eat CRoterieck Sepurtinr ok CYBELE BRITANNICA; BRITISH PLANTS © GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS. BY HEWETT COTTRELL WATSON. M0. Tas HV, “ Preferring the connection of facts, which have been long observed, to the knowledge of insulated facts, although they were new, the discovery of an unknown genus seemed to me far less interesting than an observation ‘on the geographical relations of the vegetable world.” HumBotpt—Personal Narrative. LONDON: PUBLISHED BY LONGMAN & ©Co.,, PATERNOSTER ROW. 1859. LONDON : PRINTED BY E, NEWMAN, 9, DEVONSHIRE STREET, BISHOPSGATE. I. OBSERVATIONS INTRODUCTORY TO VoL. FourvH. CONTENTS OF VOLUME IV. Pronunciation of Cyb-el-e, etc. ete. J II. On mond = an ORDERS, GENERA, AND SPECIES. . What are Orders and Genera ? . What is a Species ? . Uncertainty of Species . Inequality of Species. » . Permanence of Species THE INTRODUCED SPECIES. . Definitions, Opinions, ete. ‘ . Examples in illustration of introduced Species . Views of Prof. Alphonse De Candolle . Views of English Botanists . Views of Dr. Godron, in France . Statistical bearings of introduced Species . Geographical position . Extentand Area. . : . Division into Counties : - . Division into Provinces and Sub-provinces . Latitudinal Divisions . Longitudinal Divisions PAGE 65 71 83 107 120 122 TV. Puysican GEoGRAPHY AND CLIMATE OF BRITAIN. 126 128 129 131 134 136 1V CONTENTS. 7. Vice-counties explained 8. Altitude of surface 9. General climate 10. Rain and Humidity 11. Temperature ‘ : . 12. Relation of Temperature to Latitude 13. Relation of Temperature to Altitude 14. Temperature of the Seasons 15. Extremes of Temperature V. Summary oF DIstTRIsUTION. An ordinal arrangement of the species, etc. 1. Hibernian species, absent from Britain 2. Explanations of the ‘Summary of Distribution’ VI. Census or SPECIES, BY SUB-PROVINCES, ETC. Arrangement according to tests of frequency 1. Summary of census by Provinces : 2. Summary of census by Sub-provinces 3. Summary of census by Counties 4. Explanations of the Census of Species PAGE 139 142 145 147 150 153 159 166 170 175 227 228 234 271 272 272 274 VII. AREAS oF SPECIES, BY LATITUDE AND PROVINCES. 1, Austral species, attenuating northward 2. General species, more or less austral . 3. Boreal and Montane species 4, Explanations of the ‘areas of species’ VIII. AurirupEs oF SpPEcIEs. 1. Upper limits on the Grampian mountains . 2. Upper limits in North England Upper limits elsewhere Ow 4, Explanations of the ‘ upper limits’ or Lower limits, and explanations . 282 302 305 312 323 334 343 343 352 CONTENTS. v PAGE IX. Census oR SuMMARIES OF ORDERS. 1. Collective census of orders. : : : . 359 2. Distributive census of orders . c - : : 362 , 3. Climatal census of orders. : A : : 365 ; 4, Explanations of the ‘summaries’ . : : ‘ 367 X. GENERAL REMARKS. 1. Phyto-geographical definitions . ‘ ‘ ; 372 2. On Floral Areas . F 5 : . : : 376 3. Flora of Britain . : : : : 5 : 384 1. Signification of the term ‘flora’. : - 384 2. Geographical Affinities : : : 5 385 3. Number of Species. 3 : c ; 393 4. Proportion of Species to Orders and Genera . 396 5. Numerical value of the Orders. : : 400 4, Vegetation of Britain. . : : : - a 412 5. Inequalities of Distribution,—areas and census. 427 1. Floral Diversities . ; 3 : = Rie 274 2. Distributive Diversities : q , : 431 3. Geographical limits of Species. ; : 435 4. How are the Inequalities to be explained? . 438 6. Local Species : : : : : : 443 7. Relation of Plants to Toned E : - : 446 8. Relation of Plants to Latitude : - . : 453 9. Relation of Plants to Altitude : : : : 460 10. Relation of Plants to Climate : : : ; 471 11. Arrangement into Climatal Zones . : : : 482 12. Arrangement into Types of Distribution , 499 ol PostTscRIPT é : : rca , fe s : 520 Ay Claas ¥ Torro. ty 4 . + ARR PA eS eB Ee) eit? insite ae , Ceaiarate of wiles agar 5 Rit Rat: hake Katha Peat Br \ if ake eas baa nn) Ge igue f2pha ba a lg bis ar ints ¢ “Eas a tt! vith els: Se ce: Sir awe pos Zee tp vif WTae fay sbi kid ae ee og f ie ie wal spb sare Ms = ten Seay phate tes oe ane 1 Ia a3 ae rion ce ene “a oninuipinm ; Ss, ' Corrections, ete. Pages 55 to 56.— The few words connected with the name of Sir Charles Lyell are to be read in the qualified sense attached to them on page 525 of the Postscript. Page 215.—Simethis bicolor “is also said to have been found by a young botanist, near Derrynane, in the county of Kerry [Ireland], and to have been sent to Dr. Harvey for a name.” Eng. Bot. Supp. 2952. Page 359.—The number of European species of Vio- lacez is here entered as 187, instead of 56. The former figure appears in Nyman’s Sylloge, for Cistacee and Violacee united as one order, and it was inadvertently substituted for 56 in checking off the figures by that work. Page 376, line 14.—The figures should be 362 to 364, not 262 to 264. As this error confuses the reply to the query, it should be corrected by the pen. Pages 522 to 523.—In reference to the remarks in the paragraph divided between these two pages. A “report for 1858, on novelties and critical species,” is issued in April, 1859, while this page is in type, by the ‘ Botanical Exchange Club’ of the ‘ Thirsk Natural History Society.’ Half-a-dozen other species (not novelties) are also there reported for provinces or sub-provinces not indicated in their ‘areas, as repeated in this present volume. I. OBSERVATIONS INTRODUCTORY TO THE FOURTH VOLUME OF THE CYBELE BRITANNICA. CysBEte has proved to be a name more uncertain in its pronunciation than was anticipated. A suggestive indi- cation was attempted in the first volume, page 69, by dividing the word into three syllables, thus, Cy-be-le. This was done in order to prevent the very probable mis- pronunciation of the name in two syllables only, with the final vowel mute, and giving length of sound merely to the second syllable, in the usual manner of speaking English names. But, in addition to the objectionable “Si-beel,” four other modes of pronunciation have been current among botanists, which may be exemplified thus :— * Si-bee-lee. Sib-ee-lee. Si-bel-ee. Sib-el-ee.” The Author prefers the last of the four, as best insuring the short sound of the two first syllables; the Latin dictionaries printing the name Cy-be-le with the two first _ vowels marked short. Adopting this mode, the ordinary English pronunciation of the words Cyn-ie and cyn-ic-al may be a guide to the sound of Cyb-el-e. But an intel- ligent friend insists on the middle vowel being made long, as it is sounded when double in the English words VOL. IV. B 2 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. bee and see; not short, as in the words bell and sell. He cites Virgil, in whose hexameters the long pronunciation is clearly required, thus, “ alma Cybele ;” and notwith- standing the short “e” in the original Greek name Kubele. Readers will decide for themselves. Making the first vowel short, and the final vowel long, they may sound the intermediate one long or short as they deem best. It was remarked in volume third, pages 3 and 4, that the three successive volumes of the Cybele Britannica corresponded, by their several dates, with the three suc- cessive editions of The London Catalogue of British Plants and of Babington’s Manual of British Botany. Fourth and Fifth editions of the Catalogue, and a Fourth edition of the Manual, have been since published; and this Fourth volume of the Cybele will accordingly bear some reference to the corresponding later editions of the two works mentioned. For the most part, however, the names of plants used in this fourth volume will be those given in the Index, as printed in the third volume. And contrary to the practice followed in the Manual, the ten- dency of a work such as the Cybele must be towards a combination, rather than towards a severance of uncer- tain species. In subdividing a species which has been long recognized and treated as single, and the notices about which have accordingly been recorded under a single name, it is seldom possible to subdivide also its recorded localities, so as to assign them correctly to the several sub-species. Following the Manual, the British species thus situate would now be reckoned by scores, or even by hundreds. In various instances those subdivi- sions are probably correct; and such “segregate” species will here be adopted and adhered to, — at any rate, so far INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 3 as published records of their localities, or yet unpublished data within reach, will allow of that course ; which is un- fortunately not always practicable. Thus, in his elabo- rate Monograph of the British Hieracia, Mr. James Backhouse has indicated their localities with sufficient copiousness (though doubtless still far from complete- ness) to admit of his segregate species being included in some of the lists printed in an after portion of this volume. In regard to miscellaneous records of localities, and other data of distribution, these have become so ex- | tremely numerous and varied, that no writer on geogra- phical botany can be expected to avoid overlooking some of them. The tables and lists to be given in this volume, with the hosts of facts reduced or generalised into nume- rical figures, may be deemed to bring forward the subject to the end of 1856; most of the calculations having been made or corrected in 1857; the printing being com- menced early in 1858. But the New Series of the Phytologist has been en- tirely left out of use or consideration; because, when the alternative seems to lie between the possible loss of a few good facts, and the reception of them largely commingled with probable errors,—the former appears the wiser risk to take. The want of competent bo- tanical editorship rendered needful the exercise of much caution, enlightened by more exact knowledge, in re- lying upon the promiscuous records in the original series, under the proprietorship of Mr. Newman,—but, it is believed, chiefly left to the editorship of Mr. Luxford. Subsequent changes have now placed the New Series considerably farther out of the pale of scientific autho- rity; that is to say, too far below the class of books which scientific men should venture to quote as reliable. A INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. It is needful to give this explanation of a seeming discre- pancy between the three former volumes of the Cybele Britannica and this present fourth volume. In the for- mer, the Phytologist was recognized and carefully con- sulted up to the dates of printing. In this latter, it is deemed safer to ignore the new series of that Periodical, as now (1855—8) scarcely belonging to the category of scientific publications. A periodical printed for the pur- pose of sale, as a trade speculation, cannot be conducted on the same strict principles as one printed for the pro- motion of science. To unite the two objects, by inter- cepting blunders and twaddle, without repelling subseri- bers, would require a very competent and judicious Editor. So many subjects crowd upon attention in commencing this fourth volume, that it becomes really difficult to answer the questions, as to which of those subjects are to be treated at any length, which of them can be slightly noticed only, and which of them must of necessity be passed over entirely ? References to the works of other writers, where some of his topics are treated in detail, may often greatly assist an author who desires to abbre- viate or curtail. But such assistance would here be vainly sought; no works available in this way being in existence. The Cybele must thus cite and arrange its own details, regarded from the geographic points of view. And indeed only details can have permanent value at present. Attempts at generalisation, so usually made in conformity with the groups of systematic botany, can have extremely little value until those groups are made more settled and uniform. It is to the distribution of species, not of groups, that attention should be given at present ; and especially.so in a local treatise. Hence the resort to lists of species in this volume, as condensed ¥ INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 5 summaries of details, adapted for comparison and re- ference. A flora of 1500 species, real and nominal together, is much too numerous for easy handling, or to allow of de- scriptive details in comparing the vegetation of different divisions of Britain, even considered by itself alone, apart from the rest of the Earth. Suppose that it be sought to compare descriptively the south with the north, the east with the west, the low grounds with the mountains, one province with another, the relative frequency of the va- rious species, the altitudes which they severally attain, &e. &c. In attempting these and other such compari- sons, by ordinary readable descriptions, the multitude of names and objects would become embarrassing in a very high degree. Any attempt to carry out corresponding comparisons between the flora of the British Isles, as a whole, and the floras of other parts of the World, would be quite futile while only a small portion of a single volume could be devoted to such an additional and more extended pur- pose. And it has already been found, as was quite ex- pected indeed, that a contraction into one or two volumes, instead of an expansion into four volumes, would have better suited the purses of those very few, among English botanists, who seek anything more than a petty amateur knowledge of individual species by name and sight. Nor would the subject of British geographical botany be at all nearly exhausted under the two leading divisions above mentioned,—the home and the foreign compari- sons, &c. The flora of the whole Earth, as at present distributed and known, is in itself a fragment only. The flora of one island is a fragment of that present fragment. That which is now seen, whether widely or locally, is the result of countless changes in the past, now most imper- 6 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. fectly understood or traceable; and in turn it is itself still changing, and still advancing to something different for the future. The history of past changes, in so far as those changes tend to explain the present existence and distribution of plants, might be deemed within the proper scope of phyto-geography. ‘But such a history is unwritten as yet for the botany of any country; although some natu- ral records of the past have been brought to light by geological research; and it may also be said, that others of a more recent character are now accumulating in a printed form. Both kinds of records may eventually be rendered available by our successors. But the few phi- losophical botanists in England at the present time, may well regret that printed records of real value have only been commenced so very recently. And the deficiency of reliable records, anterior to very recent dates, seems equally the case with respect to the botany of other countries, as it too truly is the case with respect to that of Britain. If any books had been printed in the times of Gerarde and Ray, or even so late as the earlier career of Hudson and Smith, with objects similar to those of the Cybele Britannica, we might now be in possession of records much more serviceable to geographic botany. Successive accounts of the then actual condition of British vegeta- tion, one and two centuries ago, examined from the same points of view as attempted in this treatise, would have possessed high value and interest in their utility to the science of the present day. And if the reliability of the various records, and the scientific competence and trust- worthiness of the recorders, had been taken into account then, as freely as is done with regard to more recent writers,— for example, in the volumes of this present INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 7 work,—we should have now known far better on what records to rely, and in whose accuracy and fidelity to place our trust. Nor is it at all unlikely, that much consequent im- provement, with increased exactness and truth, would have been introduced into many of the local and general Floras of Britain, which have been subsequently printed ; —rather, perhaps, there would have appeared other and more philosophical writings, instead of several of those Floras. One great benefit would have been found in a more early and decided check, given to that injurious tendency of English botanists, to swell out their local lists by the names of species improperly enumerated among the native plants of their locality; and too usu- ally without any candid or sufficient explanation of the circumstances under which they were observed there. A succeeding generation will see whether the present era is the commencement of better practices. There are not wanting some indications which appear to suggest that itis so. The Collectanea for a Flora of Moray took the lead in rejecting and questioning the introduced spe- cies of its district, on something like a sound and uni- form principle. The Flora of Hertfordshire, and the Supplement to the Flora of Yorkshire, are local examples of advanced views as to the requirements of the topogra- phical department of botanical science. The Manual of British Botany is a decided improvement on its predeces- sors, by the pains-taking care evinced to render it an accurate account of the flora of this country, and to iden- tify correctly its included species with those described in similar works for adjacent countries. Neither ought the treatise by Edward Forbes, on the supposed origin and dates of the present flora of Bri- tain, to be wholly condemned by those who are better 8 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. acquainted with the special facts of vegetable distribution in Britain and Europe, than were the geologists and ge- neral botanists, who unwisely committed themselves to wholesale eulogy of an essay so deceptive and inaccurate. Although blundering and false in its botanical illustra- tions, and perhaps not less untrue in some of its zoologi- cal assertions, that treatise by Edward Forbes may still be allowed to have evinced remarkably suggestive concep- tions of science, larger and more comprehensive than those which have characterised the writings of English botanists, present or past, with extremely few exceptions. There is one part of that treatise which accords. so closely with known facts, otherwise of difficult explana- tion, as to warrant ideas of its possible soundness ; namely, that which connects the mountain floras of Bri- tain and North Europe with the northern drift, and dates these and the mountain floras of Middle Europe from the glacial period. Whether this was honestly his own origi- nal idea, not adopted from the hints of Lyell, it is unne- cessary here to discuss. It seems, indeed, to have been really the basis of the whole treatise; the rest being merely a fanciful superstructure of mere guesswork piled upon it. His three first so-called floras or types were illustrated quite inaccurately; the facts tardily used in illustration being misunderstood and misapplied, so as almost to have become mis-statements, by passing through the remodelling process of their plagiarist, after having been taken without acknowledgment from other and more true observers. Yet there is really a local or geographico-botanical basis for these alleged floras, as rudely put forth by the present writer, many years previously (1836), in his earlier work, the Remarks. But the facts are incorrectly used by Forbes; and if correctly stated, the best of them will INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 9 then not bear out the inferences drawn from them by himself. The primary objection to such inferences is shortly this. The facts are adduced to support the idea of a former continental expansion to the south-westward, the extent of which would necessarily have induced a continental climate; that is, one utterly unsuitable to the existence of those insular and subalpine species of Ericacee and Saxifrage, adapted only to the damp and equable climates in which they now live. Edward Forbes is no more. The Author of this Cybele will soon be the same. But now, on looking back to the Appendix at the end of the First Volume, he _ finds scarcely a word there which he wishes unprinted ; because he fully believes that the manner in which the Essay of Mr. Forbes was got up is correctly stated there; and because its reckless hardihood of assertion, in regard to facts, was eminently calculated to mislead those scientific men, interested in the subject, who were not specially familiar with vegetable distribution in the British Islands and neighbouring portions of the Conti- nent, and also with the climatal adaptations of the spe- cies cited. Without that special familiarity no one can be properly prepared to give a sound opinion in the mat- ter. On this account, when we see a Botanist of the richly merited reputation of Dr. J. D. Hooker, writing of Forbes’s essay in terms of unqualified approval, we should admire his boldness more than his philosophic caution. (See Flora Indica, by Hooker and Thomson, volume first, page 41.) To revert to sober facts, from that digression towards the regions of “ingenious” hypothesis. It has already been explained in volume third, page second, that the Cybele Britannica must be kept within a comparatively yOL. TY, G 10 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. restricted range. The scope of this work must needs be confined to a view of the present vegetation of Britain, and of the manner in which the component species of that vegetation are now distributed within the area of Britain itself; together with such inferences as may be drawn from existing circumstances, in regard to the pro- bable origin of those species here; that is, whether placed in Britain by natural causes, or whether intro- duced by human agency. Such have been the objects in view while bringing together and examining the details about species individually and separately, which are printed in the three former volumes. And the same object will be carried forward in the present volume, by so re-arranging those details (augmented and corrected) as to convert the individual and separated facts into col- lective and comparative expositions. Though it will be but a dry and unreadable manner of recording the infor- mation,—one adapted for reference, rather than for read- ing,—an arrangement of the species into tabular lists seems best suited to effect the purpose in view; and much of this volume will consequently be devoted to such lists. The greatest amount of special and general facts can thus be recorded in a condensed form, under different points of view; and can thus be made ready for the use of Phyto-geographers, whenever the botany of other countries shall become portrayed in like manner. But it will not be until the like arrangements have been made for other countries, that Botanists will clearly comprehend the use and bearings of the Cybele Bri- tannica. No similar works are yet in existence, treating the geographic botany of other countries in like detail and fulness; although there are many treatises of a more general character,—which unfortunately means of a more os ae INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 11 vague character. Those English readers who may desire to see information about the botany of other European countries, which is to some extent of a similar kind, can most readily do so by reading Professor Henfrey’s pleasing volume on The Vegetation of Europe, its Condi- tions and Causes. That book is well written, very read- able, and conveys much information in a small compass. It brings into a single volume an outline of the various treatises in relation to the geographical botany of Europe, written by many different botanists. But as those writers had adopted no uniform method, and scarcely any one work had been planned or penned with reference to the other works, an epitomized juxta-position of their con- tents makes an incongruous total, which insufficiently warrants the very ambitious title bestowed upon his volume by Mr. Henfrey. It would require a Collator or Compiler thoroughly and practically conversant with the subject of geographical botany, to give anything like congruity and connexion to materials in themselves so heterogeneous. The defect thus alluded to may be deemed almost unavoidable, and inherent in the nature of the book. The Author's too frequent omission of references to the works from which he derived his infor- mation (See Cybele, vol. 8, page 517) might be amended in a second edition, if called for; at once improving the usefulness of the book to beginners, and doing somewhat tardy justice to those writers, whose real researches in nature afforded the materials from which it was made. Those botanists who may wish to read and study a complete treatise on phyto-geography, in all its varied bearings, can now resort to the highly elaborate and most valuable work by M. Alphonse De Candolle, pub- lished in 1855,-under title of Geographie Botanique Rai- sonnée. ‘This is truly an exposition of the ‘ Harth’s 12 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. vegetation, its conditions and causes, treated in a masterly manner. Its Author has brought together, arranged, and generalised a vast amount of information bearing on his subject. Nevertheless, it is obvious from the work itself, that the character of its Author’s intellect does partake in some degree of the prevailing peculiarity of the Botanical mind, in not always reasoning with strict accuracy and soundness. M. De Candolle reasons excellently well by comparison and generalisation ; but he seems less able to reason on causation and de- pendence. In attempts of this latter kind, his inferences appear not always warranted by the premises or data from which they are deduced. Still, notwithstanding occasional defects in its ratiocination, against which a cautious reader should be on his guard while using the work, the Geographie Botanique Raisonnée is truly one of a high standard, and doubtless will long be so esteemed. As a shorter exposition of the same general subject, in an English dress, the Class Book of Botany, by Professor Balfour, may be also recommended. The aphorismal Recapitulation on pages 1037—8 is excellently given. It might be difficult to cite any other work in which an out- line of the subject is condensed into a space so brief, as is well done in those two pages. The writings of Hum- boldt, Brown, Meyen, and some others,—valuable enough at their original dates, and according to the slender knowledge of their day,—are of less consequence now through their vagueness and inexactness. But the attractive style of Humboldt’s compositions will long keep his works from becoming obsolete. “ General Remarks” may now almost always be rightly _ construed to mean Vague Remarks or Inexact Remarks. For example, general estimates about the number of spe- cies, or the relative proportions of orders, in distant INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 13 countries very imperfectly examined, equally as general remarks on the distribution of species through lands, not a tenth portion of which has ever been searched, must be highly uncertain through lack of sufficiently complete data. Hence the word “ general,’ when applied to such estimates and remarks, can in truth mean only “ vague” guesses or conjectural approximations. To look homeward for another illustration of this dif- ference. Suppose, first, that one writer mentions certain species as “ British,”—intending only to say that they occur somewhere in Britain, either together or apart, either in one single spot or in two thousand various places, as chance may be. Suppose, again, that a second writer uses the term “ British” to mean that the species to which itis applied are found in all the 18 provinces, or in all the 82 counties, of Britain; also, that he uses more restricting terms (say, “ English, Scottish, Highland, Lancastrian, Perthian,” &c.) to signify a more limited or more local distribution. In the former of these two supposed cases, the term “ British” has only a general meaning ;—that is to say, a vague and inexact meaning. In the latter of the two cases, it has a general meaning also ;— but general in the sense of a generalised and much more precise signification. Various writers on phyto-geography have claimed credit for “ general remarks,” which are in truth only remarks of the most vague and inexact kind. It would be well for the progress of knowledge, if scientific men would more clearly and habitually distinguish between those general remarks which are merely vague, and those which are truly generalisations of facts. The shewy super- ficiality of the former is easily attained, and at small cost of time and thought. True generalisations usually require much time and thought, combined with a scrupulous 14 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. regard to accuracy; and true generalisations are in con- sequence extremely rare. One section (IV) of the present volume will still be de- £ ie iy voted to “general remarks,” in order to prepare the 4, yd, minds of beginners who may use the volume, to under- stand the groupings of details which are to follow those remarks. But as that section, though general, will truly be founded upon elaborated details, the remarks will so far approximate to true generalisations, quite as much as to generalities only. The numerical statements and summaries cannot indeed be put forth as rigidly exact ; but they will be sufficiently near to exactness, to claim acceptance as something more sound than the merely vague generalities here objected against, as being almost useless in science. / a II. ON ORDERS, GENERA, AND SPECIES. 1. What are ‘ Orders’ and ‘ Genera’ ? Tue Puyro-GEoGRAPHER finds grave difficulties placed in his way, at the very outset of his investigations, by the unsettled condition of systematic botany. He is frus- trated in his comparisons by the uncertainties and ine- qualities of the groups, both ordinal and generic; and he is more especially impeded by the variable and discordant views on species, which are so largely evinced in the practices of technical. botanists. For the purpose of instituting comparisons between the vegetation of dif- ferent places, of different countries, of different climates, or of different eras, the Phyto-geographer resorts to the arrangements of systematic botany, and to the descrip- tive nomenclature of technical botanists. He must thus deal with orders, genera, and species, or with similar groupings of plants. What are these? And what does the use or application of such terms truly imply ? Botanical systematists in general cling tenaciously to an idea, that orders and genera are things which have some real existence, as groups in nature, designed and intended by the Creator of Nature. Much apparent ingenuity, too often having the reality of narrow pedan- try, is exhibited in their laboured argumentation, as to whether certain groups are ordinal or sectional, generic 16 ORDERS AND GENERA. or sub-generic, — as to the special character which sepa- rates closely allied orders, —and as to whether certain genera are rightly placed in this or in that order. Mere trifling on the sense of words! The correct answer is, that the groups are ordinal or sectional, generic or sub- generic,— this or that character to be taken as the test of each, —and consequently certain genera to be placed in this or in the other order,— only as the systematists may agree among themselves that they shall be so called, cha- racterised, or assigned ;—not because any such special groupings, and tests, and assignments exist in nature. More reasoning men regard ordinal and generic names simply as so many terms, useful and needful for ex- pressing conventional groupings of plants, according to the kind and closeness of their resemblances, or of some of their resemblances. Doubtless the similarities are facts in nature; and the groups are admitted to be “natural” in proportion as their included plants resemble among themselves, and differ from the excluded plants. But whether their similarities shall be grouped into one hun- dred or into three hundred named orders, — into five thousand or into ten thousand named genera, — or into some intermediate numbers, seems to be almost purely optional and arbitrary with systematists. And further, whether the similitude shall be sought in the flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, stipules, or other parts, is also in great measure arbitrary or optional. The fancy or deci- sion of each single systematist, however, is so much checked and controlled by the fancies or decisions of rival systematists, that the general result becomes con- ventional rather than individually optional. By way of explanatory illustration, it may be remarked, that Jussieu was equally sound and correct in grouping plants into one hundred orders, as is Dr. Lindley in II. ORDERS AND GENERA. 17 adopting three hundred orders for them. The botanist who treats of the single order Caryophyllacee, may be just as correct in doing so, as is another who treats the same plants under the two orders of Silenacee and Alsi- nacee. These two sub-orders are quite as separable from each other, as is the united order, or the latter sub- order, from Illecebracez. So again, it is quite as “ natu- ral” to group all ferns into the one order of Filices, as it is to separate them into Polypodiacee, Hymenophyllacce, Ophioglossacee, &c. And in respect to generic groupings, those of Linneus were in the main equally good and natural, as are the more numerous genera into which they have been gradu- ally subdivided by his successors. In example, the Lin- nean genus Scirpus was fully as natural, as is its modern subdivision into Eleocharis and Scirpus; which by a single obscure character severs in twain the more natural section of single-spiked species, only part of which have the special character of style, by which Eleocharis is arbitrarily separated from Scirpus in books. The fact seems to be, that Nature is not a series of groups, but a series of gradations. It is Man who clas-. sifies the gradations into groups by severing the series at various steps. Thus, orders and genera ought logically to be regarded only as the conventional arrangements of human knowledge about plants,—as matters of books and herbariums, not things of Divine conception. Yet they are at any rate intended to classify and express the facts of nature, if itis done only by dissevering a series or chain at those points where the links are widest or least coherent, — where Nature is least continuous or gradual. So far as they do effect that intent they cannot be purely optional in their quality, however wide and variable may be the choice as to their quantity. And it VOL. IV. D 18 II, ORDERS AND GENERA. may be conceded by those who are least of slaves to the trammels of system-making, that botanical arrangements in books do bear an accordance with the realities of na- ture. Yet that accordance is imperfect and partial. In many received groups some widely dissimilar plants are brought together by very partial resemblances; and, in other instances, certain closely similar plants are thrown into different groups by single or partial differences. So to express this circumstance,—if we look inside the boundaries of one order, we there find heterogeneous constituents ;—if we look at the conterminous boundaries of allied orders, we find them separating homogeneous ingredients. The same is true in respect of genera. The example of Eleocharis, above cited, is an instance of a natural group split by an arbitrary character, so as to throw ho- mogeneous species into different genera; for Hleocharis multicaulis much more closely resembles Scirpus pauci- florus, than this latter resembles Scirpus sylvaticus ; and so with other species. But as genera are minor and sub- ordinate groups, which can be divided and subdivided to almost any extent, short of splitting species in so doing, the examples of heterogeneous species brought under the same generic name, are not so decided as those of hete- rogeneous genera placed in the same order. Indeed, this kind of evidence, as to the optional or arbitrary cha- racter of generic groups, might almost disappear under the modern practice of increasing generic divisions at will, —reconverting the groups into gradations, — were it not kept up to some extent by a peculiarity of generic groups, which does not equally belong to orders and species. It is customary with writers on elementary botany, to represent genera as groups intermediate between orders II. ORDERS AND GENERA. 19 _and species; genera being smaller groups than orders, and composed of more closely allied species. This ex- planation may be regarded as true in the main. But it is also true, that genera are groups formed on a different principle from orders and species. They are dissimilar in kind as well as in degree. In combining individuals or varieties into species, the whole plant and all its parts are considered; and more than this, differences of dura- tion and texture, as annual or perennial, herbaceous or ligneous, are also taken into account. But in grouping species into genera, another rule is usually well adhered to; that of looking for generic characters solely in the structure of the flowers and fruit. Genera are thus con- stituted on more partial and eclectic characters than are species. But when these genera, — or, rather, their included species,—are to be grouped into orders, a widened choice of characters is resorted to; not so wide as in the case of species, but much wider than in the case of genera. For example, the presence or absence of sti- pules, the alternate or verticillate disposition of the leaves, their venation and other peculiarities, the angu- lar or terete form of the stem, &c. &c., are occasionally resorted to as ordinal characters, though not used as generic characters. It is thus clear that orders, genera, and species are not strictly major and minor groups of plants, formed on uniform principles, but groups constituted on varying principles. The uniformity would be more close if the characters of orders were taken from the reproductive organs only, — or if genera had been formed and defined on more extended characters, truly intermediate between those looked to for orders and species respectively. And for the purposes of geographic botany, it is inconvenient that genera are not thus instituted on characters drawn 20 Il. ORDERS AND GENERA. from the general plant, as well as from the flowers and fruit, or even in preference to the flowers and fruit. Had the genera continued to be so instituted,—as was the case before the sexual system of Linneus fixed attention so exclusively on the flowers,—the ordinal groups of the present time would probably have differed considerably from those now adopted by systematists, and in such case might likely enough have been found more in accordance with geographic groups. But the inconveniences which most interfere with the investigations of the Phyto-geographer, in present ar- rangements about orders and genera, do not arise much from a want of naturalness; that is, from want of suffi- ciently close resemblances between the included plants, or from too slight differences between the included and excluded plants. Nor do they arise very much from the want of uniformity in the principles upon which orders | and genera—the major and minor groups—are consti- tuted. They are found chiefly in the want of greater uniformity of “value” among the groups to which the same abstract term is applied. Botanico - statistical comparisons between different countries, and more especially between dissimilar cli- mates, are very usually attempted by reckoning the pro- portions of orders, or the numbers of their included species. Yet such comparisons eannot be satisfactorily made by reference to ordinal groups, unless these groups themselves are formed on some uniform principle, so as to render them equivalents of each other in character or structure. At present this appears to be impracticable ; for the best systematists fail in the attempt. Perhaps the best approximation yet made towards the desiderated uniformity, is seen in the “ Alliances” of Dr. Lindley. Yet those alliances do appear forced and arbitrary in Il. ORDERS AND GENERA. ah various instances. And in truth they are only varied re- combinations, substituted for the subdivisions of other systematists. Examples may give a better conception of what is here intended, in saying that the orders of botanical systema- tists are not formed on uniform principles, and are not sufficiently co-equivalents to meet the wants of the Phyto- geographer, by giving precision and clearness to his com- parisons founded upon such groups. With this object, some examples of non-uniformity and non-equivalence of orders may be cited here, and selected by preference from those represented in Britain. In the following series the names which are printed on the same line may be consi- dered to represent nearly equivalent groups, and such as are formed on a somewhat uniform principle. But the names placed in different lines,—especially in contrasting those placed in different lines not immediately succeeding each other,—certainly represent groups which have not been formed on uniform principles, and which are not equivalents of each other. . Filices. Gramina. Cyperoides. . Composite. Crucifere. Umbellifere. . Rosacere. Ericacee. Liliacee. . Boraginacee. Primulacee. Gentianacee. . Galiacee. Valerianacez. Dipsacez. . Pinguiculacee. Plantaginacee. Typhacee. . Ceratophyllacee. Callitrichacee. Elatinacee. Ioaork OO WD Looking to the three several orders named in the first line, their included plants present decided and conspi- cuous characters, by which the plants of the same order resemble each other, and by which they may be dis- tinguished from the plants of all other orders. The 22 II. ORDERS AND GENERA. youngest student of botany soon learns to distinguish Ferns, Grasses, and Sedges from all other plants. The Filices may be said to stand out more prominently in such respects than the other two groups. The Gramina and Cyperoides not only have much closer affinities with each other, but may perhaps also be said to have closer affinities with some other plants not included in either order. The illustration sought by the names in that first line would have been more perfect by substituting Palmi in place of Cyperoides ; it being wished there to avoid the misleading influence of a generic name, as if implying that the plants are grouped together because all the rest resemble some typical genus, as Cyperus or Carex (“ Sedges.”) In the second line we have three other well charac- terised orders. Their included plants resemble each other in several decided characters; and they are also distinguishable from all other plants by the same, or by some of the same characters. They differ, however, from the three first-named orders, by their connecting and diagnostic characters being almost restricted to the inflo- rescence and its parts; not pervading the plant so gene- rally as is the case with those of the three former orders. Of none of these six groups can it be properly said, that they constitute orders of themselves because their included genera imbricate around one central genus, on the plan of which they are all formed, with gradually increasing or varying divergencies. In looking at Asple- nium, Osmunda, and Hymenophyllum, for instance, we see wide differences between the genera of a very “natural” group. And to those botanists who love to select typical genera, and to fancy the rest arranged around them, those differences should suggest several such types among Fi/i- ces, rather than a single central type for all. So likewise TI. ORDERS AND GENERA. 23 with respect to the Composite, the genera Carduus, Hie- racium, and Senecio rather suggest sudivisions within the order, than relations simply to a single centre or type. In the third line we have three orders which offer no very decided characters, sufficing to connect their in- cluded plants well together, and equally serving to sepa- rate them from all other the excluded plants. They have usually been regarded as peculiar groups by technical botanists; but the limits of these groups have greatly varied. Rosacee have either included with themselves or excluded the Prunacee, Pyracee, and Sanguisorbacee. In like manner, the Hricacee have included or excluded the Vacciniacee, Pyrolacee, and Monotropacee. And the inclusive or exclusive limits of the Liliacee have been considerably varied according to the fancies of individual systematists. And though certain genera are selected to give names to the orders, the selection seems to be made rather because those genera and their names are them- selves familiar, than because the rest of the genera bear any special resemblance to them more than to each other. The first of the three orders, indeed, might be made into a better designated group by treating Potentilla or Coma- rum as the typical genus, and holding Rosa an aberrant genus,—one almost equally adapted to constitute another ordinal group, as in the case of Pyrus or Prunus with their congeners. The principle of a typical genus becomes more clear and complete in the groups named in the fourth and fifth lines; although, for the first and last of those six orders, the genera Lithospermum and Scabiosa would seem more appropriate types, than are those of Borago and Dipsacus. These six orders may be held “natural,” inasmuch as their included plants have much general resemblance among themselves. But they are separable from some 24 Il. ORDERS AND GENERA. other orders rather by small and few technical distine- tions, than by any very decided characters. They are in fact groups bearing an intermediate value between genera, on the one hand, and well-marked assemblages such as Filices, Gramina, or Palmi, on the other hand. Looking to Britain only, the orders named in the sixth line may be described as three pairs of genera, which are tied together passably well by mutual resemblance; but which cannot be so closely tied to any other orders, and are therefore treated as orders of themselves. When we look beyond Britain, they gain little accession of generic numbers; the T'yphacee none at all. They are not orders constituted by a central type, to which a number of other genera stand in more or less close affinity, but always more similar to the type than to anything else. Typha and Sparganium are co-equals; and it would be mere caprice to affirm that either one is the typical genus of its order, from which the other is an aberrant genus. In the seventh line, three very small groups are named. The two first of these are merely single genera which now stand as orders by themselves. Systematists have en- deavoured to combine them into an ordinal group with other genera; as, for example, with Myriophyllum and Hippuris, and also some foreign genera, forming together a very heterogeneous assemblage in proportion to their numbers. The genus Hlatine, though the only represen- tative of its order in Britain, is not so in the general sys- tem; some other inconspicuous foreign genera being united with it, to constitute the order Elatinacee. We must thus look upon only the two first of the three sroups as being really single genera, which are called orders of themselves because botanists are at a loss what else to do with them in systematic groupings. The twenty-one orders thus selected for illustration, II. ORDERS AND GENERA. 25 may fairly be considered to represent the whole series, with reference to the principles on which they are insti- tuted. They plainly show that the same term ‘ Order’ is used to designate groups which are in no sense on an equality with each other. The ordinal groups of syste- matic botany are as much non-equivalents in their dis- tinctive structure or characters, as they are unequal in numbers and diffusion. They are groups of twenty or fifty grades, co-equal with genera at one end of the scale, while far above genera at the other end of the series. Filices and Pingwiculacee, or Gramina and Callitrichacee, are surely groups which ought not to be placed on a par by the same designation of “natural order.” It would be a juster view of nature, to put Filices and Carices, or Gramina and Rubi, on the same level of rank. Similar remarks might be extended to genera. A\I- though genera have been formed on a more uniform plan than orders, for reasons before adverted to, even these groups are not co-equal or co-equivalents. The species of the great and diversified Linnean genera Erica and Euphorbia (the view must here stretch beyond Britain) are surely kept together on some principle very different © from that which has been practically acted upon in the subdivisions of genera among the Crucifere and Umbel- lifere. And if we compare together Ranunculus aquatilis, R. acris, and R. Ficaria, — or Saxifraga umbrosa, S. op- positifolia, and S. hypnoides, we see differences between these species that are stronger than those traceable be- tween the genera Brassica and Sinapis, or Carum and Bunium, or Crepis and Hieraciwm, or Aster and Erigeron. In comparing the vegetation of different countries, or of different climates, Phyto-geographers occasionally seem to attach much importance to the number of orders or VOL. IV. E 26 Il. ORDERS AND GENERA. genera, and to the average number of species in an order; as if such numbers and averages expressed some real knowledge regarding the peculiarities of their vegetation. But such comparisons are vitiated and almost valueless when made by numerical figures only. The absence of one single well-defined order, in any one country, or at any given altitude, might imply more real peculiarity in its vegetation, than the absence of a score or two of other orders, such as approximate to generic groups by the paucity or the pettiness of their distinctive characters, as well as by the inferior numbers of their included species. The vegetation of an island or a mountain,. from which the three first-mentioned orders (page 21) were quite ab- sent,—namely, Filices, Gramina, Cyperoides,—would dif- fer immensely more from the average vegetation of the Earth, than would that of another island or another mountain, from which only the three last-mentioned orders were absent, — namely, Ceratophyllacee, Callitri- chacee, Elatinacee. The total absence of a score of such orders as these latter three would be less note- worthy than the absence of any one of the first-named trio. So likewise, it may be said, a tract of country in which the Gramina were wanting, and their place sup- plied by Composite, would be a far more remarkable bo- tanical province, than would be any similar tract, in which the Gentianacee were wanting, and their place supphed by Primulacee. But within the restricted area of Britain we need give little present attention to the fallacies that arise from statistical comparisons based on orders or genera. Ex- cept in the direction of altitude, and of climate as varied by altitude, the differences of vegetation must be described here by species, rather than by generic or ordinal groups; although no doubt several genera, and Il, WHAT IS A SPECIES ? : 27 even a few orders, might be cited as aiding to distinguish the vegetation of Southern England from that of Northern Scotland, by their presence in the former, and absence in the latter. Still, some of the smallest “natural orders,” and those least conspicuously distinguished from their allied orders, are as widely spread through the island in the horizontal direction, as are the largest and most clearly distinct. Thus Pinguiculacee and Callitrichacee extend through the length and breadth of Britain, equally as Filices and Gramina. But this is only a more general or less precise manner of stating the fact, that some spe- cies are thus widely extended. And uncertain as species may appéar to be on rigid inquiry, the Phyto-geographer must nevertheless treat them as definite realities, or cease his investigations. On the subject of systematic classification, its grades and inequalities, the views of Mr. Bentham are strongly recommended to the consideration of botanists. His clear-sighted ‘“‘ Memorandum on the principles of generic nomenclature” may be seen in the ‘Journal of the Lin- nean Society, —vol. ii. no. 5, June 1857, pages 31, &c. 2. What is a ‘ Species’ ? It has been contended that Orders and Genera are things of human invention, not of Divine conception ;— that they exist only in books and herbariums, not in na- ture; that they are simply terms to express the ideas of systematists, in regard to the resemblances between plants ; —that the number of such groups, and the lines of demarcation between them, are conventional in prac- tice, not fixed in nature ;— and that in associating plants 28 Il. WHAT IS A SPECIES ? into orders and genera, the groups thus formed by bota- nists are in no sense equivalents of each other, either structurally or numerically, although designated by the same term. Have botanical Species an existence in nature more real and definite than the groups above named? Per- haps without exception every technical botanist will affirm that species have such an existence ; that they are realities in nature, as definite and distinct in their way as the Man and the Chimpanzee, or the Tiger and the Lion, are believed to be by ordinary observers. But technical botanists, —that is to say, describers of genera and spe- cies,—are seldom profound reasoners; and those cultiva- tors of science, who wish to have sound reasons for the faith that is in them, will do better by examining the practices, than by accepting the opinions of the mere describers of species, so many of whom are unequal to any higher object in science. Two questions are involved in an inquiry as to the reality of species. It may first be asked, whether species do actually exist in nature? And secondly comes the inquiry, whether botanists know the species so existing, or supposed to exist? Although essentially distinct in kind, the two queries are practically inseparable. We cannot reply to the first question positively and logically in the affirmative, unless we can also answer the second question positively and certainly. The only certainty that species do exist in nature, definite and distinct from each other, must be derived through our knowledge of them as true species. Ifit should appear, on rigorous investigation, that we do not know such and such assem- blages of individuals to be species, according to our ab- stract definition of the term species; but that we only infer from incomplete data and proofs that they are so; i ps Il. WHAT IS A SPECIES ? 29 —then, it seems quite logically to follow, that the existence of species in nature is equally an inference or supposition, and not a certain fact, so far as human knowledge yet reaches. This appears to be the actual condition of technical botany. The existence of real species, according to a ‘strict definition of the term, has not been fully and logi- cally proved. But it is assumed and believed to be a truth, because the arguments advanced in support of the previously assumed truth, under present knowledge, ap- pear to be more weighty, and more nearly conclusive, than any which are adduced against the belief. It may be said further, that such arguments appear thus weighty and conclusive, not solely to the unreasoning minds of the mere describers of species, but also to the minds of many highly reasoning men. Though the latter, be it here observed, are not usually adepts in the knowledge of species so-called; and they must thus rely rather too much upon the representations of the species-men, for the data from which their conclusions or convictions are deduced. Now, what do we truly intend by this slippery term Species? In the ‘Geographie Botanique,’ after passing under notice various other definitions, M. Alphonse De Candolle substitutes for them the following one, as his own suggested modification. It is here rather freely than literally rendered in English. He writes,— “T admit vegetable species as they present themselves in our own time, and with data from observation during some ages only, that is to say, as groups of individuals with sufficient mutual resemblance, — (jirstly) to have in common numerous and important characters, which are permanent during several generations, under the influence 30 Il. WHAT IS A SPECIES ? of varied circumstances ;—(secondly) if they have flowers, fertilising easily among themselves, and producing seeds most usually fertile ;— (thirdly) being affected by tempe- rature and other external agents in a similar or nearly similar manner ;—( fowrthly) in short, resembling as plants of analogous structure, known certainly to have descended from a common stock for many generations.” It is truly much easier to find objections against this and other definitions of the term species, than to invent a better. That which meets the views of one botanist, may ill suit the ideas of another. Such discrepancies seem to be inevitable; arising, as doubtless they do, from the natural dissimilarities which are so usually to be detected between the intellectual characters of different writers. Some men are more prone to abstract reasoning; others are more fitted for physical observation. Among bota- nists there is a large preponderance of the simple ob- servers over the sound reasoners; far more of them merely observe and compare visible facts; far fewer of them are competent to deduce correct inferences from observed facts. It is needful to point attention to these mental dif- ferences between botanists; because not afew of them evidently imagine that they derive some right or qualifi- cation to pronounce dogmatic opinions in matters of ratiocination, on the ground of being good technical de- seribers or good systematic classifiers. Whereas, it often happens, that the peculiar mental bias which adapts them to shine in either of the latter departments, is precisely one which disqualifies them for correct reasoning. So frequently is this the case, that we might hold it a rule, to which the exceptions are very few, that a good techni- cal botanist is a shallow reasoner. Perhaps no definition of the term species can be framed, _—— Il. WHAT IS A SPECIES ? 81 which will prove acceptable to both classes of mind,— acceptable alike to the technical observers and to the logical reasoners. The definition given by M. De Can- dolle is to some extent incomplete and even objectionable. The first portion of it alludes only to resemblances be- tween the individuals, which in their aggregate are deemed to compose the species; and it ignores their differences from other species or groups of individuals, which always enter largely into the practical conception of the species. Secondly, as it is admitted that nearly allied species, and also species of nearly allied genera (which ought to mean, species less nearly allied) can mutually fertilize and pro- duce fertile seeds, the test of fertility must be deemed so far uncertain. It is thus imperfectly available, and even occasionally deceptive, as a diagnostic test. The third is a physiological character, equally or more variable and exceptional than that of cross-breeding; and it is one which would occasionally separate varieties or garden races more decidedly than species. The fourth is an analogical summary of the others, rather than any addi- tional character. A somewhat different definition will in consequence here be substituted, or one somewhat differently ex- pressed. Although it is allowed to be not much more than a qualified expansion of the first portion of that proposed by M. De Candolle, it appears to be more ap- plicable to the actual practices of botanical systematists and describers, and to be at the same time more closely accordant with the abstract or ratiocinative idea of a spe- cies. The definition will run thus :-— A botanical species is a collective aggregate of indivi- dual plants, closely resembling each other (jirstly) in having certain definable characters, common to all of them, by which any of them may be recognised, and by 32 Il. WHAT IS A SPECIES ? some of which they may be distinguished from any other plants ;—(secondly) the same characters being repeated in their descendants, during successive generations, for a protracted and indefinite time ; — (thirdly) the individuals not being always strictly alike; but such variations as do occur, being apparently inconstant and reconvertible ; that is, either known to be so from observation, or inferred to be so from analogy. This definition seems to include all that is constant and essential in the mental idea of a species; namely, mutual resemblance, alienal distinctness, reproduction, reconversion, and permanence; this latter word being taken in the sense of lengthened or indefinite (but not perpetual) duration. The definition does not abso- lutely exclude (nor is it wished to exclude) the possibility of an eventual mutation or transition or extinction of present species. The inconstancy of varieties, and their reconvertibility to the typical forms, have as yet been well observed only for a very short period, or for a-few generations of very few species. We know not how long or how exceptionless this reconvertibility has been. As an alleged fact, it is far more usually inferred or sup- posed, than actually ascertained by an examination suffi- ciently exact and continued. The limits of most species, if not those of all species, and the extent and endurance of their varieties, ought to be considered by sound rea- soners as still unfixed, still unascertained. Looking to this uncertainty, and by way of practical guide towards distinguishing between true and false species, perhaps the leading tests against the latter ought to be added to any explanatory definition of the former. A false species (variation, variety, race) is negatived (firstly) by its direct reconversion into another apparent species, either under the same or under different external Il. WHAT IS A SPECIES ? 33 circumstances ; — (secondly) by the production of another species from its seeds, either at once, or more gradually in course of several descents ; — (thirdly) by tracing its intimate connexion with another species through inter- mediate varieties, in which any differential characters be- come lost or blended ;— or ( fourthly) by the absence of permanent differences, sufficiently clear and strong (“im- portant’) to serve for written diagnosis. Botanists appear to be theoretically agreed as to the two first of these four tests of a false species. If they do not always practically concur, it seems not to arise from any diversity of view as to the principle, but from dif- ferent estimates of the evidence adduced in proof of re-conversion or of re-production. The third test is less generally allowed in practice; several botanists evincing much inclination to look upon such intermediate forms simply as the approximating varieties of one or other of the two alleged species, and not as truly constituting links of connexion between them; or, otherwise, they group the intermediates together as a third species, dis- tinct from both; or, if close-driven, they make a guess at hybridity, and call this guess an explanation. On the fourth test there is little unanimity of view, in respect to the kind or to the amount of difference which justifies a separation, or in respect to the closeness of resemblance which should compel combination. Scores, perhaps even hundreds, of examples might be cited from the flora of Britain alone, in illustration of this want of unanimity in respect to the sufficing characters of proposed species. The fourth test, indeed, is commonly nothing better in practice than the caprice or conjecture of the individual botanist. Between a Joseph Hooker and a Jordan the diversity of view is very wide, on the question as to what kind or quantity of difference should be held sufficient to VOL. IV. FP 84 Il. WHAT IS A SPECIES ? divide plants into species. If the latter could extend his views and practice over the whole vegetable world, he would probably reckon up five or ten times the number of species, that would be sanctioned and believed in by the former able systematist. And turning to minor luminaries, the differences between a Bromfield and a Babington, in respect to species and varieties among British plants, would probably have been equivalent to ten per cent., if not to twenty per cent., of the whole flora of the British Islands. And yet it may be, that those two observant English botanists would have closely concurred in their abstract ideas and definitions of the term species. Definitions and tests about species, indeed, are more frequently admitted in theory than adhered to in practice. The prevailing custom with botanical describers, espe- cially the more local describers, is that of looking out almost exclusively for differences, by aid of which the plants can plausibly be described as true species. They do not group individuals into species;—they separate them into species. Small botanists who can achieve nothing higher in science, make haste to name specifi- cally, and to describe accordingly, every or any form which they happen to meet with; doing this seemingly on the chance that it may turn out to be a species, and that they may thus gain the credit of a discovery. Sen- sible of the injurious consequences from such practices, a recent reviewer of De Candolle’s ‘ Geographie Botanique’ thus concludes his well-penned article :— “Systematic botany, which it has been the fashion of late years to hold in so much contempt, is nevertheless the groundwork upon which the correctness of the specu- lations of the physiologist and geographical botanist must mainly depend. But the-botanist who devotes himself to Il. UNCERTAINTY OF SPECIES. 35 it, should always bear in mind that it consists not in the technical description of specimens, but in the due appre- ciation of species and affinities; that he who demon- strates a fact such as the specific identity of two plants hitherto believed to be distinct, or the affinities of an ob- secure vegetable, renders a far greater service to science than he who discovers, describes, or invents any number of supposed species.” (Edinburgh Review, October, 1856.) 3. Uncertainty of Species. Of the species described in systematic works probably not one in a hundred, perhaps not one in a thousand, has ever been subjected to any crucial test of its distinctness and permanence; for instance, that of sufficiently re- peated reproduction through seeds, under circumstances well adapted for trying its constancy. Numbers of them have been originally named and described from very few individual specimens, brought home by travellers, who likely never looked for intermediate and connecting varieties, and seldom attempted to raise them afresh from seeds, through a series of descents, either at home or in the native lands of the presumed species. It is not a very rare practice, indeed, to found species upon a soli- tary specimen or two, or even upon a single fragment of a plant; so that difference from other plants, whether slight or strong, is thus practically made the sole crite- rion of a species; and without ascertaining whether its differences will prove casual or permanent. When specimens are collected in distant countries, and brought home for description, the arrangement of them into species must unavoidably be done in accord- ance with. the resemblances or differences between few 36 Il. UNCERTAINTY OF SPECIES. individuals; and the species thus resolved upon must often be described from incomplete series of specimens. It would be a worse alternative for science, not to name and describe them at all. Unfortunately, the procedure which is thus unavoid- able with respect to the plants of distant countries, or of lands seldom visited by scientific collectors, has become the routine practice with local describers also; men whose opportunities might be rendered greatly superior, if their truth-seeking industry were anywise equal to their name- seeking vanity. Among the so-called species of the Bri- tish Islands, we find that some have been described and named from single individuals, and many others from specimens far too few and incomplete for certainty. In short, it must be admitted by all truthful and logical bo- tanists, that in a vast many instances the reputed species of plants, which are enumerated and described in syste- matic works, have not been subjected to any sufficiently ample tests of their distinctness and permanence as true species. Even the greater number of British species have either not been thus tested at all, or have been examined and tried very incompletely under this point of view. They have been named and described, or they are adopted and continued as species, much more usually be- cause they are not known to be otherwise, than because anybody has ever tested and proved them to be real spe- cies; that is to say, fully coming up to the definition of a true species, and bearing the tests of a false species. The few botanists who do occasionally endeavour to apply the before-mentioned tests to any proposed new species, are usually denounced as rude and insulting, by the botanist who (to use the language of the Reviewer quoted on page 34) has “invented the species” or has made “a technical description of the specimens.” Il. UNCERTAINTY OF SPECIES. 387 With a disclaimer of any wish to give just cause for offence, and a denial of the right in any one to take offence because his published doings are subjected to published comment, recourse shall here be had to a very recent example of species-making, in illustration of the practice objected against. Comparing the third and fourth editions of the ‘Manual of British Botany’ (1851 and 1856), we find in the latter a novel species of Ranwn- culus or Batrachium, described under the name of R. jlo- ribundus (Bab.), and a novel species of Arctwm under name of A. pubens (Bab.) Let it be assumed or admitted as a fact, that since the date of the third edition of the Manual, published in 1851, its Author has discovered some clear characters by which individual plants of these two alleged species can be recognized as of the same spe- cies, and by which they can also be satisfactorily dis- tinguished from all other species. Now, may it not reasonably be inquired, in respect of these alleged species, —How many generations have been seen by Mr. Babington or any other botanist, known to have descended from seeds of the same individual plant or plants ? — Whether they have regularly reproduced their own likeness for any considerable number of gene- rations ?—Whether any varieties have been looked for and found, or raised from seeds ?—And if so, whether these varieties have again been converted into the origi- nal types, by reproduction or otherwise? If the “inven- tor”’ (the Reviewer's term) of those species cannot answer these questions, in such manner as to show that the plants are true species, it must be clear that he does not know the Ranunculus floribundus and Arctium pubens to be true species; and that he only guesses them to be so on some analogy, actual or imaginary, with other sup- posed species. In short, observing that certain indivi- 38 Il. UNCERTAINTY OF SPECIES. dual specimens of Ranunculus and Arctium differ in some degree from other specimens, Mr. Babington forthwith assumes that they will have all the other characters of true species, organic and physiological; and he becomes their baptismal sponsor that they now have, and that their descendants also shall have, such characters. Un- fortunately, quasi-species do not always fulfil the pro- mises made for them by their sponsors. Another illustration may be borrowed from the same botanist. A few specimens (was there truly more than one ?) among those hitherto designated by the name of Dryas octopetala, are found to resemble each other, and to differ from the rest of the.examples of D. octopetala, in having the base of the calyx less convex and the sepals somewhat broader, — differences so slight as to have escaped the regard of all botanists down to the year (say) 1840, if they were then more than a very temporary and recent variation. Therefore, these one or few speci- mens, found on’a single hill in Ireland, and any others that may hereafter be found like them, are to be re- named Dryas depressa,— cannot lose their slightly dis- tinguishing peculiarities,— are the unchanged descend- ants of predecessors for centuries of years back,—will reproduce their own like for centuries of years to come, —and if any of their own descendants shall be anywise different, those diiferences will not be perpetuated, but will disappear again in the descendants of the changed plants, if not in the individual plants themselves. All these inferences or mere suppositions do seem to be by no means necessary consequences of a trifling dif- ference in the calyx between the specimens of Dryas from Ben Bulben and those from other hills; more espe- cially so, since the same form of calyx has been subse- quently sought in plants on the same hill without success Il. UNCERTAINTY OF SPECIES. 39 by another botanist, Mr. Andrews. And yet this is prac- tically the reasoning of botanists who thus “raise varie- ties to the rank of species.”” Because one or few speci- mens are found to differ from the rest in two very trivial peculiarities of form,—therefore they have also all the permanent and physiological peculiarities which are be- lieved to divide species. Surely, this cannot be regarded as logic of the highest quality ! It is not here insinuated that the practice of thus guessing species on very imperfect grounds, rather than seeking to know them by experimental observation, is anywise peculiar to the learned Author of the Manual of British Botany. On the contrary, he acts in this wise only after the fashion of most other technical descri- bers. His Manual is resorted to because it affords very recent examples, specially appertaining to the flora of Britain ; and which are thus more apposite illustra- tions than any of the quasi-species proposed in other countries, or at older dates in this country. It can readily be shown that the practice of inventing or adopting book species, which may or may not be recog- nized eventually as natural species, is no new practice with British writers. The uncertainty and variability in the numbers of species, at different dates and in different books, may be cited in evidence that book species and natural species are not at all identical, assuming the latter to have a real or proved existence. Perhaps the tabular and numerical form may best serve to illustrate the wide diversities of view as to spe- cies, prevalent among the botanists who have published Floras of the British Islands within the last half-century or alittle more. The number of species into which the several Authors have divided some of the larger genera, is indicated opposite their names in the subjoined list; 40 Il. UNCERTAINTY OF SPECIES. changes in the genus, under which any given species was placed, being allowed for in reckoning the number of species. The corresponding allowance, towards reduc- tion of numerical discrepancies, could not be so satisfac- torily made in the case of added species; because it -is occasionally too difficult to decide whether an Author was unacquainted with the “species,” since described as novelties by his successors, or whether he had regarded them simply as unimportant varieties of those which were described by himself. Such editions of the works as happen to be at hand are here used, and are identified by their dates. Varying number of Species. Rubus. Salix. Hiera- Potamo- Saxi- Poa, L. cium. geton. _ fraga. Withering, 1796 . 6 22 10 11 11 14 Hudson, 1798 5 18 7 12 10 14 Smith, 1800 .... 7 45 10 10 14 15 Withering, 1812 . 7 48 13 13 15 16 Smith, 1818 5 8 56 16 12 20 15 Gray, 1821...... 8 56 16 14 25 21 Smith, 1828 ..... 14 64 16 13 25 15 Hooker, 1835.... 13 Tf 18 15 21 14 Lindley, 1835.... 21 29 17 12 24 15 Hooker, 1842.... 14 70 13 17 16 15 Babington, 18438 . 24 57 19 19 20 20 Arnott, 1850 .... 5 37 18 18 16 16 Babington, 1856 . 41 32 33 21 20 21 Thus, whether we compare together different Authors, publishing at nearly the same dates, or the same Author, publishing at different dates, it is seen that much discre- pancy existed in their ideas of species. But a further contrast between the varying views of the same Author, at short intervals, may even more clearly show how uncertain still are the practical ideas about species, as Ii. UNCERTAINTY OF SPECIES. Al put forth by technical botanists, whose business it should be to know species, but who too often only describe plants. Of late years it has been made compulsory on Students of Medicine to acquire a smattering of botany, although useless to them as medical practitioners. From this hardship imposed on the students some benefit has accrued to the purses of professional botanists. Among other ways, it has caused a considerable demand for such Floras and other elementary works as are adapted for class-books in the lecture-room, and are portable in the field. Hence there have been new editions, in rapid succession, of Hooker’s British Flora and Babington’s Manual of British Botany; and the latter work will afford a suitable illustration, bearing on the uncertainty of species in books. Four successive editions of the Manual, to appearance each one carefully revised by the Author, have been pub- lished in about a dozen years. The Author of the Manual may be said to know the special botany of the British Islands far more completely and critically, than it is known either by the first Author or recent Editor (Dr. Arnott, editions 6 and 7) of the British Flora. On this account the four successive editions of the Manual,— dated in 1843, 1847, 1851, 1856,—may afford a good cri- terion and example of the uncertainty of species, by a selection of several genera and generic sections which are differently divided into species in the various editions. (See the subjoined list, on the following page). In this list the genera are so placed as to bring into view the fact, that the changes are not in one direction only, but in the two opposite directions of increase and decrease in the numbers of the species; further, that you. Iy. G 42 II. UNCERTAINTY OF SPECIES. both kinds of change occur both in large and in small genera. Number of Species at different dates. 1843. 1847, 185]. 1856, AIO EHAR Hoc e OCOD 24 36 43 41 SSMU crete ween ter orchec aleve 57 58 33 31 HEF ACITID, «cise, < a <5 oF 6 19 21 27 33 Garant es. PO 15 15 14 17 Atripler’y si) dlrs sails é 10 11 9 9 Epilobium .....:.... 10 10 in 12 BateachiUntS \..-, «+ \aje 4 5 7 12 PATO WUTANE ro s9/a4s\ iii Siar 2 2 2 5 Ulinaise Se ae me 7 2 2 TST) > teers Sch Oo 38 3 5 5 Cerastium: 2.) 2.2% cae 9 9 8 8 Igsisim@h ben gnags 350 6 8 8 8 QUELCUS) case cts cic 3 3 1 1 TWEE TOL Sonnenoangos 3 3 4 4 Uirtiler: .serenistien: divias 4 4 3 3 Sparganium ........ 3 3 4 4 Barbarea......+..e- 4 3 3 3 Polystichum ........ 2 3 3 3 Pyrethrum 2. «6 3 3 3 2 Glyceria .........5.. 2 3 3 3 Facts such as are shown in the two lists, ought to con- vince any reasoning man who may hitherto have imagined Species to be things fixed and certain in nature, that nevertheless down to the present time many of them are far from being fixed and certain in books. Where then is the proof of their certainty and fixedness in nature ? If in existence anywhere, in regard to the plants of England, it ought to be found in the books of a diligent Botanist, who has devoted his attention during many years specially to the plants of this one country, compa- ratively of small area; who has travelled much over that area, as a practical investigator; and who has well II. UNCERTAINTY OF SPECIES. 43 studied the descriptive works relating to the same species of plants in adjacent countries. Yet the books of this Botanist show much uncertainty and variability. And by the instance of the Dryas before adverted to, on page 38, we may see that the uncertainty can be extended to one of the oldest and most widely recognized species, by splitting it most unequally in twain. A second example of an Author widely at variance with himself on species, may be taken from a work devoted exclusively to the Ferns of Britain. The beautifully illustrated ‘History of British Ferns’ by Mr. Newman, has had three editions, dated in 1840, 1844, 1854. These editions differ remarkably in the number of species de- scribed in them as distinct, namely, 33, 40, 50 species,— plus also some demi-species to increase the latter high number. Yet during the interval of 1840—1854 scarcely half a dozen actual novelties were added to the lists of British ferns; the changes of number being otherwise induced by subdividing some of the species of the earlier editions into two or more species of the later editions. With reference to the former remarks on generic groups, page 18, it seems to be further deserving of note here, while attending to Mr. Newman’s botanical writings, that the number of genera also has a corresponding increase in them. The 83 species of the first edition were arranged under or into 18 genera; and in the third edition the same species are divided among 23 genera. It would thus seem to be a fair inference from the prac- tice of our best Pteridologist, that the genera of ferns are also in some degree conventional or optional, equally with the species. The fact is so; but simply because sometimes one character, sometimes another character, is arbitrarily adopted as a distinctive test of a genus, ac- cording to the whim of the individual writer. To revert 44 Il. INEQUALITY OF SPECIES. here to the uncertain limits of genera is somewhat inter- ruptive of our onward course; although it is but a fur-" ther illustration of the like impediment in the way of phyto-geographical expositions, as that arising from the uncertain limits of and between species. 4, Inequality of Species. Intimately connected with the uncertainties in the cha- racters. and limits of species, comes another inconye- nience to the phyto-geographer. Among the species of Britain, as now named and described in books, there is seen much the same sort of inequality or non-equivalence, as was before shown to be the case with the ordinal groups of systematic botany, and more briefly asserted of generic groups. It may be said that some species stand out clear and distinct, and are rarely or never confused with aught else,—at any rate, not with aught else in Britain; also that they have thus existed for some cen- turies, and in all likelihood during many centuries. If they sport into varieties, the most reckless “ describers of specimens” do not venture to treat the casual varieties of these plants as species. Thus stand out the single or few “native species of Bellis, Linnea, Parnassia, Trientalis, Adoxa, Calluna, Andromeda, Clematis, Myrica, Tamus, Paris, Myosurus, Chrysospleniwn, Cornus, Rhamnus, Tri- glochin, Scilla, Lythrum, Linum, Astragalus, Convolvulus, Vaccinium, &ce. Itis true, however, that the species of several of these genera cannot be held thus clear and cer- tain when our scope extends beyond Britain. But, even in this wider view, we should only require to substitute the names of other non-British genera, in place of those so altered or affected. The fact would remain the same, though exemplified differently, that there are plants 3 II. INEQUALITY OF SPECIES. 45 which botanists seem all agreed to recognize as true ‘species, distinct from all else, and indivisible in them- selves, — apparently having the same limits in nature as in books. But further, there are many other species which are regarded in the same light by some botanists, although by other botanists certain sub-species or quasi-species are split off (so to write) from them. Thus, the Dryas octopetala might have been placed above among the single indivisible species, such as Parnassia palustris and Trientalis ewropea, had not the very doubtful quasi- species Dryas depressa, as already mentioned, been split off from it by Mr. Babington. But as this petty chip from the old species had no diagnostic characters of any seeming value assigned to it, and was apparently a mere casual variety, since unsuccesfully sought by Mr. An- drews in the only spot indicated for it, — we really ought not here to say that the well-known and widely-diffused Dryas octopetala has been divided by botanists into two species. The more appropriate explanation would be, that a spurious book-species has been incorrectly carved ‘from the natural species by one botanist, prone to “ de- seribe specimens.” Thus also, various other British spe- cies have been more or less unequally subdivided, by the severance of doubtful book-species from them. For ex- ample, Ulea Gallii (Planchon), Helianthemum Brewert (Planchon), Melampyrum montanum (Johnston), Geraniwm purpureum (Forster), Herniaria ciliata (Babington), Ceras- tium atrovirens (Babington), Cerastium pedunculatum (Ba- bington), Teucriwm , scordioides (Schreber), Epilobium brachycarpum (Leighton), Ribes petreum (Smith), Ribes spicatum (Robson), with various others, may be in this position of spurious species; such as are not easily distinguished, and probably not distinct, from the more 46 II. INEQUALITY OF SPECIES. , familiar species to which they would still be referred by some or most botanists. In a different position from the preceding are various other old species, about the subdivisions of which into two or more modern species there is a more general and less doubting assent among botanists. Thus, the Lin- nean Ranunculus hederaceus has latterly become two well-marked and pretty equal species, by the separation of R. cenosus from it ;—a disjunction made by several botanists in different countries independently of each other. The Linnean Veronica agrestis appears to have been as properly divided into two species of equal value or certainty, by the separation of V. polita from the form left as typical with the original name ;— though, in making such divisions, it would avert much consequent confusion in after records, if a new name were given to each half ; the original name remaining to the aggregate only. Between such seemingly correct and equal divisions of old double or combinate species, and the unequal seg- _ ments capriciously chipped off a good unit-species, as in the cases of Dryas depressa and Cerastiwm atrovirens, many intermediate steps are traceable. ‘Thus, it may still be held more or less uncertain, whether we have in Britain one or two species of Huphrasia, Thymus, Apera, Agrimonia, Taxus, Quercus, Juniperus, Caltha, Nuphar, Raphanus, Circea, Botrychium, Pseudathyriwm, Ruppia, Zannichellia, &c. And it may still perhaps be ques- tioned, whether the Linnean unit-species Thlaspi al- pestre, Cardamine hirsuta, Epilobiwm tetragonum, Valeri- ana officinalis, Arctium Lappa, Filago germanica, Ballota nigra, Primula veris, Statice Armeria, Atriplex hastata, Parietaria officinalis, Sparganium natans, and others were rightly regarded by the great Swedish botanist as Il. INEQUALITY OF SPECIES. 47 single species ;—or, whether they are more correctly now regarded as aggregate species by his less great succes- sors; each name formerly including two or more species, the modern segregates into which the unit-species of Linneus have been subdivided. Among British plants the Linnean Ranunculus aquati- lis affords a good instance of the various grades of ine- quality or value in species. It was long held as one . single species, and is even still so regarded by some bo- tanists of high authority. From age to age, and latterly almost from year to year, other quasi-species have been separated from it; until at length it has been altogether discarded from the fourth edition of the Manual of Bri- tish Botany. It has been gradually hacked into nothing; its fragments being now held as so many species, of various grades of reception and uncertainty, ranging downwards from those rather easily distinguished, and very usually admitted, such as Ranunculus circinatus, to those only distinguishable by their inventors, if even by them, such as Ranunculus floribundus. The variable unit or aggregate species has been divided and sub- divided into segregates of most unequal value, — into true-species, quasi-species, sub-species, sham-species, andsoon. The like process has gone on with various otker Linnean species, as Rosa canina, Rubus fruticosus, Salix fusca or repens, Saxifraga hypnoides, Myosotis scor- pioides, Hieraciwm murorum, Mentha sativa, &e. &e., which were probably aggregate species originally, and which are now as probably subdivided into too many segregates of very unequal value. Possibly, a reader may still find difficulty in seeing what is here intended by “inequality of species.” It may be logically contended, that any given plant is either a species or not a species, according to abstract defini- 48 Il. INEQUALITY OF SPECIES. tion of the term. And that all such natural species ought to be held equals and equivalents of each other. Right enough. But the difficulty arises from our igno- rance as to which are truly natural species; and the con- sequent necessity of treating book-species in their stead. Unfortunately, botanists are very far from agreed as to what are or ought to be book-species. One botanist will still regard Ranunculus aquatilis as a single and indivi- sible species; a second botanist divides it into three species; a third botanist can find half a dozen species in it; a fourth botanist will double that modest number ; and some will perhaps even exceed the full dozen species. Here, unless a whole is only equal to any of its parts or fragments, such species cannot be equal among them- selves. There is no equality between the following unit and any of its fractions,—1 44 7s. Or, to put the mat- ter under another aspect, is the Rubus fruticosus a species when it includes only the R. discolor of the present day ? And is it equally a species, or an equal species, when it includes forty or fifty other species or subspecies of the present day? And can it, in either application of the name, be counted one and co-equal with the species Rubus Ideus or Rubus saxatilis? The term super-species may not be much admired, but it will suffice for the mo- ment in contrast against that of sub-species; a term now adopted by various botanical authorities, as one that is practically convenient, although not consistent with the strict definition of the non-compound term species. Three grades of species may now be shown thus :— 1. R. fruticosus,—a super-species, or aggregate. 2. R. saxatilis,—a true species, or indivisible unit. 3. R. discolor,—a sub-species, or segregate. It is made too evident in the preceding examples, that the term species has an application in practice quite as | oe ae II. INEQUALITY OF SPECIES. 49 unequal and inexact as that of order. The term is ap- plied alike to the clearest species and to the merest variety, provided any technical botanist may think fit to describe that variety as a species. It is applied alike to the largest aggregate and to the smallest segregate therefrom (Rubus fruticusus and Rubus argenteus) to which any botanical pretender may give a specific name. The inequality or non-equivalence of book- species most seriously impedes the Phyto- geographer in his investigations. He cannot institute any just compari- sons between the botany or vegetation of different coun- tries, unless he can bring their respective species to the same standard of value. A thousand species of India, as fixed and described by Dr. J. D. Hooker, would be far more than equal to a thousand species of Europe, as de- fined by M. Jordan. Suppose that it is wished to insti- tute statistical comparisons between the botany of the British Islands and that of New Zealand or any other country. Are the native species of Thalictrum to be counted three or five? Are those of the Batrachiwm section of Ranunculus to be reckoned two or twelve ? Are we to set down the species of Rubus at five or at fifty? Wild as such queries might appear to some readers, they do not exaggerate the actual differences about species, as evinced in the opinions of living bo- tanists. The impediments to phyto-geographical investigations, which arise from these uncertainties about species, are by no means limited to questions of number. The iden- tity or otherwise of species in different countries cannot be satisfactorily traced, while the limits of those species are unfixed. Where one botanist sees sameness, another sees only similitude ; where this botanist finds identity, that botanist finds only substitution. The areas and VOL. IV. H 50 Il, INEQUALITY OF SPECIES. distribution of species cannot be ascertained while their specific names mean one thing here and another there. Records of localities made under the aggregate name can- not be certainly assigned to the segregate species. An example or two of these difficulties may be serviceable in illustration. In the admirably commenced Flora Indica, by Drs. Hooker and Thomson, pages 109—112, the Authors give “a list of 222 British plants which extend into India.” Among these plants are enumerated the following spe- cies: — Ranunculus aquatilis, Barbarea vulgaris, Carda- mine hirsuta, Melilotus officinalis, Rubus fruticosus, Ery- threa Centaurium, Callitriche aquatica, Potamogeton natans, Eleocharis palustris, and Carex flava. ‘These are Linnean species; and down to the present time they have been held single species by a gradually decreasing number of botanists. But various sub-species or segre- gates have been as gradually carved from them by other botanists ; and some of these sub-species (once so deemed) may fairly now be designated as currently ad- mitted true species. Are the typical forms of these Lin- nean species found in India? Are all the sub-species found there? If not all, which of the sub-species are so found? Or, are the Indian plants really other sub- species, different from those of Europe? The names used by Drs. Hooker and Thomson do not enable us to give an answer to these queries. But comparisons be- tween the European and Indian botanies, in the estima- tion of those botanists who regard the above names as applicable to aggregate species, cannot be satisfactorily made before those questions have been answered. Such questions are of course by no means special or peculiar to Indian botany. They might equally be asked with reference to various of those European spe- Il. INEQUALITY OF SPECIES. 51 cies, which were alleged. to have been found in Australia by Dr. Robert Brown. In fact, they may be deemed queries applicable in greater or less degree to the botany of all countries, to the smallest and nearest, as well as to the largest and most remote. In:comparing the vegeta- tion or floras of different subdivisions of one country so small as Britain, much error might arise unless the spe- cies were first brought to a common standard. Let it be supposed that we desire to trace through Britain the distribution of Epipactis latifolia. In the older works on British botany, and even down to those of recent date, this name included the ZH. ovalis (Bab.) and EZ. media (Fries) along with the species still left under the name of LE. latifolia, after taking off those two segregates. When we look into the books printed some years ago, and there find localities for Ep. latifolia, it is often quite impossible to say which of the three modern species was intended by the name. All three might be included, or one of the three only might be intended by that name in a local list. Even down to the present year, some botanists doubtless are recording the segre- gates under the aggregate name, without enabling the Phyto-geographer to decide which of them is thereby intended. It is only by one who has largely engaged in botanico- geographical investigations, that the doubts and difficul- ties thus continually engendered can be fully appreciated. It must for a long time keep geographical botany far backward ; because the Phyto-geographer cannot look only on living and dried plants. He must be continually using back records as well, in the making of which these modern distinctions were not used or known; that is, he must consult records in which the segregate species of the present day are treated as unit-species under names 52 II. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. which are now the names of aggregates. For instance, what can back records do towards showing the distribu- tion of the two very recent species before alluded to, Arctium pubens and Ranunculus floribundus ? Obviously, nothing at all. While the invention of these book- species must vitiate the back records for those older spe- cies from which they have been carved; that is, in the eyes of all the botanists who adopt and believe in these novelties. ° Under such circumstances, it is not surprising that Phyto-geographers usually feel inimical to the practice of hasty species-making on very slight grounds ;— that they should so strongly object to the habit of pouncing upon any trifling difference between plants, and recklessly assuming at once, without the trouble of test or trial, that the plants thus slightly different will have also all the theoretic characteristics of true natural species. The Phyto-geographer desires to know natural and dis- tinguishable species as clearly and as numerously as he can find them to be. But he wishes not to be himself misled by false species, or to be impeded and perplexed by the records of other botanists who are also misled by them. 5. Permanence of Species. The theoretic definition of the term Species (page 32) was so worded as to include a repetition of the individu- als, representatives of the species, during many genera- tions. But it was not made a part of the signification of the term, that the duration of a species should be per* petual. Geological records show that the species of epochs long past were not the same as those of the pre- sent time ; and consequently, so far as the future can be II. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. 53 inferred from the past, the present species will in their turn give place to different species of the future. Geological researches have hitherto failed to explain how this change of species has been accomplished be- tween the past and the present. And it cannot be said that we now detect in current events any satisfactory. clue, sufficient either to explain the past changes, or to point out the future changes in expectancy. But it is equally true, that the facts and events of the present time, when looked upon from this difficult point of view, do not warrant an assertion, that the past species have not themselves been gradually changed into the present different species. The facts and events of the present time have hitherto not been studied with that exactness and freedom from bias, which are necessary for an inves- tigation so delicate and difficult. And the past records of similar facts, even those of very recent date, are usu- ally found to be too inexact for reliance, when carefully examined with reference to their bearing upon this question. The ideas of Lamarck, to the effect that species can and do metamorphose into each other, have been much and often commented upon. In some few instances they have been critically examined in a just and truthful manner. More frequently they have been misunderstood by shallow reasoners, or misrepresented by unscrupulous writers. Unfortunately, most of the just and truthful examiners, competent to reason on natural phenomena, have not been sufficiently conversant with the technical details of zoology and botany, and have gone astray for want of that special knowledge. Perhaps it would not be erroneous to name Sir Charles Lyell as an example of the truth-seeking reasoners, not familiar enough with special zoology or botany, to steer his way quite correctly 54 II. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. in this matter. It is certainly curious to find that cele- brated Geologist,—who has so successfully advocated the theory of gradual metamorphose or change in the past condition of the inorganic world, similar to the gradual changes now seen in progress,—departing from the sug- gestions of analogy, and arguing against any similar course in the organic world of nature. The inorganic changes are argued to have been gradual, even from mo- ment to moment, and to have been thus effected without continually renewed and special interference of CREATIVE Power. But the organic changes are supposed and con- tended by the same writer, to have required many mil- lions of such special interferences ;— each of the species appearing on the earth, in countless and seemingly end- less succession, being a new creation, and not emanating from any predecessor species. At any rate, there is a total want of consistency and harmony in these two oppo- site and opposed views of the course of Nature. Whether the inconsistency is human, or the discord is Divine, it remains for a future generation to discover. Theological doctrines have doubtless contributed very largely to give scientific men, and especially those who had some secular interest to serve thereby, a decided bias towards the views of organic nature advocated by Lyell and most others who have entered upon this debateable ground. Such views appear to concur best with precon- ceived ideas; and they are therefore received with satis- faction by the generality of readers, whether advocated by a sincere writer, like Sir Charles Lyell, or by one of a different school, like the late Hugh Miller. There isa vague impression—it can hardly be termed anything bet- ter or more settled—that the theory of a mutation of spe- cies is in some way or other hostile to Biblical records. And this vague impression influences the minds of II. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. 55 scientific men none the less strongly because they are themselves not aware of the unreasoning bias thus given to their thoughts. The arguments of Lyell in this mat- ter are referred to with much eulogy, even by botanists of very high attainments and influence; and yet they do appear to the author of this volume about the least satis- factory portion in his very attractive writings. Lyell is not a man of species; and he cites loose records of expe- riments, in which the species are not mentioned by their proper scientific names, with a strict and single meaning, but by names which apply to more than one species, and thus vitiate the records by their inexactness and uncer- tainty. Lyell detects the weaknesses of Lamarck’s facts and arguments; but he fails to see that his own cited *facts’’ are no better,—perhaps, indeed, much worse. Good botanists, equally as geologists, become gravely inconsistent when they begin to dogmatise on this subject. A recent example of this inconsistency may be cited here, as being very pertinent to the matter inhand. The ‘Geographie Botanique’ of De Candolle is made the basis of a good articlé on geographical bo- tany, in the Edinburgh Review for October, 1856. Early in that article (page 497) the writer overlooks the danger of asserting a negative in science, and boldly declares that the doctrine “of successive development is purely hypothetical, and unsupported by a single ascertained fact.” That such theory cannot be held much better than conjectural hypothesis, is true enough. It may also be true, that no clearly ascertained and perfectly unexcep- tionable fact of direct mutation has been cited in support / ik of that theory or hypothesis. But is it not equally as “true, that the Lyellian doctrine of new species of animals and plants, created at the rate of “ one new one every year 56 II. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. called into being” (Lyell) is quite as hypothetical, and quite as little supported by ascertained facts ? Nay, if we are to believe the marvel, which the Re- viewer very inconsistently expresses his own readiness to believe, there is far better evidence towards showing a mutation of species, than ever has been adduced towards showing a new creation of species. The change of one generally recognized species into another such species, and the gradual change in a dozen descents, from one recognized genus into another such genus, would be more than a single ascertained fact, in strong support of the doctrine of successive development. The Reviewer believes in these changes. A few pages after so dogmatically denying the existence of any such fact, the Reviewer particularly mentions the experiments of M. Esprit Fabre, by which the A/gilops ovata is stated to have been gradually converted into Triticum satiwum in thirteen years, passing through another received spe- cies, Afgilops triticoides, in the first stage of this very rapid conversion. After a page or two of comments on the reported experiment, the Reviewer added the follow- ing sentence, so strangely inconsistent with his previous assertion, that the successive development hypothesis is unsupported by a single fact: —“‘ We have no doubt,” he writes, “that by patient perseverance in this course for a number of years, not only many so-called species of Algi- lops would be reduced to one type, but M. Fabre’s experi- ments, resulting in the conversion of Aigilops into wheat, would again meet with the same success.” Notwithstanding this inconsistency and self-contradic- tion, there is ample internal evidence that the article in question emanated from the pen of an experienced writer and first-rate botanist. It certainly is remarkable to find one of this class thus confidently announcing his belief, II. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. 57 that several generally admitted species can be converted — into one species, and that in only thirteen descents one genus can be converted into another genus, not extremely similar. When such a writer and botanist announces such a belief, we are thrown back upon the questions, Whether permanent species exist in nature ?—And how we know them to be such ?—Also, which of the now re- ceived species (if any) are permanent,—and which of them are thus convertible? In short, are there any species ? If Aigilops can change into Triticum, why not T'riti- cum into Brachypodiwm ? — Brachypodium into Bromus ? —Bromus into Festuca?—Festuca into Poa ?—&c. &e. Genera do thus change—in books. Whatever may be the facts in nature, as to the lines of demarcation between species, those between many genera are uncertain and fluctuating in books. There are species whose generic ‘characters are so ill-defined or uncertain, that they are assigned sometimes to one genus, sometimes to another genus, of the couplets named above. And the like mu- tual convertibility in botanical arrangements, by changing the generic place of a species, may be found between nu- merous other genera in books. But those books profess to show the truths of nature, and to record human know- ledge of nature. Human knowledge, it is thus seen, cannot trace positive lines of demarcation between genera any more than between orders. In other words, such positive lines of demarcation, though feigned in books, “are not discovered in nature. Orders pass into each other by the existence of genera that are assignable to either, at the option of botanists. Genera pass into each other by the existence of species that are assignable to either genus. Species appear to pass into each other by the practice of botanists, who unite and sever them in dif- ferent degrees and numbers. VOL. IV. Eis 58 Il. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. But does Nature warrant these changes of species ? Granting the non-existence of distinct lines of demarca- tion between ordinal or generic groups, it is still not a necessary inference that the analogy ought to be extended to species. Notwithstanding the discordant views of bo- tanical writers, it may still be, that natural species are really not groups of individuals thus mutually convertible, or without any positive limits between them. A species may be something in nature far more strictly individual and distinct than a genus or an order. All its constituents or representatives may possibly have sprung from a single and distinct origin in each case, continued either by direct partition or by reproduction (which is only another mode of partition.) And that origin may not ever have been a preceding and different species. And as the present spe- cies shall run out their allotted duration, and disappear from the earth in their turn, it seems quite possible that none of them will thus disappear by (or after) giving ori- gin to some succeeding and different species. The prac- tical question now comes by inquiry, how far does our actual knowledge avail us towards establishing any such individual distinctness of species,—present, past, future ? Actual knowledge goes a very small way towards settling the mooted question; although we do certainly construe the ascertained facts of nature as being, on the whole, ad- verse to the doctrine of a gradual mutation of species, and favorable to that of their permanent distinctness. Reference may again be made to the ‘ Geographie Bo- tanique,’ pages 1056—1125, for a full general exposition of facts and opinions bearing upon this and kindred ques- tions. But in making this reference, it may be useful again to remind readers, that the Author of the ‘ Geo- graphie Botanique’ is a greater proficient in comparing and generalizing facts, than he is in the art of inductive ee i II. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. 59 reasoning from facts to causes and consequences. The Author of the Cybele Britannica still retains the views set forth in the Phytologist for 1845; and the concluding summary of those views may here be appropriately quoted; with a reference to the periodical mentioned for the arguments and facts in more detail. “ The conclusion, that ‘like produces like,’ through an indefinite series of generations, seems almost inevitable to the botanist, whose range of observation takes in only the natural course of events during the quarter of a century, more or less, which comprehends the period of vigorous mental power in a single individual. The same conclusion must still appear sound, although we extend the range of observation, by comparing living plants of the present year, with careful descriptions, pictorial repre- sentations, or dried specimens of those which lived a hundred years ago. Still the same conclusion must be drawn, when we compare a young oak or chestnut with old trees of their kind which have existed through centu- ries past. “Thus far, the resemblance between the past and the present, in the vegetable world, is sufficiently close and certain to warrant a conclusion that plants repeat their own images by hereditary descent through a long series of years, to which we can assign no limit. “These images, it is true, are not always perfect like- nesses. Variations of climate and soil, or of other con- ditions, are accompanied by corresponding variations in the plants. But, limiting the period of our observations: as above, these variations are usually found to be tempo- rary; so that we may say, there is a standard or average type for each kind, which is repeated in the individual plants as nearly as internal health and external conditions will allow. This supposed standard or average I will 60 Il. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. here express by the term ‘central type.’ The central type will be nearly synonymous with the proper meta- physical notion of a species, apart from its varieties. It is usually this same central type which is described in the specific character of a plant; although occasionally au- thors endeavour so to frame their specific characters, that these shall include all varieties of the species as well as the central type. “ Individual plants which differ from the central type are named ‘ varieties.’ Among varieties we may include all the plants which are marked by any obvious difference, ranging from the more trifling variations of colour and size, to those which are so wide as to raise a question whether the plants really belong to the same central type or species. “Varieties appear to be less permanent than the cen- tral types from which they originate. A tendency to change again is usually observed in the descendants of such varieties; and the further change is frequently ina reversed direction, or back towards the central type. Among plants in a wild state, the tendency to keep or to resume the central type commonly seems to be greater than the tendency to vary from it. Hence there is an appearance of permanence in species, as though each kind had a limit to its power of change, beyond which its descendants can never pass in a direction aberrant from the central type, and from which limit there is a tendency to return to that type. “But all this, be it remembered, refers to a very restricted period in the history of our globe. It is that space of time only, the events of which are most clearly seen and understood by botanists. And it is so very short a space, compared with the spaces which come into the estimates of geologists, that we can scarcely deem an II. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. 61 inappreciable change of the central type, during that short space, to be sufficiently conclusive proof against the gradual transition of species during spaces of time im- measurably more extended. “Moreover, we must avoid the straining of our fact be- yond its true bearings. Though the central types of cer- tain species may have remained the same during some scores or centuries of years, this one fact cannot negative a possibility that there are also varieties of the same or of other species which, during the same time, have gra- dually become more and more unlike their respective central types; until, through diminished likeness, they may now actually be referred to different central types,— that is, may be described as distinct species. “Further, it is to be kept in memory, that when it be- comes man’s interest or pleasure to extend the variations of plants from their central types, he can effect this de- sired result much more rapidly and widely than is seen to occur among plants in a state of nature. By taking the more decided varieties as parents of a fresh stock, through several successive generations, and so gradually rendering them more and more unlike the central type, we appear to weaken their tendency to resume that type. Hitherto, no limit has been ascertained to this power of changing plants by varying varieties. Some of the species which have been long subjected to this process, have been run into varieties so widely different from their known or supposed central types, that if any botanist had first found their extreme forms in a newly explored country, he would assuredly have believed them to belong to dif- ferent central types,—to be totally distinct species. “Tn this, as in every other such process, man works only with the powers of nature. Although brought about immediately through his instrumentality, the changes 62 I. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. effected in the plants are simply the natural results of those conditions to which he subjects them. There seems no reason to suppose that the same result which man brings about more rapidly, could not have been brought about, though more gradually brought about, without his interference. If man can produce hereditary varieties of plants, which remain permanently different from their central types, under his care, why cannot na- ture also produce such hereditary varieties? And in what respect does an hereditary variety, the origin of which is unknown, differ from a species? * * * “On the whole, however, we seem to be justified in asserting, that our knowledge of the present events in nature, taken by itself, should incline us to a con- clusion which is directly adverse to the theory of ‘ pro- gressive development’ or ‘transition of species;’ yet without affording us any actual disproof of that theory. “Tt is otherwise when our range of thought embraces the vastly wider space of time, the events of which are investigated by geologists. There we find ample evi- dence to justify the conclusion that different species suc- ceeded to each other. And no better mode of accounting for this succession has been suggested, than the hypothe- sis that one species passed into another, under changing external conditions. Supposing this transition of species to have taken place very gradually, and through a very long series of descents, it would not require more rapid change (from central types into varieties, and from a less variety into a greater) than we see actually occurring in the production of varieties at the present period of the earth’s history. “ Could we ascertain that some varieties will continue to vary from their central type, through many successive descents ; and that, as they become less similar to their II. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. 63 original central type, the tendency of ‘like to produce like’ will overpower and supersede the tendency to revert to the original type ;—in this case, we might hold the ‘transition of species’ to be a theory founded on facts. At present, it is scarcely more than a plausible hypothe- sis, invented to account for facts, and accounting for them better than any other hypothetical suggestion hitherto has done.” (Phytologist, vol. ii., pp. 225—228). A recapitulation of the points at which we have arrived in the preceding sections (1 2 3 4 5) will show these results:—1l. Species are not proved to be permanently and unchangeably distinct in nature.—2. During a short section of time, as one or more centuries, species do appear to continue the same, and to reproduce con- tinuously their own like; the variations therefrom con- stantly tending to return to a form which is assumed to be a normal or natural type (“central type”) of the spe- cies.—3. Technical species, or those described in books by technical botanists, are theoretically supposed to cor- respond with the natural species.—4. But very few of such technical species are ever subjected to those tests which are deemed adequate to establish natural species. —5. In practice, the technical species are instituted chiefly or solely upon differences of physical and external characters, without knowledge whether those differences are casual or constant, and accompanied or unaccompa- nied by the physiological characteristics of natural spe- cies.—6. On this account reasoning men must regard the technical species described in books as conjectural rather than certain; their complete identity with natural species being usually left in doubt, and in many instances dis- puted.—7. Botanists of authority, both cotemporaries and successors, often differ widely about the validity of 64 Il. PERMANENCE OF SPECIES. i the technical species; thus showing them to be largely conjectural, or arrangements by opinion and caprice.— 8. Hence arise the differences as to aggregate and segre- gate species; some botanists combining more, other bo- tanists dividing and subdividing on slighter differential characters.—9. Since they are the conjectural or techni- cal species which are described in books, and are enume- rated by name in catalogues, the Phyto-geographer is compelled to treat these as if they were the true natural species.—10. And where he finds Authors differing in their groupings of individuals into such technical species, he is often obliged to adopt the aggregate, in preference before the segregate species, on account of the greater difficulty and uncertainty in tracing the distribution of segregates by aid of books and catalogues. * * “Ttis very much to be wished,” write Drs. Hooker and Thomson, “‘ that the local botanist should commence his studies upon a diametrically opposite principle to that upon which he now proceeds, and that he should endeavour, by selecting good suites of specimens, produced under all varia- tions of circumstances, to determine how few, not how many species are comprised in the flora of his district.” .... ‘The unavoidable tendency of the human mind, when occupied with the pursuit of minute differences, is to seize on them with avidity, and to relinquish them with regret ; hence the irresistible desire to rest contented with a character, however bad, so long as it is obtained with difficulty, and in the observer’s opinion is tole- rably constant. It is strange that local naturalists cannot see that the dis- covery of a form uniting two others they had previously thought distinct, is much more important than that of a totally new species, inasmuch as the correction of an error is a greater boon to science than is a step in ad- yance.” (Flora Indica, vol. i. pages 35, 36). Ill. ON THE INTRODUCED SPECIES. 1. Definitions, Opinions, &c. Which of the species now seemingly wild in Britain are aboriginal natives ?—Which among them ought to be deemed introduced plants? — The answer to these two queries is difficult; and in regard to many of the plants it can be given only with much uncertainty either way. The synonymous terms native and indigenous are applied to those species which are believed to exist in Britain independently of human agency. And the non-synony- mous terms introduced and naturalised are applicable to species which were originally brought into Britain through the instrumentality of mankind, whether intentionally or accidentally. But recorders of localities, and other writers on British plants, evince much ignorance and carelessness in their use of these terms. To the category of Native Species we must unavoidably assign all those in regard to which no grounds are now seen for supposing that they were first brought into Britain by human agency. The application of the term is thus simply negative. It can rarely or never be known, whether the species existed in Britain before the advent of mankind, or have immigrated into this country more recently; and if the latter, whether their immigra- tion has been effected by natural means of transport only, VOL. IV. K 66 lll. INTRODUCED SPECIES. as distinguished from those afforded to them by human agency. It is possible that none of these species were aboriginal natives on the present surface of Britain. It may be that all of them were immigrants into the British islands, at different dates, from other lands; those lands, or some of them, having subsequently ceased to be. Such uncertainties belong at present rather to geological, than to geographical botany; and they cannot here be dis- cussed. The broad line of distinction is here to be drawn between natural and human agency ; — natural agency being assumed, where human agency is not ob- vious or suspected. In the second category, that of Introduced Species, are placed all those which are supposed to have been brought into Britain through the instrumentality of mankind. In some few instances they are known to have been so intro- duced; notably in the case of some American species, which were unknown in Europe before the discovery and settlement of the Western Continent. In far the majo- _rity of instances botanists only infer or suppose that a species has been introduced, because they can detect some remaining indications of human agency in the con- ditions under which it is still observed to exist here; the inferences suggested by the present conditions being occasionally corroborated by historical or traditional evi- dences also. But it seems quite within possibility, and even within reasonable probability, that the indications of human agency may have become obliterated in various instances. And if such instances do occur, the plants so situate, although only naturalised aliens, are now una- voidably placed in the same category with the aboriginal natives. If they have become established sufficiently well to maintain themselves among the native vegetation, with- Te ee Til. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 67 out the aiding interference of mankind, introduced spe- cies are then deemed naturalised. It is much to be resretted that an excessive laxity has prevailed among British botanists in their use of this term. Several of them apply it to mere casual stragglers which have acquired no constant or permanent localities; some of them even to trees and long enduring herbs, which sim- ply continue to live and grow where planted; and which thus increase only in their dimensions, not by numbers. Strictly, no species ought to be deemed naturalised un- less it maintains its ground here by seeds or other usual mode of multiplication, and unaided by human agency. M. Alphonse De Candolle would limit the use and sig- nification of the term so strictly as to exclude even those -agrestal species, such as the poppies and fumitories, which appear to be in anywise dependant upon agricultu- ral operations for rendering the soil suitable to their sup- port. Though this may be considered the just and philosophic view, scarcely any British botanist has ap- proximated to such a degree of strictness. In some mea- sure it was attempted in the definitions in the first volume of the present work, page 63, by separating the colonists from the native species, and placing them below the doubted category of denizens, — below those species which may possibly be natives, may possibly be aliens. It was thus tacitly assumed that most of the annual weeds of corn fields and other cultivated ground, seldom found elsewhere, had been originally imported into this island, howsoever abundant and widely diffused they may have since become. But in general British botanists place those weeds in the category of undoubted natives. M. De Candolle has further suggested, that there ought to have been in this work a special category for naturalised species, in contradistinction against those for 68 Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. natives, colonists, &c. The answer to this suggestion, or objection against the omission of such a special category, seems obvious enough. Naturalisation is not a simple fact, which would admit of the simple answer to its question,—“ aye” or “no.” Naturalisation is a matter of degree, far more than one of kind; and we have no scale whereby to measure the degree of it, unless by individual opinions. But the distinction between native and intro- duced species is absolute and real; the only difficulty or uncertainty being in a verdict on the matter of fact. There are not degrees of nativity, or degrees of introduc- tion ; though there are differences of opinion regarding the evidences in support of either view in reference to individual species. With the exception of a few known importations from America, as before adverted to, the most thoroughly na- turalised species are perhaps now included among the undoubted natives. The denizens follow close upon those reputed natives; being also deemed natives by many botanists, but more or less strongly suspected to be naturalised immigrants by other and often fewer bota- nists. Then succeed the colonists, most of which are still deemed natives by a majority among English bota- nists; are looked upon only as more or less fully natu- ralised plants by other botanists of England; and are held to be aliens, not even naturalised, by M. De Can- dolle and some very few others of his school. Lastly, comes the miscellaneous group of aliens, so designated in this work; in regard to which there is the widest range of non-unanimity among botanists, whether to hold them natives, or naturalised, or non-established aliens. Before we can make out a list or category of naturalised species we have, first, to separate the introduced from the native species, and then, secondly, to agree upon some test III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 69 by which the introduced species can be again divided into naturalised and non-naturalised. This is hopeless. The first difficulty is little likely to be surmounted for along time to come, that of distinguishing between na- tive and introduced species. The more completely a foreign species becomes naturalised, the greater becomes the inclination of English botanists to place it among the true natives; so that we find some of them now treating the parsley and wall-flower as true natives. And thus naturalisation is converted into nativity, so far as mere opinion can effect such a conversion. In former volumes of this work citations were fre- quently made about the indications of nativity or other- wise, as given in the general Floras of Britaim, and also of those put forth by some local botanists. It was thus shown that such indications are often in direct contradic- tion to each other. When not in opposition, the seeming harmony too often had been occasioned by writers copy- ing from one book into another. Dr. Bromfeld rightly conjectured the chief reason for adducing those contrasts of opinion. It was seldom done with any idea of attaching much authoritative value to the discordant opinions so brought together. More usually it was done expressly for the purpose of showing that the chance opinions of closet botanists are too contradictory to be of any real value. Such are designated the chance opinions of closet botanists, because too frequently they were put forth by those who had neither seen the localities of the - plants, nor had properly examined the evidences on _ which their decisions ought to have been given. The attempt of Professor Henslow, in his Catalogue of British Plants, dated in 1835, was doubtless much im- peded by the imperfect and often erroneous indications given in the general Floras, as well as by the conceal- 70 III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. ments and omissions by the reporters of localities. And making fair allowance for the then existing state of opi- nion on the subject, and for the accumulated errors then in print, it is worthy of note that the Professor should have steered his course so well in 1835. What his ideas were at that date will presently be shown in comparison with those of the Cybele Britannica and Manual of British Botany full twenty years later. Indeed, the Au- thor of the Manual, edition of 1856, may in the main be pronounced still considerably below the point already reached by Professor Henslow in 1835. And yet the Manual is certainly an improvement, even in this respect, on its predecessors among the descriptive Floras; al- though there is still ample room for further improvement. Previously to the publication of the Manual of British Botany the indications of nativity or non-nativity, in so far as the general Floras were concerned, were little better than idle guesses, usually hazarded without any sufficient qualifications for judgment in their authors. Various are the grounds upon which the nativity of plants in Britain may be doubted or denied. Very little can usually be known about the pedigrees of plants which are now observed to exist here more or less sponta- neously. ‘The doubts and denials are for the most part retrospective inferences, deduced either from old records or from present facts. And as the records and facts vary greatly in their completeness and certainty, the most sin- cere and cautious seekers for truth may reasonably be expected to differ in the conclusions deduced from them. Thus much appears quite true as a general rule, that bo- tanists of small experience are the most prone to pro- nounce plants “truly indigenous.” If some few among the more advanced botanists have continued to evince a disposition to the like hasty conclusions, this peculiarity TII. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 71 in them will usually be found connected with some want of capacity for correct reasoning, or with some superfi- ciality of judgment, betrayed by inconsistencies and false reasoning in regard to other matters also. This was notably the case with the late Dr. Bromfield; who evinced a very decided bias for pronouncing plants to be true natives, either on slight grounds only, or even against strong reasons for doubt. And while he was rather remarkable for a good store of miscellaneous knowledge about details, that estimable botanist was slenderly endowed with the capacity for sound reasoning. The views of various other English botanists will be shown more in detail some pages forward, reduced into a tabular list. 2. Examples wm illustration. In former volumes of this work the grounds for doubt- ing the nativity of species were occasionally stated ; though they were seldom entered upon in much detail. It was usually found impossible, within any moderate space of text, to examine in detail the various reported localities for doubted plants, and to consider what rea- sons there might be for deeming them insufficient evi- dences of true nativity. Some further intimations of the like kind may usefully find place here, by selection of a few species for remark in connexion, whereby to render them in some measure reciprocal comparisons and illus- trations. 1. Corn-field plants.— Numerous weeds occur among corn and other crops, or elsewhere on ground worked and turned over by human industry. Some of these appear to be merely casual stragglers, seen once or twice in a spot, with no certainty of being again met with in the 72 III, INTRODUCED SPECIES. same spot. Trifoliwm elegans and Barkhausia setosa are plants which have latterly become included in the lists of aliens occasionally found wild in England; seen one year in one place, another year in another place; but nowhere permanent, or reappearing on the same ground for a series of years. Apparently their seeds are imported afresh, and are sown intermingled with seeds of the com- mon clover.— Lolium temulentum and Bromus secalinus have been longer known in our corn fields, and are much more frequently met with. But even these grasses scarcely keep constant hold of the ground; rather ap- pearing to be re-sown by human hands, along with the seeds of rye or other kinds of corn among which they grow. They thus occupy a position somewhat interme- diate between the aliens and colonists. — Agrostemma Gi- thago and Centaurea Cyanus are more frequent, and also more persistent in the same fields, than the Lolium and Bromus before named. Apparently they sow and scatter their own seeds; and thus they may be said to hold their ground without the aid of man, except in so far as his regular preparation of the ground may be requisite for their growth and permanence on it.—Papaver dubium and Chrysanthemum segetum are highly abundant, and now constantly perpetuate themselves by seeds in cultivated ground ; occasionally also growing on cliffs by the sea, on rubbish heaps, and about quarries. Still, it is at best uncertain, whether even these seemingly well-established species could keep a permanent hold of English ground, if it were not from time to time broken up for them by the industry of man, in preparing for the cultivation of other things more valuable to him. On this account those two familiar plants are classed with the species introduced originally among agricultural seeds, and still needing some aid from mankind for holding a place in IlI. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 73 the British flora.—Sinapis arvensis and Galeopsis Tetrahit, though seen most usually among corn and other crops in the fields, evince much tendency to grow also on hedge- banks and elsewhere. In this manner they assume a second or seemingly native character, in addition to their agrestal and colonist character. — Anagallis arvensis and Filago germanica seem to be still more capable of main- taining themselves elsewhere, apart from cultivation, and without human aid; although often very abundant among crops, and perhaps most frequently seen on cultivated ground. They are always deemed native plants; but as we pass in a northerly direction, their places of growth assume more and more of an artificial character ; and at length, in the Flora of Moray, where the sign of fre- quency is attached to the names of both, that of doubtful nativity is also added to the former.—Stellaria media and Polygonum aviculare, also abundant weeds on cultivated lands, are almost equally plentiful in various other situa- tions; and hence no botanist ever questions their origi- nal nativity in England. —In these examples we trace the group of colonists, from their first occasional appearance as chance aliens, upwards to the undoubted natives. The intervening grades or steps, between the couplets of plants mentioned by name, might be filled up by other names, in such manner as still more clearly to show that no ab- solute and certain line can be drawn between them,— either between the aliens and colonists, or between the colonists and natives. Botanists do not agree at what link or step in the series the lines of distinction can or ought to be traced. True, every observer of English ve- getation can recognise and admit the different conditions of Stellaria media and Barkhausia setosa. So far, he recognises and admits the distinctions between natives and aliens. But this does not enable him satisfactorily VOL. Iv. L 74 Ill INTRODUCED SPECIES. to place the several scores of other species, which he sees to be intermediate between these two clear and extreme examples. The colonists and also the denizens come be- tween ;—species about which we cannot agree, whether to accept them as natives, or to reject them as aliens origi- nally ;—species which either now appear to require human operations to fit the ground for their present continuance in Britain, or still appear to have required such aid for their original introduction and establishment, though no longer needing that aid now to retain them here. — This second class, the denizens, are best exemplified among the garden plants; the first or colonists, by the corn-field plants. 2. Ornamental garden plants. — These are liable to be left growing in the sites of old gardens, which have ceased to be cultivated; and in the lapse of time, after vestiges of adjacent buildings have become indistinct, the plants are mistaken for native productions, by recent observers to whom the former condition of the ground remains un- known. From such sites, and also from gardens still under care, various species may and do spread away by seeds and runners, or by other modes of increase and dif- fusion. When thrown out as superfluities among refuse from gardens, many roots and capsules of seeds are con- veyed to the fields and road sides, or are carried by streams to other situations comparatively remote; where they grow, and thus gradually become established. Oc- casionally plants are introduced by design to wild-seeming localities, either with experimental views, or (by guides and dealers) for the purpose of fraud and deception. As a general rule, we may suspect ordinary garden species to have been originally escapes or introductions, if found seemingly wild in only few and isolated places ; and these being spots which either suggest their garden origin, or III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. ris are so situate that garden species might easily reach them. Some examples may here again be selected, in order to illustrate this group of doubted natives. Sem- pervivum tectorum and Linaria Cymbalaria occur fre- quently on roofs and walls, but perhaps never on rocks or dry banks far away from houses, unless in spots where they have actually been planted or sown. Their places of growth thus appearing to be always artificial, and the species certainly being often planted in such places for ornament or curiosity, there seems to be strong ground herein for denying their aboriginal nativity in Britain. — Cheiranthus Cheiri and Antirrhinum majus occur in some- what similar situations, and under very similar circum- stances ; extending also occasionally to sea-cliffs, chalk- pits, and other less domestic places. Though short-living plants, and thus requiring to be frequently renewed from seeds, they maintain their position on ruins and other such artificial spots, where left undisturbed; and in so far they may be accounted more naturalised, or more native-seeming, than the two former species. Still, as these also have been long and much cultivated in gardens, and seldom occur except in places to which they might have readily spread from houses or gardens, they are pro- perly suspected not to be truly wild or native species. — Ornithogalum umbellatum and Galanthus nivalis appear to have become thoroughly established in several places ; the latter especially being often seen far away from pre- sent houses and gardens, along the courses of streams, in coppices, &c. But they have been very much cultivated as ornamental plants in gardens; and the snowdrop is doubtless often planted for ornament in parks and shrub- beries. They increase rapidly by their bulbs, and also renew by self-sown seeds; and they are are usually very tenacious in the spots where planted, or where placed by 76 Il. INTRODUCED SPECIES. accidental causes. Most of their localities, in which they are recorded as wild with more or less confidence, are either near existing houses, or about the sites of former houses, or else in spots to which the bulbs might readily have passed from gardens; where their rapid increase leads gardeners to be careless of them, and perhaps often purposely to dig them out as superfluities. And further, they never appear so really wild, and so affecting places remote from the abodes of man, as (for example) the Hyacinthus nonscriptus and Allium ursinum are observed to be and to do. The proper inference from these facts and conditions appears to be, that the Ornithogalum and Galanthus are very probably not native in most of their present localities, are doubtful in others, and indisputably native in none. This sort of evidence and inference is most decided against the former. It is somewhat less so against the snowdrop, or at least is thought to be less so by several botanists. — Vinca minor and Sedum reflecum, plants of a different character in their growth, are well adapted to spread over any favorable spot to which they are carried either by natural causes or by human agency. There can be no reasonable ground for denying that many of their present localities, along hedgerows and near the sites of gardens, have originated through the frequent culture of these species as ornamental garden plants. But some others of their localities are confi- dently declared by various botanists to be truly natural ; those of the periwinkle especially being so regarded.— Viola odorata and Helleborus viridis seem to have yet clearer claims to be held native in some of their localities; although these two species have certainly been spread to many other places, and have attained a much wider area of distribution, simply as introductions or as escapes from cultivation. Believing them natives in some spots in Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. vars England, botanists are unfortunately too ready to report them equally as natives in many other places, where they certainly are not so.—Polemonium ceruleum and Meco- nopsis cambrica, while equally traceable back to gardens in many of their present localities, are quite admitted to be genuinely native in some others of them; being there the occupants of wild rocky places, to which they are most unlikely ever to have been transported from gardens. When brought from such native spots into gardens, they seed very freely, and rapidly propagate themselves in a weed-like manner ; occasionally passing thence into adja- cent wilds, where they may become mistaken for native plants. — Here, again, as in the case of corn-field weeds, we might trace all gradations from the certainly intro- duced species, like Sempervivum and Cymbalaria, up to certainly native species, the areas and separate localities of which have been largely increased by human agency, as in the case of the Meconopsis and Polemonium. But the like difficulty again comes in our way; namely, how to designate many of the intermediate plants, which are supposed natives by botanists A, B, C, and are considered as introduced species by botanists D, E, F. 3. American species.—Among the plants now seen wild and well-established in Britain, are some few which can be most confidently placed in the category of aliens. Such are the species which were apparently unknown in Europe before the discovery of America, which are cer- tainly natives of the Western Continent, and concerning which there is evidence, more or less positive, of an intro- duction into Europe by human agency, whether purposely or accidentally. In Britain we now see a few of these species rapidly naturalising themselves among the natural vegetation of the island. Already some of them are so completely established, as a constituent portion of the 78 III) INTRODUCED SPECIES. natural vegetation, that they would undoubtedly be re- garded as true natives, in the absence of the geographico- historical evidence to the contrary. — Mimulus luteus has become thus well established in many places, both in England and Scotland.—Impatiens fulva is perfectly esta- blished in the county of Surrey, in dotted lines of several miles long; and perhaps through spreading along the course of the Thames river, it is becoming established also in Middlesex. — Gnaphalium margaritaceum, a plant of rapid increase by its underground suckers, has been pronounced native in Britain by several botanists, on faith of its apparent wildness in some places ; though the correctness of this idea is denied by others, who assert that it was originally introduced from America.—Lysi- machia ciliata is stated to be likewise establishing itself in various spots, and with sufficient semblance of wild- ness to lead to mistakes, were its transatlantic origin not certain. — The remarkably rapid increase and diffusion of the recently observed Anacharis alsinastrum (Udora cana- densis} is familiar to all British botanists of the day, though the plant was hardly known to any of them a quarter of a century ago. — Ginothera biennis is less per- manent, though become a half-wild weed in many spots. —Barbarea precox is now rather supposed than certainly known to have been brought originally from America. — Erigeron canadense is occasionally seen about our way- sides, on rubbish heaps, and in cultivated ground; al- though, as implied by its specific name, this plant also is supposed to have been brought from America into Eu- rope, where it is now abundantly diffused in the southerly latitudes, having a summer temperature warmer or longer than that of Britain. — The very imperfectly established Oxalis stricta, and the locally well-established Spartina alterniflora, are both suspected to have also come from lt ee i, i ee Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 79 America. — We may derive an useful hint from the facts concerning these various species. They now occur in England quite as well established among the natural ve- getation, as are those of the more numerous group treated under the designation of denizens in this work. Those botanists who regard the denizens as being for the most part true natives of Britain, do so on the ground of their present seeming wildness or spontaneity in certain spots. On the same rule, if their origin had been equally unre- corded, the American species above named would equally have been declared aboriginal natives of Britain,—and yet of course wrongly so declared. How many of the denizens are in this condition? How many even of the reputed natives, through the indications of their foreign origin having become obliterated ? 4, Fruit trees—It might well be supposed that some of the trees and shrubs, which have been long and largely cultivated for their fruit, would gradually have become established in England, if not aboriginal natives. And further, there seems no improbability in a supposition, that the descendants of such garden fruits would deterio- rate in becoming wild here. Some botanists regard the Pear, Apple, Plum, Cherry, Currant, and Gooseberry, all alike as aboriginal natives of Britain. This appears doubtful in respect to some of them; sufficiently probable or certain in regard to others. Pyrus Malus occurs fre- quently in hedgerows and coppices, in a seemingly wild state ; though in such situations it is at any rate liable to some degree of distrust. But trees of great age are found occasionally on hill sides, and also in the scanty remains of truly natural forests. These latter localities go far to warrant our recognition of the Crab-tree or Wilding- apple as a genuine native of England. On the contrary, Pyrus communis is far less frequent in the half-wild 80 III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. localities of hedgerows and coppices, or plantations near houses. And it is perhaps never found as a constituent of the truly natural forests. It is, too, more susceptible to frost than the former species; apparently so in its half-wild state, certainly so in most of its garden varieties. These considerations suggest doubts on the aboriginal nativity of the Pear-tree in England. — Prunus domestica is generally allowed not to be a true wilding or native in England. Prunus spinosa is fully admitted to be so; and the like remark may be extended to the intermediate variety or species Prunus insititia. But the links of con- nexion between them are so close and gradual, that it be- comes highly difficult to show whether the Plum-tree of the gardens, in all its numerous and improved varieties, is truly and permanently distinct as a species ‘from the Bullace and the Sloe. So far as the Plum-tree (P. domes- tica) is concerned, the question of nativity here resolves itself almost into one of specific identity. —The Cherries, Prunus avium and Prunus Cerasus, are now quite wild; the former much more frequent than the latter. It may be, that the garden varieties are improvements of native species ; or it perhaps may be, that the wild varieties are the degenerated descendants of trees imported into our gardens. The former view is the one most generally held by English botanists. — With the single exception of fibes rubrum, in its truly wild variety R. petreum, the several species of Ribes ought to be regarded with some degree of distrust in Britain. There cannot be a doubt that many of their alleged localities have originated from seeds of their garden varieties, dispersed by man and animals; and this is true with respect to those of R. rubrum, equally with those of other species. In the mountain valleys of North England and Scotland, R. rubrum appears to be truly native. But the true indige- UI. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 81 nous area of the species cannot now be pointed out, apart from the extension given thereto through escapes from garden culture. If not a native of the same part of England, Ribes Grossularia has become best established there ; being scarcely more than an occasional straggler elsewhere. Considering how much the Gooseberry and Currants are cultivated, how freely they are eaten by various birds, and how plentifully they spring up from seeds dropped in gardens and about houses, it seems remarkable that they should be found so sparingly in hedgerows, coppices, stream-sides, and other such situa- tions. They do occasionally occur in scanty numbers in such places; but far more sparingly than might be ex- pected of really native shrubs so much assisted in their dispersion. 5. Culinary and Medicinal herbs.—Like the fruit trees and ornamental garden plants, some of these may have been native species brought under cultivation, while others may have been originally imported, and have since become seemingly wild by diffusion from gardens only. The difficulty of finding another origin for Brassica ole- racea, may help to fix its aboriginal habitat on the coasts of Britain and elsewhere in Western Europe. The in- land localities cited for it, such as the rocks about old castles, may be deemed non-native with little doubt or question. Even the sea-cliffs about towns and other buildings may properly be regarded with some suspicion, when cited as the natural localities of a plant so abun- dantly and anciently cultivated.—Smyrnium Olusatrum occurs under conditions and in places very similar to those where the Cabbage grows. Though now seldom or never cultivated for use, it still lingers about old build- ings, and often in abundance, near to which it likely enough was cultivated in former years. It may indeed VOL. IV. M 82 Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. have truly native localities on rocks and banks about the coast.—Petroselinum sativum is cultivated in every gar- den; springing up profusely from self-sown seeds. It has become established on the sea-cliffs in various places ; and it is seen occasionally about the sites of for- mer gardens inland. Some English botanists have in consequence reported it native; but the greater number of them more correctly consent to regard it as an intro- duced species, naturalised by escape from gardens.—Me- lissa officinalis is always allowed to be an alien, although recorded as if now becoming established in some spots.— Marrubium vulgare is seldom questioned; yet many of its localities are highly to be suspected. A few plants of it, scattered about old farm houses and other country abodes, often represent a recorded locality.— Atropa Bel- ladonna is supposed to be native in some calcareous tracts ; but many of its localities have a very suspicious proximity to old abbeys and monasteries. 6. Way-side plants, &e.—The greater number of sus- pected species belong to the categories of corn-field weeds and garden plants. Some few others of them are seldom or never seen as weeds among field crops, are seldom or never cultivated in gardens. If not native they may have been accidentally introduced among ballast thrown ashore from ships, or intermingled with merchandize of various kinds. Examples are mentioned in the valuable Flora of Hertfordshire, by the Rev. Messieurs Webb and Coleman, of species probably introduced to that county among seeds of flax and cole, brought to the Oil-mills. The ballast deposited in the provinces of Tyne and Hum- ber, by returned coal-vessels, has furnished species to lengthen the list of nominally English plants in those provinces. And botanic gardens have done some little in this way, by introducing weed-like species which might III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 83 otherwise not have been cultivated in England, as the Senecio squalidus and Sisymbriwm polyceratium. Kven botanical herbaria may have been the introducing source of some occasional stragglers. M. De Candolle suspects the fully established Rumex pulcher and Polygonum Con- volvulus, and also several of the Chenopodia, to be of foreign origin in Britain; ideas which may rather sur- prise those English botanists who are so averse to the elimination of doubted*species from our native flora. The same Botanist also thinks, with much probability of correctness here, that Coronopus didyma and Mercuriahs annua are only naturalised aliens in England. But the views of the illustrious Botanist of Geneva will be spe- cially mentioned under succeeding sections. 8. Views of M. Alphonse De Candolle. In the second volume of the Geographie Botanique M. Alphonse De Candolle gives his results from a close examination of the three earlier volumes of the Cybele Britannica, made with especial reference to the conflicting opinions about the aboriginal nativity of the species in Britain, or their introduction into this country by human agency. He compares together the recorded opinions of English botanists, and also takes largely into account the apparent conditions of the same species on the Continent of Europe; adding thereto such other evidences of a less direct kind, chiefly philological and biblical, as may be conceived likely to throw any light upon this obscure subject. He then gives his readers the benefit of his own views, founded upon an examination and comparison of the various data thus brought together. Under these circumstances, it seems to be well worth while to deyote some pages to an exposition of the views 84 Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. entertained, after long and careful investigation of the subject, by a botanist so deservedly inheriting and sup- porting a name of world-wide celebrity. Before giving his views in regard to individual species, which is in- tended to be done presently for the sake of comparison with those intimated in the Cybele, it may be well to make some comments on the method pursued by M. De Candolle, and to inquire how far it is calculated to lead him to satisfactory conclusions. * The distinction between original natives and introduced species, is one of primary importance in geographical bo- tany. On this account the modes and indications resorted to, for separating plants into the two classes, require to be well considered and agreed upon. Botanists cannot yet be said to have fixed rules; although the course of investigation followed by M. De Candolle in his inquiries, does in some measure prescribe such rules or assumed principles. The present writer and M. De Candolle are clearly somewhat opposed in the comparative value or importance which they attach to the rules so set forth by the latter. They differ in regard to the data or evidences on which a reliance should be chiefly placed, in attempt- ing to decide whether given species are native or other- wise in England and elsewhere. For example, M. De Candolle arrives at some of his conclusions, by comparing together the opinions of dif- ferent English botanists. When those opinions are alike, they may then be held evidences entitled to attention. ~ But when those opinions conflict, how can a foreigner then decide between them? He must attempt to do so under great disadvantages, in not being sufficiently aware of the relative degree of trust which ought to be given to the statements and inferences of different botanists here. These disadvantages appear to affect unfavorably the III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 85 conclusions of M. De Candolle in many instances. Not only is there much difference in the fidelity and accuracy with which botanists record their facts, real or supposed, but there are perhaps still more important differences in their capacities for rightly understanding what they do see, and of deducing correct conclusions therefrom. When a botanist records the finding of a suspected species “on ruins,” and forthwith adds also that the locality was “ far from any house,”’— under the apparent wish of leading his ‘readers to concur with him, in supposing the plant a true native there,—in such an instance, the blunder or false inference is so obvious as to become harmless. But there are many hundreds of records in English books, which are either logically unsound or actually untrue, though less obviously so; and many of which could be detected by no foreigner, and even by few English botanists. An Englishman who has specially attended to this sub- ject through a series of years, and who has thus obtained opportunities for seeing many thousands of specimens labelled by British botanists,—who has examined and collated tens of thousands of recorded localities for plants, —and who has in divers instances compared the actual localities with the printed records of them, — must judge under advantages to which it is quite impossible for any foreigner to attain. He ought to be in a much better position for judging how far the individual botanists A, B, C, D, &e. are to be relied upon ;—relied upon, not only for stating their facts clearly and correctly, but also for doing this completely, by the non-omission of circum- stances which may bear importantly upon the proper con- clusions to be deduced from the facts. It is on this account objected to some of M. De Can- dolle’s views, in regard to the nativity or non-nativity of certain species, that the facts themselves do not warrant 86 Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. those views, although the published statements and opinions of A or B or C may to a foreigner fully appear to doso. Examples were occasionally adduced in former volumes of this work, in order to exhibit that want of veracity, or want of carefulness, or want of clear-sighted- - ness, which together have introduced so much that is fal- lacious or positively false into our botanical records. Such examples, by no means all that could have been adduced, may be found under the dozen species named in the annexed list; and truth-seeking botanists will do well to read and ponder them :— Delphinium Consolida, vol. 1, p. 97; vol. 3, p. 377. Koniga maritima, volume 1, page 134. Oxalis stricta, vol. 1, p. 272; vol. 3, p. 403. Geranium striatum, volume 1, page 258. Sempervivum tectorum, volume 1, page 403. Achillea tomentosa, vol. 2, p. 133; vol. 3, p. 463. Gentiana acaulis, volume 2, page 168. Lysimachia ciliata, volume 2, page 298. Tulipa sylvestris, volume 2, page 449. Cynodon Dactylon, volume 3, page 145. Lagurus ovatus, volume 3, page 182. Cynosurus echinatus, volume 3, page 214. Secondly, in deciding upon the claims of plants to be deemed native or otherwise in Britain, M. De Candolle is greatly guided by the records of their occurrence in neigh- bouring portions of the Continent,—in Scandinavia, Ne- therlands, West Germany, and North-west France. Such records may well be admitted as valuable secondary and corroborative evidence, which can usefully be adduced in support of more direct proofs. But they must be held of less authority when brought forward against any primary and positive evidence, afforded by the actual conditions under which the species are observed in Britain itself. Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 87 An illustration of what is here intended may render the argument more clear. A good “ Geographico-Botanical Disquisition” on the plants of Holland was published by Dr. Miquel in 1837. In that work its learned Author enumerates several species which are deemed natives of the Netherlands and Hanover, but which have not been recognised as belonging to the flora of Ergland. If any of those species should occasionally be found in doubtful situations in England, it is still contended that the infe- rences of foreign origin, as drawn from the primary evi- dence afforded by their actual conditions in England, would not be either overbalanced or set aside by the an- tecedent probability of finding them wild here, because they are stated to grow wild in Holland and Hanover. If relying upon such foreign records, in preference over the facts themselves as they appear in Britain, we ought to admit the nativity of Saponaria vaccaria, Coronilla varia, Hyssopus officinalis, and various other plants, hitherto not acknowledged as being really British, al- though they have actually been found in one or more places in England. Nor is it easy to see, if relying upon the indirect evidence, to the extent which M. De Can- dolle seems disposed to rely on it, how we could reject Globularia vulgaris, Lotus siliquosus, Galega officinalis, Cynanchum vincetoxicum, and many other plants on record for Western Europe, if they should hereafter be found in Britain anywhere outside the fences of a garden. A more special example, taken from the work of M. De Candolle himself, may further serviceably illustrate the differences adverted to. He allows that Anemone apennina is only a naturalised plant in Britain; but he does not see reasons suflicient for believing the rarer and less-established Anemone ranunculoides to be so likewise. He states that the latter species is found in Scandinavia, 88 III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Denmark, Netherlands, and Northern France ;—therefore, why not in England? We may allow that its occurrence along Western Europe, in latitudes corresponding with Britain, would give an antecedent probability or expecta- tion that it might also occur wild in Britain. Still, such a mere expectation is no real evidence to be set against the conditions, natural or artificial, under which the spe- cies is truly found in this country. And it is at any rate mainly on the evidence afforded by those conditions, that we ought to decide as to its native origin or otherwise. Notwithstanding the antecedent probability in this in- stance, there seems to be abundant reason for doubting the true nativity of the Anemone ranunculoides in Eng- land, when we find that the three most reliable records locate the plant in or near gardens only. Thus, the Herts locality is described as being “on the lawn in front of a house, not far from the church at Abbots Langley” (Mr. Hincks). In Staffordshire, it was observed “ growing plentifully about the lawn at Steepenhill Vicarage, with Galanthus nivalis” (Mr. Borrer). In Yorkshire, it is “naturalised near a garden at Everingham” (Mr. Back- house). For the other four or five counties we have no sufficient information about the kind of situations in which the plant was found; nor is it quite certain that the species found was rightly named in all of these latter counties. Here, it may be contended, that the facts about the species in Britain are adverse to the idea of A. ranunculoides being truly native ; and that while no better evidences are adduced for Britain, the fact of nativity elsewhere ought not to warrant an inclusion of the spe- cies among our undisputed natives. A second example may be added, in which such records directly oppose the opinion avowed by M. De Candolle, in regard to a reputed British plant; perhaps thus Jil. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 89 opposing an opinion that is in itself correct. In reliance on the general Floras of Britain, and on the statements of several local observers, Stratiotes aloides was treated in the second volume of this work as an unquestioned native of Britain. It is enumerated as such also for Holland in the Disquisition of Dr. Miquel. But M. De Candolle, with much probability, considers this tropical-seeming plant as having been originally brought from Southern Asia. Now, in this instance, would the Author of the Geographie allow any force to the following style of argu- ment ?— Recorded also in Holland; therefore a true native of Britain. Or, conversely, Recorded also in Britain ; therefore a true native of Holland. These two examples may have their usefulness in sug- gesting to readers, who are less conversant in such mat- ters, the need of much caution in deciding upon the condition of a species in one country, by examining the records of its condition in another; especially so if the two countries are disjoined by the present seas. In re- gard to the vegetation of England, the two facts (first) of the seeming nativity of a species on the Continent, and (second) its seeming non-nativity in England, lead toge- ther to an important problem in geographical botany. To take the first datum as a negation of the second da- tum, is surely a solution of the problem more light than logical ? A third kind of evidence, to which M. De Candolle attaches considerable value, is that derived from the terms in which Authors have described the usual situa- tions for the species, whether agrestal, viatical, pratal, &e. If he finds plants only described as occurring “inter segetes,” or in other agrestal situations, he deems them not shown to be native or even properly naturalised species. The more they are recorded beyond these and VOL. IV. N 90 Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. other such artificial situations, the more probable he deems their nativity to be. No doubt there is good dis- crimination in hitting upon this test, provided it be not carried too far, but be kept strictly within the bounds which the actual practices of botanical writers may war- rant. It may be said that such indications ought to be good evidence; and in some future age they may possibly become so. But their present value, as tests of nativity, will vary greatly with different Authors; and they can perhaps very rarely be relied upon with much confidence. As a prevailing custom, Authors of Floras do not seem to be very particular about stating all the situations in which species occur; rather indicating those in which they have been observed most frequently or most conspi- cuously ; and occasionally it is only the one situation indicated on the label of a dried specimen. A notice of the kind of places or situations in which species usually occur, was evidently deemed important to geographical botany in the former volumes of the Cybele . Britannica. This is shown by the endeavour to form a series of single terms for expressing those situations. But their diversity in the case of many species, and the consequent difficulty of comprehending all of them under one or two of those terms, were alluded to in the para- graph immediately following the series of terms proposed (volume 1, page 66). In treating the individual species, there was little endeavour to be exhaustive, by repeating all the terms which might occasionally be applicable to a plant. The object sought was rather that of indicating the usual situations of the species; the abbreviation “&c.”’ being sometimes added, in order to remind readers that the term or terms applied were not to be regarded as exhaustive. Now, it may be asked, ifa writer on geographical botany thus almost unavoidably a Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 91 stops short of enumerating all the situations in which given species occur, is it not highly probable that other writers, whose object was rather descriptive than geo- graphical botany, have frequently done the same? And the doubt implied by the question seems to be especially needful with regard to those authors who wrote in years long past, when such matters were less attended to than is the case in our own time? LEven yet they are very imperfectly attended to; the situations of plants being often stated incorrectly, and very often incompletely. Omissions are perhaps more usual in Floras relating to countries of large extent. Authors of very local Floras not seldom err in a contrary direction, by tran- scribing from larger works, and not sufliciently consider- ing whether the transcribed situations do truly indicate those of their own locality. Dr. Bromfield’s Flora Vectensis is very faulty in this respect; the author re- peatedly stating situations for the species, such as they do not inhabit within the limits of his Flora; although it may be true that elsewhere, as in other parts of England or the Continent, he might have seen them in such situa- ations. Examples where the situations of growth, as . indicated in the Flora Vectensis, cannot be those of the Isle of Wight solely and exclusively, may be seen by reference to those given for Thlaspi arvense, Erodium moschatum, Sedum album, Atropa Belladonna, Mentha sylvestris, Teucrium Chamedrys, &c. And yet M. De Candolle has relied much upon the statements and argu- ments of the late Dr. Bromfield, when judging about the nativity of species in Britain. It is certainly true that Dr. Bromfield wished and endeavoured to be accurate, and that he had a fair appreciation of what is required in geographical botany. But it has previously been re- marked, that the character of his intellect was far from 92 Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. logical. His attempts at reasoning were often superficial and unsound, and his arguments irrelevant. Even in recording facts, and in matters of simple observation, his statements were occasionally inconsistent and self-contra- dictory. He was one of the authors by whom a foreigner would be misled, if relying too implicitly on his writings; although a discerning English botanist may derive use- ful hints and information therefrom. But Dr. Bromfield is not alone. Other English writers have so described the situations of plants, as almost cer- tainly to mislead, if their indications should be trusted as given with perfect accuracy or with exhaustive complete- ness. Some additional examples of this will not be space wasted, if they are received as suggestive hints for greater exactness on the part of future writers. In the second volume of this work Polygonwm Persicaria is entered as “aorestal, inundatal;’’ and Polygonwm lapathifoliwm is designated “ agrestal, inundatal, &c.” In Babington’s Manual of British Botany both species are located alike, ““in waste and damp places.” Assuming these indications to be correct, the two species are found in similar situa- tions in Britain; the second rather more varied in its situations, perhaps, than the first. If we next turn to the English Flora of Smith, — not a careless writer or a despised work, — we shall find the situations of the two species very differently deseribed. Polygonwm Persicaria is there stated to oceur “in ditches, wet fields, and watery places, common”; and the Polygonum lapathifolium is indicated ‘“‘in cultivated ground, especially such as is rich and moist, and on dung-hills.” How would these differences of indication influence the foreign phyto-geographer, who should rely upon them as tests of nativity or non-nativity of the two species in Britain? Looking to the Cybele or to the Manual, he Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 93 might believe that both species occur under similar con- ditions, and that they are thus equally entitled to be called natives ; namely, on faith of the second term and form of expression used, “ inundatal”’ and “‘ damp places,” in addition to cultivated ground. But if he should look to the English Flora, with the eyes of M. De Candolle, he must pronounce the P. Persicaria to be undoubtedly native; while he should hold the P. lapathifolium as evi- dently introduced, and even still very imperfectly natu- ralised. The English Flora is a publication of older date (1824 —1828) than those chiefly referred to in the Geographie Botanique for ascertaining the actual condition of plants in Britain. But it will be easy to prove that very recent authors, up to the date of M. De Candolle’s own volumes, have followed no regular rule or principle in giving such indications. The annexed two series of indications (pages 94, 95) are taken from the third edition of Babing- ton’s Manual of British Botany; a work, frequently, and not undeservedly, quoted in the Geographie Botanique. The third edition is the one immediately preceding the date of M. De Candolle’s great work. The first of the two series contains the names of twenty-five species which are considered by M. De Candolle to have been introduced into Britain, more or less certainly so; and in his view only few of them ought even yet to be held fully naturalised. The second series consists of an equal number of species, the nativity of which is unquestioned by English botanists, except in very few instances; and in the questioned instances M. De Candolle has decided more or less confidently in favour of their nativity. By taking these fifty species in pairs, as numbered, it will be seen that their situations of growth are described in almost the same manner for the (presumed) Introductions 94 II. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 1. Species introduced to Britain (A. De Candolle, &c.) ;—with the indications of station from Manual, 3rd edition.’ . Fumaria officinalis. Common. . Valerianella Auricula. Cultivated land. . Polygonum Convolvulus. Cultivated and waste land. . Euphorbia Helioscopea. Waste and cultivated land. . Mercurialis annua. Waste and cultivated land. . Valerianella olitoria. Corn-fields and banks. Melampyrum arvense. Corn-fields and dry banks. . Fumaria micrantha. Fields. CSOnNROar WO WD . Scandix Pecten Veneris. Fields. . Euphorbia platyphyHos. Fields. . Papaver hybridum. Sandy fields. Hee to =e Apera Spica-venti. Sandy fields. . Silene noctiflora. Sandy and gravelly fields. — > co . Linaria minor. Sandy and gravelly fields. i Or . Antirrhinum Orontium. Dry sandy and gravelly fields. a Oo . Ajuga Chamepitys. Sandy and chalky fields. py ~ . Geranium pyrenaicum. Road-sides and pastures. = @ . Lycopsis arvensis. Fields and hedges. i co . Serophularia vernalis. Waste places. 2» i) . Rumex pulcher. Dry waste places. ~w pa . Asperugo procumbens. Rich waste ground. . Anthemis Cotula. Fields and waste places. 3. Filago gallica. Dry gravelly places, very rare. . Medicago falcata. Sandy and gravelly places. . Melilotus vulgaris. Sandy and gravelly places near the sea. ww Ww WD oOo B CO Ww and for the (presumed) Natives. Consequently, such records in descriptive works are so far shown to be no real and safe tests, by which to separate the native and introduced plants of this country, or to distinguish the non-naturalised species from the rest. Such illustrations might be increased to a large extent from botanical writings, and from the works of foreigners as well as from those of English botanists. But without occupying more pages with them here, it is conceived that examples enough have been adduced, for the pur- hae III, INTRODUCED SPECIES. 95 2. Species reputed native in Britain; —with the indications of station from Manual, edition 3. . Stellaria media. Common. . Aithusa Cynapium. Cultivated land. Sinapis alba. Cultivated and waste land. (A. De C.) . Lapsana communis. Waste and cultivated land. . Lamium purpureum. Waste and cultivated ground. . Bartsia Odontites. Corn-fields and waste places. . Cerastium glomeratum. Fields and banks. . Knautia arvensis. Fields. . Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum. Fields. . Cerastium triviale. Fields. . Scleranthus annuus. Sandy fields. . Muscari racemosum. Sandy fields. (A. De C.) . Silene anglica. Sandy and gravelly fields. . Arnoseris pusilla. Gravelly and sandy fields, rare. . Alchemilla arvensis. Dry fields on sand and gravel. Linum angustifolium. Sandy and chalky places. . Thlaspi arvense. Fields and road-sides. (A. De C.) . Myosotis arvensis. Cultivated land and thickets. . Arctium minus. Waste places. . Cynoglossum officinale. Waste ground. Diplotaxis muralis. Waste ground. (A. De C.) Plantago major. Fields and waste places. Filago minima. Dry sandy and gravelly places. 24. Veronica arvensis. Gravelly and sandy places. SCmONOaotr OD wDwYW DDH H HEHEHE ee ee BNRPOSOSDBRAAXTREHD NHS 25. Erodium maritimum. Sandy and grayelly places, particularly near the sea. ° pose of showing how uncertain may be any conclusions respecting the nativity and naturalisation of plants in Britain, which are deduced from such notices and re- cords. It is not because the suggestions of M. De Can- dolle are in themselves deemed to be unphilosophical, that exception is thus taken against their application to the botany of Britain; but because the data placed on record by other authors, — most of them writing for de- seriptive rather than geographical botany, —are too in- exact and empirical, to admit of that full reliance being 96 III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. given to them, which is essential in the style of argument resorted to by M. De Candolle. The term “ situation” is here used for the kind or sort of places in which plants occur. The word “station” is current among Continen- tal botanists, and must probably be adopted by those of England, though not so applicable in our language. We ordinarily mean the exact or special spot, rather than the kind of place, by the word “station”; as when speaking of a railway-station, or police-station, or view- ing station, &c. In the subjoined list of introduced and dubiously na- tive species, it is endeavoured to institute a comparison between the conclusions drawn by M. De Candolle and those given in this work, on the nativity of the species. In regard to several of them it is not easy to reduce the views of M. De Candolle to the brevity of one or two words set in column, without risk of giving those views somewhat incorrectly, or at least in terms too little qualified ; because the Author of the Geographie Botani- que often balances the opinions of others, without stating his own in explicit terms. His primary object was to select a list of species which could be regarded as “either certainly or probably naturalised” in Britain. In the Geographie these are distinguished by a difference of type, and may be known in the subjoined list by the single term “ Naturalised.” But from these, it must be recollected, M. De Candolle excludes the corn-field or agricultural weeds as being not yet actually naturalised. The word “Introduced” is used for such species, the colonists of the present work, and for various others which are known or supposed to be of foreign origin. The first column of the List includes the names of all the species, which are more or less strongly suspected to Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 97 owe their existence in Britain to human agency; some few very uncertain stragglers, seldom mentioned in books, being omitted. The second column repeats the terms applied to the species in former volumes of this work ; an (enclosed) abbreviation being added occasion- ally, in order now to suggest a change to another term, instead of the one before applied. shows the opinion of M. De Candolle compressed into one or two words, so far as this can be done from the re- marks made on the plants in the Geographie Botanique. The third column Distrusted Species. Cybele, 1, 2,3(4). ~ Geographie Botanique. Anemone apennina. Alien. Naturalised. ranunculoides. Alien. Probably native. Adonis autumnalis. Colonist. Introduced. Ranunculus arvensis. Colonist. Introduced. Erauthis hyemalis. Alien. Introduced. Helleborus viridis. Denizen. Probably native. feetidus. Denizen. Probably native. Delphinium Consolida ? Colonist. Introduced. Aconitum Napellus. Denizen. Naturalised. Peonia corallina. Den. (Aln.) Naturalised. Berberis vulgaris. Denizen. Probably native. Epimedium alpinum. Alien. Papaver hybridum. Colonist. Tntroduced. Argemone. Colonist. Introduced. dubium. Colonist. Introduced. Rheeas. Colonist. Introduced. somniferum. Alien ? Introduced. Chelidonium majus.. Denizen. Probably native. Glaucium vivlaceum. Alien. Introduced. Corydalis lutea. Alien. Naturalised. solida. Alien. Introduced. Fumaria capreolata. Native ? Introduced. officinalis. Native? Introduced. micrantha. Native ? Introduced. parviflora. Native? Introduced. Vaillantii. Native ? Introduced. VOL. IV. oO 98 Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Crambe orientalis. Coronopus didyma. Tsatis tinctoria. Thlaspi arvense. Iberis amara. Lepidium latifolium. Draba. ruderale. sativum. Armoracia rusticana. Camelina sativa, &c. Koniga maritima. Alyssum calycinum. Arabis Turrita. Barbarea precox. Sisymbrium Irio. polyceratium. Erysimum cheiranthoides. virgatum. orientale. Cheiranthus Cheiri. Mathiola incana. Malcolmia maritima. Hesperis matronalis. Brassica oleracea. campestris. Rapa. Napus. Sinapis alba. tenuifolia. muralis. Raphanus Raphanistrum. Reseda fruticulosa. Phyteuma. Viola odorata. Dianthus Armeria. plumarius. Caryophyllus. Saponaria officinalis. Cybele. Alien. Nat. (Den.) Alien. Colonist. Colonist. Native ? (!) Alien. Nat. (Den.) Alien. Alien. Aliens. Alien.. Alien. Alien. Alien. Denizen. Alien. Col. (Den.) Alien. Alien. Alien. Denizen. Alien. Alien. Denizen. Colonist. Cult. var. Colonist. Colonist. Denizen. Denizen. Colonist. Alien. Alien. Den. (Nat.) Native (?) Alien. Alien. Denizen. Geographie. Tntroduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Probably native. Introduced. Doubtless native. Introduced. Naturalised. Introduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Naturalised. Probably native. Old native. Naturalised. Probably native. Introduced. Introduced. Naturalised. Perhaps native. Introduced. Perhaps native. Old native. Introduced. Introduced. Probably native. Probably native. Probably native. Introduced. Native. Natu ralised. Naturalised. Naturalised. II. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Saponaria vacearia. Cucubulus baccifer. Silene italica. noctiflora. Lychnis Githago. Linum usitatissimum. Malva verticillata. Althea hirsuta. Tilia parvifolia. europea. grandifolia. Hypericum calycinum. Acer Pseudoplatanus. Erodium moschatum. Geranium striatum. pheum. pyrenaicum. Impatiens Noli. fulva. Oxalis corniculata. stricta. Staphylea pinnata. Ononis reclinata. Medicago sativa. sylvestris. falcata. denticulata. Melilotus officinalis. arvensis. vulgaris. Trifolium elegans. resupinatum. stellatum. tomentosum. Scorpiurus subvillosus. Tathyrus Aphaca. hirsutus. latifolius. Prunus avium. Cybele. Alien. Alien. Aln. (Den.) Colonist. Colonist. Alien. Alien. Alien. Denizen. Alien ? Alien ? Alien. Alien ? (!) Den. (Nat.) Alien. Alien. Denizen. Native? Alien. Den. (Aln.) Alien. Alien. Alien. Alien. Denizen. Denizen. Nat. (Den.) Denizen. Denizen. Aln. (Den.) Alien. Alien. Alien. Alien. Alien. Nat, (Den.) Native ? Alien. Denizen. 99 Geographie. Introduced. Introduced. Naturalised. Introduced. Introduced. Introduced. Naturalised. Perhaps native. Perhaps native. Perhaps native. Introduced. Naturalised. Perhaps native. Naturalised. Naturalised. Naturalised. Introduced. Naturalised. Introduced. Introduced. Introduced. Probably native. Introduced. Introduced. Tutroduced. Tntroduced. Perhaps introduced. Spirza salicifolia. Fragaria elatior. Rosa cinnamomea. lucida. Mespilus germanica. Pyrus communis. domestica. (nothera biennis. Tamarix anglica. Claytonia perfoliata. Ribes nigrum. Grossularia. Sedum dasyphyllum. album. sexangulare. reflexum. Sempervivum tectorum. Saxifraga Geum. umbrosa. Eryngium campestre. Astrantia major. Smyrnium Olusatrum. Petroselinum sativum. Aigopodium Podagraria. Carum Carui. Bupleurum falcatum. rotundifolium. Feniculum vulgare. Peucedanum Ostruthium. Tordylium maximum. Caucalis daucoides. Turgenia latifolia. Torilis infesta. Scandix Pecten. Anthriscus Cerefolium. Myrrhis odorata. Coriandrum sativum. Sambucus Ebulus. Lonicera Caprifolium. Cybele. Alien. Alien. Alien. Alien. Denizen? Denizen. Alien. Alien, Alien. Alien. Denizen. Denizen. Alien ? Aln. (Den.) Alien ? Nat. (Den.) Alien. Alien. Alien ? Aln. (Den.) Alien ? Denizen ? Alien. Native ? Aln. (Den.) Alien ? Colonist. Native ? Alien ? Denizen. Colonist. Col. (Aln.) Nat. (Col.) Colonist. Alien. Denizen. Alien. Denizen. Alien ? 100 III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Geographie. Doubtful. Introduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Native. Native. - Naturalised. Naturalised. Naturalised. Perhaps native. Naturalised. Probably native. Naturalised. Probably native. Probably native. Introduced. Native. Probably native. Perhaps native. Introduced. Introduced. Introduced. Introduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Probably native. Naturalised. Il. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Lonicera Xylosteum. Galium tricorne. Vaillantii. Asperula taurina. arvensis. Centranthus ruber. Calcitrapa. Valeriana pyrenaica. Fedia olitoria. carinata. Auricula. dentata. Tragopogon porrifolius. Lactuca Scariola. Hieracium aurantiacum. amplexicaule. Barkhausia setosa. Carduus Marianus. Onopordum Acanthium. Centaurea montana. Cyanus. solstitialis. naphalium margari m. Gnaphalium margaritaceum luteo-album. Filago gallica. Petasites albus. fragrans. Erigeron canadensis. Senecio squalidus. saracenicus ? Doronicum Pardalianches. plantagineum, Chrysanthemum segetum Pyrethrum Parthenium. Anthemis tinctoria. arvensis. Cotula. Achillea tomentosa, tanacetifolia, Cybele. Nat. (Aln.) Colonist. Colonist. Alien. Alien. Alien. Alien. Alien. Nat. (Den.) Den. (Aln.) Colonist. Colonist. Den. (Aln.) Native? Alien. Alien. Alien. Den. (Aln.) Native ? Alien. Colonist. Alien. Den. (Aln.) Alien. Col. (Aln.) Alien. Alien. Alien. Alien. Denizen. Alien. Alien. Colonist. Denizen. Alien. Nat. (Col.) Nat. (Col.) Nat. (Aln.) Nat. (Aln.) Geographie. Naturalised. Undecided. Undecided. Naturalised. Introduced. Naturalised. Introduced. Naturalised. Tutroduced. Introduced. Naturalised. Undecided. Naturalised. Introduced. Introduced. Naturalised. Introduced. Introduced. Introduced. Naturalised. Introduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Naturalised. Naturalised. Probably native. Probably native. Probably native. Introduced. Naturalised. Tntroduced. Undecided. Tntroduced. Introduced. 101 Xanthium Strumarium. Campanula Rapunculus. persicifolia. Specularia hybrida. Vinca minor. major. Cuscuta Epilinum. Trifolii. corymbosa. Avropa Belladonna. Datura Stramonium. Physalis Alkekenji. Lycium barbarum. Verbascum Blattaria. virgatum. pheniceum. Veronica Buxbaumii. Melampyrum arvense. Scrophularia vernalis. Antirrhinum majus. Orontium. Linaria Cymbalaria. spuria. Elatine. purpurea. supina. minor. Mimulus luteus. Orobanche ramosa. Acanthus mollis. Salvia pratensis. Mentha sylvestris. viridis. Melissa officinalis. Teucrium Chamedtrys. Botrys. Ajuga Chamepitys. Leonurus Cardiaca. Lamium maculatum. Cybele. Alien. Denizen. Alien. Nat. (Col.) Denizen. Alien. Col. (Aln.) Colonist ? Alien. Denizen. Alien. Alien. Alien. Denizen. Denizen. Alien. Aln. (Col.) Nat. (Col.) Den. (Aln.) Alien. Nat. (Col.) Alien. Nat. (Col.) Nat. (Col.) Alien. Alien. Nat. (Col.) Alien. Alien ? (!) Alien. Denizen. Native (?) Denizen. Alien. _ Alien. Native ? Nat. (Col.) Den. (Aln.) Alien. 102 III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Geographie. Perhaps native. Probably native. Introduced. Native. Naturalised. Introduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Introduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Introduced. Naturalised. Introduced. Introduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Tntroduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Perhaps uative. Garden variety. Introduced. Introduced. Probably introduced. Introduced. Perhaps introduced. Naturalised. Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Galeopsis Ladanum. ochroleuca. Stachys germanica. arvensis. Marrubium vulgare. Lithospermum arvense. Symphytum asperrimum. Borago officinalis. Lycopsis arvensis. Anchusa officinalis. sempervirens. Asperuga procumbens. Echinospermum Lappula. deflexum. Cynoglossum Omphalodes. Pulmonariza officinalis. Cyclamen hederifolium, Lysimachia ciliata. punctata. Anagallis arvensis. cerulea. Amaranthus Blitum. Chenopodium Henricus. polyspermum. Chenopodia (varia). Atriplex hortensis. nitens. Polygonum Convolvulus. dumetorum. Fagopyrum. Rumex alpinus. . pulcher. scutatus. Daphne Mezereum. Asarum europeum. Aristolochia Clematitis. Euphorbia Helioscopea. platypbyllos. coralloides. Cybele. Nat. (Col.) Colonist. Native ? Nat. (Col.) Native ? Nat. (Col.) Alien. Alien. Nat. (Col.) Alien. Denizen. Denizen. Alien. Alien. Alien. Alien. Dep. (Aln.) Alien. Alien. Native (?) Colonist. Alien. Native ? Nat. (Col.) Natives (?) Alien. Alien. Native (?) Native (?) Alien. Alien. Native (?) Alien. Denizen. Denizen. Alien. Nat. (Col.) Colonist. Alien. 103 Geographie. Probably native. Introduced. Introduced. Introduced. Introduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Naturalised. Naturalised. Introduced. Perhaps introduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Undecided. Undecided. Introduced. Probably native. From the East. From the East. From the East. From West Asia. Probably native. Introduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Naturalised. Probably native. Probably native. Naturalised. Introduced. Introduced. 104 III. Euphorbia Esula. Cyparissias. exigua. Peplus. Lathyris. dulcis, &c. Buxussempervirens. Mercurialis annua. Urtica pilulifera. Humulus Lupulus. Castanea vulgaris. Populus nigra. Salix cuspidata. undulata. acuminata. Crocus vernus, &c. nudiflorus. Tris tuberosa. xiphioides. Narcissus poeticus. biflorus. incomparabilis. minor, &c. Galanthus nivalis. Leucojum estivum. Lilium pyrenaicum. Martagon. Tulipa sylvestris. Fritillaria Meleagris. Allium ampeloprasum. Babingtonii. ambiguum. Ornithogalum umbellatum. nutans. Muscari racemosum. Simethis bicolor. Convallaria bifolia. Stratiotes aloides. Anacharis Alsinastrum. Cybele. Nat. (Aln.) Alien. Nat. (Col.) Nat. (Col.) Alien. Aliens. Denizen. Native (?) Alien. Denizen. Alien. Nat. (Aln.) Alien. Native ? Native (?) Aliens. Aln. (Den.) Alien. Alien. Alien. Alien. Alien. Aliens. Alien? Denizen. Alien. Alien. Alien ? Native ? Alien. Alien. Alien. Alien. Alien. Aln. (Den.) Native? Alien. Nat. (Den.) Den. (Aln.) ~ INTRODUCED SPECIES. Geographie. Naturalised ? Naturalised. Introduced. Naturalised. Introduced. Undecided. Naturalised. Naturalised. Native. Undecided. Naturalised. Naturalised. Naturalised. Naturalised. Naturalised. Naturalised. Probably native. Introduced ? Introduced. Naturalised. Naturalised. Perhaps native. Naturalised. Naturalised. Introduced. Naturalised. Perhaps native. Native. From Asia. Naturalised. Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 105 Cybele. Geographie. Luzula nivea. Alien. Introduced. ’ Spartina alterniflora. Aln. (Den.) Undecided. Digitaria sanguinalis. Alien. Introduced ? humifusa. Denizen. Undecided. Panicum Crus-galli. Alien. Introduced. Setaria viridis. Denizen. Undecided. verticillata. Alien. Introduced. glauca. Alien. Introduced. Phalaris canariensis. Alien. Introduced. paradoxa. Alien. Alopecurus agrestis. Colonist ? Apera Spica-venti. Colonist. interrupta. Colonist. Avena fatua. Colonist. strigosa. Alien. Introduced. Briza minor. . Nat. (Col.) Introduced. Cynosurus echinatus. Alien. Bromus secalinus. Colonist. arvensis, &c. Aliens. Lolium temulentum. Colonist. Introduced ? linicola. Alien. italicum. Alien. Cistopteris alpina. Alien ? Onoclea sensibilis. Alien. According to the Cybele Britannica, as above :— Aliens, 180. Colonists, 54. Denizens, 60. Natives, more or less questionably so, 30. According to the Geographie Botanique :— Naturalised, 83. Not noticed, &c., 92. Introduced, or probably introduced, 100. Native, possibly or probably so, 47. After making the requisite allowance for the different objects sought, and the difference of terms used in the two works, the accordance between the Cybele and the Geographie is satisfactorily close. The discordances are VOL. Iv. P 106 Ill. INTRODUCED SPECIES. mostly explained by the different views on the compara- tive value of the evidences or data, as set forth in the two works. The instances are few, where aliens or colonists of the Cybele are held natives by the Geographie; or where the natives of the Cybele are reduced to lower po- sition in the Geographie; although instances of each kind do occur. It is likely that English botanists, while looking over the list, will feel some surprise at the opinions of M. De Candolle in relation to the nativity or naturalisation of several of the species. They will be reluctant to admit» his idea, that Anemone ranunculoides and Stachys germa- nica are more likely native here, than are Fedia olitoria and Fumaria officinalis. They will scarcely concur with him in holding that Papaver dubiwm and Raphanus Ra- phanistrum are less entitled to be held naturalised spe- cies, than are Ginothera biennis and Tragopogon porri- folius; all four being alike excluded from the native category. A second list of the distrusted species, pre- sently to be given, will enable readers to compare the current opinions of various English botanists with those evinced in the Cybele and the Geographie. That the Author of the former dissents from the conclusions arrived at by the Author of the Geographie, in several instances, is sufficiently apparent from the preceding list. For example, he cannot admit that Thlaspi arvense and Barbarea precoxz present more appearance or probability of being native, than do Rumex pulcher and Linaria Ela- tine ; though it is quite possible that these two latter are properly deemed introduced plants; the former of these two having a very interrupted or scattered distribution by road-sides, and the latter being chiefly limited to worked ground. On the contrary, it is admitted that M. De Candolle may have been more correct in removing III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 107 the Coronopus didyma and Stratiotes aloides from the native category, in which they had been placed in the earlier volumes of this work, in accordance with the - usual ideas of English botanists about them. 4. Views of English Botanists. The views of English botanists, in regard to the nati- vity of the species which now compose the flora of Britain, are for the most part very imperfect and empiri- cal; being guesses emanating from observations made too locally, and too little corrected by comprehensive views in science. Still, the collective opinions of good observers in British botany ought to possess some value, and ought to be allowed their full weight in balancing the ' probabilities of certain species being aboriginal natives or otherwise. Accordingly, it has been deemed worth while to repeat the list of introduced and distrusted plants, in order to give a condensed summary of the views of various English botanists, both general and local. The names of plants in the second list, subjoined, are repeti- tions of those in the former list. They are followed by three treble columns of abbreviations ; each column being subdivisible into three series. The First of the three columns compares the opinions entertained by the Author of this work, — by Mr. C. C. Babington, as set forth in the fourth edition of the Manual of British Botany, —and by Professor Henslow, — as indicated in his Catalogue of British Plants, published in 1835. The two latter Authors distinguish the plants into four classes or divisions; namely, native—possibly introduced — certainly introduced— disregarded or dis- carded from the flora of Britain. The usual terms ap- plied to designate the predial (civil or national) claims of 108 III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. the species in the present work, having been given in the former list, four other terms are here substituted, for more ready comparison with the definitions and terms used by Henslow and Babington; from which they still differ, however, in one respect, that of placing two de- grees (possibly and probably introduced) between the native and certainly introduced species. The incognits or discarded species of the Cybele are left out of the lists. The abbreviations are intelligible enough, being simply the three first letters in the series of terms. It is to be kept in recollection that the indications in this first column are general; relating to the whole of Britain. The Second column, where numerals are employed, is founded upon twenty-eight local lists of plants, for small tracts of country, spotted about various parts of Britain, from the southern coasts of England, northwards to Nairn and Elgin in Scotland. All these lists are marked so as to distinguish the local conditions of the species into three categories or classes; namely, native — du- biously native — introduced. The number of such lists, among the whole twenty-eight, in which the species are so noted, is shown in the column of numerals. It will be seen by the cipher that many of the distrusted natives are absent from all the twenty-eight local tracts; while others are found in only few of them; circumstances which do not tend to lessen the distrust of their true nativity. The history of these twenty-eight lists is shortly thus. In order to obtain a greater amount of information about local botany, than could be acquired from the published Floras and other data alone, printed lists of British plants were sent to many of the provincial botanists, with a request that they would mark the names of species known to them as occurring within a defined space. Most usually the area selected was that com- III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 109 prised within a circle of three or more miles distance, traced around their own towns or abodes; larger spaces being sometimes taken instead, according to individual preference or convenience. From the catalogues thus kindly supplied, have been selected the twenty-eight used in the subjoined list. Contrary to the first column, it must be recollected, the second one sums up into nume- rical figures the local conditions of the species. The Third column also exhibits the local conditions of the plants, doing this singly and individually for three tracts. The Collectanea for a Flora of Moray has been before alluded to, as the first publication on local botany in which advanced views were shown in regard to the native or accidental occurrence of the species in the tract of country to which it relates. Only three divisions were made in that work, namely, ‘ native— dubious — intro- duced.’ But the application of the two latter of these three terms is made with much freedom and clearness of view. Moray is nearly equivalent to the sub-province of North-east Highlands. — More recently, in the Supple- ment to the Flora of Yorkshire, Mr. J. G. Baker has adopted the terms used in the Cybele Britannica, and ap- plied them (with the necessary variations in use) to ex- press the local conditions of the species in that county and province. So that we can thus find two spaces in the north and middle of Britain, the floras of which can be compared together, with reference to questions about the nativity of the species.— Henslow’s Catalogue of British Plants will again assist our inquiries here ; being made to serve also (by marks post-fixed to the names) as a list for the county of Cambridge ; and thus affording a third space for comparison with the other two, more southward on the same side of Britain. In attaching the marks to the names of species, as components of the 110 III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Cambridge flora, Professor Henslow was on his own ground, and less dependent on the often -misleading Thus, in the third column of records of other botanists. the subjoined List, we have the individual views of the Reverend George Gordon (jointly with Mr. W. A. Stables), of Mr. J. G. Baker, and of Professor J. S. Henslow ; — each for his own district, Moray, Yorkshire, Cambridge- shire. Anemone apennina. ranunculoides. Adonis antumnalis. Ranunculus arvensis. Erauthis hyemalis. Helleborus viridis. foetidus. Delphinium Ajacis ? Aconitum Napellus. Peonia corallina. Berberis vulgaris. Epimedium alpinum. Papaver hybridum. Argemone. dubium. Rheas. somniferum. Chelidonium majus. Glaucium vivlaceum. Corydalis lutea. solida. Fumaria caprevlata. officinalis. micrantha. parviflora. Vaillantii. Crambe orientalis, Coronopus didyma. Isalis linctoria. Wats. cer. pro. pro. pro. cer. pos. pos. pro. pro. cer. pos. cer. pro. pro. pro. pro. cer. pro. pro. cer. cer. pos. pos. pro. pro. pro. cer. pro. pro. Bab cer. cer. pos. pos. cer. nat. nat. pos. pos. cer. nat. dis. nat. nat. nat. nat. pos. nat. pos. cer. cer. nat. nat. Nat. nat. nat. dis. nat. pos. . Hens. cer. nat. cer. dis. pos. cer. pos. nat. dis. pos. pos. pos. cer. pos. cer. cer. pos. pos. pos. pos. dis. nat. cer. pos. nat. nat. pos. pos. pos. Nat. Dub. Int. 0 0 ~Aorcoounony (S) — 20 0 Sompoecowoownw SO Sor OP OC MHMr COTO TC Of =) — a — a a) Sormrocecoocevnvcre tuoooorudcdwwownwvwwnowss Cam. York. aln. vet sala pos. col. pos. nat. pos. den pos. aln. aln. nat. den aln. pos. col. pos. col. pos. col. pos. col. cer. aln. pos. den exc. aln. aln. pos. nat.? pos. nat.? pos. ine. aln, exc, Mor. III. Thlaspi arvense. Tberis amara. Lepidium Draba. tuderale. sativum. Armoracia rusticana. Camelina sativa, &c. Koniga maritima. Alyssum calycinum. Arabis Turrita. Barbarea precox. Sisymbrium Irio. polyceratiu. Erysimum cheiranthoid. virgatum. orientale. Cheiranthus Cheiri. Mathiola incana. Malcolmia maritima. Hesperis matronalis. Brassica oleracea. campestris. Rapa. Napus. Sinapis alba. tenuifolia. muralis. Raphanus Raphanistrum. Reseda fruticulosa. Phyteuma. Viola odorata. Dianthus Armeria. plumarius. Caryophyllus. Saponaria officinalis. vaccaria. Cucubulus baccifer. Silene italica. noctiflora. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Wats. Bab. pos. pro. cer, pro. cer. cer. cer. cer. pro. cer. pro. pos. cer. pos. cer, cer. pro. pos. cer. pro. pos. pos. cer, pro. pro. pos. pos. pro. cer. cer. pos. pos. cer. cer. pro. cer. cer. pos. pro. nat. nat, cer. nat. dis. nat. dis. cer. nat. cer. nat. nat. cer. nat. dis. cer. pos. nat. dis. pos. nat. nat. var. nat. nat. nat. nat. nat. pos. dis. nat. nat. pos. pos. nat. dis. dis. dis. nat. Hens. pos. cer. cer. nal. dis. cer. Nat. Dub. Int. 13 maw RO OrWST CH OFYP RKP COTO CO CO OF CO SO — w vo eFeoocoooorvac = 0 weooownoooroocorwmewWWrOe TNO OW OCCrFP CCF TD KF O’R OK OO 1 mereP oor oocoeoco rr CLC OCUCUOCOCUNN AN HOH eK SG coon oO oOo oO ON COCO OAS ~ ~— nat. itt + York. Mor. col, nat. ale.) is aint © Aliis! vse aln. aloe oss aln. cer. aln. aln. aln. dub aln. cer den col. col. cer col. cer col. den. ... col. dub den. . nat. . aln ine. den. cer. alnt col. iS II. Lychnis Githago. Linum usitatissimum. Malva verticillata. Althza hirsuta. Tilia parvifolia. europea. grandifolia. Hypericum calycinum. Acer Pseudoplatanus. Erodium moschatum. Geranium striatum. pheum. pyrenaicum. Impatiens Noli. fulva. Oxalis corniculata. stricta. Staphylea pinnata. Ononis reclinata. Medicago sativa. sylvestris. falcata. denticulata. Melilotus officinalis. arvensis. vulgaris. Trifolium elegans. resupinatum. stellatum. tomentosum. Scorpiurus subvillosus. Lathyrus Aphaca. hirsutus. latifolius. Prunus avium. Spirzea salicifolia. Fragaria elatior. Rosa cinnamomea. lucida. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Wats. pro. cer. cer. pro. pos. pro. pro. cer. pro. nat. cer. pro. pos. pos. cer. pro. pro. cer. pro. cer. pro. pro. pos. pos. pro. pro. cer. cer. pro. cer. cer. pro. pos. cer. pos. pro. pro. cer. cer. Bab. nat. cer. dis. pos. nat. cer. cer. cer. pos. nat. dis. nat. nat. nat. cer. nat. dis. dis. nat. cer. nat. nat. nat. nat. nat. nat. dis. dis. pos. dis. dis. nat. nat. dis. nat. pos. pos. dis. dis. Hens. pos. dis. dis. cer. nat. dis. dis. dis. cer. nat. dis. nat. nat. Nat. cer. cer. dis. dis. Nat. Dub. Int. Zino. 2 eal 13 Orne0” 0 Hep 10 212 1 412 Le oe Me OO 3 2°8 10 4..4° 0 Iged 0 as Mae 6)H0) i2 0 0 38 Oy 0 Iw 2 10 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 110 Om0.="0 lyn. -O 30. 0 16, 2 1 0 0 0 23 3 0 0 0 Om0, 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oms0- 40 3 0 0 Om, 70 0 0 0 1492 ol 0 2 5 Lal 40 0 0 0 0680 20 « Mor. ees II. Mespilus germanica, Pyrus communis. domestica. Cnothera biennis. Tamarix anglica. Claytonia perfoliata. Ribes nigrum. Grossularia, Sedum dasyphyllum. album. sexangulare. reflexum. Sempervivum tectorum. Saxifraga Geum. umbrosa. Eryngium campestre. Astrantia major. Smyrnium Olusatrum. Petroselinum sativum. Aigopodium Podagraria. Carum Carui. Bupleurum falcatum. rotundifoliu. Feniculum vulgare. Peucedanum Ostruthiu. Tordylium maximum. Caucalis daucoides. Turgenia latifolia. Torilis infesta. Scandix Pecten. Anthriscus Cerefolium. Myrrhis odorata. Coriandrum sativum. Sambucus Ebulus. Lonicera Caprifolium. Xylosteum. Galium tricorne. Vaillantii. Asperula taurina. "VOL. IV. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Wats. Bab. nat. pro. pro. cer. cer. cer. cer. pro. pro. pro. pro. pro. pro. cer. cer. pro. pos. pro. pos. cer. pos. pro. pro. pro. pos. pro. pos. pro. cer. pro. pro. cer. pos. cer. pos. pro. pro. pro. pro. cer. nat. dis. cer. pos. dis. nat. pos. nat. nat. dis. nat. dis. dis. pos. nat. Hens. cer. pat. nat. cer. pos. dis. nat. cer. nat. nat. POS. «+ nat, pos. nat. pos. nat, nat. nat. pos. nat. nat. pos. nat. nat. pos. nat. cer. nat. pos. nat. nat. nat. cer, Nat. Dub. Int, len 2 O 6 lr 0 000 On 0. 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.5 2 Bas 9 yO 1 2a 6 I 0 0 0 13 1 3 3.319 0 0 0 Ly 20 Og,0>1 00 0 6.2 0 3 0 9 20 4 0 03 4 D.0-0 Byka.0 Myth 2 Og z 0 0 0 Lip ale..0 0. 0,,.0 10, .0,,,0 V9 BD 2:0 0 8 0 2 0», 0: 1 D0: at LO .2 Bel yd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cam. exc. 113 York. ‘aln. den. aln. Q Mor. 114 III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Wats. Asperula arvensis. cer. Centranthus ruber. cer. Calcitrapa. cer. Valeriana pyrenaica. cer. Fedia olitoria. pos. carinata. pro. Auricula. pro. dentata. pro. Tragopogon porrifolius. pro. Lactuca Scariola. pos. Hieracium aurantiacum. cer. amplexicaule. cer. Barkhausia setosa. cer. Carduus Marianus. pro. Onopordum Acanthium. pos. Centaurea montana. cer. Cyanus. pro. solstitialis. cer. Antennaria margaritac. cer. Gnaphalium luteo-album. cer. Filago gallica. pro. Petasites albus. cer. fragrans. cer. Erigeron canadensis. cer. Senecio squalidus. cer. saracenicus ? pro. Doronicum Pardalianch. pro. plantagineu. pro. Chrysanthemum segetum. pro. Pyrethrum Parthenium. pro. Anthemis tinctoria. cer. arvensis. pro. Cotula. pos. Achillea tomentosa. cer. tanacetifolia. pro. Xanthium Strumarium. pro. Campanula Rapunculus. pos. persicifolia. cer. Specularia hybrida. pro. Bab. dis. pos. dis. cer. nat. nat. nat. nat. pos. nat. cer. dis. dis. nat. nat. dis. nat. cer. pos. nat. nat. dis. dis. cer. cer. nat. pos. pos. nat. nat. dis. nat. nat. cer. nat. dis. nat. cer. nat. Hens. dis. cer. dis. cer. pos. pos. pos. pos. pos. nat. pos. pos. dis. nat. nat. dis. pos. cer. pos. dis. dis. dis. dis. cer. cer. nat. pos. pos. pos. nat. nat. Nat. Dub. Int. OO: 20 Dae 7. 0 0 0 Ow 1-50 25) £0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 16 1 0 OL 1 0 0 0 Osea 0 0 0 ORO 22 9 5 2 ee Led 0 0 (0 haces. ol 0 01 OF teed 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 10 3 0c iil 18 0 0 7S a sb 0 0 0 16 1 «+0 15 0 0 Oro yeh 0 0 0 0 0 0 OF O81 0 0 0 S20: 30 Ii. Vinca minor. major. Cuscuta Epilinum. Trifolii. corymbosa. Atropa Belladonna. Datura Stramonium. Physalis Alkekenji. Lycium barbarum. Verbascum Blattaria. virgatum. pheeniceum. Veronica Buxbaumii. Melampyrum arvense. Scrophularia vernalis. Antirrhinum majus. Orontium. Linaria Cymbalaria. spuria. Elatine. purpurea. supina. minor. Mimulus luteus. Orobanche ramosa. Acanthus mollis. Salvia pratensis. Mentha sylvestris. viridis. Melissa officinalis. Teucrium Chamedrys. Botrys. Ajuga Chamepitys. Leonurus Cardiaca. Lamium maculatum, Galeopsis Ladanum. ochroleuca. Stachys germanica. arvensis. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Wats. pos. cer. cer. pro. cer. pos. cer. cer. cer. pro. pro. cer. pro. pro. pro. cer. pro. cer. pro. pos. cer. cer. pro. cer. cer. cer. pro. pos. var. cer. cer. pro. pro. pro. cer. pro. pro. pro. pro. Bab. nat. cer. pos. pos. dis. nat. pos. dis. dis. nat. nat. dis. cer. nat. nat. cer. nat. cer. nat. nat. dis. cer. nat. dis. dis. dis. nat. nat. nat. cer. nat. nat. nat. pos. pos. nat. nat. nat. nat, Hens. nat. Nat, Dub. Int. oF Ce kt owrournOooooecooronorenemcrooneooocreno noon _ _ moOooeo eoowowooocormocoocooecooocoowonwoaodconwmwocococecoenss * 9 coorF oor N Fre VE omoo wu 1 ~ coeooscooorrwumroroomnoooseso 116 II. Marrubium vulgare. Lithospermum arvense. Symphytum asperrimum. Borago officinalis. Lycopsis arvensis. Anchusa officinalis. sempervirens. Asperugo procumbens. Echinospermum Lappul. deflexu. Cynoglossum Omphalod. Pulmonaria officinalis. Cyclamen hederifolium. Lysimachia ciliata. punctata. Anagallis arvensis. cerulea. Amaranthus Blitum. Chenopodium Henricus. polysperm. Chenopodia (varia). Atriplex hortensis. nitens. Polygonum Convolvulus. dumetorum. Fagopyrum.’ Rumex alpinus. pulcher. scutatus. Daphne Mezereum. Asarum europeum. Aristolochia Clematitis. Euphorbia Helioscopea. platyphyllos. coralloides. Ksula. Cyparissias. exigua. Peplus. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Wats. pos. pro. cer. cer. pro. cer. pro. pro. cer. cer. cer. cer. pro. cer. cer. pos. pro. cer. pro. pro. pos. cer. cer. pos. pos. cer. cer. pos. cer. pos. pos. cer. pos. pro. cer. pro. cer. pro. pos. Bab. nat. nat. dis. pos. nat. pos. pos. Dat. dis. dis. dis, nat, nat. cer. dis. nat. nat. dis. nat. nat. Dat. dis. dis. nat. nat. cer. cer. nat. dis. nat. nat. cer. nat. nat. cer. nat. dis. nat. nat. Hens. nal. nat. dis. cer. nat. pos. pos. nat. dis. dis. dis. pos. nat, dis. nat. var. dis. nat. nat, nat. Nat. Dub. Int. 22 oo > oS eo 6 Oo oS 6S LC) oO EO Ofero OoOfo oO OW OCOCeOrP COO oo eo oonmoowoooceoocootoe Vow & 1 mH oWon9o oo C169 =O = oS SsSo 6 C-K je Cor 6.6 © SO Swe © 6 oO Ff OO SC 9 Ii. Euphorbia Lathyris. dulcis, &c. Buxus sempervirens. Mercurialis annua. Urtica pilulifera. Humulus Lupulus. Castanea vulgaris. Populus nigra. Salix cuspidata. undulata. acuminata. Crocus vernus. nudiflorus. Iris tuberosa. xiphioides. Narcissus poeticus. biflorus. incomparabilis. minor, &c. Galanthus nivalis. Leucojum estivum. Lilium pyrenaicum. Martagon. Tulipa sylvestris. , Fritillaria Meleagris. Allium ampeloprasum. Babingtonii. ambiguum. Ornithogalum umbellat. nutans. Muscari racemosum. Simethis bicolor. Convallaria bifolia. Stratiotes aloides. Anacharis Alsinastrum. Luzula nivea. Spartina alterniflora, Digitaria sanguinalis. humifusa. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Wats. pro. cer. pro. pos. cer. pos. cer. pro. pro. pro. pro. cer. pos. cer. cer. cer. pro. cer. cer. pro. pos. cer. cer. pro. pos. cer. pro. cer. cer. cer, pro. pos. pro. pro. cer. cer. pos. cer. pos. Bab. nat. dis. nat. nat. pos. nat. pos. hat. pos. cer. Hens, cer. dis. pos. nat. nat. nat. pos. nat. nat. nat. ... cer. nat. cer. dis. dis. cer. dis. dis. nat. pos. cer. cer. nat. nat. cer. nat. dis. pos. cer, Nat, Nat. . cer. nat. cer. dis. nat. dis. nat, 2 oS <> 2 1 » one tS. oO Oo SOLO Rh Ono OC Oo -COnOolLOoO HF OoOoOoDMeose ec Swen VS Soweto eso Soo = oFe © NO eso of Oo W So Ole coe ecoMmownweo oOo Ow Nat. Dub. Int. eooocornreoqcocreocowoocdceadcoocoTormrocoocooewormorRoorcocnvrs 117 aln. . York. Mor. cer. 118 III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Wats. Bab. Hens. Nat. Dub. Int. Cam. York. Mor. Panicum Crus-galli. cer. dis. nat. 0 0 0 svete h fewe Setaria viridis. pos. nat. nat. 0 0 0 MALe | eve) uae verticillata. pro. dis. nat. 0 0 0 soko Uieee eiave glauca. cer. dis. ... 0 0 0 . ere ate Phalaris canariensis. cer. cer. cer. 0 112 oat alae paradoxa. cer. dis. dis. 0 0 0 Fibseci Alopecurus agrestis. pro. nat. nat. 15 O 1 nat. col. ... Apera Spica-venti. pro. nat. nat. 1 0 2 nat. col interrupta. pro. nat. ... 