 653 
Ciconiinz 653 
Ciliary 
ganglion 177 
ligament 183 
muscle 183 
processes 183 
Cincinnati warbler 293 
Cinereous 
shearwater 784 ¢ 
snow-bird 379 
song-sparrow 872 
Cinclinze 242, 255 
Cinelus 255 
aquaticus 254 
meNicanus 255 
Cinnamon teal 696 
Circe hummers 467 
Circe humming-bird 467 
Circinw 521 
Circle of willis 198 
Circulatory system 195 
Cc ireumorbital region 97 
Cireus 521 
hudsonius 521 
cyaneus 522 
Cistothorus 280 
stellaris 280 
Cladorhynchus pectoralis 610 
Clamatores 239, 427 
Clangula 704 
albeola 705 
glaucium 704 
islandica 106, 119, 202, 704 
Clapper rail 672 
Clarke’s crow 418 
Clark’s grebe TO4 
Class 72, 73 
of birds 61 
Classes of birds’ bills 101 
Classification 
of birds 59, 80 
of N. Am. birds 234 
machinery of 78 
principles and practice of 65 
morphological 66, 68 
Clavicles 147 
Clavicular process 146 
Clawed buzzard 552 
Claws 
of foot 132 
of wing 108, 114 
Clay-colored sparrow 381 
Cleavage 
cavity 225 
cell 224 
Clefts, visceral 153 
Cleido-trachealis 202 
Cliff swallow 32: 
Climacteris 272 
Clinoid walls 153 
Cloaca 214 
Cloud swifts 457 
Cnemial process 119 
Cobb 742 
Coccothraustes 342 
Coceygeal vertebre 114, 141 
Coceyging 474 
Coccygus, 474 
americanus 476 
erythrophthalmus 475 
seniculus 476 
Coccyx 114, 142 
Cochlea 151, 188 
Cock 
chaparral 474 


9 


INDEX. 


Cock sage 580 
Cock of the plains 580 
Coeca 214 
Ccecum 214 
Ceereba 317 
Ceerebide 317 
Coftin-carrier 742 
Colaptes 491 
aurato-mexicanus 113, 492 
auratus 493 
ayresi 492 
chrysoides 493 
hybridus 492 
mexicanus 493 
Coliidee 446 
Collar-bones 147 
Collared woodpecker 490 
Collecting 
birds 1 
nests and eggs 50 
Collecting-chest 27 
Collection, care of a 54 
Collector, to be a good 9 
Collectorship, hygiene of 19 
Collocalia 224, 456 
Collum 96 
Colorado screech owl 506 
turkey 653 
Columba 564 
erythrina 565 
fasciata 565 
leucoce phela 565 


cenas 565 

palumbus 562 
Columba 561 
Columbidi 562 
Columbine 564 
Columbine birds 561, 562 
Columella auris 185 
Colymbidee 789 
Colymbus 789 

adamsi 790 

arcticus 791 

pacificus 791 

septentrionalis 791 

torquatus 789 
Combatant 640 
Combs 98 
Comniissural 

line 105 

point 105 
Commissure 105 
Common 

atlantic shearwater 785 

brown crane 667 

earacara 539 

cormorant 726 

cow-bird 402 

crow blackbird 413 

european buzzard 547 

gallinule 675 

gannet 720 

kittiwake 748 

loon 789 

puffin 802 

quail of europe 595 

rail 673 

red-poll 852 

savannah sparrow 863 

sharp-tailed grouse 581 

tern 762 

wild goose 688 
Common american 

buzzard 546 

crow 417 


Common american 
gull 745 
shrike 338 
Complicate tail 118 
Complications in skinning 34 
Compressed tarsus 125 
Conditions of environment 72 
Condor, californian 558 
Condyles 
occipital 156 
of femur 119 
of humerus 107 
Conirostral 101 
Conjunctiva 179, 181 
Conjuncto-carotidina 198 
Connecticut warbler 309 
Consciousness 174 
Conspecies 79 
Contopus 438 
borealis 438 
pertinax 439 
richardsoni 440 
virens 439 
Contour of a bird 91 
Contour-feathers 85 
Contractor trachez 202 
Conurus 496 
carolinensis 496 
Cooper’s 
buzzard 543 
crested flycatcher 435 
hawk 528 
sandpiper 627 
_ tanager 318 
Coot 
american 676 
european 677 
sea 713, 714 
Coot-toot phalaropes 614 
Coot-footed tringa 614 
Coots 676 
Copper-tailed trogon 468 
Coraciide 446 
Coracoid bone 107, 146 
Coracomorphe 172 
Cormorant 
baird’s 729 
brandt’s 728 
common 726 
double-crested 727 
florida 727 
mexican 728 
pallas’s 728 
red-faced 728 
tufted 728 
violet-green 729 
white-tufted 727 
Cormorants 723 
Corn crake 675 
Cornea 179, 182 
Corneous covering of bill 102 
Cornua of hyoid 167 
Corona 97 
Coronoid process 166 
Corpora bigemina 175 
Corpus 
callosum 176 
striatum 175 
Corrosive sublimate 57 
Corvidee 414 
Corvin 415 
Corvus 415 
caurinus 417 
corax 416, 172 
cryptoleucus 416 
floridanus 417 


837 


838 


Corvus 
frugilegus 206 
frugivorus 417 
monedula 414 
maritimus 417 
Cory’s shearwater 784 
Coscoroba anatoides 682 
Costa humming-bird 464 


Costal process of sternum 143, 144 
Costiferous part of sternum 145 


Cotile 323 
viparia 324 
Cotton, use of 26 
Coturniculus 365 
henslowi 366 
lecontii 366 
manimbe 365 
passerinus 365 
perpallidus 366 
Coturnix 594 
dactylisonans 595 
Couch’s flycatcher 434 
Coues’ flycatcher 439 
Courlan, scolopaceous 668 
Courlans 667, 668 
Coursers, night 449 
Covering of bill 102 
Coverts 
tail 115 
wing 110 
Cowbird 
brass 403 
bronzed 403 
common 402 
dwarf 402 
red-eyed 403 
Cowbirds 401 
Cracidae 572 
Cracine 572 
Crake 
carolina 674 
european spotted 674 
farallone black 674 
little black 674 
yellow 674 
Crakes 673 
Crane 
common brown 667 
northern brown 667 
sandhill 667 
white 666 
whooping 666 
Cranes etc. 665, 666 
Cranial bones proper 160 
nerves 175, 176 
Craveri’s murrelet 814 
Creeper 
bahaman honey 317 
black-and-white 290 
brown 273 
honey 316 
mexican 273 
small-billed 290 
Creepers 272 
Creeping warblers 290 
Crescent swallow 323 
Crested 
auk 807 
blue jays 421 
grebe 794 
lapwing 605 
titmice 264 
Crested flycatcher 
ash-throated 436 


cooper’s large-billed 435 


great 434 


INDEX. 


Crested flycatcher 
lawrence’s 436 
rufous-tailed 435 

Crested flycatchers 434 

Crestless blue jays 423 

Crests of birds 99 


Cretaceous birds 61, 62, 63, 825 


Crex 674 

pratensis 675 
Crimson finch 346 
Crimson-fronted finch 347 


Crimson-headed tanager 319 


Crissal 
thrasher 255 
towhee 397 
Crissum 96 
Cristze 99 
Crop of birds 212 
Cross-bill 
american red 349 
mexican 350 
white-winged 348 
Cross-bills 348 
Crossoptilon 575 
Crotaphyte depression 157 
Crotophaga 471 
ani 472 
sulcirostris 472 
Crotophagine 471 
Crow 
blue 418 
carrion 560 
clarke’s 418 
common american 417 
northwestern fish 417 
southeastern fish 417 
Crow blackbird 410 
boat-tailed 412 
bronzed 413 
common 413 
fan-tailed 412 
florida 414 
purple 413 
Crow-duck 676 
Crown of the head 97 
Crown sparrow 
intermediate 383 
gambel’s 383 
golden 383 
hooded 384 
white-browed 383 
white-throated 382 
Crown sparrows 381 
Crows 414, 415 
Crows, blue 418 
Crura cerebri 175 
Crural 119 
feathers 123 
Crus 119, 125 
Crying-bird 668 
Crypturi 574 
Crystalline lens 183 
Cuban 
night-hawk 454 
sparrow hawk 538 
Cubit 107 
Cuculide: 470 
Cuculiform birds 467 
Cuculiformes 466, 467 
Cuculus canorus 471 
Cuckold 402 
Cuckoo 
black-billed 475 
ground 474 
mangrove 476 
yellow-billed 476 


Cuckoos 470 
american 474 
ground 473 
tree 474 

Culmen 104 

Cultrirostral 101 

Cuneiforme 106, 107, 108 

Cupidonia 583 
cupido 123, 583 
pallidicineta 584 

Cupola 188 

Curassows 572 

Curlew 
bristle-bellied 646 
eskimo 646 
hudsonian 645 
jack 645 
long-billed 645 
otahiti 646 
spanish 651 

Curlew sandpipers 631 

Curlews 618, 643 

Cursorial foot 129,130 

Cursoriinae 597 

Curve-billed thrasher 252 

Cyanecula 258 
suecica 258 

Cyanocitta 
annectens 422 
coronata 322 
cristata 421 
diademata 422 
florincola 421 
frontalis 422 
macrolopha 422 
stelleri 421 

Cyclarhis 330 

Cygninz 681 

Cygnopsis cygnoides 684 

Cygnus 682 
bewicki 683 
buccinator 682 
columbianus 682 
musicus 683 
nigricollis 682 
olor 681 
paloregonus 824 

Cymochorea 781 
homochroa 781 
leucorrhoa 781 
melena 781 

Cypselidz 455 

Cypseliformes 446, 447 

Cypselinx 456 

Cypselus 456 
apus 87 

Cytula 224 


DABCHICK 797 
Dacelonine 469 
Dafila 692 

acuta 692 
Damier 779 
Danger’s method 51 
Daptium 779 

capense 779 
Daptrius 539 


Dark-bodied shearwater 787 


Darters 729 
Darwinian logic 60 
Day owl 511 
Decomposition 39 
Degrees of likeness 71 
Demoiselle egrets 660 
Dendragapus 578 


Dendrocygna 689 
autumnalis 689 
fulva 689 

Dendreeca 296 
adelaide 297 
estiva 298 
albilora 306 
auduboni 802 
aureola 297 
blackburne 302 
bryanti 298 
capitalis 297 
castanea 304 
chrysoparia 300 
ccerulea 301 
coerulescens 300 
coronata 301 
discolor 305 
dominica 306 
eoa 297 
graciz 306 
hypochrysea 307 
kirtlandi 306 
maculosa 304 
nigrescens 306 
occidentalis 299 
palmarum 307 
pennsylvanica 304 
petechia 297 
pharetra 297 
pinus 307 
pityophila 297 
striata 303 
tigrina 805 
townsendi 299 
vieilloti 298 
virens 298 

Dendrortyx 588 

Dentary bone 166 

Dentirostral 101 

Derby flycatcher 430 

Dermestes lardarius 55 

Design, evidences of 477 

Desmameeba 192 

Desmognathism 171, 172 

Desmognathous skull 171 

Determination of sex 45 

Development 
of feathers 82 
of skull 151 

Diabolic petrels 779 

Diaphragm 193 

Diapophyses 137 

Diatryma gigantea 825 

Dicholophus 144 

Dichroic egrets 661 

Dichromanassa 661 
rufa 661 

Didactyle birds 126 

Didi 562 

Didunculus strigirostris 563 

Didus ineptus 65, 562 

Diedapper 797 

Digestive system 209 

Digiti 126 

Digits 
of foot 121, 128 
of wing 106 

Diglossa 817 

Dinornithes 65 

Dinosaurs 63, 821 

Diomedea 774 
brachyura 775 
nigripes 775 

Diomedeine 774 

Dipper 705, 797 


INDEX. 


Dipper 
american 255 
european 254 
Dippers 242, 254 
Directions for using the keys 227 
Discogastrula 225 
Dissoura maguari 653 
Distal phalanges 127 
Distichous arrangement 114 
Diurnal birds of prey 517 
Diver 
black-throated 791 
great northern 789 
pacific black-throated 791 
red-throated 791 
Diving birds 787 
Dodo 65, 562 
Dogs 9 
Dolichonyx 400 
oryzivorus 400 
Domestic 
duck 691 
pigeon 565 
Dorsal vertebrae 139 
Dorso-lumbar vertebre 140 
Dorsum 94 
Dotted cation wren 276 
Double-crested cormorant 727 
Double-forked tail 117 
Double-rounded tail 117 
Dough-bird 646 
Dove 
blue-headed 571 
carolina 568 
ground 569 
inca 570 
key west 571 
mourning 568 
quail 571 
scaled 570 
sea 810 
white-fronted 567 
white-winged 569 
wild 568 
zenaida 569 
Dovekie 810 
Doves 
dwarf 569 
love 568 
lustre 570 
pin-tail 568 
pin-wing 567 
quail 571 
shell 570 
white-wing 569 
Dowitcher 622 
Down-feathers 86 
Downy woodpecker 483 
Draco 82 
Drills for eggs 51 
Dromexognathex 69, 170 
Dromeognathism 168 
Dromeognathous skull 169, 170 
Dromeus 170 
Drum of ear 185 
Drumstick 119 
Ducal tern 761 
Duck 
black 691 
black-head 701 
buffle-head 704 
canvasback 703 
crow 676 
domestic 691 
dusky 691 
eider 708, 710, 712 


839 


Duck 
florida dusky 692 
gray 693 
golden-eye 704 
greater scaup 701 
harlequin 707 
labrador 706 
lesser scaup 701 
long-tail 706 
pied 706 
pin-tail 692 
raft 700 
red-head 762 
ring-neck 701 
rudder 715 
ruddy 715 
shoveller 696 
summer 698 
st. domingo 755 
surf 714 
wild 691 
white-winged surf 714 
wood 698 
Ducks 
blackhead 699 
bridal 699 
eider 708 
fishing 716 
pintail 697 
redhead 699 
river 689 
rudder 715 
sea 698 
spoonbill 696 
surf 713 
teal 694 
tree 689 
Duck hawk 534 
Dunlin 
american 631 
european 631 
sandpipers 631 
Duodenum 213 
Dura mater 176 


horned owl 504 

grouse 579 

shearwater 786 
Dusky-tailed humming-bird 466 
Dwarf 

bitterns 664 

cowbird 402 

doves 569 
Dynamameebe 215, 218, 219 
Dysporus 720 


EAGLE 
bald 555 
golden 554 
harpy 553 
ring-tailed 554 
sea 555 
white-headed sea 555 
white-tailed sea 555 
Eagles 519, 541 
fishing 554 
golden 553 
harpy 553 
sea 554 
Ear of birds 92, 184 
Eared grebe 
american 796 
european 795 
Eared owls 507 


840 


Eastern 
bluebird 257 
fox sparrow 385 
hermit thrush 247 
house wren 278 
snow-bird 3877 
Eaves swallow 323 
Ecdysis 88 
Ectoderm 226 
Ectopistes 565 
migratorius 566 
Educabilia 76 
Efferent nerves 174 
Egg 216 
anatomy of 222 
Egg-drills 51 
Egg-laying 223 
Egg-pod 222 
Egg-shell 223 
reinforcing 53 


gs 
collecting 50 
labeling 53 
preparing 51 
shapes of 223 
Egret 
great white 658 
little white 660 
louisiana 661 
peale’s 661 
reddish 661 
Egrets 
demoiselle 660 
dichroic 661 
Eider 
spectacled 710 
steller’s 709 
european 710 
american 712 
pacific 712 
king 712 
Eiders, 708 
Eleeodochon 86 
Elanoides 525 
forficatus 526 
Elanus 525 
glaucus 525 
Elbow-joint 106, 107 
Elegant tern 760 
Elf owls 515, 516 
Emargination of remiges 112 
Emberiza hortulana 401 
Embernagra 398 
rufivirgata 398 
Embryological characters 70 
Embryology 216, 224 
Embryos 216, 217 
extracting 52 
Emperor goose 686 
Empidonax 440 
acadicus 441 
difficilis 442 
flaviventris 442 
hammondi 443 
minimus 442 
obscurus 443 
pusillus 442 
pygmeus 443 
subviridis 441 
trailli 441 
wrighti 443 
Encephalon 175 
Endoderm 226 
cells 225 
Endolymph 190 
Endoskeleton 134 


INDEX. 


Endysis 88 
English 

pheasant 574 

snipe 614, 621 

sparrow 344 
Engyptila 567 

albifrons 567 
Environment, conditions of /2 
Eocene birds 64 
Epapophysis cerebri 175 
Epiblast 226 
Epibranchial 167 
Epicleidium 147 
Epidermic structures 82 
Epididymis 217 
Epigastrium 96 
Epiglottis 204, 210 
Epignathous bills 101 
Epiotic 157, 187 
Epiphyses 134 
Epipleural processes 142 
Epipubic bone 149 
Equilibration 190 
Equivalence of groups 73 
Eremophila 281 

alpestris 281 

chrysolema 282 

Jeucolama 282 
Ereunetes 624 

occidentalis 625 

pusillus 624 
Erismatura 715 

rubida 715 
Erythrocnema 542 
Esacus 597 
Eskimo curlew 646 
Ethmoid 160 
Etypic characters 76 
Eudocimus 651 

albus 651 

ruber 651 
Eugenes 461 

fulgens 461 
Euplocomus 575 
Eupodotis australis 212 
Eupsychortyx 588 
European 

black-tailed godwit 636 

blue heron 658 

coot 677 

cuckoo 471 

curlew 644 

dunlin 631 

eared grebe 795 

eider duck 710 

great white egret 659 

golden plover 600 

goshawk 529 

green-winged teal 695 

hawk owl 512 

herring gull 748 

jackdaw 414 

jay 419 

kingfisher 469 

land-rail 675 

lesser ring plover 603 

little white egret 660 

mew gull 746 

oyster-catcher 606 

partridge 588 

ring plover 603 

snipe 621 

sparrow owl 513 

spoonbill 650 

spotted crake 673 

spotted woodvecker 477 


European 
whimbrel 645 
white-fronted goose 684 
wigeon 694 
woodcock 620 
wren 273 
Eurynorhynchus 634 
pygmeus 634 
Eurypyga helias 665 
Eustachian tube 158, 185, 210 
Evening grosbeak 342 
Everglade kite 523 
Evidences of design 77 
Evolution, theory of 60, 62, 66 
Exanthemops 686 
Exoccipital 156 
Exoceetes 82 
Exoskeletal structures 82 
Exoskeleton 134 
Explanation of frontispiece 236 
Extension and flexion of wing 106, 
109 
Extensor muscles 199 
‘* Extent”? 24 
Exterior of a bird 82, 92 
Extinct birds 64 
Eye 92, 178, 179 
Eye-water 38 
Eyes, glass 44 


Factan 
bones 161 
nerve 177, 187 
Falcate bill 102 
Falco 532 
wsalon 537 
candicans 533 
columbarius 536 
fusciccerulescens 539 
gyrfalco 532 
isabellinus 538 
islandicus 532 
labradora 533 
lanarius 534 
mexicanus 534 
obsoletus 532 
pealii 536 
peregrinus 534 
polyagrus 534 
richardsoni 537 
sacer 532 
sparverioides 538 
sparverius 537 
suckleyi 537 
Faleon 
aplomado 539 
femoral 539 
peale’s peregrine 536 
peregrine 534 
rusty-crowned 537 
Falconidx 519 
Falconine 531 
Falcons 519, 531 
Fallopian nerviduct 187 
False cere 102 
Family 72, 73 
Fan-tailed 
crow blackbird 412 
wrens 274 
Farallone black crake 674 
Fascive 192 
Fat, fatness 37 
Fatigue and hunger 20 
Fauces 210 
Feathered tracts 86 
Feather-leg sandpipers 628 


Feathers 82, 84, 85, 109 
Feet of birds 118 
Females, full suites of 14 
Femoral falcon 539 
Femoro-caudal 195 
Femur 119 
Fenestra 
ovalis 153, 154, 185 
rotunda 185 
Ferrugineous 
buzzard 551 
owl 514 
sandpiper 632 
Fibula 119 
Fibulare 120 
Field 
lark 406 
naturalist’s duties 21 
ornithology 1 
plover 598, 599, 641 
sparrow 380 
work 9 
Fiery-red cardinal 394 
Fighting sandpipers 640 
Filoplumaceous feathers 85 
Filoplumes 86 
Finch 
allen’s rosy 350 
arizona summer 374 
bachman’s summer 373 
baird’s rosy 351 
blanding’s 398 
brandt’s rosy 351 
boucard’s summer 375 
bay-winged summer 375 
black-throated 376 
bell’s 376 
cassin’s purple 347 
cassin’s summer 374 
crimson 846 
crimson-fronted 347 
florida sea-side 368 
grass 364 
green 398 
house 347 
illinois summer 373 
indigo 391 
lazuli 391 
lincoln’s 370 
nelson’s sharp-tailed 368 
painted 391 
pallas’s rosy 352 
pine 354 
purple 346 
purple painted 391 
ridgway’s rosy 350 
rufous-crowned summer 374 
sea-side 367 
sharp-tailed 368 
swainson’s rosy 351 
western grass 365 
Finches 339 
painted 390 
rosy 350 
summer 373 
Fire-bird 408 
Kire-crowned flycatchers 444 
Fish 
crow 417 
hawks 556 
Fisher’s petrel 780 
Fishing 
ducks 716 
eagles 554 
Fissirostral 101 
Fixtures 25, 27 


INDEX. 


Flag of hawks 123 
Flamingoes 678 
Flammulated owl 506 
Flanks 95 
Flaps of toes 98 
Flesh-footed shearwater 785 
Flexion of wing 106, 109 
Flexor 
digitorum perforatus 195 
longus hallucis 193 
muscles 109 
Flicker 493 
mexican 493 
Flickers 491 
Flight-feath 
Flocculus 176 
Flocking fowl 701 
Florida 661 
barred owl 510 
ccerulea 661 
cormorant 727 
crow 417 
crow blackbird 414 
dusky duck 692 
gallinule 675 
heron 658 
jay 423 
quail 591 
sea-side finch 368 
screech owl 506 
wren 277 
Flycatcher 
acadian 441 
arkansaw tyrant 433 
ash-throated crested 436 
black pewit 437 
beardless 441 
cassin’s tyrant 433 


rs 88, 109, 111 


cooper’s large-billed crested 


435 

couch’s tyrant 434 

coues’ 439 

derby 430 

dirty little 443 

forked-tailed 431 

gray little 443 

great crested 434 

green-crested 441 

hammond’s 443 

lawrence’s crested 436 

little buff-breasted 443 

little western 442 

least 442 

olive-sided 438 

pewee 437 

pewit 437 

rufous-tailed crested 435 

say’s pewit 437 

small green-crested 441 

sulphur-bellied striped 431 

swallow-tailed 431 

traill’s 441 

vermilion 444 

western wood pewee 440 

western yellow-bellied 442 

wood pewee 439 

wright’s 443 

yellow-bellied 442 
Flycatchers 

american 428 

ash-throated 434 

beardless 443 

crested 434 

derby 430 

fire-crowned 444 

king 432 


841 


Flycatchers 

little olivaceous 440 

pewit 436 

rufous-tailed 434 

striped 431 

swallow-tailed 431 

true tyrant 428 

wood pewee 438 
Flycatching thrush 

townsend’s 329 
Flycatching thrushes 328 
Flycatching warbler 

black-capped 313 

canadian 314 

hooded 313 

painted 315 

red-fronted 314 
Flycatching warblers 312, 313 

rose 3l4 
Fly-snapper, shining 328 
a 327 
Fontanelles of sternum 144 
Foot 118 

intecument of 124 

moditications of 129 

plumage of 122 
Foramen 

Jacerum 160 

magnum 156 

of monro 175 

ovale of skull 156 

ovale of heart 196 
Forceps 25, 52 
Forearm 106, 107 
Fork-tail petrels 781 

gray 781 

hornby’s 782 

sooty 782 
Forked-tailed 

flycatcher 431 

gull 753 
Forms, generalized 76 

specialized 76 
Formulation of knowledge 78 
Fornix 176 
Forster’s tern 763 
Fossa, nasal 104 
Fossil birds 62, 821 

cretaceous 825 

jurassic 829 

tertiary 822 
Four-toed plover 598 
Fowls 571, 57 

pigeon-toed 572 

true 573 
Fox sparrow 

eastern 385 

large-billed 386 

slate-colored 386 

townsend’s 385 
Fox sparrows 385 
Francolinus 576 
Franklin’s 

rosy gull 751 

spruce grouse 579 
Fratercula 800 

arctica 802 

corniculata 801 

glacialis 803 
Fregetta 782 

grallaria 783 
Fresh-water 

ducks 689 

marsh hen 672 
Frigates 730 
Fringe-footed phalaropes 612 


842 


Fringilla ccelebs 839 
Fringillida 339 
Frontal 
antie 105 
bone 156 
Frontlets 99 
Frontispiece, explanation ¢f 236 
Fronto-facial hinge 156 
Yulgent hummers 461 
Fulica 676 
americana 676 
atra 677 
Fulicine 676 
Fuliginous buzzard 549 
Fuligula 699, 700 
affinis 701 
americana 702 
collaris 701 
ferina 702 
marila 701 
rufina 700 
vallisneria 703 
Fuligulina 698 
Fulix 701 
Fulmar 777 
giant 777 
pacific 778 
rodgers’ 778 
slender-billed 778 
Fulmar shearwaters 783 
Fulmars 777 
gull 778 
Fulmarus 777 
glacialis 778 
pacificus 778 
rodgersi 778 
Fulvous tree duck 689 
Furcate tail 117 
Furculum 107, 147 


Gapr ty petrels 779 
Gadwall 693 
Gairdner’s woodpecker 483 
Galbulide 446 
Gall-bladder 215 
Galeoscoptes 249 
Gallinaceous birds 571 
Galline 571, 823 
Gallinago 615, 620 

gallinula 622 

ceelestis 622 

media 621 

wilsoni 621 
Gallinula 675 

galeata 675 
Gallinule 

common 675 

florida 675 

sultan 676 
Gallinules 675 

sultan 675 
Gallinulins 675 
Gallo-columbine series 571 
Gallus bankiva 575 
Gambel’s 

crown sparrow 382 

partridge 593 
Gambetta 640 
Gamin 344 
Ganglia 

of brain 175 

of nerves 174 
Gannet 

brown 720 

common 720 

white 720 


INDEX. 


