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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 31.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chiei of Bureau.

CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS

NORTHWESTERN STATES.

BY

AS os HLEOHOOCK:
ASSISTANT AGROSTOLOGIST. IN CHARGE OF COOPERATIVE
EXPERIMENTS,

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.

IssvtED DEcEMBER 13, 1902.

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WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFiCE.

1902.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. .

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., October 17, 1902.
Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper on ‘* Cultivated
Forage Crops of the Northwestern States,” and respectfully recom-
mend that it be published as Bulletin No. 31 of the series of this
Bureau. |
This paper was prepared by Mr. A. 8. Hitchcock, Assistant Agros-
tologist, in Charge of Cooperative Experiments, Grass and Forage
Plant Investigations, and has been submitted with a view to publica-
tion by the Agrostologist.
Respectfully, :
B. T. Gattoway,
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James WILSON,
Secretary of Agriculture.

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SEL OR RES TNE
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ee aRaS Scena

Bib ae ke

During the summer of 1901 Professor Hitchcock, under instruc-
tions from the then Agrostologist, Prof. F. Lamson-Scribner, visited
the States of Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada,
California, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho for the purpose of study-
ing conditions with reference to cultivated forage crops. In the course
of his investigations he visited the experiment stations of the above
States and interviewed many farmers and ranchmen, from some of
whom he received much valuable information. Considerable informa-
tion was also obtained from seedsmen and from dealers in grain and
hay and farm machinery. The accompanying paper is a résumé of
the information thus obtained. It isrecognized that in a large section
of country rather sparsely settled, and particularly one in which agri-
culture is a recent development, many farmersand others have learned

~ much that would be valuable to others in the same section of country.

The principal object of this paper is to make common property of the
individual knowledge of various farmers, ranchmen, and others, so that
each may benefit by the experience of others. This is particularly
important in a new country such as the region described herein.

The paragraph relating to the ‘‘ Inland Empire” and the last para-
graph of the section devoted to velvet grass were written by the
Agrostologist; otherwise the paper is entirely the work of Professor
Hitchcock.

W. J. SPILLMAN,
: Agrostologist.

OFFICE OF THE AGROSTOLOGIST,

Washington, D. C., October 14, 1902.

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Fig. 1.—Mast and boom stacker, with Jackson fork. Fig. 2.—Cable
derrick,’ with grapple torikeps espe pee ee Pa

. Fig. 1.—Derrick stacker, with Jackson fork. Fig. 2.—Derrick

stacker, showing details. 225g We yen eee ae eee

. Fig. 1.—Derrick mounted on wheels. Fig. 2.—Derrick with revolv-

IN Pole: <eSe ea Se Se ae ar ra ct

. Fig. 1.—A common type of hayrack. Fig. 2.—Pole stacker, with

Jackson forks 2s.3 2 oY ee et en ee A Eee ga

. Fig. 1.—Lattice rack for feeding alfalfa to cattle. Fig. 2.—Box rack

for feeding-altalia: to cattle’: see ry Se ee se eee ee ee

. Fig. 1.—Lattice rack for feeding alfalia to sheep. Fig. 2.—Box rack

tor feeding’ altalia* to shee pease sere see eee eae
Fig. 1.—Baling grain hay, San José, Cal. Fig. 2.—Brome grass at the
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B. P. I.—39. G. F. P. I.—97.

CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTH-
WESTERN STATES.

DESCRIPTION OF THE REGIONS.

The present bulletin discusses briefly the forage resources of that
portion of the United States extending from Colorado and central
California north to Montana and Washington. The whole area may
be divided into several well-marked regions, each of which will be
discussed separately. Each region has its characteristic climate,
topography, and physiognomy. The climate depends chiefly upon
the latitude, altitude, and the amount and distribution of the rainfall.
The latter factor is greatly influenced by the presence and trend of the
mountain chains and the direction of the prevailing winds. In gen-
eral the winters are longer and more severe as the latitude increases.
The climate is cooler at higher altitudes. The Coast Range, Sierra
Nevada, and Cascade Mountains rob the winds of their moisture as
they blow from the Pacific Ocean eastward, thus producing an arid
region in the interior. The physiognomy, or general appearance,
depends very largely upon the character of the vegetation, which in
turn varies according to the climate and soil. The low and scattered
vegetation of the sagebrush plains of the Great Basin region, the
forests of the Pacific slope, and the buffalo-grass sod of the Great
Plains are examples of the characteristic physiognomy. It is not the
intention to discuss minutely the physical geography of the region,
but these preliminary remarks will call attention to the basis of the
regional classification. The relation of these physical factors to the
agriculture of the individual regions will be referred to later.

The soil conditions are more local in their effect than the above-men-
tioned factors, but in some cases may profoundly modify the growth
of plants. The soil factors may be physical, such as its ability to hold
or transport water, the size of the particles, and character of the sub-
soil; or chemical, depending upon the chemical constituents, such as
the presence of excessive amounts of carbonate of soda, salt, or other
substances, producing alkali soils. One other factor should be men-
tioned, which, though not included among those determining the clas-
sification into areas, is nevertheless of vast importance in its relation
to agriculture. This is artificial water supply or irrigation.

10 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST.
GREAT PLAINS.

This region extends from about the ninety-eighth meridian to the
Rocky Mountains and from Texas far north into Canada. The altitude
increases from about 1,500 feet, at the eastern limit, to the base of
the mountains, where it may be 6,000 or 7,000 feet. The western
portion of this area extends into the group of States considered in
this bulletin. The topographical features of this region are discussed
by the late Thomas A. Williams in Bulletin No. 12 of the Division
of Agrostology, U.S. Department of Agriculture, entitled ‘‘A Report
upon the Grasses and Forage Plants and Forage Conditions of the
Eastern Rocky Mountain Region.”

The annual rainfall is usually from 10 to 12 inches, in consequence
of which the cultivation of crops is dependent upon irrigation. The
native grasses are well adapted to grazing, and hence stock raising is
the paramount industry throughout this portion of the Great Plains,
which includes the eastern part of the States of Montana, Wyoming,
and Colorado. ‘The stock raised is chiefly cattle and sheep, vast herds
of which roam over the plains during the summer, and, in most local-
ities, for the greater part of the winter, subsisting upon the short
grasses, the most important of which are buffalo grass (Lulbilis dacty-
loides) and blue grama (Louteloua oligostachya). Along the draws or
in the valleys of the streams taller grasses occur, such as blue-stem
(Andropogon furcatus) and alkali saccaton (Sporobolus airoides), the
common bunch grass of the Arkansas Valley. The upland or ‘‘ short”
grasses seldom grow sufficiently tall for hay, but in favorable seasons
hay is cut in those situations where the tall grasses abound. The -
foliage of the short grasses usually cures on the ground and furnishes
food through the winter; but in order to provide food during the
stormy periods of the winter and to increase the carrying capacity ©
of the ranges by supplementing the natural food supply, hay is put —
up for winter use. This practice is increasing as competition enforces
more economical methods of agriculture. Almostall the forage stored
for winter is produced by the aid of irrigation. Near the base of the
mountains there is an abundant supply of water in the mountain streams,
and this is distributed along the valleys by means of canals. In many
places storage reservoirs supply water in the canals during a portion
of the period of low water.