0 0 0 ceo? See Avena fatua. pro. nat. nat. 13 3 0 nat. col. dub strigosa. cer. nat. nat. 2 0 4 aln Briza minor. pro. nat. nat. 3.0 0 : Se Cynosurus echinatus. cer. dis. nat. Ove1..0 aln. Bromus secalinus. pro. cer.P nat. 10 1 1 nat. col. dub arvensis, &c. cer. dis. nat. 0 0 0 ao Mane ses Lolium temulentum. pro. nat. nat. 5 1 3 nat. nat. dub linicola. cer. dis, ... 0 0 0 we ald. ase italicum. cer. cer. 3.0 2 fae) NG ae Cistopteris alpina. cer. dis. nat. 0°0 0 oh Ee titrae Onoclea sensibilis. cer. dis. ... 0 0 0 we «= INC. ae 1. Abbreviations in First column :—nat. native.—pos. possibly in- troduced—pro. probably introduced—cer. certainly introduced. 2. Numerals in Second column :—The number of local catalogues in which the species is marked as native—dubiously native—introduced —or omitted (0). 3. Abbreviations in Third column :— nat. native—dub. dubiously native—pos. possibly introduced—cer. certainly introduced—exe. to be excluded—or ... absent. In addition to the plants included in the two lists above given, there are still some other slightly distrusted British species, which are almost invariably accounted true natives with reference to Britain generally, though questioned locally. They exhibit some faint indications of a foreign origin by being usually seen in cultivated ground, on artificial mounds and rubbish heaps, by way- sides and frequented places, or in the vicinity of houses. III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 119 In attempting to account for these usual positions of the plants two alternatives are presented. They may be na- tive to the island, and requiring a soil manured or other- wise affected by animal life; and this soil they now find chiefly near the abodes of man, since the number of wild animals has been so much diminished. Or, they may be plants which have accompanied man in his migrations, and have thus got a rooting in this island through his agency. We cannot now reject them from the British flora, although their aboriginal nativity may be slightly suspected, on account of their places of growth, or for other reasons shortly expressed after their names in the subjoined List :— Lepidium campestre. Cultivated ground and banks. Barbarea arcuata. Agrestal; viatical. Elsewhere ? stricta. Local; in or near inhabited places. Sisymbrium Sophia. Near towns; on rubbish heaps, &c. Sinapis arvensis. Chiefly agrestal, like the colonists. nigra. Much cultivated. By roads and rivers. Reseda Luteola. Often on dug ground, heaps, &e. Silene anglica. Chiefly on cultivated ground. Lychnis vespertina. Corn-fields chiefly ; hedge-banks, &c. Holosteum umbellatum, On buildings ; and very local. Malva sylvestris. Chiefly agrestal and viatical. rotundifolia. Way-sides, waste corners, &c. Trifolium ochroleucum. Perhaps a colonist originally. Onobrychis sativa. Local. Frequently sown in fields. Lathyrus Nissolia. Distrusted in N. France, by Dr. Godron. Poterium muricatum. Chiefly agrestal. Also in turf? Ribes alpinum. Not found in native forests, or on rocks ? Aithusa Cynapium. Cultivated ground ; rubbish heaps. Conium maculatum. Rubbish heaps, &c., near houses. Peucedanum officinale. Doubted by Professor Henslow. Helminthia echioides. Distrusted in N. France, by Dr. Godron. Lactuca saligna. Rubbish heaps; way-sides, &c. Cichorium Intybus. Agrestal ; viatical. Centaurea Scabiosa. Corn-fields ; disturbed ground. 120 III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. Artemisia Absinthium. Often an escape from old gardens. Matricaria Chamomilla, Road-sides ; heaps; cultivated land. Phyteuma spicatum. Very local. Formerly cultivated. Villarsia nympheoides. Introduced to most of its localities. Hyoscyamus niger. Often about houses, and frequented spots. Solanum nigrum. Chiefly near houses; on rubbish, &c. Verbascum Lychnitis. Local. Near old houses, &c. floccosum. Local. Situations read suspiciously. Verbena officinalis. Near houses; by way-sides. Salvia verbenaca. By way-sides; near old abodes. Mentha piperita. Possibly an escape from gardens. rubra. Always near houses and roads ? Galeopsis Tetrahit. Usually among crops ; sometimes elsewhere. versicolor. Almost always among crops. Nepeta Cataria. In isolated places; near houses. Echium vulgare. Among crops; by road-sides, &c. Chenopodium glaucum, &c. Roads; rubbish ; frequented places. Hippophae rhamnoides. Planted in most of its localities. Urtica dioica. Attends the steps of man and cattle. urens. Cultivated ground ; near houses. Parietaria officinalis. On buildings, not rocks ; by roads. Acorus Calamus. Local. Doubted. Appears native. Cyperus fuscus. Sown in one or two of its three localities ? Gastridium lendigerum. Agrestal chiefly. 5. Views of Dr. Godron, in France. Although not within the plan of this work,.to treat about the distribution of British species through other countries, it seems allowable here to mention the views of Dr. Godron, in regard to the condition of several of the seemingly British species in France. This able bo- tanist lately published a Memoir under the long title of “ Considérations sur les Migrations des Végétaux et special- ment sur ceux qui, Htrangers au sol de France, y ont été introduits accidentellement.” In this Memoir Dr. Godron does not profess to give a list of all the species thus introduced. Among those which he does enumerate, are IIT. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 121 several of the species which have been admitted more or less freely into the lists of native British plants. Dr. Godron deems them to be simply naturalisations in the North of France, derived chiefly from countries more southward or more eastward; some few from America. If introductions to the North of France from the sources mentioned, there would seem an antecedent probability also of their immigration into England chiefly or solely through human agency. Among the fifty species enume- rated in the subjoined list of these plants, only seven were given affirmatively as natives of Britain, in former volumes of the Cybele; and it is now believed that two or more of those seven ought to have been placed in a lower category. Half-a-dozen others were there given as denizens or questionable natives. Three dozens were deemed aliens or colonists. This is a fairly close ap- proximation between views put forth quite independently of each other, and yet mutually corroborative when brought together. In the annexed list of these plants, the group to which they were severally assigned in the present work, is indicated by an abbreviation after their names. Species introduced into France (Godron). Ranunculus arvensis, col. Erysimum cheiranthoides, col. Delphinium Consolida, col. Sinapis alba, col. Papaver hybridum, col. nigra, nat. Argemone, col. Saponaria vacearia, al. Rheas, col. Silene noctiflora, col. Fumaria micrantha, nat. Lychnis Githago, col. Coronopus didyma, nat. Linum usitatissimum, al. Tsatis tinctoria, al. Oxalis corniculata, den. Thlaspi arvense, col. stricta, al. Lepidium Draba, al. Melilotus alba, al. sativum, al. parviflora, al. Camelina sativa, al. Latbyrus Nissolia, nat. VOL. IV. R 122 Ill. INPRODUCED SPECIES. (£nothera biennis, al. Datura Stramonium, al. Feniculum “ officinale,” nat. Veronica Buxbaumii, al. Turgenia latifolia, col. Melampyrum arvense, nat, Helminthia echioides, nat. Mimulus luteus, al. Lactuea saligna, nat. - Leonurus Cardiaca, den. Barkhausia setosa, al. Nepeta Cataria, nat. Carduus marianus, den. Borago officinalis, al. Centaurea Cyanus, col! Asperugo procumbens, den. solstitialis, al. Euphorbia platyphyllos, col. Erigeron canadensis, al. . Apera Spica-venti, col. Chrysanthemum segetum, col. Bromus secalinus, col. Specularia hybrida, nat. Avena strigosa, al. Cuscuta Trifolii, col. Lolium temulentum, col. British botanists have in general regarded fully half of the species above enumerated, in the light of original na- tives of Britain. Their imperfect title to be so desig- nated, is in much closer accordance with the view taken by Dr. Godron, on their non-indigenous character in North France. If he had used the like series of terms, it is probable that Dr. Godron would have applied those of ‘colonist’ and ‘alien’ to almost all of these spe- cies in France. The English reader may here be re- minded, that this concurrence is not affected by the objections before made (page 89) to the arguments of M. De Candolle. Though similar conditions on the two sides of the sea, Gallic and Britannic, may corroborate each other in some degree; yet opposite conditions can- not therefore be deemed to negative each other. 6. Statistical bearings of Introduced Species. Looking to the large number of species in the more civilised and agricultural countries, which are known or conjectured to have been introduced by human agency, it becomes a matter for consideration, how far they will TII. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 123 affect those arithmetical comparisons to which phyto- geographers commonly seem to attach much importance. It appears that the flora of Britain must now include up- wards of three hundred species (320 to 330, by the lists before printed) which are known, believed, or conjectured to have been introduced into this island by the agency of mankind, either intentionally or accidentally. The. foreign ingredient thus constitutes nearly one-fifth of the flora, reckoned by species, after striking out of the long list several of the least suspected and of the least esta- blished species. This admixture of disputed natives is distributed very unequally among the groups of technical botany. The Gramina and Liliacee are largely increased in their numbers thereby ; while, of their two not distant allies, Cyperacee are scarcely changed, and Orchidacee quite unchanged, in numbers. The small orders Fuma- riace@, Papaveracee, Valerianacez, and Amaryllidacee are very largely increased, in proportion to their actual number of included species. And some very small orders are represented by the disputed natives only, as Tamariscacee, Balsaminacee, Apocynacee, &ce. Statistical summaries, both absolute and comparative, might thus be much varied according to the exclusion or inclusion of so large a number and proportion of dispu- tably indigenous species. In comparing together the floras of Britain and New Zealand, for example, there would at present be much more of the artificial admixture to be allowed for in that of the former country. In com- paring together sections or provinces of the same country, as England with Scotland, or Thames with Severn, the effect of their introduced species might be nearly equalised in the general result. But in other comparisons, for ex- ample, between the floras of the Agrarian and Arctic regions, the results would be considerably affected ; since 124 IJI. INTRODUCED SPECIES. all the dubiously native plants may be considered to be- long to the lower region exclusively. And in some instances, as intimated above, the discrepancies would be very wide, in reckoning the proportions borne by the several orders of systematic botany, either to each other, or to the total flora of the island. In the first general List of species, to be printed some pages forward, an intermediate course will be taken. The aliens will there be omitted, and mostly so in the other lists to follow. But the denizens and colonists will usually be retained, unless where any explanation to the contrary may be given. It is easy to conceive that some of the investigations, concerning the relations between climate and vegetation, might be assisted by resorting to the mixed flora of the island, rather than by endeavouring to select one reduced as strictly as possible to its truly native elements. Example. — ‘Given the climate of Bri- tain, — What would be the natural vegetation of the island, all plants having free access to settle on it, if so adapted ?’ Under this view, all species able to establish themselves fully, as Mimulus luteus and Impatiens fulva have done, would be advantageously reckoned as compo- nent portions of the flora. On the contrary, if it be sought to trace the migrations of species, or to inyesti- gate the past history of our insular flora, then a careful elimination therefrom of every species brought into the island by human agency, as Avena strigosu and Bromus secalinus in all probability have been brought, becomes a matter of much importance. This subject of introduced plants has encroached too largely on the pages of the present work, and must now be left for other topics. The Author has hitherto unsuc- cessfully tried to induce some other botanist to write a ‘History of the British flora’; — tracing out each species III. INTRODUCED SPECIES. 125 back to the earliest records of its occurrence in Britain ; and also, when possible, to its still earlier relics in peat- mosses and elsewhere. The vast changes gradually wrought in the vegetation of Britain, by the conversion of forests into wastes, and of wastes into cultivated lands, would also find appropriate place in a work of the kind suggested. Such a history might be made a very valu- able contribution to botanical science,—and likely enough to geological science also. But it would require to be written by a scrupulous investigator of facts, and a con- scientious recorder of them. It would require to be written under a higher impulse than that which prompts to the compiling of ‘ Keys’ and ‘Manuals’ for the market, — or under a worthier ambition than that of “ getting up some sort of paper, likely to make a talk among the geologists, at the next Meeting of the British Association.” IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. On page 14 it was intimated that section IV would be devoted to ‘General Remarks ;’ it being then intended to combine a very brief account of the physical geography and climate along with some general remarks on the flora and botanical geography of Britain. But in attempting to combine the general remarks on both subjects, it was found that such a course would lead more to confusion than to elucidation ; and that a preliminary and separate notice of geographical and climatal peculiarities would be preferable, because less complex. The intended single section thus becomes converted into two this present division of it being restricted to a general view of the physical geography and climate, somewhat more ampli- fied than was at first contemplated. The second division, to be devoted to some general remarks on the botanical geography of the island, its floral peculiarities and cha- racteristics, 1s more conveniently postponed to the end of the volume; where statistical figures can be rendered more true and correct, by being printed after the lists which are designed to show the distribution of species under various special aspects. 1. Geographical position. — Britain is a portion of Europe by its geographical position. At epochs long IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 127 past it was no doubt continuous land with the neigh- bouring portions of France, and possibly also with Bel- gium and Holland, though insulated in its present con- ditions. At the south-eastern angle of England, the coasts of the island and continent are still only from twenty to thirty miles apart at their nearest points. In the northerly and westerly directions from those points of approach, the coasts of Britain and Europe recede gradually from each other; the continental coasts opposed to the eastern and southern coasts of the island becoming more distant. The south-eastern portion of England is thus sub-continental in position, and consequently also in climate, comparatively with the rest of Britain; while the northern and western portions become more insular in character and climate ; peculiarities which modify also the general vegetation. The position of Ireland, situate opposite to the western coasts of Britain, partially inter- feres with the climatal results of this increased insularity, by impeding the full influence of a western ocean on those coasts and their climate, unless at the two extremes, north and south. On the contrary, the insularity of the climate is increased by the western coasts being much indented by the sea, and cut into numerous islets towards the northern end of the main island. Elongated points or peninsular prolongations also stretch out from various parts of the western side of the island, as those of Corn- wall, Pembroke, Caernarvon, Wigton, Argyle, &e. And the climate of these seaward projections is consequently more maritime or subinsular, than that of an even coast line, with sea only on its front. Commencing almost under the fiftieth parallel of lati- tude, at the north-west point of England, the main land of Britain extends northward beyond the line of 58, say to 583; with the addition of another degree for the 128 IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Orkney Isles, off the north coast of Scotland. The out- lying group of Shetland Isles will carry the range of lati- tude considerably farther northward; making the total range about eleven degrees, between the latitudinal lines of 50 and 61; small fractions disregarded. The full range of longitude may be called ten degrees; al- though nowhere is that width attained under the same parallel of latitude. The oblique position of the island and its islets, which throws almost the whole of Scotland on the western side of the longitudinal line which divides England into nearly equal halves, increases the range of longitude in proportion to the actual width. The more easterly longitudes of England thus become represented only by sea to the northward of latitude 53. This pecu- liarity renders it difficult to trace out any easterly ten- dencies of the plants. The few species restricted to the most easterly longitudes are also thus necessarily plants limited to the most southerly latitudes. Again, they are plants peculiar to the distant lowland, as opposed to the mountainous tracts; and also they have certain seeming geologic relations, whether purely accidental or causal. It is thus difficult to say with which of these geographic conditions they are in real relation or causal connexion. 2. Hatent and Area.—The measurement from extreme south to extreme north of the main island, by the longest line, is stated to exceed 600 miles; the line crossing wide indents of the sea in parts of this length. The longest line that can be drawn over land, without crossing any considerable inlet of the sea, runs from Rye, in Sussex, northward or north-westward to Cape Wrath, in Suther- land; and this line is said to measure 580 miles. The longest transverse line, running in a direction from south- west to east or north-east, is traced from the Land’s IV. PHYSICAL. GEOGRAPHY. 129 End in Cornwall to a place near Lowestoft in Suffolk ; and this line is said to measure 367 miles. The width of the island, from east to west by a straight line, is every- where much less, and in some parts would measure less than forty miles. The circumference by a wavy outline, and neglecting small irregularities, is about 2000 miles. But the length of coast or shore line, reached by tides, would be made quite 4000 miles by including estuaries and river banks, with creeks and other small inlets. In even numbers the total area may be reckoned at 88,000 square miles (Macculloch) ; but some authorities reduce it below 84,000 miles. The areas of the three ancient kingdoms, frequently mentioned in this work, may be given separately in square miles thus ;— England 50,387. Wales 7,425. Scotland 29,600. In Scotland the lakes occupy full 600 miles of this area. Wales is usually understood to be included with England, when the name of the latter is mentioned in botanical books; especially so, if mentioned in contra-distinction against Scotland or Ireland. The areas of the other chief divisions, more formally used in this work, will be stated presently under the appropriate heads. 3. Division into Counties.—These old political divisions of Britain were found to be little suitable for the objects of phyto-geography. As a first step downward, in sub- dividing the three ancient kingdoms of England, Wales, Scotland, they were found to be inconveniently numerous. Their extreme inequality of size was also most inconve- ~ nient and objectionable ; the largest of them being more than a hundred fold the size of the smallest. Other divisions or sections of the surface were required instead, more equal in their dimensions, and bearing some better relation to the physical geography of the surface. By VoL. IV. s 130 IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. utterly disregarding the old comital divisions, and tracing out an entirely independent series of districts, the re- quired objects might have been met very completely. But the advantages thereby gained would have been attended with disadvantages so great as to become prac- tically insuperable. An entirely new set of boundary lines would have been necessary, not in accordance with those laid down in existing maps; and which would thus have necessitated new maps, on a large scale, for tracing them out satisfactorily. Most of the local Floras and other lists of species, with arrangements and specifica- tions of localities, have been made in reference to county limits; so that a large portion of our printed records would have been rendered much less available, by the adoption of other divisions which disregarded the old comital boundaries. These and other considerations made a general ad- herence to the long-established county limits practically unavoidable, when fixing upon other sections to be used instead of the counties themselves, or jointly with them. Larger and fewer districts could be formed by uniting counties into provinces. Smaller and more numerous sections could be formed by dividing the great counties into vice-counties. To explain the former, it usually sufficed to name the counties which were united to form them, as was done in volume first, pages 16 and 17. The vice-counties were traced on the lithographic map prefixed to volume third, and will shortly be further explained in the present volume. In this manner, phyto-geographers acquire other and more serviceable divisions of the surface, without losing the advantages of familiar names and fixed boundaries, traceable upon any ordinary map of Britain. At the same time the irregu- larity, inequality, and arbitrary character of the old IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 131 comital divisions are partially removed. Of the pro- vinces and connected divisions some further account will be given immediately; a few facts on the inequality of area in the counties being first adduced. In England, the counties vary from 5836 square miles, the area of Yorkshire, downward to 244 such miles for that of Flintshire. Rutland is still smaller, being only 149 miles; but it has not been reckoned as a separate county in this work. In Scotland, the counties may be said to vary from Perthshire, with an area of 2588 square miles, downward to Linlithgowshire, with an area of 120 such miles. The county of Inverness is larger than that of Perth; but it is nowhere in this work taken as a single county. And the two little counties of Kinross and Clackmannan, with areas of only 72 and 48 square miles, have been combined with their adjacent counties or vice- counties. Even after the absorption and division of those extremes, the counties retained in this treatise differ very greatly in size ; that of Linlithgow being little more than one-fiftieth part the size of York. 4. Provinces and Sub-provinces. —'The grouping of the counties into 18 provinces was amply explained in former volumes ; namely, on pages 13 to 18 of the first volume, and on pages 422 to 428 of the third volume. It is trusted that some part of the practical convenience re- sulting from such unions has become apparent in this work. The provinces were first traced out several years ago, when botanical data towards showing distribution were much less ample than they have since become. The provincial districts were in some respects accommodated to then recorded knowledge of their botany. Thus, it was very desirable that none of them should be tracts so little examined, as to prevent the compiling of an approxi- 132 Ivy. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. mately full list of their species or flora. And it was further desired, for sake of comparisons between their floras, that each one of these provinces should include some portion of coast line. Some slight differences would have been made in tracing out the Scottish pro- vinces, if the botanical records relating to the counties and islands of that portion of Britain had been more complete, especially with reference to the commoner plants. Though many of the blanks in the areas of spe- cies, as traced out by provinces, can now be filled up, there are still too many remaining. The lists of species are yet much short of completeness and correctness for the provinces of North Highlands, West Highlands, Lakes, South Wales, and in less degree for some others. The numerals given in the line of ‘ Area,’ under the name of each species in former volumes, represent 18 local floras, one for each province. With the “additions and corrections” introduced into volume third, those nu- merals may be readily converted into local lists or floras for any or all of the provinces; such as would be approxi- mately complete, though doubtless open to emendations by botanists with the requisite local knowledge. Of course such lists would represent only the state of infor- mation at the date when the corresponding portion of this work was written. Some blanks in the line of nume- rals are being filled up each successive year; and from time to time it is ascertained that some of the nos. were erroneously entered, through mistakes about the species on the part of local observers or otherwise. To form the list for any separate province, it is easy to take a copy of the ‘ London Catalogue of British Plants,’ and to check the name of each species in accordance with the corre- sponding no. of the province in the line of ‘ Area,’ Highteen lists thus formed would afford serviceable data IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 133 for phyto-geographical purposes, when comparisons be- tween small local floras are required. All being formed on the same principle, in regard to the disputed topics of native and alien species, of varieties and true species, &c., they become more strictly comparable than the ike num- ber of local lists made out by different botanists, whose views might differ widely in respect to such matters. The varying width of Britain, and other geographical condi- tions, caused the provincial areas to be still unequal, though far less unequal than those of the counties. And in this respect they are not equally comparable in respect to their floras. Advancing knowledge has subsequently given facility for subdividing the 18 provinces into more equal and more numerous sections. For some purposes these secondary or sub-provinces will be found more service- able in use than the larger and fewer provinces. They amount to 38 in number, and were explained on pages 324 to 328 of volume third. Their greater equality was obtained by keeping the smaller provinces unchanged, and subdividing the larger into two or three subordinate sections. The rule of adhering to comital boundaries was still observed in the sub-provinces, except that the single county of York was subdivided into the two pro- yinces of East Humber and West Humber. Subpro- vincial lists of species might now be made out almost as complete as the provincial lists were at the date when the first volume of this work was written. Those for which the Author’s lists of species seem to be least complete, are the Upper North Highlands, South-east Wales, South-west Lowlands, Inner West Highlands, Ebudes,—nearly in the order here enumerated. The dimensions or areas of the provinces and subprovinces may be thus given in square 134 Iv. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. miles, chiefly on faith of the figures cited for counties in Macculloch’s Statistics of the British Empire :— Provinces. Area. Subprovinces and areas. 1. Peninsula 5567 South, 1337. Mid, 2585. North, 1645. 2. Channel 5464 West, 2373. Mid, 1625. East, 1466. 3. Thames 7007 South, 2316. North, 2445. West, 2246. 4. Ouse 6247 South, 1515. North, 2024. West, 2708. 5. Severn 6764 South, 1754. Mid, 2483. North, 2527. 6. South Wales 4231 South-East, 1972. South-West, 2259. 7. North Wales 3194 North Wales, 3194. 8 Trent 5431 East, 2611. West, 2820. 9. Mersey 2552 Mersey, 2552. 10. Humber 5836 East, 2500? West, 3336 ? 11. Tyne 2968 Tyne, 2968. 12. Lake-lands 2551 Lakes, 2551. (Isle of Man.) 13. W. Lowlands 4732 South-West, 2525. North-West, 2206. 14. E. Lowlands 2485 East Lowlands, 2485. 15. E. Highlands 9828 South, 3664. Mid, 3228. North, 2936. 16. W. Highlands 5500 Inner, 3500. Ebudes, 2000. 17. N. Highlands. 4766 Lower, 2325. Upper, 2441. 18. North Isles 2280 Hebrides, 1000. Orkney, 425. Shetland, 855. 5. Latitudinal divisions.— For brevity of expression, and to facilitate comparisons, the provinces may usefully be combined into larger geographical divisions, as sub- stitutes for older and less comparable distinctions. England, Wales, Scotland, Lowlands, Highlands, very conveniently express certain divisions of Britain by single words. But they are not portions so well adapted for geographico-botanical comparisons, as some others which may quite readily be indicated as groups of pro- vinces, and with little extra tax on the memory by new names. South Britain, Mid Britain, North Britain, may be the readily remembered names given to three conve- nient latitudinal divisions, traceable on a map thus :— IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 185 8. Britain includes prov. 1— 7; subprov. 1—18. iM: Britain 04.08.24 8—145 we 19—28. BE Britain +6 skis.. dss. 15—18 5 we. 29—38. A glance over the map in volume third will show these divisions better than verbal explanations; particularly so, if possessors of the volume will trace two lines of colour transversely along the two dividing boundaries. Each of the divisions may be said to extend across about three degrees of latitude, with the outlying addition of Shetland to the most northerly one; also some consider- able irregularities with reference to the mathematical lines of latitude, through the wavy course of the lines which divide the provinces or counties, and in accordance with which these divisions are made. Hach of the divi- sions has also its mountain ranges ; an important condi- tion towards the data for any true or equal comparisons between their respective floras. South Britain has the widest area of low and open country, and relatively and absolutely the smallest extent of mountainous ground. The hills of Mid Britain are somewhat less elevated than are those of South Britain ; three of the highest summits in Wales exceeding those of the Lake district in North England, where the highest hills of Mid Britain are found. The area of low and un- dulating plains, at all corresponding with the downs and intervening country of South-east England, is much less in Mid Britain; so that, viewed in the whole, the latter has more of the mountainous character than South Britain. In turn, North Britain is far more mountainous than the other two divisions; much exceeding them by the vertical elevation of its hills, as well as by their bulk and horizontal extent. The flora of North Britain is consequently more alpine or arctic than the floras of the other two more southerly divisions ; the influence of the 136 IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Highland mountains being made evident in the addition of many boreal and arctic species to the British flora, which can flourish on the coasts and plains only in lati- tudes still more northern than those of Scotland; and which in this country are found only on and about the Highland mountains. The areas of these three latitudi- nal divisions may be given in square miles thus :— S. Britain 38,474. M. Britain 26,555. N. Britain 22,374. A flora for each of these three divisions will be given in the ‘Summary of Distribution,’ chapter V. 6. Longitudinal divisions—These cannot be traced out so readily and satisfactorily as latitudinal divisions. Three are more desirable than two divisions for geogra- phico-botanical objects. Only simple or single compari- sons can be made between the floral statistics of two spaces ; while three spaces may frequently serve to show a gradation of difference, be it in the total flora, or in the several orders or other groups of systematic botany. But three longitudinal divisions are found to be impracti- cable ; leading to inequalities of area and altitude, which would vitiate botanico-statistical comparisons between the two sides of the island. Even two divisions cannot be traced in any close accordance with lines of longitude on maps, by reason of the oblique position of Britain and its islets, its inequality of width, and the narrowness of the main island, in parts where eastern and western coasts approximate with only short interspaces. The line of Two West from Greenwich cuts England into western and eastern halves. By giving to that line a waving obliquity from south-east to north-west, so as to correspond with the western boundary line of the pro- vinces, longitudinal divisions of England are obtained, bearing sufficient approximation to geographical truth for IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 137 the purposes of this work. One exception must be made to the provincial boundaries in tracing out this line; the sub-province of West Channel being thrown into the western division of the island; while the two other sub- provinces of the same primary province are kept on the eastern division. Again, the far western extension of Yorkshire, even beyond the proper eastern water-shed, brings the province of Humber too near the western coasts for geographical correctness. Through this undue comital extension, some western localities are reckoned as eastern in the Census list of species; and they are also taken into account as eastern in the Summary of Distribution. Several other such anomalies as this one might be found in the map, but practical convenience rendered a close adherence to county boundaries, as before remarked, the paramount consideration in tracing _ provinces. . Almost the whole of Scotland is situate to the west- ward of the longitudinal line which bisects England. Though the line of Four West divides Scotland into two somewhat equal halves, that line also fails to separate the western from the eastern coasts; portions of each falling on the wrong side of the line. In order to continue our wavy dividing line northwards, we must trace it along the western borders of the East Lowland and Kast Highland provinces; that is, more in accordance with the water- shed than with the mathematical line of longitude. Asa comital and provincial boundary, the line is arrested at the North Highlands, through the extension of that pro- vince and its counties from the eastern to the western coasts. Geographical position, climate and plants, and numerical convenience subsequently to be explained, all suggest that the North Highland province should be VOL. Iv. T 138 IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. deemed a western province, although it has a line of eastern coast likewise. As to the three groups which together make up the province of the North Isles. One group is completely western, namely, the Hebrides; another is eastern by longitude, namely, Shetland ; and the intermediate group of Orkney is eastern with respect to Scotland, western with respect to England. In climate and productions all three might appropriately go along with Western Scot- land. In the Summary of Distribution they are so taken; and almost the only result of any importance is, that the one or two species peculiar to Shetland are there entered as exclusively western; namely, Arenaria norve- gica and the more doubtful Cerastiwm nigrescens. It would have been a better geographical arrangement origi- nally (if a paucity of botanical records had not then pre- vented) to have united the Hebrides with the West High- land province, instead of uniting these isles with the two more northerly and easterly groups. Botanically, it may be deemed indifferent with which of those two provinces the Hebrides are associated. They contain no plants peculiar to the group, and extremely few which are not recorded also for Orkney or Shetland; most of their spe- cies being common to both the latter-named groups. The areas of the two longitudinal divisions, or more strictly those of the two sides of the island, here traced out, may be given in square miles thus :— West Britain 43,823. East Britain 43,580. The proportion of mountainous land is larger on the western side. In South Britain, only the western side is mountainous ; the undulating plains of the South of England lying chiefly on the eastern side of the island. In advancing northwards, the eastern side becomes moun- tainous also. There is little difference between the abso- IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 139 lute height of the loftiest hills, those of one division com- pared with those of the other. The local botany of West Britain is less fully ascer- tained than that of East Britain; the lists of species for several of the western counties being still very incom- pletely made out. Regarded as a whole, the Western flora is nearly as well ascertained as the Eastern flora ; though some few segregate species, hitherto recorded only on the eastern side of the island, may eventually be found also on the western side. The letters “w. e.” in the Summary of Distribution, V, give a separated flora for each side of the island. The substitution of blanks «.” instead of letters, will indicate-the species whose presence in the one, and absence in the other, render the floras of the western and eastern divisions non-identical. 7. Vice-Counties.— The lines traced across the divided counties on the Map, in volume third, will scarcely suffice for botanists who may wish to distinguish these subordi- nate sections on other maps. To facilitate recognition the course of the dividing lines shall be given here by verbal explanation, adapted to the maps of England and Scotland, published under the auspices of the ‘ Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.’ In thus subdi- viding the counties, any natural peculiarities were taken, or even well-marked lines traceable on maps, and findable on the actual ground ; such as water-sheds, roads, canals, rivers, &c. — Hast and West Cornwall are separated by a line traced along the high road from Truro, through St. Columb, to the inland extremity of Padstow Creek. At the two ends of this line, the salt-water completes the di- vision.— South and North Devon are separated by an ima- ginary line, adapted to the water-shed ; commencing at the Tamar, about midway between Tavistock and Launceston ; 140 IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. passing over the ridge of Dartmoor, and joining the Western Canal at Tiverton.—South and North Somerset are separated by a line along the river Parret, from Bridgewater to Ilchester; and thence curving round to the northern extremity of Dorset.—South and North Wilts are separated by a line drawn along the Kennet and Avon Canal. — South and North Hants are separated by a line traced along the high roads from Winchester westward to Stockbridge, eastward to Petersfield; and continued thence to the borders of Wilts and Sussex.—West and East Sussex are separated by a line traced along the high road from Brighton to Cuckfield; and thence through Crawley to the border of Surrey.—Hast and West Kent are separated by the river Medway and its tributaries, nearly up to Staplehurst; and thence by the high road through Cranbrooke to the border of Sussex, near Hawks- hurst.—South and North Esscx are separated by the high road from Waltham and Epping to Chelmsford, and thence by the Blackwater river to the coast. — Hast and West Suffolk, and East and West Norfolk, are separated by the mathematical line of one east longitude from Greenwich ; a line that may always be traced on a map, but inconvenient from not being a visible mark on the ground.—LEast and West Gloucester are separated by the Thames and Severn Canal, and by the river Severn from the point of conjunction up to Tewkesbury. — South and North Lincoln are separated by the Witham, from Boston to Lincoln; and thence by the Foss Dyke to the border of Nottingham.—South and West Lancaster are separated by the river Ribble. (That more northerly portion of Lancashire, which is situate to the north- west of the Bay of Morecombe, is taken with the Lake Province, and reckoned as a part of Westmoreland). —The great county of York is first divided into the two eset ey! LB a gh IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 141 sub-provinces of East and West Humber, by the rivers Humber, Ouse, and Wiske. South-east and North-east Yorkshire are then separated by the political line which divides the East Riding from the rest of the county; that portion of the East Riding situate westward of the Ouse being taken as part of the Mid-West vice-county. South- west and Mid-west Yorkshire are separated by the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, and by the river Aire below Leeds. Mid-west and North-west Yorkshire are separated by the political boundary between the North and West Ridings ; that boundary being deflected westward so as to pass over Whernside to the south-eastern angle of Westmoreland, in conformity with the water-shed.—Cheviotland is cut off from the more southern part of Northumberland by the river Coquet, and a line continued to Carter Fell from the Linn Bridge. That part of Durham, which is situate between Holy Island and the Tweed, is deemed a portion of Cheviotland.—The large county of Perth is divided into three vice-counties. Hast Perth is cut off from Mid Perth by the rivers Garry and Tay. Mid Perth is sepa- rated from West Perth by a line traced over the high ground or water-shed so as to divide the tributaries of the Tay from those of the Forth; the little county of Clackmannan and a small detached portion of Stirling being taken as parts of West Perth. — South and North Aberdeen are separated by lines traced along the water- sheds eastward and westward from Inverury.— The great county of Inverness is first divided by the line of water- shed between the eastern and western sides of Scotland, continued along Loch Erricht to the borders of Perth- shire. The easterly portion, with the addition of Nairn- shire, forms the large vice-county of Hasterness. That portion of Inverness, which cuts Elginshire into two dis- joined parts, is deemed to be a portion of this latter 142 IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. county.—The remainder of Inverness, the waters of which drain to the western coast, along with the detached por- tion of Argyle which is situate to the north-west of Loch Linhe, make up the vice-county of Westerness.—Main- Argyle and Cantire are separated by the Crinan Canal_— The Clyde Isles include Bute and Arran, with Cumbray and other small islets adjacent, between Cantire and Ayr. —The Ebudes are islands belonging by political geo- graphy to Argyle and Inverness. South Hbudes include Islay and Jura, with adjacent islets. Mid Hbudes consist of Mull and Coll, with their adjacent islets. North Ebudes include Skye and Rum, also with their adjacent islets—Hast and West Ross are separated by a line traced along the water-shed between the eastern and western coasts; Hast Ross being considered to include those detached portions of Nairn, situate to the westward of the Murray Firth and Loch Beauly; and the fragmen- tary county of Cromarty as belonging to Hast or West Ross, according to the geographical position of its de- tached fragments.— Hast and West Sutherland are also separated by the line of water-shed ; this being so traced as to divide the south-eastern portion of the county from the western and northern.—The other counties being un- divided into vice-counties, their boundaries are those shown on any maps, and do not call for special expla- nation. 8. Altitude of surface. — The mountains of Britain are not sufficiently elevated to retain snow on their summits through the year. But in depressions which face from the south, and under the northern aspect of steep rocks, snow may be found in isolated patches on the hills of North Britain throughout the summer. It may thus be said that the hills are high enough to enter the line of Iv. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 1438 perennial snow-patches or snow-drifts, without attaining the true line of perpetual snow. The highest hills of Perthshire rise almost to 4000 feet of vertical height ; but no patches of snow are usually found on them so late as July and August. The highest hills of Inverness and Aberdeen exceed 4300 feet; and on those hills, far below the extreme summits, small patches of snow usually or always remain unmelted until the new snow of another winter again covers them. There is thus very little sur- face which is constantly irrigated in summer by water trickling over it at the temperature of melting snow. Plants peculiarly adapted to such situations are conse- quently almost absent from the flora of Britain. Sazv- fraga rivularis and Stellaria cerastoides are perhaps the nearest representatives of the plants alluded to. Some diversity of opinion, or rather inexactness of knowledge, still exists in respect to the altitudes of the highest hills. Recently it has been stated that the highest summit, that of Ben Nevis, in Westerness, slightly exceeds 4400 feet; and that the summit of Ben- na-muic-dhu, in South Aberdeen, falls short of 4300 feet. More usually these two hills have been regarded as nearly equal competitors for the first place in point of absolute height above the sea; the priority between the two being most frequently assigned to Ben Nevis. Adopting the three latitudinal divisions before ex- plained, their highest hills may be stated in English feet thus :— S. Britain 3571. Mid Britain, 3166. N. Britain 4374. Supposing the two hills above mentioned to be respec- tively the highest in the Western and Eastern divisions of the island, then Ben Nevis may be said to give a slight predominance of 100 feet, more or less, to West Britain. There is probably a larger extent of surface elevated 144 IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. above 4000 feet in East Britain; a larger extent above 3000 feet in West Britain. The higher hills of England being situate on the western side of the island, and the highest being in the northern and western counties of Cumberland and Caernarvon, their general tendency is a gradually increasing altitude from east to west. And although the hills in the south-westerly province of the Peninsula are much less elevated than others further northward, they are still nearly double the height of those in the provinces of Thames and Channel; so that the tendency to increased height westerly is shown even to the most southern of the provinces. The line of Two West Longitude so divides Britain as to place nearly all the high hills on its western side. The ‘Scale of Alti- tude,’ as given on the Map in volume third, will illustrate the increasing height of the provinces in a northerly di- rection, and likewise the greater height of the westerly provinces, more especially in South Britain. An error occurs in the Scale, in the cones over 18b and 18¢, which are intended to represent the subprovinces of Orkney and Shetland. The lithographer should have carried these cones one line higher, and drawn them slightly over and slightly under the line of 500 yards, instead of that of 400 yards. Perhaps the cone for the province of Hum- ber, no. 10, should also have been a little higher, about midway between the lines of 800 and 900 yards. The altitudes of the Subprovinces may suffice to show also those of the Provinces, in English feet, as underneath :— Western. Eastern. 1011 West Channel. 917 Mid Channel. 1368 South Peninsula. 858 East Channel. 1792 Mid Peninsula “‘ 2077.” 993 South Thames. 1668 North Peninsula. 904 North Thames. 1852 South Severn. 905 West Thames. 1447 Mid Severn. — ? South Ouse. Iv. CLIMATE. 145 Western. Eastern. 1806 North Severn. —? North Ouse. 2862 South-east Wales. 804 West Ouse. 2463 South-west Wales. — ? East Trent. 3571 North Wales. 2150 West Trent. 1803 Mersey. 1485 East Humber. 3166 L.ake lands. 2580 West Humber. 2635 South-west Lowlands. 2658 Tyne. 2552 North-west Lowlands. 2741 East Lowlands. 4374 Inner West Highlands. 3945 South-east Highlands. 3000 Ebudes. “3168.” 4300 Mid-east Highlands. 3720 Lower North Highlands. 4100 North-east Highlands. 3230 Upper North Highlands. 1590 Orkney. 2700 Hebrides. 1470 Shetland. Some authorities make the West Lowlands and North Highlands considerably higher than is indicated by the figures above; namely, 3000 and 4000 feet. A copious compilation of altitudes for the several counties may be seen in the small volume published in 1836, under title of ‘Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of British Plants.’ 9. General climate. — The geographical position of England induces peculiarities of climate, which doubt- less affect its flora, and thus induce in turn corre- sponding peculiarities of its vegetation. In the broad or general view the fact seems obvious enough. Yet is it difficult, even to present impossibility, to trace out very special connexions between plants and climate. In its relations to plants, climate involves most varied combi- nations of temperature and humidity, of exposure to sun and wind, shade and shelter, &c., &c. If time and place are both taken into account, by the season of the year, the character of the locality, and other circumstances, the combinations become endless in their variety and proportions. Only some of the leading characteristics, VOL. IV. U 146 Iv. CLIMATE. and general indications subject to many local exceptions, can be attempted here. By its insularity Britain has the dampness and equabi- lity of temperature which are usual characteristics of insular climates. Its proximity to Europe, with only a narow channel intervening, induces some approach to the continental character of climate, in the inland and south- eastern counties of England; especially so between lati- tudes 51 and 58. On the contrary, the influence of the eulf-stream on the western coasts tends to increase the insular characteristics here, by affording a constant supply of comparatively warm water, and consequently also of water-warmed air; the moisture of which becomes visible in clouds, and palpable in mists and rains, on passing to the cooler surface of the land. The winters of Britain are thus rendered less cold, than would other- wise be anticipated from its northern latitude; while the summers are rendered less warm; both seasons being more damp. ‘This result is not wholly lost even in the most easterly provinces of England, although consider- ably reduced there. In addition, the alternations of weather, from damp and mild to dry and cold, are fre- quent and rapid; thus making the climate proverbial for its variability. But their frequency of repetition is more remarkable than the extent of the changes; for the climate is seldom in any extreme, either of cold or of drought, and still less in that of heat. Serene weather in summer occasionally dries and heats the ground so far as to become a drought injurious to vegetation ; particu- larly to garden plants and cultivated crops in the counties round London. More commonly, a few days of unusually high temperature are followed by thunder-showers, which restore damp and coolness to the ground, and conse- quently also to the air. IV.. CLIMATE. 147 The prevailing winds are from south-west, and east or north-east ; the former being damp and mild; the latter being dry and cold. In summer, the easterly winds fre- quently blow from south-east instead of from north-east ; and they are then warm winds. Perhaps, the most marked peculiarity in the winds of Britain, by its effect on the vegetation, is a customary prevalence of westerly winds through much of the winter, succeeded by north- easterly winds in spring. The growth of many herba- ceous plants, and of the buds of trees, is thus prematurely promoted, to be subsequently checked by the dry cold winds of spring. Injurious effects so induced are more conspicuous among garden plants, which have been intro- duced from dissimilar climates. But it is not unusual for the oak-trees, ferns, and other native plants to be severely damaged in spring by late frosts, consequent on the clear sky at nights during the period of vernal east winds. 10. Rain and Humidity.— The absolute quantity of rain which falls, and the number of days on which some © rain falls, are both greater on the western side of the island than on the eastern. The proportions are some- where about 4 and 3, or perhaps nearer 38 and 2. For the east and west the yearly average of rain has been stated at 32 and 24 inches. The local variations are very wide. According to the reports of various local observers, some spots among the hills in the north-west of England receive more than four times the amount of rain-water, if compared with other spots in the vicinity of London. Thus, according to the ‘Tabular View’ pub- lished by Mr. Joseph Atkinson, the fall of rain at Esthwaite Lodge and Coniston Lodge, North Lanca- shire, amounts to 86 and 85 inches annually; while at 148 Iv. CLIMATE. London and Cambridge it averages only 20 inches. This extreme diversity puts in contrast the humidity of the hills of Mid-west Britain against the open country of South-east Britain. The diversity is much less when a contrast is made between eastern and western counties apart from high hills. The rain which falls on the eastern side of the island probably descends in a shorter number of hours, in pro- portion to its absolute quantity, and comparatively with that which falls on the western side. The atmosphere of East Britain is thus comparatively less humid and less cloudy than would be implied by reckoning only the quantity of water, or even the number of days on which rain falls. These differences affect the general vegeta- tion, and perhaps to a small extent also the respective floras. Plants adapted to a damp and dull climate become less frequent on the eastern side of the island, although they may still occur there in certain favorable spots,—in swamps and marshes, near stream sides, in the shade of woods, or sheltered from sun and drought in © narrow and humid ravines. ‘The differences are thus not so much in the species, though apparent in the general vegetation. They are to be observed in the greener and more luxuriant growth of many plants, and in the compa- rative abundance of ferns, rushes, sedges, willows, mosses, and other damp-seeking plants, on the western side. Some of the species, specially adapted to a damp and equable climate, are absolutely restricted to the western or south-western counties, and seemingly because they are destroyed by the severity of frosts on the eastern side. The hills are more humid than the plains and other low grounds. Ifnotso by the absolute quantity of rain which falls on them, they are so by the frequency of their IV. CLIMATE. 149 showers and mists. Dry and sunny days are not unfre- quent in immediate proximity to the hills, while their summits and sides are enveloped in drizzling mists, or crossed by driving showers. Rain often prevails in the internal valleys among the hills, while the surrounding country on their outskirts remains free from wet. The western hills are thus peculiarly the land of moisture, both by position and by elevation. The climate of North Britain is more humid than that of South Britain, in connexion with the hilly surface of the former, compara- tively with the low plains of South England. But the hilly portions of the latter almost emulate those of the former in humidity. The peculiarities of the western flora and vegetation, before adverted to, are increased in the mountainous districts, except that the plants which are unfitted to bear low temperatures, and thus appa- rently adapted only to the south-western counties, are absent from the northern hills, equally as from the eastern plains. The subjoined list of western and eastern subprovinces will convey some idea of the rain-fall on the two sides of the island. The figures which are prefixed to the names show the yearly quantity of rain in inches, as reported by observers in many different places. For some of the sub- provinces no local reports have been obtained ; for others, only those of one spot; for others, again, the figure is an average from records for several different spots. The whole include about a hundred places, very unequally apportioned to the provinces. The figures can be given only as approximate truths :-— Western. Eastern. 43. South Peninsula. 32. Mid Channel. 36. Mid Peninsula. 30. East Channel. 30. North Peninsula. 29. South Thames. West Channel. 24. North Thames. 150 Iv. CLIMATE. Western. Eastern. 30. South Severn. 25. West Thames. 27. Mid Severn. 25. South Ouse. North Severn. 25. North Ouse. 34. S.E.-Wales. 23. West Ouse. S.W. Wales. 27. East Trent. North Wales. 27. West Trent. 39. Mersey, 25. East Humber. 61, Lakes. 33. West Humber. 36. S.W. Lowlands. 34. Tyne (55, 21, 25). 40. N.W. Lowlands. 24. East Lowlands. 53. I.W. Highlands. 41. S.E. Highlands. Ebudes. 30. M.E. Highlands. L.N. Highlands. 27. N.E. Highlands. U.N. Highlands. 40. Orkney (1 year). Hebrides. Shetland. The average of the Tyne province is raised by the high figure of 55, reported for Allenheads, situate high on the hilly western side of the province. The average for South Thames is augmented through the comparatively high figure of 37, reported as the annual average at Dover. In some other provinces the local differences are very wide; the average for the Lake province being obtained from the following very unequal figures, re- ported for different spots, 32, 34, 53, 55, 67, 75, 85, 86. 11. Temperature. — In a general view, the temperature of the air and ground may be stated to decrease slowly from south to north, more rapidly from lower ground to higher ground, and slightly also from the coast line to places more inland. The mean temperature of the south- western coasts of England, and possibly also of the whole line of western coast in Britain, is somewhat higher than that of the eastern coast under similar latitudes. Con- figuration of surface, the character of the ground, and other local conditions also affect the mean temperature ; IV. CLIMATE. 151 so that general rules become subject to various local exceptions. Moreover, general rules which may be correct for the average of the whole year, are found to be unequally applicable at different seasons. Thus, inland places are usually warmer in summer ; although during much of the year, and more especially in winter, their temperature is decidedly lower than that of the coast line under equal latitude. The counties of Cornwall and Devon, cele- brated for their mild and equal climate, have a summer temperature below that experienced in the inland counties of the Thames and Ouse provinces; which being farther north, farther east, and more inland, have a lower general mean for the year, and a much lower winter temperature. The differences between the mean temperatures of sum- mer and winter are less on the west than on the east side of the island, less on the coast than in inland places, and probably somewhat less in the north than in the south. The full result is made obvious in the higher summer temperature for the inland south-eastern counties of England, than is found elsewhere in Britain. In course of the past half century numerous records have been printed, which purport to show the results attained from daily registers of the thermometer in various parts of the island. Many of them show the yearly average of the daily means, as deduced from the daily extremes. Some few have been deduced from hourly or half-hourly observations, carefully made and calculated, expressly as local standards for comparison. For the greater number, observations of the thermometer have been made at stated hours, usually twice a day. The result obtained by adding or subtracting the dif- ference between the temperature at the stated hours and 152 Iv. CLIMATE. that for the whole twenty-four hours, at some neigh- bouring place, becomes the corrected mean temperature. - Unfortunately, when brought together, many of those records are scarcely to be reconciled one with another. Some years are rather colder or rather warmer than the average for a series; and it is seldom possible to compare the same number and series of years for many different places. Instruments differ in their graduation, one com- pared with another. The situations in which they are fixed, are not always the best adapted for giving true indications at all times and seasons. And observers are themselves more or less inexact; besides having to ap- point deputies to observe for them during occasional absence. The chances and sources of error become altogether somewhat numerous; although several of them may tend to neutralize each other in the averages, by leading to some figures being given in excess, while others are given in deficiency. This is not the place or opportunity to write an essay on thermometrical registration. Tables of recorded tem- perature may be found in published works on meteoro- logy, physical geography, phyto-geography, &c. Some such tables relating to the climate of this country were introduced into the little work published by the same writer full twenty years ago, under title of ‘ Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of British Plants.’ After the lapse of a score of years those tables might now be greatly extended and improved. But itis feared that if thus re-written and enlarged, and accompanied by suf- ficiently ample explanations and needful qualifications, they might become too far lengthened in proportion to the pages that could be spared for them here. And at last, they would still be only a collection of details and almost unconnected facts. Instead, an attempt will now Iv. CLIMATE. 158 be made to deduce from the mingled mass some sort of rules or formulas, which may be more readily recollected by their uniformity, and thus become more applicable to botanical purposes; although any forced uniformity will be a deviation to some extent from at least a portion of the actual registers. 12. Relation of Mean Temperature to Latitude. — Pub- lished records mostly agree in showing 47 or 48 of Fahrenheit’s scale, with some fraction or decimal added, for the mean annual temperature of places in Mid Britain, not raised much above the level of the sea. But local discrepancies are here too numerous and conflicting, without really being very wide, to allow of any rate of variation being quite satisfactorily fixed, so as to connect the temperature with the latitude in an uniform manner. It would be possible to select one series showing a decrease of mean temperature from south to north, — another series seeming to prove the contrary, or an increase from south to north,—and a third series that would half contradict both, by its alternations of increase and decrease. Still, the prevailing character seems to be a slight decrease of mean temperature in a northerly direction, and a somewhat greater decrease of summer temperature in the same direction. Passing hence into the two other latitudinal divisions, those of South Britain and North Britain, the direction of decrease in temperature becomes clear enough, and a rate of decrease not so difficult to decide upon by way of general rule. In South Britain, it might at first thought seem reasonable and safe to look to the registers for London, as kept for the Royal Society during a long series of years, and regularly published up to a late date, appa- rently under the sanction of the Society’s officers. But VOL. Iv. x 154 Iv. CLIMATE. Luke Howard long ago showed that the recorded tempe- ratures were too high; more truly indicating the artificial warmth of a large town, than the real climate of its latitude or geographical position. Succeeding observers have corroborated this view; but still various writers have gone on parrot-wise repeating and citing the regis- ters of the Royal Society, to the neglect of much better records. Consequently, the mean temperature of London is commonly given as 50 of Fahrenheit and upwards, in tables of temperature compiled by foreign authors, equally as by those of England. In his ‘Climate of London’ Howard made the mean temperature of the vicinity of the Metropolis, at the distance of a few miles, only 483 of Fahrenheit; a temperature which appears somewhat below truth. Other observers have stated 49, usually with a fraction or decimal over, as the result of their registers in the neighbourhood of London. It would hence seem that no wide error can be committed in assuming 50 Fahrenheit, as the mean temperature at the level of the sea, in latitude 51, that is, half a degree southward of London. Towards the extreme south-west of England (Penzance, Helston, Plymouth) thermometrical registers give so high a mean as 52; which would be a rise of two degrees in temperature for a single degree of latitude. This may be considered a local and exceptional case; the high mean temperature decreasing rapidly eastward as well as northward. On the coasts of Dorset and Hants, the mean appears to be about 51 of Fahrenheit. It has been asserted that Malvern, situate near the conterminous borders of Worcester and Hereford shires, far inland and some height above the sea-level, has an annual mean rather exceeding 493. And a higher mean has been given for Cheltenham, in the inland part of Glou- Iv. CLIMATE. 155 cestershire, a portion of the same province of Severn. But implicit reliance cannot usually be placed on the high and equable temperatures which are recorded for places of invalid resort, by medical practitioners and others interested in publishing the most attractive ac- counts of their local climates. The mean of 50 may, however, be near truth for the coasts of the Bristol Channel, decreasing inland and northward. Looking to North Britain, records show a mean of 47, with a fraction under or a fraction over that figure, for low situations in the most southerly portions, that is, in the sub-province of the South-east Highlands. Those for the town of Inverness, by registers in different years, show a remarkable discrepancy ; being formerly stated at 483, and more recently at 453. ‘Taking the mean be- tween these two, it would be 47, which seems more than sufficiently high for that northern locality, with the ele- vated ranges of the Grampian hills to the southward, and other lofty hills to the westward also. Judging either by the geographical and topographical position, or by the actual vegetation, the temperature on the north side of the Grampian hills should certainly be below that on the south side. So that, reverting to the two figures above mentioned, it may be surmised that the mean of 45} will be something nearer to the true average than that of 484. Northward from Inverness the records become too short and uncertain for much trust. For Wick, on the coast of Caithness, means of 453 and very slightly under 47 have been reported, say 464. At Stromness, in Orkney, the mean is stated to be rather higher than 46}; and exactly the same figure is recorded for Sandwick, in the same isles. The hypothetically corrected mean for Unst, in Shetland, would appear to be under 45 of Fahrenheit (see vol. 2, page 4). Likely enough, the 156 IV. CLIMATE. maritime position of the four last-mentioned places may induce slightly higher means for the year, than would be found at more inland places in the same latitude. On putting together the preceding figures, and also those for several other places not specially mentioned here, it appears that half a degree of Fahrenheit’s scale, to one whole degree of latitude, will fairly enough repre- sent the rate of decrease in temperature, when traced from south to north. By assuming this rate of decrease to be even and uniform, it becomes applicable as a rule towards estimating the climate for plants comparatively with each other. And further, on the grounds before adverted to, it has been assumed that fifty may be about the mean temperature on the latitudinal line of 51, at the level of the sea. A starting figure, and a rate of decrease northward, being so obtained, the mean annual tempera- ture of the island, in its relation to latitude, and for places at or reduced to the sea-level, may be set forth thus :— > Lat. 61.52. 58.54. 55.56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. Temp. 50. 494. 49. 483. 48, 473. 47. 464. 46, 453. 45. The half degrees of latitude will correspond with the quarter degrees of temperature. And if it be wished to avoid smaller fractions or decimals, in applying this scale to botanical purposes, all localities may be regarded as if under the even geographical line of latitude, or the inter- mediate half degree, to which they are nearest. The errors of mis-position in this way could never exceed fifteen geographical miles; while those of temperature could at most amount. to only one-eighth of a degree, in variation from the standard scale, or less than the pro- bable fallacies of the scale itself. Along the south coast of England, the changes of tem- perature almost cease to be questions of latitude ; rather becoming those of longitude and increased insularity ; - Iv. CLIMATE. 157 especially so for the peninsular elongation situate between the English and Bristol Channels. Starting here from the extreme south-west, the assumed means on the coast line may be 52 for Cornwall, 514 for South Devon, 51 for Dorset and Hants, and 50} for Sussex ; becoming 50 for the south-east coast of Kent, and also for the coasts of the Bristol Channel, as before intimated. Supposing the scale above given to be that for the east coast of Britain, from Kent to Caithness, with Orkney and Shetland, two questions arise on it. First, can the same scale be applied along the western coast? Se- condly, can the same scale be likewise applied to inland places? Thermometrical registers for places on or near the western coasts have been sparingly put on record ; so that facts are inadequate to afford a satisfactory answer to the first question. For the present, the same scale may be deemed applicable also to the western coasts ; though one quarter or even half a degree of additional mean tem- perature might perhaps be correctly given to islands and elongated points or peninsulas, on the western side of Britain. The scale may possibly be found somewhat too high for inland places. But it is to be understood as the sea-level temperature. And as inland places have usually some appreciable elevation above the sea-level, there will always practically be a deduction to some extent, when the scale is applied to inland places. For those of slight and unknown elevation, as 25 yards or less, the deduction of one quarter of a degree may be taken. For those more raised above the sea, the scale of decrease for altitude may be resorted to, as will presently be explained. Fahrenheit’s thermometer is still adhered to here, as in the preceding three volumes, on account of its greater familiarity for English botanists. A change to the cen- tigrade thermometer is however highly desirable, in 158 IV. CLIMATE. conformity with the usages of the most scientific nations of the Continent. The centigrade thermometer might even now give increased facility for a scale to connect mean temperature with latitude, by aid of decimals and minutes, without the inconvenience of less exact fractions in the form of quarter and half degrees. The sea-level tempe- rature, in latitude 51 at the south-east angle of England, was considered above to be represented by 50 on Fahren- heit’s scale. This is equal to 10 on the centigrade scale. And in allowing one-hundredth of a degree of centigrade temperature, as a decrease for every two minutes of lati- tude northward, a descending scale is obtained which differs very little from that of half a degree of Fahren- heit’s thermometer for one whole degree of latitude. Each minute or geographical mile would thus be under- stood to correspond with 0.005 of centigrade temperature ; two minutes with 0.01; sixty minutes with 0.3, the deci- mal figure for a whole degree. The scale would run thus :— Lat. 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59. Temp. 10 9.7 9.4 9.1 8.8 85 8.2 7.9 7.6 Reckoned in this manner, the rate of decrease northward would be very slightly slower or less than that before given as adapted to the thermometer of Fahrenheit. It is true that either of these rules, for connecting the ther- mometrical scales with geographical latitude in Britain, involves a kind of forced uniformity, more precise and even than may be warranted by recorded facts. But inas- much as they are both deduced from the thermometrical registers of temperature, as recorded for many different places, they will in the main be found to represent those facts without much deviation from the most correct among them. ee IV. CLIMATE. 159 13. Relation of Mean Temperature to Altitude. — So few and unsatisfactory are the data on which to ground a scale for decrease of temperature in connexion with ascending altitude, that any attempted scale or rate of change must be proposed rather as provisional and con- jectural than anywise certain. It can be offered or received only as an approximation to natural truth. Hourly observations of the thermometer at Inverness and Kingussie, in the years 1838 and 1839, are reported to have given a difference slightly exceeding 23 of mean temperature for 220 yards of ascent. In even numbers this would seem to indicate a rate or relation of one degree of temperature for something less than 90 yards of ascent in North Britain. Inverness is situate on the coast, and Kingussie at 40 miles inland; a difference which may rather tend to accelerate the decrease of tem- perature. The recorded mean temperature for Lead-hills in Mid Britain, situate 1280 feet above the sea, is rather under 44}, as observed at 6 and 1 o’clock, and corrected for the slight excess of those two hours together over the averages dedcced from the half-hourly registers at Leith Fort. The assumed sea-level temperature for the latitude may be called 472; thus giving about 33 for the fall of the thermometer in 1280 feet; being at the rate of one degree of temperature for 366 feet, or one of temperature for 122 yards. It has been reported that the difference in the mean annual temperatures at Bywell and Allen- heads, in Northumberland, respectively at 50 and at 1360 feet of elevation above the level of the sea, amounts to 4.7 of Fahrenheit. This fall of the thermometer, for a height of 1310 feet, is equal to one degree of temperature for 278 or 279 feet of ascent. According to Mr. John Welsh, the following average results in feet are equivalent to one degree of Fahrenheit, 160 Iv. CLIMATE. as deduced from observations of the thermometer during four balloon ascents; the first and fourth relating to heights up to 4000 feet, the second and third respectively to 7000 and 2700 feet :— August 17, average 277.9 feet. SG lodyyey BBG, October 21, ,, 279.3. 55 November 10, ,, 266.0 ,, Whether the average of these four figures, 276 feet or 92 yards, will correctly represent the mean annual decrease of temperature in connexion with ascending altitude, near the surface of the ground, it is yet impossible to say. In making observations with the barometer and sympieso- meter, in order to ascertain the altitudes at which plants were found on the mountains of Britain, the writer of this volume had constant occasion to note the temperature of the air. Many of these notes still exist; but-.as they are not simultaneous for different altitudes, they cannot be relied upon as very exact or serviceable data in the matter under present consideration. They appear on a rough average to indicate less than 100 yards of ascent for a de- crease of one of temperature by the thermometer of Fahrenheit. Mr. Galbraith reduced the rate of decrease to 70 yards for one degree of temperature. Professor Leslie deemed 100 yards nearer the truth. The temperatures of spring water may afford some additional data towards showing a rate of decrease in connexion with ascending altitude. The temperature of spring water at Lead-hills is stated to be 44, at an alti- tude of 1280 feet. The mean of two springs at Colin- ton, near Edinburgh, at 290 feet of mean altitude is re- ported to be something over 473; being rather more than 33 difference of temperature for nearly 1000 feet of ascent, say one degree of the thermometer for 280 feet or 93 ee Iv. CLIMATE. 161 yards of ascent. If an allowance be made for the dif- ference of latitude between Lead-hills and Colinton, these figures will be reduced. In Otley’s Guide to the Lakes, it is mentioned that Brownrigg Well, a spring at the height of 2750 feet on Helvellyn, a few miles from Keswick in Cumberland, has a temperature of 40 to 42 in the summer months. The annual average of a spring or springs near Keswick, at 250 feet of height, is stated to be 463. In comparing the temperatures of these two altitudes, the lowest summer temperature of Brownrigg Well must be taken; and even that may be too high for an annual average. The dif- ference of 6} of temperature for 2500 feet of altitude, gives a rate of 385 feet or 128 yards for one degree of temperature in Cumberland. Coupling this rate of de- crease with that for Colinton and Lead-hills, we obtain a mean of 332 feet or 110 yards for one degree of tempera- ture. Or, making a direct comparison between Brown- rigg Well at 40, and Lead-hills at 44, the difference of height is 1470 feet for 4 degrees of temperature ; to which half a degree of Fahrenheit ought to be added for dif- ference of latitude ; giving a rate of 326 feet of ascent for one degree of temperature. In August, 1832, the small spring well near the top of Ben Nevis, say at 3800 feet, had the temperature of 39. A more copious spring at the height of 2200 feet, gushing out on the moor above Loch Eil, some few miles from the well on Ben Nevis, had the temperature of 43, at the same date. This gives a rate of 400 feet for one degree of temperature. But very probably the temperature of the small spring on Ben Nevis was more raised in pro- portion to its altitude, than was the copious spring on the lower moors, at that season of the year. Indeed, in July VOL, Iv. 2 162 Iv. CLIMATE. and August of other years, so high a temperature as 39 was not indicated by mountain springs in Aberdeenshire, Forfarshire, and Perthshire, except by those below 3000 feet of altitude. The temperatures of twenty-three springs on the Grampian mountains, about latitude 47, in the Hast Highlands, were noted down in July and August of 1841 and 1844. The discrepancies between these were so considerable, as to render an average deduced from the whole far from satisfactory ; although it may be the best yet attainable. The temperature of the highest of these springs was 37, at the altitude of 3450 feet in Aberdeen- shire, on July 12, 1844. On comparing twenty-one others, each one in succession with this highest spring, their average rise of temperature is found to be at the rate of one degree of Fahrenheit for 322 feet of descent. In making this average the note for one of the springs is rejected, on the supposition of some error; as it indicates only half a degree of the thermometer for a difference of 700 feet in altitude. Extreme exactness cannot be attained; and while this is the case, it may be well to adopt some rule which will adapt itself to our instruments, and can be readily ap- plied to botanical objects. On the figures above given, there can be no wide error in assuming the relation of temperature and altitude to be at the rate of one degree for one hundred yards; that is, a decrease of temperature at the rate of one degree of Fahrenheit’s scale for each hundred yards of ascent. This rate may likely be some- what too rapid for the temperature of the ground, as measured by that of springs. On the contrary, it may perhaps be rather too slow for the decreasing temperature of the air, not close to the surface of the ground. The growth of mountain plants, seldom rising many inches a. os IV. CLIMATE. 163 above the surface of the ground, must be under the joint influence of atmospheric and terrestrial temperature ; and the rate of one degree of Fahrenheit’s scale for one hun- dred yards of ascent, may be held at present to represent nearly such a mean. Suppose it to differ so much as one-tenth from the true rate; that the rate of decrease up- wards should be one degree for 90 yards or for 110 yards instead. Such a variation of one-tenth from the assumed standard, either way, would be less than the variations which arise at equal levels from local conditions; for instance, from the humidity or dryness of the ground, the configuration of its surface, its inclination to or from the sun, &c. Hitherto, the thermometer of Fahrenheit has been alone looked to, in thus attempting to connect tempera- ture with altitude; and the subdivision of the degrees marked on its scale has been made only into the halves and quarters, as being more familiar to English readers. In what manner will it be most easy to substitute the centigrade scale for that of Fahrenheit? Fortunately, the former will accord better with the supposed rate of decrease in atmospheric temperature, than the scale of Fahrenheit. By allowing half a degree of the centigrade thermometer for each hundred yards of ascent, a rate of decreasing temperature is formed, which differs about one-tenth from that adapted to the thermometer of Fahrenheit. It will so represent a slower rate of de- crease, and be more closely in accordance with several of the figures before given; those of the balloon ascents excepted. By resorting to the decimal subdivisions of the centigrade scale, we obtain a very facile mode of applying the proposed rate to the altitudes of plants ; because one-tenth of a degree will then correspond with twenty yards of ascent; one-hundredth of a degree with 164 Iv. CLIMATE: 1. Assumed temperature for different altitudes. Yards, in 52 53 54 50 56 57 58 lat. Ss a 32d OS... BS ee 160 O+-98°* Figg Fee" TSS sO Sie 200 Oe Sisal PSaP wins e 7b ere ae 200, AWS Aarne TONS. VIB, TOP SHB ADO i UR wa AEA 628i. BiB), 08 C81 gee BHO ee 69 66 6.88 6:0 by pet G00" 67 Gao STS 5.BY 5S Beg 700 62 59 56 538 50 47 £44 S00 ee RA US ABA Ay SES SOO GD ALO rk ALB AB 40S ee 827) aot 1000 4.4 4,1 3.8 3.0 3.2 2.9 1100 3.9 2.7 24 1200 3.4 2.2 1.9 1300 17 14 1400 1.2 1440 1.0 two yards of ascent. The conversion of altitude into its corresponding temperature, or of temperature into its corresponding altitude, will thus be greatly facilitated for botanical purposes. Through this facility of mutual conversion, it will become possible to compare the rela- tive heights attained by plants under different latitudes within Britain; more especially so, if the centigrade scale be used in making the needful allowance and correction for differences of latitude also. The two Tables introduced above, 1 and 2, will suffice to exem- plify this relation of temperature to altitude and latitude. It is not to be expected, however, that any such uniform rate will be exactly borne out by the ever-varied realities of nature. But having observed and recorded facts for its basis, the scale or rate will be found approximately true as a general average, even although it should appear decidedly untrue in some localities. In attempting to place plants according to their climatal IV. CLIMATE. 165 2. Assumed altitude for different temperatures. Temp. in 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 lat. 9.5 © at 40 yards. 9. 140 80 20 8.5 240 180 120 60 0 8. 340 280 220 160 100 40 7.5 440 380 320 260 200 140 80 Te 540 480 420 360 300 240 180 6.5 640 580 520 460 400 340 280 6. 740 680 620 560 500 440 380 5.5 840 780 720 660 600 540 480 5. 940 880 820 760 700 640 580 4.5 980 920 860- 800 740 680 4, 1080 1020 960 900 840 780 3.5 1180 940 880 3. 1040 980 2.5 1140 1080 ae 1240 1180 1.5 1340 i 1440 relations, or to compare the climatal places of different species together, some such scales as here proposed be- come indispensable. For example, let it be supposed that one species of plant ascends to 600 yards of eleva- tion in North Wales, in latitude 53; also, that another species ascends to 400 yards on the hills of Scotland, in latitude 57. It is wished to determine which of these two species should be placed above or below the other in a series arranged according to relations with climate, so far as those relations arise from or correspond with mean temperature. The height of 600 yards in latitude 53 corresponds with the temperature of 6.4 in the first table; and the height of 400 yards in latitude 57 corresponds with the temperature of 6.2 in the same table. Conse- quently, the species of Scotland is deemed to ascend into an inferior or colder climate than the species of Wales, 166 Iv. CLIMATE. although not ascending to the same absolute elevation. Equality of temperature would have been found if the one species had ascended 40 yards higher in Wales, or if the other species had ascended 40 yards less high in Scotland. Climato - botanical investigations admit of being facilitated in various other modes through the adoption of an intermediate standard of temperature, into which elevation and latitude can both be resolved. Through this thermometrical representation, those two potent influences on vegetation can be indirectly brought into comparison, and measured against each other; al- though in a direct manner they are non-comparable. In applying the two tables to phyto-geographical purposes, the intervening altitudes and temperatures can easily be reckoned. Two yards of ascent, or two minutes of lati- tude, are assumed to correspond with one-hundredth (0.01) of a degree of temperature. Conversely, the tenth of a degree of temperature (0.1) will correspond with twenty yards of ascent, or with twenty minutes of a degree in latitude. 14. Temperature of the Seasons.—'The mean tempera- ture for the whole year is now sufficiently understood to be an imperfect measure of climatal influence on the flora and vegetation of a country. In the usual manner of arriving at a mean, low temperatures become reckoned in reduction from the high temperatures ; although in fact the former do not reduce the influence of the latter on plants im a corresponding degree. On comparing two climates, for the one of which the summer and winter temperatures are respectively 60 and 20, while for the other they are respectively 50 and 30, the same mean of 40 would probably be obtained for the whole year. But those climates would be adapted to different floras. The IV. CLIMATE. 167 summer heat of the more equal climate would prove inadequate to develope and mature some plants, such as would flourish under the less equal or mate, because requiring higher warmth and bearing “cc excessive” cli- greater cold. On the contrary, the cooler summer of the more equal climate might still be sufficient for other species, which would be destroyed by the greater in- tensity of cold in the excessive climate. Numerous facts have been observed which bear out this hypothetical case ; here given only for the sake of showing the dis- tinction, and not as being in itself a literal fact. Hence it becomes important to phyto-geographers, to ascertain the difference of temperature according to season. It is to be remarked, however, that even in thus taking the temperatures of the seasons separately, the tendency to a reduction of the higher temperatures, by averaging them with the lower temperatures, is only abated without being fully removed. An inland locality, warmer by day and” cooler by night, might have the same summer mean as another locality on the coast, with the day and night tem- peratures more equal. The former might in consequence be adapted to mature plants, for which the less warm days of the latter would be insufficient. Perhaps eventually the best comparisons may be made for purposes of phyto- geography, by ascertaining the average number of days on which the thermometer indicates given degrees of temperature; for instance, above 50, 60, 70, 80, and intermediate numbers. These would be good data to- wards comparing the climatal force (so to express it) of different places, or of different years at the same place. At present such data are not attainable, unless imper- fectly, and at a sacrifice of time greater than can be devoted thereto. So that, the usual manner must here 168 IV. CLIMATE. be resorted to, by deducing from the means of extremes or from observations made at fixed hours. Dividing the year into seasons of three months each, and regarding December, January, and February as the three winter months, comparisons may be instituted be- tween the means for the seasons and that for the whole year at the same place, or the seasons at different places may be compared together. In making such compari- sons for places in Britain, it will usually be found that the mean for the three autumnal months comes nearest to the mean for the whole year; the difference in several recorded instances being less than a single degree on Fahrenheit’s scale. In very few instances are the means for autumn so much as two degrees higher; and perhaps in no correct record are they a full degree under. This near approach to equality seems to hold true alike, whether the mean is deduced from the daily extremes or from registers at stated hours. — The mean for the three spring months is everywhere somewhat lower than that for the whole year; usually between one and two degrees lower; seldom slightly more than two degrees.— The mean for the three winter months is frequently about ten degrees lower than that for the whole year; this dif- ference rising to eleven or twelve degrees for some places. in the south-eastern provinces of England, and sinking to nine or even less on the south-western coasts.—The mean for the three summer months, through great part of the island, may be regarded as about ten degrees higher than that for the whole year; the difference increasing to eleven or twelve degrees in the south-eastern provinces, and decreasing to eight degrees or thereabouts in the extreme south-west, as at Penzance, in Cornwall. Leaving out of view the months of spring and autumn, and making a direct comparison between those of summer IV.: CLIMATE. 169 and winter, the mean difference for sixteen places in South Britain (excluding Cornwall) is very slightly under 23 degrees ;—that deduced from the registers for twenty places in Mid Britain amounts to 20.20 degrees ;—for nine places in the East Highlands it is 21.26 degrees ;— for the North Isles and north coast of- Scotland it becomes 15, on the average of four places. At Penzance, near the extremity of the Peninsula province, the dif- ference between the summer and winter means is repre- sented to be only 16.18 (16.68?); and for four other places in Cornwall itis 17. At Plymouth, in the same province, it is still only 16, on the means from the hourly observations during 5 years. It would appear by these various figures, that through the greater part of Britain, subject of course to deviations from local conditions, the difference between the mean temperatures of summer and winter is from 20 to 21 degrees of Fahrenheit’s scale. Further, it may be said that the difference is increased to 23 degrees in the south and south-east of England, where it is greatest ; and decreased also to 16 or 17 degrees in the extreme south-west, where it is slightest; possibly with an exception for the North Isles, at only 15. Mea- sured by the centigrade scale, this may be called a dif- ference of 11} degrees for Britain generally; rising to about 13 degrees in the south-east of England; and sinking to 9 degrees for the extreme south-west. It has been also stated below 8 degrees for Unst, in Shetland, a very insular position at the extreme north of Britain. How closely these differences will correspond with those of places at considerable altitudes, it is not yet possible to determine. From the registers at Lead-hills, in South Scotland, at an altitude of 1280 feet, it would seem that the difference between the summer and winter means there nearly equals what has been noted in the VOL. IV. Z 170 Iv. CLIMATE. south-east of England; thus being in excess over the average difference for places little above the sea level in Mid Britain. Some circumstances suggest that the sum- mer temperature of the Highland mountains is higher than might be expected, if compared with that of low places in their vicinity ; but no proper means or averages can here be stated. A remarkable fact, some time ago noted by the writer of this work, seems worthy of record by way of illustration, even though a solitary one. Very near the summit of Ben Aulder, near Loch Erricht, in Westerness, is a shallow pool of water, on a bed of dark rock, say (from recollection) a quarter to half an acre in extent, and at an altitude of about 3500 feet. On July 24, 1841, the temperature of this pool was tried by a Fahrenheit thermometer, in the middle of a clear and calm day, and found to be 59. At this time, the cold — water from a large patch of snow, melting under the bright sun, was trickling into the pool at one end. The temperature of the long and deep Loch Erricht, at an altitude of 1200 feet, a few hours later on the same day, was found to be only 48. The high temperature of small sphagnous swamps is often quite sensible to the hand, on sunny days, at a considerable elevation. These and other analogous facts show that the heating power of the sun’s rays is very great on the higher mountains during serene days. But so many days there are neither calm nor clear, that such a temperature as 59, above recorded for the pool on Ben Aulder, may be only a rare and exceptional instance. 15. Extremes of Temperature.—Every observer of such matters is familiar with the fact, that most of the plants kept in greenhouses during winter, and removed to the open ground of the gardens during summer, are suc- Iv. CLIMATE. bgt cessively killed off by the increasing severity of the frosts of autumn or winter, if left out unsheltered. And during winters of unusual severity even some of the native spe- cies are injured or quite killed by very low temperatures. It is less easy to trace any similarly destructive influence from unusually high temperatures ; because these being almost constantly accompanied by excessive dryness, the results may be attributed to either or both conditions. But the well-known fact of extreme temperatures being fatal to plants, either directly or indirectly, shows the importance of ascertaining the ordinary and extra- ordinary extremes which are experienced in any country or locality under consideration botanically. According to Luke Howard’s registers for the ten years following 1806, in the neighbourhood of London, the extremes observed by him were 96 and —5, respectively in 1808 and 1816; thus giving a total range of 101 de- grees. Howard alludes also to a temperature of —6.5, noted by another observer in 1796; thus adding one degree and a half to the full range observed by himself. During the twenty years following 1837, at Thames Ditton, a dozen miles south from London, the observed extremes were 90 and —8, respectively in 1846 and 1838 ; the greater cold and lesser heat, than those noted’ by Howard, thus giving together the reduced range of 98 only. Combining the highest temperature recorded by Howard, with the lowest observed at Thames Ditton, the extreme range is raised to 104. As-recorded by the same Author, in his volumes on ‘ The Climate of Lon- don, the extreme temperatures during each of the ten successive years were these :— Max. 87, 96, 82, 85, 88, 78, 85, 91, 80, 81. Min» 19s! 12, 18). 10,0 14j, B8y0R9} Che b¥p.\- 8. Thus, a temperature below zero of Fahrenheit occurred Lv Iv. CLIMATE. only once in the series of ten years. The widest range or variation during the same single year was 86 in 1816, and 84 in 1808; the two years respectively distinguished by the lowest and highest temperatures. In 1814, the high and low temperatures of 91 and 8 were noted; giving a range of 83 for the same year. According to the registers at Thames Ditton, from 1838 to 1857, the ther- mometer of Fahrenheit was only twice observed below zero during the series.of twenty years; namely at —8 in the night of January 19, 1838, and at —2 in the morning of February 12,1845. In other two of the years it was noted at 8 above zero, and in two others at 10 above zero. During some of the years it fell only to about 20; and in one of them it was not registered below 27. The highest temperatures at the same place, during the same twenty years, were much more uniform, varying only from 80 to 90. Only once was the latter high figure attained; and in three of the years that of 80 was the highest for each year. In the other sixteen years the variations were from 82 to 89. Temperatures below zero occur in other parts of Britain; but perhaps nowhere below those occasionally experienced in the south-eastern provinces, unless at con- sidérable elevations. Thus, the night between January 19 and 20, in the year 1838, was remarkable for very low temperatures in many places. The subjoined records in relation thereto were collected by Mr. Wilson Armistead, and printed in Hall’s Flora of Liverpool :— Sheffield, South-west Yorkshire, —5 degrees. Chiswick, Middlesex, ; . —4 Hampstead Heath, Middlesex, . —4 Greenwich, West Kent, . x 1 Leicester, Leicestershire, . , 2 York. (Vice-County?) . ‘ 3 Iv. CLIMATE. 173 Edge Hill, near Liverpool, 4 Kensington, near London, 4 Clapham, near London, 5 Chester, Cheshire, 6 Crayford, West Kent, 6 Leeds, Mid-west Yorkshire, 8 Birmingham, Warwickshire, 9 Malvern, Worcestershire, . : 9 Bedford, Bedfordshire, . A 1O Woodside, Cheshire, é eh Liverpool, South Lancashire, . 11 London (Royal Society), . . i Lb Neweastle, Northumberland, . 12 Kendal, Westmoreland, . te 16 Swansea, Glamorgan, 1 ser ke Bickston, South Devon, . imo ks Penzance, West Cornwall, 130 The lowest temperatures on this occasion were not simul- taneous everywhere. A change had already commenced in the south-west of England before the coldest day else- where. At Penzance, the temperatures of 23, 30, 37 are datéd January 18, 19, 20. At Swansea, the temperatures of 17 and 18 are given for January 19 and 20. At Kendal, the same lowest temperature of 16 is reported for three successive days, January 19, 20, 21. At Thames Ditton, the thermometer rose gradually from its lowest observed point of —8, on the night of January 19, till it attained to 46 by mid-day of January 22; again falling back to the freezing point in the succeeding night. The comparatively high temperature recorded for Kendal, on this memorable date, is not to be received as any evidence that very low temperatures are not occasionally experienced in the Lake province. For example, it ap- pears by Mr. Wilson Pitt’s register kept at Carlisle, in 174 Iv. CLIMATE. the same province, for the years between 1800 and 1825, that the extreme temperatures observed by him were 85 and —2; the registers being made at the hours 8, 1, 10. Similar local variations occur also elsewhere at corre- sponding dates. Thus, Professor Dickie mentions a temperature of —1 at Aberdeen on February 15, 1855. At Thames Ditton, the lowest temperatures of the same month in that year occurred some days before and after the 15th. In the early mornings of the 11th and 19th the thermometer was down to 8 degrees above zero, the lowest points reached; and in the mornings of the 18th and 20th it stood at 10. It was not so low at Thames Ditton between the dates mentioned; and there the lowest points of the month were 9 degrees above the lowest at Aberdeen. Greater depressions of the thermo- meter probably occur in places much elevated above the sea. At Lead-hills in South Scotland, at 1280 feet of altitude, the observed extremes were 79 and —16, during the ten years following 1810. N.B. Summary or Disrripurion, page 175.— The letters and figures used as abbreviations will be found explained after the end of the list, The like course will be taken with the succeeding lists also. V, 1. Ranuneulacee. CLEmMarTIS Vitalba THaLIcTRuM alpinum minus majus flavum ANEMONE nemorosa Pulsatilla ADONIS autumnalis Myosvurus minimus RanuncuLus aquatilis circinatus fluitans tripartitus ccenosus hederaceus Ficaria Flammula Lingua auricomus acris repens SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. Species 35. (Long. Lat. awe s?P- iwe smn iwe smn iwe -mn iwe smn iwe smn -we sm- -we s-- -we sm- iwe smn iwe sm- iwe sm- -we s~ - iwe sm- iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn Census 1654. Alt. (Dubious 6—137). Zones. ise 123456 12345- Cen. 41 3S oO bo bo bo bt bo be od bt Bi to bo om & oo 176 RaNuncutus bulbosus hirsutus sceleratus parviflorus arvensis CaLtTHa palustris radicans TROLLIUS europeus HELLEBORUS viridis foetidus AQUILEGIA vulgaris DELPHINIUM Consolida ? AconiITUM Napellus AcT#HA spicata 1*. Berberacee. BeErBERIs vulgaris 2. Nympheacee. NympHza alba NupHar lutea pumila 3. Papaveracee. PapavER hybridum Argemone dubium Rheas MEconopsis cambrica V. OF DISTRIBUTION. Bi) ect ae (Dubious 1—30). hoe ee 123--- 123--- By eo 30 61 65 5 Census 376. (Dubious 5—319). SUMMARY iwe smn ea- iwe smn c-- iwe smn c-- iwe sm- c-- iwe sm- c-- Iiwe smn cau --e --n ca- iwe smn cau awe sm- Ca- -we sm- cCca- iwe sm- ca- --e@ s-- e¢-- -W- S- - ¢-- -we -Mm- ca- Species 1. Census 30. iwe sm? c-- Species 3. Census 131. iwe smn ca- iwe smn Ca- -we -?Pn ca. Species 7. nwe*- ism" Ge" iwe smn c-- iwe smn eca- iwe smn ca- iwe sm- ca- ate 28 Loe: .5- 1eee est. - 1234-- 30 70 85 72 16 Bi bt od bt oy So E. b. Ss ops oo 2 9 V. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. CHELIDONIUM majus rwe' sim? ¢a'-) W2ei--- “62 Guaucium luteum iwe smn c-- 12---- 41 3*. Fumariacee. Species 6. Census 258. (Dubious 5—198). CoryDa.is claviculata iwe smn ca- 123--- 60 Fumaria capreolata iwe smn c-- L23--- W%7 officinalis iwe smn ca- 128--- 85 micrantha -we smn c-- 123--- 20 parviflora P-e sm- e-- I12---- 9 Vaillantii Rale Set= Cots. [ Bs- =- 7 4. Crucifere. Species 60. Census 2156. (Dubious 13—336). CakILE maritima iwe smn c-=- F23--- 48 CRAMBE maritima iwe smn c-- 12---= 28 Coronopus didyma Wiese (Se Cito 4s PPR P= =) — 12 Ruellii iwe smn c-- 123--- 67 THLAspI arvense iwe smn c-- 123--- 53 perfoliatum =IWiee oa Ca IRR aT <5 re. he alpestre -we smn cau -2345- 10 CapsELLa Bursa iwe smn ca- 123--- 92 Hurcatnsia petrea “Wen SM=- Ca- -123.2--) Tf TEESDALIA nudicaulis -we smn ca- 123--- 47 IsERIs amara ek a: ee 1----- 8 Lepipium latifolium iwe am- qg-- I2---- 9 Smithii iwe smn ca- 1238--- 56 campestre we smm e¢-- P2s'- = - Gg ruderale iwe s-- c-- Il1----- 16 VOL. IV. 2A QO Rw bo bo 93 2 178 CocHLEARIA officinalis danica anglica SUBULARIA aquatica DraBa aizoides rupestris incana muralis verna DENTARIA bulbifera CARDAMINE amara pratensis hirsuta sylvatica impatiens ARABIS thaliana petrea stricta hirsuta ciliata Turriris glabra BarBAaREA vulgaris arcuata stricta NasrurtiIuM officinale terrestre sylvestre amphibium SisyMBRIUM officinale Vy. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION, iwe iwe iwe iwe smn sm- smn nn BB o 3 smn sinn €a- 123456 123--- 123--- 123--- 123456 Por = = 12345- L2---= Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. Sisywerium Trio iwe Sophia iwe Erysimum cheiranthoides iwe Alliaria iwe MatrHiowa incana -=e sinuata iw- Brassica oleracea iw? campestris iwe SIN APIS arvensis iwe alba iwe nigra iwe tenuifolia iwe muralis iwe monensis -W- Rapwanus ’ Raphanistram iwe maritimus | iwe 5. Resedacea. Species 2. ReEsEDA luteola iwe lutea iwe 6. Cistacee. Species 4. HELIANTHEMUM vulgare Pwe polifolium -w- canum iwe Breweri -w- 7. Violacee. Species 10. Viora palustris iwe odorata iwe hirta iwe sylvatica iwe flavicornis iwe smn smn e-- Census 131. smn c-- smn c-- Census 79. smn ca- S-- ¢-- sm- ca- S-- e-- Census 446 smn cau sm- c-- smn ca- smn cau smn ca- 27 79 180 Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. Vioua lactea iwe s-- c¢-- l----- stagnina iwe s-- c¢-- l----- tricolor iwe smn ca- 1238--- lutea iwe smn cau ?238346- Curtisii Pw- sP- e-- I----- 8. Droseracee. Species 3. Census 154. Drosera rotundifolia iwe smn ca- 12384-- intermedia iwe smn e-- 123--- anglica iwe smn ca- 1234-- 9. Polygalacee. Species 3. Census 98. PotyeaLa vulgaris iwe smn cau 123845- ealcarea -we s-- e-- I--=---- uliginosa --e -m-= -af* --S8--- 10. Frankeniacee. Species 1. Census 1t. FRANKENIA levis --e@ S-- ec-- IL----- 11. Elatinacee. Species 2. Census 16. ELATINE hexandra Pwe smn e-- 123--- Hydropiper iwe s--) e-='15---- 12. Caryophyllaceea. Species 57. Census 2338. DiaNTHUS prolifer Jie Ss =? chee deer - = Armeria -we smn c-- 12---- cxsius -w- S-- ¢-- Il----- deltoides iwe smn cP- 123--- SAPONARIA officinalis iwe smn c-- 12---- SILENE inflata iwe smn eca- 123--- maritima iwe smn cau 1238456 Otites --e€ s-- ¢-- I1----- anglica iwe smn c-- 123--- nutans -we smn c-- 12---- italica --e s-- ec-- IL----- noctiflora -we smn e¢-- 12---- Ik 13 3 G. E. E. (Dubious 5—185). lea) ? Re eee oO . oR SILENE conica acaulis Lycunis alpina Viscaria Flos-cuculi diurna vespertina Githago Mencara erecta Sacina procumbens - maritima apetala ciliata saxatilis subulata nodosa SPERGULA arvensis HoNKENEJA peploides SPERGULARIA marina rubra ARENARIA norvegica serpyllifolia tenuifolia verna rubella uliginosa trinervis Ho.LostEuM umbellatum STELLARIA nemorum Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe smn smu -mn sinn smn smn smn smn sm - smn smo smn sm - Eee} i smn smn smn snnn smn ca ca _— wo (Js) ' ' ' 181 182 Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. STELLARIA media iwe holostea iwe glauca iwe graminea iwe uliginosa iwe cerastoides iwe CERASTIUM aquaticum iwe glomeratum iwe triviale iwe semidecandrum i we tetrandrum iwe arvense iwe alpinum -we latifolium -we nigrescens -Ww- CHERLERIA sedoides -we Linacee. Species 4. Census 188. Linum } perenne i? bot bh be od be oS be id fe Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. 183 16. Hypericacee. Species 10. Census 592. Hyrericum Androsemum iwe smn c-- 12383--- 60 E,b. perforatum iwe smn eal - 5 1203)- --=- 979eeB: dubium ~ iwe smn ca- 128--- 53 E.b. quadrangulum-iwe smn ca- 123--- 82 B. humifusum iwe smh cal] 2PQ3--- MZEReRB: linariifolium -W- S-- e¢-- Il----- Die TAs pulchrum iwe smn cau 1234-- ‘9be9TB. hirsutum iwe smn ca- 128--- 68 Be. montanum -we sm- ca- 12---- 34 KE. elodes iwe sm- ca- 123--- 48 KE.a. 17. Aceracee. Species 1. Census 50. ACER campestre awe sm? eca- b2--- 50)" 'E. 18. Geraniacee. Species 14. Census 758. (Dubious 1—28) Eropium mariltinum Iwe -sm- c¢-- 12----! 