Gannets 720 
Gape 105 
Garrot 704 
Garruline 419 
Garrulus glandarius 419 
Garzetta 659 

candidissima 660 

nivea 660 
Gastornis 

giganteus 825 

parisiensis 64 
Gastreum 94, 95 
Gastrula 225 
Gastrulation 225 
Gavie 733 
Geothlypis 310 

macgillivrayi 311 

philadelphia 311 

trichas 310 
Geotrygon 570 

martinica 571 
Geranarchus 666 
Geranomorphe 171 
Germinal 

spot 220 

vesicle 220 
Germination 224 
Germ-yelk 224 
Géant 65 
Geese 683 

barnacle 686 

brant 686 

gray 684 

painted 686 

snow 685 
Gelochelidon 756 
Gemitores 562 
Gena 98 
Genera 72, 73 
General ornithology 59 
Generalized forms 76 
Generative organs 215 
Genetic relations 78 
Genio-hyoid 211 
Genital glands 215 
Genus 72, 73 
Geococcyx 473 

californianus 474 
Geologic succession 62 
Geopelia 564 
Giant fulmar 777 
Gigerium 213 
Gila woodpecker 488 
Gilded 

woodpecker 493 

woodpeckers 491 
Ginglymus 121 
Gizzard 212 
Glabrirostres 449 
Gland, oil 86 
Glareolide 597 
Glass eyes 44 
Glaucidium 514 

ferrugineum 514 

gnoma 514 

passerinum 514 
Glaucous gull 741 
Glaucous-winged gull 741 
Glenoid 

cavity 146 

process 146 
Glosso-hyal bone 167 
Glosso-pharyngeal nerve 177 
Glossy 

ibis 649 

ibises 649 


Glottis 204, 210 
Gnat-catcher 
black-capped 261 
blue-gray 260, 261 
plumbeous 261 
Gnat-catchers 242, 260 
Gnathotheca 103 
Gnome owl 
californian 514 
ferrugineous 514 
Gnome owls 514 
Goatsuckers 447 
true 448 
Godwit 
american black-tailed 636 
european black-tailed 636 
great marbled 635 
hudsonian 635 
pacific bar-tailed 636 
white-tailed 636 
Godwits 616, 634 
Golden 
crown sparrow 382 
eagle 554 
eagles 553 
pheasants 575 
plover 599 
robin 408 
swamp warblers 291 
Golden warbler 298 
chestnut-headed 298 
Golden-cheeked warbler 300 
Golden-crested kinglet 260 
Golden-crowned 
accentor 308 
thrush 308 
wag-tail warbler 308 
Golden-eye 704 
Golden-winged woodpecker 493 
Goldfinch 
american 354 
arizona 355 
arkansaw 355 
black-headed 356 
lawrence’s 355 
mexican 355 
Goldfinches 354 
american 354 
Gold-tits 269 
Gonys 103, 166 
Goosander 716 
Goose 
american white-fronted 684 
barnacle 687 
black brant 688 
blue snow 685 
brant 687 
canada 688 
common wild 688 
emperor 686 
european white-fronted 684 
hutchins’ 689 
large white-cheeked 688 
least snow 686 
lesser snow 686 
painted 686 
ross’ 686 
smaller white-cheeked 689 
snow 685 
Gorget hummers 461 
Gorglets 99 
Goshawk 
american 580 
european 529 
western 531 
Goshawks 530 


Goura 563 
Graatian follicle 220 
Grace’s warbler 306 
Grackle 

blue-headed 411 

boat-tailed 412 

brass 413 

green 414 

purple 413 

Ttusty 411 

texas 412 
Grackles 410 

rusty 411 
Gracuiavus 

agilis 827 

anceps 827 

lentus 827 

pumilus 826 

velox 826 
Graculus 

idahensis 824 

macropus 824 
Gradation of tail 117 
Grallatores altinares 648 
Grallatorial 

anseres 677 

foot 129, 130 
Granatellus 287, 311 


Granulation of podotheca 125 


Grass 

quit 392 

plover 641 

sparrows 364 
Grass finch 364 

western 365 
Grasshopper sparrow 365 

henslow’s 366 

le conte’s 366 
Grasshopper sparrows 365 
Grass-snipe 626 
Gravity, centre of 91 
Gray 

duck 693 


forked-tailed petrel 782 


geese 684 

greenlet 334 

grouse 579 

Jays 425 

Kingbird 433 

little flycatcher 443 

owls 508 

phalarope 614 

ruffed grouse 585 

shrikes 337 

snipe 622 

song sparrow 372 

star buzzard 551 

towhee 398 
Gray-back 632 
Gray-cheeked thrush 247 
Gray-headed snowbird 379 
Gray-winged gull 742 
Great 

black-backed gull 742 

blue heron 657 

carolina wren 277 

crested flycatcher 434 

egret herons 658 

gray owl 509 

herons 657 

horned owl 503 

marbled godwit 635 

northern diver 789 

northern shrike 337 

white egret 658 

white heron 658 


INDEX. 


Greater 

coverts 110 

longbeak 623 

scaup duck 701 

shearwater 785 

telltale 638 

titmouse 263 

yellowshanks 638 
Great-footed hawk 534 
Grebe 

american eared 796 

american red-necked 794 

crested 794 

clark’s 794 

european eared 795 

horned 795 

pied-billed 797 

st. domingo 796 

western 793 
Grebes 792, 794 

spear-bill 793 

thick-bill 796 
Green 

finch 398 

grackle 414 

heron 662 

jays 424 

sandpiper 639 
Green-backed humming-bird 463 
Green-crested flycatcher 441 
Green-head 691 
Greenland 

gyrfalcon 533 

mealy red-poll 353 
Greenlet 

bell’s 335 

black-capped 336 

black-whiskered 332 

blue-headed 333 

brotherly love 332 

cassin’s 333 

gray 334 

hutton’s 334 

least 335 

plumbeous 334 

red-eyed 331 

solitary 333 

stephens’ 335 

yellow-green 332 

yellow-throated 333 

warbling 332 

western warbling 333 

white-eyed 334 
Greenlets 329 
Green-shanks 639 
Green-tailed towhee 398 
Groove-billed ani 472 
Grosbeak 

black-headed 389 

blue 390 

cardinal 393 

evening 342 

pine 343 

rose-breasted 389 
Grosbeaks 340 

blue 390 

cardinal 393 

song 388 
Ground 

cuckoos 473 

doves 566, 569 

sparrows 360 

warblers 310 
Groups 

higher than genera 234 

taxonomic equivalence of 73 


843 


Groups 
zoological 72 
Grouse 576, 577 
black 578 
blue 579 
canada 578 
common sharp-tailed 581 
dusky 579 
franklin’s spruce 579 
gray 579 
gray ruffed 585 
northern sharp-tailed 579 
oregon ruffed 585 
pale pinnated 584 
pine 579 
pinnated 583 
pin-necked 583 
pin-tailed 581 
red ruffed 585 
richardson’s dusky 579 
rocky mountain snow 583 
ruffed 584, 585 
sage 580 
sharp-tailed 581 
snow 585 
sooty 580 
spotted 578 
spruce 578 
tree 578 
willow 586 
Gruber’s buzzard 553 
Gruide 666 
Gruiformes 666 
Grus 
americana 203, 666 
canadensis 203, 667 
fraterculus 667 
haydeni 823 
pratensis 667 
proavus 823 
Guan, texan 573 
Guans 573 
Guillemot 
black 814 
briinnich’s 818 
californian 817 
common 816 
pigeon 815 
sooty 815 
spectacled 815 
thick-billed 817 
Guillemots 810, 816 
Guinea-fowl 574 
Guiraca 390 
coerulea 390 
Gula 96 
Gular 96 
Gular pouch 210 
Gull 


american herring 743 
american mew 746 
black-headed 750 
bonaparte’s rosy 751 
californian 745 
common american 745 
european herring 743 
european mew 746 
fork-tailed 753 
franklin’s rosy 751 
glaucous 741 
glaucous-winged 741 
gray-winged 742 
great black-backed 742 
ice 741, 749 

ivory 749 

kittiwake 748 


844 


Gull 
laughing 750 
pallas’s 744 
swallow-tailed 753 
reinhardt’s 745 
ring-billed 745 
ross’ rosy 753 
western herring 744 
white-headed 747 
white-winged 741 
Gull fulmars 778 
Gulls 733, 739, 740 
forked-tailed 753 
hooded 749 
ice 749 
ivory 749 
rosy 749 
skua 734 
wedge-tail 752 
Gull-billed teru 757 
Guns 1, 5, 6, 7 
Gustation 191 
Guttur 96 
Gygis alba 755 
Gymnocitta 418 
cyanocephala 418 
Gypetus barbatus 519 
Gyparchus papa 557, 561 
Gypogeranides 497 
Gypogeranus serpentarius 497 
Gypohierax angolensis 519 
Gyrantes 562 
Gyrfalcon 
american continental 532 
american lanner 5384 
greenland 533 
iceland 533 
labrador 532 
Gyrfalcons 532 
Gyps fulvus 519 
Gypsum 27 


HMAL 

arch 136 

spine 137 
Hamapophyses 137 
Hematamceba cruentata 196 
Hematic system 195 
Heematopodide 606 
Hematopus 606 

niger 607 

ostrilegus 606 

palliatus 606 
Hematothermal 196 
Hair-bird 380 
Hairy woodpecker 483 
Half-webbed foot 131 
Haliaétus 554 

albicilla 555 

leucocephalus 555 

pelagicus 555 
Haliplana 756 
Hallux 128 
Halocyptena 780 

microsoma 780 
Halodroma 732 
Halodrominz 773, 774 
Halones of egg 222 
Hammond's flycatcher 443 
Hamulate bill 102 
Hamuii 84 
Hang-nest 408 
Harderian gland 179, 181 
Hare-footed buzzards 549 
Harelda 706 

glacialis 706 


INDEX. 


Harlan’s buzzard 543 
Harlequin 
duck 707 
quail 594 
Harpagornis 65 
Harporhynchus 250 
bendirii 252 
cinereus 253 
crissalis 254 
curvirostris 252 
lecontii 254 
longirostris 251 
palmeri 252 
redivivus 253 
rufus 251 
Harpy eagle 553 
Harriers 521 
Harris’s 
buzzard 542 
sparrow 384 
woodpecker 483 
Haunch bones 148 
Haversian canals 134 
Hawfinches, american 342 
Hawk 
american marsh 521 
black 549 
blue 521 
california squirrel 551 
chicken 528, 530, 545 
cooper’s 528 
cuban sparrow 538 
duck 534 
fish 556 
great-footed 534 
hen 530 
isabel sparrow 538 
marsh 521 
pigeon 528, 536 
richardson’s pigeon 537 
sharp-shinned 528 
sparrow 537 
winter 545 
Hawk owl 511 
american 511 
european 511 
Hawks 519, 526 
sharp-shinned 527 
Head of birds 92, 97 
Hearing, sense of 184 
Heart 196 
Heel 120 
Heermann’s song sparrow 372 
Heliornithide 666 
Helmet 
hummers 464 
quail 591 
Helmintherus 291 
swainsoni 21/2 
vermivorus 291 
Helminthophaga 292 
Helminthophila 292 
bachmani 294 
celata 295 
chrysoptera 294 
cincinnatiensis 293 
lawrencii 293 
leucobronchialis 293 
luciae 294 
peregrina 295 
pinus 293 
ruficapilla 294 
virginiw 294 
Heloise humming-bird 465 
Hemiglottides 648 
Hemipodii 571, 572 


Hemispheres of brain 175 
Heniconetta 709 
Hen hawk 544 
Hen, sage 580 
Hens, marsh 671 
Henshaw’s wren-tit 262 
Henslow’s 
bunting 366 
grasshopper sparrow 366 
Hepatic tanager 318 
Heredity 66 
Hermit 
thrush 247 
warbler 299 
Herodiw 648 
Herodias 658 
alba 659 
egretta 658 
Herodii 654 
Herodiones 647 
Heron 
black-crowned night 662 
european blue 658 
florida 658 
great blue 657 
great egret 658 
great white 658 
green 662 
little blue 661 
little white 661 
night 662, 663 
snowy 660 
wiirdemann’s 658 
Herons 654 
and their allies 647 
blue and white 661 
great 657 
great egret 658 
green 662 
small egret 659 
night 662 
thick-bill night 663 
true 657 
Herpetotheres 519 
Herring gull 743 
american 743 
european 743 
Hesperocichla 243 
Hesperophona 342 
vespertina 342 
Hesperornis 63 
crassipes 827 
gracilis 827 
regalis 63, 826 
Heteroceelous vertebrxe 138 
Heterodactyli 446 
Heteroscelus 643 
incanus 643 
Hiator 652 
High-holder 493 
“High,” in scale of organization 77 
Himantopus 611 
nigricollis 611 
Himantornis hamatopus 670 
Hind 
limb 118 
toe 128 
Hip-joint 118 
Hirundinide 319 
Hirundo 321 
erythrogastra 322 
horreorum 322 
rustica 319 
Histrionicus 707 
minutus 707 
Hobbies 532 


Holboll’s red-poll 353 
Holoblastic eggs 220 
Holorhinal 165 
Uolothecal podotheca 125 
Homalogonatous birds 195 
Homology 67, 68 
Honey creeper, bahaman 317 
Honey creepers 317 
Hooded 

crown sparrow 384 

flycatching warbler 313 

merganser 718 

oriole 409 
Hoodlum 844 
Tooklets of feathers 84 
Hooks, for eggs 52 
Hoot owl 503, 509 
Hoplopterus 597, 669 
Horn-bill auk 805 
Horned 

grebe 795 

lark 281 

owl, 504 

puflin 801 

screamers 665 

wavy 686 
Hornby’s petrel 782 
Horns of hyoid bone 167 
Horny integument of foot 124 
House 

finch 347 

martin 320 

sparrow 344 

wren 278 
Hudsonian 

curlew 645 

godwit 635 

titmouse 267 
Humero-scapulare 145 
Humerus 106, 107 
Hummers 

amazili 466 

attic 465 

circe 467 

fulgent 461 

gorget 461 

helmet 464 

lightning 462 

lucifer 466 

queen 460 

starry 465 

xantus 460 
Humming-bird 

allen 463 

alexander 462 

anna 464 

broad-tailed 463 

calliope 465 

circe 467 

costa 465 

dusky-tailed 466 

heloise 465 

lucifer 466 

red-backed rufous 462 

refulgent 461 

ruby-throated 461 

rufous-bellied 466 

xantus 460 
Humming-birds 458 
Hunger and fatigue 20 
Huschke’s process 189 
Hutchins’ goose 689 
{utton’s greenlet 334 
Hyacinths 675 
Hyaloid membrane 184 
Hybrid snow-bird 378 


INDEX. 


Hydralector 669 
Hydranassa 660 

tricolor 661 
Hydrophasianus 669 
Iygiene of collectorship 19 
Hylocichla 80 
Hylophilus 330 
Hylotomus 480 

pileatus 480 


Hymenolemus malacorhynchus 699 


Hyoid bone 153, 167 

Hy papophysis 137 
cerebri 175 

Hy poblast 226 

Hy pochondria 95 

Hypocleidium 146, 147 

Hy poglossal nerve 177 

Hypognathous bill 101 

Hyporhachis 84 

Uypositta 269 


TacuE 467 
latirostris 467 
Thidorhyncha struthersi 618 
Ibides 648 
Ibididx 648 
Ibis series 648 
Ibis 
glossy 649 
scarlet 651 
white 651 
white-faced 651 
glossy 649 
wood 653 
Ibises 648 
glossy 649 
scarlet 651 
white 651 
wood 652 
Ibycter 539 
Ice gulls 749 
Iceland gyrfalcon 533 
Ichthyopsida 60 
Ichthyornis 63, 64, 70, 77, 237 
agilis 827 
anceps 827 
celer 826 
Jentus 827 
tener 828 
validus 828 
victor 828 
Icteria 312 
longicauda 312 
virens 312 
Icteride 399 
Icteriinz 288, 311 
Icterinz 406 
Icterus 407 
affinis 408 
auduboni 410 
bullocki 409 
eucullatus 409 
galbula 408 
melanocephalus 410 
parisorum 409 
spurius 407 
vulgaris 407 
Ictinia 523 
subceerulea 523 
— idee (suffix) 78 
Ideal plan of vertebra 135 
Tlium 148, 213 
Illinois summer finch 873 
Imperial tern 757 
Impeyans 575 


845 


Implements for collecting 1 
— ine (suffix) 78 
Inca dove 57U 
Inca mystacalis 755 
Incubation 226 
Incumbent hallux 128 
Indian hen 664 
Indicatoride 446 
Indigo painted tinch 391 
Indigo-bird 391 
Infra-orbital region 97 
Infundibulum 

of ear 188 

of oviduct 221 
Ingluvies 212 
Innominate bone 148 
Insect pests 55 
Insessores 238 
Insessorial foot 129 
Insistent hallux 128 
Instruments 25 

for eggs 51 
Integument of foot 124 
Interclavicle 147 
Intermaxillary bone 100, 164 
Intermediate crown sparrow 382 
Intermedium 120 
Internasal plate 151 
Internodes of foot 121 
Interorbital septum 153 
Interramal space 97, 104 
Interscapulare 95 
Intestine 213 
Tonornis 675 

martinica 676 
Ipswich savanna sparrow 361 
Tridoprocne 322 

bicolor 822 
Iris of eve 183 
Iris swallows 322 
Isabel sparrow hawk 538 
Ischiac artery 199 
Ischium 148 
Tsomeres 229, 233 
Isotomes 229, 233 
Isthmus of oviduct 222 
Ivory gull 749 
Ivory-billed woodpecker 479 
Iyngide 446 
lynx torquilla 105 


JABIRU 653 
american 653 
Jacana, mexican 669 
Jacanas 669 
Jack curlew 645 
Jackdaw 412 
european 414 
Jack-snipe 621, 626 
Jager 
arctic 738 
longed-tailed 738 
parasitic 736 
pomatorhine 735 
Jagers 734 
Japanese murrelet 812 
Jaw-bone 166 
Jaws of birds 100 
Jay 
alaskan 425 
arizona 425 
blue 421 
blue-fronted 422 
black-headed 422 
brown 419 


846 


Jay 
california 424 
canada 425 
crested blue 421 
crestless blue 423 
florida 423 
long-crested 422 
oregon 425 
rio grande 424 
rocky mountain 425 
smutty-nosed 426 
steller’s 421 
woodhouse’s 423 
Jays 414, 419 
brown 419 
crested blue 421 
crestless blue 423 
gray 425 
green 424 
Jejunum 213 
Jerfalcon see gyrfalcon 
Jugal 
bar 162 
bone 162 
Jugulum 96 
Junco 377 
aikeni 378 
annectens 379 
caniceps 879 
cinereus 379 
connectens 378 
dorsalis 3879 
hiemalis 377 
oregonus 378 


Jurassic birds 61, 62, 829 


KapIAK song sparrow 372 
Kagu 665 
Kennicott’s 
screech owl 505 
warbler 259 
Kentucky warbler 310 
Kestrels 532 
Key 
to the families 231 
to the orders 230 
Key west dove 571 
Keys 
artificial 227 
directions for using 227 
Kidneys 317 
Kildeer plover 600 
King 
eider 712 
rail 672 
King-bird 432 
gray 433 
Kingfisher 
belted 470 
texan green 470 
Kingfishers 468 
belted 469 
piscivorous 469 
Kinglet 
golden-crested 260 
ruby-crowned 259 
western golden-crested 260 
Kinglets, 242, 259 
Kirtland’s warbler 306 
Kitchenmiddens 64 
Kite 
black-shouldered 525 
everglade 523 
mississippi 524 
swallow-tailed 526 


INDEX. 


Kite 

white-tailed 525 
Kites 522 

lead 523 

pearl 525 

sickle-billed 523 

swallow-tailed 525 
Kittiwake 

common 748 

kotzebue’s 748 

red-legg¢ed 748 

short-billed 748 
Kittiwakes 747 
Kittlitz’s murrelet 813 
Knee 120 

cap 11% 

joint 119 
Knives 25, 52 
Knob-nosed auk 808 
Knot 632 


Kotzebue’s kittiwake 748 


Krider’s red-tail 545 


LABELLING, 21, 23, 53, 79 
Lahels 23, 24 
Labrador 


duck 706 

gyrfalcon 532 
Labyrinth 

of ear, 187, 188, 190 

of trachea 50, 202 
Lacrymal 

bone 165 

duct 179 

gland 179, 181 


Lacteals 199 


Ladder-backed three-toed wood- 
pecker 485 

Lady of the waters 661 

Levo-carotidina 198 

Lagena 189 


Lagopus 585 


albus 48, 586 
atkensis 588 
leucurus 588 
mutus 588 
reinhardti 583 
rupestris 587 
scoticus 577 
Laletes osburni 330 
Lamellate bill 102 
Lamellirostral 101 
Lamellirostres 677, 824 
Lamina 
spiralis 188 
terminalis 175 
Lamine of tarsus 125 
Laminiplantar tarsus 125 
Laminiplantation 126 
Lampornis mango 459 
Land rails 674 
Laniidz 336 
Laniine 336 
Lanius 337 
borealis 337 
excubitorides 338 
ludovicianus 338 
Lanner, american 534 
Lanners 532 
Laopteryx priscus 829 
Laornis edvardsianus 828 
Lapland longspur 357 
Lap owl 509 
Lapwing, crested 605 
Lapwings 604 


Large-billed 
fox sparrow 386 
puftin 803 
wag-tail warbler 309 
Larger white-cheeked goose 688 
Laride 733 
Larine 739 
Lark 
bunting 387 
finch 384 
savanna sparrow 363 
sparrows 384 
Lark 
brown 286 
field 406 
horned 281 
meadow 406 
meadow mexican 406 
meadow western 406 
shore 281 
western 282 
southwestern 282 
sky 282, 283 
Larks, 280 
meadow 405 
Larus 740 
aftinis 745 
argentatus 743 
brachyrhynchus 745 
eachinnans 744 
californicus 745 
canus 745 
delawarensis 745 
glaucescens 741 
glaucus 741 
heermanni 747 
kumlieni 742 
leucopterus 741 
marinus 742 
occidentalis 744 
smithsonianus 743 
Larvee of insects 55 
Larynx 202 
lower 204 
Latitores 665 
Laughing gull 750 
Law of priority 80 
Lawrence’s 
crested flv-catcher 436 
goldiinch 355 
stilt petrel 783 
warbler 293 
Lawyer 611 
Lazuli painted finch 391 


bittern 664 

bush-tit 268 

flyeatcher 442 

greenlet 335 

petrel 780 

sandpiper 625 

snow goose 686 

tern 766 
Le conte’s 

bunting 366 

grasshopper sparrow 366 
Leg 

plumage of 122 

relative length of 123 
Leguatia gigantea 65 
Length of leg, relative 123 
“Lengths” of parts 24, 25, 
Leptosomatidx 446 


Lesser 
coverts 110 
scaup duck 701 
snow goose 686 
tell-tale 638 
Lestornis crassipes 827 
Lestridine 734 
Leucocytes 196 
Leucosticte 350 
arctoa 352 
atrata 350 
australis 350 
griseinucha 351 
litoralis 351 
tephrocotis 351 
Lewis’ woodpecker 490 
Lightning hummers 462 
Likeness, degrees of 71 
Limicola platyrhyncha 617 
Limicole 596, 823 
Limosa 616, 634 
wgocephala 636 
feeda 635 
hemastica 635 
lapponica 636 
nove-zealandiz 636 
uropygialis 636 
Limpkin 668 
Lincoln’s song sparrow 370 
Lingula 151 
Lining of wings 110, 111 
Linnet 
brewster’s 353 
pine 354 
Linnets 340, 353 
red-poll 352 
Linota 353 
flavirostris brewsteri 353 
Little 
black crake 674 
black-headed duck 701 
blue heron 661 
buff flyeatchers 443 
horned owls 504 
olivaceous flycatchers 440 
seed-eater 392 
western flycatcher 442 
white egret 660 
heron 661 
Liver 215 
Lobate foot 131 
Lobation 131 
Lobe-foot phalarope 613 
Lobes 98 
Lobipes 613 
hyperboreus 6138 
Lobivanellus 597, 669 
Loddigesia 
mirabilis 115 
Loggerhead shrike 338 
Lomvia 816 
affinis 825 
arra 817 
antiqua 825 
californica 817 
svarbag 818 
troile 816 
Long-billed 
curlew 645 
marsh wren 279 
Long-crested jay 422 
Long-eared owl 507 
Long-exserted tail-feathers 116 
Longirostral 101 
Longipennes 732, 825 
Long-legged tattler 638 


INDEX. 


Long-shanks 611 
Longspur 
black-breasted 359 
black-shouldered 358 
bay-winged 359 
chestnut-collared 358 
lapland 357 
painted 358 
white-tailed 358 
Long-spurs 357, 359 
Long-tailed 
chat 312 
chickadee 266 
duck 706 
jager 738 
Long-winged swimmers 732 
Loon 
black-throated 791 
pacific black-throated 791 
red-throated 791 
yellow-billed 780 
Loons 789 
Loose plumage 36 
Lophodytes 716 
Lopholemus 564 
Lophophanes 264 
atrocristatus 265 
bicolor 264 
inornatus 264 
wollweberi 265 
Lophophorus 575 
Lophortyx 591 
californica 592 
gambeli 893 
Lophosteon 143 
Loral 98 
Lords and ladies 708 
Lore 98 
Lorum 98 
Louisiana 
clapper rail 672 
egret 661 
pipit 286 
water thrush 309 
Love doves 568 
“Low’? in scale of organization 77 
Lower larynx 204 
Loxia 348 
americana 349 
ieucoptera 348 
mexicana 350 
Loxiine finches 340 
Lucifer 
hummers 466 
humming-bird 466 
Lucy’s warbler 294 
Lumbar vertebre 140 
Lunda 803 
cirrata 804 
Lungs of birds 200 
Lustre doves 570 
Lymph 199 
Lymphatic system 195 
Lymphatics 199 
Lyre-bird 116 
Lyrurus tetrix 578 


MACARTNEYS 575 
Macgillivray’s warbler 311 
Machetes 640 

pugnax 640 
Machinery of classification 78 
Macrodactyli 665 
Macropygia 564 
Macrorhamphus 622 


847 


Macrorhamphus 
griseus 622 
scolopaceus 622 
semipalmatus 616 

Magnolia 304 

Magnum 107 

Magpie 420 
yellow-billed 421 

Magpies 420 

Maize-thief 404 

Mala 98 

Malacorhyachus 
690 

Malar region 98 

Mallard 690, 691 

Malleus 162 

Mammalia 60, 69 

Mandible 100, 166 
under 103 
upper 104 

Mangrove cuckoo 476 

Mantle 95 

Man-of-war bird 731 

Manubrium 144 

Manus 106, 108 

Manx shearwater 786 

Marbled murrelet 813 

Marble-wing sandpiper 642 

Mareca 693 
americana 694 
penelope 694 

Marginal fringes of toes 131 

Marlin 635 
ring-tailed 636 

Marsh 
blackbird 404 
blackbirds 400, 403 
hawk 521 
hen 672 
hens 671 
owls 507 
robin 896 
tern 757 
wren 279, 280 
wrens 279, 280 

Marsupium 184 

Martin 
house 820 
purple 325 
sand 324 

Maryland yellow-throat 310 

Masked woodpeckers 483 

Masking puffins 800 

Massena partridge 594 

Materialization 174 

Materials for taxidermy 25, 26 

Matrix of feathers 82 

Maxilla 98 

Maxillary 
bone 162 
line 98 

Maxillo-palatine 
bar 152 
bone 162 

Meadow 
pipit 285 
starlings 405 

Meadow lark 406 
mexican 406 
western 406 

Meadow-wink 400 

Mealy red-poll 353 
american 353 
greenland 353 

Measurements, directions for 24 

Meatus auditorius 97, 158 


membranaceous 


848 


Meatus 

externus 185 

internus 187 
Mechanism 

of leg-bones 121 

of wing-bones 106, 107, 108 
Meckel’s 

cartilage 166, 152 

ganglion 177 
Median coverts 110 
Medio-palatine ossification 173 
o-tarsal joint 121 
Mediterranean shearwater 784 
Medulla 

oblongata 175 

spinalis 176 
Megapodide 572 
Megapodius 572 
Melanerpes 489 

angustifrons 490 

bairdi 490 

erythrocephalus 489 

formicivorus 489 
Meleagridi 
Meleagri 

altus 82: 

americana 576 

antiquus 823 

celer 823 

gallipavo 576 

superbus 823 
Melittarchus 432 
Melopelia 569 

leucoptera 569 
Melospiza 369 

cinerea 372 

fallax 372 

fasciata 371 

guttata 372 

hermanni 372 

lincolni 370 

palustris 370 

rufina 372 

samuelis 372 
Members of birds 92, 190 
Membrana 

putaminis 222 

tympani 154 
Membranous labyrinth 188, 189 
Meninges of brain 175 
Mentum 98 
Menura superba 116 
Merganser 

hooded 718 

red-breasted 49, 717 
Mergansers 716 
Mergine 716 
Mergus 716 

cucullatus 718 

merganser 716 

serrator 717 
Merlin, american 537 
Merlins 532 
Meroblastic eggs 221 
Meropide 446 
Merry-thought 147 
Merula 245 
Mesencephalon 175 
Mesethmoid 160 
Mesoblast. 226 
Mesometry 221 
Mesomyodi 427 
Mesomyodian 205, 239 
Mesozoic 62 
Messina quail 595 
Metacarpus 106, 107 


INDEX. 