The most important forage plant raised by cultivation is alfalfa.
This can be grown up to an elevation of 5,000 or 6,000 feet. On
account of the altitude the nights are too cold for the successful culti-
vation of corn and many other of the coarse forage grasses grown in
the prairie regions to the east. Sorghum and Kafir corn are grown
to some extent in Colorado for forage. Timothy is grown, especially
in the mountain region; it is used for both pasture and hay. Red
clover is raised in Montana and to some extent in the two States to

ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. ll

the south. The recently introduced awnless brome grass has shown
that it can be successfully grown without irrigation. For a further
discussion of the forage conditions of this area the reader is referred
to Bulletin No. 12 mentioned above.

Rocky MowunTAIN REGION.

This includes a wide area passing through Colorado, Wyoming,
western Montana, anda part of eastern Idaho. This area also received
attention in Bulletin No. 12.

As in the preceding area, the most important agricultural industry
is stock raising. Sheep raising is relatively more important here.
The sheep are pastured during the summer in the valleys, or at least
where they have access to water, but during the winter they may be
driven to the more arid districts, depending upon the snowfall for
their water supply.

The forage conditions of one of these arid regions is discussed by
Prof. Aven Nelson in Bulletin No. 13 of the Division of Agrostology,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, entitled **The Red Desert of Wyo-
ming and its Forage Resources.”

Alfalfa is raised by irrigation at the lower altitudes throughout the
area, but, as before stated, is not successful at an altitude exceeding
6,000 or 7,000 feet, depending upon the latitude, and somewhat upon
the local conditions. Above this altitude the common forage grasses
of the East may be grown. ‘Timothy is raised in Colorado in favor-
able locations up to an elevation of 9,000 or even 10,000 feet. On the
plateau from Laramie westward the ranchmen depend largely upon
wild hay for winter food. This is irrigated to increase the crop: but,
‘owing to the injudicious or excessive application of water, the more
desirable grasses are driven out by *‘ wire grass” (Juncus balticus), a
kind of rush.

It is a common practice to flood the land in the spring and allow it
to remain partly under water until time for cutting the hay, when the
water is turned off. A species of spike rush (£7/eocharis), also known
as wire grass, is common in the moist spots. This wire grass is only
moderately nutritious, but yields larger crops of hay than when grown
on unirrigated land, and it is less trouble to turn on the water once
than to supply the water oftener, allowing it to drain off each time.

There is an impression among farmers in southern Wyoming that
wild hay is more valuable for feed than alfalfa, ton for ton, for all
kinds of stock. This is reflected in the price of hay at Saratoga,
where wild hay or timothy sold at $15 and alfalfa at $5 to 56 per ton.
At Laramie baled native hay was worth $8 to $10, and alfalfa in the
stack $5 to 37 per ton. Throughout the West, grass hay is considered
better than alfalfa for horses. There are several other kinds of forage
plants that have been grown in isolated localities with success, and

1 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST.

whose cultivation should be extended. Among these may be men-
tioned the Canada field pea, rape, and awnless brome grass.

GREAT BASIN.

This region extends from the Sierra Nevada Mountains to the Rocky
Mountains, and from Arizona north into southeastern Oregon and
southern Idaho. It is an arid region, having an annual rainfall of
less than 15 inches over the greater part, and in central Nevada of
less than 5 inches. The altitude of this great plateau is about 5,000
or 6,000 feet, with numerous mountain chains rising 2,000 or 3,000
feet higher. ‘There are several lakes or depressions having no outlet,
the largest of which is the Great Salt Lake of Utah.

In such localities there is usually an excessive accumulation of min-
eral salts, known as alkali. The water of the streams flowing into
these depressions holds these salts in solution, but deposits them upon
the surface of the soil when the water evaporates. These alkali soils
modify the vegetation. Each species of plant is able to withstand a
certain amount of alkali in the soil upon which it grows. If the amount
is in excess of this limit, the plant can not exist. Consequently, the
native vegetation gives a fair index of the alkaline condition of the
soil. The presence of saltbushes (Atriplex spp.), salt grass (Déstichlis
spicata), and grease wood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) indicates a strongly
alkaline soil. A still larger amount of soluble mineral matter prevents
the growth of even the salt plants, and in such cases the soil is devoid
of vegetation.

The prevailing vegetation over the whole region, except in the
mountains and upon the above-mentioned alkali soils, is the sagebrush
(Artemisia tridentata). Hence such localities are called sagebrush
plains. As in the case of the two preceding areas the chief agricul-
tural industry is the raising of stock—cattle, sheep, and horses. The
latter class of stock is of importance in certain localities, but is rela-
tively unimportant over the whole area. The sheep are herded in the
mountains in summer, where there is water, and upon the deserts in
winter, where there is snow. There are vast areas where stock can
not graze on account of the insufficiency of food or water, or both.

Alfalfa is grown in large quantities under irrigation in the valleys
and is practically the only supplemental forage for all kinds of stock.
In some of the larger valleys other crops are raised, such as grain and
sugar beets. As an example, the highly cultivated Cache Valley, in
northern Utah, may be mentioned. In a few favored localities dry
farming may be carried on successfully. This, however, is where
there is seepage and conservation of water from the winter snow on
the mountains. In the Cache Valley there are numerous instances of
grain and alfalfa fields on the hillsides above the canals.

CALIFORNIA AND COAST REGION. 13
INTERIOR VALLEY OF CALIFORNIA.

Between the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada Mountains lies a
valley extending through central California from Kern County on
the south to Shasta County on the north. This is formed by the
union of two valleys, the Sacramento River flowing from the north
and the San Joaquin from the south. The region is characterized by
high temperature and scant rainfall in the summer. The Coast Range
Mountains forming the western limit of the valley cut off the
moisture-laden winds from the Pacific Ocean, except at San Francisco
Bay, where there is a break in the chain through which the above-
mentioned rivers reach the ocean. Atthis point in the valley and also
opposite a few other minor breaks, the climate is modified in propor-
tion to the amount of moisture that filters through.