29 «Ave! cicutarium iwe. siim e@as-- kbQ3i--- S82. moschatum iw- s-- e@-- 1----- Satria: GERANIUM sylvaticum iwé smn Caw 62345 - 3r8.1 pratense iwe-> smn ca- 1234-- ¢3agBie. pyrenaicum iwé SmM> e-.- bh2B---- ©2807 #. rotundifolium iwe s-- ec-- I----- 15 E. pusillum iwe smn e-- E23--- (52 )E.b. molle iwe smn ea- 123--- 92 B. dissectum iwe smn ca- 123--- 86 B. columbinum iwe smn ca- 12---- 62 E.b. lucidum iwe smn ca- 123--- 69 B.e robertianum iwe smn ca- 123--- 94 -B. sanguineum iweé SMD Ca= L23--- AeA eer: 19. Balsaminacee. Species 1. Census 6. (Dubious 1—6)._ IMPATIENS Noli-tangere -w- sm- c-- -2---- 6 L.a 20. Oxalidacee. Species 1. Census 84, OXALIs Acetosella twe smn cau. 123456 84 B. 184 Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. 21. Celastracee. Species 1. 23. Leguminifere. Species 70. Census 2850. Census 62. sm sm Ss m sm sm n a} ca- cCa- e.=s- Ca- cau Evonymus europeus iwe 22. Rhamnacee. Species2. Census 92. Ruamnus catharticus iwe Frangula iwe SparTIoM scoparium iwe ULEx europeus iwe nanus liwe GENISTA tinctoria iwe pilosa ~we anglica -we ONonIs — arvensis iwe spinosa iwe ANTHYLLIS vulneraria iwe MEeEpiIcaco sylvestris -Pe faleata a~-e lupulina iwe maculata iwe denticulata iwe minima --e MELILotTUS officinalis iwe arvensis iwe vulgaris iwe TRIFOLIUM ornithopodioidesi we repens iwe subterraneum -we ochroleucum - Pe Molinieri -W- Lette cae 1G< Meat (eae 1234-- Lgsi- = 2 Fone) 46 87 (Dubious 8—116). B. a ae Vv. TRIFOLIUM pratense medium Maritimum arvense scabrum striatum Bocconi glomeratum strictum suffocatum fragiferum procumbens minus ? filiforme ? Lozus corniculatus major angustissimus hispidus ASTRAGALUS glycyphyllos hypoglottis alpinus OxyTrRopis uralensis campestris OrnitHopus perpusillus ARTHROLOBIUM ebracteatum Hiprocrepis comosa Onosrycuis sativa Vicia Orobus sylvatica Cracca VOL. IV. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe nn BB a) nn BB 56 6 smn smn sm - ~ is) ' ' ' t 51 28 DO bs bo bs by Bt be ot bo 185 PRY oO ms o NM 186 Vv. SUMMARY Victa angustifolia iwe lathyroides iwe lutea -we sepium iwe bithynica -we hirsuta iwe tetrasperma iwe gracilis iwe LatTnayrus Aphaea -we Nissolia -we hirsutus --e pratensis iwe palustris iwe sylvestris -we maritimus iwe Orosus tuberosus iwe niger --e 24. Rosuceea. Species 82. Prunus spinosa iwe Padus iwe Cerasus -we avium iwe Sprr#Ha Ulmaria iwe Filipendula iwe Dryas octopetala iwe GEuM urbanum iwe rivale iwe SIBBALDIA procumbens -we PotrentTILyea fruticosa iwe rupestris = W, = smn smn -muhi OF DISTRIBUTION. ec-- 1238--- 654 e-- 123--- 41 ce-- 12---- 9 ca- 1234-- 8&8 c- - 12---- 15 cjay- 1923)=.- - «eo e-- 12---- 6l c-- 1l----- 6 e-- Il----- 22 c- - l----- 32 C- - l----- 1 ca- 123--- 91 c-- 12---- 11 c-- 12P--- 47 c-- 123--- “f ca- 1234-- 79 -P- --3--- 4 Census 2714. (Dubious 3—91). smn smn smn 5 sm smn -mn ca- 123--- 85 ca- 123?-- 39 c-- 12---- LZ. ca - 123--- 58 cau 12345- 98 ca- 123--- 47 cau --345- 14 ca- 123--- 87 -au ---456 14 Pa- -234-- 3 Pa- -2---- 1 be oe » a mm BoB om oo be nm . Pw Vv. PovreNTILLA anserina argentea verna alpestris reptans Tormentilla Fragariastrum ComaruM palustre FRaGARIA vesca Rosvus Chamemorus saxatilis Ideeus suberectus Sp. Babingtoniane. fissus plicatus nitidus affinis latifolius imbricatus incurvatus rhamnifolius Grabowskii thyrsoideus discolor leucostachys carpinifolius villicaulis pampinosus mucronatus Salteri macrophyllus Sprengelii Bloxamii Hystrix SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. liwe iwe -we -we iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe SsSmn smn smn -mn smn smn smn smn smn smn smn smn >mn ca - Ca - ca- -au ca - cau ca - cau -au cau ca- Cca- 187 (The counties, not vice-counties, reckoned here). -Ww- S-- ic] ' i oe aaa oe & 6 © ' ‘ 123--- 93 B. 123--- 40 Eg. 123--- 19 Te. --345- 9 H. 123--- 75 E.b. 123456 92 B. 1234-- 7 Bee. 12345- 77 ~=OBus 1234 -- 88 OB. --3456 26 4H. -2345- 43 S.h 1234-- 71 Bes -23--- 22 S. ]----- Tigitle 12P--- 22) Bib 12---- 17 E. 12?--- 18 E.b. -2?P--- 3. LL. l----- Qrinnky, 12---- 5 uE. 12---- 16 E. l----- 1 L. 12---- TPE 12---- 20 =£E. 12---- 20 E. 123--- 22 E.b. 12---- 16 =O: l----- Seri. 12?--- Siew e. 12---- St eee: 12---- 20. E. 12---- 13) 0 Ee l----- Qavels 1l2---- 13 E. 188 Rusvus Radula rudis pallidus Koehleri fusco-ater pyramidalis Guntheri hirtus glandulosus scaber Balfourianus corylifolius nemorosus cesius Rosa spinosissima mollis rubiginosa canina systyla arvensis SancGuISORBA officinalis PorTERIUM Sanguisorba muricatum ALCHEMILLA vulgaris alpina arvensis AGRIMONIA Eupatoria odorata MEspPILus germanica CraTzcts Oxyacautha CoroNnEASTER vulgaris vy. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe iwe -Ww- sm sm i] n — n ca ca 85 mmo mw . bi tt et Bt se = . oO . Vv. Pyrus communis Malus torminalis Aria Aucuparia SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe sm- iwe sm- -we sm- iwe smn iwe smn ca c- ca ca u 25. Onagracee. Species 13. Census 626. Eprcosium angustifolium hirsutum parviflorum mInontanum lancevlatum roseum palustre tetragonum alsinifulium alpinum "Tsyarpra palustris Circ#a lutetiana alpina 26. Haloragiacee. Hippuris vulgaris MyriopHyLtum verticillatum spicatum alterniflorum 26*. Callitrichacee. CaLLiTRICHE verna pedunculata platycarpa autumnalis iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn -we s-- iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn -we smn -we --n ‘1 t) @ n ' t iwe smn iwe smn Species 4. Census 189. iwe smn iwe sm- iwe smn iwe smn Species 4. iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn 26.* Ceratophyllacee. Species 2. CERAYOPHYLLUM demersum submersum iwe smn iwe sm- ca ca c- ca ca ca ca ca c? Census 169. u 36 41 35 =) 189 bo Be ms be oo Dm oo Ht i no eo 190 27. Lythracee. LytrHRUM hyssopifolium Salicaria PrEptis Portula 29. Cucurbitacee. BryYonia dioica 30. Portulacacee. MonrTia fontana 31. Illecebracee. ILLECEBRUM verticillatum CoRRIGIOLA littoralis HERNIARIA glabra PoLycaRPon tetrapbyllum ScLERANTHUS annuus perennis 33. Grossulariacee. Rises nigrum rubrum alpinum Grossularia 34. Crassulacee. TILLZA muscosa SEDuUM Rhodiola Telephium villosum anglicum album Census 148. sP - smn smn sm - smn n smn P>mn Census 330. 5 fon] n C- - ca- Census 50. Cc - - Census 80. cau Census 89. Census 110. ~ SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. lge:-- 12e--- se 128% =:- see 12Qy e-ie 123456 80 eer * 3 Toes 2 ieee 4 pega yas 2 1@ei -.- AS jeoee = 4 (Dubious 2—50). 12)=-- =) .208 123--- 40? 123--- 20? 12--+-- 30? (Dubious 2—25). eee kt = 6 -23456 26 bec-~ -eee | 12345- 42 Pi@y i= -| sa bm me we yw DU Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. 191 SEDUM acre iwe smn ca- 1238--- 85 B. reflexum iwe sm- ec-- 12---- 20 Eva. rupestre iw- sm- ca- 12---- IJl~A Forsterianum -w- s-- c¢c-- 12---- 5 UA CotTyLEDON Umbilicus iwe smn ca- 123--- 46 Ave. 35. Sawifragacee. Species 14. Census 449. SAXIFRAGA stellaris iwe smn cau --38456 30 H. nivalis iwe smn -- ---56 10 H. Hirculus iwe -mn ca- -23--- 9° W's! aizoides iwe -mn cau 23456 2 4H. oppositifllia iwe smn cau --3456 22 4H. granulata iwe smn ca- 1283--- 50° B.i cernua --e --n --u ----- 6 1 4H. rivularis -we --M --uU -=--- 6 3. 4H. tridactylites iwe smn ca- 123--- 64 Bee. hypuoides iwe smu cau 123456 35 Sh. ceespitosa hate Mem atu -3-8-F-"- 6 1 4. CHRYSOSPLENIUM oppositifollum iwe smn cau 123456 82 B.h. alternifolium iwe smn cau 12845- 53 Bui. ParNassia palustris iwe smn cau 12345- 64 Sb. 36. Araliacee. Species 2. Census 159. ADOXA moschatellina iwe smn cau 128456 70 B. HEDERA Helix iwe smn ca- 128--- 89 B. 37. Cornacea. Species 2. Census 65. Cornus sanguinea iwe sm= ca-- 12---- 54 pe. suecica Wie? Tn Cau == "34:6 =" DIP nES 38. Umbellifere. Species 57. Census 2383. (Dubious 11—349). HyprocoryLe vulgaris iwe- smn ca- 12'3--=- nsienB SANICULA europea iwé smn ca->’ 1d--- v7eenB, 192 V. Erynoium maritimum campestre Contum maculatum PaysosPERMUM cornubiense SmyRnium Olusatrum CicurTa virosa ApIuM graveolens PETROSELINUM segetum TRINIA vulgaris HE LosclIaDIUM nodiflorum inundatum Sison Amomum ALGOroDIUM Podagraria Carum © Carui verticillatum Bulbocastanum Bunium flexuosum PIMPINELLA Saxifraga magna Srum latifolium angustifolium BuPpLEURUM tenuissinum aristatum rotundifolium SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iw- iwe -we liw- --e iwe lwe iwe iwe iwe -we -W- -we smn sm - smn smn smn sm - n wn 5B B 56 OB sm - snn smn sS- - smn sm =] sm =] smn sinn sm - §S-- sm - ca- 12Qsi- - — © oo 1 t t 20 35 K. ? a Vv. CENANTHE fistulosa - pimpinelloides Lachenalii silaifolia crocata Phellandrium fluviatilis JETHUSA Cynapium Fenicutum vulgare SESELI Libanotis LigusTicuM scoticum Simavs pratensis Meum athamanticum CritHMuM maritimum ANGELICA sylvestris PevucEDANUM officinale palustre PASTINACA sativa HeEracteum Sphondylium TorDyYLium maximum Daucus Carota maritimus Cavcatts daucoides VOL. IV. * SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe -we iwe -we iwe iwe -we iwe tiwe iwe iwe iwe = c iwe iwe = We smn sm - smn Sir smn sm - smn ca- ca- cau ca- _ o ' ' ‘ t ' © oo ‘ ' i iM) t 1 1 1 26 L. >w Oo 194 v. Torixis Anthriscus infesta nodosa Scanpix Pecten ANTHRISCUS vulgaris sylvestris CuHzZROPHYLLUM temulentum Myrruis odorata 39. Loranthacee. Viscum album 40. Caprifoliacee. SamsBucus nigra Ebulus VipuRNUM Opulus Lantana LonicERA Periclymenum LiInn#a borealis 41. Rubiaceae. Rusia peregrina GaALtium verum cruciatum palustre uliginosum saxatile erectum Mollugo sylvestre SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe smn ca- iwe sm- Cc- - iwe smn c-- iwe smn ca- iwe smn c-- iwe smn ca- iwe smn ca- iwe smn ca- Species 1. Census 33. -we sm- c-- Species 6. Census 326. iwe sm- Ca- iwe sm- c-- iwe smn ca- -we sm- c-- iwe smn ca- -we -mn cau Species 18. iwe iwe -we iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe Census 869. S-- ¢-- smn ca- smn ca- smn ca- smn c-- smu cau sm? c-- smn ca- smn ca- 123--- 82 1 De = - 4, 12---- 58 123--- 72 123--- 56 123--- 83 123--- 79 123--- 45 12---- 33 (Dubious 1—47). 12?--- 7 123--- 47 123--- 71 12---- 38 123--- 90 -2345- 12 (Dubious 2—32). l----- 1s 1234-- 92 123--- 76 123--- 92 123--- 55 123456 8&8 12---- 20 1238--- 60 1234-- 16 i bt bo 8S. h. co HO o 7 Vv. Gatium montanum anglicum tricorne Aparine Vaillantii boreale SHERARDIA arvensis ASPERULA odorata cynanchica 42. Valerianacee. VALERIANA dioica officinalis Ferpra olitoria Auricula dentata 43. Dipsacee. Species 5. Diesacus sylvestris pilosus ScaBiosa succisa columbaria KyavrTia arvensis 44. Composite. Species 136. TRAGOPOGON pratensis HELMINTHIA echioides Picris hieracioides Turincia hirta SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe iwe iwe Species 5. Census 301. -we iwe lwe iwe iwe iwe -we iwe -we iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe smn smn sm- smn smn smn sinn smn Ca- C- - c-- Census 328. smn sm - smn smn smn C-- c-- cau ca- Ca - Census 6000. pesrei-<- 12+-- (Dubious 3—156). _ (S) oo 1 1 es iS) ' 1 1 12345 12'3- - 123 - (Dubious 9—385). 123-- 12-~- 1 ee — to ' ' 1 - 74 nS So 9 ae o 9 si oO : GNAPHALIUM dioicum sylvaticum norvegicum supinum uliginosum Finaco gallica minima germanica apiculata spathulata PETasITES vulgaris Tussizaco Farfara ERIGERON . alpinus acris ASTER Tripolium Soipaco Virgaurea SENECIO vulgaris sylvaticus viscosus erucefolius Jacobea aquaticus paludosus saracenicus ? CInEeRARIA palustris campestris Inuta Helenium Conyza crithmoides Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe iwe --e -we iwe --e iwe iwe -we -we iwe iwe --e iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe -we iwe iwe iwe --e iwe --e -we iwe -we iwe smn smn are =r smn sS-@- smn smn sm - sm- smn smn smn sinn RPQnRa oe HOw DO oD > mm bi my oe oe 199 Se e. 200 Puticarta dysenterica vulgaris BELtIs perennis CuHRYSANTHEMUM segetum Leucanthemum PyretTHRUM Parthenium inodorum maritimum Marricarta Chamomilla ANTHEMIS nobilis arvensis Cotula | ACHILLEA Ptarmica Millefolium 45. Campanulacee. CaMPANULA rotundifolia patula Rapunculus latifolia rapunculoides Trachelium glomerata W AHLENBERGIA hederacea SPECULARIA hybrida PuytTrEUMa orbiculare spicatum J ASIONE montana SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe smn -we s-- iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe sm- iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn Species 14. iwe smn -we sm- -we s-- iwe smn -we smn iwe smn -we smn iwe sm- -we sm- -we s-- --€e S-- iwe smn c- - e- - cau ca- cau Census 440. (Dubious 2—53). cau _ iw) i) _ an 1 Preg42 = 123456 123456 Viper Een-c 89 96 94 63 Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. 201 LoBe.ia urens -w- s-+- e--=- I1l----- bycunA. Dortmanna iwe smn ca- 1284-- 2 S.h. 46. Ericacee. Species 20. Census 667. Erica Tetralix iwe smn cau 12384-- 91 B ciliaris iw- s-- e¢-- l----- 3 A cinerea iwe smn cau 1284-- 88 B. vagans iw-' S-- c-- l----- | eee CALLUNA vulgaris iwe smn cau 12345- 95 B. . MENZzIEsIA cerulea --e@ --n --u ----5- lL. walle AZALEA procumbens -we --n -au --=-56 15 4H. ANDROMEDA polifolia iwe smn e--, 123--- 19 Ls. ARBUTUS alpina -we --n cau --3456 95 ;H: Uva-ursi iwe -mn cau --+=345- 25,. HB: Vaccinium Myrtillus iwe smu cau 123456 76 B.h. uliginosum -we -mn -au --3456 16 H. Vitis-Idea iwe smn .cau -23456. 43. Hs -Oxycoccus iwe smn cau 12345- 52 Bi. Pyrowa rotundifolia Pwe smn cau 12345- 16 G.? media iwe smn ca- 12384-- 2 §&. minor iwe smn ca- 1238--- 45 Sg. secunda iwe -mn cau --345- 14 § uniflora -we --n C¢-- --3--- 6,05 Monorropa Hypopitys iwe smn c-- 123--- 28 Ge. 47. Ilicacee. Species 1. Census 72. ILex Aquifolium iwe smn ca- 123--- 72 B. 48. Jasminacee.. Species 2. Census 132. Ligustrum vulgare -we sm- c-- 12---- .64.E: VOL. IV. 2D 202 Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. FRaxInus excelsior iwe’ sma ¢a:-5 123--- 7 78a 49. Apocynacea. Species 1. Census 18. (Dubious 1—18). Vinca minor @we s-- e-- I1----- 18 . 4B 50. Gentianacee. Species 14. Census 474. GENTIANA verna iwe -m- -au --34-- 3: male b-. Pneumonanthe -we sm- c-- 12---- 2 E.g. nivalis --e --n --u ----56 2), EES Amarella iwe smn ca- 123834-- 68 B.g. campestris iwe smn cau 12345- 77% 9iBis- CIcENDIA filiformis iwe s-- e¢-- l----- 7 2@ae ExyTorma Centaurium iwe smn c-- 128--- 85 B. littoralis iwe smn ec-- 12---- 28 B pulchella iwe sm- ¢-- 129---- Se latifolia Pw- -m- c-- -2---- Le igh CHLORA ’ perfoliata iwe sm- c-- 12---- 51 KE. VILLARSIA nympheoides -we s-- c-- I----- dls. MENYANTHES trifoliata iwe smn ca- 1234-- 82 B. PoLEMONIUM ceruleum Iwe sm- cCa- -28--- See 51. Convolvulacee. Species 3. Census 170. CoNnvoLvuLus : rated arvensis Iiwe smn ec-- 128--- 70 Eb. sepium iwe smn c-- 12?--- 69 E.b. Soldanella iwe smn c-- 12---- 81 E 51.* Cuscutacee. Species 3. Census 59. (Dubious 1—11). Cuscuta europea -we sm- c-- 12---- 20 E. Epithymum -we sm- c-- 12---- 28 E, Trifolii -We Seo e-)- § 1Q-- - - + llihogiine 52, Solanaceae. Species 4, Census 229. (Dubious 1—30). Hyoscyamus niger iwe smn ec-- 123--- 70 “ESR: SoLanum nigrum Dulcamara Arropa Belladonna 53. Scrophulariacee. VERBASCUM Thapsus Lychnitis floeccosum nigrum Blattaria virgatum VERONICA spicata arvensis verna triphyllos serpyllifolia humifusa alpina saxatilis scutellata Anagallis Beccabunga officinalis montana Chamedrys hederifolia agrestis polita Buxbaumnii Bartsia alpina viscosa Odontites Evupurasia officinalis Ru INaNTHUsS Crista-galli Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe iwe awe iwe -we --e -we -we iw- smn sm - Species 48. smn Smn Cc. - 12---- 49 ca- 123--- 80 ca- 12---- 30 Census 2211. (Dubious 8—214). cYt-" U2QE+-- GF c- - l----- 11 e-- Il----- 4 e-"=* PQe--- 634 C= 8 Ie - = “Ie c-- l----- 3 ca- 12---:-- 9 Ca- 123 - - -390 eah=t * Rves-_ =" = 2 c-- 12---- 6 cau 1234-- 89 -Pu ---?56 9 --u ----56 5 --u ----56 4 ca- 1254-- 76 ca- 123--- 76 ca 12345- 89 e-- 123--- 68 cau 12345- 92 ca- 123--- 79 ca- 123--- 85 ca- 12---- 61 Ct BB-)-.- - (86 -au ---45- 5 e-- 12---- 17 ca- I123--- 88 cau 123456 93 eau 12345- 90 POW oO oD po al & 204 vy. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. MELAMPYRUM cristatum ee@i S=-j Ces, Ieee -- 9 G. arvense -Fe@*> Se = Gre ry lesee-- 4. Ge pratense iwe smn cau 12345- 83 B. sylyaticum iwe -mn ca- -238--- 16 S. PEDICULARIS palustris iwe smn ca- 1284-- 87 B sylvatica iwe smn ca- 12384-- 89 B. ScROPHULARIA nodosa iwe smn ca-. 128--- 89 B. Ebrharti =swiel sMs-) G-yrs 1222 -- |) WOgghra Balbisii iwel sm-- c-+» 126¢2-- 60eR8 Scorodonia iw- s-- e¢-- l----->- Di al: Diciratis purpurea iwe smn ca- 1234-- 88 B. ANTIRRHINUM Orontium iwiel Si) c-~» @=s-==- edie Linaria spuria -we sm- c-- 12---- 3 Eg. Elatine iwe sm- c-- 12---- 44 E. repens iwe sm- c-- 12---- 18 KE. vulgaris iwe smn c-- 123--- 7% Be. minor iwe sm- c-- 12---- 48 Eg. LimMosELLA aquatica -we sm- e-- 12---- 2 Ge SrprHorpra europea jiwiel s*--2 @htre Ipvee -- 2:5 eel 54. Orobanchacee. Species 10. Census 164. OroBaNCHE major(Angl.) iwe sm- e-- 12---- 44 KE. caryophyllacea --e s-- ¢-= Il----- ber. elatior iwe sm- ec-- 12---- AZ! « uGe minor iwe sm- ec-- 12---- 30 Ge. amethystea? (f=w--. si-j- @-f-- L-i- -- luciglis picridis -wel S---- @--. l-w--- E. hedere iwe s-- e¢-- l----- Dh ; rubra iwe smn ea- 128--- 7: OSes cerulea -we s-- c¢-- 1l----- 5 ce LaTHREA z im squamaria diwaet. Silimy el-x- 7 lire = see ; b 55.* Verbenacee. Species 1. Vv. VERBENA officinalis iwe 55. Lamiacee. Species 47. Sabvia verbenaca iwe pratensis --e Lycoprus europus iwe MeENTHA rotundifolia iwe sylvestris iwe piperita iwe aquatica iwe sativa iwe arvensis iwe Pulegium iwe Tuymus Serpyllum iwe OrIGANUM vulgare iwe CaLaMINTHA Acinos iwe Nepeta =we officinalis iwe sylvatica = -€ Clinopodium iwe MELI1TIs Melissophyllum - w e TEucrIuM Scorodonia iwe Scordium iwe Botrys --e AsUGA reptans iwe pyramidalis iw - Chamepitys -we Baviora nigra iwe Census 56. smn c-- Census 2366. smn c-- S-- e¢c-- smn c-- sm- c-- sM- c¢c-- smn c-- sm- c-- smn cau smimn ca- smn c- - fs '= ‘C= = sm- c-- S-- ¢c-- smn ca- S-- C-- sm- c-- Sais € aq smn cau --n ca- S-- e¢-- smn c- - SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. oe (Dubious 9—229). 56 48 2 84 30 37 38 83 55 79 37 91 70 84 83 10 205 206 v. LaMiuM Galeobdolon album amplexicaule intermedium incisum purpureum GALEOPSIS Ladanum ochroleuca Tetrahit ‘versicolor SracHys Betonica palustris ambigua sylvatica germanica arvensis GLECHOMA hederacea NEPETA Cataria MarrvuBium vulgare PRUNELLA vulgaris ScuTELLARIA galericulata minor 56. Boraginacee. Myosoris palustris repens cwespitosa alpestris sylvatica arvensis collina versicolor SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe -we iwe iwe iwe iwe lwe iwe --e iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe Species 21. iwe iwe iwe -we iwe iwe iwe iwe smn smn smn smn smn smn smn smn smn -mn sm - smn smn smn ca c- c- Census 923. 123-- 12?-- (Dubious 4—177). Toe ee 1234-- 77 49 bo bs ob be mo to td be PRs & : ty) . _ . me i oe LitHosPpERMUM officinale arvense p- ceruleum MERrrensiA maritima Sympyytum officinale tuberosum Lycopsis arvensis ANcHUSA sempervirens ASPERUGO procumbens CyNnoGLossuM officinale sylvaticum PouLMonaRia angustifolia Ecuium vulgare 57. Pinguiculacee. Pincuicura vulgaris alpina lusitanica UrricuLaRia vulgaris intermedia minor 58. Primulacee. PrRimva vulgaris elatior veris farinosa scotica TRIENTALIS europea SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe lwe ~we iwe iwe -we iwe iwe iwe iwe -Ww- iwe iwe iwe iwe Species 17. Census 814. iwe --e iwe -we =~ we -we smn smn smn smu smn smn --n smn smn smn sinn -mnmn ca - ca~- c-- C-- Species 6. Census 206. C- - ca- ca- C-- ca- ca- c- - cau _ © oo ' 1 _ © oo 1 ' -_— i) o ' ' 123-- 123-- 123-- (Dubious =. on - 10 - 46 2—112). 208 Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. Horronia palustris iwe-sm- c-- 12---- 41 Eg LysIMaAcHis vulgaris iwe smn c-- 12?--- 65 E.b. thyrsiflora -we -mn c¢--: -23--- x os nummularia iwe sm- c-- 12---- 53 E. nemorum iwe smn cau 123845- ‘82)70B: ANAGALLIS arvensis iwe smn ca- 12?--- 77 Bue. cerulea iwe sm- e-- 12---- 385 E. tenella iwe smn ca- 128--- 80 B CENTUNCULUS minimus iwe smn c-- 128--- 387 E.bD. Samo.us * Valerandi iwe smn- c-- 123--- 66 Eb. Guavx maritima iwe smn c-- 128--- 65 B. 59. Plumbaginacee. Species 6. Census 126. ARMERIA maritima iwe smn cau 128456 65° B. STATICE Limonium iwe sm- c-- 12---- 29 E Bahusiensis iwe sm- c-- 12---- 14 ~«=#E. occidentalis -we sm- c¢-- 12---- Wn eAs 63 Dodattii iwe sm- c-- 12---- 8 A.e caspia --e@ S-- ¢c-- l----- 3G 60. Plantaginacee. Species 6. Census 466. PLantTaco major iwe smn ca- 128--- 95 B. media -iwe smn ca- 128--- 61 Eb. ( lanceolata iwe smn ca- 1284-- 99 B. . maritima iwe smn ca- 1284-- 7b B Coronopus iwe smn ca- 128-+-- - 78))sB: LITTORELLA lacustris iwe smn ca- 1238--- 62 B. 62. Chenopodiaceae. Species 24. Census 796. (Dubious 2—98). CHENoPpopIuM olidum iwe sm- c-- 12---- 29 Ge. polyspermum iwe sm- c-- 12---- 34 &, Fret 7. Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. 209 CHENOPODIUM | urbicum iwe sm- e-- 12---- 20 Ge. | rubrum we’ smn @--e P2---- 490ME. g. botryodes --e S-- ¢6-- I----- 2 G. murale iwe s-- e¢-- 12---- 32 Evg. hybridum Pwe s-- c¢c-- I----- 18 E. album iwe smn ca- 12383--- 85 B. ficifolium iyweel sma ¢=2s Pee -- Ieee glaucum --e sm- ca- 12---- 6 6G. B.Henricus iwe smn ca- 128--- 64 Boe. ATRIPLEX portulacocides iwe sm- c-- 12+--- 2 E. pedunculata i-e sm- c-- 1l----- TOG: arenaria iwe smn c-- 123--- Sn: bz Babingtonii iwe smn c-- 123--- 46 B. hastata iwe smn ca- 123--- 74 6B. angustifolia iwe smn ca- 1238--- 64 B. littoralis iwe smn c-- 12---- 382 B. Beta maritima iwe smn c-- 1238--- 382 Bee SaLsoia Kali iwe smn c-- 128--- 43 Be ScHOBERIA maritima iwe smn c-- 1238--- 49 B. fruticosa -~we s-- c-- Il----- TING: SALIcorNIA herbacea iwe smn c-- 123--- 49 B. radicans iwe sm- 9.c-)- | 1bQ=s-- Yate 6 63. Polygonacee. Species 26. Census 1353. (Dubious 3—128). Potyconum Bistorta iwe smn ca- 123--- 62 Bui. viviparum iwe smn cau -?3456 25 4H. amphibium iwe smn c-- 1238--- 89 B. lapathiflium iwe smn ca- 1283--- 69 Boe, Persicaria iwe smu Ga- £23--- Sac: mite —wee: -Sim= ¢-ire Bei -- Si: .G. Hydropiper iwe smn ca- 128--- 81, B. minus iwe sam--c-- 12---- 32),.E.g. aviculare iwe smn ca- L123--- 94 B. VOL. IV. 2E 210 Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. Potyconum maritimum --e s-- e-- I----- 1 Sh. Raii iwe smn c-"-, 128--- 270RB: Convolvulus iwe smn ca- 12383--- 88 B. dumetorum -we s-- e¢-- 1----- 6 E.g. Rumex Hydrolapahhumiwe smn c-- 12---- 51 E. crispus iwe' smn cai-- 123--- See: aquaticus -we -mn ca- -23--- 20 S&S. pratensis -iwe) 8 m=) clar-) 12+ - =) (200 obtusifolius iwe smn ‘ca- 12'3-- = “88ay8b- sanguineus iwe smn ca- 123--- (68 Be. conglomeratus iwe smn c-- 123--- 66 B. pulcher iwe sm- c-- 1----- 34... maritimus liwef sim- ce-) 12--- =.)25emE palustris lfwiel:-si- ¢--» 12-'--- 22eiee- Acetosa iwe smu cau 123456 95 B. Acetosella iwe smn ca? 12845- 91 B. OxyRia reniformis iwe smn cau --8456 —18) (9H 64, Eleagnacee. Species 1. Census 5. HIprHOPHAE rhamnoides --e sm- c-- 1?---- a 38Gs 65. Thymeleacee. Species 2. Census 57. (Dubious 1—12). DaPHNE Laureola -we sm- c-- [2---- A553ERe: Mezereum -wie ism--) “cav-. 1'2)-)--- - Qa 66. Santalacee. Species 1. Census 19. THESIUM humifusum =IWiG SS - = ee I a 19° ie 67. Asaracee. Species1. Census 6. (Dubious 1—6). AsAaRuUM europeum -we sm- c-- 12---- 6) ai. 4. 68. Empetracee. Species 1, Census 54. EmpetruM nigrum iwe smn cau -23456 54 ~S.h. 69. Euphorbiaceae. Species 14. Census 478. (Dubious 6—294). EvpHorsia Peplis iwe s-- e-- 1----- 10 A, SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. 211 EupHorsia helioscopea iwe smn ca- 123--- 90 B. platyphylla =wer smi- c-l=>//Le= - =.- 26 «i. stricta -we s-- c-- l----- SBE ‘ hiberna iw- s-- e-- Il----- 1 As. pilosa —Wi-s 8-8 “E-Tst L-"= = - 1h epeAL Paralias iiwes .sm-- e@- - 12---— 25 “Ave! portlandica iwe sm- c-- 12---- 16 A. exigua iwe smn ca- 12---- 65 E.b. Peplus iwel sim aj-: W23--- 7292 -B.e. amygdaloides iwe sm- c-- 12---- 44 E, Bouxus sempervirens --e s-- ¢-- l1----- 4 G. MERcURIALIS perennis iwe smn ca- 1234-- 8 B. annua iwe sm- c-- 12---- 30 E. 70. Urticacee. Species 4. Census 309. (Dubious 1—84). Urrtica urens iwe smn eca- 1238--- 8 B. dioica iwe smn cau 123845- 94 B. PaRIETARIA officinalis iiwe- smm car-- L2d-"- -2 175) CBie Houmv.ws | Lupulus tiwe sm- ca- 12---- 54 E | 70*. Ulmacea. Species2. Census 73. | Uxmus | montana iwe smn -ca- 1238--- 650 B. suberosa twe sm- c-- 12---- 23 &E. 71. Amentifere. Species 34. Census 1239. QvceERcUs : Robur iwe smn ca- 128--- 80 B ; Facts [ sylvatica twe sm- c-- 12---- 30 E Carpinus Betulus iwe sm- c-- Il|----- 20 Eg Cory.us Avellana iwe smn ca- I123-4-. ShioB ALNus glutinosa iwe smn ca- 123--- 8 B 212 BEtuLa alba nana Porutus alba tremula Sanix pentandra fragilis alba triandra acutifolia purpurea rubra viminalis Smithiana cinerea aurita caprea nigricans laurina phylicifolia ambigua repens arbuscula Lapponum lanata procumbens Myrsinites reticulata herbacea Myrica Gale 72. Conifere. Pinus sylvestris JUNIPERUS communis nana Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe Species 4. lwe iwe iwe smn ca- Census 112. Pra smn sm cau cau -au 1 2345- ee Ah A 57 mS eB = st © o me aes) S o THO te PP ene eo Pa -~ cs” er. ~ 5 = 0 rs o Vv. Taxus baccata 73. Orchidacee. GoopYERA repens SPIRANTHES autumnalis estivalis NEOoTTvIA Nidus-avis LisTERA cordata ovata Epipactis latifolia media atrorubens palustris CEPHALANTHERA grandiflora ensifolia rubra Epipocium aphyllum CoRALLORHIZA innata Orcuis Morio mascula ustulata militaris tephrosanthos fusca hircina pyramidalis latifolia maculata GyMNADENIA -Conopsea SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe Species 39. iwe iwe sm - smn smn can Census 1251. c- - c-- ca- 123--- ' © ao 1 1 1 _ iS] oo ~ ' ‘ 33 BR OAAALROES a © 9 m 214 Vv. GyYMNADENIA ‘ bifolia iwe chlorantha iwe HaBeNARIA viridis iwe albida iwe ACERAS anthropophora - - e HERMINIUM Monorchis -we Opurys apifera iwe arachnites --e aranifera -Pe muscifera iwe Mataxis paludosa iwe Liparis Loeselii --e CyPpRIPEDIUM Calceolus --e 74. Iridacee. Species 4. Iris foetidissima iwe Pseudacorus iwe TRICHONEMA Columne -w- Crocus nudiflorus -we 75. Amaryllidacee. Nakcissus Pseudo-Narciss. 2 w e LrvcosjuMm westivum -we 76. Liliacee. Species 21. FRITILLARIA Meleagris ALLIUM -we Scorodoprasum i we smn ca- sm- c-- S-- c¢c-- sm- ca- S-- c¢-- Sia! -fe'= x sm- ca- smn ca- S-- c¢-- -m- ca- Census 141. sm- c-- smn c- - S-- ¢-- sm- c-- Species 2. Census 49. S-- C-- SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. 1234-+ a Poy Se 3 12 rps Shee 17 i) | ee 1 ee 7 ipee -- ie 12S=- - gee (er eos 4 eee = i222 ae 128%: -ve 1-e-e | Lot ic eae (Dubious 1—6). Census 450. (Dubious 3—22). -nu CC =3- G.e. Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. ALLIUM oleraceum iwe vineale iwe spherocephalm. - w - Scheenoprasum - we ursinum iwe GacEa lutea -we OrNITHOGALUM pyrenaicum -we Scrnia verna iwe autumnalis -we Hyacintuvus nonscriptus iwe Muscarr racemosum --e Luioypia serotina -Ww- SiMETHIS bicolor -w- AspPaRaGus officinalis iwe Ruscus aculeatus -we ConvALLaRIA majalis iwe verticillata --e multiflora -we Polygonatum -we 76*. Trilliacee. Species 1. Paris quadrifolia iwe 77. Tamacee. Species 1. Tamus- 78. Melanthiacee. Species 3. Census 123. communis . -we Co.tcuicum autumnale iwe smn ca smn c- Si-f=) lc sm- c¢- smn ca smn c- S-- c¢c- smn ca S-- c- smn ca S-- c¢- Mice WEP: S-e c- S-- c- sm- c- smn ca -mn -? sm- c- sm- ca Census 59. smn ca Census 63. sm.-+ .@@ pn c- L23--- 12 - - ie 2) 21 76 59 63 31 Fi ph em 216 v. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. Census 414. Sad cau Census 50. c- Cc- ToriELpDIA palustris -we -mn NaArRTHECIUM ossifragum iwe smn 79. Hydrocharidacee. Species 2. HyprocHaris Morsus-rane iwe sm - STRATIOTES aloides iwe sm- 80. Allsmacee. Species 9. ALISMA Plantago iwe smn ranunculoides iwe smn natans iwe sm- ACTINOCARPUS Damasonium -we sm- SAGITTARIA sagittifolia iwe sm- Bouromus umbellatus iwe sm- TRIGLOCHIN maritimum iwe smn palustre iwe smn ScHEUCHZERIA palustris -we smn 81. Potamacee. Species 22. Census 727. PoraMoGETON densus iwe sm- flabellatus -we sm? pectinatus iwe smn filiformis -we smn pusillus iwe smn gracilis ? —f-Ber | =m - trichoides --e s-- compressus iwe sm- gramineus iwe smn acutifolius i-e s-- zosterefolius -we smn crispus iwe smn --345- 123456 Lees Le os — iw) 1 1 ' ' 80 36 14 B. (Dubious 1—14). E. G. = PR ORR PEP eee g. ~~ ~ = = rt Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. PoTAMOGETON perfoliatus iwe “smn . ca’- lucens iwe smn cCa- prelongus iwe smn C¢a- heterophyllus iwe smn _ cCa- rufescens iwe° smn ¢-'- natans iwe smn oP - oblongus iwe smn ca- plantagineus iwe smn C-- Roppia maritima ipwee. (Simci’ \Cl-— ZANNICHELLIA palustris iwe smn c-'- 81.* Zosteracee. Species 2. Census 49. ZosTERA marina iwe smn c-- nana “we sim ¢-"- 82. Pistiacee. Species 4. Census 200. LEMNA minor iwe smn- ca- gibba iiwre, .sim;=, el-<- polyrhiza dewey SHit=. e.-8 ~ trisulca Uwe simi ¢)-"- 82.* Aracee. Species 2. Census 86. Anum maculatum iwe sm- ca- Acorus Calamus -we sm- cCa- 82.* Typhacee. Species 6. Census 314. SpaRGANioM minimum iwe smn ca- natans iwe smn cCca- simplex iwe smn" 'c=-- ramosum wWe. .SM NY _ CG. ai= Typoa latifolia iwe smn. ¢c-- angustifolia we! Summ — Ci=.- VOL. IV. 217 So Se oR cee Te w pi & mo bb oO 218 Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. 83. Restiacee. Species 1. Census 2. ERiocauLon septanpulare - liw- --m C-- --38--- 84. Juncacee. Species 26. Census 1200. JuUNcUs filiformis “Wie f f= T0-Ny CR ie ie conglomeratus iwe smn ca- 128--- effusus iwe smn cau 1284-- diffusus “we Sm?) cj-s-) L2---- glaucus wie Sinn) Ca.- . ee 7-9— balticus -we --n c¢c-- -23--- maritimus iwe smn ec--. 123--- acutus iwe sm- cec-- Il*---- acutiflorus iwe smn ca- 123--- lamprocarpus iwe smn cau 123845- obtusiflorus iwe sm- ec-- 12---- supinus iwiel smi, “cay 1255145 - compressus wes sm nye cage) - Is2.3 cea bufonius liwie-~s immn- ca- = 1 2-7 squarrosus Ife! “sma, cage 1:2:5475'6 castaneus -we --n --u ----56 trifidus -we --n -au ----56 biglumis = eR = MN 9 = 6 triglumis -we smn -au --?456 Luzuia sylvatica iwe smn cau 12345? pilosa a Wievg Ss. .Csa—) Ned ae Forsteri -we s-- c¢-- l----- campestris iwe smn cau 1238345- multiflora we. Smn -caa, 1273 475)- arcuata =jwie;) =2=.n --M ------ 6 spicata -we smn -au ---456 85. Cyperacee. Species 93. Census 3402. CyPERUS longus =-=we 8 - - ».¢-- == -=-- fuscus -fep SS an.-. “¢r o> 2 = = CLADIUM Mariscus iwe smn ec-- 1238--- 26 n . = i mr i oo Boe ae & > 2 V. Scua@nus nigricans Rayncospora alba fusca Biysmus compressus rufus Scirpus lacustris glaucus carinatus triqueter setaceus Savii Holoschenus maritimus sylvaticus palustris uniglumis multicaulis pauciflorus cespitosus acicularis fluitans EriopHorum vaginatum angustifolium latifolium gracile Exyna caricina Carex dioica pulicaris pauciflora rupestris incurva stellulata SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe smu Bs BoB n 5 Bos na ' ' n 5 Be se ee Re ele ’ ' 5 5 8 5 & Ca - ari 49 Ae Hee e ° = DH Oe bb > OO Dam mo > 2 9 “vw oR 220 Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. Carrx “leporina” --e@ --M --uU ----- 6 Lou. ovalis iwe smn ‘ca- 1234-- 76a Be curta iwe smn caP 12845- 46 B. Persoonii -we smn -au --3845- 8 ol. elongata iwie Ssm"-— “est-) 12io5-s-s- 9 »E.i. remota iwe smn ca- 1238--- 67 Ba.e. axillaris iwey sm - ‘c-)-. lQ---- Zl gees: Boenninghaus. --e smn c-- 125--- 8 =.G.? intermedia iwe smn ca- 128--- 62 E.hb. arenaria iwe smn c-- 128--- 53 B. divisa Pwe sm- cec-- I1----- 20. «OE. niuricata iwe smn ca- 128--- 57 Be divulsa iwe sm- c-- 12---- 35 E. vulpina iwe smn c--- 128--- 66 -B. teretiuscula iw.e: sine ca,-» 128- - 32 B.e. paradoxa i-e -m- e¢-- -2---- 2) peeks a, paniculata iwe smn ca- 128--- 59 B. Vahlii --e@ --n --u ----5- Derghh. atrata -we smn --u ----56 5 i oth. vulgaris iwe smn cau 12345- 80 B. Tigida iwe smn -au.----56 20.4. aquatilis --e --n -au --3?5- 2 AH: stricta iwe sm- c-- 12---- 21. Ei. acuta iwe smn c-- 123--- 44 )Bee. pulla -we --n --u ----56 11 4H. flava iwe; smn, can, 1.2)34 5- (e7Onibe deri iwe smn cau, 123465- Sie extensa iwe smn c-- 123--- 35 B. pallescens iwe’ smm ca-, 123.4- - ~56)5B. fulva iwe smn ca- 1234--.) 62. B. | distans iwe smn c-- 123--- 39. 2B. punctata ? -W- S-- ¢-- IJ----- 2 > eh? binetvis iwe smn cau 12845- 7. _ B. levigata iwiei sD Ga -y 12)3- -- Bs4qiabel panicea iwe smn ean 123.45- . 8L9 aE: vaginata =W.€. -- TM - B-% ire 56 6.00H. depauperata --e s-- ec-- I1----- 2125G- eapillaris -we -mn cau --345- 9 4H. vV. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. 221 Carrx limosa iewre’ isimaiti |< fi= ©2,3)-- > ays. irrigua =we mii P=" / -12)3'- =.= SES. i. rariflora -we on 2 2 u 78 34 ATRA cespitosa alpina flexuosa caryophyllea precox canescens AVENA fatua pratensis pubescens flavescens ARRHENATHERUM avenaceum Hotcus lanatus mollis TRIOpDIA decumbens KorLeria cristata MELIca uniflora nutans Mo .inia cerulea CATABROSA aquatica GLYCERIA aquatica fluitans plicata maritima distans Borreri procumbens rigida loliacea \ SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. iwe -we iwe iwe iwe -we iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe iwe -we iwe iwe smn smn smn Smn smn smn smn ca ca 12345- =i e106 123456 123--- 1234-- m Po BO Bo bt oo ee: = 2 og 224 V. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. Poa annua iwe smn cau 128456 91 B. bulbosa = Wie (Ste Mam 7 iChe tec) Ue ele 6 G. alpina iwe smn -au ---456 12 H. laxa -we --n --U --=-> 6 26 ce. minor -we --M --U --er- 6 eee. pratensis iwe smn cau 12845- 8 B. trivialis iwe smn cau 12345- 86 5B: compressa iwe smn ca- 123--- 54 B.e. nemoralis iwe! smn ca?Ps 1234?- ‘SO0MNBre: cesia -we smn -au --=-=-0- 6 4H. Briza media iwe smn ca-. 1234 --4 \\76haebee! minor wie l (Si-Rak Ch te wo a ei = Giiey Ay: Cynosurvs cristatus iwe! smm ca-' 128--- 91 oB. Dacty tis glomerata iwe smn ca- 123--- 91 :B: FrEstuca uniglumis iwe sm- c-- 12---- 18 E. bromoides iwiet Stmm. cai=« 1218--- G6ZeieE: Ps. myurus iwe sm- cP-. 12---- 30 9 ovina iwe smn cau 123456 93 B. duriuscula iwe smn cau 12845- 69 B. rubra iwe smn c--. 123--- (3598B% sylvatica iwe smn ca- 128---_ 4 S&S. arundinacea -we s?? c-- 1?---- 2 E. elatior iwe smn ca- 128--- 60 B. pratensis iwe smn ca- 1238--- 68 B. Bromus giganteus iwe smn ca- 123--- 7 VBie. asper iwe smn -ca-) 12:3--- ToaNBye. sterilis iwe smn ca- 128--- 67 B.e. madritensis -we S-- ¢-- l-+--- 8 A. erectus iwe! smm c--) 12-=-- \ @20eGie; secalinus iwe smn c-- 128--- 49 Be. commutatus iwe smn ca- 123--- 61 B. | mollis iwe’ smn ca-.+123--- 93°55: Vv. BracuypoDium sylvaticum pinnatum Triticum caninum repens luxum junceum Lo.ium perenne temulentum E.ymus arenarius Horprum sylvaticum pratense murinum maritimum Narpus stricta Leptorcs filiformis SUMMARY iwe smn Pwe sm - iwe smn iwe smn -we smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn iwe smn -we sm- iwe smn iwe smn iwe sm- iwe smn iwe sm- 87. Filices. Species 39. CETERACH officinarum Woonpsta ilvensis Po.ypopium vulgare Phegopteris Dryopteris calcareum ALLOsoRUsS crispus CysTopTERIs fragilis montana PoLysticHumM Lonchitis VOL. IV. iwe iwe iwe iwe -we iwe a’- cau c- - Census 1795 smn smn -- 10 smn OF DISTRIBUTION. Pys ss etal 1234-- 12345 12345 123--- 2a D -23456 12345- toe ae --3456 B.h. H. 226 Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. Potysticuum aculeatum iwie smn, Cau 12)3:4-- ) Wo, B: angulare iwes.sm.- 9 Cla, Lic - =e Lastrea Thelypteris iwe smn ec-- 12---- 30 ‘Eg. Oreopteris iwe smn cau 1238345- £80, _B. Filix-mas iwe smn cau 12384-- 94 B. tigida -we -m- ?Pa-~ --3--- 3 siz cristata -we sm- c-- 12---- 4 E.i. spinulosa iwe smn ca- 12---- 30. E.b. dilatata lawie: syn, cian, - 1,2/314°5'6, 782 ae foenisecii iwe smn cec-- 128--- 19 A.b. ATHYRIUM Filix-femina iwe smn ca- 1234-- 84 _ B. PsEUDATHYRIUM alpestre -we --n -au _---456 (eee = ASPLENIUM viride iwe smn- cau -2845- 25 .H. Trichomanes iwe smn ca- 1284-- 81 B. marinum iwe smn c-- 123--- 40 B.a. lanceolatum iwe s-- e-- I12---- 2) & Ad. nigrum iwe smn ca- 1234-- 88 B. Ruta-muraria iwe smn ca- 123--- 80 B. germanicum- -we smn ca- -?3--- Gis septentrionadle -we smn ca- -2345- 10 S. ScoLoPENDRIUM vulgare iwe smn ca- 12383--- 77 B. BLecHNUM boreale iwe smn cau 1238456 90 B. Preris aquilina iwe smn ca- 1238--- 95 B. ADIANTUM C. Veneris iw- sm- c-- 12---- 5 PAS HyYMENOPHYLLUM Tunbridgense iwe smn c-- 1238--- 17 A. Wilsoni iwe smn cau ?23845- 33 Ah. OsmuNDA regalis iwe smn c-- 123--- 61 OB. Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. 227 Borrycuium Lunaria dwe sin ca ule 12's 4°5'-08 78% B; OpHioGLossum vulgatum wee sim nm ‘eat ** 2) 3i'="-9 60P Be 88. Lycopodiacee. Species 6. Census 261. Lycopop1um clavatum iwe smn cau 12384-- 62 B annotinum -we smn cau --3465- 15°" inundatum -we smn ca- 123--- 40 Be. alpinum iwe smn cau --38456 40 H. Selago iwe.smn cau 1238456 62 B.h. selaginoides iwe smu cau -23456 42 H 89. Marsileacee. Species 2. Census 58. Isorres lacustris iwe smn cCa- -234-- 17°C RE PILuLaria globulifera iwe smn ca- 123--- 41 B. 90. Equisetacee. Species9. Census 442. _EquiseTuM Telmateia iwe smn c--. 2 -=- 62" (EDD: _ umbrosum wie 2 mn? ‘ec at= "25" - < 12S: arvense iwe smn ca~ 128--- 88 B. sylvaticum iwe smn cau 12345- 69 OB. palustre iwe smn cau 12845- 8 B. limosum iwe smn ca- 1284-- 78 B. hyemale iwe smn c-- 1238--- 32 S.b. Mackaii i-e --n e?P- --3--- erst variegatum iwe “smn ‘ea=" 123--- WS! 1. Hibernian species and varieties ;—absent or doubtful in England and Scotland. Arabis ciliata. The variety “hispida” occurs in Wales. Helianthemum guttatum. The variety “ Breweri” in Anglesea. Arenaria ciliata. Closely allied to A. norvegica. Dryas depressa. Accidental variety, now extinct ? Saxifraga Geum. This and two next on the Pyrenees. hirsuta. Perhaps a variety of S. Geum. umbrosa. Possibly native in Yorkshire. Andrewsii. Known in gardens only. 228 Vv. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION. Saxifraga hirta. Deemed a true species in Bab. Man. affinis. Also kept a species in Bab. Man. pedatifida. A doubtful and confused species. Erica mediterranea. In Western France and Spain. Mackaii. A variety of E. Tetralix? Variable. Arbutus Unedo. From South-west France to Greece. Daboecia polifolia. West France, Spain, Azores. Pinguicula grandiflora. A variety of P. vulgaris? Ophrys gemmipara. Not ascertained elsewhere. Rare. Sisyrinchium anceps. Doubtful native. From America? Allium Babingtonii. Doubtful species. Doubtful native. Potamogeton longifolius. Doubtful species; imperfectly known. Naias flexilis. Recently found. Easily overlooked. In Germany, Xe. Carex Buxbanmii. In North and Middle Europe. Arundo “ Lapponica.” Said to be a variety of A. stricta. Asplenium anceps. A variety of A. Trichomanes ? acutum. A variety A. Adiantum-nigrum ? Trichomanes radicans. Spain, Azores, Madeira, &c. 2. Explanations of the Summary. The preceding summary is intended to condense the leading facts of species-distribution into a tabular form, so as to admit of comparisons being readily made under the several heads. The list includes denizens and colonists along with the species presumed to be native in Britain ; those more usually or more strongly suspected to be introduced aliens being omitted. i 743 92 Capsella Bursa 43 » ” 92 Geranium molle » 2 91 Thymus Serpyllum * ” 91 Rumex Acetosella “s ” 91 Agrostis vulgaris ss = alba 9! Poaannua 48 ” ” 91 Cynosurus cristatus ne ‘ 91 Dactylis glomerata + s 91 Lathyrus pratensis “1 » 91‘ Erica Tetralix 52 ” ” 91 Hypericum pulchrum m va 91 Angelica sylvestris Pe ” 91 Senecio aquaticus PP 90 Blechnum boreale “A ” 90 Juncus bufonius 57 + ” 90 Carduus palustris +t ” 90 Rhinanthus Crista-galli E > 90 Spergula arvensis ag ~ 90 Veronica arvensis ” ” 90 Carduus arvensis 24 ” "s 90 ~=Sinapis arvensis 63 - 3 90 Pyrethrum inodorum ” +; 732 90 Euphorbia Helioscopea Pa o 90 Stachys sylvatica. 66 * 99° 90 Stachys palustris, 67 = By 1027 236 VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. Co. 38 Sps. cont. Ss. N. W. Se.) E. Bentham, 89 Sagina procumbens 19 19 12 13 13 434, ele. 89 Primula vulgaris 69 ss 4 383, 1315 89 | Veronica Beccabunga Re S 89 ~~ Lychnis diurna 71 is 55 89 = Lycbnis Flos-cuculi a 3 89 Arrhenatherum avenaceum _,, 53 89 Pedicularis sylvatica 74 Bs 9 89 Veronica serpyllifolia re 4 1059 89 Polygonum amphibium s ” 89 = Achillea Ptarmica 5 A 89 Vicia Cracca 78 dy 4a 88 Galium saxatile 5 i 964, 1381 88 Cardamine pratensis ” ” 88 Equisetum arvense = 4 88 Erica cinerea 82 3 a4 88 Galeopsis Tetrahit : 588 88 Glyceria fluitaus = Fs 8338 88 Rumex crispus 85 *s Bs 910 88 Artemisia vulgaris i 5 87 = Anthoxanthum odoratum sd . 87 Viola sylvatica 88 5 # 601, ete. 87 Veronica officinalis % . 87 Cerastium glomeratum a 5 96, ete. ; 87 ‘Triticum repens 91 7 3 378, 978 87 Lamium purpureum ) 5 467 87 Pedicularis palustris a sf 86 = Luzula campestris = 3 256 rah, 86 Poa trivialis 95 is MF 86 Urtica urens 96 PS bs 85 Eriophorum angustifolium — ,, x, 670, 1318 85 Agrostis alba 98 < 5; 47 85 Papaver dubinm ms 5 s 85 Chenopodium album 5 3 1013 85 Chrysanthemum segetum 3 3 i 84 Poa pratensis 102 - in i, (es 84 Aira cespitosa 103 5 % Se wa 84 Juncus lampocarpus is dy 190, 208 84 Egquisetum palustre $s oe 84 = Athyrium Filix-femina VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. 237 Co. 38 Sps, cont. Se Ne W. Sc. E, Bentham, 84 Viola tricolor 107 19 19 12 13 138 688, 1231 83 Triglochin palustre f st 82 Epilobium palustre a 5 82 Lycopsis arvensis 110 ee 2 82 Menyanthes trifoliata = oN 81 Raphanus Rapbanistrum a e 968 80 = Aira precox 113 Ge rs SO Carex vulgaris 114 a 3 874, ete. 80 = Anthyllis vulneraria sy s 78 = Stellaria uliginosa % si 78 Plantago Coronopus 6 s 78 Equisetum limosum Fe A 78 Potamegeton “ natans” 5 3 429, 900 76 Veronica Anagallis 120 3 i 37 Subprovinces, 94 Lotus corniculatus 121 19 18 12 12 13 346 94 Campanula rotundifolia 19 18 12 12 13 92 Juncus effusus 123 19 18 12 12 138 151 92 Veronica Chamedrys 19 18 12 12 13 92 Hypocheeris radicata 19 18 12 12 13 92 Galium Aparine 126 19 18 12 12 13 1380 91 =Polygala vulgaris 127 19 18 12 12 13 1179, 1588 91 Corylus Avellana 128 19 18 12 12 13 90 —_Hieracium Pilosella 19 18 12+12 18 -90 Apargia autumnalis 19 18 12 12,138 90 Lapsana communis 19 18 12 12 13 90 Lonicera Periclymenum 18 19 ll 13 13 89 Hedera Helix 133 19 18 12 12 13 88 Vicia sepium 134 19 18 12 12 13 88 Sisymbrium officinale 19 18 12 12 13 88 Polygonum Convolvulus 19 18 12 12 13 88 = =Rumex obtusifolius 19 18 poy ea 88 Bartsia Odontites 138 19 18 12 12 13 88 Asplenium A. nigrum 19 18 12 12 13 88 Digitalis purpurea 19 18 12 12 13 88 Orchis maculata 141 18 19 11-18 18 88 Phalaris arundinacea 19 18 13%12 13 87 =Tussilago Farfara 143 19 18 12 12 13 87 Chrysanthemum Leucanth.19 18 12712218 238 VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. Co. 37 Sps. cont. Ss. N, W. Sc. E. Bentham. 87 Polygonum Persicaria 19 18 12 12 13 87 Daucus Carota 146 19 18 12 12 13 1026 86 Callitriche ‘‘ verna” 19 18 12° 12-13 508, ete. 86 Solidago Virgaurea 18.19 ‘wes ; 86 Valeriana officinalis 19 18 122s 86 Conium maculatum 19 18 12 12 13 85 Juncus conglomeratus 19 19 12 12 13 effusus 85 Veronica agrestis 19 18 12 12 13 414 85 Sedum acre 153 19 18 12 2e18 84 Sonchus arvensis 19 18 12 12 13 84 Oxalis Acetosella 155 19 18 12 12° 13 84 Alopecurus geniculatus 19 18 12 12 13 1024, 1048 84 Arenaria serpyllifolia 19 18 12 12-13 83 Melampyrum pratense 19 18 12 12 13 83 Arundo Phragmites 19 18 12 12 13 82 Lastrea dilatata 160 19 18 12 12 13 825, 881 81 Hydrocotyle vulgaris 19 18 12 12 13 81 Asplenium Trichomanes 19 18 12 12 13 853 80 Mbolinia cerulea 163 18 19 11 13 13 80 Drosera rotundifolia 18 19 12 13 12 78 Luzula sylvatica 18 19 11 13 13 77. ~=Triodia decumbens 18 19 11 13 138 77 ~—=— Carex stellulata 19 18 12 12 13 77. ~+Orchis latifolia 168 19° 18 12 12 13 76 = Aira caryophyllea 19 18 12 12 13 75 Aira flexuosa 170 18 19 1L 13 138 75 Nardus stricta 171 18 19 12 13 12 72 Carex ampullacea 18 19 12 13 12 71 Juncus squarrosus 18 19 11 13 138 70 Pyrus Aucuparia 174 18 19 12 13 12 36 Subprovinces. 94 Geranium robertianum 19 17 12 ALCS 91 Sonchus oleraceus 176 18 18 Wti29is 431 90 Rosa canina, ete. 19 17 1217013 90 = Stellaria graminea 19 17 12 11 18 89 Scrophularia nodosa 19 17 12 11 13 88 Fragaria vesca 150 18 18 11 12 13 86 Alnus glutinosa 19}A8 12 11 13 86 Ranunculus aquatilis 19 17 12 11 138 196, ete. — =r. VI. » CENSUS 36 Sps. cont. Alchemilla arvensis Fumaria officinalis Nasturtium officinale Erythrea Centaurium Carex glauca 187 Teucrium Scorodonia Anthriscus sylvestris Juncus acutiflorus Erodium cicutarium Carex panicea 192 Betula alba, ete. Montia fontana 194 Alopecurus pratensis Ranunculus hederaceus Narthecium ossifragum Bunium flexuosum Lastrea Oreopteris Anagallis tenella 200 . Scirpus palustris Carex “flava” 202 Botrychium Junaria Luzula pilosa 204 Cardamine hirsuta Comarum palustre Scirpus setaceus 207 Juncus supinus 208 Atriplex hastata Asperula odorata Carex pulicaris 211 Carex binervis 212 Salix repens, etc. Equisetum sylvaticum Myosotis cespitosa Hippuris vulgaris Peplis Portula Salix aurita 218 35 Subprovinces, Ulex europwus. 219 Spartium scoparium 19 19 OF SPECIES. N. W. Se. 17 12 11 17 12.1) 17 12 11 7 12 il 17 12 11 18 12 12 17 12 11 18 11 12 17 12 11 18 11 13 17 12 11 18 12 12 18 11 12 17 12 11 19 12 13 17 12 11 17 12 11 17 12 11 17 122i 19 Il 13 18 12 12 18 11 12 18 12 12 19 11 13 18 12 12 18 11 12 17 12.11 17 bop Ak 19 11 13 19 10 13 18 12 12 19 11 13 18 12 12 17 12 11 ay 12 Il 18 11 12 16 12 10 16 10 13 Bentham, 239, etc. 785, ete. lampocarpus 1177 aquatilis lam pocarpus 258, etc. distans 1230 palustris Js) st oo © VI. CENSUS 35 Sps. cont. Geranium dissectum 19 Mercurialis perennis Trifolium “ procumbens ” Ajuga reptans 224 Stellaria Holostea Ranunculus Ficaria Chrysosplenium oppositif. Ranunculus sceleratus Draba verna 229 Rosa mollis, ete. Ononis arvensis Quercus Robur 282 Orobus tuberosus Veronica hederifolia Brachypodium sylvaticum Sparganium ramosum . Senecio sylvaticus 237 Scutellaria galericulata Fumaria capreolata Vicia sativa, ete. 240 Gymnadenia Conopsea Scolopendrium vulgare Holcus mollis 243 Carex ovalis 244 Veronica scutellata Myosotis versicolor Lamium amplexicaule Salix cinerea, etc. Trifolium medium Stachys arvensis 250 Hieracium vulgatum Plantago maritima Scirpus lacustris 253 Tanacetum vulgare Luzula multiflora Scirpus cxspitosus Glaux maritima 257 Atriplex angustifolia Juncus compressus OF SPECIES. 16 16 Ww. 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 11 12 12 12 10 12 12 11 12 11 12 12 12 12 11 11 12 12 10 12 12 12 12 Se. 10 10 10 10 10 10 ll 10 10 13 10 10 12 10 10 10 11 10 11 10 12 10 11 12 11 11 11 10 1] 1l 11 13 11 11 12 13 13 10 10 13 13 Bentham. ) 469 officinalis 992 caprea murorum 718, 1297 campestris hastata L f Co. 34 Subprovinces. Pimpinella Saxifraga Anemone nemorosa Crategus Oxyacantha Prunus spinosa 263 Alisma Plantago Lycopus europeus Mentha aquatica 266 . Glechoma hederacea Gnaphalium uliginosum Lysimachia nemorum Sherardia arvensis 270 Hypericum quadrangulum Lemna minor 272 Polygonum Hydropiper Crepis virens 274 Asplenium R. muraria Knautia arvensis 276 Eupatorium cannabinum Solanum Dulcamara Mentha arvensis 279 Hypericum perforatum Vicia hirsuta 281 Gentiana campestris Epilobium tetragonum Vaccinium Myrtillus Malva sylvestris 285 Habenaria bifolia Polystichum aculeatum Sanicula europea Orchis mascula 289 Scleranthus annuus Sagina nodosa 291 Gnaphalium sylvaticum lex Aquifolium 293 Pinguicula vulgaris Habenaria viridis Fedia olitoria 296 Festuca duriuscula Festuca bromoides VOL. IV. VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. N. 15 W. Se. I2)-2:9 12. 9 12y6 9 11 10 12 9 12-9 12 9 12; «9 11 10 12 10 LIS 12 9 11 10 12 10 12 9 12 10 12 9 UP ce, 12 9 12 9 129 ie 9 11 13 11 10 11 138 12 9 11 10 241 Bentham. ovina 742 21 242 VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. 34 Sps. cont. Centaurea Cyanus Armeria maritima Carex pilulifera 301 Littorella lacustris Lycopodium Selago Helosciadium inundatum Triglochin maritimum 33 Subprovinces, Geum urbanum 306 Torilis Anthriscus Agrimonia Eupatoria Ranunculus bulbosus Erysimum Alliaria Cherophyllum temulentm. Reseda Luteola 312 Silene inflata 313 Phleum pratense Lychnis Githago Listera ovata 316 Anagallis arvensis Hyacinthus nonscriptus Echium vulgare 319 Circea Lutetiana Malva moschata Allium ursinum 322 Hypericum humifusum Trifolium arvense Epilobium parvifloruam Rubus Ideus 326 Bromus giganteus Papaver Argemone Sparganium simplex Polygonum lapathifolium Festuca pratensis Geum rivale 332 Gentiana Amarella Rumex sangineus Alisma ranunculoides Eriophorum vaginatum 19 14 W. Se. 11 10 10 13 1l 10 10 12 12 13 Ll, 20 11 13 12. 28 12.08 12 8 12 8 12 8 12 8 12 +8 12 8 12 8 Li: gO 1.39 12 8 11 10 12°39 12 8 12 8 1289. 12 8 12° 938 12 8 Li kh 12 8 12 8 12:..8 12 8 kk 9 10 il i, +9 12.8 11 <9 12 13 13 Bentham, 1065 424 630 ‘ elatior ee ee 3 Be) tk Co. 66 62 61 61 60 60 56 49 82 82 79 78 78 76 75 75 74 72 72 71 71 71 70 69 69 68 68 67 67 65 65 65 65 64 62 62 62 58 VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. 33 Sps. cont. Carex vulpina 337 Viola palustris 338 Nymphea alba 339 Osmunda regalis Populus tremula Myrivphyllum spicatum Koeleria cristata 343 Schenus nigricans 32 Subprovinces. Medicago lupulina Lotus major 346 Euphorbia Peplus Fraxinus excelsior Linaria vulgaris 349 Galium cruciatum Potentilla Fragariastrum Bromus asper 352 Arenaria trinervis Salix caprea 354 Genista anglica Viburnum Opulus Petasites vulgaris Sambucus nigra 358 Adoxa moschatellina Spergularia rubra Trifolium “ filiforme” Arabis hirsuta 362 HZ gopodium Podagraria Hieracium boreale Carex precox 365 Arabis thaliana Catabrosa aquatica Lychnis vespertina Lysimachia vulgaris Potamogeton crispus Avena pubescens 371 Carex speirostacbya Lycopodium clavatum Potamogeton pusillus DODDMDOOANNWANNINANANINNIONNN — no 243 Bentham, 631 corniculatus 248 376 896, etc. pratensis distans 717, etc. 66 62 VI. CENSUS 32 Sps. cont. Utricularia vulgaris Spergularia marina Potamogeton perfoliatus Triticum “junceum ” Agrostis canina 349 Atriplex Babingtonii 31 Subprovinces, Briza media 381 Lythrum Salicaria Primula veris 383 Potentilla reptans Parietaria officinalis Athusa Cynapium Barbarea vulgaris Filago germanica Scandix Pecten 389 Alchemilla vulgaris Origanum vulgare Pyrethrum Parthenium Geranium lucidum Tragopogon pratensis Fedia dentata 395 Veronica montana Ornithopus perpusillus Geranium pratense Hypericum hirsutum Carex remota 400 Bromus sterilis Rumex conglomeratus Samolus Valerandi Nuphar lutea 404 Lithospermum arvense Typha latifolia 406 Rosa spinosissima Jasione montana Radiola millegrana Myrica Gale 410 Bidens tripartita 15 19 OF SPECIES. 13 12 15 13 15 16 12 Cerastium semidecandrum 19 12 12 i ASDONSAMAADADVDUNAADANWEKEADRAAWANAN _ i) 6 13 Bentham, rubra repens hastata vulgaris 1184, 1246 1061, 1071 glomeratum VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. 31 Sps. cont. Filago minima 413 Veronica polita Bromus commutatus Festuca “ elatior” 416 Ophioglossum vulgatum Carex paniculata Hieracium umbellatum Lithospermum officinale Carex muricata 421 Aster Tripolium Anthriscus vulgaris Silene maritima 424 Carex pallescens * Rhyncospora alba * Ammophila arundinacea Scirpus fluitans 428 Thlaspi arvense Salix viminalis Sonchus asper 431 30 Subprovinces. Epilobium hirsutum Calamintha Clinopodium Lamium album 435 Epilobium angustifolium Hyoscyawus niger Helianthemum vulgare Convolvulus sepium Qénanthe crocata 440 Carduus acanthoides Cichorium Intybus Juncus glaucus 442 Coronopus Ruellii Gnaphalium dicicum Ranunculus auricomus Sympbytum officinale Saxifraga tridactylites Scirpus sylvaticus Carex hirta 449 Epipactis latifolia 13 13 W, Se: 10 8 _ @ — — an © _ wo YGrueocrvqwuncerctroaoantar eran te co 245 Bentham, agrestis mullis 331, 1156 687, 1338 746 inflata 509 oleraceus 947 918, 1132 246 VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. Co. 30 Sps. cont. Sc W. Sc. E. Bentham. 60 Lepidium campestre 18 12 12. 6 12 58 Prunus avium 452 18 12 11 6 13 Cerasus 58 Bidens cernua 453 18 12 12, 46n82 57. Ranunculus hirsutus 19 I1 12. 5.418 57 Calamintha Acinos 18 12 12 6 12 56 Nasturtium terrestre 18 12 12 Gyl2 56 Neottia Nidus-avis 18 12 10 7 13 55 Mentha sativa, etc. 17 13 1l 7 12 54 Carex paludosa 459 18 12 10 7 13 496 53 Honckeneja peploides 14 16 9 12999 53 Carex arenaria 461 13 17 9 13 8 437 53 Carex vesicaria 462 16 14 11 8 11 51 Lolium temulentum 18 12 1l 6 138 49 Salicornia herbacea 15 15 10°11 9 1129 49 Bromus secalinus 465 16 14 10 8 12 mollis 49 Thalictrum “ minus” 12 18 10 12 8 1078 48 Lamium incisum 16 14 10 8 12 _ purpureum 47 Salix alba, etc. 17 13 12) V7 47 Ononis spinosa 469 18 12 11 6 13 arvensis 46 Utricularia minor 16 14 10) Oe 1054 41 Pilularia globulifera 16 14 ll 8 ll 29 Subprovinces. 71 Myosotis palustris 472 19 10 12 4 13 215, 686 70 Convolvulus arvensis 19 10 12 4 13 69 Pulicaria dysenterica 19 10 12 4 13 67 Verbascum Thapsus 17 12 ll 6 12 67 Helosciadium nodiflorum 19 10 12... 4 13 67 Carex sylvatica 477 ly 12 ll 6 12 67 Centaurea Scabiosa 19 10 12 4 13 65 — Melica uniflora 479 17 12 11546, A2 65 Euphorbia exigua 19° 10 12 4 13 64 Parnassia palustris 11 18 7 AD 10 64 Chenopodium Henricus 18 11 12.5 12 62 Equisetum Telmateia 18 11 12 5 12 62 Carlina vulgaris 484 18 11 ll 5 13 62 Polygonum Bistorta 17 12 11 6 12 60 Vicia sylvatica 486 15 14 11 8 10 60 Corydalis claviculata 16 13 12 7% 10 60 Sium angustifolium 18 11 11 5 138 43 VI. CENSUS 32 Sps. cont. Hieracium murorum Triticum caninum Allium vineale 491 Juniperus communis Glyceria aquatica Galeopsis Ladanum Myosotis collina Carex riparia 496 Carex dioica 497 Carex pendula 498 Zannichellia palustris Carex “ Oederi” 500 Astragalus glycyphyllos Cardamine sylvatica Cakile maritima 503 Glyceria maritima Scirpus multicaulis Carex acuta 506 Cerastium tetrandum Callitriche platycarpa Salix Smithiana, etc. 28 Subprovinces. Papaver Rheeas 510 Malva rotundifolia Hordeum murinum Apargia hispida 513 Chelidonium majus Plantago media Avena flavescens Glyceria rigida 517 Arum maculatum Pyrus Malus 519 Avena fatua 520 Viola hirta 521 Scirpus maritimus Poterium Sanguisorba Cistopteris fragilis Lepidium Smithii 525 Ranunculus Lingua OF SPECIES. 10 Seo ow AYE WHOhOKHOWRWNDR OD wWP 13 247 Bentham. 250, etc. paludosa flava hirsuta glomeratum verna viminalis ? * 1046 248 VI. CENSUS Co. 28 Sps. cont. _ Ss. 55 ~~ Cochlearia officinalis 12 54 Avena pratensis 14 54 Trifolium minus 18 54 Milium effusum 430 15 53 Potamogeton oblongus 13 538 C£nanthe Lachenalii 17 53 ~=Thrincia hirta 533 19 53 Sagina apetala 534 19 52 Geraniumcolumbinum 18 52. Geranium pusillum 18 52 Carex intermedia 537 17 52 Potamogeton pectinatus 17 50 Ulmus montana 539 16 50 = Scirpus pauciflorus 13 50 =Saponaria officinalis 19 49 Schoberia maritima 16 49 Carduus tenuiflorus 18 43 Zostera marina 544 12 40 Taraxacum palustre 14 36 Ruppia maritima 14 27 Subprovinces, 65 Stachys Betonica 17 62 Carduus nutans 548 19 62 Euonymus europeus 19 61 Vicia tetrasperma 19 60 Cynoglossum officinale 19 60 Hypericum Androsemum 17 60 Sedum Telephium 18 60 Senecio erucifolius 19 60 Galium Mollugo 555 18 59 =‘ Valeriana dioica 18 59 ~~ Paris quadrifolia 16 58 = Torilis nodosa 558 19 56 ~=— Ballota nigra 559 19 55 Polypodium Phegopteris 9 65 =Galium Uliginosum 16 55 Scabiosa columbaria 19 53 Hypericum dubium 16 52 Melilotus officinalis 564 19 OF SPECIES. N W. Se. 16 10 12 14 Mus: 10 ll 4 13 9 8 15 10 10 11 IL 5 9 12> 3 9 11 4 10 12 4 10 11 4 11 10. 6 11 9 6 12 HOC 15 9 9 4) 12 3 12 10 8 10 12 4 16 8 12 14 9 8 14 9 10 10 11 © — iw) wonvnonorwrdwnrnrnduwow wd 10 12 8 12 9 10 9 1L 12 9 8 12 8 12 18 10 12 11 10 5 8 12 2 11 12 5 8 12 2 13 13 on hie cata Bentham. 714, 813 371 natans pimpinelloides procumbens arenaria 977, 987 officinale 1138 1000 Co. 51 51 50 49 46 46 46 45 45 44 44 44 42 39 63 58 58 58 57 56 55 54 54 53 52 52 50 49 49 48 47 47 47 46 45 45 44 43 VI. CENSUS 27 Sps. cont. 8. Sisymbrium Sophia 17 Rumex Hydrolapathum 19 Poa nemoralis 16 Lemna trisulca 17 Carex curta 569 14 Geranium sanguineum 13 Scirpus acicularis 17 Arundo Epigejos 7 Potamogeton lucens 16 Salix fragilis, ete. 17 Anthemis arvensis 17 Silene anglica 576 17 Salix purpurea, etc. 14 Carex distans 578 14 26 Subprovinces, Rosa arvensis 579 18 Cardamine amara 13 Anthemis Cotula 18 Dipsacus sylvestris 19 Genista tinctoria 18 Ranunculus arvensis 18 Ceterach officinarum 17 Poa compressa 586 17 Trifolium fragiferum 19 Galeopsis versicolor 11 Vaccinium Oxycoccos 13 CEnanthe fistulosa 590 16 Artemisia Absinthium 18 Thalictrum flavum 16 Chenopodium rubrum 17 Hypericum Elodes 16 Sambucus Ebulus 595 17 Spirea Filipendula 17 Lathyrus sylvestris 18 Apium graveolens 18 Trifolium striatum 17 Matricaria Chamomilla 18 Viola flavicornis 601 16 Sagina maritima 11 VOL. IV. OF SPECIES. 249 n iS) wi Bentham, 13 632 SoM AAU KNK RR DOVWATDYO A _ i) 9 212, etc. 11 Tetrahit 13 1334 13 sylvatica procumbens 2k KHpRYUwWORAWWaARRNANON FAY VYVH OND — i) mr) 250 VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. 26 Sps. cont. Salsola Kali 603 Potamogeton heterophyl. Sinapis alba 605 Callitriche pedunculata 25 Subprovinces, Tamus communis 607 Verbena officinalis Empetrum nigrum Serratula tinctoria Cornus sanguinea Erigeron acris 612 Hordeum pratense Reseda lutea 614 Aquilegia vulgaris Scutellaria minor Salvia verbenaca Teesdalia nudicaulis Convallaria majalis Calamintha officinalis Juncus maritimus Sedum anglicum 622 Vicia lathyroides Drosera intermedia Habenaria ehlorantha Asplenium marinum Festuca rubra 627 Carex extensa 628 Veronica Buxbaumii Anagallis cerulea 630 Myriophyllnm alterniflor. Potamogeton rufescens 24 Subprovinces. Serophularia Balbisii Humulus Lupulus Chrysosplenium alternifol. Silaus pratensis 636 Campanula latifolia Saxifraga granulata Lactuca muralis 639 S. 14 11 15 12 17 12 12 19 18 12 17 9 12 18 N. 12 15 11 14 —_ TOONNNDWDAADD ke a of 11 CODODOSH OS _ Oo P| oranr on PON WHWwW DH = NIN © * CC® a> CO m— I Bentham, 1079? verna 908, 1397 bifolia ovina arvensis spicatum lucens 1053 Co. 50 50 50 49 49 49 48 45 45 44 44 44 44 41 40 40 40 38 38 35 29 55 54 54 53 50 49 49 48 47 47 47 46 46 45 44 43 43 VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. 24 Sps. cont. Viola odorata 640 Acer campestre Helminthia echioides Sagittaria sagittifolia Trifolium scabrum Orchis Morio 645 Linaria minor Pyrola minor 647 Lathrea squamaria Epipactis palustris Potamogeton densus Nasturtium sylvestre Nepeta cataria 652 Pyrus Aria, etc. Salix triandra, etc. Cerastium arvense Sinapis nigra 656 Glyceria distans Marrubium vulgare Sinapis tenuifolia, 659 Eriophorum latifolium 23 Subprovinces. Spiranthes autumnalis Polypodium Dryopteris Ligustrum vulgare Lysimachia nummularia Inula Conyza 665 Ulex nanus, etc. Solanum nigrum 667 Lamium Galeobdolon Ranunculus parviflorus Butomus umbellatus Sison Amomum 671 Cotyledon Umbilicus Rhamnus Frangula Daphne Laureola Orobanche “ major” Rubus saxatilis 676 Stellaria glauca aervwiraananZ4 — _ NYNoounrraoanrt oon oo — — oo i oO On AnNawmr OTR ADA A —_ oe W. Se. ll - 1 Li. 2= 251 Bentham. 1217 augustifolium 951 252 VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES, 23 Sps. cont. Eryngium maritimum Campanula Trachelium Typha angustifolia 680 Lycopodium inundatum Picris hieracioides 682 Onopordum Acauthium Blysmus compressus Centuneulus minimus Myosotis repens 686 Carex teretiuscula 22 Subprovinces. Viola lutea 688 Alopecurus agrestis Sanguisorba officinalis Orchis pyramidalis 691 Rhamnus catharticus Cerastium aquaticum Ophrys apifera 694 Narcissus psendo-Narciss. Campanula glomerata Torilis infesta 697 Glaucium luteum Lycopodium alpinum Ribes rubrum 700 Tris foetidissima Allosorus crispus Mentha piperita 703 Lemna polyrhiza Anthemis nobilis Hydrocharis Morsus-rane Smyrnium Olusatrum Ceratophyllum demersem Juncus obtusiflorus 709 Dianthus deltvides Lepturus filiformis Phleum arenarium Beta maritima 713 Cochlearia danica Hippocrepis comosa Ss. N, 12 it 17, 16 _ © 5 Dont rr OND dil ead ao oO ~~ — ow ior) i} ~~ (2) OoOnRnoar rh OU DADO 4 18 15 15 12 10 16 6 15 7 15 7 12 10 17 5 6 6 5 14 8 7 7 Ww. oo 8 © iY) ponent ewe NOW Oo ww Bentham. palustris paniculata tricolor 1368 1062 officinalis © ee SP = Co. 31 30 26 51 50 45 44 Ad 44 44 43 43 41 41 40 40 39 37 37 36 35 35 34 32 32 30 30 27 27 49 35 35 33 33 33 30 30 VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. 22 Sps. cont. Convolvulus Soldanella Potamogeton gramiueus Scirpus glaucus 718 21 Subprovinces, Chlora perfoliata Bryonia dioica 720 Myrrhis odorata Listera cordata 722 (nanthe Phellandrium Euphorbia amygdaloides Linaria Elatine 725 Vaccinium Vitis-idea Pastinaca sativa Polystichum angulare Hottonia palustris 729 Potentilla argentea Ulmus campestris, etc. Pyrethrum maritimum Mentha Pulegium Mentha sylvestris 734 Artemisia maritima Sagina subulata Menchia erecta Carex levigata 738 Polygonum minus Sium latifolium Berberis vulgaris 741 Festuca pseudo-myurus Centaurea “ nigrescens” Ranunculus circinatus 20 Subprovinces, Trollius europzus Carex divulsa 746 Pyrus torminalis Hymenophyllum Wilsoni Drosera anglica 749 Carduus eriophorus Mentha rotundifolia Atropa Belladonna 750 14 19 18 12 = Auk onaon ay, Pp uw ood — — “N“ouoomnonmrvon wR OG OU 12 11 253 Bentham, pusillus lacustris 969 aculeatum inodorum saxatilis distans 1122 bromoides nigra aquatilis muricata tunbridgense 254 Co. 30 30 30 30 30 29 28 27 25 43 42 40 39 39 37 37 35 35 34 34 34 33 32 32 32 32 32 31 30 30 30 29 28 28 27 26 26 25 VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. 20 Sps. cont. Brassica campestris Rosa rubiginosa, ete. Inula Helenium 755 Mercurialis annua Fagus sylvatica 757 Statice Limonium Crambe maritima Polygonum Raii 760 Anchusa sempervirens 19 Subprovinces, Crepis paludosa 761 Lycopodium selaginoides Specularia hybrida Prunus Padus 765 Carduus pratensis Pimpinella magna Carex Pseudo-cyperus Saxifraga hypnoides Ophrys muscifera 770 Hypericum montanum Wahlenbergia hederacea Chenupodium polysperm. Viscum album 774 Atriplex littoralis Equisetum hyemale Lemna gibba 777 Bromus erectus Chenopodium murale Orchis ustulata 780 Lastrea Thelypteris Dianthus Armeria Medicago maculata Myosotis sylvatica Erythrea littoralis 785 Monotropa Hypopitys Ranunculus fluitans Glyceria loliacea 788 Populus alba, etc. Atriplex portulacoides 13 rODA fF WO Pe OO _ el YUP OR AAAKA RO wW UI mon _ ar DED ™ OWAA HN W. Se. 10 FENDA DAAYIW AN — i) nm @ © DMDMMADANIDAHAANAHDAWHHN Bentham. 971 maritimum hastata 1275 Centaurium aquatilis Co. 41 36 35 35 35 34 34 34 33 33 31 3L 31 29 28 28 28 28 27 26 26 25 24 23 37 35 34 33 33 32 32 32 31 31 30 30 29 29 VI. CENSUS 18 Subprovinces, Clematis Vitalba 791 Carduus heterophyllus Myosurus minimus Viburnum Lantana Linaria spuria 795 Salix pentandra 796 Galium boreale_797 Rumex pulcher 798 Stellaria nemorum Nasturtium amphibium Colchicum autumnale Asperula cynanehica Galium tricorne 803 Erythrea pulchella Carex strigosa 805 Geranium pyrenaicum Cuscuta Epithymum Onobrychis sativa 807 Trifolium subterraneum Cladium Mariscus Allium oleraceum . Carex filiformis 812 Cochlearia anglica Malaxis paludosa 17 Subprovinees. Habenaria albida 815 Bupleurum rotundifolim. Verbascum nigrum Taxus baccata 818 Antirrhinum Orontium Lactuca virosa 820 Brachypodium pinnatum Lathyrus Nissolia Turritis glabra 823 Carduus acaulis Lastrea spinulosa Papaver hybridum Chenopodium olidum 15 12 Myriophyllum verticilatm. 12 OF SPECIES. N. 1 15 INwowwnvwvwrh wae ~ i — i ow Ww om > oom s ann @® = ®© = Ww. WONANDANDAOHOADANOHONUWAWANNIA GS wooo acronrnt re Io Se. 10 255 Bentham, Centaurium 998 officinalis Scariola dilatata VI. CENSUS 17 Sps. cont. Astragalus hypoglottis Pyrus communis 830 Hypocheeris glabra Limosella aquatica Convallaria multiflora Epilobium roseum Rubus carpinifolius Rubus plicatus 836 Salix rubra, ete. Glyceria plicata Trigonella ornithopodioid. Rubus cesius 840 Cicuta virosa 841 16 Subprovinces. Dipsacus pilosus 842 Geranium sylvaticum Helleborus viridis Petroselinum segetum Orobanche minor Erodium maritimum Melica nutans 848 Sedum Rhodiola Carex limosa 850 Ranunculus cenosus Rubus corylifolius Asplenium viride Acorus Calamus 854 Arundo Calamagrostis Lobelia Dortmanna Gagea lutea 857 Rumex palustris Senecio viscosus Arenaria tenuifolia Rubus macrophyllus 15 Subprovinces. Ribes Grossularia Helleborus fcetidus Blysmus rufus 864 Avenaria verna 865 S. Ni. 30.9 14 3 ll 6 ll 6 11 6 ll 6 10 7 9 8 10 7 11 6 12 5 13 4 10 7 14 2 2 14 12 15 1 14 12 4 3 13 1 15 5 11 10 6 12 4 3 13 12 4 1l 5 4 12 5 11 13 3 TMS 15. 2 ll 56 10 5 12 3 1 14 4 ll OF SPECIES. W. Sa E. 2 0 we 6 - ll DS. oso 5 Lan 5 1 Il Vee 8 4 5 8 4 5 5 2 10 67°29 Soe 0 7 3 5 9 6 - 10 4 8 4 5 - 11 Cates et 6 - 10 12 1°38 Re ast sai: | 2 1272 5 a4 {ll taal 8 Sidon iti 4 9 3 Chana otes. ) 4 - 12 5 - TI oo 6 8 - 8 So Ore Cm ‘eit aia © Chiat: 5 - 10 2 Ne 6 6 38 Bentham. 1251 fruticosus fruticosus purpurea fluitans 1047, ete. 1089, 1354 aquatilis fruticusus Trichomanes maritimus fruticosus 1333 VI. CENSUS 15 Sps, cont, Ss. Gentiana Pneumonanthe 10 Pyrola media 867 2 Hordeum maritimum 12 Ruscus aculeatus 11 Elymus arenarius 6 Hieracium pallidum 3 Thalictrum alpinum 1 Scilla verna 873 5 Carex stricta 874 8 Cephalanthera ensifolia 8 Rubus discolor 876 13 Fumaria micrantha 9 Scirpus Savii 878 9 Potentilla verna 7 Andromeda polifolia 7 Lastrea foenisecii 8 Prunus Cerasus 882 12 14 Subprovinces. Saxifraga stellaris 1 Silene noctiflora 884 7 Erysimum cheiranthoides 14 Rubus Chamezmorus 1 Mertensia maritima 1 Salix herbacea 888 2 Saxifraga oppositifolia 2 Lathyrus Aphaca 14 Carex axillaris 10 Ribes nigrum 892 10 Rubus rudis 893 10 Linaria repens 11 Althea officinalis 14 Hieracium tridentatum 8 Glyceria procumbens 11 Potamogeton compressus 10 Fedia Auricula 899 12 Potamogeton plantagin. 7 Potamogeton prelongus 7 VOL, IV. OF SPECIES. N. 5 13 3 = ce) — Oruyanaonmanrnnrtnor Roane So moO on ® W @ wo m Gow om woanraanroanrwkw—auarnwawnndvuan = wd _ mh we —_ YIrereoancncrypntonunvwe wWNONoOe OW iw) nonsdcnpoaonrtaurnoo= = 257 Bentham. murorum vulgaris fruticosus officinalis 1111 dilatata 452 1092 fruticosus boreale pusillus natans 20) VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. 13 Subprovinces, Arbutus Uva-ursi 902 Euphorbia Paralias Crithmum maritimum Rubus suberectus 905 Campauula patula Linum angustifolium Calamintha Nepeta Rubus leucostachys Rumex pratensis Rumex aquaticus Carex divisa 912 Bnpleurum tenuissimum Caucalis daucoides Rubus affinis 915 Festuca uniglumis Rubus rhamnifolius Epipactis media 918 Tnula crithmoides Lepidium ruderale Rubus Radula 921 Vicia bithynica Rubus nemorosus 12 Subprovinces. Euphorbia platyphyllos Polygonum viviparum Saxifraga aizoides 926 Cephalanthera grandiflor. Rumex maritimus Hordeum sylvaticum Ribes alpinum 930 Sedum reflexum Carex rigida 932 Chenopodium urbicum Carpinus Betulus Cuscuta europea Tilia parvifolia 936 Ligusticum scoticum Thesium humifusum Gastridium lendigerum Ss. N. - 13 ll 2 10 3 6 7 10 38 Lhd Be 13° - 10 3 ll 2 - 13 2 1 wm 42 10 3 w °6 1. 9 4 8 5 12 1 13 - 9 4 2 9 4 10 2 mW - 12 10 2 bE 7 20 4 8 Ll 4t 1 11 9 3 M2 1 10 2 - 12 12, - 12. - _ NORDEA ARNYNAWADEAABWOAAN DS TIoaoarP wp wmawann dO > eh YRANABAKOPSHuSSVWAT ETA WA w AOnreranrwtvu oDeP RP ONN HOON Bentham, fruticosus officinalis fruticosus crispus fruticosus fruticosus latifolia fruticosus fruticosus 1300 858 rupestre vulgaris VI. CENSUS 12 Sps. cont. s. Silene acaulis 940 1 Rubia peregrina 12 Fritillaria Meleagris 12 Senecio saracenicus ? 5 Rubus nitidus 944 8 Hymenophyllum tunbridg. 7 Draba incana 946 1 Juncus diffusus 7 Orobanche “ elatior” 11 Pyrola rotundifolia 5 Rubus pallidus 950 6 Polypodium calcareum 7 Rubus Koebleri 952 8 Sinapis muralis 11 Elatine hexandra 11 Subprovinces. Trientalis europea - Feniculum vulgare 11 Luzula Forsteri 957 11 Circea alpina 958 1 Pinguicula lusitanica 5 Vinca minor 960 11 Juncus triglumis 1 Herminium Monorchis 11 Rubus villicaulis 963 8 Galium pusillum 3 Saussurea alpina ] Equisetum variegatum 2 Rubus glandulosus 8 Raphanus maritimus 6 CEnanthe fluviatilis 969 10 Geranium rotundifolium 1 Statice bahusiensis Festuca sylvatica Rubus fusco-ater Juniperus nana 975 Medicago deuticulata L 7 5 8 Melilotus vulgaris 9 1 9 Potamogeton filiformis 3 OF SPECIES. N. W. Sc. 11 2 10 = 9H % - Hep ey 7 5 4 4 5 6 5 GP 45; 1l BV 5 ie Bs 1 3 7 3°38 6 5° 2 5 8 - 4 Sine 1 6 - 5 5 3 ll eA = 7 = = 6 = 10 2 8 6 di 8 - 4 - 10 Qed = 3 = 3 es 8 4 4 10 Zian9 9 4 5 3 6 - 5 7 3 1 4 - = 5 = 4 4 1 6 5 63 3 7 ee 2 6 - 10 LE f 2 4 - 8 2 4 CcWOWawntw : row hk AD © wor OnN RK kK oP | arwtwpyerr wWoantraoan fruticosus 748 glaucus fruticosus Dryopteris fruticosus pilosa biglumis fruticosus saxatile fruticosus Raphanistrum Phellandrium Limonium fruticosus communis pectinatus VI. CENSUS 10 Subprovinces. Triticum laxum 978 Sedum villosum 979 Alchemilla alpina Vicia Orobus 981 Meum Athamanticum Carex pauciflora Salix phylicifolia, ete. Bartsia viscosa 985 Epilobium alsinifolium Potamogeton flabellatus Melampyrum sylvaticum Euphorbia: portlandica Vaccinium uliginosum ~ Lycopodium annotinum Lamium intermedium Luzula spicata 993 Polystichum Lonchitis Rubus Sprengelii Rubus Hystrix 996 Equisetum umbrosum Cuscuta Trifolii 9 Subprovinces. Sparganium minimum Galium erectum 1000 Oxyria reniformis Chenopodium hybridum Pulicaria vulgaris Apera Spica-venti Rosa systyla 1005 Silene nutans 1006 Anemone Pulsatilla Cineraria campestris Centaurea Calcitrapa Azalea procumbens Dryas octopetala Cardamine impatiens Chenopodium ficifolium Salix Lapponum 1014 Asplenium lanceolatum oontranuoooorn NID 0 OF SPECIES. mw n WOK aorgnrenwnwnsdr Oe FN ANDY 1 WW CO mm Wan it mem Or & wprkheren ag AWAMDAANNNY ork OK eS Iornwe a i) anwar WD 1 (7 DoOoorRw ENA ! ore Ok we Pe VW ANN NY NH HOWE NY NB Bentham. repens 1035, 1224 pectinatus amplexicaule fruticosus fruticosus Epithymum natans Mollugo 1332 arvensis ? album VI. CENSUS 9 Sps. cont. Tofieldia palustris Juncus acutus 1017 Coronopus didyma Scirpus uniglumis Lathyrus palustris Hutchinsia petrea Brassica oleracea Linum perenne 1023 Alopecurus bulbosus Lavatera arborea Daucus maritimus Trifolium suffocatum Trifclium glomeratum Stachys ambigua 1029 Atriplex arenaria Galeopsis ochroleuca Asparagus officinalis ? 8 Subprovinces. Sparganium natans Isoetes lacustris 1034 Salix nigricans Sinapis monensis Symphytum tuberusum Sibbaldia procumbens Stratiotes aloides 1039 Allium Scorodoprasum Subularia aquatica Poa alpina 1042 Daphne Mezereum Aceras anthropophora Hieracium rigidum Poterium muricatum Orobanche hedere Alopecurus fulvus Cornus suecica 1049 Sedum rupestre Verbascum Lychnitis Cnanthe pimpinelloides Scrophularia Ehrharti OF SPECIES. oranrPoooXNoOonoOonNuoneo'! wv © vo ew On On OVNI oORDNABDDAADA 4 VNR KR OOhW~NAGANANO! co Ww me Oe awranw it ow -» nonvnanvd wv wd ses wHoouranwndae 261 Bentham, palustris geniculatus Carota palustris 999 phylicifolia boreale Sanguisorba minor geniculatus 931, 1214 432, 1070 Balbisii 262 VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. Co. 8 Sps. cont. Ss. N, W. Se. E. Bentham. 10 Utricularia intermedia 2 6 3 aiaell minor 10 Hieracium strictum - 8 LIC ail boreale 10 = Arabis petrea 1056 Ly 1 20reae 10 Betula nana 1057 - 8 Wit 9 Saxifraga Hirculus - 8 2) 242 ; 9 Veronica humifusa LW 2 ome serpyllifolia 9 Lysimachia thyrsiflora - 8 - 5 3 9 Filago apiculata 7 1 Ld - 9 germanica 9 Ceratophyllum submersum 7 1 Qed demersum 9 Vicia lutea 1063 5 3 3 3 2 9 Spartina stricta 8 - 1. oye 1399 8 Agrimonia odorata 7 al Se eS Eupatoria 8 Statice Dodartii 1066 7 Mal Pi aceh itil 1095 7 Subprovinces, 16 Meconopsis cambrica 5 2 6G «ial 15 Carum verticillatum 3.4 4 3 - 14 = Pyrola secunda. 1069 - 7 1 baal 13 QMuanthe silaifolia 6 1 2: cette pimpinelloides 13 ~~‘ Filago spathulata 7 - 1 - 6 germanica 12 Rubus thyrsoideus 6 1 4 - 3 fruticosus 11 = Actinocarpus Damasonium 7 .- 1 - 6 11 Adonis autumnalis 7 - 1 ernie 11 Juncus trifidus 1075 - 7 nyihes 11 ~~‘ Frankenia levis fo = baie ssl 10 Asplenium septentrionale 3 4 4 2 1 10 Thalictrum majus(Sm.) - -7 Wa wBih 6 minus 10 Potamogeton zosterefolius4 3 2 2 3 heterophyllus 10 Euphorbia Peplis 1080 7 - 6) Gut 9 Lepidium latifolium 5 2 2 5 9 Carex capillaris => hed - 5 2 9 Carex digitata 1083 4.3 4 - 8 9 Arbutus alpina - 7 - 7 - 9 Peucedanum palustre 5 2 Lies jaé 9 Melittis Melissophyllum 7 - 5 - 2 9 Pinus sylvestris - 7 Repos 9 Agrotis setacea 7 - 5? ue 8 Carex irrigua 1089 1 6 2:4) 1 limosa 8 Convallaria Polygonatum 5 2 5 2502 8 Bromus madritensis te Hsien B a a VI © 10 10 ; a IrNNUVNVABAWADADMAHeH SEHD OH ESOS 0. VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. 7 Sps. cont. Carex Boenninghausenian. Melilotus arvensis Salix “ambigua” 1094 Statice occidentalis Lathyrus maritimus 6 Subprovinces, Campanula Rapunculus Carex incurva 1098 Epilobium alpinum Hieracium argenteum Verbascum Blattaria Linnea borealis 1102 Arnoseris pusilla Gnaphalium supinum Villarsia nymphezoides Carex pulla 1106 Thlaspi alpestre Hieracium anglicum Primula farinosa Crepis succisefolia Poteutilla alpestris Cerastium alpinum Lychnis Viscaria Hieracium gothicum Carex elongata 1115 Trifolium maritimum Veronica spicata Corallorhiza innata Carex Persoonii Lithosp. purpuro-cerulm. Sagina ciliata 1121 Polygonum mite Crepis biennis 1123 Erodium moschatum Cerastium latifolium Hieracium iricum Sisymbrium Irio 1127 Dentaria bulbifera Salicornia radieans aon @® * @ wort NA QaAAD Aa D Suricy te W. Sc. - 3 leit: = 6 4] E2 3 - - 6 - 6 2 3 oes =o - 6 1 . - 6 2 1 1 3 | - 4 2 2 2 4 2 4 1 2 Pics Be 4 = - 6 nS 4 « 1 = 1 - 6 - 1 6 ie 33 3 SS eng 14 a (i 32 ‘5 2 get 13 eS pipe 31 2 oe 12 5 Sige 30 ” 40 » 11 » 23» 29 a5 38, 10 ve ie 28 * Sree 9 = 34 yy 27 » 32» 8 » 34s 26 ” 28 ” 7 ” 30 ” 25 ” 26» 6 ” 49», 24 ” 28 ” 5 ” 48 ” 23 » 27 on 4 » 50» 22 » 31» 3 » St» 21 ” 260» 2 ” 54» 20 »”» 17 ” 1 ” 77 ” 3. Census by Counties. In 99 counties, 2 species. In 49 counties, 17 species. 98 ” 1 ys 48 ” 6 » 97 ” 3» 47 ” 12 y 96 2 » 46 ” ll , 95» 15» 45» 9 » 94 mA TORS; 44 > i anee 93 ~=CS, Siew; 43 = 1] <= 92 ” ll , 42 ” <6 os 91 “ WA ss 41 93 es 90 33 1S cxs5 40 9 i ne ° Soe eGs ees 39 3) Cee 88 s ES ois, 38 5 ht es ST ayes 13 SCs, OF 2 59 10 In 86 counties, 11 species. 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 738 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 VOL. IV. ” ” VI. CENSUS OF SPECIES. 16 15 In 36 counties, 6 species. 35 34 - 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 20 2738 Q74 VI. EXPLANATIONS OF THE 4, Explanations of the Census. The preceding ‘Census of Species’ may be regarded and explained under three aspects. First, the numbers which precede the names of the plants may be said to constitute the general census for total Britain. Secondly, the numbers which succeed the names, in the columns headed by the initial letters S N W Sc E, give a more local or partial census, presently to be explained. Thirdly, repetitions of some of the specific names at the end of several of the lines. Further, three summaries are added at the end of the general list of plants, showing the numbers of the species in relation to the numbers of the provinces and other sub- divisions. First.—The names of the plants are repetitions of those before enu- merated in the ‘Summary of Distribution.’ They succeed each other in accordance with the relative frequency of the plants, one compared with another, as closely as that condition or character can be exhibited by aid of the test resorted to. The plants are first divided into 38 groups, in accordance with the number of the subprovinces in which they have been ascertained to occur, or are found reported on reliable authority. The plants in each of the 38 groups are next arranged in a series according to the number of counties and vicecounties, as indicated by the number prefixed to each. And in cases where the number of subprovinces and counties is the same for two or more species, then the number of primary provinces is taken to determine the position of the names in the series; but it has not been deemed requisite to introduce a second column of prefixed nos. for the sule purpose of showing the num- ber of those provinces. Further, in cases where the number of primary provinces is also equal for two or more plants, then various other circumstances have been resorted to, as tests or measures of relative frequency ; for instance, the altitudes attained and the greater or less probability of other habitats being discovered, &c. &c. The series thus worked out is numbered from 1 to 1425 by means of numbers set after the shorter names only, for typographical convenience ; the proper nos. for the intermediately placed names being easily known by reckoning from those which are so inserted. It is made obvious by the prefixed nos., that the plants would have been somewhat differently grouped together, if the number of counties and vicecounties had been taken as the leading test, by first dividing the whole flora into 99 groups (the largest number of counties ascertained a Ak CENSUS OF SPECIES. 275 for any of the species), and then arranging the names under each group in accordance with the number of subprovinces. Still a different set of groups or series of names would have resulted, if the 18 primary pro- vinces had been resorted to as the leading test, followed in succession by the secondary or subprovinces, and then by the counties and vice- counties. After actually drawing out lists in the three different methods, that in which the subprovinces was made the leading test was adopted, because apparently giving the most correct sequence of the names. The comital and vicecomital floras are yet incompletely ascertained ; and it was found that the use of these more numerous divisions tended too much to place plants high in the census on account of partial frequency. On the contrary, the provincial floras are most of them nearly complete ; and so far they are best adapted to give a correct census. But 18 such lists are not sufficiently numerous; plants very thinly scattered over Britain, if they chance to be found in all the 18 provinces, being placed above other more frequent plants which are absent or simply unascer- tained in one or two of the provinces. Whatever may be the particular mode of applying it, the adopted test involves a combination of the extent of area along with frequency of repetition. By adopting the more numerous comital divisions, a greater importance is given to the latter condition, that of frequent repetition. The larger, and therefore fewer, divisions assign a predominant value to extent of area. On the whole, the 38 subprovinces afford a better test than the 18 provinces or the 112 counties and vicecounties ; a copious list of species having been made out for each of them, and their floras being nearly complete for thirty of them. False positions of the species in the census list may be attributed much more usually to the imperfect state of botanical knowledge, than to any inadequacy of the adopted test towards meeting the object in view. A census list so made out is really a summary of the records left by several generations of British botanists, augmented by manuscript contributions from fully one half of the most competent local botanists of the present age. Comparatively with a census so obtained, the personal experience of any individual botanist, or any score of individual botanists, sinks into insignificance, as being unavoidably imperfect and partial, too local and unequal. But in using the general list as a test or measure of rarily and frequency, it is to be recollected that botanists do not record all plants equally and impartially. Old records are often found to be unavailable in tracing the area and frequency of modern segregate species, as has 276 VI. EXPLANATIONS OF THE been before remarked. Such segregates are now less familiar to many botanists; so that often their localities remain unrecorded, or are perhaps recorded erroneously for some other allied species. Many botanists give little attention to grasses, sedges, willows, brambles, roses, and other plants not easy to discriminate; the consequences being similar, in the species being less recorded or mis-recorded, in com- parison with other plants of greater interest to collectors, or more satisfactorily distinct and distinguishable. So, likewise, various incon- spicuous species are probably often overlooked, and thus supposed to be more rare than is the fact; nobody would overlook the Clematis or Bryonia, if actually looking out for plants; though many might pass the Limosella or Littorella unobserved. These and various other cir- cumstances will always interfere with our attempts either to place plants in a consecutive series, or to combine them into groups, in accordance with their true rarity or frequency. It might seem needless to add further, that a census list for Britain in general cannot be applicable to any one separate county or other section of the whole island.” Nor could lists for a few isolated spots make more than a highly imperfeet approach towards a true census for entire Britain. And yet the blundering stupidity of some writers, who attempt phyto-geographical statistics, and who even pretend to prescribe rules and methods for ascertaining the relative frequency of plants, shows too plainly that the local conditions may be confused with the general, — that half-a-dozen or half-a-score records of parochial abun- dance or scarcity may be misconstrued into an adequate geographical census of species. Second.—In regard to the columns of figures which follow the names of the plants under distinctive initial letters. These figures indi- eate the number of ‘subprovinces for large sections or divisions of Britain ; and are intended to give some idea respecting the part of Britain in which each species is more or less fully distributed. The first double column, with the head letters S and N, shows the number of subprovinces for South Britain, as distinguished from Middle and North Britain ; the two latter being taken together. As explained on page 135, the former includes 18 subprovinees, and the two latter divi- sions include 20. In order to render the numerical contrast more exact, the subprovince of East Trent, corresponding with the county of Lincoln, is heré reckoned along with South Britain, instead of Mid Britain. The two letters will be explained thus :— CENSUS OF SPECIES. 277 S. South Britain includes subprovinces 1 to 19. N. North (and Mid) Britain ,, 20 to 38. The second or treble column, with the head letters W Sc E, shows the number of subprovinces for Scotland in contrast against England, and the western and eastern sides of England also in contrast against each other. It was of course impossible to divide the 25 English subprovinces into two groups exactly equal with the 13 Scottish subprovinces; and the western division has accordingly only 12 instead of-13. The chief purpose of this second column of figures, is to form such a comparison or contrast as will bring into view any peculiar tendency of particular species to the western or to the eastern side of the island. For this purpose it was found that the two sides of England, apart from Scotland, were more suitable than the two sides of total Britain; their division being imperfect and unsatisfactory in North Britain, and the distinction between eastern and western species being there confused by the intermingling of alpine or arctic plants with them. And by placing the nos. for the Scottish subprovinces between the two series for England, a second comparison of South with North is also obtained, less unequal than the former in respect to latitude. The line of separa- tion between the western and eastern divisions was explained on pages 136—7 of the present volume. On comparing eastern and western England together, or these two with Scotland, it will be very evident that difference of latitude is far more potential than difference of longi- tude, in altering the distribution of plants. The floras of western and eastern England are more closely similar than those of England and Scotland ; and there is correspondingly a less diversity in the sub- provincial census of the species, that is, less between west and east in England, than between either of these and Scotland. But slight differences in the stated number of subprovinces may be disregarded, especially in the ternary division where the totals are only 12 and 13. The lists of species for several of the subprovinces being incomplete, their numbers may be rendered unequal for some of the species simply through deficiency of knowledge. Thus, Juncus effusus is represented as wanting in one of the northern and Scottish sub- provinces, on account of the name not appearing in Balfour and Ba- bington’s list of species observed in the Hebrides. The presumption, however, is very strong in this instance, that the name of Juncus conglo- meratus was incorrectly substituted in their list, or that it really included both the species. See volume third, page 39 of this work, for the 278 VI. EXPLANATIONS OF THE grounds of such a supposition. Tussilago Farfara is very probably in the same condition ; being also placed in the group of species found in 37 (not 38) subprovinces, and given as absent from one of the northern and Scottish subprovinces, on the like ground of its omission from the Hebridean list, or being there misnamed, Petasites, as suggested in volume second, pages 108 and 109. Many other such examples might be cited, where inequalities are induced or increased by incomplete knowledge of localities; while in other examples, probably, inexact knowledge may operate in the contrary manner, by rendering the dif- ferences apparently less than a complete acquaintance with the facts would show them to be. Third.—Some of the lines terminate with specific names, or with nos. which correspond with the names of other plants, constituting together a column of names and nos. very partially filled in. They relate to Bentham’s ‘ Handbook of the British Flora,,— a new work which has only come to hand since the ‘Summary of Distribution’ was in the press. This ‘ Handbook’ is remarkable for carrying the aggregation of species to an extreme, which is widely at variance with the practice of segregation, so current of late years among the botanists of this country. In the ‘Summary’ the number of plants treated as species is 1424; though truly not all of them believed to be such by the present writer. The addition of Gladiolus communis or imbricatus raises the number to 1425 in the preceding ‘Census.’ In the fourth edition of the ‘ Manual of British Botany,’ so frequently mentioned in former pages, the same plants appear as 1495 good and true species. On the contrary, in the * Handbook of the British Flora’ the same plants are reduced to 1175 species. Thus, the actual difference between the books of Bentham and Babington, in regard to the disputed point, of which are true species, amounts to 320 species, without reckoning the aliens and those peculiar to Ireland or the Channel Isles. Now, as a general rule, it may be said that the segregates which are held species by some botanists, only varieties by other botanists, have had their localities less fully and less accurately recorded. Thus, they will usually be placed too low in the census list. Further, it may be remarked again, that the separation of these disputed segregates must more or less vitiate and make doubtful the recorded habitats and localities of the old species from which they are dissevered. Some of these latter may thus be placed too high in the same list. The rather extreme views of Mr. Bentham afford means and opportunity for CENSUS OF SPECIES. 279 making a distinction between the questioned and unquestioned species, quite appropriate to the objects of the census list. All those plants which stand as species in that list, but which are treated as varieties in the ‘ Handbook,’ are distinguished by the names of the species, to which they are referred by Mr. Bentham, being added at the ends of their lines. - Conversely, the nos. of the varieties are added to the lines of the species in which they are sunk by Mr. Bentham. It should perhaps be observed, that in some few cases those references of Mr. Bentham have not been adhered to with rigid exactness. For example, Bromus seca- linus, commutatus, and mollis of the census list are united under the name of Bromus arvensis in the ‘ Handbook’; B. secalinus being there given as the typical form, even though its chief peculiar characters are alleged to arise ‘‘from being cultivated with the corn.” In this instance, instead of adhering to the ‘ Handbook’ (impossible, as no B. arvensis is recognized among the British plants, by the Cybele) DB. mollis has been referred to after the names of the other two species, secalinus and commutatus. In other instances Mr. Bentham sinks British alleged species under foreign species, the names of which do not appear in the list, and consequently cannot be referred to. Such is the case with Huphorbia portlandica, sunk under the continental LF. segetalis, but necessarily therefore allowed to stand as an unquestioned species in the census list. ‘ Bentham’s Handbook’ and ‘ Babington’s Manual’ may be contrasted against each other, and will afford a striking illustration of that “ un- certainty of species” before commented upon in pages 35 to 43. It seems impossible to doubt that book-species are to a great extent (if not wholly) conventional and optional, when we thus find two competent botanists differing by one-fourth or one-fifth (320 in 1175 or 1495) of the flora of a small country so much investigated as that of Britain. The references to Mr. Bentham’s views have been substituted in the census list in the place of somewhat similar intimations discarded for them. It was first intended to add one or other of these four terms to each of the species,— aggregate. segregate. dimidiate. integrate. As before explained, the term ‘aggregate’ is used for a species which is believed by various botanists to include several real species, like the Ranunculus aquatilis or Rubus fruticosus of Linneus. The term “segregate’ is also used in former pages, to express a species or variety severed from an aggregate, and regarded in the one way by some 280 VI. EXPLANATIONS OF THE botanists, in the other way by other botanists; like the Ranun- culus confusus or Rubus discolor, separated from the two Linnean species above named. In many instances, one or more segregates are taken from an old species, the remnant being still accounted a species, and retaining its old name. The term ‘dimidiate ’ would have been used to express a species so halved or curtailed; and thus Veronica agrestis would be deemed a dimidiate species, after separation from it of the segregate V. polita; it being held an aggregate species where understood to consist of both the modern species under the old name. The fourth term ‘ integrate’ is left applicable to species which botanists allow to remain as first established, without severance of sub-species from them ; examples being affurded by Adoxa moschatellina and Atropa Belladonna ;—though it is somewhat unsafe now to assert of any species, that nobody has attempted to split off segregates from it. In concluding these explanations of the ‘Census of Species,’ the author may remark that it has required a sacrifice of time and patience, to bring it up to its present and yet imperfect condition, which he could scarcely fore-reckon when commencing to form it. Tens of thousands of records and manuscript notes required to be consulted and collated ; and while going through that labour, the elimination of the errors and probable errors, from the reliable facts, was a great additional source of trouble and inconvenience. It seems to be impossible for him to have avoided errors and oversights himself, in the course of this examination ; and he may doubtless in some instances have rejected the true, and admitted the false. Still, whether viewed as 38 groups, or as a series of 1425 individual species, the census list may be considered a fair ap- proximation to correctness, although the actual position of many names in it might be somewhat changed on complete knowledge, — placed higher or lower in the series,—in a higher or lower group, as the case might be. In regard to the three summaries placed at the end of the list. On looking to the first of these, which reckons the number of species in accordance with the provincial census, there appears an accumulation at each end of the series ; as if there were some decided tendency of the species to be very local or very general. This apparent tendency is partly fallacious. It is geographically possible that one species, having only 18 localities, might still occur in as many different provinces ; while another species, with 1800 or 18000 localities, would equally be found in 18 provinces only. And at the other end of the series, one CENSUS OF SPECIES. 281 species with a single locality, and another species with a score of localities, might alike be limited to single provinces. Actually, such extreme instances do not occur; but there is sufficient approximation thereto to cause an accumulation of species, of very unequal frequency or rarity, at and towards the two extremes of 18 provinces and 1 pro- vince. This accumulation is accordingly much reduced under the sub- provincial census, in which the spaces are smaller and more numerous. Still more so in the comital and vice-comital census; partly, through the increased number of the spaces, partly through incomplete know- ledge. In that third summary the even nos. are rendered too prominent in species, through entering under 80, 60, 40,20, &c. some species which are known in so many counties or thereabouts ; the precise num- bers being made doubtful through uncertainties of the records or of the real nativity of the plants in one or more of the counties. On looking back over the census list in its printed state, a typo- graphical defect becomes unpleasantly obvious. The primary test of frequency is found in the subprovincial grouping of the species; which is thus made the leading intellectual idea of the list; and it ought accordingly to have been presented to the eye of the reader at least as conspicuously as the other nos. and names in secondary detail. Instead, the head-titles of those groups have been rendered insignificant by the use of a minute type for the “38 subprovinces,” “37 subprovinces,” “36 subprovinces,” &c. As printers cannot of course be expected to understand thoroughly all the various subjects which they are called upon to convert into a printed form, it is difficult to prevent the mechanical ideas of the office thus occasionally misdirecting the intel- lectual ideas of readers, through mis-portraying those of writers. VOL. IV. 20 VII. AREAS OF SPECIES. I. AUSTRAL SPECIES, ATTENUATING NORTHWARD. 1. Southward of 51 latitude. Arthrolobium, 49-50 lat. Trifolium Bocconi Trifolium Molinieri Erica vagans Orobanche amethystea Tllecebrum verticillatum Corrigiola littoralis Hypericum linariifolium Scrophularia Scorodonia Physospermum cornubiense Trichonema Columne Bupleurum aristatum Lobelia urens Erica ciliaris Cynodon Dactylon Lotus hispidus Polycarpon tetraphyllum Briza minor Lotus angustissimus Simethis bicolor Calamintha sylvatica Mathiola incana Pulmonaria angustifolia Gladiolus “ imbricatus ” Polygonum maritimum Spartina alterniflora Isnardia palustris med mttaer frp mpd lend teed fr wCoOnnnnnnnnnndnnv Temp. 50 fahr. 10 cent. Scilly Tsles only. West Cornwall. do. do. East Cornwall. Cornwall. Devon. do. do. do. do. do. - do. do. do. South Devon. do. do. Cornwall. Dorset. do. do. Cornwall. Devon. Dorset. do. do. do. Corn. Dev. Dor. Wight. Hants. Corn. Dev. Hants. Sussex. Dorset. Isle of Wight. do. Wight. South Hants. South Hants. do. do. Hants. Sussex. - Me I. 2. Southward of 52 lat. Verbascum virgatum Helianthemum polifolium Scirpus Holoschenus, 51 Euphorbia hiberna, 51 Dianthus cesius, 51 Euphorbia pilosa, 51 Viola lactea Carduus tuberosus, 51 Carex tomentosa, 51 Phyteuma spicatum Phyteuma orbiculare Leersia oryzoides Scirpus carinatus Scirpus triqueter ’ Glyceria Borreri Orobanche caryophyllacea, 51 Silene italica, 51 Orchis fusca, 51 Ophrys arachnites, 51 Carex depauperata, 51 Teucrium Botrys, 51 Peucedanum officinale, 51 Tordylium maximum, 51 Salvia pratensis, 51 Orchis tephrosanthos, 51 Orchis militaris, 51 Filago gallica, 51 Lathyrus bhirsutus, 51 Buxus sempervirens, 51 Trinia vulgaris Epilobium lanceolatum Scilla autumnalis Polygonum dumetorum Trifolium maritimum Arabis stricta, 51 Carex clandestina, 51 Polygala calcarea, 51 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Cornwall. Devon. Somerset. South Devon. North Somerset. North Devon. do. North Somerset. do. 2 Devon. Hants. Sussex. 2 South Wilts. 2 North Wilts. 2 Sussex. 23 Wilts. Hants. Sus. Sur. 2 3 Hants. Sussex. Surrey. 2 3 Sussex. Kent. Surrey. 2 3 Sussex. Surrey. Midx. 2 3 Wight to North Essex. - 3 East Kent. - 3 West Kent (Mr. Syme). - 3 Kent. Elsewhere? - 3 Kent. Surrey. - 8 do. do. - 3 Surrey. - 8 East Kent. South Essex. - 3 Midx: Oxford. Bucks. - 3 Kent. Oxford. - 3 Kent. Berks. Oxford. - 3 Herts. Berks. Oxf. Bucks. - 3 Kent. Essex. Herts. - 3 North Essex. - 3 4 Very uncertain distrib. St Fi are -3-5 --io0 WS = 5. =) eo FO 23-5 --iou 23-5 --iou B+ ge F See Qhecie 5) = PES a a) | || AUSTRAL SPECIES. 283 Temp. 494 fahr. 9°7 cent. 284 VII. AREAS Euphorbia stricta, 51 Thiaspi perfoliatum, 51 Allium sphzrocephalum, 51 Rubus imbricatus, 51 Sibthorpia europea Rhyncospora fusca Agrostis setacea Cicendia filiformis Cyperus longus Erodium moschatum Bromus madritensis Verbascum Blattaria Ranunculus tripartitus Draba aizoides, 51 Arabis ciliata, var., 51 3. Southward of 58 lat. Galium Vaillantii, 52 Polypogon monspeliensis Ornithogalum pyrenaicum Centaurea Calcitrapa Vicia gracilis Leucojum estivum Borkhausia foetida Seseli Libanotis Dianthus prolifer Aira canescens Tillea muscosa Polypogon littoralis Setaria viridis Frankenia levis Melampyrum cristatum Ajuga Chamepitys, 51 Ophrys aranifera Digitaria humifusa Potamogeton acutifolius Poa bulbosa Schoberia fruticosa Filago spathulata oonnvdnvond wd Ww wnovnnvnndwnnnvvdnwnvnnnnvnndnnwrws: OF SPECIES. --5--i 8-5 -+- 6 --5--i --5--i ---6-e ---6-e ---6-e ---6-e 3 - -6-e --56-e 3-56-e 3--6-e 3)- - 6-e Bye Ie - --6- e Temp. 49 fahr. 3.P -- -- 34 --io -4--i0 34 -ei10 34--i10 34--i0 3.4 - --0 34 ---0 34---0 34--i- -4-+-i0o0 3.4 --io0 34---0 34---0 34---0 34--i0 84---0 34---0 34---0 34 - Pio 34--i- 84--io0 ~~ 1 ' ~ oo (98 i 9°4 cent. u u P cece et errertre SFE RFE I. AUSTRAL SPECIES. Fumaria Vaillantii, 51 Trifolium ochroleucum Adonis autumnalis Melampyrum arvense, 50? Orchis hircina, 51 Primula elatior, 51 Carum Bulbocastanum, 51 Phleum Boehmeri, 51 Medicago minima, 51 Galium anglicum, 51 Sonchus palustris, 51 Iberis amara, 51 Stachys germanica, 51 Holosteum umbellatum, 52 Apera interrupta, 52 Veronica verna, 52 Liparis Loeselii, 52 Muscari racemosum, 52 Potamogeton trichoides, 52 Cineraria palustris, 52 Statice caspia, 52 Silene Otites, 52 Medicago sylvestris, 52 Medicago falcata, 52 Artemisia campestris, 52 Chenopodium botryoides, 52 Verbascum floccosum, 52 - Delphinium Consolida, 52 Cephalanthera rubra, 51 Phleum asperum, 51 Thesium humifusum Herminium Monorchis Alopecurus bulbosus Geranium rotundifolium Mespilus germanica (Enanthe pimpinelloides Sedum album, 51 Rubus Guntheri Poterium muricatum Ce ee ol ~ mw ww woMwnwwwoweo ww W o zp PR Re KAD ARAL A RRR KA EEK AKA HLA HE RAE EER KR Ee OoOwnwvVwvrww & © 69 ' Aaaoaan»niqnuataan'ry a esctrree cf es e = ° 285 286 VII. Chenopodium hybridum, 51 Fritillaria Meleagris, 51 Orobanche cerulea Spiranthes estivalis Carex montana, 51 Lactuca saligna Pulicaria vulgaris Actinocarpus Damasonium Villarsia nymphzoides, 51. Cynoglossum sylvaticum, 51 Lactuca Scariola, 51 Epipogium aphyllum, 52 Rubus pampinosus, 52 Rubus Balfourianus, 52 Rubus fissus, 52 Euphorbia Peplis Melittis Melissophyllum Genista pilosa Trifolium glomeratum Gastridium lendigerum Lepidium ruderale Calamintha Nepeta Luzula Forsteri Rosa systyla Orobanche picridis Scleranthus perennis, 52 Juncus acutus Vinca minor Potentilla rupestris, 52 Cuscuta europea C£nanthe fluviatilis Lythrum hyssopifolium Herniaria glabra (Enanthe silaifolia Rubus scaber, 51 Senecio paludosus, 52 Rubus Bloxamii, 52 Rubus Grabowskii, 52 a wvwnnnnndnvnnd'! AREAS vnondodnwnnwnndd bd ww wow wo 1 OF SPECIES. '~AiOrankaagagaanuwganwkdaanucndGa Qn AAAHAAMRAAAWAABWDS DOM mMnnmnnnma oo 0 0 0 OY 0 OD O Mm oop RF RF REE RFE FEF 1 (a I. AUSTRAL SPECIES. 287 4. Southward of 54 lat. Temp. 48} fuhr. 9:1 cent. Ste Buzihs 3 - 5 6 Coronopus didyma Asplenium lanceolatum Carex punctata ? Trifolium strictum - ° ' 2 2 Diotis maritima Mattbiola sinuata Trifolium suffocatum Rubia peregrina Chryscoma Linosyris Hypocheris maculata Lithospermum p. ceruleum Viola Curtisii Antirrhinum Orontium Orobanche hedere Rubus pyramidalis, 51 Daucus maritimus Feniculum vulgare Brassica oleracea Verbascum Lychnitis, 51 Aconitum Napellus, 51 Cineraria campestris ' ooo 0 © 0 2 ' ' i] ' oO o>) ty . me , ‘ eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ' ' ob wo wo Campanula Rapunculus, 51 Alopecurus fulvus Elatine Hydropiper, 51 Borkhausia taraxacifolia, 51 Sedum Forsterianum, 52 Helianthemum Breweri, 53 Knappia agrostidea, 53 Cotoneaster vulgaris, 53 Spartina stricta Viola stagnina Lathyrus Aphaca Latnyrus Nissolia Althea officinalis Carduus acaulis Rumex pulcher Carpinus Betulus te F we ¥ 1 Oo 1 > aie Qo meet oo OF i a | | aaaaaqgi is a ee t 1 are! Se ta ae ee Til | A roror te uM NNNQNN NSS QQ NNN QGNNAI VN YQ NINN NN SY rmananmnnmnanmnnmnmqmst : ’ ' ' ' a Py ~ See oo S66: 6.6.9 Se f& & & S& & ' 288 VII. Verbascum nigrum Rumex maritimus Erysimum cheiranthoides Sedum reflexuin Aceras anthropophora, 50? Rubus thyrsoideus, 51 Atriplex pedunculata, 51 Asparagus officinalis Statice Dodartii Pyrus torminalis Melilotus arvensis Lastrea cristata, 52 Crocus nudiflorus, 52 Erythrea latifolia, 53 (41 ?) Arenaria tenuifolia Festuca uniglumis Carex divisa Petroselinum segetum Lathyrus palustris, 50 ? Sison Amomum Potamogeton flabellatus Peucedanum palustre, 51 Carex strigosa Filago apiculata, 51 Apera Spica-venti, 51 Stratiotes aloides, 51 Veronica triphyllos, 52 Carex paradoxa, 53 5. Southward of 55 lat. Vicia bithynica Linaria spuria Trifolium subterraneum Carex digitata, 51 Carduus pratensis Orobanche minor Rumex pratensis Teucrium Scordium Chlora perfoliata ae a | ow vvenw ee ee ee ee 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 wownndndnonwit ow vd wow ww w ALAR RR HRP PR PE DB 1 Ow oO oO AREAS OF SPECIES. 0H MOD wo mmanonnmm® i: ' oOo . - ame S 2 2 & ots oo0Uc8lhU8 — ie | a eee I. AUSTRAL SPECIES. Orobanche elatior Campanula patula Linaria Elatine Rumex palustris Euphorbia platyphylla Acorus Calamus Lamium Galeobdolon Torilis infesta é Clematis Vitalba Brachypodium pinnatum Dipsacus pilosus ~ Sinapis wuralis Viscum album Festuca Pseudo-myurus Chenopodium polyspermum Cerastium aquaticum Viburnum Lantana Pyrus communis Medicago denticulata Nasturtium amphibium Epilobium roseum * Carex Pseudo-cyperus Carex divulsa Carex axillaris Brassica campestris Fagus sylvatica Rosa rubiginosa Geranium pyrenaicum Potamogeton compressus Rubus Hystrix Rubus fusco-ater Rubus discolor Barbarea arcuata, 51 Salicornia radicans Galium erectum Anemone. Pulsatilla, 51 Carex elongata, 51 Polygonum mite, 51 Lepidium latifolium, 51 VOL. IV. See ee ee ee eee eee ee eee ee ee YNvovwnwnnnndnnyannrnnwdnwvnnnvnnwnnnnwnnnnwnndndnvnnnnnvnnwnh Cwwnwniwnwnwwowwwwnweaowow Ww ow CSCHnwnwnwnaewnnwr wnnwnnwww nu w pare EL RRL ERR Pk PHL PKR PK aooraanrorrgaaaunavktancdvaunraarnaragaraaaaaaaan wv) aA ALLEL PRP ERR! _ }; hs RP oo > » @mwmsee@tewt @ @ st annwnmnma@m i DRmaoamnaonwnnm : Comms a 289 290 Hippophae rhamnoides, 51 Crepis biennis, 51 Cyperus fuscus, 51 Eriophorum gracile, 51 Barbarea stricta, 51 Specularia hybrida Caucalis daucoides, 51 Bupleurum rotundifolium Papaver hybridum Galium tricorne Eryngium campestre Ranunculus parviflorus Ophrys apifera Bupleurum tenuissimum Bryonia divica Mpyriophyllum verticillatum Hydrocharis Morsus-rane Butomus umbellatus Tris feetidissima Hordeum maritinum Onobrychis sativa Chenopodium urbicum Solanum nigrum Medicago maculata Carduus eriophorus Ruscus aculeatus Ligustrum vulgare Myosurus minimus Helminthia echioides Cuscuta Trifolii Rubus Salteri Helleborus feetidus Galeopsis ochroleuca, 51 Linum perenne, 51 Adiantum Capillus Lavatera arborea Linum angustifolium Hottonia palustris Spiranthes autumnalis ee ce ee oO oe ee oonnonnwnnnvn nv vn wo w VII. AREAS wonwnonno de vwowvnnnwnnvnnvnnrn wwwow ao w aw © ow o wnwnd & OF SPECIES. wo ow w Ow Wa Wi: wwwww w w ALAA RK KR EAH RRR ARAL AR RL PA RAR PH He oO Oo Or an OF Or Or or or Or Gr Or Or Or Or Gn an oO or oO nmnmnnnmnnm © w ow mmnmnnnmnmam : @ co © I. Colchicum autumnale Ophrys muscifera Inula Conyza Asperula cynanchica Polypodium calcareum Linaria repens Calamintha officinalis Rhamuus catharticus Mentha Pulegium Campanula Trachelium Atropa Belladonna Euphorbia Paralias Tamus communis Orchis ustulata Orchis Morio Tilia parvifolia Prunus Cerasus Agrimonia odorata Rubus glandulosus Rubus leucostachys Hypericum montanum Verbena officinalis Lactuca muraiis Alopecurus agrestis Helleborus viridis Viola odorata Impatiens Noli, 51 Lysimachia nummularia Acer campestre Taxus baccata Cornus sanguinea Inula Helenium Anchusa sempervirens Ribes nigrum, 51 Ribes Grossularia Hieracium tridentatum Daphne Mezereum Gentiana Pneumonanthe Juncus diffusus AUSTRAL SPECIES. ee | vownwonnvdnnvndndnnndynarMr nnndndnnwnnrdnndnNnnvnnnwn | wCwowonnvnnwnnnnvdnvnnn wnwnwnwawwwwowow w wownwewrewniwiwwniwwniwnwwnowwiuo w wowrwniwwwwu eo LP rh Oana anagarrtaa a a NOaawwvWronnacaganta: ior) VQnu NUNN NNN SY arancnrcr gra agai: or ADA QAA AAA: D DAAaDARDI ADRAQAI ADA x nnn m ao @ oSoHo Ooo 291 292 VII. AREAS OF SPECIES. Rubus Sprengelii - Rubus incurvatus - Veronica spicata Euphorbia portlandica Inula crithmoides Erodium maritinum Atriplex portulacoides Statice occidentalis Statice bahusiensis Statice Limonium Cochlearia anglica Erythrea pulchella Sedum rupestre, 51 Orchis pyramidalis Ulex nanus, etc. Cuscuta Epithymum Polygonum minus Orobanche major Rubus cesius Rubus hirtus Ae ee en ee ee ee el 6. Southward of 56 lat. Convallaria multiflora Ulmus campestris, etc. Populus alba Euphorbia amygdaloides Menchia erecta Convallaria Polygonatum, 51 Arundo Calamagrostis Picris hieracioides Glyceria procumbens Scrophularia Balbisii Chenopodium murale Sagina ciliata Chenopodium ficifolium - Chenopodium glaucum, 51 - Hordeum sylvaticum - ee ee | onwnnwnnwnrnenondndvnondndnndwnd wv Potamogeton gracilis, 55 - Allium Scheenoprasum 1 wWwowwwww w wowwwwwwo it NuUyQuvrntyr 1 on ' MAAMAARAMAQGQADHWEPO: ' ' Sa GD Sc 1 NNN VNN NN WGN aaaa&na»aa»aa a Temp. 47% fahr. Beye 6 wn NINN NE aAanraa&aaaan a & ' 910 - 12 - - - 12 - - - 12 9 - - 12 9 - - 12 9 10 11 12 - - - 12 9 - 11 12 9 10 11 12 9 - - 12 910 - = - 10 11 - 9 10 11 12 910 - = 9 10 11 - 9 10 1l - - 10 11 - 8°5 cent. 9 10 11 - 10 1 = 10 11 - 10 11 9 10 11 - 10 11 9 10 11 - 10 11 9 10 Il 9 10 11 9 10 11 - 10 11 - 10 11 - 10 11 9 10 Il - - il - - 11 12 = vee I. Narcissus P. narcissus Humulus Lupulus Pastinaca sativa Sagittaria sagittifulia Aquilegia vulgaris Crithmum maritimum Anagallis cerulea Serratula tinctoria Wahlenbergia hederacea Rubus Koehleri Rubus corylifolius Ranunculus coenosus Dentaria bulbifera, 51 - Zostera nana Rubus nemorosus Rubus nitidus Arum maculatum Polystichum angulare Chenopodium olidum Ranunculus circinatus Ranunculus fluitans Lemna polyrhiza Lemna gibba Potamogeton densus Ceratophyllum submersum Genista tinctoria Silaus pratensis Limosella aquatica Lepturus filiformis Blysmus compressus Epipactis media Euonymus europzus Juncus obtusiflorus Ballota nigra Ranunculus arvensis Matricaria Chamomilla Q£nanthe Phellandrium Linaria minor Senecio erucifolius SPECIES, hr Pe Ph Oo oO AUSTRAL 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 - 3 pa ee wvnwnnnwnvndndnvrnndnnvdvnrMr ndnnnwnnvnvnnrMnnnwnnnnvdnnnnnnnnnnnvne wo Www ia er RK RAR A LP PR PP ERK PKR KKK Ke PPP aornroanrcrcdreururwrrnrWtaan ds HowwniwwiwwoewnwwWwWwwwsow w ow Qn Oacrarkrli oaoraa, Wwoaonckdienunca ii Das: YVuygunwusn oN Nu uu wv DmomrmnmnaMDnaoawmanawnmnmn '®D DanmnnmnDnynmn coooe S 293 294 VII. AREAS OF SPECIES. Mentha rotundifolia 1234567 8-10 - 12 - 4 Rosa arvensis 192035415°607°8 9 10 1b eee Sipapis nigra 1234567891011 - 13 14 Nepeta cataria 12345678 - 10 ll - 13 14 Chelidonium majus 12 3 45 67 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Pyrus Malus 123456789 10 11 12 138 14 Carduus nutans 123456789 10 11 12 13 14 Sambucus Ebulus 123456789 10 ll 12 13 14 Sedum Telephium 12345678 9 10 11 12 13 14 Rubus rudis 123-5678 -10- - 8 14 Rubus Radula 1°2'°3°495°6°7'8 - 10 =)j=te de Rubus macrophyllus 123-5678 - 10 - 12 13 14 Scrophularia Ehrharti- 23-5 -7-910 - - - 14 Carex stricta, 51 -2345-%7-910 - 1213 14 Sisymbrium-Irio, 51 <---)3 4) -6-~- - - ~-. =o Fumaria parviflora,51 --- 34------+ - - = 4 Sium latifolium 1°2.3040556°7 8 = 10 Lh) tite eee Raphanus maritimus 12---6--9- - 1213 - - 16 Crambe maritima 1234-678 -10 - 121314 - 16 Anthemis nobilis 1234567891011 - - - - 16 Rumex Hydrolapath 1234567891011 1213 - - 16 Scirpus Savii 12-4-67-9- - 1213 - - 16 Bartsia viscosa 12---6--9- - - 13 = - 16 Scutellaria minor 1234567891011 1213 - - 16 Rubus rhamnifolius 12345678910 - - - - - 16 Helosciadium nodifl. 