Metagnathous bills 101 
Metatarsal 
accessory 121 
bones 121 
spurs 133 
Metatarsus 119 
Metencephalon 175 
Metopodius 669 
Metosteon 144 
Metovum 221 
Mexican 
bluebird 258 
brown towhee 397 
cation wren 276 
chickadee 266 
cormorant 728 
creeper 273 
cross-bill 350 
flicker 493 
goldfinch 355 
jacana 669 
meadow lark 406 
snow-bird 379 
Miasm 19 
Micraster 619 
Micrathene 515 
whitneyi 516 
Micropalama 623 
himantopus 623 
Migratory quail 595 
Milvago 539 
Milvinee 522 
Milvulus 431 
forficatus 431 
tvrannus 431 
Milvus 523 
Miminew 242, 248 
Mimus 249 
carolinensis 250 
polyglottus 250 
Miocene birds 64 
Mississippi kite 524 
Missouri titlark 286 
Mitrephanes 443 
fulvifrons pallescens 443 
Mitrephorus 443 
pallescens 443 
Mniotilta 290 
borealis 290 
varia 290 
Moas 65, 825 
Mockers 249 
Mocking-bird 250 
mountain 249 
Mocking thrushes 242, 248 
Modiolus 188 
Molothrus 401 
zneus 405 
ater 402 
obscurus 402 
Momotide 468 
Momotus cxruleiceps 468 
Monerula 224 
Monogamy 226 
Moose-bird 425 
Morelet’s pygmy finch 392 


Morphological classification 66, 68 


Morphology 67 
Motacilla 284 
alba 284 
ocularis 284 
Motacillide 283 
Motacilline 284 
Moths 55 
Motor nerves 174 
Mottled owl 505 


Moult 88 
of bill 103 
Mound-birds 572 
Mountain 
chickadee 266 
plover 604 
mocking-bird 249 
quail 591 
sparrow 345 
Mounting birds 40 
Mourning 
dove 568 
warbler 311 
Mouth $2, 210 
Mucronate tail-feathers 116 
Mud-hen 672 
white-billed 676 
Mud-hens 675 
Mud swallow 323 
Miillerian ducts 215 
Mummification 47 
Murre 816 
Murrelet 
black-throated 811 
craveri's 814 
kittlitz’s 813 
japanese 812 
marbled 813 
short-winged 814 
white-bellied 813 
Murrelets 
nipper-nosed 811 
peaked-nosed 812 
Murres 810, 816 
Muscicapa 
acadica 441 
fulvifrons 443 
querula 441 
subviridis 441 
Muscles of birds 192, 194 
Muscular 
sense 191 
system 192 
tissue 192 
Musophagidie 446 
Mute swan 681 
Mutilation 38 
Muzzle-loader 2 
Mycteria 653 
americana 653 
Myelencephalon 175 
Myiadestes 329 
townsendi 329 
Myameeba 
levis 192 
striata 192 
Myiarchus 434 
cinerescens 486 
cooperi 435 
crinitus 434 
erythrocercus 435 
lawrencii 4386 
mexicanus 436 
Myiodioctes 313 
canadensis 314 
mitratus 313 
pileolatus 314 
pusillus 313 
Myiodynastes 431 
luteiventris 431 
Myiozetetes texensis 430 
Mylo-hyoid 211 
Mvology 192 
Myrtle bird 301 


Natt of bill 102 
Nails of toes 132 
Names, scientitic 78 
Nape 96 
Nares 104, 178, 210 
Narrow-fronted woodpecker 490 
Nasal 

bones 165 

fossa 104 

gland 178 

scale 105 

turbinal 173 
Nashville warbler 294 
Natatorial foot 129, 131 
Natural 

affinities 72 

selection 66 
Nauclerus 526 
Neck 92, 96 
Neochloe 330 
Neocorys 286 

spraguii 286 
Neophron percnopterus 519 
Nepheecetes 457 

niger borealis 457 
Nerve-tissue 174 
Nervous system 174 
Nesonetta aucklandica 699 
Nestor productus 65 
Nests and eggs, collecting 50 
Nests, plea for study of 54 
Netting birds 4 
Nettium 695 
Neural 

arch 135 

spines 137 
Neurapophyses 137 
Neurology 174 
Neurameeba 

candida 174 

cinerea 174 
Nevada sage sparrow 3876 
New york water thrush 309 
Nictitating membrane 179, 180 
Nidification 227 
Night heron 

black-crowned 662 

yellow-crowned 663 
Night herons 662, 663 
Night-courser, white-throated 450 
Night-coursers 449 
Night-hawk 

cuban 454 

texan 454 

western 454 
Night-hawks 453 
Nightingale, virginian 393 
Night-jar 452 
Night-jars 448 

american 450 
Nipper-nosed murrelets 811 
Nocturnal birds of prey 498 
Noddies 771 
Noddy tern 771 
Nomenclature 78 

binomial 79 

rules of 80 

trinomial 80 
Nomonyx 715 

dominica 715 
Non-melodious passeres 427 
Nonpareil 391 

western 391 
Nootka humming-bird 462 
North american birds 

classification of 234 


INDEX. 


North american birds 
systematic synopsis of 237 
Northern 
black cloud swift 457 
brown crane 667 
phalarope 613 
sharp-tailed grouse 581 
shrike 337 
Northwest fish crow 417 
Nostrils 104 
Noteum 94 
Notiocorys 285 
Notochord 151 
Notornis 143 
Nucha 96 
Nuchal 
bone 725 
region 96 
woodpecker 486 
Nucifraga caryocatactes 418 
Number 
of phalanges 127 
of toes 126 
Numbering of toes 127 
Numenius 618, 643 
arquatus 644 
borealis 646 
hudsonicus 645 
longirostris 645 
pheopus 645 
taitensis 646 
Numida meleagris 574 
Numidide 574 
Nutcracker 
american 417 
brown-headed 271 
Nuthatch 
canadian 271 
carolina 270 
european 270 
pygmy 271 
red-bellied 271 
slender-billed 271 
white-bellied 270 
Nuthatches 269 
typical 270 
N uttall s 
poorwill 453 
woodpecker 482 
Nyctala 512 
acadica 513 
albifrons 513 
richardsoni 512 
tengmalmi 512 
Nyctea 510 
scandiaca 510 
Nycterodius 663 
violaceus 663 
Nyctiardea 662 
grisea neevia 662 
Nyctibiine 448 
Nyctidromus 449 
albicollis 450 


Oak-woons sparrow 373 
Obliquus 

inferior 181 

superior 181 
Observations, record of 21 
Obturator foramen 149 
Occipital 

bone 156 

condyles 156 

style 725 
Occiput 97 
Oceanites 782 


54 


849 


Oceanites oceanicus 782 
Oceanodroma 782 

furcata 782 

hornbyi 782 
Oculi-motor nerve 177 
Ocydrominez 670 
Ocyphaps 564 
Odontoglosse 677 
Odontoid process 139 
Odontolce 63, 238, 821 
Odontophorine 588 
Odontophorus 588 
Odontornithes 821 
Odontotorme 63, 237, 821 
Cdemia 713 

americana 713 

fusca 714 

perspicillata 714 

trowbridgii 715 

velvetina 714 
Cdicnemine 597 
Csophagus 211 
Cstrelata 779 

bulweri 780 

fisheri 780 

gularis 780 

hesitata 779 
Oil-gland 86 
Old-tield lark 406 
Old-squaw 706 
Old-wife 706 
Old world 

partridges 594 

quail 594 

vultures 519 
Olecranon 107 
Olfaction 178 
Olfactory 

foramen 160 

lobes 175 

nerves 176 
Olivaceous flycatchers 440 
Olive warbler 296 
Olive-backed thrush 248 
Olive-black towhee 396 
Olive-sided flycatcher 438 
Olor 682 
Omos 106 
Onychotes 552 

gruberi 553 
Ontogeny 71 
Odlogy 

described 215 

study of 50 
Odphoron masculinum 218 
Opetiorhynchus 205 
Ophthalmic nerve 177 
Opisthoceelous vertebre 138 
Opisthocomi 571 
Opisthocomus cristatus 143, 571 
Opisthotic bone 157, 187 
Oporornis 309 

agilis 309 

formosa 310 
Optic 

foramina 159 

lobes 175, 176 

nerves 176, 184 

thalami 175 
Orange-crowned warbler 295 
Orbicularis oculi 180 
Orbit of eye 97, 179 
Orbital 

process of quadrate 162 

region 97 
Orbito-nasal septum 160 


850 


Orbito-sphenoid 158 
Orchard oriole 407 

texas 407 
Order 72, 73 


jay 425 

olive-backed thrush 247 

snow-bird 378 

song sparrow 872 

robin 245 

ruffed grouse 685 

towhee 396 
Oreophasine 572 
Oreophasis derbianus 572 
Oreophilus totanirostris 597 
Organization, scale of 77 
Organs 

of circulation 195 

of digestion 209 

of generation 217, 219 

of locomotion 109 

of respiration 199 

of special senses 174 
Oriole 

audubon’s 410 

baltimore 408 

black-and-yellow 409 

black-headed 410 

bullock’s 409 

hooded 409 

orchard 407 

paris’ 409 

texas orchard 408 
Orioles 406, 407 
Ornithichnites 62 
Ornithium 443 

imberbe 444 
Ornitholite 63 
Ornithological book-keeping 22 
Ornithology detined 59 
Ornithoscelida 62 
Orortyx 591 

picta 591 
Oroscoptes 249 

montanus 249 
Ortalis 573 

vetula macealli 573 
Ortolan 

(reed-bird) 401 

(sora or rail) 673 
Ortyx 589 

floridana 591 

texana 591 

virginiana 589 
Ortyxelos meiffreni 572 
Oscine podotheca 125 
Oscines 69, 239, 240 
Os 

humero-scapulare 145 

innominatum 148 

lacrymo-palatinum 165 

magnum 107 

prominens 108 

uncinatum 165 
Ospreys 556 
Osseous system 134 
Ossicles 

of ear 136 

of wing 108 
Ossicula auditis 136 
Ossific centres 134 
Ossifraga 777 

gigantea 777 
Osteamcebe: 149 
Osteological preparations 48 
Osteology 134 


INDEX. 


Osteoses 134 
Ostrich, skull of 169 
Otahiti curlew 646 
Otic 
capsule 156 
ganglion 177 
Otidide 597, 665 
Otis tarda 210 
Otocrane 187 
Otogyps auricularis 519 
Otoliths 190 
Ouzel 255 
water 255 
Ovaries 45, 46, 215, 219 
Oven-bird 308 
Oviduct 220 
Ovisac 220 
Oviposition 223 
Ovulation 220 
Ovum 216 
Owl 
acadian 513 
american hawk 511 
american long-eared 507 
american wood 509 
arctic american saw-whet 512 
barn 502 
barred 509 
burrowing 56 
california screech 506 
california gnome 514 
eat 503 
colorado screech 506 
day 511 
dusky horned 504 
elf 516 
european hawk 512 
ferrugineous gnome 514 
flammulated screech 506 
florida barred 510 
florida screech 106 
florida burrowing 517 
great gray 509 
great horned 503 
hoot 503, 509 
kennicott’s screech 505 
lap 509 
little horned 505 
mottled 505 
red 505 
saw-whet 513 
screech 505 
short-eared 507 
snowy 510 
spectral 509 
texas screech 506 
western barred 510 
white horned 504 
Owls, 498, 500, 502 
barn 500, 501 
brown 508 
burrowing 516 
eared 507 
elf 515 
gnome 514 
gray 508 
great horned 503 
hawk 511 
hoot 503 
little horned 504 
marsh 507 
other 502 
pygmy 514 
saw-whet 612 
screech 504 
snow 510 


Owls 
sparrow 614 
Ox-eye 598 
Oyster-catcher 
american 606 
black 607 
european 606 
Oyster-catchers 606 


PACIFIC 
bar-tailed godwit 636 
black-throated diver 791 
eider 712 
fulmar 778 
orange-crowned warbler 295 
Pagophila 749 
eburnea 749 
Painted 
bunting 391 
finch 391 
indigo 391 
lazuli 391 
purple 391 
finches 390 
flycatching warbler 315 
geese 686 
goose 686 7 
longspur 358 
Paisano 474 
Paleoborus umbrosus 822 
Palexocycnus falconeri 682 
Paleornithidee 495 
Paleornithine 495 
Palxospiza bella 822 
Paleotringa 
litoralis 828 
vagans 828 
vetus 828 
Palamedea cornuta 665 
Palamedeide 665 
Pallas’ 
cormorant 728 
gull 744 
rosy finch 352 
Palatal 
bones 163 
structure, types of 168 
Palate, hard 163 
Palatine bones 163 
Pale ring-neck 602 
Palm warbler 307 
Palmate foot 131 
Palmation 131 
Palpebra 97 
Pancreas 215 
Pandion 556 
haliaétus 556 
Panniculus carnosus 200 
Panyptila 456 
saxatilis 456 
Parabuteo 542 
Parachordal cartilage 151 
Paradise 
tern 766 
trogon 467 
Paragnathous bill 101 
Parasite 344 
Parasitic jager 736 
Parasphenoid 155, 159 
Parauchenia 96 
Paridx 263 
Parinx 263 
Paris’ oriole 409 
Parietal bones 156 
Parovaria 215 


Parra 669 
gymnostoma 133, 669 
jacana 668 

Parroquet auk 806 

Parroquet, carolina 496 

Parroquets 496 

Parrots 494, 496 
sea 800 

Part I1 
IL 59 
III 237 
IV 821 

Partridge 576, 585, 590 
blue 593 
californian 592 
european 588 
florida 591 
gambel’s 593 
massena 594 
old world 594 
plumed 591 
scaled 593 
spruce 578 
texas 591 
virginia 589 

Parula 290 
americana 290 
nigrilora 291 
pitiayumi 291 

Parus 260 
atricapillus 265 
carolinensis 266 
cinctus 267 
evura 267 
hudsonicus 267 
meridionalis 266 
montanus 266 
neglectus 267 
occidentalis 266 
rufescens 267 
septentrionalis 266 

Passenger pigeon 566 

Passer 344 
domesticus 344 
montanus 345 

Passerculus 360 
alaudinus 363 
anthinus 363 
bairdi 360 
guttatus 364 
princeps 361 
rostratus 363 
sanctorum 364 
sandvicensis 362 
savana 363 

Passerella 385 
iliaca 385 
megarhyncha 386 
schistacea 386 
unalascensis 385 

Passeres 69, 238 
acromyodi 239 
mesomyodi 427 

Passerina 390 
amcena 391 
ciris 391 
cyanea 391 
versicolor 391 

Passerine 
foot 129 
sternum 145 

Patella 119 

Pathetic nerve 177 

Pavo 
bicalcaratus 133 
cristatus 575 


INDEX. 


Peabody-bird 382 
Peacock 575 
Peaked-nosed murrelets 812 
Peale’s 
egret 661 
peregrine 536 
petrel 780 
Pearl kites 525 
Pecten 184 
Pectination 
of claws 132 
of toes 182 
Pectoral arch 145 
of carinatie 146 
of ratitee 146 
Pectoral 
muscles 193 
sandpiper 626 
sandpipers 625 
Pectoralis 
major 193 
medius 193 
minor 193 
Pectus 95 
Pedicle of quadrate bone 162 
Pediocorys 285 
Pedicecetes 581 
phasianellus 146, 581 
columbianus 581 
Pedionomus torquatus 572 
Peep 624, 625 
Pelargi 648, 652 
Pelargomorphz 648 
Pelecanidx 721 
Pelecanus 722 
conspicillatus 722 
crispus 722 
fuscus 722 
onocrotalus 722 
rufescens 722 
trachyrhynchus 722 
Pelican, american 
brown 722 
white 722 
Pelicans 721 
Pelidna 631 
alpina 631 
americana 631 
pacifica 631 
Pelvic arch 147 
Pelvis 147 
Penelopine 573 
Penguins 788 
Pennaceous feathers 85 
Penne 85 
Pentosteon 107 
Perchers proper 238 
Perdicine 594 
Perdix 576 
Peregrine falcon 534 
Peregrines 532 
Perilymph 190 
Periosteum 134 
Periotic bones 156, 157, 187 
Perisoreus 425 
canadensis 425 
capitalis 425 
fumifrons 425 
obscurus 425 
Perissoglossa 297, 805 
Peristerse 562 
Peristeromorphe 562 
Peristeropodes 572 
Pernis apivorus 523 
Pessulus 205 
Pests, insect 55 


Petrel 
black 781 
black-capped 779 
bulwer’s 780 
fisher’s 780 
gray fork-tailed 782 
hornby’s fork-tailed 782 
lawrence’s stilt 783 
leach’s 781 
least 780 
peale’s 780 
pigeon 779 
pygmy 780 
stilt stormy 782 
stormy 781 
white-bellied 783 
white-rumped 781 
wilson’s stormy 783 
Petrels 773, 776 
diabolic 779 
gadfly 779 
gray fork-tail 782 
pigeon 779 
sooty fork-tail 781 
stormy 7&0 
stilt stormy 782 
wilsonian stormy 782 
Petrochclidon 3823 
lunifrons 823 
Petrosal bone 157, 187 
Peucea 373 
zstivalis 373 
arizone 374 
boucardi 875 
carpalis 375 
cassini 3874 
eremceca 375 
illinoensis 373 
ruficeps 374 
Pencedramus 296 
olivaceus 296 
Pewee 
water 437 
wood 439 
Pewit 437 
Pewit flycatchers 436 
Pezophaps solitarius 65 
Phaéthon 731 
zethereus 732 
flavirostris 732 
rubricauda 731 
Phaéthontids 731 
Phethusa 755 
Phainopepla 328 
nitens 328 
Phaleridinw 800 
Phaleris 806 
Phalacrocoracidw 723 
Phalacrocorax 726 
albociliatus 728 
bairdi 729 
bicristatus 728 
carbo 726 
cincinnatus 727 
dilophus 727 
floridanus 727 
idahensis 824 
macropus 824 
mexicanus 728 
penicillatus 728 
perspicillatus 728 
violaceus 729 
Phaleenoptilus 452 
nuttalli 453 
Phalanges 106, 108 
of foot 121 


851 


852 


Phalanges 
number of 127 
caprimulgine 127 
cypseline 127 
Phalanx 106, 108, 121 
Phalarope 
gray 614 
northern 613 
red 614 
red-necked 613 
wilson’s 612 
Phalaropes 612 
coot-foot 614 
fringe-foot 612 
lobe-foot 613 
Phalaropodide 612 
Phalaropus 614 
fulicarius 614 
Phalcobienus 539 
Phaps 564 
Pharomacrus mocinno 115, 467 
Pharynx 210 
Phasianida 575 
Phasianus 
colchicus 574 
reevesi 575 
Phasidus niger 575 
Pheasant (English) 574 
“Pheasant ’’ (American) 585 
Phegornis mitchelli 597 
Philacte 686 
canagica 686 
Philip sparrow 344 
Philohela 615, 619 
minor 619 
Phlogeenas 564 
Phodilus badius 500 
Phebe 437 : 
Pheenicopteridx 678 
Pheenicopterus 678 
andinus 678 
ruber 679 
Pheenicorodias 678 
Phonipara 392 
zena 392 
Phylloscopus 259 
borealis 259 
Phylogeny 71 
Phylum 66 
Pia mater 176 
Pica 420 
hudsonica 420 
nuttalli 421 
rustica 420 
Picarie 444, 822 
Picarian birds 444 
Picicorvus 417 
columbianus 418 
Picide 477 
Piciform birds 476 
Piciformes 446, 476 
Picoides 484 
americanus 485 
arcticus 485 
dorsalis 485 
Picumnide 446 
Picus 480 
borealis 481 
gairdneri 483 
harrisi 483 
lucasanus 482 
major 477 
nuttalli 482 
pubescens 483 
sealaris 481 
stricklandi 482 


INDEX. 


Picus 

villosus 483 
Pied duck 706 
Pied-billed grebe 797 
Pies 420 

smoky 419 
Pigeon 

guillemot 815 

hawk 528, 536 

petrel 779 

woodpecker 498 
Pigeon 

band-tailed 565 

passenger 566 

prairie 641 

red-billed 565 

sea 814 

white-collared 565 

white-crowned 565 

wild 566 
Pigeons 562, 564 
Pigeon-toed fowls 572 
Pileated woodpecker 480 
Pileum 97 
Pine 

bullfinches 343 

finch 354 

grosbeak 343 

grouse 579 

linnet 354 

warbler 807 
Pineal body 175 
Pine-creeping warbler 307 
Pinicola 343 

enucleator 343 
Pinion 106, 108 
Pink-sided snow-bird 379 
Pinnated grouse 583 
Pin-neck grouse 583 
Pinnatipedes 67 
Pintado petrel 779 
Pin-tail 

doves 568 

duck 692 

grouse 581 
Pin-winged doves 567 
Pipilo 395 

aberti 398 

albigula 397 

alleni 396 

arcticus 396 

chlorurus 398 

crissalis 3897 

erythrophthalmus 396 

fuscus 397 

maculatus 396 

megalonyx 397 

mesoleucus 397 

oregonus 396 
Piping plover 602 
Pipit savanna sparrow 363 
Pipit 

louisiana 286 

meadow 285 

sprague’s 286 
Pipits 283, 285 

sky 286 
Piscivorous kingfishers 469 
Pitangus 430 

derbianus 430 
Pituitary 

body 175, 176 

space 151 
Plain tit-mouse 264 
Planesticus 80 
Planta 124 


Plasma 196 
Platalea 650 

leucorodia 650 
Plataleide 651 
Plates of podotheca 124 
Platycercinx 495 
Platycichla 328 
Plectrophanes 356 

nivalis 356 
Plectropterus gambensis 684 
Pleuree 95 
Pleurapophyses 137 
Pleurosteon 144 
Plegadis 649 

falcinellus 649 

guarauna 649 
Pliocene birds 64 
Ploceida 224, 340 
Plotida 729 
Plotus 730 

anhinga 730 

levaillanti 730 

melanogaster 730 
Plover 597 

american golden 599 

asiatic golden 600 

belted piping 602 

black-bellied 598 

bull-head 598, 599 

european golden 600 

european ring 603 

european lesser ring 603 

field 599, 641 

four-toed 598 

golden 599 

grass 641 

Kildeer 600 

mountain 604 

piping 602 

prairie 604 

ring 600, 602 

ruddy 633 

semipalmated 602 

snowy ring 603 

swiss 598 

upland 641 

whistling field 598 

wilson’s 601 
Ploughshare bone 142 
Plume 85 
Plumage 82 

changes of 88, 89 

of foot 122 
Plumbeous 

bush-tit 268 

gnat-catcher 261 

greenlet 334 
Plumed 

partridge 591 

quail 591 
Plumous feathers 85 
Plumulaceous feathers 85 
Plumulx 86 
Pneumaticity of skeleton 135 
Pneumatocysts 200 
Pneumatology 199 
Pnoumogastric nerve 177 
Pochard 

american 701 

red-crested 701 
Pochards 699 
Pocket-lens 27 
Podargine 448 
Podargus 448 
Podasocys 604 

montanus 604 


Podicipedidie 792 
Podicipes 794 
auritus 795 
californicus 796 
cornutus 795 
cristatus 794 
dominicus 796 
griseigena 794 
holboelli 794 
Podilymbus 796 
podicipes 797 
Podium 126 
Podotheca 124 
Point of the wing 114 
Poison 26, 40 
Pole-backed woodpecker 485 
Polioptila 261 
californica 262 
ceerulea 261 
melanura 261 
plumbea 261 
Polioptilinae 242, 260 
Pollex 108 
Polyborin 539 
Polyboroides 521 
Polyborus 539 
auduboni 539 
cheriway 539 
lutosus 539 
Polyplectron 575 
Pomatorhine jager 735 
Pons varolii 175, 176 
Pocecetes 864 
confinis 365 
gramineus 364 
Poor skins, restoring 47 
Poor-will, nuttall’s 453 
Poor-wills 452 
Pope 391 
Pope’s nose 114 
Portal system of veins 197 
Portio 
dura 187 
mollis 187 
Porzana 673 
carolina 673 
coturniculus 674 
maruetta 673 
jamaicensis 674 
noveboracensis 674 
Position of digits 128 
Post-frontal 
bone 157 
processes 156 
Post-oral arch 152, 154 
Post-orbital region 97 
Post-palatine processes 164 
Post-sacral verebrae 142 
Post-zygapophyses 137 
Powder, gun 4 
Powder-down feathers 86 
Preecoces 88 
Prairie 


chicken of the northwest 581 


hen 583 

falcon 534 

pigeon 641 

plover 604 

warbler 305 
Preening plumage 86 
Premaxillary 100, 164 
Prenasal cartilage 153, 155 
Pre-oral arch 152 
Prepalatines 164 
Preparations 

osteological 48 


INDEX. 


Preparations 
wet 43 
Pressirostral 101 
Presphenoid 158 
Pre-zygapophyses 137 
Primaries 112 
Primary coverts 110 
Primary, spurious 113 
Primordial kidneys 215 
Princely tern 760 
Priocella 778 
tenuirostris 778 
Priofinus 783 
melanurus 783 
Prion 776 
Priority, law of 80 
Procellaria 780 
pelagica 781 
Procellariide 773 
Procellariine 776 
Procelsterna 755 
Proccelous vertebra 138 
Procoracoid 145, 147 
Progne 325 
subis 325 
Prometheus 302 
Pronation 109 
Pro-otic bone 157, 187 
Propubis 149 
Prosencephalon 175 
Prosobonia leucoptera 618 
Prothonotary warbler 291 
Protonotaria 291 
citrea 291 
Protoplasm 196 
Prototype 75 
Prototypic groups 76 
Protovum 221 
Protozoa 70 
Proventriculus 212 
Prusiano 391 
Prybilov sandpiper 630 
Psaltriparus 267 
melanotis 267 
e minimus 268 
plumbeus 268 
Pseudogryphus 558 
californianus 558 
Psilopedic birds 88 
Psilorhinus 419 
morio 419 
Psittaci 494 
Psittacidw 495, 496 
Psophiidee 665 
Ptarmigan 585 
rock 587 
white-tailed 588 
willow 48, 586 
Pteranodon beds 825 
Pterocletes 562 
Pterodactyls 62 
Pterosauria 62 
Pterygoid bones 163 
Pteryla 
alaris 87 
caudalis 87 
cruralis 87 
dorsalis 87 
femoralis 87 
humeralis 87 
spinalis 87 
ventralis 87 
Pteryle 87 
Pterylography 86 
Pterylosis 86 
Ptilogonatine 327 


853 


Ptilogonys 328 
Ptilonorhynchus 224 
Ptilopxdic birds 88 
Ptilopus 564 
Ptilosis $2 
Ptinus brunneus 55 
Ptychorhamphus 809 
aleuticus 810 
Pubes, Pubic, Pubis, 149 
Pucrasia 575 
Puftin 
common 802 
horned masking 801 
large-billed 803 
tufted 803 
Puffins 800 
masking 800 
tufted masking 803 
Puffinus 
amaurosoma 787 
anglorum 786 
borealis 784 
conradi 825 
creatopus 785 
fuliginosus 787 
kubli 784 
major 785 
obscurus 786 
opisthomelas 786 
tenuirostris 787 
Pug-nosed auk 806 
Pullastree 562 
Pulmonary organs 199 
Pulmonie circulation 195 
Pulviplumes £6 
Pupil of eye 183 
Purple 
bullfinches 346 
crow-blackbird 413 
finch 346 
cassin’s 347 
gallinule 676 
grackle 413 
martin 325 
painted finch 391 
sandpiper 629 
Pygmy 
finch, morelets 392 
finches 392 
nuthatch 271 
petrel 781 
Pygopodes 187, 825 
Pygostyle 114, 142 
Pylorus 213 
Pyramidalis muscle of eye 181 
Pyranga 317 
estiva 318 
cooperi 318 
hepatica 318 
ludoviciana 319 
rubra 318 
Pyrocephalus 444 
mexicanus 444 
rubineus 444 
Pyrrhula 344 
cassini 344 
coccinea 344 
Pyrrhuloxia 393 
sinuata 393 
Pyrrhurinz 495 


QuUA-BIRD 662 

Quadrate bone 161 
Quadrato-jugal bone 162 
Quadratus muscle of eye 181 


854 


Quail 576, 589. See also Partridge 
arizona 593 
harlequin 594 
helmet 591 
messina 55 
migratory 595 
mountain 591 
old world 594 
plumed 591 
shell 593 
valley 591 

Quail 
doves 571 
sparrow 365 

(Quake-tail, blue-headed 284 

Queen hummers 460 

(uerquedula 694 
carolinensis 695 
erecca 695 
cyanoptera 696 
discors 696 

Quesal 467 

Quill-feathers 112 

Quiscaline 410 

Quiscalus 412 
eneus 413 
agleus 414 
macrurus 412 
major 412 
purpureus 413 

Quit, black-faced grass 392 

Quits, grass 392 


RADIALE 106, 107, 108 
Radius 106, 107 
Raft duck 701 
Rail 
california clapper 672 
carolina 673 
clapper 672 
common 673 
european land 675 
king 672 
litle black 674 
louisiana clapper 672 
virginia 673 
yellow 673 
Rails 665, 669, 670, 671 
land 674 
Rallide 669 
Ralliform birds 669 
Ralliformes 669 
Rallinz 670 
Rallus 671 
crepitans 672 
elegans 672 
longirostris 672 
obsoletus 672 
saturatus 672 
virginianus 673 
Rami of bill 103 
Raptatores 496 
Raptores 496, 822 
Raptorial foot 130 
Rasores 571 
Rasorial foot 131 
Ratita 69, 238, 825 
Ratite 
birds 238 
sternum 143 
faven 
american 416 
white-necked 416 
Ravens 415 
Razor-billed auk 818 
Record of observations 21 


INDEX. 