When the winter rainfall is sufficient there may be an abundance of
native pasture during the spring, but the main dependence is placed
on two crops—alfalfa and grain hay. Excepting in a few favored local-
ities, crops are raised by the aid of irrigation. The alfalfa is mostly
consumed upon the farm, while the grain: hay supplies the city mar-
kets. Alfalfa grows to the greatest perfection, especially in the San
Joaquin Valley, where it is customary to obtain about 8 tons of hay
at five cuttings from each acre, and about five months’ pasture. Grain
hay is produced from wheat, barley, and, to a less extent. from oats.
In some districts, wild-oat hay is common.

Upper Pactric Coast REGION.

This includes the area lying along the coast west of the Cascade
Mountains, from Puget Sound south to San Francisco. It is charac-
terized by cool summers, mild winters, and a large rainfall. Fogs are
frequent and droughts very rare. The conditions are very favorable
for the growth of pasture grasses, and the section is preeminently a
dairy region. Through most of this region cattle can be pastured
through the winter. Some hay is preserved, especially in western
Washington, but on account of the dampness the quality is inferior.
The Willamette Valley of western Oregon may be considered as a part
of this general area, though, since it is shut off from the coast by a
low range of mountains (the Coast Range), the rainfall is much less,
and the climate is correspondingly modified. The annual rainfall here
is 40 to 60 inches, mostly in the winter. Along the coast the rainfall
is 60 inches, increasing northward in the region of Puget Sound, and it
is distributed throughout most of the year. In this region the grasses
and clovers that are commonly used in the Eastern States grow in
great luxuriance.

14 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST.
THE ‘“S‘ INLAND EMPIRE.”

This region, sometimes known as the Palouse country, comprises
eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, and northern Idaho. It is
characterized by a dark, fine-grained basaltic soil of great fertility and
of very uniform character over a wide area. The limiting factors of
agriculture here are rainfall and altitude. With Pasco, Wash., as a
- center, where the annual rainfall is about 6 inches, the rainfall increases
in all directions, attaining a maximum of about 30 inches at the base of
the Blue and Rocky mountains on the east, and the Cascade Mountains
on the west. A considerable portion of this area in Washington and a
smaller section in Oregon have a rainfall of less than 10 inches. In
this portion irrigation is practiced. In Washington, about 150,000
acres are under irrigation within this area, alfalfa being the staple hay
crop, with a yield of 3 to 8 tons of hay per acre, at three cuttings.
The principal irrigated areas are situated in Yakima, Kittitas, Walla
Walla, and Chelan counties, Wash. Smaller areas, especially in narrow
canyons along the smaller streams, are located in various parts of
Oregon and Washington. The Kittitas Valley in Washington, which
lies at a higher altitude (about 1,600 feet) than any other considerable
irrigated area in the region in question, grows alfalfa, timothy, and
clover, producing hay of excellent quality. Like all other regions
between the Cascades and the Rockies, the haying season is free from
rain, which fact accounts for the excellent quality of hay produced.

Those portions of the ** Inland Empire” having more than 10 inches
of rainfall have heretofore been devoted almost exclusively to wheat
growing. In recent years considerable attention has been given to
hay and pasture grasses. Brome grass (Bromus inermis Li.) has
proven to be an excellent pasture grass in this region. It also yields
profitable crops of hay the second and third years after sowing. A
superior quality of brome grass seed is produced here. Of the hay
grasses, timothy and red clover are preferred for lowlands and
alfalfa, red clover, and orchard grass for uplands. On these wheat
lands, which he at an altitude of 1,500 to 3,000 feet, alfalfa produces
one or two crops a year, and is rapidly becoming an important hay
crop. Irrigation is not practiced in this region where the rainfall
exceeds 10 or 12 inches a year.

Heretofore, and even at the present time, the principal hay of the
wheat-growing area has been a mixture of wheat and wild oats (Avena
Jatua). Where the rainfall exceeds 18 inches wild oats are trouble-
some in the wheat fields, particularly on north hillsides, where snow
banks protect them against freezing. Hay is cut from those patches
in the wheat fields where wild oats predominate. When cut green
this hay is of good quality, but many careless farmers cut it so late
that the seeds are mature, and the hay is not only of poor quality but

FORAGE CROPS. 15

serves to scatter the seed of the pest. The common system of farm-
ing consists of taking a crop of wheat every alternate year, leaving
the land idle every other year. During the idle year the land is sum-
mer fallowed: that is, plowed up in spring and left bare during sum-
mer. These fallow fields often furnish excellent wild-oat pastures,
which are generally utilized.

At the present time alfalfa, clover, and brome hay are beginning
to take the place of grain hay in this wheat-growing section. It has
been learned that an exhausted brome-grass field can be restored to its
early vigor by plowing in winter and harrowing to good tilth. After
this plowing, a crop of spring grain may be taken without serious
injury to the brome grass.

FORAGE CROPS.
ALFALFA’ (Medicago sativa).
GENERAL CONDITIONS.

This well-known forage plant is extensively grown throughout the
West in all localities where the conditions are suitable. It requires a
well-drained soil and a fairly good supply of water, but will not endure
an excess of water (standing water) near the surface. It thrives best
where the summers are hot and dry and the winters not too cold. It
will withstand a moderate amount of alkali in the soil. In the North
it suffers in some localities from the effects of too cold winters, and is
not usually successful above an altitude of 5,000 or 6,000 feet. It can
be grown without irrigation in but comparatively few localities in the
Northwest: but under irrigation it is extensively grown in all the
States of this region, and reaches its greatest perfection in the hot, dry
valleys of California, where the summer season is long, the water sup-
ply abundant, and the soil well drained. Alfalfa will not succeed on
acid soils, but these are of rare occurrence in the western part of -the
United States.

Alfalfa is a perennial leguminous plant, a native of western Asia,
but cultivated in the Old World for ages. It was brought to Mexico
by the Spaniards and from there spread into South America and north
along the Pacific coast, and then throughout the interior arid and semi-
arid regions. The name alfalfa, of Arabic origin, was given by the
Spaniards and is in common use throughout western America. In
Europe the same plant is known as lucern, a name which is common in
the eastern United States, and also in Utah and the adjacent parts of
Idaho and Wyoming. In the latter region the name is commonly pro-
nounced with the accent on the first syllable.

4 For further description see Farmers’ Bulletin No. 31.

16 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST.