123456789 10 11 12 13 14 - 16 Pulicaria dysenterica 1234567891011 1213 14 - 16 Apium graveolens 1234567891011 12138 14 - 16 Smyrnium Olusatrum 1234567891011 - 1314 - 16 Mentha sylvestris 1283-45678 - 10 - +=) = ==" 16 Triticum laxum -23--6-8-l101l1- - 14- 16 Sinapis monensis, 51 - - - - - 67-9 - - 1213 - - 16 7. Southward of 57 lat. Temp. 47 fahr. 8:2 cent. Veronica Buxbaumii 12345 6-8 9 1011 - 138 14 15 Mercurialis annua 12035405 6718 9 vos Pee es Senecio saracenicus 123 - 5-78 910 - - 13 14 15 Saponaria officinalis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 . Onopordum Acanthm. 1 2 3 4 5 6 - 8 9 10 11 12 - 14 Io Sinapis tenuifolia Melilotus vulgaris Melilotus officinalis Fedia Auricula Anthemis Cotula Marrubium vulgare Daphne Laurevla Salix rubra, etc. Typba angustifolia Trigonella ornithopod. Thrincia hirta Stellaria glauca Trifolium fragiferum Nasturtium sylvestre Bromus erectus Dipsacus sylvestris Salvia verbenaca Glyceria loliacea Glyceria plicata Festuca arundinacea Artemisia Absinthium Berberis vulgaris Lactuca virosa Hordeum pratense Pimpinella magna Poterium Sanguisorba Cepbalanthera grandfl. Stachys Betonica Scirpus acicularis Myosotis palustris Lastrea spinulosa Lathrea squamaria Dianthus Armeria Torilis nodosa Euphorbia exigua Carduus tenuiflorus Vicia tetrasperma Lastrea Thelypteris Artemisia maritima el wwndvndvnndvnonondndndnvdnsnnrndndndnndnnnnvdnvdnvnvndnvdnvnovnvnvnnnnenndnvdwn hd owwriwwwnwwwwnwwwwwnwnwnwnwii Ar EL RK REP K KP KK PPP PP AUSTRAL SPECIES. wownwiwwwwwnwWwdwwnwnwwnw wa wo pak Se RK KR BRL DR BR AOR OD OO ~~ p ' aOnmnaranwnraaan&arwr aaa ta a On Oonrorawraaa&an«nanr*tkaananaa a t lon) DADAH DD NN NNN NNN Y rweWNans NINN DmODOMmDOBDDnmnnnDnH © Ww coer nnwovovrenneoowoe o ' ' ee SS SS oom Ma@moms @ om Om WO MO nmnaonmmmem® i © Oo © 296 Spirea Filipendula Plantago media Erigeron acris Apargia hispida Glyceria distans Allium oleraceum Lemna trisulca Ceratophyl. demersum Sagina apetala Epilobium hirsutum Trifolium minus Salix triandra Hippocrepis comosa Silene nutans Viola hirta Campanula glomerata 1 Cynoglossum officinale 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Vicia lutea Trifolium scabrum Trifolium striatum Juncus glaucus: Hordeum murinum Potamogeton gramin. Potamogeton lucens Glaucium luteum Convolvulus Soldanel. Hymenophyl. Tunbrg. Carex levigata Cotyledon Umbilicus Convolvulus sepium Elatine hexandra Ceterach officinarum Thalictrum flavum Valeriana dioica Salix Smithiana, etc. Lythrum Salicaria Bidens tripartita Habenaria chlorantha 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 Hypericum dubium_ 1 VII. AREAS OF SPECIES. 2345-789 23.4.5 4629.89 23456789 23456789 23456789 DSA sbe6e = Sie 23456789 23456789 23456789 23456789 23456789 23456789 2345678 - 23-5-78 - 23456789 23456-8- 23456789 2-4----- 234567-9 23456789 23456789 23456789 2345--89 2345-789 234567-910 234-6789 - 23--67- - 10 223-567-910 2345678910 2345678910 23-5-789 - 2345678910 2345678910 2345678910 2345678910 2345678910 2345678910 2345678 - 10 2345678910 10 10 10 10 10 1l 1] 11 11 11 11 11 il 11 12 12 13 14 15 1213 - 12 13 - 12 13 1213 - 12 13 12 13 - 12 13 12 12 13 12 13 12 13 12 13 12 13 =14 15 16 Drosera intermedia Ononis spinosa Scirpus glaucus Cicuta virosa, 51 Lathyrus sylvestris Ranunculus hirsutus Veronica polita Geranium columbin. Verbascum Thapsus Mentha sativa Carex intermedia Hieracium umbellat. Hyoscyamus niger Sambucus nigra Ribes rnbrun, etc. Tuwrritis glabra, 51 Cephalanthera ensifol. Potamogeton plantag. Rubus affinis Rubus mucronat., 52 Carum verticillat., 51 ? AUSTRAL SPECIES. 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 - 234 23- 234 23 - ALLE LEK EH ELPP PE 678 678 ow s - 8 Cas 78 78 78 78 78 78 78 on Oo or Oo DAAMAAAAAAARDSD ! aan aoawrmaarkkananan aa o re Cp Op re ' “I ' @ ie.) @ 8. Southward of 58 lat. Temp Chenopodium rubrum Scabiosa columbaria Symphytum officinale Allium vineale Phieum arenarium Rubus villicaulis Avena flavescens Reseda lutea Galium Mollugo Malva rotundifolia Centaurea Scabiosa Convolvulus arvensis Lamium album Papaver Rhoas Anthemis arvensis Silene anglica VOL. IV. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i: 234 234 234 234 or Or Or for) “ (e 2) CoHvHndounon ooo ! — o th itee fe & i | So OoOos 10 10 10 10 10 - 10 9 10 - 10 = 10 oo 8 © © 11 11 1l 1] 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 - 464 fahr. 12 7°9 cent. 13 14 15 - 14 15 13 14 15 13 14 15 - 14.15 oe es - 1415 - 14 15 13 14 15 13 14 15 13 14 15 13 14 15 13 14 15 138 14°15 13 14 15 13 14 15 2Q 298 VII. AREAS OF SPECIES. Coronopus Ruellii 123456789 10 Barbarea vulgaris 123456789 10 Fedia dentata 12345678 9 10 Calamintha Acinos 12345678 9 10 Hypocheris glabra 12345 - - - 9 10 Aithusa Cynapium 12345 6789 10 Lepidium campestre 12345 67 89 10 Geranium pusillum 12 345 67 8 9 10 Teesdalia nudicaulis 123 45 67 8 9 10 Monotropa Hypopitys 1 23 45 - - 8 9 10 Gagea lutea, 51 1-345 --89 410 Convallaria majalis 123 45 - 789 10 Paris quadrifolia 12345678 9 10 Melica uniflora 12345678 9 10 Sium angustifolium 123456789 10 Glyceria aquatica 12345678 9 10 Typha latifolia 123456789 10 Ranunculus Lingua 1 23 45 67 8 9 10 Rhamnus Frangula’ 1 2 3 45678 9 10 Epipactis latifolia 12345678 9 10 Carex pendula 123456789 10 Carex teretiuscula 123456789 10 Carex riparia 123456789 10 Centaurea nigrescens 1 2 3 - 5 6 - 8 - 10 Centunculus minimus 1 2 3 45 67 - 9 10 Potentilla argentea 12345 - 78 - 10 Calamintha Clinopod. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cerastium semidecan. 1 2 3 45 67 8 9 10 Galeopsis Ladanum 123 4 56 - 8 9 10 Galium uliginosum 12 34 5 67 8 9 10 Viola flavicornis 12345678 9 10 Carex sylvatica 123456789 10 Ranunculusauricomus1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Atriplex littoralis - 234-6789 10 Rubus plicatus - 23-5678 9 10 Carex Boenninghaus. - 23 - - - - - - - Dianthus deltoides - 2345 --7 89 10 Saxifraga granulata - 2345-789 10 Fumaria micrantha - 2345 -- 8 - - Arnoseris pusilla Cerast. arvense, 51 ? Rubus pallidus, 51 Silene noctiflora, 51 Silene conica, 51 Potamog. zosteref., 51 Potamog. prelong.,51 Campanula rapun., 51 Rubus latifolius, 54 Salix purpurea, etc. Juncus maritimus Cénanthe fistulosa Mentha piperita Cardamine amara Milium effusum Carex acuta Neottia Nidus-avis Sinapis alba Salix fragilis, etc. Rubus carpinifolius (nanthe Lachenalii Epipactis palustris Polygonum Bistorta Senecio viscosus, 51 Glyceria rigida Parietaria officinalis Sisymbrium Sophia Scandix Pecten Hypericum hirsutum Arenaria trinervis Poa compressa Briza media Potentilia Fragariast. Helianthem. vulgare Genista anglica Adoxa moschatellina Astragalus glycyphyl. Hypericum Androse. Carex paludosa Ce ee ee a 2 AUSTRAL SPECIES. 5-789 10 5678-10 5--8- 10 5--8- - 5--8- 10 5--8- 10 ------e ee 10 5-789 10 -678910 5678910 5678910 5-789 10 5-789 10 56789 10 5678-10 5678910 5678910 5678-10 5678910 5678910 56789 10 -678- - 56789 10 56789 10 5678910 5678910 5678910 5678910 5678-10 56 5 5 5 ee ee ee) ow wwnnnnnwnnnnnvndnvdnvn CHWOHOHMnWwwWHnwwwWwiiHwniwiwwnwwnwnwnwnwwnwwaowow io ow +r ERK RRR KR HK KR KH KH RFK BRR KKK KR KBR Re BRR KB AADDA “I es) © OO HO © So or cr nr ' “I @ ' — Oo qn o>) “I @ So) _ o 299 300 VII. AREAS OF SPECIES. Lycopod. inundatum 123465 Avena pratensis 12345 Asperugo procum., 52 - - - - 5 Papaver Argemone 1234 5 Carex vulpina 123465 9. Southward of 59 lat. Saxifraga tridactylites 1 2 3 4 5 Tragopogon pratensis 1 2 3 4 5 Eriophorum latifolium 1 2 3 4 Atriplex arenaria 123-- Cladium Mariscus 123465 Pyrus Aria, ete. 12345 Malaxis paludosa 1234- Epipactis ovalis, 52 ---465 Galium crociatum 12345 Epilobium parviflorum 1 2 3 4 5 Ulmus montana 12345 Cardamine sylvatica 1234 5 Callitriche peduncul. 1 23 - 5 Myosotis repens 12345 10. Northward to Orkney. Thlaspi arvense 2345 Stachys ambigua Hypericum Elodes Pinguicula lusitanica 2345 1 1 1 1 Lastrea Feenisecii 1 Asplenium marinum 1 Pyrethrum maritin. 1 1 1 it 1 1 1 1 Carex extensa Carex distans Carex paniculata Scirpus fluitans Zannichellia palustris Potamogeton pusillus Potamogeton perfoliat. Primula veris 1 Epilobium tetragonum 1 Potamogeton filiformis - Wo wa ow w co o AL PL PDL DP PE aanaunaa a --8910 - 12 - = 151617 - 789 10111213 1415 1617 - ll - - 4--17 6789101112 - 14151617 18 6789 101112138 141516 - 18 Temp. 46 fahr. 7°6 cent. 6789 101112 - 1415 - 17 6789 101112131415 - 17 9 566789 101112131415 - 17 10 - - 13 - - 1617 10 11 12:18 - - - 17 101112 - - - 1617 - 111213 - 151617 10-12 - - - - 17 101112131415 - - 18 10111213141516 - 18 101112131415 - 1718 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 - 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 1617 18 10 11 1213 14 15 1617 18 Temp. (say) 46 fahr. 7.5 cent. 6-8 DAAAAOHH aD 9 oo Si Aa ae Sp ke a cwoseonnnoe SS €& OH 6 © 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 - 1112 - - 15 - - 18 10 - 1213 - - 16 - 18 - - 12 - - - 161718 10 - 12 - - - 16 - 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 1617 18 10 11 1213 141516 - 18 10 11 1213 141516 - 18 1011 - 131415 1617 18 1011 - 1314151617 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 1617 18 101112138 14 - - 1718 10 11 1213 1415 16 - 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 1617 18 10 11 1213 14 15 - 1718 1011 121314 1516 - 18 O11 - - 1415 - 1718 i. : Bs AUSTRAL SPECIES. 301 11. Northward to Shetland. Temp. 454—45 fahr. 7°3—7 cent. Erythrea littoralis Juncus compressus Sagina maritima Ruppia maritima Polygonum Raii Beta maritima Eryngium maritimum Cerastium tetrandrum Jasione montana Osmunda regalis Scolopendr. vulgare Lamium incisum Sonchus asper Anthriscus vulgaris Avena fatua Sedum anglicum Gymnadenia Conopsea Callitriche platycarpa Carex Cideri Carex precox Rhyncospora alba Utricularia vulgaris Potamog. heterophyl. Myosotis collina Hypericum perforat. Anagallis tenella Scilla verna Atriplex angustifolia Rumex conglomerat. Polygonum Hydrop. Zostera marina Glyceria maritima Cakile maritima Silene maritima Carex arenaria Cochlearia danica Catabrosa aquatica wCwonnwnnvwnnrvdwnnn wwnnwwwiwnwwnwnwnww w pa PR AR RKHA RPAH KGB R KL KR KA RHP SE PE KH Orono oO oO ao ao oF Or re) DRAMA ARBAAAABAAVWPMS '1wowww w w 1 wow w w or or it aD & or Oo oO oO oO ao oo Oo ot AGADA manmonmnaeawmm ck © @ fon) ' nom ao woonwnonnpn o 9 6 © RA ba | 1 @ 9 - 111213141516 - 18 10 111213 14 1516 - 18 10 11 12 13 1415 16 17 18 10 111213 141516 - 18 - - 1213 141516 - 18 10 - 12 ~- 141516 - 18 10 - 1213141516 - 18 10 11 1213 14 15 16 - 18 10111213 - 1516 - 18 10111213 - 15 1617 18 10 11 1213 141516 - 18 10 1112131415 16 - 18 - 101112131415 16 - 18 oOo © Seoetrnonoe eo 8 ! io) 10 11 12131415 - 1718 Lo Deere 6 Ts 10111213 - 1516 - 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 161718 10111213 141516 - 18 1011 1213141516 - 18 101112131415 - - 18 10111213 - 15161718 101112131415 - 1718 10 111213141516 - 18 101112131415 - - 18 101112131415 - 1718 10 111213141516 - 18 - 111213 1415 161718 10 111213141516 - 18 101112131415 - - 18 10 11 1213 1415 16 - 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 101L - 1314151617 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 1415 1617 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 - 1112 - 141516 - 18 10 111213141516 - 18 302 VII. AREAS OF SPECIES. Potamogeton pectinat. 1 2 3 4 5 789 1011 - 1381415 - 18 Ophioglos. vulgatum 12345 - 789 101112 13141516 - 18 Festuca “ elatior” 12345 -%789 10111213 141516 - 18 Gentiana Amarella 1234567891011 12 - 14151617 18 123456789 1011 1213141516 - 18 Honckeneja pepluid. 1234-6789 10111213 14 15 161718 Lathyrus maritimus -234---8-- - -- - - - - 18 Hippuris vulgaris Il. GENERAL SPECIES, MORE OR LESS AUSTRAL. 1. Between 50—58 lat. Provinces all, except 17, 18. Nasturtium terrestre. Equisetum Te!mateia. Nuphar lutea. Hieracium boreale. Potentilla reptans. Lysimachia vulgaris. Arundo Epigejos. Cichorium Intybus. Samolus Valerandi. Bidens cernua. Carlina vulgaris. Origanum vulgare. Lolium temulentum. Carduus acanthoides. Lotus major. Ornithopus perpusillus. Veronica montana. Linaria vulgaris. Bromus asper.. Bromus sterilis. ‘ Bromus giganteus. Scirpus sylvaticus. Malva moschata. Anagallis arvensis. _Petasites vulgaris. Salsola Kali. Ranunculus bulbosus. Hypericum humifusum. Agrimonia Eupatoria. Torilis Anthriscus. Rumex sanguineus. Cénanthe crocata. Sparganium simplex. Carex vesicaria. Carex muricata. Potamogeton crispus. Carex hirta. Carex curta. Geranium pratense. Poa nemoralis. J.epidium Smithii. Pronus avium. Salix viminalis. Salix alba. Bromus commutatus. Salix caprea. Polygonum lapathifolium. Egopodium Podagraria. Phleum pratense, possibly native also in 17 and 18. 2. Between 50—58 lat. Provinces all, except 18. Vicia Jathyroides. Scirpus maritimus. Triticum caninum. Corydalis claviculata. Chenopodium B. Henricus. Bromus secalinus. Lithospermum officinale. Carex remota. Geranium lucidum. Filago germanica. Lychnis vespertina. Spergularia rubra. Trifolium filiforme. Viburnum Opulus. Fraxinus excelsior. Medicago lupulina. Alisma ranunculoides. Trifolium arvense. Allium ursinum. Lychnis Githago. Silene inflata. Reseda Luteola. Erysimum Alliaria. Geum urbanum. Cherophyllum temulentum. Festuca bromoides. Polystichum lobatum. II, GENERAL SPECIES. 303 Malva sylvestris. Solanum Duleamara. Sherardia arvensis. Hypericum quadrangulum. Glevhoma hederacea. Lycopus europzus. Alisma Plantago. Pyrethrum Parthenium, not native, scarce wild to 58. 8. Between 50—59 lat. Provinces all, except 18. Potamogeton rufescens. Scirpus pauciflorus. Pilularia globulifera. Carex pallescens. Filago minima. Myrica Gale. Rosa spinosissima. Arabis hirsuta. Euphorbia Peplus. Circea Lutetiana. Keeleria cristata. Listera ovata. Ilex Aquifolium. Scleranthus annuus. Sanicula europza. Habenaria bifolia. Vicia hirsuta. HKupatorium cannabinum. Knautia arvensis. Crategus Oxyacantha. Prunus spinosa. Anemone nemorosa. Pimpinella Saxifraga. Lysimachia nemorum. Geranium dissectum. Ononis arvensis. Spartium scoparium. Quercus Robur. Ulex europeus. (Both doubtful natives in 58—59.) 4. Latitude 50—59. Provinces all. To Hebrides. Mpyriophyllum alterniflorum. Utricularia minor. Aster Tripolium. Lithospermum arvense. Echium vulgare. Carex pilulifera. Hyacinthus non-scriptus. Crepis virens. Asplenium Ruta-muraria. Hieracium vulgatum. Scutellaria galericulata. Senecio sylvaticus. Ranunculus sceleratus. Ranunculus hederaceus. Erodium cicutarium. Alnus glutinosa. Tanacetum vulgare, scarcely wild so far north. 5. Latitude 50—60. Provinces all. To Orkney. Festuca rubra (?) Potamogeton oblongus. Cystopteris fragilis. Scirpus multicaulis. Radiola Millegrana. Alchemilla vulgaris. Lycopodium clavatum. Avena pubescens. Arabis thaliana. Myriophyllum spicatum. Populus tremula. Viola palustris. Geum rivale. Festuca pratensis. Rubus Ideus. Helosciadium inundatum. Fedia olitoria. Sagina nodosa. Gnaphalium sylvaticum. Mentha arvensis. Lemna minor. Mentha aquatica. ‘Trifolium medium. Stachys arvensis. Lamium amplexicaule. Veronica scutellata. Fumaria capreolata. Sparganium ramosum. Brachypodium sylvaticum. Draba verna. Chrysosplenium oppositifolium. Stellaria Holostea. Mercurialis perennis. Trifolium procumbens. Peplis Portula. Scirpus setaceus. Bunium flexuosum. Montia fontana. Betula alba. Teucrium Scorodonia. Alchemilla arvensis. Nasturtium officinale. 304 VII. AREAS OF SPECIES. Ranunculus aquatilis. Scrophularia nodosa. Geranium Robertianum. Carex stellulata. Asplenium Trichomanes. Melampyrum pratense. Lastrea dilatata. Arenaria serpyllifolia. Oxalis Acetosella. Sedum acre. Veronica agrestis. Conium maculatum. Valeriana officinalis. Polygonum Convolvulus. Sisymbrium officinale. Rumex obtusifolius. Asplenium A. nigrum. Digitalis purpurea. Bartsia Odontites. Vicia sepium. Lapsana communis. Hieracium Pilosella. Polygala vulgaris. Corylus Avellana. Galium Aparine. Hypocheris radicata. Lotus corniculatus. Vicia sativa, probably much spread by cultivation. 6. Latitude 50—61. Provinces all. To Shetland. 1. Sub-equal, or predominating in the South :— Schoberia maritima. Cochlearia officinalis. Juniperus communis. Salicornia herbacea. Ammophila arundinacea. Atriplex Babingtonii. Agrostis “ canina.” Triticum “junceum.” Spergularia marina. Nympheza alba. Triglochin maritinum. Littorella lacustris. Armeria maritima. Centaurea Cyanus. Festuca duriuscula. Orchis mascula. Gnaphalium uliginosum. Glaux maritima. Luzula multiflora. Plantago maritima. Scirpus lacustris. Salix cinerea, ete. Myosotis versicolor. Holcus mollis. Carex ovalis. Veronica hederifolia. Orobus tuberosus. Ranunculus Ficaria. Ajuga reptans. Salix aurita. Myosotis cespitosa. Salix repens, ete. Carex binervis. Atriplex hastata. Asperula odorata. Carex pulicaris. Juncus supinus. Botrychium Lunaria. Luzula pilosa. Scirpus palustris. Carex “flava.” Lastrea Oreopteris. Alopecurus pratensis. Cardamine hirsuta. Carex panicea. Juncus acutiflorus. Anthriscus sylvestris. Carex glauca. Erythrea Centaurium. Fumaria officinalis. Fragaria vesca. Rosa canina, etc. Stellaria graminea. Sonchus oleraceus. Nardus stricta. Aira flexuosa. Aira caryophyllea. Orchis latifolia. Triodia decumbens. Tussilago Farfara. Luzula sylvatica. Drosera rotundifolia. Molinia cerulea. Hydrocotyle vulgaris. Arundo Phragmites. Sonchus arvensis. Alopecurus geniculatus. Juncus conglomeratus. Solidago Virgaurea. Callitriche “ verna.” Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum. Phalaris arund. Orchis maculata. Hedera Helix. Lonicera Periclymenum. Apargia autumnalis. Daucus Carota. Polygonum Persicaria. —— Iil. BOREAL AND MONTANE. 305 Veronica Chamedrys. Campanula rotundifolia. Juncus effusus. Hieracium “murorum,” perhaps including several species. 2. Predominating in the North :— Taraxacum palustre. Epilobium-angustifolium. Carex speirostachya. Eriophorum vaginatum. Schenus nigricans. Lycopodium Selago. Habenaria viridis. Pinguicula vulgaris. Gentiana campestris. Vaccinium Myrtillus. Scirpus cespitosus. - Rosa mollis, etc. Equisetum sylvaticum. Comarum palustre. Narthecium. Pyrus Aucuparia. Juncus squarrosus. Carex ampullacea. 7. Latitude 50—61. Provinces ail. Sub-provinces all. Ranunculus Flammula to Veronica Anagallis ; — being the 120 species enumerated by name on pages 234 to 237, as found in all the 38 sub- provinces. Potamogeton natans may likely prove an exception to this generality of distribution; the name being often misapplied to examples of P. oblongus. III. BOREAL AND MONTANE SPECIES. -- -567.8-- 10 ---5-78-10- 12 Hutchinsia petrea Draba muralis 1 1 Meconopsis cambrica 1 - - - - 67 - - 10 - 12 Sanguisorbia oficin. 123456789 10111213 14 Andromeda polifolia 1 --45 6789 1011 1218 - 15 Potentilla verna 1--4567 8.9 101112 - 1415 Asplenium septentrio. 1----- 7-- - 1112 - 1415 Chrysosplen. alternif. 123 45 67 89 10111213 14 15 16 Vicia sylvatica 123456789 10111213 14 15 1617 Vaccinium Oxycoccos 1 23 456789 101112131415 - 17 Uuicularia intermedia 1 2.- - - - - - - - 1112 - - 15-17 Geranium sanguineu. 1 - 3 4 5 6789 1011 12 13 14 15 16 17 Carex filifurmis 1--45 -789 1011 12131415 1617 Arenaria verna 1----6789 101112131415 - 17 Equisetum variegatum 1 - - - - - - - 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Orobanche rubra }---+----- 10 - - - - - 16:17 Sagina subulata 123 --67-9 - - 12131415 161718 Elymus arenarius 12-4--78-1011 - 13 - 15 - 1718 Polypodium Phegopt. 1 2 - - 56 7 8 9 1011 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Listera cordata 162 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Thalictrum minus 1-34 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 VOL. Iv. 2R ' ' on ao oe mS | om co ~=—S oo a4 306 VII. Gnaphalium dioicum 1 Empetrum nigrum Allosorus crispus Hymenophyl. Wilsoni Saxifraga hypnoides Galium pusillum Lycopodium alpinum Cn el Asarum europeum. Myosotis sylvatica Festuca sylvatica Pyrola minor wdnwwvwbd Galeopsis versicolor Carex dioica (1 ?) Payrnassia palustris Salix ambigua Pyrola media Habenaria albida Scirpus uniglumis owwnns ws [S) Cardamine impatiens Pyrola rotundifolia Campanula latifolia Equisetum hyemale Astragalus Hypoglot. ao Ww WW &W Oo Sparganium natans Carex limosa 4 Symphytum tuberos. 4 Sparganium minimum 4 Drosera anglica 4 Polemonium ceruleum 5 Alisma natanus 5 Ribes alpinum 5 Scheuchzeria palustris 5 Salix pentandra (2?) 5 Stellaria nemorum 5 Rubus suberectus (3?) 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 ~J AREAS OF SPECIES. 8 9 1011 1213 14 15 16 17 18 8 9 1011121314 15 16 17 18 8 9 10 11 1213 14 15 16 17 18 - 910 -.1213 1415 1617 18 8 - 1011 1213 14 15 16 17 18 8 - 101112 - 1415 - - 18 8 9 1011 1213 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 - 12 9 10 11 12 18 14 15 - 101112 - 1415 - 1011 1213 14 15 1617 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 9 1011 1213 14 15 1617 18 9 101112 13 14 15 1617 18 -- +e - - = + )- ene Teas - - 1011 12 13 14 15 16 1718 © Oo O - 10 9 10111218 - 15 1617 18 9 - Il - - 141516 - 18 10 1011 - - 1415 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 101112131415 - 17 1011 - - 1415 - 17 - 11 - 13 - 15 16 - 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 10 - - 131415 16 10 10 - - 13 - 15 - 17 111213 - 15161718 10 11 12 10 - - 13 10 1112 18 14 10 change i — alley 10 1112 13 14 15 16 10 11 12 18 14 15 16 - 1213 - 16 16 ae eee oo Ill. BOREAL AND MONTANE. 307 Prunus Padus (3 ?) 5678910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Crepis paludosa 5678910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Carduus heterophyllus 5 6 7 8 9 LO 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Polypod. Dryopteris 56789 1011 12 13 14 15 16 17 Asplenium viride 5678-1011 1213 - 15 16 17 Geranium sylvaticum 5 - - 8 9 10-11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Melica nutaus 5 - - 8 - 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Viola lutea (1 ?) 567891011 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Rubus saxatilis 567891011 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Trollius europeus 56789 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Myrrhis odorata 5678910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Vaccinium Vitis-Idea 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Hieracium pallidum 567 - - 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Lobelia Dortmanna 567-- - - 1213 - 15 1617 18 Dryas octopetala 5-7--10- - - - 1616 17 18 Helianthemum canum 67 - - 10 - 12 Lychnis Viscaria 67--+ - - - 13 14 15 Vicia Orobus 67-- - - 1213 14 15 16 Isoetes lacustris 67-- - - 12 - - 15 1617 Galium boreale 6 7 --- 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Salix herbacea 67 --10111213 - 15 1617 18 Saxifraga oppositifolia 67 -.- 10 - 1213 - 15 16 17 18 Lloydia serotina 7 Thlaspi alpestre (6?) 78 - 10 11 12 - - 15 Hieracium gothicum 7 -- 1011 - - - 15 Woodsia ilvensis,ete. 7 - - - 11 12 13 - 15 Asplenium germanicum 7 - - - 11 12 - 14 15 Carex atrata Foe =e - 2 13 = 75 Hieracium lasiopbyllum 7 - - - - - - - 15 Meum Athamanticum 7 - - 10 11 12 13 -- 15 16 Poa cesia, ete. 7 --1011 - - - 15 16 Carex irrigua 7 -- - 11:12 13 - 15 16 Callitriche autumnalis 7 - - - Il - - - 15 16 Saxifraga nivalis Qorr ee Fe WW, = 156 Rubus Chamemorus 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 - 15 16 17 Epilobium alsinifolium 7 - - 10 11 12 13 - 15 16 17 Polystichum Lonchitis 7 - - 10 11 - - - 15 16 17 308 vil. Carex Persoonii Poa alpina Veronica humifusa Subularia aquatica Cerastium alpinum Cerastium latifolium Lycopodium selaginoides Draba incana Lycopodium annotinum Blysmus rufus Sedum Rhodiola Saxifraga stellaris Thalictrum alpinum Polygonum viviparum Juncus triglumis Juniperus nana Circea alpina (vera) Carex rigida Hieracium argenteum Mertensia maritima Saussurea alpina Oxyria reniformis Silene acaulis Luzula spicata Arabis petrea Carum Carui Lysimachia thyrsiflora Arundo stricta Lastrea rigida Primula farinosa Saxifraga Hirculus Allium Scorodoprasum Potentilla alpestris Salix phylicifolia Salix acutifolia Galium montanum JIyvnr uu ns 7 7 7 7 wi 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 a lo oe 2) oD MH DO OH O AREAS OF SPECIES. - 10 11 - - 15 - 17 - 10 - 12 - 6: 160% =ft-) Mb 2 - 15 16 17 - - - 1213 - 15 16 17 - = ‘= 12 - 15 16 17 == eras - 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 138 - 15 16 17 - 10 11 12 - - 15 16 17 10 11 12 - - 15 16 17 10 21 12 - - 1d 1657 10 12 - - 15 16 17 - - 1212 - - 1 1617 - - =} 120 - - TSS - - - 12 13 14 15 16 17 - - 12 13 - 15 16 17 - - - 12 - - 15 16 17 a RS. STD - 15 16 17 ate ED - 15 16 17 w Seer 2 a = § TOeeawe 10 - 12 10 ~~ “= - 18 -- 16ek6 - 12 11 12° -" 14 11 12 13 14 15 Pr AZels Elo 1 i LA Race agli | 3, I Aazads = 16 16="as Il. BORBAL AND MONTANE. 309 Polygala austriaca 10 Cypripedium Calceolus 10 11 ? Potentilla fruticosa 10 11 12 Gentiana verna 10 11 12 Actea spicata 10 - 12 Thalictrum “majus” 10 11 12 13 14 15 Salix laurina 10 11 12 - - 15 Bartsia alpina 1Os11012~- -- 15 Elyna caricina 10,11 12---- 15 Hieracium crocatum LOFT Fay 1S Hieracium prenanthoid. 10, T1- -9)-)/-) 15 Myosotis alpestris 10 - 12 - - 15 Equisetum umbrosum 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Sedum villosum 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Salix nigricans 10 11 12 - -14 15 16 Crepis succisefolia 10 11 - - 14 15 16 Melampyrum sylvaticum 10 11 12 13 14 15 - 17 Hieracium rigidum 10 11-12 13 14°15. = 17 Sesleria cerulea 10: i= 615 =e 1 Hieracium iricum 10411 [ahl3 45 - le Carex capillaris 107-13) 015 = 14 Carex pauciflora 10, Al = 1S) =415° 16 87 Cornus suecica LOM =) Me -5 - LO Sa Tofieldia palustris LO) =. cet - BIS IGE Pyrola secunda 1042 12)4=) “245 16> Ua Hieracium strictum 10.- 12 - - 15 16 17 H. cesium (imperfect) 10 - - - - 15 - 17 Rumex aquaticus 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 - 18 Saxifraga aizoides 10 11 12 18 - 15 16 17 18 Trientalis europea 10 11 12 - 14 15 16 17 18 Arbutus Uva-ursi 10 11 12 .- 14 15 16 17 18 Hieracium anglicum LO} 11 1254). - CLSsusiBto1018 Alchemilla alpina 106-3201) - 815. 16°17 13 Arenaria uliginosa 11 Hieracium corymbosum 11 - - - 16 Convallaria verticillata 11 - - - 15 Orobus niger WD =) = a 16 Betula nana Thi =) 14 1SUGRY 310 Linnea borealis 1l Vaccinium uliginosum 11 Ligusticum scoticum 11 Salix Lapponum 1] Juncus filiformis 12 Lychnis alpina 12 Hieracium holosericeum 12 Hieracium chrysanthum 12 Corallorhiza innata 13 Oxytropis uralensis 13 Lamium intermedium 13 Hieracium denticulatum 14 Sibbaldia procumbens 14 Carex incurva 14 Saxifraga cernua 15 Menziesia cerulea 15 Gentiana nivalis 15 Cystopteris montana 15 Erigeron alpinus 15 Juncus biglumis 15 Phleum alpinum 15 Hieracium senescens 15 Oxytropis campestris 15 Equisetum Mackaii 15 Caltha radicans 15 Mulgedium alpinum 15 Astragalus alpinus 15 Gnaphalium norvegieum 15 Salix lanata 15 Carex aquatilis 15° Carex rariflora (17?) 15 Carex Vahlii (alpina) 15 Hieracium flocculosum 15 Hieracium gracilentum 15 Hieracium calenduliflor. 15 Vl. AREAS. OF SPECIES. 16% 15 14 15 15 17 17 18 17 18 17 18 17 18 (Mr. Borrer'’s plant.) 17 18 17 18 15 15 - Mid Perth. do. Perth. Forfar. .Westerness ? do. do. do. do. Perth. Forfar. do. do. do. do. Forfar. Kincardine or Aberdeen. ? Forfar. Aberdeen. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. du. do. do. do. do. Aberdeen ? Aberdeen. do. do. IIt. Hieracium alpinum Hieracium aggregatum Hieracium nitidum Hieracium globosum Saxifraga cespitosa Carex “ lagopina ” Hieracium lingulatum Veronica saxatilis Veronica alpina Saxifraga rivularis Stellaria cerastoides Juncus castaneus Salix Myrsinites Salix procumbens Nuphar pumila Hieracium nigrescens Hieracium eximium Poa laxa Poa minor Pinus sylvestris Epilobium alpinum Gnaphalium supinum Carex pulla (saxatilis) Goodyera repens Pseudathyrium alpestre Juncus trifidus Carex vaginata Cherleria sedoides Draba rupestris Arenaria rubella Salix reticulata Carex rupestris Sagina saxatilis Alopecurus alpinus Luzula areuata Azalea procumbens Salix arbuscula Aira alpina BOREAL AND MONTANE. 311 15 Forfar. Aberdeen. 15 Aberdeen. 15 do. 15 do. 15 do. Elsewhere ? 15 do. 15 16 Perth. Forf. Aber. Wnhess. 15 16 do. do. Westeruess. 15 16 Stirling, P. F. Aber. Whess. 15 16 Perth. Aberdeen. Westerness. 15 16 do. do. Eness. Wuess. 15 16 do. Forf. Aber. Argyle. 15 16 do. do. do. do. 15 16 do. Easterness. do. 15 16 do. Aber. Elgin. Eness. Arg. 15 16 For. Aber. Eness. Wness. 15 16 do. do. Westerness. 15 16 Aberdeen. Westerness. - 15 16 do. do. 15 16 17 Now contracted in area. 15 16 17 Never seen in Wales. 15 16 17 Clackmannan to Sutherland. 15 16 17 Stirling to Sutherland. 15 16 17 Mid Perth to Ross. 15 16 17 do. to Sutherland. 15 16 17 do. to do. 15 16 17 do. to do. 15 1617 do. to do. oie at 17 do. to do, 15 - 17 Perth. Sutherland. 15 - 17 do. For. Aber. Suth. Lhe oe Ee do, ido. -Ndo: do. 15 - 17 Perth to Sutherland. 15 - 17 _Forf. Aber. Eness. Ross. 15 - 17 Aber. Suthd. Perth? 15 16 17 18 Stirling to Shetland. 15 16 ? 18 Perth to Orkney. 15 16 17 18 Perth to Hebrides. 312 Vill. AREAS OF SPECIES. Arbutus alpina 15 16 17 18 Forfar to Shetland. Pyrola uniflora 15 - 17 18 Perth to Hebrides. Juncus balticus 15 - 17 18 Forfar to Hebrides. Eriocaulon septangulare 16 North and Mid Ebudes. Pinguicula alpina 16 17 North Ebudes. East Ross. Ajuga pyramidalis 16 17 18 Westerness to Orkney. Hierochloe borealis 17 Caithness. Forfar ? Primula scotica 17 18 Suthd. Caithness. Orkney. Cerastium nigrescens 18 Shetland only. Arenaria norvegica 18 do. do. IV. EXPLANATIONS OF THE AREAS OF SPECIES. The three lists placed under the title ‘ Areas of Species’ present an arrangement of the plants which bears a direct relation to the geo- graphical spaces over which they are distributed in this country ; with a less direct relation also tu their climates, as shown by general tempera- ture, &c. The plants of the antecedent lists are here re-arranged_pri- marily into three leading groups or divisions, thus :— A. Austral species, successively ceasing in the northerly direction. B. General species, all far extended, though not equally far ex- tended, from south to north. C. Boreal and montane species, successively ceasing in the _ downward and southerly direction, —or, the same thing, suc- cessively appearing to the observer who advances northward and upward. These three divisional groups are broadly distinct only at their non-con- tiguous extremes. As here placed, they may be deemed to pass gradu- ally into each other. In each of the three divisions certain species are to be found, which might have been placed in a different division with almost equal propriety. Thus, Vicia sylvatica (page 305) is represented as found in every province from 1 to 17 inclusively, and.might have been placed among the general species so circumstanced (page 302) ; although its decreased frequency in the more southerly provinces led to its inclusion among the boreal plants. In like manner, Hutchinsia petra (page 305) corresponds with various austral species by its early northern termination ; but it is placed in the third division on account 7 i Iv. EXPLANATIONS, ETC. 313 of its being almost restricted to certain hilly portions of northern and western England. Again, Pinguicula vulgaris (page 305) falls into the division of general species, and Parnassia palustris (page 306) into that of boreal and montane species ; and yet no great error would have been committed in exchanging their places, so closely do they resemble in their actual distribution. Austral Species. — These are subdivided into secondary groups in accordance with the degree of northern latitude under which the species respectively cease to be found in an indigenous state, if still found at all, —or, in the case of colonists and denizens, the degree under which they cease to appear as sufficiently established species; much uncertainty un- avoidably attaching to this latter condition. Thus, the plants included together under the head-title of “1. Southward of 51” will be under- stood to occur somewhere or anywhere between the latitudinal lines of 50 and 51, as traced on the map; but they are not satisfactorily ascer- tained to occur beyond the line of 51 northward. In like manner, those included under the head-title of “ 2. Southward of 52” must be under- stood to occur somewhere between the lines of 50 and 52. So on with the rest, up to the latitudinal line of 59. Those which extend also to Orkney or to Shetland constitute the remaining two secondary groups of the first division. Most of the plants placed in this division are found between the latitu- dinal lines of 50—S1, that is, quite to the south of England ; extending thence in a northerly direction as far as indicated by the head-titles of the several groups. Those which have not been satisfactorily ascer- tained to oceur between 50—51, are distinguished from the others by having also’ their southern line indicated by figures set after their names, that is, the line of latitude, to the northward of which they are first found. Where no such indication is given, the most southerly line is to be understood, that of 50. No fractions of degrees are shown; the data not having been found sufficiently complete and exact, to allow of the individual species being placed in a consecutive series strictly according to latitude carried out to such fractions. Thus, any plant certainly known to the northward of the line of 53, however short a distance above it, is entered in the group “ Southward of 54.” Of course, these indications of latitude will not invariably correspond with those given for the same species in former volumes; more advanced knowledge VOL. IV. 258 314 Vl. AREAS OF SPECIES. leading to several alterations, curtailing the range of latitude for some species, extending it for others. It is somewhat arbitrary to include among the “‘ Austral plants” seve- ral of those which are distributed nearly or quite throughout Britain, some of them even to Orkney or Shetland. A practical convenience, pre- sently to be explained, has induced this wide extension of the first division of the list, so as to make it include various species which might otherwise as truly and correctly have been enumerated under the second division, that of “ General species.” It will be observed that none of the . plants in this division, which are entered as reaching beyond the latitu- Ginal line of 57 northward, are noted for all the provinces ; some one or more being invariably left blank, as shown by the dots, instead of the figures which denote the several provinces. The Temperatures indicated as part of the head-titles for the groups under this division, are not to be taken as rigidly exact. The tempera- ture given is in each case the assumed sea-level temperature for the cor- responding line of latitude, in accordance with the scales before given on pages 156 and 158. It is thus a temperature below which the species of that group are not observed to grow in Britain, if plants found at or near the coast-level only. If occurring much above the coast-level, the lowest temperature in which they grow is of course pro- portionately lower. The temperature, above which the several plants are not seen to grow, may be considered that of the latitudinal line or degree given for their south limit by the figures set close after their names. If not given,—that is to say, for plants extending southward of latitude 51,— the temperature may be considered to rise 1 degree of Fahrenheit, or 0.6 of centigrade, for half a degree of latitude; being 51 or 52 Fahrenheit, and 10.6 or 11.2 centigrade, accordingly as the plants are found to grow or not to grow further south than 503. But in thus applying the two scales of Fahrenheit and centigrade, it is to be recollected, the rates of decrease in temperature for increase of latitude, or conversely, were not assumed quite equally. In conse- quence, the mean temperatures indicated by the two scales for the groups of plants, or for the lines of latitude under which they are placed, are not strictly even and correspondent the one with the other, except at the startling point, under the first heading of ‘1. Southward of 51 lati- tude,’—where 50 fahr. and 10 cent. do precisely vorrespond. It is also to be kept in memory, that among the plants ceasing somewhere be- tween any two lines of latitude,—say, for illustration, between 52-53,— rom? = IV. EXPLANATIONS, ETC. 315 one plant may occur barely above 52, another barely below 53; and consequently, the assumed temperature for the line of 53 will be nearer correctness for the one plant than for the other. The Provinces within which the species severally have been ascer- tained to occur, or have been found reported on authority deemed reliable, are indicated by their corresponding numerals. On comparing these numbers with those given for the same species, under the head of “ Area” in former voiumes, it will be seen that the most distrusted pro- vinces are here usually omitted; some others being also now left out, which were before allowed to pass unchallenged. These omissions are mostly suggested by the alleged localities remaining unconfirmed, and being originally liable to distrust. On the contrary, additions have been made in other instances, through increase of knowledge and of records during the years which have elapsed since the former volumes of this work were written. Such variations from time to time become necessary ; since existing knowledge is still highly incomplete, and past records are frequently discovered to be in part erroneous. In too many instances it is hardly better than optional or arbitrary, up to which of the provinces the species are traced in a northerly direction. The actual northward extension of the denizens and colo- nists,—the first province in which they ought to be deemed aliens only, —must ofien be matter of individual opinion, or even of conjecture only, as before remarked. And the artificial or man-aided extension north- wardly, of the really native species, must frequently make doubtful their true native limits, whether reckoned by provinces or by lines of latitude. Who can certainly say in which province the Viola odorata or Narcissus Pseudo-Narcissus ceases to present a native claim or character? Who can in like manner now tell where Sambucus nigra or Ribes rubrum is truly native, and where denizen or alien only? Casual stragglers and indubitable introductions, from England into Scotland, are too fre- quently reported as wild natives by the botanists and botanical collectors of the latter country ; and the same errors or falsifications are committed with regard to the native plants of one province, when found in another to which they do not naturally appertain. And thus it happens, that the writer of this work still finds much uncertainty in regard to the pro- vince or the latitude, where several of the plants would most correctly be deemed to cease. Under each latitudinal group, the species are enumerated in a series or succession determined by the nos. of the provinces, in connexion with 316 VII. AREAS OF SPECIES. various other more subordinate considerations. The lower the number of the province in which it last appears, the earlier is the name of the plant entered in the latitudinal group; those which do not occur south- ward of 51 being postponed to those which have the full range of lati- tude southward. The provincial extremes being the same for two or more plants, the sequence of their names is determined by other condi- tions ; — by the subprovinces or counties, as numbered on the map and on pages 526 to 528 in volume third;— by the existence of other (though distrusted) records for places more northerly ;— by the likeli- hood of other localities being found, especially in the instances of segre- gate species, the areas of which have been yet imperfectly ascertained ; —by the greater or less probability of the plants being native in the province under view; &c. &c. The counties or vice-counties are also mentioned in the earlier part of the list, where there are few provinces to be enumerated, and ample space is consequently left in the lines. Where provinces or counties become too numerous the range of longitude is substituted, and shown by means of the five vowels. It is chiefly in the three or four degrees of most southerly latitude, that an indication also of the longitudinal extension becomes desirable. The width of southern England, jointly with the far inland extension of several of the pro- vinces there situate, renders an enumeration of those provinces only a very imperfect key to any longitudinal peculiarities in the areas of the species. But in attempting here to show the longitude somewhat more exactly, it was deemed advisable to avoid a further use of numerical figures ; because a repetition of the same nos. or figures, with changed significations, might have proved confusing and troublesome to persons who use this work; besides the further inconvenience of signs added 1o distinguish between figures relating to longitudes east and west of Greenwich. The five vowels a e i o u_ offer a ready substitute, not difficult to keep in recollection. As the lines of longitude are traced on the map in volume third, they form five longitudinal divisions of two degrees each, bounded westward by the lines 8 6 4 2 0. These divisions are sufficiently numerous and exact for the purpose here in view. Each of these five divisions may be represented by one of the vowels; but the first vowel would be applicable only to the Scilly Isles, and to those islets of North Britain which are situate between 8—6 of longitude. The following positions will explain the spaces which are rs Iv. EXPLANATIONS, ETC. 317 to be understood by the vowels; the nos. being the lines of longitude that bound «nd divide the spaces :— West 8 a 6 e 4 i 20 0u 2 East. As the first vowel is never required for longitudes in Svuth Britain, in the absence of any list of plants for the Scilly Isles, a dot or blank is always interposed between the other vowe's and the last of the figures which denote the provinces ; confusion between the figures and letters being thus fortunately prevented. General Species. —The plants of the second divisional list (page 302) differ from those enumerated in the latter portions of the first by one particular only. They are still plants which extend northward beyond the latitudinal line of 57, but which differ from those previously enume- rated by having been ascertained to occur continuously in provinces 1 to 16, 1 to 17, or 1 to 18; that is, they are found in all the interme- diate provinces without exception. Other species which extend north- ward of 57, and into provinces 16, 17, 18, as the case may be, have the provincial continuity of their distribution interrupted by one or more vacant provinces, as shown in the first divisional list. Many of such vacancies are doubtless only temporary ; arising solely from the incom- pleteness of present knowledge. Eventually, the filling in of such vacancies will remove various species from the first into the second division. Thus, on page 299 Briza media and Genista anglica are indi- cated in provinces 1 to 17, with the single exception or vacancy of 16, If they can be certainly ascertained to occur also in the latter province, as is very probable, the completeness of their provincial continuity will then remove them into the corresponding group of the second or general division. By thus restricting the groups of “ general species,” so as to include only those with a non-interrupted provincial distribution actually ascertained, many needless repetitions of the same series of figures are avoided, and the lists of names can be compressed into a third of the space, by placing three on each line ; — the practical conve- nience before adverted to, on page 314. For the most part, however, these general species do also attenuate more or less northward ; that is, they cease altogether, or become scarcer or less certainly native, beyond latitude 57 or 58, in Orkney or Shetland. Some few of them, on the contrary, approximate in their distribution to the third division, that of boreal plants, by having greater frequency in the north than in the 318 VII. AREAS OF SPECIES. south ; for instance, Lycopodium Selago and Gentiana campestris (page 305). The subdivisions of the list of general species are sufficiently ex- plained by the head-titles of the subordinate groups. Within each of these latter groups, the series or succession of names is determined by the number of sub-provinces ascertained for the several species; with the exception of the first, in which their comital extension northward is also taken into account. Thus, in the group of plants ascertained in all the provinces, and in latitude 50—59, are the following, with others intermediately placed :—Filago minima (31 sub-provinces), Listera ovata (33), Ononis arvensis (35). And among the plants which extend to Orkney, the following succession occurs :—Mentha aquatica (34), Vero- nica scutellata (35), Peplis Portula (36), Arenaria serpyllifolia (37). Boreal and Montane Species.—The third divisional list (page 305) may be considered the reverse of the first; the plants therein included attenuating, or successively decreasing and ceasing, in a direction from north to south. Or, virtually the same fact, they are species which are scarce or unknown in the low southern provinces of England; first appearing, or else increasing in frequency, as an observer of them advances from those provinces into others more northerly or more mountainous. The tendency of many of these plants to a northerly prevalence, including several of those which are quite restricted to the comparatively northern latitudes, is closely connected with the moun- tainous and moorish character of the surface there, and less directly with the latitude of itself Many do not occur at all to the northward of the Grampian Mountains, situate between latitudes 56—58; while some of them are so little boreal, with respect to total Britain, as to be exclusely limited to Mid Britain; one even to South Britain. But these English plants are still taken along with the boreal plants, be- cause they are found only or chiefly about the mountains; associated with others which severally extend more and more to the northward, and in such a gradual manner as to render impracticable any decided line of distinction between the boreal and montane plants. Thus it happens that the Lloydia serotina, of Carnarvonshire, is classed with the montane and boreal plants, because found only at a considerable eleva- tion; while the Cotoneaster vulgaris, of the same county, was enume- rated among the austral plants, because found there only on the coast rocks, at a slight elevation compared with that of the former plant. So, IV. EXPLANATIONS, ETC. 319 likewise, the Gentiana verna is deemed a boreal plant though unknown in Scotland ; being limited to a few northern provinces of England, and affecting their hilly portions chiefly or exclusively. Head-titles have been deemed unnecessary for the subdivisions of this third list into subordinate groups. ‘They are obviously made in accord- ance with the number of the most southerly province, or that in which the plants are supposed to find their south limit. The figures for the still more southern provinces are of course omitted ; and the needless repetition of dots instead is obviated by commencing the lines with the higher figures or numbers. Counties are mentioned towards the end of this list, as was done at the commencement of the austral list. This arrangement of the plants according to their latitudinal and provincial areas has proved a difficult and time-consuming task to work out. It is not here presented as one altogether satisfactory or finished ; but is rather to be viewed as an inchoate attempt, to be rendered more complete and correct with the future progress of knowledge. The result is in effect a successive elimination from the total flora of Britain, first, of all those species which apparently are unadapted to the more northerly climates. From these the transition is gradually made to those which are adapted to bear the whole climate of Britain, at least near the coast-level; being naturally distributed from one end of the island to the other, more or less thoroughly and completely. And thirdly, come those which appear most adapted to the northern climate, least adapted to the southern climate. It seems almost needless to explain, that the climatal adaptations here suggested are simply inferences from the actual distribution of the plants; it being of course only this latter that is directly shown and established by tracing the plants through provincial areas and latitu- dinal ranges. But those botanists who may desire to know the leading facts of species-distribution in this island, and are yet little acquainted with that distribution, will readily acquire a considerable amount of knowledge on this subject, by an occasional glance over the series of names in this Section. It must be assumed that they are already fami- liar with the plants enumerated by name. In addition, they will require to learn the eighteen provinces by their names and numbers, and their respective positions in the map. This familiarity with the numbers and positions duly attained, the horizontal distribution of any species is seen at a glance by the line of figures; attention being at the same time 320 VII. AREAS OF SPECIES. drawn to its apparent absence from any considerable portion of the sur- face by the substitution of dots in place of figures. If that seeming absence should arise only from incompleteness of knowledge, the blank is suggestive of a desideratum in topographical botany ; namely, a record of some locality, sufficient to supply the want, and fill in the vacuity. Botanists are fond of recording localities which they find in their tours ; but too usually they do so without any knowledge whether they are recording over again facts already well known, and thus making only worthless records,—or, whether they are recording facts which were truly worthy of record, because new and desiderated towards the progress of science. Unreasoning egotism prompts a shallow man to record in print things which are new and interesting to himself; and so, sillily, pre- sumed to be new and interesting to others. Yet the very same man might often do real service to the progress of science, by first ascertaining which of his facts are novel, and are needed to supply some blank or vacancy in its printed records. There is still ample room and opportu- nity for the services of every botanist; without their energies being wasted in making egotistic repetitions, subserving no beneficial object in science. Rapid, indeed, might have been the progress of British butany during the last quarter-century of cheap and rapid locomotion, if there had been a journal devoted to such an object, and placed under the editorship of a botanist competent to explain to its contributors, from year to year, what sort of facts were wanting towards the advancement of science, and which of their facts would constitute only worthless records. And valuable, indeed, would have been a journal so con- ducted, not only by its enhanced present interest, but also as a work of historical reference on the book-shelf. But this paragraph is somewhat digressive, though not unusefully suggestive. To return to the lists. As they now stand, they include the following numbers of species :— Austral 755. General 420. Boreal, &c., 250. But if we deduct from the first, and add to the general list, all those included in the groups numbered 8, 9, 10, 11, which extend southward of 51 and northward of 57, that is, all except one dozen, we shall then make out the numbers thus :— Truly austral 569. Sub-general 606. From the general plants we might in turn deduct the 18 species enume- rated on page 305, and add them to the boreal group, when the latter is set against the austral group, as augmented to 755. Looking at them Iv. EXPLANATIONS, ETC. 321 somewhat more in detail, we trace out the latitudinal limits of the austral and general plants to these numbers :— Ceasing in 50—51 latitude, 27 species. Stel pace: eagzul 4 52153 nnd), nsqggtitng, 5 ae, ae ee: a 5a 55 wy! 4 *, 55—56 , 88 4 5oeo8 col Ti aeaeiny 57—58 , 99 plus 49 and 35. fy en, a ee ee Orkney 17, 70 , — Shetland 44 ,,100 ,, 120. Tracing the plants through the provinces in the order of their corre- sponding nos., we find the austral and general species ceasing north- ward, and the boreal and montane species ceasing southward, in the following numbers :— 1, Peninsula 19 northward, 28 southward. 2. Channel 18 al 1l 5p 3. Thames 19 a 6 _ 4. Ouse 50 rf 4 PB 5. Severn 38 rt 22 Bg 6. South Wales 22 3 Toso 7. North Wales 32 ms 40 x 8. Trent 24 - 2 rad 9. Mersey 7 * ee 2s 10. Humber 67 Fy 35 “5 11. Tyne 45 “F 9 ~ 12. Lakes 50 = 4 an 13. W. Lowlands 32 a 3 re 14, E. Lowlands 38 * BS -ties 15. E. Highlands 133 és 62 ¢ 16. W. Highlands 115 + 3 rr 17. N. Highlands 90 7 Dee 18, N. Isles 376 er 2 Ge And distributing the numbers for the province of the North Isles, among the three groups, the 376 species successively reaching or ceasing in them run thus :— Hebrides 25. Orkney 87. Shetland 264. VOL. IV. QT 322 VU. AREAS OF SPECIES. If our view were extended, so as to include Faroe and Iceland, a large portion of the Shetland species would still be found in those sub-arctic islands ; as also some others which have not been seen in Shetland, and which thus apparently cease in less northern latitudes while the view takes in the British islands only, apart from other countries. Some years ago, the writer of this volume would have found similar lists for other countries of Europe exceedingly useful, as aids in his own earlier exaininations into plant-distribution beyond the limits of Britain. Indeed, he would still greet any such lists for Scandinavia or Middle Europe with the greatest satisfaction. That which he has himself much felt the want of, in regard to the botany of other countries, he may reasonably believe, will sooner or later be wanted by foreign phyto- geographers, in regard to the botany of Britain. The list of areas now under consideration, equally with some other lists in this volume, has been framed for general as well as for local applications. It is designed for the use of foreigners, as well as for the use of home botanists. But fur some of the uses to which the list is applicable, foreigners may require none of the particulars about provinces, counties, &e. Looked at in detail, these are areas within areas, smaller within larger. The single space or whole area, over which any species is extended in Britain, may usually be asccrtained for general purposes by the lines of latitude alone ; those for longitude being added also where most needful. By observing this facility, foreigners may use the two first divisions of the list, including five-sixths of the species, with little or no attention to the provincial nos. which are set after the names of the plants. VIII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. I. UPPER LIMITS ON THE GRAMPIAN MOUNTAINS. (Counties of Perth, Forfar, Aberdeen, Inverness). Salix herbacea Saxifraga stellaris Lycopodium Selago Silene acaulis Carex rigida Festuca ovina Luzula spicata Luzula arcuata Gnaphalium supinum Juncus tifidus Vaccinium Myrtillus Hieracium globosum Arabis petrea “Aira alpina Rumex Acetosa Taraxacum palustre Viola palustris Sibbaldia procumbens Enpetrum nigrum Alchemilla alpina Oxyria reniformis Hieracium alpinum Hieracium calenduliflorum Hieracium gracilentum Poa alpina Polygonum viviparum 32.60 fahr. 32.70 fahr. 32.90 fahr. 33.00 fahr. ” 33.10 fahr. 33.20 fabr. 33.40 fahr. ” ” ” 33.50 fahr. 33.70 fahr. ” ” ” ” 33.90 fahr. ” 1.00 ceut. 1.05 cent. 1.15 cent. 1.20 cent. ” 1.25 cent. 1.30 cent. 1.40 cent. 1.45 cent. 1.55 cent. ” 1.65 cent. »” 1440 1360 1310 1440 1360 1310 1440 1330 1300 1440 1310 1270 1440 1310 1270 1440 1310 1270 1440 1310 1270 1440 yards. 1430 1360 1310 1410 1260 1200 1400 1310 1250 “1400” B. “ 1390” 1200 1380 1360 1230 1360 1310 1260 1360 1310 1200 1360 1300 1260 1360 1260 1180 1350 1170 1130 1330 1310 1310 1530 1300 1250 “ 1330” B. “ 1330” B. “1330” B. 1310 1260 1180 1310 1080 1050 324 VI. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. Cerastium alpinum 33.90 fahr. 1.65 cent. 1310 1080 1000 Cherleria sedoides + + 1310 1080 1000 Saxifraga nivalis aS 1310 1080 1000 Saxifraga oppositifolia > 9 1310 1080 1000 Achillea Millefolium = 1310 1080 880 Saussurea alpina ee =: 1310 1000 900 Cochlearia officinalis 34.00 fahr. 1.70 cent. 1300 1260 1250 Epilobium alpinum 3 ¥ 1300 1230. 1230 Sedum Rhodiola nf 1300 1210 1210 Ranunculus acris 3 “ 1330 1210 1200 Lycopodium alpinum ro p 1300 1200 1130 Blechnum boreale -£ 3 1300 1150 1080 Thalictrum alpinum oe “ 1300 1180 1080 Saxifraga cernua fe rs 1300 Draba rupestris FP 1300 Myosotis alpestris 3 x 1300 1160 1000 Arenaria rubella “- rs “1300” 1080 Saxifraga hypnoides 3 » 1300 1080 1000 Oxalis Acetosella =F, Fe 1300 1080 986 Cystopteris fragilis 5 5 1300 1080 960 Galium saxatile 34.20 fahr. 1.80 cent. 1280 1230 1100 Armeria maritima 34.30 fahr. 1.85 cent. 1270 1200 1080 Stellaria cerastoides 34.40 fahr. 1.90 cent. 1260 1250 1000 Veronica humifusa x - 1260 1210 1200 Sagina procumbens + 5 1260 1080 950 Carex pheostachya “1 Fr 1260 1020 900 Carex atrata 34.50 fahr. 1.95 cent. 1250” 1000 ~° Aira flexuosa 34.70 fahr. 2.05 cent. 1230 1220 1200 Lastrea dilatata c¢ s 1230 1200 1150 Azalea procumbens 4 % “ 1230” 1180 Veronica alpina “e Pa 1230 1000 900 Cerastium latifolium 34.90 fabr. 2.15 cent. 1210 1060 1060 Saxifraga rivularis 4 Eh 1210 1000 Carex lagopina ar 3 “1210” Saxifraga cespitosa 35.00 fahr. 2.20 cent. 1200? Cystopteris montana as “ 1200? Carex Persvonii = 5 “ 1200” Poa laxa Bs 33 “1200” Poa minor 5 . « 1200” I, GRAMPIAN MOUNTAINS. Alchemilla vulgaris Cerastium viscosum Eupbrasia officinalis Campanula rotundifolia Thymus Serpyllum Caltha palustris Vaccinium uliginosum Eriophorum angustifolium Hieracium holosericeum Scirpus cespitosus Phleum alpinum Alopecurus alpinus Allosorus crispus Hieracium vulgatum Polypodium Phegopteris Anuthoxanthum odoratum Chrysosplen. oppositifol. Stellaria uliginosa Potentiila Tormentilla Vaccinium Vitis-idea Carex aquatilis Carex pilulifera Calluna vulgaris Nardus stricta Rubus Chamemorus Luzula campestris Poa annua Juncus squarrosus Aspidium Lonchitis Salix reticulata Lycopodium selaginoides Adoxa Moschatellina Cardamine pratensis Montia fontana Narthecium ossifragum Draba incana Chrysosplenium alternifol. Agrostis vulgaris Silene maritima 35.00 fahr. ” 35.20 fahr. ” ” ¥ 35.40 fahr. 35.50 fahr. 35.70 fahr. 35.90 fahr. ” ” ” 36.00 faulr. ” ” 36.20 fahr. ” 36.40 fahr. 2.20 cent. ” 2.30 cent. ” ” 2.40 cent. 2.45 cent. 2.55 cent. 2.65 cent. ” ” 2.90 cent. 325 1200 1080 1200 1080 1180 1110 1180 1080 1180 1080 1160 1150 1060 1160 1100 1060 1160 1060 1050 “1160” 1060 1160 1069 980 “1160” 1100 “1160” 1100 1160 1000 960 ©1160” 1000 1150 910 900 1130 1080 1110 1060 1000 1110 1060 1000 1110 1060 1000 1110 1080 1066 “1100” 980 1100 1080 1030 1100 1080 1060 1100 1070 1060 1080 1030 1000 1080 1000 960 1080 1000 1080 1000 1080 1000 900 1080 1000 900 1080 930 910 1080 Rarely. 1080 980 810 1060 1000 980 1060 L000 980 1060 960 900 1060 900 830 1060 900 800 1060 “720” 1060 1060 1080 1080 980 960 326 VIII. Trollius europzus Saxifraga aizoides Juncus biglumis Carex binervis Carex saxatilis (pulla) Melampyrum pratense Luzula sylvatica Orchis maculata Juncus triglumis Apargia autumnalis Hieracium nigrescens Cardamine hirsuta Erigeron alpinus Juncus castaneus Lychnis alpina Hieracium eximium Hieracium chrysanthum Hieracium flocculosum Hieracium murorum Carex stellulata Aira cxspitusa Eriophorum vaginatum Luzula multiflora Solidago Virgaurea Bellis perennis Carex vulgaris Carex rariflora Viola sylvatica Veronica officinalis Lastrea Oreopteris Pinguicula vulgaris Gnaphalium dioicum Epilobium alsinifolium Carex dioica Carex flava Triglochin palustre Asplenium viride Anemone nemorosa Cornus suecica ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. 36.50 fahr. ” ” 36.70 fahy. 36.90 fahr. 37.00 fahr. 37.10 fahr. 37.20 fabr. 37.40 fahr, 37.50 fabr. 2.95 cent. ” ” 3.05 cent. 3.15 cent. 3.20 cent. ” 3.25 cent. 3.30 cent. 3.40 cent. 3.45 cent. 1050 1000 1000 1050 1000 960 see? 1000 950 1030 1010 800 1030 960 830 1030 930 900 1030 900 906 1010 960 950 1000 980 900 1000 960 930 1000 950 1000 900 830 1000 ...? 830 1000 ...? 830 1000 or “ 1060” “1000” B. “1000” B. “1000” B. “1000” B. 900 990 980 960 980 970 930 980 950 9380 980 950 980 910 900 980 910 830 980 900 880 980 900 980 880 860 980 750 670 980 ...? 500 960 930 930 960 930 910 960 900 900 960 900 830 960 900 800 960 880 710 960 830 660 960 750 700 950 930 900 I. GRAMPIAN MOUNTAINS. Lotus corniculatus Molinia exrulea Geum rivale Trientalis europea Arbutus Uva-ursi Viola lutea Polygala vulgaris Galium boreale Comarum palustre Veronica Beccabunga Trifolium pratense Polypodium Dryopteris Ranunculus repens Taraxacum officinale Pseudathyrium alpestre Gentiana nivalis Salix Myrsinites Veronica saxatilis Carex capillaris Poa cesia Sesleria cerulea Salix procumbens Thlaspi alpestre Bartsia alpina Elyna caricina Menziesia cerulea Woodsia ilvensis Draba (verna) inflata Gnaphalium norvegicum Lycupodium annotinum Equisetum sylvaticum Salix Lapponum Potentilla alpestris Tussilago Farfara Rubus saxatilis Hieracium anglicum Parnassia palustris Heracleum Sphondylium Juniperus nana 37.50 fabr. ” 37.70 fabr. ” ” 37.90 fahr. ” ” 38.00 fahr. 3.45 cent. ” 3.50 cent. 9 3.65 cent. ” ” 3.70 cent. 327 950 850 830 950 850 660 930 930 900 930 900 810 930 860 850 930 860 710 930 800 760 930 730 700 930 710 600 930 700 930 570 530 910 850 830 910 830 710 910 680 «. ? Higher? sees ” 900 900 630 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 860 900 900 830 900 900 830 900 900 760 900 900 690 900 900 660 900 900 630 900 880 880 328 VI. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. Salix lanata Dryas octopetala Trifolium repens Arabis hirsuta Stellaria media Angelica sylvestris Carex pulicaris Ranunculus Flammula Vaccinium Oxycoccos Carex ampullacea Geranium sylvaticum Spirea Ulmaria Arbutus alpina Betula nana Sonchus alpinus Carex pauciflora Veronica Chamezdrys Spergula saginoides Listera cordata Epilobium angustifolium Botrychium Lunaria Festuca duriuscula Lychnis diurna Pyrus Aucuparia Scabiosa succisa Carex rupestris Rhinanthus Crista Carex Vahlii (alpina) Arenaria verna Astragalus alpinus Hieracium cesium Hieracium argenteum Hieracium senescens Pinus. (Planted ?) Hieracium nitidum Hieracium aggregatum Hieracium lasiophyllum Equisetum palustre Poa trivialis 38.00 fahr. 38.20 fabr. 38.40 fahr. 2 ) 38.50 fahr. ” 38.60 fahr. 38.70 fahr. 3.70 cent. 3.80 cent. 3.90 cent. ” 3.95 cent, ” 4.00 cent. 4.05 cent. 900 860 830 900 830 800 900 830 750 900 830 530 900 830 500 900 820 670 900 810 810 900 810 800 900 810 660 900 780 760 900 760 760 900 760 660 900 760 630 900 700 650 900 660 900 660 600 900 630 530. 900 600 900 570 500 900 550 500 900 510 400 900 500 900 400 §80 830 700 860 850 800 860 800 850 800 670 850 800 850 850 800 850? _ 850? 850? 840 800 “830” B. “830” B. “830” B. 830 810 710 830 700 530 I. GRAMPIAN MOUNTAINS. 329 Senecio Jacobea? Rumex Acetosella VOL. IV. Urtica dioica 38.70 fahr. 4.05 cent. 830 630 600 Lysimachia nemorum 38.90 fahr. 4.15 cent. 810 710 680 Juncus effusus 39.00 fahr. 4.20 cent. 800 780 750 Hieracium prenanthoides ss A 800 760 Juniperus communis ss bs 800 730 720 Juncus supinus =~ - 800 710 680 Veronica serpyllifolia + x 800? 680 510 Linum cathartieum A i 800 670 650 Pyrola secunda fy 5 800 640 530 Anthyllis vulneraria Ff = 800 570 400 Gentiana campestris = * $00 550 530 Vicia Cracca 5 Ms 800 500 400 Habenaria viridis a bo 800 “830” Pyrola rotundifolia x a 800 Linnea borealis z a 800 Salix arbuscula x 5 800 Juncus lampocarpus = 3 “800” Carduus palustris = = 800 670 610 Erica Tetralix 39.10 fabr. 4.25 cent. 790 760 720 Drosera rotundifolia 39.30 fahr. 4.35 cent. 770 700 630 Carex panicea 39.40 fabr. 4.40 cent. 760 730 750 Carex curta *e 5 760 710 Poa pratensis 39.50 fahr. 4.45 cent. 750 710 530 Tofieldia palustris by A 750 710 660 Hypericum pulchrum + Bs 750 700 680 Pinus sylvestris - 39.60 fabr. 4.50 cent. 740 730 650 Erica cinerea 39.70 fahr. 4.55 cent. 730 730 710 Genista anglica a a 730 730 710 Ajuga repians + * 730 610 510 Prunella vulgaris 39.80 fabr. 4.60 cent. 720 700 610 Orobus tuberosus = a 720 680 670 Valeriana officinalis 4 cr 720 630 500 Carduus heterophyllus ce a 720 430 350 - Hieracium Pilosella 39.90 fabr. 4.65 cent. 710 710 710 Equisetum limosum ~ . 710 350 Callitriche pedunculata . zs 710 Subularia aquatica _ oa 710 710 700 530 710 680 560 2uU 330 Salix fusca (repens) Plantago lanceolata Achillea Ptarmica Viola flavicornis Spergula subulata Salix aurita Polypodium vulgare Polystichum lobatum Isoetes lacustris Epilobium tetragonum Oxytropis campestris Carex sylvatica Betula alba Fragaria vesca Gymnadenia Conopsea Carex glauca Helianthemum vulgare Salix nigricans Salix phylicifolia Hieracium pallidum Hieracium lingulatum Sedum villusum Rubus idzus Lychnis Flos-cuculi Salix caprea Crepis paludosa Rosa mollis (villosa ?) Potentilla Fragariastrum Myosotis repens Callitriche “ verna” Spartium scopariuin Digitalis purpurea Pedicularis sylvatica Lycopodium clavatum Vicia sepium Galium pusillum Pteris aquilina Carex speirostachya Epilobium palustre 39.90 fahr. 40.20 fahr. ” ” 40.30 fahr. ” 40.40 fahr. ”? ” 40.50 fabr. ” 40.60 fahr. 40.70 fahr. ” Vill. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. 4.65 cent. ” 4.80 cent. ” ” 4.85 cent. ” 4.90 cent. 5.00 cent. 5.05 cent. ” 710 650 560 710 600 530 710 500 500 710 360 700 or upwards. 700 670 630 700 670 580 700 630 700? 500 700 270 700? 700? 680 660 630 680 500 450 680 350 270 670 650 350 670 610 570 660 Higher? 660 Higher? “660” B. . “660” B. 660? 660 650 640 660 630 270 660 610 500 660 600 600 660 500 350 660 450 660 400 350 660 350 350 660 600 570 650 650 630 650 650 610 650 590 550 650 500 460 650? 640 570 530 630 500 350 630 400 350 I. Avena pratensis Stellaria Holostea Carex pallescens Briza media Corylus Avellana Habenaria albida Juncus conglomeratus Luzula pilosa Viola tricolor Asplenium A. nigrum Pyrola media Pedicularis palustris Geranium pratense Plantago maritima Hypocheeris radicata Drosera anglica Galium verum Carduus lanceolatus Rosa spinosissima Pimpinella Saxifraga Mercurialis perennis Myrica Gale Triodia decumbens Vicia sylvatica Athyrium F. feemina Populus tremula Ranunculus auricomus Geranium Robertianum Plantago major Potamogeton oblongus Bunium flexuosum Cynosurus cristatus Lathyrus pratensis Epilobium montanum Poa nemoralis Lobelia Dortmanna Littorella lacustris Sparganium natans Rumex aquaticus GRAMPIAN MOUNTAINS. 40.70 falr. ” 41.00 fahr. 41.20 fahr. ” 41.30 fahr. ” 41.40 fahr. ” ” 41.50 fahr. 41.70 fahr. 41.80 fabr. 5.05 cent. ” 5.30 cent. ” 5.35 cent. 5.40 cent. ” ” 5.45 cent. 5.55 cent. 5.60 cent. 331 630 600 570 630 600 430 630 600 410 630 570 530 630 520 350 630 400 350 630 400 350 630 400 150 630 350 150 630 ...? 100 600 590 580 600 550 530 “600” “580” 600 460 400 580 560 530 580 570 560 530 570 560 500 570 480 570 450 350 570 459 350 560 530 510 560 530 350 560 460 350 550 530 530 500 450 530 Higher ? 530 500 450 530 460 430 530 460 400 530 410 400 530 410 350 530 350 350 530 350 300 530 Higher ? 530 Higher? 530 530 520 500 430 832 Menyanthes trifoliata Ranunculus bulbosus Holeus lanatus Spergula nodosa Alnus glutinosa Lastrea Filix-mas Primula vulgaris Glyceria fluitans Guaphalium sylvaticum VIII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. 41.90 fahr. a9 ” ” 42.00 fahr. ” ”? > ” Chrysanthemum Leucanth. _,, Carex ovalis Veronica scutellata Aira precox Utricularia vulgaris Juncus acutiflorus Polygonum avieulare Meum Athamanticum Melica nutans Aira caryophyllea Koeleria eristata Primula veris Alopecurus pratensis Centaurea nigra Anthriscus sylvestris Carduus arvensis Avena pubescens Stellaria graminea Myosotis arvensis Salix ambigua ? Hieracium iricum Hieracium crocatum Rosa canina Altitude 400 yards. Juncus bufonius, 400. 350. 350. ” ” ” ” 42.40 fahr. rd 2”? 42.50 fahr. ” 42.90 fahr. ” 43.00 fahr. ” ” ” Scirpus pauciflorus, 400. 350, 350. Alopecurus geniculatus, 400. 350. 350. Gvleopsis Tetrahit, 400. 350. 350. Pyrethrum inodorum, 400. 350. 350. Artemisia vulgaris, 400. 350, 350. Temp. 43.00 fuhr. M yosotis versicolor, 400. 350. Draba verna (vera), 400. 350. 5.65 cent. ” 6.05 cent. Ph 6.15 cent. ” 6.20 cent. 510 480 400 510 480 350 510 500 350 510 “390” 500 500 350 500 500 350 500 480 400 500 480 350 500 450 400 500 400 500 350 350 500 350 350 500 350 350 “ 500” Dickie 460 400 350 460 400 350 460 350 350 450 400 400 450 400 330 450 400 300 450 430 400 350 430 400 350 430 400 350 430. 350 350 430 Higher? 410 350 350 410 350 350 “400” “400” 350 400 Higher? 400 Higher? 6.20 cent. Sinapis arvensis, 400. 350. Bromus commutatus, 400. 350. Urtica urens, 400. 350. Teucrium Scorudonia, 400. Y . I. GRAMPIAN MOUNTAINS. 333 Capsella Bursa, 400. 350. 350. Festuca elatior ? 400. Senecio vulgaris, 400, 350. 350. Asperula odorata, “* 400.” Bartsia Ouontites, 400. 350. 350. Geranium sanguineum, 400 ? Myriophyllum alterniflorum, 400. 350. 350. Salix cinerea, 400. Callitriche platycarpa, 400. 350. 350. — Lonicera P., 400. 350. 150. Crategus Oxyacantha, 390. 200. Introduced higher. Altitude 350 yards. Temp. 43.50 fahr. 6.45 cent. Hieracium gothicum, 350 ? Hieravium corymbosum, 350 ? Pyrola minor, 350. Senecio aquaticus, 350. Both higher? Galium palustre, 350. 350. 350. Melampyrum sylvaticum, 350. Myosotis cespitosa, 350. 350. 350. Equisetum arvense, 350. 200. Trifolium medium, 350. 350. 350. Circa alpina, 350. 160. Dactylis glomerata, 350. 350. 350. Carex precox, 350. Spergula arvensis, 350. 350. 350. Orchis latifolia, 350. Arrhenatherum, 350. 350. 350. Holcus mollis, 350. 150. Bromus mollis, 350. 350. 350. Stachys sylvatica, 350. 150. Lolium perenne, 350. 350. 350. Scirpus palustris, 350. Viola (tricolor) arvensis, 350. 350. 350. Geranium molle, 350. Raphanus Raphanistrum, 350. 350. 350. Crepis virens, 350. Scirpus setaceus, 350. 350. 330. Cerastium glomeratum, 350. Habenaria bifolia, 350. 350. 270. Clinopodium vulgare, 350. Asplenium Trichomanes, 350. 350. 300. Sonchus oleraceus, 350. Scleranthus annuus, 350. 350. 270. Lepidium Smithii, 350. Veronica arvensis, 350. 350. 270. Lamium purpureum, 350. Stachys palustris, 350. 350, 270. Ranunculus hederaceus, 350. Triticum repens, 350. 350. 270. Ranunculus aquatilis, 350. Phieum pratense, 350. 350. 270. Euphorbia Helioscopea, 350. Rumex obtusifolius, 350. 270. 250. Euphorbia Peplus, 350. Senecio sylvaticus, 350. 270. 250. Lychnis vespertina, 350. Lapsana communis, 350. 270. 150. Lycopsis arvensis, 350. Festuca pratensis, 350. 270, 150. Centaurea Cyanus, 350. Agrostis alba, 350. 270. 150. Polygonum Convolvulus, 350. Potentilla anserina, 350. 270. 150. Myosotis collina, 350. Mentha arvensis, 350. 270. 150. Vicia sativa, 350. Listera ovata, 350. 250. 160. Carduus acanthoides, 350. Tanacetum, 350. Humulus, 350. Both introduced ? Ribes Grossularia, 350. Most likely introduced. Sedum Telephium, 350. 250. The same remark here. Quercus Robur, 350. Planted there? 500 yards,” Prof. Dickie. 334 VIII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. Prunus Padus, 350. 350. Planted at these heights ? Fraxinus excelsior, 350. 270. 250. Planted in all three ? Altitude 300 yards. Temp. 44.00 fahr. 6.70 cent. Hymenophyllum Wilsoui, 1000 feet, and doubtless bigher. Ilex Aquifolium, about 1000 feet, and perhaps higher. Schenus nigricans, about 1000 feet above Loch Eil. Altitude 250 yards. Temp. 44.50 fuhr. 6.95 cent. Ulex europeus, 270. 250. Apparently native. Sown at 500 yards. Chenopodium Henricus, 270. Most likely introduced. Sambucus nigra, 270. 150. Planted only ? Campanula latifolia, 273. Brachypodium sylvat., 267. (Prof. Dickie). Rubus suberectus, 270. 260. 150. Malaxis paludosa, 270. Polygonum Persicaria, 270. 250. 150. Peplis Portula, 270. Phalaris arundinacea, 270. 150. 100. Silene inflata, 270. Sanicula europea, 270. 150. 100. Vicia hirsuta, 270. 150. Chrysanthemum segetum, “270.” 250. 150. Filago minima, 250. Helosciadium inundatum, 250. Sedum acre, 230. Alt. (about) 200 yards. Temp. 45.00 fahr. 7.20 cent. Ribes petreum. By the side of Loch Dochart. Sparganium minimum. Base of Ben Lawers. Melica uniflora. ‘“ Falls of Lawers.” Carex hirta. Loch of Kinnord. Alt. (say) 150 yards. Temp. 45.50 fahr. 7.45 cent. Corydalis claviculata. Iris Pseudacorus. Prunus spinosa. a Geranium dissectum. Geum urbanum. Galeopsis versicolor. Thalictrum majus. Torilis Anthriscus. Fumaria officinalis. Rumex crispus. Littorella lacustris. * | Alchemilla arvensis. Hypericum hirsutum. H. humifusum. Stellaria nemorum. Viburnum Opulus. Galium Aparine. Scrophularia nodosa. Arctium Lappa. Chenopodium album. Trifolium procumbens. ZEgopodium Podagraria. Myrrhis odorata. Both introduced ? Il. UPPER LIMITS IN NORTH ENGLAND. (In the provinces of Lakes and Humber). Altitude 1050 yards. Temp. 37.85 fahr. 3.75 cent. Carex rigida, 1050. ... Vaccinium Myrtillus, 1050. 850. Festuca ovina, 1050. 850. Lycopodium Selago, 1040. 850. Empetrum nigrum, 1040. 850. Allosorus crispus, 1040. 850. II. NORTH ENGLAND. 335 Altitude 1000 yards, Temp. 38.35 fahr. 4.00 cent. Salix herbacea, 1020. ... Galium saxatile, 1020. 850. Saxifraga stellaris, 1020. 700. Rumex Acetosa, 1010. 850. Oxalis Acetosella, 1010. 850. Cerastium viscosum, 1010. 850. Thymus Serpyllum, 1010. 850. Campanula rotundifolia, 1010. 850. Vaccinium Vitis-idza, 1010. 850. Juncus squarrosus, 1000. 850. Lycopodium alpinum, 1000. 850. Altitude 950 yards. Temp. 38.85 fahr. 4.25 cent. Luzula campestris, 950. 850. Eriophorum vaginatum, 950, 600. Altitude 900 yards. Temp. 39.35 fahr. 4.50 cent. Alchemilla alpina, 900. ... Sedum Rhodiola, 900. ... Ranunculus acris, 900.850. Taraxacum palustre, 900. 850. Chrysosplenium oppositifol., 900. 850. | Cardamine pratensis, 900, 800. Anthoxanthum odoratum, 900. 750. Caltha palustris, 900. 600. Pyrus Aucuparia, 900. 500. Hieracium mororum, 900. 300. Altitude 850 yards. Temp. 39.85 fahr. 4.75 cent. Armeria maritima, 850. ... Juniperus nana, 850. ... Potentilla Tormentilla, 850. 850. Viola sylvatica, 850. 850. Geum rivale, 850. 800. Achillea Millefolium, 800. 850. Calluna vulgaris, 800. 850. Anemone nemorosa, 800, 850. Scirpus cespitosus, 725. 850. Nardus stricta, 725. 850. Rubus Chamemorus, 725. 850. Poa annua, 720. 850. Blechnum boreale, 700. 850. Cochlearia officinalis, 700. 850. Bellis perennis, 700. 850. Trifolium repens, 700. 850. Lycopodium clavatum, 700. 850. Alchemilla vulgaris, 680. 850. Prunella vulgaris, 680. 850. Saxifraga hypnoides, 600. 850. Arenaria verna, 600. 850. Hieracium Pilosella, 580. 850. Veronica Chamedrys, 570. 850. Veronica officinalis, 560. 850. Viola lutea, 510. 850. Rumex Acetosella, 510. 850. Viola palustris, 850. 500. Lastrea dilatata, 500. 850. Luzula sylvatica, 850. 500. Veronica serpyllifolia, 500. 850. Cystopteris fragilis, 400. 850. Carex pilulifera, 850. 400. Asplenium viride, 400. 850. Polystichum lobatum, 300. 850. Altitude 800 yards. Temp. 40.35 fahr. 5.00 cent. Myosotis alpestris, “ 800.” 800. (Locality said to be in both provinces). Eriophorum angustifolium, 725. 800. Polypodium vulgare, 670. 800. Carex binervis, 800. 61:0. Lastrea Filix-mas, 560. 800. Polypodium Phegopteris, 800. 550. Carex vulgaris, 800. 400. Solidago Virgaurea, 800. 400. Valeriana officinalis, 800. 400. 336 VIII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. Draba incana, 300. 800. Sesleria cerulea, 300. 800. Gentiana verna, ... 800. Draba verna, ... 800. Altitude 750 yards. Temp. 40.85 fahr. 5.25 cent. Erica Tetralix, 550.750. | Carex glauca, 500. 750. Vaccinium Oxycoccos, 450. 750. Altitude 700 yards. Temp. 41.35 fahr. 5.50 cent. Aira flexuosa, 725. 600. Stellaria uliginosa, 720. 700. Juncus effusus, 720. 600. Narthecium ossifragum, 720: 300. Sagina procumbens, 710, 600. Ranunculus repens, 710. 450. Montia fontana, 710. 350. Poa trivialis, 710. 300. Silene acaulis, 700? ... Saxifraga oppositifolia, 700? ... Epilobium alsinifolium, 700. 700. Sedum villosum, 690. 700. Drosera rotundifolia, 650. 700. Thalictrum alpinum, 700 ? 600. Pinguicula vulgaris, 700. 600. Triodia decumbens, 600. 700. Eupbrasia officinalis, 700. 550. Agrostis vulgaris, 700. 500. Ranunculus Flammula, 700. 500. Luzula multiflora, 700. 400. Apargia autumnalis, 700, 350. Scirpus pauciflorus, 700. 300. Altitude 650 yards. Temp. 41.85 fahr. 5.75 cent. Saxifraga aizoides, 690. 600. Carex stellulata, 680. 600. Molinia cerulea, 670. 600. Lychnis alpina, “ 2000 feet.” Carduus palustris, 660. 600. Myosotis repens, 660. 500. Juncus triglumis, 650. ... Lycopodium selaginoides, 650. 600. Carex pulicaris, 650. 600. Plantago lanceolata, 650, 550. Melampyrum pratense, 650. 500. Gnaphalium dioicum, 650, 500. Carex flava (or Gideri), 650. 400. Juncus bufonius, 650. 400. Altitude 600 yards. Temp. 42.35 fuhr. 6.00 cent. Epilobium palustre, 640. 500. Carex dioica, 630, 600. Carex panicea, 630. 400. Juncus lampecarpus, 620. 600. Briza media, 620. 300. Tussilago Farfara, 610. 600. Agrostis alba, 610. 300. Oxyria reniformis, 600. ... Trientalis europea, ... 600. Carex capillaris, ... 600. Dryas octopetala, ... 600. Bartsia alpina, ... 600. Elyna caricina, ... 600. Tofieldia palustris, ... 600. Aira cespitosa, 600. 600. Scabiosa succisa, 600. 600. Polygala vulgaris, 580. 600. Urtica divica, 580. 600. Holcus lanatus, 570. 600. Linum catharticum, 600. 550. Primula farinusa, 510. 600. Hieracium vulgatum, 600. 5U0. Lotus corniculatus, 600. 500. Hieracium anglicum, 600. 500, Betula alba, 600, 500. Pimpinella Saxifraga, 600. 500. II. NORTH ENGLAND. 837 Triglochin palustre, 450. 600. Crategus Oxyacantha, 450. 600. Valeriana dioica, 410. 600. Parnassia palustris, 600. 400. Rhinanthus Crista-galli, 600. 400. Juniperus communis, 400. 600. Hypericum pulchrum, 600. 400. Orobus tuberosus, 600. 400. Potentilla Fragariastrum, 600. 400. Crepis paludosa, 600. 400. Menyanthes trifoliata, 600. 400. Juncus acutiflorus, 600. 400. Helianthemum vulgare, 360. 600. Cardamine hirsuta, 600. 350. Carduus arvensis, 350. 600. Anthyllis vulneraria, 320. 600. Gentiana Amarella, 320. 600. Gentiana campestris, 300. 600. Thalictrum minus, 600. 300. Helianthemum canum, 200. 600. Plantago maritima, ... 600. Koeleria cristata, ... 600. Carex precox, ... 600. Hippocrepis comosa, ... 600. Altitude 550 yards. Temp. 42.85 fahr. 6.25 cent. Athyrium Filix-feemina, 590.500. § Potamogeton oblongus, 590, 500. Cynosurus cristatus, 580. 400. Digitalis purpurea, 570. 400. > Ajuga reptans, 560. 500. Pteris aquilina, 560. 500. Epilobium montanum, 560. 450. Carex ovalis, 560. 450. Angelica sylvestris, 560. 400. Geranium sylvaticum, 560, 400. Spirea Ulmaria, 560. 400. Lysimachia nemorum, 560. 400. Luzula pilosa, 560. 400. Juncus conglomeratus, 560. 400. Vicia sepium, 560. 350. Genm urbanum, 560. 300. Apargia hispida, 560. 300. Polygala uliginosa, ... 550. Stellaria media, 520, 550. Plantago major, 520. 550. Arbutus Uva-ursi, 500. 550. Galium boreale, 550. 500. Polypodium Dryopteris, 500. 550. Poa pratensis, 500. 550. Carduus lanceolatus, 500. 550. Veronica arvensis, 500. 550. Arenaria serpyllifolia, 500. 550. Carduus nutans, 370. 550. Senecio Jacobea, 360. 550. Spergula nodosa, 550. 350. Saxifraga tridactylites, 300. 550. Poterium Sanguisorba, 300. 550. . Salix fusca or repens, 550. 250. Pedicularis sylvatica, 540. 400. Altitude 500 yards. Temp. 43.35 fahr. 6.50 cent. Galium palustre, 520. 400. Alopecurus geniculatus, 520. 300. : Veronica Beccabunga, 510. 400. Trifolium pratense, 510. 400. Senecio aquaticus, 510. 400. Rumex obtusifolius, 510. 400. : Aira precox, 510. 350. Callitriche verna, 510. 300. Salix phylicifolia, ... 500. Botrychium Lunaria, ... 500. Hieracium pallidum, ... 500. Hieracium iricum, ... 500. Asplenium septentrionale, 500. ... Pyrola secunda, 500 ? 500. Taraxacum officinale, 500. ... Erica cinerea, 500. 500. 4 VOL. Iv. 2X 338 VIII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. Rubus Ideus, 500. 500. Glyceria fluitans, 500. 500. Veronica scutellata, 480. 500. Stellaria graminea, 480. 500. Epilobium angustifolium, 450. 500. Geranium Robertianum. 500. 450. Mentha aquatica, 450. 500. Sanguisorba officinalis, 450. 500. Rosa mollis (villosa ?), 420. 500. Orchis maculata, 500. 400. Arabis hirsuta, 500. 400. Heracleum Sphondylium, 500. 400. Corylus Avellana, 400. 500. Hypocherris radicata, 400. 500. Lonicera Periclymenum, 500. 400. Salix aurita, 370. 500. Centaurea nigra, 360. 500. Quercus Robur, 360. 500. Potentilla alpestris, 350. 500. Prunus Padus, 350. 500. Tlex Aquifolium, 500. 350. Ranunculus hederaceus, 500. 300. Hyacinthus nonscriptus, 500. 300. Saxifraga granulata, 250. 500. Spartium scoparium, 500. 250. Geranium molle, 500. ... Altitude 450 yards. Temp. 43.85 fahr. 6.75 cent. Myosotis cespitosa, 480. 400. Scirpus setaceus, 480. 300. Listera cordata, ... 450. Circea alpina, 450. ... Hieracium cesium, ... 450. Avena pratensis, ... 450. Utricularia minor, ... 450. Asplenium Ad. nigrum, 450. ... Equisetum palustre, 450. 400. Pedicularis palustris, 450. 400. Juncus supinus, 450. 400. Dactylis glomerata, 350. 450. Hedera Helix, 350. 450. Galium pusillum, 450. 300. Prunus spinosa, 300. 450. Hypericum hirsutum, 300. 450. Mercurialis perennis, 300. 450. Asplenium Trichomanes, 300. 450. Lactuca muralis, 300. 450. Origanum vulgare, 300. 450. Comarum palustre, 450. 250. Polygonum Hydropiper, 450. 250. Asplenium Ruta-muraria, 450. 250. Altitude 400 yards. Temp. 44.35 fahr. 7.00 cent. Habenaria viridis, 420. 400. Salix caprea, 420. 400. Primula vulgaris, 420. 400. Bunium flexuosum, 420. 400. Habenaria bifolia, 420. 350. Rosa canina, 420. 300. Polygonum viviparum, ... 400. Potentilla fruticosa, ... 400. Hieracium gothicum, ... 400. Eriophorum latifolium, ... 400. Hutchinsia petrea, ... 400. Myrica Gale, 400. ... Lastrea Oreopteris, 400. 400. Fraxinus excelsior, 400. 400. Galium verum, 370. 400. Fragaria vesca, 360. 400. Teucrium Scorodonia, 360. 400. Ranunculus ceenosus, 400. 350. Equisetum sylvaticum, 350. 400. Achillea Ptarmica, 350. 400. Habenaria albida, 350.400. Geranium pratense, 350. 400. Lathyrus pratensis, 350.400. — Anthriscus sylvestris, 350. 400. i Il. NORTH ENGLAND. 339 Salix cinerea, 350. 400. Littorella lacustris, 350. 400. Campanula latifolia, 350. 400. Peplis Portula, 340. 400. Potentilla anserina, 320. 400. Ulex europeus, 320. 400. Trollius europeus, 300. 400. Lychnis Flos-cuculi, 300. 400. Callitriche platycarpa, 400. 300. Carex speirostachya, 400. 300. Alopecurus pratensis, 300. 400. Hieracium crocatum, 300. 400. Trifolium medium, 300. 400. Equisetum arvense, 300. 400. Festuca pratensis, 300. 400. Listera ovata, 300. 400. Triticum repens, 300. 400. Phalaris arundinacea, 300. 400. Sedum Telephium, 300. 400. Polygonum Persicaria, 400. 300. Rumex crispus, 300. 400. Equisetum variegatum, 300. 400. Geranium lucidum, 300. 400. Juncus glaucus, 400. 300. Ranunculus auricomus, 200. 400. Avena pubescens, ... 400. Scirpus palustris, ... 400. Hieracium umbellatum, ... 400. Helosciadium inundatum, ... 400. Lotus major, ... 400. Pyrus Aria, ... 400. Glyceria plicata, ... 400. Polypodium calcareum, 100. 400. Alchemilla arvensis, 370. 300. Altitude 350 yards. Temp. 44.85 fahr. 7.25 cent. Scabiosa columbaria, 360. 350. Plantago media, 360. 350. Hieracium boreale, 360. 300. Stachys Betonica, 360. 300. Lobelia Dortmanna, 350. ... Nymphea alba, 350 ... Capsella Bursa-pastoris, 350. 350. Galeopsis Tetrahit, 350. 300. Viola tricolor, 320. 350. Silene maritima, 350. 300. Alnus glutinosa, 350. 300. Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, 350. 300. Mpyriophyllum spicatum, 350. 300. Senecio vulgaris, 350. 300. Bromus mollis, 350. 300. Cerastium glomeratum, 350. 300. Triticum caninum, 350. 300. Trifolium minus, 350. 300. Hydrocotyle vulgaris, 350. 300. Carduus heterophyllus, 300. 350. Callitriche pedunculata, 300. 350. Epilobium tetragonum, 300. 350. Rosa spinosissima, 300. 350. Primula veris, 300. 350. Sinapis arvensis, 300. 350. Spergula arvensis, 300. 350. Sonchus oleraceus, 300. 350. Ranunculus aquatilis, 300. 350. Geranium dissectum, 300. 350. Arctium Lappa, 300. 350. Poteutilla reptans, 300. 350. Vicia Cracca, 350. 250. Sanicula europea, 350. 250. Cardamine sylvatica, 250. 350. Nasturtium officinale, 250. 350. Carlina vulgaris, 250. 350. Milium effusum, 350 ... Orchis latifolia, ... 350. Euphorbia Peplus, ... 350. Raphanus Raphanistrum, ... 350. Vicia sativa, ... 350, Scandix Pecten, ... 350. 340 VII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. Scolopendrium vulgare, ... 350. Carex remota, ... 350. Carex hirta, ... 350. Spirea Filipendula, ... 350. Altitude 300 yards. Temp. 45.35 fahr. 7.50 cent. Blysmus compressus, 340. 300. Potamogeton densus, 340 ... Polygonum aviculare, 330. 300. Populus tremula, 320. 300. Ulmus montana, 320. 300. Avena flavescens, 320. 300. Galium Mollugo, 320, 250. Medicago lupulina, 320 ... Stellaria Holostea, 300. 300. Rumex aquaticus, 300. 300. Gnaphalium sylvaticum, 300. 300. Melica nutans, 300. 300. Meum Athamanticum, 300. 300. Myosotis arvensis, 300. 300. Urtica urens, 300. 300. Bartsia Odontites, 300. 300. Asperula odorata, 300. 300. Geranium sanguineum, 300. 300. Clinopodium vulgare, 300. 300. Stachys sylvatica, 300. 300. Lolium perenne, 300. 300. Phleum pratense, 300. 300. Sedum acre, 300. 300. Euphorbia Helioscopea, 300. 300. Melica uniflora, 300. 300. Myrrhis odorata, 300. 300. Galium Aparine, 300. 300. Torilis Anthriscus, 300. 300. Sherardia arvensis, 300. 300. Sonchus asper, 300. 300. Salix pentandra, 300. 300. Atriplex angustifolia, 300. 300. Lemna minor, 300. 300. Chenopodium B. Henricus, 300. 300. Hieracinm tridentatum, 300. 300. Hieracium strictum, 300. 300. Serratula tinctoria, 300. 300. Knautia arvensis, 300. 300. Silaus pratensis, 300. 300. Epilobium parviflorum, 300. 300. Ribes Grossularia, 300. 300. Glechoma hederacea, 300. 300. Cherophyllum temulentum, 300. 300. Rubus fruticosus, 300. 300. Allium ursinum, 300. 300. Erysimum Alliaria, 300. 300. Hypericum quadrangulnm, 300. 300. Pyrus Malus, 300. 250. Scrophularia nodosa, 300. 250. Fumaria officinalis, 300. 250. Veronica agrestis, 300. 250. Circa Jutetiana, 300. 250. Ononis arvensis, 300. 250. Aquilegia vulgaris, 300. 250. Paris quadrifolia, 300. 250. Brachypodium sylvaticum, 300. 250. Campanula glomerata, 300. 250. Viola hirta, 300. 250. Lychnis diurna, 250. 300. Lapsana communis, 250. 300. Holcus mollis, 250. 300. Lamium purpureum, 250. 300. Polygonum Convyolvulus, 250. 300. Carduus acanthoides, 250. 300. Viburnum Opulus, 250. 300. Trifolium procumbens, 250. 300. Sonchus arvensis, 250. 300. Conium maculatum, 250. 300. Centaurea Scabiosa, 250. 300. Polygonum lapathifolium, 250. 300. Anagallis tenella, 250. 300. Hypericum perforatum, 200. 300. a II. NORTH ENGLAND. 3841 AAthusa Cynapium, 200. 300. Thlaspi alpestre, ... 300. Rubus saxatilis, ... 300. Adoxa Moschatellina, ... 300. Carex ampullacea, ... 300. Carex curta, ... 300. Genista anglica, ... 300. Drosera anglica, ... 300. Meconopsis cambrica, ... 300. Polygonnm Bistorta, ... 300. Ranunculus Ficaria, ... 300. Teesdalia nudicaulis, ... 300. Acta spicata, ... 300. Ranunculus bulbosus, ... 300. Aira caryophyllea, ... 300. Bromus commutatus, ... 300. . Myosotis versicolor, ... 300. Catabrosa aquatica, ... 300. Pyrola minor, ... 300. Melampyrum sylvaticum, ... 300. Hypericum humifusum, ... 300. Equisetum umbrosum, ... 300. Orchis mascula, ... 300. Veronica hederifolia, ... 300. Daucus Carota, ... 300. Plantago Coronopus, ... 300. Avena fatua, ... 300. Potamogeton heterophyllus, ... 300. Agrostis canina, ... 300. Festuca elatior, ... 300. Poa compressa, ... 300. _— Atriplex hastata, ... 300. Arabis thaliana, ... 300. Galium cruciatum, ... 300. Filago germanica, ... 300. Senecio sylvaticus, ... 300. Anthemis arvensis, ... 300. Taxus baccata, ... 300. Epipactis latifolia, ... 300. E. ovalis (atrorubens), ... 300. Glyceria rigida, ... 300. Festuca bromoides, ... 300. Cardamine amara, ... 300. Convallaria majalis, ... 300. Ceterach officinarum, ... 300. Polystichum angulare, ... 300. Brassica (camp.) ‘“ Napus,” ... 300. Rubus casius, ... 300. Sagina apetala, ... 300. Malva moschata, ... 300. Acer campestre, ... 300. Trifolium striatum, ... 300. Cornus sanguinea, ... 300. Sambucus nigra, ... 300. Atropa Belladonna, ... 300. Myosotis sylvatica, ... 300. Scirpus fluitans, ... 300. Cyperus fuscus, ... 300. Festuca Pseudo-myurus, ... 300. Crepis virens, 300. ... Carex sylvatica, 300. .... Hymenophyllum Wilsoni, 300 ... Corydalis claviculata, 300. ... Veronica Anagallis, 300. ... Ophioglossum vulgatum, 300. ... Silene inflata, 300 ... Gnaphalium uliginosum, 300. ... Festuca sylvatica, 300. ... Hypericum montanum, 300. ... Veronica polita, 300. ... Ulex nanus, 300. ... (Perhaps introduced there). Altitude 250 yards. Temp. 45.85 fahr. 7.75 cent. Petasites vulgaris, 250. 250. Mentha sativa, 250. 250. Sisymbrium officinale, 250. 250. Bromus asper, 250. 250. 342 VIII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. Pyrethrum Parthenium, 250. 250. Solanum Dulcamara, 250. 200. Ribes petreum or rubrum, 250. 250. Cornus suecica, ... 250. Chrysosplenium alternifolium, ... 250. Carex pauciflora, ... 250. Salix nigricans, ... 250. Vicia sylvatica, ... 250. Artemisia vulgaris, ... 250. Stellaria nemorum, ... 250. Prunus avium, ... 250. Hypericum Elodes, ... 250. Hippuris vulgaris, ... 250. Lamium incisum, ... 250. Scirpus lacustris, ... 250. Arundo Phragmites, ... 250. Artemisia Absinthium, ... 250. Papaver Rheeas, ... 250. Sparganium ramosum, ... 250. Carex paniculata, ... 250. Cynoglossum officinale, ... 250. Orobanche rubra, 250. Malva sylvestris, ... 250. Lithospermum officinale, ... 250. Parietaria officinalis, ... 250. Ranunculus Lingua, ... 250. Carex muricata, ... 250. Carex vesicaria, ... 250. Bromus sterilis, ... 250. Cerastium arvense, ... 250. Nuphar lutea, ... 250. Potentilla verna, ... 250. Euphorbia exigua, ... 250. Hypericum dubium, ... 250. Epipactis palustris, ... 250. Geranium columbinum, ... 250. Euonymus europeus, ... 250. Ribes alpinum, ... 250. Chelidonium majus, ... 250. Arum maculatum, ... 250. Tamus communis, ... 250. Rhamnus catharticus, ... 250. Linum perenne, ... 250. Cypripedium Calceolus, ... 250. Salix purpurea, ... 250. Rumex pratensis, ... 250. Carex digitata, ... 250. Acorus Calamus, ... 250. Equisetum limosum, 250. ... Carex pallescens, 250. ... Stachys palustris, 250. ... Lychnis vespertina, 250. ... Humulus Lupulus, 250. ... Rubus suberectus, 250. ... Malaxis paludosus, 250. ... Cénanthe crocata, 250. ... Jasione montana, 250. ... Tragopogon pratensis, 250. ... Agrimonia Eupatoria, 250. ... Anagallis arvensis, 250. ... Rumex sanguineus, 250. ... Carex remota, 250. ... Bromus giganteus, 250. ... Myosotis palustris, 250. ... Genista tinctoria, 250 ... Rubus corylifolius, 250. ... Altitude 200 yards. Temp. 46.35 fahr. 8.00 cent. Papaver dubium, ... 200. Erythrea Centaurium, ... 200. Malva rotundifolia, ... 200. Lysimachia vulgaris, ... 200. —_— on wee eres ee Ill. N. SCOTLAND. WALES. 3845 Ill. UPPER LIMITS ELSEWHERE. (West Sutherland, Hebrides, Shetland, Carnarvon). Solidago Virgaurea 36.55 fahr. 2.90 cent. 970 Suthd. Gnaphalium diocum 36.95 fahr. 3.10 cent. 930 Suthd. Arbutus alpina 87.25 fahr. 3.25 cent. 900 Suthd. Hymenophyllum Wilsoni 37.15 fahr. 3.25 cent. 950 Hebr. Luzula sylvatica 38.25 fahr. 3.75 cent. 800 Suthd. Sedum anglicum 37.80 fahbr. 3.80 cent. 1110 Carn. Polypodium vulgare 39.25 fahr. 4.25 cent. 700 Suthd. Erica cinerea 41.25 fahr. 5.25 cent. 500 Suthd. Ranunculus Ficaria 40.90 fahr. 5.35 cent. 800 Carn. Ranunculus hederaceus 41.20 fahr. 5.50 cent. 770 Carn. Scilla verna 42.16 fahr. 5.60 cent. 300 Shetd. Plantago lanceolata 41.40 fahr. 5.60 cent. 750 Carn. Chrysanthemum Leucanth. 41.90 fahr. 5.85 cent. 700 Carn. Meconopsis cambrica 41.90 fahr. 5.85 cent. 700 Carn. Ulex europzus 41.90 fahr. 5.85 cent. 700 Carn. Lonicera Periclymenum 42.00 fahr. 5.90 cent. ‘600 Dur.” Hymenophyllum Wilsoni 42.40 fahr. 6.10 cent. 650 Carn. Asplenium Trichomanes 42.40 fahr. 6.10 cent. 650 Carn. Adoxa Moschatellina 42.40 fahr. 6.10 cent. 650 Carn. Lonicera Periclymenum 43.65 fabr. 6.45 cent. 260 Suthd. Mercurialis perennis 43.10 fahr. 6.45 cent. 580 Carn. Tlex Aquifolium 44.15 fahr. 6.70 cent. 210 Suthd. Cotyledon Umbilicus 45.40 fahr. 7.60 cent. 350 Carn. Jasione montana 45.40 fahr. 7.60 cent. 350 Carn. Menchia glauca 46.60 fabr. 8.20 cent. 230 Carn. IV. EXPLANATIONS OF THE UPPER LIMITS. The preceding lists will appear somewhat complex on first view. Attention to the following explanatory observations will soon render them intelligible. The names of the plants succeed each other in accordance with the highest points or places at which they have been noted. The figures used to denote the altitudes always intend English yards of three feet. The measurements are here seldom carried to the units below ten yards; that sort of minuteness being unnecessary, and tending greatly to confuse the figures. The assumed temperature for 344 VIII, ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. the altitude is added, in accordance with the scales or rates of decrease before suggested, on pages 162 to 166. But in looking at the figures for the two scales, Fahrenheit and centigrade, it must still be recol- lected that the rates of decrease were expressly adapted to the two different thermometers, and thus could not be rendered exactly corre- spondent one with another. (Page 214). Consequently, the tempera- tures expressed by the decimal figures printed on the same lines in the list here under notice, as being the temperatures for the given altitudes, according to the two thermometrical scales, will not be found exactly equal one with another; the difference between them being very slight at first, and becoming wider as the altitude increases. At the lowest altitudes (say, below 250 yards, in the latitude of the Grampian moun- tains) the Fahrenheit scale is slightly in excess over the centigrade. At the highest altitudes, their slight differences are more than reversed ; the centigrade being there in excess over the Fahrenheit scale. These differences may be rendered more obvious at a glance, by printing the true correspondence or equality, along with the figures from the two scales, as the latter are applied in this volume. In latitude 57, from the sea-level upwards, we may trace the following series of figures, on looking to that portion of the preceding lists which relates to the upper limits of plants on the Grampian mountains, page 323 :— O yards. 47 fahr. 8.20 cent. 8.33 true corresp. 200 45 7.20 7.22 400 43 6.20 6.11 600 41 5.20. 5.00 800 39 4.20 3.89 1000 37 3.20 2.78 1200 35 2.20 1.67 1400 33 1.20 0.56 So that, at the highest altitude, 1400 yards, the inequality between the two scales, arising out of their different rates of decrease, attains to 0.64, or nearly two-thirds of a degree,—centigrade in excess over Fahrenheit. It is impossible yet to say confidently, which of these two is the more accurate ; though probability seems in favour of the centigrade, as more nearly correct in its rate of decrease upwards. Indeed, the Fahrenheit scale is added only for the convenience of those phyto-geographers who are unaccustomed to use the other thermometer, and to whom its figures consequently express the temperatures less clearly or less significantly. A remark is incorrectly applied on page 158, immediately underneath : : Iv. EXPLANATIONS. 345 the two lines of figures, which it may be well here to set right. On comparing the extreme temperatures for the whole of Britain, the south coast of England with the summits of the northern hills, the rate of decrease adapted to the centigrade scale will be found slower or less than that adapted to the Fahrenheit scale. But in looking to latitude exclusively, apart from elevation, the reverse holds true; the rate of decrease by the centigrade scale being made very slightly quicker (not “slower or less”) than that given as adapted to the thermometer of Fahrenheit. The reader is requested to make this correction with his pen, on page 158, by erasing the words “slower or less than,’ and introducing the words “in excess over” in their place. The difference, however, is very slight. The two scales begin on perfect equality, as 50 fahr. and 10 cent., in latitude 51. Northwards from thence the latter gradually increases on the former; so that, in latitude 61, we place 45 fahr. and 7 cent. as if equal; the true correspondence being 45 fahr. and 7.22 cent. as above shown. So nearly equal are the two rates, that ten degrees of latitude do not raise the difference toa quarter of a degree of temperature by centigrade scale. These remarks on the indi- cations of temperature are applicable to the three subdivisions of the general list. In some other respects the explanations are better given separately for each subordinate division. 1. Upper limits on the Grampian Mountains. — The names of the plants here succeed each other in accordance with the three (or fewer) figures which terminate the lines. Those figures show the highest spots at which the plants have been noted by the author; with some few additions from other sources; mostly distinguished by inverted commas or other indications. The highest spots being equal for two or more species, then the second or the third figure is taken to determine their relative places in the list. The heights for the Hieracia, quoted between inverted commas, as ‘‘ 1400,” and followed by the initial letter B, are taken from Mr. Backhouse’s Monograph of the genus before mentioned, on page 3 and elsewhere. In the latter portions of the list, where the same figures for temperature and altitude apply to numerous species, some needless repetition of them is avoided by their conversion into head-titles of sections. The basis of the list here printed for the Grampians, was originally published in the first volume of the London Journal of Botany, for the year 1842, pages 62 to 72. Since that date other hills have been VOL. Ivy. 2¥ 346 VIII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. examined, and some of the old ground has been re-examined ; so that the present list is now drawn from notes considerably more extended. Increased experience, it may be trusted, has led also to increased accuracy in processes so liable to uncertainty and error on the part of those who seek to determine altitudes. | Unless otherwise shown, as by the inverted commas or added authority, the present writer must be held responsible for all the heights stated in the list. His datum during measurements has seldom been the sea-level. The summit of Ben Lawers, at 3950 feet, has given one datum ; with which to compare the altitudes in Mid Perth, &c. Kingussie, at 750 feet, has given a second datum ; with which to compare a wide mountainous tract about Loch Enrricht. And the village of Castletown in Braemar, at 1070 feet, has been a third datum ; used for the south-west of Aberdeenshire and adja- cent portions of Perthshire and Forfarshire. Those three heights have been published on authority held safe and reliable. But in assuming the alleged altitudes of those three places to be quite correct as starting points, it is not pretended that the hundreds of other altitudes have all been ascertained with like accuracy. On the contrary, the reader is here requested to look back to an explanation about the difference between measured and estimated altitudes, inci- dentally given on pages 213, 214 of volume third, under the head of Cynosurus cristatus. And if desirous of further information as to the manner of taking the heights of stations, he will find it more fully explained in the volume of the London Journal of Botany, above referred to. It may be shortly stated here, that many of the figures in- troduced into the list are estimates formed in a similar manner with the one explained for Cynosurus cristatus. The heights of two spots being taken as precisely as the quality of the instruments and state of weather - would allow, the altitudes of plants noted between those two spots were estimated or guessed according to their successive appearance between the two spots, and their apparent distances from one or both of them. The altitudes for various plants noted at or about the particular spots so measured,—often a hill-summit or table-land,—or the true heights of which were supposed to be known otherwise on some good authority, must be deemed more closely correct. But in truth all modes of taking heights indirectly, through the aid of instruments which indicate simply the pressure of the atmosphere and its temperature, as data from which the heights are to be calculated, are liable to grave errors occasionally ; although with due care they may suffice to give fair approximations, Iv. EXPLANATIONS. 347 which are always to be read with the qualifying phrase of “ more or less” in the mind of the reader. Tilustrations of the sort of uncertainty intended, and the need of keeping in mind the qualifying “more or less,’ might be obtained within the compass of this volume, on rigidly comparing the heights indicated in the ‘Summary of Distribution’ (by the letters “c a u”) with the limits stated in the list here under explanation. It has been finally arranged for printing since the ‘Summary’ was all printed off; some few of the altitudes being slightly altered on re-calculation, or on account of some additional locality, not taken into account while the ‘Summary’ was under preparation for the press. For example, Vale- riana officinalis and Carduus heterophyllus ave not marked by the letter *u’ in the ‘Summary,’ as belonging to the upper stage of altitude: while on page 329 their upper limits are carried to 720 yards; and they might consequently have been held to inhabit the upper stage, or that between 700—1400 yards. In volume second they were carried up to 650 and 700 yards; steps of less than 50 yards being seldom made in the furmer volumes ; and hence they were not lettered for the upper stage. Notes on the altitudes attained by the Hieracia, taken at intervals during a score of past years, are of course inapplicable to the more segregated species recently published in the Monograph by Mr. Back- house. The altitudes given by this gentleman are therefore substituted ; his list of species having been incorporated in the ‘Summary of Distri- bution’ with one exception and one addition. It is suspected, however, that the altitudes stated in the book of Mr. Backhouse can be intended only as very rongh guesses; and that they have in no case been ascer- tained through instrumental observation. Perhaps they are quite as true and reliable as the so-called species themselves ; which no botanist seems able to make out by the diffuse and non-contrasting descriptions in the book ; although Mr. Backhouse can himself doubtless label most specimens empirically in close accordance with his own nomenclature ; —much as an amateur florist can point out well enough his dukes and lords, generals and admirals, superbs and defiances, among his roses, tulips, dahlias, and other fancy flowers ; though botanists are unable to express their trivial differences in an intelligible manner by the lan- guage of science. Dr. Dickie published a series of altitudes for the plants of Aberdeen- shire, in the second volume of the London Journal ef Botany, pages 848 VIII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. 134—5. Some of these are valuable additions, incorporated in the list here under explanation. The greater number of them were found not available ; as only indicating heights far within those already ascertained for the same species. For example, it being sufficiently known that Montia fontana occurs at the sea-level, at the height of 3000 feet, and at various other intermediate spots, a formal record of the height of 1900 feet fur the same very common plant can scarcely be said to have any value in science; or, at any rate, it is not required here. On examining the list by Dr. Dickie, there appears to be a difference between his measurements and those made by the present writer, which is of some consequence to the matter in hand. Dr. Dickie appears to give considerably higher figures for the same spots; and consequently also for the same plants, where his measurements do relate to their actual upper limits, and not merely to the intermediate altitudes as above instanced in the Montia. ‘As here printed, the altitudinal figures for plants on the tract of the Grampians are abbreviated from a manuscript list carried out to more minute and numerous details. The measurements were originally cal- culated in feet, and the estimates were made accordingly in even num- bers of feet. In here converting them into yards, almost all fractions under ten yards have been omitted. So that 1000 feet thus become 330 yards only, 2000 feet become 660 yards only, while 3000 feet divide into the equal altitude of 1000 yards. This loss in the process of con- verting feet into yards, and dropping the units, occasionally gives an appearance of mis-position to names in the list, where one stands above another on account of a small difference in the number of feet for the first or second figure. Halfa dozen species are here subjoined from the manuscript list, with their altitudes, as an example of the data from which that of the preceding pages is abbreviated :— Calluna vulgaris, 3300. 3250. 3200. 3170. 3140. 2950. 2900. ete. Juniperus nana, 2700. 2665. 2600. 2480. 2400. Erica Tetralix, 2370. 2280. 2162. 2100. 2100. 2060. 2050. ete. Erica cinerea, 2200. 2200. 2150. 2078. 2068. 2050. 2000 ? ete. Pieris aquilina, 1920. 1720. 1604. 1600. 1550. 1500. 1500. ete. Myrica Gale, 1700. 1617. 1550. 1490. 1350. 1346. 1307. etc. The altitudes for many of the alpine or sub-arctic plants may perhaps be understated. The difficulties and risks of fracture, which attend the transport of delicate glass instruments among rocks and precipices, pre- sented a serious practical impediment to their use in such situations; sll Ni Oi ee i i ee IV. EXPLANATIONS. 