Recti muscles of eve 181 
Rectrices 115, 116 
Recurvirostra 610 

americana 611 

avocetta 611 
Recurvirostridx 609 
Red 

cross-bill 349 

flamingo 679 

game 577 

owl 505 

phalarope 614 

ruffed grouse 585 
Red-and-butf-shouldered blackbird 


404 
Red-and-white - shouldered black- 
bird 404 

Red-backed 

humming-bird 462 

sandpiper 631 

snow-bird 379 
Red-bellied 

nuthatch 271 

snipe 623 

woodpecker 488 
Red-billed 

mud-hen 675 

pigeon 565 

tropic-bird 732 
Red-bird 

cardinal 393 

summer 818 

western summer 318 
Red-breasted 

merganser 717 

sandpiper 632 

snipe 622 

woodpecker 486 
Red-cockaded woodpecker 481 
Red-crested pochard 700 
Reddish egret 661 
ted-eyed 

cowbird 403 

greenlet 331 
Red-faced cormorant 728 
Red-fronted flycatching warbler 


Red-head 702 
Red-head ducks 699 
Red-headed woodpecker 489 
Red-legged kittiwake 748 
Red-necked 

grebe 794 

phalarope 613 
Red-nosed auk 808 
Red-poll 

american mealy 353 

common 352 

greenland mealy 353 

holbdll’s 353 

linnets 352 

yellow warbler 307 

yellow-bellied warbler 307 
Red-shafted woodpecker 493 
Red-shouldered 

blackbird 404 

buzzard 545 
Red-spotted blue-throat 258 
Redstart 

american 316 

blue-throated 258 
Redstarts 315 
Red-tail 

krider’s 545 

st. lucas 545 

western 545 


Red-tailed buzzard 544 
Red-throated 
diver 791 
woodpecker 487 
Red-winged 
blackbird 403 
blackbirds 404 
thrush 245 
Reed-bird 400 
Reed wrens 277 
Reeve 640 
Reflex action 174 
Refulgent humming bird 461 
Regions of the body 94 
Registration 21 
Regulinz 242, 259 
Regulus 259 
calendula 259 
olivaceus 260 
satrapa 259 
Reinhardt’s gull 745 
Remiges 111 
Reptiles 60 
Respiration, organs of 199 
Respiratory system 199 
Restoration of poor skins 47 
Rete mirabile 199 
Reticulate tarsus 124, 125 
Reticulations of podotheca 124 
Retina 180 
Retrorse 105 
Rhachis 84 
Rhamphastidex 446 
Rhamphotheca 103 
Rhea 170 
Rhinencephalon 175 
Rhinoceros auks 805 
Rhinocheetus jubatus 665 
Rhinotheca 103 
Rhodostethia 752 
rosea 753 
Rhyacophilus 639 
ochropus 639 
solitarius 639 
Rhyncheza 616 
capensis 616 
semicollaris 616 
Rhynchofalco 539 
Rhynchophanes 359 
maccowni 359 
Rhynchopine 772 
Rhynchops 772 
nigra 772 
Ribs 142 
Riblets 138 
Rice-bird 400 
Richardson's 
dusky grouse 579 
pigeon hawk 537 
Rictal bristles 99 
Rictus 105 
Ridgway’s rosy finch 350 
Rima glottidis 204 
Ring dove 565 
Ring plover 602 
european 603 
lesser european 603 
snowy 603 
Ring-neck 
duck 701 
plover 602 
Ring plovers 600 
Ring-billed gull 745 
Ring-tailed 
eagle 554 
marlin 636 


Rio grande jay 424 
Rissa 747 
brevirostris 748 
kotzebuii 748 
tridactyla 748 
River ducks 689 
Road runner 474 
Robin 244 
allied 244 
golden 408 
marsh 396 
oregon 245 
st. lucas 244 
Robin-sandpiper 632 
Robin-snipe 682 
Rock 
ptarmigan 587 
swift, white-throated 456 
swilts 456 
wrens 275 
Rocky mountain 
blue-bird 258 
garrot 704 
jay 425 
snow grouse 588 
Rodgers’ fulmar 778 
Rollulus 576 
Rook, vocal organs of 206 
Rose 
flycatching warblers 314 
tanager 318 
Roseate 
spoonbill 651 
tern 766 
Rose-breasted 
finch 348 
song grosbeak 389 
Ross’ 
goose 686 
rosy gull 753 
Rostrhamus 523 
plumbeus 523 
sociabilis 523 
Rostrum 100 
of sphenoid 158 
of sternum 144 
Rosy finch 
allen’s 350 
baird’s 351 
brandt’s 351 
pallas’s 352 
ridgway’s 350 
swainson's 351 
Rosy finches 350 
Rosy gull 
bonaparte’s 751 
franklin’s 751 
ross’ 753 
Rosy gulls 749 
Rough-winged swallow 324 
Royal tern 759 
Ruby-crowned kinglet 259 
Ruby-throated humming bird 461 
Rudder ducks 715 
Rudders 115 
Ruddy 
duck 715 
plover 633 
Ruff 640 
Ruffed grouse 584, 585 
Ruffs of birds 97 
Rufous-bellied humming-bird 466 
Rufous-crowned summer finch 374 
Rufous-tailed 
crested flycatcher 435 
flycatchers 434 


INDEX. 


Rugex 103 
Rules of nomenclature 80 
Rump 94 
Runner, road 474 
Russet-backed thrush 247 
Rusty 

grackles 411 

song sparrow 372 
Rusty-crowned falcon 537 
Ruticilla 258 


SACRAL 

plexus 141 

vertebrie 140 
Sacro-iliac anchylosis 147 
Sacro-sciatic notch 148 
Sacrum 140, 141, 147 
Saddle-back 742 
Sage 

cock 580 

grouse 580 

hen 580 
Sage sparrow 

black-faced 376 

california 376 

nevada 3876 
Sage sparrows 375 
Sage thrasher 249 
Sagmatorhina 

lathami 805 

suckleyi 806 
Saguaro woodpecker 488 
Saint domingo 

duck 715 

grebe 796 
Saint lucas 

cactus wren 275 

red-tail 545 

robin 244 

savanna sparrow 364 

thrasher 253 

woodpecker 482 
Salivary glands 210 
Salpinctes 275 

obsoletus 275 
Salt-water marsh-hen 672 
Samuels’ song sparrow 372 
Sanderling 633 


San diego savanna sparrow 363 


Sandhill crane 667 

Sand-pigeons 562 

Sandpiper 
aleutian 629 
american green 639 
ash-colored 632 
baird’s 625 
bartramian 641 
black-bellied 631 
black-breasted 630 
buff-breasted 642 
cooper’s 627 
curlew 632 
ferrugineous 632 
green 639 
least 625 
red-breasted 632 
pectoral 626 
purple 629 
prybilov 630 
robin 632 
semipalmated 624 
sharp-tailed 628 
spotted 640 
spoon-billed 634 
stilt 623 


Sandpiper 


855 


western semipalmated 625 


white-rumped 627 
Sandpipers 617 
curlew 631 
dunlin 631 
feather-ley 628 
fighting 640 
marble-wing 642 
pectoral 625 
purple 628 
semipalmated 625 
spotted G40 
spotty-throat 625 
Sandwich tern 761 


Sap-sucking woodpeckers 485 


Sarcorhamphus gryphus 557 
Sasia 126, 127 
Saurognathism 173 
Saurognathous skull 173 
Sauropsida 60 
Saurotherinw 473 
Saurure 237, 821 
Savanna blackbird 472 
Savanna sparrow 

baird’s 360 

beaked 363 

common 363 

ipswich 361 

lark 363 

pipit 363 

san diego 363 

st. lucas 363 
Savanna sparrows 360 
Saw-bills 468, 716 
Saw-whet ow! 513 

arctic american 512 
Saw-whet owls 512 
Saxicola 256 

cenanthe 256 
Saxicolinaw 242, 256 
Sayiornis 436 

fusca 437 

nigricans 437 

sayi 437 
Say’s pewit flycatcher 437 
Scala 

media 190 

tympani 188 

vestibuli 188 
Seale, nasal 105 
Scale of organization 77 
Scaled 

dove 570 

partridge 593 
Scansores 445 
Scansorial foot 130 
Scape 84 
Scaphoid tail 118 
Scapholunare 106, 107, 108 
Scapula 107, 146 

accessoria 108, 145 
Scapular arch 49, 145, 146 
Scapulare 94 
Scapulars 94 
Scardafella 570 

inca 570 
Scarlet 

ibis 651 

tanager 318 
Scaups 699 
Schizognathism 170 
Schizognathous skull 170 
Schizorhinal nasals 165 
Schizothecal podotheca 125 
Science defined 59 


856 


Scientific names 78 
Scissors 25, 52 
Scissor-tail 431 
Scleroskeletal bones 134 
Sclerosteous bones 168 
Sclerotal bones 182 
Sclerotic 180, 182 
Scolecophagus 411 
cyanocephalus 411 
ferrugineus 411 
Scolopaceous courlan 668 
Scolopacida 614 
Scolopax 615, 620, 828 
rusticula 620 
Scops 504 
asio 505 
bendirii 506 
flammeola 506 
floridana 506 
kennicotti 505 
maccalli 506 
maxwell 506 
trichopsis 506 
Scopus umbretta 652 
Scoter 
american black 713 
velvet 714 
Scoters 713 
Screech owl 505 
california 506 
colorado 506 
flammulated 506 
florida 506 
kennicott’s 505 
texas 506 
Screech owls 504 
Scutella 124 
Scutellate podotheca 124 
Scutelliplantar tarsus 124 
Sea 
coot 713, 714 
ducks 698 
eagles 554 
parrot 802 
parrots 800 
Sea-dove 810 
Sea-pigeon 814 
Sea-shore sparrow 3863 
Sea-side 
finch 367 
florida 368 
sparrows 367 
Sea-swallow 762 
Secondaries 113 
Secondary 
coverts 110 
sexual characters 89, 90 
Seed-eater, little 392 


Segmentation of the vitellus 224 


Selasphorus 462 
alleni 462 
henshawi 463 
platycercus 463 
rufus 463 
Selection 
natural 90 
sexual 90 
Sella turcica 198 
Semen 218 
Semicircular canals 188, 189 
Semilunar membrane 205 
Semipalmate 
foot 131 
tattlers 636 
Semipalmated 
plover 602 


INDEX. 


Semipalmated 
sandpiper 624 
Semipalmation 131 
Semiplumes 86 
Semitendinosus 195 
Senex 539 
Sennett’s warbler 291 
Sense of 
hearing 184 
sight 178 
smell 178 
taste 191 
touch 191 
Sensori-motor nerves 174 
Sensory nerves 174 
Septo-maxillary 163, 173 
Septo-nasal 173 
Serrate bill 102 
Serration of tarsus 125 
Serum 196 
Sesamoid bones 134, 168 
of wing 108 
Setirostres 449 
Setophaga 315 
picta 315 
ruticilla 316 
Setophagine 288, 312 
Sex, determination of 45 
Sexual 
characters 89, 90 
selection 90 
Shaft of feather 84 
Shag 726 
Shank 119 
Shapes of tail 117 
Sharp-shinned hawk 527, 528 
Sharp-tailed 
finch 368 
grouse 581 
sandpiper 628 
Shearwater 
black-vented 786 
black-tailed 783 
cinereous 784 
common atlantic 785 
cory’s 784 
dark-bodied 787 
dusky 786 
flesh-footed 785 
greater 785 
manx 786 
mediterranean 784 
slender-billed 787 
smutty-nosed 783 
sooty 787 
wandering 785 
Shearwaters 783 
fulmar 783 
Shell 
doves 570 
quail 593 
Shining fly-snapper 328 
Shoe-bill 654 
Shoot, how to 8 
Shore-birds 596 
Shore larks 281 
Short-billed 
kittiwake 748 
marsh wren 280 
Short-eared owl 507 
Short-legged tattler 643 
Short-tailed 
albatross 775 
tern 770 
Short-winged murrelet 814 
Shot 3 


Shot-gun 1 
Shoulder 106 
Shoulder-blade 146 
Shoulder-girdle 145 
Shoveller duck 696 
Shrike 
common american 338 
great northern 387 
loggerhead 338 
white-rumped 338 
Shrikes 336 
gray 337 
true 336 
Shuffler 701 
Sialia 257 
arctica 258 
mexicana 258 
sialis 257 
Siberian 
titmouse 267 
wagtail 284 
Sickle-bill 645 
Sickle-billed kites 523 
Sierra jay 422 
Sight, sense of 178 
Sigmoid flexure of neck 93 
Silk buntings 387 
Silver-tongue 371 
Simorhynchus 806 
cassini 808 
cristatellus 807 
dubius 807 
psittaculus 806 
pusillus 808 
pygmeus 8.8 
tetraculus 807 
Sinciput 97 
Singing of birds 206 
Sinus rhomboidalis 176 
Siskin, american 354 
Siskins 353 
Sitta 270 
aculeata 271 
cxsia 270 
canadensis 271 
carolinensis 270 
pusilla 271 
pygmea 27] 
Sittella 269 
Sittide 269 
Sitodrepa panicea 55 
Siurus 308 
auricapillus 308 
motacilla 309 
nevius 309 
notabilis 309 
Skeleton of birds 134 
Skeletonizing 48 
Skimmer, black 772 
Skimmers 772 
Skimming birds 28 
Skua gulls 734 
Skull of birds 149 
Skull, development of fowl’s 151 
Skunk blackbird 400 
Skylarks 282, 283 
Sky pipits 286 
Slate-colored fox sparrow 386 
Slit-nosed longwings 733 
Slender-billed 
fulmar 778 
nuthatch 271 
shearwater 787 
Small 
egret herons 659 
green-crested flycatcher 441 


Small-billed creeper 290 
>maller white-cheeked goose 689 
Smell, sense of 178 
Smoky pies 419 
Smutty-nosed 
jay 425 
shearwater 783 
Snake-bird 730 
Snake killer 474 
Snaring birds 3 
Snipe 614, 620 
american 621 
english 621 
european 621 
grass 626 
gray 622 
jack 621, 626 
red-bellied 623 
red-breasted 622 
robin 632 
stone 638 
true 620 
web-toed 622 
wilson’s 621 
Snow 
bunting 356 
geese 685 
goose 685 
grouse 585 
owls 510 
sparrows 377 
Snow-bird 
black 377 
cinereous 379 
eastern 377 
gray-headed 379 
hybrid 378 
mexican 379 
oregon 3878 
pink-sided 379 
red-backed 379 
white-winged black 378 
Snow-birds 377 
Snowflake 356 
Snowy 
heron 660 
owl 510 
ring plover 603 
Snub-nosed 
auk 807 
auks 806 
Solan goose 720 
Solitaire 65 
Solitary 
greenlet 333 
sandpiper 639 
tattler 639 
Somateria 708, 710 
dresseri 712 
fischeri 710 
mollissima 710 
spectabilis 712 
stelleri 709 
v-nigrum 712 
Somatopleura 226 
Song of birds 206 
Song grosbeak 
black-headed 389 
rose-breasted 389 
Song grosbeaks 388 
Song sparrow 371 
cinereous 372 
gray 372 
kadiak 3872 
lincoln’s 370 
oregon 3872 


INDEX. 


Song sparrow 
rusty 372 
samuels’ 372 
swamp 370 
Song sparrows 369, 371 
Songless passeres 427 
Sooty 
albatross 776 
fork-tail petrel 781 
grouse 580 
guillemot 815 
shearwater 787 
tern 768 
Sora 673 
Soree 673 
Southeast fish crow 417 
Southern sand-hill crane 667 
South-southerly 706 
Southwestern shore lark 282 
Spanish curlew 651 
Sparrow 344 
arizona chipping 380 
artemisia 376 
baird’s savanna 360 
beaked savanna 363 
black-chinned 381 
black-faced sage 376 
bleached yellow-winged 366 
brewer’s 381 
california sage 376 
chipping 380 
cinereous song 372 
clay-colored 381 
common savanna 363 
eastern fox 385 
english 344 
european 344 
field 380 
fox 385 
gambel’s crown 883 
golden crown 383 
grasshopper 365 
gray song 372 
harris’ 384 
heermann’s song 372 
henslow’s grasshopper 366 
intermediate crown 338 
ipswich savanna 361 
kadiak song 3872 
large-billed fox 386 
Jark 384 
lark savanna 363 
le conte’s grasshopper 366 
lincoln's song 370 
mountain 344 
nevada sage 376 
oak-woods 373 
oregon song 372 
pipit savanna 363 
rusty song 372 
sage 376 
saint lucas savanna 364 
samuels’ song 372 
san diego savanna 363 
slate-colored fox 386 
song 371 
swamp song 370 
texas 398 
townsend’s fox 885 
tree 379 
white-crowned 383 
white-throated 383 
yellow-winged 365 
Sparrow hawk 5387 
cuban 538 
isabel 538 


857 


Sparrow owls 514 
Sparrows 

chipping 879 

crown 3881 

fox 385 

grass 364 

grasshopper 365 

ground 360 

lark 384 

quail 365 

sage 375 

savanna 360 

sea-side 367 

snow 377 

song 369 
Spatula 696 

clypeata 696 
Spatulate 

bill 102 

tail-feathers 116 
Spear-billed grebes 793 
Specialized forms 76 
Species 72, 73 
Specific 

characters 72 

names 80 
Speckle-belly 684 
Speckled cation wren 276 
Speckle-tailed wren 278 
Spectacled 

eider 710 

guillemot 815 
Spectral ow] 509 
Spermatozoa 218 
Spermophila 392 

moreleti 392 
Spheniscomorphe 171, 788 
Sphenoid bone 158 
Spheno-palatine ganglion 178 
Sphenotic bone 156 
Spinal 

accessory nerve 177 

chord 176 

column 137 

nerves 177 
Spine-tail 

grouse 580 

swifts 457 
Spirit-duck 705 
Spiza 387 

americana 387 

townsendi 388 
Spizella 379 

agrestis 380 

arizone: 380 

atrigularis 381 

breweri 381 

domestica 380 

monticola 3879 

pallida 381 
Sphyropicus 485 

nuchalis 486 

ruber 486 

thyroides 486 

varius 486 
Splanchnology 209 
Splanchnopleura 226 
Splenial bone 166 
Spoonbill, roseate 651 
Spoonbill ducks 696 
Spoon-billed sandpiper 634 
Spoonbills 651 

american 651 
Spotted 

grouse 578 

sandpiper 640 


808 


Spotty-throat sandpipers 625 
Sprague’s pipit 286 
Sprig-tail 692 
Spruce 

grouse 578 

partridge 578 
Spurious primary 113 
Spurred towhee 397 
Spurs 

of wing 114 

of foot 132, 133 
Spur-winged birds 114 
Squamosal 

bone 157 

process 157 
Squatarola 598 

helvetica 598 
Squawk 662 
Stake-driver 664 
Stands for birds 44 
Stapedial 

cartilage 154 

elements 186 
Stapes 185 
Star buzzards 551 
Starling 427 
Starlings 

american 399 

meadow 405 

old world 426 

typical 426 
Starncenadinex 571 
Starncenas 571 

cyanocephala 571 
Starry hummers 465 
Steathornithina 448 
Steatornis 448 
Steganopodes 718, 824 
Steganopus 612 

wilsoni 612 
Stelgidopteryx 324 

serripennis 324 
Steller’s 

eider 709 

jay 421 
Stellula 465 

calliope 465 
Stenonine duct 210 
Stephens’ greenlet 335 
Stercorarius 734 

buffoni 738 

parasiticus 736 

pomatorhinus 735 

skua 734 
Sterna 756 

aleutica 768 

anzsthetica 769 

anglica 757 

antillarum 766 

cantiaca 761 

caspia 757 

dougalli 766 

elegans 760 

forsteri 763 

fuliginosa 768 

hirundo 762 

macrura 764 

maxima 759 

superciliaris 766 

trudeaui 767 
Sternez 756 
Sternina 754 
Sterno-tracheales 202 
Sternum 143 
Sthenelus melanocorypha 682 
Stigma of ovisac 221 


INDEX. 


Stilt 611 
petrel 783 
sandpiper 623 
stormy petrel 782 
Stilts 609, 611 
Stimulation 21 
Stint 
american 625 
wilson’s 625 
Stock-dove 565 
Stomach, examining 47 
Stone-chat 256 
Stone-snipe 638 
Storage, cases for 56 
Stork series 652 
Storks 652, 653 
true 653 
Stormy 
petrel 781 
petrels 780 
Stragulum 95 
Strepsilaine 608 
Strepsilas 608 
interpres 609 
melanocephalus 609 
Strickland’s woodpecker 482 
Striges 498 
Strigide 502 
Strigina 502 
Stringopine 495 


Stringops habroptilus 76, 238, 495 


Striped flycatchers 431 
Strisores 445 
Strix 508 
alleni 510 
aluco 508 
cinerea 509 
lapponica 509 
nebulosa 509 
occidentalis 510 
Struthio 170 
Struthious birds 69, 238, 825 
Structure 
anatomical 133 
epidermic 82 
of birds 59 
of feathers 84 
types of 74 
Stuffing birds 40 
Sturnella 405 
magna 406 
mexicana 406 
neglecta 406 
Sturnellinz 405 
Sturnide 426 
Sturnine 426 
Sturnus 426 
vulgaris 427 
Stylo-hyal 186 
Stylo-hyoid 211 
Sub-, the prefix 78 
Subgenus 80 
Submaxillary line 98 
Subocular bar 152 
Subspecies 79 
Success, qualifications for 5 
Sula 720 
bassana 720 
leucogastra 720 
loxostyla 824 
Suleate claws 133 
Sulei 103 
Sulcus, nasal 104 
Sulidie 720 
Sulphide of carbon 57 
Sulphur-bellied flycatcher 431 


Sultan gallinules 675 
Summer 
duck 698 
finch 
arizona 374 
bachman’s 373 
bay-winged 375 
boucard’s 375 
cassin’s 374 
illinois 373 
rufous-crowned 374 
finches 373 
redbird 318 
tanagers 317 
warbler 298 
yellow-bird 298 
Sun-birds 666 
Super-, the prefix 78 
Superior maxillary nerve 177 
Supernature 59 
Superorbital gland 178 
Supination 109 
Supra-occipital 156 
Supra-orbital 97 
Supra-renal capsules 46 
Surangular bone 166 
Surf 
duck 714 
ducks 713 
Surf-bird 605 
Surnia 511 
funerea 511 
ulula 512 
Suspensorium of mandible 152 
Suture of bones 134 
Swainson’s 
buzzard 546 
rosy finch 351 
warbler 292 
Swallow 
bank 320 
barn 322 
chimney 457 
cliff 323 
crescent 323 
eaves 323 
mud 323 
rough-winged 324 
violet-green 323 
white-bellied 322 
Swallows 319 
bank 323 
barn 321 
cliff 323 
iris 322 
rough-winged 323 
violet-velvet 322 
Swallow-tailed 
flycatcher 431 
gull 753 
kite 526 
kites 525 
Swamp 
song sparrow 870 
warblers, golden 291 
Swan 
bewick’s 683 
common american 682 
whistling 682 
whooping 683 
trumpeter 682 
Swans 681 
white 682 
Swift 
chimney 457 
northern black cloud 457 


Swift 
rock 456 
vaux’s 458 
white-throated 456 
Swifts 455, 456 
chimney 457 
cloud 457 
rock 456 
spine-tailed 457 
Swiss plover 598 
Sylvia 
carbonata 308 
montana 308 
Sylvicolide 287 
Sylvicoline 288, 289 
Symbolic formulation wanted 78 
Symmetrical figures from feathers 


Sympathetic nervous system 174, 
177 


Symphemia 636 
semipalmata 637 
Symphysis 
mandibular 166 
pubic 147 
Syndactyle foot 129 
Syngnesious foot 129 
Synopsis, systematic 
of n. a. birds 237 
of fossil birds 821 
Synthliborhamphus 811 
antiquus 811 
umizusume 812 
Syrinx 204, 239, 240 
Syrnium 511 
Systematic synopses 237, 811 


TABULAR VIEW of higher groups 
2: 

Taction 191 
Tachybaptes 796 
Tachycineta 322 

thalassina 323 
Tachypetes 731 

aquilus 731 
Tachy petida 730 
Tadorna vulpanser 684 
Tail 114 

shapes of the 117 
Tail-bones 114 
Tail-coverts 115 
Tail-sacrals 141 
Taking cold 19 
Tanager 

cooper’s, 318 

crimson-headed 319 

hepatic 318 

louisiana 319 

rose 318 

scarlet 318 

summer 318 

western summer 318 
Tanagers 317 

summer 317 
Tanagride 317 
Tantalinz 652 
Tantalops 653 

loculator 653 
Tantalus 653 

ibis 653 

loculator 653 
Tarsal 

bones 119, 120 

cartilages of eye 180 
Tarso-metatarsus 119, 120 


INDEX. 


Tarsus, 121, 122, 125, 239 
Taste, sense of 191 
Tattler 
bartram’s 641 
long-legged 631 
semipalmated 637 
short-legged 643 
wandering 643 
Tattlers 618 
green 639 
semipalmated 636 
solitary 639 
Taxidermy 28 
Taxonomic equivalence of groups 
73 


Taxonomy 65 
Teal 694 

american green-winged 695 

blue-winged 696 

cinnamon 696 

european green-winged 696 
Tectrices 110, 115 

inferiores (tail) 115 

inferiores (wing) 110 

superiores (tail) 115 

superiores (wing) 110 

majores 110 

mediz 110 

minores 110 
Tegumentary system 82 
Telmatornis 

affinis 829 

priscus 829 
Teleotype 75, 76 
Teleotypic groups 76 
Telmatodytes 279 

paludicola 279 

palustris 279 
Temminck’s auk 812 
Temporal 

bone 157 

region 97 
Tendons of wing 109 
Tengmalm’s owl 513 
Tennessee warbler 295 
Tensor patagii 193 
Tenuirostral 101 
Terekia cinerea 617 
Teretristis 287, 311 
Tergum 95 
Tern - 
aleutian 768 
arctic 764 
black 770 
bridled 769 
caspian 757 
cayenne 759 
common 762 
ducal 761 
elegant 760 
forster’s 763 
gull-billed 757 
impevial 757 
least 766 
marsh 757 
noddy 771 
paradise 766 
princely 760 
royal 759 
roseate 766 
sandwich 761 
short-tailed 770 
sooty 768 
trudeau’s 767 
white-headed 767 
white-winged 770 


859 


Tern 
wilson’s 762 
Terns 754, 756 
Tertials 113 
Tertiaries 113 
Tertiary birds 64, 822 
Testes, ‘Testicles, 45, 46, 215, 
7 


217 
Tetradactyle birds 126 
Tetraonidx 576 
Tetraoninz 577 
Tetrao urogallus 578 
Tetrapteryx 666 
Texan, Texas 
beardless flycatcher 444 
cardinal 393 
grackle 412 
green kingfisher 470 
guan 573 
night-hawk 454 
orchard oriole 408 
quail 591 
screech owl 506 
sparrow 398 
thrasher 251 
woodpecker 481 
wren 277 
Thalamencephalon 175 
Thalasseus 756 
Thalassidroma 776 
Thalassornis leuconota 699 
Thamnophilus 205 
Theory of evolution 60, 62 
Thick-billed night-herons 663 
Thigh or thigh-bone 119 
Thinornis zelandie 597 
Thin skins 36 
Thistle-bird 354 
Thoracic 
duct 199 
vertebrae 139 
Thorax 142 
Thrasher 251 
arizona 252 
bow-billed 252 
crissal 254 
california 253 
curve-billed 252 
st. lucas 253 
sage 249 
texas 251 
yuma, 254 
Thrashers 250 
Thrasyaétus 553 
harpyia 553 
Three-toed 
birds of n. am. 126 
woodpecker 485 
black-backed 485 
ladder-backed 485 
pole-backed 485 
woodpeckers 484 
Throat 96 
Thrush 
brown 251 
gray-cheeked 247 
golden crowned 308 
hermit, audubon’s 247 
eastern 247 
western 247 
new york water 309 
olive-backed 248 
oregon olive-backed 247 
red-winged 245 
russet-backed 247 
townsend’s flycatching 329 


860 


Thrush 
varied 245 
water 309 
willow tawny 246 
wilson’s (or tawny) 246 
wood 246 
wyoming water 309 
Thrush blackbirds 411 
Thrushes 240, 243 
flycatching 328, 329 
typical 241, 243 
mocking 241, 248 
Thryomanes 277 
Thryothorus 277 
berlandieri 277 
bewicki 277 
leucogaster 275 
ludovicianus 277 
miamiensis 277. 
spilurus 278 
Thuinb 108 
Thyro-arytenoid muscles 204 
Thyro-cricoid muscles 204 
Thyro-hyal 167 
Thyro- -hyoid muscles 204 
Thyroid cartilage 204 
Tibia 119 
Tibial epiphyses 120 
Tibiale 120 
Tibio-tarsus 119, 120 
Tichodroma muraria 272 
Tichodrominz 272 
Tiga 126, 127 
Tigrisoma 654, 655 
Timeliida 262 
Times to go a-shooting 11 
Tinamide 574 
Tinamon, skull of 170 
Tinamous 69, 574 
Tinamus robustus 170 
Tinea flavifrontella 55 
Tinker 818 
Tinnunculus 531, 538 
Titlarks 285 
Titmice 263, 265 
Titmouse 
black-capped 265 
black-crested 265 
bridled 265 
chestnut-backed 267 
european greater 263 
hudsonian 267 
plain 264 
siberian 267 
tufted 264 
Tobacco, use of 21 
Todide 446 
Toes, number of 126, 127 


Topography of birds 1, 94, 95 


Tomia, Tomium 103, 105 
Tongue of birds 210, 211 
Tooth-billed pigeon 563 
Totanus 618, 638 

flavipes 638 

glottis 639 

melanoleucus 638 
Totipalmate 

birds 718 

foot 131 
Totipalmation 129 
Touch, sense of 191 
Towhee 

abert’s 398 

arctic 396 

brown 397 

californian 397 


INDEX. 


