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•^.IILTIVATIOK OF mm CAl.

PART FIRST.

A TREATISE ON

ITS HISTORY. BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE,

WILLIAM C. STUBBS, A, M., Ph.D.

Director of the Sugar Experiment HtatioM, Audubon Park,
>vf»n' Orleans, Louisiana,

PART SECOND.
ITS HISTORY IN

GEORGIA, FLORIDA AND SOUTH CAROLINA

1767 TO 1900.

Sugar Content of tlie Canes of Louisiana, Hawaii and

Cuba Compared with those of Georgia

and Florida.

OUR SUGAR SUPPLY OF THE FUTURE.

RECOLLECTIONS OF HOPETON PLANTATION.

Weather Statistics of l^eorgia, Florida and louisiaDa Coinparcd.

BY

D. G. PlTRSEj Savannah, Ga.

( UPTBIOHTBD.

PRICE 50 CENTS, POSTPAID.

C^LTIVATIOI OF MM CAi.

I IT TWO fj^:rts.

PART FIRST.

A. TREATISE ON

ITS HISTORY, BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE,

BY

WILLIAM C. STUBBS, A. M., Ph. D.

Director of the Sugar Experiment Station, Audubon Park,
New Orleans, Louisiana.

PART SECOND.

ITS HISTORY IN

GEORGIA, FLORIDA AND SOUTH CAROLINA

1767 TO 1900.

Sugar Content of the Canes of Louisiana, Hawaii and

Cuba Compared with those of Georgia

and Florida.

OUR SUGAR SUPPLY OF THE FUTURE.

RECOLLECTIONS OF HOPETON PLANTATION.

Weaiher Statisilcs of Georgin, Florida and Louisiana Compared.

' BY

D. G. PURSE, Savannah, Ga.

COPYRIGHTED.

arrne

^^^ ^.p'[c.

0^^^

Copyrighted 190a

BY DANIEL GUGEL PURSE.

THE MORNING NEAVS PRINT,
SAVANNAH, GA.

PART FIRST.

T^^BLEl OF GOISTTIBIN'TS.

CHAPTER I.— History of Sugar Cane.

Porter's work, "Nature and Properties of the Sugar
Cane." Cane first cultivated in China. Wray's
"Practical Sugar Planter." De Candolle's "Origin
of Cultivated plants." Karl Ritter on "the origin
of cane." Bentham, on cane in Asia. Cane men-
tioned in Sanskrit, Diversity of names for sugar.
Epoch of introduction. Chinese claims. Probable
origin either Cochin China, or Bengal. Propaga-
tion in west of India. Greek and Roman writers fa-
miliar with sugar. Canary I^;lands. Brazil. Is-
land of St. Domingo. Islands of the Pacific ocean . 1

CHAPTER II.— History of Sugar Cane in Louisiana.

Gayarre. Introduced by the Jesuits. First attempt a
failure. Its cultivation by Mendez and Solis. Dis-
tilled into spirituous liquor. Mendez first made sug-
ar in Louisiana. Etienne De Bore's experiments
decide the future of Louisiana. Successful manip-
ulation to "grain." Centennial of sugar making in
Louisiana. First graduation from Audubon Sugar
School. Expansion of sugar industry. Importa-
tion of canes by Coiron. Creole variety first used
by De Bore. First use of the steam engine to crush
cane 5

CHAPTER III.— Botanical Relations.

Sugar cane a member of the grass family. Existence
of several species. Species of "Saccharum officina-
rum;" its description — stalk, leaves, joints, as-
similation of plant food, "eye" of the cane, seed,
flowering of the canes; non-flowering variety pre-
ferred ; ripening 10

IV THE SUGAR CANE.

CHAPTER IV.— Anatomy and Physiology of the
Cane Pi^ant.

The stalk. Nodes and internodes. Composition of the
stem. Cells; their functions. Leaf. Starch cells.
Green matter. Arrangement of "bundles" in leaf.
Expressure of water from ends of cane as it enters
the mill. Structure of cane stem. Experiments to
test amount of flow from stem 15

CHAPTER v.— Climate for Cane, with Weather Record
FOR Louisiana.

India. Moderately humid. Best near the sea. Latitudes
of countries in which cane is grown. Cultivated
from Spain to New Zealand. Rainfall. Most advan-
tageous precipitation. Evaporation of water
through foliage. Weather record for Louisiana
from 1886 to 1897 28

CHAPTER VI —Drainage.

Most essential in alluvial districts of Louisiana. Bad
drainage. Impossibility of "overdraining." Ditch-
ing; distance and depth. Maintenance of open
ditches. Tile drainage; cost overshadowed by in-
creased tonnage. Putting down tiles. Capacity of
tiles. Importance of drainage 39

CHAPTER VII.— Irrigation.

Difficulties confronting the planter. Failure of crops
due to drouth. Irrigation a protection. Seasons.
Necessity of moisture. Irrigation plant at Sugar
Experiment Station; its benefits. , Sub-irrigation not
as effective as surface irrigation. Irrigation ditches.
Syphoning water for irrigation 42

CHAPTER VII I— Soils Best Adapted to Cane.

Fertile soils of large water-holding capacity. Clayey or
heavy loam soils desirable. Tropical soils. Hawaii-
an soils. Analyses 45

CHAPTER IX.— Sugar Soils of Louisiana.

Variety of soils, from silty loams to stiff clays. Lands
of the Mississippi river and bayous, and Red river,
its bayous, the Teche, the Boeuf, the Cocodrie and
the Robert. Prairie lands west of Franklin. Me-

TABLE OF CONTENTS. V

chanical and chemical conditions. Analyses of va-
rious plantation soils. Preparation of soil 47

CHAPTER X.— Varieties of Cane.

Importation of varieties prior to 1885. Varieties im-
ported through Consuls of the United States.
Description of varieties imported from Cuba and
Hawaii. Cane best adapted to Louisiajia. Canes
from Trinidad, Jamaica and Java. Acclimation.
Seedlings. Fertility of cane seed. Seedling from
Fiji Islands. Efforts to propagate varieties from all
parts of the world. Vanation in seedlings. Seed-
lings from Demerara. Canes from bud variation.
Description and origin of varieties. Division into
classes and groups 56

CHAPTER XI.— Comparative Merits of Purple and
Striped Canes.

Origin of red or purple cane. Evolution of striped cane.
Mexican and Batavian striped, and red ribbon from
Jamaica. Test of comparative merits of home
canes 72

CHAPTER XI r.- Composition of Cane.

Payen's analyses of canes in Martinique. Analysis of
cane in the island of Bourbon. Icery's analysis of
Mauritius canes. Composition of Louisiana canes
at various stages of growth. Burning of cane
trash. Variation in composition of different parts
of the stalk. Difference in composition of the rind
and pith. Difference in composition between plant
and stubble cane 75

CHAPTER XIII.- Modes of Reproduction.

Division into nodes and internodes. Development of eye
into stalk. Development of roots. Sprouting.
Propagation of cane from seed 87

CHAPTER XIV.— Suck ERiNG of Cane.

Suckering a natural function. Its encouragement and
repression. Best width for cane rows. Influence of
certain cultivation in checking suckering. Distance
apart in row. Average yield per acre at 6, 12, and
18 inches. Suckering of purple and sitriped canes;

Vi THE SUGAR CANE.

results of two years. Comparison of analyses of
original canes and suckers 89

CHAPTER XV.— Preparation of Land, Planting, Etc.

Restorative crop every three years. Rotation. Necessity
of a leguminous crop. Valuable functions of the
cow pea. Utilization of the free nitrogen of the air.
Inversion of corn stalks and pea vines. Best time to
plant — fall or spring? V^indrowing of cane for
seed. Matelas. How many stalks to plant.
Width of rows. What part of the cane shall we
plant? The best seed — plant or stubble? Cutting
cane at planting 98

CHAPTER XVI.— Manurial Requirements of
Sugar Cane

Use of commercial fertilizers. Loss of fertilizing ingre-
dients per ton of cane removed from the soil. Tests
with nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash plats.
Forms of nitrogen used. Quantities per acre. Ni-
trogen upon "succession'' land. Explanatio n of
forms of nitrogen — mineral, vegetable and animal.
Process of nitrification. Nitrogen required in rota-
tion. Phosphoric acid plat. Forms of phosphoric
acid, and quantities recommended. Explanation of
forms of phosphoric acid — Dissolved Bone Black,
Acid Phosphate. Slag Meal, Natural Phosphates.
Potash plat. Forms and quantities used. Sources
of potassic manures. How shall fertilizers be ap-
plied? At what time shall fertilizers be applied?
Depth at which fertilizers should be placed. Use
of fertilizers under plant and stubble cane Ill

CHAPTER XVII.— Cultivation of Cane.

Removal of excessive dirt. Hoeing, scraping and off-
barring. Distribution of fertilizers. Advantages of
subsoiling. Use of the cultivator; its tendency to
increase tonnage. Method of preparation of land.
Definition of tilth. Chemical changes in soil. Ni-
trifying organisms of the soil. Condition essential
to the development of soil ferments. Cultivation of
bacteria as a new form of fertilizer. Conservation
of moisture. Cultivation of stubble. Use of stub-
ble diggers. Stubble shaving 1 30

TABLE OP CONTENTS. VU

(CHAPTER XVIII.— Harvesting Cane.

Cane rarely in condition to harvest before November.
Cutting and loading. Devices for transferring cane
to carriers. Old process of cutting still continues.
Prize offered for successful cane harvester. Butts
richest part of cane 144

CHAPTER XIX —Preservation of Cane.

Windrowing. Experiments looking to protection from
freezes. Standing cane. Matelas cane. Wind-
rowed cane. Ensilaged cane. Canes windrowed
before a freeze and harvested before a freeze.
Canes windrowed before a freeze and harvested
soon after a freeze. Canes windrowed immediately
before a freeze and harvested before a freeze.
Canes windrowed directly after a bud-killing
freeze. Canes windrowed after a splitting freeze.
Detailed results of foregoing experiments 147

CHAPTER XX.— Sugar Cane Insects.

Sugar cane borer; description; devastation; remedial
measures. Firefly; description of and remedies for.
Southern grass worm; following overflows; des-
cription of moth, etc.; parasites; precautions. Sug-
ar cane beetle; life history; method of attack; meth-
od of killing, etc ' 153

INTRODUCTION TO PART FIRST.

It has been so many years since sugar cane was an impor-
tant crop upon the seacoasts of Georgia and Florida that it
will be a surprise to many readers to learn that as early as
1767 extensive plans were perfected in Florida for the plant-
ing and manufacture of sugar cane into sugar for export
to Europe, twenty-seven years before the industry took
shape in Louisiana, and that, in 1829, sugar cane cultivation
for the manufacture of sugar, engrossed as much attention
' in Georgia as either cotton or rice, and promised to out-
strip both of these crops in volume and value.

The first attempts in Georgia at the cultivation of sugar
cane, for commercial purposes, utilized, chiefly, the alluvial
soils, at present exclusively devoted to rice, though, even,
then, the pine lands and other uplands showed equal adap-
tability, and many splendid results are reported from small
areas planted upon these, as far North as latitude 33 de-
grees, confirming the conclusions of to-day.

AVhen Dr. Wm. 0. Stubbs, Director of the Louisiana Sugar
Experiment Station, visited Georgia and Florida last year,
at the invitation of the Savannah Board of Trade, the cane
he saw growing, and that which he subsequently analyzed
with such splendid results, was planted upon the uplands
embraced in the yellow pine belts of Georgia and Florida;
such lands as would be selected for corn with a similar cul-
tivation, and it is this character of land of which he speaks
in comparison with Louisiana, when he says:

"The numerous samples of sugar cane grown in these
sections (Georgia, Florida and South Carolina), and for-
warded to me last season, show by analysis to be greatly
superior in sugar content to that grown upon the alluvial
lands of Louisiana."

At the time of the visit of Dr. Stubbs no alluvial lands
were devoted to cane culture in Georgia, as in 1829, when
areas of 300 acres, and upward, were common in the sea-
coast parts of this section.

Upon Dr. Stubbs' return to Louisiana he threw open the
Experiment Stations of his state to the cane growers of
Georgia, Florida and South Carolina, and now permits this
republication of his treatise on the "History, Botany and
Agriculture of Sugar Cane," that the farmers of the three
states mentioned may have the fullest benefits of prr^vail-

X INTRODUCTION TO PART FIRST.

ing methods of cultivation in Louisiana, tlie result of his
fifteen years of labor and experiment in field and labora-
tory to bring about the best results in the cultivation of
sugar cane for its sugar content, in which he has been so
eminently succfessful.

The alluvial lands, thought most profitable for the grow-
, ing of cane in Georgia, Florida and South Carolina in 1829,
were limited in areas and held at high values. The pine
lands and other uplands that to-day, with an equal tonnage
per acre, show higher percentages of sucrose, are extensive
in area,' and among the cheapest lands of this section.

Dr. Stubbs' visit to that section, and his investigations to
determine the value of its cane for producing sugar, has
done the states of Georgia, Florida and Southeastern South
Carolina, an invaluable service, which may result in giving,
to their agriculture a companion money crop with cotton,
of greater value and far more certain in annual results.

Dr. Stubbs, in the preface to the republication of his
treatise on ^'Sugar Cane," speaking from personal obser-
vation and experiments in the laboratory, tells how Geor-
gia and Florida can be made profitable sugar producing
states "in competition with the world," and a careful peru-
sal and study of this preface is, therefore, earnestly com-
mended to all interested in the prosperity of this section,
whether cane growers or not, as Dr. Stubbs is recognized
as the highest authority in the United States in all
matters appertaining to the cultivation of sugar cane and
its manufacture into sugar.

D. G. PURSE.

Savannah, Ga., October, 1900.

SUPPLEMENTARY PREFACE TO GEORGI V-
FLORIDA-SOUTII CAROLINA EDITION.

A recent visit to the cane-growing regions of Southern
Georgia and Florida has convinced me of the adaptability
of these sections to the successful growing of sugar cane
and the manufacture of sugar, when the intelligent ajid
progressive practices of the best sugar producing countries
are universally adopted.

Both the soil and climate of this section are favorable to
the growth of cane, as was evidenced by the splendid patch-
es, sometimes increasing to small fields or plantations, found
everywhere throughout this belt.

These numerous object lessons demonstrate, beyond cavil,
that if a progressive agriculture be adopted, by which the
proper preparation of the soil, fertilization and cultivation
of the plant, together with a rotation, including some lig-
uminous crops, at short interA^aJs, be secured, that these
sections can successfully make sugar and syrup in compe-
tition with the world.

Two other favorable factors, to be specially considered
in preparing a solution of this problem are: 1st, the. super-
ior saccharine richness of the cane, and 2nd, cheap labor,
already available in abundant quantity in every commu-
nity.

The numerous samples of sugar cane grown in these sec-
tions, and forwarded to us last season, show by analyses to
be greatly superior in sugar content to that grown upon
the alluvial lands in Louisiana.

This increased saccharine content is of vital importance
to the manufacturer of sugar, and, as soon as demonstrated
by one or two local factories, will cause capitalists from
every direction to speedily erect central factories through-
out the belt for the purchase of cane and the manufacture
of sugar.

One or two factories of the latest type of improvement,
well erected, and with ample capacity, would, in my opinion,
demonstrate the profits of such an investment, and such a
demonstration would at once serve to attract capital to
erect factories, in number and capacity, to meet the wants
of every community in these sections.

It is useless to speak of the advantages of a large central
factory to every community, and of their immense superior-

Xii SUPPLEMENTARY PREFACE.

ity over the small one-horse mills now recklessly throwing
away over one-half of the sugar which that cane contains.

A significant fact, which forms the basis of an unanswer-
able argument in favor of the success of central factories,
is given in the present widely extended and presumably
profitable cultivation of the cane and its manufacture into
syrups by the crudest processes known to the sugar-plant-
ing world over 100 years ago.

Small one-horse mills, extracting not over 50 per cent, of
the weight of cane, in juice, are everywhel^e to be found.
This juice is crudely cooked in kettles, or shallow pans,
without clarification save that produced by the heat of evap-
oration.

In the process of skimming a loss is incurred of fully 10
to 15 per cent, of the juice obtained, so that the final pro-
duct in syrup does not really represent one-half of that ac-
tually contained in the cane.

Central factories would save the most of this loss, incur
the entire expense of manufacture, and divide the gains
with planters or farmers.

Growing and delivering the cane would constitute the en-
tire work of the farmer, and, for this, he would receive a
larger compensation than he does now for his manufactured
product.

The growing of cane would be largely increased and the
business created for a community by an up-to-date factory,
would in itself justify business men in its erection.

The abundant and efiicient field labor found throughout
this section would guarantee cheap production of cane, while
the factory would supply the expert labor which would re-
quire other products of the soil for their support. •

With the erection of factories would come the practical
and economic handling of the cane from the carts to cars,
and from cars to the cane carriers. In fact, a study of the
economics of growing sugar cane would become universal,
with the inevitable result of increased profits to all growers.

The farmer is not alone interested in the erection of cen-
tral sugar factories. The community will find them verita-
ble increments to the volume of business transacted. Sales
will be increased, real estate will advance, better and larger
markets for all farm products will be secured and, of course,
public schools and churches, to say nothing of other social
interests, will be more liberally fostered.

The railroads will be largely interested. The shipment
of cane to the factories, and the transportation of the pro-
ducts to the markets of the world, will constitute an enor-
mous local auxiliary to their business. But when to the
above IhoreMs added the increased transr)ortation of all

SUPPLEMENTARY PREFACE. xlH

kinds of wares needed by the factory and its dependents
and the increased travel which the constantly growing pop-
ulation would indulge in, its local profits would simply be
enormous.

Every environment declares for central factories, and if
the local growers of cane will promise an ample supply of
cane, few business communities can afford to be without
them.

It is hoped that the republication of this work will stimu-
late the planters to grow larger and more profitable areas of
cane and convince the business men of every community of
the value of a central sugar factory.

WM. C. STUBBS, Director,
Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station.

Audubon Park, New Orleans, La., August, 1900.

PREFACE.

Twelve years ago the sugar planters of Louisiana estab-
lished and endowed for a term of years, the Louisiana Sugar
Experiment Station. They honored me with the Director-
ship, which position I have held ever since. From chaotic
beginnings, I have witnessed the gradual evolution of this
station, until to-day it is possessed of ample grounds, filled
with canes from every country, well equipped laboratories,
presided- over by experienced scientists, and a superb sugar-
house, fitted with the latest and best machinery for the man-
ufacture of sugar, guided and directed by our own selves.
Upon these grounds, within these laboratories, and with
this sugar-house, nearly every question pertaining to the
sugar industry has been discussed and valuable results ob-
tained, some of which have been periodically published in
bulletin form.

On account of the absence of any recent work covering the
up-to-date sugar industry of our State, it was deemed an
appropriate tribute to the progressive sugar planters, who
have so liberally supported this station, as well as a pleas-
ing devoir from tlie writer, to embody in two A^olumes for
general reference and study, all of the available information
upon the growing of sugar cane and its manufacture into
sugar. This Vol. I, treats only of the agriculture of sugar
cane. Vol. II, to be published, it is hoped, within the next
year, will treat of its manufacture into sugar. Thanks are
especially due to Professor H. A. Morgan for a chapter pre-
pared by him on "Sugar Cane Insects."

THE AUTHOR.
Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station, Audubon Park. New
Orleans, La.

June 30, 1897.

Of- THE

UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER I.

HISTORY or THE SUGAR CANE.

Porter, in his work published in 1843, entitled "The Na-
ture and Properties of Sugar Cane," asserts: "The strong-
est proofs, carefully collected from the best authorities of
ancient and modem times, lead to the conclusion that China -
was the first country in which the sugar cane was culti-
vated and its proddce manufactured; and it is. tolerably well
ascertained that the inhabitants of that country enjoyed its
use two thousand years before it was known and adopted
in Europe." Wray, in "The Practical Sugar Planter," a
book published in 1848, says: "The Chinese assert that
sugar has been made from the cane in China for upwards of
three thousand years; and without disputing with *the
flowery nation' for a few hundred years, more or less, we
will at once concede to them their undeniable claim to very
great antiquity as sugar manufacturers. But I cannot di-
vest myself of the belief that India^not China — is in reality
the country from w^hich the sugar cane first emanated."

De Condolle, in his excellent work, "The Origin of Culti-
vated Plants," says : "The sugar cane is cultivated to-day
in all the warm regions of the earth, but it is demonstrated
by a crowd of historical witnesses, that it has been cultivat-
ed first in meridional Asia, whence it has spread Into Africa
and later into America."

Karl Ritter, in several works' published in the forties, has
given an extensive resume of the evidences bearing on this
subject. His first argument was that all the varieties of
cane known in a wild state and belonging to the genus "sac-
charum," grew in India, except one which is in Egypt. "The
probability is entirely in favor of the origin in Asia if one
can draw a conclusion from botanical geography."

Roxburgh, Wallick, Royle and Aitchison mention the
plant as existing only in a cultivated state in India, and the
first mentioned author states expressly "where wild, I do
not know."

In 1861, Bentham says of the flora of Hong Kong: "We
have found no authentic and certain proof of a locality
where cane ordinarily grows spontaneously." Some bot-
anists have asserted that since the cane flowers oftener in

2 THE SUGAK CANE.

Asia than in America or in Africa, that this is proof of its
being indigenous there. But it is now known that it flow-
ers and bears true seeds in all tropical countries.

In default of precise information resort is had to linguis-
tic and historical accessories, to establish its Asiatic origin.
The Sanskrit for cane, is Ikshu, Ikshura or Ikshava; for
sugar, is Sarkara or Sakkara. All of the names for this
substance in the European languages of Aryan origin are
clearly derived from the Sanskrit. This is a strong indica-
tion of its Asiatic origin and of the antiquity of its pro-
ducts in the meridional regions of Asia, with which the peo-
ple speaking the old Sanskrit had commercial transactions.

With those races, not of Aryan origin, a singular variety
of names exist for sugar — "Kvam" with the Bermans,
"Mia" in Cochin China, and "Kan" and "Tche" with the
Chinese. In Malay, "Tubu" or "Tabu" for the plant, and
"Gula" for the product (sugar). This diversity of names
shows a very great antiquity of the culture of sugar cane
in Asiatic regions, where already botanical indications have
presumed its origin.

The epoch of introduction of the culture in different
countries agree with the idea of an origin in India, Cochin
China, or in the Indian Archipelago.

Indeed, the Chinese claim that it came to them from the
East, since Dr. Bretschneider, with the most complete re-
sources of Chinese literature, says in his work "On the study
and value of Chinese Botanical Works :'■ "I have been able
to discover no allusion to sugar cane in the most ancient
Chinese works. It appears to have been mentioned for the
first time by the authors of the 'II Century Before J. C."'
The first description is found in a work published in the IV
century: It says: "The Kan-che (Kan sweet and che bam-
boo) grows in Cochin China. It is many inches in diameter
and resembles the bamboo. The stalk broken into frag-
ments is eatable and very sweet. The juice which is drawn
from it is dried in the sun. After some days it becomes

sugar — . In the year 286 A. D., the kingdom of Funan,

in India, sent sugar as a tribute to China." Pentsao, an em-
peror who ruled from 627 to 650 A. D., sent a man into the
Indian province of Bahar to learn the manner of manufac-
turing it.

There is, then, no foundation for its origin in China. In-
deed, it is asserted, on the contrary, that it came from Co-
chin China. It is, therefore, most probable that its origin
was either in Cochin China, or in Bengal.

The propagation of sugar cane in the west of India was
well known. Both Grecian and Roman writers speak of it.

AND HISTORICAL DATA. 3

Paulus Egineta first speaks of it as "Indian salt," and
likens it to common salt, but with a sweet taste and savor.

Theophrastus mentions it as "another honey which is
from bamboos."

Dioscorides, who lived long before Pliny, speaks of a cer-
tain saccharum, which is a kind of honey concreted in India
and Arabia, It is found in bamboos, with a concretion sim-
ilar to our own salt, and which when subjected to the teeth
breaks up after the manner of salt.

Pliny, the ancient, says "Arabia produces sugar, but
that of India is more renowned. It is a kind of honey col-
lected from bamboos. It is white as gum, breaks easily
under the teeth, and is very useful in medicine."

Varron says: "There grows in India a large reed from
which is drawn a sugar so sweet that the best honey does
not compare with it."

Seneca observes: "There is found among the Indians a
honey contained in the reed; this honey is produced either
by the dew of heaven or by the sweet and thick sap of the
reed."

While the Greek and Roman writers seem familiar with
sugar, the Hebrew works, on the contrary, do not speak of
it, from which one would infer that the culture of cane did
not exist in the east of India at the time of the captivity of
the Jews at Babylon.

India, then, appears to be the cradle of sugar cane, and
from there it pased into China, where it has been extensive-
ly cultivated from immemorial time. It entered then into
Arabia, and from this country was introduced into Nubia,
Ethiopia, and Egypt.

After the crusades it was introduced by the Venetians
(about 1500 A. D.) into Syria, Cyprus, and Sicily.

Dom Henry, king of Portugal, imported it later into Ma-
deira and the Canary Islands, where for 300 years was man-
ufactured all the sugar which was consumed in Europe.

This culture gave way later to the vine, which was found
more remunerative. About the same time it was introduced
into southern Spain, where it still grows in limited quanti-
ties.

From the Canaries it was carried to Brazil ajt the begin-
ning of the sixteenth century.

The Portuguese also carried it to the Island of St. Thomas.

After the discovery of the New World, Peter Etienza in-
troduced sugar cane into the island of San Domingo, for-
merly called Hispaniola. In 1518 there were already twen-
ty-eight sucreries in this isle. From this island it spread
successively over Mexico (1520), Martinique (1650), Guada-
loupe (1644), Cuba, Guianas, and the rest of South America.

4 THE SUGAR CANE.

Notwithstanding the above historical data, it is now well
known that sugar cane was found growing in its utmost
luxuriance throughout the islands of the Pacific ocean by
our earliest navigators, and that several of our best varie-
ties of cane now cultivated have been domesticated from
wild specimens found growing on these islands, and the
above facts lead Mr. Wray to suggest that the sugar, cane
might have been growing on the great continents of Ameri-
ca before it was brought there by the Portuguese and Span-
iards.

CHAPTER II.

HISTORV OP SUGAR CANE IN LOUISIANA.

Gayarre, in his history of Louisiana, says: "In this fear
(1751), two ships, which were transpoi-ting two hundred reg-
ulars to Louisiana, 'stopped at Hispaniola, ;The Jesuits
of that island obtained permission to pUt on board of
those ships, and to send to the Jesuits of Louisiana some
sugar canes, and some negroes who were used to the cul-
tivation of this plant. The canes were put underground
according to the directions given on the plantation of the
reverend fathers which was immediately above Canal
street."*

But it seems that the experiment proved abortive. In
another place he says: "The colonists, however, were striv-
ing to increase their resources and to ameliorate their con-
dition by engaging with more perseverance, zeal, and skill
in agricultural pursuits. Dubreuil, one of the richest men
of the colony, whose means enabled him to make experi-
ments, and who owned that tract of land where now is Es-
planade street — seeing that the canes introduced by the
Jesuits in 1751 had grown to maturity, and had ever since
been cultivated with success, as an article of luxury, which
was retailed in the New Orleans market, built (i75^) a su-gar
mill and attempted to make sugar. But the attempt proved
to be a complete failure."

The next step in the development of the sugar industry
is shrouded in uncertainty as to actual results. Gayarre
says:

"The manufacture of sugar had been ; abandoned
since 1776 as being unsuited to the climate, and only a
few individuals continued to plant canes in the neighbor-
hood of New Orleans to be sold in the marke:t,of that town.
It is true that two Spaniards, Mendez and Bolis, had lately
given more extension to the planting of that reed, but they
had never succeeded in manufacturing sugai^. One of them
boiled its juice into syrup, and the other distilled it into a
spirituous liquor, of a very indifferent quality, called taffia."

It is certainly true that considerable quantities of cane
were used for the manufacture of taffia some years before
successful sugar making was accomplished, since on the 7th

* Where the Jesuits" Church on Baronne street, New Orleans, now stands.

6 THE SUGAR CANE.

of June, 1764, D'Abbadie, in his official report to his govern-
ment, mentions the immoralities of his people, and says, "the
immoderate use of taffia (a kind of rum) has stupefied the
whole population."

But the descendants of Mendez in this city deny that he
failed to manufacture sugar, and offer in evidence the fol-
lowing from family records: "Don Antonio Mendez, b 1750,
d 1829, Procureur de Roi of Spanish Government in Louis-
iana, married Douna Feliciana Ducrot, and lived in St. Ber-
nard parish. In 1791, he bought out Solis, a refugee from
St. Domingo, who had striven in vain to make sugar from
sugar cane, and then having secured the services of a sugar
maker from Cuba, by name of Morin, made sugar for the
first time in Louisiana in 1791, and continued to make it
afterwards."

A correspondent, signing himself J. B. A. (J. B. Avequin),
writing an account of this history of sugar cane in Louisi-
ana to the "Louisiana Sentinelle de Thibodeaux," says:

"In 1790 a Spaniard named Solis, in Terre aux Bceufs,
nine or ten miles below New Orleans, was perhaps the only
one who continued cane, but with the purpose of converting
the juice into taffia or rum. The numerous experiments in
sugar manufacture which had been made in this section had
been unsuccessful. The lands owned by Solis are now a
part of the Olivier plantation.

"In 1791, Antonio Mendez, of New Orleans, bought from
Solis his distilling outfit, the land and the canes, with the
firm resolution of devoting himself to sugar manufacture
and to conquer all difficulties. For this purpose Mendez
employed Morin, who had passed many years in St. Domin-
go for the purpose of studying cane culture and sugar man
ufacture. But whether it was that Mendez did not have the
means of installing a sugar factory like those of St. Domin-
go, or whether he still doubted of complete success, he made
but a few small barrels of sugar, and it is certain that he ex-
perimented also in refining them, for in 1792 Mendez pre-
sented to Don Rendon, who was then Intendant of Louisi-
ana for Spain, some small loaves of sugar refined by him.
It required one of these little loaves to sweeten two cups
of coffee. In a grand dinner he gave that year to the au-
thorities of the city of New Orleans, Intendant Rendon call-
ed the attention of his guests to this sugar during dessert,
presenting it to them as a Louisiana product made by An-
tonio Mendez. Up to this time it is thus seen, Mendez and
Morin had manufactured but a very small quantity of sugar,
since it was still presented as an object of curiosity."

From the above, as well as from other authorities, not
necessary to quote, it is certain that Mendez made the first

IN LOUISIANA. 7

sugar in Louisiana, as also was the first to refine sugar, but
there is no evidence to show that he ever made it in large
and paying quantities. The first crop of sugar, large enough
to influence the future of Louisiana and profitable enough
to justify others to embark in the enterprise, was made by
Etienne De Bore, in 1794, '95 or '96, near the present site of
the Sugar Experiment Station. Mr. Gayarre, the historian,
the grandson of De Bore, thus describes the situation in
Louisiana, and the circumstances which drove Mr. De Bore
to his bold adventure:

"When the Avhole agricultural interest of Louisiana was
thus prostrated, and looking around for the discovery of
some means to escape from annihilation, when the eager
and anxious inquiry of every planter was: 'What shall I
do to pay m^^ debts and support my family?' The energy of
one of the most spirited and respected citizens of Louisiana
suddenly saved her from utter ruin and raised her to that
state of prosperity which has increased with every succes-
sive year." (This was written in 1851. W. C. S.)

That individual was Etienne De Bore, born in (Kaskas-
kia) the Illinois district of Louisiana in 1740. He married
the daughter of Destrehan, the ex-treasurer of Louisiana,
and settled on his wife's plantation six miles above New
Orleans.

Like the majority of planters, he had given his attention
to the cultivation of indigo, and he had also seen his hopes
blasted and himself and family threatened with entire ruin.
After giving his determination to go into the sugar industry,
against the remonstrances of his wife, friends and relatives,
he continues: "Purchasing a quantity of canes from Men-
dez and Solis, he began to plant in 1794 and to make all the
other necessary preparations, and in 1795 he made a crop of
sugar which sold for twelve thousand dollars — a large sum
at the time." To show the excitement prevailing in the
community and the intense interest on the part of the plant-
ers, the following vivid description is given of the day on
which the trial of sugar making was made:

"Bore's attempt had not been without exciting the keen-
est interest; many had frequently visited him during the
year to witness his preparations; gloomy predictions had
been set afloat, and on the day when the grinding of the
cane was to begin, a large number of the most respectable
inhabitants had gathered in and about the sugar house to
be present at the failure or success of the experiment.
Would the syrup granulate? Would it be converted into
sugar? The crowd waited with eager impatience for the
moment when the man who watches the coition of the
juice of the cane determines when it is ready to granulate.

O THE SUGAR CANE.

When that moment arrived, the stillness of death came
among them, each one holding his breath and' feeling that
it was a mat-ter of ruin or prosperity for them all. Sudden-
ly the sugar maker cried out with exultation, 'It granu-
lates!' and the crowd repeated, 'It granulates!' Inside and
outside of the building one could have heard the wonderful
tidings flowing from mouth to mouth and dying in the dib-
tance, as if a hundred glad echoes were telling it to one
another. Each one of the bystanders pressed on to as-
certain the fact on the evidence of his own senses, and when
it could no longer be doubted, there came a shout of joy and
all flocked around Etienne De Bore, overwhelming him with
congratulations, and almost hugging the man whom they
called their saviour — the saviour of Louisiana."

The sugar maker who watched the cooking of the cane
juice up to the moment of granulation was Mr. Antoine Mor-
rin, (according to evidence of Mr. Charles LeBreton, a de-
scendant of Bore's, who has recently died in New Orleans),
the same one associated with Mendez in his trials. From this
time On Mr. Bore redoubled his zeal and in creased his wealth
which at his death was estimated to be over |300,000 — all
made in sugar.

Convinced' by this result, a large number of planters fol-
lowed Mr. Bore's example and erected sugar houses. Among
the first were the Piseros, the Cavarets, the Kiggios, and the
Maccarthys (names no longer on our roll of sugar planters),
with each succeeding year names were added to the list of
sugar planters and all of them rapidly accumulated wealth.

It may not be inappropriate just here to chronicle the
celebration of the centennial of the above event by the Audu-
bon Sugar School by the graduation of its first class in June,
1894. Hon. Theo. S. Wilkinson delivered the centennial ad-
dress, and Hon. John Dymond the diplomas to the graduates.
Full accounts of the meeting, which was largely attended,
my be found in the New Orleans dailies, and the Louisiana
Planter of that date.

The sugar industry continued to grow and expand until
1820, when an additional impulse was given it by the intro-
duction of our present variety of cane. Previous to this time
only two canes were cultivated in Louisiana, the one called
Creole, originally from Malabar or Bengal, and the Tahiti,
both inferior canes for sugar in this climate. They have
been entirely supplanted in general field culture by the pur-
ple or red ribbon canes imported by Mr. John J. Coiron about
the year given above. The cane from which Mr. De Bore
first made sugar was the Creole, since the Tahiti was not
introduced from St. Domingo until 1797. The purple and
striped varieties, natives of Java, were introduced towards

IN LOUISIANA. 9

the middle of the last century to the Island of St. Enstatlus,
to Curacoa and 'Dutch Guiana by the Dutch. From St
Eustatius a vessel brought some packages of 'these canes to
Savannah, Ga., about 1814, and they were planted by a Mr.
King on the Island of St. Simon. They grew well and Mr.
King manufactured sugar from them. Mr. Coiron, who had
formerly resided in Savannah, but now a planter of Louisi-
ana, induced his friend Mr. King to give him some of these
canes. He planted them in his garden at St. Sophie plan-
tation. So pleased with the result of this trial, that later
he brought from Savannah a schooner load of them and
planted them on his plantation. From this plantation
they have spread over the entire State and gave a new ardor
to sugar culture. Its ability to withstand greater cold en-
abled planters 'to open new plantations farther north, and
thus greatly enlarge the area of cane growing in Louisiana,
Mr. Coiron, it may be remarked in passing, was the first
planter in Louisiana to use the steam engine for the crush-
ing of canes. Mr. Coiron died without knowing the immense
benefit he had conferred upon the State of Louisiana, and
the planters owe to his memory the erection of some statue
or monument to commemorate their grateful appreciation
of his invaluable services. The canes introduced by Mr.
Coiron, with a few exceptions, occupy the plantations of this
State and will doubtless remain unless supplanted by some
of the selected seedlings now annually propagated.

CHAPTER III.

BOTANICAL RELATIONS.

Sugar cane is a member of the large family of grasses —
graminacese — of the tribe Andropogon, and its botanical
name is Saccharum Officinarum, or Arundo Saccharifera.

Although it is now generally conceded by botanists that
all the cultivated varieties belong to one species, yet there
are strong reasons for believing in the existence of several
species. The habits of growth, color of foliage and stalk,
content of sugar, and sundry minor properties, would at
least justify an opinion in the absence of a^ opportunity to
minutely examine the flowers of each, that the differ-
entiation had extended beyond the "varietal" and into the
"specific." The Creole, Japanese, and some of the black
varieties from Hawaii, are certainly widely different from
each other.

Jacob de Cordemoy has divided all the cultivated varieties
into three principal species:

First — The common kind, known as Saccharum officina-
rum.

Second — Saccharum violaceum, eanes with violet leaves,
like the black canes of Hawaii just alluded to. Some varie-
ties of this kind stain the hands and mouths of those who
eat it.

They are cultivated rarely.

Third — Saccharum sinense, called by Roxburgh, Chinese
cane, because cultivated in China from immemorial time. Its
chief specific difference is said to reside in the disposition of
its panicle, which unlike that of the Saccharum officinarum,
is oval and ornamental. It is extensively grown in Natal.

However uncertain it may be as to the species of sugar
cane, it is well known that all of the canes cultivated for
sugar belong to the first class (saccharum officinarum).
Therefore we shall treat only of this species.

It is a gigantic stalk (see fig. 1), often reaching ten to
fifteen feet in height in the tropics, which is straight during
early growth, but is bent or reclined either by its own weight
or by the winds at maturity. Its roots, like those of all
grasses, are fibrous and lateral, stretching in all directions,
and usually not penetrating the soil to any depth. Hence
its instability in loose or soft soils, and its liability to be
blown down by wind.

The root stock is a simple prolongation of the stalk (A
to B in fig. 1), terminating in a point of attachment either

BOTANICAL RELATIONS.

11

to the mother cane (planted) or the mother stalk (stubble).
It is around this axis that the true roots ("a" "a") emanate,
which run out in every direction.

The stalk is cylindrical, varying in size, according to va-

Stalk of sugarcane showing root A-B; stem, B-C; leaves, C-D.

12 THE SUGAR CANE.

riety, maturity, and conditions of growth. It is composed of
nodes and internodes (see fig. 2) sometimes to the number of
sixty to eighty, very closely crowded together with canes
badly grown, and wide apart — often six inches — with canes
grown, vigorously and of a superior quality. Varieties also
differ greatly in the length of the internodes, and other
things being equal, as will be hereafter shown, that variety
is to be preferred which has the longest joints. The epider-
mis is polished, more or less thick, and densely colored in
different varieties (yellow, green, red, brown, black, white,
purple, or mixtures of two or more of these colors).

The canes are covered, chiefly on the portions adjoining
the nodes, with a whitish pulverulent easily removable pow-
der called "cerosin," which has the chemical formula of
C24H48O. and lepresents by its (toiisiiiution an alcoliol
of the fatty series. In extracting the juice from the cane
by mills, large quantities of this substance are removed and
carried forward to the clarifier, where it is precipitated
during clarification in the scums and alternately left in the
filter cake.

The leaves of the cane are alternate, larger at the base,
and about three feet in length. They are green in color,
more or less intensified, according to the variety. The mid-
rib is whitish in most varieties, reddish and purplish in
others, well developed, and with a channel-like depression
on the upper surface. In some varieties the base of the
leaves are covered with prickles, which when introduced in-
to the flesh, produce disagreeable and sometimes painful
wounds. Cutting such canes, particularly when their up-
per leaves are immature, is attended by much suffering un-
less the hands are protected by gloves. The leaves are
clasping, receding from the stalk during growth and
falling off during maturity. Each joint has its leaf, and
through the latter the food for the former is assimilated,
and it is believed when the joint casts its leaf, the process
of assimilation so far as concerns that joint, is completed —
it is mature. Elaboration of the food present afterwards
may and does occur, but the growth is completed and only
transformations from starches, glucoses, amides, etc., into
sucrose and albuminoids thereafter occur. One by one,
proceeding from the roots upwards, these joints mature and
cast their leaves, until finally a naked stalk with only a
few leaves at its upper extremity, announces its fitness for
the harvest. Under the base of each leaf, in the node, is a
bud (see fig. 2), usually of the size of a pea (round, flat or
oval, prominent or inconspicuous, according to variety),
covered with a protecting varnish, and with superposed en-
velopes of a very resisting nature. This is usually denomin
ated the "eye" of' the cane. It is usually larger and better

BOTANICAL RELATIONS.

18

formed as the base of the cane is reached. Towards the top
it is whitish, flattened, and often triangular in shape. Those
eyes contain the germs of future canes, and are used by
planters everywhere for propagation of their plants. Until
recently, it was thought that these eyes were the true seed
of the cane, but Messrs. Bovell & Harrison, of Barbados,
several years ago demonstrated that the panicle of flowers
produced in tropical countries where the cane "arrows," was
not always composed exclusively of sterile flowers, as was
generally believed. They discovered among them true seed,
which germinated on planting and gave true cane. Since
that time every tropical country has succeeded in raising
a few canes from seed (see chapter on seedlings).

Around the stalk, at the eye, are several rows of semi-
transparent dots or points (see fig. 2) which produce roots
when the cane is exposed to excessive rains, prostrated on
a wet soil, or when the stalk is planted in moist earth.
Simultaneously the eyes also develop.
Certain varieties of cane are subject to
this inconvenience, which greatly detracts
from their value either for sugar making
or for seed. (^

Just above these rows is a light colored
semi-transparent narrow band, which
clearly divides the lower from the upper
joint.

That portion of the cane stalk which
extends below the ground is similar in ^
structure to the stalk above ground.
The very much shorter joints have eyes,
which develop into plants (suckers, tillers
or rattoons), and the circular rows of dots ^
become the true roots of the plant.

In tropical countries, at the epoch of
complete maturity the cane flowers, bear- q
ing on a long peduncle, a panicle of silken
spikes. Each floret has three stamens
inserted upon the ovary, which is sessile ^
and glabrous, surmounted by two elongat-
ed styles with terminal feathery stigmas.
Many seed are infertile, doubtless due to^
the fact that the cane has been so long
propagated by cuttings (boutures) that
it has nearly lost its fertility. Cane flow-
ers usually at 12 to 13 months old, but all
varieties do not flower. Those varieties ^
which do not flower are usually preferred, (
since they can be retained a longer time
in the field before cutting them.

Fig. 2.

B. Joints of cane.
A. Butls or eyeh.
D. Internodes

C. Nodes.

X. Semitransparent dots
in rows.

14 THE SUGAR CANE.

Contrary to the physiology of many plants, the cane is
not ripe at the time of flowering. It is only at the end of
three months after this phenomenon has taken place that
it attains the maximum of sugar. This abnormal procedure
is a contradiction to other sugar plants, notably the beet,
which consumes during flowering all the sugar stored up in
the root.

CHAPTER IV.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP THE CANE PLANT.

The Stalk.

The stalk is cylindrical, divided into nodes and inter
nodes, or, as popularly called, "joints." The upper part of
each joint divides into two parts, the inner one forming the
rind of the next joint above and the outer one uniting with
cells from within, form the leaf. Around the stalk at the
eye or bud are several rows of transparent points which
produce roots when cane is subjected to certain conditions.
Just above these rows is a light colored transparent narrow
band which clearly divides the lower from the upper joint.
See fig. 2.

The following notes are furnished by Prof. W. R. Dod-
son, Botanist and Mycologist of the station, based upon
his studies of the sugar cane at the Sugar Experiment
Station :

"If a very thin section be cut across the stem between
the nodes, and prepared, by mounting on a glass slip, for
study under the microscope, all the tissues that compose the
stem can be viewed by transmitted light. The general matrix
is composed of pith cells, which are large and more or less
sixsided, as seen in cross section. See fig. 3. These cells
constitute the store houses of the plant, and in them is
found nearly all the sugar and other products that are
laid up for the future use of the plant. In fig. 3 the
large cells marked "P" are the pith cells. They make up
the greater portion of the inner part of the stem. When
the section cut lengthwise with the stem is viewed (see fig.
4), the sugar cells are seen to be somewhat longer than
they are thick. Generally these are filled with fluid, but
in what is called pithy cane they are partly empty. They
seldom contain starch, and it is doubtful if starch and
sugar ever occur in the same cell. At the nodes the pith al-
most entirely disappears and the whole tissue is made up of
the bundles and a kind of modified pith that fills between
them. The shape and comparative size of the pith cells com-
pared with the cells of the other tissue, is well shown in
figures 3 and 4.

16

THE SUGAR CANE.

Fig 3.
A microphotograpn of a thin section across a stalk of cane, magnified about 100 times,
The dark areas, with two large and one small circular clear spots within, are the flbro-
vascular bundles marked "B." The upper side of the picture is the portion of the sec-
tion near the outside of the stem. The honey-comb appearance is the pith or sugar con-
taining portion, the cells of which increase in size toward the center, see "P" "P," while
the number of bundles decreases.

Distributed through the pith are groups of differentiated
tissue, which taken together constitute the fibre vascular bun-
dles. In the internodes the bundles run parallel and have
no communication with each other, but at the nodes they
freely branch and the branches of one run into the branches
of another till there is a general communication between
them. Fig. 5 shows one of these bundles very much en-
larged. Most of the tissues can be made out very easily.
The large cells surrounding the bundles are the sugar cells,
marked P. The two large and one small circular cavities
marked V in the figure are the vessels. It is through these

ANATOMY A^D PHYSIOLOGY.

17

FIG. 4.

A. Thin section of a portion of a stalk of cane cut longitudinally, magnified about
6 times. Cells marked P show side view of pitli or sugar cells.

S. Marks sieve tubes, long cells, which with V vessels, run up the stem and out
into the leaves.

vessels that the water travels from the root to the leaf, car-
rying the food material taken from the soil. Near the vessel
is a group of some ten or eleven cells marked "S," which are
called sieve tubes. These are long cells, as will be seen from
the longitudinal section (see fig. 4), and at intervals in their
length are partition walls. The elaborated food material
coming from the leaf to be distributed through the plant
is conveyed along the sieve tubes. It may be said then
in general that the greater portion of the crude food materi-
al is conveyed up the stem through the vessels, and when
it passes down the stem it goes through the sieve tubes.

18

TJIE SUGAR CANE.

A microphotograph of a flbrovascular bundle of a stem of sugar cane, magnitted
about 1000 times. P, pith cells; V, vessels; S, sieve tubes. The thick walled cells around
the vessels is the ttbrous portion or bast, for strengthening.

The remaining tissues that surround these tubes is mostly
of a modified fibre and is for the general purpose of
strengthening the stem. In between the sieve tubes are
cells which do not come out very plainly in the photograph,
which are called the accompanying cells. The function of
these has not been very satisfactorily demonstrated. By
referring to figure 3, which shows a considerable number of
the bundles and the outer portion of the stem, it will be

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

19

seen that the bundles are much more abundant and crowded
together near the outer portion of the stem. The size of
the vessels is somewhat diminished and the amount of
strengthening tissue is considerably increased. The pith
almost all disapp:ears and the cells become thickened to form
the peel or rind of the stem for strength and protection.
That portion which is peeled off when the cane is prepared
for chewing, has no true pith cells in it.

20

THE SUGAR CANE.

Leaf.

The bundles of the stem pass into the leaf without losing
any of their tissues. There are tissues in the leaf, how-
ever, that are not found in the stem. Surrounding the bun-
dle is a layer of short thick cells which may be called the
starch cells (see fig 6), as they are filled with starch during
the entire day. At night the starch is converted into some
other substance and conveyed away to the stem. It may be
conveyed during the day also, but there is no known way of
proving it directly. In the morning starch appears in these
cells very quickly after the sun rises, and is found in very
limited quantities elsewhere in the leaf. Immediately on the
outside of the starch cells occur other cells that are filled

Fig. 7.

Microphotograph of a single bundle of cane leaf, magnified 1000 times. Tissues
no^plainly brought out here are shown in the camera lucida drawing, fig. 6. B B, bast
tissue tor strength; S, starch cells, through which the section was cut longitudinally
for fig. 10; C, chlorophyl portion, through which the section was cut longitudinally for
fig. 11; E, skin covering the leaf.

with 'a green coloring matter (see "C," fig 6), and in these
cells the starch is manufactured. There is very little green
matter in the starch cells.

The green matter of the leaf is made up of what is called
chlorophyl bodies, very small, more or less globular, that
have the power of making starch out of the water from the

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

21

soil and the carbon of the carbon dioxide of the air. It is
not known just how this combination is brought about, but
the process is probably more complex than would appear
from a simple union of the above elements, but starch is the
first product formed that can be recognized.

The arrangement of the bundles in the leaf is worth not-
ing. Beginning with one of the large bundles there occurs
near it, in the lower portion of the leaf, a small bundle not
fully developed (see fig. 6), while in the upper portion it is a
loose structure of large cells with two or more wedge-shaped
cells extending to the epidermis; then a bundle that extends
almost across the thickness of the leaf, then more loose tis-
sue and a small bundle, then another large bundle like the
one first noted. This is not exactly the same in all leaves
nor in all parts of the same leaf, but in general it is a type.

Section of the leaf of suyar cane cut longitu-
dinally through the large cells, occupying the
intermediate position between the bundles.