349 while many of the alpine plants are now almost confined to the steeper precipices, in spots out of the reach of sheep. The greater number of such alpiniferous rocks, about the tract of the Grampians, range between 800 and 1000 yards of altitude; and a medium height being taken in many cases of uncertainty, the figure of 900 yards occurs frequently in the list under explanation. The Gentiana nivalis may afford rather an extreme example. The only spot in which it has been picked by the author of this work, was on the rocks of Canlochen glen, in Forfarshire. The top of those precipitous rocks was short of 1000 yards by measure- ment; and the Gentiana was observed much below the top. The height of 900 yards is doubtless exceeded elsewhere, as may be seen by re- ference to the detailed notice of the plant in volume second, page 172. 2. Upper limits in North England. — The arrangement here is nearly similar to that of the latter portion of the antecedent list. Condensa- tion is sought by placing two names on the same line, and giving the altitudes and temperatures in steps of 50 yards as sectional titles. The altitudes are repeated after the technical names, and occasionally carried up to the tens instead of fifties, with a signification by place which requires to be explained. The first numerals after the name of a plant relate to the Lake province exclusively, that is, to the counties of Cum- berland and Westmoreland taken together. The second numerals relate exclusively to North Yorkshire, that is, to the northern portion of the Humber province. If only a single altitudinal figure is given, the place of the absent one is indicated by three dots. Thus ‘1050. ...” signifies that Carew rigida has been seen at so many yards in the Lake province ; no altitude in Yorkshire having been ascertained for it, if it occurs at all in that county. Conversely, “... G00” signifies that Barisia alpina or Carex capillaris (page 336) has been observed at 600 yards in Yorkshire ; not observed in the Lake province, or observed only at an altitude not known. A copious list of plants, indicating the heights at which they had been noted in Yorkshire, was kindly furnished to this work by Mr. J. G. Baker; who was requested to indicate them by steps of 50 yards. Several considerations combine to render it a matter of comparatively little importance at present to seek them in more precise figures. The second figures after the names in the list are drawn exclusively from Mr. Baker's list. The heights for the Lake province were ascertained by the present writer, partly by the barometer, partly by the sympieso- 350 VIII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. meter; partly also, they are estimates made on faith of general repute respecting the heights of certain hills and passes. The greater portion of these altitudes were ascertained in the years 1856 and 1857, by the two parties, working quite independently of each other; how far their figures would correspond or conflict, not being at all known until thus brought together in the printed list. At the upper part of the list, it will be seen, the altitudes for the Lake province are always greater than those for the Humber, as set after the same names of plants. This difference between the provinces might lead to a false inference, if looked at without recollection that Scawfell and other hills in Cumberland attain to much higher elevation than the fells of Yorkshire. The figures for neither province can be deemed sufficiently complete and precise, to give reliable evidence whether the plants generally ascend higher in one province than in the other. A more satisfactory inference can be drawn from a comparison be- tween the heights for North England and those given in the antecedent list for the Grampian mountains in the middle of Scotland. At equal altitudes on these latter mountains the flora is found to be much more numerous than it is in the North of England ; many of the individual species being also found to ascend to greater heights. These two facts hold good until we descend to slight altitudes,—say, below 1000 feet ; where they are reversed, and the contrary becomes true. It is easy to account for this exception to a more general rule, namely, that of spe- cies ascending less high in a more northerly latitude. Like most “exceptions” to well-founded rules, it is simply an example of one or more other such rules or principles. The mountains of Scotland are much more lofty than those of England ; and at or above equal altitudes the extent of surface is far greater in Scotland. The higher elevation affords suitable place and climate for various plants too alpine or arctic for the lower hills of England. Besides this difference, there are com- paratively sheltered glens or ravines, and extensive surfaces of rocks almost inaccessible to sheep, situate among the Grampian mountains at altitudes where in England only bleak summits are found, of very small extent, and mostly close-cropped by flocks. In showing the number of species ascertained at or above equal heights in the two tracts of country, the subjoined table will evidence the influence of those differences on the general flora; while a comparison between the altitudes stated in the two lists, for the same individual species, will equally serve to show their usually higher ascent on the loftier hills of Scotland :— IV. EXPLANATIONS. 351 At or above 1400 yards, 12 species in Mid Scotland. 1300 46 1200 67 1100 89 1000 123 17 species in N. England. 900 205 29 800 239 76 700 272 101 600 313 165 500 352 241 400 392 320 350 455 368 300 458 511 250 476 581 The plants which find an upper limit between 250 and 350 yards in Mid Scotland, are less fully ascertained. But after making some addi- tions on this account, those of Scotland would not count to an equality with those of England below 300 yards; although more numerous above that height. 3. Upper limits elsewhere. — Little explanation can be needed in regard to this short list. It is supplementary to the two preceding lists ; including a few plants not noted in them, or noted only at lower altitudes, or the stated heights of which it seemed desirable to corrobo- rate by their position elsewhere. Sedum anglicum and Scilla verna exemplify the first ;—Hymenophyllum Wilsoni and Ulex europeus, the second ;—Arbutus alpina and Ilex Aquifolium, the third. It is much to be wished that some competent observer of such things would carefully trace out the altitudes of plants in Wales. Very little has yet been attempted there, and only at a season quite unsuitable for mountain botany. But in every or any part of Britain a careful repeti- tion or re-examination is also desirable. The chief object now should be to carry forward observations on the altitudes of plants into more exact details, and with increased accuracy, throughout Britain. In first attempts there must always and unavoidably be great sacrifice of time in proportion to the results attained ; the progress being very slow com- paratively with that which may subsequently be achieved. For instance, both absolute and relative heights of the species are so imperfectly known by casual observation, as to be virtually unknown for purposes 352 VIII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. of science. It will thus happen, that much time is lost in noting and calculating the heights for the same plants again and again, through successively finding them higher and higher, or (in case of the alpines) lower and iower, than the spots at which their altitudes had been before noted and calculated. Much of that troublesome repetition may now be avoided ; because heights decidedly within those stated in the lists may now be disregarded unless under special circumstances; those about (above or below) the indicated limits being more especially and almost exclusively such as still require to be carefully noted. Pioneers are compelled to advance slowly and laboriously. A way once made, and landmarks fixed, their successors can get on more quickly; accom- plishing more, and in less time. Vv. LOWER LIMITS OF SPECIES. Saxifraga cernua, 2.10 cent. Perthshire, down to 1250 yards. Saxifraga czspitosa, 2.20 cent. Aberdeenshire, say at 1200 yards. Carex lagopina (leporina), 2.25 cent. Aberdeenshire, rather lower. Luzula areuata, 2.80 cent. Sutherland, say at 1000 yards. Poa laxa, 3.20 cent. Grampians, at 1000 yards, less or more. Poa minor, 3.20 cent. The same, and also uncertain. Ce-astium latifolium, 3.20 cent. Grampians, at 1000 yards. Lower? Draba rupestris, 3.25 cent. Sutherland, say at 900 yards. Stellaria cerastoides, 3.50 cent. Ben Nevis, at 900 yards, near snow. Saxifraga rivularis, 3.50 cent. The same, also irrigated from snow. Juncus biglumis, 3.70 cent. Grampians, at 900 yards. Seldom so low. Aira alpina, 3.70 cent. Thesame. Altitude ill ascertained. Cystopteris montana, 3.70 cent. Grampians, say at 900 yards. Menziesia cerulea, 3.70 cent. Perth, about 900 yards. Single locality. Carex saxatilis, 4 cent. Easterness, rather below 850 yards. Carex aquatilis, 4 cent. Forfar, 850 yards. Different species lower? Salix reticulata, 4 cent. Rocks in Perth and Forfar, at 850 yards. Erigeron alpinus, 4 cent. The same. Carex atrata, 4 cent. The same. Arenaria rubella, 4.10 cent. Perth, at 850 or 830 yards. Cherleria sedoides, 4.10 cent. The same. If in Shetland, zt 450. Salix procumbens, 4.20 cent. Grampians, at 800 yards ? Salix Myrsinites, 4.20 cent. The same. Forfarshire, etc. Gnaphalium norvegicum, 4.20 cent. The same. Gentiana nivalis, 4.20 cent. The same. Among rocks. . Vv. LOWER LIMITS. 353 Salix lanata, 4.20 cent. The same. Declivities and rocks. Carex Vahlii, 4.20 cent. The same, at 800 yards by estimate. Astragalus alpinus, 4.20 cent. Aberdeen, about 800 yards. Carex vaginata, 4.20 cent. Grampians, 800 yards; but uncertain. Poa cesia, 4.20 cent. The same. At 600 yards in Yorkshire? Carex rariflora, 4.20 cent. Grampians, at 800 yards. Low in Suthd. Juncus castaneus, 4.50 cent. Forfar, at 800 yards, or rather lower. Veronica saxatilis, 4.50 cent. Forfar, down to 750 yards on rocks ? Mulgedium (or Sonchus) alpinum, 4.60 cent. The same, or lower. Veronica alpina, 4.70 cent. Grampians, at 700 yards in swamps. Alopecurus alpinus, 4.70 cent. The same. Phieum alpinum, 4.80 cent. Aberdeen, at 680 yards. ’ Oxytropis campestris, 4.80 cent. Forfar, at 700 yards, by rude estim. Myosotis alpestris, 5 cent. North-west Yorkshire, “at 800 yards.” Saxifraga nivalis, 5 cent. Forfar, at 650 yards. Seldom so low. Juncus trifidus, 5 cent. Sutherland, 550 yards. Grampians, at 650. Juniperus nana, 5 cent. Cumberland, about 800 yards. Pseudathyrium alpestre, 5 cent. Grampians, down to 600 yards. Sagina saxatilis, 5 cent. The same; but lowest limit uncertain. Hieracium alpinum (aut.), 5.10 cent. Nevis, at 620 yards. Perth, 680. Salix herbacea, 5.10 cent. Nevis, at 620 yards. Orkney, about 500. Cerastium alpinum, 5.20 cent. Aberdeen, about 600 yards. Spec. une. Azalea procumbens, 5.25 cent. Sutherland, at 500 yards. Shetland. Carex rigida, 5.35 cent. Sutherland, at 480 yards. Shetland. Sibbaldia procumbens, 5.45 cent. Grampians, at 550 yards. Luzula spicata, 5.50 cent. Aberdeen, at 540 yards; usually 600 or 700. Salix arbuscula, 5.70 cent. Grampians, about 500 yards; but uncer. Lycbnis alpina, 5.70 cent. Cumberland, at ‘2000 feet.” Poa alpina, 5.75 cent. North-west Yorkshire, at 650 yards (Baker). Betula nana, 5.80 cent. Grampians, below 500 yards. Gnaphalium supinum, 5.90 cent. Easterness, at 460 yards. Carex rupestris, 6 cent. “ Inchnadamf, Sutherland,” at ... ? Anthericum serotinum, 6 cent. Carnarvon, say at 700 yards. Arenaria uliginosa, 6 cent. North England, about “ 600 yards.” Epilobium alpinum, 6 cent. Grampians, at 450 yards. Saussurea alpina, 6 cent. Sutherland, at 350 yards. Shetland. Elyna (Kobresia) caricina, 6 cent. Teesdale, at “ 600 yards, or lower.” Polygala uliginosa, 6.25 cent. Yorkshire, at 550 yards (J. G. Baker). Juncus triglumis, 6.40 cent. Perth, 360 yards. Aberdeen, at 400. VOL. Iv. 22 354 VIII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. Bartsia alpina, 6.50 cent. York, at 500 yards (Mr. J. G. Baker). Tofieldia palustris, 6.50 cent. Perth, at 340 or 350 yards. Hieracium prenanthoides, 6.50 cent. The same. Polystichum Lonchitis, 6.60 cent. | Midwest York, at 500 yards (Tatham). Woodsia ilvensis, 6.70 cent. Dumfries at 400 yards (Rev. W. Little). Arabis petrea, 6.70 cent. By the Dee, below 300 yards (Prof. Dickie). Rubus Chamemorus, 6.75 cent. Sutherland, about 200 yards. Arenaria norvegica, 6.75 cent. Shetland, down to “200 feet.” Cerastium nigrescens, 6.75 cent. The same (Edmondston). Veronica humifusa, 6.80 cent. Denbigh, at 500 yards (Bowman). Lastrea rigida, 7.25 cent. York, at 400 yards, or lower. Gentiana verna, 7.25 cent. York or Durham, “at 350 yards.” Silene acaulis, 7.35 cent. Orkney, at 50 yards (Syme). Shetland, 0. Epilobium alsinifolium, 7.40 cent. Carnarvon, at 200 yards, or lower. Carex Persoonii (vitilis), 7.50 cent. York, below, 300 yards (Baker). Salix lapponum, 7.50 cent. East Lowlands, at 200 yards ? Nuphar pumila, 7.50 cent. Bases of the Grampians. Ajuga pyramidalis, 7.50 cent. Sutherland, below 100 yards (Oliver). Arbutus alpina, 7.50 cent. North Sutherland, about 50 yards. Alchewilla alpina, 7.60 cent. Lakes, 350 yards. Perth, 150 yards. Trientalis europea, 7.60 cent. Perth, below 150 yards ? Salix phylicifolia, 7.75 cent. Westmoreland, at 200 or 250 yards. Carex pauciflora, 7.75 cent. North Yorkshire, at 250 yards (Baker). Hierochloe borealis, 7.75 cent. “ North coast of Caithness.” Primula scotica, 7.75 cent. North coast of Scotland, near sea-level. Carex capillaris, 7.75 cent. Sutherland, at the sea-level. Pinguicula alpina, 8 cent. Isle of Skye. East Ross, below 50 yards. Eriocaulon septangulare, 8 cent. Isle of Skye, etc. Altitude ... ? Equisetum Mackaii, 8 cent. Aberdeen, ...? Distrib. unascertained. Caltha radicans, 8 cent. Forfar, at a low level. Aberdeen, 400 yards. Pyrola uniflora, 8 cent. Perth and Ross, at low levels. Pinus sylvestris, 8 cent. North Britain, by reduced distribution. Linnea borealis, 8 cent. Bases of the Grampians, ete. Convallaria verticillata, 8 cent. The same, rarely. Limits unascert. Orobus niger, 8 cent. The same ; also in very few spots. Melampyrum sylvaticum, 8 cent. |The same, probably below 100 yards. Crepis succisefolia, 8 cent. York, 150 yards, or lower ? Pyrola secunda, 8 cent. Moray, near the level of the sea. Vaccinium uliginosum, 8 cent. North England, about 400 yards. See ee ll! CSCS a ee a a el Vv. LOWER LIMITS. 355 Arbutus Uva-ursi, 8 cent. |§ West Highlands, below 50 yards. Sedum villosum, 8 cent. East Highlands, at coast-level, or nearly so. Meum Athamanticum, 8 cent. The same. Lakes, below 200 yards? Potentilla alpestris, 8 cent. North England, at 200 yards or more. Thalictrum alpinum, 8 cent. East Ross, near sea-level. Suthd., 0. Circea alpina, 8 cent. North of Argyle, about the sea-level. Salix nigricans, 8 cent. Lowest limits not ascertained. Salix laurina, 8 cent. The same remark. Galium montanun, 8 cent. West Humber, at 200 yards ? Asplenium germanicum, 8 cent. Scotland, below 200 yards ? Asplenium septentrionale, 8 cent. Scotland, below 200 yards. Cornus snecica, 8 cent. North York, about 200 yards (Baker). Potentilla fruticosa, 8 cent. York, apparently about 200 yards. Sesleria cerulea, 8.10 cent. Lakes, Humber, below 200 yards. Lycopodium alpinum, 8.20 cent. Kincardine, at the coast-level ? Carduus heterophyllus, 8.20 cent. Westerness, at the sea-level. Galium boreale, 8.20 cent. Aberdeen, at or near the sea-level. Oxyria reniformis, 8.20 cent. The same, by the river-side (Dickie). Goodyera repens, 8.20 cent. East Highlands, at or near the sea-level. Corallorhiza innata, 8.25 cent. Lowlands, ...? Altitude slight. Potentilla rupestris, 8.25 cent. | Montgomery, “at 600 or 700 feet.” Juncus balticus, 8.30 cent. Coast of Forfar. Polygonuin viviparum, 8.30. cent. E. Highlands, 0. Fife, below 50? Saxifraga stellaris, 8°50 cent. North Wales, at 150 yards (Bowman). Lycopodium annotinum, 8.50 cent. Charnwood, at... ? Mull,8.10c¢. Carex incurva, 8.50 cent. Shore of the Forth? Forfar shore. Juncus filiformis, 8.50 cent. Windermere, Westmoreland. Equisetum umbrosum, 8.50 cent. Descends to the coast-levels ? Cypripedium Calceolus, 8.50 cent. Nearly the same? Primula farinosa, 8.50 cent. York, at a slight altitude. Lysimachia thyrsiflora, 8.50 cent. Scotland, at or near the coast-level. Actea spicata, 8.50 cent. York, at 100 yards or lower (Baker). Carex irrigua, 8.50 cent. Lowlands. North of England. Thlaspi alpestre, 8.50 cent. Derbyshire, below 200 yards. Draba muralis, 8.50 cent. The same. Somerset, perhaps 9 cent. Polemonium ceruleum, 8.50 cent. The same. Tyne, at 150 yards? Lychnis Viscaria, 8.60 cent. Radnor, ...? Lowlands, at 50 or 100. Saxifraga oppositifolia, 8.60 cent. Cantyre, 0. North Aberdeen, 0. Draba incana, 8.60 cent. Islay, 0. East Ross, 15 yards. 356 VIII. ALTITUDE OF SPECIES. Saxifraga aizoides, 8.60 cent. Ayr, on coast-rocks. Sedum Rhodiola, 8.60 cent. Lowlands, east and west, on same. Ligusticum scoticum, 8.60 cent. Northumberland. Ayr. Rumex aquaticus, 8.60 cent. Lowlands. North England. Potamogeton gracilis, 8.60 cent. Northumberland. Dubious species. Allium Scorodoprasum, 8.70 cent. | Tyne, about the coast-level. Thalictrum majus (Sm.), 8.70 cent. | The same. Lakes, 75 yards. Oxytropis uralensis, 8.80 cent. Coast of Wigton. Fife, say 8.25 cent. Tsoetes lacustris, 8.80 cent. Lake province, nearly to coast-level. Allosorus crispus, 8.80 cent. North Wales, 150 or 100 yards. Asplenium viride, 9 cent. Low in the Severn province Empetrum nigrum, 9 cent. East York, at the coast-level. Vaccinium Vitis-idea, 9 cent. Cheshire, about 50 yards. Saxifraga Hirculus, 9 cent. Cheshire, at ...? Salix acutifolia, 9 cent. North-east Yorkshire, at ...? Carex paradoxa, 9 cent. Vale of York, at 20 or 30 yards? Arundo stricta, 9 cent. Cheshire, at ...? Rubus saxatilis, 9 cent. Highest temperature not ascertained. Rubus suberectus, 9 cent. Wales, at a low altitude. Crepis paludosa, 9 cent. North England, about the sea-level. Arabis ciliata, 9 cent. South Wales only? Altitude ...? Listera cordata, 9 cent. York, at 15 or 20 yards. Devon, 150 or 200. Carum Carui, 9.20 cent. Near Hull, by old records. Lycopodium selaginoides, 9.20 cent. Lancashire coast, at tide-level. Erythrea latifolia, 9.20 cent. The same. Doubtful elsewhere. Subularia aquatica, 9.25 cent. Anglesea, at slight altitude ? Impatiens Noli-me-tangere, 9.25. Wales. Is 9.25 too high? Saxifraga hypnoides, 9.25 cent. Somerset, at 100 or 150 yards (Clark). Blysmus rufus, 9.30 cent. Coast of Anglesea. Mertensia maritima (no. 858), 9.30 cent. The same. Callitriche autumnalis, 9.30 cent. Anglesea. (Good species). Lobelia Dortmanna, 9.50 cent. Salop, Glamorgan, at ...? Vicia Orobus, 9.50 cent. Carmarthen ; altitude also unknown. Trollius europzus, 9.50 cent. Wales, at or near the coast-level. Viola lutea, 9.50 cent. Pembroke, near the coast-level. Hymenophyllum Wilsoni, 9.50 cent. Cornwall, on a hill of 700 feet. Symphytum tuberosum, 9.50 cent. Ouse (and Thames ?) at low alt. Lamium intermedium .., cent. South limit not ascertained. Vv. LOWER LIMITs. 357 Explanations relating to the Lower Limits.—The lower limits of plants are more variable, and are less readily determined than the upper limits ; those of one species comparatively with, or relatively to, those of another. With decreasing height the surface to be examined becomes wider and more diversified. The modifying influences of maritime proximity, of shelter and exposure, of character or configuration of surface, of agricul- tural and other human operations, seem all to act with increasing force on the lowest limits of plants. Those limits are in consequence more difficult to determine, and seem less clear or satisfactory when brought into a series arranged on paper. A first attempt at such an arrangement was printed in the first volume of the ‘ London Journal of Botany,’ pages 241 to 253; but restricted to the plants of the Grampian mountains. The more extended series above given is founded on the same notes and observations, with many additions since made; but the localities are here reduced to one or two for each species, in order not to exceed a single line. The names are placed in series according to the supposed temperature of the lowest spots, relatively to the latitude, at which the species have been noted ; the altitudes being represented by centigrade temperature, in accordance with the scales given on pages 164, 165 of this volume. The indication of temperature may thus be said to show the highest (warmest) climate which the plant appears adapted to sustain, so far as its places of growth in Britain may suffice to show this. But such climatal indications can pretend only to be approximations, more or less close for each plant. The lower is the name in the list, the less certain is its position, as a general rule. The first locality or altitude stated for each species, is the one with which the stated temperature is supposed to correspond; and it as at present the lowest ascertained, relatively to lati- tude and temperature. For instance, Draba incana being found at the sea-level in Islay, southward of latitude 56, where the sea-level tempe- rature should exceed 8.50 centigrade, it is placed below Alchemilla alpina ; this latter not having been noted anywhere exactly on the shore or sea-level, and probably not existing below 100 yards anywhere to the southward of latitude 56. . The succession of names in the list thus constitutes a climatal series, chiefly determined by altitude, and in so far representing simple alti- tude; but this latter condition being also read in relation to latitude ; and not absolutely, unless under equal latitude. As a general rule, always liable to various exceptions in its local applications, plants may 358 IX. ORDINAL SUMMARIES. be deemed to succeed each other in climate and position similarly with the succession of their names in the above list. If we trace downwards from the higher hills and more northerly provinces, towards the low or flat country of the south-eastern provinces of England, we lose the plants nearly in the order or series of their names. Conversely, we may meet with them nearly in accordance with the same series reversed, as we pass from the low south-eastern provinces into the more borea) and more mountainous provinces. But in no single province or division can the same series be found. The plants themselves do not all occur in any one province or larger division of Britain; and in each separate division or province some variations will appear in the succession of those which do occur there. Moreover, progressive knowledge will doubtless induce changes and corrections in the relative position or series of the names as now printed. The list is restricted to those plants not marked “1” in the ‘Summary of Distribution,’ that is, not certainly descending into the inferagrarian zone. The Hieracia are mostly omitted ; the statements about their lower limits, in the Monograph by Mr. Backhouse, being found too incomplete and uncertain for use in this manner. Possibly the short list of lower limits may prove a sort of Pons asinorum with beginners. If more advanced botanists should find any difficulty in understanding it, they are requested to read carefully the lower halves of pages 164, 165, and the upper half of page 166. If they should then still fail to understand the list, they are respectfully recommended not to trouble themselves about phyto-geography. IX. CENSUS OR SUMMARIES OF ORDERS. N.B. Comparisons would be found less convenient among the orders in any one of the annexed lists, if they should be set in a fragmentary manner over more pages than actually required by the number of lines. On this account the explanations will not be appended to each in turn, but be given collectively after the last of them. te il) ee a 1 17 22 33 35 36 Composite Gramina Cyperoides Rosacee Leguminifere Crucifere Umbellifere Caryophyllacee Scrophulariacee Lamiacee Filices Orchidacee Ranunculacee Amentiferz Polygonacee Juncacez Chenopodiacee Potamacee Boraginacee Liliaceze Ericacee Rubiacez Primulaceze Geraniacee Euphorbiacee Gentianacee Saxifragacer Campanulacee Onagracex Crassulacee Hypericacee Violacee Orobanchacezx Equisetacee Alismacee Papaveracee I. COLLECTIVE CENSUS. COLLECTIVE CENSUS OF ORDERS. Spec. 135 112 93 82 70 60 57 57 48 47 39 39 35 34 26 26 24 22 21 21 20 18 17 14 14 14 14 14 13 Perc. 9.47 7.87 6.52 5.73 4.91 4,21 4.00 4.00 3.36 3.29 2.73 2.73 2.45 2.38 1.82 1.82 1.68 1.54 1.47 1.47 1.40 1.26 1.19 98 -98 -98 98 98 91 77 -70 -70 -70 63 63 AI Census. 5600 5007 3402 2714 2850 2156 2383 2338 2211 2366 1795 1251 1654 1239 1353 1200 796 727 923 450 667 869 814 758 478 474 449 440 626 330 Aver. 41 44 36 33 40 36 42 41 46 50 46 32 47 36 52 46 33 33 44 21 33 48 48 53 - 34 34 32 21 48 30 59 44 16 49 46 54 Europe. 1401 554 255 272 852 579 495 493 381 411 71 111 277 130 74 58 114 40 204 256 52. 170 93 68 124 70 109 162 27 97 52 137 108 13 15 25 359 vV.K, 9000 3800 2000 1000 6500 1600 1500 1070 1814 2350 2040 3000 1000 570 490 200 360 60 600 1200 1080 320 215 500 2500 550 310 875 450 450 276 300 116 10 60 130 860 TX. 37 Plantaginacee 38 Caprifvliacee 39 Typhacee 40 Lycopodiacee 41 Fumariacee 42 Pinguiculacee 43 Plumbaginacee 44 Illecebracee 45 Dipsacee 46 Valerianacee 47 Malvacee 48 Iridacee 49 Urticacee 50 Solanaceze 51 Pistiacee 52 Haloragiacee 53 Linacee 54 Callitrichacee 55 Conifere 56 Grossulariacee 57 Cistacee 58 Convolyulacee 59 Droseracee 60 Lythracee 61 Nympheaceze 62 Melanthiacee 63 Polygalacee 64 Cuscutacee 65 Araliacee 66 Jasminacee 67 Resedacee 68 Rhamnacee 69 Aracee 70 Ulmaceze 71 Cornacee 72 Marsileacee 73 Thymeleacez 74 Hydrocharidacee ORDINAL SUMMARIES. Spec, Pere. -42 42 42 A2 42 42 6 rp PP PP PPR HOOT DAAAH AAD wo YCvonnwwnwwo w wonwnnndwv © wv Census, Aver. 466 326 314 261 258 206 126 89 328 301 245 142 309 229 200 189 188 169 112 110 79 170 154 148 131 123 98 59 159 132 131 92 86 73 65 58 57 50 78 55 Europe. V. K. $7: >120 24 220 15 13 10 200 33 100 ll 175 100 160 41 100 86 150 54. 85 62 1000 87 550 24- 300 46 900 5.| ee ee ee ee ~~ ee el oe el oe ee ~~ © | — ee _ ' 1 1 — Sou. Mid, Nor. 1280 1148 980 9386 965 914 822647 315 335 315 274 233 54 55 51 52 50 South. Mid. North. 71.40 71.60 69.57 24.60 23.86 25.05 3.98 4.52 5.37 - pte pee tt OW OD WD OO 1 1 Coa. Asc. Up. 1319 687 262 957 486 170 312 157 68 50 44 24 _ Coast, Ascend. Upper. 72.55 70.74 64.88 23.65 22.85 25.95 3.79 640 9.16 Ill. 1 Composite 2 Gramina 3 Cyperoides 4 Rosacee 5 Leguminifere 6 Cruciferze 7 Umbellifere 8 Caryophyllacee 9 Scrophulariacee 10 Lamiacee 11 Filices 12 Orchidacee 13 Ranunculacee 14 Amentifere 15 Polygonacee 16 Juncacee 17 Chenopodiacez 18 Potamacee 19 Boraginacee 20 Liliacee 21 Ericacee 22 Rubiacee 23 Primulacee 24 Geraniacee 25 Euphorbiacee 26 Gentianacee 27 Saxifragacee 28 Campanulacee 29 Onagracee 80 Crassulacee 31 Hypericum 82 Viola 33 Orobanchacee 34 Equisetum 35 Alismacee 36 Papaveracee Iii. CLIMATAL CENSUS OF ORDERS. CLIMATAL CENSUS. Br. Agr, 93 82 70 60 57 57 48 47 39 39 35 34 26 26 24 22 21 21 20 18 17 14 14 14 14 14 13 135 116 112 105 84 81 68 59 57 47 44 47 36 39 35 Are, 45 27 33 — — Om WOrAnNr Or NWR A —e=—= wit Agrarjan zones. 102 102 77 72 65 54 54 45 43 45 29 35 30 22 23 18 24 21 19 18 12 16 87 83 68 63 46 45 43 41 36 41 33 27 29 25 21 18 20 20 17 12 UOSCONANWTO WO 70 64 62 36 32 POH ADH OA Arctic zones, 33 2) Om WA ON FR DO PS — mm 0 32 18 28 12 14 il _ 366 IX. ORDINAL SUMMARIES. Br. Agr. Arc. Agrarian zones. Arctic Zones. 6 2 6 6 6 2 it 37 Plantaginacee _ 38 Caprifoliacee 39 Typhacee 40 Lycopodium 41 Fumariacee on = 1 o 42 Pingulacee 43 Plumbaginacez 44 Illecebracee 45 Dipsacee 46 Valerianacee 47 Malvacee 48 Iridacee 49 Urticacee * 50 Solanacee 51 Lemna 52 Haloragiacee 53 Linacee 54 Callitriche 55 Conifere 56 Ribes 57 Helianthemum 58 Convolvulus 59 Drosera 60 Lythracee 61 Nympheacee 62 Melanthiacee 63 Polygala 64 Cuscuta 65 Araliacee 66 Jasminacee 67 Reseda 68 Rhamnus 69 Aracee 70 Ulmus 71 Cornus 72 Marsileacee 73 Daphne 74 Hydrocharidacee Be wo Hw we We VYNWRNY We VDWSO eH VDP WH KE DPQ — 0 ' m 0 ‘ —_ BwwHonnnwwwwewewnwnr Pr wWhPR KR PRR AAAGHAAAQAADADA = om = SH wWPnnndnnndnwwwwnwwarbhtR KBR RPKRRPKRPRATANAH AAA AANA 1 OdvdrrewnvovnvdvnvdvndndvnonoowondnndwnwWwrhh dVvdwr Ph BPR KRKHRaAUTIADHAADDBwWaxr YNHnrnnvndvndnvnnduwornndwnwandrhrndrRrHhwreRrhhwaoartrreanigrrt a @ wow dd wn wn 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 388 89 90 9] 92 93 94 IV. EXPLANATIONS. Amaryllidacee Zostera Ceratophyllum Elatine Oxalis Montia Tlex Tamus Euonymus Paris Verbena Empetrum Bryonia Acer Viscum Berberis Tilia Thesium Vinca Frankenia 95 Impatiens 96 Asarum 97 Hippophae 98 Eriocaulon Total species Dicotyledons Monocotyledons Ferns, etc. IV. Agr. Arc. 1250 349 864 236 333 83 53-30 Br. Agr. Arc. 2.2 = 2 2. 2.- 2 2 2 - 2 2 2 - 2 Dou Al: 1 Dy os lk ul ied 1 Aye Po 1 11 - 1 1.) Ly = 1 oe ile Sc 1 Ardy y] “ ff htus 1 11- 1 L dings 1 Ms hiis l Bip) os 1 Lok ss 1 Be dings 1 Ly Lal = 1 Land Wye - Lad. J dere eet l 11 - - 1225 878 1 pe er re Oe) Agrarian zones. 1070 764 765 523 807 258 195 40 47 46 Agrarian zones ee 367 Arctic zones. — Arctic zones, 111 293 244 199 161 65 62 29 21 EXPLANATIONS OF THE ORDINAL SUMMARIES. . 74 27 10 1. Collective Census.—This designation is given to the first series of orders because the flora is there regarded as a whole or total, without reference to its local changes. which first follows the names. The names of the orders are placed in sequence according to the number of species for each of them, as given by the ‘Summary of Distribution,’ and repeated in the column of figures The number of species being equal for 368 IX. ORDINAL SUMMARIES. two or more orders, the sequence of their names is then determined by the figures set in the third column. The second column of figures shows the per-centage of the several orders in the whole flora; thus, Composite count nearly to nine and a half in the hundred species; Umbellifere make up four in the hundred ; Geraniacee, and all others placed below that order, being only a fraction per cent. The third column of figures repeats the census of the orders, as before introduced into the ‘Summary,’ and explained on pages 231 and 232. It is the sum total of the comital (always including the vice-comital) numbers placed immediately before the several names in the ‘ Census of Species,” pages 234 to 271, re-arranged into orders. The total of counties for each order being divided by the number of its species, an average of frequency or diffusion is ascertained for those of each order, as shown by the fourth column of figures. But it will readily be under- stood, that the species become too few in the lower portion of the series, to yield averages suitable for comparison with those of orders much higher in the series. And in comparing the averages one with another, due allowance must be made for any artificial peculiarity of the order which may alter its proper average; for instance, that of Rosacee is doubtless reduced too low by the numerous segregate species of Rubus, the comital distribution of which is less fully ascertained, than that of other more true or more understood species. Doubtless, also, the segregate species of Hieracium, many of them recorded from very few counties, somewhat reduce the average for the Composite. Although liable thus to some irregularities, the comital census and averages serve usefully to correct false ideas which might otherwise be suggested by the number of species in an order, if alone regarded as a measure of its predominance in the vegetation of the island. For example, the orders Filices and Orchidacee may be cited as on equality in the numbers of their species ; but on looking to the comital census or average frequency of the species, we find the ferns thus proved to prevail much more than the orchids. The comital average for the order Pilices is 46, or five above the general average of 41; that for the order Orchidacee being only 82, or nine below the general average. These two orders are very suitable for the comparative illustration ; having no introduced species included with them, and both being botanical favourites, much looked for, and their localities usually recorded. The fifth and sixth columns are introduced for comparison with the first. They show the numbers of species for the same orders in Europe ‘IV. EXPLANATIONS. 369 generally, and in the vegetable kingdom at large. Nyman’s ‘ Sylloge Flore Europe’ has supplied the requisite data for the fifth column ; those for the sixth column being derived from Lindley’s ‘ Vegetable ‘Kingdom? The numbers are doubtless very incomplete for the earth generally ; but the statements and guesses about them, as set forth in the latter work, are probably the best yet placed on record in any single treatise. The absolute numbers are perhaps false in every instance ; and if regarded as approximate calculations or estimates they are certainly of unequal truth; and so far they can give only imperfect comparisons. An enumeration of the orders, placed in a series according to the num- ber of British species they include, may well enough represent their comparative share in constituting the flora of this island. But by itself it would of course fail to show by what ordinal peculiarities the flora of Britain is distinguished from that of the earth generally, or of Europe, or of any given country. And in seeking to know.the phyto-geographical features of Britain itself, we should ascertain wherein they differ from the floral physiognomy elsewhere. 2. Distributive Census— This designation is given to the repetition of the orders in a second series because their numerical values are there stated for eight different divisions of the island, not as one collective whole. Thus stated, they become data fur comparing the botany of one portion of Britain with another, or that of the whole with its parts. In repeating the series, a change has been made from the ordinal to the generic name, in those orders having only a single genus to represent them in Britain. Three treble columns of figures succeed the list of names. The first column states the number of species in each order for total Britain, and for its western and eastern divisions, before explained on pages 136 to 139. The second column states the numbers for the southern, middle, and northern divisions of the island, also before explained on pages 134 to 136. The ¢hird column states the numbers for the three ascending stages of elevation, as they were explained on page 230. The numbers are counted from the ‘Summary of Distribu- tion,’ with some half-dozen alterations and corrections. The series of ordinal and generic names might be re-arranged in accordance with the predominating figures in any of the columns; and when so re-arranged they would of course represent the botany of the corresponding division of the island, regarded from the systematic point of view. The series for the eastern and western divisions would continue VOL. IV. 3B 370 IX. ORDINAL SUMMARIES. nearly the same as that for total Britain, under any such numerical re- arrangement ; some of the slight changes made being attributable to incomplete knowledge or to arbitrary distinctions by botanists, rather than to true natural differences. Filices and Orchidacee would afford true’ examples of difference. The former order has equal numbers on the two sides of the island; which is a relative predominance on the western side, on account of the total western flora being rather smaller than the eastern. The orchids decidedly predominate on the eastern side of Britain, through the existence of several local species in the south- eastern provinces of England, which do not extend into the western division ; and the order would thus take a position relatively higher in the one division than in the other. Considerably wider changes would be induced by a re-arrangement of the orders according to the numbers stated in the second column. For example, the numbers of Caryophyllacee and Juncacee run nearly uni- form through the three latitudinal divisions; thus having a relative increase in the northern division; and the latter even an absolute increase in that division, which has a considerably less numerous total flora. On the contrary, Gramina lose nearly one-fourth, and Legumi- nifere more than one-third of their numbers in the same direction ; the full difference between the floras of the southern and northern divisions being something more than a third less in the north. Such changes would become much greater in a re-arrangement of the orders for the three ascending stages of altitude. Sazxifragacee would rise to be the tenth order in the series for the uppermost stage ; while it would sink in the lowest stage somewhat lower than its position in the series for total Britain. Some orders, not very scanty in species, quite disappear in the uppermost stage ; for instance, Chenopodiacea and Euphorbiacee. 3. Climatal Census.— The six ascending or climatal zones, consti- tuting the agrarian and arctic regions, were explained at some length in volume first, pages 19 to 43, and illustrated more specially on pages 40 and 41. In the first of the three treble columns of this census, the numbers for Britain generally are set against those for the agrarian and arctic regions, apart from each other. In the second and third columns, the numbers are given for the six zones, three agrarian and three arctic zones. In the second tabular series or census of orders, the apparent influence of latitude was partially modified by that of altitude; and in like manner the influence of elevation was altered somewhat by that of =" IV. EXPLANATIONS. 371 latitude. Each condition, latitude and altitude, was there regarded by itself, without consideration of the other. In this manner Ulex europeus and Azalea procumbens got placed under the same divisions of latitude and of elevation, the northern and the ascending, although in fact they do not belong to the same climatal flora. The Ulex ascends above 700 yards in Wales, and the Azalea descends below the same height in North Britain; thus actually growing on the same level of altitude, if the scope of view takes in the whole of Britain; although nut anywhere meeting on the same level of height under the same degree of latitude. In the third series of orders, now under explana- tion, this and various other similar anomalies disappear ; through com- bining the plants of higher levels in more southern latitudes, with those of lower levels in more northern latitudes. In so far, the two regions or six zones supply more suitable data for tracing the influence of climate, in varying the proportions between the groups of systematic botany, than would be supplied by zones of latitude or alti- tude, if regarded by themselves only, and not in modifying connexion with each other. Zones of latitude might suffive equally well or better, if they could be traced across a country of nearly the same unvaried elevation. Or, zones of altitude might well suffice for climate also, if traced on a single mountain or group of mountains, whose base covered only a small horizontal area of latitude and longitude. A cursory glance over the figures in this climatal series, will show that wide floral differences can be traced between the two regions and the six zones. From the agrarian to the arctic region, from the lower to the upper zones, there is a general decrease in the flora, and of course a corresponding average decrease in the orders. This decrease is attri- butable partly to the decreasing area, as will presently become apparent, and partly to the deteriorating climate. But it will be observed that the ordinal decrease is extremely unequal and disproportionate, when the orders are comp.red one with another. For example, Leguminifere exceed Crucifere by one-sixth in the general flora of Britain; and nearly the same disproportion is observable in the floras severally of the agrarian region or lower agrarian zone. In the upper agrarian zone the numbers become equalised ; while above the lower arctic zone the Crucifere predominate even in absolute numbers; thus reversing the relative proportions of the lowest zone. X. GENERAL REMARKS. 1. Phyto-geographical Definitions. _ Psyro-crocrapny traces out the history and distri- bution of plants in connexion with the geographical position, the conditions of climate, and the physical pecu- liarities of the surface, in any portion of the earth imme- diately under consideration. In books, this study has been distinguished into two leading divisions, according to the difference of basis or starting point, from which the subject is taken under view. 1. Geographical Botany is understood to begin with the plants themselves, whether by individual species or in groups, and to trace their distribution over the surface of the earth, or over any portion of it. 2. Botanical geography regards the earth’s surface itself, its parts and divisions, with relation to their floral productions. Shortly, the first may be said to treat about the places of the plants; the second, conversely, to treat about the plants of the places ;—the word ‘places’ being here read in its least restricted sense. Such a distinction is not without convenience and use- fulness, as a logical idea; although it arises from the manner of viewing natural facts, and not from any real distinctness in the relations between botany and geo- graphy, or in those which connect plants and places. I. PHYTO-GEOGRAPHY. 373 In practice, the distinction cannot be very clearly or fully kept up; one department passing into the other almost imperceptibly. For instance, a local Flora enumerates the plants of some one particular place or country, whether a natural or a political division of the earth’s surface. Two or more such Floras afford data for com- paring the botany of separate portions of the earth, and for tracing out any floral characteristics by which those portions resemble or differ among themselves. In this respect, the Floras and their contents should class under the division of botanical geography. Again, local Floras also record the special places and census of their included plants, and usually show whether the species are partially or generally spread within the area, with other local con- ditions under which they are found. In this view, the same books may be said to treat about geographical botany. - Practically, the two artificial divisions of the general subject continually thus glide one into the other, and are closely commingled in books. Nor, indeed, are they always defined in the same decided manner as here done. Among the latest distinctions are those by Alphonse De Candolle, who condenses the definitions into titles for his second and third ‘books’; the first ‘book’ being devoted to a special hobby of the learned Botanist. His divisions run thus, apart from the titles of subordinate chapters : — “1. Geographical Botany, or considerations on species, genera and families, from the geographical point of view.—2. Botanical Geography, or considerations on the various countries of the earth from the point of view regarding the vegetation which covers (re-couvre) them.” It does not appear that the prefixed syllable, in the verb quoted, is intended to have any special signifi- cation, different from that which is expressed by the 374 X.° GENERAL REMARKS. English word in its simple form. The practical uncer: tainty of the distinctions so laid down, is shown in the fact of M. De Candolle adopting one of them as a title for his own grand work which treats about both; thus virtually conceding that both may be and are compre- hended under one of the designations. A more recent and anonymous writer,—one of philosophical character in thought, and rather copious in his literary style,—thus amplifies the titular definitions into an explanatory para- graph :— “The investigation of the peculiarities of the vegeta- tion of a given country, the relative proportions of the families, genera, species, or individuals it consists of, its relation to the climate, local configuration, and other peculiarities of the region, form a branch of geography to which he appropriately gives the name of botanical geo- ‘ graphy ; whilst geographical botany, belonging more par- ticularly to the province of the botanist, and the more special object of the present work, examines the distribu- tion of species, genera, and families over the surface of the globe; searches after the origin of species, and their migrations, tracing the changes they may have undergone or still undergo, in their dispersion or distribution through the different geological periods they may have witnessed, their increase, diminution, or final extinction.” (Edinburgh Review, Oct. 1857.) This definition is comprehensive ; and it may assist in showing how extensive is the region of research, which men of enlarged thought can find within the confines of botanical science,—how vastly superior the study be- comes, as an intellectual exercise, when thus raised above the limited views of those botanists who can only describe species and specimens, or make unconnected and aimless records of their localities. The anonymous paragraph I. PHYTO-GEOGRAPHY. 375 above quoted from the Review, in explanatory amplifica- tion of De Candolle’s book and chapter titles, is presumed to have emanated from the same pen with the latest ‘Handbook of the British Flora,’ referred to on page 278 of this volume. By way of a curious contrast, the sub- joined passage is here copied from the ‘Introduction’ to another ‘ Handbook of the British Flora,’ which preceded that of Mr. Bentham by some few months :— *‘ With due deference to the opinions of other botanists, whose knowledge of plants and their distribution is pro- found, and to whose writings all students of botany are under heavy obligations, it is here submitted that, the only fact worth knowing, respecting the occurrence of any plant in any given or assumed locality, is whether the plant is likely to be permanent in that station, or in its close vicinity.” (Irvine’s Handbook, page 106.) These two passages present the large and the little views of phyto-geographical science in amusing contrast ; the little view contracted into the extreme of littleness. It is the writer’s own affair to reconcile the inconsistency of that latter opinion, when found among forty pages of compiled matter on the “geography of plants,” prefixed to a descriptive Flora. But after the open avowal of an opinion so strange, it will not be- deemed at all strange that his forty pages on the subject are nowise remarkable for lucidity or accuracy. Indeed, Mr. Irvine appears imperfectly to apprehend the true bearings and purpose of phyto-geographical investigations. For minds of larger and clearer views, it may be remarked in returning from the short digression, that the ultimate objects to be sought by phyto- geographical investigations, are neither the countries of plants nor the plants of countries. These inquiries are only, the preli- minary efforts towards ascertaining the necessary relations 376 X. GENERAL REMARKS. or causal conditions by which plants and places are ~ connected together. In attempting to trace out such relations it would be needful to oscillate between the two divisions of the study, as laid down by A. De Candolle and his Reviewer ; now looking to one, now to the other of them, without any such decided severance being kept up. Even in preliminary arrangements of the data, such as constitute the staple of this treatise, relating to the plants of one country, and which await similar arrange- ments in other countries before they can be rendered properly causal, the two abstract divisions of the subject have run much together.. To which of those two divi- sions, it may be asked, does the ‘ Distributive Census’ on pages 262 to 264 belong? To either or to both, is the unavoidable answer to the query. On these and other considerations, the distinctions traced between geogra- phical botany and botanical geography are not made primary and fundamental in this work; although it is admitted that they are clear and logical in the abstract idea, and can be made so in definition. 2. On Floral Areas. In instituting comparisons between the floras of dif- ferent countries, or between different portions of the same country, too little regard has usually been given to the effect of inequality of areas on the numerical values and proportions of their floras. Some few pages may here be usefully devoted to illustrating the influence of such inequality by examples. The known flora of the earth at large has been taken to include nearly 83,000 species (cellular plants always. excepted) in accordance with the, figures given by Dr. Lindley. The area of Britain has been stated at 88,000 square miles, after = * ew eae ee Il. FLORAL AREAS. 377 Macculloch. So that, if every known species of flowering plant and fern could be brought into Britain, this one island would afford upwards of a square mile of surface for each species of plant. But Britain is only a small portion of the whole earth; and its own flora includes little more than a sixtieth part of the whole number of species alleged to be known. Supposing the known flora of the earth to be still far short of completeness, and that it may eventually be doubled in its numbers, through new discoveries and greater subdivision into segregate species, an average area of many square miles on the earth would still remain for each species. Within the narrower limits of Britain the 88,000 square miles of surface, set against 1425 species, would also allow an area of many miles to each species singly; that is, each species might have more than sixty miles of the surface to itself, if evenly divided. But no botanist requires to be told that an area of sixty square miles in England will produce some hun- dreds of species. Indeed, an area of one single square mile will be found to contain (say) 50 to 300 species, and occasionally even 400, according to fertility of soil and variety of local stations. It is thus made very obvious that the smaller the area, the more numerous is the flora relatively to the space. This arises in the fact of many species being spread over wide areas, and being consequently counted many times over, in reckoning up the various floras for included spaces of much more limited extent than their own areas. In dividing Britain into two longitudinal divisions, western and eastern, comparatively few species were not counted in the flora of both. In making three latitudinal divisions, a majority of the species are found to be com- ponents of their three floras alike. In the eighteen pro- vincial districts, full three hundred species (303, by the VOL. Iv. _3¢ 378 X. GENERAL REMARKS. census summary, on page 271) are counted as many times ; entering into all their floras. Even in the more numerous sub-provincial districts, a hundred and twenty species are ascertained to belong to all their thirty-eight floras; scarcely eighty species being restricted to a single subprovince, and being so counted only once in those local areas, as they would be in the wider spaces. The area of Europe has been estimated at 3,650,000 square miles. A full estimate of its flora, in even figures, may give 10,000 species. Dividing one number by the other, we get the result of only a single species to 365 miles of surface, or an allowance of so many miles to each species, if all grew separately on their apportioned share of the surface. The area of the British Isles, including Ireland, may be stated in even figures at 120,000 square miles. The British and Irish Floras together may be called 1450 species. Again dividing one number by the other here, we find the result of only a single species to 82 or 83 miles of'surface. In Britain proper, apart from Ireland, we may divide the 88,000 square miles of area by 1425 species ; the result being 61 or 62 miles of surface for each. Proceeding downwards to divisions and subdivisions of the island, we should find a decreasing number of square miles in proportion to species; until, in counties of intermediate size, the num- bers of miles and species become equalised with each other ; while in still smaller areas the species will exceed one to the single square mile; at length becoming some scores to the square mile in the barren wastes, or some hundreds in the richer and much varied portions of the surface. The subjoined list will show the areas and floras, and the proportions between them, for spaces of various di-, mensions within Britain. Although the list prints into ‘a Il FLORAL AREAS. 879 small space here, a botanist will find no difficulty in believing that it has required more than a small amount of time and patience in the making. The floras for all the areas are compilations brought as closely as could be to the same uniform standard, as regards nativity and specific distinctions ; being adapted to the ‘summary of distribution,’ in former pages of this volume. The floras for the divisions and provinces are considered to be nearly complete; those for several of the sub-provinces being much less complete. It was, indeed, partly in order to call attention to those portions of Britain, for which the floras seem to be less fully known, that the list has been extended so as to include every: province and sub-province ; the selection of half-a-dozen being other- wise sufficient for the one object now more immediately under view; namely, the numerical relations of the flora to the wg of its area. Divisions Square Number Miles to Species to of Britain. miles. of species. @ species. ten miles, 1 East Britain 43,580 1355 32.16 0.30 2 West Britain 43,823 1305 33.58 0,29 3 South Britain 38,474 1280 30.06 0.33 4 Mid Britain 26,555 1148 23,13 0.42 5 North Britain 22,374 930 24.06 0.41 Provinces. 1 Peninsula 5,567 1009 5.51 1.81 2 Channel 5,464 1040 5.25 1.90 3 Thames 7,007 1051 6.66 1.50 4 Ouse 6,247 1002 6.23 1.60 5 Severn 6,764 998 6.77 1.47 6 South Wales 4,231 885 4.78 2.09 7 North Wales 3,194 938 3.40 2.93 8 Trent 5,431 922 5.89 1.69 9 Mersey 2,552 842 3.03 3.29 10 Humber 5,836 1015 5.75 1.73 11 Tyne 2,968 882 3.36 2.97 380 X. GENERAL REMARKS. Provinces, 12 Lakelands 13 West Lowlands 14 East Lowlands 15 East Highlands 16 West Highlands 17 North Highlands 18 North Isles Sub-provinees, 1 South Peninsula t 2 Mid Peninsula 3 North Peninsula 4 West Channel 5 Mid Channel 6 East Channel 7 South Thames 8 North Thames 9 West Thames + 10 South Ouse 11 North Ouse 12 West Ouse 13 South Severn 14 Mid Severn 15 North Severn 16 8. E. Wales * 17 S. W. Wales + 18 North Wales 19 East Trent * 20 West Trent 21 Mersey 22 E. Humber (query, 23 W. Humber size ?) 24 Tyne 25 Lakes 26 8. W. Lowlands * 27 N.W. Lowlands t 28 East Lowlands 29 S.E. Highlands 30 M.E. Highlands Square miles. 2,551 4,732 2,485 9,828 5,500 4,766 2,280 1,337 2,585 1,645 2.373 1,625 1,466 2,316 2,445 2,246 1,515 2,024 2,708 1,754 2,483 2,527 1,972 2,259 3,194 2,611 2,820 2,552 2,500 3,336 2,968 2,551 2,525 2,206 2,485 3,664 3,228 Number of species, 860 773 768 890 682 542 449 764 876 911 882 934 917 Miles to a species, 2.96 6.08 3.23 11.04 8.06 8.68 5.08 1.75 2.95 1.80 2.69 1.73 1.58 2.38 2.59 2.86 1.74 2.24 3.03 2.06 2.77 2.99 2.79 2.87 3.40 4.20 3.30 3.05 2.82 3.59 3.36 2.96 3.92 3.20 3.23 4.59 4.00 Species to ten miles. 3.37 1.64 3.09 0.90 1.24 1.13 1.96 5.71 3.38 5.53 3.71 5.74 6.25 4.19 3.86 3.49 5.72 » 4.46 3.29 4.85 3.60 3.33 3.58 3.47 2.93 2.37 3.02 3.26 3.54 2.78 2.97 3.37 2.54 3.12 3.09 2.17 2.50 — —— ss es SCC Si i ee ld II. FLORAL AREAS. 381 poe, ce facts cancin caren 31 N.E. Highlands 2,936 638 4.60 2.17 32 I. W. Highlandst 3,500 644 5.43 1.84 33 Ebudes + 2,000 509 3.92 2.54 34 L.N. Highlands ¢ 2,325 469 4.93 2.0L 35 U.N. Highlands * 2,441 413 5.9] 1.69 36 Hebrides * 1,000 317 3.15 3.17 37 Orkneys 425 375 1.13 8.82 38 Shetlands t 855 294 2.90 3.43 Averages. 1 Provinces of S. B. 5,496 995 5.51 1.90 2 Provinces of M.B. 3,794 867 4.32 2.54 3 Provinces of N.B.. 5,593 641 8.21 1.34 1 Subprov. of S. B. 2,137 870 2.45 4.07 2 Subprov. of M. 8. 2,655 796 3.36 3.00 3 Subprov. of N.B. 2,237 526 4.05 2.35 Series. 1 All Britain 87,412 1425 61.34 0.16 2 England 57,812 1350 42.82 0.23 3 South Britain 38,474 1280 30.06 0.33 4 Province of Thames 7,007 1051 6.66 1.50 5 Sbp. of S. Thames 2,316 972 2.38 4.19 6 County of Surrey 760 840 0.90 11.0 7 Part of N. Surrey 60 660 -0900 110. 8 Ten miles of same 10 600 .0166 600. 9 One mile of same 1 400 0025 Signs. * Floras of these sub-provinces least complete numerically. + Floras of these sub-provinces less incomplete, but not complete. The figures in the above table suffice to establish some general facts ; and also they suggest the uncertainty or unsoundness of many published comparisons, made be- tween the numerical values of different floras; that is, of floras for different countries, unequal in their areas, in their geographical position, or in other important condi- tions. The figures of the table are sufficiently near 382 X. GENERAL REMARKS. truth, to show that areas and floras have a numerical decrease at a very unequal rate. The decrease is very much slower for the species than for the spaces. Hence it follows, that the smaller is the area examined, the larger relatively is the flora found upon it. But other conditions modify this general rule in its special applica- tions. For instance, in glancing down the column for number of species, it is quite evident that they have a decrease in the direction from south to north. The two rates and directions of decrease will interfere with and modify one another; the result being a less decrease where the smaller area is a more southerly one, and a - greater decrease where it is a more northerly area. As amore special instance, let the number of miles to a species, or the number of species to ten miles, in the province of Kast Highlands, be compared with the corre- sponding numbers for its three sub-provinces. The rela- tive proportions or numbers are found to be widely different for the whole province and for its three por- tions; while these third parts of the whole (or there- abouts) agree rather closely with each other. North Wales, whether designated province or subprovince, will admit of comparison with the subprovinces of the East Tighlands, on account of its approximate equality of area; while a comparison of North Wales and East Highlands, as two provinces, would be unsound on ac- count of the latter being thrice the size of the former. Nevertheless, this smaller province of North Wales has a more numerous flora (absolutely, not relatively only) owing to its more southern position, perhaps combined with some other conditions. So, again, on looking to the ‘averages’ for the pro- vinces and subprovinces, as given in the table, it may be observed that one apparent exception is shown to the Il. FLORAL AREAS. 383 rule of a decreasing number of species northward, rela- tively to area. The average or mean number of species, to ten miles of space, decreases from south to north in each trio; but at the intermediate step for the provinces - there is a considerable excess. This is at once explained, on observing that the average area for those seven pro- vinces is much under the averages for the other two groups. The narrowness of the island in its middle lati- tudes, from about 53 to 56, causes the provinces 8 to 14 to be of smaller size one with another; some of them being thus more equivalent to the subprovinces of the other two divisions. The relation of species to area is most clearly brought into view in the latter portion of the table, under the head of ‘series.’ Commencing with total Britain, smaller and smaller areas are there taken in succession; each one beg a part of that which immediately precedes it. In this manner, the comparison of a rapidly decreasing area, with its less rapidly decreasing flora, is made suc- cessively through portions of the same area and flora; much more correctly, therefore, than would be the case if two different areas of unequal size were compared ;— say, for example, a hundred miles round Paris, with ten miles round London or Edmburgh. It should be ob- served that the single mile of North Surrey, at the end of the list, is remarkable for the variety of its plants, arising from diversity of surface. This was desired for the par- ticular comparison; as a square mile of uniform surface would have afforded too unequal a comparison with ten miles of diversified surface, in other respects than the one essential difference of extent. Further, it has been shown by the ‘collective census of orders’ on pages 359 to 361, that the species of some orders average a much higher census than those of other . 384 X. GENERAL REMARKS. orders. For example, the species of Rubiacee and Ona- grace@, one with another, occur in 48 counties; while those of Liliacee and Campanulacee, one with another, are found only in 21 counties. These four orders are represented in the flora of total Britain by 18, 13; 21, 14 species ; the first and third, the second and fourth, being thus nearly on equality, with a slight superiority for Lili- aceé and Campanulacee. But in taking small sections of Britain, provincial or comital, the Rubiacee and Ona- gracee would usually assume the superiority, by reason of their greater frequency and wider diffusion; the census being the joint result of both these conditions of distribu- tion. Inequality of area would in this manner interfere in some degree also with analytic comparisons, as well as with those made between total or collective floras for unequal spaces. A. De Candolle has adduced examples for the purpose of showing that the number of species to the league, and the number of species in proportion to orders and genera, are much changed if calculations are founded upon floras for very unequal spaces. And he remarks (Geog. Bot. p. 1172) that ‘a great many botanists, untrained to nume- vical methods, have fallen into the error of comparing numerical proportions based on tracts too unequal be- tween themselves.’ Some similar examples will be inci- dentally adduced a few pages onward in this work; especially with respect to influence of areal extent on the proportions which species bear to orders and genera. 3. The Flora of Britain. Its numerical value, geographical affinities, ete. 1. The word fora is here to be understood as a col- lective term, employed to express the whole group of Ill. FLORA OF BRITAIN. 385 flowering plants along with the ferns and fern-allies, and excluding the cellular flowerless plants; it being practi- cally impossible to treat the distribution of these latter in the same manner as that of the former. But the same word has also a different signification in botany, in regard to which it may not be out of place here to make a suggestion to botanists and printers. The word is in use both as the name of a book or class of books, and as a term of science. In the latter sense, when designating a collective total of species, it is properly printed without an initial capital ; unless, of course, when its employment as a head-title or other circumstance should render a capital letter indispensable. When used as the name of a book, which enumerates the plants of any given country, the same word would be conveniently distinguished by an initial capital. If this rule were observed, the ‘ British flora’ would always be understood to mean the group or totality of British plants; and the ‘ British Flora’ would mean a book, in which those plants are described. It is curious to note the obscurity of meaning, which occasion- ally arises from disregard of this ready distinction in printed books. While no such distinction is made, “the species of the British Flora” may mean either those de- scribed as such in the work of Hooker and Arnott, or those found wild in Britain; and these two are by no means necessarily the same groups of plants, either nu- merically or specifically. 2. Geographical Affinities. —The place occupied by our insular flora in that of the whole earth, or the relation borne by the former to the latter, or to any section of the latter, may claim some few pages of remark. In accord- ance with the geographical position of the British Isles their flora is almost exclusively European. It is a VOL. Iv. 8D 386 X. GENERAL REMARKS. fragment of the European flora, repeated in Britain, with very few additions from any other source. The inference seems plausible enough, and scarcely disputable on first thought, that the whole flora (less, those few exceptions, apparently from other sources) has been derived from the European continent. But this is by no means a certain fact, howsoever probable or plausible the opinion may at first appear to be; there being as yet no other evidence of such origin, beyond the one fact of species-identity. It is likely enough that many species have reached the present surface of Britain by a migration from east to west, independently of those which have been carried in the same direction by human operations. But in admit- ting this likelihood, it is not to be hastily assumed also, that the migration of British plants has been exclusively in the one longitudinal course. Other species may have originally spread in a contrary course, that is, from west to east. Looking to the present distribution of the European flora, a gradual migration eastward seems as well supported by facts, as is a like migration westward. And no sufficient reason has yet been adduced, for holding Britain to be an exceptional portion of Europe in this respect. There are western species which are quite absent from the eastern side of Britain. There are other species which are now much more prevalent or plentiful on the western side of the island, though com- mon to both sides. And there are many species found in Britain and western Europe, which have early limits eastward on the continent. These and other facts suggest ideas of a diffusion from west to east; while various other facts of converse character equally suggest a diffu- sion from east to west. In addition, the northern and southern tendencies are much more obvious than those in relation to longitude. li. FLORA OF BRITAIN. 387 At the present time, within the limits of our own island, plants appear to be extending northwardly, and con- tracting their extension towards the south; though chiefly so, perhaps, through the instrumentality of mankind. Whether any of them originally migrated into Britain in the opposite direction, spreading from north to south, is a questionable conjecture, not devoid of probability, but supported by no botanical evidence, excepting the one fact of identity between certain British and arctic or sub- arctic species. The number of species common to Britain and to countries more southward, is greater than the number of species common to Britain and to countries more northward. The floral resemblance, however, is greater with the northern countries ; because these latter commingle with them a less number of non- British species. On this subject, the valuable writings of C. Martins are well deserving of careful study. Regarding the British Isles collectively, the most dis- tinctive peculiarities in their flora are found on the western side. Thus, the Eriocaulon septangulare, a plant of Ire- land and some of the westerly isles of Scotland, is con- stantly cited as a remarkable exception to the prevailing identity of the British flora with that of western Europe ; since it belongs to a genus and order not otherwise repre- sented in the European flora; and the plant becomes a constituent item in that flora only by its existence in the British Isles. The Neottia gemmipara of Smith, an ex- tremely local and scarce orchid of South Ireland, hitherto has not been found in any other country; as is now again believed, although, some short time ago, it was supposed to have been identified with the American Spiranthes cer- nua. This orchid is the only plant allowed by Bentham’s Handbook, as an example of a species really restricted to the British Isles, according to existing knowledge. [The 3888 X. GENERAL REMARKS: American plant having been originally named Ophrys cernua, that generic name has been inadvertently used for the Hibernian plant on page 228.] The names of some other plants do also appear in books on British botany, which have not been identified exactly with species of the European continent. As all these are comparatively recent segregates, and most of them still distrusted species, if not doubted natives, they may none of them be really peculiar to Britain; unless, indeed, as local varieties of species found elsewhere in their more typical states. But it is to be kept in recol- lection, that in case any of these forms should eventually be found strictly limited to the British Isles, then must it be conceded that these Isles truly have their own pecu- liar plants, whether designated species, races, varieties, or aught else. At present, therefore, and while these forms remain unknown elsewhere, we are not warranted in asserting that the flora of Britain has been derived wholly and exclusively from Europe or other countries. On the contrary, the evidence so far goes towards proving a local inchoation (natural creation or commencement) of those species, races, or varieties. Under this aspect, those dubiously distinct plants assume a high phyto- geographical importance. Apparently, they constitute small items of evidence, bearing upon some of the grandest problems in phyto-geographical and phyto- geological science. In example, they may bear impor tantly on the remarkable and profound views of Mr. Darwin, recently announced (some months after the eatlier sheets of this volume were printed) through the Journal of the Linnean Society, volume 3, page 45, Aus gust, 1858. The writer of these pages admits that he would prefer to see genuine species in these local forms, still unknown lit. FLORA OF BRITAIN. 389 beyond Britain. But against his inclinations, he must still question the reality of any species being peculiar to Britain, unless it be the Neottia gemmipara, above men- tioned. The Dryas depressa, of Ireland, has been before alluded to, on page 88. Its differential characters are so petty, and so likely to be disregarded elsewhere, that no stress can be laid upon this plant, as anything peculiar or distinctive in the flora of our islands. — Helianthemum Breweri, of Anglesea, looks distinct enough in the ex- treme form which has been selected to represent the “species”; and the printed characters, adapted to that extreme form, of course convey the same idea. Unfortu- nately, among a numerous collection of specimens brought afterwards from Anglesea, very few could be honestly said to correspond with the figure and descrip- tion; the greater number of them bearing a suspicious resemblance to weakly plants of H. guttatum. It is be- lieved that the peculiarities which mark and make the extreme form figured for H. Brewert, will admit of physiological explanation ; but, as a fact, such explana- tion would require to be verified on the spot, early in the season; and on this account it is not stated here. — Geranium lancastriense, found originally on one islet in West England, is usually deemed a variety of G. san- guineum. In the present writer’s garden, the individual plants of it have retained their short and compact mode of growth, during many years, while placed under similar conditions alongside the diffusely spreading plants of the typical species to which it is assigned.—In Sedum fors- terianum, of Wales, there is truly much the aspect of a species on a short acquaintance. But the printed characters relied upon for distinguishing it from Sedum rupestre are found to be variable ; being inconstant in S. forsterianum, and occasionally assumed in some degree 390 X. GENERAL REMARKS. by S. rupestre. In other words, the diagnostic characters of the alleged two species are only descriptions of some specimens, and are partially applicable even to the same individual plants at different stages of growth. More- over, the apparent species of Sedum are too imperfectly ascertained or understood, to warrant any positive asser- tion that S. forsterianum is exclusively a British plant, either as variety or as species. — Allium Babingtonii, of Ireland and Cornwall, is a doubtful species and doubtful native. Contrary to reports about its difficult growth elsewhere under similar conditions, it has readily be- come a weed in a dry Surrey garden, spreading rapidly by its numerous bulbils; this being of course a simple repetition of the individual, not a renewal of the spe- cies. Unless reproducible by seed, continuously and unchanged, it might be more correct to regard this plant as a luxuriant variation of Alliwm Ampeloprasum ; to which the more weakly examples of it occasionally ap- proach by ceasing to produce the branched pedicels in the umbel. — Viola Curtisit is another plant of West Britain, more questioned as a true species now (Mr. HE. Forster being deceased), and which may perchance yet be found in western Europe. When wild on the coast, it approximates much towards another plant of similar sandy situations, which is authoritatively referred to Viola tricolor, but often mistaken for V. Curtisii. When left to re-sow itself in a garden, it becomes very like some of the corn-field varieties which are referred to V. tricolor, except that the bracts are rarely toothed, and then only very slightly so.— Saaifraga Andrewsii, of Ireland, is truly puzzling. If not a real species, what is its parent- age? The record of its discovery, as if truly a wild Irish plant, when read along with an inspection of the drawing of it by Dr. Harvey, left an impression that it might be a III. FLORA OF BRITAIN. 391 wide variety of S. wmbrosa ; but living plants of it kindly sent by Mr. J. G. Baker, do not confirm this idea. If of garden origin only, without native habitat, it is the com- mencement of an apparent species, as well entitled to be deemed a species on its external characters, as are great numbers of those described for species in books, and seldom or never questioned. These are not all of the plants which have been described in Britain, either as species or as well-marked varieties, and have not been strictly identified with those of any other country. They are only to be taken as selected examples of the dubious species (but true varie~ ties, if not true species) hitherto not certainly ascertained beyond the British Isles. The spurious species of Saliz, Rosa, Rubus, Mentha, Cerastium, and Hieracwwm, hitherto described only on British specimens, can count as no- thing in the main question, whether the British Isles do now possess any true species or distinct races peculiar to themselves, and therefore reasonably presumed not to have been derived from other countries still in existence. The generally admitted link of connexion between the American and [British floras, seen in the EHriocaulon septangulare, has been alluded to above. — Also, the con- nexion, mistakenly supposed to have been established, through an identity of Spiranthes gemmipara with Spi- ranthes cernua.— Some very small doubt may still attach to the Alopecurus alpinus, of Scotland ; whether this spe cies is strictly identical with that of arctic America, and also with that of arctic Europe usually so named. — Anacharis Alsinastrum seems to be only an imported American Udora, now too abundantly established in England, and needlessly re-named here; likely also identical with the Udora said to have become established in Prussia and West Russia. — Sisyrinchiwm anceps is 392 X. GENERAL REMARKS. probably another recent importation into Ireland and Eu- rope from the western hemisphere ; not constituting a true link of connexion between their native floras. — Potentilla tridentata has been reported a plant of Scotland, only on authority which English botanists have learned to dis- trust where not confirmed. It thus appears to be quite true, that the British Isles have either no species or extremely few species peculiar to themselves; all (others) being found: elsewhere in Europe, with the very scanty exceptions above alluded to. But the same species nowhere all meet within any single political country or even well-defined natural divi- sion of Europe; and everywhere they are found inter- mingled with other species which do not occur in Britain, It would be necessary to include a long tract, taking in all western Europe, from Spain to Norway, to make out a country large enough to show all the British plants, after deducting the Hriocaulon and Spiranthes, and per- haps Alopecurus alpinus, with other more doubtful species and doubted natives. And in that long space there would be found a large number of non-British species commingled with those common alike to Britain and western Europe. The farther we recede from western Europe, in any direction, the more do the British ele- ments of the flora decrease in their proportions to the non-British ; so that eventually, at great and unequal distances, we find floras almost devoid of British species ; -and finally, in some considerable tracts, even quite devoid of them. These gradual changes, these agreements and differ- ences between the flora of Britain and the floras of other parts of the Earth, near and remote, might be described and explained in a ‘ British and Foreign Cybele,’ which would likely prove a contribution of much importance to II. FLORA OF BRITAIN. 393 the progress of geographico-botanical science. The Au- thor of this present work formerly entertained the hope of being able to carry out his conceptions in that form, after concluding the Cybele Britannica; this present work being unavoidably limited to more partial views and local details, than would have constituted the staple of the more comprehensive treatise, long contemplated, and reluctantly abandoned. The required time and requisite mental vigour can no longer be reckoned upon. Such a work ought to be undertaken by a younger botanist, who might hope to devote thereto a dozen or a score of years of active life and earnest effort. If any botanist should ever devote his time to such an undertaking, it will be well for him to keep steadily in recollection, that a volume of vague generalities would prove only worthless to science; while, on the other hand, crude details about species, unsifted from errors, and not condensed into tabular results, would be scarcely better. 8. Number of Species.—The Flora of Britain must still be deemed one of much uncertainty in respect to the number of species which compose it. In too many in- stances, as already much commented upon, botanists do not agree on the questions, which ought to be accounted the really natural species, and which among them are the really native species? These distinctions lie at the very foundation of phyto-geographical investigations; and it is consequently most needful to know and appreciate the grave difficulties which imperfect knowledge and contra- dictory opinions still place in the way of such investiga- tions. Those difficulties might gradually become much lessened, if local and descriptive Floras were more usually written by men of philosophic thought, competent to reflect on what they observe, and to describe accordingly. VOL. Iv. 3E 394 X. GENERAL REMARKS. But while most of such Floras continue to be the works of - men who are able only to observe and describe objects, with feeble capacity for reasoning and reflecting on that which they observe,— so long will those Floras fail to afford any great assistance towards clearing away those difficulties, even if they should cease to increase them. At the present time a course has to be sought between two opposite errors or evils. On the one side, by dis- carding all the doubted species and distrusted natives, we might go to work with a flora much under-stated in num- bers. On the other side, by admitting all alleged species and all alleged natives, we should be quite as likely to work with a flora very largely over-stated. It has been amply shown in preceding pages, that wide diversities of opinion are entertained by different botanists on these points. The still increasing extent of such diversities renders it impossible to fix upon any intermediate course between the two extremes, — that of apparent under- statement, and that of apparent over-statement, — which will be held at all satisfactory by more than a small section among the botanists whose views and practices diverge so widely. Due allowance must be made for this practical impossibility, in any estimates of number, and in all statistical comparisons. An extremely rigid selection might reduce the flora of Britain below 1000 species. A very free recognition of doubted species and doubted natives, such as are or have been believed in by some one or more botanists, might likely raise the number above 2000 species. It is be- lieved that lists could be made out which would substan- tiate these discordant estimates, if it were deemed worth while to devote time and type to an object so profitless. The intermediate number between those distant extremes would be 1500. Even this middle figure is much too Ill. FLORA OF BRITAIN. 395 high ; for it can be made up only by including many dis- puted species, and also reckoning many of the colonists and denizens among the admitted natives. By the full lists before printed in this volume, it may be seen that the number of species is taken at 1425, including colo- nists and denizens, and also various quasi-species, scarcely to be distinguished by any eyes besides those of their local inventors, and mostly discarded by botanists who are accustomed to look widely over the world’s flora. By a moderate reduction of one-third from the alleged species in the excessively subdivided genera Rubus and Hieracium, the number will become 1400; and where an even figure is wished for general comparisons, that-may be the figure assumed to represent the present flora of Britain, instead of 1425. It is to be recollected, that in so reckoning the flora as a collective total, various species are included which never actually associate with each other. Though brought together in book lists, they do not congregate within the same area in nature. rica ciliaris, restricted - to the vicinity of the south-west coast of England,— Arbutus alpina, found only in North Scotland, — Andro- meda polifolia, occurring in the intermediate latitudes between those of the other two species,—Calluna vulgaris, diffused from one extremity of Britain to the other,—are all treated as if they were actual associates in counting up a single united flora for the whole island. Numerical results deduced from the total flora, though they may be true as averages in books, are thus made to represent numbers and proportions which do not really exist any- where; that is, which cannot be found in any single or separate portion of the island, either provincial or lati- tudinal. But there will doubtless always be a tendency for the fallacies in one direction to balance those in the 396 X. GENERAL REMARKS. opposite direction, and in this mode to produce an inter- mediate neutrality or equilibrium. For instance, in a collective flora for total Britain we include about four score species which are restricted to the most southern portion of England, southward of the latitudinal line of 52; also nearly as many species which occur only in Scotland. The inclusion of the former gives too austral a character to the collective flora, and to the relative pro- portions of its orders, &c. The inclusion of the latter gives too boreal a character, in like manner. In the total or average result these opposite excesses may nearly balance one another. It takes a wider extent of the more boreal latitude, to balance a smaller extent of the more austral latitude; because the total number of species decreases in the northerly direction, as already shown by the summary on page 364. 4, Number of Species im proportion to Orders and Genera. — Taking the list of genera and species, as made out for the summary of distribution, and adding Gladiolus thereto, the total flora of Britain will be found to exhibit the subjoined numbers :— Orders, 98. Genera, 496. Species, 1425. And converting these numbers into proportions, the average number of species will run thus :— To an order, 14.54. To a genus, 2.87. Regarded in themselves, these are only isolated facts of no import or importance. To give them significance and value, they must be brought into juxtaposition with other similar facts. First, how closely do these averages represent those for portions of Britain? If the three latitudinal divisions be taken apart from one another, the numbers may be stated thus :— ee ae Ill. FLORA OF BRITAIN. 397 S. Britain has 97 orders, 475 genera, 1820 species. M. Britain B48 ARAB) alge AAS ty, NeBritaine | Lo: igi (968 by glo BBO"! ys The species for these and other sections of the island not being yet ascertained with rigid exactness, the numbers are of course to be received as approximative, not per- fectly precise. Progressive knowledge will continually render some changes needful in the figures which are supposed to represent facts, but which in truth represent only human knowledge about natural facts. Adopting the above numbers as true for the present, the average proportion of species to an order and to a genus will be thus :— 8. Britain has 13.19 to an order, 2.69 to a genus. M. Britain 12.21 = 2.64 N. Britain LK ij 2.58 di It thus appears that the averages for all Britain give more species to an order, and a fraction more to a genus, than the averages for any portion of the island. Further, a slight decrease is traceable from south to north. In making comparisons between these decreasing proportions or averages, it is to be recollected, first, that the areas of the three divisions decrease northward, secondly, that the numerical values of their three floras decrease north- ward, and thirdly, that the temperature decreases north- ward also. With which of these three differences the decreasing averages have the closest relation, it may not be easy to decide ; probably all three combine to produce -eyen the small arithmetical results above indicated. The comparison is carried into larger figures, and per- haps with less exactness, by making it between the flora of Britain and the floras for considerable sections of - Europe, situate nearest to this island. Without looking into the details of genera here, the numbers of orders 9 398 X. GENERAL .REMARKS. and species for Middle Europe (France, Germany, Switzer- land), for Scandinavia (Denmark, Sweden, Norway, &c.), and for the British Isles (Britain and Ireland) may be stated thus :— Middle Europe has 118 orders, 4600 species. Scandinavia 104) -osgis sh 700.one British Isles 1086 oe ep TSO ciize The number of orders and species for the British Isles are here somewhat increased, for the purpose of bringing them into more exact comparison with those adopted in the works consulted for the other two portions of Europe. Otherwise, on the basis of the Cybele, its orders and spe- cies, the union of Ireland would be considered to add scarcely one score of species, and no other order, to the British flora. On the above figures, the average number of species to an order is thus :— M. Europe, 38.91. Scandinavia, 16.34. B. Isles, 14.70. It thus still appears that the larger area or larger flora ‘(one or both) has more species in proportion to orders. For the purpose of bringing out this fact still more strongly, another comparison shall be resorted to, be- tween the averages for Britain and for other areas, larger and smaller. The only local Flora for a county of Britain, which admits of ready comparison with the Cybele Britannica, is that for Yorkshire, amended and corrected by Mr. J. G. Baker, through the ‘ Supplement’ lately published. The county of York exactly corre- sponds with the province of Humber; and being situate about the middle latitude of Britain, it is a very suitable tract for the comparison here sought to be instituted between successively smaller areas, each one being an included portion of the larger. The numbers before taken from Lindley’s ‘ Vegetable Kingdom’ shall be again taken to represent a flora for the whole Earth; those III. FLORA OF BRITAIN. . 399 from ‘ Nyman’s Sylloge’ being also again accepted for the European portion of it. By then adding Britain and Yorkshire, two other floras are obtained for subordinate portions of Europe and of our ownisland. These four floras present the subjoined numbers :-— Earth has 284 orders, 7854 genera, 82714 species. Biurope \.13h)) 5. 9/1218), 9677 4, Britain 98vel % 496 ,, AQ 14 Yorkshire 90 ,, ADASO1 § 1000 _ =, Reckoned on these numbers which are not rigidly re- duced to one uniform standard (exceedingly laborious if attempted, and barely within possibility, in respect to the two first areas named) the average proportion of species to an order and to a genus comes out thus :— Earth has 291.24 to an order, 10.53 to a genus. Europe 73.87 wa 8.60 5 Britain 14.54 s 2.87 a Yorkshire 11.12 y 2.47 Ms It is thus made quite clear that with decreasing areas the average number of species to a genus, and more especially to an order, is largely decreased also. Yorkshire, with nearly one-third of the orders, has only one-twentieth of the genera, or thereabouts, and a very much smaller pro- portion of the species. Now, if it be assumed that the groups of systematic botany, orders and genera, do truly associate plants in approximate accordance with their natural similarities,— it is in this wise shown that the smaller the area, the less similar are the plants which inhabit it; that is to say, they represent more orders and genera in proportion to their absolute number of species; the relative diver- sity in the flora increasing as the space decreases. This fact appears to bear upon certain views propounded in regard to original centres. If there were originally 400 X. GENERAL REMARKS. single centres of inchoation, — before explained to mean, natural creation or commencement, — those centres can hardly have been for European orders or genera, as groups, but only for species. Otherwise, it would seem to be a warrantable inference, or very probable expecta- tion, that the more circumscribed the space under view, the more should its plants have belonged to the same orders, and to the same genera,—the less diversity should have been found in the flora. 5. Numerical value of the Orders.-— Phyto-geographers usually appear to attach much importance to comparisons between the numbers of species belonging to different orders, and to the per-centage proportions that the several orders bear to the total flora. A table of such propor- tions will assist in showing the leading peculiarities of any single flora, and also the distinctive peculiarities be- tween two floras, when these are sufficiently diversified to alter the ordinal proportions. But the non-equivalence of the orders, before particularly adverted to, pages 20 to 25, on which their inequality of numbers in any country is partly consequent, renders even those proportions less strictly comparable than they would be, if the orders were more the equivalents of each other in structural and physiognomical characters. The proportions of Gramina are those of a numerous and well-distinguished group ; and they represent the sum of many genera. The pro- portions of Juncacee are those of a less distinct group ; and they represent the sum of only few genera. The proportions of Callitrichacee are simply generic, scarcely entitled to be called ordinal at all; representing one genus only; and that one with no decided or obvious characters to stamp its distinctness,—say, for instance, III. FLORA OF BRITAIN. 401 such as may warrant the elevation of Equisetum to ordinal rank, notwithstanding its paucity of species. The numerical value and proportions of the orders represented in the British flora have been already exhi- bited under various aspects, general and partial, in the census tables printed on pages 359 to 867. Perhaps the formidable array of figures may deter some botanists from an examination of those tables. It is to be observed, however, that by placing the names: in a columnar series, according to the numerical value of the orders in our island flora, the general idea is correctly expressed to the eye, by the mere position of the names, if a reader should not care to trouble himself at all with the figures. The position of Composite and Gramina at the top of the list fully expresses the fact, that the species of those two orders predominate in the flora. But it would not show, without the figures added in the two first columns of the ‘collective census,’ either the absolute or the compara- tive amount of their predominance. Neither would it show, without the figures in the two last columns of the same census being looked to, that the British flora corre- sponds with those of Europe and of the whole earth in the numerical superiority of the Composite ; while it does not correspond with them in the position of the Gramina, second in the series. Leguminifere hold the second place in the floras of Europe and of the whole earth; though they yield to the Gramina in Britain. Subjoined is a more simple manner of portraying the absolute and com- parative numerical values of the orders in the flora of this country :— 135. Composite. Nine and a half per cent. 112, Gramina. Nearly eight per cent. of the whole. 93. Cyperoides. Six and a half per cent. 82, Rosacew. Five and three-quarters per cent. VOL. Iv. : 3 °F 402 X. GENERAL REMARKS. 70. 60. 57. 48. 47. 39, 35. 34, 26. 24. 22. 21. 20. 18. 17. 14. 13. 30. 10. an © Leguminifere. Under five per cent. Crucifere. Nearly four and a quarter per cent. Umbellifere. Cuaryophyllacee. Four per cent. Scrophulariacee. Over three and a third per cent. Lamiacee. Under three and a third per cent. Filices. Orchidacee. Two and three-quarters per cent. Ranunculacez. Nearly two and a half per cent. Amentifere. Over two and a third per cent. Polygonacee. Juncacew. Under two per cent. Chenopodiacee. Under one and three-quarters per cent. Potamaceez. One and a half per cent. Too high? Boraginacee. Liliacee. . Nearly one and a half per cent. Ericaceez. One and two-fifths per cent. Rubiacez. One and a quarter per cent. Primulacee. Below one and a quarter per cent. Geraniacee. Euphorbiacee. Gentianacee. Saxifragacee. Cam- panulacez. Scarcely one per cent. Onagracee. Below one per cent. Crassulacee. About three-quarters per cent. Hypericacee. Violacee. Orobanchacez. . Equisetacee. Alismaceez. Above one-half per cent. . Papaveracee. One-half per cent. . Plantaginacee. Caprifoliacee. Typhaceew. Lycopodiacer. Fu- mariacee. Pinguiculaceez. Plumbaginaceex. Illecebracez. . Dipsacee. Valerianaceer. Malvacee. Iridacee. . Urticacee. Solanacee. Pistiacew. Haloragiacee. Linacee. Callitrichace. Conifer. Grossulariacee. Cistacee. - Convolvulacee. Droseracer. Lythraceez. Nympheacee. Me- lanthiacee. Polygalaceez. Cuscutacezx. . Araliacee. Jasminacee. Resedacew. Rhamnacee. Aracez. Ulmacee. Cornacee. Marsileacee. Thymeleacee. Hydro- charidacee. Amaryllidacee. Zosteracee. Ceratophyllacee. Elatinacez. . Oxalidacee. Portulacacee. Tlicaceer. Tamacex. Celastracee. Trilliacee. Verbenacee. Empetracee. Cucurbitaceer. Acera- cee. Loranthacee. Berberacee. Tiliacer. Santalacee. Apocy- nacee. Frankeniacex. Balsaminacee. Asaracee. Eleagnacee. Restiacee. 4 ; j Ill. FLORA OF BRITAIN. 403 The first dozen orders in the above series are mostly well-marked groups of plants, not merely conventional combinations of genera. That they are such real groups is in some degree evidenced by their having received expressive names, not derived from particular genera, but suggested by some obvious structural or physiognomical character. Amentifere and Conifere are the only other groups in the series which accord with them in this respect. Rosacee and Caryophyllacee are the most de- cided exceptions ; and the former group is perhaps mis- placed among the highest, and also too forced or arbitrary as an ordinal combination of plants. Indeed, by Lindley ‘and various other authorities this Rosaccous group is divided into four distinct orders. And Caryophyllacee are so imperfectly distinguished from allied orders, that certain genera are tossed to and fro between them, or even split into more genera (e.g. Spergularia, cut from Arenaria) for the very purpose of being placed under dif- ferent orders ;—a rich illustration of the real conven- tionality of these pretendedly “natural” orders. Though latterly re-named after certain genera, Scrophulariacee and Lamiacee were long more familiar under the desig- nations of Personate and Labiate. Whilst Cyperoides and Orchidacee might equally well admit of descriptive class-names, without resorting to those of genera which imperfectly represent the groups. The dozen orders reckon up to 839 species. Throwing out Rosacee,—as divisible into several orders of lower grade, and also placed unduly high in the series, through excessive subdivision of Rubus into segregate species,— the other eleven orders will still count up to 757 species; being upwards of one-half of the total flora, after making some abatement also for spurious species of Hieraciwm. The remaining 77 orders have consequently less than half 404 X. GENERAL REMARKS. of the flora distributed among them. This striking ine- quality seems to be a general fact. In Scandinavia, with a flora of 1700 species, nine orders make up together the number of 874, or rather more than half of the flora.—In Middle Europe, with a flora of 4686 species, nine orders count up to 2445 of them, being still rather more than the half.—In total Europe, it takes only eight orders to make up considerably more than half of the flora.—In the vegetable kingdom in general, according to the esti- mates in Dr. Lindley’s erudite ‘compilation so named, fifteen orders make up 42,304 species; a number which exceeds one-half of the total estimate. It is thus evident that there is nothing peculiar or characteristic of the British flora, in the single fact of very few orders constituting half the numerical amount of that flora. The same fact is found elsewhere; the great bulk of the floras of most countries being assignable to a few leading orders, twenty or thirty, the smaller remnant being divided and subdivided among numerous other groups; which are often less conspicuously charac- terized, and slide more readily into each other. But it is to be noted, that the groups which predominate in the flora of Britain, are not precisely the same with those which predominate elsewhere ; nor do they keep the same relative position im series arranged for different countries. The differences in this respect are usually or always found to increase as we descend in the scale of numbers; the larger orders usually keeping more similar proportions than are kept by the smaller orders in dif- ferent countries. Indeed, as the floral differences be- tween countries are more in species than in genera, more in genera than in orders, more in orders than in the great primary classes,—it seems to be quite in course that the larger {super-ordinal) orders should present a closer Il. FLORA OF BRITAIN. 405 approach towards an equality of numerical proportions in different countries, than the smaller (genera-like) orders are found to present. Composite and Gramina, for example, occur every- where; and in many of the most thoroughly examined countries, they constitute somewhere about the same por- tion or proportion of the aggregate flora. It is much otherwise with orders of more average numerical values, and which are more truly groups of genera; for example, Saxifragacee and Oxatidacee, slightly above average ;— Gentianacee and Geraniacee, more decidedly above ;— Primulacee and Cucurbitacee, below an average, in re- spect to number of included species ; — the numbers and proportions of all these being widely dissimilar in various countries. Such dissimilarities are not to be found in the great groups like Composite and Gramina, but occur in their “sub-orders”; these latter being truly more on equality with the middling and the smaller orders, in respect to their structural and physiognomical distine- tions, than the great groups are. The great leading orders may suffice for general (rather vague) comparisons between countries widely dissimilar in geographical posi- tion and climate ; but they avail very badly for bringing into view those slighter differences in the flora and vege- tation which are to be found between adjacent countries. Here comes a practical difficulty for a writer on phyto- geography. It is tedious and confusing, to attempt verbal comparisons carried through the whole series of orders. Selection becomes necessary; whether it is wished to show the ordinal relation which the flora of this country bears to that of the earth generally, or to any portion of it, — or it is wished only to institute com- parisons between the orders in Britain itself, apart from other countries. But it is not easily determined what 406 X. GENERAL REMARKS. sort of selection will best meet the object; namely, that of rendering the comparisons passably complete or full, yet without a confusing enumeration of too many orders. A. De Candolle has avowedly restricted his ordinal com- parisons between different countries to the absolute num- bers and per centage proportions of orders which together constitute one-half of the flowering plants (Geog. Bot. p, 1190). This is a restriction to about ten orders, more or less, and to those which usually present less differences than many others. It is objectionable, because com- paring only half of the flora, and leaving out of view the widest dissimilarities. There appears to be no particu- lar advantage in ascertaining simply the orders which predominate in various countries. If we would know and seek to account for the characteristic differences between countries, by aid of ordinal comparisons, it seems a better course to ascertain which of the orders present the widest dissimilarities; those only being left out of view, which approximate to genera by the paucity of their species, and the pettiness of their distinctions. Now, in almost every country, a minority of the orders, * —usually about a fourth,—vwill be found to include more than the average number of species. Such over-average orders include together the great bulk of the flora; espe- cially so in small countries, or more properly in small floras, where many orders are usually represented by single or few species to each. In Britain, for instance, one-fifth of the orders are represented by single species, and as many more by two or three; scarcely half of the orders having more than four species in each. Or, by another mode of statement, the first 48 orders include 1320 species; while the remaining 50 orders include only 105 species. And dividing the 98 orders into three groups, — 33, 32, 33, these groups of orders include Ill. .FLORA OF BRITAIN. 407 respectively 1227, 152, 46 species. As somewhat similar ordinal disproportions occur in the floras of other countries also, it is evident that ordinal comparisons can be insti- tuted, which will prove much more comprehensive than those embracing only half of the species, and yet not requiring the enumeration of more than a fourth or a third of the orders themselves. Opinions may differ, whether the rule of selecting those orders which contain or exceed the average number of species, may be the best medium course to take; but it seems to meet the object above adverted to. It has been shown on page 396, that the average num- ber of species to an order, in this island, is about a medium fraction between 14 and 15. Only 23 of the orders exceed this average; and 5 more fall short of the average by the fraction only. All the remaining 70 orders include fewer than the average number of species. —Nearly the like proportions are found in Scandinavia, where 26 orders exceed the average of 16 species with a small fraction ; 1 more falling short of it by the fraction only.—In Middle Europe 28 orders equal or exceed the average ; which is there about 39 species to an order.— According to the Sylloge before quoted, 28 orders in the European flora exceed the average number of species ; there rising to 74, less a small fraction.—In the vegetable kingdom at large, where the orders are more than doubly numerous, there may be twice as many which exceed the average number of species, rising to nearly 300; but the estimates cannot be held sufficiently exact or true, those for one order compared with those for another, to allow of any precise number or proportion being named and relied upon. Another rule of selection might perhaps keep the selected orders more nearly on numerical equality ; 408 it 2. X. GENERAL REMARKS. 1. Orders predominant in the floras. 1 Earth. Composite, 9000. Leguminifere, 6500. 2 Europe. Composite, 1401. Leguminifere, 852. 3 Britain. Composite, 135. Gramina, 112. 3. Gramina, 3800. Crucifere, 579. Cyperoides, 93. 4. Orchidaceze, 3000. Gramina, 554. Rosacee, 82. 5. Euphorbiacez, 2500. Umbellifere, 495. Leguminiferz, 70. 6. Cinchonacex, 2500. Caryophyllacez, 493. Crucifere, 60. 7. Lamiacex, 2350. Lamiacez, 411. Umbellifere, 57. 8. Filices, 2040. Scrophulariacee, 381. Caryophyllacex, 57. 9. Cyperoides, 2000. Ranunculacee, 277. Scrophulariacez, 48. 10. Scrophulariacex, 1814 Rosacex, 272. Lamiacee, 47. 11. Cruciferze, 1600. Liliacee, 256. Filices, 39. 12. Umbellifere, 1500. | Cyperoides, 255. Orchidacez, 39. 13. Myrtacex, 1300. Boraginacee, 204. _ Ranunculacez, 35. 14. Liliacex, 1200. Rubiacez, 170. Amentifere, 34. 15. Melastomacez, 1200. Campanulacee, 162. Polygonacez, 26. 16. Ericacex, 1080. Amentifere, 130. Juncacee, 26. 17. Caryophyllacee, 1070. Euphorbiacee, 124. | Chenopodiacew, 24. 18. Rosacez, 1000. Chenopodiaceer, 114. Potamacez, 22. 19. Ranunculacex, 1000. Orchidacez, 111. Boraginacee, 21. 20. Malvaceex, 1000. Saxifragacez, 109. Liliacez, 21. 21. Asclepiadaceez, 910. Orobanchacee, 108. Ericacex, 20. 22. Solanacez, 900. Plumbaginacez, 100. Rubiacez, 18. Campanulacee, 875. . Cactacex, 800. Crassulaceex, 97. Primulacee, 93. Primulacee, 17. Geraniacee, 14. 25. Acanthacee, 750. Iridacez, 87. Euphorbiacez, 14. 26. Convulvulacez, 660. Dipsacewx, 86. Gentianacer, 14. 27. Proteacex, 650. Cistaceex, 81. Saxifragacee, 14. . Verbenacee, 610. Polygonacee, 74. Campanulacee, 14. namely, to consider as primary orders all those which include one per cent. or upwards of the total flora. But any such rule is of course arbitrary, and can be adhered to only as a practical convenience. On turning to the census, page 359, it will be seen that we should stop at Primulacee, the twenty-third order, if rigidly restricting comparisons to those British orders which exceed the —_ we — KH SOMRNAAR WH = i SCcU aN Rh WD 26. 27. 23. III. FLORA OF BRITAIN. 409 2. Orders predominant in the floras. 