Being a legume, it gathers nitrogen from the air by means of its
root nodules, and hence acts as a soil renovator. Although alfalfa is
a perennial, a field usually deteriorates after a few years from various
causes. Fields in California as much as 27 and in Nevada from 35 to
40 years old are reported, but in most cases they require renewing
much earlier. Oxten the alfalfa fields become infested with weeds.
The squirrel-tail grass (fordeum jubatum)—also called foxtail in
Wyoming, barley grass in Utah, and tickle grass in Nevada—is com-
mon in alfalfa fields of the Great Basin and Wyoming plateau region,
and wild barley (/fordewm murinum)—also called barley grass and fox-
tail—on the Pacific slope.

These two grasses are especially troublesome on account of the long
bristles attached to the chaff. When mature they cause serious irrita-
tion in the mouths of animals eating hay containing the weed. In the
Cache Valley and in western Wyoming the common dandelion is very
troublesome. It thrives along irrigation ditches and invades the
alfalfa fields to such an extent that usually the fields are plowed up in
from five to eight years and renewed. This is done in the fall and
oats are sown the following spring, after which the fields are again
seeded down to alfalfa.

Many express the opinion that under favorable conditions an alfalfa
field will last indefinitely and continue to yield profitable crops if
properly handled; but the alfalfa may be killed in spots due to the
trampling of stock if a field is overpastured, or, during irrigation,
certain portions of the field being lower, may remain saturated with
water for too long a period. Alfalfa will scarcely survive standing
water longer than forty-eight hours. When alfalfa dies, its place is
likely to be taken by the before-mentioned pernicious weeds.

Some growers renew their fields by disking the bare spots in the
spring and sowing seed thereon, or even disking the whole field. Disk-
ing is to be recommended, as it cuts the crowns vertically and causes
them to send out new stems.

FEEDING VALUE.

In the great alfalfa districts of the West this forage plant furnishes
the chief and often the only food for stock besides the native pasture.
It is fed to growing stock and to fattening stock; to cattle, sheep,
horses, and hogs; even the work horses upon the ranches may receive
no grain in addition to the allowance of alfalfa. Horses that are
worked hard upon the road, such as livery teams, usually receive a
small quantity of barley, and this grain may form a part of the ration
for the work horses upon the ranches. Rolled barley is the form in
which it is usually fed, as in this condition there is said to be less
waste than when whole or ground. For this purpose the grain is
passed through heavy rollers, which crush it without grinding it.

qo —S = =

FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA. 17

There is much difference of opinion among farmers as to the value of
alfalfa for horses. Some prefer timothy or wild hay, together with
grain; some feed alfalfa and grain, while others maintain that horses
do well enough upon alfalfa alone. It is usually admitted that for
hard work, horses should be given at least a small allowance of grain.

In Wyoming some ranchmen claim that wild hay gives a firmer
flesh than alfalfa, and thus, even when feeding the latter to cattle being
prepared for the market, the stockmen will feed wild hay for about two
weeks prior to shipment. Some feeders finish by adding grain to the
ration. For this purpose barley is used, as it is the only grain ayail-
able through most of the Northwest. The seasons are too short or
the nights too cold for the successful cultivation of corn, the standard
feeding grain of the region to the east, and freight rates make this
grain when shipped too expensive for use. At Fort Collins and adja-
cent parts of Colorado large numbers of sheep are fattened for the
market upon alfalfa and corn. It is said that about 300,000 were fed
in that vicinity during the winter of 1900-1901. Lambs weighing 35
or 40 pounds are brought from the ranges of New Mexico and fed from
about the ist of October until sold, which may be anywhere from Feb-
ruary to June. The yearlings will then weigh from 70 to 90 pounds.

It is stated” *‘ that 40 acres of alfalfa will keep 300 sheep when pas-
tured uponit. There is danger of bloating at first, but as soon as
the sheep have become accustomed to it this danger ceases. Forty
acres of alfalfa and 20 acres of grain will feed 450 to 500 head.”

In many parts of the Great Basin it is customary for feeders to buy
alfalfa in the stack for winter feeding, paying a certain amount per
head per day. Conveniences for weighing are usually lacking, and this
method seems to be satisfactory. At Lovelocks, which lies in one of
the great alfalfa districts of central Nevada, the price for cattle was T
to 8 cents per head and for sheep 1 cent per head perday. In Nevada,
and also in some other districts of the Northwest, the stock cattle are
kept upon the range during the winter, though the ranchmen try to
provide a supply of alfalfa or wild hay for use during snowstorms. A
selection is made from the herd, however, of those that are to receive
winter feed with more regularity. These are the weaklings, the heifers
with calf, and the cows with calves by their sides. Itis also customary
to feed only the old or weak sheep during the winter, the remainder
being turned upon the deserts for their winter range.

Some common forms of racks for feeding alfalfa to cattle and sheep
are shown in Pls. V and VI.

Though some maintain that grain hay is better for feeding cattle, ton
for ton, than alfalfa, the majority of feeders state that the reverse has
been their experience. Mr. G. F. Chapman, of Evanston, Wyo., states

4 Agricola Aridus, published by the Colorado Agricultural College, I, p. 24.
9495—No. 31—02

2

18 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST.

that he has many times tried to raise cows with calves upon wild hay,
but that the calves often die of starvation, while when fed upon alfalfa
both cow and calf remain in good condition.

SEEDING.

The soil should be well prepared and finely pulverized, as the young
alfalfa is a tender plant. In those localities where the rainfall is
depended upon for the water supply, the seed should not be sown
until a rain has moistened the soil thoroughly and thus placed it in
a condition to favor germination. In California the rains come with
such regularity that the seed may often be sown in advance of a rain
and thus get the full benefit of the favorable conditions.

The seed is sown in the spring, except in central California, where
it may be sown in either fall or spring. In California a common
method is to irrigate, if necessary, in September or October, prepare
the soil, and then to sow the seed broadcast with barley, or sometimes
wheat. There is some danger from frost, and the grain is thought to
protect the alfalfa. It is best not to pasture the alfalfa the first season,
but to allow it to obtain a good start for the second season. If sown
in the spring, the grain is usually omitted.

In other parts of the Northwest, alfalfa, though sown in the spring,
is sown either alone or with grain—barley, wheat, or oats. Mr. W.
P. Noble, of Golconda, Nev., states that alfalfa is sometimes sown with
timothy in central Nevada. Sowing with grain has the advantage
that there is a return from the land the first season, while the alfalfa
is getting started. When sown with grain it is best not to pasture
the alfalfa or cut it for hay the first season. After harvesting the
grain, the alfalfa should be irrigated, and for this reason the grain
should be removed from the field as soon as possible.