Towhee 
canon 3897 
crissal 397 
gray 398 
green-tailed 398 
mexican brown 397 
olive-black spotted 396 
oregon 396 


white-throated brown 397 


Towhee bunting 396 
crissal 397 
white-eyed 396 
spurred 397 

Towhees 395 

Townsend’s 
bunting 388 
flycatching thrush 329 
fox sparrow 885 
warbler 299 

Trabecule of skull 151 

Trachea 201 
of ducks 50 
of merganser 49 

Tracheal 
labyrinth 202 
syrinx 205 
tympanum 202 

Tracts, feathered 86, 87 

Tragopans 575 

Tramp 344 

Transocular line 98 

Transportation of birds 45 
cases for 56 

Trapping birds 3 

Trays 34, 56 

Tread of eggs 221 

Tree 
cuckoos 474 
duck, autumnal 689 

fulvous 689 
ducks 689 
grouse 578 
sparrow 379 

Treron 564 

Treviranus, lamelle of 189 

Triassic formation 63 

Tricolor woodpeckers 489 

Tridactyle 
foot 126 
birds 126 

Trifacial nerve 177 

Trigeminal nerve 177 

Tringa 617, 632 
canutus 632 

Tringa, coot-footed 614 

Tringoides 640 
macularius 640 

Trinomial nomenclature 80 

Trivia 190 

Trochanter 119 

Trochilida 458 

Trochilus 461 
alexandri 462 
colubris 461 

Troglodytes 278 
domesticus 278 
parkmani 278 

Troglodytide 273 

Troglodytina 274, 277 

Trogon 468 
ambiguus 468 

Trogon, copper-tailed 468 

Trogonidx 468 

Trogons 468 

Tropic bird 
red-billed 732 


Tropic bird 
yellow-billed 732 
Tropic birds 731 
Troupial 467 
Troupialis 405 
Trudeau’s tern 767 
Trumpeter swan 682 
Trumpeters 665 
Trunk of birds 92, 93 
Tryngites 642 
rufescens 642 
Tuberculum of rib 143 
Tubinares 773 
Tufted 
cormorant 729 
puffin 804 
titmouse 264 
Tulé marsh wren 279 
Turbinal bones 160 
Turdida 240 
Turdinz 241, 243, 328 
Turdus 244 
alicie 247 
auduboni 247 
confinis 244 
fuscescens 246 
iliacus 245 
migratorius 146, 244 
mustelinus 246 
neevius 245 
nanus 247 
propinquus 244 
salicicola 246 
swainsoni 248 
unalascxe 247 
ustulatus 247 
Turkey 
eastern wild 576 
mexican 576 
Turkey buzzard 559 
Turkeys 576 
Turnices 571 
Turnicidz 571 
Turnstone 606, 608, 609 
black-headed 609 
Turtur 564 
Tylari 125 
Tylorhamphus 806 
Tympanic bone 161 
Tympaniform membrane 205 
Tympanum 
of ear 185 
of trachea 202 
Type 75 
Types of structure 74 
of feathers 85 
of palate 186 


Typical and subtypical groups 75 
3 


Typical thrushes 241, 24: 
Tyrannidx 428 
Tyrannine 428 
Tyrannus 432 
carolinensis 432 
couchi 434 
dominicensis 433 
inritabilis 436 
verticalis 436 
vociferans 436 
Tyrant flycatchers 428 


Urntornis lucaris 822 
Ulna, 106, 107, 1138 
Ulnare 106, 107, 108 
Umbilicus of feather 84 
Unciform bone 107 
Uncinate processes 142 


Under 

mandible 100, 103 
parts 94 
tail-coverts 115 
wing-coverts 110 
Unfeathered spaces 86 
Unguis of bill 102 
Unicorn auk 805 
Upland plover 641 


Upper 
PP amie 100, 104 
parts 94 
tail-coverts 115 
wing-coverts 110 
Upupidie 446 
Ureters 216, 217 
Uria 814 
carbo 815 
columba 815 
grylle 814 
mandti 815 
Urinary 
bladder 217 
organs 215 
Urogenital 
organs 215 
sinus 214 
Uro-hyal 167 
Uropygial gland 86 
Uropygium 94 
Urosacral vertebre 114, 141 
Urosteon 144 
Urubitinga 552 
anthracina 552 
Utamania 818 
torda 818 


Valley quail 592 
Valuation of characters 74 
Vane of feather 84 
Vanellus 604 

cristatus 605 
Varied 

bunting 391 

thrush 245 
Vascular system 195 
Vas deferens 217 
Vaux’s swift 458 
Veery 246 
Velvet scoter 714 
Venous system 195 
Venter 94, 96 
Ventricles 

of brain 175 

of heart 196 
Ventriculus glandulosus 212 
Vermilion flycatcher 444 
Versatile toes 126 
Vertebra, see Vertebrax 
Vertebra 137 

caudal 141 

cervical 138 

coccygeal 141 

dorsal 139 

dorso-lumbar 139 

thoracic 139 

lumbar 140 

plan of 135 

sacral 140 

urosacral 141 
Vertebrarterial canal 139 
Vertebrates, Vertebrata 60, 81 
Vertex 97 
Vesicles 

cerebral 175 

seminal 218 


INDEX. 


Vesicule seminales 218 
Vesper-bird 364 
Vestibule of ear 188, 189 
Vibrissee 99 
Violet-green 
cormorant 729 
swallow 323 
Violet-velvet swallows 322 
Vireo, see Greenlet 
Vireo 330 
altiloquus 332 
atricapillus 336 
barbatulus 332 
belli 335 
cassini 333 
flavifrons 333 
flaviviridis 332 
gilvus 332 
huttoni 334 
noveboracensis 334 
olivaceus 331 
philadelphicus 332 
plumbeus 334 
pusillus 335 
solitarius 333 
stevensi 335 
swainsoni 333 
vicinior 334 
Vireolanius 330 
Vireonide 73, 329 
Vireos 329 
Virginia 
nightingale 393 
partridge 589 
quail 589 
rail 673 
Virginia’s warbler 294 
Visceral 
arches 152 
clefts 152, 158 
Vision, sense of 178 
Vitelline membrane 220, 221 
Vitellus 220 
Vitreous humor 180, 183 
Vocal 
chords 205 
organs 204, 205, 206 
Vomer 
of coceyx 114 
of skull 161 
Vulture, black 560 
Vultures 
american 557 
old world 519 
Vulturine 519 
Vultur 
monachus 519 
umbrosus 822 


Waps 4 
Wagtail 
siberian 284 
white 284 
yellow 284 
Wagtails 283, 284, 286 
Wag-tail warbler 309 
golden-crowned 308 
large-billed 309 
Wag-tail warblers 308 
Wall creeper 272 
Wandering 
shearwater 785 
tattler 643 
Warbler 
audubon’s 302 


861 


Warbler 
azure 301 
bachman’s 294 
bay-breasted 304 
blackburn’s 302 
black-and-yellow 304 
black-capped flycatching 313 
black-poll 303 
black-throated blue 300 
gray 300 
green 208 
blue-eyed yellow 298 
blue golden-winged 294 
blue-winged yellow 293 
blue yellow-backed 290 
canadian flycatching 314 
cape may 805 
cerulean 301 
chestnut-headed 298 
chestnut-sided 304 
cincinnati 293 
connecticut 309 
golden 298 
golden-crowned wag-tail 308 
golden-cheeked 300 
grace’s 306 
hermit 299 
hooded flycatching 313 
kennicott’s 259 
kentucky 310 
kirtland’s 306 
large-billed wag-tail 309 
lawrence’s 293 
lucy’s 294 
macgillivray’s 311 
magnolia 304 
mourning 311 
nashville 294 
olive 296 
orange-crowned 295 
pacitic 295 
painted flycatching 315 
palm 307 
pine 3807 
pine-creeping 307 
prairie 3805 
prometheus 302 
prothonotary 291 
red-fronted flycatching 314 
rose flycatching 314 
sennett’s 291 
summer 298 
swainson’s 292 
tennessee 295 
townsend’s 299 
virginia’s 294 
wag-tail 309 
western 299 
western yellow-rumped 302 
western black-capped flycatch- 
ing 314 
white-browed 306 
white-throated 293 
worm-eating 292 
yellow-bellied red-poll 307 
yellow-crowned 301 
yellow red-poll 307 
yellow-rumped 301 
yellow-throated 306 
yellow-throated ground 310 
Warblers 
american 287, 288, 312 
blue yellow-backed 290 
bush 309 
creeping 290 
golden 298 


862 


Warblers 

ground 310 

fly-catching 312, 314, 315 

old world 259 

swamp 291 

true 289 

wag-tail 308 

wood 296 

worm-eating 291, 292 
Warbling 

greenlet 332 

vireo 332 

western 333 

Warrior, black 543 
Washington, bird of 555 
Water 

ouzel 255 

pewee 437 
Water-thrushes 309 
Water-turkey 730 
Waterwitch 797 
Wattles 98 
Wavey, horned 686 
Waxwing 

bohemian 326 

carolina 327 

cedar 327 
Waxwings 325 
Weapons for collecting 3 
Webbed foot 131 
Web-toed snipe 622 
Wedge-tailed gull 752 
Western 

barred owl 510 

black-capped warbler 314 

bluebird 258 

chickadee 266 

dowitcher 623 

golden-crested kinglet 260 

goshawk 581 

grass finch 365 

grebe 793 

hermit thrush 247 

herring gull 744 

house wren 278 

meadow lark 406 

night-hawk 454 

nonpareil 391 

red-shouldered buzzard 546 

red-tail 545 

shore lark 282 

summer redbird 318 

warbler 299 

warbling vireo 333 

winter wren 279 

wood pewee 440 

yellow-bellied flycatcher 442 

yellow-rump 302 
Wet preparations 48 
Whale-head 654 
Wheat-ear 256 
Whippoorwill 452 

arizona 452 
Whip-tom-kelley 332 
Whiskered auk 808 
Whiskey jack 425 
Whistler 704 
Whistling 

plover 598 

swan 682 
White brant 685 

crane 666 

gannet 720 

heron 658 

horned owl 504 

ibis 651 


INDEX. 


White pelican 722 

wagtail 284 
White-bellied 

murrelet 813 

nuthatch 269 

petrel 783 

swallow 322 

wren 278 
White-browed 

crown sparrow 382 

warbler 306 
White-crowned 

pigeon 565 

sparrow 382, 383 
White-eyed 

greenlet 334 

towhee 396 
White-faced glossy ibis 649 
White-fronted dove 567 
White-headed 

guil 747 

sea eagle 555 

tern 767 

woodpecker 484 
White-necked raven 416 
White-rumped 

petrel 781 

sandpiper 627 

shrike 338 
White-tailed 

buzzard 542 

godwit 636 

kite 525 

longspur 358 

ptarmigan 588 

sea eagle 555 
White-throated 

brown towhee 397 

night courser 450 

rock swift 456 

sparrow 382 

warbler 293 
White-tufted cormorant 727 
White-wing doves 569 
White-winged 

blackbird 387 

cross-bill 348 

gull 741 

snow-bird 378 

surf duck 714 
Whooping 

crane 666 

swan 683 
Wigeon 

american 694 

european 694 
Wigeons 693 
Wild 

dove 568 

duck 691 

pigeon 566 

turkey 576 
Willet 637 
Williamson’s woodpecker 487 
Willow 

grouse 586 

ptarmigan 586 

thrush 246 
Wilsonian stormy petrels 782 
Wilson’s 

autograph 58 

bluebird 257 

phalarope 612 

plover 601 

school-house 58 

snipe 621 


Wilson’s 

stint 625 

stormy petrel 782 

tern 762 

thrush 246 
Windpipe 202 

of merganser 49 
Wing-coverts 110 
Wing-feathers 109 
Wings of birds 106 
Winker of eye 180 
Winter 

chip-bird 379 

hawk 545 

wren 278 

alaskan 279 
western 279 

Wish-bone 147 
Witch, black 472 
Wolffian bodies 215 
Wood 

duck 698 

ibis 652, 653 

owl, american 509 

owls 508 

pewee 439 

pewee flycatchers 438 

stork, american 653 

thrush 246 
Woodcock 

american 619 

european 620 
Woodcocks 615, 616, 619, 620 
Woodhouse’s jay 423 
Woodpecker 

black-breasted 487 

black-backed three-toed 485 

brown-headed 486 

californian 489 

downy 483 

gairdner’s 483 

gila 488 

gilded 493 

golden-winged 493 

hairy 483 

harris’ 483 

ivory-billed 479 

ladder-backed three-toed 485 

lewis’ 490 

narrow-fronted 490 

nuchal 486 

nuttall’s 482 

pileated 480 

pole-backed three-toed 485 

red-bellied 488 

red-breasted 486 

red-cockaded 481 

red-headed 489 

red-shafted 493 

red-throated 487 

saguaro 488 

st. lucas 482 

strickland’s 482 

texan 481 

white-headed 484 

williamson's 487 

yellow-bellied 486 

yellow-fronted 488 
Woodpeckers, 477 

black-and-white spotted 480 

bristle-bellied 490 

gilded 491 

masked 483 

pileated 480 

sap-sucking 485 

three-toed 484 


Woodpeckers 
tricolor 489 
zebra 487 
Wood-warbler, see Warbler 
Wood-wrens 259 
Work, a good day’s 15 
Worm-eating swamp warblers 291 
warbler 292 
Wrangel’s murrelet 813 
Wren 
alaskan winter 279 
bewick’s 277 
floridian 277 
great carolina 277 
house, eastern 278 
western 278 
marsh, long-billed 279 
short-billed 280 
rock 275 
speckled-tailed 278 
texan 277 
tulé 279 
western winter 279 
white-bellied 278 
winter 278 
Wrens 273, 277 
cactus 274 
cafion 276 
marsh 279, 280 
house 278 
reed 277 
rock 275 
true 277 
winter 278 
Wren-tit 262 
henshaw’s 262 
Wren-tits 262 
Wright’s flycatcher 443 
Wrist-joint 106 
Wiirdemann’s heron 658 
Wyoming water thrush 309 


INDEX. 


XANTHOCEPHALUS 404 

icterocephalus 404 
Xanthura 424 

luxuriosa 424 
Xantus humming-bird 460 
Xema 753 

furcata 753 

sabinii 753 
Xenopicus 483 

albolarvatus 484 
Xiphoid process 144 


YELK 

of eggs 220 
Yellow 

crake 674 

red-poll warbler 307 

wagtail 284 
Yellow-backed warbler, blue 290 
Yellow-bellied 

flycatcher 442 

red-poll warbler 307 

woodpecker 486 
Yellow-billed 

cuckoo 476 

loon 790 

magpie 421 

tropic bird 732 
Yellow-bird 354 

summer 298 
Yellow-breasted chat 312 
Yellow-crowned 

night heron 663 

warbler 301 
Yellow-fronted woodpecker 488 
Yellow-green greenlet 332 
Yellow-headed blackbird 404 
Yellow-rumped warbler 301 
Yellowshanks 638 
Yellow-throat, maryland 310 


863 


Yellow-throated 
greenlet 333 
ground warbler 310 
warbler 306 
Yellow-winged sparrow 365 
bleached 365 
Yoke-toed birds 126 
Yucker 493 
Yuma thrasher 255 


ZAMELODIA 388 
ludoviciana 389 
melanocephala 389 

Zebra woodpeckers 487 

Zebrilus 654, 655 

Zenaida 568 
amabilis 569 

Zenaida dove 569 

Zenaidine 566 

Zenaidura 568 
carolinensis 568 

Zona pellucida 220 

Zonotrichia 381 
albicollis 382 
botterii 374 
coronata 283 
gambeli 383 
intermedia “83 
leucophrys 383 
querula 384 

Zoological 
characters 70 
sroups 72 
. taste of 81 

Zygapophyses 137 

Zygodactyle 445 
birds 126 
foot 130 

Zygodactylous arrangement 126 

Zygoma 162 

Zygomatic arch 162 


APPENDIX 


EXHIBITING THE NOMENCLATURE OF THE AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ 
UNION CHECK-LIST IN COMPARISON WITH THAT OF THE KEY, AND 
INCLUDING DESCRIPTIONS OF ADDITIONAL SPECIES, ETC. 


Nots. Jn the Key List, the numbering is continuous, with few exceptions, and the 
letters a, b, etc., and the terms bis, ter, etc., indicate additions to the numeration of the Coues 
Check List of 1882, which was preserved in the Key, 1884. In the Union List the numera- 
tion is necessarily broken to make the comparison with the Key column, because the 
sequence of species in the Union List is different. In the latter, a, b, c, indicate sub- 
species; extralimital species have their respective numbers bracketed ; and the daggers ({) 
indicate the numbers of the ‘‘ Hypothetical ’’ List. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 

1. Turdus migratorius. 761. Merula migratoria. 

2 migratorius propinquus ? 761a. migratoria propinqua. 

3. confinis. 762. confinis. 

4. iliacus. (760.] Turdus iliacus. 

5 nevius. 763. Hesperocichla nevia. 

6 mustelinus. 755. Turdus mustelinus. 

7. fuscescens. 756. fuscescens. 

7a. fuscescens salicicola. 756a. fuscescens salicolus. 

8. unalasce. 759. aonalaschke. 

9. unalasce auduboni. 759a. aonalaschkee auduboni. 
10. unalasce nanus. 7590. aonalaschke pallasii. 
11. ustulatus. 758. ustulatus. 

12. ustulatus alicie. 757. alicie. 

00. [Not admitted in the Key.] 757a. alicie bicknelli. 

13. Turdus ustulatus swainsoni. 758a. ustulatus swainsonil. 
14. Oroscoptes montanus. 702. Oroscoptes montanus. 

15. Mimus polyglottus. 703. Mimus polyglottus. 

16. carolinensis. 704. Galeoscoptes carolinensis. 
17. Harporhynchus rufus. 705. Harporhynchus rufus. 

18. rufus longirostris. 706. longirostris. 
19. curvirostris. 707. curvirostris. 
20. curvirostris palmeri. 707a. curvirostris palmeri. 
21. bendirii. 708. bendirei. 

22. cinereus. 709. cinereus. 

23. redivivus. 710. redivivus. 
24. lecontii. 711. lecontei. 


866 APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
25. Harporhynchus crissalis. 712. Harporhynchus crissalis. 
30. Cinclus mexicanus. 701. Cinclus mexicanus. 
26. Saxicola cenanthe. 765. Saxicola cenanthe. 
27. Sialia sialis. 766. Sialia sialis. 


766a. Sialia sialis azurea. 


27bis. Add: Sialia sialis azurea. AzuRE BLuEBIRD. Similar to S. sialis; the blue 
of a greenish shade, and the tail upward of 3.00. Southern Arizona and southward. A slight 
variety, scarcely recognizable. 


28. Sialia mexicana. 767. Sialia mexicana. 
29. arctica. 768. arctica, 
31. Cyanecula suecica. 764.] Cyanecula suecica. 
32. Phylloscopus borealis. 747, Phyllopseustes borealis. 
33. Regulus calendula. 749. Regulus calendula. 
750 obscurus. 


33 bis. Add: Regulus calendula obscurus. Dusky KinGiet. Resembling the com- 
mon ruby-crown, but with darker and more plumbeous shade of the upper parts, and some 
slight differencesin proportions. A dark insular form described from Guadalupe Island, Lower 
California. Since the publication of the Key, the A. O. U. Committee has decided to 
include ‘‘ Lower California, with the islands naturally belonging thereto,’’ in the ‘‘ North 
American” avifauna, —a decision in which I concur. (Code, p. 14.) 


34. Regulus satrapa. 748. Regulus satrapa. 
35. satrapa olivaceus? 748a. satrapa olivaceus. 
36. Polioptila ccerulea. 751. Polioptila czerulea. 
37. melanura. 753. californica. 
38. plumbea. 752. plumbea. 
39. Chamea fasciata. 742. Chamea fasciata. 
39a. fasciata henshawi. 742a. fasciata henshawi. 
40. Lophophanes bicolor. 731. Parus bicolor. 
000. [Not in the List.] 


40 bis. Add: Lophophanes bicolor texensis. Texan Turtep Titmovusr. Paler 
than the last, with chestnut instead of black frontlet at base of crest; this chestnut corres- 
ponding in tint to that which suffuses the sides of the body. Tarsus 0.85; bill 0.45. 
Southern Texas. The Auk, Jan. 1887, p. 29. 

41. Lophophanes inornatus. 733. Parus inornatus. 
733a. Parus inornatus griseus. 

41 bis. Add: Lophophanes inornatus griseus. Gray Titmouse. Said to differ from 
ordinary inornatus in rather larger size and decidedly grayer color. Wing 2.90; tail 2.55. 
Middle Province of the United States; Colorado, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, and Arizona. 
Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., v., 1882, p. 344. 


| 7330. Parus inornatus cineraceus. 

41 ter. ddd: Lophophanes inornatus cineraceus. AsHy Trrmovuse. Another alleged 
local race, described as even grayer above and paler below than L. i. griseus, with smaller 
bill, black in color. Lower California. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., vi., Oct. 1883, p. 154. 

42. Lophophanes atrocristatus. 732. Parus atricristatus. 
000. [Not in the List. ] 

42 bis. Add: Lophophanes atrocristatus castaneifrons. CHESTNUT-FRONTED TiT- 

MOUSE. Resembling the last: upper parts plumbeous, faintly tinged with olive; under 


APPENDIX. 867 


parts pale ashy, washed with chestnut on the sides, with faint trace of the same on breast 
and crissum. Crest thin, an inch long, dark brown and ashy instead of black, and with 
a chestnut frontlet; lores white; bill black; feet dark plumbeous. Size of P. bicolor, the 
bill even larger. Wing 3.12; tail 2.95; tarsus 0.77; bill 0.42. Lately discovered in Bee 
County, Texas. The Auk, Jan. 1887, p. 28. 


COUES KEY, 1884. ; UNION LIST, 1886. 
43. Lophophanes wollweberi. 734. Parus wollweberi. 
44. Parus atricapillus. 735. atricapillus. 
45. atricapillus septentrionalis. 735a. atricapillus septentrionalis. 
46. atricapillus occidentalis. 7350. atricapillus occidentalis. 
47. carolinensis. 736. carolinensis. 

879. meridionalis. (737.] meridionalis. [p. 334.) 
48. montanus. 738. gambeli. (New name, List, 
50. rufescens. 741. rufescens. 

51. rufescens neglectus ? 7Ala. rufescens neglectus. 

49. hudsonicus. 740. hudsonicus. 

49a. hudsonicus evura 000. [Not admitted in the List.] 

52. cinctus. 739. Parus cinctus obtectus. 

53. Psaltriparus minimus. 743. Psaltriparus minimus. 

53. minimus. 743. minimus californicus. 
7430. minimus grinde. 


53 bis. Add: Psaltriparus minimus grindz. Grinpa’s Busn-tit. Adult: Cap pale 
brown, lightening on sides of head into white on chin and throat; other under parts exactly 
as in P, minimus. Upper parts light plumbeous-gray, well contrasted with the brown of the 
nape. Bill and feet black. Wing 2.00; tail 2.30 graduated 0.50; bill 0.20. A slight 
local variation, combining to some extent the characters of Nos. 53 and 54. Lower Califor- 
nia. Pr. U.S. Nat. Mus., vi., Oct. 1883, p. 135. 


54. Psaltriparus plumbeus. 744. Psaltriparus plumbeus. 
55. melanotis (745. ] melanotis. 
56. Auriparus flaviceps. 746. Auriparus flaviceps. 
57. Sitta carolinensis. 727. Sitta carolinensis. 
58. carolinensis aculeata. 727a. carolinensis aculeata. 
59, canadensis. 728. canadensis. 
60. pusilla. 129; pusilla. 
61. pygmea. 730 pygmea. 
62. Certhia familiaris. 726. Certhia familiaris americana. 
62a. familiaris mexicana. 726a. familiaris mexicana. 
63. Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus. 713. Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus. 
64. affinis. 714. affinis. 
65. Salpinctes obsoletus. 715. Salpinctes obsoletus. 

716. guadaloupensis. 


65 bis. Add: Salpinctes obsoletus guadalupensis. GuapALure Rock Wren. An 
insular race, differing slightly in the darker coloration, and somewhat in proportions. @, 
wing 2.60-2.75; tail 2.20-2.30; bill 0.59; tarsus 0.85: 9, a little smaller. Guadalupe 
Island, Lower California. 

66. Catherpes mexicanus. (717.] Catherpes mexicanus. 


67. mexicanus conspersus. 717a. mexicanus conspersus. 
67a. mexicanus punctulatus. 000. [Not admitted in the List.] 


868 APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
68. Thryothorus ludovicianus. 718. Thryothorus ludovicianus. 
69. ludovicianus miamiensis. 718a. ludovicianus miamensis. 
70. ludovicianus berlandieri. 000. [Not admitted in the List. ] 
71. bewicki. 719. Thryothorus bewickii. 
72 bewicki leucogaster. 7190. bewickii bairdi. 
73. bewicki spilurus?  - 719a. bewickii spilurus. 
720. brevicaudus. 


73 bis. Add: Thryothorus brevicaudus. GUADALUPE WREN. Resembling T. bewicki 
leucogaster (‘‘ bairdi”), but apparently distinct. Above grayest-brown, grayest on the tail, 
brownest on the rump; wing-feathers obsoletely and tail-feathers distinctly cross-barred 
with dusky, the three outermost of the latter pale dull gray at the ends, with one or two 
broad dusky bars. A strong white superciliary stripe, below which a grayish brown loral 
and auricular stripe. Below, white, shaded into ashy on the belly and sides; the crissum 
with broad black bars. Wing 1.85-1.90; tail 1.80; bill 0.45-0.50; tarsus 0.70-0.75. Gua- 
dalupe Island, Lower California. 


74. Troglodytes domesticus. 721. Troglodytes aédon. 
75, domesticus parkmani. 721a. aédon parkmanii. 
76. Anorthura troglodytes hiemalis. 722. hiemalis. 
77. troglodytes pacificus. 722a. hiemalis pacificus. 
78. troglodytes alascensis. 723. alascensis. 
79. Telmatodytes palustris. 725, Cistothorus palustris. 
80. palustris paludicola ? 000. [Not admitted in the List. ] 
81. Cistothorus stellaris. | 724, Cistothorus stellaris. 
82. Eremophila alpestris. 474. Otocoris alpestris. 
83. alpestris leucolema. 474a. alpestris leucoleema. 
00. [Not admitted in the Key.] 4746. alpestris praticola. 
00. [Not admitted in the Key. | 474c. alpestris arenicola. 
00. [Not admitted in the Key. ] 474d. alpestris giraudi. 
84. Eremophila alpestris chrysolema. 474e, alpestris chrysolema. 
85. Alauda arvensis. (473.] Alauda arvensis. 
86. Motacilla alba. [694.] Motacilla alba. 
86a. ocularis. | 695.] ocularis. 
87. Budytes flavus ? 696. Budytes flavus leucostriatus. 
88. Anthus pratensis. [698.] Anthus pratensis. 
89. ludovicianus. 697. pensilvanicus. 