Fig. 8.

A microphotograph of a section of a cane

leaf, showing the arrangement of the bundles

in the leaf, and the cells (B) that cause the

leaf to roll up when the leaf wilts.

22

THE SUGAR CANE.

The large wedge-shaped cells on the upper side of the leaf
(see fig. 6) have the function of unrolling the leaf as it comes
out. The leaves are rolled when young, and as these cells
become fully expanded they cause the leaf to flatten out.
When evaporation is excessive they become less turgid and
in shrinking cause the leaf to curl up. Hence the curling
of the leaf in dry weather.

The thickened walls of the strengthening cells (B, fig. 6)
are arranged in the leaf so as to give strength to a vertical
weight. They are grouped so as to form a more or less per-
fect double girder, shaped like a bridge girder, or as a hollow
tube. For transverse and longitudinal sections of cane leaf
see figures 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11.

Fig. 11.

Section of leaf of sugar cane cut longitudinally
through the chlorophyl cells See C, figs. 6 and 7.

Fig. 10.
Section of a leaf cut longitudinal-
ly throuah the starch-bearing cells,
at an angle to secure the greatest
number of cells to be obtained in
one section, two outer rows being
chlorophyl cells.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIODGV. 23

Expressure of Water from Cane as it Enters the

Mill.

It is known to everyone that is a close observer about the
sugar mill, that as soon as the cane starts through a roller
mill, water, or at least a fluid, will be pressed out at the
other end of the cane. It does not matter as to the length
of the cane, the water will flow from the end almost imme-
diately after the opposite end enters the rollers. When this
fluid is collected it is found to contain little or no sugar.
The question arises, "Where does the water come from?''

In early spring or late winter, if a twig of some tree is cut
in section, say a foot long, and brought into a warm room,
and the stick held vertically, a drop of water will appear at
the lower end, and as soon as the stick is reversed the water
will disappear from the upper end. Sachs explains this phe-
nomenon*by supposing that the water travels in the walls of
the cells and the action of gravity is sufiicient, in the satu-
rated condition of the stem, to draw enough water from the
stem to form the drop on the end of the stick. The water
expressed from the cane, however, cannot be thus explained.
It is the water from the vessels as will appear from the fol-
lowing: It is the sap on its way to the leaf. Though it
traverses very near the tissues rich in sugar, it contains but
little organic food material of any kind.

In order to get a proper understanding of the following
experiment, it will be necessary to consider for a moment
the structure of the cane stem as explained elsewhere and
shown in figure 3. The tough strings or threads that traverse
the tissues of the stem are called fibro-vascular bundles.
These bundles are made up of several tissues, as shown
when studied under the microscope, and among these tissues
are some large tubes called vessels that traverse the length
of the stem and make up an essential part of the bundle.
Through these vessels at least a part of the water passes
from the root to the leaves, carrying the material taken up
from the soil. (It must be remembered that all substances
taken up by the roots must pass to the leaves and there un-
dergo certain changes before it can become a part of the
plant structure). These bundles are more numerous but of
less size near the outer portion of the stem than they are
near the center. To a given area, therefore, in a cross sec-
tion of the stem, there are more bundles and more vessels
near the outside than near the center. If the water comes
from the bundles, there will be a greater flow near the out-
side, and least flow near the middle. In order to measure
the amount of flow accurately from different portions of the
stem, the following process was adopted :

24

THE SUGAR CANE.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 25

A set of brass tubes (see fig 12) was filed sharp so they
would cut a clear edge when inserted as a cork borer, and to
the other end was inserted and cemented a glass tube that
had previously been drawn out to a fine tapering point, that
would admit a small flow of water when subjected to pres-
sure, but would hold water by capillarity when not under
pressure. The tubes were curved at the ends so that the
expressed w^ater would form in drops and fall from the ends
as it was forced out. In this way the number of drops will
measure fairly accurately the am^ount of flow, as the drops
are pretty constant in weight. The tubes were then filled
with water and inserted in the end of the cane so the tube
would take a position parallel with the bundles,
and the ends of such bundles as would be
included in the area of the inside bore of the
tubes, would project into them. As the tube is
inserted the water is forced out, and the space in the tube
is exactly filled by the cane and the water. Now the cane
is started through the mill, and any water that flows
through the portion of tissue included in the tube and is forced
out at the end, will force a like amount of water out of the
capillary end of the glass tube. In this way can be measured
the amount of flow in the area covered by the inside bore
of the brass tube. If now the tubes be inserted so that one
will be near the center A, and one near the circumference
C, with others intermediate, B, the flow from the one out-
side will be greatest, and the one near the middle will be
least, while the intermediate ones will give a flow greater
or less as it is nearer the outside, or the center. If now the
tubes be inserted at an angle with the bundles, D, so the
tube will cut the same area of tissue, but a smaller number
of bundles, the flow will decrease in accordance with the
number of bundles cut, and when the tube is inserted at
right angles to the bundle E, there will be no flow^ whatever.
Referring to the drawing to illustrate the arrangement of
the tubes, the greatest flow will come from the tube marked
"C," while the least will come from "A" of the parallel tubes.
Less will flow from "D" than from "A." When the tube is
inserted at the node at right angles to the axis of the stem,
there will be considerable flow, because there are a number of
branches of vessels projecting into one end of the tube when
in this position. If now the tubes be inserted as repre-
sented at "F" and "G," there will be a flow if the tubes are
separated from the cut end by a node, and the amount will
increase as the angle increases to cut more bundles. The
reason for this is that the fluid flows backward from the
node above. The pressure goes up to the node in bundles
that are not cut by the tube, and at the node it enters the

26 - THE SUGAR CANE.

ones that are cut, and there would be a flow in the direction
of the least resistance. Suppose that vessel VI, in figure 13,
is cut by tube T, there will be a flow up the vessel V2 when
under pressure, through the connecting channels at the
node, and down VI and into tube T. This will be readily
understood by a study of the drawing to illustrate the ar-
rangement. (See fig. 13).

When one end of a cane
is placed in a tightly fitting
rubber tube, and air or water
forced into the other end of
the tube, the eifect on the op-
posite end of the cane is the "^ ~
same as starting it through |/—

the roller mill. Air would

not force the water out if it "''^/^t^'^M

traversed the walls only. fig. 13.

Sometimes air bubbles ap- DiaKramof connecting branches of a Abro-

pear in the tubes. If one"^"""'^'"^""^^"^'*^"""^^^'" ^"^^''"''^°«-
end of the cane is put in the mill and the other held in a
vessel of water, there will be a few bubbles given olf, but
the amount of air in the stem seems to depend to some ex-
tent on the condition of the cane. It is probable that the
water fills the tissues almost entirely when the soil is wet
enough to afford plenty of moisture.

That the water travels upward through the bundles can
be easily shown by a very simple experiment. If the stem
be cut and the leaves allowed to remain in position and the
cut end be immersed in a diluted red ink or other colored
fluid, the fluid will travel up the stem, and the stem will be
marked in a few hours by the red lines extending several
nodes up. These lines are the stained vessels.

The measurement of the length of these vessels is at most
only approximate. They certainly extend through the
greater portion of the length of the stem, when their vari-
ous branches that connect and make a network is consid-
ered. As has been noted, the water begins to flow imme-
diately after the application of pressure. One may compare
them in a general way to a rubber tube fllled with water;
when one end of the tube is passed into the compressing rol-
lers, the fluid would be forced out at the other end. If a
colored fluid is pumped into the stem, it will traA^erse the
vessels a distance of several nodes in a very short time with
a very moderate pressure. It seems, therefore, that there
is abundance of evidence that this water is sap water from
the vessels.

When dry weather prevails, just previous to and during
the grinding season, it is very common to hear a planter say

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 27

that he expects a "sweet juice" from his cane, but if the
weather is very wet the juice is not so sweet In fact a good
rain will make a difference in the juice of cane cut the day
before and the day after the rain.

What has been noted in regard to the water in the vessels
is an important factor in accounting for the above phenome-
non. When the weather is dry, the water in the vessels is
partly used up to supply the needs of the plant, and when
a bountiful water supply comes to the roots, the vessels be-
come filled again to their capacity, with water on its way to
the leaves, diluting the juice subsequently extracted from
the cane.

CHAPTER V.

CLIMATE rOR CANE^ WITH WEATHER RECORD
or LOUISIANA.

Coming as it does from India, where it once probably
flourished in a natural state, one may at once predict the
climatic conditions necessary for its successful growth by
an acquaintance with the meteorology of that region.

It is said that the cane should have a warm climate, with
a mean temperature between 65 degrees and 86 degrees, F.,
and for its best development about 77 degrees, F. It should
be moderately humid, with intervals of dry heat and sun-
shine. Most writers assert that it does best near the sea
where the sea breezes bring with them particular salts which
fertilize the soils. It may more properly be said, that on
account of the accessibility of these fertile sea-girted islands
and peninsulas and the climatic conditions prevailing there-
on, they have been selected for cane growing, in order that
the products may be easily and cheaply transported to other
countries, and the heavy machinery needed for manufact-
uring the canes into sugar be easily delivered.

That the cultivation of sugar cane has covered every
country which is favorable to its growth, no one will assert.
In fact, artificial irrigation, and the construction of rail-
roads have already greatly extended the area occupied by
this plant, and if prices of sugar would justify it, the present
acreage would be greatly enlarged and many countries
would doubtless cultivate it on a large scale, which up to the
present have perhaps scarcely experimented with the plant.
Mexico, Central and South America, all offer large fields
for the development of this industry, and only the prevail-
ing low prices, added to the instability of the local govern-
ment, prevent an early occupation of these fields. Even in
Louisiana, the industry is capable of indefinite expansion,
as there are several millions of acres in this State which
could be, with but little expense, brought under cultivation
with this plant. It will ultimately be done, unless prohi-
bited by the low prices of sugar, due to the expansion of
the beet sugar industry in this and other countries. Sugar
cane is cultivated in the following countries: the figures
in parenthesis attached to each country indicating the
latitude: Abyssinia (10 to 15 deg. N.), Argentine Repub-
lic (22 deg. to 25 deg. S.), Queensland (10 deg. to 28 deg. S.),
New South Wales (22 deg. to 25 deg. S.), Borneo (Equator),

CLIMATE, WITH WEATHER RECORD. 29

Bourbon and Rennion (21 deg. S.), Brazil (0 deg. to 20 deg.
S.), Cape Colony (29 deg. to 35 deg. S.), Cayenne (French
Guiana), Surinam (Dutch Guiana) and British Guiana (2 deg.
to 8 deg. N.), Central America, Gautemala, Honduras, Nica-
ragua, Costa Rica and Salvador (8 deg. to 18 deg. N.), Chili
(23 deg. to 40 deg. S.), China (10 deg. to 30 deg. N.), Colombia
(0 deg. to 10 deg. N.), India (10 deg. to 20 deg. N.), Japan
(30 deg. to 35 deg. N.), Java (6 deg. to 8 deg. N.),Louisiana
(29 deg. to 31 deg. N.), Madeira (33 deg. N.), Mauritius (20
deg. S.),Mexico (18 deg. to 28 deg. N.),Natal (30 deg. S.), New
Zealand (35 deg. to 37 deg. S.), Fiji (15 deg. to 17 deg. S.),
Hawaii (19 deg. to 23 deg. N.), Peru (5 deg. to 23 deg. S.),Phil-
ippines (5 deg. to 18 deg. N.), Siam (10 deg. to 20 deg. N.),
Spain (36 deg. to 37 deg. N.), Straits Settlement (0 deg. to
10 deg. N.), Venezuela (0 deg. to 10 deg. N.), and West In-
dies, Antigua, Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Grenada, Guad-
eloupe, Hayti, Jamaica, Martinique, Porto Rico, St Croix,
St. Domingo, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Trinidad and
Tobago (10 deg. to 23 deg. N.).

It is, therefore, cultivated from Spain, 37 deg. N., to New
Zealand, 37 deg. S., on both sides of the Equator. Its range
is therefore wide, and doubtless many countries within this
range will at some time in the future adopt its cultivation.

Rainfall.

It is generally estimated that an annual rainfall of about
sixty inches is most advantageous for the growth of cane.
This amount should be well distributed over at least ninety
to one hundred days, of which about forty-five inches should
fall during the wet or growing season, and about fifteen
inches during the dry. However, annual rainfalls of double
this amount occur in parts of Rennion and Guiana where
they make large crops of cane; but, as remarked elsewhere,
such canes are always green and give low sugar contents.
On the other hand, cane is grown now most successfully in
countries with a very small rainfall, by irrigation. Indeed,
it may be said, that when the temperature and soils are suit-
able, that cane growing by irrigation is the most remunera-
tive. The largest crops, ripened artificially by the withhold-
ing of water, are obtained, and the output of sugar per acre
in such countries is enormous.

It was once thought that the hygrometric conditions of
the air had much to do with successful cane growing, and
that the relative humidity of the air ought to attain a mean
of at least 70 degrees for best results. It is well known that
cane, in common with all cultivated grasses,revelsin excesses
of moisture, requiring continuously at least 25 per cent, of
the weight of the soil for healthy, vigorous growth. This

30 THE SUGAR CANE.

amount, even in regions of heaviest rainfall, would some-
times be inadequate but for the excessive humidity in the
air which prevents excessive evaporation.

The drier the air and the warmer the temperature and
more rapid the growth of cane, the greater will be the evap-
oration of water through the leaves. For every pound of
dry matter produced in the cane, there will be required 400
to 500 pounds of water to be evaporated through its foliage.
In a crop of cane of forty-five tons there will be 15 tons of
tops and leaves.

According to Prof. Ross, the 45 tons of cane will contain
about 11 tons of dry matter, and the 15 tons of tops and
leaves about 5 tons, making a total of about IG tons of dry
matter per acre. If each ton of dry matter will require 400
tons of water, there would be evaporated through the fol-
iage alone from an acre in cane, 0,400 tons of water, to say
nothing of the amount which would be evaporated from the
soil.

An inch of rainfall on an acre is equal to 27,154 gallons,
or 113 tons. Therefore, to supply 6,400 tons, an amount
required during growth of a 45-ton crop of cane, over 56
inches of rainfall must fall, and that, too, distributed
through the growing season. Such a fall, with such a distri-
bution, is rarely ever obtained naturally in any country, but
this quantity of water can be supplied by irrigation and at
such intervals as best suits the wants of the plant. Hence
cane growing by irrigation has given yields surpassing the
highest records of the best sugar countries. The presence
of humidity in the air deemed heretofore necessary to suc-
cessful cane growing, was but a means to prevent evapora-
tion and to maintain moisture conditions most suitable to
the wants of the cane. In irrigated districts, little or no hu-
midity of the air exists.

In the above, no account is taken of the supply of water
furnished by capillary action through the soil from below,
which is large and of great value to all growing plants. It
may, therefore, be asserted most positively that those coun-
tries are best suited to the cane which have, 1st, fertile soils;
2d, necessary conditions of temperature, and ?-d, an abun-
dant water supply, either naturally or through irrigation, so
that it may be supplied in ample quantities only when need-
ed, and withheld when the cane has attained growth, so that
the process of maturation may take place.

Weather Record in Louisiana.

From March 1st, 1886, to January 1st, 1897, an accurate
condensed weather record is here given, taken from the
books of the Sugar Experiment Station:

CLIMATE, WITH WEATHER BECORD.

31

Condensed Weather Record of Sugar Experiment Station from
March I, iS56, to January \, 1597.

MONTH.

1886.

March

April

May

June

July

August

September ...

October

November

December

1887.

January

February ...
Marcli ...

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November ....
December

Average and total

1888.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November ....
December

Average and total

tc <v

<

63
69
76
83
83
84
80
73
66
65

57
65.4

58.2

71.7

78

84

84

82.5

79

69.5

60

54.6

(0.3

56.6

69.8

59

73.4

76.7

79.8

82

81.2

77.3

70.6

62.4

63.6

I-"
53 S.

80
87
93
97
95
96
91
87
75
79

82
80
81
89
94
94
97
95
92
86
80
77

87

77
76
78
85
92
92
98
95
89
85
84
71

a s

:^K

ro.2

85

37
41

57
69
68
66
59
39
33
26

22
30
40
57
59
62
68
69
56
40
30
30

47

30
37
36
54
54
65
71
70
57
53
34
27

9.18
7.32
3.59
11.50
3.25
4.18
5.24
1.00
5.55
2.75

3.31
5.23
3.27
2.21
6.56
10.35
7.86
6.70
3.30
6.39
.11
7.14

49

62.43

3.77

9.80

5.79

.91

11.77
8.69
5.49

15.80
3.29
3.40
2.50
4.12

75.33

32

THE SUGAR CANE.

MONTH.

1889. I

January

February. . .

March

April ■

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Average and total

1890

January

February ....

March

April

May

June

July

August .....

September

October

November

December

Average and total

1891.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November . .
December

Average and total .

V CD

II
oj be

<D ^

> OS
<

54
55
63.6

72

78.1

82.3

85.6

81

79.1

68.1

58.9

63

70.1

61.8
62 8
60.7
69.7
74 7
87.8
81.7
79.8
76.3
67.4o
•61.70
55.30

69 98

52.3

63.1

59.3

66 1

72

89.2

79.6

80.3

76.7

67.1

56 5

55.9

" p.
as

70

79

86
91
96
92
90
91
86
82
80

85

80

81

79.5

84.5

87.5

94

95

92.5

90

87

82

78

<v be

if

86

75

78
78
84
90
96
95
98
95
90
70
75

34
31
40
47
48
57
68
66
51
51
30
45

32

36

27

42

56

68

69

67

56.5

38

39

33

32
32
38
37
52
66
65
57
57
57
29
29

8.30
3.21
2.38
3.28
.76
9.43
7.15
5.74
5.30

.43

45.98

1.00
3.10
1.98
3.27
10.71
415
7.30
7.75
4.56
4.41
.87
3.55

52.65

5.60
11.25
3.36
.80
2.37
5.84
5.50
2.05
9.79
1.35
3.95
4.42

68.2

86

45

56.37

CLIMATE, WITH WEATHER RECORD.

33

MONTH.

1892.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Average and total

1893.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November . .
December

Average and total

1894.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Average and total

••

aP

a c

j^ 3)

o to

« ^

^ S*

Hi!

^<s

s«

fl'^.

® «.

P 0)

= 4*

g'2

a ^

a s

Is

t, s

gj^

82

a g

<

^K

Ss-

48

72

26.5

68

79

40

68

80

28

70

84

48

74

91

54

80

99

63

81

96

70

81

95

71

78

94

59

71

88

42

59

85

38

64

77

21

67.7

87

46.7

49.4

73

28

62.4

78

40

60.2

81

30

71.4

89

47

75.8

93

57

80.9

99

67

83.4

94

71

8(».8

92

65

77.4

95

58

65.4

85

42

58.6

80

32

.54.9

78

29

68.4

86.5

47.2

56.63

77

26

63.21

80

29

62.10

83

32

70.50

88

51

74.96

91

49

78.30

98

63

: 79.70

99

66

80.66

93

69

78.60

92

59.5

69.00

89

46

57.83

81

32

65.10

82

19

68.05

87.75

45.12

7.15

* 4.42*
11.75
4.13
6.37
8.92
7.66
5.95
1.98
5.39
3.10

66.82

3.07
4.16
4.42
4.00
2.90
7.55
3.67
2.99
6.32
6.57
7.50
2.85

56.00

1.14

13.43

7.66

4.52

2.69

3.34

12.51

7.52

1.80

.85

1.06

2.40

58.92

34

THE SUGAR CANE.

MONTH.

January .
February .
March . .
April. . .
May . . .
June . . .
July. . .
August .
September
October .
Novenaber
December

1895.

Average and total

January .
February .
March . .
April . . .
May . . .
June . . .
July. . .
August .
September
October .
November
December

1896.

S-i .

a> OS

a ^

> 03

50.9

44.1

61.3

66.9

74.5

81.3

82.08

82.50

80.46

87.16

58.90

51.10

Average and total

68.43

50.16
54.41
60.32
70 36
78.26
80.7(J
83.13
82.93
77.66
67.17
63.11
55.00

68.76

a«.

si

77
73
81
86
90
95
98
98
93
86
82
74

86.08

77
72
52
87
94
97
97
98
93
92
85
79

87.75

I O;

I-

26
15
34
46
52
68
71
72
52
47
35
25

45.25

24
32
37
40
61
65
70
69
53
46
34
31

46.8

^

8.58
4.47
3.98
2.53
12.15
11.06
7.62
6.99
2.93
1.45
1.36
5.75

68.87

2.94
3.28
6.10
2.63
1.65
11.04
4.44
3.29
4.70
7.48
3.71
4.57

55.83

In the following table is presented the eleven years in a
comparative form, and it may be useful in determining some
of the factors which go toward solving the problem of good
crop years.

The winter of 1886 was very severe, destroying much of
the seed and stubble, the spring was late and cold, and good
stands of cane were not obtained until May. The sub-
sequent seasons were fair, and where good stands prevailed
the crop was medium.

The winter of 1887 was mild and conducive to excellent
seed cane, the spring was moderately dry and warm ; follow-

CLIMATE, WITH WEATHER RECX)RD. 35

ed by a warm and wet summer, grading into a cool, dry
autumn; conditions favorable to heavy tonnage.

The winter of 1888 was fairly propitious, but the spring
was excessively wet, preventing the proper cultivation of
the cane. The w^et weather extended to Juh% causing a
serious postponement or abandonment of the regular ^'lay-
by" of cane. These rains were succeeded by a dry, cool fall,
giving us light tonnage, but heavy sugar yield, due more
to the low glucose content than excess of sugar in cane.

The 3'ear 1889 will always be remembered as the year of
drouth. The rainfall for the year was only 46 inches, and
this fell mostly in the winter and summer, giving us a
spring and fall of unexampled dryness — a dryness which
was prolonged into the winter of 1890.

The year 1890 will be memorable for the enormous crop
produced. It was ushered in amidst a drouth lapsing from
1889, with mild, fair weather in January and Februar3^ giv-
ing an early germination and growth to both plant and
stubble cane — both to be cut down by an unusual freeze ear-
ly in March; followed by a propitious spring, with an
abundant rainfall in May, preceding enough dry weather in
June to permit a careful "lay-by" of the crop. Copious
showers, at no time excessive, prevailing through July,
August, September and October, which together with an
abundance of sunshine and continuance of warm weather,
all combined to give us the largest tonnage perhaps ever
known in our history. The season was favorable through-
out for the growth of cane, and hence the large crop was
harvested in a very immature condition. Neither the
temperature nor rainfall was excessive, but well distributed
throughout the season, extending well into the fall.

The year 1891 was characterized by frequent prolonged
drouths— particularly during the growing season. From
the 13th of March to 21st of June less than four inches,
distributed in small showers, occurred. Besides this, less
rain fell in the summer than in any year since the organ-
ization of this station. Only 13.49 inches, or six inches less
than any previous year. Again, in August there was a
large deficiency of rain the entire month and extending well
into September, giving a little over two inches. Of the 56
inches, nearlv one-half fell in winter and nearly two-thirds
in winter and fall, leaving a little less than one-third for
the growing crops. The mean annual temperature was the
lowest for years. Under such conditions, the crops were
light in tonnage and rich in sugar.

The year 1892 was a fair even season for cane — the heat
and rains having been fairly well distributed. Irrigation
was required and practiced only once, in May, upon both

36 THE SUGAR CANE.

cane and corn. The summer rains were abundant, and the
fall an exceptionally good one for harvesting the crops,
though the cane continued to grow until December 27th,
when a freeze of much severity killed the standing cane.
The crop was very fair in both tonnage and sugar content.

The year 1893 was free from extremes. Both the heat
and the rains were fairly well distributed — though the ag-
gregate of the latter during the spring and summer months
were considerably below the average fall for these months.
The rainfall for the fall months was excessive, yet interf erred
but little with the harvesting of the crop. Irrigation was
practiced once (May 30th). The cane was killed December
3rd and 4th by a frost of 29 degrees F., entirely, on untiled
lands; partially on tiled lands. Subsequent weather per-
mitted the harvesting of the crop without much loss. The
year was fairly favorable for tonnage and sugar content.

The year 1894 gave a good cane crop. The rainfall was
nearly up to the Average and fairly well distributed. On
July 4th a fall of 3.02 inches of rain occurred in 1 hour and
10 minutes. The spring and summer months favorable to
crops. Fall very dry, necessitating irrigation. On Decem-
ber 29th theraiometer went down to 19 degrees, killing and
splitting the cane, rendering it unfit for sugar making. The
year was favorable to tonnage, with a fair sugar content.

The year 1895 was ushered in by one of the coldest spells
known to this climate, accompanied with snow 11 inches
deep, lasting several days, temperature (Feb. 14th) 15 de-
grees F., killing orange and olive trees and injuring old
stubble. Excessive rainfall in May. On 22d, 23d and 24th
the precipitation was 6.66 inches. Season too wet in May
and June for good cultivation of crop and too little pre-
cipitation in July, August and September for maximum
yields. Hence crop in some places small. Over the State
only a fair tonnage with good sugar content. Fall very dry,
and irrigation used to plant cane and alfalfa. Rainfall for
the year above the average.

The year 1896 was only fair for the sugar crop. The
spring was comparatively dry. There were deficiencies of
rainfall in July, August and September. Fall fairly wet,
somewhat delaying grinding. The yearly rainfall was light
and not well distributed. The crop was rather under a
maximum, but sugar content good.

The following is the comparative weather statement for
eleven years:

CLIMATE, WITH WEATHER RECORD.

87

1887

1888

1889

1890

1891

1892

1893

1894

1895

1896

Spring months, 1886. .
Spring months 1887 . .
Spring months, 1888 . .
Spring months, 1889
Spring months, 1890 . .
Spring months, 1891 . .
Spring montlis, 1892 . .
Spring months, 1893 . .
Spring months, 1894 . .
Spring months, 1895 . .
Spring months, 1896 . .
Summer months, 1886 .
Summer months, 1887
Summer months, 1888 .
Summer months, 1889 .
Summer months, 1890 •
Summer months, 1891.
Summer months, 1892 .
Summer months, 1893 .
Summer months, 1894 .
Summer months, 1895 .
Summer months, 1896 .
F:ill months, 1886 . . .
Fall months, 1887 . . .
Fall months, 1888 . . .
Fall mouths, 1889 . . .
Fall months, 1890 . . .
Fall months, 1891 . . .
Fall months. 1892 . . .
Fall months, 1893 . . .
Fall months, 1894 . . .
Fall months, 1895 . . .
Fall months, 1896 . . .
Winter months. 1887 . .
Winter months, 1888. .
Winter months, 1889 . .

degrees.
70.3
70.2
70.1

69.98

68.2

67.7

68.4

68.05

68.43

68.76

69.3

69.3

69.7

71.2

68.4

65.8

67.3

69.1

69.19

67.56

69.65

83.3

83.5

81.0

82 9

83.1

80.0

80.6

81.7

79 55

8196

82.25

73 0

60.5

70.1

68.7

74.5

66.8

69.3

67.1

68 14

68.84

69.98

59.

5»?.6

57.3

a^

9i

u

a|

a-

= 2

§2

03 5"

.2 3

^r^

S.^

degrees.

degrees.

97.

22.

98.

27.

96.

30.

95.

27.

98.

29.

99.

21.

99.

28.

99.

19.

98.

15.

98.

24

93.

37.

94.

40.

92.

36.

91.

40.

87 5

27.

90.

37.

91.

28.

93.

30.

91.

32.

90.

34.

94.

37.

97.

66.

97.

62.

98.

65

96.

67.

95.

67.

98.

57.

99.

63.

99.

57.

99.

63.

98.

68.

98.

65.

87.

33.

92.

30.

89.

3-5.

91.

34.

92.5

38.

95.

29.

84.

38.

95.

32.

92.

32.

93.

35.

93.

34.

82.

22.

77.

27.

82.

31.

inches.
62.43
75.33
45.98
52.65
56.37
66.82
56.00
58.92
68.87
55.83
20.04
12.04
18.47
6.42
15.96
6.53
20.30
11.32
14.87
18.66
10.38
18.93
24 91
29.98
22.32
19.20
;3.49
22.95
14.21
23.37
25.67
18.77
11.79
9.80
9.19
5.30
9.87
15.09
13.32
20.39
3.71
5.74
15.89
15.68
17.69
11.94

38

THE SUGAR CANE.

it

t

if
•II

1^

2

if
.la
.5 a

1

Winter months, 1890

Winter months, 1891

Winter months, 1892

Winter months, 1893

Winter months, 1894

Winter months, 1895

Winter months. 1896

degrees.
62.5
67.1
53.3
55.6
52.99
48.40
57.91

degrees.

81.
78.
79.
78.
82.
77.
79.

degrees.
45.

29.
21.
28.
19.
15.
24.

inches.
4.53
21.36
10.25
10.08
16.97
18.80
10.79

Taking the table and the seasons, we find that a dry, warm
winter, followed by a moderately dry spring, and this, in
turn, followed by a hot, wet summer, are conditions favor-
able to maximum growth of cane. It seems, too, that a dry,
cool autumn, beginning early in September, is necessary to
produce a large sugar content.

After the cane is laid by, frequent showers of consider-
able intensity appear highly beneficial, and if not supplied,
the crop will not reach the maximum tonnage.

CHAPTER VI.

DRAINAGE.

Nowhere on earth is drainage more essential than in the
alluvial districts of Louisiana, and while many plantations
may be considered well drained, the average planter has
not yet fully appreciated the necessity for multiplying open
ditches to the extent of forcing his soils to their fullest
capacity. This is evidenced by a trip over the State and
observing the varying distances between ditches which ob-
tain in different plantations.

Only in very dry seasons can badly drained lands be
made to yield large crops. Since these unfortunately oc-
cur only at long intervals, the average yields on such lands
are far below their natural capacity. On badly drained
lands neither fertilizer nor cultivation have their full effects,
hence the discordant opinions which frequently prevail
among our planters, from the use of the same fertilizer or
the same method of cultivation. From the experience of
this Station it is almost impossible to be "over-drained,"
provided the work of draining be intelligently performed.
It is well for every planter to study his system of drainage,
examine his ditches, see if they be deep enough, wide
enough and sufficiently abundant to carry oft' our heaviest
rainfalls and retain the "bottom or ground water" at a
constant depth below the surface. Excellent results can
be obtained with open ditches, provided they are numerous,
deep and wide.

In the lower sugar district these ditches should be at
least as close as 100 to 125 feet, and deep enough to hold
the bottom water at least three feet below the surface.

The expense and attention annually required for the pre-
servation of open ditches and the loss of land incident to
them, together with many other disadvantages would force
all of our planters sooner or later to adopt

Tile Drainage^

but for the great first cost, and to the absence of fall in the
lands, by which the tiles can clean themselves. Tiles laid
with great care on the Sugar Experiment Station, are gradu-

40 THE SUGAR CANE.

ally filling up with silt, and apprehension is felt that at an
early day they will have to be abandoned and a return made
to open ditches. There is not a great fall in the canal be-
yond the station into which the tiles empty, and every heavy
rainfall backs the water over the mouths of the discharging
tiles, checking the flow from the latter. This may account
for the filling of our tiles with silt. This is greatly to be
regretted, since the superiority of tiles over open ditches
is apparent in every operation of the farm, from the flush-
ing of the land to the harvesting of the crop, the great ob-
jection to the former being the large outlay of money re-
quired in putting the tile down. It is confidently believed,
however, that the decreased cost of subsequent cultivation,
the increased area of land and the enhanced acre yields ot
products, to say nothing of the numerous and continuous
little expenses and annoyances incident to open ditches will
more than pay the interest on the investment and leave
yearly a handsome balance for a sinking fund, which in a
short time will liquidate the principal required for their
construction.

The results have unifoniily shown increased tonnage in
all those plats where tiles have been used. This increased
tonnage has, however, been attended with a decreased sugar
content, a result which was to be expected from the known
benefits of tiles. Upon tiled lands canes appear earlier in
the spring and is the last to be killed in winter by the frost.
This has several times been demonstrated on this station
on plats with the same exposure and differing in conditions
only in drainage.

Great care is needed in putting down tiles, and only expe-
rienced engineers should be entrusted with the work, since
if proper grades be not given to the fall of the tile more
harm than good may be accomplished. Again, the (.'apacity
of tiles of various sizes, as well as an acquaintance with
our heaviest rainfalls, must be known so that proper cal-
culations may be made for the selection of tiles sufficiently
large to take off our heaviest rainfalls in a given time. It
must be remembered that in this climate rainfalls of 5 to 7
inches sometimes occur. Owing to the humidity of our lo-
cal climate a large part of these rainfalls must be drained
off. The character of our soils also prevents rapid down-
ward percolation. Tiles are too small when they will not
drain off the rainfall in twenty-four hours after its cessation.
Water permitted to evaporate above tiles puddles the sur-
face, closes the drain pores of the soils and temporarily ob-
structs the efficacy of the tiles.

Tables giving the capacity of different sized tiles are given
in nearly all the works on drainage. The amount of water

TILE DRAINAGE. 41

falling upon an acre may be easily calculated in gallons
when the inches of rainfall are observed. It is therefore
easy to avoid this error by simply learning the heaviest
daily rainfall known to this country," calculating the area to
be drained and the amount of water to be carried off, and
from the tables take the tiles capable of making this dis-
charge in twenty -four hours.

It is even yet uncertain whether tiled drainage will per-
mit of the entire closure of open ditches and quarter-drains
on lands having a unifonn fall from the banks of the river
back to the swamps. The rows are usually run with the slope
of the land and in heavy rainfalls the water rapidly runs
down the middle of each row and accumulates at the lower
end in ponds which will puddle the soil and prevent dawn-
ward outlet through the tiles. Hence a quarter-drain is
needed to let off this accumulated surface water.

Perhaps running the rows at right angles to the slope of
the land and as near level as possible, may correct this ap-
parent difficulty.

Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the importance
of drainage to our sugar lands, and w^hen a planter thinks
he is well drained he will probably increase his yields and
profits by doubling his ditches and quarter-drains.

CHAPTER VII.

IRRIGATION.

The Louisiana sugar planter of to-day is confronted with
low prices and unreliable labor, depleted soils and reduced
yields, reciprocity treaties and increased imports, mon-
opolistic trusts and monied combinations, prolonged drouths
and injurious rainfalls. He must therefore call to his aid
every means which will remove the obstacles to maximum
crop production. Next to drainage, irrigation is perhaps
the most needed factor in the problem of annual large
crops. A full crop is rarely obtained oftener than once in
five years, and eighty per cent, of the failures are assignable
directly to drouths. Irrigation, therefore, eliminates the
great element of chance from our planting operations, and
together with good drainage make the planter nearly in-
dependent of the freaks and idiosyncrasies of the weather.

From accurately kept meteorogical records it is learned
that maximum crops of sugar are made in Louisiana after a
mild, dry winter, succeeded by a spring with moderate rains,
well distributed; in their turn supplanted by abundant
showers at close intervals during June, July and August,
winding up with decreased rainfall in September, with the
remainder of the fall dry and clear. We cannot control the
dry and warm winters, but we can mitigate the effects of a
wet, cold one by proper drainage, and we can give our crops
abundant water in the summer months by irrigation.
Whenever we realize that water is the most essential
chemical ingr-edient supplied to our plants and is needed
for the transportation of all the other ingredients through
the plant, then will provision be made to supply it in need-
ful quantities, when rain is withheld. The amount of water
needed by cane plants has already been dwelt upon. The
contents of the cells must be kept moist. The protoplasm of
each active cell must retain its glutinous semi-liquid con-
dition in order that its function may be properly performed.
Decrease the moisture and you increase the consistency of
the protoplasm and with it diminish the vital activity of
the plant.

PROPER IRRIGATION. 43

A plant must be properly charged with moisture in order
to grow freely. Hence, in wet seasons, with an abundance
of fertilizers, the sugar cane grows very rapidly, and if the
moisture and other conditions favorable to growth be main-
tained till harvest, it comes to the sugar house low in sugar,
since the sugar cells are gorged with a surplus of moisture.
Interrupt the growth by dry weather and give the cane a
period of repose, and its cells lose the excess of moisture,
and the cane gives a juice high in sugar.

Irrigation is sometimes needed in Louisiana for other pur-
poses than supplying the growing crop with water. Many
a planter has lost his seed cane from dry rot when a slight
irrigation of the soil in which it was windrowed would have
saved it. Seed cane has frequently refused to germinate
when planted in dry, cloddy soils, for its want of proper
moisture, when irrigation would have furnished a superb
seed-bed. In many a field, in spring, may be seen the plow
and cultivator rolling the obdurate clods to and from the
young plants in an honest but fruitless effort to pulverize
them, when a mere saturation of them with irrigation water
would have caused their disintegration.

There is scarcely a year that irrigation cannot be em-
ployed profitably on a plantation.

The Sugar Experiment Station established an irrigation
plant in 1891, and since that time has used it successfully
over twenty times. Crops in all stages of growth have been
irrigated. Freshlv fallowed lands have been fiooded to
bring them into a state of pulvtrization suitable for the
planting of alfalfa and clovers.

Cane rows have been opened and irrigation water run
down them, to prepare the soil for the reception of cane.

Both surface and sub-irrigation have been tried; the
former on our untiled lands, and the latter on tiled plats,
using the tiles as pipes to caiTy the water, after closing
with valves, the main connecting each plat. The tiles are
four feet deep, and sub-irrigation through them is a great
waste of water, and while large and growing plants with
entensive root systems are completely watered, small plants
in the elevated rows and clods on the surface are but little
affected. Hence sub-irrigation is not always as effective as
surface irrigation, nor as general in its application.

The results from irrigation of cane have been uniformly
successful and satisfactory, sufficiently so to justify the
assertion that the profits of irrigation were very large in
tonnage and with no sacrifice of the sugar content of the
cane.

In establishing irrigation ditches, the reverse of drainage
ditches must be observed. In the latter, the line of lowest

44 THE SUGAR CANE.

level from the levee to the swamp, is found and followed,
while in establishing the main irrigation ditch the back-
bone, or line of highest elevation, is carefully determined
and pursued. This ditch transports the water through the
plantation. From this ditch on both sides water may be
drawn into the lateral or quarter-drains, following still the
lines of highest elevation.

From these laterals, water may be drawn into the lowest
parts of the field. Our plan in irrigating was to fill the
middles of the rows nearly full, permitting the water to re-
main all night and drawing it off in early morning through
the drainage ditches. By accident, however, it was found
that cane would stand a complete inundation for forty-
eight hours, with the water at a temperature of 72 degrees,
while the maximum temperature recorded in the station's
w^eather bureau was 90 degrees F. No fears should be en-
tertained of injuring the cane by too much water, for a
reasonable time, say two days, in applying it, provided that
when it is drained off, it is well and quickly done; in other
words, the land is well drained.

Water can easily be drawn from the adjacent river, or
bayou, by nearly every sugar planter in the State. The
erection of a boiler, pump and syphon will be needed to
lift it over the levees. Nowhere, possibly, can a systematic
irrigation plant be established and maintained at a less
cost than in Louisiana, and our very variable seasons de-
mand it as an adjunct to every plantation tiiat aims to make
maximum crops every year.

CHAPTER VIII.

SOILS BEST ADAPTED TO CANE.

From what has been already said, those soils which con-
tain the largest fertility, and have a large water-holding
capacity, are best adapted to large crops of cane. Requir-
ing so much moisture, the cane, like all the grass family,
does best upon clayey or heavy loam soils unless artificially
aided by irrigation. Even then the soils must be sufficient-
ly retentive to prevent a too rapid downward percolation of
supplied water, or else the profits will be exceeded by the
costs of too many irrigations and the washing away of the
soluble plant food.

Included in "fertility" is a large amount of humus or
vegetable matter which is the controlling factor in determin-
ing the amount of fine earth and moisture in a soil. Ti'opical
soil, subject to heavy rainfalls, are almost universally
adapted to the growth of sugar cane, since the heavy rains
induce a luxuriant growth of vegetation upon such soils, and
this vegetation, in its transition into hunius, furnishes simul-
taneously organic acids which decompose the soil particles
into very fine earth. Hence such soil, in the course of time,
become rich in organic matter and very finely divided earth,
the lattef supplying the mineral and the former the nitro-
genous food, and both (but particularly the humus) retain-
ing that excessive moisture so essential for healthy cane
growing. Perhaps the heaviest acre crops of sugar in the
world are taken from the soils of the Hawaiian Islands.
There are four large islands in this group, whereon sugar is
grown in large quantities. Hawaii is a wet island,
the cane crop depending wholly upon the natural rainfall.
The other three use regular irrigation in the growing of
cane. Dr. Walter Maxwell, Director of the Experiment
Station at Honolulu, in a recent publication, gives a sum-
mary table, showing the mean of the results in the examina-
tion of the soils of the four islands, which are based upon
nearly one hundred analyses, which is here given:

46

THE SUGAR CANE.

ISLAND.

Lime,
per cent.

Potash,
per cent.

Phos. Acid,
per cent.

Nitrogen,
per cent.

Oahu

K»uai

Maui

Hawaii

.380
.418
.3«6
.185

.342
.309
.357
.346

.207
.187
.270
.513

.176

.227
.388
.540

With such fertile soils, and with perfect control of the
supply of water, no wonder that ten tons of sugar have been
made per acre.

CHAPTER IX.

SUGAR SOILS OP LOUISIANA.

Nearly all of the land devoted to sugar cane in this State
is of alluvial origin. The soils of the Mississippi valley
and its outlying bayous are but the agglomerations of the
materials brought down by water from over a score of States
and deposited upon the blue clays of the Champlain or
Port Hudson Group, through which the river has cut its
channel. These paaterials have been assorted and deposited
by running water, hence there are found soils varying from
fine sandy loams to stiff clays, often in the same field, show-
ing the varying velocities of the current which transported
and deposited them. In a rapidly moving current, soil par-
ticles of every size are mechanically carried. Check this
current and the coarsest materials are deposited. In fact,
as the velocity is decreased, particles of soil, decreasing
in size, are deposited until finally, when the waters are
stilled, the finest silt and clay are gradually released. All
sediment-bearing streams flowing through low plains build
up banks in flood periods on either side by the deposition of
material, due to the retardation of the velocity of water
along their edges. With each subsequent overflow the
coarse material would increase near the stream, while
across the flood plain, extending from river to the swamps in
the rear, would be spread particles decreasing in size till the
swamps were reached, where, on account of the stagnation
prevailing, the finest clay would be deposited. One should
expect, then, the sandiest soils near the river and the stiffest
in the swamps. Strictly speaking this is true; but the ever-
changing banks of the Mississippi, due to caving and the
numerous crevasses occurring since man began the system
of leveeing, have so changed the relations of the stream to
its banks, and so modified surface appearances as to disguise
this general fact and render it subordinate to local cojidi-
tions.

Allusion has been made to the blue days through which
the Mississippi has cut its channel. Underneath these clays

48 THE SUGAR CANE.

occur a stratum of gravel and coarse sand. In times of
flood, the rapidly moving current frequently washes away
these deposits, and when the floods subside and the banks
are no longer sustained by hydrostatic pressure, caving oc-
curs, and with it a change in the location of the banks and
direction of the river. Crevasses greatly modify the surface
soil; small ones having only local effects, while large ones,
like the Nita or Belmont, superimpose many millions of cubic
feet of sediment, and frequently change the tillable charac-
ter of entire plantations. As a rule, too, the coarsest mate-
rial will be found high up the stream, with the silt and clays
near its mouth. Hence, as we descend the Mississippi river
the soils, generally speaking, become more and more clayey,
until we reach the clay mud lumps of the delta proper.

Our soils, then, of the sugar belt lying along the Missis-
sippi river and its numerous bayous, may be considered as
varying from silty loams to very stiff clays.

There are also the red and brown lands, varying from
sandy loams to loamy clays of the Red river and its outlying
bayous, the Teche, the Boeuf, the Cocodrie and Robert,
which have been formed by a similar process by the Red
river, though drawn from a much more restricted area of
country.

The prairie lands west of Franklin, varying in character
from black stiff clays to silty loams, are our bluff-lands sec-
ond-hand, which have been removed from the western bank
of the Mississippi river and spread out over the marshes of
southwest Louisiana. These bluff lands occur in situ on the
eastern bank, running continuously from Baton Rouge to
Vicksburg, giving us several parishes in which sugar cane is
grown. They are usually silty loams and are also of allu-
vial origin, though antedating the present Mississippi river.
The bluff and prairie lands, and the alluvial deposits of the
Red and Mississippi rivers and their bayous, give the soils
upon which the sugar cane of Louisiana is grown.

Soils are only disintegrated rocks mixed with vegetable
debris and more or less charged with micro-organisms,
through whose agency the food for plants are rendered avail-
able. It is not only necessary that an abundance of plant
food exhibited by chemical analysis be present, but it must
be in an available form. The more finely divided the rock
particles, the larger the quantity of available food, the great-
er the surface areas of its particles, and therefore a large in-
crease in surface tension which gives an increased capacity
for holding moisture. Therefore the mechanical condition
of the soil is frequently of more importance than a chemical
analysis. Formerly a soil was regarded as being a mass of
inert matter whose ingredients were rendered soluble by the

SOU.S IN LOUISIANA. 49

action of air, water and chemicals. This view has ^'iven
way to a knowledge recently gained by scientific investiga.
tions, that all fertile soils are swarming with microscopic
organisms which are essential to the proper elaboration of
the food materials in a soil for plant use.

Hence a thorough investigation of a soil involves a chem-
ical analysis, a mechanical separation of its particles, a
study of its physical properties, and a microscopic research
for its bacterial content.

. A chemical analysis will give its contents of silica, iron,
alumina, lime, magnesia, potash, soda; phosphoric, sulphu-
ric and carbonic acids; chlorine, nitrogen, etc. The total
quantities of each of the above soluble in the selected sol-
vent are given, but no definite method has yet been devised
by which a knowledge of the immediate availability of these
ingredients may be obtained. Chemical analysis has, how-
ever, a high value in the hands of a trained chemist.

The particles of soils vary gi'eatly in size as well as in
constitution, and a knowledge of the mechanical formation
of a soil frequently throws a flood of light upon its relation
to heat and moisture, as well as suggestions upon its culti-
vation. It has been conveniently agreed that all particles
in a soil between 1 and 2 mm.* in diameter shall be called
fine gravel; between .5 and 1 mm., coarse sand; between .25
and .5 mm., medium sand; between .1 and .25 mm., fine sand;
between .05 and .1 mm., very fine sand ; between .01 and .05,
silt; between .005 and .01 mm., fine silt, and between .0001
and .005 mm., clay. Such an analysis describes the
texture of a soil and determines the crop which
should be grown thereon, by comparing the water-carrying
capacity of the soil with the water requirements of the crop.
To illustrate, the more clayey the soil, the greater its carry-
ing capacity, and the nearer the approach to pure sand, the
more droughty it becomes. Grasses, in which sugar cane
may be placed as a gigantic specimen, require at least 25 per
cent, of moisture continually in the soil for best results, a
condition found frequently in clayey bottoms; while some
vegetables, as melons, do best on soils carrying only 4 per
cent, of water, and hence find congenial environments in our
climate on very sandy soils.

Other crops grown in this latitude require intermediate
quantities between these two extremes.

It may be remarked, on the other hand, that very large
quantities of clay or sand are often equally objectionable,
giving excesses of moisture or dryness, both being detri-
mental to the welfare of bacteria, which are necessary to
soil fertility.

♦Note.— Mm., millia]etre=0.393 of an inch.

50

THE SUGAR CANE.

The conditions necessary for bacteriological existence in
our soils are the presence of air, and water, a favorable tem-
perature, an absence of light, the presence of proper chem-
icals, and inoculation with the bacteria desired.

The bacteria best known, and in which we are mostly in-
terested, are those taking part in nitrification, and are of
three distinct types or genera: 1. Those which convert ni-
trogenous matter into ammonia. 2. Those which convert
ammonia into nitrous acid. 3. Those which convert nitrous
acid into nitric acid. Each are necessary to the complete
transformation of the nitrogenous matter in the soil to nitric
acid, the form of nitrogen chiefly available as plant food.
Since nitrogen is the most costly ingredient of our fertili-
zers, estimated at present to be worth 15 cents per pound,
it is evident that the farmer or planter should endeavor to
maintain such conditions in his fields most favorable to
these ferments, and thus enhance his harvests by drawing
upon his soils, rather than upon purchased fertilizers.

With these preliminary remarks, let us examine several
typical soils of each of the sections of the sugar belt. The
following are given from hundreds of analyses made in the
laboratories of the stations, and are selected because they
represent t.ypical soils and have also been subjected to me-
chanical analyses, which are given further on. These soils
represent the alluvial soils of the upper and lower positions
of the cane belt of the Mississippi river, the brown loam
and whitish soils of the bluif formation, and the sugar lands
of the Red river deposits.

They are from Evan Hall plantation, Messrs. McCall Bros.,
McCall P. O., Ascension parish; from Home Place, of J. H.
Meeker & Bro., Rapides parish, and from the State and
Sugar Experiment Stations, Baton Rouge and New Orleans.

TABLE No.

-Chemical Analyses of Soils.

LOCALITY,

si

1

6

a

3

1

."2
'S
<

2

•6

1

3
«

P.