On the other hand, many prefer to sow the alfalfa alone, as in this
way a better stand is obtained. Under favorable conditions one cut-
ting may be obtained the first season, but it is not best to draw too
heavily upon the field the first year either by cutting or pasturing the
crop. Where the ground is weedy, it may be necessary to cut the
weeds in the summer; but a still better plan is to previously free
the soil from weeds by proper methods of cultivation.

When alfalfa is sown with grain, the two may be sown at the same
time by means of combination machines which drill the grain and
alfalfa through the same holes or scatter the alfalfa broadcast in front
of the grain drill, or the alfalfa may be drilled one way and the grain
cross-drilled, or the two may be sown broadcast and harrowed in
separately. The amount of seed recommended by alfalfa growers
varies from 12 to 80 pounds per acre. When the seed is drilled in,
the amount required is less than when sown broadcast. The larger
quantities of seed tend to produce smaller stems and the hay contains

MAKING ALFALFA HAY. 19

less waste. Under average conditions 20 pounds per acre sown broad-
cast should be sufficient, if it is evenly distributed and covered toa
uniform depth: but a few pounds more per acre may be sown to
insure a good stand. Where alfalfa is grown for a crop of seed, a
less quantity should be sown than where a permanent meadow is
desired.

MAKING HAY.

As stated, it is best not te cut a crop of alfalfa hay the first season,
but to allow the field to get well started for the next year. However,
under favorable conditions, especially in California, one or even two
or three crops of hay may be obtained the first year. The grower
must use his judgment as to whether a crop can be taken from the field
to advantage. In California it is customary to make two cuttings if
the seed was sown in the fall with grain; the first cutting consists
mostly of grain, and the second of alfalfa. After the first year the
number of cuttings depends upon the length of the season and the alti-
tude. Atthe higher altitudes or latitudes not more than two cuttings
may be possible, while in the upper San Joaquin Valley in California
five or six cuttings are usually obtained, and as high as ten cuttings
are reported. The fields are usually irrigated once for each cutting,
either before or after. If the irrigation is made after the cutting,
sufficient time should elapse to allow the growth to commence, or there
is danger of scalding. At Newman, which is in the center of the
alfalfa district of the San Joaquin Valley, the first cutting is made
about May 1, and others at intervals of four to eight weeks, six weeks
being about the average. The last cutting is made in September, after
_ which, for about four months, the fields are pastured. The yield of
hay here for the season is about 8 tons per acre, though some farmers
state that only three or four cuttings were made, yielding 5 tons.
The opinion was expressed that the fields were often pastured too
much. On the high plains of southern Wyoming only two cuttings
are usually made, yielding about 5 tons of hay per acre. In the Love-
lock Valley, Nev., where large quantities of alfalfa are grown, three
cuttings are made, with a yield of 5 to 7 tons.

Alfalfa hay is prepared in the manner usual for hay crops, but the
operations are modified somewhat by the climatic conditions prevailing
in the dry regions of the Northwest. One man with a team can mow
about 15 acres per day. The alfalfa is usually raked within a few hours
after mowing, thrown into bunches by hand, and stacked as soon as
convenient. If the hay is allowed to remain too long in the swath or
windrow, too much loss of foliage occurs in stacking on account of the
dryness of the air. The stacks may be put up in the field or near the
corrals, according to convenience. If the fields are pastured during
the latter part of the year, the stacks are inclosed by afence. In some

20 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST.

sections, especially in California, where there are winter rains, the hay
is often stored in barns or sheds.

The hay is usually stacked by machinery. If the stack is made in
the field, sweeps or bull rakes are occasionally used for hauling the
bunches to the stacks, but these implements have the serious objection
of shattering the leaves, causing corresponding loss of valuable fodder.
For this reason the bunches are usually loaded by hand on wagons
provided with hay racks (Pl. IV, fig. 1). At the stack the hay is
unloaded from the wagons by horsepower, the machine used for this
purpose being called a stacker or hay derrick.

The most commen type of stacker throughout the Northwest is some
modification of the pole, or mast and boom, stacker. This is essen-
tially a derrick, with pulleys and a hay fork, by which several hun-
dred pounds of hay can be lifted from a wagon and deposited upon the
stack. Pl. I, Pl. III, and Pl. IV, fig. 2, show some of these forms.
The stackers are generally homemade. The derrick may be sup-
ported by a heavy framework or may consist of poles held in place by
guy ropes. The hay is usually lifted by means of a fork, but nets are
in common use in some localities. The most common style of fork is
that known as the Jackson fork, or, outside of California, as the Cali-
fornia fork. For alfalfa the fork usually has four tines, but for grass
hay five or six tines. By means of a small rope the operator upon the
wagon can dump the fork load of hay upon the stack at any desired
point. (See Pl. I, fig. 1.) One or two horses attached to the lift-
ing rope or cable furnish the power to lift the load. The load on
the fork is swung over the stack by slightly leaning the derrick toward
the stack. The fork then swings by its own weight. The empty fork
is drawn back to the wagon by means of the dump rope. Sometimes

the load is swung over the stack by hand. Another form of fork occa-
sionally seen is the harpoon fork. Instead of the fork there is some-
times used a net, also called a sling or hammock. Three or four of
these are placed at intervals in the hay as it is being loaded. At the
stacks, the nets full of hay are lifted from the wagon to the stack by
means of derricks.

Another form of stacker which has proven very satisfactory is the
cable derrick. Pl. I, fig. 2, illustrates this form. Forks or nets may
be used with this style. In eastern Colorado and parts of Wyo-
ming an improved stacker was in common use.

The bunches may be brought to the stacker with horse sweeps, but
the distance must not be great or there will be too much loss of leaves.
Hence the stacks are smaller than when the bunches are brought by
wagon.

The stacks of alfalfa are commonly made about 25 feet wide and
high, and as long as convenient, often 100 or more feet.

Throughout most of the alfalfa region the hay is put up during the
dry season, and the process can therefore go on without fear of

bares

TURKESTAN ALFALFA AND TIMOTHY. 21

interruption from showers. Hence no pains are taken to top off the
stack in order to shed rain until the stack is finished.

TURKESTAN ALFALFA.

Turkestan alfalfa, a variety recently introduced from Russian Tur-
kestan by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, has been tried in
many parts of the Northwest, but over most of this region it appears
to have no superiority over the kind already grown. Experiments
seem to show, however, that it is somewhat more resistant to cold
than the common variety; hence it is likely to be better adapted to the
colder portions of the area, such as Washington, Oregon, and Idaho.