1 Middle Europe. . Composite, 625. Leguminifere, 370. . Gramina, 309. . Crucifere, 250. . Umbellifere, 213. . Caryophyllaceex, 175. . Scrophulariacex, 171. Cyperoides, 167. . Rosacex, 165. . Lamiacee, 154. . Ranunculacee, 147. . Liliacee, 109. . Amentifere, 88. . Orchidacezx, 76. . Boraginacee, 73. . Primulacee, 72. . Saxifragacee, 65. . Campanulacee, 65. . Euphorbiacee, 59. . Rubiacez, 56. . Chenopodiaceae, 52. . Gentianacer, 52. Crassulacee, 50. Juncacex, 49. . Filices, 47. Polygonacee, 44. Violacee, 43. Cistacee, 40. 2 Scandinavia. Composite, 158. Cyperoides, 144. Gramina, 138. Rosacez, 90. Crucifere, 79. Caryophyllacex, 74. Leguminifere, 73. Amentifere, 60. Ranunculacee, 58. Scrophulariacee, 57. Lamiacee, 54. Umbellifere, 52. Orchidacee, 43. Filices, 37. Juncacee, 36. Potamacee, 30. Polygonacee, 29. Chenopodiacezx, 28. Liliacee, 28. Ericacee, 24. Boraginacee, 22. Primulacex, 20. Violaceex, 18. Rubiacee, 17. Geutianacex, 17. Saxifragacee, 17. - Geraniacee, 16. Campanulacez, 15 3 Britain. Composite, 135. Gramina, 112. Cyperoides, 93. Rosacee, 82. Leguminifere, 70. Crucifere, 60. Umbellifere, 57. Caryophyllacez, 57. Scrophulariacez, 48. Lamiacez, 47. Filices, 39. Orchidacee, 39. Ranunculacez, 3d. Amentifere, 34. Polygonacee, 26. Juncacee, 26. Chenopodiacez, 24. Potamacee, 22. Boraginacez, 21. Liliacezx, 21. Ericacee, 20. Rubiacez, 18. Primulacez, 17. Geraniacee, 14. Euphorbiacez, 14. Gentianacee, 14. Saxifragacee, 14. Campanulacee, 14. average number of species ; and should go down to Cam- panulacee, the twenty-eighth order, if those which attain the average within a fraction are also taken in. This latter number gives a better point for stoppage in the series for some of the other portions of the earth also, and will here be resorted to; namely, in the tables which are set above on these two pages. VOL. IV. 3G 410 X. GENERAL REMARKS. In the first table, the first column enumerates the 28 predominant orders for the vegetable kingdom in general, according to present estimates; the second does the same for those of Europe, according to Nyman’s Sylloge; the third column in return repeats those for Britain. The consecutive nos. prefixed to the first column may avail for comparisons between that column and the other two. If the name of an order stands higher in the first or second column, than the same name is placed in the third column, that order may be deemed relatively deficient, or weak numerically, in this country. On the contrary, if the name is placed higher in the third column, than it stands in the first or second, that order is relatively in excess in this country. If the name of one order is repeated in the same place for two or three columns, the order may be considered as keeping the same relative position in the flora; for instance, Composite stand no. 1 in all three columns ; and it is the only order which does stand on equality in all. Leguminifere are no. 2 in the first and second columns; but these plants are exchanged for Gramina in the third column. It is not to be over- looked, however, that the orders for the earth generally are more than double those for Britain, and the orders for Europe also considerably exceed the latter in number. To a certain extent, this may be considered to make direct comparisons between the several columns inexact or fallacious. . In the second table, Middle Europe and Scandinavia are substituted for the earth and all Europe, with a view of bringing out a similar floral comparison between this island and neighbouring portions of the European conti- nent. Middle Europe will be understood to include France, Germany, and Switzerland; the ordinal numbers being founded on Lamotte’s ‘ Catalogue,’ with the exclu- —_— —— Ill. FLORA OF BRITAIN. 411 sion of Corsican plants and some others. Scandinavia includes Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland ; the ordinal numbers being derived from the ‘Summa Vegeta- bilium’ by Fries, with some few omissions and changes. An intelligent reader will perceive the peculiarities which distinguish the British series of orders in either table from the other two, without explanation in much detail. Some few may be mentioned, by way of illus- trating the use and purport of the arrangement. It is curious that in some respects the relative position of orders for Britain should resemble their position for the whole earth, more than for Europe. In the first table . Filices stand 8 for the earth generally, 11 for Britain ; while they do not come among the 28 predominant orders in Europe; being only no. 29, if the series had been continued. The Orchidacee likewise hold a position in the British series much above their position in Europe ; in this respect approaching nearer to their estimated position in the vegetable kingdom at large. As no. 4 in the latter, however, the order probably stands too high ; Dr. Lindley’s familiarity with the species having likely led him to estimate their numbers too high in comparison with those for some of the other orders. Indeed, it is to be borne in recollection that the figures following the names in the first column are all of them estimates only, and unavoidably of unequal reliance. In the other comparative arrangement, table second, the resemblance is closer between the series for Britain and for Scandinavia, than it is between either of these and Middle Europe. Composite and Rosacee stand on the same lines for both. Cyperoides and Gramina come between those two orders, though with a change of place between themselves. Nos. 1 to 4 thus present the same four orders for the two countries. From 5 to 14 the ’ 412 X. GENERAL REMARKS. same ten orders occur, though variously placed. Be- tween 13 and 18 the four orders again correspond, and are also differently placed. Three more lines present the same three orders for both countries. And with the change of Huphorbiacee in Britain, for Violacee in Sean- dinavia, the succeeding seven lines again present seven same orders, ending with Campanulacee on the last line for both countries ; the position of this last-named order, however, depending on the union with it of Lobeliacee. The high position of Leguminifere, and the low position of Juncaceez, may be held indicative of the drier and warmer climate of Middle Europe, when compared with Scandinavia or Britain. But the higher position of Primulacee in Middle Europe will not admit of the same explanation ; the order there rising above its position for Britain or Scandinavia, on account of its many alpine species, which do not extend to the more arctic moun- tains. 4. The Vegetation of Britain. Vegetation and flora, though not seldom employed with a mixed or interchanged meaning, ought to be held non- Synonymous words. The flora is an aggregate or totality of the species in any given country. The vegetution is an aggregate or total mass of its individual plants. In floral statistics, the rarest and least seen species counts as an equal unit with the commonest and most conspicuous. In vegetal statistics (if a contrasting word may be made) size and frequency are also taken into account. In the flora of Britain, the Epipogium aphyllum and Orchis maculata count as equals. In the vegetation, the half- dozen or fewer examples of the former— all hitherto found—ought to count at a very low figure in comparison with the many thousands of the latter which are to be eer IV. VEGETATION, OF BRITAIN. 413 seen every year. The rarely found Menziesia cerulea is an unit of the British flora, equally with the abundant Calluna vulgaris. Widely unequal, however, are these two shrubs in the vegetation. The insignificant Limosella aquatica, small in size and occupying only a small space in each special locality, is florally an equal with Betula alba or Vaccinium Myrtillus. By individual size, and by mass of vegetation, the two latter are enormously supe- rior. The genus Orobanche, with its eight or ten species, counts as the equal of Hypericum or Viola in the flora of this country. But in its vegetation single species of Hypericum or Viola prevail more than do all the species of Orobanche added together. No method has yet been devised for adequately ex- pressing these vast differences between species, even when viewed singly; much less when grouped into~ orders, &c. The terms usually employed—‘ rare - scarce - occasional - common -abundant’— are quite inadequate ; although, if mentally construed to mean ‘ units -tens- hundreds - thousands - millions,’ and qualified by the addi- tion of ‘rather’ and ‘very’ for intermediates and extremes, they may serve to express the facts intelligibly, if somewhat too unprecisely. But when thus understood and used, they belong properly to the census of species, and are badly applicable to groups of any kind. Itis very desirable to have some method for showing the com- parative prevalence of orders and of genera, which shall bring into joint account the number of their species and also the frequency and dimensions of their species. Very difficult is it to make any fair approximation to such a joint result ; and not easy, even if the most difficult item in the account, that of size or dimensions, be left out of the reckoning. On looking to the last section of the ‘ census of species,’ 414 X. GENERAL REMARKS. page 269, it may be seen that 77 species are deemed pe- culiar to single sub-provinces, on present knowledge of their localities ; some 20 or 22 of them being found in two counties each. In a comital census of the vegetation, those 77 species together would count only equal with Bellis perennis or Plantago lanceolata, ascertained in 97 or 99 counties and vice-counties. By a sub-provincial census, they would be made about equal with the Bellis and Plantago united; that is, 77 sub-provinces would be nearly the same as twice 38. If based upon a large number of local sections, a census of species does in this manner supply data for making some sort of approach towards an ordinal census of the vegetation, as distin- guished from an ordinal census of the flora; repetitions being reckoned up, instead of the number of species simply. Still, even this degree of approach may be dis- tant from the reality; it being likely enough that twice 77 species might be selected, which in their aggregate are not represented by as many individual plants, as either the Bellis or the Plantago. And so with many others. But that ‘census of species’ is itself partial and im- perfect on another ground; namely, through taking no account of size in connexion with frequency, or of the compound character of arborescent and other branching species. The winter buds of trees are so many plants, chained together through the trunk and branches; each of them equivalent (say) to the underground bulb of a snowdrop, or to the surface bulb of a butterwort in winter. In this way one single shrub or tree might be held equivalent to hundreds or thousands of snowdrops and pinguiculas ; and it will produce as great a quantity of vegetation, when its buds expand into twigs under the sun of summer. While regarding species through this eg Te) nh ee IV. VEGETATION OF BRITAIN. 415 view, there may be said to remain still something of the numerical character, in comparing one tree with many herbs. But when mere size is under consideration, even that rude approach towards numerical comparability seems to fail and become no longer available. How many plants of Centunculus are equivalent to one of Digitalis? —How many tufts of Juncus effusus are equivalent to one tree of Taxus baccata ? — Answer these queries to yourself, sensible reader, as best you can; and then recollect that like queries and answers should be extended also to each one of the whole 1425 species, com- pared with each and all of the rest. It seems almost hopeless to expect any sort of answer, such as can be brought to bear correctly upon ordinal proportions. We may compare together the numbers of species included in different orders. We may also less precisely compare the number of their repetitions, or the extent of their areas, with the object of ascertaining comparative fre- quency, But the further effect and influence of their relative size, in constituting the mass of vegetation, can scarcely be noted otherwise than empirically, as a sort of physiognomical character ; one often obvious to the eye, but not admitting of measurement or computation. How best to present the joint result of numbers and frequency, leaving size and compound character out of the question? —It is undeniable that the census of species before printed, pages 234 to 271, and the third column of figures in the census of orders, pages 359 to 361, must present a better summary of the vegetation, than any other census can do, which is restricted to the number of species, exclusively of their frequency. It is then to that third column, as an ordinal summary of the census of species, we must look for an answer to the question. The figures in that column represent the 416 X. GENERAL REMARKS. comital repetitions of all the species of an order added together into one aggregate sum. And if the orders be re-arranged into a series corresponding with those aggre- gate sums, we obtain an ordinal census of the vegetation, which differs considerably from the ordinal census of the flora. Next, is it possible in any manner to bring into the comparison also the size and compound character of the species ?— This question is far more difficult to answer ; that is, to answer in any other form than by the simple negative. It would be quite possible, indeed, to fix upon a scale of size, ranging (say) from Radiola to Quercus, from 1 to 1000, or from 1 to 10,000; not by so many single steps, but by leaps increasingly wide, so as to form 20 or 50 grades; which would admit of relative com- parison, without pretending to be either absolute or exact. The grades once fixed on, the figure which represented the size of any species, following the scale, might be multiplied by its comital repetitions. The products of such multiplication, added together by orders, would constitute an ordinal census of the vegetation, com- pounded of the number and size of the species, with their comital repetitions or frequency. Although quite possible to patience and leisure, in any country where the localities of plants are numerously recorded, and by a botanist very familiar with the usual size of the species, the trouble of working out such a census may be deemed greater than would be compen- sated by any useful result likely to emanate therefrom. The experiment has been tried for Britain, indeed, by the writer of this volume; the results corresponding with the physiognomical aspect of the vegetation, in the main, more truly than those given by the number of species, or by the number of their repetitions, apart from size. But . gg ll i oe IV. VEGETATION OF BRITAIN. 417 the relative places of plants, in the scale of size, were found to be so uncertain in many individual instances, that it is doubted much whether botanists in different countries would ever bring out results fairly comparable with each other, by this laborious process. And if not comparable, they would be useless. The uncertainty arises out of the wide dissimilarities between plants, in their general appearance and mode of growth. ‘There is no doubt or difficulty in deciding that a Plantago is larger than a Pinguicula,—that Hottonia is larger than Utricularia, — that Convolvulus sepium is larger than Convolvulus arvensis,—that Arundo Phrag- mites is larger than Phalaris arundinacea,—that Polysti- chum angulare is larger than Blechnum boreale, — that Juniperus communis is larger than Calluna vulgaris,— that Fagus and Ulmus are larger than Alnus and Corylus ; and so on, with respect to very many other British plants, when thus placed in pairs of similar character and growth. And it is easy enough to form ascending series of a dozen or a score of species, thus mutually similar and com- parable. But how to compare sizes between plants very dissimilar, is the real difficulty. Hew to compare a Carex with a Plantago,—a Juncus with a Carduwus,—an Orchis with a Potamogeton,—an Equisetum with a Lyco- podiwm,—the Ferns with the Grasses, — slenderly erect plants with tufted or creeping kinds ? It seems then, that repetitions of species must be taken, apart from their dimensions, as the only prac- ticable measure or test of ordinal predominance in the vegetation; subject to the interfering alternative, that comital repetition may signify either a greater frequency or a wider area. Ina serial or progressive arrangement of the orders under this test, one slight modification may be advantageously made, by grouping them according to VOL. Iv. 3H 418 X. GENERAL REMARKS. a conspicuous vegetal character. What would otherwise be a linear series of orders may be converted into a binary or ternary series, by separating from the rest those orders which include shrubs and trees, or the dico- tyledons from the monocotyledons and acotyledons. ‘This is done in the arrangement on the opposite page; where the orders are placed in correspondence with the census figures, which were introduced into the ‘summary of dis- tribution,’ and were also set after their names in the floral census on pages 359 to 861. But a second and ‘shorter series is made, apart from the principal one, by removing those orders which include trees or shrubs, and placing them in a second column. A third series is in like manner made by separating also the monocotyledons and acotyledons, and placing these together in a third column. As the second and third series are short, the general series of herbaceous dicotyledons is continued into the lower portions of both columns. Through this slight change of arrangement the relative positions of orders of the same character are rendered more readily comparable. The ligneous orders are also brought up higher in the scale, more in conformity with their conspicuousness in the general vegetation. And the actual positions which all would hold in a single linear series, are still suffi- - ciently shown by the figures set after the names of the orders. Some seeming anomalies occur in the arrangement which are easily accounted for. There can hardly bea doubt that Leguminifere stand too high, where placed at the head of the second column. In the general vegeta- tion, that order is exceeded by Amentifere and Rosacee, and perhaps also by Ericacee. It is placed with the ligneous orders chiefly on account of the vegetal im- portance of Ulex, which is so conspicuous an item in the A ee ele, ae — ok él IV. VEGETATION OF BRITAIN. 419 Ordinal Census of the Vegetation. Composite, 5600. Umbellifere, 2383. Lamiacewx, 2366. Caryophyllacee, 2338. Scrophulariacez, 2211. Crucifere, 2156. Ranunculacez, 1654. Polygonacee, 1353. - Boraginacee, 923. Rubiacee, 869. Primulacez, 814. Chenopodiacez, 796. Geraniacee, 758. Onagracee, 626. Hypericum, 592. © Euphorbiacee, 478. Gentianacez, 474. Plantaginacee, 466. Saxifragaceez, 449. Viola, 446. Campanulacee, 440. Papaveracex, 376. Crassulacee, 330. Dipsacee, 328. Urticaceez, 309. Valerianacez, 301. Fumariacee, 258. Malvacee, 245. Solanacez, 229. Pinguiculacee, 206. Holoragiacee, 189. Linacee, 188. Convolvulus, 170. = botanical landscape of England. Leguminifere, 2850. Rosacee, 2714. Amentifere, 1239. Ericacee, 667. Caprifoliacee, 326. Araliacee, 159. Jasminacee, 132. Conifer, 112. Ribes, 110. Rhamnus, 92. Ulwus, 73. Ilex, 72. Cornus, 65. Euonymus, 62. Daphne, 57. Empetrum, 54. Acer, 50. Viscum, 33. Berberis, 30. Tilia, 19. Vinca, 18. Hippophae, 5. Callitriche, 169. Orobanchacee, 164. Drosera, 154. Lythracee, 148. Nympheacee, 131. Reseda, 131. Plumbaginacez, 126. Polygala, 98. Tilecebracee, 89. Oxalis, 84.. Gramina, 5007. Cyperoides, 3402. Filices, 1795. Orchidacez, 1251. Juncacez, 1200. Potamacee, 727. Liliacex, 450. Equisetum, 442. Alismacee, 414. Typhacee, 314. Lycopodium, 261. Lemna, 200. Tridacez, 142. Melanthiacez, 123. Aracee, 86. Tamus, 63. Paris, 59. Marsileacee, 58. Hydrocharidacez, 50. Amaryllidacee, 49. Zostera, 49. Eriocaulon, 2. Montia, 80. Helianthemun, 79. Cusceuta, 59. Verbena, 56, Bryonia, 50. Ceratophyllum, 44. Thesium, 19. Elatine, 16. Frankeuia, 11. Impat. 6. Asar. 6. Otherwise, its more suitable place would have been second among the her- baceous orders. Again, Jlea is a more important and 420 X. GENERAL REMARKS. conspicuous item of English vegetation than Ribes ; though the four species of the latter bring up their comital repetitions to a higher figure than those of the single Ilex. So, again, Acer and Empetrum compose more of the vegetation of Britain than Daphne does; but the few comital repetitions for the two species of the latter, added together, make a higher figure than do those for the single species of the former, taken as separate orders. In comparing Rosacee and Amentifere it is to be remem- bered that the former order is rendered unduly numerous through excessive segregation among the species of Rubus ; while in the latter the over-numerous species of Sala have been aggregated into half of the old number. The trees of Rosacee are comparatively rare, and never form forests; while those of Amentifere are several of them common in hedges, and frequently constitute exten- Sive groves and forests. The catkin-bearers ought pro- bably to stand above the rose-flowerers. In the third column Gramina rightly stand first. It is quite within belief that in ages long past, — before man drained so many swamps and marshes, converting them into meadows and pastures, corn-fields and road-ways of various kinds,—the Cyperoides may have composed more of the vegetation than the Gramina then did. Perhaps they still do so in North Britain, where various species of Scirpus, Carex, and Eriophorum prevail so abundantly. It is somewhat remarkable to find Orchidacee and Jun- caceé so nearly equal; the size and abundance of Juncus conglomeratus and effusus, with the frequency of some other species of Juncus and Luzula, seeming to give that order a real predominance in the vegetation. Their plentifulness is neutralised in the total result by the restricted areas of the alpine species ; and three of them are also maritime species, unknown in the inland coun- i i le IV. VEGETATION OF BRITAIN. 421 ties. The mingling of Filices, Equisetum, Lycopodium, and Marsileacee with the monocotyledonous orders, was simply a matter of convenience ; there being no space to make them into a fourth parallel column. In mass of vegetation, possibly, the Ferns exceed the Sedges. In the first column, and its continuations in the second and third, devoted to the herbaceous dicotyledons, the orders seem to take sequence very well in accordance with their vegetal prevalence. Plantaginacee may be considered too low; but they stand above any other group of only six species. Looking to Buxus, the Eu- phorbiacee might have claimed place in the second column ; but the rarity and doubtful nativity of that one shrub seemed to forbid the change. Solanacee and Che- nopodiacee each include one soft herb-like shrub, not warranting their removal to the ligneous group of orders. In those orders which are represented in Britain by a single genus to each, the generic name is used instead of the ordinal name, as in some of the former lists. This practice assists to keep in recollection the fact, that ordinal comparisons may be very unequal. In com- paring an order consisting of one genus, with an order including several genera, we compare the simple and the composite, the uniform and the varied, a minor group with a major group. The comparison which sets Lyco- podium against Leguminifere, or Hypericum against Ra- nunculacee is really a very unequal contrast. But when that single genus represents a large order of various genera, thus reduced to one in Britain, the inequality is itself an important fact in phyto-geography ; for example, the reduction of Cucurbitacee to the single Bryonia, or of Apocynacee to the single Vinca. 422 X. GENERAL REMARKS. There remains yet another aspect meriting notice, under which the ordinal grouping of plants may be viewed in relation to a vegetal census. A glance at the fourth column in the collective census, pages 359 to 361, suffices to see that the species of some of the orders tend to prevail in the vegetation, taken one with another, much more than do those of other orders. The averages for some orders are high, for others they are low, when compared with the mean average of 41 for the whole. It is inte- resting to seek an answer to the question, which of the orders thus tend to prevail in the vegetation of this island, by the wide diffusion and frequent occurrence of their individual species, whether few or many? In the ‘ ordinal census of the vegetation,’ as printed on page 419, numbers and frequency of species are taken together. Suppose, for the sake of an illustration by even figures, one order including 20 species, with 50 comital repeti- tions for each ;—another order including only 10 species, with 100 repetitions for each. The aggregate census would be 1000 for each of the orders; and this figure would correctly represent the total numerical value of the orders in both cases. On the one side, the doubled number of species would compensate for their lesser fre- quency. On the other side, the doubled frequency would in turn compensate for their scantier numbers. But this ordinal equality would fail to express the special distine- tion between the orders; namely, that the species of one order were comparatively rare, and those of the other order were comparatively common. The fourth average or column referred to was added to the third or census column, with a view of showing this difference ; and the citation here of a few examples may render it more clear. The order Plantaginacee includes six species. One of these is an inconspicuous aquatic ; a second of them is a IV. VEGETATION OF BRITAIN. 433 littoral species ; a third may be deemed sub-maritime, especially in its more northerly provinces. These cha- racters of place and conditions of growth must somewhat keep down the census of those three species, when based on the vice-comital sections; some of which are quite inland, and others including few places suitable for the first and third species. Nevertheless, the average fre- quency for the six species of this order rises to the high figure of 78; and in this respect it is exceeded only in two orders, Oxalidacee and Portulacee, each represented by only a single species. Araliacee and Urticacee are nearly the same, their averages being 78 and 77 repeti- tions for a species. These high averages quite accord with the great prevalence of plantains, ivy, and nettles in the vegetation. Their paucity of species must prevent those orders being absolutely predominant in the vegeta- tion, as compared with grasses and composites, or catkin- bearers and umbellates. But if compared with some other orders, more equal to them in species, it becomes evident to the observant British botanist, that they have a decided tendency to become predominant in the vegeta- tion, as much as the limited number of specific forms may permit a predominance. Three quartets of orders may be compared ender this view :— - Plantaginacee, 78. Urticacee,77. Araliacee, 78. Oxalidacez, 84. Lycopodiacee, 43. Linacew, 47. Rhamnacex, 46, Aracee, 43. Pinguiculacee, 34. Cistacee, 10. Cornacee, 32. Santalacee, 19. Such wide differences of average as are shown between the first and third lines do not appear between the larger orders; because these latter mostly include both rare and common plants, and their averages consequently tend towards a medium figure between the two extremes ; although, under special circumstances, considerable dif- ferences are found between orders numerous in species. 424 X. GENERAL REMARKS. Crucifere and Cyperacee may be contrasted against Scrophulariacee and Juncacee, as instances of such dif- ferences; the former having an average of only 36 repeti- tions for a species; the latter with an average of 46. The subjoined enumeration of the orders is intended for comparison with that before given on pages 401 and 402. Here, the orders are placed in a series to correspond with the average frequency of their included species. There, they were placed in correspondence with’ the number of their included species. 84. Oxalidacee. Ovxalis Acetosella, the only native. 80. Portulacee. Montia fontana, the same. 78. Plantaginacee. Araliacez. 77. Urticacee. Four species. 72. Ilicacee. Ilex Aquifolium only. 66. Dipsacee. Jasminacee. 65. Resedacez. Two species. 63. Tamaceez. Tamus communis only. 62. Celastracee. Euonymus europeus only. 60. Valerianacee. Five species. 59. Hypericacee. Trilliacee, or Paris quadrifolia. 57. Solanaceez. Convolvulacez. 56. Verbenacee. Verbena officinalis only. 55. Caprifoliacee. Six species. 54. Papaveracee. Empetracee, or Empetrum nigrum. 53. Geraniacee. Fourteen species. 52. Polygonacee. Typhacee. 51. Droseraceez. Three species of Drosera. 50. Lamiacee. Pistiacee. Cucurbitacer. Aceracee. 49. Equisetacee. Malvacee. Lythracee. 48. Rubiaceew. Primulacee. Onagracee. 47. Ranunculaceez. Haloriagiacee. Linacez. 46. Scrophulariacee. Filices. Juncacee. Alismacee. Rhamnacee. 44, Gramina. Boraginacee. Violaceer. Nympheacee. 43. Lycopodiacee. Fumariacee. Aracez. 42. Umbellifere. Callitrichacee. 41. Composite. Caryophyllacer. Melanthiacez. IV. VEGETATION OF BRITAIN. 425 40. Leguminifere. (General average 41). 36. Cyperoides. Crucifere. Amentifere. Ulmacee. 34. Euphorbiacee. Gentianacee. Pinguiculacee. 33. Rosacee. Chenopodiacee. Potamacee. Ericacee. Polygalaceez. Loranthacee. 32. Orchidacee. Saxifragacee. Cornacee. 30. Crassulacee. Berberacee, or Berberis vulgaris. 29. Marsileacez. Two inconspicuous aquatics. 28. Iridacew. Conifere. Thymeleacee. 27. Grossulariacez. Native distribution uncertain. 25. Hydrocharidacee. Two aquatics; une introduced ? .24. Amaryllidacee. Zosteracez. Few species. 22. Ceratophyllacee. Two submersed aquatics. 21. Liliacee. Campanulacee. Plumbaginacee. 20. Cuscutacez. Parasites, small and austral. 19. Tiliacez. Santalacee. One species each. 18. Apocynacez. Vinca minor only. 16. Orobanchacez. Species over-counted ? 14. Illecebraceez. Six species; five of them austral. 411 Frankeniacee. Frankenia levis only. 10. Cistacee. Four species; two of them very local. 9. Elatinacee. Two very small aquatics. 6. Balsaminacez. Asaracee. One species each. 5. Eleagnacez. Hippophae rhamnoides only. 2. Restiaceez. Eriocaulon septangulare only. In whatever manner exhibited, ordinal predominance suffices only to give general ideas of the floral and vegetal characteristics of any country. It passably well expresses the prevailing character of the flora, and somewhat less well also that of the vegetation. But this is in truth nature looked at through conventional arrangements in books ; and it can accord with and express the truths of nature only so far as those conventional arrangements succeed in doing this; to wit, imperfectly, unequally, capriciously, changeably,— too much modified by the classifying crotchets, and vanities, and rivalries among botanists. VOL. Iv. 31 426 X. GENERAL REMARKS. And one constant and insurmountable objection against all such ordinal statistics, when proposed as representa- tions of the realities of nature, lies in the fact above adverted to, that the abundance and prevalence of indi- vidual species become more or less yeiled, by thus looking at nature through descriptive arrangements in books. If our ordinal statistics are floral, the greater size and frequency of some species are made to count as nothing in the scale. If our statistics are vegetal, the grandeur and frequency of some species, becoming ave- raged with the smallness and rarity of others, are still made to tell too imperfectly in the joint result. The vast abundance of Bellis and Taraxacum becomes lost, so to write, by being halved with the rarity of Diotis and Chry- - socoma. And in the order to which those plants belong, the average frequency must be unduly reduced by the book-fiction of doubling the species of Hieracium ; that is, by segregating them on a different principle from that followed in dividing other genera of the same order into species. A more detailed idea of the vegetal features of Britain, and proportionally more precise, may be obtained by looking over the ‘census of species,’ where natural and book species are taken singly, not grouped into orders,- and their places in the census list are determined by the. frequency of their repetition in the comital floras. Very high in that census list stand the names of Plantago lan- ceolata and major, nos. 1 and 11; thus showing a greater predominance in the vegetation, than would be suggested by the low numerical position of Plantaginacee, no. 38, in the floral census. Not much below them, no. 23, comes Iris Pseudacorus in the census list; a position of this species which is not at all suggested by the com- paratively low places of its order in the floral census, V. INEQUALITIES OF DISTRIBUTION. 427 no. 48,—in the vegetal census, no. 56,—or even in the series of average frequency, where it stands much below the medium. But such specialties belong rather to the next and following sections of these remarks. 5. Inequalities of Area and Census. 1. Floral Diversities—No two countries present the same floras or the same vegetation. Always there are Species in the one or other of them which are not found in both. And if the floras of two small adjacent tracts do happen to be nearly identical in regard to the species which compose them, the vegetation of the two tracts will certainly differ through inequalities of frequency among the same species. The vegetal diversity may be deemed a rule absolutely without exception, although more or less wide according to special circumstances. And the floral diversity is so usual that it also may be held a rule almost equally true, and applicable to all except very small and closely adjacent tracts. Floral diversity may be positive or negative. The presence of certain species in one tract, which are not found also in the other tract, is a positive character in its flora. The absence of certain species from one tract, which are found in the other tract, is a negative character of its flora. The diversity between any two floras may thus be positive in both; or it may be negative on one side and positive on the other side; but it cannot be negative in both. For instance, A and B have 1000 species common to both alike; B having also 20 addi- tional species not found in A. Here, the diversity be- tween the two floras is negative in that of A, positive in that of B. But if A could acquire any number of added 428 X. GENERAL REMARKS. species, not known in B, then the diversity would be positive on both sides. It is conjectured that a distinction between positive and negative diversity, akin to that here made, will eventually prove to be more important in phyto-geogra- phical investigations than has hitherto been made to appear. Differences of this sort are mostly found to be very shght when the floras of two small adjacent tracts are compared together, especially if the tracts are very similar in their geographical features. They become more evident when the flora of one small tract is put in comparison with that of a much larger adjacent tract ; the diversity being then principally, if not exclusively, negative in the small tract, positive in the large tract. ‘The diversity is never entirely negative on either side, between two extensive tracts or countries however closely adjacent to each other, or between any two tracts dis- tantly separated, whether large or small;—and in the latter cases, it may perhaps be correctly added, whether the intervening space is terrestrial or oceanic. In such instances, it is believed, the floral diversity will always . be found positive for both tracts. And if remote coun- tries are contrasted against each other, the floral diver- sity becomes sufficiently wide to out-balance the species- identity, so usually existing in excess over the diversity between neighbouring countries. Floral diversities are found all over the world; varying much in kind and quantity, but everywhere perceptible. Frequently, they may be said to admit of a partial expla- nation; that is, in so far as the tracing out of some seeming relations with present geographical and climatal conditions can be deemed explanatory of the facts. The antecedent pages of this volume, particularly those con- taining the summary of distribution and census of orders, Vv. INEQUALITIES OF DISTRIBUTION. 429 supply numerous facts specially belonging to the botany of Britain, in exemplification of the dissimilarities and distinctions here mentioned. A few of such instances may be cited in further explanation. The two longitudinal divisions of Britain, eastern and western, are tracts stretching alongside of each other by a wavy boundary line; they are nearly equal in extent, and are so narrow that no part of either can be deemed far distant from some part of the other. The hills attain to nearly equal heights in both; and the extent of coast- line, independently of narrow inlets or indentations of the land, is much the same. These geographic uni- formities, and the long line of contiguity, are very favour- able to a floral identity. But even with these favouring conditions, the identity is not at all complete. It has been shown by the letters ‘we’ in the summary of dis- tribution, that several species are restricted to the western division, and that several others are in turn restricted to the eastern division ; the united floral diver- sity amounting to fourteen per cént of the whole flora, or thereabouts. In the three latitudinal divisions, south, middle, north, the floral diversities become more numerous. It is shown by the letters ‘s m n’ in the summary, that each of these divisions contains several species which are absent from one or both of the other two divisions. The floral diversity here becomes increasingly evident if South Britain is compared with North Britain ; although the interspace between them is not very wide. Each of them produces some species which are not found in the other; the positive diversity, or added species, being considerably more numerous in the southern division than in the northern division. So, again, on comparing the Isle of Wight and the Orkney Isles, two smaller and 430 : X. GENERAL REMARKS. more widely separated spaces, the floral diversity be- comes correspondingly wider; far the greater number of the Vectian species being unknown in the northerly group; and several of the Orcadean species being in turn absent from the southern isle. But if we set Orkney against Scotland; that is, a small space against a much larger tract, we shall then find all the species of the small space repeated in the larger tract, along with numerous additions. The diversity here is entirely negative for the Orkney flora, and of course entirely positive for the Scottish flora. A considerable amount of floral identity remains amid the diversity ; that is, all the certain species of Orkney are identical with some among those of Scotland. A submergence of the entire group of Orkney Isles would not deduct a single species from the British flora. This would not be quite the case with the more distant Shetland group ;. two seeming species, or strongly marked varieties, being found in Shetland, and not elsewhere in the British Isles. Enlarging upon the last comparison, the smaller ad- jacent island of Ireland may be set against that of Britain proper. Nearly the whole flora of the former is found repeated in the latter; the small exception in the Irish flora constituting its positive diversity, and not counting up to a score of clearly admitted species. But the flora of Britain, the larger tract, includes some hundreds of species which have not been seen truly wild in Ireland. This diversity, it should be noted, is not at all confined to the species of North Britain, which is situate out of Trish latitudes. Again rising to larger tracts, a similar comparison may be made between Britain and Europe. It has been stated before, that there are extremely few certain species of the former, which do not occur somewhere in the latter; a ad Vv. INEQUALITIES OF DISTRIBUTION. A381 although a much wider European area would require to be taken under view in order to bring all the remaining British species within its limits, after excluding the few not certainly known to occur anywhere in Europe. And as some of these few are elsewhere found in America only, the extra-britannic area, large enough to include repeti- tions of all the British species, is a very wide one indeed ; even supposing that no true species is absolutely and exclusively restricted to these islands. 2. Distributive Dwersities.—In the lists printed on former pages of this volume, having reference to the areas and census of species, inequalities and other diver- sities of distribution appear to be almost as numerous as the species themselves. Arrangements of the plants might be made, and some of them have been made, according to latitude,—according to longitude, — ac- cording to altitude,—according to climate,—according to: provinces,—according to counties, &c., &e. None of the groups so formed would exactly correspond with each other by the species included in them. Those plants which agreed in one character of their distribution, would be found to differ in another; those which might be placed together in some of the groups or arrangements, would be separated in others. The floral diversities be- tween different countries, or between different portions of any single and separated country, are inevitable results of the existing inequalities of distribution between species, such as have been already enumerated and shown specially for Britain. It would perhaps be more correct to say, that they really are those inequalities themselves, brought under notice, and variously apportioned, through the customary manner of dividing the earth’s surface into sections, political and geographical. 432 X. GENERAL REMARKS. The areas of some of the native plants of this island have been shown to extend over its whole length and breadth ; the plants being found in every province and sub-province, under every degree of latitude and longi- tude. Others are seen only in single provinces or sub- provinces, or are restricted to still smaller sub-divisions. Between the two extremes, between the most local and the most general areas, all intermediate grades of partial distribution can be traced. Between 1 province and 18, between 1 sub-province and 38, between 1 county and 99, every intermediate figure has been shown to be applicable to some of the plants; for instance, by the census figures on pages 271 to 278. And under each degree of latitude, and in each province, some species find their north or their south limits, as shown on page 321, &c. All these are examples of inequality in distribution. What is thus true of Britain as a whole, is true also of subordinate portions into which it may be subdivided, perhaps with certain small local limitations not relevant just now. And what is thus true of Britain in particular, is true of the whole earth, and of any other of its geographical divisions; but with certain highly important limitations, as, for example, in the fact that no species can be held general to the whole earth, though so many may be called general to the whole surface of Britain horizontally, or to the whole surface of tracts more extensive than this island. It cannot be necessary to cite facts by way of proving that such inequalities of distribution prevail on the large’ scale, as well as locally in Britain. But not to leave this only an abstract statement, the unequal areas of. some of the neaths may be briefly mentioned in example of it. The area of Calluna vulgaris is widely extensive; this familiar shrub being spread over a large portion of Vv. INEQUALITIES OF DISTRIBUTION. 433 Europe, and continued into Asia. The area of Erica cinerea, the frequent associate of the Calluna throughout Britain, is more contracted in Europe; stopping far short of Asia. The area of Hrica ciliaris is still more con- tracted; being only a comparatively small portion of south-western Europe, namely, Britain (including Ire- land ?), western France, Spain with Portugal. The area of Erica umbellata is again smaller; being a portion of the Spanish peninsula only. In addition, it is to be kept in recollection, that the geographical position of the areas, relatively to each other, is quite as varied as their dimensions. The smaller areas of some species may be wholly included within the larger areas of other species, and in different situations within them. The areas of some species are situate wholly or partially more northward, more south- ward, more eastward, more westward, higher or lower, than the areas of other species ; being either quite sepa- rated and apart, or else intruding one upon another in the most varied modes and degrees. Some species range along the shores or near the coasts only; while others are quite inland; and others occupy both situations. Moreover, the continuity of distribution may be inter- rupted more or less within the area, regarded as a whole space. And great inequalities of profuseness or rarity may exist between species, although the extent of their geographic areas, and even their continuity of distribu- tion may not very widely differ. In short, the often-cited simile of rain-drops on a pool of water,—the circles of which cross and interfere with each other almost infi- nitely as they widen, — might be applied to the areas of plants, as it has been to so many other things. This enumeration of inequalities and diversities would read like an idle repetition of trite truisms, were there VOL. Iv. 3K AB4 X. GENERAL REMARKS. not an end to be arrived at thereby. It is a certain result of these varied conditions and inequalities of dis- tribution, that on taking any part or section of the earth by itself, any single kingdom or country, any belt of lati- tude or longitude, the areas of the plants are unavoid- ably cut asunder and separated in the most unequal manner and degree. Geographic arrangements and no- menclature thus somewhat arbitrarily multiply and increase the natural inequalities by cutting off fragments, so to say, from the areas of many species, and making them portions of different geographical areas. The area of one species not corresponding with the area of another, by geographic position or extent, each separated country must include unequal portions of the whole geographic areas of its plants. Britain appears to have been cut asunder from Europe and much abraded by the encroaching ocean, which may be said to have left in this island only a small portion of the area of Cyperus longus, —a larger portion of the area of Clematis Vitalba,—a still larger portion of the area of Tamus communis,—again, a yet larger portion of the area of Plantago media, — and a much larger portion, equal to the whole island, of the area of Festuca ovina. The restricted distribution of many species in this country, and their consequent low places in the census lists, arises in the manner here set forth ; although, no doubt, other conditions have also to be taken into the account, over and above the mere extent of local area, so cut off from the rest of the geographical area for the same species. Sparseness of distribution, and interruptions to continuity which leave wide interspaces between special localities, are among the conditions which tend to lower the census of species. Even these conditions themselves are often closely connected with the severance of areas, through 4 ™ Se ee ee Vv. INEQUALITIES OF DISTRIBUTION. 435 the tendency of species to become less plentiful towards their areal limits, as noticed below. 8. Geographical limits of Species.— As no flowering plants are distributed over the whole earth, the areas of all may be said to have terminal limits, geographical, climatal, &c. Phyto-geographers have endeavoured to trace out a correspondence and connexion between the areas of species and the lines of latitude and longi- tude marked on maps; and also to connect the boun- daries of those areas with lines which are believed to represent similarities of climate, or other conditions of physical geography. An incorrect idea is in this manner fostered and promulgated, that the limits of plants are abruptly bounded, and that they can be properly repre- sented by lines traced upon maps. This is so imperfectly true, as to be almost false. Who has ever found such lines in England? Who has ever discovered or traced out any such lines on the actual land, or in the actual vegetation, in any part of the world? Notwithstanding the statements and representations of those who make books and maps at home, the botanists who.look out upon the realities of nature, seldom or never find the limits of species running in lines. The usual manner of distribution and cessation is quite different. The whole area of a plant being under view, its special localities are usually found to be most approximated and most productive about the middle of its range, either of latitude or of elevation. The middle of the range may be near the centre of the area, or not so; and the two expressions are therefore not to be held synonymous. No very confident assertion can yet be made on this point, from want of sufficiently clear and precise data respecting the census of plants beyond 436 X. GENERAL REMARKS. Britain. But it is inferred from the imperfect data attainable, that species are not always, and perhaps are not usually, most abundant at the centre of their areas. Understanding the geographic area of a plant to signify the whole space of terrestrial surface, over which it is diffused more or less continuously, that area will inelude certain ranges of latitude and longitude,— of climate, under its manifold proportions of temperature and hu- midity,—of altitude, both absolute and relative,—of mari- time proximity and remoteness, &c. Such ranges may be mentally conceived and represented as linear or cate- narian. On the contrary, the area of a plant must have width as well as length, and should be mentally conceived as more or less approximating to a square form, occasion- ally rounded, occasionally elongated. It is suggested for further examination, that many of the British species are most abundant on the western side, rather than towards the centre, of their present (curtailed ?) geographic areas. But looking on the western side of their areas, and considering it as a line traced from south to north, or reverseiy, the species may perhaps usually be found most abundant and best deve- loped near the middle of that line. To this no doubt many seeming exceptions might be pointed out; because the linear range of altitude will cross and interfere with that of latitude ; and some other conditions also come in to modify the single one of latitude. Whatever may be the place of greatest abundance of a species, and closest repetition of special localities for it, the localities usually become more and more disjoined, and often less productive also, in proportion to distance from that place. Gradually it becomes a “rare plant,” appearing only in few spots, with wide interspaces ; and those few spots probably producing few individual exam- ae a ee Vv. INEQUALITIES OF DISTRIBUTION. 437 ples of the species. In this manner plants gradually attenuate their distribution into isolated spots on the outskirts of their areas, like so many advanced points or positions, beyond which the same species is no more seen. Occasionally, these outlying localities are so far distant as to seem quite disconnected. This is more par- ticularly the case with alpine plants, where the mountains on which they grow are disjoined by wide interspaces of low country, haying a climate unsuited to alpine plants, and a larger vegetation among which such plants would vainly struggle to hold their ground. It is that tendency of species to attenuate into small detached localities, as they approximate towards their vanishing points, which is difficult to represent correctly to the eye on paper. Dots would do this more correctly than lines. But maps ordinarily bear so very small a proportion to the actual geographical surface, that visible dots on them must often unavoidably exaggerate the localities, and minimize the interspaces, into very dispro- portionate representations of the truth. And when lines are traced upon maps, so as to connect the outlying localities, they falsely seem to represent an abruptness of limit, and to enclose a continuity of area, neither of which has any real existence. On the other hand, if the most separated and outlying localities are not taken in, the line is then drawn too short of the actual range and limits of the species. Lines must thus enclose either too much or too little. The same tendency towards detached points of cessa- tion, by isolated and small localities, often renders it matter of much uncertainty at what particular latitude, or at what particular elevation, species should be stated to cease or to commence. In many eases it is not an easy matter to make sure that the most boreal or most 438 X. GENERAL REMARKS. austral, the highest or the lowest locality has really been ascertained. And in a country like Britain, where man has so much intermeddled with nature, there is too fre- quently a further uncertainty whether the most outlying localities ascertained are natural or artificial, unaltered or altered by human agency. Admitting the nativity of Viola odorata, Vinca minor, Daphne Lawreola, and various other plants frequently kept in gardens, their present most northerly localities in Britain are certainly not native stations; and who can now say with any confi- dence, at which of their localities the natural limits of their areas or ranges are to be fixed ? 4. How are the incqualities of distribution to be ex- plained ?—The census of species was founded primarily on the 38 sub-provinces, and secondarily on the 112 comital (including therewith the vice-comital) sections. If com- plete floral lists could be obtained for each and all of the 112 sections, the names of many of the species would likely be preceded by that figure instead of 99, as the highest figure in the comital series; the first group in the general census list then graduating from no. 112 downwards; the second group from a higher no. than 94; and soon. But taking that list as it now stands, with the commonest plants made to seem less generally dis- tributed than they truly are, through habitual neglect of them, it still suffices to show very wide inequalities in the areas and diffusion of the species. Although this fact had not before been brought into view so decidedly and clearly by a series of numerical figures, every young botanist has early in his studies become familiar with the general idea, that some such inequalities do exist. He has at any rate acquired some vague notions about “rare” and “ common” plants. And . a Vv. INEQUALITIES OF DISTRIBUTION. 439 unfortunately for phyto-geographical science, he has too usually learned also to despise and disregard these “common things,” in an acquired taste for rarities, more fanciful than philosophical. To the phyto-geographer, however, the commonest plants can remain sources of interest and objects of research, indirectly through their localities and ranges, equally with the rarest kinds, in searching for which botanical collectors evince so much ardour. The thoughtful observer of nature takes longer and deeper views. He seeks an answer to the question, whether those inequalities of rarity and frequency, of wide and restricted distribution, are simply fortui- tous ?—whether they are related by causation or other- wise to known differences in the present physical geography of the island? More than this, he may extend his investigations so far as to seek out other and remote explanations, drawn from ascertained facts and probabilities in the past history of the earth, or of Britain by itself; with less remote explanations traceable through the history of human operations within Britain. The most advanced phyto-geographers yet stand only at the site of some future edifice; they are still at the beginnings of such investigations, and they can see the ex- planations only in a disjointed and very incomplete form. Sufficient is seen, however, to warrant a belief that the present distribution of plants is not accidental, but is the result of past geographical or geological changes and present adaptations. Chiefly of the latter ? It is true, several of the species now appear dotted about Britain ina manner which it seems very difficult or impossible to account for. We are unable to say how the plants got into their present localities, or why so many of them remain there, year after year, century after century, 440 X. GENERAL REMARKS. without spreading more widely, or without visibly con- tracting their areas, where left undisturbed by man, the great intermeddling agent of nature. Not unlikely, how- ever, this non-changeability in the limited localities of some species is more seeming than real, the deceptive inference from a brief and imperfect observation. The larger number of species may be said to evince a tendency towards continuity of diffusion, interrupted or arrested in such places, and under such conditions, as may fairly be considered more or less satisfactorily to account for the facts observed. For example, on finding various species upon the higher mountains of Scotland, which are absent from the low and comparatively warm plains and coasts of Britain to the southward of those mountains, and which are known again on the plains and shores of arctic countries, — the inference in this case is obvious and irresistible, that the cold and humid climate of the Scottish mountains is one of the present related conditions, assisting to preserve and keep the plants there; although not sufficing by itself to explain how they originally got to that locality. Again, Primula scotica is found in some few places near or along the northern coasts of Scotland, but not spreading to similar situations more southward, nor rising to the higher mountains. Though sufficiently puzzling still, this very restristed area in Scotland was yet more inexplicable so long as the same species was believed to occur in no other country. Since it has been ascertained to occur also on the mountains of Scandi- navia, a plausible conjecture can at any rate now be made, that it has emigrated from those mountains to the moorland coasts of Scotland,—and that some peculiar adaptation to soil or climate, or possibly the want of suffi- cient lapse of time, may have prevented the extension of ao ae eee a V. INEQUALITIES OF DISTRIBUTION. 441 this species farther southward, and to the Highland mountains where many of its Scandinavian alpine asso- ciates find their congenial abode in Britain. At the other extremity of this island, Sibthorpia ewropea is found in some few of the south-western counties ; also, Erica ciliaris still more locally there. On removal to inland gardens in the south-eastern counties, these plants will die away during dry summers, unless watered or sheltered; and they are occasionally killed by frost in severe winters. Here, again, the inference seems clear and warranted, that the damp and equal climate of the south-western counties is a related condition of their existence there; the inference being further supported by the fact of their occurrence under similar circumstances elsewhere in western Europe. But this apparent adapta- tion specially to the present climate of their localities, gives no explanation as to the agencies which originally placed them there. - A first call on the phyto- geographer is to ascertain where the plants are now distributed, and in what manner and degree such present distribution accords with presént geographical conditions ;— how it appears related to lati- tude and longitude, to elevation and climate, to soil and situation, to continuities and disjunctions of the earth's surface, &c., &c. The ingenious minds, that take their delight in inventing causal hypotheses to account for these present seeming relations, through reference to supposed conditions of the past, will work more easily, and perhaps with more truthful results, if supplied with properly arranged data truly illustrating the present. They may then possibly find out, instead of only feign, phyto-geographical and phyto-geological histories. Hitherto, such data have seldom been better than vague and partial; never exact and complete. Any VOL. Iv. 3L 442 X. GENERAL REMARKS. crude hypothesis may appear supportable and to be supported, while its proposer feels himself free to select a small number of species in example of it, and to ignore all the rest. It may so appear, because he naturally selects in preference those which accord with his hypo- thesis ; or (as in one late instance) deceptively culls out those which can be so stated as to seem accordant with it. The more legitimate course for a truth-seeker, and the one better calculated to lead to sound theories eventually, is that of including all the species of a flora; placing all of them fairly under the same arrangements ; looking on all ahike under the same tests and aspects; so that any exceptions may become equally apparent as confirma- tions ; opposing facts be shown as clearly and prominently | as the supporting facts. This would be the scrupulous: and philosophical course of proceeding ;—but it certainly has not been the usual course with the framers of phyto- geographical or phyto-geological hypotheses. There are honorable exceptions, it is true; and among the com- mendable and reliable treatises, under this aspect, may be mentioned the writings of Professor C. Martins,—morally so unlike those of a late Professor in London. And here, friendly reader, you may now find a reason for the full lists of species and of orders, several times repeated in_ this volume, under different arrangements. Lengthy as it renders them, the completeness of the lists is needed as a safeguard against the picking and culling of facts in support of unsound hypotheses, and the ignoring of those which might suggest a contradiction. While the repetitions serve to place the same species or orders under different aspects and combinations, ap- plicable to more various purposes than any single enu- meration could possibly have adapted them for. ~~.» ami emai at i a i ee ee VI. LOCAL SPECIES. 443 6. Local Species. Subject to the remarks in the preceding section, on the areas and limits of plants, many of the inequalities of distribution in Britain may be conveniently traced, and in some degree also explained, in connexion with the geo- graphical divisions of the surface by lines of latitude and longitude, or with elevation above the sea-level. This has been exemplified in some detail by the lists and tables printed on preceding pages, and will receive some further elucidation a few pages onward. But many of the plants are either too local or too general, to exhibit any limitary connexion with latitude or longitude. A species distributed through the entire length and breadth of the island, and passing probably to other countries northward and southward of Britain, can- not be said to have such limits here. And on the con- trary, some of the plants which are restricted to a single province or two, or even smaller sections of surface, may have their very local distribution related to other condi- tions more closely than to lines of latitude or longitude. If special lists of the most local plants should be required for any purpose, they can readily be made out either from the ‘census of species’ or from the ‘areas of species.’ In the former, they stand together at the latter part of the list, as species peculiar to a single sub-province, or to two or three sub-provinces. In the latter, they are more scattered; but are still easily distinguished by the single or few provincial nos. set after their names. Looking to the last group of the census, the 77 plants restricted to a single sub-province may be apportioned between the divisions of Britain thus :— South Britain, 44. Mid and North Britain, 33. Or, looking to the ternary division, which disjoins 444 X. GENERAL REMARKS. Scotland from England, and distinguishes the latter into western and eastern, the figures will reckon up thus::— ; W. England, 80. E. England, 22. Scotland, 25. These last three figures would be reduced to 26, 21, 18, by omitting five segregate or spurious species of Rubus, and seven such species of Hieracium. Turning to the group of 54 species apparently restricted to two sub- provinces, the figures come out thus :— South Britain, 34. Mid and North Britain, 17. To which three other species must be added, as common to the two divisions, namely, Hieraciwm lasiophyllum and Rubus Bloxamu, with the Eriophorum gracile, not quite certain in the North of England. Again, by the ternary division, the same 54 plants are found distributed thus :— W. England, 11. EH. England, 22. Scotland, 12. With nine others common to two of the three divisions. So far, it appears that among the 131 very local plants those of South Britain are considerably in excess over those of North Britain. According to the first com- parison the very local plants of England are more nume- rous on the western side; but by the second comparison, that of plants ascertained in two sub-provinces, the western excess of the first comparison is found to be compensated by an eastern excess in the second; the united numbers being 41 and 44. Turning next to the ‘areas of species,’ those indicated by the single nos. set after their names, as being appa- rently each restricted to a single primary province, are apportioned among the provinces in the following num- bers :— _ VI. LOCAL SPECIES. . 445 Peninsula. ........ 19 Channel ............ iis! Severn .......... 6 Thamess.jiiat.c 14 South Wales... 2 OnSE il sated. 350i 15 North Wales... 4 Brent Xi conececss 1 Mersey .c.....0200 2 Ham bér:aiseacl.. 4 LS ee 0 Dynes cake -.geints 2 West Lowlands 0 East Lowlands 0 West Highlands 1 East Highlands 27 North Highlands 1 North Isles ... 2 The 111 species presumed peculiar to single provinces on present knowledge, are thus seen to be apportioned very unequally among them. The provinces are here first arranged into western and eastern, and are then enume- merated from south to north. A glance suffices to see that local plants are most numerous in the southern provinces, as was shown above by the subprovincial com- parisons. To this austral tendency of the local species the East Highlands offer a decided exception, arising out of the many alpine or arctic plants which have been found hitherto only in that one large province. Light of those so reckoned up are segregate species of Hieraciwm. And it is likely that some among the total 27 species might be found also in the West or North Highlands. Still, even if subject to some abatement in regard to the precise figures, it is made very evident that the most local species tend in three directions; namely, to the south-east of England, to the south-west of England, and to the Highlands or mountains. In other words, the very local plants are australs and arctics, with some very few others scattered elsewhere. But in taking those of single provinces as the most local group of plants, some few equally local species are excluded from consideration. A species found in two 446 X. GENERAL REMARKS. localities, one on each side of a provincial boundary line, might be held equally local with another species found in two distinct localities within the same single province. — For example, Myosotis alpestris is an extremely local plant in England; but it is placed both in the eastern and western floras, in the provinces of Humber and Lakes, because its one locality is stated to be crossed by the provincial boundary line. And through this pecu- liarity, the plant is deceptively made to appear more frequent in England than in Scotland, if the census is taken by provinces or sub-provinces, or even counties, as shown on pages 267, 809, 335. 7. Relation of Plants to Longitude. In the higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere various plants: may be said to surround the globe with zones of the same species, diffused more or less con- tinuously amid the general mass of vegetation ; but their localities not widely dissevered anywhere, except by the oceans which intervene between the old and the new con- tinents. Everywhere, intermingled with such widely- spread plants, others also occur which are more restricted in their diffusion, and which successively displace one another, or are substituted one for the other; thus con- stituting different combinations of species, or native floras, in every country and considerable space of surface. In the warmer latitudes, and in the austral hemisphere, the floras present less of the specific identity, more of the substitutions, under different longitudes. But with those distant lands and dissimilar floras this present treatise has no concern. To understand the flora and vegetation of Britain, it is not necessary to pass many degrees far- ST — ee VII. LONGITUDE. 447 ther southward than its own latitude. And as we go northward the cessation points of species are attained, and left behind in rapid succession. But no botanist will sufficiently understand the botany of Britain, and the relations of its flora in the general system, without a fair knowledge of European botany between latitudes 40 and 70, and some small knowledge about that of Asia and America in latitudes nearly corresponding therewith, or somewhat more boreal. If we should trace round the globe within any given range of boreal latitude, whether that of Britain itself or some other not far distant, we should find a change in the flora gradually increasing as we receded from our starting point, and thus increased our longitudinal dis- tance. Species after species would disappear; and their vacated place in the flora would become occupied by other species, successively appearing, and serving as their sub- stitutes or representatives. But great as the total dif- ference eventually becomes, and numerous as the sub- stituted species are found to be, it seems impossible to point out any line or parallel of longitude ; and to say that there in particular the floral change occurs. Moun- tain masses and oceanic spaces may no doubt make the changes appear more abrupt; but in such cases it is of course to these other conditions of physical geography, and not to longitude simply, that we must look for the related explanations. Less of the changes alluded to are observable in very high latitudes, where the longitudinal circumference of the globe becomes much shortened under equal latitude ; where the climate becomes more similar under different longitudes ; and where the polar centre may be held a common vanishing point of distribution. But as we pass from arctic into more temperate latitudes those conditions 448 X. GENERAL REMARKS. become altered; the floras undergoing greater propor- tionate changes from east to west, or from west to east. The specific differences are’ numerous, and usually much in excess over the-identities, when the floras of the two opposite coasts of an intervening ocean are compared together, as those of Europe and America. The same holds true also when the floras of the contrary sides of a wide continent, very dissimilar in climate, are compared together ; those of Europe and China, for example. But even on those dissevered coasts, or those distant lands and dissimilar climates, where only a smaller number of the species are found to be identical, there is still usually much resemblance between the floras of corresponding latitudes, through an ordinal and generic identity, al- though not become (rather, perhaps, not continuing) so close as to be deemed specific identity. Britain is not an exception to the prevailing rule of change or difference longitudinally ; although this island by itself is a longitudinal fragment of the globe too small and narrow to show much difference in its native flora on the two sides of the island. And the floral dif- ferences which do appear are perhaps chiefly attributable to oceanic influences, and to the oblique position of the island with relation to the continent of Europe. The largely prevailing identity of the western and eastern species has been already repeatedly mentioned. It has been shown in the summary of distribution, by the paucity of small lines, instead of the letters ‘we. And in the latter portion of the census of species it became apparent that the non-correspondence between those of the west and east was slight comparatively with the total number. According to the table on page 364, the nume- rical values of the western and eastern floras are summed up thus :-— a VII. LONGITUDE. 449 West Britain, 13805 species. East Britain, 1355 species. Deducting these figures from the total flora of 1425 species we find the difference between the two longitu- dinal floras thus :— Western exclusively, 70. Eastern exclusively, 120. And putting the figures under another aspect, we have the dissimilarities between the floras for Hast and West Britain thus :— Numerical difference, 50. Floral diversity, 190. And looking to the eastern and western divisions of England, apart from Scotland, the floral numbers are reckoned up from the ‘census of species’ thus :— Scotland, 1015. W. England, 1245. E. England, 1270. So that the true numerical difference between the eastern and western floras of England, when the local plants of Scotland are left out of count, amounts only to 25 species. The floral diversity is of course greater. In all such numerical estimates and comparisons, it is constantly to be kept in recollection, that the seeming preciseness given by the use of arabic figures is not quite real. The numerical predominance of the flora of Eng- land over that of Scotland, the like predominance of the flora of either longitudinal half of England over that of all Scotland, and probably the slight predominance of the eastern over the western flora,—each of these may be held a fact or real knowledge. But the particular figures given for the excess are at best only approximate and variable. More exact knowledge of localities will always tend to alter the numbers, one way or other, and more usually in diminution of differences. The greater or less aggregation of sub-species into species, or the reverse process, will operate more decidedly in variation of nu- merical summaries. And beyond these causes of change, there still come in the conflicting views about nativity VOL, IV. 3M 450 X. GENERAL REMARKS. of species, tending to induce further uncertainty in the figures. It is not unlikely that’ the number of Scottish species may appear to the botanists of that sub-kingdom as being too much reduced below the number for England. ‘The reputed flora of Scotland (here made only about equal to that for the single English county of York) has been somewhat lowered in a manner which may require expla- nation. Several of the truly native species of England occur in Scotland only as doubted natives; and some of the denizen species of England are more evidently aliens in Scotland. In reckoning up the provinces and counties for such plants, and in deciding on their boreal limits, the very uncertain line cf separation, where the native or denizen becomes an alien species, has been conveniently drawn between England and Scotland; thus giving a somewhat greater abruptness in severing the floras of the two sub-kingdoms than elsewhere appears between minor divisions and sections of the island. In example, Viola odorata and Vinca minor, with various other species, have been reckoned in the summaries for eastern and western England ; not so for Scotland, although often mentioned in Scottish floras as if natives, but too usually on slender grounds and on no reasons. It has appeared from the census of species, that so many as 57 (or 55) are yet known only in single counties or vice-counties ; that 77 (or 75) have been clearly ascer- tained in single sub-provinces only ; and that 111 species are thus limited to single primary provinces; also, that various other species are restricted to two or three of such sections of Britain. The question will here ration- ally arise, whether some of these species may not be exclusively western, or exclusively eastern, by the acci- dent of their very restricted areas or localities, and not VII. LONGITUDE. 451 from any special adaptation to the eastern or western climate, or to such a geographical position ? Likely enough this question might be answered affirm- atively, if we were enabled to ascertain the origin of these species in their present localities, or should try the expe- riment of naturalising them on the other side of the island. Cotoneaster vulgaris and Potentilla rupestris are established and reputed native in single localities in North Wales. Draba aizoides and Dianthus cesius occur in single coun- ties farther southward on the same western side of Britain. All four will thus find place in any list of species exclu- sively western. And yet it seems difficult to point out any peculiarity in the technical or physiological charac- ters of these four plants, in their climatal requirements, or in their distribution on the continent of Europe, which will account for their exclusively western abode in Britain. On the contrary, antecedent expectation might have deemed them equally or even more likely to occur in the eastern provinces. Perhaps the rupestral character of their localities, or else the qualities of the rocks on which they grow, may be the nearest explanation towards ac- counting for the western restriction of these four plants in Britain ; and this may be so, whether they ought to be held native or naturalised there. Under this view, their exclusively western position may be considered a geo- graphical accident, connected with strictly topographical circumstances, and not with longitude. In direct counterpoise to those four western species, an equal number of others may be cited as found only on the eastern side of England, although antecedent expectation might have placed them on the western side instead ; namely, F'rankenia levis, Dianthus prolifer, Isnardia pa- lustris, Digitaria humifusa. These four eastern-English “species are less local than the four western-English 452 X. GENERAL REMARKS. species mentioned above; and their iongitudinal limita- tion is therefore more marked. Now, on turning to the Channel Isles, Jersey and Guernsey, all these four eastern species are still found; while the four western species are absent from those Isles, although the Isles are rupestral in character, and occidental in position and climate. The same holds true in continental Normandy, according to Brebisson’s Flore de la Normandie. It may also be remarked, when the total flora of Britain is under consideration, that several of the exclusively eastern species are simply very local alpines or arctics, found in the East Highland province, but hitherto not detected on the less-examined mountains of the West and North Highlands. In respect of actual longitude, and in general climate, the East Highlands are almost equally western with North Wales and the Lake province ; espe- cially so if the mountains are under consideration, not the coast-line. It is not a very scientific mode of expression, to repeat that various very local plants of England or Scotland are accidentally eastern or western, not neces- sarily so; and yet it seems allowable to say this, while attention is specially directed to longitude, apart from other conditions of physical geography. The truest list of western and eastern species would probably be made out, by selecting them in accordance with any decided predominance on the one side, although not absolutely restricted thereto. Such lists need not include the very local plants, quite absent from one side of the island; because these would still not show any prevalence on the other side. The ‘census of species’ affords the data for such lists, that is, so far as differences in the sub-provincial figures may be held evidences of predominance, and the reverse. Space sufficing, the sub- ject of eastern and western species will. be again adverted VI. LATITUDE. 458 to under the types of distribution, and may be dismissed for the present. . 8. Relation of Plants to Latitude. In tracing along the earth from north to south, or in the reversed direction, within any given range of longi- tude, far wider floral changes may be observed than those alluded to in the preceding section. A successive appearance and disappearance again occurs; but it is effected more rapidly and more completely. A change of less than seventy degrees in latitude, from equator to arctic circle, or from polar to tropical lands,—one-fifth round the globe in latitude, — may be said to give almost a complete change of species, on the low plains and shores, and not far from a complete change of genera ; with very wide changes also in the numerical values and proportions of orders. These floral changes are much greater than those which correspond with a longitudinal change amounting to one-fifth of the circumference of the globe. Within the small area of Britain, as before stated and shown, the floral changes in connexion with latitude also much exceed those in connexion with longitude; the usual excess in one direction being probably augmented in Britain through the elongated form and irregular out- line of the island. In the ‘summary of distribution’ and ‘census of orders,’ pages 175 and 362, three latitudinal divisions are made, with the purpose of giving a middle and two extremes ; the triple comparison better sufficing to show a gradation of difference ; the comparison be- tween two divisions ‘serving only to show a single dif- ference. But it was stated that no such three-fold division could be suitably made in connexion with longi- 454 X. GENERAL REMARKS. tude; and we can therefore only compare the result of a binary division in the one case, with the results of a ter- nary division in the other case. Ireland was indeed added, as a third and more westerly one, to the two lon- gitudinal divisions of Britain proper, though without admitting of any just comparison between their three numerical totals; the more westerly island being sepa- rated by an intervening sea, having a much-restricted latitudinal extension, and not having hills of equal eleva- tion with those of Britain ;—conditions likely to affect the flora much more than the difference of longitude simply by itself. Though still open to some objections, — the ‘census of species’ yields better data towards showing that latitude operates greater floral changes than lon- gitude. The effect of the geographical differences before noted between the three latitudinal divisions, pages 135, 136, is an augmentation of the natural changes induced in the flora by difference of latitude. In general terms,—not subject to much exception, while considering an area so small as Britain,—it may be said that difference of eleva- tion affects the flora in a manner very similar to dif- ference of latitude. Thus, the larger surface of low and open country in South Britain, and the larger surface and higher elevation of the mountainous ground in North Britain, tend to increase the differences between their respective floras; and perhaps more particularly so in respect to the non-identity of species. The addition of arctic species to the mountain flora of North Britain, such as occur on low plains only in latitudes farther northward, must in part compensate numerically for an earlier termination of some of the more southern species, brought about by the repelling influence of the northern mountains on such plants ;—thus augmenting the posi- VIII. LATITUDE. 455 tive floral diversity, by changing the species more, while less altering their numbers. It appears by the ‘census of orders,’ that the numerical values of the three floras run thus :— S. Britain, 1280. Mid Britain, 1148. N. Britain, 930. Or, putting the comparison into another form, it may be stated that, out of the total flora of Britain, the number of species absent from those three latitudinal divisions are these :— S. Britain, 145. Mid Britain, 277. N. Britain, 495. It will be kept in recollection, that these are not compa- rative estimates between the floras of different countries, as described by different authors, and consequently varied unequally by individual views about species and nativity. They are here made between the several floras of three divisions of a country well examined by many botanists, and which are brought closely to an uniform standard in respect to the distinctions between species, and those between native and introduced plants. In this wise they are good data towards illustrating the influence of lati- tude, slightly augmented by that of elevation. The segregate species of Rubus, it is true, are not so well ascertained for North Britain, as for the other two divisions ; and on the whole, the flora of that division is less fully known than are the floras of the two more southerly divisions. As a partial set off against this numerical deficiency, it may be said that the flora of North Britain is unduly increased by counting in it a larger number of segregate species of Hieracium ; espe- cially so, if compared with the flora of South Britain, The boreal and montane genus Hieraciwm is thus made a counterpoise against the austral and lowland genus Rubus. In the ‘census of species’ only binary divisions of lati- tude are taken into account; South Britain against 456 X. GENERAL REMARKS. Middle and North Britain united; East or West England against Scotland. The statistical comparisons being there made between the numbers of the sub-provinces, it was desirable to adopt such a line of separation as would place them in two groups equal in numbers. And it will be recollected that the desired equality was obtained by combining those of Middle and North Britain, with the exception of Lincolnshire being added to South Britain ; and so making the numbers into 19 south and 19 north. Including this slight change in the sub-provinces, it ap- pears by the blanks in the first column of the census, that the number of species peculiar to the two divisions run thus :— South Britain, 209. North and Mid Britain, 139. And next, by deducting these numbers from the whole flora of Britain, we find the numerical values of the two several floras thus :— South Britain, 1286. North and Mid Britain, 1216. On making like comparisons between England and Scot- land, founded on the ‘areas of species’ and on the third column of figures in the census, the number of species peculiar to one or other sub-kingdom appear thus :— England, 410. Scotland, 74 or 75. And the numerical values of their total floras,—ascer- tained in each instance by deducting the absent species from the whole flora of Britain, — according to the same list, appear to be thus :— England, 1350. Scotland, 1015. It has previously been explained, page 450, that the number of species so attributed to Scotland may perhaps be deemed too low by those botanists who are more soli- citous to extend floral lists numerically, than to eliminate from them the distrusted natives. The like explanation might also be applied in some degree to the line of VIll. LATITUDE. 457 separation between the floras of Mid and North Britain, as well as to the line between those of England and Scot- land ; certain species which are found under distrusted conditions in the latter division, being reckoned in the list for the former division only, and not admitted among the native plants northward of the estuaries of Clyde and Forth. In accordance with the northerly decrease in the total | flora, most of the orders exhibit a decreasing number of species in the same direction, when the ternary figures in the middle column of the ‘ distributive census’ are compared together. The rate of numerical decrease northwards is very unequal among the orders. Thus, Composite ap- pear to decrease by very few species in proportion to their total numbers; being only one-eighteenth of the whole, or 6 out of 108, the north compared with the south. The absence from North Britain of various English species of that order, is compensated there by the accession of many alleged species of Hieracium, and some species of other genera among the alpine or arctic plants. On the contrary, Umbellifere decrease more decidedly, Chenopodiacee and Euphorbiacee still more decidedly, from south to north. In the list referred to, Rosacee and Leguminifere ap- pear on equality by actual numbers in North Britain ; but in South Britain the former order is one-seventh more numerous, chiefly through the genus Rubus, the segregate species of which have not been so much recorded for North Britain ; where, indeed, several of them may likely be quite absent. ilices and Orchidacee are numerically equal in South Britain; becoming less equal in Mid Britain, and very unequal in North Britain. Lycopo- diacee and Plantaginacee show even numbers in all three VOL. Iv. 3N 458 X. GENERAL REMARKS. divisions; this equality of actual numbers being relatively an increase in the northward direction, since the orders remain equally numerous in a diminished total flora. In Boraginacee and other instances, where some decrease is seen, it is so slight as to be also a relative increase. And in some few orders there is an absolute increase in the number of species northward; Amentifere, Juncacee, Ericacee, Saxifragacee, Equisetacee, with two or three smaller orders, being examples of a northerly increase. Nympheacee are among the lesser orders so appearing in the list; but if true Nuphar pumila does occur in Shrop- shire and Northumberland, the three species belong alike to all three latitudinal divisions. In very few instances does an order exhibit the largest number of species in Mid Britain; though Primulacee, Grossulariacee, Caprifoliacee, Melanthiacee, and Cor- nacee appear in the list as examples of this peculiarity. It is attributable to the commencement or appearance of added boreal species before an equal number of southern species have ceased. Grossulariacee may or may not be held such an example, according to varying views about the nativity of the species of Ribes. The three succeed- ing orders are increased in Mid Britain by the single species, Linnea borealis, Cornus suecica, and Tofieldia palustris ; which extend sparingly into that division, and fail to reach South Britain. The number of orders unrepresented by species in the three latitudinal divisions may be stated thus :-— S. Britain, 1. Mid Britain, 4. N. Britain, 19. The four orders wanting in Mid Britain are also among the nineteen absent from North Britain ; the twenty orders in the whole being represented only by single genera in our truly native flora, unless Aracee, Amaryllidacee, and Hydrocharidacee are correctly to be excepted from that VIII. LATITUDE. 459 singleness. If the slightly suspected Lewcojum (by several botanists), Acorus (by W. A. Bromfield), and Stratiotes (by A. De Candolle) are decided not to be true natives, then the fact becomes simply that 20 genera, each repre- senting an order, are absent from one or other of the three latitudinal divisions; all of them being so absent from North Britain, except Eriocaulon, which is found there only. In thus passing from orders to genera, we find the same prevailing tendency to northerly decrease or cessa- tion among the genera of larger orders also; many being quite absent from Middle, and more especially from North Britain. As in the case of orders, however, exceptions are found also among genera; and these exceptions are not restricted to small genera. Some few of the largest genera decrease in their number of species in a southerly direction; of which the troublesome genera Salix and Hieracium are examples. And among some other smaller genera, the appearance of alpine or arctic species on the northern mountains either augments the total number, or compensates for any cessation of more southern species. Pyrola, Luzula, Juncus, Cerastium, Arenaria, Saxifraga, Gnaphalium, Pinguicula, and Erigeron are generic exam- ples of numerical increase northwards ; and, conversely, of decrease southwards. Certain smaller genera are confined to the flora of North Britain, though much too few in number to ba- lance those which are peculiar to the more southerly divisions. Cherleria, Mulgediwm, Menziesia, Azalea, Goodyera, Eriocaulon, Hierochloe, and Pseudathyrium are thus restricted ; and all of them are genera of a solitary species each in this country, unless the P. flexile may prove to be a true natural species, and so add a second to the genus last named. 460 X. GENERAL’ REMARKS. Some other genera are common to North and Mid Britain, though equally wanting in the South. Such are Oxytropis, Sibbaldia, Ligusticum, Linnea, Arbutus, Trien- talis, Corallorhiza, Tofieldia, Elyna, and Sesleria. Few years ago, Dryas might have been included in this short enumeration ; but by its recent discovery in Staffordshire, and re-discovery in North Wales, it becomes a genus for all the divisions. Actea and Cypripedium are deemed peculiar to Mid Britain ; possibly Asarum also. The absent genera in North Britain, that is, those restricted to one or both of the two more southerly divi- sions, are too numerous for citation. They can be ascer- tained readily from the ‘summary of distribution,’ if required. And the absent species can be ascertained at the same source for any of the divisions; or, more closely in accordance with their provincial and latitudinal limits, from the ‘areas of species.. Numerical summaries rela- ting to the cessation of species under each degree of lati- tude, and in each province from south to north, and - north to south, have been before given, on page 321. 9. Relation of Plants to Altitude. Differences of altitude or elevation are marked by floral changes somewhat less wide than those arising from dif- ferences of latitude ; the alterations resulting from those two geographical conditions being analogous, though not altogether identical. In some respects the floral changes might appear to be much wider in connexion with height above the sea; being brought about very rapidly in pro- portion to the space of ground intervening between dif- ferent levels. By a railway journey from London to Aberdeen, we may change our flora considerably in the course of a single day; but in order to effect that change, | IX. ALTITUDE. 461 we travel over several hundreds of miles horizontally. In another single day, by ascending Loch-na-gar or other of the lofty hills in Aberdeenshire, we may further change our flora, by the walk of a few miles in length, more than we did by the railway run of half as many hundreds. Starting from an elevated inland base, this rapid change is made by an ascent of about three thousand feet in ver- tical height ; during which a change of climate is expe- rienced, which is more than equivalent to the climatal difference between Middlesex and Aberdeenshire, at or near the coast-level. As before alluded to, it is currently known that the changes traceable in the flora and general vegetation, while ascending mountains, much resemble those changes which would be observed on the plains or other low grounds, by travelling the necessary distance in a polar direction. Though rather close, the similarity is not by any means so close and uniform as it is represented to be by various botanical writers, whose ideas of science are confined to reading books at home, and then re-concocting their contents into other books. For instance, the upper limits of plants on mountains, those both of individual species and of groups, are not seldom found higher than might have been anticipated from their polar extension ; and occasionally they are less high. Further, the floral identity is often far less than it is usually represented to be by the retailers of book know- ledge. The highest flora of intertropical countries, at levels bordering closely on the snow-line, is not at all identical with the arctic flora by its species, nor yet ex- clusively so by its genera, or even by its orders. So like- wise, the upper mountain and alpine floras of North Africa and its adjacent islands include comparatively few boreal or arctic species. These countries have their own moun- 462 X. GENERAL REMARKS. tain floras, bearing some considerable generic or ordinal resemblance to the floras of boreal and arctic lands, with little identity among the species. Even on the Alps and Pyrenees of Europe, as a traveller approximates towards their snowy summits and gelid glaciers, he finds there only a portion of the arctic or sub-polar flora; and that portion is intermingled among many other non-arctic species, whose affinities are those of the more southern latitudes where those mountains are situate. A remark in the writings of Tournefort has been copied and re-copied a hundred times over by non-inquiring book-makers, and in dull routine continues to be miscon- strued or misapplied up to the current year. The fol- lowing passages are transcribed from a recent work of considerable merit, in exemplification of a false generality given to Tournefort’s idea, which is only sound while more correctly applied and limited :— “Again, as indeed must be perceptible to every one who has visited mountainous countries, vegetation alters in its characters at different elevations, and it has been shown that these variations correspond to those which are observed on the level plains in proceeding from the south towards the north; the increased severity of the climate of the higher localities acting exactly in the same way as the colder climate of the regions lying further from the equator.” ...... “In his Voyage to the Levant, Tournefort relates that he was struck with the alterations in the characters of the vegetation as he ascended Mount Ararat; at the foot he passed through the plants of Asia Minor; half-up he met with those of _ France, and at the summit he recognized the members of the Lapland flora. Linneus carried out this idea some- what further, and the observations of all subsequent tra- vellers have only served to confirm and extend it. Step IX. ALTITUDE. 463 by step as the land rises in any mountain region the vegetation assumes, more and more, a polar character ; and in the mountains of the tropics, a succession of stages have been distinguished, corresponding in the general peculiarities of the plants which clothe them, to tracts extending horizontally, in succession, on the sea- level, from the base of these mountains to the frozen regions within the arctic and antarctic circles.” In these passages, and others which succeed them, there are just those few grains of truth among the chaffy falseness, which must forbid a denial in toto. Increased severity of climate on the mountains does not act on the flora “ exactly in the same way” as the colder climate of regions farther from the equator. And it would assuredly puzzle the writer of those vaguely general passages, if he were called upon to enumerate the arctic and antarctic floras, species by species, or even genus by genus, re- peated near the snow-line on tropical mountains,—or, conversely, to find the plants of the tropical mountains among those brought home by our arctic voyagers. The correction here sought to be impressed, is, that in receding from polar towards equatorial latitudes, the alpine or mountain floras themselves really become less and less arctic ; although it may be quite true that the change is less rapid and complete, than that observed between the floras of the plains, if severed as widely in latitude. Ina southerly direction, polar and arctic species successively cease to be seen even upon the highest mountains ; their places being more numerously supplied by other non- arctic species; and these latter frequently having a closer . generic and ordinal alliance with the comparatively southern species of the low grounds. It is important to note this fact, in reference to certain hypothetical views of floral distribution lately promulgated. And it may 464 X. GENERAL. REMARKS. bear also upon Vestigian views, when these shall have been corrected and made scientific by help of Darwinian discernment. Such an increasing departure from floral identity might reasonably be expected, in passing from polar coasts to intertropical mountains, on account of the increasing dis- similarity between the climates of high latitudes and of high altitudes. The slighter variations of temperature in low latitudes being found also on their mountains (al- though the mountain climate may not be quite so uniform as that of the plains and coast-line beneath them), the arctic-alpine flora of high latitudes gradually gives place in low latitudes to one less adapted to bear extreme cold ; while various species of this latter temperate-alpine or tropical-alpine flora still require no higher temperature for their season of growth, than is required by the arctic- alpines ; perhaps even demanding a relatively lower tem- perature. Partly on this account, it may be, that we see the mountain plants of more southern latitudes growing well in our un-heated garden frames during mild English winters, and some of them even freely flowering, if barely preserved from frost by night; although the day tempe- rature remains too low in such frames, to allow the simul- taneous development of the alpine plants of Scotland and other more northern lands; which consequently continue dormant there until the sunny warmth of spring raises the temperature for them by day. Calceolarias grow, and flower, and even seed, in a temperature which leaves Saxifrages torpid ; and yet the slight frosts of spring and autumn, which growing Saxifrages bear with impunity, are fatal to those same Calceolarias. But our immediate concern is with this island and its own plants. The upper mountain flora of Britain still IX. ALTITUDE. 465 corresponds rather closely with the lower flora of boreal and arctic lands; although it wants many of the arctic species. And moreover the floral diversity above men- tioned, as induced by the intermingling of other species and genera, may be observed to some small extent on the hills of Britain; even on those of North Britain. The mountain plants of Scotland, which botanical collectors seek with so much eagerness under the designation of ‘alpines,’ are mostly identical with species descending to lower levels in more boreal lands. But several others of the boreal species fail to reach the hills of Britain, though found in Iceland or Faroe, and numerously in Scanidina- via. And among those which do occur on the mountains of North Britain, some very few in turn fail to reach the more southerly masses of the Alps and Pyrenees; for example, Arenaria rubella, Saxifraga rivularis, Alopecurus alpinus, &e. -’ Moreover, among the arctic-alpines which are continued southwards to the hills of Britain, other species are also found which do not occur along with the proper arctics in the low grounds of corresponding northern latitudes. In example, Cherleria sedoides is a thoroughly alpine plant in Scotland; growing there only upon the mountains, and among the truly arctic plants; being absent from Scandinavia, Russia, Siberia, North America; but pre- sent on the Alps, Pyrenees, and other European moun- tains to the southward of Britain. Helianthemum canum and Meconopsis cambrica in England and Wales, and Saxifraga umbrosa with its allied species in Ireland, sup- ply somewhat similar illustrations from the more southern and lower hills of the British islands. Probably on account of the decreased height and bulk of the hills, as we pass southward in Britain, such illus- trations are scanty in number; so that a change in the VOL. Iv. 30 466 X. GENERAL REMARKS. mountain flora is chiefly made obvious there by the dis- appearance of many of the arctic species of the Scottish hills, and very little so by the appearance of others to replace them ; that is, except in so far as species of the plains ascend high enough to do so. Sedum anglicum, for example, found equally high on the hills of Wales, as several other plants which extend much farther north- wards. In Britain, comparatively few plants are absolutely rstricted to levels situate much above the coast line, although many of them become more prevalent on the mountains. The opposite of this is not true; many spe- cies being quite restricted to the low grounds; and among the ascending species there is a large reduction of num- bers for each thousand feet’ of vertical height. This reduction may be attributed chiefly to the increasing alti- tude, and consequent deterioration of climate; but it is also partly attributable to the diminished space or sur- face. It is difficult to analyse the joint result, and appor- tion the share of influence between the two conditions. But the simple fact, that difference of area will consider- ably affect the numerical results attained by comparing the floras of different altitudes, has been already shown on page 351, by placing in contrast the numbers of spe- cies ascertained above certain descending levels in the North of England and in the Highlands of Scotland. Subject to any necessary correction on account of dif- ferences in the extent of surface, the total floras of the three successive stages adopted in the ‘summary of dis- tribution’ exhibit these wide numerical differences in the ‘ distributive census,’ page 364 :— Above 700 yards, .... present 262 species. Between 700 and 200 yards, 687 Below 200 yards, ......ssceeees 1319 IX. ALTITUDE. 467 Or, making the comparison between the numbers of the absent species, instead of making it between the numbers of those present in each stage of altitude :— Above 700 yards, .... absent 1168 species. Between 700 and 200 yards, 738 Below 200 yards, ........00ss00 106 It is repeated, these numbers are approximate only; the vertical ranges of various species being yet imperfectly ascertained. Likely enough, as intimated on pages 230 and 231, several additional species will be found to occur rather above 200 yards ; particularly those on the undu- lating downs and hills in the south-easterly provinces of England, which occasionally exceed 200 yards, and some _ of them rising above 300 yards of vertical height. These portions of the open country, distant from the higher hills, have not been taken into account; the altitudes for the plants having been almost exclusively ascertained in Middle and North Britain, with very few southern additions. It is to be kept in recollection here, that difference of latitude will tend to lessen the floral diversities at ditferent stages of elevation. Subject to some local exceptions from other conditions interfering, it is familiarly known to be a general rule or fact, that the lower limits of spe- cies descend, and that the upper limits of species usually become lowered, on mountains of equal bulk and eleva- tion, as we trace plants in the polar direction to higher latitudes and colder climates. The latitudinal extent of Britain is amply sufficient to show this descent in vertical limits, especially a descent of the lower limits of many plants. Thus, at or very near the sea-level in North Britain we may see Thalictrum alpinum, Carex capillaris, Dryas octopetala, Draba incana, Saxifraga oppositifolia, and various other plants, which in Middle and South Britain occur only above the lowest stage of altitude. 