3

as

U

o

g

2

Evan Hall Plant, Cut 9

'• 2f>

" 31

S8.r20
83.510
80.800
m.680
83.710
79.210

86.516
86.420
62.550
70.102

90.650

.092
.170
.133
.162
.125

.158
.173
.143
.142
1S4

.394
.272
.545
.313
.182
.434

1.494

2.376

.910

.787

.170
.163
060
.120

.087
.047
.044
.025
.036

.089

.052

1.361

.814

.114
.160
.121
.085

1.12

6.620
5.041
6.3;^
5.68
6.99

6.822
5.256
13.444
11.28

4.225
6.510
6.67
8.80

.068
.137

Aoa

.126
.075
.075

.098
.092
.146
.161

.064
.128
•112
.106

.028
.038
.038
.046
.139
.037

.043
.031

;6i9

.036
.025
.021
.016

2.96
4.45

.097
.118

'• " '• " 37

4.10 .130

" " " " 44

3.91
3.51

1.90
3.33
6.65
3.16

3.15
2.74

2.82
4.21

1?0

"52

.112 .111

.283'. 081
.206 .122
.747 .181
.414 .021

.100.078
.164;. 054
,120 n7«

117

Home Place, Meeker Bros., soil from 2cl

front. 4 acres deep, Rapides parish ...

Ditto, 10 acres deep

.060
084

Sugar Exp. Station, dark soil

085

liifhtsoil

State Experiment Station, Baton Rouge,
bluff soil

.112
096

Subsoil of same

89.79
87.72
83.00

074

Ditto, white soil

080

Subsoil of same <

.180

.123

.105

SOILS IN LOUISIANA. 51

An inspection of the above and many other similar soils
would lead to the conclusion that the contents of valuable
ingredients in the average soils of the sugar belt would be
about as follows: Lime .5, potash .4, phosphoric acid .1, and
nitrogen .1 per cent. In an acre to the depth of 12 inches,
estimated to weigh 5,000,000 pounds, there would be 25,000
pounds lime, 20,000 pounds potash, and 5,000 pounds each
of phosphoric acid and nitrogen. An average cane crop of
25 tons, including tops and fodder, will contain about the
following: Lime 20 pounds, potash 60 pounds, phosphoric
acid 35 pounds, and nitrogen 75 pounds. Hence there is
lime enough for 1250 crops of cane, potash for 333, phos-
phoric acid for 150, and nitrogen for 70.

There is, therefore, no deficiency of plant food in our av-
erage sugar soil, and the aim of every planter should be to
extract yearly the maximum amounts, which can be obtain-
ed only with proper drainage, supply of water (irrigation) in
summer, and proper preparation and cultivation of the soil.

Table No. 2 gives the mechanical analyses of the soils
whose chemical analyses have been given. Additional soils
characteristic of many localities are also given.

62

THE SUGAR CANE.

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PREPARATION OF SOIL. 53

From table No. 2 it will be seen that very few of these
soils can properly be called sandy. They are loamy silts
or silty clays. Their water capacity is great, requiring spec-
ial attention to drainage in order to reduce it to the amount
most favorable to soil ferments. The clayey content of sev-
eral suggests the propriety of breaking at exactly the right
time—neither too wet nor too dry — throwing it into ridges
to relieve it of excessive moisture and providing for escape
of flood waters.

The Red river soils, particularly the front lands, are large-
ly composed of very fine sand, with small portions of clay,
while the bluffs and prairie soils are mainly silt.

'Numerous experiments have been made at the Sugar Ex-
periment Station during the past two years to determine the
rate of nitrification on the different soils and at dift'erent
depths, and on soils variously treated.

In every instance nitrification was most abundant at a
depth of three to four inches, decreasing in depth until at
two feet it was practically naught. In lands in good tilth,
or manured with stable manure broadcast, or with a good
growth of cow peas, nitrification was rapid and copious. It
was more abundant on the ridge of the rows than in the
middles. Drainage could almost be measured by the rate
of nitrification. In badly drained soils it was almost entire-
ly absent, while high dry ridges gave abundant evidence of
the activity of the microbes. An immersion of the soil for a
few hours, by a heavy downpour of rain, suspended for two
days the process of nitrification. It was more abundant in
soils lightly stirred than in those cultivated with the plow.

Soils stirred daily gave increased quantities of nitrogen
over those stirred weekly, and more in the latter than in
those stirred bi-weekly.

In fact, good drainage and frequent surface cultivations
were prime factors in rapid nitrification.

Preparalion of Soil.

With this knowledge of our soils we can now proceed to
apply the well-established principles of preparation of all
crops.

Since these soils are so strongly silty and clayey, and
being level, are without natural drainage, it is manifest that
they should be placed in a condition of artificial drainage, to
insure warmth and necessary conditions of bacterial growth.
Every operation should look to the maintenance of these
conditions. Hence flat culture is unsuccessful. They
should be broken as deeply as possible to admit air, to assist
in drying out excessive water, and most important, to give

H THE SUGAR CANE.

as large an area as possible for the foraging of the roots of
the cane, since experiments have shown that in stiff lands
but few roots pass beyond the broken soil. They should be
broken as early in the fall as possible, thrown into high
ridges and the middles, quarter-drains and ditches well
cleaned out, for the quick removal of winter rains.

The spring should find each row in the condition of an
ash bank, and the planter should endeavor to keep it so by
proper cultivation throughout the season.

We break lands to prevent the natural tendency of all
soils to return to rocks, evidenced frequently in the hardpan
just beyond the plow. We break land to destroy weeds and
grasses and relieve the soil of foulness, preparatory to the
growth and sustenance of the cultivated crop.

We break land to control moisture, throwing up in high
ridges to relieve excessive nioisture and flushing or plowing
flat to conserve the winter's rainfall for the summer's crop,
on dry soils. If the work of preparation has been properly
done, in accordance with the nature of the soil and the de-
mands of climate, subsequent planting and cilltivation are
simple processes.

If, however, our work has been Imperfectly performed,
then subsequent cultivation must be directed to the acquire-
ment of tilth, which is simply obtaining the best conditions
for the growth of crops.

Tilth, however, should always be obtained, if possible,
before planting, and then cultivation would simply be a
maintenance of tilth. Unfortunately such a happy condi-
tion does not always prevail. From haste, overcropping,
bad weather, carelessness, and sometimes from ignorance,
furrows are hastily thrown together, seed planted in cloddy
soil, ditches shallow and foul. The poor stands thus ob-
tained are cultivated more with a view of getting land in
good tilth than to benefit the plant. Again, the crop, after
it has reached the age when rapid and shallow culture
should be practiced, is, from causes given above, left to con-
test with grasses and weeds the soil designed solely for it;
or perhaps unfavorable seasons may keep away the plows
until weeds and grass have taken possession of the land.
Then comes the turn plows and hoes, and by heroic efforts
they are buried or removed. In either event, the results are
the same, the crop has not been improved by such treatment.

Plan Pursued bv Our Planters.

The plan usually pursued by our best sugar planters is as
follows: Corn planted early and laid by early, and at lay-by
sown in cow peas, at the rate of one to three bushels per
acre. The corn is gathered early and the vines turned un-

PREPARATION OF SOIL. 55

der in August or September, with four to eight-mule plows.
The lands are thrown into beds or rows from 5 to 7 feet
wide, the middles are broken out with double mould-board
plows, the quarter-drains are cleaned to a depth of six in-
ches below middles of the rGws, the ditches are maintained
at the proper depth. The row^s are opened, the cane is plant-
ed and covered.

If every detail has been properly attended to the soil in
the rows will be maintained throughout our winters in a
condition favorable to nitrification and growth. No water
should at any time cover the rows even for a short while,
and the drainage should be such that none should ever ac-
cumulate either in the middles or quarter-drains.

The above plan, if rigidly followed, leaves but little room
for improvement in the preparation of our soils for cane. If
the subsequent cultivation of the crop w^as as skilfully and
scientifically performed, our acre yields would be greater
and our money returns more satisfactory. The fundamental
principles underlying successful agriculture everywhere
may be expressed in the following: A thorough prepara-
tion of the soil, proper fertilization and shallow and rapid
cultivation.

CHAPTER X.

VARIETIES or CANE.

Prior to the inauguration of the Sugar Experiment Sta-
tion in 1885, the Creole, Otaheite, Purple *(or Black Java),
Purple Striped (or Ribbon), LaPice, Palfrey, Purple Ele-
phant, and Japanese canes, were the only varieties that had
been imported and grown in this State. This assertion is
based upon an extended investigation by the writer to ob-
tain all available data upon this subject. If any other va-
riety had been introduced prior to this date, the writer is
without any information thereto. In 1886, through the
courtesy of Hon. Norman J. Coleman, then Secretary of
Agriculture for the United States, the Hon. Thos. Bayard,
Secretary of State, instructed the United States Consuls in
sugar countries to collect and send to the Sugar Experiment
Station samples of all varieties of sugar cane obtainable.
Accordingly there were received in a few months thereafter
samples from the following Consuls: Ramon O. Williams,

Havana; W. F. Fuqua, Livingston, Gautemala;

Antigua; Jamaica; St. Domin-
go; ^ Guadaloupe; Moses H. Sawyer, Trinidad;

E. W. Thompson, Hayti; and J. H. Putnam, Hawaii. Also
a number of samples per steamer Baraconta, of New York,
and forwarded through Tyce & Lynch, brokers, of New York,
from an unknown source were received. There were fifty-
five samples in all. Some of them were in excellent order,
and were easily propagated; others in execrable condition —
in fact, every eye dead. These samples were received with
names frequently purely local or descriptive of color only,
giving no indication of origin. A few were intelligently
named. Those sent from the experimental gardens of Dr.
Alvarez Reynosa, of Cuba, through Hon. R. O. Williams,
from Mr. W. G. Irwin, through Hon, J, H. Putnam, were in-
telligently labeled and described. Dr. Reynosa, whose death
was so deeply lamented a few years since by the sugar
planters of Cuba, was recognized as a high authority on all
matters pertaining to sugar cane. His letter, therefore, rel-
ative to the varieties cultivated in Cuba, and the cane suited

VARIETIES OF CANE. 57

to the needs of Louisiana, as well as a description of the
canes sent, is inserted here as valuable evidence.

The letter of Mr. Irwin, also inserted, is a valuable des-
cription of the varieties sent, particularly of those indige-
nous to the Hawaiian Islands.

Extracts from the letter of Hon Moses H. Sawyer, of
Trinidad, showing varieties cultivated on that island, are
also given:

Experimental Pield of Dr. Alvarez Reynosa.

1. Variety of canes cultivated in the island of Cuba.

The only canes cultivated on a large scale are those of
Otaheite, known as the white and crystalline (blanca or crys-
tallina).

The white cane is planted in virgin soil, and the crystal-
line in all other lands.

At first, Creole cane (cana criollo) was cultivated in Cuba
to make sugar, and its planting was continued afterwards
for eating. But for several years past it has not even been
preserved for this purpose, and that now sold in the market
for eating is the white cane of Otaheite.

The purple and yellow ribbon canes (cana de cintas mora-
da y amarilla) were formerly much cultivated here, but were
afterwards abandoned, because it was discovered that in dry
and not very fertile lands they yielded little juice and were
very woody. Nevertheless, these canes when well cultivat-
ed are of excellent qualities. Green ribbon cane of the same
variety was also cultivated, but it was abandoned on ac-
count of being too delicate.

Many varieties of cane have been introduced in Cuba from
Porto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad, and Mauritius, but of these
little remain, none of them having been cultivated on a large
scale. The elephant cane (cana elephante) was somewhat
cultivated, but afterwards abandoned because of its brittle-
ness, and not ripening well, being besides too thick to grind
it with regularity in the sugar mill. Many persons have
uprooted it.

The crystalline cane in its normal state is of green apple
color, but gives many varieties according to soil, exposure,
methods of cultivation, or atmospheric influences. The
most notable variations of this cane are that of acquiring a
peculiar yellow color in certain soils, which makes it resem-
ble the white cane of Otaheite; and another variation is that
taking a more or less purple color, which makes it resemble
other canes of different colors or shades, above all that of
the purple ribbon cane (cana de cinta morada). Neverthe-
less, those canes, notwithstanding their variations, recover
their genuine original character if planted in proper lands.

58 * THE SUGAR CANE.

The number of different varieties of cane supposed to, do not
exist; but their variations are numerous.

2. Cane best adapted for cultivation in Louisiana:
The canes that I consider best for this purpose, owing to
their great precocity for ratooning, are those called "Caven-
geri," "Portii," "Loucier/' "Bambu" and "Black Cane from
Java" (Negra de Java). I do not send the latter because I
know it exists in great quantity in Louisiana and that it is
being experimented upon.

A. The "Cavengerie" comes from Mauritius; it growls
rapidly, ratoons, and matures extremely well. In order
that this cane may be fully appreciated, I will say that I cut
30 canes, leaving numerous ratoons. From these thirty
canes I separated three useless ones, and the other 27 are
put up in a package well prepared. It will be noticed that
these canes have grown from only one eye (una sola yema)
which was put in the ground on the 1st of October, 1885.
The 27 canes mentioned weigh 186 pounds.

B. Is "Portii" cane from the Mauritius Island; it was
highly praised by the manager of the botanical garden when
he sent it here. In effect it is an admirable cane. It grows
rapidly, ratoons well and its juice weighs more than 12 de-
grees Baume. One bunch grown from a single root gave
me 28 beautiful canes, weighing 233 pounds. This bunch
of canes was also produced from one single eye. Of these
I send you five canes weighing 59 pounds.

C. Is the "Loucier" cane from Mauritius, and possesses
the same excellent qualities. This bunch >gave me 34 canes
weighing 188 pounds. Of these I send five canes weighing
41 pounds.

D. Is the "Bambu" cane. It came from Mauritius. In
my opinion this cane grows and ratoons faster than any
other. Nevertheless, I do not dare to give it preference over
the others above mentioned, until after it shall have been
experimented upon, for the reason that suckers are often
developed, forming many upper sprouts which tend to dim-
inish the yield of sugar.

Should you desire further details respecting the cultiva-
tion of cane and the manufacture of sugar, I shall take great
pleasure in furnishing them.

I have the honor to be your obedient servant,

DR. ALVAREZ REYNOSA.

Havana, April 14, 1887.

Extract from letter of U. S. Consul Moses H. Sawyer,
Trinidad, British West Indies :

"There are six varieties, viz.: Otaheite, White Transparent,
Green Rose Ribbon, Red Giant Scarlet, Congo and Bourbon,

VARIETIES OF CANE. 59

and one other are generally planted on this island. Of all
the many kinds that have been tried none others have done
well and only two of these are generallv planted. Otaheite
IS the king cane of this island and Bourbon comes next. In-
deed they are much alike.

"Planters generally plough up for Otaheite once in ten or
twelve years, but in good soil this extraordinary cane has
ratooned here successfully for twenty-three years. The
Transparent, Giant Scarlet and Congo, aiie hardy, and the
Rose Ribbon grows straight up, which entice the planter to
plant them in some quarters; but the great cane fields of
Trinidad are mostly covered with Otaheite and Bourbon. It
should be remembered that Trinidad is drenched in profuse
rains for two-thirds of tbe year, making the soil very wet,
which is not the case in Louisiana; so that the canes which
do so well in Trinidad might not do well in Louisiana, or
vice versa."

The following letter to Consul J. H. Putnam, from Mr.
W. G. Irwin, of Spreckles Company, who undertook the task
of collection, describes the varieties sent:

Honolulu, H. I., August 1, 1887.

SIR: In accordance with your request we have obtained
from one of our plantations thirteen varieties of sugar cane.
The canes are carefully packed and will go forward per
steamship Australia, to-morrow.

The package labeled No. 12 contains four varieties of cane
imported by us from Queensland, Australia, viz. :

Altamatie, red, with faint dark stripes; Rose Bamboo,
pinkish yellow; Yellow Caledonia, pale yellow; Elephant,
pui'ple, with pale green stripes.

These four canes do very well with us, more especially
the first mentioned. The canes labeled Manulete, Uwala,
Ohia, Akiolo, Honuaula, and Papaa, are indigenous to these
islands. These canes, on lands situated at any altitude be-
tween 1,550 and 2,000 feet, are, from the fact of their being
exceedingly hardy, the favorite varieties of our planters for
such lands. The two packages labeled respectively Kanio
and Ainakea, came originally from Mauritius, where they
are known as the light and dark Bourbon canes. These
two canes yield well on our high lands. Lahaina cane. No.
11, was brought here by Capt. Pardon Edwards, from the
Marquesas Islands, and was first planted at Lahaina, whence
its name. This cane is preferable to all others on lands
near the sea level to an altitude of 1,500 feet. Its introduc-
tion into this kingdom has increased the yield of sugar at
least 50 per cent. In consequence of its heavy stooling. this
cane should be planted not less than six feet between the

60 THE SUGAR CANE.

hills. Kokea, No. 13, does fairly well on side hills and dry
lands, but is not a favorite.

We axe, sir, yours truly,

WM. G. IRWIN & CO.

In 1889, the station received from the Botanical Gardens
of Jamaica, through its courteous director, thirty-five va-
rieties.

In 1890, a box of varieties long delayed en route, was re-
ceived from Java. It was sent by an enthusiastic planter
who was anxious to receive in exchange our varieties to test
their value in resisting the "sereh" disease so prevalent in
that island. Several single stalks have also at sundry times
been received from friends interested in sugar. These im-
portations, together with collections of those varieties im-
ported prior to 1885, make up the "garden of sugar cane
varieties," which has been cultivated for several years with
the hope that some variety would be found which would be
better adapted to our wants than those now cultivated in
our State. Up to date our results have not been satisfact-
ory. Cane is a plant which yields slowly to its environ-
ments. It requires a long time and considerable patience
to acclimate it. The inherited characteristics of tropical
tendencies so unsuitable to our short seasons, are but slow-
ly modified by cultivation in our climate. There is, how-
ever, a slow but gradual change in nearly every variety with
each year's cultivation, and a few promise hope of ultimate
benefit to our industry. But the acclimation of old varie-
ties, with the view of obtaining those best suited to our
wants, has been entirely superseded by the introduction of

Seedlings.

Mention has been made elsewhere of the discovery by
Messrs. Harrison & Bovell, of Barbados, of the fertility of
cane seed, hitherto believed to be universally unfertile. In
1890 a package of seed was received from these gentlemen
and every effort made to germinate them, without success.
Another and larger package was received later from the
Fiji Islands and fresh attempts made to germinate them,
but again with negative results. In imitation of the manner
adopted by the above named gentlemen to obtain true seed,
the station planted thirty varieties from all parts of the
world in the large horticultural hall, hoping that in the
course of time all would flower and that the pollen from
some might fertilize the ovaries of the other and produce
true seed. They were cultivated, watered, and otherwise
cared for, with regularity and intelligence. Some of the va-
rieties attained an immense growth, measuring over 20 feet

SEEDLINGS. 01

in length for the mill, and several inches in diameter, con-
taining over 20 per cent, of sugar. All grew well. At the
end of the second year no sign of arrowing was visible.
Many of the canes were penetrating the glass roof, others
were so heavy as to fall from their own weight, despite all
efforts to scaffold them up. Accordingly in the spring of
the third year they were* cut down and all attempts to grow
our own seed abandoned. In 1893, just as we were recover-
ing from sore disappointment in onr failure to secure either
plants from seed or seed from plants, the station i-eceived
from the Royal Agricultural Society of British Guiana,
twenty-one of the most promising of the new seedlings orig-
inating at Barbados,

The seedlings from cane seed vary very greatly in almost
every respect, size, color, sugar content, habits of growth,
etc. Out of 500 young seedlings, perhaps only a very limit-
ed number will prove, upon investigation, worthy of further
propagation. This property of variation common to nearly
all plants, is excessively great in sugar cane, and hope was
entertained that through this property and by careful selec-
tion, a cane may be ultimately be obtained which will be
rich in sugar and at the same time give a large tonnage — the
goal of every sugar planter's ambition. For the first time in
the history of our cane culture, such an opportunity is pre-
sented through this property of variation in seedlings.
Heretofore any marked change in varieties came from ac-
cidental bud variation, which occurred at rare intervals and
were often lost by virtue of the absence of a trained and
intelligent eye to detect and utilize it. By selecting at ma-
turity from a large number of seedlings those plants whose
vigor, size, and sugar content, or some other desirable prop-
erty, were peculiarly marked, and propagating them, over
500 new varieties of cane have thus been introduced. From
this large number, further selection is being made annually,
and those superior to the rest have been generously distri-
buted throughout the sugar world in order to test them un-
der varying conditions. Should concurrent testimony be
obtained from many sources, the cane will be named and
largely propagated. At present these seedlings have only
been numbered from 1 to 500; a few receiving local names.
The following: *XLI, LXI, LXIX, LXXIV, XCV, *CIII,
*CIX, *OXV, *CXVI, CXVII, CXXIV, CXXVIII, ♦CXXX,
*CXXXII, CXXXV, *CCCLXIV, CCCLXXVI, *CCCXCU,
*CCCXCVII, and *CCCCII, were received, as remarked
above, from the Royal Agricultural Society of Demarara.
These have been cultivated to maturity for two years and
been tested, both for sugar and tonnage. Over one-half

* Discarded.

62 THE SUGAR CANE.

of them (12) have been dropped as unworthy of further trial
here. Nos. LXXIV and XCV are very rich in sugar, with
good sized stalks, and stubble well. They have accordingly
been distributed to many planters and have been planted on
a large scale so as to secure enough of each kind for sugar
house work this year.

Last spring there were received from the Botanical Gar«
den of Jamaica the following varieties, which have succeed-
ed admirably there, viz.: CCCXLV, OCLXIX, CVIII, CII,
and XXXXII.

These have not yet reached maturity. The present year
enough canes will be secured to give them the necessary
preliminary tests.

Of the above seedlings, Nos. LXXIV and XCV have both
been found of excellent quality by a number of experiments
in different sugar lands.

Canes Prom Bud Variation.

As an illustration of bud variation, eight years ago some
stalks of cane, partly white and partly purple, were selected
from the field of Soniat Bros., Tchoupitoulas plantation.
They were called by them bastard canes. These stalks were
taken and planted as follows: First row, the entire stalk;
second row, the white joints of each stalk; third row, the
colored joints of each stalk. At the end of the season four
distinct canes as far as color could direct us, w^ere obtained.
Types of the four new varieties were selected, and separate-
ly planted, and the next year were found to be nearly pure.
Selection and separate plantings have been made each year
since. These canes have been named as follows: First, a
white cane, No. 29, Soniat, after the owners of the planta-
tion; second, a light striped, No. 59, Nicholls, after the then
Governor of our State; third, a light purple cane. No. 64,
Bird, after the then Commissioner of Agriculture; fourth, a
dark striped. No. 65, Garig, after the other member of the
Board of Agriculture. The jie\d and analyses of these
canes have been anually made. They, except the white, are
entirely different from any other cane in our collection.

They are now permanent canes in our collection, and with
the exception of the striped varieties, which have the ten-
dency of all ribbon canes to vary under cultivation, are fair-
ly permanent in their typical characteristic, viz, color. Their
sugar contents are fully equal to those of our home ribbon
and purple canes, over which they have as yet no pronounc-
ed excellencies. They are cultivated as evidences of bud
variation.

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 63

Description of Varieties.

The nomenclature of the varieties of cane is execrable.
No sooner is a cane received in a country than it is given a
local name, either that of the introducer, or the country from
which it was directly imported. This is especially true in
this State, where we have the Otaheite cane, the Japanese
cane, the Palfrey cane, the La Pice cane etc. The canes
introduced and thus named are frequently identical with
those known in other countries by old and well established
names. Frequently importers ignore old names and the
countries from which they come and call them by some
descriptive property, more frequently color, e. g., green,
yellow, yellow striped, red ribbon, etc. Several of the con-
suls in sending canes to the station, mentioned only local
names or color and omitted entirely the history of the canes
sent. Ever since the reception of this large number of va-
rieties, the station has been making earnest and persistent
efforts to establish the identity of many of its vai-ieties with
the prominent ones of old sugar countries, as well as seek-
ing the original home of each one, but so far very little sucv
cess has been attained. It is difficult to compare canes and
eliminate individual differences even when grown on the
same soil and under the same conditions. It is therefore
almost impossible to decide identities in varieties when
grown under such diametrically opposite circumstances
as exist in Louisiana and a tropical island, e. g., Cuba. There
is, however, a growing demand on the part of those scien-
tifically cultivating cane, to have all this confusion of
names eliminated, and a movement is on foot looking to a
solution of this perplexing problem. It can only be done
by interchanging freely all the known varieties and have
them all cultivated under exactly the same environments.
Could this be done at all of the botanical gardens and ex-
periment stations within .the sugar districts, it would not
only afford numerous comparisons of the same varieties
under varied conditions, but would throw perhaps a Hood
of light upon the important question of differentiation under
changed environments of the numerous varieties under
test.

This station has accordingly, after consultation with
those similarly interested in other countries, sent samples
of all its varieties to Hawaii, Australia and Demarara, with
a view of comparing them with the varieties of those
countries and establishing synonymous canes. It will also
gladly exchange with any botanical garden or experiment
station, the numerous varieties under cultivation here.

By an adoption of the above suggestion, it is believed

64 THE SUGAR CANE.

that in a few years valuable information to general cane
culture would be obtained.

Before describing the numerous varieties under cultiva-
tion at this station, it is well to put on record the testimony
relative to the introduction of those canes found in Louisi-
ana before 1885.

As has been already stated in the "History of Cane in
Louisiana," the Jesuits of Leogane sent from St. Domingo,
in 1757, the first cane ever introduced into this State. It
was the Malabar or Bengal variety, subsequently known all
over the world as Creole cane. It was with this cane that
Etienne De Bore made the first crop of sugar in this State.

The Otaheite was introduced from the same island (St.
Domingo) about the year 1797. From these varieties all
the sugar of Louisiana was made until 1825, when Mr. John
J. Coiron, of St. Bernard parish, imported a sloop-load of
ribbon canes from Mr. King, of St. Simon Island, near Sav-
annah, Ga., and planted them upon the St. Sophie planta-
tion. A detailed account of this importation is given in
the "History of Sugar Cane in Louisiana" from the pen of
Mr. J. B. Avequin, long a recognized authority on sugar in
this State, and the discoverer of the existence of cerosin on
the stalks of the sugar cane. From this importation came
both the ribbon and purple canes of this State.

During the administration of Mr. LeDuc as the national
Commissioner of Agriculture, he had imported into this
State the Japanese or Zwinga variety of cane. This is a
very hardy variet}^, withstanding very low temperatures
and great neglect in cultivation. It is a woody, hard cane,
deficient in juice, and therefore gives a low extraction with
pressure. Its fibre is high and sugar content only fair.
The stalks are small but numerous and difficult to prepare
properly for the sugar house, on account of its dry fodder
adhering closely to the stalk. It ratoons or stubbles well,
and for higher latitudes is a most excellent substitute for
sorghum in syrup making. Its juice is very easy to work
in the sugar house. I have dwelt upon the qualities of this
variety since it may be possible to utilize it profitably in
North Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, and
Georgia, where the other varieties of cane would not suc-
ceed.

Mr. Duchamp imported the Purple Elephant in 1875, and
Mr. Palfrey, of St. Mary, introduced about the same time
the cane which bears his name, which is doubtless of the
Bourbon type.

The following courteous letter from Mr. Burgundy La
Pice explains the origin of the La Pice cane, also called
"Panachee," "Beltran" and "LeSassier." It is identical, as

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 65

will be seen elsewhere, with the Crystallina and Light Java,
Hope and Tibboo Merd, etc., received by this station.

Lauderdale Plantation.
St. James Parish, October 20, 1891.
The cane is called La Pice. My father, P. M. La Pice,
in 1872, at the age of 75, went to Java and imported several
varieties of cane, among which is the cane that bears his
name, called in its own country "Canne Panachee," because
it tasseled very soon. When this cane first arrived, it was
of a bright yellow color, with a very soft rind. At first it
was very delicate and could stand no cold. On account of
the beautiful quality of sugar and molasses made from this
cane I would not give it up, and I feel that it has now be-
come thoroughly acclimated and stands the cold as well as
any cane. I am so much pleased with the results of this
cane that I am abandoning the red cane for it. It has
changed color considerably and is now greenish yellow; the
rind, too, has become much thicker. I always get more
yield per ton and better tjuality of sugar and molasses
when I grind a cut of this cane. The fancy sugars and
molasses of Westfield and Annalese are made from this
cane. BURGUNDY LA PICE.

The station, by continued cultivation, has been enabled
to reduce greatly the number of varieties which came to it
from all parts of the world under purely local names, by
proving the identity of many of them.

It is curious to watch the changes wrought in a foreign
variety by cultivation under new conditions. The station
has provisionally divided all varieties into classes and
groups.

First Class — White^ Green or Yellow Canes.

GROUP I.

No. 1, Panachee, from Mr. R. Beltran, New Orleans.

No. 2,' La Pice, from Mr. Burgundy La Pice, St. James.

No. 3, LeSassier, from Mr. Henry LeSassier, New Orleans.

No. 4, Tibboo Merd, from Manilla Islands.

No. 5, Bourbon, from Trinidad.

No. 6, Crystallina, from Dr. Alvarez Reynosa, Cuba.

No. 7, Green, from Cuba.

No. 8, Light Java, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

No. 9, Hope, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

All of above are identical, and the imported canes have
passed through the same metamorphosis described hj Mr.
La Pice. They are all excellent canes and worthy of ex-
tension among planters, especially among those who con-
tinue to make choice syrups and open kettle molasses. In

66 THE SUGAR CANE.

Louisiana they should all be known as the La Pice Cane, in
honor of the introducer, though Light Java would better
indicate its probable original habitat.

GROUP II.

No. 10, Yellow, from Cuba.

No. 11, Blanca de Otaheite, from Dr. A. Reynosa, Cuba.

No. 12, Loucier or Lousier, from Dr. A. Reynosa, Cuba.

The Otaheite is extensively cultivated in the West Indies,
and the Loucier on the islands of Mauritius and Reumon.
It is difficult to find a difference between them in our soil.
They are fairly good canes, ratoon well, but juices are high
in solids not sugar, and objectionable to work in sugar
house. The leaves are covered with little prickles which
enter the flesh quite easily and sometimes produce painful
sores. They all came originally from the Island of Tahiti,
or Madagascar, and to indicate their origin they should be
called "White Tahiti." They are as yet of little value in
this country.

GROUP III.

No. 13, Portier, from Dr. A. Reynosa, Cuba.

No. 14, Lahaina, from Hawaii.

No. 15, Keni-Keni, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

It is said that the last got its name from the retail ven-
dors of stalks of the Lahaina cane in the streets of Honolu-
lu, so many stalks for Keni-Keni, which is the Kanaka for
ten cents.

The above are unquestionably the same cane. They are
the last to come up in the spring, ratoon or stubble very im-
perfectly, rarely giving even one-fourth of a stand, but grow
very rapidly when once up. They are large canes, with very
fair sugar content, and may ultimately, by acclimation, do
well as plant cane, but promise nothing as stubble, and at
present are unworthy of cultivation. They came originally
from Marquesas Islands, and were introduced by Capt.
Pardon Edwards into the Island Lahaina, of Hawaiian
group, whence the name. This cane has added largely to
the output of sugar in these islands, where it is now almost
exclusively cultivated. See letter of Mr. W. G. Irwin else-
where.

GROUP IV.

No. 16, China, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

No. 17, Green Elephant, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

These are closely allied to Group HI, but differ essential-
ly in habits of growth and ratooning. They are very large,
tapering canes, low in fibre and rich in juice of a low sugar

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. • 67

content and purity; unworthy of cultivation. Their origin
is unknown, but is presumed to be Cochin China.

GROUP V.

No. 18, Rose Bamboo, from Hawaii.

No. 19, Salangore, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

No. 20, Vulu Vulu, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

These canes are not identical. In fact, they are distinctly
unlike, but have one common characteristic, \iz: parallel
narrow cracks, or streaks, of a brownish color, upon the
maturer joints of the stalk.

The Rose Bamboo is a fine, large, erect cane, withstand-
ing storms which prostrate completely our home varieties.
Eight selected stalks of this cane, taken from a pile at the
sugar house of this station, weighed 64 pounds. It is low
in sugar, rarely giving as high as 10 per cent. here. At
maturity the immense leaves fall off of their own weight,
leaving a large erect stalk of a rose color. Salangore and
Vulu Vulu are but faintly streaked, and of a dirty greenish
color. They are all long jointed, with rather enlarged in-
ternodes. They are cultivated extensively in the Straits
Settlements, and doubtless originated somewhere in South-
ern Asia. Wray says the Salangore is the finest variety
in the world.

GROUP VI.

No. 21, Pupuha, from Hawaii.

No. 22, Kokea, from Hawaii.

They are both natives of Hawaii, are green in color, with
faint and narrow pink stripes upon matured joints. They
are devoid of prickles and cerosin, are erect, large, unique
canes, rich in sugar and fibre, low in glucose, but quite
high in solids not sugar, which continuous cultivation has
not yet reduced to a point to justify extensive adoption.
They are among the most promising of all varieties. They
stubble well and give heavy tonnage.

GROUP VII.

No. 23, Uwala, from Hawaii.

No. 24, Lakoua, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

Uwala is a native of Hawaii, and is a beautiful, large green
cane, with black spots just above the nodes, turning red
at maturity. Its pith is often highly discolored, a property
common among all the Hawaiian canes. It is very low^ in
sugar and high in glucose, and solids not sugar. It is of no
value w^hatever, though fine to look upon.

Lakoua is a large, green cane, of better quality than
Uwala, but not yet of sufficient merit for commendation.

68 • THE SUGAR CANE.

Its origin is unknown, but it has strong resemblance to
the Hawaiian canes.

GROUP VIII.

No. 25, Cuban, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

No. 26, Sacuri, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

Both are clean, smooth, green canes, of under size, rich
in sugar, but low in tonnage. They are both lacking in
vigor during growth and size of stalk. They do not stub-
ble well. If vigor of growth and size of stalk could be
obtained, they, would be very desirable canes, since their
sugar content is large.

No knowledge of their original home.

GROUP IX.

No. 27, Yellow Caledonia, from Hawaii.

A stout, clean, short green cane, much larger at the base
than summit. Under glass in Horticultural Hall, gave a
very large stalk, 20 feet long, with 20 per cent of sugar.
In the open field* a failure with us. It is a native of New
Caledonia.

GROUP X.

No. 28, Creole cane, introduced by Jesuits, 1757.

It is a short, very yellow cane, still cultivated in some gar-
dens for eating. It is of no value for the sugar house. It
came originally from Malabar or Bengal.

GROUP XI.

No. 29, Japanese, or Zwinga, from Japan.

Introduced by Commissioner LeDuc. It is "sui generis,"
and may possibly be a different species of cane. It is ex-
tremely hardy, enormously productive under good cultiva-
tion, exceedingly woody, difficult to crush, and of a moder-
ate sugar content. Proper cultivation might eliminate
some of the objectionable qualities.

Its origin is unknown, as no mention of this variety oc-
curs in any writings on sugar cane, and is perhaps not culti-
vated elsewhere than in Japan.

GROUP XII.

No. 30, Bamboo, from Dr. A. Reynosa, Cuba.

A peculiar cane with enlarged nodes (hence its name),
and prominent eyes, prone to develop into suckers with ex-
cessive moisture. It tillers and ratoons splendidly, and
has an immense leaf development, but is low in sugar. As
yet it is unworthy of cultivation.

It is a native of Bengal, being there called by the natives
"Kulloa." It is said to flower, or arrow, very freely.

DESCRIPTION OP VARIETIES. «9

Second Class — Striped Canes.

GROUP I.

No. 31, Malay, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.
No. 32, Brisbane, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.
No. 33, Green Rose Ribbon, from Jamaica Botanical Gar-
dens.

These canes are apparently identical, and of no industrial
value. They are beautifully striped with green and rose
stripes. In Mauritius they are classed as canes of first
merit. They probably originated in Southern Asia.

GROUP II.

No. 34, Red Ribbon, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

No. 35, Mexican Striped, from Mexico.

No. 36, Batavian, from Java.

No. 37, Home Ribbon, imported, 1825, by Mr. Coiron.

They are identical. After years of growing them here,
one variety can not be told from the other. The Red Rib-
bon and Batavian Striped are being extensively cultivated,
to test whether they will ultimately be an improvement
over the Home Ribbon, now cultivated in this climate for
nearly seventy-five j^ears.

They came originally from Tahiti, and are usually known
as the Otaheite Ribbon cane. They flower very freely.
They are purple striped, upon a yellowish background.

GROUP III.

No. 38, Tsimbic, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

No. 39, Ysaquia, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

No. 40, Vituahaula, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

No. 41, Home, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

A very unpromising group, not clearly allied, though
possessing the common characteristics of a red stripe, more
or less broad, on a yellow background.

Ysaquia has in addition similar streaks possessed by
Group V, Class I, and Home somewhat resembles Group VI,
of same class. We have no positive knowledge of their
original home, except the Tsimbic, which is a native of New
Caledonia.

GROUP IV.

No. 42, Ainakea, from Hawaii.

No. 43, Kainio, from Hawaii.

No. 44, Akilolo Light Striped, from Hawaii.

A peculiar group, with common properties of dark, some-
times variegated, foliage, closely appressed to the stalks;
large, straight, soft canes of delicately tinted stripes. Aina-

70 THE SUGAR CANE.

kea, bright yellow stripe on a deep green background, and
the other two red on a similar background.

According to Messrs. Irwin, Kainio and Ainakea are from
Mauritius, where they are known as the light and dark
Bourbon canes, and it is probable they were introduced
there from New Caledonia. Akilolo Light Striped is prob-
ably a native of Hawaii.

GROUP V.

No. 44, Akilolo, Dark Striped, Hawaii.

No. 45, Manulete, from Hawaii.

Are both of dark foliage, with a wide purple stripe upon
a light purple background. They seem to be identical; are
large, soft canes, beautiful to look upon, with dark-green
leaves, with mid rib quite red, closely appressed to the
stalks. Of little value. They are natives of Hawaii.

GROUP VI.

No. 46, Cavengerie, or Scavengerie, from Dr. A. Reynosa,
Cuba.

No. 47, Altamattie, from Hawaii.

No. 48, Po-a-ole, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

These are, in appearance, magnificent large red canes,
with faint black stripes. Erect, long jointed, soft and
vigorous. As much as sixty-four tons per acre has been
harvested on this station. They revel in rich soils, with an
abundance of rain. Could a fair content of sugar be coaxed
into them, this variety (for they are all identical) would be
one of the most desirable in our collection. They came
from New Caledonia originally.

Third Class — Solid Colors Other Than Class I.

GROUP I.

No. 49, Norman, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

No. 50, Grand Savanne, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

No. 51, Naga, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

Are unlike canes of same type. They are small, vigorous
canes, and are said to be valuable for high dry latitudes.
They are unsuited to our industry. They more nearly re-
semble the Japanese variety than any other that we have,
yet they fail by a long measure from approaching the
peculiar characteristics of this unique variety.

Their origin is unknown, though their peculiarities point
to some of the Pacific islands as their habitat.

GROUP u.

No. 52, Black Java, from Java.

Identical with our purple cane, and is so called in contra-
distinction to White Java. Separate cultivation from our

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 7J

purple cane has been discontinued. It is undoubtedly a bud
variation of the Ribbon cane, and therefore came originally
from Tahiti.

GROUP III.

No. 53, Brekeret, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

No. 54, Marabal, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

Are so nearly identical that doubts are entertained wheth-
er the former has not been sent through mistake. They
are rich purple canes with enlarged internodes, very large
and attractive stalks; very soft, with a yellowish red pith;
ratoon well. They are attractive in every way, save sugar
content and abundance of prickles on leaf sheaths.

They evidently came from south of Asia.

GROUP IV.

No. 55, Purple Elephant, from Ed. Drouet, New Orleans.

Is unlike any cane in the collection. It was intro-
duced by Mr. Eugene A. Duchamp, of St. Martinsville, in
1875. It is very brittle, breaking at every joint when sub-
jected to mill pressure, making it difficult to grind. It is an
enormous cane, very soft, and cultivated only as a curiosity.
It is a native of CochiUj China.

GROUP v.

No. 56, Ohia, from Hawaii.

No. 57, Honuaula, from Hawaii.

No. 58, Papaa, from Hawaii.

No. 59, Cuapa, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

No. 60, Liguanea, from Jamaica Botanical Gardens.

These are clean, claret-colored or black canes, with pecu
liar ornamental foliage closely appressed to stalk. The
first three seem to be identical and are natives of Hawaii.
Cuapa is smaller, of lighter foliage and almost black (with-
out luster) in color. It yields an imme^nse tonnage. It is
short-jointed and moderately rich in sugar, but high in non-
sugars.

Liguanea is a short, stout, cane of moderate habits; simi-
lar in color to Cuapa.

It is probable that both Cuapa and Liguanea are of Poly-
nesian oriijin.

CHAPTER XI.

COMPARATIVE MERITS OE OUR HOME CANES—
THE STRIPED AND THE PURPLE.

Elsewhere the origin of our red or purple ribbon cane is
given. Quoting from Mr. J. 13. Avequin, it is pronounced a
native of Java and was introduced from Batavia to the West
India Islands about the middle of the last century. Mr.
King, of Savannah, Ga., brought a schooner load of it from
the Island of St Eustatius and planted it on St. Simon's
Island, near the mouth of the Savannah river, in 1814. Mr.
John J. Coiron brought a dozen or more stalks from Savan-
nah in 1817 and planted them in his garden at Terre aux
Boeufs. He followed this small importation with a sloop
load in 1825, and planted them on the St. Sophie plantation
below New Orleans. This is the origin of our striped cane.

The violet or purple is asserted to be a degenerate variety
of the striped. This assertion, strongly combatted by some,
rests upon fairly good testimony. Old planters assert that
a plantation started with striped canes will untimately con-
tain only purple. In the northern confines of the cane
sugar district, only purple canes are found. Fields planted
only with striped canes, will show in a few years, and
sometimes the first year, both purple and white canes,
evidencing a lack of permanency in this striped cane — a
property common to all striped varieties. The station has
studied this transformation with intense interest and has
found occasionally white stalks with the purple stripe so
faintly delineated as to escape casual observation, and
simultaneously purple canes with white stripes almost as
faintly portrayed, and both mixed with the pure striped
canes, with every proportion of the two colors. This
evolution of the striped cane gives two offsprings, the one
white, with a much more delicate nature, the other pur-
ple, far more hardy.

Indeed, in the differentiation to suit its environments, the
striped cane seems to have adopted the purple color as one
"fittest to survive." The word color is used because, as will

COMPARATIVE MERITS OF HOME CANES. 73

presently be shown, its superiority in sucrose content, ton-
nage, etc., can hardly be determined, so nearly equal are the
claims. The purple color seems to bestow upon it a thicker
rind, a greater capacity to absorb heat, and therefore a hard-
ier nature and increased powers of reproduction.

A few- years ago, taking advantage of some of the many
bud variations, to which all striped canes are subjected, the
station originated four new canes, to which the names "So-
niat," "Bird," Mcholls" and "Garig" were given. See else-
where for detailed statement. These canes have been se-
lected carefully now for eight years, and yet the striped
varieties show no permanency of type.

A few years since the Mexican striped was imported from
Mexico, the Batavian striped from Java, and the Red Ribbon
from Jamaica. They were found, after cultivation, to be
identical with our home "striped." The cultivation of the
Batavian and Red Ribbon has, however, been continued with
every effort to keep them separate and pure. They are fine
canes, giving large stalks, and are very attractive to the eye,
but transformations, similar to those described above, are
already noticeable, and purple stalks are occasionally found,
sometimes in the middle of the plat.

To test the comparative merits of our home canes, experi-
ments were begun in 1890 of selecting and planting each
separately, and have been since continued.

The results of these experiments have been published an-
nually in bulletin form. These experiments have been made
with plant, first and second year stubbles, or ratoons, upon
both tiled and untiled lands. They have been made upon
rows varying in width from three to eight feet, with and
without fertilizers. Both plant and first year stubble have
been used to test the efficacy of windrowing versus standing,
for the preservation of cane for the mill. The standing cane
of both were subdivided into topping and untopping to test
the suggestive question whether the prompt removal of the
sour bud may not arrest the downward fermentation of the
stalk. Duplicate experiments with each cane have been
subjected to different methods of cultivation, with and with-
out fertilizers. In all, more than one thousand comparative
experiments have been made with these two varieties of
cane. In each experiment three rows of equal width and
length were used. In planting, the same length of stalks
were used, and during the season the canes in every
plat were counted three times. 1st, As soon as canes were
well up ; 2nd, at lay-by, and 3rd, at harvest. Each of these
rows were separately harvested; stalks counted, weighed
and worked off in the sugar house with great care, the lab-
oratory following the sugar house, with samples from the

74 THE SUGAR CANE.

canes to the sugar. The results of all these experiments
may be summed up as follows: The striped cane has a
larger stalk, gives a slightly larger tonnage, with slightly
less solids not sugar, and fibre. It therefore contains more
juice and is softer and easier to crush in the mill, and resists
better what is known as "dry rot." The purple ca'ne is con-
spicuous for its increased powers of germination and multi-
plication, and to the latter fact may be ascribed, probably,
the generally smaller stalk. It is harder, than the striped,,
containing more fibre and resists "wet rot" better than its
competitor. In Brix and sucrose there is a wonderfully
close agreement with but slight difference in glucose.
There is more coloring matter in the purple, and therefore
the striped gives a juice slightly lighter in color. In fact,
beyond the reproductive power of the purple and the larger
sized of the striped, the two canes may be said to be almost
identical. Higher fibre, solids not sugar, and coloring mat-
ter, attached to the purple, may modify to some extent its
manipulation in mill, vacuum pan and clarifier, otherwise,
the two canes are similar.

The average germinative or reproductive power of the
purple has exceeded that of the striped by 16 per cent. By
actual count it has frequently risen as high as 20 per cent.,
and sometimes more.

At harvest 6 per cent, more purple stalks existed than
striped. These facts suggest the true reason for the final
survival of the purple in a field where originally both canes
existed. With 16 per cent, more reproductive power, it will
be but a short time before it will be master of a field.

Our experiments Avith mill pressure, and they are up in
the thousands, from the hand mill of the laboratory to the
9-roller mill of the sugar house, invariably show a larger ex-
traction from the striped cane. Our sugar makers have fre-
quently noted the greater ease and shorter time in freeing
the sugar from the masse cuite of the striped with the cen-
trifugal. These sugar house conclusions emphasize the
laboratory results given above. In the field they both show
equal facilities to imbibe fertilizers and to appropriate pros-
perously the waters of irrigation. No difference has been
noted in their capacity to withstand droughts, and both have
strong tendencies to fall down when nearing maturity,
showing shallow root development. The striped cane has a
larger leaf and more foliage than the purple, and of rather
a lighter green. This would indicate a greater capacity for
growth, which is evidenced in the larger size of stalk.

CHAPTER XII.

COMPOSITION or CANE.

Payen's classical analysis of the sugar cane is as follows:

Water 71.04 per cent.

Sucrose 18 02 percent.

Fibre 9.5B per cent.

Nitrogenous noatter 55 per cent.

Resinous, fatty and coloring matter 35 per cent.

Ash .....* 48 percent.

100.00
Or juice 90.44 per cent., flbre 9.56 per cent.

If the cane plant be taken in its entirety (stalk and leaves)

it will have about the following composition, according to

the same chemist :

Water 75.000

Sucrose 15.000

Fibre 9.445

Nitrogen 0.090

Potash 0.086

Phosphoric acid 0.031

Lime 0.041

Magnesia 0.040

Silica, etc 0.264

These are analyses of matured canes grown in Martin-
ique, a tropical country and only approximately represent
Louisiana canes. The canes were selected for the researches
to which they were subjected. It will be observed that they
contained no glucose — which is an exception — since all
canes contain more or less of this substance, especially those
worked in our sugar mills. Cane has a very variable com-
position, depending upon the variety cultivated, the country
in which it is grown, and even the soil in which it is planted.
With us it varies also with the quantity grown upon an acre
and the time of harvest. An examination of the analyses of
the numerous varieties grown upon this station, and pub-
lished from time to time in our bulletins, will convince any
one of the variation of composition due to varieties. A
comparison of the analyses of Louisiana canes with any
tropical canes will exhibit the variation in composition due
to different countries. Every planter knows that the same
cane grown upon black lands is sweeter than those grown

76 THE SUGAR CANE.

upon sandy, and that his yield of sugar per ton of cane va-
ries .with the tonnage produced. The average of seven
canes, usually planted in the Island of Bourbon, is given by
the director from experiments in the Agronomic Station,
as follows:

Water 69.35

Fibre 9.95

Sucrose 19.01

Glucose 34

Organic solids not sugar 75

Ash 60

100.00

leery has given the following as the average composition
of canes in Mauritius:

Water 69.73

Total sugar ... 19.11

Fibre 10.54

And Vandesmet has given for the average cane of Mar-
tinique, the following:

Water 73.25

Fibre 10.10

Sucrose 15.43

Glucose 36

Organic solids not sugar 57

Ash 35

100.00
Before comparing the above, the following facts should
be announced:

In all dry localities cane is smaller, more fibrous and more
sugarj^ In wet climates it is gorged with humidity, less
rich in sucrose but more charged with glucose. In such
cases the cane is always in vegetation and never properly
matures. At harvest it always contains a goodly proportion
of glucose. It is recognized in tropical countries, that canes
with very large stalks and with large and green leaves, al-
ways give undesirable quantities of glucose. Canes grown
very rapidly, and which have come too quickly to harvest,
sometimes designated as "Cannes folles," also contain con-
siderable glucose.

With the above, we can easily see why the canes of Bour-
bon, Mauritius or New Caledonia, cultivated under good
climatic conditions and situated in regions moderately rainy,
are the richest in sugar. The West Indies, on account of
excessive rainfalls, give canes inferior to the above. The
canes of Demarara and Cochin China, planted almost always
in marshy soils and in very wet climates, are not rich in
sugar and their juices rarely show a higher density than 90
degrees Baume, with a high content of glucose.