Trmotnuy (Phleum pratense).

This standard grass is extensively grown in many parts of the North-
west, particularly where the climate is too moist and cool for alfalfa,
such as the mountain districts and the Pacific coast plain west of the
Coast Range. Itis the most commonly cultivated grass in the Rocky
Mountain region, thriving in the higher altitudes where alfalfa is not
successful. Except in favored locations, the fields must be irrigated.
Timothy will not usually succeed in the hot, dry valleys of California
and the southern portion of the Great Basin region, even when irrigated.
In the irrigated regions of central Washington, timothy is an important
crop, being grown chiefly above 1,200 feet altitude. The Ellensburg
district of the Yakima Valley is famous for the excellent quality and
large quantity of timothy grown for shipment. Onaccount of the dry-
ness of the air the hay retains its fresh green color, while that grown
in the very moist regions around Puget Sound and along the coast to the
southward is usually darker colored. For this reason there is a strong
demand for timothy grown in the irrigated districts around Ellens-
burg, Wash., and elsewhere in northeastern Washington and in north-
ern Idaho, for export. As stated in another chapter, this timothy is
baled in large quantities for the Alaskan and Philippine markets by
the process of double compression. Where grown for home consump-
tion, timothy is often mixed with red clover. The timothy may be
sown in the fall and the clover in the spring, with oats; or the oats
may be sown in the spring and the other two mixed and sown broad-
cast later. Sometimes the clover and timothy are sown together by
means of combination drills. These machines have a separate feed
box for the clover, which may drop the seed in the same holes with
the timothy or sow it broadcast in front of the drill. On moister land
and certain kinds of gravelly soil, alsike replaces the red clover in
combination with timothy.

Timothy, either alone or in combination with clover, is frequently
used for pasture. The method of establishing pasture employed by
Mr. Wheeler, who owns a ranch near Reno, Nev., illustrates the pos-
sibilities in this direction, where water is available. Upon ordinary

2? CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST.

sagebrush land, and without previous preparation, a mixture of
alfalfa, timothy, red clover, and orchard grass were sown. Beyond
irrigation, nothing further was done. The pasture, now 3 years old,
is in excellent condition and consists chiefly of alfalfa and timothy.
Under this treatment the sagebrush has gradually disappeared, though
the dead stems may be found on the ground beneath the growth of
grass. A meadow can be established in the same manner, but it is
then necessary to level the land by some means, such as dragging the
surface with heavy railroad iron drawn by several horses.

GRAIN Hay.

In central California and parts of the interior region, hay made from
cereals isan important product. Grain hay is made from wheat, which
is considered the best; from barley, and, to a less extent, from oats,
though in many localities wild oat hay is commonly preserved. As
previously stated, alfalfa is generally consumed on the farm, while
grain hay supplies the city markets. For convenience it is usually
baled. It is often the case that the price of the grain determines
whether the crop shall be converted into hay or the grain be allowed
to mature. For hay, the grain is cut when between the milk and the
dough stages. It is preserved the same as other hay, but is allowed
to cure in the bunch. It may then be stacked or, if possible, baled
from the bunch. As there is little or no rain in the grain-hay region
of California, there is little danger of injury from this cause by leaving
the hay in the bunches.

On a large ranch near Lovelocks, Nev., an example was presented
of the use of wheat to supplement the alfalfa crop. The latter had
been seriously injured by the ravages of a variety of field mouse.
Wheat was sown in the spring to fill up the places left bare from this
cause and the mixed crop was converted into hay in the usual manner.

Reptop (Agrostis alba).

Redtop is frequently grown on wet meadows in the northern Rocky
Mountain region and to some extent in other localities. It is not con:
sidered as valuable a grass as timothy, but from the fact that it thrives
in moist land and can be sown upon native meadow, where under irri
gation it resists fairly well the encroachments of rushes (wire grass),
it is utilized both for hay and pasture. It is not usually grown alone,
but with other grasses or clovers.

AwNLeEss BroME Grass (Bromus inermis).

Awnless brome grass“ has been grown for many years in Europe,

«¥or further information concerning this grass, see Circular No. 18, Division of
Agrostology, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture, ‘‘Smooth Brome Grass.”’

VELVET GRASS AND, CLOVERS. yas

where it is native. In recent years it has been tried in many parts of
the United States with varying degrees of success. It has proven
most successful in the semiarid regions of the Northwest from Kansas
and North Dakota to Washington. It is especially adapted for those
regions where the rainfall is insufficient to grow forage crops without
irrigation and yet the conditions do not approach the aridity of the
desert. Such regions are found in the eastern part of the Great Plains,
plateaus in the Rocky Mountains, and the Palouse region of eastern
Washington. |

The seed may be sown broadcast in the spring, at the rate of about
20 pounds to the acre. The stand is usually thin the first year, but
the second year it thickens up and forms a sod. In localities where
winter wheat can be grown, brome grass can be sown in the fall. It
is valuable for hay, but more especially for pasture. During mid-
summer the foliage dries up more or less, but gives good pasture in
early spring and late fall. The second year it yields large crops of
palatable hay, but thereafter it is better adapted for pasture than for
hay. (See Pl. VI, fig. 2.)

VELVET Grass (//olcus lanatus).

This grass is common in the Pacific coast region along roadsides, in
abandoned fields and other waste places, and also is found encroaching
upon pasture land. It is a native of Europe, but has been introduced
into many parts of the United States. Opinions differ as to its useful-
ness, some stigmatizing it as a vile weed, others referring to it as a
valuable forage grass. It is not a very large yielder, but will thrive
on poor soil where more valuable grasses fail. Hence in localities
where the usual meadow and pasture grasses flourish the advent of
velvet grass should be looked upon with disfavor, but on more sterile
soil it furnishes a fair crop of forage where other grasses fail. It has
been said that ** velvet grass is a good grass for poor land, and a poor
grass for good land.” Velvet grass goes under the name of mesquite
in many parts of the Northwest, but this name is more frequently
applied to certain native grasses of the Southwest.

On sandy soils along the coast and on peaty soils that dry out in
summer, velvet grass is perhaps the most profitable hay and pasture
grass, because the better grasses do not succeed. Stock usually refuse
to eat it at first until driven to do so by hunger, but they will soon
acquire a taste for it, and it is exceedingly nutritious. Its worst faults
are its low yield and lack of palatability.

CLOVERS.