468 X. GENERAL REMARKS. So likewise in North Britain some plants occur in the ascending stage of altitude, between 200 and 700 yards, which in England and Wales are found only above 700 yards ; for example, Salix. herbacea and Carex rigida. The decrease of height for the lower limits, arising out of more northerly latitude, thus brings species into the same ascending stage, if our view takes in the entire length of Britain ; while a more limited view would correctly assign them to different stages, and thus tend to augment the discrepancies between the floras of different levels. In accordance with the decrease in the total flora, ver- tical ascent will tend usually to decrease also the orders and their included species. The number of orders repre- sented in the three vertical stages is varied thus :-— Lowest, 98. Ascending, 77. Uppermost, 47. Sazifragacee is the only order which exhibits an absolute increase of species in the uppermost stage; and the excess is one of a single species only over the numbers found in the two lower stages. Conifere rise to four species in the middle stage, compared with three in the others; this excess being explained by the occurrence of Taxus baccata above 200 yards, and of Juniperus nana below 700 yards; although these two conifers do not seem to grow actually on the same level. Melanthiacee are equal in the three stages ; T'ofieldia succeeding Colchicum. All the other orders (excepting some of those of a solitary species each) show a decrease in number of species in one or other of the higher stages; the decrease being slower or more rapid, greater or less, among the various orders, one com- © pared with another, as exhibited in the tabular list of them on pages 362 to 364. But as in the case of latitude, still more so in that of altitude, the absolute decrease of numbers in certain IX. ALTITUDE, 469 orders is so slight as to leave them increased relatively to the much smaller total flora of the higher stage. This is exemplified in the ‘ distributive census of orders’ above referred to, page 362, by the varying irregularity of the numbers in the same column of figures. In the column devoted to altitude, the first series of numbers is almost regular; that is, the orders which include the species found below 200 yards follow nearly the same series as the orders do for the whole of Britain. Here Scrophula- riacee and Lamiacee simply change places; being 44 and 47 species, or nos. 10 and 9 of the series, instead of 9and 10. Filices require to be placed two steps lower down in the series; sinking from no. 11 to no. 13. Jun- caceé go down from no. 16 to no. 18. The few inequali- ties left after these changes, would mostly depend on single species in small orders. In the second series of the same sku under the letter A, the numbers run more irregularly ; thus showing that the numerical value of the orders, relatively to each other, is so far changed in the second stage of altitude, between 200 and 700 yards. In the third series of the same column, under the letter U, the departure from re- gularity is yet greater; thus showing that the relative numerical value of the orders, or their predominance in species, differs much on the higher hills, when compared with their relative value near the coast-level. Without repeating here the names of all the small orders, which have been already given in detailed enume- vation in the distributive census list referred to, the sub- joined re-arrangement will place in comparison the prin- cipal orders of the three successive stages of altitude. The names of the orders succeed each other in accordance with the number of their included species, shown for each of the three stages by the figures set after the names. 470 Xs 26. 27. 28. and Scrophulariacee answering to no. 10 in each stage of In various instances the same order is got on the same line or prefixed no. for two of the stages of altitude. Below 200 yards. . Composite, 111] sps. . Gramina, 104. . Cypervides, 81. . Rosacee, 77. . Leguminifere, 67. Crucifere, 58. . Umbellifere, 57. Caryophyllacez, 48. . Lamiacee, 47. . Scrophulariacex, 44. . Orchidacee, 39. . Ranunculacee, 35. . Filices, 33. . Amentifere, 26. . Polygonacee, 26. . Chenopodiacez, 24. . Potamacez, 22. . Juncacee, 20. . Boraginacee, 20. . Liliacer, 19. Ericacee, 17. . Rubiacee, 17. Primulacez, 17. Geraniacee, 14. . Euphorbiacea, 14. Campanulacee, 14. Gentianacez, 12. Onagracee, 11. GENERAL REMARKS. 200—700 yards. Composite, 73. Gramina, 58. Cypervides, 43. Rosacez, 38. Filices, 30. Caryophyllacee, 26. Crucifere, 25. Leguminifere, 24. Ranunculacee, 21. Scrophulariacee, 21. Amentifers, 20. Lamiacee, 19. Umbellifere, 18. Orchidacez, 16. Polygonacee, 15. Juncacee, 15. Ericacee, 14. Rubiacee, 11. Boraginacee, 11. Saxifragaceez, 10. Geraniacee, 9. Onagracee, 9. Liliacee, 8. Hypericacee, 8. Crassulacee, 8. Primulacez, 7. Potamacee, 6. Violacee, etc. 6. Above 700 yards. Composite, 35. Cyperoides, 29. Gramina, 20. Filices, 17. Caryophyllacex, 15. Juncacez, 13. Ericacex, 13. Rosacez, 12. Saxifragacez, 11. Scrophulariacee, 11. Crucifere, 9. Ranunculaceae, 9. Amentifere, 8. Leguminiferz, 6. Lycopodiacee, 5. Polygonacez, 3. Orchidacez, 3. Violacez, 3. Gentianacee, 3. Conifere, 3. Rubiacee, 2. Onagracee, 2. Primulacez, 2. Lamiacez, 2. Crassulacee, 2. Umbellifere, 2. Equisetacez, 2. Melanthiacez,.2. Only two of the orders occupy the same position in all three stages; namely, Composite at the head of the series, ascent, without interrupting the regularity of the figures in tracing downwards; and in some few instances, the place of the same order in the other stage differs only by | EEE ee X. CLIMATE OF PLANTS. 471 one step or no. Thus, Gramina and Cyperoides run in nos. 2 and 3, Polygonacee in 15 and 16. One of the widest differences among the 28 orders occurs in Saxzifra- gacee ; which rise from 29 (if the list had been carried down to that no.) in the lowest stage, to 20 in the middle stage, and to 9 in the uppermost stage. Some few of these orders, however, are quite absent from the upper- most stage, as Chenopodiacee and Euphorbiacee. In the eighth chapter ‘altitude of species’ lists have been printed for the purpose of showing the upper limits of each species on the mountains of Scotland and North England. If the absolute or the comparative heights attained by individual species, should be required in more exact detail than the indications given in the ‘summary of distribution’ under the three successive stages of alti- tude, and under the six ascending or climatal zones, their heights may be ascertained by reference to those lists. And the vertical ranges of the plants, as affected by lati- tude and other conditions, will still receive some further incidental illustrations in the next section of these gene- ral remarks on distribution. 10. Relations of Plants with Climate. Incidental remarks, bearing upon the connexions be- tween plants and climate, have been made in various places throughout this volume, and occasionally in the three preceding volumes. Indeed, it is scarcely possible to treat about any of the geographical relations of plants, without touching the all-pervading influence of climate upon distribution. And yet, as was truly remarked on page 145, “it is difficult even to present impossibility, to trace out very special connexions between plants and cli- mate”; although, on the general view, the fact of very 472 X. GENERAL REMARKS.. intimate connexions seems obvious enough, whether we look to the earth at large or to Britain by itself. Each botanist who has devoted much attention to this intricate subject, has his own particular predilections and fancies about the influence of temperature more espe- cially, and the best mode of estimating that influence in its relations to plants. And each can readily pick out facts enough to give a good show of support to his own favorite fancies ; the facts themselves being countless in their numbers and variations, and some of them of course suiting any theory which has a basis-ef truth, however partial and inexact it may be in the whole. Near one hundred thousand species, and perhaps almost millions of differences in local situations, and in the proportions be- tween their temperature and humidity, and the dates and durations of either, are an ample stock of facts, among which to seek for evidences and illustrations of climatal hypotheses. That existing differences between the climates of dif- ferent countries are largely influential in determining the existing differences between their floras, is usually ad- mitted as a truism ; although quite understood not to be the only cause or condition of their floral diversities. Perhaps the most condensed and obvious illustration of climatal influence on plants, accessible in this country, may be found in the gardens of wealthy amateurs, and in those of the leading tradesmen who raise plants and pro- duce for sale. Their stoves and hothouses exemplify the influence of continued high temperature, with varied de- grees of humidity ;—say, the warmest weeks of an English summer continued through the year. Their conserva- tories or greenhouses exemplify the influence of like climatal conditions in more temperate degrees, and with greater variations of season;—say, the summers of ‘, . § X. CLIMATE OF PLANTS. 473 England combined with the winters of warmer latitudes. Their unheated or “cold” frames also admit of further varied combinations between the temperatures of the seasons, with choice of sun or shade. Simply by aid of glass, and without fires, all or any of our natural seasons can be made warmer, and may be made either more equable or less equable, for the plants placed within such frames. Through shelter from frost, the winters are ren- dered considerably less cold for them ; while shelter from sun, assisted by evaporation, can make also the summers cooler for plants thus treated, than it is to plants left in the open air.’ And besides creating so many variations of temperature, the gardener also largely controls the other chief element of climate, by modifying almost at will the humidity of earth and atmosphere, at any season, within his frames and glass-houses. Even in ordinary gardens the seasons are usually experienced under some favoring conditions of shelter, and with the injurious extremes of humidity prevented by drainage, and those of drought relieved by artificial waterings. Outside these gardens, again, there is the natural climate of Britain, with its many local variations. All this is familiar enough. It is run over here in » brief description, to impress the fact, that in this manner there is really brought under botanical observation, and condensed into small spaces of land, a vast amount of floral and vegetal diversity, directly connected with and dependant upon great diversities of climate. And the - demonstrated fact, that such differences are found service- able or necessary in the cultivation of plants and crops, shows that the climatal requirements of different species of plants are widely different, in a more clear and con- vincing manner than the same requirements and differ- ences ever have been shown: by the best treatises on VOL. Iv. 3P 474 X. GENERAL REMARKS. phyto-geography. In the general view, the various arti- ficial climates of gardeners may be held to represent pass- ably well the real climates of most countries that are warmer or milder than Britain. Adding thereto our own climate in its natural conditions, little is left unrepre- sented except the intensities of winter cold and of desic- cating summer heats; neither of which does the gardener wish to imitate here. Though wide climatal diversities are thus shown to be necessary for the co-existence of the various plants con- stituting the present flora of the globe, — another fact of an opposite character is not the less true; namely, that many plants are adapted to endure and thrive under very different climates. Species common to Britain and Sibe- ria, to Britain and Africa, to Britain and Madeira, clearly must be adapted to grow under very dissimilar conditions of climate. But it is unnecessary to pass beyond the area of Britain itself, to find this fact illustrated by examples. A very few of which may suffice for illustration here. Festuca ovina on a gravel bank in Cornwall, or on a chalk down in Kent, and the same species at four thou- sand feet of elevation on the mountains of Scotland,—are » certainly placed under widely different conditions of cli- mate. So likewise are Calluna vulgaris flourishing on the low heaths of Cornwall, and Vaccinium Myrtillus growing in woods which meet the sea-tides in Devon,—if compared with other examples of the same shrubs at three thousand feet of elevation on the hills of Aberdeenshire. The mean temperatures of the whole year,—the means of the seve- ral seasons,—those of the warmest and coldest months,— those of the day and night,— the maxima and minima of the year, season, month, day and night,—the sum of the daily temperatures,—all must differ much in those very dissimilar situations. And yet the same species will ee | ee ee X. CLIMATE OF PLANTS. 475 there maintain itself century after century,—that is, end- lessly to our present mental vision,—under those different conditions of temperature. The like comparisons or contrasts might be made in respect of humidity also. Polygonum amphibium will grow well in ponds and canals, where its roots are under water the year through; also growing well under a changed form, in meadows and other places which are inundated only occasionally, and then chiefly during the season of its apparent torpidity; and being still able to exist also on cultivated land, the surface of which is never under water. Chrysosplenium oppositifolium grows vigor- ously in damp and shaded places on the coast-level in southern England ; and it thrives also in cold springlets on the unsheltered acclivities of the Highland mountains; the temperature and humidity of the two situations being always widely dissimilar, unless perhaps occasionally in the winter, while the water is frozen and the plants buried under snow. Montia fontana occurs with the Chrysosple- nium in these mountain springlets ; being found also in the lowest water-courses of the southern provinces, and likewise as a weed in gardens there. | All species, it is true, are not adapted to endure such wide diversities of temperature or humidity; and many seem to have only a short range of climate. The Men- ziesia polifolia of Ireland, and the Erica vagans of Corn- wall, are occasionally killed by the severity of the winter frosts near London, and would probably not endure sum- mers much drier, than experienced there occasionally. The western Pinguicula lusitanica and Sibthorpia europea are apparently unfitted to endure the wider variations of mois- ture and dryness to which they would be subjected in the eastern counties of England. The Saxifrages of Ireland will bear well enough the more severe climate of Cumberland 476 X. GENERAL REMARKS- and western Yorkshire, probably because humid; while they shriveland sometimes die under the brighter sun and drier atmosphere of Surrey. So likewise the hill plants of the Azore isles are kept with difficulty in the same county of England; where the winters are found to be too cold for them, and the summers too dry, and perhaps also too warm. Thousands of other such examples might be cited. 1t may probably be quite true, that every spe- cies is fitted to bear some diversities of climate; while many are adapted to bear very wide diversities. Grave difficulties appear to beset ali attempts to ascer- tain the range of temperature and other climatal condi- tions of species with any close approach to exactness. The climates in which they do not grow, and on experi- ment will not grow, might indeed be ascertained approxi- mately for a goodly number. But the climate in which they are now seen to grow naturally, is too frequently an imperfect indication of the range or diversities of climate in which they could grow. We preserve numerous foreign plants in the borders of our gardens with little more care than the simple process of preventing their destruction by the native and imported weeds which outgrow and smother them. Without human aid most of those foreign species would soon cease to grow there, prevented by other circumstances than climate, or operating conjointly with climate. Yet who can venture to assert that no combination of natural circumstances ever did or ever will occur, sufficient to enable those same species to acquire hereditary hold of the ground here, for an inde- finite time, without human assistance ? In what manner, then, are we to ascertain and express the relations between plants and climate, more especially the temperature necessary for their development? These must still be inferred almost entirely from the existing X. CLIMATE OF PLANTS. 477 conditions of species-distribution ; although it is to be feared that such inferences will be imperfect and un- precise. Mean annual temperature was looked to almost exclusively at one time, as affording the most satisfactory explanation of floral distribution. Plenty of facts were adduced to support this mode of accounting climatally for the similarities and diversities of floral distribution ; closely followed by plenty of exceptional facts also. Then, the climate of the different seasons was resorted to, especially the contrasts of summer and winter tem- peratures, under the idea of qualifying the indications of mean yearly temperature, gradually ascertained to be too vaguely general, and subject to too many exceptional contradictions. The extremes of temperature and other circumstances have also been taken into account, and have occasionally seemed to account for peculiarities of distribution. Altogether, much interesting and explana- tory information on the subject has been gradually accu- mulated; though unfortunately it is still too vague and incomplete for plenary satisfaction or practical usefulness. Among the latest fancies, is that of adding together the daily temperatures into a gross amount or sum-total of temperature, to which plants are supposed to be subjected during the period of their growth. This is in effect the temperature of the year, leaving out those portions of the year during which the temperature is believed to be too low to have any vivifying or developing influence on the species under consideration. It cannot be denied that there is a substantial basis of truth for this improvement on the older estimates of mean temperature. But it will be found vastly more difficult in application; and it opens the way to a “cooking of accounts” almost at will. Wherever results or sums-total do not accord with pre- conceived expectation, they may be corrected and brought 478 X%. GENERAL REMARKS. equal by the simple process of taking in or striking out a few more of the thermometrical degrees. For most spe- cies it will be found too uncertain—that is, too optional— at what precise degree of the thermometer the plant-com- mences, continues, or ceases to develope. Roots, leaves, flowers, fruits, all require different degrees of temperature for their development, and applied unequally at different stages of their growth. It is difficult to suggest any practicable mode of ob- serving and recording instrumental indications of tem- perature, which would be adapted to the varying require- ments of plants, regarded in this manner. In the same country, at the very same time, various species may be in all the different stages of growth, from germination to maturation, from absolute torpidity to vigorous develop- ment. While the snowdrop is flowering in our gardens, the buds of the oak are dormant. And while the oak- flower is slowly developing into the perfect acorn, the snowdrop becomes torpid ; resuming its growth about the date when the acorn falls; and doing so earlier if the ground becomes damp, later if it continues dry, almost irrespective of temperature at a season when uniformity prevails. The colchicum and the daffodil are at rest for a very short period of the summer’s warmth and dryness. During nearly the same period the leaves of the white hellebore are still growing; its flower-buds appearing later in the autumn, and expanding into blossom in the midst of winter; whence its familiar name of the ‘ Christ- mas Rose.’ And among the species which follow a more usual course of development, by commencing to grow in spring and ceasing in autumn, the dates of commence- ment and cessation, and consequently also the degrees of useful temperature, can scarcely be specified. X. CLIMATE OF PLANTS. 479 Ca True it is, however, that the gardener who raises early potatoes by help of warm litter and night coverings,—who brings forward his lettuce and celery on a gentle hotbed, with the purpose of getting this produce earlier into market than it would otherwise come in,—who forces his cucumbers and melons by the application of higher heat, —or who gets his grapes and peaches ripened under glass earlier or better than they could be ripened in our open climate,—in these, and other such proceedings, works under a practical conviction that greater heat during a shorter time will produce results very similar to those brought about by less heat continued through a longer time, or applied less continuously. The fact is clear and certain enough within gardening limits; and it no doubt must hold true to some considerable extent in reference to the natural growth of plants. A shorter and warmer summer may thus be equalised with a longer and cooler summer, in its effects on the growth of some species; and in this manner may be determined the possibility of their existence in two countries of climates very dis- similar. _ But there must certainly be an early limit to this ten- * dency of time and temperature to balance each other, or compensate one for the other. ‘Ihe idea is too easily pushed to a reductio ad absurdum, to allow of that wide extension and felicitously precise application to phyto-geo- graphy, which M. De Candolle apparently expects from it. The sum of the daily temperatures experienced by a plant might be the same with very different results, destructive in the first,—unuseful in the second,—successful in the third,—injurious in the fourth,—destructive again in the fifth, &c. For instance, 480 X. GENERAL REMARKS.- 200 days at or averaging 30 fahr. make 6000. 150 n 40 y; 6000. 100 ‘ 60 ‘i 6000. 50 & 120 » 6000. 25 34 240 % 6000. This sort of reduction into absurdity, however, is avoided by a limitation of the temperatures to those useful or necessary for the species, omitting extremes. All the temperatures below those which promote the due develop- ment of the species, and all those which are needlessly or injuriously too high, are to be left out of the reckoning. The necessity of these omissions renders the problem too intricate for practical solution and service. The sum of the useful temperatures will be found scarcely reckonable for any species. And no ordinary thermometrical records are fairly available, on account of the variable rates and degrees required by the different species of the same flora or country, and differently required by the same species at their different stages of growth. It is highly probable also, that different temperatures are requisite in some de- _ gree of relation to differences of humidity ; and thus fur- ther increasing the difficulties of the subject. It would seem hardly less difficult to ascertain the gross amount of atmospheric motion, which is required by any given species of plant, or is endurable by it without deteriora- tion or destruction. The established routine of mean annual temperature has been adhered to in this work, not because this is believed to be the truest or closest indication of the cli- mate required by a species, but because it is the only indication practically available at present. The degree of mean temperature, at which a species ceases to occur native in this country, is certainly no measure of that at X. CLIMATE OF PLANTS. 481 which it may be expected to cease in another country with dissimilar climate. But subject to those local differences in the seasons and extremes, before commented on at pages 166 to 174, mean annual temperature is not the less available on that account for various comparisons within Britain itself, and also for some comparisons be- tween this island and the opposite coasts of the continent. The relative limits of different species within this island and on the adjacent European coasts, will admit of com- parison through their ranges of mean yearly temperature, although these may not exactly express the special cli- mates for each species. We may know that a man of 42 years is older than a man of 41 years of age, although we may be able to ascertain exactly neither the months nor the days when they respectively complete a year of added age. Annual means subserve also passably well for compa- risons between the altitudinal ranges of the same species for different divisions of the island, and even for testing the correspondence between altitudinal and latitudinal limits, as exemplified on pages 164, 165. Thus, when we find Urtica dioica traced up the Grampian mountains of North Britain to a height where the mean temperature is supposed to be about 4.05 centigrade (page 329), we may reasonably enough infer that the height represented by 6.00 in North England (page 336) is far below that at which the same species might exist, if suitable soil and site were there found for it higher up. So, again, on assuming the mean temperature of Orkney and Shetland to be equal with that experienced between 300 and 400 yards of altitude in North England, we should infer that many of the species which grow on the coast-level in those northern islets will also grow at or: wives 300 yards in England; and the fact is so. VOL. Ivy. 8Q 482 X. GENERAL REMARKS. Fully admitting the imperfections of such a climatal arrangement, it is still conceived that some interest would attach to an arrangement of the whole flora into a double linear series, according with the presumed mean annual temperatures under which the species have their re- spective limits, upper and lower, colder and warmer. The data for such an arrangement all exist in the preceding pages ; but the necessity of economizing space prevented further repetitions of the long list of names. Such an arrangement for upper limits might be founded upon that for the plants of the Grampian mountains, by interposing the few colder temperatures stated elsewhere, and then adding to the list those other species which apparently cease under higher temperatures, whether by latitude, or by altitude in the list for North England. The short thermal list of lower limits, on pages 352 to 356, might in turn be carried out by uniting therewith the latitudinal temperatures of species reaching further southward at slight elevations. . No ordinal summaries were made in accordance with the temperatures ; because these were mainly inferences either from latitude or from altitude. The summaries or census of orders were founded on those two geographi- cal conditions instead ; first, taken separately and inde- pendently, by the latitudinal divisions and the stages of elevation ; and then, connectedly, by the ascending or cli- matal zones, in which the two former conditions were supposed to compensate or balance each other. These zones again fall under remark in the next section. 11. Climatal Zones of Plants. The arrangement of plants into climatal (a more Eng- lish-like termination than “ climatic”) zones was explained ee a XI. CLIMATAL ZONES. 483 at some length in the introductory portion of volume first, pages 19 to 43. Under such an arrangement the plants are placed in series, and divided into successive ’ groups, in accordance with their geographical position relatively to each other. Such relative position appears to be determined by the climates to which they are re- spectively best adapted, and by the geographical peculi- arities of the countries in which they are found. But the actual conditions, climatal and geographical, are combined in proportions so countlessly varied that they cannot be exactly ascertained for any single species separately, and still less can they be determined precisely for groups. The influence of latitude and longitude, elevation, insularity, montane proximity, and other conditions, has been alluded to more or less fully on former pages; as also the partial extent to which altitude and latitude actually compensate for each other, in their influence on the floras of different countries. Climatal zones are designed to express the complex result from those conditions in their ever-varying proportions. But such zones are more conveniently, because more simply, traced out by reference to the relative limits and positions of the plants themselves, with only subordinate reference to their more special connexions with climate and geo- graphy. In attempting to make out such a zonal arrangement for the flora of a whole country, which includes a con- siderable range of latitude and much inequality of surface, we proceed on the assumption that latitude and altitude do in the main compensate one for the other,—that on attaining a higher level in a more southerly district, we should mostly find there the same species that we should also find by a journey of sufficient latitudinal distance northwards,—that the higher the elevation of the more 484 X. GENERAL REMARKS. southern hills, the more boreal would become their flora at the upper stages of height. But it has been insisted that this general notion requires limitation; that it be- comes less strictly true and applicable, as the latitudinal distance increases; the floras of the higher montane zones becoming less identical with the floras of far boreal lati- tudes, as the distance between them increases. Within the area of this island, however, it is found suf- ficiently possible to trace out certain zones of plants under the joint influence of latitude and elevation, modified somewhat by other conditions. The plants absent from the open country of South England, and which first ap- pear about or above the bases of the hills of Wales and North England, are again met with on the northern coasts of Scotland, or inland in the lowest mountain valleys there. Those which occur higher up on the hills of South and Mid Britain, are again found on the mountains of North Britain ; usually commencing there at lower levels than they descended to in England or Wales. And the upper zones of the plants on the Highland mountains, though unrepresented on the coast-level in this island, have a considerable floral identity with more boreal and ~ arctic lands. As a general example, the flora of the mid- arctic zone in Britain may be said to occur on the coast- level in Iceland and other sub-arctic lands; and that of the superarctic zone is ‘partially repeated at the coast- level in Spitzbergen and other sub-polar lands. The floral identity is far from complete; considerable diversity of species being also found between any levels and latitudes so compared. Nor do the same species cease in the same relative order or sequence in successive stages of boreal latitude, as they do in successive stages — of height on the mountain acclivities. If we should observe species a b c¢ d e f ceasing in succession at te A XI. CLIMATAL ZONES. 485 100 200 300 400 500 600 yards on a mountain in lati- tude 58, — and should then find a and f ceasing respec- tively in 60 and 70 of boreal latitude, it would still be by no means certain that b ¢ d e would be found to cease at the corresponding intermediate latitudes of 62 64 66 68. Something similar might be expected, and would frequently be found; but the same succession would not occur either equally or constantly. It will be recollected that two primary divisions were adopted in the first volume, pages 32 and 33, for the basis of a climatal arrangement in this country.—1. The agra- rian region included the whole coast-level and low grounds, up to the limit of cultivation; rising some hundreds of feet higher in South Britain than in North Britain. — 2. The arctic region included the acclivities and summits of the mountains above the limit of cultivation; com- mencing some hundreds of feet higher in the South than in the North, and at a very slight altitude in the extreme North, as in Shetland. These two regions were sub- divided each into three subordinate zones (vol. 1, page 40) thus :— 6. Super-arctic zone. 8. Super-agrarian zone. 5. Mid-arctic cm. 2. Mid-agrarian _,, 4. Infer-arctic ,, 1. Infer-agrarian _,, The three agrarian zones are chiefly latitudinal, while the three arctic zones are exclusively altitudinal in this country. On passing to more northern lands the latter become latitudinal; while in passing southward from Scotland into England the upper agrarian zone is found above the middle one; and on reaching Wales, both mid- dle and upper have place above the lower; so that the three agrarian zones also become altitudinal there. The descending levels of the zones, as traced from south to north, are indieated by the oblique lines which separate 486 x GENERAL REMARKS. 1. Orders predominant in the Agrarian zones. 1 Inferagrarian. . Composite, 102. 2. Gramina, 102. 20. Cyperoides, 77. . Rosacer, 72. Leguminifere, 65 . Crucifere, 54. . Umbellifere, 54, . Caryophyllacee, 45. . Lamiacee, 45. . Scrophulariacex, 43. . Orchidacee, 35. . Ranunculacee, 30. . Filices, 29. . Chenopodiacee, 24. . Polygonacee, 23. . Amentifere, 22. . Potamacee, 21. . Boraginacee, 19. . Juncacee, 18. . Liliaceae, 18. . Rubiacee, 16. . Geraniacee, 14. . Euphorbiacez, 14. . Campanulacee, 14, . Primulacez, 13. - Ericacee, 12. . Gentianacez, 10. . Onagracee, 10. Hypericum, 10. 2 Midagrarian. Composite, 87. Gramina, 83. Cyperoides, 68. Rosacee, 63. Leguminifere, 46. Crucifere, 45. Umbellifere, 43. Caryophyllacee, 41. Lamiacez, 41. Scrophulariacee, 36. Filices, 33. Ranunculacea, 29. Orchidaceae, 27. Amentifere, 25. Polygonacez, 21. Chenopodiacee, 20. Potamacee, 20. Juncacee, 18. Boraginacee, 17. Rubiacee, 15. Primulacez, 14. Liliacee, 12. Geraniacee, 12. Ericacee, 11. Gentianacee, 10. Campanulacez, 10. Onagracee, 9. Hypericum, 9. Euphorbiacee, 8. 3 Superagrarian. Composite, 70. Gramina, 64. Cyperoides, 62. Rosacea, 36. Caryophyllacex, 33. Leguminifere, 32. Crucifere, 32. Filices, 30. Lamiacee, 25. Umbellifere, 23. Scrophulariacee, 20. Ranunculacee, 19. Amentifera, 18. Orchidacee, 17. Polygonacez, 17. Juncacee, 16. Ericacee, 16. Potamacee, 14. Boraginacee, 12. Rubiacez, 11. Primulacez, 11. Chenopodiacee, 10. Saxifragacee, 10. Geraniacez, 9. Onagracee, 8. Hypericum, 8. Equisetum, 8. Liliacex, 6. Gentianacee, 6. them in the little diagram, placed at the left-hand lower corner of the lithographic map prefixed to volume third. The ‘climatal census of orders,’ on pages 365 to 367 was an arrangement of the floras of the several regions and zones into their constituent orders, intended to show the number of species ascertained in each order for each XI. CLIMATAL ZONES. 4 Inferarctic. . Composite, 33. . Cyperoides, 25. . Gramina, 21. . Filices, 20. . Rosacee, 18. . Caryophyllacee, 14. . Scrophulariacee, 12. . Ericacee, 12. . Leguminifere, 10. . Ranunculaceae, 10. . Amentifere, 10. . Crucifere, 9. . Juncacee, 9. — me CH ONAUHKWH = —_— — m WwW Ww . Saxifragacee, 7. — or . Onagracez, 6. . Orchidacee, 5. . Lycopodium, 5. 18. Lamiacez, 4. — ie ND 19. Polygonacee, 4. 20. Rubiacee, 4. 21. Gentianacee, 4. 22. Umbellifere, 3. 23. Primulacee, 3. 24. Crassulacee, 3. 25. Viola, 3. 26. Equisetum, 3. 27. Conifere, 3. 28. Geraniacee, 2. 29. Campanulacee, 2. 5 Midarctic. Composite, 32. Cyperoides, 28. Gramina, 18. Caryophyllacee, 15. Filices, 15. Rosacez, 12. Amentifere, 11. Ericacee, 11. Scrophulariacee, 10. Juncacee, 10. Crucifere, 9. Saxifragacee, 8. Ranunculacee, 7 ? Leguminifere, 7. Polygonacee, 4. Lycopodium, 4. Orchidacee, 3. Onagracez, 3. Viola, 3. Umbellifere, 2. Rubiacee, 2. Primulacee, 2. Gentianacee, 2. Crassulacee, 2. Equisetum, 2. Conifere, 2. Melanthiacez, 2. Lamiacee, 1 ;—also, 16 other orders. 487 2. Orders predominant in the Arclic zones. 6 Superarctic. Composite, 14. Gramina, 1]. Caryophyllacez, 11. Saxifragacee, 9. Cyperoides, 8. Filices, 7. Juncacee, 7. Rosacee, 5. Crucifere, 5. Ericacee, 5. Scrophulariacee, 4. Ranunculacee, 3. Polygonacee, 3. Lycopodium, 3. Amentifere, 2. Lamiacee, I. Boraginacee, 1. Rubiacez, 1 Gentianacee, 1. Campanulacee, I. Onagracee, 1. Crassulacee, |. Viola, I. Plumbaginacee, |. Melanthiacee, 1. Araliacee, 1. Oxalis, 1. Montia, 1. Empetrum, 1. region and each zone. By looking at the columns of figures in that census, any order may be traced across the six zones, and its more or less rapid decrease may be dis- ’ cerned at a glance,—occasionally, its relative increase, or even its absolute increase upwards in Sawifragacee and Lycopodium. But the numerical value (and consequent 488 X. GENERAL REMARKS. relative position or predominance) of the various orders differs so widely in the different zones, that it has ap- peared worth while to reprint the principal orders, under a re-arrangement similar to that before given for the stages of altitude ; so as to bring the dominant orders of each zone uppermost in its own proper column. The lists on pages 486 and 487, are restricted to 29 orders; that being the number of them hitherto ascertained to be represented in the superarctic zone. If such a re-arrangement of all the orders should be required for any purpose, those who use this work will easily make it by aid of the figures previously printed in the ‘climatal census’ referred to, pages 365 to 367. ‘The rule or principle is very simple, as here adopted. ‘The number of its species, ascertained in the zone, determines the position of the order in each column. And if two or more orders include equal num- bers of species, their names are continued in that series or succession which will accord the nearest with their succession in the collective census list for total Britain. The nos. prefixed to the names in the first column on each page are to be regarded as a key to the reading of the lists comparatively with each other. In tracing across the pages from left to right, from inferagrarian to super- arctic zone, some of the orders rise to higher nos. or positions ; others descend to lower ; others oscillating up and down. The rise to higher positions may be held to indicate a tendency of the order to prevail in the colder climates ; the fall to lower positions in turn indicating an opposite tendency. In example, there is a gradual rise in the nos. for the order Juncacee, 19.18 16 13 10 7. So that, from being the nineteenth order in the infer- agrarian zone, it becomes the seventh order in the super- arctic zone. Another example of nearly similar kind XI. CLIMATAL ZONES. 489 may be found in Filices, 13 11 8 4 5 6. But the rise here appears less regular, and becomes slightly reversed again in the arctic zones. We should require to go down below no. 29 in the first column, to find the starting place for Saxifragacee, 36 380 238 14 12 4. This rise from the thirty-sixth to the fourth order shows the decided tendency of saxifrages to prevail in the colder climates. A rise in the like direction is much slighter in Caryophyllacee, 8 8 5 6 4 38. Turning attention next to some of the orders charac- terized by an opposite tendency, an example may be . eited in Orchidaceae, 11 13 14 16 17 0. These showy monocotyledons may be contrasted against the rushes ; though the changes in the reversed direction are more gradual. No orchid has been ascertained certainly above the midarctic zone. The same holds true of Liliaceae, 20 22 28 35 0 0, which are absent also in the midarctic zone. But this is partly a question of classification ; for the order would he represented in both of the uppermost zones, according to those systematists who place Narthecitum among the lihes. Among dicotyledonous orders we may cite Leguminifere, 5 5 6 9 14 0, as an example of decreasing numbers, and lower position ' relatively to other orders, in the colder zones. And a stronger example of the same tendency occurs in Umbellifere, 7 7 10 22 20 0. An irregularity occurs in the midarctic zone for that order, which may be again seen in the superarctic zone for Lamiacee, 9 9 9 18 28 16. VOL. Iv. 3R 490 X. GENERAL REMARKS. These nos. appear to indicate a rise again of this order in the uppermost zone. But in the two uppermost zones it is represented only by a single species, Thymus Serpyllum or Chamedrys ; and as the orders are much fewer in the superarctic zone, those of single species will unavoidably be placed higher there than are orders of single species in zones with a longer list; as is the case with the mid- arctic, which contains an excess of fifteen orders over the superarctic. Composite keep the first place through all the six zones. But they are equalled by the Gramina in the lowest. And perhaps they maintain the first position in the arctic region only through an over-estimate of the species of Hieracium. Such, at any rate, would be the view in accordance with Bentham’s Handbook; in which the alpine segregate species are re-combined into a single aggregate species, H. alpinwm. Regarding the orders collectively, they are apportioned among the six zones thus :— Inferagrarian, 95 present, 3 absent. Midagrarian, 94 «Ca, rs Superagrarian, 78 ,, 20 ns Inferarctic, Go" 55 450" Midarctic, ae §4°°°5, Superarctic, 2oFi3 69 ,, Among the 55 orders of the inferarctic zone, it seems as yet that 23 are represented there by only single species each. These are to be balanced against 17 so represented in the midarctic, and 14 in the superarctic. In the agra- rian zones, we find the corresponding number of orders of one species each to be, 19 in the inferagrarian, 21 in the midagrarian, 20 in the superagrarian. So that, taking into account the more numerous orders of the agrarian zones, the representation by single species only is much in excess in the arctic zones. And thus again, as XI. CLIMATAL ZONES. 491 in instances formerly cited, the smaller floras (or areas) are found in connexion with proportionately greater dif- ferences among the species; that is, the orders are rela- tively more numerous. The differences may be shown thus :— Inferagrarian, 1225 species, 95 orders, 12.9 average. Midagrarian, 1070 ,, 94 «4, LIstSh us Superagrarian, 760 ,, 78 ss 9.74 4 Inferarctic, 293 =, ao “55 Die) Midarctic, 244 ,, 44 ,, 5.34 yy Superarctic, lll, 29/-4, 3.82 4, So that, with one trifling difference in a decimal figure, the average number of species to an order decreases with the decreasing floras. But it may be quite correct also to attribute some share in this result to the differences of climate; for the many closely similar species, so often observed in the floras of temperate climates, seem to condense (so to express it) into fewer species in colder climates. Widely different as the floras of the zones must un- doubtedly be, where ‘the ordinal changes are so great, it is far from easy to describe or characterize them in such manner that a botanist may be enabled at once to see, by observing the plants around him, where and when he has passed from one zone to another, either in travelling hori- zontally or in ascending a mountain. Such divisions are natural, however, in the sense of ,being accordant with actual differences in the flora and vegetation,—how then are such divisions to be distinguished among themselves ? The most obvious characteristics of any zone are the species which there predominate in numbers or conspicu- ousness. But unfortunately those floral features are seldom or never available as precise tests. The pre- dominating species in and through any one zone are ~ 492 X. GENERAL REMARKS. usually found also extending into the next succeeding zone; though maybe less abundantly there, in accordance with the general rule that distribution fines out gradually, and cannot be traced to abrupt limits. On the other hand, in relying upon the presence of certain species, not passing into the next zone, we are resorting to a less obvious characteristic, by taking the partial or even local species, those which are becoming less general, instead of the predominating. But this latter test,—that of the presence of certain species, con- jointly with the absence of other species,—is the only available method for defining the zones of plants rela- tively to each other. Those adopted in this work were accordingly characterized briefly in volume first, page 40, by the presence and absence of a few shrubs, as here repeated :— 6. Super-arctic zone—Salix herbacea, without Calluna, . Mid-aretic zone—Calluna vulgaris, without Erica. . Infer-aretic zone—Erica Tetralix, without Pteris. . Super-agrarian zone—Pteris aquilina, without Rhamnus. . Mid-agrarian zone—Rhamuus catharticus, without Clematis. . Infer-agrarian zone—Clematis, Rubia, Cyperus longus. = do & PhO And the other plants were then assigned to the zones according to their positions relatively to the limits of those mentioned as characteristic ; in the higher region, those ascending above the upper limit of the Calluna being referred to the superarctic zone,—those ascending ~ above the Erica, but not passing the Calluna, being referred to the midarctic zone,—those ascending above the Pteris (or, more properly, above the cultivation of cereals), but not passing the Erica, being referred to the inferarctic zone. The cessation of cereal cultivation was made the chief test of distinction between the agrarian and arctic regions. And it was explained that the three zones of the former region were scarcely distinguishable XI. CLIMATAL ZONES. 493 by the limits of any single species ; but that they were to be known partly by the presence or absence of several species, partly by geographical boundaries. In truth, the upper limits of all the plants mentioned are subject to local variations both in regard to elevation and in rela- tion to the limits of other plants; so that it is quite doubtful in some instances, whether certain species ought to be considered as ceasing in one zone, or as passing slightly into the zone next above. For instance, in the three lists of upper limits, adduced in volume first, pages 23 to 27, the following sequences of names occur amongst others :— Anthoxanthum. Calluna. Anthoxanthum. Calluna. Anthoxanthum. Tormentilla. Tormentilla. Tormentilla. Calluna. With only these three sequences of names to guide our decision, it would be impossible to feel much confidence in the assignment of the Anthoxanthum and Tormentilla to the superarctic zone, that above the Calluna, as made in the summary of distribution. On the contrary, it would so far appear more proper to place the limit of the Calluna between the limits of the other two plants, thus :— Anthoxan., 1 21. Calluna, 213. Torment., 3 3 2. But the zonal position of these species in the ‘summary -of distribution’ has been determined on far more ex- tended observation than shown by the three lists only. The Anthoxanthum has been so frequently seen much above the Calluna, as to leave little or no uncertainty in - respect to its natural upper limit being above that of the heath. The tormentil is less certain, the alternations of upper limit between it and the heath being more equal, and the distance between them being usually less. But the former having been observed decidedly above the 494 X. GENERAL REMARKS. heath on some few hills, where the limits of the heath itself did not appear unduly depressed, the latter has been deemed to have naturally a somewhat lower limit than the tormentil. Similar considerations have induced the assignment of Nardus stricta to the superarctic zone; although the name of this grass is placed underneath that of Calluna vulgaris in the list of upper limits on page 325, where they stand thus :— Calluna vulgaris, 1100 1080 1060 yards. Nardus stricta, 1100 1070 1060 yards. These altitudes were noted on the Ben-na-bourd range of hills in Aberdeenshire. On various other hills, in the same and other counties, where both Nardus and Calluna fail to attain 1060 yards, the grass was observed higher than the heath; and it was accordingly assigned to the zone above that which was made to correspond with the upper limit of the Calluna. In both the examples thus cited by way of explanation, and in other similar instances, a further circumstance has _ been taken into account towards a decision in doubtful eases. The Calluna is very conspicuous on the mountain acclivities ; and having been adopted as a test or charac- ter of the midarctic zone, its highest places were carefully looked for, and probably very seldom overlooked in any line of descent. On the contrary, a grass or other small herb, is much more likely to be overlooked, especially if in leaf only. And moreover the Nardus, Anthoxanthum, and Tormentilla were not particularly looked for, though doubtless noted as soon as observed, while descending from the summits of high hills. On such account there seems to have been much greater chance for the names of any of these three herbaceous plants being occasionally entered too low in manuscript lists, than there was for =.” 4 XI. CLIMATAL ZONES. 495 that of the Calluna to be entered too low. The same remark will also apply to the Erica and Pteris, compara- tively with other less conspicuous plants that usually cease at similar altitudes or rather higher. Partly on account of the circumstances here mentioned, it will be found that some discrepancies exist between the assignment of the species to their zones in the ‘summary of distribution’ and their relative positions in the lists of ‘upper limits.’ Those lists are local; and they show the local extremes, not the usual or average limits ; still less the relative positions, as determined after allowing for sources of uncertainty and error. The positions of the three names—Calluna, Erica, Pteris—in the lists of up- per limits on the Grampian mountains and in North England, will not divide those lists correctly into zones, always corresponding with the nos. given for the same species in the summary of distribution. In the list for the North of England especially, where the hills are insufficiently high, and the extent of much-elevated sur- face is very restricted, the true uppermost zones of the plants are shown quite imperfectly. The list of upper limits on the Grampian mountains will be found to correspond much better with the zonal assignments: But there is an inexactness in this list also which demands some further exposition. The tract of the Grampians includes a large area, extending over about one degree of latitude, and stretching almost across Scotland longitudinally on both sides of the line of 57 north latitude. The climate cannot be equal over this wide tract. Its northern declivities,in the North- east Highlands, are doubtless colder than its southern declivities in the South-east Highlands. And the limits of the same species appear more depressed near the western coast, on and about Ben Nevis, than they are 496 X. GENERAL REMARKS. observed to be in Aberdeenshire, on the eastern side of the island. But in the list here referred to the degrees of temperature are indicated in accordance with absolute height ; and consequently the names of the species are placed in sequence without allowance for differences of site and situation, either by abatement or by increase. This can hardly fail to introduce some inaccuracies into the series, although they may not be very great. For instance, if the highest limit of one species in Aberdeen- shire becomes contrasted against the highest limit of another species on or near Ben Nevis,—or the upper limit of one species on a southern declivity, in Perthshire, is contrasted against the upper limit of another species on a northern declivity, in Easterness. , Those sources of misposition are avoided by the assign- ments of plants to the zones being made according to their own relative limits, not according to absolute altitudes. But in turn this method may also occasionally mislead in a different manner; because the highest observed locality for a species, on any certain hill, may or may not be the highest at which it does or could grow on that hill. Nothing but the discrimination of experience, gradually acquired from oft-repeated observation, can correctly make the necessary allowances for these and various _ other uncertainties and chances of error. It may thus be considered that some discrepancies are certain to occur between any two series of names, in which the plants are arranged on different rules, whether according to absolute altitude,—or according to supposed temperature, by the scale in which latitude and elevation are both taken into account, — or according to their-own relative limits, irrespective of absolute height, &c. The fact to be impressed by these remarks, is, that such dis- crepancies and uncertainties will unavoidably interfere XI. CLIMATAL ZONES. 497 with strict accuracy in any zonal or climatal arrangements of a flora; although with due care, and an ample supply of data, the interference may usually be kept within a narrow compass. Subject to these explanations, the subjoined double series of names may suffice to charac- terize the half-dozen zones passably well by the plants which occur in them :— Upper limits. 6. Salix herbacea. Silene acaulis. Gnaphalium supinum. Vaccinium Myrtillus. Empetrum. Azalea. Vaccinium uliginosnm. 3. Calluna. Trollius. Eriophorum vaginatum. Pinguicula vulgaris. Arbutus Urva-ursi. Geum rivale. Scabiosa succisa. 4, Eriea cinerea, Tetralix. Prunella. Pinus? Genista anglica. Salix aurita, repens. Rubus ideus. Myrica. Spartium. Digitalis. 3. Pteris (rarely higher). Populus tremula. Alnus. Corylus. Quercus. Lonicera. Crategus. Ilex. Hedera. Fraxinus. VOL. IV. Lower limits. 6. Luzula arcuata. Saxifraga cernua. rivularis. czespitosa. Stellaria cerastoides. Draba rupestris. 5. Cherleria. Azalea. Myosotis alpestris. Alopecurus alpinus. Veronica alpina, saxatilis. Juncus trifidus, castaneus. Salix herbacea. 4. Sibbaldia. Pseudathyrium? Gnaphalium supinum. Epilobium alpinum. Luzula spicata. Juniperus nana. Saussurea. Lloydia. 3. Arbutus. Oxyria. Saxifraga stellaris. Thalictrum alpinum. Alchemilla alpina. Epilobium alsinifolium. Allosorus. Tofieldia. 3s 498 Upper limits. 2. Conyolvulus sepium. Euonymus. Bidens. Rhamnus. Tamus. Ligustrunm. Bryonia. Cornus sanguinea. Viburnum Lantana. if Rubia. Frankenia. Polypogon. Thesium. Juncus acutus. Genista pilosa. Cyperus longus. Erica vagans, ciliaris. X. GENERAL REMARKS. Lower limits. 22 Vaccinium Vitis-idea. Empetrum. Linnea, Rhodiola. Ligusticum. Galium boreale. Asplenium viride. Lycopodium selaginoides. l. Andromeda. Meconopsis. Pyrola minor, media. Vaccinium Myrtillus. Gnaphalium dioicum. Pinguicula vulgaris. Parnassia. Comarum. Those species enumerated in the column of upper limits, it is to be understood, have not yet been ascer- tained to rise above the zone under which their names are placed. Those enumerated in the column of lower limits, on the contrary, have not been ascertained to descend below the zone in which their names are placed. It is not very certain that the six species first named in the column for lower limits, are absolutely restricted to the superarctic zone. They are very rare even there, and extremely rare below, if found lower at all. The species enumerated for the inferagrarian zone, in the other column, are all rare; no plant generally diffused through that zone being quite restricted thereto. The Clematis was adduced in volume first, as one of the most charac- teristic plants; and it is certainly more frequent and con- spicuous than any of those enumerated above. But it has been lately claimed as a plant of the Yorkshire flora; and if rightly so claimed, it must be deemed to occur within the midagrarian zone also, although locally restricted, and only slightly within that zone. All species found at or near the coast-level, southward XII. TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION. AYQ of latitude 53, may be deemed to have their lower limits in the inferagrarian zone; at any rate, while looking only to Britain. Those selected for examples are such as prevail more in Middle or North Britain, or (Meconopsis) on the hills of Wales, and which do not occur in the Channel Isles. All of them, however, are reported in continental Normandy, with the exception of Pyrola media. It appears quite unnecessary to repeat long lists of names here, for the purpose of exemplifying the regional or zonal floras in fuller detail. The zones for each spe- cies were indicated in the summary of distribution ; from which any required lists can now readily be made, with- out the troublesome necessity of turning over all the pages of the preceding volumes. And in the seventh and eighth divisions of this volume—‘ areas’ and ‘ altitudes ’— the species are enumerated in series and groups according to those geographical conditions with which the zones are most intimately connected, and in the climatal and floral characteristics of which they have really originated. 12. Types of Distribution. This manner of viewing the distribution of plants within Britain was explained in volume first, on pages 43 to 55. It was again adverted to on page 232 of the pre- sent volume, in explaining the abbreviations used in the summary of distribution. Perhaps the ‘areas of species’ may now afford better data towards rendering such a geographic grouping of the British flora more fully intel- ligible. It has been much misapprehended by certain geologists, and perhaps by some botanists likewise. On glancing over pages 282 to 302, it may be seen that most of the ‘ austral species’ commence quite in the South 500 X. GENERAL REMARKS. of England, in provinces 1 or 2, and in latitude 50—51. Tracing northwards, it is seen that some of these plants cease under each successive degree of latitude, and in each successive province from 1 to 18 inclusively. The australs were succeeded in the lists referred to by the 420 ‘general species,’ enumerated on pages 302 to 305 as occurring continuously in 16 or more provinces. The general species, along with some of the most widely dif- fused of the australs, constitute that numerous group of plants which was designated the British type, because the species are found nearly or quite throughout Britain ; full 800 of them occurring in every province (page 271). Those of the same two divisions which fail to attain the more northern latitudes, or which become decidedly rare in North Scotland, constitute a group designated the English type, mingled with two other types presently to be mentioned. By continuing the glance from page 305 to 312, it may be further seen that a considerable number of the ‘ boreal and montane species’ are distributed in a very different manner; only few of them reaching southward to pro- vinces l or 2. Far the greater number commence more northward, and extend in the northern direction into pro- vinces 15, 16, 17, or 18, some or all, that is, to the northern coasts of Scotland, or to its lofty hills which are situate between latitudes 56—58. If traced southward in a reversed direction from those coasts or mountains, they are found to attain their southern limits in the like gradual succession as the austral species attained their northern limits; some of them ceasing southward in each successive province from 18 to 1. On looking more closely to the numeral figures which represent the provinces in the lists here referred to, it will be further seen that the distribution runs otherwise une- XII. TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION. 501 qually among the provinces, besides the successive cessa- tion from south to north, and from north to south. Thus, in the list of ‘boreal and montane species’ there is an evident tendency or entire restriction among many of them to the most mountainous provinces—15, or 15 16 17, or 7 - - 10 11 12 - - 15 16 17 18—while no such special tendency can be detected in others. This is con- nected with the double character of the group, implied in the title, and mentioned on page 318. The whole group is subdivisible into northern species and mountain spe- cies ; although these two secondary groups really pass so gradually one into the other, as not to admit of any clear line of severance. Further, it may be observed that some of these plants terminate northward in provinces 10 or 12, more rarely in 11 or 14; not attaining the Highland pro- vinces. ‘There is thus seen to be a small group among the boreal and montane plants, composed of species which are restricted to the middle provinces, or else to the mid- dle and some of the southern provinces; shunning those of North Britam. The differences here mentioned suggest a sub-division of the boreal and montane group, regarded as a whole, into Highland, Scottish, and Intermediate types; including with the latter some few mid-British plants which do attain the East Highland province. Reverting to the list of ‘austral species,’ especially to its earlier sub-divisions including those plants which ter- minate southward of latitude 53 or 54, it will be noted that several of them occur only or chiefly in the easterly provinces—3, 4, 34, 234; others occurring only or chiefly in the westerly provinces—1 5 6 7—some or all of these ; and the rest being found about equally diffused in both eastern and western provinces, as shown by the figures, and by the vowels indicating their longitudinal ranges. ‘This tendency to one or other side of the island 502 X. GENERAL REMARKS. is also traceable among some of the australs which extend to more northerly latitudes than 54. It will be recol- lected, that a like tendency was made apparent by the treble column of figures set after the names of plants in the ‘census of species,’ where many of the sub-provincial figures were widely unequal for the eastern and western sides of England; others being nearly or quite equal for both sides, opposite the same name. The large group of austral species accordingly admits of distinction into three types, by the severance of the less numerous Atlantic and Germanic types (western and eastern) from the prevailing English type. Lastly, many species are restricted to single or very few provinces, as is shown in the lists by the paucity of their corresponding provincial nos. These constitute the so-called Local type of distribution; but they resemble each other only by the small extent, and not by the geo- graphical position, of their areas. Several of them can be assigned with some confidence to the other more true types. For instance, all the truly mountain plants dis- tinguished by the no. or figure 15 only might properly enough be assigned to the Highland type. In turn, aus- tral plants distinguished by the figures 3 or 4 only may nearly all of them be united with those of the Germanic type. And such as are distinguished by the figures 1 or 5 only may mostly be assigned to the Atlantic type. In- deed, these assignments of the local plants were fre- quently indicated by the appropriate initials in the sum- mary of distribution either primarily or secondarily. In this manner, through the arrangement of the species- areas into series and groups connected with latitude and elevation, and more sparingly with longitude, we can again arrive by a somewhat different route at the types of distribution explained in volume first. And it will now — XII. TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION. 503 be sufficiently apparent that the triple division of the areas, in the lists on pages 282 to 312 of this present volume, is resolvable into those types of distribution nearly (not quite exactly) thus :— 1. Austral, into English—Germanic—Auantic. 2. General, into British ;—some “ australs ” added thereto. 3. Boreal, etc., into Highland—Scottish —Intermediate. The local species being scattered partly among the aus- trals, partly among the boreals. It may further assist to give correct ideas about these geographic groups in the general flora, if they are now presented to the eye in a more direct connexion with the latitudinal and longitu- dinal divisions of the island, thus :— 1. British type,—species widely spread through S. M. N. Britain. 2. English type,—species chiefly seen in South or in S, M. Britain. 3. Scottish type,—species chiefly seen in North or in N. M. Britain. Intermediate type,—species chiefly seen in Mid Britain. 4. Highland type,—species chiefly seen about the mountains. . Germanic type,—species chiefly seen in East England. 6. Atlantic type,—species chiefly seen in West England. Loeal species, restricted to single or few provinces. o The reader is now requested to look back to page 54 of volume first, where it is sought to be impressed on attention, that no abrupt distinction is traceable between these types of distribution. It is very important to keep this fact in recollection. The differences between them are real, because a prevailing tendency to such peculiari- ties of distribution is quite apparent among the plants of this country ; so that examples can be numerously cited in illustration of each of the six (or eight) types here adopted. It is not less true also, that the distribution of many species exhibits a mingled and intermediate cha- racter ; inducing much uncertainty, and leaving a wide option in deciding the question, where among them a separation would be best made between the groups. This 504 X. GENERAL REMARKS. may be illustrated by the three austral types—Atlantiec, English, Germanic—with the help of the double set of initial letters, as they were explained on page 232, thus :-— Atl. Ave. E.a. Eng. E.g. G.e. Germ. Whether the type of distribution for a species should be deemed English inclining to germanic, or Germanic in- clining to english, is occasionally so uncertain as to leave the assignment of the plant to one or other type almost purely optional. And the former compound passes into the simple English type, and the latter compound passes into the simple Germanic type, in the like gradual and scarcely distinguishable manner. The same will be found to hold true on looking to the types which originate in the connexion of latitude with elevation, more directly than with longitude. Thus :— Eng. E.b. B.e. Brit. B.s. S.b. Scot. S.h. H.s. High. Through the various species which are interposed because resembling two of them, the English, British, Scottish, and Highland types slide into each other. And when it is required further, to intermingle with these also the ‘Local’ and ‘ Intermediate’ types (so designated expressly on account of the areas of their species not sufficiently corresponding with any of the other six types) the incor- rectness of asserting hard distinctions between the groups, in respect to their present areas, ought to become suffi- ciently manifest to the feeblest of reasoners. And very slender botanical knowledge should now suffice to prevent a continuance or a repetition of that error. The employment of the small letters, which show that upwards of one-third the total number of species are con- nected intermediately with other types than those indi- cated by their capital letters, does in fact raise the number of types to twenty or thirty. In so doing, it implies truly XII. TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION. 505 a gradual transition between the six (or eight) primary types, adopted as leading divisions; while these in turn admit of union into three others, —austral, general, boreal. Still, it has been found possible and preferable to assign nearly two-thirds of -the total flora to the eight more primary types (including the ‘intermediate’ and ‘local’) by the single initial capitals only. This strongly confirms the view, that there truly is some prevalent ten- dency for the plants to be distributed in the manner laid down by the definition of the types. Originally suggested and published in 1835, on data much less ample and cor- rected, the added knowledge of a score of years makes no real change in the types then defined; although various individual species are now assigned somewhat differently among those types, chiefly by the small secondary initials, more seldom by the primary capitals. Be it remembered, nevertheless, that such a division of the total flora into these types of distribution is by no means perfect. 1t cannot congregate the species into groups characterized by a strict identity or sameness of their distribution. It is an eclectic arrangement; picking out species according to similarity in some of their geo- graphical peculiarities only, not in all of them; such similarity being traceable chiefly to altitude and latitude and longitude taken together, not singly and apart from each other. It is not sameness of area, however, but rather a close resemblance in the direction of increase and decrease, that is to be deemed the leading character which unites plants under the same type. This mode of viewing the distribution of species is still essentially a climatal classification of them, though not exclusively so. It would seem not incorrect to regard the types as representing so many present climatal areas, VON t¥.- 3T 506 X. GENERAL REMARKS. which are not separated by limitary lines, as the climatal zones are supposed or feigned to be, but which amalga- mate and intermingle one with another. The actual areas and sites of the various species, as well as the direction of increase or decrease in abundance, appear on the whole to accord so closely with existing climatal and other physical conditions, as legitimately to warrant a con- clusion, that the present distribution of plants within this country is mainly determined by its present physical cir- cumstances. It is therefore contended, that there is no necessity to invent suppositious explanations about the present geo- graphical positions of the species in this country, under the notion that it is still determined by the conditions and occurrences of myriads of years ago. In existing diversities of climate and local conditions, we find abun- dant circumstances to account for diversities of distribu- tion. Equally so, in existing similarities of climate and local conditions, may be found ample circumstances to account for similarities of distribution, And in each case the transition from similarity to diversity, and conversely, is so very gradual, that any such invented explanations, which presuppose a hard division of the flora into half-a- dozen clearly distinct groups, may fairly be held to arise from a misconception of the true character of the geo- graphic or distributive types. The past history of the species individually considered, their comparative ages, and their original introduction to (or inchoation in) Britain, are subjects fairly open to the investigation of botanists and geologists. Such subjects do not appear to be necessarily beyond the scope of hu- man inquiry or successful research; although hitherto the speculations on them have proved so futile, and un- productive of little else than misconception and misrepre- XII. TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION. 507 sentation. But it seems an unwarrantable pre-decision to assert, that in arranging plants into groups accordant with present peculiarities of distribution, we are in this manner forming them into groups which equally repre- sent differences of age and origin. To designate those geographic groups, made in accord- ance with present peculiarities of distribution, as so many distinct “floras,” seems only a premature misuse of this term. — The species cannot be held to constitute distinct floras by geographical or topographical position, because they constantly intermingle; so much so, that not a single province among the whole eighteen can be named, in which less than three of the six types occur; while four or even five of them are represented (by some of their species) in many of the provinces.—The species cannot be held to constitute distinct floras botanically, because no peculiarities of structure or classification have been shown to characterize any of the types, other than such as are usually traceable in relation to existing cli- mate in its connexions with difference of elevation, lati- tude, &c.—The species cannot be held to constitute distinct floras by duration, because no evidence is yet forthcoming, at all adequate to show which species of the indigenous flora have been the longest time in Britain, or are the oldest by their whole existence, if these are not coeval durations. In reference to this last ground of objection, it ought to be clearly understood by geologists and others inte- rested in the matter, that not the slightest botanical evi- dence has hitherto been adduced, on which to found a belief, that the types of distribution here treated about are in anywise connected with the comparative ages of the species assigned to them. No botanical facts are known, such as can warrant an assertion that any oue of 508 X. GENERAL REMARKS. these geographical groups is of greater geological anti- quity than the other groups. Highly probable as it may seem to be, that existing species do differ in their compa- rative duration on the earth,—perhaps vastly differ in that respect,—there is still not a tittle of botanical evi- dence to connect past differences of duration with present differences of distribution in any part of Britain. If such a truth there be, it would prove a grand ad- yance in science to find out the mode of demonstrating that truth. -But there is no real progress made by ha- zarding idle assertions on the subject, without showing the existence of credit-worthy evidence in support. And something worse than no progress at all is achieved, by first arbitrarily marking out spaces on a map, and next pretending to illustrate them by citing false lists of spe- cies in sham support; the real distribution of several of those species, ignorantly huddled together to back up a pre-conceived and pre-announced hypothesis, being widely at variance with the spaces so marked on the map. (See Appendix to Volume First). It will have become evident from the general tenor of the preceding remarks, that an assignment of the various species to their respective types of distribution in Britain, must truly be in some measure optional or arbitrary; that is, the species of an intermediate character of distribution might be assigned differently by two botanists, each acting on his own individual judgment formed on the same facts. No exact degree of northern latitude can be stated as a limit for plants of the English type; nor can any exact degree of southern latitude be indicated for the limit of plants assigned to the Scottish type. No precise degree of eastward longitude can be specified as the limit for plants of the Atlantic type; nor can any precise degree ee ee ee eee ee | mee: aman | a Eee — Ser ee ; 7 XII. TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION. 509 of western longitude be mentioned as the limit for plants of the Germanic type. No definite range of altitude, nor of proximity to mountains, can be laid down as a positive rule of separation between plants of the Highland and Scottish types. Equally impossible is it to apportion the provinces between the types; several being represented in each province. But accepting the initial letters as they were applied in the ‘summary of distribution,’ chiefly on the detail of facts in the three preceding volumes, and before the succeeding lists in this volume had been fully made out, they are found to apportion the species thus :— British type has 532 primarily, 98 secondarily. English type yet 209% ws iss 167 ‘3 Germanic type ,, 127 ,, 68 - Highland type ,, 120 ,, 21 ms Scottish type = seeds) us 23 pe - Atlantic type leet A! Linldahe 33 “ Intermediate t. ,, 37 ,, 36 in Local, Doubtful ,, 49 3 40 i The names are here placed in a series according with the number of species primarily assigned to the several types. Tt will be observed that the numbers of those secondarily so assigned do not run regularly. The average for the second column would be rather above one-third of the numbers stated in the first column. ‘The first figure in the second column is much below that average; and it could scarcely be otherwise. It has been shown that 495 species are quite absent from North Britain; and 145 species are equally absent from South Britain. None of these could be assigned even secondarily to the British type. Nor of course could any of the 532 species pri- marily so assigned. And after deducting these from the whole flora, there remains only a fragment or scanty number, among which to find. species inclining to the British type sufficiently to demand the addition of the 510 X. GENERAL REMARKS. small letter ‘b’ in qualification. The second figure is in excess; in part so doubtless because many widely-diffused species become rare in North Britain; and while their wide areas are best indicated by the letter ‘B,’ their northerly attenuation seems to require the qualifying let- ter ‘e’ added thereto. Both Germanic and Atlantic types are in excess ; the former exceeding a half, and the latter not much below a half, instead of a third. This of course implies that many English plants do slightly pre- vail on one or other side of the island, besides those pri- marily assigned to the eastern and western types. The numbers of species secondarily assigned to the Highland or Scottish types, especially to the former, are much be- low average; the montane and boreal plants thus ap- pearing to be more clearly distinguishable from the rest, than the Atlantic and Germanic are from the English. On combining the types into austral, boreal, and gene- ral, we should have the primary numbers brought out thus :— English, Germanic, Atlantic, 606 species. Scottish, Intermediate, Highland, 238 ,, British, representing the general, 532 ,, Local, Doubtful, AQ <8 These latter numbers cannot be expected to correspond with those before stated for other groups of species, equally designated ‘austral, boreal, and general’ on page 320; the principle on which they are formed being only partially the same, besides the separation of 49 local and doubtful plants. It is perhaps of little import to give a tabular summary of the species according to their orders. But some bota- nists seek to connect differences of structure and classifi- cation with differences of age or duration on the earth ; and these again with differences of distribution. An XII. TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION. 511 Ordinal arrangement of Geographic Types. [ epmeuldl DH Rk C2 TG 8 amen eae eee Bt ad | 1. Composite 46 32 18 29 5 2 | 2 2. Gramina 56 394 14 8 4 t 2 ~ 3. Cyperoides 45 14 BR UD EF 4 5 1 4. Rosacee 18 42 - 5 3 Eth phd 3 5. Legumninifere eS ae 1 1 6. Crucifere 20 21 3 3 l 5 3 4 7. Umbellifere 18), -22 6 - 2 6 1 2 8. Caryophyllacee 24 «13 4 8 5 - 2 l 9. Scrophulariacee 20 #13 6 3 l 4 - 1 10. Lamiacee 2h 16 4 - 3 1 2 - 11. Filices 17 6 - 6 4 9) - 1 12. Orchidacee LOM Tis welt - 4 - 2 1 13. Ranunculicee i [3 aes 1 6 1 3 - 1 2 14, Amentifere 14 6 - 8 4 - I 1 15. Polygonacee 14 8 1 2 1 - : - 16. Juncacee 13 5 - 6 1 = - 1 17. Chenopodiacee 10 5 8 - - 1 - 18. Potamacee 11 7 1 - 1 - 2 - 19. Boraginacee 10 6 l 1 2 - 1 - 20. Liliacee 2 6 4 - 1 2 4 2 21. Ericacee 5 0 2 6 4 2 - 1 9 22. Rubiacee 8 2 4 1 - 1 1 1 23, Primulacee ONAN ite RSs SIE ee a i ’ 24. Geraniacee cfg | - 1 > ere ‘ 25. Euphorbiacee 3. 5 1 - GYM tse : 26. Gentianacee 5 + 1 1 - - 1 2 27. Saxilragacee 4 0 - ne: - - 1 28. Campanulacee 2 3 4 - Danae 1 - 29. Onagracex 6 4 - 2 1 - - - 30. Crassulacee 1 2 1 2 - £ 1 - 31. Hypericum a eer ee lL, sa - 32. Viola 4 4 - - 1 1 - - arrangement into orders may facilitate their examinations, in respect to the plants of this country ; and it is accord- ingly introduced here. Orders which include only one 512 ia —) ‘ 3. Orobanchacee . Equisetum . Alismacee . Papaveracee . Plantaginacer . Caprifoliacee . Typhacee Lycopodium . Fumariacee 2. Pinguiculacee . Plumbaginacee . [llecebracez . Dipsacee . Valerianacee . Malvacee . Iridacee . Urticacee . Solanacee . Lemna . Haloragiacee . Linacee . Callitriche . Conifer . Ribes . Helianthemum . Convolvulus . Drosera . Lythracee . Nymphezacee . Melanthiacee . Polygala . Cuscuta Orders of 2 species Orders of 1 species or two species, 34 in the whole, are GENERAL REMARKS. _& I [= 6wp Wee We dsnwnndrweewewnwponwnaeanwawrh FR OO m —- Oe |W — 11 Hi, 4S aA LI 4 1 2 i m e 4 = - - : " 1 l 4 a = 1 2 2 s 1 g 2 . 3 2 3 es E - 2 1 1 - 2 E 2 s : = = 3 é z z 2 1 z 3 - - 1 1 1 3 - 1 i = s 1 a 3 e l 1 - = = - - = - 4 - - 1 1 J 2 1 i 4 3 1 3 fe 1 e é i - - - ] 2 3 os 4 & 2 é 1 = omitted for brevity ; the types to which their species were assigned being readily ascertained from the summary of distribution. ae ee ee ee | eC) oP an | ey a ee, ee ee le oe te, 7 = . XII. TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION. 513 On looking to the tabular arrangement, the numbers will appear to run very unevenly or irregularly. As here- tofore, the names of the orders are placed in a series according with their predominance in the total flora. The columns of figures for the types, indicated by their initial letters, succeed one another in accordance with the total number of species assigned to them respectively. Hence, if the numbers were evenly apportioned, they ought to show a constant decrease downward in each column, and a like decrease along each line read from left to right, from B to I. This is far from being the case ; and doubtless there is some reason or explanation to be found for each of the various irregularities. Some of the explanations are artificial ; that is, they originate in arbi- trary interpretations of nature put forth in books. Others are natural; that is, they arise out of climatal and other physical conditions, independently of human caprice. Rosacee afford an example of the former. This order has the largest figure under the English type ; the expla- nation of which is found in the excessive subdivision of the genus Rubus, and the present necessity for assigning the ill-ascertained distribution of so many of its alleged species either to the English or to the Local type. So again, excessive subdivision of the genus Hieracium into ill-defined species, with ill-understood distribution, un- duly raises the figure for Composite under the Highland type. Thus it comes, repeated over and over again, that an excessive subdivision of the species under a few genera, on a different principle from that followed in regard to the species of other genera, introduces anomalies and confusion into other departments of botanical science, besides the descriptive. Injudicious dabbling with spe- cies is not simply a harmless process, but one calculated to do much mischief, through falsifying the data required VOL. IV. 3U 514 ' XX. GENERAL REMARKS. for larger views than those which occupy the minds of the men of species. Unfortunately, men of this latter taste and attainment are quite as necessary to the phi- losophers of science, as the brick-makers and stone- cutters are necessary to builders and architects. A Humboldt or a Lyell would have made poor progress without the aid of species-describers ; although they do incur the risk of being widely misled by trusting to them too implicitly. Filices and Orchidacee afford opposite examples, in respect to explanation; while they also contrast oppo- sitely against each other. Their numerical assignment to types here originates almost exclusively in the facts of nature, not in the fancies of botanists. The ferns are either generally diffused through Britain, or are characteristic of the northern and western provinces ; comparatively few being assigned to the English type, and none to the Germanic type. On the contrary, Or- chidaceeé are more largely assigned to the English and (especially) the Germanic types; with a smaller number of widely-diffused species assignable to the British type ; none to the Highland or Atlantic. These assignments are traceable to climate, and perhaps partly to the cha- racter of the ground; ‘orchids apparently having some special adaptation to cretaceous soils, and many ferns being adapted to rocky sites. It is needless to multiply such Jasin examples, Those botanists who have understood the facts and figures of former lists and tables, will be prepared to seek out the explanations for themselves. But it is quite needful to keep in view the very different nature of the table on pages 511, 512, and the three summaries of orders before printed on pages 359 to 367. In the table here under consideration no species is counted twice ; XII, TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION. 515- that is, it is not reckoned in the figures for more than one of the columns. In the three ordinal summaries before printed, the same species become repeatedly reckoned. Festuca ovina was counted in each of the six zones ; Calluna vulgaris in five of them ; Myosotis repens in four of them; &c. &c. In the one case, the special characteristics of any part of Britain are mingled with the less special ;—in the other case, they are eliminated from the companionship of the less special. In the one case, the influence of climate and other local conditions is made less prominent ;—in the other case it is rendered more prominent. An ordinal arrangement of all the ‘species found in England would doubtless give less austral proportions, than would a like arrangement of the species peculiar to England, apart from those which extend also into Scotland. The former would be a collective arrangement; and the latter would be an eclectic one,—in so far similar to that of types. Before concluding the subject, it may not be amiss to remind botanists, that the grounds for such an eclectic division of a flora are not at all peculiar to the flora of Britain. Other countries admit of the same divisions of their total floras into general and partial types of distri- bution. It would be easy to make somewhat similar— not strictly identical—arrangements for the floras of other countries. Insular or sub-insular countries of con- ‘siderable extent may perhaps offer more obvious facili- ties ; but these are to be found in all countries. In the peninsulas of Spain or Scandinavia, for example, the alpine, boreal, austral, occidental, and oriental types may be traced in connexion with varieties of climate ;— not as really distinct floras, any more than in Britain, but as groups separable from each other, and from the 516 X. GENERAL REMARKS. group of more generally diffused species among which they occur, by the partial sites and limitations either of their whole areas or of their centres of greatest fre- quency, along with the direction of their decrease or attenuation. The same might be done also with the flora of Middle Europe, between the Mediterranean and Baltic seas. In addition to the generally distributed species, which are spread somewhat continuously from coast to coast, there is the large group of alpine species mingled with such of the more general species as are found to ascend to con- siderable elevations on the great mountains. There are also plants of the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Baltic coasts, and others spreading away from those coasts more or less far inland; some of them meeting and crossing each other in their different directions of attenuation and successive cessation. And along with the general species that extend far eastward, there occur also yet other spe- cies which are wanting near the oceanic coasts ; while in turn many of the occidental species are absent from the tracts where those oriental species are most prevalent or exclusively found. These are so many different types or characters of distribution. On looking to Europe at large, as one whole area, cer- tain general species are still found to be spread over all or much of this wide space, from North Russia and Sweden—some even from Lapland—southward to Spain, Italy, and Turkey. Mingled with these in the north, there are also truly boreal species which decrease in their abundance and successively cease southward. Many austral species in turn may be traced in the northerly direction, gradually decreasing in their abundance or frequency, and successively ceasing. So also are there yarious occidental and oriental species spreading in like XII. TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION. 517 manner, respectively in their own opposite directions; a repetition of what is seen in Middle Europe, carried fur- ther south and north. And to these again the plants of the mountains are to be added, first as one primary group, and then as sub-divisible into arctic and alpine and other subordinate groups, according to the geographic sites of the various mountain ranges. These differences of distribution are familiar enough to botanists. They are practically recognized in stating the habitats of individual species, though seldom clearly or methodically described. When attempts have been made to divide a whole flora so as to show those differences of distribution, or to apportion the plants into correspond- ing groups, recourse has been had to fixed lines and definite spaces on maps, either actually represented or mentally feigned. The result has proved a sort of com- bination, or rather confusion, of local floras with climatal zones imperfectly brought out,—not the formation of eclectic groups, such as the types of distribution are intended to be. This latter is confessedly an inconvenient designation, waiting the invention of a better name. That of ‘flora’ would be misapplied to them, as before mentioned ; for these groups are not so many different floras, but so many ingredients in one flora. Geographically, a flora may be said to include, or to consist of, various different types of distribution ;—much as it may be said, systema- tically, to include or consist of various different orders. Though the distributive types cannot be made so nume- rous as the orders, without frustrating the object sought in forming them. Possibly, no two species in the whole flora of the earth have a distribution precisely the same. Probably, the species of every country will admit of being classed into 518 X. GENERAL REMARKS. - a few natural groups, based on some important resem- blances in their distribution, with some important dif- ferences to distinguish one group from another. The resemblances on which the types have been formed for Britain are those of site and direction. A considerable number of species either restricted to, or radiating from, the same geographic site, are considered to constitute a true type of distribution; those absent from, or ra- diating into, that site, will belong to one or more other types. Such eclectic groups will doubtless always bear an intimate relation to the climate and other conditions of physical geography in the country where they are found or formed. — The direction of their decrease may not un- reasonably be held to suggest that of their immigration into the country, if immigrants; though there seems much likelihood of many important*exceptions to the general accuracy and applicability of the suggestion. To suppose that groups thus distinguishable from each other by present distribution, are also distinct by enormous differences of age, is a flight of imagina- tion, not necessarily unsound, but as yet supported on no basis of sufficiently reliable facts in evidence of its soundness. To suppose that the present occurrence of a dozen or a score of species on the hills of two distant countries, at present disjoined -by an intervening ocean, is proof suffi- cient of former junction, seems quite beyond the bounds of legitimate reasoning. It implies that all lands have been joined to all other lands, at one time or other, since existing species appeared on the earth; A to B, B to OC, C to D, and so on.—It all-but-unavoidably implies also that various species were formerly able to endure cli- mates very dissimilar from the climates to which those XII. TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION. 519 species (and to which alone, some of them) now seem specially adapted ; insular and sub-insular climates dif- fering so decidedly from those experienced on lands of wide continuity.—And the supposition assumes also an absolute distinctness of species, their non-transition, and their original descent from single or dual ancestors ; highly important questions, yet too unsettled to admit of being so dogmatically answered, and so summarily dis- posed of, for the convenience of an untried hypothesis. Moreover, there are various facts of distribution which accord better with the supposition of maritime and even atmospheric transport, than with that of land transport ; allowing a more probable and more extensive influence to the former agencies, than the hypothesis of land- continuity appears willing to leave room for. Under existing knowledge, it would be very tedious and scarcely practicable to demonstrate the notion as a fact, that the coast-line flora of Britain is richer than the inland flora on an equal area, after excluding the strictly littoral plants from the former. Leaving out of count the alpines and humanly introduced plants, the most local species appear to occur on or near the coast in more than due proportion to those found inland only. If so, it would seem more reasonable to suppose those species transported to their present sites over the sea or through the air, than to refer their introduction to an overland route, and consequently more distant date. While it may still be true, that a former land-continuity, no longer existent, had largely contributed to the present flora of Britain, before the introduction of some sub- sequently sea-borne, bird-carried, or wind-wafted species, to augment its numbers. — POSTSCRIPT. The first volume of this treatise bears on its title-page the date of 1847; the present volume will be dated in 1859, the year of its completion. The interval is long, and is incompatible with strict uniformity in a work on science, more particularly in one relating to a department of science which is recent in its origin, and which is scarce yet definitely outlined. During the full dozen years of interval, neither phytography nor phyto-geo- graphy have stood still. Nor have the author’s own ideas and inspirations been quite unchangeable during the same period. Those readers who may seek to understand the Cybele Britannica, to use it and to judge it, will of course bear in mind that later statements must be taken to qualify earlier statements, where discrepancy may become mani- fest. Even this one concluding volume by itself, apart from the three former volumes, may require some such consideration ; its earlier pages having been in print a full year before the latter pages were written. Circum- stances of no public interest left the author only an option between desultory writing, much interrupted by other calls on his time and thoughts, and indefinite post- ponement of a concluding volume. POSTSCRIPT. * O2h It is difficult to keep up a continuous uniformity under repeated interruptions and considerable lapse of time. To write a work that is novel in its plan and purpose, by successive instalments, and to print it in like manner, could scarcely fail to give to it something of the piece- meal character. The earlier portions could not be made to lead to the after portions in a sufficiently direct and connected manner; because the form in which it would be found most convenient to draw out those after portions for printing, especially the tabular lists, was only decided as they were successively prepared for the press. Some repetitions, and frequent back references, have hence become necessary in this last volume, which might have been less required under other circumstances. Wide differences of date in the volumes have also tended to augment bulk. For instance, upwards of two hundred pages of the third volume were devoted to “additional species and notes,” in order to bring up the contents of the two preceding volumes to the same date. But if those three volumes could have been printed and published almost simultaneously, most of the requisite alterations might have been made by a few figures and statements in the manuscripts, without augmentation of bulk. Such alterations have been made in re-stating the distribution of several species in this fourth volume; so that the areas and census, the altitudes and temperatures, as indicated in the lists, will not always correspond with those stated for the same species separately in the former volumes. Doubtless another dozen or score of years will again accumulate another store of facts, to yield another supply of “additional species and notes,” such as may again lead to various alterations in minor details. But the distribu- tion of the several species, as now set’ forth in the lists, VOL. Iv. 3X 522 POSTSCRIPT. may be held approximately correct in the main; although many alleged facts must still be deemed uncertain, and many vacancies may still remain for future observers to fill up and complete. It is much to be feared, however, that errors and mis- reports about plants and their localities are accumulating at the present time in much augmented proportion, if measured by the reliable facts placed on record. Juve- nile dabblers in botany, and very superficial amateurs, are too much encouraged to seek printed publicity before qualifying themselves by adequate knowledge. These ill-informed writers not only encumber the literature of botany with their own blunders and valueless repetitions; but they also disgust and deter more competent per- sons, whose writings might do real service to science. Competent botanists very properly dislike to lower them- selves, by contributing to journals which are edited for the ignorant, or filled by the effusions of incompetent _ seribblers. Much as this state of matters is to be re- gretted, it is not easy to see any practical remedy. The competent are comparatively few; the incompetent are many; and those who make a trade of science must adapt their publications to the many, on pain of pecu- niary loss. Still, each successive year doubtless adds something to the store of serviceable scientific knowledge in every de- partment, if it could be separated from the worthless trash. By the.Cybele Britannica one department of botany is brought up to the state of present knowledge. It is the Author’s wish to print supplementary sheets, from time to time, in order to keep his work up with the progressive advances of knowledge in regard to the topo- graphical distribution of British plants. These will be sent free by post to those Botanists who possess copies POSTSCRIPT. 523 of the work, on communicating their addresses to the Author, and expressing a wish to receive any such sup- plementary sheets, if printed. The carrying out of this wish into effect must depend on life and health, and on ‘other possible contingencies beyond individual control. And to some extent it must also depend on the commu- nicative goodwill of those persons who may discover bo- tanical facts, such as will fill up vacancies, or necessitate alterations in any of the statements and figures set forth in the pages of this work. Incidental examples of what is required may be seen on pages 320 and 351. It would be hopeless to expect typographical accuracy in all the vast number of figures printed in this work, and particularly in this fourth volume. Errors in letters and words, or in spelling and syntax, will occasionally be overlooked while reading proof-sheets; although the sense and signification of sentences much assist in their detection. Such assistance is wanting in the case of numeral figures; these being mostly mere symbols, not mentally construed into their real meaning, during the process of reading a proof-sheet; so that the chance of undetected errors becomes considerably increased ; while, at the same time, a single figure set wrong may be a large mis-statement of fact. The same is equally or even more true in respect to the mechanical process of transcribing figures for the press. In connexion with this remark, the author feels it due to the printer of the Cybele, to say that great care appears to have been taken to make the printed figures correct. And the press is of course nowise responsible for errors of transcription. A few words of explanation on the literary department. In the three earlier volumes, where the author required to refer so frequently to his own personal experience and individual views about details, it was found convenient to §24 POSTSCRIPT. adopt the brief egotism of the first pronoun. In this last volume he uses the third person by preference. Thus, a want of literary uniformity is further added to any dis- crepancies arising out of the progressive nature of scien- tific knowledge, and the successive dates of writing. This may be held a fault of some literary magnitude; and it stands not alone. Indeed, the author may freely acknow- ledge that he feels no care about literary style in writings intended for scientific uses. Accuracy in fact rather than accuracy in words, correctness of ratiocination much more than correctness of composition, have been his uppermost wishes while writing the Cybele. That such wishes have been altogether successfully carried into effect, he does not pretend. He never yet re-read in print aught written by himself, without a decided conviction that it might have been much better done,—better planned, and better worked out.. This not very pleasant reflection may perhaps be attributed in part to the newness of the subjects which have most occupied his attention; and for which there existed no ready-made models, to be adopted or improved upon. As the ‘ united wisdom of the realm’ can never pass a new Act of Parlia- ment, without shortly finding need for another “ Act to amend an Act passed,” &c. So,—to compare little things with large,—it seems to be only in ordinary keeping with the early imperfectness of human efforts, that first books on a subject should soon be found susceptible of amend- ment. If the ‘Geographie Botanique’ by De Candolle had preceded the earlier volumes of the Cybele, some differ- ence might likely have appeared in the formula of species- distribution used in those volumes.—If the views of Darwin, on the mode in which varieties may supplant their ancestral species, had been earlier explained in POSTSCRIPT. 525 print, some change might have been made in the second chapter or division of this volume, where remarks occur on the inequality and the permanence of species. —If the ‘Handbook of the British Flora’ by Bentham had been sooner seen, probably it would have given en- couragement to the rejection of several segregate species, which are admitted into the lists printed on preceding pages. Although it is thought that some among Mr. Bentham’s aggregations would not have been recom- mended by botanists who devote a closer or more ex- elusive attention to the plants of this country. While writing about the ‘areas of species’ or about their arrangement under ‘types of distribution,’ a re- ference might have been properly made to an article in a late no. of the Zoologist, which was -read with much satisfaction by the writer of the Cybele. Messieurs T. Boyd and A. G. More have there traced out the dis- tribution of the Butterflies through the same eighteen provinces ; and they have also tried how far the same types of distribution might be found applicable to those locomotive insects. Whatever the origin of the various species of butterflies, natives of the British Isles, their capabilities of self-distribution are so great, that it seems reasonable to suppose their present distribution chiefly determined by food and climate. The same writers suggest that the land mollusks and other stationary members of the fauna might be advantageously studied on the same method. See Zoologist, no. 189, pages 6018 to 6027. " On pages 55-6 a few words are borrowed from Lyell’s Principles of Geology. Possibly they may mislead when there read apart from that Author’s own text. Lyell’s doctrine is, Creation, at a very slow rate, relatively to the total number of existing species. A special measure of 526 POSTSCRIPT. Divine progress in the creations attributed,—“if one new one were to be every year called into being,’ —is assumed: by the great geologist only for the sake of argumentative illustration, and not as the actual or even hypothetical rate of successive creation and extinction of species. But the principle remains the same, whether the rate assumed is one a day, or one a year, or one a century. It is conceived that the arguments of Lyell will not be unfairly represented in the following postulates :—1. One new species of animal or plant might have been created yearly, and one old species might have been extinguished yearly, without mankind having become aware of these events.—2. Such a rate of change would have been ade- quate to effect the displacements and replacements of species, between times past and times present, which are discovered by geologic researches. — 3. New creations of distinct species in each case afford the more probable explanation of the mode of change, because we do not detect any present mutation of species, such as can be deemed adequate to account for the geologico-historical facts ascertained. Let that rate of change in the flora or fauna of the earth be argumentatively admitted as true; namely, one a year. And let the expressions ‘ten million’ and ‘ten thousand’ be employed to designate large un-counted numbers. lLyell’s arguments may then be met by counter postulates, quite as plausible in themselves, and more in accordance with known facts, than is the idea of so many sudden creations of unchanging species, distinct from first to last. 1. The typical form of any species is the standard or : average of the ten million individuals which represent it at any date.—2. Each year ten thousand species may possibly be undergoing an excessively minute change in POSTSCRIPT. 527 their standard or average types, arising out of some slight changes in some of the ten million individuals, which go to form the average.—3. It may perchance take ten thousand years to operate a change in the average type of any species, equal to the difference between two species. These slow changes in the average types would be inappreciable to mankind under past and present con- ditions of scientific record. — They would not require individual changes so great or rapid as those which are actually observed any year in the occurrence of varieties. —And yet they would suffice to alter the whole flora and fauna of the earth at the rate proposed by Lyell, as being adequate to account for the facts ascertained. Thames Ditton—Kingstou—Surrey. April, 1859. £, NEWMAN, PRINTER, DEVONSHIRE STREET, BISHOPSGATE, LONDON, Ria ie tus agoiskr per ition” =,° * — a — ~ = > » > = ~~ Sonar ft r Seine seer : . ' ; ; | “ . . " = fe Sag ee esiatir beeny cae