COMPOSITION AT VARIOUS STAGES. 77

The character of canes jj^rown and the quantity raised per
acre, can be approximately estimated by an acquaintance
with the rainfall and climatic conditions of a country.
Hence the mnrvelous development of the suj2:ar cane in
those countries like Hawaii, where climatic conditions, other
than rainfall, are i)erfect, and the water to grow the canes
is supplied by irrigation. Here just enough water is sup-
plied for the needs of the cane and the injury from excessive
rainfalls is unknown.

The Composition of Louisiana Cane at Various
Stages of Growth.

At the State Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, in 1892,
Prof. B. B. Ross determined the composition of the seed
cane planted, and of the young cane at various stages of
growth up to harvest. The cane used was of the purple va-
riety, first year stubble. It was windrowed November 20th.
On February l^th it was taken from the windrow and plant-
ed. On that day three average stalks gave a juice which
contained Brix 16.00 per cent., sucrose 12.0 per cent., glu-
cose 1.95 per cent, solids not sugar 1.45 per cent., purity co-
efficient 78.75 per cent., glucose ratio 15.48 per cent. Four-
teen average stalks were selected for planting and three re-
served for complete proximate analysis. Each of the stalks
planted was weighed and numbered, and its relative posi-
tion in the row carefully noted in order tiiat the individual
stalk might be located w^hen samples were taken for analy-
sis at a subsequent period. It was intended at planting to
analyze monthly the original stalk (planted) and the canes
growing from it, and thus determine positively the compo-
sition of the cane at different periods of growth, and ap-
proximate the food ingredients supplied by the mother stalk
to the growing plants. The canes were slow in germinating,
and it was the 1st of June before the development was suf-
ficient to justify analysis.

The following are the results of Prof. Boss. The proxi-
mate analysis of the three reserved canes was as follows :

Original Water free
Sample. Sample.

Water 78.48

Ash 0.61 2.37

Albuminoids .... 0.47 1.85

EtherExtract (fats, etc.) 0.64 2.51

Cellulose 4.87 19.09

Nitrogen Free Extract (carbohydrates) . 18.93 74.18

The cellulose or crude fibre in above is the residue insol-
uble in water, dilute acid and alkali, and is not the fibre
(sometimes called marc) which represents the complement
of juice in the cane.

78

THE SUGAR CANE.

Analysis of seed cane, with all the young plants and their
adherent roots (the last cleaned from adherent dirt) was
separately made on June 1st, with the following results:

i i

0)

^'2 %

a

O

^«i-5

73

OS

o

^s

:c

>m

Water

Ash

Albuminoids

Ether Extract (Fats, etc. J

Cellulose

Nitrogen Free Extract (Carbohydrates)

83.38

83.15

0.73

2.52

0.31

1.55

0.36

0.71

4.99

4.78

10.23

7.29

s

62.60

8.59

1.92

0.99

11.62

14.28

On July 14th another sample of the above was taken, and
analyses gave the following composition:

as

4) Oi

OJ

i-oS

s

l; c «

3

<^

'O

59

CP

o <»

GQ

XoQ

Water

Ash

Albuminoids

Ether Extract (Fats, etc.)

Cellulose

Nitrogen Free Extract (Carbohydrates)

83.86

81.84

0.48

1.57

0.51

1.03

0 41

0.72

4.95

5.65

9.80

9.19

o be

02 P

K

77.57
3.13
0.70
0.73
6.54

11.33

The next sample was taken Sept. 25th, when the cane had
obtained nearly its full growth, though far from maturity.
The roots of the cane had now^ become so extensively rami-
fied that it was impossible to secure anything like all of
them; so they were not analyzed. The original seed cane
was difficult to find and identify, and it, also, was not ana-
lyzed. In the following table the analyses of cane, includ-
ing tops and leaves, are first given, then of the stalks and
leaves separately:

COMPOSITION AT VARIOUS STAGES.

79

ns'O

,

, S3 fl

1

1 75*

1

ein
tops
es.

i 1

Can
ing

stal

a

03

Water

Ash

Albuminoids

Ether Extract (Fats, etc.)

Cellulose

Nitrogen Free Extract (Carbohydrates)

72.18
2.02
1.03
0.64
9.6H

14.50

74.00
1.32
0.62
0.57

8.61
14.88

68.86

3.29

1.79

0.78

11.49

13.79

The ash found in above stalks was completely analyzed,
with the following results, which are given as crude ash in
the first column, and in the second reduced to the original
sample of cane planted:

1^

11

O

2.05

30.85

.187

1.60

.009

1.54

.009

6.60

.040

6.19

.037

17.85

.108

9.92

.060

12.26

.074

8.98

.054

1.27

Volatile matter ,

Insoluble matter

Soluble Silica

Ferric and aluminic oxides

Lime

Magnesia

Potash

Soda

Phosphoric Acid

Sulphuric Acid

Chlorine

Another complete analysis was contemplated in October
(the time of harvest), but depredators removed the samples.
A few small canes were left, and on November 1st they were
pressed in a hand mill, and juice analyzed as follows: Brix
19.3 per cent., sucrose 18.7 per cent., glucose 0.46 per cent.,
solids not sugar .014 per cent. These canes showed an in-
creased elaboration of carbohydrates since last analyses,
and it is possible that even larger proportions might have
been developed later.

An examination of the above will show that in the first
period of growth (June 1st) the mother cane had lost albu-
minoids, fats, and carbohydrates. The slight increase in
ash is doubtless due to the variation of the element in all
plants, especially in canes where no two are of exactly the
same age. On June 1st the weight of the young canes was

80 , THE SUGAR CANE.

about two-tliirds that of the mother cane, therefore only a
small part of the essential organic elements of plant food
could have been furnished the young plants by the seed cane.
At this stage of growth the composition of the cane corres-
ponds closely with that of many forage plants, while in sub-
sequent growth it departs further and further from this re-
semblance in composition. The composition of seed cane on
July 14th shows little variation from the analysis of June
1st, indicating that since the young plants had secured roots
for themselves, they had not drawn on mother cane for sus-
tenance. With the cane, as with other plants, the younger
the plant the greater the percentages of albuminoids and
ash, and less the fibre and carbohydrates (sugars, etc.).

An examination of analyses of samples September 25th
and November 1st, will show a marked decrease in water
and a considerable increase in fibre and carbohydrates as
the plant approaches maturity.

The above analyses show that every ton of cane delivered
at the mill would remove from the soil 9.4 pounds albumi-
noids, or 1.5 pounds nitrogen, and 12.2 pounds of ash. This
ash would contain 2.17 pounds potash, 1.48 pounds phos-
phoric acid, and .8 pound of lime. In Louisiana the pro-
portion of tops and leaves to canes is about one to three.
Therefore every three tons of mill canes will give one ton of
tops and leaves. One ton of tops and leaves will remove
35.80 pounds of albuminoids, or 5.7 pounds nitrogen, and
65.8 pounds ash. Since every ton of cane has about one-
third of a ton of tops and leaves, there will be required for
the grov/th of a ton of cane, exclusive of roots, and includ-
ing tops and leaves, 21.-3 pounds Of albuminoids, or 3.4
pounds nitrogen, and 34 pounds ash. When the cane is har-
vested, the trash (tops and leaves) is left on the ground and
usually burnt. In burning, the ash or mineral matter is
restored to the soil, but the nitrogen is dissipated into the
air. Therefore, to one burning his trash, there is with-
drawn from the soil with every ton of cane 3.4 pounds ni-
trogen, 2.17 pounds potash, 1.48 pounds phosphoric acid,
and .8 pound of lime. There is a saving of 1.9 pounds nitro-
gen, by burying the trash, to each ton of cane made, equal
to the nitrogen in 27 pounds of cotton seed meal. From the
above, it will be seen that the quantities of elements usually
supplied in commercial fertilizers are assimilated and util-
ized by the cane in relatively small quantities when com-
pared with other staple crops. The excessive weight, how-
ever, of a crop of cane grown on a given area causes the
total absolute quantities of the ingredients referred to, to
more nearly approximate those removed from the soil by
other plants.

BURNING OF CANE TRASH. 81

Forty tons of cane per acre is not unusual. This amount
would require 136 pounds of nitrogen if the trash was
burnt, or GO pounds if trash was turned under, 87 pounds
potash, and 59 pounds phosphoric acid.

The above quantities of nitrogen would be represented
by 1943 and 856 pounds cotton seed meal.

It would require over 700 pounds kainit to supply the pot-
ash and nearly 400 pounds of a 15 per cent, acid phosphate
to furnish the phosphoric acid, if none were furnished by
the soil.

Burning of Cane Trash.

Shall we then burn our trash or shall it be turned over?
Chemically there is a loss of nitrogen for each ton of cane
harvested, by burning, equivalent to that contained in 27
pounds cotton seed meal. On a field averaging 30, 20 or 10
tons per acre, there will thus be lost an equivalent of nitro-
gen contained in 710,540 and 270 pounds cotton seed meal
— a loss which would be serious in any other agricultural
industry. Why, then, do we burn? The following reasons
are given: The cane borer, w^hich at times becomes so
abundant as to seriously injure the cane, is practically held
in check by burning the tops in the trash, which contains
the worms, thus destroying thousands annually. If a ces-
sation of planting cane on the part of every planter in the
State could be simultaneously practiced for one year, and no
cane saved for seed wherein the worms could hibernate, and
all the trash everywhere burned, it is believed the borer
would be exterminated in Louisiana. Since it is extremely
rare that any are found in the stubble left after cutting
down the stalks, and if by chance any should be so found,
the cold of our average winters and the heat from the burn-
ing trash would destroy them.

Again, our stubbles are liable to be killed during our
winters. It has been clearly demonstrated that this danger
is greatly enhanced by excessive moisture, and the latter is
frequently produced during our winters, if the trash is per-
mitted to remain on the ground or turned under with a plow.
Burning trash off the stubble immediately after the cane is
harvested, leaves the cane rows clear of vegetable matter
and enables them to shed freely the water falling upon them,
and if proper drainage has been established, the entire field
will remain practically dry during our wettest winters and
the stubble will rarely be injured even by excessive cold.
Experiments in burning the trash off immediately after har-
vest have so conclusively demonstrated the wisdom of the
act, that almost every planter in the State seizes the first dry
spell after his cane is cut to fire all his fields. If the trash

82 THE SUGAR CANE,

be left on the ground it will absorb and retain a large
amount of moisture in the spring and thus retard the
sprouting of the stubbles. Burnt fields always give earlier
stubble stands.

Leaving the trash on the field is also a great obstacle to
the proper cultivation of the ensuing stubble crop. A crop
of thirty tons of cane will leave ten tons of a light porous
trash, which during the winter and spring will absorb large
quantities of water, and which, decomposing very slowly,
will prevent the successful running of plows and cultivat-
ors. It is claimed by observant managers that the increase
in the stubble crop, due to a more excellent cultivation ren-
dered possible by burning the trash, will alone more than
compensate for the fertilizing ingredients lost in burning.
These are the main reasons for burning, and an experience
of twelve years enables the writer to pronounce them
sound and valid. The loss of vegetable matter by burning,
is willingly, knowingly, but rigidly sustained to prevent
subsequent losses of a far more serious nature.

Variation in Composition of Different Parts of

the Stalk.

Canes vary in composition, not only with age, in different
countries and on different soils, and under different climatic
conditions on the same soils in the same country, but also
among themselves. Individual stalks rarely ever give ex-
actly the same comx^osition. This will be more fully dis-
cussed under the chapter on "suckers," when it will be
shown that in harvesting a clump of canes, no two will be
found of exactly the same age, and therefore variable in
composition.

Even individual canes have not the same composition
throughout their length. It is well known to every planter
that the butt of a cane is the sweetest part of the stalk, and
that its sweetness decreases as you ascend, until finally the
extreme upper part is almost devoid of sugar.

So apparent is this fact to the taste, that chemical analy-
sis is not needed to convince even the "small boy" who chews
the cane. Yet time and again has the chemist verified this
fact by analysis. He has shown that the sucrose is most
abundant in the lower portion of the cane with a minimum
of glucose. That the former decreases and the latter in-
creases as you ascend the stalk, until finally in the upper
white joints the glucose absolutely predominates. This sug-
gests the wisdom, when only sugar is desired, of lowering
the knives in the field and removing the immature upper
joints, which from their composition are bound to be melas-

VARIATION IN COMPOSITION.

83

egenic in the siij?ar house and perhaps restrain from crys-
tallization othewise available sugar. The analyses of differ-
ent parts of the cane stalk have been repeatedly given in our
bulletins, and to them the reader is referred. Again the
nodes and internodes of a stalk of cane vary in composition
even when taken from the same part of the stalk. The fol-
lowing analysis, taken from Bulletin No. 38, of the nodes
and internodes of twenty stalks of purple canes witii nor-
mal eyes, will show the variation:

a:

Sucrose.

0^

5

Fibre.

Nodes

Internodes

1594
17.4

12.6
15.5

0.13
0.91

3.21
.96

16.5

8.00

From the same bulletin it is found that the nodes vary
from the internodes, not only in the total nitrogen content,
but also in the form of nitrogen present. The nodes con-
taining .1829 per cent, of total nitrogen, of which .1778 is
albuminoids, and .005 amides; while the internodes have
only .0817 per cent, of total nitrogen, of which .0551) are
albuminoids, and .0258 amides. It will thus be seen that
the nodes carry much larger amounts of solids not sugar —
fibre and nitrogenous matters, while the internodes are
richer in sucrose and glucose. This explains why the juices
from the different mills in our sugar houses vary in compo-
sition, and that the juice from the first mill is purer and
more easily worked than that from the other mills. The
first mill extracts juice mainl}^ from the internodes, which
are softer than the nodes. The second and third mills crush
the nodes and extract from them the impurities given above,
and the more powerful the expression, the more impure the
juices obtained. From the description given under the
chapter on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Cane Plant,
the reasons for the presence of the impurities of the nodes
can readily be assigned. Attached to every node is an eye
or a bud, destined to become a future plant. Around this
eye is stored the food for its future use, and in this respect
the nodes resemble the seeds of flowering plants with the
sucrose and glucose of the internodes as a further food re-
serve.

The excess of gums, mucilages, albuminoids and fibre in
the node, is therefore intended as food material for the
young plant until it shall become large enough to obtain
its own food, and these substances are formed in the node

84 THE SUGAR CANE.

during the process of ripening by the condensation of the
simple molecules into more complex and less soluble forms
of gums and mucilages, and by the union of amides and glu-
coses in the presence of sulphur compounds, to form albu-
minoids. As the bud develops, the albuminoids are con-
verted into soluble amides and glucoses, and the gums, mu-
cilages and fibre, into soluble carbohydrates (glucose or
dextrose), which furnish the food for the young plant until
it can draw its own sustenance from the soil. In case this
storehouse should be exhausted before the plant is capable
of self-support, it can draw on the reservoir of sucrose, glu-
cose and nitrogenous matter stored in the internodes, as
shown by the experiment of Prof. Ross, given elsewhere.
The action of ferments during germination will readily pro-
duce the above transformations and may even convert a
part of the fibre into soluble carbohydrates, thus rendering
a portion of this substance available for plant food. The
following, taken from Bulletin No. 38, is the conclusion of
a series of investigations made by Dr. J. L. Beeson in the
laboratory of this station :

"To recapitulate : It has been found in the course of this
investigation that the juice of the nodes of the cane is quite
different from that of the internodes, containing markedly
less reducing sugars, more ''solids not sugars,' and more
albuminoid bodies; that the 'fibre' of the nodes contains
more albuminoids, more insoluble carbohydrates not sug-
ars, which readily pass into reducing sugars; that as the
cane deteriorates, reducing sugars are formed more rapidly
into the nodes than in the internodes. In our opinion these
facts can be best explained by the hypothesis previously
stated, namely, that the physiological function of the node
in the cane is similar to that of the seeds in the case of
flowering plants — to store food in the region of the eye for
the use of the young plant before it has taken sufficient
hold of the earth to draw sustenance from the atmosphere
and soil. The hypothesis is further confirmed by the fact
that the isolated nodes of the cane when planted will ger-
minate and grow to maturity.

"As already shown, there is a marked difference in the
purity co-efficient of the juices from the nodes and inter-
nodes. That from the node gives an average of 81 per cent,
purity, while that from the inter node an average of 89 per
cent, approximo. If a machine could be devised by which
the nodes could be separated from the internodes so as to
work the juices separately, it would doubtless be profitable.
Since the nodes in the samples analyzed constituted about
14 to 16 per cent, of the whole weight of the cane, it would
be a great loss to throw them away. Since the nodes show

DIFFERENCE IN COMPOSITION OF RIND AND PITH. 85

a much lower purity co-eliicient, many short joints on the
stalk decrease the purity of the juice of the whole cane."

Difference in Composition of Rind and Pith.

There has already been shown a marked difference in the
percentage of fibre in the nodes and internodes. By refer-
ence to a magnified cross-section of the cane stalk given
elsewhere, it will be seen that the pith cells are far more
abundant near the center of the stalk and decrease as the
circumference is approached, giving way for the fibre- vascu-
lar bundles. Since the pith cells contain the sugar, it will
be apparent that the central portion of the stalk would be
richer in sugar and lower in fibre than the rind.

Chemical analysis (see Bulletin No. 38, page 1354) shaw«
the rind to contain from 25.6 per cent, to 29.5 per cent, of
fibre, while the pulp contained from 5.40 to 8.70 per cent.
The same bulletin records the following percentages of fibre
in the different portions of an internode cut from the center
of a stalk, "just within the contiguous nodes;" true rind 39.9
per cent., inside rind 13.33 per cent., next to inside rind 6.79
per cent, next to middle 4.77 per cent, middle of stalk 4.13
per cent It was found, in conducting the above experi-
ments, that the diffusate from the inside rind was quite yel-
low, and it is probable that these cells furnish the yellow
coloring matter of the cane juice. On account of this un-
equal distribution of fibre throughout the cane, the prob-
lem of properly estimating it (fibre) chemically in the cane
is far from being solved. The difficulty consists in getting
a sample that will fairly represent the cane. When it is
remembered that the percentage of juice in the cane is
based upon the determination of fibre, it will be evident
that a proper estimation of this substance is essential to a
complete chemical control of a sugar house. Yet, on ac-
count of its unequal distribution throughout the cane, the
accurate method of sampling has not yet been devised.

Difference in Composition Between Plant Cane

and Stubble Cane.

Peligot accuses plant cane of being richer in sugar than
first year stubbles, and first year stubbles richer than sec-
ond, etc.

Our experiences in Louisiana have led us to different con-
clusions. The older the stubble, the more fibre it contains
and less juice, but this juice is richer in sucrose than that
obtained from younger stubbles or plant canes. Every
planter is familiar with this fact. Stubble canes always
give a richer juice, but less extraction, than the plant.

86 THE SUGAR CANE.

This necessarily follows from what has already been ex-
plained under the "Anatomy of Sugar Cane," and else-
where.

In Louisiana, fhe juice of our stubble canes constitutes
about 88 per cent, of the weight of the cane, leaving about
12 per cent, of fibre. Plant canes will average about 8 to
10 per cent, of fibre and 90 to 92 per cent, of juice. In rare
instances, the fibre has been found as low as 6 per cent. In-
crease of fibre always means a decrease of juice, but the
latter carries a higher density.

CHAPTER Xlll.

MODES or REPRODUCTION.

As already explained, a stalk of cane is divided into nodes
and internodes. At the base of each node is an "eye" or
bud, (see fig. 2 and fig. 14), which under proper influences
develops into a stalk of cane. Around each bud are fhe
parallel semi-transparent lines or dots, which develop into
roots simultaneously with the evolution of the bud. These
roots, if developed on the standing or growing cane and ai'e
in close proximity to the ground, will penetrate it and form
true roots of the cane. If, on the other hand, the stalk be
buried, as is commonly done in planting cane, simultaneous
with the sprouting of the eye, will occur the development
of these roots, which nourish, in part, the young sprout, at
least, till the latter has reached a growth to send out from
its base its own roots. This has been demonstrated by the
following experiments made by the writer: Two stalks of
cane of the same variety and of the same number of eyes and
of equal lengths were planted in boxes of pure sand and
watered. A mixture of nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and
kainit, was intimately mixed with the sand of one box, while
the other contained only pure sand. At the end of a given
time, both stalks had completely germinated. The sprouts
in the fertilized sand were twice as high as those in the
pure sand. A removal of stalks with sprouts from the box-
es was made, and on examination it was found that no
roots from the bases of the young sprouts had yet appeared
and the difference in growth between the canes grown in
fertilized and unfertilized sand was plainly due to the fertili-
zer absorbed through the roots shooting from the mother
cane around each eye.

In another box of sand, fertilized as the one just men-
tioned, several joints of cane were placed, with the embryo
roots around the 'eyes removed carefully with a knife. At
the end of a given time, the sprouts were developed, but
were of same size as those sprouted in pure sand, and bore
an unhealthy look. In this instance nothing was absorbed
from the sand, and the sprouts were simply evolved from

88 THE SUGAR CANE.

the mother stalk. Frequent transplanting of young sprouts
with mother cane attached, has shown that when the opera-
tion is so carefully performed as not to injure these roots,
the young plants suffer much less than when ruthlessly re-
moved. These roots furnish both water and food to the
young sprout. How long they continue to perform this
function has not been definitely determined, though it is
probable that they cease to exercise the function of roots
soon after the young plant sends out its true roots from its
base.

It was thought until recently that the above method was
the only way of propagating the cane. The assertion made
by the celebrated voyager, Robert Bruce, that cane was
grown from true seed in Egypt and India, has been vigor-
ously denied by all writers on the sugar cane. It is only
a few years since Messrs. Harrison and Bovell announced
to the world that the cane bore fertile seed and that they
had produced full grown canes from seed collected by them.
This discovery has changed the opinion of all botanists re-
latiye to the absolute infertility of cane seed; and the as-
sertion of Bruce is not now regarded as such an egregious
error. Since this discovery of Messrs. Harrison and Bovell,
hundreds of persons have propagated canes from seed. The
cane, therefore, is capable of being propagated by seed, but
on plantations the old method of propagating from the stalk
is still exclusively pursued. The seed are very small and
are covered with a thick silky pappus which makes them
difficult of germination. Besides, the proportion of fertile
seed is very small, and even in these the vitality is of short
duration, so short as to be incapable of germination after
long transportation, however carefully they may be packed.
When the cane is left to itself in a wild state, it naturally,
when mature, falls to the earth. Its eyes, coming in contact
with humid soil, sprout rapidly and produce new stalks
which live at first at the expense of the mother cane until
sufficiently developed to draw upon the soil, when they be-
come in the ordinary conditions of other vegetables.

CHAPTER XIV.

SUCKERING OF CANE.^

The question of suckers in cane has probably been dis-
cussed from every standpoint by planters as much as any
question involved in the sugar industry. That suckering is
a natural function of the cane plant, that cannot be suc-
cessfully repressed, was positively proven by the earlier ex-
periments of this station. Like the entire family of grasses,
to which it belongs, cane multiplies by a process known in
botany and among cereal growers as "tillering." See fig-
ure 14.

In foreign countries, as is shown by Mr. Skeete's article,
given elsewhere, almost the entire crop is made up of suck-
ers. They plant in holes, six feet square, a piece of cane
containing three eyes and frequently gather 50 to 100 stalks
of matured cane from each stool. That variety of cane
which suckers the most vigorously and gives the largest
number of matured stalks to the stool, provided its sugar
content and other qualities are good, is preferred. There
the length of the season favors the maturing of the large
number of suckers which are so abundantly produced. In
Louisiana the season conditions forbid the maturation of
suckers born after a certain date (about July 1) and the par-
amount question is how far suckers shall be encouraged, and
when and how to repress them when a sufficient quantity
has been obtained. Experiments conducted for many years
in the best width to give cane rows, pointed out the curious
fact, that the number of canes per linear foot harvested,
increased directly with the width of the row, and that the
individual canes decreased in weight in the same proportion.
A five foot row, one acre long, had fewer canes on it than
on the six foot, and the six foot a less number than seven,
and seven than eight. Simultaneously the individual canes
were heaviest on the five foot row, followed in order by six,
seven and eight foot rows. These curious results suggested
that cultivation, which was performed in all the rows with
the same cultivators, had probably checked the process of
suckering in one direction, just in proportion to the ap-

90

THE SUGAR CANE.

FIG. 14.

Showing the stalk of cane planted, the young plant with three suckers starting
at the base, and the small roots coming from young plants.

proach of the cultivators to the cane, and this suppression
of suckers had given an opportunity to the surviving canes
to develop more fully.

The next question suggested was how far apart in the
row should the young stalks be in order that subsequent

SUCRE RING OF CANE

91

suckering may give the best results. To determine this
question the following experiments were conducted for 180'2-
1893:

Purple cane was used in the plat. It was bedded, like
gardeners bed sweet potatoes. When the bed had sprouted
sufficiently, each sprout was removed by cutting the mother
cane on either side of it. This sprout, with its attachment
of mother cane, was carefully examined, to see that no
undeveloped eye was left on the adherent cane. Twenty-
one rows, five feet wide and one-half acre long, were
thoroughly prepared for the reception of the sprouts. The
rows were divided into three equal parts. On the first part
the sprouts were transplanted exactly six inches apart; on
the second or middle part twelve inches apart, and on the
remaining part eighteen inches. These were transplanted
on March 24th and 25th and were well watered. They
grew off well. These plantings gave us respectively 17,600,.
8,840 and 5,865 stalks per acre. Each row was counted
again June 26th, and at harvest. During the last week in
October they were harvested. There were twenty-one rows
of each, giving us sixty-three separate and distinct experi-
ments, which were carefully worked up on a horse mill.
The stalks from each experiment were counted, weighed and
run separately through the mill, the juice collected in a large
tank, thoroughly mixed, and duplicate samples taken and
carefully analyzed. The following are the averages of the
twenty-one experiments of each :

NO. STALKS TO
ACRK.

CO

C

s

2:

a

a

05

s

CO

s
5

C

OS

3-

00.

PLANTS SET.

•g

Urn

OS

o

a
s

1-9

1

03

1

6 inches apart .
12 inches apart .
18 inches apart .

17600

8840
586

72325
51188
37230

39050
32964
29070

2.17
249
2 60

42.55

41.60
37.24

13.10

12.6

13.0

9.1

8.33
8.99

2.39
2.64
2.63

1.61
1.63
1.38

On June 26th there were 4.1, 5.8, 6.35, respectively, more
stalks on the 6 inch, 12 inch and 18 inch rows than were
planted. In October there were 2.2, 3.7S, 5. times more than
were planted. To every sprout planted on the 6 inch plat
there were 3.1 suckers, on the 12 inch plat 4.8, and on the 18
inch plat 5.35. When harvested, however, there were only
1.1, 2.73, and 4, the rest had perished in the battle for exis-
tence. These losses represent 33,275 stalks to the acre
(nearly as many as were harvested) on the 6 inch plats;

92 ' THE SUGAR CANK.

18,228 perished on the 12 inch plats, while only 8,1G0 were
suffocated on the 18 inch plats. A close examination of the
plats at harvest revealed the presence of dead stalks of all
sizes, from a few inches to several feet in height. It is well
known that the soil contributed to the growth of these dead
plants and its available fertility drawn upon just in propor-
tion to the amount of matter contained in them. To this
extent, therefore, it may be claimed as w^asted soil fertility.
But how much vitality has been expended by the living
plants in producing these suckers, and what delay in their
growth has been occasioned by this wasted vital energy, are
yet unsolved problems. The difference in the tonnage and
the sugar content of these plats is such as may, probably, be
charged to accidental variation of soils, since some of the 18
inch plats gave among the highest results. Not so, however,
with the average weight of stalks, which was almost uni-
formly highest with the 18 inch plats. From these experi-
ments it would appear that suckering depends largely upon
room — the greater the distance apart the greater the number
of suckers. It further appears that there is no practical end
to the process of suckering, provided ample room for such
multiplication be given.

In 1894, a further series of experiments were begun look-
ing to a more complete solution of the question of suckers.

Both the purple and striped varieties of cane were used.
They were bedded and transplanted as described above.

Five plants of each variety were transplanted at distances
apart of 6, 12 and 18 inches, making 30 in all. Labels pro-
perly numbered were attached to the stalks when trans-
planted.

A book was kept in which were recorded the dates of
transplanting and births and deaths of suckers. Every
morning the row was visited by the chemist in charge, who
tagged by numbers every newly born sucker and entered
simultaneously the fact in the record. Every sucker that
perished was also recorded with date of its death. At the
end of the season each clump of plants was overturned
with a grubbing hoe with adherent lables and carefuiiy
studied. The original stalk was found and its relation to
all the others minutely studied. After tracing the relation-
ship of each stalk to the original one planted, they Avere
each separately weighed and analyzed. These experiments
have been repeated for two years, and the following is a
summary of the results: Of the original canes transplanted
in 1894, four died without issue (2 purple 6 inches and 18
inches, and 2 striped 12 inches and 18 inches) and four died
in August and September, all striped (2, 6 inches, and 2, 18
inches) leaving suckers. In 1895, only one (purple 12 inch)

SUCK BRING OF CANE.

93

of the original stalks transplanted died (June 13) and it left
issue, only one of which was harvested.

The following is a summary of the results for two years:

{D

'O !

.

*

Cfi

02

<» 1

0)

T3

•>

u

;-

-1.J

OQ

73

0)

OS

0)

01

0)

5 .

>->

a

>

^

3

§i^

"oQ

5

OQ

OR

o

03

c

C» OD

^i

KIKD OF CANE.

0?

"5

2

c

6

. S3

■it

o

]3d

o

o

*^ fl

■^ a

^ C3

"^ 2

ti 5

s

in

s

s

OD OS

S 08

m *

OJ e8

a 08

%

o
c

09

6

C O

r?

c o

r?

5

6

tH

^

^

^

J""

I--

I— 1

w-

fX^

Htriped

1894

3

49

18

3

14

1

8

38.9

'•

r .

6

1895

5

31

11

4

7

2

4

44.4

Purple

6

1894

4

25

10

2

11

1

4

46.6

u

6

1895

5

25

9

4

6

0

3

46.6

striped .

12

1894

4

49

13

6

19

0

5

30.0

t(

12

1895

5

44

17

6

13

2

6

45.0

Purple

12

1894

5

35

18

2

12

1

7

57.5

(t

12

1895

4

34

19

4-

10

1

7

55.3

Striped

18

1894

2

56

26

4

22

0

11

459

(t

18

1895

5

48

29

6

14

2

11

64.2

Purple

18

1894

4

67

26

9

16

0

9

41.7

(>

18

1895

5

45

19

5

10

2

6

48 0

An i

QS

P

ec

tio

Q 0

f the

?al

)0V

e t,

able ^

all sh

ow th

at 58.9 per

cent, of the suckers that started, jierished during the year
1894, and 53.9 per cent, in the year 1895. Of total canes,
plants and suckers, started, 44.8 per cent, in 1894, and 52.8
per cent, in 1895, were harvested, showing that over one-
half of the young canes had been killed in the battle for
existence.

The table further shows about 63 per cent, of the suckers
died in the 6 inch,"58.7 in the li2 inch, and 53.7 per cent, in
the 18 inch experiments.

Fewer suckers started from canes 6 inches apart than
from 12 inches, and fewer from 12 inches than 18 inches,
when the percentage of mature stalks, including plants, is
abont the same for all This suggests that distance favors
suckering, but that the number of matured stalks at harvest
within a given length is probably regulated by soil, cultiva-
tion, etc. These experiments further showed that cane, like
all grasses, will try to occupy all vacant ground around it.
Several of the plants died soon after transplanting. The
adjoining plants soon filled the vacancies by extraordinary
suckering. In one instance, as many as nineteen were
recorded.

Sometimes a plant is discovered with an unusual quan-
tity of suckers and it will be found on examination that

94 THE SUGAR CANE.

next to it is a plant with few or no suckers. Whether the
early and vigorous suckering of the one has caused the
dwarfing of the other, or whether the other was lacking in
vigor in the beginning, and failing to occupy the space allow-
ed it, had been encroached upon by its more vigorous neigh-
bor, mor.e to fill the vacant space, are yet unsettled points.
Perhaps both may occur. It is reasonably certain that in
the battle for existence here as elsewhere, the fittest survive.
It was found that several mother sprouts after giving birth
to a number of suckers were suffocated by them in August
and September.

It is curious to trace the development of suckers during
the season arising from a single plant, e. g., on a striped
cane in the 6 inch experiments, the following is recorded : 5
stalks were harvested with 12 large suckers 2 to 5 feet high.
The stalks were the original i)lant No. 1 and the 1st, 2d, 4th
and 5th suckers from it. The twelve unmature suckers
were located, five on the 4th sucker, one on the original
plant, three on the 5th sucker, two on 1st sucker, one on
2d sucker. This with other records show conclusively that
the buds, or eyes, on the base of the young sprouts will
germinate whenever favorable conditions are presented, and
are not regulated by age, size of sprout, or soil. Let in
heat, air and moisture, and fresh suckers will at once ap-
pear. This is seen, in the increased tendency to sucker of
canes at the extremities of rows, or canes blown down by
the wind. It is also forcibly illustrated in a field from
which the cane is cut early in the fall. The warm weather
then prevailing forces to germination the bud on the stub-
bles and endangers the stand for the ensuing year. Hence
canes cut early in the fall rarely give good stands of stub-
ble the next year. An examination of a stubble will show
from six to ten gradually lengthening joints below the
ground. At each node is an eye, or bud, surrounded by
concentric rows of roots. The lower eyes give rise to the
first suckers which are irrepressible. If conditions be very
favorable all of the subterranean eyes will germinate dur-
ing the season. Sometimes even the earlier suckers are ex-
hausted during the first season and the stubble crop of the
ensuing year has for its dependence only the buds on the
younger suckers. See Fig. 15.

This accounts for the presence of apparently so many dead
stubbles in some years. Of the limited number of eyes on a
stubble, there will always be found some which do not ger-
minate at all. From some cause they are worthless*
Others are predisposed to germination and will do so when-
ever favorable conditions prevail. Therefore, the question
of suckers, to a large extent involves also the problem of se-

SUCKERING OF CANE.

95

FIG. 15.
Showing a stubble plant and mode of growth from original cane.

96

THE SUGAR CANE.

curing stubble crops, and with extraordinary suckering in
the fall, comes the risk of a poor stubble stand in the spring.
Besides the conditions of air, heat and moisture, the fertility
or tilth of the soil and the soundness and vigor of the in-
dividual cane has much to do with suckering. It is, there-
fore, important that our soils be maintained in excellent
tilth and supplied with proper fertilizers and that our seed
should be well selected from sound, vigorous cane. Vigor-
ous suckering is rather an indication of healthy canes,
strong growth, and in tropical countries is greatly desired.
In Louisiana this vigor sometimes endangers our stut)ble
crop by the intervention of our winters, and diminishes our
plant yields on account of the shortness of our seasons.
Therefore, it is w^ell to know how and when to repress too
great a tendency to suckering.

Comparison of Analvses of Original Canes and

Suckers.

In the following tables are given the analyses of 133
canes harvested in 1894, and 131 harvested in 1895. The
original canes are the transplanted sprouts of which 20 in
1894, and 29 in 1895, out of the 30 planted, were harvested.
Suckers are numbered just in the order in which they ap-
peared around each stalk:

AVERAGE ANALYSKS OP STALKS HARVESTED 1894.

No. of Stalks.

Originals . .

Suckers No. 1

" 2

" 3

4

5

•' 6

" 7

8

9

" H)

" 11

•' 12

*• 13

" 14

" 15

" 18

20

19

21

12

18

10

9

5

7

3

(C

en

o

o

tjl

^

a

._

o

ec

GT.

C

15.88

13.42

.85

15.20

12.40

.97

15.00

11.90

1.07

15.90

13.10

.86

15.30

12.40

.97

14.96

12.09

1.03

14.80

11.70

1.08

16.10

11-50

.92

15.20

12-50

1.01

16.00

13.40

.89

15.70

12.90

.84

15.00

12.30

.89

1400

10 50

1.04

14.80

11.20

.85

17.00

14.90

.45

16.20

13.90

.58

1690

14.80

.39

1

Date of Birth.

March . • .
May ....
May and June
May and June
May and June
Mayand Jnn«-
May and June
June ....
June . .
June ....
June . . .
June ...
Juni* ....
July 9 . . .
July 2 . . .
July 2 . .
July 2 . . .

bp
*a3 •

boB

2.01
2.10
1.90
2.10
1.90
2.00
1.80
2.30
2.40
2.10
1 80
2.30
2.10
1.50
1.70
2.70
3.30

lbs.

Average of all . 132 15 2 11.90

96

COMPARISON ©F ANALYSES.

AVERAGE ANALYSES

OF STALKS

HARVESTED 1895.

No. of Stalks of each.

Date of Birtli.

2

Q

09 as

^

j^

o

bi'^

o

s

^':3

'u,

3

> £

pq

QQ

5

1.54

<aci

Originaly. .

29

15.13

12.43

Mar

2.6 lbs.

Suckers No

. 1 .

21

14.93

11.74

1.78

May 18 to June 25

2.2 "

2.

19

14.70

11.12

1.91

May 22 to June 25

2.1 "

3 .

15

14.96

11.97

1.75

May 22 to July 1

2.2 "

4 .

16

14.85

11.57

1.75

May 23 to July 16

2.4 "

5 .

9

14.39

11.09

1.92

May 27 to July 16

1.9 "

6 .

8

14.95

11.83

1.72

June 1 to July 7

2.4 "

7 .

5

14.14

10.27

2.23

June 8 to July 16

1.8 "

8 .

5

14.98

11.89

1.57

June 8 to Sept. 1

1.5 '*

9 .

2

15.11

11.57

1.59

June 8 to Sept. .

1.0 "

10.

1

12.92

8.35

2.27

July 9

09 "

13 .

1

12.03

6.80

2.12

June 16

2.0 *'

Average of all . 131 14.82 11.66 1.83

From the above it will be seen that in both years the
original sprouts transplanted gave average stalks richer in
sugar than suckers. This is true not only of the average
but of almost every individual cane. With few exceptions,
there has been a gradual diminution of sugar and
weight of stalk from the original plants to the youngest
sucker. This fact emphasizes the necessity of getting suck-
ers as early as possible and after that cultiA^ating to repress
them. Several notable exceptions to the above occurred in
1894. Three suckers born as late as July have unusually
high percentages of sugar, and two of them were very heavy.
No known reason can be assigned for this aberration from
general results.

From the above, it will be seen that suckers up to July
1st may make canes of fair quality and size. It would seem,
also, that in Louisiana a uniform stand of plant cane early
in the spring, six inches apart in rows five to six feet apart,
would give subsequent suckering most favorable to large
tonnage and high sugar content. Close cultivation with
disc cultivators so as not to cut the roots, is suggested as a
further means of repressing suckering. It may also be
stated that plant cane 12 to 18 inches. apart in early spring
may fill up and make a most excellent crop by fall.

CHAPTER XV.

PREPARATION OF LAND, PLANTING, ETC.

As stated above, once in three years a restorative crop
is interjected between the cane crops. The rotation being
as follows: First year, plant cane; second year, stubble
cane; third year, corn and cow peas. No system of rota-
tion is complete without a leguminous crop, and among the
leguminous crops the cow pea occupies the front rank as
a rapid soil restorer, frequently accumulating in a few
months over 100 pounds nitrogen per acre. An examina-
tion of the roots of the cow pea vine during rapid growth
will reveal large quantities of wart-like tubercles, which,
when crushed and a portion examined under the microscope,
will reveal countless thousands of bacteria, peculiar to this
plant living in symbiotic union with its host. Nothing
can supplant the cow pea in the short rotation adopted by
the sugar planter. Cow peas perform many valuable func-
tions. By their deep roots and immense foliage they pump
up from great depths and evaporate large quantities of
water, and thus placing the soil in a condition relative to
moisture most favorable to nitrification. They intensely
shade the ground, thus protecting the nitrogen ferments
from the destructive influences of direct sunlight, and en-
abling them to work directly up to the surface. Their tap
roots are pumping, along with water, soluble plant food
from great depths.

But the chief virtue lies in its extraordinary power of
utilizing the free nitrogen of the air. Therefore, it is used
once in three years to restore the nitrogen exhausted by
two crops of cane.

Sometimes second year stubble is carried, and then the
pea crop is every fourth year. A few planters practice a
continuous growing of cane, and in doing so plant peas in
the old stubble and cut the latter early for seed cane, and
bury the pea vine for .the coming plant cane.

A crop of corn is planted, and when it reaches the height
of a few feet, it is laid by and simultaneously sown with
cow peas, using one to three bushels per acre, of the Clay,
Unknown or Black varieties. Early in summer the corn is

PREPARATION OF LAND, ETC. 99

gathered and sometimes the pea vines made into hay for the
stock of the plantation. In either event, the soil, with or
without the pea vines, is turned under with a four, six or
eight horse plow in August or early in September, and the
cane planted in October.

Ordinarily, the root residues of the pea vines give enough
nitrogen for the ensuing plant cane, and many planters pos-
itively assert on this account that it makes no difference to
future crops whether they are removed or turned under,
but carefully conducted experiments on this station show
that when turned under there was an average increase of
7.42 tons of cane per acre, extending through plant and
stubble, over soil treated similarly, with vines removed for
hay. Yet where there is stock to be fed, it is wise to utilize
the vines as hay and restore the manure from the stables
to the soil.

Up to date the work of inverting the corn stalks and pea
vines has been performed by large turning plows with steel
discs, for cutting the vines, attached in front. These plows
are difficult to handle and frequently get choked, making
the operation a slow, tedious and expensive one. Recently
the disc plows have been placed on the market, and.one of
them has been successfully used by the station for such
work. An illustration is here given in figure 16.
jtfe ROTAffr msc PLOt¥\ It has, on our soil, buried

successfully pea vines that
were waist liigh and very
thick, plowing to the depth
of ten inches and cutting
_ a furrow 15 inches wide. It

FIG. 16. was drawn by three heavy

An improved disc plow. mulcs and sliowed ou the

dynamometer a pull of 500 to 550 pounds. It was managed
entirely by one hand who rode on the plow. There was no
choking and no stopping to clean the plow. Nearly three
acres per day can be plowed with this implement. For
flushing land it has no equal, and the draught is much light-
er than with the four-liorse plows usually used, and the
work performed more satisfactory, there being no compres-
sion of the soil at the bottom of the plow, caused by the
shear and landslide of the turn-plow.

After the land is flushed, it should be bedded with two-
horse plow into high rows, five to seven feet wide and the
middles carefully plowed out. The quarter-drains should
also be cleaned. It is thus ready for planting late in Sep-
tember or early in October, the time at which fall planting
is done. When ready to plant, the rows are opened with a
double mould board plow and two or more running stalks

100 THE SUGAll CANE.

are deposited in this open furrow and covered by a disc cul-
tivator, plow, or by hoes. Fall planted cane is always cov-
ered deeper than that planted in the spring, in order to pro-
tect it against the cold of our winters. The open furrow
in which the cane is deposited should be above the level of
the middles between the rows, and the latter should be at
least six inches above the bottoms of the quarter-drains.
Thus planted and maintained during the winter, there will
be no trouble from either excessive cold or moisture.

Which Is the Best Time to Plant, Pall or Spring ?

This is still a disputed question among our planters, for
in Louisiana, cane is planted from the middle of September
to the first of April. Many planters begin planting in Sep-
tember, plant as much as possible before the harvest begins,
and then, when sugar making is over, renew planting until
through. On large estates this custom very generally pre-
vails, but there are some planters who persistently refuse
to plant in the fall, claiming danger from the cold winters,
and plant their entire crop in the spring. An experience
of twelve years with both fall and spring planting, has dem-
onstrated that fall planting, if properly performed, is most
profitable. The young canes come up earlier, and larger
yields are obtained at harvest. A very decided obstacle to
fall planting consists in the usual dry weather prevailing in
this climate during the fall months, which prevents that pul-
verization of the soil so essential for a proper seed bed.
Cane planted in the fall upon cloddy land, unless covered
very deeply and properly rolled with a heavy roller, is liable
to what is known as "dry rot," since the cloddy land permits
of a too rapid eYaporation of moisture from the cane.
Many fields have been lost from this cause until now a heavy
iron roller, to pulverize the lumps and compress the dirt
around the cane, is almost universally run over the cane
after covering it. If fall planted cane be covered with fine
earth to the depth of three inches, and this earth, if very dry,
compressed with a heavy roller, there need be no fear of
dry rot. If it be planted in a furrow above the level of the
middles and the latter kept 6 inches above the quarter-
drains, and the middles, -quarter-drains, ditches and canals
be kept open so as to permit of thorough drainage, there will
be no danger from "wet rot." If attention to these precau-
tions be given to fall planting of cane, it is believed that it
would prove, all over the State, more profitable than spring
planting. Finishing planting in the fall gives the planter
an opportunity of devoting more time in the spring to the
early cultivation of his crops. . .

WINDROWING FOR SEED. 101

Windrowing of Cane Por Seed.

A strong reason for fall planting is the saving of the ex-
pense of windrowing cane for seed and digging it up, and
the losses of cane incident thereto. This station has found
that two running stalks of good cane planted in the fall has
never failed to give an abundant stand. It frequently hap-
pens that the seed is more or less damaged in windrow, and
in spring, planting from it, three, or even four, running
stalks are required. This is a large and expensive loss, and
is usually avoided by fall planting. All planters who pre-
fer, or are forced to plant in the spring, must preserve their
seed cane through the winter This is usually done by cut-
ting the cane down with all its foliage, and throwing it in
the middles between the rows, in such a manner that the
tops, with the leaves, shall completely cover the buits of
that previously placed. When the operation is completed,
nothing should be seen but the green leaves of the cane ex-
tending the entire length of the row. After the cane is
placed, two four-horse plows, one turning to the right and
the other to the left, are started, throwing the soil from the
adjacent rows entirely over the cane, completely burying it.
Hoes follow to close any openings left by the plows. The
operation of windrowing for seed, just described, is delayed
usually as late in the fall as is consistent with known dan-
ger from frost, and is usually done when the soil is moist
from recent rains. In making windrows similar precautions
to those given under fall planting of cane must be observed,
viz.: The land must be well drained, the middles into
which the canes are deposited should be well above the
levels of the quarter-drains. The latter should be cleaned
out to the ditches, and these to the canal. All these at-
tended to, there will be no "wet rot" of canes in the wind-
row. As soon as the row of prostrated cane is completed,
the plows should be started at once, and behind the plows
should be the hoes, so as to prevent by evaporation any
moisture of vegetation and exclude the air as quickly as
possible. A non-compliance with the last precautions may
lead to "dry rot," especially if canes are placed on a very
dry soil and covered with the same. There will be no
trouble in keeping canes through our severest winters, if
the above be carefully attended to.

Matelas.

A few small planters still preserve their canes in mats,
which may be made horizontal or vertical. In either case,
the canes are so arranged that the foliage of the top is made
to cover the stalks and shield them from cold and evapora-

102 THE SUGAR CANE.

tion. Sometimes, more particularly with horizontal mats,
a covering of dirt several inches thick is placed over the
mat of canes, to insure fuller protection. In the vertical
matelas free use of the trash of the field is used for addi-
tional covering.

How Many Stalks to Plant

"is a question upon which planters disagree. The average
cane used for seed in Louisiana will measure four or five
feet and will have their joints about four to five inches
apart, and weigh about 2 to 2^ pounds. The average width
of rows is from six to seven feet, which can be somewhat
reduced with profit.

To plant one running stalk without a lap, in rows six feet
apart, with cane of above description, will require in length
7,260 feet of cane per acre. If the stalks be four feet, there
will be required 1,815, and if five feet, 1,452. Assuming the
weight of a stalk to be two pounds, the number to plant per
acre will weigh 3,630 pounds and 2,904 pounds; at 2^
pounds, the weight will be 4,537 and 3,650 pounds. It will,
therefore, not be very far wrong to say that it will require
two tons of cane to plant an acre in six-foot rows, using one
continuous stalk as seed.

For five-foot rows it will require one-fifth more cane, and
for seven-foot rows one-seventh less than six-foot rows.

For two running stalks there will be required about four
tons of cane, and for three stalks six tons, for six-foot rows.
If the cane be perfectly good and each eye germinates, there
will be two or three sprouts per foot from one running stalk
planted. From two running stalks, five to six sprouts, and
from three running stalks, seven to nine sprouts. In the
experiments at this station, it has been shown that one
stalk to the foot at germination was a good stand, and two
to a foot, an excellent one. Each vigorous stalk will give
at least three suckers. Therefore there is a possibility of an
ultimate stand of six to nine canes to a foot from planting
one running stalk, fifteen to eighteen from two stalks, and
twenty-one to twenty-seven from three stalks. Why, then,
are not such stands obtained? The reply is, first, a goodly
number of eyes on our canes are defective ; second, our hasty
and often feckless methods of planting, prevent many good
eyes from germinating; and thirdly, thousands of suckers
in every cane field are annually smothered out between lay-
by in June, and harvest. Attention is also called to Prof.
Dodson's studies upon "red cane," given elsewhere, as
another cause for the failure of stands. It is a very fair
crop which will yield at harvest three good canes to the
linear foot, an excellent one which gives four to the foot,

WIDTH OF BOWS. 103

and a superb tonnage will be harvested from a Held show-
ing five good canes to each linear foot of row.

These facts are given in order to appreciate a. heavy loss
somewhere in planting, and the}- suggest the propriety of
striving to find out how this loss can be avoided. Possibly
a better selection of seed cane, more careful handling, better
preparation of land, etc., would enable us to economize
largely in the quantity of cane planted per acre. A saving
of two to four tons of cane per acre at planting, would be in
the aggregate a very large economy for the entire State.
If the area planted yearly be reckoned at 150,000 acres, and
the cane be valued at $3 per ton, there would be an annual
saving in money values of from |900,000 to |1,800,000.