[699. } cervinus. 


89 bis. Ad): Anthus cervinus. RED-THROATED Pipit. Adult: Above, light grayish. 
brown, fully streaked with dusky, the streaks broadest and darkest on the back. Wings 
and tail dusky, the feathers edged with pale brown, the long inner secondaries with buff, 
and the ends of the middle and greater wing-coverts whitish; outer tail-feathers with much 
white on both webs, and next feather with a white spot at end of inner web. A pale 
and more or less buffy superciliary and malar stripe. Below, whitish, more or less suffused 
with fawn-color on the chin and throat, the throat, breast and sides broadly streaked or 
longitudinally spotted with brownish-black, aggregated into a stripe on each side of the 
throat; the chin, belly and vent immaculate. Bill black, with yellowish base of lower man- 
dikle; feet dark brown. Wing 3.36; tail 2.50; bill 0.45; tarsus 0.85. A species of exten- 
sive distribution in northerly parts of the Old World, probably occurring in Alaska, and 
accidental in California. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., vi., Oct. 1883, p. 156. 


100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
000. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
110. 
111. 
1lla. 
112. 
1138. 
114. 
115. 
116. 
117. 
118. 
119. 
120. 
121. 
122. 
123. 
124. 
125. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 


APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. 


. Neocorys spraguii. 
. Mniotilta varia. 


varia borealis ? 


. Parula americana. 


nigrilora. 


5. Protonotaria citrea. 
. Helmintherus vermivorus. 


swainsoni. 


. Helminthophila pinus. 


lawrencii ? 
leucobronchialis ? 
cincinnatiensis ? 
chrysoptera, 
bachmani.? 
lucia. 

virginia. 
ruficapilla. 


[Not admitted in the Key. ] 
Helminthophila celata 


celata lutescens. 
peregrina. 


Peucedramus olivaceus. 
Dendreeca estiva. 


vieilloti bryanti.? 
virens. 
occidentalis. 
townsendi. 
chrysoparia. 
nigrescens. 
coerulescens. 
coerulea. 
coronata. 
auduboni. 
blackburne. 
striata. 
castanea. 
pennsylvanica. 
maculosa. 
tigrina. 
discolor. 
graciz. 
dominica. 


700. 
636. 
000. 
648. 
649. 
637. 
639. 
638. 
641. 
720. 
721. 
22. 
642. 
640. 
643. 
644. 
645. 
6450. 
616. 
646a. 
647. 
651. 
652. 
653. 
667. 
669. 
668. 
666. 
665. 
654. 
658. 
655. 
656. 
662. 
661. 
660. 
659. 
657. 
650. 
673. 
664. 
663. 


869 


UNION LIST, 1886. 
Anthus spragueii. 
Mniotilta varia. 

[Not admitted in the List.] 
Compsothlypis americana. 


nigrilora. 


Protonotaria citrea. 
Helmitherus vermivorus. 
Helinaia swainsonii. 
Helminthophila pinus. 


lawrencei ? 
leucobronchialis ? 
cincinnatiensis ? 
chrysoptera. 
bachmani. 

lucie. 

virginie. 

’ ruficapilla. 
ruficapilla gutturalis. 
celata. 
celata lutescens. 
peregrina. 


Dendroica olivacea. 


eestiva. 
bryanti castaneiceps. 
virens. 
occidentalis. 
townsendi. 
chrysoparia. 
nigrescens. 
ceerulescens. 
cerulea. 
coronata. 
auduboni. 
blackburnia. 
striata. 
castanea. 
pensylvanica. 
maculosa. 
tigrina. 
discolor. 
gracile. 
dominica. 


1 This rare bird has recently been rediscovered in Louisiana, Mr. C. 8. Galbraith having taken a specimen 


near Lake Pontchartrain in 1886. 


(The Auk, Jan. 1887, p. 35.) Still another specimen, perhaps one of Audubon’s 


types, has been found by Mr. William Brewster in the Lafresnaye collection of the Boston Society of Natural 


History. 


(The Auk, April, 1887, p. 165.) 


2 D. bryanti having been described as a variety of D. vieilloti, and then raised to specific rank, has been more lately 
split into two varieties, and that one which is found on the west coast of Mexico, and also in Lower California, has been 
named castaneiceps, from the rich chestnut head. It will probably turn out to be identical with vicilloti proper. 


870 APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
130. Den@reeca dominica albilora. 663a. Dendroica dominica albilora. 
131. kirtlandi. 670. kirtlandi. 
182. palmarum. 672. palmarum. 
133. palmarum hypochrysea? 672a. palmarum hypochrysea. 
134. pinus. 671. vigorsii. 
000. [See Key, p. 308.] 723. (Perissoglossa?) carbonata. 
000. [See Key, p. 308.] 724. montana. 
135. Siurus auricapillus. 674. Seiurus aurocapillus. 
136. neevius. 675. noveboracensis. 
1387. nevius notabilis? 675a. noveboracensis notabilis. 
138. motacilla. 676. motacilla. 
189. Opoerornis agilis. 678. Geothlypis agilis. 
140. formosa. | 677. formosa. 
141. Geothlypis trichas. | 681. trichas. 
000. [Not admitted in the Key.] | 681a. trichas occidentalis. 
| 682. beldingi. 


141 bis. 4dd: Geothlypis beldingi. BeLpine’s YELLOow-THROAT. Adult # : Above 
nearly uniform olive-green, a little browner anteriorly; below, rich yellow, paler on the 
vent, tinged with brown on the flanks and sides. Black mask exactly as in G. trichas, but 
bordered behind for its whole extent with rich yellow. Wing 2.60; tail 2.70, graduated 
0.50; bill 0.55. Lower California. Quite distinct from any other species in this list. Pr. 
U.S. Nat. Mus., v., Sept. 1882, p. 344. 


142. Geothlypis philadelphia. 679. Geothlypis philadelphia. 
143. macgillivrayi. 680. macgillivrayi. 
144. Icteria virens. 683. Icteria virens. 
145. virens longicauda. 6838a. virens longicauda. 
146. Myiodioctes mitratus. 684. Sylvania mitrata. 
147. pusillus. 685. pusilla. 
148. pusillus pileolatus. 685a. pusilla pileolata. 
149. canadensis. 686. canadensis. 
000. [Not admitted in Key.] +25. Sylvania (?) microcephala. 
150. Cardellina rubrifrons. 690. Cardellina rubrifrons. 
151. Setophaga picta. 688. Setophaga picta. 

[689.] miniata. 


151 bis. Add: Setophaga miniata. Rep-BELLIED Repstart. Dark bluish-ash above. 
A square patch of dark chestnut on the crown. Forehead and sides of head, with the whole 
fore-neck and sides of the jugulum, black; other under parts carmine red; lining of wings and 
under tail-coverts white; tibiz plumbeous. Wing-feathers dusky; tail-feathers black with 
much white on the lateral one, and more restricted white areas on the next two. Sexes alike. 
Length 5.10; wing 2.50; tail 3.00; tarsus 0.75. Central America and Mexico to Texas. See 
Key, p. 318. 

152. Setophaga ruticilla. 687. Setophaga ruticilla. 
(691.] Ergaticus ruber. 

152 bis. Add: Ergaticus rubra. CARMINE FLycatcHInc WARBLER. Rich carmine 
red, obscured on the back; ear-coverts silvery-white; wing- and tail-feathers dusky, edged 
externally with reddish; larger inner wing-coverts rosy white. Sexes alike. Length 4.75; 
wing 2.40; the first quill about as long as the sixth; tail 2.50, graduated 0.20; bill small, 
parine in shape, but with bristly rictus; tarsus 0.75. A very beautiful species; Mexico to 
Texas. See Key, p. 313. 


APPENDIX. 874 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886 
(692.] Basileuterus culicivorus. 

152 ter. Add: wasileuterus culicivorus. Brasuer’s Frycatcurincg WARBLER. 
Above, greenish-ash, more olivaceous on the back and rump ; below, yellow, tinged with rufous 
on the crissum. Top of head striped with black on each side, these stripes separating green- 
ish-yellow or yellow areas ; a dusky loral and postocular spot. Length 5.00 ; wing 2.40; tail 
2.25, graduated 0.15 ; bill 0.50 ; tarsus 0.75. Central America and Mexico to Texas. 


| (693.] Basileuterus belli. 


152 quater. Add: Basileuterus belli. Bexu’s Frycatcuinc WarsBier. Above, 
olive-green ; below, yellow, shaded with olive on the sides; wings edged with yellow and 
lined with olive. Crown and cheeks orange-brown ; a broad yellow supetci*iary stripe, 
separated from its fellow by a black frontlet which extends more obscurely along the crown ; 
the yellow stripe continued beyond the rufous of the crown. Bill black ; feet yellowish. 
Length 5.10; wing 2.25; tail 2.50; graduated 0.33; bill 0.50; tarsus 0.80. Central 
America and Mexico to Texas. 

153. Certhiola bahamensis. 635. Certhiola bahamensis. 
606. Euphonia elegantissima. 

153 bis. Add: Euphonia elegantissima. BuLur-HEADED TanaGer. Adult ¢: 
Above, black with a purplish gloss ; crown and nape blue ; frontlet chestnut, bordered be- 
hind by a black line. Below, deep brownish-orange, the throat black. Lining of wings and 
inner edges of wing-feathers white. Bill black; feet light brown. Length 4.50; wing 
2.50; tail1.50. Q : upper parts olive-green with blue cap and chestnut frontlet ; below, olive- 
yellow, brightest in the middle of the belly ; the throat pale reddish. Mexico to Texas. 
See Key, p. 317. 


154. Pyranga rubra. 608. Piranga erythromelas. 
155. eestiva. 610. rubra. 
156. zstiva cooperi. 610a rubra cooperi. 
157. hepatica. 605. hepatica. 
158. ludoviciana. 607. ludoviciana. 
159. Hirundo erythrogastra horrerorum. 613. Chelidon erythrogaster. 
160. Iridoprocne bicolor. 614. Tachycineta bicolor. 
161. Tachycineta thalassina. 615. thalassina. 
162. Petrochelidon lunifrons. 612. Petrochelidon lunifrons. 
163. Cotile riparia. 616. Clivicola riparia. 
164. Stelgidopteryx serripennis. 617. Stelgidopteryx serripennis 
' 165. Progne subis. 611. Progne subis. 

166 Ampelis garrulus. 618. Ampelis garrulus. 
167. cedrorum. 619. cedrorum. 
168. Phainopepla nitens. 620. Phainopepla nitens. 
169. Myiadestes townsendi. 754. Myadestes townsendi. 
170. Vireo olivaceus. 624. Vireo olivaceus. 
171. flaviviridis. 625. flavoviridis. 
172. altiloquus barbatulus. [623.] altiloquus barbatulus. 
173. philadelphicus. 626. philadelphicus. 
174. gilvus. 627. gilvus. 
175. gilvus swainsoni? 000. [Not admitted in the List.] 
176. flavifrons. 628. Vireo flavifrons. 
177. solitarius. 629. solitarius. 

000. [Not in the List. ] 


872 APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 

177 bis. Add: Vireo solitarius alticola) Mountain SoLitary GREENLET. ike 
solitarius proper, but larger, with stouter bill, and of darker colors. In solitarius the upper 
parts are olive-green, contrasting with the pure ash of the head ; in the new variety the 
upper parts are nearly uniform blackish-plumbeous, only tinged with olive on the back. 
Wing 3.00-8.30 ; tail 2.25. Mountains of North Carolina. The Auk, Jan. 1886, p. 111. 


178. Vireo solitarius cassini. 


179. solitarius plumbeus. 
180. vicinior. 
181. noveboracensis. 


629a. Vireo solitarius cassinii. 


6296. solitarius plumbeus. 
634. vicinior. 
681. noyveboracensis. 


000. [Not in the List.] 


181 bis. Add: Vireo noveboracensis maynardi. Key West GREENLET. Colora- 
tion much as in the last, but grayer above and paler yellow below ; size and proportions as 
in V. crassirostris, the bill as large and stout as in the latter. Wing 2.20-2.50 ; tail 1.90.- 


2.05 ; bill 0.55-0.65, its depth at the nostrils 0,18-0.20. 


April, 1887, p. 148. 
182. Vireo huttoni. 


182a. huttoni stevensi, 

183. belli. 

184. pusillus, 

185. atricapillus. 

186. Lanius borealis. 

187. ludovicianus. 

188. ludovicianus excubitorides. 


189. Hesperophona vespertina. 

190. Pinicola enucleator. 

191. Pyrrhula cassini. 

192. Passer domesticus. 

193. montanus. 

194. Carpodacus purpureus. 

000. [Not admitted in the Key.] 

195. Carpodacus cassini. 

196. frontalis. 

197. frontalis rhodocolpus (?) 


197 bis. Add: Carpodacus amplus. 


GuapaLuPE House Fincu. 


Key West, Florida. The Auk, 


632. Vireo huttoni. 


632a. huttoni stephensi. 

633. belli. 

6334, belli pusillus. 

630. atricapillus. 

621. Lanius borealis. 

622. ludovicianus. 

622a. ludovicianus excubitoroides. 


514. Coccothraustes vespertina. 


515. Pinicola enucleator. 


(516.] Pyrrhula cassini. 
000. [Not admitted in the List. ] 
000. [Not admitted in the List. ] 
517. Carpodacus purpureus. 


517a. purpureus californicus. 
518. cassini. 

519. frontalis. 

5194. frontalis rhodocolpus. 
520. amplus. 


A large dark 


insular form, resembling C.. frontalis proper, but with darker tints, and of considerably larger 
size. @, wing 3.10-3.35 ; tail 2.60-2.90 ; bill 0.40-0.45 from the nostril, and the same in 


depth ; tarsus 0.75-0.85: 9 somewhat smaller. 


198. Loxia leucoptera. 


199. curvirostra americana. 
200. curvirostra mexicana 
201. Leucosticte atrata. 

202. australis. 

2038. tephrocotis. 

204. tephrocotis litoralis. 
205. griseinucha. 

206. arctoa. 


207. Agiothus linaria. 


Guadalupe Island, Lower California. 
522. Loxia leucoptera. 


521. curvirostra minor. 

52la. curvirostra stricklandi. 
525. Leucosticte atrasa 

526. australis. 

524. tephrocotis. 

524a, tephrocotis Nttoralis. 
523. griseonucha. 


000. [Not admitted in the List.] 
528. Acanthus linaria. 


APPENDIX. 873 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
208. Agiothus linaria holboelli. 528a. Acanthus linaria holboellii. 
000. (Not admitted in the Key. ] 528d. linaria rostrata. 
209. AXgiothus hornemanni. 527 hornemannii. 
210. exilipes. 527a. hornemannii exilipes. 
211. Linota flavirostris brewsteri? 17. brewsterii. 
212. Chrysomitris pinus. 533. Spinus pinus. 
213. Astragalinus tristis. 529 tristis. 
214. lawrencii. 581. lawrencei. 
215. psaltria. 530. psaltria. 
216. psaltria arizona. 530a. psaltria arizone. 
217. psaltria mexicanus. 530b. psaltria mexicanus. 
218. notatus. (532.] notatus. 
219. Plectrophanes nivalis. 534. Plectrophenax nivalis. 

535. hyperboreus. 


219 bis. Add: Plectrophanes hyperboreus. PoLar SnowrLakr. McKay’s Snow 
Buntine. Adult gin spring: Pure white, excepting the tips of the wings, which are black 
for about an inch and a half, and a small black spot on the end of the middle tail feather ; 
bill dull brown, with blackish tip; feet black. In winter: washed with rusty brown on the 
crown, ear-coverts, throat, and rump; the bill yellowish with dusky tip. Wing 4.65; tail 
3.10; bill 0.45; tarsus 0.90. A beautiful ‘snowflake,’ apparently quite distinct from the 
last, lately discovered in Alaska. Pr. U.S. Nat. Mus., vii., 1884, p. 68. 


220. Centrophanes lapponicus. 536. Calcarius lapponicus. 


! 
' 
' 
| 


221. pictus. 537. pictus. 

229: ornatus. 538. ornatus. 

223. Rhynchophanes maccowni. 539. Rhynchophanes mecownii. 

224. Passerculus bairdi. 545. Ammodramus bairdii. 

225. princeps. 541. princeps. 

226. sandvicensi.. 542. sandwichensis. 

227. sandvicensis savana. 542a. sandwichensis savanna. 

228. sandvicensis anthinus. 542c. sandwichensis bryanti. 

229. sandvicensis alaudinuse 542d. sandwichensis alaudi- 
543. beldingi. [nus. 


299 bis. Add: Passerculus beldingi. Brtpine’s SAVANNA Sparrow. ‘Similar to 
the darker form of P. sandwichensis (i. e. bryanti), but much darker, with decidedly heavier 
dark spotting on lower parts, the bill larger and more elongated.’”? Salt marshes of the 
Pacific coast, from Santa Barbara south to Todos Santos Island, Lower California. Accord- 
ing to the A. O. U. Committee, what ornithologists have been calling ‘‘ Passerculus anthinus” 
includes two distinct forms, one of which is now called ‘‘ Ammodramus sandwichensis bryanti,”’ 
and the other is this Passerculus beldingi. P.“ bryanti’’ is described from San Francisco Bay, 
as ‘differing from P. sandwichensis alaudinus in decidedly smaller size and much darker | 
coloration of the upper parts. There is little probability that such attempted discriminations 
will survive the official etiquette of the present flutter in American Ornithology. 


230. Passerculus rostratus. 544. Ammodramus rostratus. 

231. guttatus. 544a. rostratus guttatus. 

232. Pocecetes gramineus. 540. Poocetes gramineus. 

233. gramineus confinis. 540a. gramineus confinis. 

234. Coturniculus passerinus. 546. Ammodramus savannarum passerinus. 


235. passerinus perpallidus. 546a. savannarum perpallidus, 


874 APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
236. Coturniculus henslowi. 547. Ammodramus henslowii. 
237. lecontii. 548. leconteii. 
238. Ammodramus maritimus. 550. maritimus. 
239. maritimus nigrescens. 551. nigrescens. 
240. caudacutus. 549. caudacutus. 
241. caudacutus nelsoni. 549a. caudacutus nelsoni. 
242. Melospiza lincolni. 583. Melospiza lincolni. 
243. palustris. 584. georgiana. 
244. fasciata. 581. fasciata. 
245. fasciata fallax. 58la. fasciata fallax. 

581b. fasciata montana. 


245 bis. Add: Melospiza fasciata montana. Mountain Sone-Sparrow. Resem- 
bling M. f. fallax, and scarcely distinguishable. Upper parts umber-brown with gray 
margins of the feathers, giving a strong grayish cast to the plumage; the back streaked with 
blackish-brown, and the streaks of the under parts also of this color. This is the form 
occurring in the Great Basin at large. The Auk, July, 1884, p. 224. 


246. Melospiza fasciata heermanni. 581c. Melosviza fasciata heermanni. 
247. fasciata samuelis. 581d. fasciata samuelis. 
248. fasciata guttata. 58le. fasciata guttata. 
249. fasciata rufina. 581f. fasciata rufina. 
250. cinerea. 582. cinerea. 
251. Peucea estivalis. 575. Peucea estivalis. 
252. zestivalis illinoénsis. 575a. zestivalis bachmanil. 
233. estivalis arizone. 576. arizone. 

577. mexicana. 


253 bis. Add: Peuczea mexicana. MrexicaAN SUMMER FINCH. Upper parts gray suf- 
fused with bay, streaked on most of the back with bold black bay-edged stripes; crown similar, 
rather darker, in smaller pattern of the markings and without lighter median line. Bend of 
wing yellow; coverts blackish, with broad grayish-bay edgings; flight-feathers dusky, several 
inner secondaries blackish, with firm light edgings. Tail-feathers dusky, with obsolete 
scarcely discernible cross-waves, the middle pair wath paler edges their whole length, the 
lateral ones fading toward their ends. Under parts pale grayish-brown, blanching on the 
throat and abdomen, unstreaked excepting for a slight pair of black maxillary stripes. Bill 
dark corn-color; feet light brown. Length 6.30; wing 2.65; tail 2.80; tarsus 0.80. (Described 
from Mexican specimens.) Mexico to the Valley of the Lower Rio Grande in Texas; a late 
addition to our Fauna. 


254. Peuczea cassini. 578. Peucea cassini. 

255. ruficeps. 580. ruficeps. 

256. ruficeps boucardi. 580a. ruficeps boucardi. 
000. [See Key, p. 375. | 5805. ruficeps eremceca. 
257. Peuczea carpalis. 579. carpalis. 

258. Amphispiza bilineata. 573. Amphispiza bilineata. 

259. belli. 574. belli. 

260 belli nevadensis. 574a. belli nevadensis. 
261. Junco hiemalis.? 567. Junco hyemalis. 

262. hiemalis aikeni. 566. aikeni. 


1 The snow-bird which breeds on the mountains of North Carolina has been named as a variety, J. h. caro- 
linensis, but the characters adduced do not seem satisfactory. The Auk, Jan. 1886, p. 108. 


APPENDIX, 875 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
262a. Junco hiemalis connectens. 000. [Not admitted in the List. ] 
263. hiemalis oregonus. 567a. Junco hyemalis oregonus. 
264. hiemalis annectens. 568. annectens. 

265. hiemalis caniceps. 569. caniceps. 

266. hiemalis dorsalis. 570a. cinereus dorsalis. 

267. hiemalis cinereus. 570. cinereus palliatus. 
571. bairdi. 


267 bis. Add: Junco hiemalis bairdi. Barrp’s SNow-birp. Head and neck 
ashy-gray, paler on throat, tinged on hind-head with brown, the lores distinctly blackish. 
Back, scapulars and adjoining wing-feathers pale rufous-brown, tinged with olivaceous; 
rump and upper tail-coverts, with the lesser, middle, and outer wing-coverts grayish- 
olive; inner webs of tertials dusky; primaries gray, edged with paler, the outermost with 
white; outer tail-feather mostly white, two next with white in diminishing amount. 
Jugulum pale buffy-gray, contrasting with the white of the abdomen; sides and flanks 
cinnamon-buff; crissum dull whitish. Upper mandible dark brown, lower yellow; iris 
yellow; feet pale brown. Wing 2.80; tail 2.75; bill 0.40; tarsus 0.80. A form lately 
discovered in Lower California, resembling a bright-colored 9 J. oregonus, presenting the 
peculiar combination of ‘pink’? sides with yellow eyes and under mandible. Pr. U.S. 
Nat. Mus., vi., Oct. 1883, p. 155. 

| 572. Junco insularis. 

267 ter. Add: Junco insularis. GUADALUPE SNOW-BIRD. Resembling the so-called 
J. annectens ; darker, and with somewhat different proportions. Crown and nape dark slate; 
lower tail-coverts dusky, the feathers edged with whitish; lores blackish. Wings and tail 
relatively short: wing 2.55-2.85; tail 2.30-2.60; bill 0.37 long, 0.27 deep. (In annectens, 
etc., wing and tail about 3.00.) Added to our Fauna by the inclusion of Guadalupe Island. 
268. Spizella monticola. 559. Spizella monticola. 

559a. monticola ochracea. 

268 bis. Add: Spizella monticola ochracea. WersTERN TREE Sparrow. Like the 
last: above, paler, with sparser, sharper and narrower dorsal streaks, sides and throat more 
ochraceous. Washington Territory. Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, Oct. 1882, p. 228. 


269. Spizella domestica. 560. Spizella socialis. 
270. domestica arizone. 560a. socialis arizone. 
271. agrestis. 563. pusilla. 


000. [Not admitted in the List. ] 

971 bis. Add: Spizella agrestis arenacea. Texan Fieitp Sparrow. Like S. 
agrestis, but with the rufous replaced by brownish-ash; slightly larger, with longer tail and 
somewhat stouter bill. Wing 2.50; tail 2.90: culmen 0.35. A form lately described as 
migratory, or perhaps a winter resident, in Southern Texas. The Auk, April, 1886, p. 248. 

| 564. Spizella wortheni. 

Q71ter. Add: Spizella wortheni. WorTHEN’s FIELD-spaRRow. Resembling S. 
agrestis. Much less rutous, with broader black dorsal streaks, no rufous auricular streak 
nor lateral pectoral spot, a distinct white eye-ring, and slenderer bill. Wing 2.70; tail 
2.50; bill 0.40; tarsus 0.70. Western Texas and New Mexico. Apparently a good species, 
approaching S. atrigularis in some respects, especially the coloration of the upper parts. Pr. 
U. S. Nat. Mus., vii., 1884, p. 259. 

272. Spizella pallida. 561. Spizella pallida. 
973. breweri. 562. breweri. 
274. atrigularis. 565. atrigularis. 


876 APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
275. Zonotrichia albicollis. 558. Zonotrichia albicollis. 
276. leucophrys. 554. leucophrys. 
277. leucophrys intermedia. 555. intermedia. 
278. gambeli. 556. gambeli. 
279. coronata, 557. coronata. 
280. querula. 568. querula. 
281. Chondestes grammica, 552. Chondestes grammacus. 
282. Passerella iliaca. 585. Passerella iliaca. 
283. iliaca unalascensis. 585a iliaca unalaschcensis. 
284. iliaca schistacea. 585c. iliaca schistacea. 
285. iliaca megarhyncha. 585). iliaca megarhyncha. 
286. Calamospiza bicolor. 605. Calamospiza melanocorys. 
287. Spiza americana. 604. Spiza americana. 
288. townsendi. 418. townsendii. 
289. Zamelodia ludoviciana. 595. Habia ludoviciana. 
290. melanocephala. 596. melanocephala. 
291. Guiraca ceerulea. 597. Guiraca cerulea. 
292. Passerina ciris. 601. Passerina ciris. 
293. versicolor. 600. versicolor. 
294, amcena. 599. amoena. 
295. cyanea. 598. cyanca. 
296. Spermophila moreleti. 602. Sporophila morelleti. 
297. Phonipara zena. ' 603. Euethea bicolor. 
298. Pyrrhuloxia sinuata. 594. Pyrrhuloxia sinuata. 
299. Cardinalis virginianus. , 593. Cardinalis cardinalis. 

5938a. cardinalis superbus. 


299 bis. Add: Cardinalis virginianus superbus. Arizona CARDINAL. Like the 
last, but larger, and the female more richly colored. @, wing 4.10; tail 5.00; tarsus 1.05; 
bill along culmen 0.85; its depth at base 0.70: 9 smaller. Arizona; hardly recognizable. 
The Auk, Oct. 1885, p. 344. . : 


800. Cardinalis virginianus igneus. 593). Cardinalis cardinalis igneus. 

301. Pipilo erythrophthalmus. 587. Pipilo erythrophthalmus. 

3802. erythrophthalmus alleni. 587a. erythrophthalmus alleni. 

3803. maculatus oregonus. 588d. maculatus oregonus. 

304. maculatus arcticus. 588. maculatus arcticus. 

3805. maculatus megalonyx. 588a. maculatus megalonyx. 
589. consobrinus. 


305 bis. Add: Pipilo maculatus consobrinus. GuapALUPE TownHEE. Adult ¢: 
Head, neck, throat, and upper parts black: white on outer webs of scapulars usually bor- 
dered with black; two well-defined white wing-bars; inner secondaries and a middle por- 
tion of the primaries narrowly edged with white; two or three lateral tail-feathers with 
terminal white patch. Below white, with chestnut sides and buff crissum. Q similar, but 
dull-brownish black where the male is black, and smaller white tail-spots. @, wing 3.10- 
3.25; tail 3.50-3.75: Q somewhat less. An insular race, one of many into which the very 
variable P. maculatus is divisible. Guadulupe Island, Lower California. 


306. Pipilo fuscus mesoleucus. 591. Pipilo fuseus mesoleucus. 
307. fuscus albigula. 59la. fuscus albigula. 
308. fuscus crissalis. 5910. fuscus crissalis. 


APPENDIX. 877 


COUES KEY, 1884. 


9. Pipilo aberti. 


chlorurus. 
. Embernagra rufovirgata. 


2. Dolichonyx oryzivorus. 


. [Not admitted in the Key.] 

. Molothrus ater. 

ater obscurus. 
aeneus. 

. Ageleus phoeniceus. 
pheeniceus gubernator. 
tricolor. 

. Xan’‘hocephalus icterocephalus. 
. Sturnella magna. 

magna mexicana. 
neglecta. 

. Icterus vulgaris. 

spurius. 

spurius affinis. 

galbula. 

bullocki. 

cucullatus. 


328 bis. Add: 


Icterus cucullatus nelsoni. 


UNION LIST, 1886. 
592. Pipilo aberti. 
590. chlorurus. 
586. Embernagra rufivirgata. 
494. Dolichonyx oryzivorus. 


494a. oryzivorus albinucha. 
495. Molothrus ater. 

495a. ater obscurus. 

496. eneus. 

498. Agelaius pheeniceus. 

499. gubernator. 

500. tricolor. 


497. Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus. 
501. Sturnella magna. 

o0la. magna mexicana. 
5010. magna neglecta. 

[502.)| Icterus icterus. 

506. spurius. 

000. [Not admitted in the List.] 

507. Icterus galbula. 


508. bullocki. 
505. cucullatus. 
505a. cucullatus nelsoni. 


Arizona HoopED ORIOLE. A paler- 


colored race, in which the yellow is not supposed to become orange or flame-color, from 


Arizona, California, and southward to Mazatlan. 
The description in the Key, p. 409, covers both this and the true 


ing 


a geographical race. 


The distinction is trivial, hardly indicat- 


cucullatus, which latter occurs in Texas and southward. 


329 


. Icterus parisorum. 


3830. melanocephalus auduboni. 
331. Scolecophagus ferrugineus. 
332. cyanocephalus. 
838. Quiscalus macrurus. 

334. major. 

335. purpureus. 

336. purpureus eneus. 
3837. purpureus agleeus. 
338. Corvus corax. 

339. cryptoleucus. 

340. frugivorus. 

341. frugivorus floridanus. 
342 caurinus. 

348. maritimus. 

344. Picicorvus columbianus. 


345. 
346. 
347. 
348. 
349. 


Gymnocitta cyanocephala. 

Psilorhinus morio. 

Pica rustica hudsonica. 
nuttalli. 

Cyanocitta cristata. 


504. Icterus parisorum. 


503. audubonii. 

509. Scolecophagus carolinus. 

510. cyanocephalus. 
512. Quiscalus macrourus. 

513. major. 

511. quiscula. 

511d. quiscula eneus. 


5l1la. quiscula agleeus. 
486. Corvus corax sinuatus. 

487. cryptoleucus. 

488. americanus. 

488a. americanus floridanus. 
489. caurinus. 

490. ossifragus. 


491. Picicorvus columbianus. 

492. Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus. 
000. [Not admitted in the List.] 
475. Pica pica hudsonica. 

476. nuttalli. 

477. Cyanocitta cristata. 


878 APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. 
349a. Cyanocitta cristata florincola. 


UNION LIST, 1886. 
477a. Cyanocitta cristata florincola. 


350. stelleri. 478. stelleri. 
351. stelleri annectens. 000. [Not admitted in the List.] 


353 stelleri frontalis. 478a. Cyanocitta stelleri frontalis. 
352. stelleri macrolopha. 478b. stelleri macrolopha. 
354. Aphelocoma floridana. 479. Aphelocoma floridana. 

355. floridana woodhousii. 480. woodhousei. 

356. floridana californica. 481. californica. 


000. [Not admitted in the List.] 


356 bis. Add: Aphelocoma floridana insularis. Santa Cruz Jay. — Above, dark 
azure blue, including exposed surface of wing- and tail-feathers, this color deepest on the 
crown, and extending on the sides of the head and well down on the neck and breast; the back 
dark sepia brown. A white superciliary line; a black loral and auricular spot. Feathers of 
throat and breast ashy-white edged with blue; crissum blue; other under parts dull white. 


Wing 5.35; tail 6.25; tarsus 1.80; bill 1.25. 


Santa Cruz Island, one of the Santa Barbara 


group, off the Coast of California. The Auk, Oct. 1886, p. 452. 


357. Aphelocoma ultramarina arizone. 
358. Xanthura luxuriosa. 

359. Perisoreus canadensis. 

360. canadensis fumifrons. 
000. [Not admitted in the Key. | 

361. Perisoreus canadensis obscurus. 
362. canadensis capitalis. 
363. Sturnus vulgaris. 

364. Pitangus derbianus. 

364 bis. Myiozetetes texensis. 

365. Myiodynastes luteiventris. 

366. Milvulus tyrannus. 


367. forficatus. 

368. Tyrannus carolinensis. 

369. dominicensis. 

370. verticalis. 

371. vociferans. 

372. melancholicus couchi. 
373. Myiarchus crinitus. 

880. crinitus cooperi. 
374. crinitus erythrocercus. 
375. cinerescens. 

376. lawrencii. 


000. [Not admitted in the Key.] 
3877. Sayiornis sayi. 


378, nigricans. 
379. fuscus. 
380. Contopus borealis. 
381. pertinax. 


482. Aphelocoma sieberli arizone. 
483. Xanthoura luxuosa. 
| 484. Perisoreus canadensis. 


4840. canadensis fumifrons. 
484c. canadensis nigricapillus.+ 
485. obscurus. 
484a. canadensis capitalis. 
(493.] Sturnus vulgaris. 
449. Pitangus derbianus. 
(450.] Myiozetetes texensis. 
451. Myiodynastes luteiventris. 
[442.] Milvulus tyrannus. 
443. forficatus. 
444. Tyrannus tyrannus. 
' 445, dominicensis. 
| 447, verticalis. 
448. vociferans. 
446. melancholicus couchii 
452. Myijarchus crinitus. 
453a. mexicanus magister. 
453. mexicanus. 
454. cinerascens. 
[455.] lawrenceil. 
455a. lawrencei olivascens. 
457. Sayornis saya. 
458. nigricans. 
456. pheebe. 
459. Contopus borealis. 
460. pertinax. 


1 An alleged variety, said to differ from the true canadensis in altogether darker coloration, blacker crown, 
black auriculars, less extensive white front, and more marked contrast of the white and dark areas of the head 
and neck. Probably inhabits the coast region of Labrador, and most likely is only a specimen a little darker 


than usual. Pr. U.S. Nat. Mus., v., 1882, p. 15. 


APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. 
382. Contopus virens. 


383. virens richardsoni. 
384. Empidonax acadicus. 

385. trailli. 

386. pusillus. 

387. minimus. 

388. flaviventris. 

389. flaviventris difficilis ? 
390. hammondi. 

391. obscurus. 


392. Mitrephanes fulvifrons pallescens. 


392 bis. Add: Mitrephanes fulvifrons. 


879. 


UNION LIST, 1886. 
461. Contopus virens. 
462. richardsonii. 
465. Empidonax acadicus. 


466a. pusillus traillii. 

466. pusillus. 

467. minimus. 

463. flaviventris. 

464. difficilis. 

468. hammondi. 

469. obscurus. 

470a fulvifrons pygmeus. 
470. fulvifrons. 


Furivous FiycatTcuer. Specimens of the 


true fulvifrons, differing from the Arizona form in much heavier fulvous coloration, and 
agreeing with Giraud’s type, are said to be found N. to Texas. 


393. Ornithium imberbe. 472. Ornithion imberbe. 
000. [Not admitted in the Key. ] 472a. imberbe ridgwayi. 
394. Pyrocephalus rubineus mexicanus. 471. Pyrocephalus rubineus mexicanus 
395. Nyctidromus albicollis. 419. Nyctidromus albicollis. 
896. Antrostomus carolinensis. 416. Antrostomus carolinensis. 
397. vociferus. 417. vociferus. 
881. vociferus arizone. 417a. vociferus arizone. 
398. Phalenoptilus nuttalli. 418. Phaleenoptilus nuttalli. 
000. [Not admitted in the List. ] 
398 bis. Add: Phalenoptilus nuttalli nitidus. Frostep Poor-Witt. Similar to 


the last, but with the dark markings of the upper parts fewer and sharper on a much paler 


ground, and the crossbars on the under parts finer and paler. 
The Auk, April, 1887, p. 147. 


race from Texas and Arizona. 


899. Chordediles popetue. 

400. popetue henryi. 

401. popetue minor. 

402. acutipennis texensis. 
403. Panyptila saxatilis. 

404. Nepheecetes niger borealis. 

405. Cheetura pelasgica. 

406. vauxi. 

407. Basilinna xantusi. 

408. Eugenes fulgens. 


408 bis. Add: Coeligena clemenciz. BLUE-THROATED Hummrinc-Birp. 


Described as a bleached desert 


420. Chordeiles virginianus. 

420a. virginianus henryi. 
4200. virginianus minor. 
421. texensis. 

425. Micropus melanoleucus. 

422. Cypseloides niger. 

423. Chetura pelagica. 

424, vauxi. 

440. Basilinna xantusi. 

426. Eugenes fulgens. 

427. Coeligena clemenciz. 

Bill longer 


than head, straight; wings long and ample; tail large, rounded, with broad feathers; tarsi 


feathered; sexes unlike. @: 
less tipped with green. 


black, the two outermost feathers tipped with white. 


A white stripe behind the eye. 


above, bronzy-green; below, ashy-gray, the feathers more or 


Gorget metallic azure blue. Tail 
Upper mandible blackish, lower flesh- 


colored. Length 5.40; extent 7.50; wing 3.10; tail 1.90; culmen from nostril 0.88. A 


fine large species lately found in Southern Arizona. 


409. Trochilus colubris. 
410. alexandri. 


The Auk, Jan. 1885, p. 85. 


428. Trochilus colubris. 
429, alexandri. 


880 


COUES KEY, 1884. 
411. Selasphorus rufus. 


412. alleni. 

413. platycercus. 
414. Calypte anne. 

£15. coste. 


416. Atthis heloisz. 

417. Stellula calliope. 

418. Calothorax lucifer. 

419. Amazilia fuscocaudata. 
420. cerviniventris. 
421. Iache latirostris. 

422. Trogon ambiguus. 

423. Ceryle alcyon. 


424. americana cabanisi. 
425. Crotophaga ani. 
426. sulcirostris. 


427. Geococcyx californianus. 
428. Coccygus erythrophthalmus. 
429, americanus. 

430. seniculus. 

431. Campephilus principalis. 
432. Hylotomus pileatus. 

433. Picus borealis. 


434. scalaris. 

435. sealaris nuttalli. 

436. scalaris lucasanus. 
437. stricklandi. 

438. villosus. 

438a. villosus major. 

438c. villosus minor. 

439. villosus harrisi. 

440. pubescens. 

441, pubescens gairdneri. 


442. Xenopicus albolarvatus. 
443. Picoides arcticus. 
444. americanus. 


APPENDIX. 


UNION LIST, 1886. 
433. Trochilus rufus. 


434. alleni. 

432. platycercus. 
431. anna. 

430. costee. 

435. heloisa. 

436. calliope. 

437. lucifer. 

438. Amazilia fuscicaudata. 
439. cerviniventris. 


441. Iache latirostris. 
(389.] Trogon ambiguus. 
390. Ceryle alcyon. 


391. cabanisi. 
[883.] Crotophaga ani. 
384. sulcirostris. 


385. Geococcyx californianus. 
388. Coccyzus erythrophthalmus. 
387. americanus. 

386. minor. 

392. Campephilus principalis. 
405. Ceophlceus pileatus. 

395. Dryobates borealis. 


396. scalaris. 

397. nuttalli. 

396a. scalaris lucasanus. 
398. stricklandi. 

393. villosus. 

393a. villosus leucomelas. 
393b. villosus audubonii. 
393c. villosus harrisii. 

394. pubescens. 

394a. pubescens gairdnerii. 


399. Xenopicus albolarvatus. 

400. Picoides arcticus. 

401. americanus. 

40la. Picoides americanus alascensis. 


444 bis. Add: Picoides américanus alascensis. ALASKAN THREE-TOED Woop- 
PECKER. Resembling the last: back more broadly barred with white, the bars more or less 
confluent; the white postocular stripe more distinct; the dark bars of the sides narrower. 


Alaska and northern British America. 


445. Picoides americanus dorsalis. 
446. Sphyrapicus varius. 


447. varius nuchalis. 
448. varius ruber. 
449. thyroides. 

450. Certurus carolinus. 

451. aurifrons. 


452. uropygialis. 


The Auk, April, 1884, p. 165. 


401d. Picoides americanus dorsalis. 
402. Sphyrapicus varius. 


402a. varius nuchalis. 
403. ruber. 

404. thyroideus. 
409. Melanerpes carolinus. 

410. aurifrons. 

411. uropygialis. 


APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. 
453. Melanerpes erythrocephalus. 
454. formicivorus bairdii. 
455. formicivorus angustifrons, 
456. Asyndesmus torquatus. 
457. Colaptes auratus. 
458. chrysoides. 
459. mexicanus. 
000. [Not admitted in the Key.] 


459 bis. 


881 


UNION LIST, 1886. 


| 406. Melanerpes erythrocephalus. 


407. formicivorus bairdi. 

407a. formicivorus angustifrons. 
408. torquatus. 

412. Colaptes auratus. 

414. chrysoides. 

4138. cafer! 

4184. cafer saturatior.? 

415. rufipileus, 


Add: Colaptes mexicanus rufipileus. GuaDALUPE FLICKER. Resembling 


C. mexicanus : terminal black of the tail broader, occupying 2.50 instead of about 2.00 


inches. 
tawny anteriorly, instead of grayish. 


Rump of a pale pinkish shade instead of pure white. 
Wings and tail much shorter ; bill longer. 


Crown cinnamon, becoming 


Wing 


5.90-6.25 ; tail 4.75-5.25 ; bill 1.85-1.60. An insular form approaching C. chrysoides in 


some respects, as the color of the crown. 
460. Conurus carolinensis. 

461. Aluco flammeus pratincola. 

462. Bubo virginianus. 

000. [Not admitted in the Key.] 

463. Bubo virginianus arcticus. 


464. virginianus pacificus. 
465. Scops asio. 

466. asio kennicotti. 
466a. asio bendirii. 
467. asio maxwelle. 
468. asio maccalli. 
469. asio floridanus. 
470. trichopsis ? 

471. flammeola. 

472. Asio wilsonianus. 

473. accipitrinus. 

474. Strix cinerea. 

475, cinerea lapponica. 
476. nebulosa. 

477 nebulosa alleni. 
478. occidentalis. 


479. Nyctea scandiaca. 

480. Surnia funerea. 

481. funerea ulula. 

482, Nyctala tengmalmi richardsoni. 
483. acadica, 

484, Glaucidium gnoma. 

485. ferrugineum. 

486. Micrathene whitneyi. 

487. Speotyto cunicularia hypogea. 
488. cunicularia floridana. 


Guadalupe Island, Lower California. 


382. Conurus carolinensis. 
365. Strix pratincola. 
375. Bubo virginianus. 


3875a. virginianus subarcticus, 
375d. virginianus arcticus. 
3875¢. virginianus saturatus. 


373. Megascops asio. 


873d. asio kennicottii. 
373c. asio bendirei. 
3738¢. asio maxwelliz. 
373d. asio mccallii. 
373a. asio floridanus, 
873f. asio trichopsis. 
3874, flammeolus. 
366. Asio wilsonianus. 

367. accipitrinus. 


370. Ulula cinerea. 

[870a]. cinerea lapponica. 
368. Syrnium nebulosum. 
368a. nebulosum alleni. 
369. occidentale. 

376, Nyctea nyctea. 
877a. Surnia ulula caparoch. 


(877. | ulula. 
871. Nyctala tengmalmi richardsoni. 
372. acadica. 


' 879. Glaucidium gnoma. 


380. phaloenoides. 

381. Micrathene whitneyi. 

378. Speotyto cunicularia hypogea. 
378a. cunicularia floridana. 


1 An alleged dark-colored form occurring on the North West coast, from the Columbia River to Sitka, —a 
region of heavy rain-fall, where the tendency of the whole ornis is to acquire heavier coloration. See Pr. Biol, 


Soc. Washn., ii., Apr. 1884, p. 90, 


56 


882 APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
489. Circus cyaneus hudsonius. 331. Circus hudsonius. 
490. Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus. 330. Rostrhamus sociabilis. 
491. Ictinia subccerulea. 329. Ictinia mississippiensis. 
492. Elanus glaucus. 328. Elanus leucurus. 
493. Elanoides forficatus. 327. Elanoides forficatus. 
494, Accipiter fuscus. 332. Accipiter velox. 
495. cooperi. 333. cooperi. 
496. Astur atricapillus. 334. atricapillus. 
497. atricapillus striatulus? 334a. atricapillus striatulus. 
498. Falco sacer. 354a. Falco rusticolus gyrfalco. 
499. sacer obsoletus, 8540, rusticolus obsoletus. 
500. islandicus. 354. rusticolus. 
501. candicans. 353. islandus. 
502. mexicanus. 355. mexicanus. 
503. peregrinus. 356. peregrinus anatum. 
504. peregrinus pealii. 306a. peregrinus pealei. 
505. columbarius. 357. columbarius. 
506. columbarius suckleyi? 357d. columbarius suckleyi. 
507. columbarius richardsoni, 358. richardsonii. 
508. sparverius. 360. sparverius. 
509. sparverius isabellinus ? 000. [Properly omitted from the List.} 
510. sparverioides. (361.] Falco sparverioides. 
511. fusciccerulescens. 359. fusco-ccerulescens., 
535. Polyborus auduboni. 362. Polyborus cheriway. 

363. lutosus. 


535 bis. Add: Polyborus lutosus. GUADALUPE CaARACARA. As stated in the 
Key, p. 540, this species is quite distinct, nearly the whole plumage being barred. The 
diagnostic marks are tabulated by its describer as follows: ‘Scapulars plain dusky brown. 
Tibie and flanks light isabella-color, barred with dark brown. Wing coverts (middle and 
greater) marked with wide bars of brown and pale isabella-color, of equal width. Tail- 
coverts and rump with broad bars of light isabella-color and grayish-brown. Tail with 
broad bars of pale isabella-color and grayish-brown, separated by zigzag lines of dusky. 
Abdomen isabella-color, with small sagittate bars of dark brown.” Wing 15.00-16.50; tail 
10.50-11.50; bill 1.25-1.35; tarsus 3.50-3.75. Guadalupe Island, Lower California. 


512. Buteo unicinctus harrisi. 335. Parabuteo unicinctus harrisi 
513. albocaudatus. 341. Buteo albicaudatus. 
514. cooperi ? tid. cooperi. 
515. harlani. 338. harlani. 
516. borealis. 387. borealis. 
517. borealis calurus. ; 337D. borealis calurus. 
518. borealis lucasanus. 337c. borealis lucasanus. 
519. borealis krideri. 337a. borealis kriderii. 
520. lineatus. 339. lineatus. 
339a. lineatus alleni. 


520 bis. Add: Buteo lineatus alleni. Frorrpa Rep-SHouLtpErep Hawk. As stated 
in the Key, p. 546, there is much variation in size, Florida and Gulf specimens being very 
small. Such examples, having the wing 12.50 or less, tail 8.00 or less, etc., in the male, 
have received the above name. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus,., vii., Jan. 1885, p. 514. 


APPENDIX. 883 


COUES KEY, 1884. 
521. Buteo lineatus elegans. 
522. abbreviatus. 
523. swainsoni. 
000. [Not admitted in the Key.] 
524. Buteo pennsylvanicus. 
882. brachyurus. 
883. fuliginosus. 
000. [Not admitted in the Key. ] 


525. Archibuteo lagopus sancti-johannis. 


526. ferrugineus. 
527. Asturina plagata. 

528. Urubitinga anthracina. 
529. Onychotes gruberi.! 

531. Thrasyaétus harpyia. 
532. Aquila chrysaétus. 

533. Haliaétus albicilla. 

534. leucocephalus. 
530. Pandion haliaétus. 

536. Pseudogryphus californianus. 
537. Cathartes aura. 

538. Catharista atrata. 

539. Columba fasciata. 

540. erythrina. 

541. leucocephala. 
543. Ectopistes migratorius. 
542. Engyptila albifrons. 

544. Zenaidura carolinensis. 
545. Zenaida amabilis. 

546. Melopelia leucoptera. 
547. Chamepelia passerina. 
548, passerina pallescens? 
549. Scardafella inca. 

550. Geotrygon martinica. 
551. Starncenas cyanocephala. 
552. Ortalis vetula maccalli. 
553. Meleagris gallipavo. 


554. gallipavo americana. 
555. Canace canadensis. 

556. canadensis franklini. 
5d7. obscura. 

558. obscura richardsoni. 
559. obscura fuliginosa. 


560. Centrocercus urophasianus. 
561. Pedicecetes phasianellus. 


UNION LIST, 1886. 
339. Buteo lineatus elegans. 


340. abbreviatus. 
342. swainsoni. 
[836.] buteo. 
343. latissimus. 
[344.] brachyurus. 
15. fuliginosus. 
(347.] Archibuteo lagopus. 
347. lagopus sancti-johannis. 
348. ferrugineus. 


346. Asturina plagiata. 

345. Urubitinga anthracina. 

000. [Properly removed from the List. ] 
[850.] Thrasaétus harpyia. 
349. Aquila chrysaétos. 

[851.] Halizétus albicilla. 

352. leucocephalus. 
864. Pandion haliaétus carolinensis. 
324. Pseudogryphus californianus. 
825, Cathartes aura. 

326, Catharista atrata, 

312. Columba fasciata. 

313. flavirostris. 

314. leucocephala. 

815. Ectopistes migratorius. 

318. Engyptila albifrons. 

316. Zenaidura macroura. 

317. Zenaida zenaida. 

819. Melopelia leucoptera. 

820. Columbigallina passerina. 

000. [Properly omitted from the List.]. 
321. Scardafella inca. 

[822.] Geotrygon martinica. 

[323.] Starncenas cyanocephala. 

311. Ortalis vetula maccalli. 

310a. Meleagris gallopavo mexicana.? 


310. gallopavo. 

298. Dendragapus canadensis. 

299. franklinii. 

297. obscurus. 

2970. obscurus richardsonii. 
297a. obscurus fuliginosus. 


309. Centrocercus urophasianus. 
308. Pediocetes phasianellus. 


1 This bird, long a puzzle to ornithologists, has proved to be the Butco solitarius of Peale. It is not a North 
American species, but was originally described from the Sandwich Islands, and afterward described and figured 
by Cassin as Pandion solitarius. See Pr. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1885, p. 36. 

2 The A. O. U. Committee has reversed the proper names of the wild turkeys, reverting to an old error long 


since exposed. See Key, p. 576. 


884 APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
562 Pedicecetes phasianellus columbianus. 308a. Pediocetes phasianellus columbianus. 
000. [Not admitted in the Key. ] 308). phasianellus campestris. 
563. Cupidonia cupido. 305. Tympanuchus americanus. 
306. cupido. 


563 bis. Add: Cupidonia cupido brewsteri. N. Brewstrer’s Hreatu Hen. 
This is the variety of the prairie-hen peculiar to Martha’s Vineyard, Mass., differing appre- 
ciably from the common stock, as pointed out by Mr. Brewster (Auk, 1885, p. 82), whose 
inconclusive argument that Linneus based his name Tetrao cupido exclusively upon this 
form, leaves me the pleasure of dedicating the variety to the accomplished ornithologist who 
first called attention to its characters. 


564. Cupidonia cupido pallidicinctus. 807. Tympanuchus pallidicinctus. 

565. Bonasa umbella. 300. Bonasa umbellus. 

000. [Not admitted in the Key.] 300a. umbellus togata. 

566. Bonasa umbella umbelloides. 3005. umbellus umbelloides. 

567. * umbella sabinii. 301e. umbellus sabini. 

568. Lagopus albus. 301. Lagopus lagopus. 

000. [Not admitted in the Key.] 301a. lagopus alleni.! 

569. Lagopus rupestris. 802. rupestris. 

000. [Not admitted in the Key.] 302a. rupestris reinhardti. 

000. {Not admitted in the Key.] 8025. rupestris nelsoni. 

000. [Not admitted in the Key.] 802c. rupestris atkensis. 

000. [Not admitted in the Key. ] 3803. welchi. 

570. Lagopus leucurus. 304. leucurus. 

571. Ortyx virginiana. 289. Colinus virginianus. 

572. virginiana floridana. 289a. virginianus floridanus. 

573. virginiana texana. 2890. virginianus texanus. 

000. [Not admitted in the Key.] 290. graysoni (a mistake]. 
291. ridgwayi. 


573 bis. Add: Ortyx ridgwayi. Arizona Bos-wHITE. Masxep Bos-wuire, 
Hoopep Quart. Adult ¢: Front, and sides of head and neck, black, with or without a nar- 
row white frontal line and superciliary stripe. Under parts chestnut or cinnamon (about the 
color of the breast of a robin), varying much in shade, generally unspotted, except on the 
flanks, where the feathers are usually tipped with an oval white spot, preceded by a subter- 
minal black bar; lower tail-coverts with a V-shaped black spot bordered with whitish ; occa- 
sionally small touches of black and white along the sides. Crown, hind head, and nape mixed 
black, white, and pale brown, or yellowish-white; hind neck and interscapulars reddish-brown, 
usually with a grayish cast; back, rump, and upper tail-coverts minutely variegated with black- 
ish, pale brown, and grayish-white, the black usually prevailing, but variable in amount. 
Wing-coverts rufous, each feather barred with blackish and edged and tipped with whitish ; 
primaries dusky, edged and scalloped internally with whitish; secondaries externally dusky, 
barred and freckled with pale brown and yellowish-white; inner secondaries and scapulars 
edged with yellowish-white (very broadly so on the inner edges), and otherwise variegated. 
Tail above bluish-gray, minutely freckled and waved with whitish; tail below gray, faintly 
and irregularly barred and waved with grayish-white. Bill black; feet horn-color; iris brown. 
Length 9.75; extent 14.25; wing 4.50; tail 2.75; tarsus 1.20. The female resembles that 


' It is not easy to account for the perversity of the Committee in insisting upon recognizing by name among 
the ptarmigan characters which have repeatedly been shown to be elusive. Parallel perversity extended to birda 
at large would be ornithological anarchy. See Key, p. 568. 


APPENDIX. 885 


sex of C. virginianus texensis so closely as not to be distinguished with certainty. The species 
is closely related to C. graysoni of Mexico, and may be found in fact to intergrade with the 
latter. It inhabits southern Arizona and adjoining portions of Mexico, where it has long 
been known to the natives, though only recently recognized by ornithologists. From the 
first accounts which reached us, the bird was supposed to be C’. graysoni, and it was entered 
under this name in the A. O. U. List. It was first named C. ridgwayi by Brewster, The 
Auk, April, 1885, p. 199. A monograph of the species and its allies, illustrated by a colored 
plate, is given by Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., July, 1886, pp. 273-290, pl. 23. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
574. Orortyx picta. 292. Oreortyx pictus. 
000. [Not admitted in the Key.] 2924. pictus plumiferus. 
575. Lophortyx californica. 294. Callipepla californica. 
000. [Not admitted in the Key. ] 294a. californica vallicola. 
576. Lophortyx gambeli. 295. gambeli. 
577. Callipepla squamata. 293. squamata. 

2934. squamata castanogastris. 


577 bis. Add: Callipepla squamata castaneiventris. CHESTNUT-BELLIFD SCALED 
ParTripGe. Like the last, but the general coloring deeper and richer ; crown concolorous 
with the back, and cheeks with the breast, both much darker than the throat; and belly 
with a conspicuous central patch of uniform chestnut. The 9 lacks this patch, and is 
much paler than the ¢. While the true C. squamata inhabits the Mexican table lands and 
thence into Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas, this form appears to characterize the 
lower lands, extending into the lower Rio Grande valley. Bull. Nuttall Club, viii., Jan. 
1883, p. 34. 


578. Cyrtonyx massena. 296. Cyrtonyx montezume. 
579. Coturnix dactylisonans. 000. [Not admitted in the List.] 
580. Squatarola helvetica. 270. Charadrius squatarola. 
581. Charadrius dominicus. 272. dominicus. 
582. dominicus fulvus. 272a. dominicus fulvus. 
583. pluvialis. (271.] apricarius. 
584, Adgialites vociferus. 273. Agialitis vocifera. 
585. wilsonius. 280. wilsonia. 
586. semipalmatus. 274. semipalmata. 
587. melodus. 277. meloda. 
588. melodus circumcinctus ? 277a. meloda circumcincta. 
589. hiaticula. 275. hiaticula. 
590. curonicus. (276.] dubia. 
591. cantianus nivosus. 278. nivosa.1 
(279. ] mongola. 


591 bis. Add: Aigialites mongolicus. MonGoLiAN PLover. Adult 49, in sum- 
mer: Above, brownish-gray; below, white, with a broad cinnamon or chestnut pectoral bar, 
extending more or less along the sides, encircling the neck behind, and somewhat tinging 
the pileam. A long black subocular stripe, involving the lores and auriculars, reaching to 
the bill, continuous in front of the eye with a black frontlet, in advance of which is a 
white area divided by a narrow median line of black which connects the black frontlet with 


1 A proper change, giving this species full rank, as distinguished from 2. cantianus, as suggested in the 
Key, p. 604. 


886 


the base of the culmen. 
primaries with white area along their outer 
webs; the secondaries and greater coverts 
tipped with white. Tail-feathers like the 
back, tipped with white, and successively 
paler laterally, till the outermost are nearly 
white; upper tail-coverts also tipped with 
whitish. Bill and feet black. The young 
lack the distinctive chestnut and black mark- 
ings, though the breast may be somewhat 
suffused with pale cinnamon, and at an early 
age all the feathers of the upper parts have 
pale edgings. Wing 5.25; tail 2.25; bill 
0.70; tarsus 1.15; middle toe 0.75. <A well- 
known species of wide distribution in the 
Old World, recorded from Choris Peninsula, 
Alaska. (See Ibis, 1870, p. 384; P. Z.S. 
1871, pp. 111, 114.) It is entirely different 


APPENDIX. 


Wing-feathers dusky; shaft of first primary white; several inner 


ee 
ro 
ae 


Fic. 562. — Mongolian Plover. 


from any other plover described in this work, and should long ago have been taken into 


the Key. 

COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
592. Podasocys montanus. 281. Atgialitis montana. 
593. Vanellus cristatus. (269.] Vanellus vanellus. 
594. Aphriza virgata. 282. Aphriza virgata. 
595. Heematopus ostrilegus. (285.] Heematopus ostralegus. 
596. palliatus. 286. palliatus. 
597. niger. 287. bachmani. 
598. Strepsilas interpres. 283. Arenaria interpres. 
599. melanocephalus. 284. melanocephala. 
600. Recurvirostra americana. 225. Recurvirostra americana. 
601. Himantopus mexicanus. 226. Himantopus mexicanus. 
602. Steganopus wilsoni. 224. Phalaropus tricolor. 
603. Lobipes hyperboreus. 223. lobatus. 
604. Phalaropus fulicarius. 222. Crymophilus fulicarius. 
605. Philohela minor. 228. Philohela minor. 
606. Scolopax rusticula. [227.] Scolopax rusticola. 
607. Gallinago media. (229.| Gallinago gallinago. 
608. wilsoni. 230. delicata. 
509. Macrorhamphus griseus. 231. Macrorhamphus griseus. 
610. ; scolopaceus. 232. scolopaceus. 
611. Micropalama himantopus. 238. Micropalama himantopus. 
612. Ereunetes pusillus. 246. Ereunetes pusillus. 
613. pusillus occidentalis. 247. occidentalis. 
614. Actodromas minutilla. 242. Tringa minutilla. 

000. [Not admitted in the List. ] 
614 bis. Add: Tringa damascensis. DAMASCENE SANDPIPER. LONG-TOED STINT. 


Resembling the last in coloration. Shaft of first primary only, white. Middle toe and claw 
longer than tarsus or culmen; tips of outstretched toes reaching far beyond end of tail, and 
tip of tail beyond points of the folded wings; four outer pairs of tail-feathers of equal 


lengths. 


APPENDIX. 887 


Length 150 mm.; wing 88 mm.; tail 40 mm.; culmen 18 mm.; middle toe and 


claw 24mm. This species has been taken on Otter Island, in Bering’s Sea. Bull. U. 8. Nat. 


Mus. No. 29, 1885, p. 116. 
COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
615. Actodromas bairdi. 241. Tringa bairdii. 
616. maculata. 239, maculata. 
617. bonapartii. 240. fuscicollis. 
618. cooperi ? fill. cooperi, 
619. acuminata. 238, acuminata, 
620. Arquatella maritima. 235. maritima. 
621. couesi. 236. couesi. 
622. ptilocnemis. 237. ptilocnemis. 
623. Pelidna alpina. [243.] alpina. 
624. alpina americana. 243a. alpina pacifica. 
625. Ancylochilus subarquatus. 244. ferruginea, 
626. Tringa canutus. 234. canutus. 
627. Calidris arenaria. 248. Calidris arenaria. 
884. Eurynorhynchus pygmeus. [245.] Eurynorhynchus pygmeus. 
628. Limosa foeda. (249.] Limosa fedoa. 
629. heemastica. 251. heemastica, 
630. segocephala. [252.] limosa. 
631. uropygialis. 250. lapponica baueri. 
632. Symphemia semipalmata. 258. Symphemia semipalmata. 
000. [Not admitted in the List.] 


632 bis. Add: Symphemia semipalmata inornata. WesTERN WILLET. Larger 


than the last, with longer and slenderer bill, fewer, finer, and fainter markings on the paler 
ground of the upper parts, and duller and more confused or broken markings on the under 
parts, these bordered with a pinkish-salmon color, which often suffuses most of the under 
parts; middle tail-feathers unmarked or only faintly barred. Wing 8.00; tail 3.30; tarsus 


2.60; bill 2.25-2.70. 


Interior of North America, from the Mississippi to the Rocky Moun- 


tains, wintering on the South Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. The Auk, April, 1887, p. 145. 


633. Totanus melanoleucus. 254. Totanus melanoleucus. 
634. flavipes. 255. flavipes. 

635. glottis. [253.] nebularius. 
636. Rhyacophilus ochropus. [257.] ochropus. 
637. solitarius. 256. solitarius. 
638. Tringoides macularius. 263. Actitis macularia. 
639. Machetes pugnax. [260.] Pavoncella pugnax. 
640. Bartramia longicauda. 261. Bartramia longicauda. 
641. Tryngites rufescens. 262. Tryngites subruficollis. 
642. Heteroscelus incanus. 259. Heteractitis } incanus. 
643. Numenius longirostris. 264. Numenius longirostris. 
644. pheopus. [267.] pheopus. 
645. hudsonicus. 265. hudsonicus. 
646. borealis. 266. borealis. 
647. taitensis. [268.] tahitiensis. 
649. Plegadis falcinellus. 186. Plegadis autumnalis. 


1 This genus will stand, because Heteroscelus is preoccupied in entomology. 


888 


650 


COUES KEY, 1884. 
. Plegadis guarauna. 


651. Eudocimus albus. 


652 
653 
648 


; ruber. 
. Ajaja rosea. 
. Tantalops loculator. 


654. Mycteria americana. 
655. Ardea herodias. 


APPENDIX. 


UNION LIST, 1886. 
187. Plegadis guarauna. 
184. Guara alba. 
[185.] rubra. 
183. Ajaja ajaja. 
188. Tantalus loculator. 
[189.] Mycteria americana. 
194. Ardea herodias. 


656. occidentalis. 192. occidentalis. 
000. wardi. 193, wardi. 

657. cinerea. [195.] cinerea, 

658. Herodias egretta. 196. egretta. 

659. Garzetta candidissima. 197. candidissima. 
660. Hydranassa tricolor. 199. tricolor ruficollis. 
661. Dichromanassa rufa. 198. rufa, 

662. Florida ccerulea. 200. coerulea. 

663. Butorides rufescens. 201. Ardea virescens. 

664. Nyctiardea grisea nevia. 202. Nycticorax nycticorax nevius. 
665. Nycterodius violaceus. 2038, violaceus. 
666. Botaurus mugitans. 190. Botaurus lentiginosus. 
667. Ardetta exilis. 191. exilis. 


000. [Not admitted in the List.] 


667 bis. Add: Ardetta neoxena. FLoripa Dwarr BitrerN. Crown, back and tail 
black, glossed with green. Sides of head and throat chestnut, the feathers on the back of 
the neck tipped with greenish-black. Breast and under parts rufous chestnut, nearly uni- 
form, shading into blackish on the sides; under tail-coverts dull black; upper wing-coverts 
rufous chestnut, the under ones paler chestnut; all the remiges slaty plumbeous. Length 
10.80; wing 4.30; tarsus 1.40; bill 1.80. Southwestern Florida. The Auk, April, 1886, 


p. 262. 

668. Grus américana. 204. Grus americana. 
669. canadensis. 205. canadensis. 
670. pratensis. 206. mexicana. 


671. Aramus pictus. 
672. Parra gymnostoma. 
673. Rallus longirostris crepitans. 


207. Aramus giganteus. 
(288.] Jacana gymnostoma. 
211. Rallus longirostris crepitans. 


674. longirostris obsoletus. 210. obsoletus. 
675. longirostris saturatus. 21la. longirostris saturatus. 
676. elegans. 208. elegans. 

209. beldingi. 


676 bis. Add: Rallus beldingi. Brxpine’s Rat. Most like R. elegans, but darker 
and richer colored throughout, the white bars of the flanks much narrower, the blackish bars 
very distinct. Wing 5.70; tail 2.50; bill 2.15; tarsus 1.90. A species which takes its 
place in the Key under our ruling to admit the islands pertaining to Lower California. 
Espiritu Santo Island, Gulf of California. Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus., v. 1882, p. 345. 


677. Rallus virginianus. 212. Rallus virginianus. 

678. Porzana maruetta. (218.] Porzana porzana. 

679. carolina. 214. carolina. 

680. noveboracensis. 215. noveboracensis. 
681. jamaicensis. 216. jamaicensis. 


APPENDIX. 889 


COUES KEY, 1884, 
682. Porzana jamaicensis coturniculus. 
683. Crex pratensis. 
684. Gallinula galeata. 
685. Ionornis martinica. 
686. Fulica americana. 
885. atra. 
687. Phcenicopterus ruber. 
688. Cygnus buccinator. 
689. columbianus. 
690. musicus. 
691. [See Key, p. 683.] 
692. Anser albifrons. 


693. albifrons gambeli. 
694. Chen ceerulescens. 

695. hyperboreus. 

696. hyperboreus albatus. 
697. rossi. 


698. Philacte canagica. 
699. Bernicla leucopsis. 


700. branta. 

701. branta nigricans, 

702. canadensis. 

702a. canadensis occidentalis. 
703. canadensis leucoparia. 
704. canadensis hutchinsi. 
705. Dendrocygna fulva. 

706. autumnalis, 

707. Anas boscas. 

708. obscura. 

709. obscura fulvigula. 


710. Dafila acuta. 
711. Chaulelasmus streperus. 
712. Mareca penelope. 


718. americana. 

714. Querquedula crecca. 

715. carolinensis, 
716. discors. 
717. cyanoptera, 


718. Spatula clypeata. 
719. Aix sponsa. 
886. Fuligula rufina. 


720. marila. 

721. affinis. 

722. collaris. 

723. ferina americana. 
724. vallisneria. 


725. Clangula glaucium. 


1 The proper spelling of this word is Athyia. 


UNION LIST, 1886. 
216a. Porzana jamaicensis coturniculus. 
[217.] Crex crex. 
219. Gallinula galeata. 
218. Ionornis martinica. 
221. Fulica americana. 
(220.] atra, 
182. Pheenicopterus ruber. 
181. Olor buccinator. 
180. columbianus. 
(179.] cygnus. 


[171.] Anser albifrons. 


171a. albifrons gambeli. 
+8. Chen ccerulescens. 

169a. hyperborea nivalis. 

169. hyperborea. 

170. rossii. 


176. Philacte canagica. 
[175.] Branta leucopsis. 


173. bernicla. 

174. nigricans. 

172. canadensis. 

1720. canadensis occidentalis. 
172c. canadensis minima. 
172a. canadensis hutchinsil. 
178. Dendrocygna fulva. 

177. autumnalis. 

132. Anas boschas. 

133. obscura. 

134. fulvigula. 


143. Dafila acuta, 
135. Anas strepera. 


136. penelope. 

187. americana. 
[188. ] crecca. 

139. carolinensis. 

140. discors. 

141. cyanoptera. 


142. Spatula clypeata. 

144. Aix sponsa. 

(145.] Netta rufina. 

148. Aythya? marila nearctica.? 


149. affinis. 
150. collaris. 
146. americana. 
147. vallisneria, 


1651. Glaucionetta clangula americana. 


2 The alleged subspecies nearctica cannot be recognized without further evidence. 


890 APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1986. 
726. Clangula islandica. 152. Glaucionetta islandica. 
727. albeola. 153. Charitonetta albeola. 
728. Harelda glacialis. 154. Clangula hyemalis. 
729. Camptolemus labradorius. 156. Camptolaimus labradorius. 
730. Histrionicus minutus. 155. Histrionicus histrionicus. 
731. Somateria stelleri. 157. Eniconetta stelleri. 
732. fischeri. 158. Arctonetta fischeri. 
733. mollissima. 159. Somateria mollissima. 
734. mollissima dresseri. 160. dresseri. 
735. v-nigrum. 161. v-nigra. 
736. spectabilis. , 162. spectabilis. 
737. Cidemia americana. 163. Oidemia americana. 

[164.] fusca. 


737 bis. Add: Cidemia fusca. European ScoTer. The true scoter of Europe and 
Asia (of which our velvet scoter may be a recognizable variety, as long ago pointed out by 
Cassin and Bonaparte) has occurred in Greenland and Alaska as a straggler from the Old 
World, and may therefore take place in our list. It is distinguished from the American 
O. f. velvetina by a somewhat different outline of the feathers upon the base of the upper 
mandible, leaving the length of the culmen greater than the lateral length of the bill from 
the loral feathers along the side to the tip; and by a black stripe in the red of the bill. 


738. CEdemia fusca velvetina. 165. Oidemia deglandi. 
739. perspicillata. 166. perspicillata. 
740. perspicillata trowbridgii? 000. [Not admitted in the List.] 
741. Erismatura rubida. 167. Erismatura rubida. 
742. Nomonyx dominica. [168.] Nomonyx dominica. 
743. Mergus merganser.! 129. Merganser americanus. 
744, serrator. 1380. serrator. 
745. cucullatus. 131. Lophodytes cucullatus. 
746. Sula bassana. 117. Sula bassana. 
747. leucogastra. 115. sula. 

114. cyanops. 


747 bis. Add: Sula cyanops. BLuE-FacED Boospy. Adult ¢9: White; greater 
wing-coverts, bastard quills, primaries and their coverts, dusky brown; tail-feathers the 
same, the middle pair mostly whitish and the others whitish at the bases; face and gular sac 
blue, drying blackish; feet light red. Young: Head, ‘heck, and upper parts dark grayish- 
brown; lower parts from the neck white; middle of back and upper part of rump streaked 
with white, flanks with gray. Wing 14.50; tail 7.75; bill along culmen 3.50, its depth at 
base 1.25; tarsus 1.75; middle toe 2.25. A species of wide distribution in warm seas, in- 
habiting the West Indies and occasionally occurring in southern Florida. It should have 
been admitted to the second edition of the Key. 


| 116. Sula piscator. 


747 ter. Add: Sula piscator. Rep-rootep Boosy. Adult ¢ 9: White; head and 
neck tinged with buff; wing-feathers, primary coverts, and greater secondary coverts slate-gray ; 
shafts of tail-feathers pale yellow. Feet coral-red ; iris brown; gular sac black; bare space 


1 As pointed out by Mr. Cassin in 1853, the American sheldrake may be recognized, in comparison with the 
European, by the black bar which partly divides the white area on the wing, and some average difference in the 
bill, which is shorter than that of the true M. merganser. (Pr. Phila. Acad. 1853, p. 187.) 


APPENDIX. 891 


around eye violet-blue; base of bill purplish-red. Young: more or less dusky and gray. 
The coloration is extremely variable, but the species is not to be confounded with any of the 
others here given. Length 29.00; extent 60.00; wing 15.00; tail 9.00; bill along culmen 
3.25, its depth at base 1.10 or less; tarsus 1.35; middle toe 2.25. A species like the last in 
its distribution, supposed to occur also in Florida. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
748. Pelecanus trachyrhynchus. 125. Pelecanus erythrorhynchos. 
749. fuscus. 126. fuscus. 
127. californicus. 


749 bis. Add: Pelecanus fuscus californicus. CaLirorNiAN Brown PELICAN. 
Similar to the last; larger; bill 12.00 to nearly 15.00; wing 20.00-23.00. In full breeding 
plumage the pouch mostly reddish, the bare skin around eye brown, and the back of the 
neck brownish-black instead of chestnut. Coast of California. Water Birds N. A., ii. 


p. 143. 
750. Phalacrocorax carbo. 119. Phalacrocorax carbo. 
751. dilophus. 120. dilophus. 
752. dilophus cincinnatus. 1208. dilophus cincinnatus. 
753. dilophus floridanus. 120a. dilophus floridanus. 
7538a. dilophus albociliatus. 120ce. dilophus albociliatus. 
754. mexicanus. 121. mexicanus. 
755. penicillatus. 122. penicillatus. 
756. perspicillatus. 7. perspicillatus. 
757. bicristatus. 124, urile. 
000. [Not admitted in the Key.] 123. pelagicus. 
758. Phalacrocorax violaceus. 123a. pelagicus robustus. 
759. violaceus bairdi. 1230. pelagicus resplendens. 
760. Plotus anhinga. 118. Anhinga anhinga. 
761. Tachypetes aquilus. 129. Fregata aquila. 
762. Phaéthon ethereus. 113. Phaéthon ethereus. 
763. flavirostris. 114. flavirostris. 
764. Stercorarius skua. 35. Megalestris skua. 
765. pomatorhinus. 36. Stercorarius pomarinus. 
766. parasiticus. 37. parasiticus. 
767. buffoni. 38. longicaudus. 
768. Larus glaucus. 42. Larus glaucus. 
769. leucopterus. 43. leucopterus. 
770. glaucescens. 44. glaucescens. 
770a. kumilieni. 45. kumlieni. 
46. nelsoni. 


770 bis. Add: Larus nelsoni. Netson’s Guu. Bill robust, relatively short; tarsus a 
little shorter (?) than middle toe and claw. Head, neck, tail, and entire under parts pure 
white; mantle pale pearl-blue, lighter than in glaucescens, about as in leucopterus and kumlieni. 
“A close ally of L. kumlieni, which bird, indeed, it may represent upon the N. W. Pacific coast. 
The main point of distinction is size, nelsoni being considerably larger.’’ Wing 17.25; tail 
8.90; culmen 2.20; bill along gape 3.00, depth 0.86, tarsus 3.00; middle toe and claw 2.90. 
A very dubious gull, improbably a distinct species. The Auk, July, 1884, p. 250. 


771. Larus marinus. | 47. Larus marinus. 
1 48. schistisagus. 


892 APPENDIX. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 

771 bis. Add: Larus marinus schistisagus. SLatTy-Backrep GuLL. Adult: white; 
mantle dark slate-gray. First primary with a long white tip and a gray wedge on the inner 
web; second with a subapical white spot on the inner web only, and the gray wedge further 
down; third with the gray wedge reaching the subapical spot; no gray wedge on outer webs 
of first four primaries. Feet pinkish flesh-color. Bill yellow, with red spot on gonys. Iris 
yellowish cream-color. Nearly the size of the last, from which probably not distinct. N. 
Pacific and Arctic Oceans, coast of Alaska. Bull. U. 8. Nat. Mus., No. 29, 1885, p. 67. 


772. Larus argentatus. 51. Larus argentatus. 
773. argentatus smithsonianus. 5la. argentatus smithsonianu 
774. occidentalis. 49. occidentalis. 
775. cachinnans. 52. cachinnans. 
776. affinis. [50.] affinis. 
777. californicus. 53. californicus. 
778. delawarensis. 54. delawarensis. 
779. canus. [56.] canus. 
780. brachyrhynchus. 55. brachyrhynchus. 
781. heermanni. 57. heermanni. 
782. Rissa tridactyla. 40. Rissa tridactyla. 
783. tridactyla kotzebuii. 40a. tridactyla pollicaris. 
784. brevirostris. 41. brevirostis. 
785. Pagophila eburnea. 39. Gavia alba. 
786. Chroicocephalus atricilla. 58. Larus atricilla. 
787. franklini. 59. franklini. 
788. philadelphia. 60. philadelphia. 
789. Rhodostethia rosea. 61. Rhodostethia rosea. 
790. Xema sabinii. 62. Xema sabinii. 
791. furcata. 4. furcata. 
792. Sterna anglica. 63. Gelochelidon nilotica. 
793. caspia. 64. Sterna tschegrava. 
794. maxima. 65. maxima. 
795. elegans. 66. elegans. 
796. cantiaca. 67. sandvicensis acuflavida. 
797. hirundo. 70. hirundo. 
798. forsteri. 69. forsteri. 
799. macrura. 71. paradisea, 
800. dougalli. 72, dougalli. 
801. superciliaris antillarum. 74. antillarum. 
802. trudeaui. [68.] trudeaui. 
803. aleutica. 73. aleutica. 
804. fuliginosa. 75. fuliginosa. 
805. anzesthetica. [76.] anethetus. 
806. Hydrochelidon lariformis. 77. Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis. 
807. leucoptera. [78.] leucoptera. 
808. Anous stolidus. 79. Anous stolidus. 
809. Rhynchops nigra. 80. Rynchops nigra. 
00. [Not admitted in the List.] 


809 bis. Add: Diomedea exulans. WanprErinc ALBATROss. Adult: White, more 
or less tinged with yellowish, the flight-feathers dusky, the larger wing-coverts and the back 
usually barred with blackish. Bill very stout, with deeply concave culmen, and angulated 


APPENDIX. 893 


outline of feathers on both mandibles; whitish, with a pink or yellow tinge. Very large: 
length, 4.00-4.50 feet; extent 10 feet or more, usually about 10.50. Young are dark colored, 
whitening on the head. It is probable that this species, already several times included in our 
Fauna, and then dropped for lack of sufficient evidence of its occurrence, requires to be 
reinstated. Its appearence in Florida has lately been recorded. The Auk, Oct. 1885, p. 387. 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 
810. Diomedea brachyura. 82. Diomedea albatrus. 
811. nigripes. 81. nigripes. 


88. Thalassogeron culminatus. 


811 bis. Add: Diomedea culminata. CuLMINATING ALBATROSS. Adult: Above, 
grayish-brown, lightening to ashy-gray on the neck and head, whitening on the under parts, 
darkening on the wings to the dusky brown of the flight-feathers; lower eyelid, rump, and 
upper tail-coverts white; tail slate-gray; shafts of primaries and tail-feathers yellowish. 
Bill blackish, the culmen and most of the side of the lower mandible more or less yellow. 
Wing 21.00; bill along culmen 4.50, its depth at base 1.75; tarsus 3.25. A handsome 
albatross of medium size, inhabiting southern seas, said by Audubon to have occurred 
off the Columbia River. Audubon described it as the yellow-nosed albatross, D. chloro- 
rhyncha ; but his specimen, which I handled many years ago, is clearly of this species, as I 
first pointed out in Pr. Phila. Acad., 1866, p. 183. 


812. Pheebetria fuliginosa. 84. Pheebetria fuliginosa. 
813. Ossifraga gigantea. [85.] Ossifraga gigantea. 
814. Fulmarus glacialis. 86. Fulmarus glacialis. 

86a. glacialis minor. 


814 bis. Add: Fulmarus glacialis minor. LessErR ATLANTIC FuLmMaR. Like the 
last: smaller; wing only 12.00; bill 1.35; tarsus about 1.75; middle toe 2.15. 


815. Fulmarus glacialis pacificus. 86). Fulmarus glacialis glupischa. 

816. glacialis rodgersi. 86c. glacialis rodgersi. 

817. Priocella tenuirostris. 87. glacialoides. 

818. Daptium capense. (102.] Daption capensis. 

819. Cstrelata hesitata. [98.] Estrelata hasitata. 

887. gularis. (99.] gularis. 

887a. fisheri. 100. fisheri. 

820. bulweri. {101.] Bulweria bulweri. 

821. Halocyptena microsoma. 103. Halocyptena microsoma. 

822. Procellaria pelagica. 104. Procellaria pelagica. 

823. Cymochorea leucorrhoa. 106. Oceanodroma leucorhoa. 

824. melena. 107. melania. 

825. homochroa. 108. homochroa. 

826. Oceanodroma furcata. 105. furcata, 

827. hornbyi. {6. hornbyi. 

828. Oceanites oceanicus. 109. Oceanites oceanicus. 

829. Fregetta grallaria. [110.] Cymodroma grallaria. 
(111.] Pelagodroma marina. 


829 bis. Add: Pelagodroma marina. WHITE-FACED PEeTREL. Bill remarkably long, 
slender, and compressed, the short nasal tubes less than half as long as the culmen, the hook 
at the end weak. Wings of moderate length, reaching when folded just beyond the end of 
the tail. Tail long, square, or but slightly emarginate, the feathers broad, with truncate 
ends. Legs very long; tibia bare an inch or more; middle toe and claw nearly as long as 


894 APPENDIX. 


the tarsus; webs very full. Color ashy-gray, deepening into blackish on the wings and tail; 
the under parts, forehead, and line over the eye, white. Webs yellow. A large and hand- 
some stormy petrel, related to Fregetta (or Cymodroma), but readily distinguished, generically 
as well as specifically. It inhabits southern seas, and has been once taken off the coast of 


Massachusetts, lat. 40° 34’ 18” N., long. 66° 09’ W. 


COUES KEY, 1884. 


The Auk, Oct. 1885, p. 386. 
UNION LIST, 1886. 


830. Priofinus melanurus. (97.] Puffinus cinereus. 

831. Puffinus kuhli. 5. kuhlii. 

888. borealis. 88. borealis. 

832. major. 89. major. 

833. creatopus. 91. creatopus. 

834. anglorum. (90. ] puffinus. 

835. obscurus. 92. auduboni. 

836. opisthomelas. 93. gavia. 

837. fuliginosus. 94. stricklandi. 

838. amaurosoma, 95. griseus. 

839. tenuirostris. 96. tenuirostris. 

840. Colymbus torquatus. 7. Urinator imber. 

841. torquatus adamsi. 8. adamsii. 

842. arcticus. 9. arcticus. 

843. arcticus pacificus. 10. pacificus. 

844. septentrionalis. ll. lumme. 

845. Aichmophorus occidentalis. 1. Achmophorus occidentalis. 
846. occidentalis clarki. fl. clarkii. 

847. Podicipes griseigena holbeelli. 2. Colymbus holbeellii. 

848. cornutus. 3. auritus. 

849. auritus. 0. [Not admitted in the List.] 
850. auritus californicus. 4. Colymbus nigricollis californicus. 
851. dominicus. 5. dominicus 

852. Podilymbus podicipes. 6. Podilymbus podiceps. 


853. Fratercula corniculata. 14. Fratercula corniculata. 
854. arctica. 13. arctica. 
855. arctica glacialis. 1a. arctica glacialis. 
856. Lunda cirrata. 12. Lunda cirrhata. 
857. Ceratorhina monocerata. 15. Cerorhinca monocerata. 
858. Simorhynchus psittaculus. 17. Cyclorrhynchus psittaculus. 
859. cristatellus. 18. Simorhynchus cristatellus. 
860. pygmeeus. 19. pygmeeus. 
861. pusillus. 20. pusillus. 
862. Ptychorhamphus aleuticus. 16. Ptychoramphus aleuticus. 
863. Alle nigricans. 34. Alle alle. 
864. Synthliborhamphus antiquus. 21. Synthliboramphus antiquus. 
865. umizusume, 22. wumizusume. 
866. Brachyrhamphus marmoratus. 23. Brachyramphus marmoratus. 
867. kittlitzi. 4. kittlitzii. 
868. hypoleucus. 25. hypoleucus. 
869. craverii ? 26. craveri. 
870. brachypterus ? 00. [Not admitted in the List.] 
871. Uria grylle. 27. Cepphus grylle. 

28. mandtil. 


APPENDIX. 895 


COUES KEY, 1884. UNION LIST, 1886. 

871 bis. Add: Uria grylle mandti. Manpt’s Guititemor. Similar to the last, and 
probably only the perfected plumage of it, having the white on both sides of the wing pure 
and unbroken; the bill said to be smaller. A circumpolar range is ascribed to this form, 
which is said to come south in winter as far as New Jersey and Norton Sound, Alaska. 


872. Uria columba. 29. Cepphus columba. 
873. carbo. 73. carbo. 
2: motzfeldi. 


873 bis, Add: Uria carbo motzfeldi. Morzreip’s Guituemot. Like the last, but 
lacking the whitish patch on the side of the head. North Atlantic; Greenland. 


874. Lomvia troile. 30. Uria troile. 

875. troile californica. 30a. troile californica. 
876. arra. 31a. lomvia arra. 

876 bis. [See Key, p. 818.] 31. lomvia. 

877 Utamania torda. 32. Alca torda. 

878. Alca impennis. 33. Plautus impennis. 


UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON & SON, CAMBRIDGE.