Red clover (77ifolium pratense) is in common cultivation through-
out the northern portion of the Rocky Mountain and upper Pacitic
coast regions and is rapidly coming into cultivation in the more moist

24 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST.

parts of eastern Washington and northern Idaho. Two crops of hay
may be obtained, although in western Washington the approach of the
rainy season may interfere with the second crop. The seed is usually
sown in the spring, but on sandy land in western Washington it may
be sown in the fall. As mentioned under the head of timothy, red
clover is usually sown in combination with that plant.

Alsike clover (7. hybridum) is occasionally grown in the same local-
ities where red clover thrives, but it is adapted to more moist land.

White clover (7° repens) is sometimes cultivated in combination with
bluegrass in those localities where the latter thrives. Such pastures
are frequently found in the mountain districts and along the upper
coast region.

ForRAGE Crops oF Minor IMPORTANCE.

The following forage plants are cultivated in sufficient abundance to
receive attention. Some are already of importance in certain locali-
ties, and most of them should be cultivated over a wider area and
given greater attention than is now the case:

KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS (Poa pratensis).—In the mountain districts
and the upper coast region bluegrass is used for pasture, usually in
combination with white clover. Unless supplied with water during
the summer months this grass gives little pasture during that season,
but when the water supply is sufficient and properly distributed it
yields abundantly. Upon the ranch of Mr. Wheeler, at Reno, Nev.,
there are several pastures of bluegrass and white clover which by
means of irrigation are kept in good condition through the season. In
some localities it is considered a pest on account of its tendency to
drive out other grasses where the conditions are favorable for the
growth of bluegrass. Mr. G. F. Chapman, of Evanston, Wyo., a
prominent ranchman, states that it forms a thin, low mat which can
not be utilized for hay, and is not as valuable for pasture as other
grasses. This is usually true when the land is not irrigated, as it
tends to dry up during dry periods toa greater degree than native
grasses, but it starts early in the spring and remains green well into
the fall.

OrcHArD GRASss (Dactylis glomerata.)—This well-known grass should
be grown much more extensively than it is. It resists drought better
than most of the tame grasses grown in the East, and can be used for
pasture or hay. Onaccount of the tendency to grow in bunches when
sown alone, it is best, especially for meadow, to sow with some other
grass. For this purpose meadow fescue is well adapted. The latter
occupies the spaces between the bunches of orchard grass and thus
forms a more even and continuous surface for the mower. Both bloom
at about the same time, and both are capable of resisting drought to
about the same extent.

———————

————

CROPS OF MINOR IMPORTANCE. 25

Cueat (Bromus secalinus).—In the eastern United States this grass
is known as a bad weed in grain fields, but in the Willamette Valley
of western Oregon it is used quite extensively for hay. It is common
to see cheat sown along the draws or other low portions of grain fields.
Mr. T. H. Cooper, a farmer near Corvallis who utilizes cheat in this
way, sows the seed broadcast in the fall at the rate of 1 to 14 bushels
per acre. He cuts the hay when it is in the dough state, which is
about the last of June. The yield of seed is about 40 bushels per acre,
a bushel weighing 35 to 40 pounds. Itis quite probable that cheat
could be used for forage in other localities.

PERENNIAL RYE GRASS (Lolium perenne).—This is commonly grown
in the Willamette Valley and in some other parts of Oregon and
Washington and proves to be a good grass for pasture and _ hay.
Although not considered as a grass for dry regions, the trials at the
experiment stations of Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming indicate that
it stands well as a drought-resisting grass. The variety known as
Italian rye grass scarcely differs from this, except in usually having
the chaff or flowering glume provided with a bristle at the tip, and in
growing somewhat taller.

Rare (Brassica napus).—A plant to be recommended for pasture
in the cooler parts of the Northwest is rape. It is now used to a lim-
ited extent in several localities, especially in the Rocky Mountain
region. Asa forage plant for sheep and as succulent forage for sum-
mer and fall, rape is to be highly recommended. It is not easily
injured by frost and hence is available as fall feed. The seed should
be sown in June or July, and rape may consequently be grown as a
catch crop after grain or other early maturing crops. Where there is
sufficient moisture the seed may be sown broadcast, but in the drier
regions much better results are obtained by sowing in drills far enough
apart to permit of cultivation. In eight to ten weeks from sowing it
is ready for use, and sheep can be turned into the field to pasture off
the succulent growth. It is also an excellent feed for cattle, but they
are likely to waste more by trampling than smaller stock.

FIELD PEAS (Pisum arvense).—This leguminous plant is adapted for
use as a forage plant in the northern portion of the Northwest and
farther south in the mountains. At present it seems to be grown to
a comparatively limited extent, but it is worthy of culture to a much
greater degree. Canada field peas can scarcely compete with alfalfa
in the regions where the latter can be grown; but where alfalfa is not
successful on account of the cooler climate the peas are an excellent
substitute, in that they are rich in protein, and hence have a high
feeding value. It is best to sow them with grain—oats, wheat, or
barley being used for the combination—at the rate of 1 to 14 bushels
of peas to an equal quantity of grain. The crop can be cut for hay or
used for pasture.

26 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST.

VercHEs.—In the Willamette Valley, Oregon, spring vetch ( Vicza
sativa) is commonly grown for hay and annual pasture. Mr. T. H.
Cooper, of Corvallis, uses vetch for his silo, after which he uses green
corn. He sows the seed in the fall with wheat or oats, 2 bushels of
the mixture containing about a peck of grain. The crop is cut in
June. Spring vetch is cultivated here and there in the cooler parts
of the Northwest, but the crop as a whole is very insignificant when
compared with the staple forage crops of the region. The plant is a
legume, and can gather nitrogen from the air in a manner similar to
clover and alfalfa. Hence it furnishes forage rich in protein and at
the same time acts as a soil renovator. While spring vetch can not
be successfully grown over much of the area under consideration on
account of the heat and drought, yet it is to be highly recommended
for those localities having a cool, moist growing season. In the upper
coast region it can be sown in the fall. In the mountain regions it
should be sown in spring. It is best to sow with grain, as the latter
tends to hold the vetch upright, and it can thus be handled for hay
more easily, and also because the grain mixture produces a more
evenly balanced feed. After the mixture of grain and vetch is cut, a
second crop of vetch will usually appear, which can be saved for seed.

Hairy or sand vetch@ ( Vicza villosa) has been tried to a limited extent,
but the results over most of the region described are not promising.
It thrives, however, in the Palouse region and tends to become a weed

in wheat fields.
BALING HAY.