This station has uniformly obtained abundant stands
from using two continuous stalks In all its general plant-
ings, and in experiments with one continuous stalk, the
results have been satisfactory.

In fall planting, cutting the cane at planting has always
been injurious, furnishing increased foci of inoculation of
ferments. Therefore the knife should be used only on
crooked canes to obtain horizontal! ty in the furrow. I can-
not speak so positively of the knife in spring planting, as
our experiments have been confined to fall planting. Again,
the spring plant has a much shorter time for the action of
the ferments before germination ensues.

Width of Rows.

Extensive experiments covering every width from three
to eight feet, have been carefully conducted for many years,
and the general results may be summed up as follows: In
almost every instance the narrower the row the larger the
yield of cane without injury to the sugar content or its
purity.

But while the increase in the very narrow rows has been
quite apparent, the increments have hardly paid for the in-
creased seed used in planting. For it will be remembered
that there is required twice as much cane to plant an acre
in three-foot rows as six-foot rows. If, therefore, four tons
are used on six rows, there will be required eight tons in
three-foot rows, and the average yield of the latter over five-
foot rows 5.40 tons. Other experiments show conclusively
that there is no gain in tonnage or sugar content on the
wide rows, and therefore suggested the propriety of narrow-
ing them to a distance that will permit of the best cultiva-
tion with improved implements. The station, acting on
this suggestion, has for the past four years adopted five-
foot rows for all of its experiments, except the permanent

104 THE SUGAR CANE.

fertilizer plats which were established previously at six
feet, and have been since continued. The results are very
satisfactory, permitting of cultivation with any of the ini-
proved implements, and furnishing soil enough to give the
necessary dirt for the stability of the plant cane and the
preservation of the future stubble. Under no circumstan-
ces should rows be over six feet wide, as no possible advan-
tage can be urged for wider rows.

Narrower rows permit of an earlier lay-by, and in case of
moderately cold weather, the canes are better protected by
the denser foliage.

What Part of the Cane Shall We Plant?

The Louisiana planters utilize a goodly portion of their
crop (estimated at one-fifth to one-sixth) each year for seed.
From the quantity planted per acre, the aggregate cost for
seed each year is enormous. The station has therefore very
thoroughly investigated the question as to what part of the
cane to plant. It has planted each joint of a cane separate-
ly, and followed the result through plant and stubbles. It
has divided the stalks into three parts, tops, middles and
butts, and planted each separately for years. It has also
planted "tops from tops," "middles from middles" and
"butts from butts," for ten years, to see if there
be a deterioration in the cane from such practices.
Yearly it has studied both yields and chemical an-
alyses, and two years ago, such canes pedigreed
for eight years, were made the subject of special
scientific study by Dr. J. L. Beeson in our laboratory, and
his report upon the same appeared in Bulletin No. 38. The
object of all these investigations was to test the matter
thoroughly and decide whether our planters could not safe-
ly use the upper third of their entire crop for seed, instead
of one-fifth of their entire cane, as is now being done. In
every sugar growing country, save Louisiana, tops are used
for seed. The practice is strongly condemned here by some,
upon reasons drawn from known principles of vegetable
physiology. The cane, they say, has only a few fertile
flowers and consequently depends, for propagation, upon
the eyes or buds. In all seed-bearing plants, those seed
germinate and fructify best w^hich are permitted to reach
perfect maturity. Therefore, in imitation of this natural
law, we must seek that part of the stalk v^hich contains
the largest and best developed eyes in order to secure seed
which will produce the most vigorous plants. It is further
claimed that where tops are universally used as seed a de-
generacy of the seed will follow, since the latter is always

WHAT PART TO PLANT. 106

reproduced with these parts of the cane where the juices
are poorest in nourishment (sugar) and the eyes most im-
perfectly developed. Hence, it is a practice with some of
our planters never to plant fall cane until the polariscope
shows at least 10 per cent, sugar in the cane.

Per contra, there are others who claim that the planting
of the tops is justifiable from purely scientific reasons, be-
sides the economy involved. They regard the cane planted
as "cuttings" rather than true seed, and the eyes as buds to
be developed under proper conditions. They say that the
florist when he wants to root new plants, never uses the
old or mature wood, but rather the young and succulent por-
tion. Therefore in planting cane the youngest and most
succulent portions will secure the best results.

They further urge that they are seeking a cane which con-
tains not a maximum of sugar and a minimum of other con-
stituents, but a maximum of those constituents which are
needed to nourish the young plant, and these are found in
the younger and tenderer portions of the stalk. They fur-
ther say it is an error to compare the cane to seeds having
a single germ with a supply of food held in reserve around
it, suitable in composition for its wants. Each joint of
cane ha^; a germ or bud, but each section has a composition
of its own, and the question is which one of these joints has
a composition best adapted to aid the development and
growth of these eyes or buds. The reply, from a continuous
series of experiments practically conducted in the field, and
froin a series of investigations scientifically conducted in
the laboratory, is, the tops of matured canes or the lower
parts of young cane, where is found a well balanced relation
between the mineral (ash) and organic constituents and an
absence of excess of sugars, extremely liable to fermenta-
tion. The lower portion of the ripe cane contains its nitro-
gen, as albuminoids and its carbohydrates mainly as su-
crose, while the upper portion has its nitrogen as amides,
and its carbohydrates mainly as glucose. It has also an
excess of ash. These facts are familiar to all sugar chem-
ists and most planters, who recognize that the juice from
the upper part of the stalk is rich in solids not sugar. Glu-
coses and amides are the constructives of albuminoids, su-
crose and other carbohydrates of the cane plant, and with
ash are found most abundant in the immature portion of
the cane, i. e. the tops. Dr. Beeson in his report says :

"The large quantities of mineral matters observed in the
tops of the cane correspond to what has been found true of
most other plants. This fact would appear, according to
Sachs, to be due to two causes, one physical and the other a
physiological one. The mineral parts dissolved in the soil

106 THE SUGAR CANE.

water, diffuse through the roots to the foliage where it evap-
orates, or is exhaled, leaving the mineral matter behind.
Then it is in the foliage system that assimilation of the car-
bonic acid of the air takes place, and metabolism begins,
which requires the presence of certain mineral matters. The
presence of a large amount of nitrogenous and mineral mat-
ter in the tops of the cane suggests the superiority of the
tops, other things being equal, for planting, since these
constituents are required as food for the young plants be-
fore it is old enough to win its living from the soil and at-
mosphere. It may be objected, since the seeds of flowering
plants contain less mineral matters than any other portion
of the plant, that the presence of the one-third more ash
in the top would constitute no real advantage for planting,
over the body of the stalk. The small quantity of mineral
constituents in the seed of plants is explained by Sachs as
follows : ^That much soil water, rich in dissolved minerals,
is absorbed by seeds during germination. Since the cane
eye generates its own moisture (unless dried like a seed) it
does not acquire mineral matter from the soil water, and
frequently would likely need more mineral stored away in
its organism.'"

It has been clearly shown by Prof. Ross' experiments,
already given, that only a small portion of the sugar in the
cane is consumed by the sprouts in germination, and it has
been further shown that fermentation often sets in in the
lower portion of the stalk after planting, checking and fre-
quently preventing germination. All of the above con-
siderations, together with practical experiments in the field,
would indicate the superiority of the tops for seed, unless
it could be shown that the plants coming from tops would
partake of the nature of tops in a low content of sucrose
and an excess of solids not sugar, and finally giving a cane
of reduced sugar content and purity. To determine this
question, for ten years, the station has been planting ''tops
from tops," "middles from middles" and "butts from butts,"
with no deterioration apparent either to the tonnage or
sugar content. Dr. Beeson made an exhaustive investiga-
tion by selecting a number of stalks from each "tops from
tops," "middles from middles" and "butts from butts."
Each set of stalks were divided into "tops" "middles" and
^'butts," and each analyzed separately. These were com-
pared, first, single with each other, and second, as a whole.

There were found in "tops from tops" less albuminoids
and amides in the cane, and less solids not sugar in the
juice,with a larger purity than in either of the other sam-
ples. It also had less glucose and more fibre, indications
of greater maturity. The results of Dr. Beeson confirm

THE BEST SEED. 107

those previously and subsequently obtained by other station
workers, and while they are not sufficiently emphatic in
declaring a superiority of cane bred exclusively from "tops,"
they do declare in unmistakable terms that there has been
no deterioration.

With these facts before him, cannot the Louisiana planter
devise some practical way of utilizing the upper third of his
cane for planting and send the lower two-thirds of his en-
tire crop to the sugar house? By such a course both field
and sugar house would be gainers. There would be more
sugar and less molasses in the latter and better and earlier
stands in the field, with the cost of seed reduced to a min-
imum. With planters supplying central factories, it would
be to the mutual benefit of both to adopt such a plan.

The Best Seed, Plant or Stubble?

Is a mooted question, and will probably be practically de-
cided by planters in favor of the stubble, for the following-
reasons outside of the merits of the two kinds of cane, per
se, viz.: Cutting cane early in the season for planting in
September or October invariably injures the stubble stand
of the ensuing year, due to the vigorous sprouting of the
eyes of the stubbles immediately after harvest, which
sprouts are killed by the subsequent cold of winter, leav-
ing a very few eyes on the stubbles for germination in the
spring. Therefore those planters who practice fall planting
are unwilling to destroy their prospects for a first year
stubble crop the next year by using the plant cane for seed.

For spring planting the cane must be windrowed, and
this is usually placed between the rows on which it has
grown. In covering the cane with large plows, the stubbles
are greatly injured and therefore are plowed up for another
rotation.

For these reasons, the oldest stubbles are used for seed,
and until some practical method can be devised by which
planting in the field can be carried on "pari passu" with the
sugar house work and thu's enable the planters to have a
choice of seed, it is almost useless to discuss the question
before a body of Louisiana planters. Fortunately, contin-
uous experiments made now for twelve years, with plants,
first stubble and second stubble as seed, show a slight super-
iority in favor of first year stubble. There are growing on
the experiment station pedigreed experiments covering ten
years of selection from plant, first and second stubbles. In
other words, the seed used for plant has been selected
stalks from a plant cane started at Kenner ten years ago.
So, too, with the other kinds. Three plats of each are an-
nually carried, plant, first, and second year stubbles of each

108 THE SUGAR CANE.

series. The seed for the plant is selected from the plant
experiment of the plant plat. The seed for the first stubble
experiment of each year is selected from the first stubble
experiment of the first stubble plat, and seed for second
stubble from second stubble experiment in the second stub-
ble plat. Yearly each experiment of each plat is harvested,
weighed, analyzed and recorded, and already there are ten
annual records, each one covering the three stages of each,
plant, first stubble and second stubble. It is designed to
carry on these experiments like those described under
^'What Part of the Cane to Plant," indefinitely in order to
test if there be a slow and gradual change recognizable in
the course of years.

By closely studying the history of cane planting, it wHl
be found that in all ages and all countries cane has
been propagated by planting the tops of stubble canes. May
not this custom have superinduced in the cane a stronger
vitality in the tops over the butts and in the stubble over
the plant? Has the Darwinian doctrine of "selection" and
"inherited habit" had a full opportunity of here asserting
itself? If stubble cane be the best for seed, may not the
fact be accounted for upon these purely scientific reasons?

Cutting Cane at Planting.

It has been clearly demonstrated by numerous experi-
ments that there is no physiological benefit accruing from
cutting the cane at planting. Whatever benefit that ap-
parently may arise from this practice, now almost tiniversal,
must be ascribed to care and efficiency of work in planting
and covering, and to the decreased risk of unearthing the
cane during early cultivation, especially when the latter is
crooked. When cane has to remain underground all the
winter, it is best not to cut the cane at all if its physical
condition will permit such a procedure, since every cut pro-
duces a wound which more or less induces fermentation and
decay. (See Prof. Dodson's studies given elsewhere). It
is the belief of those who practice cutting, that when an eye
on an entire stalk starts vigorously into growth it can and
may injure the vitality of the other eyes, and hence they
recommend cutting the cane to prevent this destruction.
The anatomy of the cane given elsewhere, showing the in-
dependence of each joint, refutes this opinion. Again, a
number of experiments conducted by the station has
shown the fallacy of such a conclusion. In planting
entire stalks of cane it is difficult to cover each eye to the
same depth. Those near the surface germinate first, while
those at the greatest depth may never germinate at all,
though perfectly sound and healthy, because the conditions
necessary to germination at that depth are not secured, and

CUTTING CANE AT PLANTING. 109

the earlier sprouts near the surface are cultivated, and with
each cultivation more dirt is thrown on them, which covers
deeper the sound but unj^^erminated buds. Frequently in
digging deep stubble, after the ancient method with grub-
bing hoes, these eyes are found sound on the old mother
cane which have been germinated after a burial of over
twelve months. With a view of throwing positive light
on this subject, a series of experiments of two stalks each
were planted at increasing angles to the horizon. The first
one was placed in a horizontal furrow. The next canes
were placed so that the tops were three inches, and butts
six inches deep. Then with tops and butts at the following
deptlis: No. 3, three and ten inches; Xo. 4, three and four-
teen inches; No. 5, three and sixteen inches; No. 6, three and
seventeen inches; No. 7, three and eighteen inches; No. 8,
three and twenty inches; No. 9, three and twenty-one inches;
No. 10, three and twenty-two inches; No. 11, three and
twenty-four inches. The stalks of cane were then reversed
leaving butts near surface and burying the tops as follow^s:
No. 12, tops eighteen and butts three inches; No. 13, tops
twenty-two and butts three inches ; No. 14, tops tw^enty-f our
and butts three inches, and No. 15, canes perpendicu-
lar, tops up and butts down. Canes of about four
feet in length with apparently sound eyes, were placed in
trenches prepared as described above, on March 13th. On
November 14th and 15th they were all carefully dug up,
growing canes removed and counted, the mother stalks care-
fully washed, and each eye examined as to germination and
soundness. The following abbreviated results are given:

No. 1. All eyes germinated ; mother canes rotten.

No. 2. Mother canes rotten; seventeen matured stalks
from eighteen eyes; one stool coming from eye deepest
buried (six inches).

No. 3. One mother cane rotten; other perfectly sound,
with two well preserved sound eyes on it ; a stool each from
eyes at six inches, eight inches and ten inches (lowest eye).

No. 4. Both mother canes sound; germination excellent;
stools on one stalk from eyes at 6, 10 and 14 inches, with
one sound eye.

The other stalk had its lowest four eyes started, but not
yet to the surface; with stools from eyes at 6 and 10 inches.
One eye dead at depth of 8 inches; rest all germinated.

No. 5. Both mother canes rotten ; only 12 stalks of cane ;
lowest eye germinated was at 6 inches.

No. 6. Mother canes rotten; 21 stalks of cane; stools
from eyei5 at 6, 8 and 12 inches.

No. 7. Mother canes rotten; stools from eyes 4 and 12
inches, and a lining sucker not yet out of the ground from a
dead sprout evidently smothered in the spring.

110 THE SUGAR CANE.

No. 8. Mother canes rotten; stools from eyes 14 and 15
inches deep.

No. 9. Mother canes rotten ; no sprouts.

No. 10. One mother cane rotten and no eyes germinated;
other perfectly sound with thirteen stalks and three eyes
still good.

No. 11. One mother cane rotten, with only three stalks
from second eye (5 inches) ; other cane perfectly sound with
stools from eyes 3 to 12 inches. Five eyes developed on
lower part of cane into short sprouts, but had been smoth-
ered ; two eyes still good.

No. 12. Mother cane sound; one stool from an eye 24
inches deep, running out from mother cane at angle of
about 45 degrees, until 17 inches long and then shooting
perpendicularly up, forcibly illustrating poAver of vitality
in vigorous canes. Three eyes on the two canes perfectly
sound.

No. 13. Mother canes rotten; stools from eyes at 6 and
8 inches.

No. 14. Mother canes rotten; stools from eyes 8 and 10
inches.

No. 15. Cane still sound; every eye from eighteen inches
up germinated, growing 21 fully developed canes.
After digging up it was a curious sight, resembling an um-
ibrella inverted by the wind, only ribs were placed at reg-
ular intervals along the stalk. At 25 inches a perfectly
^^ound eye was found. Below, the stalk was rotten; above
-perfectly sound.

The sound eyes found were planted in a box in a warm
J laboratory, and in every instance germination was effected.
Jit is believed that the rotten stalks found were due to de-
fective seed. The best seed had been used for the general
crop, and the stalks for these experiments were selected
from the refused pile.

However, the experiments are conclusive and fully con-
trovert the opinion that an eye starting early in growth,
destroys the vitality of other eyes on same stalk unfavora-
bly situated. The immense power of vitality resident in a
good eye, is forcibly shown. The season was a dry one and
favorable to the experiments; the seed cane, however, was
inferior.

The above strongly emphasizes the selection of good
sound canes for seed and suggests that the failure to get
enormous stands from thick plantings may be due largely
to defective seed.

It is yet uncertain whether cutting, so disastrous to tall
planted*^ canes, is equally so to those planted in the spring.
No experiments have been made to determine this question.

CHAPTER XVI.

MANURIAL REQUIREMENTS OE SUGAR CANE.

Commercial fertilizers are valued chiefly for one or more
of the folloAving ingredients: Nitrogen (ammonia), phos-
phoric acid, and potash. Tliey should be used whenever
crops are grown which do not attain their maximum pro-
duction on account of a deficiency in the soil of one or more
of the above ingredients. But the deficiency of plant food
is not always the cause of small returns. Water, as already
remarked, so essential to crops and needed sometimes in
great abundance, is frequently on our soils, and in this
climate productive of great harm. Hence drainage for its
speedy removal is absolutely essential. A drought, on the
other hand, may call for irrigation. Want of porosity, so
common on our black lands, seriously impedes root develop-
ment.

Some soils bake or cake after every hard rain, and thus,,
by excluding the air and checking evaporation, work dis-
aster to the plant. A great defect with many of our sugar
soils is the impermeability of surface water, forming, unless
high ridges with deeply plowed middles prevent, stagnant
water at or near the surface, which brings disaster, and
sometimes death, to a rapidly developing plant.

Humus, so essential to every soil in this climate, is fre-
quently badly needed.

Climatic conditions of a purely local character may tem-
porarily prevail, such as alternations of temperature — hot^
parching winds, as in southwestern Kansas, often destroy-
ing a crop in a few^ days.

It may therefore be asserted that whenever a soil from a
physical, chemical or climatic defect, forbids the growth of
large crops, even when well supplied with fertilizing ingre-
dients, then the application of commercial fertilizers is a
waste. The amelioration of its environments is now more
needed by the plant than manures. It is better to seek a
remedy in drainage, irrigation, deep plowing, better culti-
vation, harrowing, hoeing, incorporation of vegetable matter^
etc. After these ameliorating conditions are established,.

112 THE SUGAR CANE.

then, and not till then, should a liberal use of fertilizers be
practiced. It must be remembered that every improvement
in the quality of the soil increases its capacity for absorbing
large quantities of manure and its transmutation into
maximum crops. Heavy x>lant growth and excellent soil
culture mean an enormous conversion of plant food into
crops. Where the largest crops are produced there will be
the heaviest demands for manure. Hence rich soil can
successfully appropriate heavy applications of fertilizers,
while poor soils must be fed with great care. Perfect all the
other conditions of heavy plant growth and then there will
be a demand for commercial fertilizers, not a demand to
appease hunger, but one to fatten. In fattening domestic
animals, all of the conditions of digestion are first perfected
and then they are given all they will eat, not what they
need. The object is to transform a larger amount of plant
food into fat and muscles within the animal's frame than is
required for its maintenance, and this is accomplished by a
carefully compounded ration known to be digestible and
palatable. So in farming, whenever practicable, plants of
known capacity for absorbing fertilizers should be cultivat-
ed, and then these plants should be stimulated to a most
intensive assimilation of plant food by the application of
suitable manures. While the better class of soils always
respond more liberal h^ to fertilizers than poorer ones, still
the latter, under favorable conditions, often yield remark-
able results. Great care should be exercised to see that the
favorable conditions are fully attained, and unless they
are, very unsatisfactory results may follow the use of com-
mercial fertilizers. Sometimes the use of fertilizers over-
comes the unfavorable surroundings. They cause a larger
and deeper root development in early growth and thus en-
able the plant to withstand a subsequent drouth. They
frequently cause an early shading of the ground thus pre-
venting surface hardening and encouraging nitrification,
and with the sugar planter, enabling him to give an early
"lay by" to his crop.

These brief remarks are made to suggest to some planters
the cause of their failures sometimes in the use of com-
mercial fertilizers. They may ascribe the failure to the
worthlessness of the fertilizer used when it should be as-
cribed to some defective quality of the soil, rendering it
incapable of appropriating the applied fertilizer.

An examination of the cane plant by Prof. Ross revealed
the fact that for each ton of cane removed from our soil^
with the tops and leaves left in the field which are sub-
sequently burnt, there are removed 3.4 pounds nitrogen,
1.48 pounds phosphoric acid and 2.17 pounds potash. A

"nitrogen plat." 113

crop of thirty tons will therefore remove about 102 pounds
nitrogen, 45 pounds phosphoric acid and 65 pounds potash.
How much of these ingredients are supplied by our soils?
This question can only be answered by experiments. For
twelve years the Sugar Experiment Station has tried to
solve this problem by a series of systematic experiments.
Three permanent plats have been dedicated to replies to
this question known respectively as the nitrogen, phosphor-
ic acid, and potash plats. These plats have been divided
into twenty experiments, and the question asked of the

'-^Nitrogen Plat"

is: "Does this soil need nitrogen to grow cane success-
fully?" "If so, what forms of nitrogen are best adapted
to the wants of cane and soil, and in what quantities shall
they be supplied?'' The form of nitrogen used were "Ni-
trate of Soda," Sulphate of Ammonia, "Cotton Seed
Meal," Dried Blood, Fish Scrap, and Tankage. These were
used in such quantities as to furnish twenty-four and forty-
eight pounds nitrogen per acre, former experiments having
demonstrated that larger quantities could not be appro-
priated in our average season. These forms were used
alone, and combined with excessive quantities of phosphoric
acid and potash in highly available forms. At regular in-
tervals through the plat there were left experiments un-
fertilized to test the natural fertility of the soil, and with
each group of nitrogen experiments was attached one con-
taining only phosphoric acid and potash. These experi-
ments have been conducted on this plat for eight years and
will be continued indefinitely in the future. The results up
to date show conclusively, that this soil needs nitrogen to
grow cane successfully, and while sulphate of ammonia has
shown annually slightly better results, the high cost gives
no advantage over the lower priced forms. Cotton seed
meal comes next to the sulphate of ammonia, followed close-
ly by dried blood and nitrate of soda. Fish scrap and tank-
age'are slightly behind the rest, for reasons assigned be-
low.

It has been found also that but very few of our seasons
give us rainfalls in quantity and distribution sufficient to
enable the cane plant to appropriate 48 pounds of nitrogen.
Hence a larger quantity is excessive, and it may be waste.
It is therefore safe to recommend quantities of nitrogen
varying between 24 and 48 pounds per acre for our cane
crop. Again, different soils and different kinds of cane re-
quire varying quantities of nitrogen. Plant cane upon pea
vine land, will not require the same amount as upon "suc-
cession" land, i. e., upon soils from which a crop of stubble

114 THE SUGAR CANE.

cane has just been taken and which has been continuously
in cane for years without tlfe intervention of a leguminous
crop to restore the nitrogen. Indeed such soils are frequent-
ly in an execrable physical condition, which not only pre-
cludes the possibility of themselves furnishing plant food,
but also prevents them from assimilating much of that
presented in the form of commercial fertilizers. Hence the
unsatisfactory results from manuring sucession canes, so
often experienced by planters. It is doubtful whether
one-half of the plant food applied to succession canes in
commercial fertilizers, is recovered in the canes in the aver-
age season.

Pea vine lands put in plant cane, on account of their ex-
cellent physical conditions, not only yield up readily the
nitrogen stored up by the peas, but can also assimilate large
quantities of plant food supplied as fertilizers. Hence such
canes usually make large crops.

Since nitrogen is the chief ingredient taken from the soil
by a crop of cane, it follows that with each successive crop
of cane grown on the land, without the intervention of a
restorative leguminous crop, there arises an increased de-
mand for nitrogen. Hence stubble canes require larger
quantities than plant cane, and the older the stubble, the
larger its requirements for this element to make a given
tonnage.

EXPLANATION OF THE FORMS OF NITROGEN.

Sulphate of Ammonia, is a by-product in the manufacture
of coal gas of cities. It is the recovered nitrogen stored up
in the plants, which made the coal, ages ago. It is the most
concentrated fomi of nitrogen found on our markets, con-
taining 21 pounds in every 100 pounds of the salt. It is
especially adapted to sugar canes on clayey soils, giving
larger returns than any other form. Its high price, how-
ever, will always prevent its extensive use. Its present
price is from |60.00 to |80.00 per ton. It is used, like nitrate
of soda, as a top dressing for small and stunted canes, with
most excellent results.

Nitrate of Soda, is a partially refined product from the
mines of Chili and Peru, and contains 15 to 16 per cent, of
nitrogen. The output of the mines is controlled by a syndi-
cate which regulates its price. Hence its values change but
little from year to year, its present price being about |40,00
to 150.00 per ton. It is the most soluble form of nitrogen
and should be used with great care to prevent loss. Small
quantities at short intervals applied as a top dressing, are
frequently used with excellent results on grass lands. It

♦'NITROGEN PLAT." 115

is believed to be too soluble, in this climate of heavy rain-
fall, for the best results.

The above, sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda, are
mineral forms of nitrogen.

Of the vegetable forms of nitrogen available to our plan-
ters, cotton seed meal is by far the most extensively used.
Sometimes a ton or two of castor pomace finds its way to
Louisiana, but the aggregate quantity used as a fertilizer
in this State is so small that a discussion of its merits may
be omitted.

Cotton seed meal is a by-product from the cotton seed
oil mills. Cotton seed are first hulled, and the kernels,
after being steamed, are subjected to hydraulic pressure to
remove the oil. This leaves, cotton seed cake, which is largely
exported for use as a cattle food in England and continental
countries. Nearly three-fourths of the products of our mills
are thus disposed of. The remainder is consumed in this
country, both as a food stuff and fertilizer. However, for
use in this country, the cake is ground into a fine meal and
sold on our markets as "Cotton Seed Meal." When fresh
and free from hulls, it has a bright yellow color, oily ap-
pearance and nutty odor. The presence of comminuted
hulls darkens the color and lowers the percentage of nitro-
gen. Age and ferments also darken the color without low-
ering the content of nitrogen, and therefore cause little or
no injury to it for fertilizing purposes, but seriously destroy
its feeding values, converting the nitrogenous matters into
poisonous ptomaines.

Cotton seed meal has an average composition of 7 per cent,
nitrogen, 3 per cent, phosphoric acid and 2 per cent, potash.
Being a southern product, the prices paid by our planters
may be regarded as initial value, without charges, insurance
and freight necessary to place it on the world's markets in
competition with other forms of nitrogen. Therefore, it
may be asserted that it is to our planters the cheapest form
of nitrogen. Occasionally, with low markets elsewhere
for fertilizing material, tankage, fish scrap, etc., may find
purchasers in our midst at prices for its nitrogen content
slightly below the prevailing rate for nitrogen in cotton seed
meal ; but as a rule, the cost of nitrogen in cotton seed meal
to our home planters is less than in any other form. Ex-
periments in the laboratory upon the different forms of
nitrogen have shown that next to the mineral forms (sul-
phate of ammonia and nitrate of soda) stand the vegetable,
in their order of availability as plant food. Cotton seed
meal especiall}^ was shown to have a high co-efficient of
availability, as much as 78 per cent, of its nitrogen having
been appropriated directly as plant food the first year.

116 THE SUGAR CANE.

It is, therefore, extremeh^ gratifying to our planters to
know that a home product furnishes them with the cheap-
est and best form of nitrogen.

The following animal forms of nitrogen are found on our
markets: (1). Dried blood; (2). Tankage and (3) Fish scrap.

Dried blood is a by-product of our slaughter-houses and
comes into markets under two heads, Red blood and Black
blood. The former is dried slowly at a low temperature,
and is believed to be slightly more available than black bloo<l
which is rapidly dried at high temperatures by steam.
Dried blood contains 12 to 16 per cent, of nitrogen, with
practically no potash or phosphoric acid. It is the most
available of animal forms of nitrogen, ranking in the trials
given above, next to cotton seed meal.

Tankage, is a mixture of the refuse of the slaughter-
houses and consists of dried blood, pieces of meat, particles
of bone, etc., all of which have been "rendered" to remove
the oil or fats, and the residue is then dried and ground in-
to fine powder and sold as tankage.

Tankage must be examined from two standpoints to deter-
mine its value as a fertilizer, viz., Mechanically and chemi-
cally. On account of the bone present as a constant ingre-
dient, a mechanical analysis is always in order, since the
availability of bone, slow in its best condition, is believed
to be directly as its pulverization. Fragments of bone, or
even coarsely ground bones, are very slow in decomposing.
"Too slow in this busy age when every hour must chase its
sixty minutes to its death." Therefore, it is of first con-
sideration that all tankage be very finely ground.

Chemically, tankage is a mixture of blood and meat, sub-
stances rich in nitrogen, and of bone high in phosphoric
acid. Therefore, it may vary greatly in composition, be-
tween wide extremes; bone with 4 per cent, nitrogen, and
24 per cent, phosphoric acid, and blood with 16 per cent,
nitrogen (only). Usually it is sold, as it should be, by
chemical analysis only. The higher the nitrogen content,
the more valuable the tankage, Iboth in dollars and cents,
and in availability in the field, since this high content in-
dicates an excess of dried blood or meat, both highly avail-
able forms of nitrogen, over bone, a very slowly available
form.

When an analysis of tankage is given, the percentage of
bone present may be roughly calculated. Suppose
analysis show 9 per cent, of nitrogen and 0 per cent, phos-
phoric acid, what part of tankage is bone? Bone contains
on an average, 4 per cent, nitrogen and 24 per cent, phos-
poric acid. Therefore, the nitrogen corresponding to the 9
per cent, of phosphoric acid is 1.5 pounds, calculated by

" NITROGEN PLAT." 117

following^ proportion: 24 : 1) :: 4 :x=1.5 pounds. Since
there are 0 pounds of nitrogen present, and 1.5 pounds of
this adheres to the bone, then 7.5 pounds, or the remainder,
conies from the blood and meat. Since 100 pounds of bone
contain 24 pounds phosphoric acid and 4 pounds nitrogen,
therefore, it will require 37.5 pounds of bone to furnish the
1.5 pounds nitrogen and 9 pounds phosphoric acid found
in the tankage. Therefore, the tankage consists of 37.5
parts of bone and 62.5 parts of blood and meat scrap.

This example is given to illustrate the difference in values
between different grades of tankage and to show that its
value as a fertilizer largely depends upon the amount of
nitrogen furnished by the blood and meat scrap, and not
tha-t supplied by the bone. Tankage is a popular fertilizer
with our planters just now, and the difference of opinion
prevailing as to its value is doubtless largely due to the
difference in composition of the various brands offered on
our markets. Low grades are universally unsatisfactory in
their results, Avhile high grades frequently give most ex-
cellent returns.

Fish Scrap, the dried and ground residue from fish after
the oil has been extracted, is used more to ammoniate man-
ipulated fertilizers than as a direct fertilizer in the South.
Like tankage, its value depends upon the relative proportion
of meat to bone in the fish worked. A part of the nitrogen
always present, is inherent in the bone and is therefore, not
as available as that in the meat. The action then of fish
scrap as a fertilizer is necessarily slower than the highly ac-
tive forms of cotton seed meal and dried blood.

NITKIFICATION.

It must be borne in mind that all of the above fertilizers,
save nitrate of soda, must be decomposed and converted into
soluble forms before they can be appropriated as plant food.
This process of conversion is usually denominated as "nitrifi-
cation."

Nitrification must go on in every cultivated soil in order
that plants may grow therein, and the more rapid this
nitrification, "ceteris paribus," the greater the growth of the
plants in a given time. The process of nitrification is ac-
complished through the work micro organisms (bacteria) of
which there are three different types. 1st. Those which con-
vert nitrogenous matter into ammonia. 2d. Those which
convert ammonia into nitrous acid, and 3d. Those which
convert nitrous acid into nitric acid. Each of these are
necessary to the complete transformation of cotton seed
meal, dried blood, tankage, etc.. into nitric acid, the form of
nitrogen chiefiy available as plant food.

118 THE SUGAR CANE.

It should be the aim of every cultivator to maintain his
fields in conditions most favorable to the development of
these soil ferments, upon whose activity, not only the plant
food already in the soil, but also that applied in the form of
fertilizers, depend for their solubility. The conditions for
the rapid multiplication of these ferments are given in the
chapter on cultivation. It will be apparent, however, from
the above, that it is a misuse of fertilizers to apply them
to soils that have been badly plowed, imperfectly drained
and in bad tilth. Every planter before resorting to the
use of fertilizers, should see that the soil upon which they
are to be applied should be in a condition to aid in the
most rapid nitrification possible. Only by the observance
of conditions most favorable to nitrification, can the full
effects of the applied fertilizer be obtained.

NITROGEN REQUIKKD IN A ROTATION.

From investigations made by this station, a crop of cow
peas when turned under at the proper time, will add at least
100 pounds of nitrogen per acre, most, if not all of which, it
is believed, is gathered from the air. The average crop of
plant cane grown upon pea vine land is not far from thirty
tons per acre. The first year stubble following this plant,
should give twenty tons per acre, and if kept for the second
year stubble, a crop of at least 15 tons per acre should be
obtained. The three years cropping would give 65 tons of
cane which, together with tops and fodder (which are
burned) would remove from the soil 221 pounds nitrogen.
Of this amount, 100 pounds would be furnished by the peas,
most of which would go to the plant cane, leaving 121
pounds to be supplied by fertilizers in order that the soil
may retain the original fertility. It will require over 1,700
pounds of cotton seed meal to supply this quantity of nitro-
gen, or 970 pounds for first year stubble and 730 pounds
for the second year stubble. These quantities are usually in
excess of practice, because there is a certain amount of
nitrogen furnished by the soil every year, and secondly our
crops of peas give frequently larger quantities of nitrogen
than given above, and, lastly, such tonnage through three
years are rarely obtained. However, this will serve as an
illustration of the value of nitrogen to the sugar cane crop.

Phosphoric Acid Plat.

Similar questions as to the requirements of this soil for
phosphoric acid, to those given under nitrogen, have been
propounded to this plat, viz.: First — Does this soil need
phosphoric acid to grow cane? Second — If so, in what
form can it best be prescribed? and Third — In what

PHOSPHORIC ACID PLAT. 119

quantities per acre? The forms of phosphoric acid used
were, "Dissolved Bone Black," "Acid Phosphate," "Ground
Bones," "Thomas Slag," "Charleston Floats," and Natural
Phosphates or Guanos. They were used in such quantities
as to furnish thirty-six and seventy-two pounds of phos-
phoric acid per acre. Larger quantities than seventy -two
pounds per acre have proven by experiments to be unproifiit-
able. These forms were used alone, and combined with ex-
cessive quantities of nitrogen and potash. The most avail-
able and adaptable forms to cane were used, viz: Sulphates
of Ammonia and Potash. As in other plats at regular in-
tervals, there were the usual number of unfertilized experi-
ments, and experiments containing only Sulphates of Am-
monia and Potash. Like the Nitrogen experiments, these
have already extended over eight years years, and will be
continued indefinitely. The results so far indicate positive-
ly the value of phosphoric acid in manures for sugar cane
on these soils, but the demand for this ingredient is small
in comparison to that for Nitrogen, the smaller quantity
given above (thirty-six pounds per acre), proving so far
an ample quantity for maximum yields. Results further
show that the soluble forms of phosphoric acid are pre-
ferred, followed in order b}^ slag meal, and finally ground
"floats," etc. Therefore, quantities of phosphoric acid, from
thirty to forty pounds per acre, in a soluble form, are to
be recommended for sugar cane on our soils. Phosphoric
Acid, unlike Nitrogen, can not be drawn from the air by
leguminous crops. It is true that the latter, by their deep
tap roots, pump it up from the lower strata of the subsoils,
and by turning them under as green crops, the phosphoric
acid is transferred from the subsoil to the surface soil, and
is thus placed within the reach of the roots of the subse-
quent cane crop. If, however, both soil and subsoil be de-
ficient in this ingredient, recourse must be had to some
commercial fertilizer containing it, in order to grow maxi-
mum crops. A crop of cow peas can and does supply a soil
with nitrogen drawn directly from the air, and in doing so
makes a positive addition to the store of fertility in the soil.
By its tap roots it may transfer phosphoric acid from sub-
soil to surface soil, but in doing so it has not increased the
stock of plant food on hand, but simply transferred it to
a more eligible position for assimilation by cane. There-
fore, phosphoric acid is equally needed by both plant and
stubble cane.

EXPLANATIONS OF FORMS OF PHOSPHORIC ACID.

Dissolved Bone Black. — Bones are subjected to destruc-
tive distillation in the process of "charring," by which the

120 THE SUGAR CANE.

larger part of their organic matter is driven off, and with
it their nitrogen. A part of the carbon existing in bones
as organic matter, is now left as charcoal, encrusting each
grain of phosphate of lime. When thus prepared it is
called "Bone Black," or "Bone Charcoal," which is exten-
sively used in sugar refineries for decolorizing and de-
fecating syrups destined for white sugar. After constant
use, the bone black becomes "spent;" i. e., no longer exer-
cises a decolorizing influence upon syrups. It is then sold
for fertilizing purposes. Sometimes it is, without further
treatment, applied directly to the soil, but without im-
mediate benefits, since the phosphates, being encased in
charcoal, are protected from rapid decomposition. To over-
come this slow action and render it immediately aTailable,
it is treated with sulphuric acid, and the resulting product
is "Dissolved Bone Black," a most valuable and available
form of phosphoric acid, containing usually about 16 per
cent, to 18 per cent, soluble phosphoric acid.

Acid Phosphate. — Formerly Bone Black, Bone Ash, or
Ground Bones, were used for treatment with sulphuric acid,
but the demand becoming greater than the supply, re-
course was had to the newly discovered beds of mineral
phosphates, and to-day much the larger quantity of soluble
phosphates are manufactured from the mineral phosphates
obtained in various parts of the world; South Carolina,
Florida and Tennessee each furnishing large quantites an-
nually. These mineral phosphates, after being cleaned
from adhering dirt, sand, etc., are ground to a fine pow
der by the "roller" process, and sold on the market as
"floats," or are treated with sulphuric acid and converted
into soluble phosphates, which are called "Acid Phos-
phates," "Superphosphates," or "Dissolved Bones." The
amount of soluble phosphoric acid which they carry varies
from 10 per cent to 20 per cent., according to the purity of
the phosphate from which they were made. If phosphoric
acid be used to dissolve the bone black or mineral phos-
phates, the resulting product will be much higher in soluble
phosphoric acid. In this way are made the so-called
"Double Superphosphates" which are sometimes found on
our markets, and which contain from 40 per cent, to 50 per
cent, of soluble phosphoric acid.

In the treatment of either bones, bone black, or mineral
phosphates, with sulphuric acid, if enough of the latter be
used, all of the phosphoric acid will become soluble in water.
The above substances are tricalcic phosphates, containing
three molecules of lime to one of phosphoric acid, and are
soluble only in acids. They are, therefore, slowly soluble in

PHOSPHORIC ACID PLAT. 121

soil water, and are not a readily available form for plant
food.

Treated with sulphuric acid, they lose two molecules of
lime, which are appropriated by the acid, and recover in ex-
change two molecules of water, leaving one molecule of
lime combined with one molecule of phosphoric acid and two
molecules of water. The resulting products are now mon-
ocalcic phosphates, and are very soluble in water, and there-
fore readily available to plants.

Should a deficiency of sulphuric acid be used in the man-
ufacture of soluble phosphates, a quantity of the tricalcic
phosphate will be left unacted upon by the acid, while
another portion will be converted into monocalcic or solu-
ble phosphate.

If this mixture be permitted to remain in bulk any length
of time, a chemical reaction takes place, by which a dicalcie
phosphate is formed, which is insoluble in w^ater, but solu-
ble in certain salts, notably the citrate of ammonia, and is
called ''reduced," or "reverted," phosphates. The change
is as follows: One part of insoluble phosphate, containing
three molecules of lime, and one part of phosphoric acid,
reacts upon another part of soluble phosphate containing
one molecule of lime and one of phosphoric acid, to form
two parts of "reduced," or "reverted," phosphate, which
contains two molecules of lime and one of phosphoric acid.
These three forms of phosphoric acid are found in every
"Acid Phosphate," or fertilizer, containing acid phosphate.
They are usually denominated as "soluble," "reverted," and
"insoluble," and to the chemist are known as "water solu-
ble," "citrate soluble," and "acid soluble" phosphoric acids.
In some States the soluble and reverted are classed together
as "available" phosphoric acid, a term w^hich has been
adopted by the manufacturer rather than the agriculturist,
since the question of availability in the soil is yet an unde-
termined one and varies greatly with the character of the
soil. It is true that the soluble phosphoric acid, when ap-
plied to the soil, after a while reverts, from contact with
basic principles in the soil, but before doing so it diffuses it-
self throughout the soil, and by this initial velocity be-
comes thoroughly incorporated with it, and when precipi-
tated in the reverted form, each particle is so minute as to
be readily available to the acid secreting roots of plants.
The reverted phosphates being insoluble in water, lack this
initial diffusion, and therefore remain in the exact position
in which they were placed by the planter. Tlie particles are
more segregated and less diffused, and therefore less avail-
able.

122 THE SUGAR CANE.

In buying phosphates, therefore, due regard should be
given to obtaining the highest possible content of soluble
phosphoric acid.

Slag Meal is a by-product in the manufacture of steel or
wrought iron by the "Thomas Gilchrist" process, from pig
iron rich in phosphoric acid. The pig iron is melted in con-
verters lined with lime, and when thoroughly melted, the
lime unites with the phosphoric acid present, and forms a
slag which floats on the surface of the melted iron. This
slag is removed, cooled, and ground into a powder, and sold
as "phosphatic slag," or "slag meal." Besides phosphate
of lime, it usually contains goodly quantities of lime, and
therefore cannot be mixed without injury with fertilizers
containing either ammonia or soluble phosphates. It
usually contains 15 to 20 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and
upon some soils, with certain crops, is highly esteemed. It
has not proven as valuable under sugar cane as the soluble
forms. There is a promise of a large supply of this slag in
the near future by the manufacturers who work iron by this
process.

NATURAL PHOSPHATES.

Besides the mineral phosphates already described, there
are found on the smaller islands of the ocean, immense de-
posits of phosphates, w^hich require little or no manipula-
tion to prepare them for use. They are believed to be the
residues from the deposits of fish-eating birds. In a ram-
less climate, like Peru, such deposits give us the celebrated
Peruvian guano, rich in both ammonia and phosphates. In
a rainy climate, such as prevails in the Carribean Sea, the
ammonia and other soluble matters have been washed out,
leaving only the insoluble phosphates. In such a manner
has originated the natural guanos, known as Grand Cay-
man, Redonda, Orchilla, Carib. etc., all coming from islands
in the Carribean Sea. These natural guanos should be
used with great care since they are simpl^^ phosphates, and
not what their name imports, "guanos."

In selecting phosphates for use, intelligent farmers, both
in Europe and America, give preference to "super," or "acid
phosphates," a fact evidenced by the ever-increasing de-
mand for these goods.

Potash Plat.

On this plat, the Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid are the
constants, and the form and quantity of potash the varia-
ble. Does this soil need potash to grow cane? If so, in
what form, and in what quantity, shall it be used? The
Nitrogen in this plat has been furnished in the form of Sul-

POTASH PLAT. 128

phate of Ammonia and the Phosphoric Acid in Acid Phos-
phate. The potash has been supplied in Kainite, Muriate
of Potash, Sulphate of Potash, Carbonate of Potash,
and Nitrate of Potash. Such quantities of each
were used as to furnish 25 to 50 pounds of pure
potash per acre. There were also present the usual
experiments without fertilizer, and those containing
only Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid. These experiments
have extended over eight years, and are being continued. ,

So far, no results of any character, either in the increased
sugar content or tonnage per acre have been visible from
the use of any form of potash, upon the alluvial lands of
the lower Mississippi. Several forms of potash, notably the
carbonate, and ashes of cotton seed hulls, have rather de-
creased the yield of cane and injured the physical qualities
of the soil, by causing it to "run together." That this soil
should not require potash in fertilizers adapted to them is
to be anticipated from its chemical analysis given else-
where, which shows an abundance of potash. It is further
corroborated by the magnificent growth of white clover,
wild alfalfa, and "melilotus officinalis," growing luxuriantly
over almost every headland, and by the excellent crops of
cabbages, red clover, alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and cow
peas, cultivated more or less extensively throughout this
section. All of these plants are known to require large
quantities of potash for their best development. Where
are they grown better and more successfully than in the
alluvial lands of South Louisiana?

In New England and the north of Germany, potassic ma-
nures are held in high esteem. The application of potash
manure has proven a panacea for "clover sickness" on the
soils of Scotland. On soils rich in humus, potassic ma-
nures are said to release nitrogen, and thus give excessive
growth to plants grown thereon. This is a familiar occur-
rence to all farmers in the spots where log heaps have been
burned. Such spots withstand drouth well, since they are
better supplied with moisture by capillarity.

SOURCES OF POTASSIC MAKURES.

Formerly ashes and green sand marl (Glauconite) fur-
nished all the potash for commerce and agriculture, but
the opening of the Strassf urt and Leopoldshal mines of Sax-
ony have furnished the world with every form of potash.
The following are the products:

First — Kainite, a crude product of the mines, containing
12 per cent, of potash, and is a mixture of chlorides and sul-
phates of potash, soda, and magnesia.

124 THE SUGAR CANE.

Second — ^Muriate of Potash, a manufactured article con-
taining 50 per cent, of pure potash.

Third — Sulphate of Potash of varying purity, containing
24 per cent, to 50 per cent, of potash, is also a manufactured
article.

From these forms the others, carbonate and nitrate, are
manufactured.

How Shall Fertilizers be Applied ?

A rational discussion of the properties of each one of the
three ingredients of commercial fertilizers will enable us to
intelligently appreciate the proper methods of applying
them. Nitrogen, the ingredient most desired by cane plants
is the transitory one of commercial fertilizers. It is to-day
a gas, forming a part of the atmosphere; to-morrow it is a
solid in the plant. It is now an ingredient of soil water,
and is either appropriated by plants, fixed by the soil or
leached out into springs and rivers, to be finally "in the
dark bosom of the ocean buried," there to be abstracted
and appropriated by fish, which in time furnishes pabulum
for man or manure for plants. The idea of rest or perma-
nence is foreign to the chemistry of this element, as to the
atmosphere of which it forms so large a part. Therefore,
all nitrogenous manures should be used with care and cau
tion, especially those which contain actual ammonia and
soluble nitrates. Therefore, in using Nitrate of Soda, it
should be applied as a top dressing only on the growing
crop, and at short intervals in small quantities. Sulphate
of ammonia is also liable to leaching, but may be lost by
•excessive use, or application, at an improper time. The or-
ganic nitrogenous fertilizers mentioned above must be
gradually oxidized and -converted into nitrates as explained
elsewhere under "Nitrification," before they can become
available as plant food. Soil conditions determine largely
the rate at which this nitrification takes place, and hence
excellent tilth with subsequent frequent and shallow cul-
tivation favor the rapid decomposition of organic nitroge-
nous fertilizers. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have found
that cotton seed meal formed, when applied to a soil not
too dry, a slow but continuous supply of nitrates. The oil
present perhaps cripples the nitric ferment, and prevents
too rapid nitrification. As shown elsewhere, nearly all of its
nitrogen is available In one season. Dried Blood is a quick-
ly acting manure, requiring only a slight covering in the
soil for conversion into available plant food. It may even
be used as a top dressing.

Tankage, so far as its content of blood goes, has
similar properties. The bone and meat portions, particu-

AT WHAT TIME APPLIED. 12)

larly the former, are much slower of action. Fish scrap
acts more slowly, and there is no evidence that all its nitro-
gen ever becomes available. However, in the South, if
turned too deeply in a warm mellow soil with moderate hu-
midity, the results are fairly satisfactory. It cannot be
profitably used either as a top dressing or when turned too
deeply, since in both instances fermentation is prevented;
nor will it yield good results in early spring upon cold,
damp, soils, but in warm sunshine it may do excellent ser-
vice upon both corn and cane.

It has been shown elsewhere that soluble phosphates,
soon after their application to the soil, revert to insoluble
forms. It was also shown that before reversion, its solu-
bility rendered its distribution through the soil more thor-
ough and uniform, thus securing advantages not obtained
by other forms of phosphoric acid. In such soils, the roots
of crops grow regularly, continuously, and rapidly, and not
spasmodically and intermittently, as when they pass
through spaces of soils free from phosphates. Again, those
micro-organisms, regarded now as essential to soil fertility,
and which specially favor fermentations, and which con-
vert inert plant food into assimilable forms, can prosper
only when phosphates everywhere abound. Besides, super-
phosphates are exceedingly beneficial to young crops in
hastening them beyond the period when they are most sus-
ceptible to the attack of parasitical insects.

Potassic manures are so readily fixed by the double sili-
cates in loams and clays, that it is almost impossible to se-
cure their proper dissemination through a soil. They are,
therefore, as a rule, not to be recommended as a top dress-
ing. Properly speaking, they should be applied some time
before the crop is planted, so that by repeated plowing and
harrowing, they may become well mixed with the soil.
However, salts of potash have different diffusive powers in
themselves, which are greatly modified by admixture with
other manures. Hence, the refinement of fertilization would
require that in compounding commercial manures, that form
of potash should be used which would be increased in
diffusive power by the presence of the forms of nitrogen
and phosphoric acid used.

At What Time Should Fertilizers be Applied ?

From what has been said, it is evident that the separate
application of each ingredient of commercial fertilizer at
such a time and in such quantity as the characteristics of
the individual soil and crop would suggest, would be the
most scientific course of procedure.

1^ THE SUGAR CANE.

Potassic manures could properly be applied several
months before planting a crop. Super or acid phosphates
a little before or at the time of planting, while nitrogen
should be furnished only to meet the demands of the grow-
ing plant, and then only in such quantities as will supply
immediate necessities. The above are the suggestions of
science, but unfortunately, in our present stage of advance-
ment, they cannot be rigidly followed. The larger part of
the supply of our commercial fertilizers are manipulated
goods, containing two or more ingredients, and therefore
separate applicatious cannot be followed.

Depth at Which Pertilizers Should be Placed.

As already seen, potassic fertilizers should never be ap-
plied on the surface of growing crops, since fixation would
occur there and the rootlets of plants never find it. It has
been found that the more these fertilizers are diffused
through the soil, the better the results obtained. Depths
of two to ten inches is the range of cane roots in an average
clay soil. Therefore, an application at four to five inches,
to be subsequently mixed by the plow and cultivator, will
probably be the best depth for all potassic manures. Super,
or acid phosphates require a small depth, but a very extend-
ed width, covering, if possible, the entire distance to be
manured. They should be scattered at a depth of two to
three inches over the area to be occupied by the roots of
plants.

Nitrates and Salts of Ammonia are always best used
as a top dressing — at short intervals, in small quantities.

Dried Blood requires but little depth, provided moisture
necessary for conversion into available plant food be pre-
sent.

Cotton Seed Meal requires a little more depth than Dried
Blood, while Tankage, Bones, and Fish Scrap, must be
sunk to deeper depths to obtain fermentation necessary to
their conversion into soluble plant food.

None of the above should be turned too low, especially in
stiff soils, since air, moisture, and heat are the factors need-
ed in decomposition. Here, as elsewhere, in good agricul-
ture the judgment of the planter must decide, after a thor-
ough acquaintance with his soil. Proper depths may vary
from two inches in a stiff clay soil to six or eight inches in
loose sands.

Conclusions.

Shall our manipulated fertilizers, such as Tankage, Cot-
ton Seed Meal, or complete fertilizers, be applied at the time
of planting, or later during growth? Shall they be applied

PLANT CANE. 127

broadcast, or in drills? Shall they be applied in large, or
small quantities? Positive replies to these questions, suit-
able under all circumstances, cannot be given, and here
again the farmer must use his judgment after studying his
environment. The following will aid him, however, in de-,
ciding: Under

Plant Cane

a small quantity of readily available fertilizer directly under
and near the cane is highly beneficial, since the double line
of rootlets, which are disposed in concentric rays around
the stalk, develop simultaneously with the bud and feed
the young shoot Experiments given elsewhere show the
superiority of stalks thus manured over those unfertilized.
Especially is this true when the seed is more or less un-
sound.

Again, the rootlets emerging from the base of the young
plant simultaneously with the sucker, finding food at hand,
aid greatly in developing a healthy sucker, and thus give
the entire plant a vigorous send off in youth. This is es-
pecially desirable in Louisiana, where we harvest cane after
a growth of a few months, and doubly desirable for that
cane destined for the mill in early fall.

In Louisiana, cane is planted from September to April.
The planter should decide from the character of his soil,
whether the loss from leaching, to his nitrogen, during the
winter would be greater than the benefits to his crop, and
act accordingly. The simple question is thus presented.
Nitrification goes on throughout our entire winters, and if
some crop is not present to consume the nitrates formed,
they will leach (more or less, depending on character of soil)
into the drainage waters, and be lost. Sugar cane grows
very little during the winter, and is, therefore, incapable
of utilizing much nitrate. Will, therefore, the benefits ac-
cruing to the cane be more than counterbalanced by the
losses from nitrification and subsequent leaching? Again,
it may be said that in fall or winter planting of cane, the
good judgment of the planter must be used in determining
whether fertilizers shall be simultaneously supplied. In
spring planting, no doubts exist as to the advisability of
placing a small quantity of readily available fertilizer di-
rectly under and near the cane, provided two applications
can be made — the other in the month of May. If, however,
only one application is feasible, let this be made at the time
of planting in the spring. It is too necessary to give a vig-
orous start to a young plant, to withhold manures until you
have a stand. Usually the more perfect the incorporation
of a manure in a soil, the better the results to be expected,

128 THE SUGAR CANE.

and therefore in countries where short seasons and flat cul-
ture prevail, manures are usually broadcasted and thor-
oughly mixed with the soil before planting. Such a proce-
dure here would be reckless in the extreme. The character
of our lands and the methods of preparation and cultiva-
tion, forbid broadcast manuring, The manure must be de-
posited in an open drill. Into this drill it should be broad-
casted, and machines which deposit fertilizers in continu-
ous rolls shoud be amended by a shaker placed just
below each spout, so as to scatter the fertilizer within the
open furrow. After scattering, the fertilizer should be well
mixed with the soil by a fluke or double mould board plow.
In the spring, after the cane is closely off-barred, the fer-
tilizer, if not applied at planting, should be scattered on
both sides of the plant, from the center of row to the off-
barred furrow. In reversing the furrow, the manure is cov-
ered, and subsequent cultivation will mix the latter with
the soil. If the cane has received the first application at
planting, the second one should be given in May, on both
sides of the row, off-barring lightly with a one-horse plow
at a distance on each side of at least one foot from the cen-
ter of the row of plants.

Stubble Cane

should not be fertilized very long before each sprout has
sent out its own rootlets, since prior to this no good could
be accomplished, and there would be a waste of manure.
The quantity to be used under both plant and stubble cane,
has already been discussed.

Upon a pea fallow, plant cane requires but little nitrogen
and goodly quantities of phosphoric acid. They should be
used in the proportion of at least one of nitrogen to two of
phosphoric acid. An acid phosphate containing 14 per cent,
of phosphoric acid, mixed with an eqtial quantitj^ of cotton
seed meal, will give a mixture containing these proportions.
On "succession" cane, nitrogen should be largely increased
for reasons given elsewhere, and may sometimes reach with
propriety two of nitrogen to one of phosphoric acid. This
is very nearly the proportion that these ingredients occupy
in good cotton seed meal, licence the excellent results ob-
tained by some planters on black lands, and with "succes-
sion" cane, by the use of this fertilizer alone. Ordinarily,
on sandy or medium lands, a mixture of two parts of cotton
seed meal and one part of acid phosphate, will be found
most desirable. This same mixture will also best serve
first year stubble coming from plant cane which succeeds
a pea fallow.

STUBBLE CANE. 129

In fertilizing cane, due regard should be had for the char-
acter of the soil and its ability to furnish the much needed
element, nitrogen, and the distance of a crop from a pea
fallow.

Knowing these factors, the proportion of nitrogen to
phosphoric acid must be varied accordingly, extending from
one of nitrogen to two of phosphoric acid, to two of nitro-
gen to one of phosphoric acid.

Cotton Seed Meal has been used in the above calculations,
simply because it is a most excellent source of nitrogen, and
a home product. Tankage, or any other form, may be used
for the cotton seed meal, by taking enough of the former to
replace the nitrogen contained in the latter. Potash is not
believed to be necessary in manures for cane on Louisiana
soils.

A considerable space has been devoted to a discussion of
fertilizers, because there is no element of farm expense so
cheap as the rightly compounded manure, especially under
cane.

Under this crop, the right manure not only shows itself
in the increased tonnage of cane and yield of sugar, but in
the increased vitality of the succeeding stubbles.

CHAPTER XVII.

CULTIVATION Or CANE.

In previous chapters, detailed instructions have been
given for the preparation of the soil and the planting of the
cane. If every operation has been performed carefully, the
early spring will find the planter working hard to secure a
stand. If his cane has been planted in the fall or winter,,
the early spring will find the young shoots struggling to
penetrate the three or more inches of dirt with which the
cane was covered in the fall to protect it against the
winter's cold. The earliest work is to remove this exces-
sive dirt, and permit an earh^ and rapid germination of the
cane. To this end, two furrows on each side of the row
are reversed, and the extra dirt on the top of the cane re-
moved with hoes. In practice, the hoes "find" the embedded
cane and leave only a thin layer of dirt, well pulverized,
above them. By this treatment, the canes, if good, are soon
warmed into a vigorous germination, and continuous stands
are soon visible on every row. Some planters "scrape" their
canes before off-barring with the plow, preferring to main-
tain the established winter drainage through high ridges
and quarter-drains, until the approach of the usually dry
weather of spring. Cane planted in the spring is not so
deeply covered, and frequently gives a stand without the
aid off-barring and scraping. However, the efforts of
the planter are mainly directed in early spring to the se-
curement of a stand of cane, and his judgment, disciplined
by experience, will frequently suggest the best methods to
he pursued to attain this important end.

Having secured a stand of cane, many planters concen-
trate their next efforts to the encouragement of suckers,
which develop with great rapidity during May and June.
Others pay but little attention to the encouragement
of suckers, feeling assured that this natural pro-
cess will go on unaided, and begin at once the
work of fertilization and cultivation. If the cane
has not been fertilized at planting, the first ap-
plication should now be made before the furrows are re-

CULTIVATION OF CANE. Iftl

turned to the cane and the middles "bursted out'' In ap-
plying the fertilizer, which is usually placed on both sides
of the row in the open furrow made by the two-horse plow,
great care should be exercised to see that it is well distri-
buted across the narrow ridge of cane and throughout the
open furrows. The proper distribution of fertilizers at this
stage of the growth of cane may well be styled "broadcast-
ing in the drills," and the latter should not be too deep, else
some of the fertilizer may ncAer become available. At this
stage in the cultivation of the crop, many planters use the
subsoil plow (see fig. 17) before returning the dirt to the

Fig. 17.— Subsoil plow.

cane. On either side of the narrow ridge on which the
young canes stand, in the open furrow made by the two-
horse plow, the subsoil plow is drawn by four mules, to the
depth of six to ten inches.

The advantages of this'subsoiling are not always clearly
apparent. Before the invention of good pulverizing turn
plows, subsoiling was quite fashionable. To-day it is used
in but few localities. Upon our alluvial soils, where drain-
age is of such prime importance, and in our climate of
heavy summer rainfalls, subsoiling must be practiced
with judgment and skill, else injury to soil and
crops may result. It is safer and perhaps better to
precede the cane crop with deep tap-rooted legum-
inous plants, and let them do the subsoiling. After
the fertilizers have been applied and the subsoiling
(where practiced) performed, the soil is returned
to the cane, and the middles broken out with a large
double mould board plow, and quarter-drains opened. Em-
phasis is laid upon the importance of cleaning quarter-
drains immediately after each cultivation, since a heavy
rainfall, flooding even temporarily the field at this period

132 THE SUGAR CANE.

of the growth of the cane, may inflict an injury upon the
soil which may last through the season and materially lower
the yield of cane. Not only the tilth, for which all the pre-
vious operations of plowing, etc., have been conducted for
the purpose of establishing, will be destroyed, but the bac-
teria upon whose activity the plant relies for food, will be
literally drowned by the million, and time will be required
for their restoration. Many cultivations will also be neces-
sary before the conditions known as "tilth" will be re-es-
tablished.

Having returned the soil to the cane and split out the
middles, the process of cultivation begins. It has not been
very long since the two-horse and four-horse plows were the
only implements used in cultivating cane in this State.
Within the last ten or fifteen years the cultivator has been
introduced, and to-day may be found on nearly every plan-
tation. Many varieties are used, covering the double shovel
solid, and sectional disc patents. Since the cane rows are
usually six to seven feet wide, these cultivators cannot
reach more than three to four feet around the cane. Hence,
the middles of the rows are worked with the two-horse and
four-horse turn plows, or with the double mould board plow.
A few planters still prefer the turn plows for all operations
of cultivation, and use them continuously for "off -barring
and throwing back the dirt," until the cane is laid by. The
first plan of combined cultivator and plow, is partly right
and partly wrong; the second one wholly wrong.

Experiments in different methods of cultivation conduct-
ed at the Sugar Experiment Station through several years,
have shown that the exclusive use of cultivators has annual-
ly increased the yield of cane over ten tons per acre, and
the sugar product 700 pounds. The following is an out-
line of the method pursued, from the preparation of land
to the lay-by of the cane: The land is broken "flush" with
a large plow (now use the Disc Plow), pulverized with a har-
row, and bedded with two-horse plows. The rows are
opened with a double mould board plow, cane planted and
covered, and the middles broken out with the double mould
board plow. The quarter-drains are opened six inches be-
low the middles of the rows, and ditches cleaned. At the
proper time the cane is off-barred with two-horse plows,
scraped with hoes, and when large enough, is fertilized by
scattering the mixture across the open furrows and narrow
ridge of cane. The dirt is returned as soon as fertilizer is
applied, the middles broken out deep and clean, and the
turn plows sent to the barn to remain until the next season.
The disc cultivator (fig. 18), Avith the three small discs on
each side, is used for throwing dirt to the cane at the first

CULTIVATION OF CANE.

Fig. 18.— Disc cultivator.

working, and the middle, or diamond cultivator (fig. 19) for
breaking out the middles. In the second and third culti-
vations, two middle discs replace the three used in the first,
and are set at such an angle as to throw the desired amount

Fig. 19.— Middle cult.

134 . THE SUGAR CANE.

of dirt to the cane, and is followed each time by the middle
cultivator, thus completing the work with the two imple-
ments. At lay-by, the large, or "lay-by," discs are used, fol-
lowed by the middle cultivator, with its two front shovels
removed. By proper adjustment of the two instruments,
ridges of any desired heighth can be made, and the cane
properly laid by.

Some contend that insufficient dirt is thrown to the cane
for the preservation of the stubble. In reply, the station
would point to a most excellent stand of three-year-old stub-
ble now growing on its grounds, which has been thus treat-
ed from planting, four years ago.

The rationale of this method will be apparent by a dis-
cussion of the principles underlying general cultivation of
crops; and our soils and crops should not be exceptions.

If the work of preparation has been performed as describ-
ed in a previous chapter, subsequent planting and cultiva-
tion are easy processes. If badly done, then subsequent
cultivation is not, properly speaking, cultivation at all, but
efforts in the direction of ^securing that tilth which a good
preparation would have insured. An excellent preparation
always secures tilth, and after cultivation should be simply
a maintenance of this tilth.

Some of our readers may desire a definition of tilth. In
reply, would say that the word involves two principles, viz. :
first, the maintenance of such conditions as will promote the
most rapid and beneficial chemical changes in the soil, and
second, the conservation of the proper amount of moisture.

The chemical changes in a soil are most complex. For-
merly the soil w^as regarded as dead, inert matter, totally
devoid of life, and until recently there was no suspicion of
living organisms within it, except the plants that emerged
therefrom. But the up-to-date agriculturist now knows
that every well cultivated and fertile soil is penetrated with
living beings — in fact, a living mass of matter. The mineral
part of the soil is to-day regarded as the environment of liv-
ing organisms, from which the latter may draw a part of its
sustenance. While air, water, and mineral matter furnish
the materials of plant growth, they must all be digested
before they can be assimilated. The mineral matter of
every soil must suffer complete disintegration before as-
similation, and the only forces so far known capable of ac-
complishing this work are the secretions of the plants, the
vital activity of rootlets, organic acids, and the influence
of soil ferments and micro organisms. It is well known
that soil ferments are intimately associated with the root-
lets of some plants, and henc^ the leguminous plants a«?
selected for soil improvement! Hundreds of micro-organ-

CULTIVATION OF CANE. 136

isms exist in every fertile soil;someare useful to vegetation,
some are noxious. In butter making, it has been found
that certain bacteria ripen cream, while others prevent, and
the former are now specially prepared on a large scale in
the laboratory of the chemist and furnished as bacteria No.
41 to the butter makers of the world. So in the soil it has
been discovered that organisms favorable to the prepara-
tion of plant food are accompanied by others nearly allied,
whose chief function is to destroy the work performed by
the former. The object, then, of science, is to discover some
process by w^hich the former may be multiplied and the
latter destroyed. Accompanying the ferments already
mentioned, are sometimes found others of a pathogenic na-
ture. Epidemics among men and animals are frequently
due to germs which preserve their vitality in the soil, and
passing with plant structure, or into wells or springs, are
thus conveyed to animals and men, producing disease.
Typhoid fever, lockjaw, charbon, cholera, and, by many,
malaria, now better styled "malaqua,'' are believed to be
thus propagated. The recent spread of charbon through-
out the alluvial section of Louisiana, emphasized this fact.
Every effort should be made to prevent infecting the soil
with the germs of any zymotic disease. Cremation of dead
carcasses, and the dejecta of living patients, are the best
preventives. Health oflScials in cities have therefore wisely
prohibited the use of sewage for agricultural x)ur poses.

The attention of bacteriologists has been devoted almost
exclusively to the study of the nitrifying organisms of the
soil, and these only in their relation to the collection and
preparation of nitrogen as plant food. It is believed, how-
ever, by some, that all plant food of every character is the
work of micro-organisms within the soil. The relatively
high price for nitrogen (or ammonia) in our fertilizers has
been the cause of the patient investigation of bacteriologists
along the exclusive line of nitrifying and denitrifying germs.
Nitrogen is the most costly ingredient of plant food. It is
the most fugitive. Our largest supply comes mainly from
organic matter, which by a process of oxidation through
the work of organisms, is converted into nitric acid. The
salts of nitric acids, are extremely soluble, and if not
utilized at once by growing plants, are washed out by
heavy rains. Hence, a gradual development of nitric acid
during the period of growth of plants, and the process by
which this oxidation is accomplished, is called "nitrifica-
tion." This oxidation is going on in every fertile soil,
and when stopped, even though the soil be rich in vegetable
matter containing nitrogen, the plants thereon must also
stop growth.

336 THE SUGAR CANE.

The nitrobacteria taking part in complete nitrification
are of three distinct types of genera: First — Those which
convert nitrogenous matter into ammonia. Second — Those
which convert ammonia into nitrous acid. Third — Those
which convert nitrous acid into nitric acid. Each are neces-
sary to the complete transformation of nitrogenous matter
into nitric acid, the form of nitrogen chiefly available as
plant food. A complete demonstration of this transforma-
tion can be made in any laboratory by analyses of samples
of the same soil, after the lapse of a month, the one steril-
ized and the other not. The unsterilized soil will always
give the largest amount of nitric acid. These ferments
work together synchronously, each one waiting on the
other.

It is the aim of every cultivator to maintain his field in
conditions most favorable to the development of these soil
ferments, upon whose activity the abundance of his harv-
ests so intimately depends. What are these conditions?

1. They are the most numerous and active near the surf-
ace, diminishing in quantity and vitality as one descends.
Hence, surface cultivation required for all crops for maxi-
mum results.

2. Oration — an abundance of air needed. The necessity
of deep preparation or breaking of land to insure thorough
aeration of soil.

3. A high temperature. The maximum activity is de-
veloped between 85 degrees and 100 degrees. We all know
how rapidly plants grow when both days and nights are
warm, and how they are checked by a fall of temperature.

4. The absence of light. While parts of plants above the
ground require sunlight for their functional full activity,
these soil ferments diminish in activity to the vanishing
points as the sunlight intensifies. Hence shading the
ground in any way enables them to work nearer the surface,
and warm nights are more favorable to their development
than warm days. Hence many plants make phenomenal
growth during warm nights.

5. A certain amount of moisture. Excessive moisture
must be removed by drainage, since it excludes air needed
for nitrification, yet a certain amount is indispensable to
these ferments. For the most rapid work, experience has
shown that from one-third to one-half of the capacity of the
soil is the proper amount.

6 Since the final action of these organisms results in
nitric acid, it is necessary that there be present in the soil
some base which can neturalize it and prevent its accumula-
tion in the soil; killing the ferments and injuring the grow-
ing plants. Some lands will produce neither fennents nor

CUIiTIVATION OF CANE. 137

crops, while limestone lands are everywhere very fertile.
Hence, small quantities of lime or some other base, is essen-
tial to nitrification.

7. The most essential condition of all, the presence in the
soil of some organic matter containing nitrogen. If the soil
be deficient in this, it must be artificially supplied in some
form — stable manure, cotton seed and meal, dried blood,
fish scrap, etc. The use of stable manure and compost as a
manure is doubly valuable. They not only supply directly
the plant food, but nitrifying organisms of a particularly
vigorous character in great numbers, and the latter, when
in(;orporated with the soil, together with their progeny, ex-
ercise their activity upon the inert nitrogen of the soil, when
the more nitrifiable portions of the manure are exhausted.
Hence, stable manure and compost produce fertilizing re-
sults beyond what was expected from the quantity of plant
food contained therein. Even our poorest soils are found by
chemical analyses to contain plant food amply sufficient
for remunerative crops, and this addition of "ferments" by
the compost renders much of it available. It may be asked
here whether much of the infertility of some of our soils
may not be due to the absence of these ferments, and, if so,
cannot they be supplied? In reply, I say, certainly. Dif-
ferent soils vary greatly in the quantity and vitality of
these ferments, and frequently good results have follow-
ed the thin sprinkling of a rich garden loam over a poor
field. This has been frequently done on reclaimed swamp
lands, rich in vegetable matter, sterilized by long inunda-
tion. A dose of lime and a small quantity of ferment scat-
tered over them, have quickly converted them into fertile
soils.

But science has gone further and prepared the way com-
mercially for another class of fertilizers which are now on
the market. Professor Nobbe, Director of the Experiment
Station at Tharandt, Saxony, is now preparing for the mar-
ket "pure cultivation of the bacteria." The preparations
consist of "colonies of the bacteria on agar gelatine enclosed
in sealed bottles, each of which contains organisms enough
for a half acre of land." These preparations are diluted in
water and sprinkled over the soil, or over the seed to be
sown, or diluted in water and then mixed with about fifty
pounds of the soil, and the mixture scattered over the land.
He has named the preparations from the roots of seventeen
different legumes, "Nitrogen," and they are for sale on the
market.

Years ago. Sir Bennett Lawes, in a public lecture to
farmers, remarked that "the day was not far distant when
a man could carrv all tlie fertilizers needed for an acre of

138 THE SUGAR CANE.

land in his vest pocket." A wag in the audience replied,
"yes, and carry the crop from the acre to the bam in his
coat pocket." We are about to realize the truth of Dr.
Lawes' remarks, and we await with curious solicitude to
see if experiments will verify the predictions of the wag.
Be this as it may, it is now certain that we can seed a soil
with nitrifying germs.

Besides producing nitric acid from organic matter through
nitric ferments, the leguminous plants, particularly our
own cow pea and some cryptogams, have, through the
colonies of bacteria which infect their roots, the power of
converting free nitrogen of the air into plant food, and it
is also believed that other organisms which are capable of
oxidizing free nitrogen of the air, exist in soils that are
devoid of organic nitrogen.

As I have remarked, these beneficial bacteria are accom-
panied by ferments inimical to agriculture; e. g., a ferment
has been discovered which will decompose nitric acid, and
has been styled "denitrifying ferment." A study of this
ferment has developed the gratifying fact that under favor-
able circumstances they are not propagated in such num-
bers as to prove destructive. From the above it can readily
be seen how^ cultivation tends to maintain the conditions
for rapid nitrification.

Many beneficial effects of cultivation can now be easily
explained. We cultivate shallow because such a process not
only prevents destruction of roots of the plants, an evil al-
ways to be avoided, but also because nitrification takes place
in the upper layers of the soil, and by the act of cultivation
the ferment is well scattered. Again, the temperature at
which fermentation is most active is about 90 degrees to 100
degrees, and this temperature obtains in the upper layers of
the soil. The action of the ferment is suspended at or
about 50 degrees on the one hand, and 150 degrees on the
other. It is destroyed by high heat and electricity; hence,
when lightning strikes a soil, nothing will grow where it
struck for some time afterward. The presence in small
quantities, of lime, highly favors nitrification. Moisture in
excessive quantities excludes the air and suspends the
vital activities of the ferment; hence the necessity of drain-
age. The absence of moisture is equally as objectionable,
and here the second object of cultivation promotes the
first.

From these considerations it will be seen that frequent
cultivations, provided no roots are cut, are favorable to
rapid nitrification. Soils cultivated daily produce better
than the same soils cultivated weekly, and the latter better
than those cultivated less frequently.

CULTIVATION OF CANE. 139

Besides the beneficial effects of rapid nitrification, other
chemical changes of great practical value are induced by
shallow and frequent cultivation. The soil is a great labor-
atory, and the chemical changes taking place there are
complex and continuous, and frequent stirrings accelerate
these changes and give increased available plant food. One
practice must be emphasized here as both wise and ex-
pedient, i. e., of breaking the crust after every rain to let
in fresh portions of air and to aid nitrification, but under
no circumstances should it be done while soil is wet, since
this destroys, rather than aids, the ferment.

The second object in cultivation is to conserve the mois-
ture. On the approach of a drouth, cultivators should be
run very shallow and almost continuously. In this way
the thin layer of earth removed from the great mass of soil
is laid as a mulch on the surface, and the continuous upward
movement of the water through the soil into the air, is
checked just below the surface, and the roots of the plants
can then appropriate it. The continuity of capillary pores
are broken, and the water therefore passing into the air is
arrested just below the surface, and is conserved for the
use of the plant. Hence, cultivate continuously in dry
weather. One other point: finely divided soils have the
power (varying according to character from 15 to 23 per
cent.) of absorbing hygroscopic moisture from the air, a
not insignificant property in a prolonged drouth with heavy
dews at night. These are the reasons why we cultivate.
With these reasons before us, the question may be asked,
which best promotes the above changes and conditions, the
cultivator which stirs only to limited depths and never in-
verts? or the plow which runs six to twelve inches deep,
completely inverting the soil and frequently burying plant
foods and ferments beyond resurrection for the growing
crop? The plain and candid reply is, the cultivator. Again,
but little stress has been laid upon the damage done the cane
by the frequent cutting of its roots, by the turn plows, a
damage often fatal to good crops, and recognized in the ad-
age among our older planters, "that cane never grew until
it was laid by."

It is almost impossible to estimate correctly the annual
damage to the cane crop of. this State by the use of turn
plows in its cultivation. Happily the custom is fast disap-
pearing, and the presence of the middle cultivator on our
market, and its trial by many planters this year, gives
promise of an early adoption of cultivators alone, as imple-
ments suitable for the cultivation of cane.

The element of cost in the use of plow and cultivator has
been left to the last; because scientific and practical reasons

140 THE SUGAR CANE.

were convincing without it. But in this day of strong com-
petition between the new and rapidly developing beet sugar
industry, and the ancient, but seriously imperiled, cane
sugar planting and manufacturing, every possible economy
will be practiced. Only by the adoption of the most im-
proved and economical methods can the tropical sugar cane
be maintained in the race with beets.

A comparison of the cost of cultivating a thousand acres
with the plow and with the cultivator, will show an en-
ormous balance in favor of the latter. With two good cul-
tivators and four strong mules, from four to ten acres
(depending on width of row) of cane can be completely cul-
tivated in a day, whereas, with plows two or three acres
per day are reckoned goodly amounts. Again, hoeing,
now such an expensive factor in the growing of a crop of
cane, can be greatly reduced, if not entirely eliminated (after
scraping the cane) by the proper and rapid use of cultivators.

So strong are all the reasons, scientifically, practically
and financially, for the substitution of cultivators for plows
in the growing of sugar cane, tliat the assertion is made that
all planters will ultimately use them, "if not to-day, they will
to-morrow."

Cultivation of the Stubble.

Of prime necessity for securing a good stand of stubble,
is the burning of the trash as early after the cane is
harvested as possible. The advantages of burning have
been given elsewhere and need not be repeated here. After
burning, provided the drainage is good, the cane rows
should remain high and dry during the winter and ready
for off-barring early in February. This latter operation is
usually performed with two or four horse turn plows, the
stubbles being left on a narrow^ ridge. Formerly the stub-
bles were dug with grubbing hoes down to the mother cane
and left shaking in the breeze. Happily this custom has
very generally disappeared and is now supplanted by the use
of an implement called the stubble digger (fig. 20) which is
run several times over the stubbles loosening and pulver-
izing the earth, admitting air and heat and causing early
germination of the buds. The stubble digger, when proper-
ly operated, is a most effective and economical implement.
The rapidity with which it may be operated, coveiing ten
to fourteen acres per day, coupled with the good work per-
formed, makes the cost of digging stubbles very small com-
pared with the old grubbing hoe method. Improperly
handled, especially upon very old stubbles, injury may re-
sult from its use. Upon old rattoons on the station, it would
occasionally pull up a stubble in spite of our best efforts to

CULTIVATION OF THE STUBBLK.

141

Fig. 20.
Bo(iley-"Mallon" Stubble Digger.

prevent, thus injuring a future stand. However, the
amount so injured, especially upon first year stubble, is
small and insignificant beside the great saving of cost in
the work performed.

Frequently, before running the stubble digger, the stub-
bles are shaved with an instrument illustrated in fig. 21
By cutting off the tops of the stubbles, the lower eyes are
forced out and the succeeding crop of cane is sufficiently low
to permit of "dirting" without extra exertions. To malie
the stubble shaver a safe and effective implement its knives
should be kept very sharp. An implement for the rapid
sharpening of these knives is illustrated in fig. 22.

Whether stubble shaving should be universally adopted
is yet an unsettled question. That there are seasons when
it is profitable and proper to shave, all will admit. These
seasons are marked by a cold sufficient to injure the upper
eyes without damaging the lower ones. By shaving, the
injured eyes are removed :nui the lower ones are placed

142

'HE SUGAR CANE.

Fig. 21.— Bodley-"Mallon" Stubble Shaver.

nearer the surface and more directly under the influence of
heat and air, necessary for germination.

If, on the other hand, the soils be not well drained, it
will sometimes occur during the winter that the bottom
eyes will be injured by contact with stagnant water, while
the upper ones will remain unhurt. To shave such cane
would be an egregious error. Therefore, the stubble shav-
er should be used with great judgment, the condition of
the stubble after thorough examination being the only
guide. The stubble shaver, besides cutting the stubble, cul-

V :/TY

CULTIVATION OF THE STUBBLE.

143

Bodley-'Mallou" Knife Grinder,

tivates and pulverizes the soil and leaves it in excellent con-
dition for the future work of the stubble digger. After a
stand of stubble is obtained, its future treatment should be
identical with that given plant cane.

CHAPTER XVIII.

HARVESTING CANE.

If cane has been properly nourished and worked, it
should be laid by in June, or early in July. After lay by, if
the drainage has been well established, the cane grows with
wonderful rapidity. One by one the red joints appear and
by the end of September the growth has been- sufficient to
furnish seed for fall planting. It is, however, far from be-
ing mature and rarely is it in a condition fit for the sugar
house before November. It is true that many of our plant-
ers are forced into harvest early in October on account of
the size of their crop and apprehension of destructive cold
during the grinding season, but their yields during this
month are always unsatisfactorily small. It is extremely
doubtful whether the annual losses from early grinding are
not greater than would occur from destructive colds later
in the season. Of the twelve years spent on this station,
only one winter, 1894-95, has brought a severity of cold,
which utterly destroyed the possibilities of making sugar
from standing cane. Several bud-killing frosts have oc-
curred, but by windr owing the cane immediately or remov-
ing the injured tops, sugar making was prolonged over a
month without serious deduction of yields. (See weather
report for details). This exjjerience would justify the risk
of delay rather than 'work annually a month upon im-
mature cane. November 1st would seem from experience
to be the best time to begin the harvest.

Whenever begun, the force of hands must be largely in-
creased. This is due to the exceedingly expensive and tedi-
ous method of cutting and loading the cane. The cane is
cut by hand labor, each stalk receiving the same attention.
The cutter seizes the cane near the top, with his left hand,
strips it of its foliage with the back of his cane knife, tops
it, and then severs the stalk at the ground and throws it to
the heap, which is made for the convenience of loading, on
every third row- A good cutter in good cane will average

HARVESTING CANE.

146

about three tons of cane per day. With inferior cane or cut-
ters, the product will be less.

When the cane is cut and piled on the heap rows, wagons
are driven between them and loaded from both sides. Form-
erly, under a large cane shed all of the loads of cane were
dumped and were transferred to the cane carrier by hand

i'lG 23 —Loading cane wagon.

labor. This method, which involves a large number of
hands to keep the necessary cane on the carrier for the
continuous running of the mill, has been almost entirely
superseded by some of the excellent devices for transferring
canes from wagons to cars and cars to cane carrier. ThQ
reduction in the cost of labor by the use of these devices has
been very great. •

But little or no progress has been made in the economical
f cutting of the cane and loading the wagons. The old cane
knife is still used and the cane harvester (so devoutly
wished for by our planters) is still without existence. Not-
withstanding the Louisiana Sugar Planters' Association has
proffered for several years, a prize of |1,000 to the inventor
of a successful cane harvester, no one has even made an
effort to claim it. Several improved harvesters have been
tested upon cane on the grounds of this station, but with
so little success that the patentees abandoned the idea of
trying further to adapt them to cane.

The writer has no knowledge of any one working just
now upon a cane harvesting machine, and the prospects for

146 THE SUGAR CANE.

the early securement of such a desirable implement are
apparently as remote as ever. So, too, with loading ; "main
strength and awkwardness" of our loaders are our only
reliance.

Elsewhere has been discussed the difference in composi-
tion of the different parts of the cane. It is well known
that the upper portion is quite immature and when worked
in the sugar house is very melassigenic. To one desiring
only sugar, care should be exercised to see that the cutters
"lower their knives" in cutting cane. Since the butts are
the richest part of the cane, equal attention should be given
to have the stalks cut at or into the ground.

CHAPTER XIX.

PRESERVATION OE CANE.

Windrowing.

A subject of prime importance to every grower and manu-
facturer of sugar cane in Louisiana, is bow to preserve the
cane from the deleterious effects of freezes, so as to prolong
our grinding season beyond the regulation period of sixty
to ninety days.

In order to accomplish the task of working up a large
crop, without endangering a part of it by late freezes, it is
customary to begin work in the sugar house early in Octob-*
er, when the cane is quite green. The losses therefore, in
working immature canes become in some seasons very
heavy. This loss is voluntarily incurred to. avoid the risk
of loss from freezes later in the season.

Sometimes, in spite of efforts to avoid them, freezes over-
take us before the crop is harvested; it is then a mooted
question whether windrowing should be resorted to, in order
to best preserve the standing cane. If Windrowing is
practiced, shall it be done before or immediately after the
freeze, is also an unsolved problem. Could some economic
method be discovered by which our canes could be protected
against freezes and thus continue our sugar campaign
through January and February, it would be of incalculable
benefit to our sugar interests. On December 14, 1888, the
Sugar Experiment Station made the first experiments look-
ing to a solution of this problem. It divided a field of
cane into four parts. Part 1 was left standing. Part 2 was
put up in matelas. Part 3 was windrowed in the usual
way for the mill. Part 4 was carefully ensilaged. Un-
fortunately for the experiments, but fortunately for the
planters, the anticipated freeze did not occur. On
December 19th, the thermometer recorded 27 degrees F.,
but did no further damage than scorching the leaves and
killing a few upper eyes of the cane. This standing cane
was carefully watched, with weekly analyses of it, until
January 13th, when it was cut and worked in the sugar
house. Beyond a very slightly acid taste, no injury was
perceptible either in the results obtained in the laboratory
or from the work in the sugar house.

148 THE SUGAR CANE.

The matelas cane (part 2) was diffused January 16th. It
exhibited no sign of alteration of smj kind and chemical
analysis showed it to be in ex.cellent condition, which was
verified by the ease with which it was worked in the sugar
house.

The windrow cane (part 3) was worked January 18th, with
satisfactory results, showing little or no deterioration.

Part 4, ensilaged cane, however, was a great disappoint-
ment. It had been carefully ensilaged and on opening the
silos the cane was white and to the eye perfectly sound, but
the nose revealed the odor of the escaping acetic acid, and,
the tongue the distinctly acid taste and absence of sugar.
The sugar in the canes, of which there was about 13 per
cent, at time of harvest, had by fermentation been con-
verted into alcohol and acetic acid, the most of which had
evaporated.

The above experiments proved one fact conclusively, i. e.,
ihat sugar cane cannot be ensilaged for the preservation of
its sugar content.

Later Experiments.

Abandoning 'the ensilaging of cane as being totally
destructive of sugar, and substituting the usual windrow-
ing for tbe mill, for seed, and for the matelas, (the latter
being too expensive for mill work) experiments were begun
in 1892, and completed in 1895, and results published in
Bulletin No. 37.

The field experiments were divided into three rows each.
Each experiment was taken as a basis for the trial in pre-
serving the cane. The right-handed row of each experiment
was cut, weighed and analyzed, and worked up in the sugar
house. The left-handed row was simultaneously windrowed
for the mill, i. e., the cane was cut down with its adhering
fodder and placed in the middle of the row, and so adjusted
that the tops covered the butts so completely that when
the work was finished, only the leaves of the cane could
be seen. Care was taken to see that the butts of the cane
touched the ground.

In this condition the cane remained until it was needed,
when it was taken up, stripped of its foliage, topped and sent
to the sugar house, where it received the same treatment
given the early cut.

The middle rows of each experiment were left standing
and not cut down until the windrowed cane was ready to be
worked, when they were both treated alike.

Our experiments extending over three years, and includ-
ing 222 field experiments, were divided in two classes:

1st. Windrowing for the mill.

PRESERVATION OF CANE. 149

2d. Windrowing for the seed.

In the latter case, the cane was treated as in the former,
and immediately after windrowing four-horse plows were
used to turn heavy furrows of soil over it. Hoes usually
completed the covering. In this way cane is preserved for
seed in Louisiana, and it is always windrowed before a frost
shall have injured the buds.

Under class 1st, windrowing for the mill, there were five
divisions, covering all the conditions which our variable sea-
ons permitted, and are as follows:

1st. Canes windrowed before a freeze and harvested be-
fore a freeze.

2nd. Canes windrowed before a freeze and harvested
soon after a freeze.

3rd. Canes windrowed immediately before a freeze and
harvested after a freeze.

4th. Canes windrowed immediately after a bud-killing
freeze.

5th. Canes windrowed after a splitting freeze.

Only one division was made under Class II, since all were
windrowed before a freeze.

After three years experimenting along the above lines,
covering 222 field experiments, which were carefully work-
ed up in the sugar house and followed closely by chemical
analyses at every step, the following conclusions were reach-
ed:

Conclusions.

It is a law of nature that as soon as a plant or animal is
removed from the influence of vitality, that decomposition
sets in, brought about by agents prepared by nature and
resident in or on the plant or animal. The decomposition
is slow or rapid, just in proportion to the conditions which
environ the body. At a high temperature and with an abun-
dance of moisture and a free access of air, it becomes rapid
and certain. At a low temperature, or in the absence of
moisture or air, in most cases, the decomposing action is
retarded, or even for a w^hile suspended. Ferments of vary-
ing characteristics are found present almost everywhere,
and thrive and multiply just in proportion to the existence
of such conditions as are most favorable for their propa-
gation.

Cane is no exception to this rule. When cut down from
its roots and removed from vital forces, it begins at once to
decompose and resolve its complex compounds into simpler
ones. This decomposition will be rapid or slow, just in
accordance with its surrounding conditions. If a low tem-
perature be maintained or air be excluded, or both, this

150 THE SUGAR CANE"

decomposition will be checked, and the cane will remain
for some time in a comparatively good condition. If a high
temperature, with an abundance of moist air, prevail, it will
rapidly become unfit for the sugar house. With these facts
before us, it is evident that no improvement can come to
the cane by windrowing. Therefore to cut cane and put it
in windrow with any other purpose than to protect it
against an expected evil, whose approach would injure it
more than windrowing, is wholly unscientific, and must
bring destruction of sugar and loss of values. Windrowing,
an acknowledged evil in itself, should never be resorted to,
save upon the principle "of the two evils choose the lesser."
When threatened with impending freeze, or having been vis-
ited by one, which has destroyed the vitality of the stalk,
then windrowing may be of immense value; not in improv-
ing the cane, but of delaying the decomposition of its sug-
ars until the sugar house can use it. It is certain that pros-
trated canes lying in contact with the moist earth, and cov-
ered well with its own leaves, are better protected against
severe freezes than standing ones. They are also in a condi-
tion to resist decomposition after a freeze better than
those standing. It may be that clear, cold, weather, pre-
vailing after a freeze, may also retard decomposition in
standing cane for several weeks, and thus enable the planter
to successfully harvest them without much loss. But
should warm, sultry, weather, prevail, the standing cane
would ferment rapidly. The windrowed cane would, under
such weather conditions, also ferment, but its closely ap-
pressed leaves preventing a free access of air and partially
protecting against the sun and its contact with the moist
earth, must furnish some protection against rapid fermen-
tation. Hence, under favorable conditions, both standing
and windrowed canes might be worked without much differ-
ence in results, but should unfavorable weather exist, the
windrow would certainly proffer gj'eater obstacles to rapid
decomposition. These are the conclusions deducible from
known laws of nature.

Let us see how far they are confirmed by actual experi-
ments.

IN CLASS I, DIVISION I,

it was found that the canes which were windrowed and har-
vested before a freeze lost heavily compared with those cut
and worked at the same time they were windrowed. It
was found also that those left standing and worked up with
the windrowed canes had gained both in quantity and qual-
ity. Here, then, comes a double loss — one from early har-
vesting and one from windrowing. It is quite certain with

PRESERVATION OF CANE. 151

these facts before us, no one living in a fro«tless climate
would ever think of windrowing.

IN CLASS I, DIVISION II.

Cane windrowed before and after a freeze.

Here the results are- largely influenced by the time the
cane was in the windrow before the freeze, and the time be-
tween the freeze and the harvest of the standing cane.

The standing cane evidently did not suffer before the
freeze, while the windrow did. The standing cane may
disintegrate rapidly after the freeze, while the windrow
may proceed with an even pace. It is, therefore, directly a
determination of the greatest quantity, and since the
weather as well as the time of approaching frost, are both
unknown factors, it is manifestly impossible to decide be-
fore hand.

Hence, windrowing, performed without forecasts of an
approaching freeze, carries with it certain inevitable losses,
which are made as costly premiums upon an insurance
against freezes.

The average of twelve seasons of which careful records
have been kept, would hardly justify such action earlier
than the middle or last of December.

CLASS I. DIVISION III.

^hall cane be windrowed immediately before or after a freeze?

This question has been fully discussed under the experi-
ments. It was there shown that there were slight advan-
tages in favor of windrowing immediately before a freeze.
Along with these should be added the freedom from risks
of a splitting freeze, which is elsewhere shown to be an evil
for which there is no known mitigation. Our weather bu-
reau frequently predicts an approaching cold wave several
days in advance of its coming, and cold wave flags are ex-
hibited in many places in this State. Could their predic-
tions reach every planter in the State, doubtless many of
them would avail themselves of tlie information given and
windrow much of their cane before the freeze appeared.

CLASS I, DIVISION IV.

Windroiving offer a bud-killing freeze is perhaps always advisable.

There are seasons like 1892 when the standing cane keeps
for a time as well as the windrowed, but they are at long
intervals and very uncertain. As a rule, the windrowed
cane will be better preserved.

Topping frequently prevents rapid decomposition, and
after a bud-killing frost, should be practiced, provided
windrowing is deemed expedient.

152 THE SUGAR CANE.

CLASS I, DIVISION V.

After a splitting freeze, every effort should be made to work up
standing cane as rapidly as possible.

Time lost by windrowing is perhaps not compensated by
the small gains of the windrow over the standing cane.

All canes not worked up in a short while after such a
freeze must be abandoned or attended with loss and delay
in manufacture. Windrowing is always advisable before
such a freeze, and should be practiced at any cost, when
the weather bureau announces its coming.

CLASS II.

Windrowing for seed, if well done, answers the purpose
admirably for preserving the eyes of buds of the cane, but
the experiments recited above give little encouragement for
its practice in preserving canes for the mill.

These experiments show conclusively that it is only in
anticipation of a stalk-splitting freeze that .windrowing
should be resorted to before the freeze. The cane will be
preserved, after a bud-killing freeze, best by windrowing
it, but it is time enough to windrow after the freeze.

It was also shown in these experiments that after a freeze
which killed the bud, fermentation started at the
killed bud and gradually proceeded down the cane. By
removing the top this fermentation was arrested ; therefore
in all cane left standing after a freeze, which has had the
bud killed, but the stalk not split, it is advisable in the ab-
sence of windrowing to top the cane as a substitute for the
preservation of the cane.

Against a splitting freeze there is no relief.

Windrowing does not oifer advantages that would justify
the expense. In fact, split canes should be worked up as
early as possible, as it will be possible to work them only
a few days after the freeze.

CHAPTER XX.

SUGAR CANE INSECTS.

BY PROF. H. A. MORGAN.

Sugar cane has many enemies, the greater number be-
longing to that family of sucking insects, known as "leaf
hoppers" (Jassidae). In extent of damage done the "sugai*
cane borer" and the "Southern grass worm," belonging to
the order lepidoptera, and tlie "sugar cane beetle," a mem-
ber of the order coleoptera, are the most serious depreda-
tors.

Sugar Cane Borer.

{Diatrcea aaccharaUs.)

To the sugar interests of Louisiana there is no natural
enemy so important as this "sugar cane borer," sometimes
called "tropical borer," "stalk borer," and "the larger com
stalk borer."

The larva, or borer, that condition recognized by the
sugar cane grower, is, when full grown, about one and one-
quarter inches long, has four violet longitudinal stripes on
dorsal portion of body; between these the body is light col-
ored, except for the black, peliferous spots, which appear
generally distributed over the surface. There is consider-
able variation in the coloring of the larvae, as shown by Dr.
Howard— "Insect Life,Vol. IV, page 95."

The following is the description of the moth given by
Dr.Fernald in "The Crambridse of North America:" "Expanse
of wings, 28-38 mm., head, palpi, antennae, thorax, and fore
wings pale oclire yellow, the latter with darker venular and
inter-vennlar lines ; one discal and seven terminal dots, black.
Hind wi!jgs white in females, pale yellow in the males. All
tlje frini'es are coneolorous with the adjacent part
of the wings There i- a curved line of more or less distinct
brown d«»ts frnm within the apex across the wing, curving in
towards the base of the hind margin, and also a trace of a

154

THE SUGAR CANE.

second parallel line between this and the end of the cell.
These lines occur more or less distinctly in the males, and also
in a few females."

W^i-,.

>/ ^lT

ti|P»f

J'lG. 1 (top) — Larva or borer.
Fig. 4 (bottom'— Moth (male).

The area infected extends from the gulf on the South to
the bluff lands at Baton Rouge on the North — and from
the East to the West lines of the State. The degree of dam-
age done varies in different localities, for in a few places the
injury is so inappreciable that borers are not thought to be
present, while in other portions of the infested area the
amount of damage exceeds 50 i)er cent, of the crop.

A single moth will deposit over one hundred eggs, which
hatch in from four to six days. The caterpillar or borer
life is passed rapidly, not exceeding in Louisiana over
twenty days. Before pupating, the larva makes an enlarg-
ed place in its burrow near the opening, in which the ten or
twelve days of pupal life is spent. In a little over a month
the life cycle is completed. As the moths appear early in
May, a brood may be expected each month from May until
December.

As with other insects, a study of the feeding and devel-
opmental habits of the sugar cane borer not only gives a
clearer insight into the possible loss sustained by its rava-
ges, but aids in suggesting and operating remedial meas-
ures. A single borer does much more injury because of its

SUGAR CANE INSECTS.

155

Fig. 2 (top)— Pupa. Fig. 3 (bottom)— Moth (female).

habit of making many burrows in a single stalk of cane; the
habit, too, of following the young growth, and as the cane
matures the borers are found in its tops, is of invaluable as-
sistance in controlling the injury done by the larva.

An important point in con-
nection with the habits of
this insect is that it has more
than one food plant — a fact

Fig. 5— Sugar cane borer enemy.
, larva; b, magnified mouth parts of larva;
c, beetle.

that has blighted the pros-
pect of ever exterminating
this pest from the State.
Two plants — wild sorghum
or Guinea corn (Sorghum
V u 1 g a r e ), and Johnson
grass (Sorghum halepense) — which have become notorious
weeds in Louisiana, have been found infested with borers.
Sugar cane, com, and sorghum, are the only species of do-
mestic plants that have been found affected.

To remedy the damage of the sugar cane borer, best re-
sults have been obtained by burning the tops, thus destroy-
ing most of the hibernating young. All Johnson grass and
Guinea corn growing as weeds in the vicinity of cane fields
should be destroyed. This, anyway, should be carefully at-
tended to late in the season, and thus destroy all plants
upon which the borers might exist during the winter. This
is particularly important in the extreme southern part of
the Slate in average winters, and tinojghout the entire in-

156 THE SUGAR CANE.

fected area during open winters. In introducing cane culture
into entirely new districts, great pains should be taken in
the selection of seed cane free from borers.

Among the natural enemies, a species of beetle belonging
to the "fire fly" family (Lampyridae) is a very important one.
It has been technically named Chauliognathus pennsylvan-
ica. The larva of this predaceous insect has been found
devouring the borers in their burrows. A comon observa-
tion is that when these beetle larvae are abundant the dam-
age by borers is greatly reduced.

Ants have been claimed by some to destroy the eggs and
young larvae, but they are attracted chiefly by the excre-
tions from the borer-injured cane.

Southern Grass Worm.

( Laphrygma frugiperda. )

Although this insect is widely distributed, occurring in
all parts of the State, it is only after "overflows" that it
becomes a serious pest to sugar cane. Ordinarily it is kept
in check by natural enemies which are drowned out when
a crevasse occurs, and thus the grass worm, which develops
with extreme rapidity, takes complete control, and great
injury results.

The female moth possesses dark grey front wings marked
with irregular white spots above. Expanse, a little over one
inch. The hind wings are light colored, which give the
moth a lighter appearance during flight than when at rest.

The eggs are very difficult to detect, being covered with
a wool-like deposit which completely conceals them. They
may be deposited upon the leaf of some low growing grass,
or even upon the ground. In two or three days the eggs
hatch a light colored caterpillar, which soon assumes a
greenish tinge, due to the food within the alimentary canal.
After the first molt the larva is darker on dorsal surface,
due to dark band-like longitudinal markings. In ten to
twelve days the larval life is complete, when the insect then
repairs to the ground, where, beneath its surface, eight
days are spent as a pupa. Thus only a little over three
weeks is required by this insect to complete its transfor-
mations.

Naturally, ground beetles (Carabids) in both larval and
adult stages feed upon grass worms, keeping them in sub-
jection. These beetles spread slowly, and after the over-
flow water has receded, the moths from the surrounding
districts fly in, deposit their eggs, and the caterpillars take
complete possession of the crop. The habit of the grass
worm to fall to the ground when disturbed has been taken

SUGAR CANE INSECTS. 157

advantage of and myriads collected in vessels containing
coal oil. Some planters attach a piece of light scantling to
the plow when working the crop. The scantling strikes
the cane and jars the worms to the ground, where they are
buried in throwing the dirt up to the crop.

One part of paris green diluted with five parts of air-
slaked lime, and this dusted well upon the plants by means
of Leggett's paris green gun will be found effective.

Knowing that armies of these caterpillars follow an over-
flow, it will be well to be prepared to fight them.

Sugar Cane Beetles.

{Ligyrus rugiceps.)

Nothing is known of the early life and habits of this in-
sect. Its attack upon sugar cane is almost as spasmodic as
its ravages upon corn. It burrows into the stalks of cane
and corn just above the roots, soon completely concealing
itself within the plant. It has been found feeding upon the
ears of corn.

No method of cultivation of that particular nature has
yet been found that will check tlie work of this beetle. In
the application of poisons, the same difficulty is met with
as in the case of the borer; the beetle burrows into the
stalk and soon gets beyond the reach of poisons.

The beetles are readily attracted by lights, and great
numbers may be captured in coal oil pans in which the
lamps are setting.

m\mm of sueiiii cam,

PART SECOND.

SUGAR CANE :

ITS HISTORY IN

mmii FLORIDA AND gOUTH CAROLINA,

1767-1900.

Sugar Content of the Oanes of Louisiana, Hawaii

and Cuba Compared with those of

Georgia and Florida*

OUR SUGAR SUPPLY OF THE FUTURE.
RECOLLECTIONS OF HOPETON PLANTATION.

WEATHER STATISTICS OF GEORGIA, FLORIDA AND
LOUISIANA COMPARED.

BY

D. G. PURSE, Savannah, Ga.

COPYRIGHTED.

T^^BXjE OiF OOnSTTEHSTTS.

CHAPTER I.— History of Sugar Cane in Georgia.

First State of the Union to cultivate sugar cane. Cane
first planted on Sapelo Island for sugar manufact-
ure in 1806. Ribbon cane introduced from Jamaica
by John McQueen, of Savannah, Ga. Introduced
into Louisiana from Georgia by John J. Coiron, a
schooner load being taken there by him in 1825. A
model sugar mill erected at Hopeton Plantation,
on the Altamaha River by Mr. J. Hamilton Couper
in 1829. Decline of sugar prices in 1831-32 causes
decreased cane acreage. Sugar and syrup pro-
duction in Georgia for the last fifty years. Super-
iority of Georgia canes, in sugar content, over
Louisiana canes. Georgia upland canes eight
times more productive than those grown on al-
luvial lands 1

CHAPTER II — History of Sugar Cane in Florida.

Cane cultivation introduced in 1767 by Dr. Turnbull at
New Smyrna. Failure then due to labor difficult-
ies with imported indentured colonists. Cane cul-
ture inauguated at Mount Oswald, on the Halifax
River, in 1771. Ribbon cane introduced from Geor-
gia in 1825. Output of sugar products for the last
fifty years. The Disston Sugar Cane Industry at
Kissimmee affected by the death of its projector.
Analyses of Florida canes showing them superior
in sugar production and purity to Louisiana canes. . 7

CHAPTER III — History of Sugar Cane in South Carolina.

First cane planted in Tivoli Garden, near Charleston,
in 1827, by Philip Chartrand. An experimental
acre planted in 1829 by Edward Barnwell, at the
instance of the State Agricultural Society. Out-
put of cane products for fifty years. Capt. John
Lawton's test of value in 1899. Analyses of
South Carolina canes show the sugar content ap-
proximates that of the Georgia and Florida canes. . . 12

IE THE SUGAR CANE.

CHAPTER IV. — Comparative Analyses of Louisiana, Ha-
waii AND Cuban Canes with Georgia and
Florida Canes.

Greor^a and Florida canes shown to be equal in sugar
content to Cuban canes, sliglitlj less than in Ha-
waiian canes, and one-third richer than Louisiana
canes 13

CHAPTER V. — Our Sugar Supply in the Future. Geor-
gia AND Florida Considered as Possible Fac-
tors IN Contributing to It.

The large sum paid by the United States for imports
on foreign sugars. This country the second largest
sugar-consuming nation. Only sixteen per cent, of
the sugar consumed by the United States of home
manufacture. Beet sugar has reached climax of
development. Cane can be grown cheaper than
the beet, and cane sugar manufactured at less cost
than beet sugar. Table showing cost of cane and
beet sugars in the sugar producing countries and
islands of the world. Georgia and Florida uplands
of lower valuation than the highly valued cane
lands of Hawaii, Cuba and Louisiana, and more
desirable on account of their healthful locations,
railroad facilities and progressive environments. . . 16

CHAPTER VI — Recollections of Hopeton Plantation.

A model sugar plant, for its day, went into operation in
1829. Hospitality of its owner, J. Hamilton Cou-
per. What the Editor of the "Southern Agricultu-
ralist," who visited it in 1832, had to say of Hope-
ton Plantation. Visit of Sir Charles Lyell, F. R.
S., geologist and scholar, in 1846. Conditions of
the slaves better than that of the European peas-
antry. Miss Fredrika Bremer, Swedish novelist,
visits Hopeton in 1851. Visit of Miss Amelia M.
Murray, Maid of Honor to Queen Victoria, in 1855.
Her letters showing the bright side of slavery leads
to a rupture at the Queen's court, and Miss Mur-
ray's temporary retirement from court circles 24

CHAPTER VIL — Climatological Tables.

1. Monthly and annual normal temperatures for

South Georgia, Florida and Sout'iern L(»uisiaiKi

2. Monthly and annual normal precipitation for South
Georgia, Florida and Southern Louisiana.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Ill

3. Climatological data, South Georgia, Florida and
Southern Louisiana for 1899.

4. Monthly maximum temperature for South Georgia,
Florida and Southern Louisiana, for 1899.

5. Monthly minimum temperature, South Georgia,
Florida and Southern Louisiana, for 1899.

6. Monthly and annual precipitation. South Georgia,

Florida and Louisiana, for 1899.

7. Dates on which first and last killing frosts occurred
in spring and autumn of 1899, or minimum tem-
perature went to 32 degrees in South Georgia,
Florida and Southern Louisiana.

8. Temperature, precipitation and weather summaries

for Savannah, Ga., for 28 years 29

PREFACE TO PART SECOND.

The object of the author in Part Second has been to re-
view the history of sugar cane cultivation in the States of
Georgia, Florida and South Carolina from its first intro-
duction into each State to the present time, and to direct
public attention to the value of the quality of the canes
grown in these States for their sugar content, that can be
made available by improved sugar machinery such as is
now employed in Louisiana.

It has also been sought to show in the following pages
that canes grown upon the pine lands of these States, with
ordinary cultivation, exceed in sugar content and acre ton-
nage those grown upon the alluvial lands of Louisiana and
compare favorably with average results in Cuba.

By the weather reports it is shown that climatic conditions
are as favorable to cane cultivation in Southern Georgia
and in Florida as in Louisiana.

The article devoted to "Our Sugar Supply of the Future"
shows the enormous growth of the beet sugar industry in
Europe and its steady development in this country, and
directs attention to the possibilities of Georgia and Florida,
as sugar producing States.

Special reference is made to the erection of the sugar
plant at Hopeton Plantation, in 1829, to show that 24 years
after cane cultivation was commenced in Georgia for com-
mercial purposes, it was considered sufficiently firmly rooted
to warrant the erection of one of the largest plants in the
then sugar world for its manufacture, though within the
decade following cane ceased to hold its place as a leading
crop of the State, for reasons fully stated elsewhere.

The author (in connection with his. investigations) desires
to express his thanks for courtesies and valuable infor-
mation to the Department of Agriculture, Washington; Hon.
O. B. Stevens, Commissioner of Agriculture, Georgia; Mr.
H. B. Boyer in charge Savannah Weather Bureau Station
for valuable tables; Hon. Wm. Harden, Librarian, Georgia
Historical Society, Savannah Ga; Prof. H. E. Stockb ridge,
Florida Experiment Station; Judge Joseph Tillman, Quit-
man, Ga.; Capt R. E. Rose, President Florida Agricultural
Society; Dr. Wm. Berrien Burroughs, Capt. C. S. Wylly,
Hon. J. H. Dillinworth and Capt. R. T. Clark, Brunswick,
Ga., and the railways of the State and Southern Express
Company.

D. G. PURSE.

Savannah, Ga., October, 1900.

CHAPTER I.

HISTORY OF SUGAR CANE IN GEORGIA.

Georgia was the first of the original thirteen States to
introduce the cultivation of Sugar Cane.

Nothing, however, can be found to sustain the tradition
that the ruins of two sugar plants in the vicinity of Savan-
nah bear witness to a cultivation of cane in Georgia prior to
the Revolutionary War. One of these plants, situated op-
posite the city, on Hutchinson's Island, an old diary affirms,
was used as a place of refuge and safety for the women and
children during the siege of Savannah, in 1779, by com-
bined forces of the Colonists and their allies, under Counts
D'Estaing and Pulaski. The other plant, the ruins of which
are more clearly traced to-day, was located upon Oatland,,
another island, adjacent to Savannah, and was undoubtedly
erected soon after the Revolution.

There can be no doubt, with all the facts now collected,
that these ruins were those of rice mills which, after
the introduction of Cane Cultivation around Savannah,
along with rice, served a doable purpose.

To the date of the appointment of Royal Governor Wright,
in 1760, even rice had only been moderately cultivated,
against the policy of the mother country, whose unyielding
and persistent determination, since the landing of Ogle-
thorpe, had been to make Georgia a silk and indigo pro-
ducing colony, and consequently frowned down attempts at
diversity in agriculture, though the exclusive cultivation of
silk and indigo had brought the colony to the verge of
starvation.

Under Gov. Wright a broader policy prevailed and he
himself led in reclaiming and preparing the alluvial bottoms
bordering on the rivers for extending the culture of rice.
But in five years after his accesion to office, began the
troubles with the mother country, that culminated in the
separation of the colonies from her, and marked a generation
of inactivity in agricultural enterprise.

Mr. Thomas Spalding, a citizen of Glynn County and
a prominent planter, wrote the "Southern Agriculturalist,"

2 THE SUGAR CANK.

in 1828, a letter, which appears in the February number
1829, of that periodical, printed in Charleston, S. C, in
which he says, "I have received your letter of the 25th of
November and will reply to it, as far as I am able, upon the
cultivation of sugar cane and other objects in Georgia.

"In 1805 I began the cultivation of sugar cane with 100
plants; I had long before that been impressed with the
opinion it would answer as well in Georgia as Louisiana,
for one of my early friends, the late Mr. John McQueen,
of Savannah, had spent the winter of '9C)-'97 in Louisiana
and had stated, among other circumstances, that the orange
trees were killed to the root, in that winter, and as I know
there were growing all around orange trees that had been
planted by the soldiers and followers of Gen. Oglethorpe,
I concluded, without a doubt upon my mind, that the
climate of Georgia and South Carolina was better than the
climate of Louisiana, because this test by plants was a
more certain one than any test that the thermometer could
afford, and this I believe to be the opinion of enlightened
agriculturalists in Europe and America."

Mr. Spalding's letter is the first written evidence of in-
terest in cane cultivation in Georgia, though cane had evi-
dently been brought into the State previously and planted
in a small way. There is nothing in Mr. Spalding's letter
to negative this conclusion and his failure to say from
whence he obtained his seed sui)ports it.

It was not, however, until 1806 that Mr. Spalding planted,
on Sapelo Island, the first crop of cane to be devoted to the
manufacture of sugar for sale.

Mr. Spalding says, that in 1814 "his crop of sugar amount-
ed to 112,500 from the labor of fifty slaves."

"The War of 1812 entailed heavy losses upon planters;
Mr. Spalding further says, in his letter in 1828, '"but with
the return of peace, in 1815, the planters of Glynn County
entered largly into the cultivation of cane for sugar making,
and from this source cane plants have spread into the in-
terior of Georgia and every acre of cane grown in Florida
/ has been derived from that source, and I presume I shall
not exaggerate it, when I say, to you, that between Darien,
on the Altamaha, and Milledgeville, on the Oconee, there
were at this moment 100 plantations upon which sugar cane
is grown, and where sugar is manufactured in more or less
quantity.

"Five years ago I commenced the cultivation of sugar
cane on river swamp land opposite to Savannah. The
year 1824 was a year of great loss to the country generally
and to myself in particular. I had growing on the Savannah
River 60 acres of cane, which I am quite satisfied ought to

<

GEORGIA. 3

have given me, in the year 1825, 60,000 weight of sugar. My
losses of the previous year prevented my procuring a steam
mill to grind it; I put up temporary works, which, while
they satisfied myself of the productiveness of the sugar
cane, that situation generally satisfied me of the necessity of
an extensive establishment, to make the culture of cane
profitable on river lands. From that time, therefore, I
have kept a few^ acres in constant cultivation, that I might
in the first place be master of my own means, at my own
convenience, and again that my plantation near Savannah
might furnish plants to all who might desire to go into
the cultivation of sugar cane. This it has done and it will
not perhaps be exaggeration either, to say, that in the com-
ing year there will be an hundred plantations upon the
Savannah River, on which cane will be grown in greater
or less degree.

"All doubts as to the importance of the value of sugarcane
in Georgia has now passed away; one acre of cane, as
plants, has been recently shipped from Savannah to North
Carolina where it will no doubt plant ten to fifteen acres."

In another letter, about the same date, Mr. Spalding says,
"The ribbon cane, which is so much talked of, Louisiana
owes to the late Mr. John McQueen of Savannah. He
brought it from Jamaica and distributed it among his
friends in Georgia from whence it has been carried, within
four years, to Louisiana."

It was seed cane from this importation of Mr. McQueen's,
from which Mr. Roswell King, St. Simon's Island, (mouth
of the Altamaha, not "Savannah Rivet,") shipped a schoon-
er load, in 1825, to Mr. John J. Coiron of Louisiana, which
has ever since been esteemed as the parent of the best seed
planted in that State, and which shipment is referred to in
Dr. Stubbs' History of Sugar Cane in Louisiana.

At Hopeton plantation, a few miles above Darien on the
opposite bank of the Altamaha River, Mr. James Hamilton
Couper, in 1829, erected a sugar plant for converting into
sugar his crop of several hundred acres of cane, planted in
rich alluvial soil, with tidal cultivation, along with rice
in adjoining fields.

This was not the first plant erected on the seaboard, but
was the finest ever erected in the State, and, at that time,
was equal to any sugar plant in the West Indies or Louis-
iana. Mr. Couper had made its ere(;tion a matter of deep
study and extensive correspondence in this country, in
Europe and the West Indies, and when completed, judging
from the plan of it published by Mr. Couper in the "South-
ern Agriculturalist," in 1831, for the benefit of others de-
siring to erect plants, it was equal to the best plants stand-

4 THE SUGAR CANE.

ing in Louisiana until the introduction in recent years of
more modern methods for the extraction and treatment of
the juice of the cane.

In Chapter VI, "Recollections of Hopeton Plantation,"
will be found a detailed description of this sugar plant with
an excellent view of it as it stands to-day.

In 1824, a violent storm, incidentally referred to in quo-
tations from Mr. Spalding's correspondence, visited the
coasts of Georgia and South Carolina. It was par-
ticularly destructive to planters around Savannah,
and from this time cane cultivation appeared to
move southward and become centered about the
mouths of the Altamaha, Satilla and St. Mary's Rivers,
where are still to be found many ruins that bear testimony
to the extent cane was cultivated for the manufacture of
sugar in those days.

The alluvial lands on the coast, that comprise our rice
fields to-day, were principally employed in the cultivation
of cane, though as stated by Mr. Spalding, in letters, cane
had come to be cultivated all over Middle and Southern
Georgia at that time.

In the winter of 1831-32, the price of sugar was very low
and greatly discouraged its producers in Georgia and
Florida. About this time the prices of both cotton and
rice advanced, and in a few years the fields devoted to
cane in the lowlands had been turned into the cultivation
of rice and into cotton upon the sea islands, until, in 1845,
only a few planters made cane an important crop on the
Altamaha and neighboring rivers, and, in 1848, Rev. George
White, in his "Statistics of Georgia," referring to Glynn
County, says: "Some years ago sugar was made to a
great extent; but its culture has been discontinued for sale
except on two plantations. The crop of 1848, was 105 bar-
rels of syrup and 1,099 barrels in sugar."

By the same author it is learned that all the counties in
Middle and Southern Georgia in 1848 were growing cane for
the manufacture of syrup and sugar for home consumption,
and sometimes a surplus for sale.

The United States Census of 1850 places the production
of sugar in Georgia at 1,970,400 pounds, without giving
acreage in cultivation or syrup or molasses produced; in
1860, it is placed at 1,400,400 pounds of sugar and 546,749
gallons of syrup or molasses ; in 1870, at 772,800 pounds of
sugar and 555,192 gallons of syrup or molasses ; in 1880 the
acreage is reported as 15,053, yield 721,200 pounds of sugar
and 1,565,784 gallons of syrup or molasses; in 1890, acreage
20,238, pounds of sugar 1,307,625, and gallons of syrup or
molasses 3,233,194. i

GEORGIA. 5

There can be no doubt that the Census of 1900 will show
more than double the acreage of 1890 with a larger relative
yield in both sugar and syrup or molasses.

In 1876, the late Dr. T. P. Janes, first Commissioner of
Agriculture appointed in Georgia, in his "Hand-book of
Georgia," speaking of a tour through the Southern and
Seaboard counties of the State, declares that "Nowhere in
Louisiana have I seen sugar cane grow more luxuriantly or
yield a greater amount of saccharine juice than in this part
of the country."

In 1899, a Bulletin issued by Commissioner of Agriculture,
Hon. O. B. Stevens, entitled a "Comparative Analysis of
condition of Crops by Counties for Month of May," "^ shows
5G counties engaged in the cultivation of sugar cane in
Georgia, "the bulk of which is manufactured into syrup,
which has an excellent reputation and is marketed over the
country." The Bulletin shows an increased acreage in cane
over the previous year, but affords no data for comparison
with amount planted in 1890.

Twenty-three years after Commissioner Janes' tour
through the Southern and Seaboard Counties of the State,
Dr. Stubbs, traversing the same territory, in October 1899,
writing to Mr. Paul Dupuy, an old Louisiana Sugar planter,
now resident at San Antonio, Fla., (to whom the writer is
indebted for use of the letter, dated at New Orleans Dec-
ember 22nd, 1899), says, "I was amazed to find the extent to
which Sugar Cane was grown and the quantity of Syrup
annually made for the market I spent several
days in the field and weighed quite a number of
acres growing in Cane, and to my astonishment found
the yields were from 16 to 35 tons of Cane to the
acre. I may say further that their Cane is unusually rich.
I have just finished analyzing another batch of nineteen
varieties, (following one of sixty-nine,) grown all through
that section and all show a large superiority in sugar con-
tent to those grown upon the alluvial soil of South Louisi-
ana."

The cultivation of sugar cane was made the subject of
rigid inquiry before it became one of the important crops of
the State, at the beginning of the century.

The valuable correspondence of that period, still preserv-
ed, shows that inquiries by letter and personal visits made
the promoters of cane cultivation thoroughly acquainted
with the conditions in the West Indies and other foreign
cane growing countries, and as well as with the conditions
at home, in Louisiana, which had then come to be recognized
as the leading sugar producing State of the Union.

6 THE SUGAR CANE.

In 1820 to 1840, the average yield per acre in Georgia
is placed at 850 pounds of sugar and 45 gallons of molasses,
based on the product of the alluvial lands that are known
to-day as less rich in sugar content than cane grown upon
the highlands in the yellow pine belt of Georgia and
Florida.

In 1830-32, a Congressional Committee placed the average
yield of Louisiana, per acre, at 1,000 pounds of sugar and 45
gallons of molasses.

In 1885, when Dr. Stubbs was called to Louisiana to
organize and conduct Sugar Experiment Stations, the aver-
age yield per acre in the State was around 1,500 pounds
of sugar, and to-day it is quite double that amount.

Dr. Stubbs reporting upon the canes from Georgia sent
him for analysis, in November 1899, summarizes his con-
clusions as follows:

"These canes have suffered from inversion in transit. It
is fair to presume that had no inversion occurred, the
average analysis would have shown at least 16 per cent, su-
crose and 1 per cent, glucose. This analysis would indicate
225 pounds C. P. sugar per ton upon a 75 per cent, extrac-
tion, and 240 pounds C. P. sugar per ton on an 80 per cent,
extraction.

"The best sample indicates a yield of 249.6 pounds C. P.
sugar per ton of cane, 75 per cent, extraction, and 266
pounds per ton 80 per cent, extraction.

"In an average yield of our sugar houses 70 per cent, of
the total sugar is made into firsts of 98 degrees polariza-
tion, 18 per cent, into seconds of 90 degrees, and 12 per
cent- into thirds of 80 degrees. Applying these percent-
ages to the 80 per cent, extraction, there would be 283
pounds of commercial sugar, firsts, seconds and thirds per
ton of cane upon an 80 per cent, extraction."

With 75 per cent, extraction, 16 per cent, sucrose and
1 per cent, glucose, an acre producing 20 tons
would yield 4,500 pounds of C. P. sugar, and
30 tons, 6,750 pounds, or 5,900 pounds more from the
uplands to-day than was realized from the alluvial lands
planted between 1806 and 1840. Of course, much of this
greater yield is due to the better machinery for extracting
the juice and for the manufacture of the sugar.

CHAPTER II.

HrSTORV or sugar cane in FLORIDA.

Fairbanks, in his interesting history of Florida, says that
upon the acquisition of East Florida by the British, in
17G3, Gen. James Grant was appointed Governor, with St.
Augustine as the Capital. Governor Grant at once set
about to improve the condition of the people of the province,
who, under Spanish rule, had been reduced to great straits
in the neglect of agriculture and the decay of commerce
under prescriptive trade laws.

Governor Grant exhibited great zeal in disseminating the
advantages possessed by the province for emigrants,
particularly its healthfulness, as shown by the longevity of
its citizens, and in setting forth the productiveness of its
soil.

In 1767, Sir William Duncan and Dr. Andrew Turnbull,
two Scotchmen, influenced by Governor Grant's representa-
tions, organized a colony of 1,500 souls, drawn from Minorca,
the Greek Islands, Italy and Smyrna, and landed them at
the site of New Smyrna, which was so named at its found-
ing.

The projectors of this scheme had expended |106,000 upon
it at the time of the landing of the colonists, and afterwards,
besides more money, "Much labor was expended in build-
ings, opening canals (in part through solid rock) ditches, and
various other improvements, the remains of which still
exist."

The colonists came to East Florida under indenture, by
which they were to give a certain number of years of labor
to the projectors of the colony for bringing them out, a com-
mon practice in those days and not entirely in abeyance to-
day, though against the letter and spirit of the emigration
laws of the country.

The object of the projectors of the New Smyrna Colony
was to engage, principally, in the cultivation of indigo and
Sugar Cane and the manufacture of their products for ship-
ment to the markets of Europe where they then commanded
ver}' high prices, and this marks the first instance of manu-

S THE SUGAR CANE.

facturing Sugar from the juice of the Cane, on a commercial
basis, within the present bounds of the United States.

Dr. Stubbs, in his history of Sugar Cane in Louisiana,
credits Etienne De Bore with first inaugurating the manu-
facture of Sugar on a large scale in Louisiana, in 1791, the
Centennial of which event was appropriately celebrated, in
New Orleans, in 1894.

Sugar from Cane had been produced in Louisiana by
Antonio Mendez, in a small way, in 1791, twenty-four years
after Dr. Turnbull had commenced its manufacture in
Florida; but Mendez's operations were upon a small scale,
until De Bore entered upon its manufacture to an extent
"large enough to influence the future of Louisiana."

Dr. Turnbull's colony seemed born to trouble. It had
scarcely been well settled before dissensions arose between
master and servant as to the character and term of service
to be rendered, culminating, in 1769, in the open revolt of
the colonists against the articles of indenture and the harsh
treatment of those in authority over them.

The ringleaders in the revolt, as claimed, were carried to
St. Augustine and there tried for their lives. Of five
sentenced to death, two were pardoned by the Governor and
one was offered pardon upon his becoming the executioner
■of his two remaining fellow convicts. Against this he
violently protested while his comrades plead with him to
«ave his life by doing the Govemor's command.

In 1776, the whole colony had disappeared from New-
Smyrna, and this splendid foundation for a great industry,
planted under the most flattering auspices, was lost to the
people of Florida at a time when it could have done so much
for their material and permanent prosperity.

In 1771, historian Fairbanks tells us further that "Mr.
•Oswald established a plantation on the Halifax, still desig-
nated as Mount Oswald, and Mr. Rolle at Rollestown near
Palatka. There were settlements also at Beresford and at
; Spring Garden. The cultivation of cane was begun on the
Halifax under the fostering care of the British Government,
:and would, in a few years, have become a very important
:industry in Florida." But the disastrous conditions that
prevailed at New Smyrna seemed to cast their blight over
other efforts to develop into a great industry the manu-
facture of sugar on the Halifax River, and in the adjacent
country, though the soil and climate were so admirably
suited to the cultivation of cane.

Sugar cane cultivation in Florida now drops out of writ-
ten history until in 1825, it comes into prominence again
in drawing the ribbon or red cane seed, like Louisiana, from
Georgia.

FLORIDA.

9

There can be no doubt that during this gap in the records,
previously and since drawing seed from Georgia and popu-
lation to plant and harvest it, sugar cane was and has been
more or less extensively cultivated in various parts of
Florida and sugar manufactured from it. The presence
of sugar houses and discarded machinery all over the
State establish this fact.

According to the censuses of the last half century, 1850
to 1890, the following showing is made for Florida :

Decade.

Acres
Planted.

Hhds. of
Sugar.

Lbs. of
Sugar.

Galls, of
Mola««ses

1850 . .

2,750

1,669

952

1.278

3,300,000

2,002,800 436,357
1,142,400 344.339

In the late decades

1860

molasses and syrup

1870 . .

need to be treated as

1880 . .
1890 . .

7,938
9,345

1,527,600
1,692,015

; 1,029,868
1 1,441,744

synonymous terms.

In recent years the St. Cloud Sugar Factory, Kissimmee,
built and controlled by the Disston Syndicate, started out
with flattering prospects, but the death of the senior Diss-
ton put a check upon the experiment, and the mill has since
been sold to other parties.

The leading purpose of the "Disston Syndicate," in its
location, was to bring into prominence a large body of flat
muck lands bought from the State of Florida, regarded as
suited for profitable cane cultivation, and which it is claim-
ed produced 30 tons average per acre. It was an up-to-date
sugar plant and it is a source of profound regret that its .
career, which promised so much for Florida, was so soon cut
short by the death of Mr. Disston.

The climate of Florida cannot be excelled for *the fullest
development of the cane and it has been incontestibly
shown that her soil is equally adapted to its growth.

Dr. Stubbs in his analysis of Georgia, Florida and South
Carolina canes finds them equally rich in sugar content.

In Bulletin No. 44, Florida Experiment Station, 1899,
Lake City, Prof. H. E. Stockbridge in charge, giving his own
experience in analyzing Florida c?ne, says:

"Our analyses of Florida cane from eighteen different
localities, covering the entire State, the present season, show
an average of 15.69 per cent, of sugar, and an average coeffi-
cient of purity for the juice of 86.30 per cent. The Louisi-
ana comparison is 12 per cent, of sugar and a coefficient
purity of 80.50 per cent; a difference of 3.69 per cent of
sugar and 5.80 per cent, of purity in favor of the Florida
product. There is no question of equally heavy crops in our

10 THE SUGAR CANE.

State; so the superiority of Florida for sugar production
can hardly be longer questioned."

Prof. Stockbridge's analyses were made prior to Dr.
Stubbs'; but though the former had the opportunity of
doing his analytical work more immediately after the cane
was cut, Dr. Stubbs summarizes the results from his ana-
lyses of Florida cane at 16 per cent, sucrose and 1 per cent,
glucose, capable with 75 per cent, extraction of juice of
yielding 225 pounds of 0. P. sugar to the ton of cane.

A most remarkable set of results obtained by Prof.
St ockb ridge at his Experiment Station, in 1898, is to be
found in a letter addressed to Gapt. R. E. Rose, of Kissim-
mee, Fla., which appeared in the "Savannah Morning News"
last fall. In this instance every condition favored a per-
fect conclusion in the determinations; but they are remark-
able even in the face of this fact.
. The letter read as follows :

"Replying to your letter of 24th inst., I take pleasure in in-
closing the actual record of cane polarizations for the month
of November, with both red and green cane. The records
are made from two different fields of cane, and, therefore,
show practically the average content of oar entire crop. The
cane in question is seed cane planted the last week in March
upon land which, though in close proximity to the small
branch running through the station farm, is not really bot-
tom land in the ordinary acceptance of the term, except
that it is rather more moist than higher land farther from
water would be. The land is characteristic Florida land,
rather below than above the average quality, and has been
under cultivation for at least twenty years, the natural tim-
ber gro\\^th of which was mixed pine and hard wood.

"The fertilizer used was a basis of stable manure, plowed
under at the time of planting, and one or two subsequent
applications of chemicals cultivated in when the ground
was worked. The quantity and composition of the appli-
cations varied on different rows which were subjected to
experimental tests. The average application, however,
would not exceed 500 pounds of fertilizer per acre.

"Hoping these suggestions meet your requirements and
assuring you that I would gladly furnish any further infor-
mation possible.

"H. E. STOCKBRIDGE."

FLORIDA. ]1

SUGAR CONTENT OF STATION CANE.

RED SUGAR CANE.

P. c. -

Nov. 8, 1898 17.26

Nov. 10, 1898 24.83

Nov. 12, 1898 21.016+

Nov. 15, 1898 25.983

Nov. 17, 1898 21.085

Nov. 19, 1898 24.5

Nov. 22, 1898 25.916+

Nov. 24 1898 27.10

Nov. 26, 1898 23.416

Average 23.33

GREEN SUGAR CANE.

p.c.

Nov. 8, 1898 15.816

Nov. 10, 1898 16.153+

Nov. 12, 1898 16.90

Nov. 15, 1898 16.283

Nov. 17, 1898 17.416

Nov. 19, 1898 18.75

Nov. 22, 1898 18.533

Nov. 24, 1898 21.00

Nov. 26, 1898 21.166+

Average 18.00

* p. C. means pure chemically.

CHAPTER in.

HISTORY OP SUGAR CAINE IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

The first sugar cane planted in South Carolina, accord-
ing to the "Southern Agriculturalist/' in its May number,
1828, was an experiment patch planted in "Tivoli Garden,"
in or near Charleston, by Philip (yhartrand, in 1827.

Ramsey's History of South Carolina makes no reference
to sugar cane, either as one of the garden or field crops of
the State, in its chapter devoted to an elaborate review of
the agricultural growth of the State from its first settle-
ment to 1808.

Other experiments rapidly followed Chartrand's. Mr.
Edward Barnwell, in 1830, reports in the. "Southern Agri-
culturalist" an experiment on one acre that he had planted,
in 1829, at the request of the Agricultural Society of South
Carolina, which yielded 23,150 average sized stalks of cane,
that it would be safe to estimate at 27 to 30 tons for the
acre.

In concluding his report to the Society, Mr. Barnwell
said:

"I am inclined to think our best soil will be such as is best
adapted to the culture of com, and state further that the
cane is as easily cultivated."

According to the United States Census of 1850 South
Carolina produced 805,200 pounds of sugar; 1860, 237,600
pounds; 1870, 1,266,000 pounds of sugar and 436,882 gal-
lons of molasses or syrup; in 1880, 274,800 pounds of sugar
and 138,944 gallons of molasses or syrup, and in 1890, from
3,305 acres produced 219,980 pounds of sugar and 386,615
gallons of molasses or syrup.

Last year^ consequent upon the visit of Dr. Stubbs to
Georgia, Capt. John Lawton, a prominent citizen and suc-
cessful planter of Hampton County, was induced to ascer-
tain his cane yield in tons to the acre, a test of value he had
never applied before, and found it to be 21.5 tons. It was a
low average yield as his cane had suffered from drought.

Analyses of samples of South Carolina canes made by Dr.
Stubbs, in November and December, 1899, show the sugar
content to be about equal to the canes of Georgia and
Florida.

CHAPTER IV.

Sugar Canes of Louisiana^ Hawaii and Cuba Com-
pared with those of Georgia and Plorida.

By Prof. R. E. BLOUIN, Aotiug Director.

Sugar content of Louisiana, Hawaiian and Cuban sugar
canes compared with those of Greorgia and Florida.

Louisiana canes — Per cent.

Total solids 10.00 to 19.00

Sucrose 7.00 to 17.00

Glucose 1.00 to 2.50

Hawaiian canes —

Total solids 17.00 to 21.00

Sucrose 15.00 to 19.00

Glucose 30 to 1.00

Cuban canes —

Total solids 17.00 to 19.00

Sucrose 15.00 to 18.00

Glucose 30 to 1.00

Tliese analyses are averages of data gathered from reports
of chemists at the experiment stations and from the planta-
tion chemists in Louisiana and Hawaiian Islands, and from
chemists on several plantations in Cuba, and represent the
extreme variation from the data collected.
Georgia canes —

Total solids 18.00 per cent.

Sucrose 16.00 per cent.

Glucose 1.00 per cent.

Florida canes —

Total solids 18.00 per cent.

Sucrose 16.00 per cent.

Glucose 1.00 per cent.

These are averages of analyses made by the Louisiana
Sugar Experiment Station of canes collected from growers
in Georgia by Capt. D. G. Purse, and in Florida by Mr. Chas.
H. Smith.

In averaging the analyses of these canes, considerable
latitude was taken in allowing for evaporation and inver-
sion. The Georgia canes show very little signs of drying

14 THE SUGAR CANE.

out or evaporation, but in some instances inversion has been
quite far advanced, and these analyses were eliminated in
making the average.

Considerable difficulty was experienced in selecting aver-
age analyses of Florida canes, owing to the bad condition
in which they arrived. There are a number of individual
analyses of Florida canes that are very high in sucrose or
€ane sugar, the maximum, 19.00 per cent, of sucrose, being
quite high for a semi-tropical country; while the maximum
of the Georgia canes is 17.70 per cent, sucrose. This differ-
ence is largely due to the time of harvest; the Georgia canes
being harvested in November, and Florida canes in De-
cember, giving the Florida canes one month advantage in
maturing.

The general average of the canes from both states are
identical, and this is further impressed by individual vari-
ations, except in a few extreme cases, which are quite simi-
lar. Tliese averages are of one year's grow^th and may, as in
Louisiana, be subject to considerable variation in sugar
content from similar canes at different seasons, in fact, such
would be expected, as it is one of the invariable characteris-
tics of sugar canes,, though canes of such composition as
these should be considered good under the most unfavor-
able conditions.

The minimum in Louisiana is an exceptional case, it oc-
curring during a season of adverse conditions for cane cul-
ture, and is far below any average conditions. The average
composition of the canes in Louisiana would be a mean
between these extremes of 12 per cent, sucrose. Before
commenting on the above analyses, a few conditions re-
garding the growth of cane should be noted.

Cane requires for vigorous growth and large sugar con-
tent, a sufficient supply of water and tropical temperature
during its growing season, and a dry season for ripening
and increasing the sugar content.

In dry countries the cane is more sugary and fibrons,
though of smaller size, than in wet countries, where it is
less rich in sugar, and more glucose is present; the water
stimulating the growth of the cane and causing it to be gorg-
ed with water. In Cuba, on account of excessive rains at
certain seasons, the sugar content is inferior to that in the
Hawaiian Islands where climatic conditions, other than
rainfall, are perfect, and the deficiency in rainfall is sup-
plied by irrigation, thus giving the cane the water it re-
quired at the proper time and insuring a good ripening sea-
son. Different localities, conditions of soils and rainfall,
cause variations in the sugar content of canes on the same

CJOMPARATIVE ANf LYSES. 15

islands, and in Louisiana, in the same locality, the soils
alone show a marked variation in sugar content of the canes.

In Louisiana the variation in the sugar content of the
canes is considerable in different seasons and marks the ex-
tremes. Under very unfavorable conditions for ripening,
the minimum content has been found and while more com-
mon, though not ordinarily the case, under very favorable
conditions the maximum sugar content has been reached
there several times.

To summarize the above, the average would be:

Louisana canes 12 per cent, sugar.

Hawaiian canes 17 per cent, sugar.

Cuban canes .16 per cent, sugar.

Georgia canes 16 per cent, sugar.

Florida canes 16 per cent, sugar.

Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station,

Audubon Park, Xew Orleans, La., Aug. 18, 1900.

CHAPTER V.

OUR SUGAR SUPPLY OF THE FUTURE.

Georgia and Florida Considered as Possible Im-
portant Factors in Contributing to It.

For the year ending June 30th, 1899, the United States
paid foreign countries |94,964,120.00 for sugar for domestic
consumption, and exported against this only |2,953,102.00, in
value, of sugar and molasses.

Nearly one seventh of the entire amount paid for imports
by the United States is expended for sugar alone.

It required nearly half of the sum received from cot-
ton exported to liquidate the indebtedness incurred in the
purchase of foreign sugar to provide the amount consumed
by the people of this country in the last fiscal year.

This enormous drain upon the resources of the country
for a single food crop, is just cause for alarm, and if this
burden should be increased, as seems imminent, the con-
sumption advancing from 1,309,383 tons (each 2,240 pounds,)
in 1884, to 2,094,610 tons, in 1899, at the end of another
decade our entire exports of cotton may be inadequate to
satisfy the claims for sugar purchased of foreign manufac-
turers.

Notwithstanding the great advance made in the manufac-
ture of cane sugar in Louisiana and the liberal encourage-
ment given to the development of the beet sugar industry in
the Northern, Western and Pacific States, domestic man-
ufacturers still only provide 16 per cent, of the sugar con-
sumed in the United States annually.

The United States ranks as the second greatest sugar con-
suming country of the globe. Great Britain only exceeding
her enormous consumption. In England the per capita con-
sumption, in 1898, was placed by Herr Licht, German Statis-
tician, at 91.31 pounds; in the United States 59.30 pounds
(others place it higher,) and for all Europe at 25.42 pounds.

Until within the last half century the high price of sugar
classed its free use among the luxuries of life. Increased
production and lower prices in late years have brought su-

SUGAR SUPPLY OF THE FUTURE. 17

gar into general consumption, and within a decade has ex-
cited scientific inquiry to ascertain more conclusively its di-
rect effect upon the human system other than its fascination
for the palate.

Experiments conducted at home and abroad to determine
the position of sugar in food economy, as far as pursued,
have established for it a remarkable capacity for develop-
ing and sustaining muscular power, in particular, but gen-
erally in giving greater vigor to the human organism in
combination with the cereals and meats.

Cane was originally the sole source from which commerce
drew its supply of sugar.

Beets as a source of sugar supply first attracted atten-
tion in France in the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte, "as one
of the results of the exigencies of a state of war and the
emancipation of the slaves in the British Colonies."

Cane held its place as the base of the sugar supply, how-
ever, until 1850. Meanwhile interest in the cultivation of
beets for sugar production, had spread from France to Ger-
many and other continental countries, where home consump-
tion was first met with its product.

Since 1850, interest has grown more rapidly and more ex-
tended, as to territory, in the cultivation of the beet for its
sugar content, several of our Northern and Western States
being classed among the successful producers of beet sugar,
and, to-day, we are witnesses to the fact that the beet sup-
plies two-thirds of the world's consumption of sugar, and to
the further fact that "the center of the sugar industry has
been transferred from the tropics to the temperate zone,"
proclaiming one of the most marvellous achievements of
science "in raising an humble garden vegetable" to be, for
the time, at least, a potential factor in the world's sugar sup-
ply, statisticians fixing the world's annual production of su-
gar at 7,500,000 tons, and crediting beet sugar with con-
tributing 4,650,000 tons of this amount.

When beet sugar, in 1881, first began to actively threaten
the supremacy of the product of the cane, standard "A"
sugar, in New York, commanded 9.84 cents per pound; in
1894-95, it had declined 4 cents and in 1899, averaged about
5.50 cents per pound, while the imported raw sugar, in bond,
averaged, in 1881, 4.41 cents per pound ; 1894, 2.92 cents and
in 1899, 3.125 cents per pound.

To this point the victory of beet over cane sugar has been
a victory^ for chemistry. "The influence," says United
States Vice Consul Murphy, writing from Madgeburg, June
13th, 1900, "which chemistry has exerted upon the produc-
tion of beet sugar has been very great and has rendered
possible the victory of the beet over cane sugar. * * * ♦

18 THE SUGAR CANE.

No other existing industry is subject to such thorough and
scientific control as is the German beet sugar industry.''

But chemistry is greatly indebted to climate for the won-
derful grasp with which it has been able to impart such an
astounding value to the beet, and a writer, in the "North
American Review," March 1899, goes so far as to say, that
"The beet owes its present success solely to the fact of its
being grown in a temperate climate, where the talent and
enterprise of an energetic race can be applied to the prob-
lem of its improvement."

The beet sugar industry in the United States, in some
sections, has not proven the success anticipated, though
fostered by state bounties to encourage beet growing.

The Year-Book of the Department of Agriculture, how-
ever, takes a very bright view of the situation, and says that
while the experiments of the year have added no new infor-
mation in regard to the beet sugar industry, the Year-Book
gives a list of 16 new factories that were completed for the
beet crop of 1899 and 5 more that will be ready, for the crop
of 1900-01.

It is well known, however, that beets, as a crop, are sub-
ject to many vicissitudes in cultivation, unknown in the
cultivation of cane, and that they have shown these charac-
teristics in this countr3^

In Europe bounties and other forms of encouragement
granted to stimulate the development of the beet sugar in-
dustry, have been modified and in the near future may be
withdrawn entirely and in our own country State bounties
are of doubtful constitutionality and may be withdrawn at
any time, possibly resulting in the impairment of the beet
sugar industry in this country in its competition with the
richer product of the cane. Such an abolition of bounties
would be in line with the public sentiment that compelled
the repeal of the statute that, in recent years, gave sugar
growers in the United States a fixed bounty per pound in
lieu of the tariff protection previously and subsequently
enjoyed.

In Cuba all field labor was demoralized or destroyed by
the war. The slave of yesterday is the freeman of to-day,
and the reorganization of labor upon economic lines, under
these circumstances, will be the most serious problem with
which the Cuban Bepublic must immediately deal, if the
sugar industry, her greatest source of wealth and commer-
cial importance, in the past, is to be restored to its former
magnitude. If labor conditions can be restored, even in
years, it will be the reversal of history in the experience of
other islands in the Carribean Archipelago, which in the
emancipation of slaves or in changes from despotic to freer

SUGAR SUPPLY OF THE FUTURE. 19

forms of government have, in every instance, fallen from
the place to which the fertility of their soil raised them,
in consequence of the resulting disorganization of labor, and
the utter impossibility of reorganizing it or of replacing it,
short of a revival of the slave trade, or the establishment
of that worse form of human servitude, a "contract system,"
that could not be sanctioned by the United States in any
form of laws that may be enacted for Cuba without doing
violence to her own prohibitory statutes against such an in-
famous form of bondage with none of the compensating
features of straightout slavery.

The labor con«litions in Porto Rico and the Philippines
are not likely ever to be any better than those in Cuba,
hereafter, and the Hawaiian Islands are already feeling the
effect of the statutes of the United States, now in force
there, against contract labor, under any disguise, which has
heretofore been the recognized system of labor for the Ha-
waiian cane and rice fields.

It is well to consider here, too, as a vital factor in fore-
casting the future of all tropical islands, now or that may
hereafter come under the control or influence of the United
States, as well as in Cuba, that there will be no rush of im-
migration to them from overcrowded States, which made
our Western wilds the world's granary; but which could not
have been accomplished by "Yankee" push without being
backed by "Yankee" brawn. These islands may expect to
receive a plenty of the "push" but they must supply the
"brawn" from their own labor elements, whose muscles have
been enervated by a tropical sun and a climate that does
not excite to voluntary effort, and so it will be to the end of
time; and it is, therefore, possible that this generation has
seen the greatest agricultural growth to which the insular
possessions or allies of the United States will ever be able
to attain in the future, unless "the leopard can change his
spots."

The minerals these islands possess will continue to attract
capital, and minor branches of agriculture, where nature
contributes all, save the labor for the harvest, be main-
tained; but the cane that requires careful cultivation, fertil-
ization and economical harvesting, even in the tropics, with
the cheapest labor and the greatest luxuriance of growth,
will never be to Cuba, and our insular possessions, again
the valuable source of revenue it has been to them in the
past.

Over the imported sugar, of beet or cane, home producers
have the advantage of transportation to commence with,
and in the manufacture foreign countries must be at great
disadvantage on account of higher cost of fuel, etc., and the

2i) THE SUGAR CANE.

beet and cane industries of this country could be worked
together in shutting out the foreign products and supplying
the full consumptive demand at home.

The beneficent effects of such a policy would hasten the
desirable end of freeing this country from dependence upon
Germany and other foreign states, that cannot be overesti-
mated. Besides in the North and West it would stimulate
beet production, and in the South, with a temperate climate
and the energy of an active and intelligent race, from cane
cultivation and its manufacture into sugar, results might be
expected to excel even the marvellous development of the
beet in Germany where the greatest study has been devoted
to the subject.

The rich quality of the cane found by Dr. Stubbs growing
promiscuously in Georgia and Florida, without scientific di-
rection, justifies this expectation.

The writer in the "North American Review," who has al-
ready been quoted, in support of this view, discussing the
relative value of the beet and the cane in sugar production,
says:

"It (the cane) can be grown at less expense under the
proper climatic conditions and the sugar content can be ob-
tained at a smaller cost of manufacture; and, while the
beet has, probably, almost reached the climax of its develop-
ment, the margin of possibility in the case of the cane is
wide and inviting. By the expenditure upon it of one-tenth
of the study and energy which have been devoted to the ser-
vice of the beet, the cane would soon overtake and outstrip
its pudgy rival in the race for supremacy."

And the Year-Book, 1899, Department of Agriculture, to
which reference has also been previously made, gives ad-
ditional confirmation to this ^iew, in saying (page 254:)
"By means of chemical studies the sugar beet has been de-
veloped from the common garden beet, containing only 5
or 6 per cent of sugar, to its present condition of a root con-
taining from 12 to 16 per cent. This great improvement
has been secured solely by the aid of chemical science con-
joined with the highest skill in practical agriculture. In
the process of manufacture, however, chemical science has
been even more successful. Beet juices, on account of their
composition, present greater difficulties in manufacture
than the juice of sugar cane. Without the aid of chemical
science the present status of beet sugar manufacture would
have been impossible of attainment."

It will be seen that both the writers in the "Review" and
in the "Year-Book" agree that the cane is the better base,
unaided, for sugar making. In the "Review" it is declared
that "with one-tenth of the study and energy which have

SUGAR SUPPLY OF THE FUTURE. 21

been devoted to the ser\ice of the beet, the cane would soon
overtake and outstrip its pudgy rival in the race for su-
premacv." The "Review" further claims that the beet
sugar industry has "almost reached the climax of its de-
velopment."

The "Year-Book" (page 744), "Beet Sugar," after referring
to the immense scientific labor devoted to the beet in the
last year; says: "While it cannot be said that any new in-
formation has been gained by this work, a large number of
analyses have been made and the data accumulated are un-
doubtedly of value."

Heretofore the work of the chemist has been equal to the
decline in the value of sugar from the price upon w^hich the
beet sugar industry was first built.

How much more shrinkage the industry can bear without
destroying all margin to growers, as well as manufac-
turers, while diflficult to determine as to both branches of
the industry, the reduced price paid by manufacturers for
beets in some States have already had a discouraging effect
upon production.

Sugar from cane or beet is now produced in nearly every
country in the world, and there can, therefore, be no rea-
sonable hope indulged that prices will be restored or be
permanently moved upward again. Therefore, upon the
present, or possibly lower, prices the industry must stand
or fall in the competition.

Until Dr. Stubbs' visit, the possibility of Georgia and
Florida becoming sugar producing States again was never
given a thought.

It had long since passed from memory that these States
had been sugar States in years gone by.

Dr. Stubbs does not announce his conclusions in plati-
tudes upon the possibilities of Georgia and Florida as sugar
producing States. He says he saw land under cultivation
yielding 16 to 35 tons to the acre of cane, and the analysis
of the cane gave a sugar content of 16 per cent, capable of
yielding under 75 per cent, extraction, 225 pounds of C. P.
sugar .to the ton, and an acre producing 20 tons would
therefore yield 4,500 pounds, and 30 tons 6,750 pounds per
acre of C. P. sugar.

In Cuba the product of cane to the acre varies from 12 to
40 tons, and, with 16 per cent, sugar content, is no richer
than the canes of Georgia and Florida.

Commenting upon Dr. Stubbs' statement that he had
found cane, Avith ordinary cultivation in Georgia, to pro-
duce 20 tons to the acre with 16 per cent, sugar content,
Capt. R. E. Rose, President of the Florida State Agricul-
tural Society, who has made the cultivation and manufac-

22

THE SUGAtl CANE.

ture of cane a study, in an address before that society, May
ard, 1900, said:

"With a cane, averaging as the purple cane in Prof.
Stubbs' report averaged, (referring to Dr. Stubbs' visit to
Georgia and Florida) sugar can be manufactured for 40
cents per 100 pounds. At twenty tons to the acre the
cane can be grown, harvested and delivered for |2 per ton,
making the actual cost of sugar (200 pounds per ton of cane)
$1.40 per hundred pounds, or less than 1^ cents per pound.''

In a recent issue of the Hawaiian Planters Monthly, com-
piled by Mr. Paul Doerstling, Superintendent of the beet
sugar factory at La Grande, Oregon, appears the following
table showing the cost of producing cane and beet sugar in
various countries, which becomes interesting in connection
with estimate of Capt. Kose of the cost of producing sugar
in Georgia and Florida.

Mr. Paul Doerstling figured on a basis of 2,240 pounds to
the ton; Capt. Rose,. 2,000 pounds to the ton, which would
make cost of long ton |1.58 per 100 pounds against |1.40 or
1.58 cents per pound for short ton, and 4,000 pounds would
be 1.8 long tons of commercial sugar to an acre, in com-
parison with the following compilation of Mr. Doerstling:"

CANE SUGAE

Tons

Tons

Cost of

Cost of

cane

sugar

sugar

sugar per

Country per acre.

per acre.

per ton.

pound in cents,

Spain 17

0.9

|5o.00

2.45

Japan 15.5

1.3

78.00

3.48

Java 32

3.0

38.00

1.69

Straits Settle-

ments . . . .20

1.6

41.00

1.82

Egypt 19

1.9

45.00

2.08

Reunion

Islands .... 21

L9

69.00

3.00

Louisiana . . .22

1.9

75.00

3.34

Cuba 24

1.8

40.00

1.78

East Indies . .

1.0

36.00

1.60

Hawaii 22

2.8

39.00

1.74

Argentine ... 13

1.0

62.00

2.76

British West Indies,

1.7

47.00

2.09

Queensland . .

2.0

28.00

1.25

Porto Rico . .20

2.0

BEET SUGAR,

28.00

1.25

Germany ....12.5

1.2

149.00

2.18

Austria 9.3

1.1

47.00

2.09

France 10.9

1.2

58.00

2.58

Russia 7.2

1.9

60.00

2.67

SUGAR SUPPLY OF THE FUTURK. 23

The lands in Cuba devoted to cane cultivation represent
a large money value and the same is true of sugar lands in
Hawaii and in Louisiana, in the alluvial sections of the lat-
ter state.

Lands in Georgia, now planted in cane, represent a value
of |5.00 to 110.00 per acre; lands equally as good, in the
woods, 11.00 to |2.00 per acre and cost of preparation,
which is inexpensive. These same facts are applicable to
Florida.

The lands in both Georgia and Florida suited to cane cul-
tivation are found along our lines of railroads, in healthy
locations and in the midst of an active and intelligent popu-
lation, with abundant school and church facilities, where
every surrounding, under scientific direction, will combine
to insure the highest development — in both cultivation and
manufacture.

CHAPTER VI.

RECOLLECTIONS OP HOPETON PLANTATION.

Hopeton Plantation, situated on the southern bank of the
Altamaha River, in Glynn county, Georgia, fifteen miles
from the Atlantic Ocean, five miles, by water, from Darien
on the opposite side of the river and sixteen miles from
Brunswick, by land, was the plantation home of the late
James Hamilton Couper.

r, Hopeton is invested with a peculiar interest at this time
while sugar cane cultivation is engaging public thought,
because it was here that Mr. Couper, in 1829, erected and
operated the first complete sugar manufacturing plant in
Georgia, on a scale in advance then of any similar sugar
plant in the West Indies or Louisiana.

On the opposite page is a fine view of the Hopeton Sugar
plant as it stands to-day. The connected buildings com-
prising this plant are 39 feet in width and 240 feet in
length and the massive walls of the buildings constructed
of tabby, a concrete substance, composed of oyster shells
and lime or cement.

The plant was started for the first time in the fall of 1829,
and "the performance of every part was satisfactory," says
Mr. Couper. Mr. Couper's annual cane crop, grown at

I Hopeton, exceeded 300 acres and was estimated as yielding

I 30 tons of cane to the acre.

U^The machinery of this plant remained in place until a
few years ago when its present owners, the "Shaker
Colony," in Glynn County, sold it as scrap metal.

Though Mr. Couper was deeply engrossed in the affairs of
Hopeton and had made it "a model to all interested in
scientific agriculture," to quote further from Capt. C. S.
Wylly's very interesting "Annals of Glynn County," Mr.
Couper "by methodical use of his time found leisure to culti-

/vate his scientific tastes so much as to cause his correspond-
ence to be solicited by almost all of the learned societies.
He was recognized as the best planter in the district, as a
most humane and successful manager of slaves, as the lead-

^mg conchologist of the South and as a microscopist whose

I

5^ a;

J ^

O w

o
u

o

5

HOPETON PI.ANTATION. 25

researches into the then new field of gewn life, attracted
attention in the laboratories of all the universities."

In the winter of 1832, Editor J. D. Legare, of the "South-
em Agriculturalist," of Charleston, S. C, during a tour of
Georgia's sugar district, was a guest of Mr. Couper at Hope-
ton. The object of his visit was to study the sugar cane
situation in Georgia for the benefit of the planters of South
Carolina, and he gives an account of his visit in several
numbers of the "Agriculturalist," in 1833. We quote from
this correspondence, as follows:

"We remained several days at Hopeton enjoying the hos-
pitality of J. Hamilton Couper, Esq., during which time we
were busily employed in viewing the plantation and of
taking notes of such things as we saw and heard of.

"We hesitate not to say Hopeton is decidedly the best
plantation we ever visited, and we doubt whether it can be
equalled (certainly not surpassed) in the Southern States,,
and, perhaps, when we consider the extent of the oper-
ations, the variety of crops cultivated and the number of
operatives who have to be directed and managed it will not
be presumptive to say, that it may fairly challenge compari-
son with any establishment in the United States, whether
we consider the systematic arrangement of the whole, the-
regularity- and precision with which each and all of the oper-
ations are conducted or the perfect and daily accountability
established in every department.

"All the crops had been harvested except the cane, and
we had the pleasure of seeing all the operations connected
with this valuable crop, from the commencement of the
stripping of the cane to the final preparation for the mar
ket.

"The proportion of the various crops were 500 acres In
rice, 170 acres in cotton and 330 acres in cane."

On the occasion of his second visit to the United States.
Sir ClujrU s Lyell, F. R. S., the distinguished English geolo-
gist and scholar, became a guest at Hopeton, January 1st,
1846. Sir (-ImrL's had reached Darien the night before
and thus describes his first meeting with Mr. Couper, in the
first volume of the account of his second visit to the United
States:

"The next morning, while we were standing on the river's
bank, we were joined by Mr. Hamilton Couper, with whom
I had corresponded on geological matters, and whom I have
already mentioned as the donor of a splendid collection of
fossil remains to the museum at Washington, and, I may
add, of other like treasures to that of Philadelphia. He
came down the river to meet us in a long canoe, hollowed
out of the trunk of a single cypress, and row^ed by six ne-

26 THE SUGAR CANE.

gioes, who were singing loudly, and keeping time to the
stroke of their oars."

Speaking of Mr. Couper's library, which was then re-
garded as the most valuable in the state, Sir Charles says :

"I found, in the well-stored library of Mr. Couper, Audu-
bons Birds, Michaud's Forest Trees, and other costly works
on natural history; also Catherwood's Antiquities of Cen-
tral America, folio edition, in which the superior effect of
the larger drawings of the monuments of Indian architec-
ture struck me much, as compared to the reduced ones,
given in Stephen's Central America, by the same artist."

Sir Charles, while at Hopeton, gave his time to studying
the geology of the region with Mr. Couper. But inciden-
tally, Sir Charles could not fail to be impressed by the hap-
py and contented appearance of the 500 slaves on Hopeton
under Mr. Couper's management, and he expresses himself

*«very clearly and forcibly upon the subject, in the account of
his travels:

"During a fortnight at Hopeton, we had an opportunity
of seeing how the planters live in the South, and the con-
dition and prospects of the negroes on a well-managed
estate. The relations of the slaves to their owners resemble
nothing in the Northern States. There is an hereditary i-c-
gard and often attachment on botli sides, more like that
formerly existing between lords and their retainers in the
old feudal times of Europe, than to anything now to be
found in America. The slaves identify themselves with the
master, and their sense of their own importance rises with
his success in life. But the responsibility of the owners is
felt to be great, and to manage a plantation with profit is
no easy task; so much judgment is required, and such a mix-
ture of firmness, forbearance and kindness. The evils of

' the system of slavery are said to be exhibited in their xvorst
light when new settlers come from the free states ; Northern
men, who are full of activity, and who strive to make a
rapid fortune, willing to risk their own lives in an unhealthy
climate, and who cannot mal^e an allowance for the repug-
nance to continuous labor of the negro race, or the dimin-
ished motive for exertion of the slave. To one who arrives
in Georgia direct from Europe, with a vivid impression on
his mind of the state of the peasantry there in many popu-
lous regions, their ignorance, intemperance, and iinprovi-
dence, the difficulty of obtaining subsistence, and the small
chance they have of bettering their lot, the condition of the
black laborers on such a property as Hopeton, will afford
but small ground for lamentation or despondency. I had
many opportunities, while here, of talking with the slaves
alone, or seeing them at work. I may be told this was a fa-
vorable specimen of a well-manged estate; if so, I may at

HOPKTON PLANTATION. 27

least affirai that mere chance led me to pay this visit, that
is to say, scientific objects wholly unconnected with the 'do-
mestic institution' of the South, or the character of the own-
er in relation to his slaves; and I may say that same in re-
j?ard to every other locality or proprietor visited by me in
the course of this tour. I can but relate what passed under
my own eyes, or what I learnt from good authority, conceal-
ing nothing." «^

Miss Fredrika Bremer, the Swedish novelist, whose /
charming works of fiction have a place in every home, in
her "Homes of the New World; Impressions of America,"
in her first volume of travels, writing from Savannah, Ga.,
13th of May, 1851, on the eve of taking a steamer for Florida
says:

"On my return I shall visit the plantation of a Mr. .
Couper, where I am told I shall meet the ideal of plantation *^
life in the slave States."

On her return from Florida, Miss Bremer, on May 27th,
writes as follows, from the summer home of JMr. elames
Hamilton Couper, St. Simon's Island:

"Mr. C. is one of the greatest planters in the South of the
United States, and this created in me a desire to become
acquainted with him and his plantations. But I did not /
find him a reformer, merely a disciplinarian, with great ,J
practical tact, and also some benevolence in the treatment
of negroes.

"In other words I found him to be a true representative
of the gentlemen of the Southern States — a very polite man,
possessing as much knowledge as an encyclopedia, and in-
teresting to me in a high degree through the wealth and
fascination of his conversation. He is distinguished for his
knov/ledge of natural history; has a beautiful collection of
the natural productions of America, and the lecture which
I heard him read, this morning, in the midst of these, on the
geology and rock formation of the world has given me a
clearer knowledge of the geological structure of this portion
of the world than I ever possessed before.

"In urbanity and gi'ace of conversation Mr. 0. reminds
me of Ralph Waldo Emerson; but, in a general way, the
Southern gentleman has too small development of the organ
of ideality even as in the gentleman of the North it is too
large."

The winter of 1854-55 brought Hon. Miss Amelia M. Mur-
ray to the United States, chiefly, it would seem, to study
our industrial system, for she had at home, in England^
previously given much time and thought to similar subjects.
She came to the United States deeply imbued with English
antagonism to slavery as it existed in the Southern States.

Miss Murrav, at the time of her visit, was serving as a

28 THE SUGAR CANE.

maid of honor to Queen Victoria, to which position she had
been nppointed in 1837, at the age of forty-two.

In the course of her travels she visited Savannah, Ga., and
to judge from her account of the visit, was most pleasantly
impressed with the city, and agreeably entertained by Mr.
and Mrs. H. and Miss T., and had the pleasure, on one of
these occasions, of meeting the late Bishop Elliott of the
Diocese of Georgia, of whom she writes in loftiest eulogy.

On her way south, Feb. 10th, 1855, stopping at Darien,
Miss Murray met, by "accident," Mr. Couper, whose fame
as a scientist and a scholar was known to her. Mr. Couper
insisted upon her party becoming his guests at Hoj^eton,
where a delightful week was spent.

Miss Murray's letters of travel from the United States
were not pleasantly received in England, and her deter-
mination to print them made a rupture at Court, which led
to her retirement from the service of Queen Victoria as a
maid of honor.

The trouble arose from the frankness with which she had
expressed herself upon slavery, as she had observed it exist-
ing in the Southern States during her travels, which was
greatly at variance with the prevailing English anti-slavery
sentiment at the time. In diplomatic circles it was said she
had violated a court rule forbidding officials to engage in
political discussions.

Miss Murray was subsequently recalled, however, to the
Queen's service as Assistant Lady of the Bed Chamber, and
w^as the first unmarried lady to serve in that capacity.

News from home conveying to her the effect produced by
her letters, while evidently annoying to Miss Murray served
to draw out in stronger light a nobility of character, in her
consciousness of being right in the convictions to which
she had given utterance in her letters, that does great
credit both to her heart and head, as she writes from New
Orleans, April 6th, 1855:

"Only now am 1 made aware for the first time, of
1 's resignation of the editorship she volun-
teered. I don't think I should ever have thought of the
publication if she had not proposed it, but I could not write
to her what I did not see or think. I am sorry and think she
liad better have trusted to my endeavor to tell the truth,
which, if it is not the truth, can never hurt any cause; but
the subject in question is too serious a matter to be blinked
for the sake of any individual friendship or individual in-
terest, and at any cost I must sacrifice the opinions and im-
pressions of friends to my own honest convictions."

Mr. Couper died in 1866, after a long and useful career,
honored and beloved by the whole country that felt that the
world was better that he had lived.

CHAPTER VII.

CLIMATOLOGICAL TABLES,

Comparative and Otherwise, of South Georgia,
Florida and South Louisiana, Prepared Ex-
pressly for this Work under the Direction of
Mr. H. B. Bover, Local Forecast Official of the
U. S. Weather Bureau at the Savannah, Ga.,
Station.

For a variety of reasons it has been difficult to select Sta-
tions in Georgia, Florida and Louisiana for the purpose of
this comparison, where the Records were complete. Some
of the stations, like Eastman and Way cross, in Georgia, are
only in operation during the cotton growing season — April
to October inclusive.

This is the first attempt to compare the climatological
conditions in these States to determine their equal adapta-
bility for the production of Sugar Oane profitably and diffi-
culty has consequently attended the selection of Stations in
Georgia and Florida of such sufficient completeness of data
as to fully serve the purpose. Of course, in Louisiana data
is easily obtainable from its valuable Experiment Stations
as well as from the Weather Bureau records in that -State.

The comparison of the tables that follow show that South-
ern Georgia and Florida have, with Louisiana, all the con-
ditions requisite for the profitable cultivation of Sugar
Cane for its Sugar Content.

30

THE SUGAR CANK,

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) &

C

: 4

1

1

CLIMATOLOGICAL TABLKS.

47

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48

THE SUGAR CANE.

Dates on which Tirst and Last Killing Prosts Occurred^ or Mini-
mum Temperature Went to 32''.
SOUTH GEORGIA.

STATIONS.

Albany . .
Alapaha . .
Americus .
Eastman . .
Fort Gaines
Savannah .
Thomahville
Waycross .

1899.
Ijast in
Spring.

March 9
Marcii 29

March 28
April 10
March 8
March 9

1899.

First in

Autumn.

November 6

November 4

November 6
December 5
November 4

FLORIDA.

STATIONS.

Jacksonville .
Tallahassee. .
Lake City . .
Ocala . . . .
Orlando . . .
New Smj^rna
Myers . . . .

1899.
Last in
iSpring.

February 19
March 8
March 8
March 9
February 14
March 8
February 14

1899.

First in

Autumn.

December 30
November 4
December 3
December 5

December 30

SOUTH LOUISIANA.

STATIONS.

Alexandria. .
Donaldsonville
Franklin . . .
Grand Coteau
Lake Charles .
New Orleans .
Rayne ....
Schriever. . .

1899.

1899.

Last in

First in

ISpring.

Autumn.

April 9

November 3

March 20

November 3

February 15

November 4

March 7

November 3

March 29

November 4

Februarv 14

December 16

March 29

November 3

March 29

November 4

29 years :

28 "

CL.IMATOI.OGICAL TABLES. 49

Temperature Summary^ Savannah^ Ga.^ for 25 Years.

Lowest.

12
26
33
44
50
63
61
46
37
22
12

January,

February,

March,

April,

May,

June,

July,

August,

September,

October,

November,

December,

Average

Highest

51

80

54

84

59

88

66

90

74

101

80

100

82

105

80

100

76

97

67

92

58

83

52

80

Average annual temperature

67

Precipitation Summary^ Savannah, Ga., for 25 Years.

PKECIFI I'ATION — INCHES.

MONTH.

Average.

January,

February,

March,

April,

May,

June,

July,

August,

September,

October,

November,

December,

29 years

28 "

3.16
3.20
3.70
3.36
2.83
6.40
5.94
8.17
6.17
3.67
2.37
3.27

Greatest
Monthly.

884

9.71

10.18

8.82

5.93

18.79

13.18

22.79

16.58

9 4o

6.28

7.99

Least
Monthly

0.38
0.66
0.76
0.16
0.35
0.91
0.82
1.89
1.64
0.34
0.29
Trace

Average annual precipitation 52.23

Weather Summarv^ Savannah, Ga

., for 25 Years.

AVERAGE NUMBER OF DAYS.

MONTH.

Clear.

Partly
Cloudy.

Cloudy.

Rainy.

January, 29 yrs.

10

11

10

10

February, 28

9

10

9

10

March, '*

12

11

8

8

April. "

13

10

7

8

May,

12

13

6

9

June, ''

8

15

7

12

July,

7

17

/

13

August, "

8

14

9

14

September, "

10

11

9

11

October,

14

10

7

7

November, "

12

10

8

8

December, " "

12

10

9

9

Average annua

J .

127

142

96

119

50

COCOOOOCCOCOOCX)C(X)OOOOOOCCCCCCOCCOOOOOOOCXXXXX)

o o

Growing Sugar Cane

on the line of the

Central of Georgia Railway.

IHAT section of middle and southern Georgia and

south and southeastern Alabama traversed by the

Ckntratj of Gkokgia Railway is unsurpassed o

for growing sugar cane and for the profitable iiand- Q

ling of all sugar cane products. The soil throughout O

this section is admirably suited to growing sugar Q

cane of a very superior quality. From analyses

recently made, it has been shown that sugar cane grown

on the hill sides of Georgia and Alabama contains from

two to four per cent, of saccbarine matter over cane grow n

in the alluvial lands.

Maple and other chemically prepared syrups, which,
in the absence of a pure article, have been so extensively
used throughout the country, are now being rapidly re-
placed by a pure unadulterated syrup made from the juice
of sugar cane. The supply is wholly inadequate to the de-
mand, and there is the amplest of fields for the disposal of
of this relished product, as the deficiency throughout the
Union is principally filled with syrups adulterated with
glucose and with syrups made from re-boiled molasses
which has undergone partial fermentation and has been
bleached by chemical processes.

Rich, productive lands along the Central of
Georgia Railway, suitable for growing sugar cane may q
be obtained at from |3.00 to $10.00 per acre, according to g
location. O

Write for full particulars to ^

R. L. PRITCHARD,

Land and Industrial Agent,
^ Central of Georgia Railway Co., Savannah, Ga. ^

O g

OOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOCODCOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOD

c;

8

n

o

51

^De Soto Hotel

Savannah, Ga.

*
#

*
*
*
*
^
^

WffESON'&'POWERS^^

^^^avamdh^m-

Accommodations for 500 Guests.

Among the improvements the past summer 60 new bathrooms were
added. Tourists will find Savannah a beautiful city and an ideal winter
^'' resort; 40 miles asphalted and macadamised roads for wheeling. The
M/ privileges of the SAVANNAH GOLF CLUB LINKS extended to the W
guests of the De Soto. Mf

Write for illustrated descriptive booklet and rates.

Watson & Powers,

Proprietors.

52

}o^o^o^:isosoi:B:iso^^^

PRESENTS EXCELLENT ADTANTAGES

FOR GROWING SUGAR CANE ALONG

SOME PORTIONS OF ITS LINES,

THERE ARE RICH SOILS, FAVORABLE

climate; LOW PRICED LANDS AND

GOOD TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES.

T is being demonstrated by practical experience that the
raising of sugar cane in several sections along the
(p>\y^Z) Southern RaiTvWay is a successful branch of agri"
culture. The sugar made is equal in value, strength
and color to that of other places where cane has been grown
for years as a staple product, and the syrup is especially de-
sirable when made under the new processes now applied. It is
being found that the cultivation of sugar cane in several coun-
ties of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi will
yield very large crops, rich in saccharine matter.

During the past season, the farmers around Baxley, Geor-
gia, have raised several hundred acres of cane, and a syrup
refinery has been established and is now paying a very liberal
price for the cane. Another plant has been in operation at
Columbus, Georgia, for some time. There is a ready market
for the product, and the indications are that larger crops will
be put in next season, not only in the vicinity of these mills,
but in other sections.

(r/Hr7?\ INHERE are attractive advantages for raisers of cane
[p ^4, n in several localities tributary to the Southern
f(SJ^ Raii^way, where the soils are adapted to the crop
and the requisite fertility, warmth and moisture
obtain. Land is low in price. Large tracts may be pur-
chased on very favorable terms, many of them having timber
resources sufficient to pay the cost price. Labor is low in this
section of the South. Good market facilities are afforded. The
Southern Railway reaches not only all the large cities of
the South, but with its connections, those of the North and
East, and also numerous ports for reaching the foreign trade.
Mills on its lines have the advantage of through bills of lading
to their markets, as well as being in close proximity to fuel
supplies which the Southern reaches over its own tracks.

For refining the syrup, there are more mills needed
along the Southern Raii^way. With mills established, the
people living around them would furnish a liberal supply of
cane, and also help in their organization.

Information about suitable lands for this product in
Alabama or Mississippi may be obtained from Mr. W. L. Hen-
derson, Mobile, Alabama. About lands in Georgia, from Mr.
I. C. Wade, Equitable Building, Atlanta, Georgia, or Mr. W.
J. Hurlbut, Chattanooga, Tennessee. Persons in the North,
desiring information, should write Mr. M. A. Hays, 228 Wash-
ington street, Boston, Mass., Mr. J. F. Olsen, 225 Dearborn
street, Chicago, 111., agents of the Land and Industrial Depart-
ment, Southern Railway, or to

M. V. RICHARDS,

LAND & INDUSTRIAL AGT,. SOUTHERN RAILWAY.

Washington, D. C

54 ;

— ARE YOU A

Prospector? Homeseeker? Manufaclurer ? Inveslor?

, IF so, THE PLANT SYSTEM IS PREPARED
TO ASSIST YOU.

Plant System of Railways in Georgia, Florida, South Carolina

and Alabama.

The PIvANT System of Raii^ways has organized an Industrial and
Immigration Department which is designed to promote Agriculture,
Horticulture, Manufactures, Stock-raising, etc., along its lines in the
States above mentioned, and to assist Homeseekers to obtain cheap and
desirable homes, while helping them to succeed along the lines men-
tioned.

The advantages and facilities this department is able to offer you are
not to be exceeded from any source.

The territory embraced in this presentation will give you, in the
matter of climate and soils, the most favorable conditions that could
possibly be presented in the South for colonization purposes or indi-
vidual settlers.

Now is the time homeseekers can locate to advantage on the lines of
this System, with the opportunity of purchasing many farms that have
already been improved.

If you are seeking a home, advise me what you want.

If you have land, property, etc., for sale, advise me, giving particu-
lars. I am having numerous inquiries, and may serve you to advantage.

One of the most important productions along the lines of the Pi^anT
System, is that of Sugar Cane, which can be successfully grown any-
where along the entire lines of the System, but more especially in
Southern Georgia and Florida.

The land most suitably adapted to successful sugar cane growing,
should have a clay or marl subsoil, of which there are thousands of acres
in the above mentioned States.

Professor H. E. Stockbridge, of the Florida Experimental Station,
says: "The soil and climate of Florida are better adapted to the success-
ful production of sugar cane and its products than any other part of the
United States."

Farmers growing **Cassava" either as a food for farm animals or for
making starch, can produce from $50.00 to I75.00 per acre, while the
cost of preparation, planting, cultivation and harvesting will not exceed
$16.00 per acre.

Celery is being grown all over Florida, and is yielding enormous re-
turns to growers.

Lettuce and strawberries are also found to be very profitable crops.

Pineapples, while requiring larger investments to obtain first crops.
will, at present prices, yield larger net returns than any other product of
the territory.

The grapefruit and orange in South Florida are both certain and
profitable.

Desirable land for the culture of sugar cane may be had at from
$5.00 to I15.00 per acre.

Lands suitable for truck farming, though requiring fertilizing, can
be purchased at almost any price, from |2.oo up to $50.00.

For information and assistance, address

JOHN H. STEPHENS, A. & I. Agt.,
Room No. 2 Astor Building, Jacksonville, Fla.

55

THE PULASm.

^rj^HE PULASKI is a famous hotel. It has entertained more dis-
^ii) tinguished people, Americans and Foreigners, than any hotel in

Georgia.

It lays claim to a service and accommodation not found elsewhere
in this section.

Its reputation is based upon its cuisine.

It is furnished with Gas, EIvECTric Lights, EIvEvator, and
everything to make it a modern hostelry.

Rates: $2.50 to $j.oo per day, except to/aniilies;

$12.50 to $15.00 per week, according to location of rooms.

humsW HOUSE

r e/5AVA/N/^AH,GAr

0FEL

TYBEE l^ly^AlD,QA.

HOTEL TYBEE.

WffoTEL TYBEE is one of the best appointed hostelries on the At-

X^iX. lantic coast. It is ample for the accommodation of all guests

"^'^"* who summer at Tybee. Special attention is devoted to the

cuisine.

A five minutes walk from HOTEL Tvbee brings you to Tybee Inlet,

where fine fishing may be had, and where boating and sailing may bs

enjoyed.

Rates: $2.50 per day, and $12.50 and $15.00 per zueek, according to
location of room.

For further information as to The Pui.aski or HoTEi. Tybee,
address

C. r. GRAHAM^ Proprietor,

SAVANNAH, GA.

56

Inducements to Settlers.

Richly Productive Soils. Farms that can be made to Double their
Present Yields. Water Power for Factories and Mills. Clay for Brick
and Pottery. Building Stone and Minerals. Inexhaustible Pine, Oak,
Hickory and Hardwood Timbers. Accessible Markets. Healthful
Climate. Pure Water. These are some of the many Inducements offered
to Intending Settlers in the Vast Territory Tributury to

THE GREAT SEABOARD AIR LINE RAILWAY.

Capital and I,abor, Independently or Together, are Effecting Marvelous Changes
in the South. Virginia's Fertile Valleys and Gentle Slopes are especially adapted to
Grasses, Vegetables, Grain and an endless variety of Farm Products. In North and
South Carolina and Georgia, throughout the famous Piedmont Region, the crops of
Corn, Cotton, Tobacco, Truck and Fruit, are certain and abundant. This entire
country is destined to become the garden of the world. Nature has done her best.
Man's genius and industry will do the rest. A tidal wave of prosperity is spreading
over the South. Its industrial activities have awakened; its agricultural and manu-
facturing possibilities are appreciated as never before. Wealth and population are
increasing. New towns are springing into life. The skilled mechanic is earning
good wages. The man of small means is making money. The family that came
South under stress of poverty is prospering.

THE GREAT STATE OF FLORIDA,

From Jacksonville to Tampa is traversed by the Seaboard Air I,ine Railway, In this
semi-tropical land the Orange perfects its most delicious and profitable returns. It is
the home of the I,emon, the Fig, the Pine Apple and an infinite \iariety of other
fruits. Fortunes are now being made in Tobacco, whose leaf is found equal to the
best Cuba and Sumatra. The avenues to wealth here are beyond computing, and open
to all. The soil responds to intelligent care in specialties of production that com-
mand the highest market prices everywhere.

INDIVIDUALS AND COLONIES

Will find excellent Farm, Fruit or Truck I^ands in Seaboard territory that can be had
at reasonable figures. Twenty to fifty or a hundred acres well tilled are better than a
thousand, poorly or indifferently well cultivated. lyocations can be secured where
the settler can avail himself of good schools, churches, improving social influences
and that law and order which prevails in all well regulated communities. The
Capitalist who looks for larger fields of speculation can find abundant chances for
paying investments, I^etters of inquiry will receive prompt attention when ad-
dressed to

JOHN SKELTON WILLIAMS,

President,

Richmond, Va.

JOS. STRANG,

Ass't Chief Industrial Agt.,

Portsmouth, Va,

JOHN T. PATRICK,

Chiet Industrial Agent,
Portsmouth, Va. & Pine Bluff, N. C.

HENRY CURTIS,

Ass't Chief Industrial Agt.,

Quincy, Ha.

57

8

CCOCCKXX^COOCOOOCOCOOOCCCOCOCCOOCOOOOCOOOOOCa

LANDS FOR SALE

Well adapted to the growing of

SliCllUeiHMOl

and other crops of this section,

In WARE, PIERCE, COFFEE, CLINCH and
APPLING COUNTIES, GEORGIA, on the
lines of the OFFERMAN & WESTERN, the
WAYCROSS AIR LINE, the SOUTHERN
RAILWAY and PLANT SYSTEM OF RAIL-
WAYS.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
AND PRICES, ADDRESS

Southern Pine Co.

of Georgia,

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOODOO oooooooooooooooooooo

58

A Valuable Spanish Grant in Putnam County, Florida,

containing 16,000 Acres, known as the

John Rodman Grant.

\^rRCj^ HIS grant is in a solid body, five miles square and
^~N^^ consists of 12,000 acres of pine land and 4,000 acres
u^-K^ of rich hammock, prairie and swamp.

It is unsurpassed as a range for stock and abounds
in wild deer and other game. It is located 7 miles from
Palatka, 2 miles from the St. Johns River and i }4 miles from
the Florida Southern Railway. The health of the section is
excellent, and on the Grant is a Sulphur Spring, resorted to by
the people of the surrounding country, who have great confi-
dence in the curative character of its water.

The soil of the Grant is admirably adapted to the culti-
vation of Sugar Cane and all other crops that can be success-
fully grown in Southern Florida. The Grant affords a fine op-
portunity for the location of a colony for Sugar Cane growing
and producing other crops for the market.

An adjoining tract of 20,000 acres can be treated for with
the Rodman Grant, and two-thirds of the frontage of that
combined area would be protected by the waters of the St.
Johns and Ocklawaha Rivers, and save that much in fencing to
enclose the two properties for stock raising.

For further information as to terms of sale, etc. , address

J. J. crMniiiv&s,

Savannab, Qa.
Or H. S. ClJi>IItl1IVG8 & BRO.,

Rodman, Putnam €0., Fla.

oO

Land for Salk!

5^000 acres of land on Seaboard Air Line Rail-
way, in Liberty and Mcintosh Counties, 40
miles from Savannah, between Riceboro and
Jones Stations, comprising uplands and low-
lands, and admirably adapted to the growing of
a large variet}' of crops, especially Sugiir Cane
and Rice.
For fuller description of the property and terms of sale, address

Peacock-Huni & lesl Co.,

iaval Slores Faclors. Savannah, Ga.

The Drummers' Home. Centrally Located.

DUB'S
SCREVEN HOUSE.

B. DUB, Proprietor.
Cuisine Unexcelled. SAVANNAH, GA.

^uv THE ees^ Ijg ^eH "a^' * «/c^

Hicks' Rpslaurant.

21.23 CONGR|SS STREET, SAVANNAH, QA.

60

Kehoe's Iron Works

Founders, Machinists,

Blacksmiths and

Boilermakers

Engines, Boilers, Pumps, Injectors,

.jMMiMwj^. — Steam Fittings.

All Kinds of Repair VIork Promptly Executed.

Etc.

C/9

fe2|
g = "

is

o

QC
OQ

lO

> o>

< 00

> •

The rapidly increasing demand tor our SUGAR MILLS AND PANS has induced us
to manufacture them on a more Extensive Scale than heretofore. To that end no pains
or expense has been spared to maintain their high standard of excellence.

rhese Mills are of the best material and workmanship, with heavy STEEL shafts
(made long to prevent danger to the operator), and rollers of the best charcoal Pig Iron,
turned perfectly true. They are heavy, strong and durable, run light and even and are
guaranteed capable of grinding the heaviest fully matured cane.

ALL OUR MILLS ARE FULLY WARRANTED FOR ONE YEAR.
Our Pans, being cast with the bottom down, possess smoothness, durability and uni-
formity of thickness far superior to those made in the usual way.

iJ^"Having unsurpassed facilities, we guarantee our prices to be as low as any
offered, A large stock always on hand for prompt delivery,

Castings and General Repair Work at Lowest Possible Prices.
Distillers' Pumping Outfits.

Thankful for the liberal patronage bestowed, and hoping to
merit its continuance.

Very respectfully.

Wm. Kehoe & Sons

N. B.— The name "Kehoe's Iron Works" is cast on all our Mills and Pans.

61

HENRY P. TALMADGE. President, WM. B. STILLWELL, Sec'ty & Treas..

Nfcw York City. Savannah, Ga.

JNO. J. Mcdonough, Manager MIIIs & Land Oep't.
Savannah, Ga.

Soulhem Pine Co. of Georgia,

TIMBER AND LUMBER.

f NEW YORK CITY, 68 William St.
OFFICES;

SAVANNAH, GA., 7 & 8 Provident BIdg.

Manufacturers and Shippers of, and Wholesale and Retail
Dealers in

11 lliF WM m IK

Having exceptional facilities, we are prepared to furnish

promptly via all rail, steamer or sailing vessel,

for domestic or foreign trade,

Georgia Pine Car Sills, Decking, Bridge and Building

Lumber, Kilu -Dried D. & M. Flooring,

Ceiling, Etc., Etc.

Mills located in the Best Belts of Virgin Long Leaf Pine, on

Lines of the Savannah, Florida & Western, Brunswick

& Western, Southern, and Central of

Georgia Railways.

CORRESPONDENCE WITH RAILROADS,
CAR BUILDERS. CONTRACTORS AND
DEALERS SOLICITED.

Land for ^ale !

Suitable for growing Sugar Cane, Sea Island Cotton, Etc.

Address all Communications to the Company.

SOUTHERN PINE COMPANY OF GEORGIA,

SAVA.MVAII, «A.

62

Rourke's Iron Works,

610 to 634 Bay St. East, 607 to 622 River St. East,

Iron and Brass Founders, Machinists,
Blacl<smiths and Boilermakers.

PROMPTNESS AND QUALITY GUARANTEED.

Dealers in Steam Engines, Injectors, Steam and Water Fittings
Saw Mills, Boiler Compound, Etc.

Samson Sugar Mills and Pjans
A Specialty.

We guarantee them the best in the
market, and if ihey aie not what we
represent them to be we will refund
the money. Send us a trial order «nd
be convinced that our mills are th'jj
best offered on the market. Will war-
rant them for one year. Our pans are
all made from new and improved pat-
terns, cast with bottom down, and the
metal so proportioned that there is no
chance for breakage— a fault which has
heretofore been a great source of
trouble and expense to the purchaser.

Proprietors,

Wharves on Savannah River,

TELEPHONE CALL 104.

The Place to Buy

Of All riinds.

LIME, CEMENT, PAINTS, ETC.

Savannah Building 8u|)|)ly Co.,

Congress and Drayton Sts., SAVANNAH, GA.

H ARDW^ARE.

•-^ SHELLS, & AJlfii^^^

OF ALL HTIVDS.

Sugar Mills-Sugar Pans,

/>. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. J

"l^Hi

— lOl"" • —

''VG TACKLE A

S?t^'

NN^^

Edward LovelTs Sons,

113 Brou^bfon St., ^Test,

S4VA1VIVAH, GA.

. . Belting and Hose, Sheet Metals,

Iron, Pipe and Fittings . . .

H. H. PEEPLES & SONS,

WHOLESALE

HARDWARE

TINWARE, STnVES, FARM IMPLEMENTS,
CnllEFii and BuildErs'^ Supplies.

FIRE ARMS, AMMUNITION, SCALES AND MILL SUPPLIES.

TELEPHONE 889.

125 CONGRESS ST., WEST,

MARKtT SQUARE,

SAVA^NAH, GA

64

B.H.LEVY&BRO.,

GENTLEMEN^ LADIES' AND
CHILDREN'S OUTPITTERS . .

a «

5C ©

O

^ .s

OS C

SAVANNAH'S

GREATEST

CLOTHIERS

beg to inform" their friends and the general public of the immense
.... stock of ... .

Men's Ladies' and Children's
Clothing They Carry.

Everything for the Infant or the Man or Woman can -be found in
our stock. Our facilities for serving out of town patrons are
perfect. We will send goods C. O. D., allowing them to be ex-
amined before being paid for. Orders by mail receive immediate
attention.

We guarantee that our prices are as reasonable as tljose of
any House North, South, East or West.

We solicit your correspondence.

B. H. LEVY & BRO.,

SAVANNAH, GA.

65

AT (3UR NEW STORE,

110 & 112 Brongtilon St,, West, Sayaunali, 6a,

We have on sale the World's Wonders,

THE PERFECTION MATTRESS,

ODORLESS REFRIGERATOR,

NEW PROCESS OIL HEATER,

BUCK»S STOVES AND RANGES,

together with the Finest line of General rurniture.
Carpets^ Mattings^ Window Shades and Up-
holsterings Goods to be seen south of Baltimore;
all at prices to please the bargain-hunter. Call and
be convinced.

50 BOTH TELEPHONES 50

LINDSAY & MORGAN.
MOUSKOFF MlLLllERY CO..

WHOLESALE DEALERS IN

iillinery Supplies

AT PRICES TO COMPETE
WITH ANY HOUSE NORTH.

Krouskoff A/[illiiiery Co.,

66

LEE ROY MYERSa CD

CIGARS

A5G00D AS CURRENCY

EVERY NECESSITY

OF A HOME, ESPECIALLY
ITS ECONOMY, CAN BE
FOUND IN

THE LARGEST DEPARTMENT STORE

IN THE SOUTH. ONCE

A PATRON, ALWAYS A

FRIEND.

LEOPOLD ABLER,

(i7

. . Thought and Action . .

Thinking of Buying means
getting posted like.

Action means Purchasing, Because of Preparedness
in either case —

METROPOLITAN HIGH GRADE

CLOTHING AND FURNISHINGS.

Who's Your Clothier?

WE riT YOU PROM
HEAD TO POOT ...

SUITS,

FURNISHINGS and

SHOES-
SPECIAL MAIL ORDER
DEPARTMENT

Goods Sent C. O. D. by Express, with Privilege
to Examine.

M. DRYFUS,

121 BROUGHTON STREET, .--^.^/ SAVANNAH, 6A.

68

ESTABLISHED 1845. INCORPORATED 1900.

The Oldest Drug House in the South.

SOLOMONS COMPANY,

WHOLESALE & KEI^AIL
. . . . DRUGGIS^rS . . . .

Wholesale Establishment : 127 Congress St., West.

{133 Congress St., West.
Cor. Bui.1. & Chari^ton Sts.

Complete Stock of Drugs, Chemicals, Patent
Medicines, Druggists' Sundries and Instruments.

Specialties: O-IEOI^O-I ^ S-S-I^TJiP a^xi-d. lE^IC:^.

A, EHRLICH Sc BRD,,

WhnlEsaiB G-rncEriES; Prnvisians; Liquars;

Cigars; TabaccD; Fruits and VEgEtatilES.

Ill, 113 and 115 Bay St., West,

Sa,T7-a<ii.n.a,li., . . O-eorgfia,.

Soi,E Agents for Everett's CetvEbrated White Peach Cider

AND Grape Juice.

CULTIVATION OF SUGAR CANE,

' . . . BY . . .

Copies of this work can be had by addressing, with price, 50 cei.ts
by Postal or Express order, less cost of order.

D. G. Purse, Agent, Savannah, Ga.

Agents Wanted, with Whom Liberal Terms wii.i. be Made.

89

A. S. NICHOLS,

8 Broughton St., West Savannah, 6a.

We have the best Ladies' Shoe sold at $2.00.
Mens at $1.50 to $3.00.

Falk Clothing Co^

Cor. Cougress & HMer Sts., SAVANNAH, GA.

OFF THE MAIN THOROUGHFARE.

:: BUT ::

LOW RENT MEANS LOW PaiCES, and

WE PAY ONE WELL FOR THE EXTRA STEPS.

I8AD0RE

SHOES, HATS and

CLOTHISG.
BKOl!GHTOUT.. West, |||1I ItIT

SAVANNAH, GA. UUiwL/lH *

GARFLNKEL £> »0N»,

HEADQUARTERS FOR

Po|)ular Price Ladies'
Ready Made Goods.

121 Broughton St., West, SAVANNAH, G A.

plant System

of Railways.

THE PA8T TREICnT LINE

. . . BETWEEN . . .

THE EAST, WEST,

NORTHWEST AND

THE SOUTH

Unsurpassed facilities for the transportation
of freight to and from all important points
in the East, West, Northwest and South.

Refrigerator and Ventilated
Cars for the Movement of
Perishables

Through Freight Schedules in connection with
all Lines Reaching the Important Markets,
both via All Rail and Rail and W^ater Routes.

Information regarding Rates, Schedules, Etc.,
can be obtained from all Plant System agents
and representatives, or by applying to

JA]I1ES J^IEEfZIES, "W. €. DEIVIIS,

General Freight Agent. Ass't Gen'l Freight Agent.

D. F. JACK,

Freight Traffic Manager,

71

The Southern Railway

PENETRATES THE HEART OF
THE CANE REGION OF SOUTH
GEORQIA. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

Modern Vestibuled Trains.

Pullman's Finest Sleeping Cars.

DINING CAR SERVICE COMPLETE

IN ALL THROUGH TRAINS

PAST TIME. ^ ^ ^ ^ SERVICE UNEQUALLED.

37-The Famous Washington and Southwestern Vestibule Ltd.--38
Between New York, Washington and the South.

35 The United States Fast Mail. — 36

Between the East and South, Florida, Etc.

33 New York and Florida Express. — 34

Between New York, Washington, Florida, Cuba, Etc.

13 The Cincinnati & Florida Limited. 14

Between Cincinnati, Etc., and Florida.

15 Day Limited Express. 16

Between Cincinnati, Etc., and Florida.

AMPLE WAY TRAINS FOR LOCAL TRAVEL.

For derailed information as to Rates,
Schedules, etc., call on or address any
Agent of the Southern Railway or its
Connections. : : ::::::::::::

WM. H. TAYLOE, C. A. BENSCOTER, GEO. B. ALLEN,

A. G. P. A., A. G. P. A., A. G. P. A.,

Atlanta, Ga. Chattanooga, Tenn. St. Louis, Mo.

J. M. CULP, W.A.TURK, S. H. HARDWICK,

Traffic Manager. Asst Pass. Traf. Mgr. Gen'l Pass. Agt.

W4SIII\OTO\\ 1>. C.

72

To the Traveling Public :

fasinirouglirM _^^, issurei Sally . . .

Profflit Mfliis. ^^^^ Imrious Eoirt.

These Requisites are Essential to the Successful Operation

of Railways. To Passengers They are of First

and Paramount Importance.

THE SEABOARD AIR LINE RAILWAY SYSTEM

From Richmond, Va., to Tampa, Fla., includes Five Oreat States. Between North
and South it Offers Fxtraordinary Inducements to All who Journey by Rail. A well
Ballasted Roadbed, vStone Culverts, Steel Bridges, and Heavy Steel Rails, Permit a
High Average Speed, Kquipnient Throughout Perfect. Passenger Cars of i,atest De-
sign—Strong, Serviceable, Elegant. Sleeping, Dining and Buffet Cars with L,atest
Improvements. All Trains Vestibuled and Drawn by the Best Modern lyocomotives.
Jieliable Connections in Union Depots. Conductors Courteous, Attentive, Intelligent.

THE FLORIDA AND WEST INDIA SHORT LINE,

With Through Sleepers from New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington,
D. C, Operates Daily P'ast Trains Between Richmond, Va., (its Initial Point, connect-
ing with Passenger Trains from Portsmouth), Weldon, Raleigh, Southern Pines,
Hamlet, Cheraw, Camden, Columbia. xSavannah. Jack.sonville and Tampa, Fla., where
Connecting Steamers convev- Passengers to Havana and Other Points in Cuba and
Porto Rico. This I^ine (Effected by the Purcha.se of the Georgia and Alabama and
the Florida Peninsula) is the Shortest Between all Northern Points and the Florida
Gulf Coast. The Service is FIxcellent and Train Equipment Irreproachable. Dining-
Car Service Unsurpassed.

THE POPULAR "ATLANTA SPECIAL'

Does Double Daily Train Service between Portsmoiith, Va., and Atlanta, Ga., stopping
at all important intervening towns and cities, with branch lines from Henderson to
Durham, from Hamlet to Wilmington, N. C, and from Monroe to Charlotte, Shelby
and Rutherfordton, and several lateral extensions to prosperous interior agricultural
and manufacturing towns. This .Special consists of Solid Vestibuled Pullman
Sleepers and Compartment Pa.ssenger Coaches, admirably equipped. It makes fa.st
time and has won the admiring plaudits of all who have enjoyed its un.surpa.ssed Ac-
commodations and Comforts. Prompt connections are made at Atlanta tor Chatta-
nooga and Nashville, for Birmingham and Montgomery, Ala., and via New Orleans
for lyos Angeles, vSan Diego, San Francisco and all Pacific Coast Points.

Secure tickets via the Florida and West India Short lyine or Atlanta Special to
any destination reached by the Great Seaboard Air I^ine Railway vSystem. Detailed
intormation, time schedules, etc., will be furnished on application by any city or
local Agent or sent on request from headquarters.

JOHN SKELTON WILLIAMS, President, Richmond, Va.

R. E. L. BUNCH, A. 0. MacDONELL, R. H. TATE,

Gen'l Pass. Agt., Ass't Gen'l Pass. Agt., Ass't GenI Pass. Agt„

Portsmouth, Va. Jacksonville, Fla. Atlanta, Ga-

CULTIl/miON OF-

=SUGAR : C/fNE.

Single copies, postpaid to aqy
address, cast]. — Fifty Cents ■— in
postal or express order, less cost
of order.

li^ il^ \ib

/Agents uuaqted for sale of book,
"Gultiuatioq of Sugar, Cane," to
whom liberal tern-js will be nanrjed
ypoq application to

D. G.PUSSE,,flgerjt,

Savannah, Ga.

Con^pJIed and Edited by

D, G. PUf^SE, /}geqt Savannah, Ga.

The Best and Most Direct Line between all
Points in Georgia and Alabama, Penetrating
the Greatest Fruit, Agricultural, Timber
and Mineral Sections of

THEO. D. INLINE, E. H. HINTON, J. C. HAILE^

Gen'l Supt, Traffic Mgr. Gen'l Passenger Agt.

R. L. PRITCHARD^ Land & Industrial Agt.^
Savannah^ Ga.

OCEAN STEAMSHIP CO, OF SAV'H.

Fastest Freight and Most Luxurious
Passenger Steamship Line

BETWEEN

The South and the East.

For Sailing Dates of Steamships and More Detailed Information,
apply to or write any Agent of the Compan}-.

P. E. LeEEVERE^ W. H. PLEASANTS^

Manager. Gen'l Prt, & Pass. Agent.

Pier 35 North River, New York, N. Y.

fetMlAl ••->.- «.-V 4

The Savannah Morning News.

Oaiuiniuii 11

J. H, i:<ST!U,. \'m\k

\ DAILY

SUNDAY
5EM1- WEEKLY t

i A Paphr of Influence and CHAKACibK. |

ESTABLISHFU iny/- I

COMPLETE NEWS SERVICE
MODERN EQUIPMENT

I) uf,\ \Mj Sunday

•• Sp:mi-Wi5Kk r \ , > 1

,jA .ji ^%e .j^

Sample Copies Fkel.

Savannah Morninj Sews,

mmm news mtfiisi;

SftVAlAH. Iii\. I

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST BATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.

OCT
OCT 26 1932

515

APR 23 1946

O. A

\'i^i

REC'D LD

JUN5 '64 -8. AM
MAY 1 7 1970 8 3

1932

m

LD 21-50?>i-8,'32

^ ^.r, i:^^-^:

*^

LIBRARY USE

RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED

LOAN DEPT.

UE BEFORE CLOSING TIME
AST DATE STAMPED BELOW

OCT 29 ^9*3^

PPPT) / r\ 111%/

^tt u LO MAY

I V 70 -2 PM 1

\Es%in%r.!iit "--S^igSraia