As in other parts of the United States, it is customary to bale hay
for convenience in transportation. Most of the hay consumed in the
larger cities is of this kind. The baled hay upon the markets of the
Northwest is for the most part restricted to alfalfa, clover, timothy,
grain, and wild or native hay. In San Francisco and other cities of
California, grain hay takes the lead, while at Seattle and the cities of
the Sound, timothy is most used, the kind depending in part on the
availability and in part on the demand of the market. Alfalfa is, in
many cases, as available as timothy, or more so; but the latter is used
in the cities in preference because it is believed to be more suitable
for horses. In fact, timothy hay is taken as the standard upon the
city markets. The type of press used at San Jose, Cal., is shown in
eae Val hit", lt

The item of freight often enters greatly into the market price of baled
hay. For example, during the summer of 1901, grain hay was worth $8
per ton at Raymond, a town upon the railroad, while at Yosemite the
freight charges brought it up to $40 per ton, and at the same time the

«¥or further information upon the vetches, see Circular No.6, Division of Agros-
tology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, ‘‘The Cultivated Vetches.”’

BALING HAY. aT

price of hay at Nome, in Alaska, was 7 cents per pound, even when
double compressed.

Baled hay for export to Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, and
other trans-oceanic points is compressed by the process known as
‘*double compression.” By means of powerful machines operated by
electricity or hydraulic power, the hay, obtained by loosening ordi-
nary baled hay, is compressed into square or cylindrical packages
smaller and more compact than the ordinary bale. The hydraulic
presses used for making the so-called round bales are similar to those
used for making the cylindrical bales of cotton. The measurements
of the different types of double-compressed bales are about as follows:

Ordinary square bale, 15 by 18 by 38 inches; weight, 160 pounds.

Square bale for Alaskan trade, 14 by 18 by 26 inches; weight, 100
pounds.

Round bale, 2 feet in diameter, 24 inches long; weight, 145 pounds,
or 36 inches long, weight, 260 pounds.

The saving of space in transit may best be understood by comparing
the weight and cubic contents of baled and compressed hay. The
ordinary baled hay occupies 140 to 160 cubic feet per ton; the square
double-compressed, 85 feet per ton; the round bales, 55 feet per ton.

The hay used for this process is almost exclusively timothy. The
firm of Lilly, Bogardus & Company, Seattle, Wash., from whom much
of the information concerning double-compressed bales was obtained,
states that the timothy from the Ellensburg district, Wash., is much
preferred on account of the fresh green color. A good quality is also
obtained from the Spokane and Ceeur d’Alene districts. On account of
the damp weather, timothy from west Washington is not so satisfac-
tory in appearance. There is some demand for clover hay in Alaska,
and much grain hay is shipped to Honolulu. There is also a small
but increasing demand for alfalfa hay for export.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Puatel. Fig. 1.—Mast and boom stacker, with six-tined Jackson fork. The mast
is held in place by guy ropes from the top. Leading to the right may be seen the rope
to which is attacned a team of horses. The base of the derrick is in the form ofsled
runners, so that the whole may be drawn along the stack by attaching a team. Fig.
2.—A cable derrick, provided with a grapple fork. The cable is supported by poles
at the ends, and these in turn by guy ropes.

Prate ll. Fig. 1.—A derrick stacker, with six-tined Jackson or California fork.
The derrick is substantial, and guy ropes are not necessary. Stakes driven into the
ground around the base hold the derrick in place. Fig. 2.—The same derrick, show-
ing details. It will be observed that from the peculiar attachment of the ropes, the
hay is swung over the stack while it is being lifted from the wagon.

PuatE III. Types of derrick stackers. Fig. 1.—Derrick built on wheels and sym-
metrically braced. Fig. 2.—Derrick with revolving pole. In both forms the central
pole rotates in sockets. The ropes are not attached to this derrick.

PuateE TV. Fig. 1.—A common type of hayrack. Fig. 2.—A pole stacker, with four-
tined Jackson fork. The angle of the pole is regulated by a short beam. This is
often replaced by a chain or rope. The derrick leans toward the stack sufficiently to
swing the fork load of hay into position, when it is elevated.

Piate V.—Types of racks in common use for feeding alfalfa to cattle. Fig. 1.—
Lattice rack. Fig. 2.—Box rack.

Piate VI.—Types of racks for feeding alfalfa to sheep. These racks are longer
than those intended for cattle. Fig. 1.—Lattice rack. Fig. 2.—Box rack.

Puate VII. Fig. 1.—Hay press, for baling grain hay, San José, Cal. Five men and
three horses are employed; one man and horse drag the hay from the stack to the
baler, with a four-tined Jackson fork; one man drives a team attached to the horse-
power; two men pitch the hay into the baler; one man works the press and weighs
the bales. Average time, three minutes to the bale. Weight of bales, about 210
pounds. Bales tied with rope. Fig. 2.—Field of brome grass at the Kansas Experi-
ment Station, Manhattan, Kans. A seven-year-old boy stands in the grass.

28

O

Bul. 31, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE lI.
)

Fic. 1.—MAST AND BOOM STACKER, WITH JACKSON FORK.

Pl
2s

Fig. 2.—CABLE DERRICK, WITH GRAPPLE Fork.

PLATE II.

Bul. 31, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agricuiture.

Fic. 1.—DERRICK STACKER, WITH JACKSON FORK.

Fig. 2.—DERRICK STACKER, SHOWING DETAILS.

PLATE III.

Bul. 31, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Fila. 1.—DERRICK MOUNTED ON WHEELS.

Fia. 2.—DERRICK WITH REVOLVING POLE.

Bul. 31, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fia. 1.—A COMMON TYPE OF HAYRACK.

Fia. 2.—POLE STACKER, WITH JACKSON FORK.

Bul. 31, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

Fia. 1.—LATTICE RACK FOR FEEDING ALFALFA TO CATTLE.

Fig. 2.,—Box RACK FOR FEEDING ALFALFA TO CATTLE.

Bul. 31, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.

me rs eae F = ES Pag eae hi aa ;
Depens Hey Seats A eS = er
F tr iar A 2 , iss $e eeerer hs’
fs Pega gd sa trie ry IE! i

if MAREE PPPS iid
2 » 4 AX wo

Fig. 1.—LATTICE RACK FOR FEEDING ALFALFA TO SHEEP.

.

ae. ee mid

Fig. 2.—Box RACK FOR FEEDING ALFALFA TO SHEEP.

108)
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, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depi. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

Fic. 1.—BALING GRAIN HAY, SAN JOSE, CAL.

Fic. 2.—BROME GRASS AT THE KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION.